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 LIBRARY 
 
 CMVERSITV OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 SA.NTA BARBARA 
 
 Encyclopaedia Britannica. 
 Vol. i. — (a-ana). 
 
 Total number of Articles, 966. 
 
 principal' contents. 
 
 ABBEY and ABBOT. Rev. Edmund Venablbs, Precentor and Canon of Lincoln. 
 
 ABELARD. G. Croom Robertson, M.A., Professor of Logic, University College, London. 
 
 ABERDEEN. Alex. Cruickshank, M.A. 
 
 ABRAHAM. Rev Samuel Davidson, D.D., Author of "Introduction to the Old and New Testaments," &c. 
 
 ABYSSINIA. David Eat, Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. 
 
 ACADEMY. Francis Storr, M.A.. Author of "Tables of Irregular Greek Verbs." 
 
 ACCENT. John M. Ross, LL.D., late Editor of the "Globe Encyclopaedia." 
 
 ACCLIMATISATION. Alfred R. Wallace, Author of "Theory of Natural Selection " 
 
 ACHILLES. A. Stuart Murray, British Museum, London. . 
 
 ACHIN. Col. Henry Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S., Anthorof "The Book of Marco Polo." 
 
 ACOUSTICS. David Thomson, M.A., late Professor of Natural Philosophy, University of Aberdeen. 
 
 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. Principal Donaldson, LL.D., Author of " Early Christian Literature and Doctrine." 
 
 ACTINOZOA. T. H. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.,' Professor in the Royal School of Mines, London. 
 
 ADAM. Rev. Samuel Davidson, D.D. 
 
 ADDISON. William Spalding, LL.D., late Professor of Rhetoric and Bellas Lettres, University of Edinburgh. 
 
 ADMIRAL and ADMIRALTY. F. W. Rowseh, C.B., Superintendent orNaval Contracts, H.M. Admiralty. 
 
 ADULTERATION. Dr Henry Lethf.by, Ph.D., formerly Medical Officer of Health to the City of London. 
 
 AERONAUTICS. James Glaisher, F.R.S., Superintendent of the Meteorological Section, Greenwich Observatory. 
 
 ^SCHYLUS. J. Stuart Blackie, late Professor of Greek, University of Edinburgh. 
 
 .£SIR. Miss E. C. Otte, Translator of Humboldt's " Cosmos." 
 
 ESTHETICS. James Sully, LL.D., Author of " Sensation and Intuition." 
 
 AFGHANISTAN. Col. Yule, C.B. 
 
 AFRICA. Keith Johnston, Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. 
 
 AGASSIZ. W. C. Williamson, LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History, Owens College, Manchester. 
 
 AGRARIAN LAWS. George Ferguson, LL.D., formerly Professor of Humanity, University of Aberdeen. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. John Wilson, Member of Council, Highland and Agricultural Society, and W. T. Thornton, 
 
 Author of "A Plea for Peasant Proprietors." 
 ALCHEMY. Jules Andrieu. 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Rev. Sir George W. Cox, Baronet, Author of " A History of Greece," &c. 
 ALEXANDER VI. Richard Garnett, British Museum, Author of " Idylls' and Epigrams from Greek Anthology." 
 ALFORD, DEAN. Charles Kent, Author of " Charles Dickens as a Reader." 
 ALGjE. Dr J. Hutton Balfour, F.R.S., late Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. 
 ALGEBRA. Philip Kelland, F.R.S., late Professor of Mathematics, University of Edinburgh. 
 ALGERIA. David Kay, F.R.G.S. 
 
 ALPHABET. John Peile, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge. 
 ALPS. John Ball, F.R.S., late President of the Alpine Club. 
 ALTAR. Rev. G. H. Forbes. 
 
 ALUM. James Dewar, F.R.S., Jacksonian Professor of Natural Experimental Philosophy, Cambridge. 
 AMAZON. A. Stuart Murray, British Museum. 
 
 AMBASSADOR. Henry Reeve, C.B., D.C.L., Registrar of H.M. Privy CounciL 
 AMBULANCE. Thomas Lonomore, C.B., Professor of Army Surgery, Netley. 
 
 AMERICA (North and South). Charles Maclaren, late Fel. of the Geolog. Soc, and of the Royal Society, Edin. 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE. John Nichol, LL.D., Professor of English Language, University of Glasgow. 
 AMMON. Samuel Birch, LL.D., D.C.L., Keeper of Department of Oriental Antiquities, British Museum. 
 AMMUNITION. Capt. C. Orde Browne, R.A., Royal Laboratory, Woolwich. 
 AMOS. Rev. Canon T. K. Cheyne, Oriel Profassor of Exegesis, University of Oxford. 
 AMPHIBIA. Prof. T. H. Huxley.- 
 AMPHITHEATRE. Rev. G. H. Forbes. 
 ANALOGY and ANALYSIS. Prcf. Croom Robertson. 
 
 ANjESTHESIA. Dr. James 0. Affleck, Examiner, Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. 
 ANATOMY. Sir Wm. Turner, M.B., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh.
 
 PREFATORY NOTICE. 
 
 '"T'HE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA has long deservedly held a foremost place amongst 
 -*- English Encyclopaedias. It secured this position by its plan and method of treat- 
 ment, the plan being more comprehensive, and the treatment a happier blending of 
 popular and scientific exposition than had previously been attempted in any under- 
 taking of the kind. The distinctive feature of the work was that it gave a connected 
 view of the more important subjects under a single heading, instead of breaking them 
 up into a number of shorter articles. This method of arrangement had a twofold 
 advantage. The space afforded for extended exposition helped to secure the services 
 of the more independent and productive minds who were engaged in advancing their 
 own departments of scientific inquiry. As a natural result, the work, while surveying 
 in outline the existing field of knowledge, was able at the same time to enlarge its 
 boundaries by embodying, in special articles, the fruits of original observation and re- 
 search. The Encyclopaedia Britannica thus became, to some extent at ieast, an instru- 
 ment as well as a register of scientific progress. 
 
 This characteristic feature of the work will be retained and made even more promi- 
 nent in the New Edition, as the list of contributors already published sufficiently 
 indicates. In some other respects, however, the plan will be modified, to meet the 
 multiplied reauirements of advancing knowledge. In the first place, the rapid progress 
 of science during the last quarter of a century necessitates many changes, as well as a 
 considerable increase in the number of headings devoted to its exposition. In dealing 
 with vast wholes, such as Physics and Biology, it is always a difficult problem how 
 best to distribute the ' parts under an alphabetical arrangement, and perhaps impossible 
 to make such a distribution perfectly consistent and complete. The difficulty of dis- 
 tribution is increased by the complexity of divisions and multiplication of details, which 
 the progress of science involves, and which constitute indeed the most authentic note 
 of advancing knowledge. This sign of progress is reflected in extensive changes of 
 terminology and nomenclature, vague general headings once appropriate and sufficient, 
 such as Animalcule, being of necessity abandoned for more precise and significant 
 equivalent*
 
 VI PREFATORY NOTICE. 
 
 But, since the publication of the last Edition, science, in each of its main divisions, 
 may be said to have changed as much in substance as in form. The new conceptions 
 introduced into the Biological Sciences have revolutionized their points of view, methods 
 of procedure, and systems of classification. In the light of larger and more illumi- 
 nating generalizations, sections of the subject, hitherto only partially explored, have 
 acquired new prominence and value, and are cultivated with the keenest interest. It is 
 enough to specify the researches into the ultimate structures, serial gradations, and pro- 
 gressive changes of organic forms, into the laws of their distribution in space and time, 
 and into the causes by which these phenomena have been brought about. The results 
 of persistent labor in these comparatively new fields of inquiry will largely determine 
 the classifications of the future. Meanwhile the whole system of grouping, and many 
 points of general doctrine, are in a transition state ; and what is said and done in these 
 directions must be regarded, to a certain extent at least, as tentative and provisional. 
 In these circumstances, the really important thing is, that whatever may be said on 
 such unsettled questions should be said with the authority of the fullest knowledge and 
 insight, and every effort has been made to secure this advantage for the New Edition 
 of the Encyclopaedia. 
 
 The recent history of Physics is marked by changes both of conception and classi- 
 fication almost equally great. In advancing from the older dynamic to the newei 
 potential and kinetic conceptions of power, this branch of science may be said to have 
 entered on a fresh stage, in which, instead of regarding natural phenomena as the result 
 of forces acting between one body and another, the energy of a material system is 
 looked upon as determined by its configuration and motion, and the ideas of configura- 
 tion, motion and force are generalized to the utmost extent warranted by their defini- 
 tions. This altered point of view, combined with the far-reaching doctrines of the 
 correlation of forces and the conservation of energy, has produced extensive changes in 
 the nomenclature and classification of the various sections of physics; while the fuller 
 investigations into the ultimate constitution of matter, and into the phenomena and 
 laws of light, heat and electricity, have created virtually new sections, which must now 
 find a place in any adequate survey of scientific progress. The application of the 
 newer principles to the mechanical arts and industries has rapidly advanced during the 
 same period, and will require extended illustration in many fresh directions. Mechanical 
 invention has, indeed, so kept pace with the progress of science, that in almost every 
 department of physics improved machines and processes have to be described, as well 
 as fresh discoveries and altered points of view. In recent as in earlier times, invention 
 and discovery have acted and reacted on each other to a marked extent, the instru 
 ments of finer measurement and analysis having directly contributed to the finding out 
 of physical properties and laws. The spectroscope is a signal instance of the extent to 
 which in our day scientific discovery is indebted to appropriate instruments of obset 
 vation and nna'vsis
 
 PREFATORY NOTICE. vil 
 
 These extensive changes in Physics and Biology involve corresponding changes in 
 the method of their exposition. Much in what was written about each a generation 
 ago is now of comparatively little value. Not only therefore does the system of 
 grouping in these sciences require alteration and enlargement ; the articles themselves 
 must, in the majority of instances, be written afresh rather than simply revised. The 
 scientific department of the work will thus be to a great extent new. In attempting 
 to distribute the headings for the New Edition, so as fairly to cover the ground occu 
 pied by modern science, I have been largely indebted to Professor Huxley and Professor 
 Clerk Maxwell, whose valuable help in the matter I am glad to have an opportunity 
 of acknowledging. 
 
 Passing from Natural and Physical Science to Literature, History and Philosophy. 
 it may be noted that many sections of knowledge connected with these departments 
 display fresh tendencies, and are working towards new results, which, if faithfully 
 reflected, will require a new style of treatment. Speaking generally, it may be said 
 that human nature and human life are the great objects of inquiry in these depart- 
 ments. Man, in his individual powers, complex relationships, associated activities and 
 collective progress, is dealt with alike in Literature, History and Philosophy. In this 
 wider aspect, the rudest and most fragmentary records of savage and barbarous races 
 the earliest stories and traditions of every lettered people, no less than their developed 
 literatures, mythologies and religions, are found to have a meaning and value of their 
 own. As yet the rich materials thus supplied for throwing light on the central prob 
 lems of human life and history have only been very partially turned to account. It 
 may be said, indeed, that their real significance is perceived and appreciated, almost for 
 the first time in our own day. But under the influence of the modern spirit, they are 
 now being dealt with in a strictly scientific manner. The available facts of humar 
 history, collected over the widest areas, are carefully co-ordinated and grouped together, 
 in the hope of ultimately evolving the laws of progress, moral and material, which 
 underlie them, and which, when evolved, will help to connect and interpret the whole 
 onward movement of the race. Already the critical use of the comparative method 
 has produced very striking results in this new and stimulating field of research. Illus- 
 trations of this are seen in the rise and rapid development of the comparatively modern 
 science of Anthropology, and the successful cultivation of the assistant sciences, such as 
 Archaeology, Ethnography and Philology, which directly contribute materials for its use. 
 The activity of geographical research in both hemispheres, and the large additions 
 recently made to our knowledge of older and newer continents by the discoveries of 
 eminent travelers and explorers, afford the anthropologist additional materials for his 
 work. Many branches of mental philosophy, again, such as Ethics, Psychology* anc 
 -Esthetics, while supplying important elements to the new science, are at the same 
 time very largely interested in its results, and all may be regarded as subservient to 
 the wider problems raised by the philosophy of history. In the New Edition of the
 
 Vlii PREFATORY NOTICE. 
 
 Encyclopaedia full justice will, it is hoped, be done to the progress made in these 
 various directions. 
 
 It may be well, perhaps, to state at the outset the position taken by the Ency- 
 clopaedia Britannica in relation to the active controversies of the time — Scientific, Re- 
 ligious and Philosophical. This is the more necessary, as the prolific activity of modern 
 science has naturally stimulated speculation, and given birth to a number of somewhat 
 crude conjectures and hypotheses. The air is full of novel and extreme opinions, 
 arising often from a hasty or one-sided interpretation of the newer aspects and results 
 of modern inquiry. The higher problems of philosophy and religion, too, are being 
 investigated afresh from opposite sides in a thoroughly earnest spirit, as well as with a 
 directness and intellectual power, which is certainly one of the most striking signs of 
 the times. This fresh outbreak of the inevitable contest between the old and the new 
 is a fruitful source of exaggerated hopes and fears, and of excited denunciation and 
 appeal. In this conflict a work like the Encyclopaedia is not called upon to take any 
 direct part. It has to do with knowledge rather than opinion, and to deal with all 
 subjects from a critical and historical, rather than a dogmatic, point of view. It cannot 
 be the organ of any sect or party in Science, Religion or Philosophy. Its main duty 
 is to give an accurate account of the facts and an impartial summary of results in 
 every department of inquiry and research. This duty will, I hope, be faithfully 
 
 performed 
 
 T. S. BAYNES.
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA. 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 THE first symbol of every Indo-European alphabet, 
 . denotes also the primary vowel sound. This coin- 
 cidence is probably only accidental. The alphabets of 
 Europe, and perhaps of India also, were of Semitic origin, 
 and in all the Semitic alphabets except one, this same 
 symbol (in modified forms) holds the first place ; but it 
 renresents a peculiar breathing, not the vowel a, — the 
 vowels in the Semitic languages occupying a subordinate 
 place, and having originally no special symbols. When 
 the Greeks, with whom the vowel sounds were much more 
 important, borrowed the alphabet of Phoenicia, they re- 
 quired symbols to express those vowels, and ased for this 
 purpose the signs of breathings which were strange to 
 them, and therefore needed not to be preserved ; thus the 
 Phoenician equivalent of the Hebrew aleph became alpha; 
 it denoted, however, no more a guttural breathing, but the 
 purest vowel sound. Still, it would be too much to 
 assume that the Greeks of that day were so skilled in 
 phonetics that they assigned the first symbol of their bor- 
 rowed alphabet to the a-sound, because they knew that 
 sound to be the most essential vowel. 
 
 This primary vowel-sound (the sound of a in father) is 
 produced by keeping the passage through which the air is 
 vocalised between the glottis and the lips in the most open 
 position possible. In sounding all other vowels, the air- 
 channel is narrowed by the action either of the tongue or 
 the lips. But here neither the back of the tongue is 
 raised (as it is in sounding o and other vowels), so that a 
 free space' is left between the tongue and the uvula, nor 
 is the front of the tongue raised (as in sounding e), so that 
 the space is clear between the tongue and the palate. 
 Again, no other vowel is pronounced with a wider opening 
 of the lips; whereas the aperture is sensibly reduced at 
 each side when we sound o, and still more when we sound 
 u (that is, yoo). The whole channel, therefore, from 
 the glottis, where the breath first issues forth to be modi- 
 fied in the oral cavity, to the lips, where it finally escapes, 
 is thoroughly open. Hence arises the great importance of 
 the sound, by reason of its thoroughly non-consonantal 
 character. All vowels may be defined as orjen positions 
 
 of the speech-organs, in which the breath escapes without 
 any stoppage, friction, or sibilation arising from the con- 
 tact of those organs, whereas consonants are heard when 
 the organs open after such contact more or less complete. 
 Now, all vowels except a are pronounced with a certain 
 contraction of the organs ; thus, in sounding the i (the 
 English e-sonnd), the tongue is raised so as almost to 
 touch the palate, the passage left being so close, that if 
 the tongue were suffered for a second to rest on the palate, 
 there would be heard not i but y; and a similar relation 
 exists between u and w. This is commonly expressed by 
 calling y and w semi-vowels. We might more exactly call 
 i and u consonantal-vowels ; and as an historic fact, t does 
 constantly pass into y, and u into w, and vice versa. But 
 no consonant has this relation to the a-sound ; it has abso- 
 lutely no affinity to any consonant ; it is, as we have called 
 it, the one primary essential vowel. 
 
 The importance of this sound may be shown by histori- 
 cal as well as by physiological evidence. We find by 
 tracing the process of phonetic change in different lan- 
 guages, that when one vowel passes into another, it is the 
 pure a-sound which thus assumes other forms, whereas 
 other vowels do not pass into the a-sound, though some- 
 times the new sound may have this symbol. Roughly 
 speaking, we might express the gene- 
 ral character of vowel change by draw- 
 ing two lines from a common point, 
 at which a is placed. One of these 
 lines marks the progress of an original 
 a (aA-sound) through e (a-sound), till 
 it sinks finally to t (e-sound) ; the other 
 marks a similar degradation, through 
 o to u (oo-sound). This figure omits ; 
 many minor modifications, and is sub- 
 ject to some exceptions in particular languages. But it 
 represents fairly in the main the general process of vowel- 
 change. Now, we do not assert that there ever was a 
 time when a was the only existing vowel, but we do main- 
 tain that in numberless cases an original a has passed into 
 other sounds, whereas the reverse process is excessively
 
 A — A A It 
 
 rare. Consequently, tlie farther wc trace back the history 
 ef language, the moro instances of this vowel do we find; 
 the more nearly, if not entirely, does it become the one 
 starting point from which all vowel-sound is derived. 
 
 It is principally to the effort required to keep this 
 sound pure that we must attribute the great corruption of 
 it in all languages, and in none more than our own. In- 
 deed, in English, the short a-sound is never heard pure ; it 
 is heard in Scotland, e.g., in man, which is quite different 
 from the same word on English lips. We have it, how- 
 ever, long in father, <fcc, though it is not common. It has 
 passed into a great many other sounds, all of which are 
 denoted in a most confusing way by the original symbol, 
 and some by other symbols as well. Thus a denotes— (1.) 
 The English vowel-sound in man, perhaps the most common 
 of all the substitutes, dating from the 17th century. (2.) 
 It appears in want; for this sound o is also employed, as in 
 on. (3.) A more open sound is heard in all (also denoted 
 by au in auk, and aw in awl). (4.) Very commonly it re- 
 presents the continental e, as in ale (here also we have the 
 symbol ai in ail). (5.) It is found in dare and many 
 similar words, where the sound is really the e of den, pro- 
 longed in the utterance ; hero also ai is sometimes an 
 equivalent, as in air. Then (6) there is a sound which is 
 not that of a either in man or in father, but something 
 between the two. It is heard in such words as ask, pass, 
 grant, &c. All these may be, and often are, pronounced 
 with the sound either of man or of father ; still, we do often 
 hear in them a dearly distinguishable intermediate sound, 
 which ought to have a special symbol. Lastly (7), there 
 is the dull sound heard in final unaccentuated syllables, e.g., 
 in the word final itself. It is that to which all unaccen- 
 tuated syllables tend ; but it is also often heard even in 
 monosyllables, where it is represented by every other vowel- 
 symbol in the language, e.g., in her, sir, son, sun. This 
 Protean sound is commonly called the neutral vowel ; it 
 occurs in all languages, but perhaps in none so frequently 
 as in ErigUsh. • This great variety of sounds, which are all 
 denoted among^us^by one symbol, clearly shows the in- 
 sufficiency of our written alphabet. 
 
 As in English, so in Sanskrit, the short a^-sound was 
 lost, and was replaced regularly by the neutral sound. 
 This was regarded by the grammarians as inherent in every 
 consonant, and therefore was only written at the beginning 
 of a word; in fact, it is the smallest amount of vowel- 
 sound requisite to float a consonant. Long a, however, 
 kept its sound pure, and does so still in the vernaculars of 
 India. In Latin the sound was probably pure, both short 
 and long, and it has been preserved so in the Romance 
 languages down to the present day. In Greek there was 
 considerable variation, proved in one case at least by a 
 variation of symbol ; in Ionic a commonly passed into 
 ■q, a symbol which probably denoted the modern Italian 
 open e ; but possibly the close e, that is, the English a in 
 ale. On the other hand, it is probable that the Doric a 
 approximated to an o, being sounded as a in our word 
 want; and it is likely that this variation was the wXaTeiaa-- 
 /*o? which the grammarians attribute to the Dorians. This 
 is commonly supposed to have been the retention of a where 
 the Tonic had rj ; but that was not peculiar to the Dorians, 
 being common to all the Greeks except the Ionians. In 
 the north of Europe we find a similar tendency to give to 
 a in o-sound; thus in Norse, aa is sounded as an open o. 
 By a further extension in the north of England, at least in 
 such parts as have been specially exposed to Norwegian 
 influence, au has the sound of o ; e.g., law is pronounced lo. 
 
 A is frequently used as a prefix in lieu of some fuller 
 form in old English. Thus it stands for the preposition 
 on (O.E. an) in away, again, afoot, asleep; for offmpdown 
 (O.E. of-dune); and seems to bo intensive in athirst (O.E. 
 
 of-thirst). Sometimes, especially with verbs, it represents 
 the old English a, which in old High German appears as 
 ur or er, and in modern German as er, which signifies tho 
 completion of an action, as in erwachen, to which awake 
 corresponds. Frequently no special force seems to be 
 added by the prefix, as in abide, arise, iic. Sometimes a 
 appears as the representative of the prefix commonly used 
 in past participles, which has the form ge in German, and 
 ge and y in old English, e.g., in ago or agone; compare 
 aware (O.E. gewaere), among (O.E. gemang), <tc. A also 
 stood for the preposition an (on) in such expressions (now 
 obsolete) as a-doing, a-making, where doing and making are 
 verbal nouns. Lastly, it represents the prepositions on or 
 of in the phrases now-a-days, Jack-a-lantern, and others. 
 
 The place that A occupies in the alphabet accounts for 
 its being much employed as a mark or symbol. It is used, 
 for instance, to name the sixth note of the gamut in music; 
 in some systems of notation it is a numeral (see Aeith- 
 metic); and in' Logic it denotes a universal affirmative 
 proposition (see Logic). In algebra, a and the first letters 
 of the alphabet are employed to represpnt known quanti- 
 ties. AI marks the best class of vessels in Lloyd's Re- 
 gister of British and Foreign Shipping. In the old poets, 
 " Aper se" is found, meaning the highest degree of excel- 
 lence; as when Chaucer calls Creseide "the floure and A 
 per se of Troyo and Grece." 
 
 A was the first of the eight literm nundinales at Rome, 
 and on this analogy it stands as the first of the seven Domini- 
 cal letters. 
 
 It is often used as an abbreviation, as in A.D. for mine 
 domini, A.M. for ante meridiem, A.B. and A.M. for artium 
 baccalaureus and artium magister. a In commerce A stands 
 for accepted. (j. P.) 
 
 AA, the name of about forty small European rivers. 
 The word is derived from the old German aha, cognate 
 to the Latin aqua, water. The following are the more 
 important streams of this name : — a river of Holland, in 
 North Brabant, which joins the Dommel at Bois-le-Duc ; 
 two rivers in the west of Russia, both falling into tho 
 Gulf of Livonia, near Riga, which is "situated between 
 them; a river in the north of France, falling into the sea 
 at Gravelines, and navigable as far as St Omer; and a 
 river of Switzerland, in the cantons of Lucerne and Aargau, 
 which carries the waters of Lakes Baldeker and Hallwylcr 
 into the Aar. 
 
 AACHEN. See Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 AALBORG, a city and seaport of Denmark, is situated on 
 the Liimfiord, about 15 miles from its junction with the 
 Cattegat. It is the capital of the district of the same 
 name, one of the subdivisions of the province of Jutland. 
 The city is a place of considerable commercial importance, 
 and contains a cathedral and a school of navigation. Soap, 
 tobacco, and leather are manufactured ; there are several 
 distilleries ; and the herring fishery is extensively prosecuted. 
 Grain and herring are largely exported," as are also to a 
 smaller extent wool, cattle, skins, tallow, salt provisions, and 
 spirits. The harbour, which is good and safe, though 
 difficult of access, is entered by about 800 vessels annually, 
 and there is direct steam communication with Copenhagen. 
 The district is celebrated for its breed of horses. Popula 
 tion (1870), 11,953. 
 
 AALEN, a walled town of Wiirtemberg, pleasantly 
 situated on the Kocher.'at the foot of the Swabian Alps, 
 about 50 miles E. of Stuttgart. Woollen and linen goods 
 are manufactured, and there are ribbon looms and tanneries 
 in the town, and large iron works in fie neighbourhood. 
 Aalen was a free imperial city from 1BG0 till 1802, when 
 it was annexed to Wurtemberg. Population (1871), 5552. 
 
 AAR, or Aake, the most considerable river in Switzer- 
 land, after the Rhine and Rhone, i It rises in the glaciers
 
 A A K — A A R 
 
 of the Finster-aarhorn, Schreckkorn, and Grimsel, in the 
 canton of Bern; and at the Handeck in the valley of Hash 
 forms a magnificent water-fall of above 150 feet in height. 
 It then falls successively into the lakes Brienz and Thun, 
 and, emerging from the latter, flows through the cantons of 
 Bern, Soleure, and Aargau, emptying itself into the Rhine, 
 opposite WaldsTiut, .after a course of about 170 miles. 
 Its principal tributary streams are the Kandcr, Saane, and 
 Thiele on the left, and the Einnien, Surin, Aa, Rcuss, and 
 Limmat, on the right. On its banks are situated Unterseen, 
 Thun, Bern, Soleure or Solothurn, Aarburg, and Aarau. 
 The Aar is a beautiful silvery river, abounding in fish, and 
 is navigable from the Rhine as far as the Lake of Thun. 
 Several small rivers in Germany have the same name. 
 
 AARAU, the chief town of the "canton of Aargau in 
 Switzerland, is situated at the foot of the Jura mountains, 
 on the right bank of the river Aar, 41 miles N.E. of Bern. 
 It is well built, and contains a town-hall, barracks, several 
 email museums, and a library rich in histories of Switzer- 
 land. There is a cannon foundry at Aarau, and among the 
 principal manufactures are silk, cotton, and leather ; also 
 cutlery and mathematical instruments, which are held in 
 great repute. The slopes of the neighbouring mountains 
 are partially covered with vines, and' the vicinity of the 
 town is attractive. About ten miles distant along the 
 right bank of the Aar are the famous baths of Schinzuach. 
 Population, 5449. 
 
 AARD-VARK {earthing), an animal very common in 
 South Africa, measuring upwards of three feet in length, 
 and having a general resemblance to a short-legged pig. 
 It feeds on ants, and is of nocturnal habits, and very timid 
 and harmless. Its flesh is used as food, and when suitably 
 preserved is considered a delicacy. The animal is the only 
 known species of its genus \Orycteropus), and belongs to 
 the order Edentata of the mammalia. The same prefix 
 Aard appears in the name of the Aard-wolf (Proteles 
 Lalandil), a rare animal found in Caffraria, which is said 
 to partake of the characters of the dog and civet. See 
 Mammalia. 
 
 AARGAU (French, Argovia., one of fho cantons of 
 Switzerland, derives its name from the rivei which flows 
 through it, Aar-gau being the province or district of the 
 Aar. It is bounded on the north by the Rhine, which divides 
 it from the duchy of Baden, on the east by Zurich and Zug, 
 on the south by Lucerne, and on the west by Bern, Soleure 
 or Solothurn, and BaseL It has an area of 502i square miles. 
 By the census of 1870, the number of inhabitants was 
 198,873, showing an increase during the preceding ten years 
 of 4605. Aargau stands sixth among the Swiss caDtons in 
 density of population, having 395 inhabitants to the square 
 mile. The statistics of 1870 show that of the inhabitants 
 107,703 were Protestants, 89,180 Catholics, and 1541 Jews. 
 German is the language almost universally spoken. 
 
 Aargau is the least mountainous canton of Switzerland. 
 It forms part of a great table-land to the north of the Alps 
 and the* east of the Jura, having a general elevation of 
 from 1200 to 1500 feet. The hills do not rise to any 
 greater height than 1800 feet above this table- land, or 
 3000 feet above the level of the sea The surface of the 
 country is beautifully diversified, undulating tracts and 
 well-woodtd hills alternating with fertile valleys watered 
 by the Aar and its numerous tributaries, and by the rivu- 
 lets which flow northward into the Rhine. Although 
 moist and variable, the climate is milder than in most 
 parts of Switzerland. 
 
 The minerals of Aargau are unimportant, but-remarkable 
 pataacntological remains are found in its rocks. ...The soil to 
 the left of the Aar is a stiff clay, but to the right it is light 
 and productive. Agriculture is in an advanced state, and 
 groat attention is given to the rearing of cattle* There 
 
 are many vineyards, and much fruit is grown. The can- 
 ton is distinguished by its industry and its generally 
 diffused prosperity. Many of the inhabitants are employed 
 in the fishings on the Aar, and in the navigation of the 
 river. In the villages and towns there are considerable 
 manufactures of cotton goods, silk, and linen. The chief 
 exports are cattle, hides, cheese, timber, raw cotton, yarn, 
 cotton cloths, silk, machinery, and wooden wares ; and 
 the imports include wheat, wine, salt, leather, and iron. 
 The most important towns are Aarau, Baden, Zofingen, and 
 Laufeuburg, and there are mineral springs at Baden, Schiaa- 
 nach, Leerau, and KiederweiL The Swis3 Junction 
 Railway crosses the Rhine near Waldshut, and runs south 
 through the canton to Turgi, whence one line proceeds S.E. 
 to Zurich, and another S.W. to Aarau and Olben. 
 
 Until 1798, Aargau formed part of the canton of Bern, 
 but when the Helvetic Republic was proclaimed, it was 
 erected into a separate canton. In 1803 it received a 
 considerable accession of territory, in virtue of the arrange- 
 ment under which the French evacuated Switzerland. 
 Accordiug to the law whereby the cantons are represented 
 in the National Council by one member for every 20,000 
 inhabitants, Aargau returns ten representatives to that 
 assembly. The internal government is vested in a legisr 
 lative council elected by the body of the people, while a 
 smaller council of seven members is chosen by the larger 
 body for the general administration of affairs* The re» 
 sources of Aargau are stated to amount to about a million 
 sterling; its revenue in 18G7 was nearly £82,000, and the 
 expenditure slightly greater. There is a public debt of 
 about £40,000. The canton is divided into eleven districts, 
 and these again are subdivided into forty-eight circles. There 
 is a court of Law for each district, and a superior court for 
 the whole canton, to which cases involving sums above 1 GO 
 francs can be appealed. Education is compulsory; but in the 
 Roman Catholic districts the law is not strictly enforced. By 
 improved schools and other appliances great progress has 
 been made in education within the last thirty or forty years. 
 
 AARHUUS, a city and seaport of Denmark, situated 
 on the Cattegat, in lat. 56° 9' N., long. 10° 12' E. It is 
 the chief town of a fertile district of the same name, one 
 of the subdivisions of Jutland. The cathedral of Aarhuus 
 is a Gothic structure, and the largest church in Denmark. 
 The town also contains a lyceum, museum, and library. 
 Aarhuus is a place of extensive trade. It has a good and 
 safe harbour, has regular steam communication with 
 Copenhagen, and is connected by rail with Viborg and the 
 interior of the country. Agricultural produce, spirits, 
 leather, and gloves are <exported, and there are sugar re- 
 fineries, and manufactures of wool, cotton, and tobacco. 
 Population (1870), 15,020. 
 
 AARON, the first high-priest of the Jews, eldest ton 
 of Amram and Jochebed, of the tribe of Levi, and brother 
 ( of Moses and Miriam. When Moses was commissioned to 
 conduct the Israelites from Egypt to Canaan, A*ron was 
 appointed to assist him, principally, it would appear, on 
 account of his possessing, in a high degree, persuasive 
 readiness of speech. On the occasion of Mosis' absence 
 in Mount Sinai (to which he had gone up tc receive the 
 tables of the law), the Israelites, regarding Aaron as their 
 leader, clamorously demanded that he should provide them 
 with a visible symbolic image of 'Aeir God for worship. 
 He weakly complied with the demand, and out of the 
 ornaments of gold contributed for the purpose cast the 
 figure of a calf, this form being doubtless chosen in recol- 
 lection of the idols of Egypt. In obedience to instructions 
 given by God to Moses, Aaron was appointed high -priest; 
 his sons and descendants, priests : and his tribe was set 
 apart as the sacerdotal caste. The office of high -priest was 
 held by Aaron for nearly forty years, till the trrne q£ Jus
 
 A A II — A B A 
 
 death, which took place on Mount Hor, when he was 123 
 years old. 
 
 AAESSENS, Fkancis Van (1572-1641), one of the 
 greatest diplomatists of the United Provinces. He re- 
 presented the States-General at the Court of Franco for 
 many years, and was also engaged in embassies to Venice, 
 Germany, and England. His great diplomatic ability 
 \ppears from the memoirs he wrote of his negotiations 
 in 1624 with Richelieu, who ranked him among the three 
 greatest politicians of his time. A deep stain rests on the 
 memory of Aarssens from the share he had in the death of 
 Barneveldt, who was put to death by the States-General, 
 after the semblance of a trial, in 1619. 
 
 ABABDE, an African tribe occupying tho country be- 
 tween the Ked Sea and the Nile, to the S. of Kosseir, 
 nearly as far as the latitude of Derr. Many of the race 
 havo settled on the eastern bank of the Nile, but the 
 greater part still live like Bedouins. They are a distinct 
 race from the Arabs, and are treacherous and faithless in 
 their dealings. They have few horses ; when at war with 
 other tribes, they fight from camels, their breed of which 
 is famed. They possess considerablo property, and trade 
 in senna, and in charcoal made from acacia wood, which 
 they send as far as Cairo. 
 
 ABACA or Abaka, a name given to the Musa teztilis, 
 the plant that produces the fibre called Manilla Hemp, 
 and also to the fibre itself. 
 
 ABACUS, an architectural term (from the Gr. o/?a|, a 
 tray or flat board) applied to the upper part of the capital 
 of a column, pier, ic. The early form of an abacus is 
 
 ^P^* ^&{.$%? SIP 
 
 «. 
 
 Forms of tho Ahacns. 
 
 simply a square flat stone, probably derived from the 
 Tuscan order. In Saxon work it is frequently simply 
 chamfered, but sometimes grooved, as in tho crypt at 
 Repton (fig. 1), and in the arcade of the refectory at West- 
 minster. The abacus in Norman work is square where 
 the columns are small; but on larger piers it is sometimes 
 octagonal, as at Waltham Abbey. The square of the 
 abacus is often sculptured, as at the White Tower and 
 at Alton (fig. 2). In early English work the abacus is 
 generally circular, and in larger work a continuation of 
 circles (fig. 4), sometimes octagonal, and occasionally square. 
 The mouldings are 
 generally rounds, 
 which overhang 
 deep hollows. The 
 abacus in early 
 French work is 
 generally square, as 
 at Blois (fig. 3). 
 The term is ap- 
 plied in its diminu- 
 tive form (Abacis- 
 cus) to the chequers 
 or squares of a tes- 
 sellated pavement. 
 
 Abacus also signifies an instrument employed by the 
 undents for arithmetical calculations ; pebbles, bits of bone, 
 or coins, being used as counters. The accompanying figure 
 (5) ef a Roman abacus is taken from an ancient monu- 
 ment It contains seven. long and seven shorter rods or 
 hara, the former having four perforated beads running on 
 
 5. — Roman Abacus. 
 
 them, and the latter one. The bar marked I indicates 
 units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads on the 
 shorter bars denote lives, — five units, five tens, Arc. The rod 
 O and correspond- r^MiiMjpiiMujpi >j 
 
 ing short rod are 
 for marking ounces; 
 and the short quar- 
 ter rods for fractions 
 of an ounce. 
 
 The Swan-Pan, of 
 the Chinese (fig. 6 
 closely resembles the 
 Roman abacus in its ^>S- 6. — Chinese Swan-Pan. 
 
 construction aud use. Computations arc made with it by 
 means of balls of bone or ivory running on slondcr bam 
 boo rods similar to the simpler board, fitted up with beadw 
 strung on wires, which is employed in teaching the rudi- 
 ments of arithmetic in elementary schools. 
 
 AB^E, a town of ancient • Greece in the E. of Phocis, 
 famous for a temple and oracle of Apollo. The temple was 
 plundered and burned by the Persians (b.c. 480), and again 
 by the Boeotians (b.c. 346), and was restored on a smaller 
 scale by Hadrian. Remains of the temple and town may 
 still be traced on a peaked hill near Exarkiio. See Leake's 
 Northern Greece. 
 
 ABAKANSK, a fortified town of Siberia, in the govern- 
 ment of Yeniseisk, on tho river Abakan, near its confluence 
 with the Yenisei. Lat. 54° N.; long. 91° 14' E. This is 
 considered the mildest and most salubrious place in Siberia, 
 and is remarkable for the tumuli in its neighbourhood, and 
 for some statues of men from eeven to nino feet high, 
 covered with hieroglyphics. Population about 1000. 
 
 ABANA and Pharpar, " rivers of Damascus " (2 Kings 
 v. 12), are now generally identified with the Barada and 
 the Awaj respectively. The former flows through the city 
 of Damascus ; the Awaj, a smaller stream, passes eight 
 miles to the south. Both run from west to east across the 
 plain of Damascus, which owes to them much of its fertility, 
 and lose themselves in marshes, or lakes, as they are called, 
 on the borders of the great Arabian desert. Mr Macgregor, 
 who gives an interesting description of these rivers in his 
 Hob Roy on the Jordan, affirms that " as a work of 
 hydraulic engineering, the system and construction of the 
 canals by which the Abana and Pharpar are used for 
 irrigation, may bo still considered as the most complete 
 and extensive in the world." 
 
 ABANCAY, a town of Peru, in the department of 
 Cuzco, 65 jniles W.S.W. of the town of that name. It lies 
 on the river Abancay, which is here spanned by one of the 
 finest bridges in Peru. Rich crops of sugar-cane are pro- 
 duced in the district, and the town has extensive, sugar 
 refineries. Hemp is also cultivated, and silver is found in 
 the mountains. Population, 1 200. 
 
 ABANDONMENT, in Marine Assurance, is the surren- 
 dering of the ship or goods insured to the insurers, in the 
 case of a constructive total loss of the thing insured. 
 There is an absolute total los3 entitling the assured to 
 recover the full amount of his insurance wherever the thing 
 insured has ceased to exist to any useful purpose, — and in 
 such a case abandonment is not required. Where the thing 
 assured continues to exist in specie, yet is so damaged that 
 there is no reasonable hope of repair, or it is not worth the 
 expense of bringing it, or what remains of it, to its destina- 
 tion, the insured may treat the case as- one of a total loss 
 (in this case called constructive total loss), and demand 
 the full sum insured. But, as the contract of insurance is 
 one of indemnity, the insured must, in such a case, make 
 an express cession of all his right to the recovery of the 
 -subject insured to the underwriter by abandonment. Tho 
 insured must intimate his intention to abandon, within a
 
 A B A— A B A 
 
 reasonable tin:? after "receiving correct miormation as to I 
 J he loss; any unnecessary delay being held as an indica- 
 tion of his intention not to abandon. ' An. abandonment 
 when once accepted is irrevocable; but in no circumstances 
 s the insured obliged to abandon. After abandonment, 
 khe captain and crew are still bound to do all in their 
 power to save the property for the underwriter, without 
 prejudice to the right of abandonment; for which they are 
 Entitled to wages and remuneration from the insurers, at 
 teast so far as what is saved. will allow. See Arnould, 
 Marshall, and Park, on the Law of Insurance, and the 
 judgment of Lord Abinger in Roux v. Salvador, 3 Bing. 
 N.C. 266, Tudor's Leading Cases, 139. 
 
 Abandonment has also a legal signification in the law 
 of railways. Under the Acts 13 and 14 Vict. c. S3, 14 
 and 15 Vict. c. 64, 30 and 31 Vict. c. 126, and 32 and 33 
 Vict. c. 114, the Board of Trade may, on the application 
 of a railway company, made by the authority and with the 
 consent of the holders of three-fifths of its shares or stock, 
 and on certain couditions specified in the Acts, grant a war- 
 rant authorising the abandonment of the railway or a por- 
 tion of it. After due publication of this warrant, the 
 company is released from all liability to make, maintain, 
 or work the railway, or portion of the railway, authorised 
 to be abaudoned, or to complete any contracts relating to 
 it, subject to certain provisions and exceptions. 
 
 Abandoning a young child under two years of age, so 
 that its life shall be endangered, or its health permanently ' 
 iujured, or likely to be so, is in England a misdemeanour, 
 punishable by penal servitude or imprisonment, 24 and 25 
 Vict. c. 100, § 273. In Scotland abandoning or exposing 
 an infant is an offence at common law, although no evil 
 consequences should happen to the child. 
 
 ABANO, a town of Northern Italy, 6 miles S.W. of 
 Padua. There are thermal springs in the neighbourhood, 
 which have been much resorted to by invalids for bathing, 
 both in ancient and modern times. They were called by 
 the Romans Aponi Fons, and also Aquai Patavina*. Popu- 
 lation of Abauo, 3000. 
 
 ABANO, Pietro d', known also as Petrus de Apono or 
 Aponensis, a distinguished physician and philosopher, was 
 born at the Italian town from which he takes his name in 
 1250, or, according to others, in 1246. After visiting the 
 east in order to acquire the Greek language, he went to 
 study at Paris, where he became a doctor of medicine and 
 philosophy. In Padua, to which he returned when his 
 studies were completed, he speedily gained a great reputa- 
 tion as a physician, and availed himself of it to gratify his 
 avarice by refusing to visit patients except for an exorbitant 
 fee. Perhaps this as well as his meddling with astrology 
 caused the charge to be brought against him of practising 
 magic, the particular accusations being that he brought 
 back into his purse, by the aid of the devil, all the money 
 he paid away, and that he possessed the philosopher's stone. 
 He was twice brought to trial by the Inquisition ; on the 
 first occasion he was acquitted, and he died (1316) before 
 the second trial was completed. He was found guilty, 
 however, and his body was ordered to be exhumed and 
 burned; but a friend had secretly removed it, and the 
 Inquisition had, therefore, to content itself with the public 
 proclamation of its sentence and the burning of Abano in 
 effigy. In his writings he expounds and advocates the 
 medical and philosophical systems of Averrhoes and other 
 Arabian writers. His best known works are the Con- 
 ciliator differentiarum qua? inter pkilosophos et 7nedicos 
 cersantur (Mantua, 1472, Venice. 1476), and De venenis 
 eorumque remediis (1472), of which a French translation 
 was published at Lyons in 1593. 
 
 ABARIS, tha Hyperborean, a celebrated sage of anti- 
 quity, who visited Greece about 570 B.C., or, according to 
 
 others, a century or two earlier. The particulars of his 
 history are differently related by different authors, but all 
 accounts are more or less mythical. He is said to have 
 travelled over sea and land, riding on an arrow given him 
 by Apollo, to have lived without food, to have delivered 
 the whole earth from a plague, &c. Various works in prose 
 and verse are attributed to Abaris by Suidas and others, 
 but of these we have no certain information. 
 
 ABATEMENT, Abate, from the French alattre, abater, 
 to throw down, demolish. The original meaning of the 
 word is preserved in various legal phrases. The abatement 
 of a nuisance is the remedy allowed by law to a person 
 injured by a public nuisance of destroying or removing it 
 by his own act, provided he commit no breach of the peace 
 in doing so. In the case of private nuisances abatement 
 is also allowed, provided there be no breach of the peace, 
 and no damage be occasioned beyond vhat the removal oi 
 the nuisance requires. 
 
 Abatement of freehold takes place where, after the death 
 of the person last seised, a stranger enters upon lands 
 before the entry of the heir or devisee, and keeps the latter 
 out of possession. It differs from intrusion, which is a 
 similar entry by a stranger on the death of a tenant for 
 life, to the prejudice of the reversioner, or remainder man ; 
 and from disseisin, which is the forcible or fraudulent ex- 
 pulsion of a person seised of the freehold. 
 
 Abatement among legatees (defalcatis) is a proportionate 
 deduction which their legacies suffer when the funds out 
 of which they are payable are not sufficient to pay them in 
 full. 
 
 Abatement in pleading is the defeating or quashing of a 
 particular action by some matter of fact, such as a defect 
 in form or personal incompetency of the parties suing, 
 pleaded by the defendant. Such a plea is called a plea in 
 -abatement ; and as it does not involve the merits of the 
 cause, it leaves the right of action subsisting. Since 1S52 
 it has been competent to obviate the effect of such pleas 
 by amendment, so as to allow the real question in contro- 
 versy between the parties to be tried in the same suit. 
 
 In litigation an action is said to abate or cease on the 
 death of one of the parties. 
 
 Abatement^ or Rebate, is a discount allowed for 
 prompt payment; it also means a deduction sometimes 
 made at the custom-house from the fixed duties on certain 
 kinds of goods, on account of damage or loss sustained in 
 warehouses. The rate and conditions of such deductions 
 are regulated by Act 16 and 17 Vict. c. 107. 
 
 ABATI, or Deix'Abbato, Niccolo, a celebrated fresco- 
 painter of Modena, born in 1512. His best works are at 
 Modena and Bologna, and have been highly praised by 
 Zanotti, Algarotti, and Lanzi. He accompanied Primaticck) 
 to France, and assisted in decorating the palace at Foutain- 
 bleau (1552-1571). His pictures exhibit a combination of 
 skill in drawing, grace, and natural colouring. Some of 
 his easel pieces in oil are in different collections ; one of the 
 finest, now in the Dresden Gallery, represents the martyr- 
 dom of St T>eter and St Paul Abati died at Paris in 
 1571. 
 
 ABATTOIR, from alattre, primarily signifies a slaughter- 
 house proper, or place where animp.ls are killed as distin- 
 guished from boucheries and elanx ■publics, places where 
 the dead meat is offered for sale. Eut the term is also 
 employed to designate a complete meat market, of which 
 the abattoir proper is merely part. 
 
 Perhaps the first indication of the existence of aDattoira 
 may be found in the system which prevailed under the 
 Emperors in ancient Rome. A corporation or guild of 
 butchers undoubtedly existed there, which delegated to its 
 officers the duty of slaughtering the beasts required to 
 supply, the city with meat The establishments requisite
 
 6 
 
 ABATTOIR 
 
 for this purpose were at first scattered about the various 
 streets, but were eventually confined to one quarter, and 
 formed the public fncat market. This market, in the time 
 of Nero, was one of the most imposing structures in the 
 city, and some idea of its magnificence has been transmitted 
 to us by a delineation of it preserved on an ancient coin. 
 As the policy and customs of the Romans made themselves 
 felt in Gaul, the Roman system of abattoirs, if it may be 
 so called, was introduced there in an imperfect form. A 
 clique of families in Paris long exercised the special func- 
 tion of catering for the public wants in respect of meat 
 But as the city increased in magnitude and population, tho, 
 necessity of keeping slaughter-houses as much as possible 
 apart from dwelling-houses became apparent. As early as 
 Uio time of Charles IX., the attention of the French author- 
 ities was directed to the subject, as is testified by a decree 
 passed on tht 25th of February 1567. But although the 
 importance of the question was frequently recognised, no 
 definite or decided step seems to have been taken to effect 
 the contemplated reform until the time of Napoleon I. 
 The evil had then reached a terribly aggravated form. 
 Slaughter-houses abutted on many of the principal thorough- 
 fares ; the traffic was impeded by the constant arrival of 
 foot-sore beasts, whose piteous cries pained the ear; and 
 rivulets of blood were to be seen in the gutters of the public 
 streets. The constant accumulation of putrid offal tainted 
 the atmosphere, and the Seine was polluted by being used 
 as a common receptacle for slaughter-house refuse. This 
 condition of things could not be allowed to continue, and 
 on the 9th of February 1810, a decree was passed authoris- 
 ing the construction of abattoirs iu the outskirts of Paris, 
 and appointing a Commission, to which was committed the 
 consideration of the entire question. 
 
 The result of the appointment of this Commission was 
 the construction of the five existing abattoirs, which were 
 formally opened for business on the 15th of September 
 1818. The Montmartre abattoir occupies 8 \ English acres ; 
 
 METRES. 
 
 1. Menilmontant Abattoir. 
 
 A. Residence of Officials. 
 
 B. Sheep and Cattle Sheds, 
 
 ;hter-Hou3C3, 
 
 D. Yards to do. 
 
 E. Stores. 
 
 P. Tallow-melting Houses. 
 
 G. Steam Enfrlne. 
 
 H. Stable with Water Tank* 
 
 above. 
 
 I. Pong Tits. 
 I.. Privies. 
 
 II. Layers for Cattle. 
 
 Menilmontant, 10 1 acres; Grenelle, 7j ; Da Roule, 5| ; 
 and Villejuif, 5^. ' The first two contain each 64 slaughter- 
 nouses and the same number of cattle-sheds; the third, 48; 
 and each of the others 32. The dimensions of each of the 
 slaughter-houses is about 29 J feet by„13, The general 
 
 arrangement of t he abattoirs will be understood from th« 
 preceding plan of that of Menilmontant. 
 
 The component parts of ' a French abattoir arc — 1. 
 Ecliaudoin, whi^h is the name given by the Paris butcher 
 to the particular division allotted to him for the purpose of 
 knocking down his beasts ; 2. Boweries el Bcrgcries, the 
 places set apart for the animals waiting ,to be slaughtered, 
 where the animals, instead of being killed at once, after a 
 long and distressing journey, when their blood is heated aibd 
 their flesh inflamed, are allowed to cool and rest till the 
 body is restored to its normal healthy condition ; 3. Fun- 
 dears, or boiling-down establishments ; and, 4. Triperies, 
 which, are buildings sot apart for the cleaning of the tripe 
 of bullocks, and tho fat, heads, and tripe of sheep and 
 calves. Besides these, a Paris abattoir contains Loyenienlt 
 des atjens, Magasins, Reservoirs, Vuiries, Licux d'aisance, 
 Voiites, Remises ct ecuries, Pares mix Boeufs, &c., and is 
 provided with an abundant supply of water. All the abat- 
 toirs are under the control of the municipal authorities, 
 and frequent inspections are made by person?} regularly 
 appointed for that purpose. ' 
 
 The abattoirs are situated within the barriers, each at a 
 distance of about a mile and three-quarters from the heart 
 of the city, in districts where human habitations are still 
 comparatively few. There are two principal markets from 
 which the 'abattoirs at Paris are supplied,— the -one at 
 Poissy, about 13 miles to the north-west, and the other at 
 Sccaux, about 5 miles and a quarter to the south of the 
 city. There are also two markets for cows _and calves, 
 namely, La Chapelle and Lcs Bernadins. 
 
 The Paris abattoirs were until recently the most perfect 
 specimens of their class ; and even now, although in soms 
 of their details they have been surpassed by the new 
 Islington meat market, for their complete and compact 
 arrangement they remain unrivalled. 
 
 The example set by Paris in this matter has been fol- 
 lowed in a more or less modified form by most of the prin- 
 cipal Continental towns, and the system of abattoirs has 
 become almost universal in France. 
 
 The condition of London in this important sanitary 
 respect was for a long period little more endurable thai 
 that of Paris before the adoption of its reformed system. 
 Smithfield market, situated in a very populous neighbour- 
 hood, continued till 1852 to be an abomination to tho towu 
 and a standing reproach to its authorities. No fewer than 
 243,537"'cattle and 1,455,249 sheep were sold there in 
 1852, to be afterwards slaughtered in the crowded courts 
 and thoroughfares of the metropolis. But public opinion 
 at length forced the Legislature to interfere, and the corpora- 
 tion was compelled to abandon Smithfield market and to 
 provide a substitute for it elsewhere. 
 
 The site selected was in the suburb of Islington, and the 
 designs for the work were prepared by Mr Bunning. The 
 first stone was laid March 24; 1854, and the market was 
 openea Dy Prince Albert, June 15, 1855. The Islington 
 market is undoubtedly the most perfect of its kind. It occu- 
 pies a space of some 20 acres on the high laud near the Pen- 
 tonville prison, and is open to both native and foreign cattle, 
 excepting beasts from foreign countries under quarantine. 
 
 In connection with the Islington cattle market are a few 
 slaughter-houses, half of which were originally public, and' 
 half rented to private individuals ; but at present they are 
 all practically private, and the majority of the cattle sold 
 are driven away and killed at private slaughter-houses. In 
 this respect the London system differs from that of Paris ; 
 and it may be said for the former that the meat is l»ss 
 liable to be spoiled by being carted to a distance, and is 
 therefore probably delivered in better condition ; but the 
 latter secures that great desideratum, the practical extino. 
 tion of isolated slaughter-houses.
 
 A B A — A B A 
 
 The Edinburgh abattoir, erected in 1851 by the corpora- 
 tion, from designs prepared by Mr David Cousin, the city 
 irchitect, is the best as regards both construction and 
 management in the United Kingdom. It occupies an area 
 of four acres and a quarter, surrounded by a screen-wall, 
 from which, along the greater part of its length, the build- 
 ings are separated by a considerable open space. Opposite 
 
 1 
 
 ••Bisissa 
 
 -y..t 
 
 A. Central Roadway. 
 
 B. Slaughtering Booths. 
 
 C. Cattle Sheds. 
 
 D. Enclosed Yards. 
 
 E. Well. 
 
 F. Steam-Engtoe. 
 
 2. Edinburgh Slaughter-Houses. 
 
 G Raised Water Tank. 
 
 H. Tripery. 
 
 I. Pig-slaushterins House. 
 
 K. Court tor Cattle. 
 
 L. Sheds. 
 
 M. Blood House, now Albumen Factory. 
 
 the principal gateway is a double row of buildings, extend- 
 ing in a straight line to about 376 feet in length, with a 
 central roadway (marked AA in the annexed plan), 25 feet 
 wide. There are three separate blocks of building on each 
 ride of the roadway, the central one being 140 feet in 
 length, and the others 100 feet each — cross-roads 18 feet 
 wide separating the blocks. These ranges of building, as 
 well as two smaller blocks that are placed transversely 
 behind the eastern central block, are divided into compart- 
 ments, numbering 42 in all, and all arranged on the same 
 plan. Next the roadway is the slaughtering-booth (BB), 18 
 feet by 24, and 20 feet in height, and behind this is a shed 
 (CC) 18 feet by 22, where the cattle are kept before being 
 slaughtered. All the cattle are driven into these sheds by 
 a back-entrance, through the small enclosed yards (DD). 
 The large doors of the booths are hung by balance weights, 
 and slide up and down, so as to present nc obstruction 
 either within the booth or outside. By a series of large 
 ventilators along the roof, and by other contrivances, the 
 slaughtering-booths are thoroughly ventilated. Great pre- 
 cautions have been used to keep rats out of the buildings. 
 To effect this, the booths are laid with thick well-dressed 
 pavement, resting on a stratum of concrete 12 inches 
 thick, and the walls, to the height of 7 feet, are formed of 
 solid ashlar; the roadways, too, are laid with concreu, 
 and causewayed with dressed whinstone pavement; and the 
 drainage consists entirely of glazed earthenware tubes. 
 
 The ground on which the abattoir is built was previously 
 connected with a distillery, and contains a well 100 feet 
 deep (E), which, with the extensive system of tunnels 
 attached to it, provides the establishment with an abundant 
 Bupply of pure water. By means of a steam-engine (F), 
 introduced in 1872, the water is pumped up into a raised, 
 tank (G), whence it is distributed to the different booths 
 and sheds, as well as for scouring the roadways and drains. 
 The steam from the engine is utilised in heating water for 
 the numerous cast-iron tanks required in the operations of 
 cleansing and dressing the tripery (H) and pig slaugh- 
 tering-house (I). By an ingenious arrangement of 
 rotary brushes driven by the steam-engine, — the inven- 
 tion of Mr Rutherford, the superintendent, — the tripe is j 
 
 fcsad in a superior manner, and at greatly less cost | 
 
 than by the tedious and troublesome method of hand- 
 cleaning. 
 
 By the Edinburgh Slaughter-Houses Act of 1850, the 
 management is vested in the city authorities. Booths 
 are let at a statutory rent of £8 each per annum, and, in 
 addition to thi3, gate-dues are payable for every beast 
 entering the establishment. The present rates for tenants 
 of booths are l^d for an ox or cow, |d. for a calf or 
 pig, and -Jd. for a sheep. Common booths are provided 
 for butchers who are not tenants, on payment of double 
 gate-dues. The city claims the blood, gut, and manure. 
 The tripo and feet are dressed for the trade without extra 
 charge. 
 
 The blood was formerly collected in large casks, and dis- 
 posed of for manufacturing purposes. This necessitated 
 the storage of it for several days, causing in warm weather 
 a very offensive effluvium. It even happened at times, 
 when there was little demand for the commodity, that 
 the blood had to be sent down the drain3. All nuisance 
 is now avoided, and the amount received annually for 
 the blood has. risen from between £200 and £450 to 
 from £800 to £1200, by a contract into which Messrs 
 Smith and Forrest of Manchester have entered with 
 the city authorities, to take over the whole blood at 
 a fixed price per beast. They have erected extensive 
 premises and apparatus at their own cost, for extracting 
 from the blood the albumen, for which there is great 
 demand in calico-printing, and for converting the clot into 
 manure. 
 
 In connection with the establishment is a boiling-house, 
 where all meat unfit for human food is boiled down and 
 destroyed. Tho number of carcases seized by the inspec- 
 tor, and sent to the boHing-honse, during the 5£ years 
 ending with the close of 1872, amounted to 1449, giving 
 a weight of upwards of 400,000 pounds. 
 
 Before the erection of these buildings, private slaughter- 
 houses were scattered all over the city, often in the most 
 populous districts, where, through want of drainage and 
 imperfect ventilation, they contaminated the whole neigh- 
 bourhood. Since the opening of the public abattoir, all 
 private slaughtering, in the city or within a mile of it, is 
 strictly prohibited. 
 
 Few of the provincial towns in Great Britain have as yet 
 followed the example of London and Edinburgh. In some 
 instances improvements on the old system have been 
 adopted, but Great Britain is still not only far behind her 
 foreign neighbours in respect of abattoirs, but has even 
 been excelled by some of her own dependencies. In 
 America abattoirs are numerous, and at Calcutta and other 
 towns in British India, the meat markets present a very 
 creditable appearance from their cleanliness and systematio 
 arrangement. (c. N. B.) 
 
 ABAUZIT,' Fiesiin, a learned Frenchman, was born 
 ut Protestant parents at Uzes, in Langnedoc, in 1679. 
 His Zither, who was of Arabian descent, died when he 
 was but two years of age ; and when, on the revocation 
 of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, the authorities took steps 
 to have him educated in the Eoman Catholic faith, his 
 mother contrived his escape. For two years his brother 
 and he lived as fugitives in the mountains of the Cevennos, 
 but they at last reached Geneva, where their mother after- 
 wards joined them on escaping from the imprisonment in 
 which sho was held from the time of their flight. Abauzit's 
 youth was spent in diligent study, and at an early age he 
 acquired great proficiency in languages, physics, and 
 theology. In 1698 ho travelled into Holland, and there 
 became acquainted with Bayle, Jurieu, and Basnage. 
 Proceeding to England, he was introduced to Sir Isaao 
 Newton, who found in him one of the earliest defenders 
 of the great truths his discoveries disclosed to the world.
 
 A B B — A B B 
 
 Sir Isaac corrected in the second edition of his Principia an 
 error pointed out by Abauzit. The high estimate Newton 
 entertained of his merits appears from the compliment 
 he paid to Abauzit, when, sending him the Commercium 
 Epistolicum, he said, "You are well worthy to judge 
 between Leibnitz and me." The reputation of Abauzit 
 induced .William III. to request him to settle in England, 
 but he did not accept the king's offer, preferring to return 
 to Geneva. There from 1 7 1 5 he rendered valuable assistance 
 to a society that had been formed for translating the New 
 Testament into French. Ho declined the offer of the 
 chair of philosophy in the University in 1723, but ac- 
 cepted, in 1727, the sinecure office of librarian to the city 
 Df his adoption. Here he died at a good old age, in 17G7. 
 Abauzit was a man of great learning and of wonderful 
 versatility. The varied knowledge he possessed was so 
 well digested and arranged in his retentive mind as to be 
 always within 'his reach for immediate use. Whatever 
 chanced to be discussed, it used to be said of Abauzit, as 
 of Professor Whewell of our own times, that he seemed to 
 have mide it a subject of particular study. Rousseau, 
 who was jealously sparing of his praises, addressed to 
 him, in his Nouvelle Beloise, a fine panegyric ; and when a 
 stranger flatteringly told Voltaire he had come to see a great 
 man, the philosopher asked him if he had seen Abauzit. 
 Little remains of the labours of this intellectual giant, his 
 heirs having, it is said, destroyed the papers that came into 
 their possession, because their religious opinions differed 
 from those of Abauzit. A few theological, archaeological, 
 and astronomical articles from his pen appeared in the 
 Journal Helvetique and elsewhere, and he contributed 
 several papers to Rousseau's Dictionary of Music. A 
 work he wrote throwing doubt on the canonical authority 
 of the Apocalypse was answered — conclusively, as Abauzit 
 himself allowed — by Dr Leonard Twells. He edited, and 
 made valuable additions to Spon's History of Geneva. A 
 collection of his writings was published at Geneva in 
 1770, and another at London in 1773. Some of them 
 were translated into English by Dr Harwood (1770, 1774). 
 Information regarding Abauzit will be found in Senebier's 
 flistoireLittSraire de Geneve, Harwood's Miscellanies, and 
 Orme's Biblloiheea Biblica, 1834. 
 
 ABB, a town of Yemen in Arabia, situated on a moun- 
 tain in the midst of a very fertile country, 73 miles N.E. 
 of Mocha. Lat. 13° 58' N, long. 44° 15' E. It contains 
 about 800 houses, and is surrounded by a strong wall ; 
 the streets are well paved ; and an aqueduct from a neigh- 
 bouring mountain supplies it with water, which is received 
 in a reservoir in front of the principal mosque. The 
 population is about 5000. 
 
 ABBADIE, James, an eminent Protestant divine, 
 was born at Nay in Bern about 1657. His parents 
 were poor, but through the kindness of discerning friends, 
 he received an excellent education. He prosecuted his 
 studies with such success, that on completing his course 
 at Sedan, though only seventeen year." of age, he had con-' 
 ferred on him the degree of doctor in theology. After 
 spending some years in Berlin as minister of a French 
 Protestant church, ho accompanied Marshal Schomberg, 
 in 1688, to England, and became minister of the French 
 church in the Savoy, London. His strong attachment to 
 the cause of King William appears in his elaborate 
 defence of the Revolution, as well as in his history of 
 the conspiracy of 1696, the materials of which werot. 
 furnished, it is said, by the secretaries of state. The 
 king promoted him to the deanery of Killaloe in Ireland. 
 He died in London in 1727. Abbadie wa3 a man of 
 great ability and an eloquent prcach-r, but is best known 
 by his religious treatises, several of which were translated 
 from the original French into other languages and had a 
 
 wide circulation all over Europe. The most important 
 these are Traiti de la Feriii de la Religion Chrhiemu 
 its continuation, Traiti de la Divinite de Jtsus-Chnst 
 and L' Art de se connaitre Sownhne. 
 
 ABBAS L, suxnamed THo Great, one of the mot 
 celebrated of tho sovereigns of Persia, was the youngc; 
 son of Shah Mohammed Khodabendeh. After heading 
 successful rebellion against his father, and causing one c 
 his brothers (or, as some say, both) to be assassinated, h 
 obtained possession of tho throne at the early ago o 
 eighteen (1585). Determined to raiso the fallen fortune, 
 of his country, ho first directed his efforts against tin 
 predatory Uzbeks, who occupied and harassed Khorasan 
 After a long and severe struggle, he defeated them in £ 
 great battle near Herat (1597), and drove them cut of hi.< 
 dominions. In tho wars he carried on with the Turk*- 
 during nearly the whole of his reign, his successes were 
 numerous, and he acquired or regained a large extent of 
 territory. By the victory he gained at Bassorah (1605)', 
 he extended his empire beyond the Euphrates ; Achmcd L 
 was forced to cede Shirwan and Kurdistan in 1611 ; the, 
 united armies of the Turks and Tartars were completely 
 defeated near Sultanieh in 1618, and Abbas made peace 
 on very favourable terms; and on the Turks renewing the war, 
 Baghdad fell into his hands after a year's siege (1623). 
 In the same year he took the island of Ormuz from the 
 Portuguese, by the assistance of the British. When he died 
 in 1 G28, his dominions reached from the Tigris to the Indus. 
 Abbas distinguished himself, not only by his successes 
 in arms, and by the magnificence of his court, but also by 
 his reforms in the administration of his kingdom. He 
 encouraged commerce, and, by constructing highways and 
 building bridges, did much to facilitate it. To foreigners, 
 especially Christians, he showed a spirit of tolerance ; two 
 Englishmen, Sir Anthony and Sir Robert Shirley, were 
 admitted to his confidence, and seem to have had much 
 influence over him. His fame is tarnished, however, by 
 numerous deeds of tyranny and cruelty. His own family, 
 especially, suffered from his fits of jealousy ; his eldest son 
 was slain, and the eyes of his other children were put out, 
 by his orders. 
 
 ABBAS MTRZA (6. 1785, d. 1833), Prince of Persia, 
 third son of the Shah Feth Ali, was destined by his father 
 to succeed him in the government, because of bis mother's 
 connection with the royal tribe of the Khadjars. He led 
 various expeditions against the Russians, but generally 
 without success (1803, 1813, 1826). By a treaty made 
 between Russia and Persia in 1828, the right of Abbas 
 to the succession was recognised. When the Russian 
 deputies were murdered by the Persian populace in 1829, 
 Abbas was sent to St Petersburg, where he received a 
 hearty welcome from the Czar, and made himself a 
 favourite by his courtesy and literary tasre. He formed a 
 design against Herat, but died shortly after the siege had 
 been opened by his son, who succeeded Feth Ali a3 the 
 Shah Mohammed Mirza. He was truthful — a rare quality 
 in an Eastern — plain in dress and style of living, and fond 
 of literature. 
 
 ABBAS9IDES, the caliphs of Bagndad, the most 
 famous dynasty of the sovereigns of the Mahometan or 
 Saracen empire. They derived their name and descent 
 from Abbas (b. 566, d. 652 A.D.), tho uncle and adviser of 
 Mahomet, and succeeded the dynasty of the Ommiads, th< 
 caliphs of Damascus. Early in the 8th century the 
 family bi . Abbas had acquired greai influence from their 
 near relationship to the Prophet ; and Bora h i m, the fourth 
 in descent from Abbas, supported by tho province of 
 Khorasan, obtained several successes over the Ommiad 
 armies, but was captured and put to death^by the Caliph 
 Merwan (747). Ibrahim's brother. Abul-Abbas, whom h<:
 
 A B B- A B B 
 
 9 
 
 had named his heir, assumed the title of caliph, and, by a, 
 Jecisive victory near the river Zab (750), effected the over- 
 throw of the Ommiad dynasty. Merwan fled to Egypt, 
 but was pursued and put to death, and the vanquished 
 family was treated with a severity which gained for Abul- 
 A.bbas the- surname of Al-Saffah, the Blood-shedder. 
 From this time the house of Abbas was fully established 
 \p. the government, but the Spanish provinces were lost to 
 flie empire by the erection of an* independent caliphate of 
 Cordova, under Abderrahman. 
 
 On the death of Abul-Abbas,'Alm*ansur succeeded to 
 (he throne, and founded Baghdad as the seat of empire, 
 fie and his son Mohdi waged war successfully against the 
 "Turkomans and Greeks of Asia Minor; but from this time 
 |ie rule of the Abbassides is marked rather by the 
 development of the liberal arts than by extension of 
 territory. The strictness of the Mohammedan religion was 
 relaxed, and the faithful yielded to the seductions of luxury. 
 The caliphs Harun Al-Rashid (786-809) and Al-Mamun 
 (813-833) attained a world-wide celebrity by their gorgeous 
 palaces, their vast treasures, and their brilliant and nume- 
 rous equipages, in all which their splendour contrasted 
 strikingly with the poverty of European sovereigns. The 
 former is known as one of the heroes of the Arabian 
 Wights ; the latter more worthily still as a liberal patron 
 [»f literature and science. It is a mistake, however, to 
 look in the rule of these caliphs for the lenity of modern 
 civilisation. "No Christian government," says Hallam, 
 " except perhaps that of Constantinople, exhibits such a 
 series of tyrants as the caliphs of Baghdad, if deeds of 
 blood, wrought through unbridled passion or jealous 
 policy, may challenge the name of tyranny." 
 
 The territory of the Abbassides soon suffered dismem- 
 berment, and their power began to decay. Bival sove- 
 reignties (Ashlabites, Edrisites, &c.) arose in Africa, and 
 an independent government was constituted in Khorasan 
 (820), under the Taherites. In the "West, again, the Greeks 
 encroached upon the possessions of the Saracens in Asia 
 Minor. Ruin, however, came from a less civilised race. The 
 caliphs had continually been waging war with the Tartar 
 hordes of Turkestan, and many captives taken in these wars 
 were dispersed throughout the empire. Attracted by their 
 bravery and fearing rebellion among his subjects, Motassem 
 (833-842), the founder of Samarah, and successful oppo- 
 nent of the Grecian forces under Theophilus, formed body- 
 guards of the Turkish prisoners, who became from that 
 time the real governors of the Saracen empire. Mota- 
 wakkel, son of Motassem, was assassinated by them in the 
 palace (861) ; and succeeding caliphs became mere puppets 
 in their hands. Kadhi (934-941) was compelled by the 
 disorganised condition of his kingdom to- delegate to 
 Mohammed ben Rayek (93S A.D.), tinder the title of Emir- 
 al-Omara, commander of the commanders, the government 
 of the army and the other functions of the caliphate. 
 Province after province proclaimed itself independent ; 
 the caliph's rule became narrowed to Baghdad and its 
 vicinity ; and the house of Abbas lost its power in the 
 East for ever, when Hulagu. prince of the Mongols, Bet 
 Baghdad on fire, and slew Motassem, the reigning caliph 
 (20th Feb. 1258). The Abbassides continued to hold a 
 semblance of power in the merely nominal caliphate of 
 Egypt, and feebly attempted to recover their ancient seat. 
 The last of them, Motawakkel HE., was taken by Sultan 
 Selim I., the conqueror of Egypt, to Constantinople, and 
 detained there, for some time as a prisoner. He afterwards 
 returned"to Egypt, and died at Cairo a pensionary of the 
 Ottoman government, in 1638. 
 
 ABBE is the French word corresponding to Abbot, but, 
 from the middle of the sixteenth century to the time of 
 the French Revolution, the term had a wider application. 
 
 The assumption by a numerous class of the name and 
 style of abbe appears to have originated in the right con- 
 ceded to the King of France, by a concordat between Pope 
 Leo X. and Francis I., to appoint abbes commendataires to 
 225 abbeys, that is, to most of the abbeys in France. 
 This kind of appointment, whereby the living was 'com- 
 mended to some one till a proper election could take 
 place, though ostensibly provisional, really put the nomi' 
 nee in full and permanent possession of the benefice. 
 He received about one-third of the revenues of the abbey; 
 but had no share in its government, the charge of the 1 
 house being intrusted to a resident officer, the prieul 
 daustral. The abbes commendataires were not necessarily 
 priests ; the papal bull required indeed that they should 
 take orders within a stated time after their appointment-, 
 but there seems to have been no difficulty in procuring 
 relief from that obligation. The expectation of obtaining 
 these sinecvires drew young men towards the Church in 
 considerable numbers, and the class of abbes so formed — 
 abbes de cour' they were sometimes called, and sometimes 
 (ironically) abbes de sainte esperance, abbds of St Hope — 
 came to hold a recognised position, that perhaps proved as 
 great an attraction as the hope of preferment. The con- 
 nection many of them had with the Church was of the 
 slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting the name 
 of abbcS, after a remarkably moderate course of theo- 
 logical study ; practising celibacy ; and wearing a distinc- 
 tive dress — a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar. 
 Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, 
 many of the class found admission to the houses of the 
 French,nobility as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great 
 family had its abbe\ As might be imagined from the 
 objectless sort of life the class led, many of the abbe's were 
 of indifferent character ; but there are not a few instances 
 of abbes attaining eminence, both in political life and in 
 the walks of literature and science. The Abbe Sieye» may 
 be taken as a prominent example of the latter type. 
 
 ABBEOKUTA, or Abeokuta, a town of West Africa 
 in the Toruba Country, 'situated in N. lat. 7° 8', and 
 E. long. 3' 25', on the Ogun River, about 50 miles north 
 of Lagos, in a direct line, or 81 miles by water. It lies 
 in a beautiful and fertile country, the surface of which is 
 broken by masses of grey granite. Like most African 
 towns, Abbeokuta is spread over an extensive area, being 
 surrounded by mud walls, 18 miles in extent. The houses 
 are also of mud, and the streets mostly narrow and 
 filthy. There are numerous markets in which native pro- 
 ducts and articles of European manufacture are exposed 
 for sale. Palm-oil and shea-butter are the chief articles of 
 export, and it is expected that the cotton of the country 
 will become a valuable article of commerce. The slave 
 trade and human sacrifices have been abolished ; but not- 
 withstanding the efforts of English and American mission- 
 aries, the natives are still idle and degraded. The state 
 called Egbaland, of which Abbeokuta is the capital, 
 has an area of about 3000 square miles. Its progress has 
 been much hindered by frequent wars with the king of 
 Dahomey. Population of the town, about 150,000; of the 
 state or adjacent territory, 50,000. (See Burton's Abbeo- 
 kuta and the Cameroon Mountains, 2 vols.) 
 
 ABBESS, the female superior of an abbey or convent 
 of nuns. ■" The mode of election, position, rights, .and 
 authority of- an abbess, correspond generally with those 
 of an abbot. ' The office was elective, the choice being by 
 the secret votes of the sisters from their own body. The 
 abbess was* solemnly admitted to her office by episcopal 
 benediction, "together with the conferring of a staff and 
 pectoral, and held it for life, though liable to be deprived 
 for misconduct. The Council of Trent fixes the qualifying 
 age at forty, with eight years of profession. Abbesses had
 
 10 
 
 A B B^ A B B 
 
 a right to demand absolute obedience of their nuns, over 
 whom they exercised discipline, extending even to the 
 power of expulsion, subject, however, to the bishop. As 
 a female an abbess was iscapable of performing the 
 spiritual functions of the priesthood belonging to an 
 abbot. She could not ordain, confer the veil, nor excom- 
 municate. In the eighth century abbesses were censured 
 for usurping priestly powers by presuming to give the 
 veil to virgins, and to confer benediction and imposition 
 of hands on men. In England they attended ecclesiastical 
 councils, e.g. that of Becanfield in 694, where they signed 
 before the presbyters. 
 
 By Celtic usage abbesses presided over joint-houses of 
 monks and nuns. This custom accompanied Celtic mon- 
 astic missions to France and- Spain, and even to Rome 
 itself. At a later period, a.d. 1115, Robert, the founder 
 of Fontevraud, committed the government of the whole 
 order, men as well as women, to a female superior. 
 
 Martene asserts that abbesses formerly confessed nuns, 
 but that their undue inquisitiveness rendered it necessary 
 to forbid the practice. 
 
 The dress of an English abbess of the 12th century 
 consisted of a long white tunic with close sleeves, and a 
 black overcoat as long as the tunic, with large and loose 
 sleeves, the hood covering the head completely. The 
 abbesses of the 14th and 15th centuries had adopted 
 secular habits, and there was little to distinguish them 
 from their lay sisters. (z. V.) 
 
 ABBEVILLE, a city of France, in the department of 
 the Somme, is situated on the River Somme, 12 miles 
 from its mouth in the English Channel, and 25 miles 
 N.W. of Amiens. It lies in a pleasant and fertile valley, 
 and is built partly on an island, and partly on both sides 
 of the river. The streets are narrow, and the houses are 
 mostly picturesque old structures, built of wood, with 
 many quaint decaying gables and dark archways. The 
 town is strongly fortified on Vauban's system. It has a 
 tribunal and chamber of commerce. The most remarkable 
 edifice is the Church of St Wolfran, which was erected in 
 the time of Louis XII. Although the original design was 
 not completed, enough was built to give a good idea of 
 the splendid structure it was intended to erect. The 
 facade is a magnificent specimen of the flamboyant Gothic 
 style, and is adorned by rich tracery, while the western 
 front is flanked by two Gothic towers. A cloth manufac- 
 tory was established here by Van Robais, a Dutchman, 
 under the patronage of the minister Colbert, as early as 
 1669 ; and since that time Abbeville has continued to be 
 one of the most thriving manufacturing towns in France. 
 Besides black cloths of the best quality, there are produced 
 velvets, cottons, linens, serges, sackings, hosiery, pack- 
 thread, jewellery, soap, and glass-wares. It has also 
 establishments for spinning wool, print-works, bleaching- 
 works, tanneries, a paper manufactory, &c. ; and being 
 situated in the centre of a populous district, it has a con- 
 siderable trade with the surrounding country. Vessels of 
 from 200 to 300 tons come up to the town at high-water. 
 Abbeville is a station on the Northern Railway, and is also 
 connected with Paris and Belgium by canals. Fossil 
 remains of gigantic mammalia now extinct, as well as the 
 rude flint weapons of pre-historic man, have been dis- 
 covered in the geological deposits of the neighbourhood. 
 A treaty was concluded here in 1259 between Henry 
 HI. of England and Louis IX. of France, by which the 
 province of Guienne was ceded to the English. Popula- 
 tion, 20,058. 
 
 ABBEY, a monastery, or conventual establishment, 
 tnder the government of an abbot or an abbess. A 
 priory only differed from an abbey in that the .superior 
 Uore the name of vrior instead of abbot. This was the 
 
 .case in all the English conventual cathedrals, e.g., Cant*» 
 bury, Ely, Norwich, <fec, where the archbishop ox bishop 
 occupied the abbot's place, the suDerior of ta» monastery 
 being termed prior. Other priories were originally off- 
 shoots from the larger abbeys, to the abbots of which they 
 continued subordinate ; but in later times the actual dia 
 tinction between abbeys and priories was lost. 
 
 Reserving for the article Monasticism the history of the 
 rise and progress of the monastic system, its objects, benefits, 
 evils, its decline and fall, we propose in this article to con- 
 fine ourselves to the structural plan and arrangement of 
 conventual establishments, and a description of the varivuj 
 buildings of which these vast piles were composed. 
 
 The earliest Christian monastic communities with which 
 we are acquainted consisted of groups of cells or huts 
 collected . about a common centre, which was usually the 
 abode of some anchorite celebrated for superior holiness or 
 singular asceticism, but without any attempt at orderly 
 arrangement. Tha formation of such communities in the 
 East does not date from the introduction of Christianity. 
 The example had been already set by the Essenes in Judea 
 and the Therapeutae in Egypt, who may be considered the 
 prototypes of the industrial and meditative communities of 
 monks. 
 
 In the earliest age of Christian monasticism the ascetics 
 were accustomed to live singly, independent of one another, 
 at no great distance from some village, supporting them- 
 selves by the labour of their own hands, and distributing 
 the surplus after the supply of their own scanty wants to 
 the poor. Increasing religious fervour, aided by persecu- 
 tion, drove them further and further away from the abodes 
 of men into mountain solitudes or lonely deserts. The 
 deserts of Egypt swarmed with the cells or huts of these 
 anchorites. Antony, who had retired to the Egyptian 
 Thebaid during the persecution of Maximin, A.D. 312, was 
 the most celebrated among them for his austerities, hi» 
 sanctity, and his power as an exorcist. His fame collected 
 round him a host of followers, emulous of his sanctity. 
 The deeper he withdrew into the wilderness, the more 
 numerous his disciples became. They refused to be sepa- 
 rated from him, and built their cells round that of their 
 spiritual father. Thus arose the first monastic community, 
 consisting of anchorites living each in his own little dwell- 
 ing, united together under one superior. Antony, as 
 Neander remarks (Church History, voL iii. p. 316, Clark's 
 Trans.), "without any conscious design of his own, had 
 become the founder of a new mode of living in common, 
 Coenobitism." By degrees order was introduced in tha 
 groups of huts. They were arranged in lines like the tenta 
 in an encampment, or the houses in a street. From this 
 arrangement these lines of single cells came to be knowD 
 as Laura, Aavpai, " streets " or " lanes." 
 
 The real founder of ccenobian monasteries in the modern 
 sense was Pachomius, an Egyptian of the beginning of the 
 4th. century. The first community established by him was 
 at Tabennse, an island of the Nile in Upper Egypt. Eight 
 others were founded in his lifetime, numbering 3000 monks. 
 Within 50 years from his death his societies could reckon 
 50,000 members. These ccenobia resembled villages, peopled 
 by a hard-working religious community, all of one sex. 
 The buildings were detached, small, and of the humblest 
 character. Each cell or hut, according to Sozomen (H. E. 
 iii 14), contained three monks. They took their chief 
 meal in a common refectory at 3 p.m., up to which hour 
 they usually fasted. They* ate in silence, with hoods so 
 drawn over their faces that they could see nothing but what 
 was on the table before them. The monks spent all the 
 time, not devoted to religious services or study, in manual 
 labour. Palladius, who visited the Egyptian monasteries- 
 r.bout the close of the 4th century, found among the 300
 
 ABBEY 
 
 II 
 
 Santa 
 Laura, 
 
 members of the Coenooium of Panopolis, under the 
 Pacbomian rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4 carpenters, 12 
 camel-drivers, and 15 tanners. Each separate community 
 had its own ceconomus, or steward, who was subject to 
 a chief ceconomus stationed at the head establishment. All 
 the produce of the monks' labour was committed to him, 
 and by him shipped to Alexandria. The money raised by 
 the sale was expended in the purchase of stores for the 
 support of the communities, and what was over was devoted 
 to charity. Twice in the year the superiors of the several 
 ccenobia met at the chief monastery, under the presidency 
 of an Archimandrite (" the chief of the fold," from fjavSpa, a 
 fold), and at the last meeting gave in reports of their 
 administration for the year. 
 
 The ccenobia of Syria belonged to the Pachomian institu- 
 tion. We learn many details concerning those in the 
 vicinity of Antioch from Chrysostom's writings. The 
 monks lived in separate huts, Ka\vf3ai, forming a religious 
 hamlet on the mountain side. They were subject to an 
 abbot, and observed a common rule. (They had no refec- 
 tory, but ate their common meal, of bread and water only, 
 when the day's labour was over, reclining on strewn grass, 
 sometimes out of doors.) Four times in the day they 
 joined in prayers and psalms. 
 
 The necessity for defence from hostile attacks, economy 
 of space, and convenience of access from one part of the 
 community to another, by degrees dictated a more compact 
 and orderly arrangement of the buildings of a monastic 
 coenobium. Large piles of building were erected, with 
 strong outside walls, capable of resisting the assaults of an 
 enemy, within which all the necessary edifices were ranged 
 round one or more open courts, usually surrounded with 
 cloisters. The usual Eastern arrangement is exemplified 
 in the plan of the convent of Santa Laura, Mt Athos 
 (Laura, the designation of a monastery generally, being 
 
 Athos. converte( j j n t a f ema i e saint). 
 
 A Gateway. 
 
 B. Chapels. 
 
 C. Guest-house. 
 
 D. Church. 
 
 E. Clois-.er. 
 
 F. Fountain. 
 
 G. Refectory 
 H. Kitchen. 
 I. Cells. 
 
 K. Storehouses. 
 L. Postern Gate 
 M. Tonrer. 
 
 Monastery of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Lenoir). 
 
 _„,This monastery, like the Oriental monasteries generally 
 is surrounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall, 
 enclosing, an area -of between 3 and 4 acres. The longer 
 side extends to a length of about 500 feet. - There is only 
 one mam entrance, on the north side (A), defended by 
 three separate iron doors. ■■ Near the entrance is a large 
 tower (M), a constant feature in the monasteries of the 
 Levant. .There is a small postern gate at (L.) The 
 
 enceinte comprises two lar^e open courts, iurroundeel with 
 buildings connected with cloister galleries of wood or ston?. 
 The outer court, which is much the larger, contains tha 
 granaries and storehouses (K), and the kitchen (H), and 
 other offices connected with the refectory (G). Imme- 
 diately adjacent to the gateway is a two-storeyed guest- 
 house, opening from a cloister (C). The inner court is 
 surrounded by a cloister (EE), from which open the monks* 
 cells (II). In the centre of this court stands the catholicoa 
 or conventual church, a square building with an apse of 
 the cruciform domical Byzantine type, approached by a 
 domed narthex. In front of the church stands a marble 
 fountain (F), covered by a dome supported on columns. 
 Opening from the western side of the cloister, but actually 
 standing in the outer court, is the refectory (G), a large 
 cruciform building, about 100 feet, each way, decorated 
 within with frescoes of saints. At the upper end is a semi- 
 circular recess, recalling the Triclinium of the Laterau 
 Palace at Rome, in which is placed the seat of the Hegu- 
 menos or abbot. This apartment is chiefly used as a hall 
 of meeting, the Oriental monks usually taking their meals 
 in their separate cells. St Laura is exceeded in magnitude 
 by the Convent of Vatopede, also on Mount Athos. This 
 enormous establishment covers at least 4 acres of ground, 
 and contains so many separate buildings within its massive 
 walls that it resembles a fortified town. It lodges above 
 300 monks, and the establishment of the Hegumenos is 
 described as resembling the court of a petty sovereign 
 prince. The immense refectory, of the same cruciform 
 shape as that of St Laura, will accommodate 500 guests at 
 its 24 marble tables. 
 
 The annexed plan of a Coptic monastery, from Lenoir 
 shows us a church of three 
 aisles, with cellular apses, and 
 two ranges of cells on either 
 side of an oblong gallery. 
 
 Monasticism in the West 
 owes its extension and de- 
 velopment to Benedict of 
 Nursia (born a.d. 480). His 
 rule was diffused with miracul- 
 ous rapidity from the parent 
 foundation on Monte Cassino 
 through the whole of Western 
 Europe, and every country wit- 
 nessed the erection of monas- 
 teries far exceeding anything £• qJJJ^J"' 
 that had yet been seen in spaci- c corridor, with cells on each aids, 
 ousness and splendour. Few D - Stalrc '' se - 
 great towns in Italy were without their Benedictine convent, 
 and they quickly rose in all the great centres of population in 
 England, France, and Spain. The number of these monas- 
 teries founded between a.d. 520 and 700 is amazing. 
 Before the Council of Constance, a.d. 1415, no fewer than 
 15,070 abbeys had been established of this order alone. 
 The Benedictine rule, spreading with the vigour of a young 
 and powerful life, absorbed into itself the older monastic 
 foundations, whose discipline had too usually become dis- 
 gracefully relaxed. In the words of Milman (Latin 
 Christianity, -vol. L p. 425, note x.), " The Benedictine 
 ride was universally received, even in the older monas- 
 teries of Gaul, Britain, Spain, and throughout the West, 
 not as that of a rival order (all rivalry was of later 
 date), but as a more full and perfect rule of the monas- 
 tic life." Not only, therefore, were new monasteries 
 founded, but those already existing were pulled down, 
 and rebuilt to adapt them to the requirements of the 
 new rule. 
 
 The buildings of a Benedictine abbey were unifornuy 
 arranged after ono plan, modified where necessary (as at 
 
 Plan of Coptic Monastery.
 
 12 
 
 ABBEY 
 
 Durham and Worcester, where the monasteries stand close 
 to the steep bank of a river), to accommodate the arrange- 
 ment to local circumstances. 
 
 Wo have no existing examples of the earlier monasteries 
 of the Benedictine order. They have all yielded to tho 
 ravages of tinio and the violence of man. But we have 
 fortunately preserved to us an elaborate plan of the great 
 Swiss monastery of St Gall, erected about a.d. 820, which 
 puts us in possession of the whole arrangements of a 
 monastery of the first class towards the early part of the 
 Bth century. This curious and interesting plan has been 
 made the subject of a memoir both by Keller (Zurich, 
 1844) and by Professor Willis (Arch. Journal, 1848, vol. 
 ?. pp. 86-117). To the latter we are indebted for the 
 
 ■J-.U. 
 
 1 
 -|-b K 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 T3 mra 
 
 Church. 
 i Blga Ahar. 
 B A 'tar of St Paul. 
 C Altar of St Peter. 
 D. Nave. 
 C Paradise. 
 rr. Towers. 
 
 Monastic Bcildimoa 
 G. Cloister. 
 
 H. Calefactory, with Dormitory ov«r 
 L Necessary. 
 J. Abbot's house. 
 K. Refectory. 
 U Kitchen. 
 
 M. Bakehouse and Brcwhouse. 
 N. Cellar. 
 0. Parlour. 
 
 Pi Scriptorium, with Library over. 
 V 2 - Sacristy and Vestry. 
 «J. House of Novices— 1. Chapel; 1. 
 
 Refectory; 3. Calefactory; 4. 
 
 Dormitory ; 5. Master's Boom ; 
 
 6. Chambers, 
 ft. Infirmary — 1-fl as above ID the 
 
 House of Novices. 
 B. Doctor's House. 
 T. Phyalc Garden. 
 
 Gntruad-plan of St Gnu. 
 
 D. House for blood-lalilr*. 
 
 V. School. 
 
 W Schoolmaster's Lodgings. 
 
 X 1 X 1 . Guest-house for those of 
 
 superior rank. 
 XjX^. Guest-house for the poor. 
 Y. Guest-chamber for strange monks. 
 
 Menial Detultkent. 
 Z. Factory. 
 a. Threshing-floor. 
 4 Workshops. 
 c,c MlUa, 
 4 Kiln. 
 
 e. Stables. 
 
 f. Cowsheds. 
 q. Qoatsheda. 
 
 A. ?lg-stlea. i. Sheep-folds. 
 
 *, i, k. Servants' and workmen's 
 
 sleeping- chjAbara. 
 I Gardener's house. 
 m, m. Hen and Duck house, 
 n. Poultry-keeper's bouse, 
 o. Gardea. 
 ■. CemeUry. 
 
 q. Bakehouse for Sacramental Bread 
 r. Unnamed in Plan. 
 s. s.s. Kitchens. 
 f, (, (. Baths. 
 
 substance of the following description, as well as for the 
 above woodcut, reduced from his elucidated transcript of 
 
 |_BENEPICTINE. 
 
 the original preserved in the arcliives of the convent. 
 The general appearance of the convent is that of a town of 
 isolated houses with streets running between them. It is 
 evidently planned in compliance with tho Benedictine rule, 
 whichelijoined that) if possible, themonastery should contain 
 within itself every necessary of life, as well as the build- 
 ings more intimately connected with the religious and 
 social life of its inmates. Tt should comprise a mill, a 
 bakehouse, stables and cow-houses, together with accom- 
 modation for carrying on all necessary mechanical arts 
 within tho walls, so as to obviate the necessity of tke 
 monks going outside its limits. Tho general distributiom 
 of tho buildings may be thus described : — The church, 
 with its cloister to the south, occupies the centre of a 
 quadrangular area, about 430 feet square. The build- 
 ings, as in all great monasteries, are distributed into 
 groups. The church forms the nucleus, as the centre of 
 the religious life of the community. In closest connec ; 
 tion with the church is the group of buildings appropriated 
 to the monastic life and its daily requirements — the refec- 
 tory for eating, the dormitory for sleeping, the common 
 room for social intercourse, the chapter-house for religious 
 and disciplinary conference. These essential elements of 
 monastic life are ranged about a cloister court, surrounded 
 by a covered arcade, affording communication sheltered from 
 the elements, between the various buildings. The infirmary 
 for sick monks, with tho physician's house and physic gar- 
 den, lies to the east. In the same group with the infirmary 
 is the school for the novices. The outer school, with its 
 head-master's house against the opposite wall of the church, 
 stands outside the convent enclosure, in close proximity 
 to the abbot's house, that ho might have a constant eye 
 over them. The buildings devoted to hospitality aro divided 
 into three groups, — one for the reception of distinguished 
 guests, another for monks visiting the monastery, a third 
 for poor travellers and pilgrims. The first and third are 
 placed to the right and left of the common entrance of the 
 monastery, — the hospitium for distinguished guests being 
 placed on the north side of the church, not far from tho ab- 
 bot's house; that for the poor on the south sido next to the 
 farm buildings. The monks are lodged in a guest-house 
 "built against the north wall of the church. The group o) 
 buildings connected with the material wants of the esta- 
 blishment is placed to the south and west of the church, 
 and is distinctly separated from the monastic buildings. 
 The kitchen, buttery, and offices, are reached by a passage 
 from the west end of the refectory, and are connected witi 
 the bakehouse and brewhouse, which are placed still fur- 
 ther away. The whole of the southern and western side* 
 is devoted to workshops, stables, and. farm -buildings. The 
 buildings, with some exceptions, seem to have been of one 
 story only, and all but the church were probably erected 
 of wood. The whole includes thirty-three" separate blocks. 
 The church (D) is cruciform, with a nave of nine bays, and 
 a semicircular apse at either extremity. That to the west 
 is surrounded by a semicircular colonnade, leaving an open 
 " Paradise" (E) between it and the wall of the church. 
 The whole area is divided by screens into various chapels. 
 The high altar (A) stands immediately to the east of the 
 transept, or ritual choir; the altar of St Paul (B) in the 
 eastern, and that of St Peter (C) in the western apse. A 
 cylindrical campanile stands detached from the church or 
 either side of the western apse (FF). 
 
 The "cloister court" (G) on the south side of the na» 
 of the church has on its east side the " pisalis" or " calefac- 
 tory" (H),the common sitting-room of the brethren, warmer/ 
 by flues beneath the floor. On this .side in later monas 
 teries we invariably find the chapter-house, the absence ot 
 which in this plan is somewhat surprising. It appears, 
 however from the inscriptions on the plan itself, that tha
 
 BENEDICTINB.J 
 
 ABBEY 
 
 13 
 
 north, walk of the cloisters served for the purposes ot a chap- 
 ter-house, and was fitted up with benches on the long sides. 
 Above the calefactory is the " dormitory" opening into the 
 south transept of the church, to enable the monks to attend 
 the nocturnal services with readiness.' A passage at the 
 other end leads to the "necessarium" (I), a portion of the 
 monastic buildings always planned with extreme care. The 
 southern side is occupied by the "refectory" (K), from the 
 west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen (L) is reached. 
 {Phis is separated from the main buildings of the monastery, 
 find is connected by a long passage with a building cont ain i n g 
 fixa bakehouse and brewhouse (M),* and the sleeping-rooms of 
 the servants. The upper story of the refectory is the "ves- 
 Harium," where the ordinary clothes of the brethren were 
 kept. On the western side of the cloister is another two 
 story building (N). The cellar is below, and the larder and 
 store-room above. Between this building and the church, 
 opening by one door into the cloisters, and by another to the 
 outer part of the monastery area, is the " parlour" for inter- 
 views with visitors from the external world (0). On the 
 eastern side of the north transept is the " scriptorium" 
 •r writing-room (P,), with the library above. 
 
 To the east of the church stands a group of buildings 
 comprising two miniature conventual establishments, each 
 complete in itself. Each has a covered cloister surrounded 
 by the usual buildings, i.e., refectory, dormitory, &c, and 
 a church or chapel on one side, placed back to back. A 
 detached building belonging to each contains a bath and a 
 kitchen. One of these diminutive convents is appropriated 
 to the-,"oblati" or novices (Q), the othei to the sick monks 
 as ah " infirmary " (R). 
 
 The " residence of the physicians" (S) stands contiguous 
 to the infirmary, and the physic garden (T) at the north-east 
 corner of the monastery. Besides other rooms, it contains 
 a drug store, and a chamber for those who are dangerously 
 OL The " house for blood-letting and purging" adjoins it 
 on the west (U). 
 
 The " outer school," to the north of the convent area, con- 
 tains a large school-room divided across the middle by a 
 Bcreen or partition, and surrounded by fourteen little rooms, 
 termed the dwellings of the scholars. The head-master's 
 house (W) is opposite, built against the side wall of the 
 church. The two " hospitia" or "guest-houses" for the 
 entertainment of strangers of different degrees (X t Xj) 
 comprise a large common chamber or refectory in the 
 centre, surrounded by sleeping apartments. Each is pro- 
 vided with its own brewhouse and bakehouse, and that for 
 travellers of a superior order has a kitchen and store-room, 
 with bed-rooms for their servants, and stables for their 
 horses. There is also an " hospitium" for strange monks, 
 abutting on the north wall of the church (Y). 
 
 Beyond the cloister, at the extreme verge of the con- 
 vent area to the south, stands the " factory" (Z), contain- 
 ing workshops for shoemakers, saddlers (or shoemakers, 
 sellarii), cutlers and grinders, trencher-makers, tanners, cur- 
 riers, fullers, smiths, and goldsmiths, with their dwellings 
 in the rear. On this sidg we also find the farm-buildings, 
 the large granary and threshing-floor (a), mills (c), malt- 
 house (d). Facing the west are the stables (e), ox-sheds 
 (/), goat-stables (g), piggeries (k), sheep-folds (i), together 
 with the servants' and labourers' quarters (k). At the south- 
 east corner we find the hen and duck house, and poultry- 
 yard (m), and the dwelling of the keeper (n). Hard by is 
 the kitchen garden (o), the beds bearing the names of the 
 vegetables growing in them, onions, garlic, celery, lettuces, 
 V°PP V > carrots, cabbages, &c, eighteen in all. In the same 
 way the physic garden presents the names of .'the medicinal 
 herbs, and the cemetery (p) those of the trees, apple, pear, 
 plum, quince, &c, planted there. 
 
 It is evident, from this most curious and valuable docu- 
 
 ment, that by the 9tn century monastic establishments 
 had become wealthy, and had acquired considerable import- 
 ance, and were occupying a leading place in education, 
 agriculture, and the industrial arts. The influence such an 
 institution would diffuse through a wide district would be 
 no less beneficial than powerful. 
 
 The curious bird's eye view of Canterbury Cathedral and 
 its annexed conventual buildings, taken about 1165, pre- 
 served in the Great Psalter in the library of Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, as elucidated by Professor Willis with such, 
 admirable skill and accurate acquaintance with the existing 
 remains, 1 exhibits the plan of a great Benedictine monasr 
 tery in the 12th century, and enables us to compare it witty 
 that of the 9th, as seen . at St Gall. We see in both tha 
 same general principles of arrangement, which indeed be) 
 long to all Benedictine monasteries, enabling us to deter* 
 mine with precision the disposition of the various build- 
 ings, when little more than fragments of the walls exist. 
 From some local reasons, however, the cloister and monastic 
 buildings are placed on the north, instead, as is far more 
 commonly the case, on the south of the church. There 
 is also a separate chapter-house, which is wanting at 
 StGalL 
 
 The buildings at Canterbury, as at St Gall, form separate 
 groups. The church forms the nucleus. In immediate con- 
 tact with this, on the north side, lie the cloister and the 
 group of buildings devoted to the monastic, life. Outside 
 of these, to the west and east, are the "halls and chambers 
 devoted to the exercise of hospitality, with which every 
 monastery was provided, for the purpose of receiving as 
 guests persons who visited it, whether clergy or laity, tra- 
 vellers, pilgrims, or paupers." To the north a large open 
 court divides the monastic from the menial buildings, in- 
 tentionally placed as remote as possible from the conven- 
 tual buildings proper, the stables, granaries, barn, bake- 
 house, brewhouse, laundries, &c, inhabited by the lay ser- 
 vants of the establishment. At the greatest possible distance 
 from the church, beyond the precinct of the convent, is 
 the eleemosynary department. The almonry for the relief of 
 the poor, with a great hull annexed, forms the pauper's 
 hospitium. 
 
 The most important group of buildings is naturally that 
 devoted to monastic life. This includes two cloisters, the 
 great cloister surrounded by the buildings essentially con- 
 nected with the daily life of the monks, — the church to the 
 south, the refectory or frater-house here as always on the 
 side opposite to the church, and furthest removed from it, 
 that no sound or smell of eating might penetrate its sacred 
 precincts, to the east the dormitory, raised on a vaulted 
 undercroft, and the chapter-house adjacent, and the lodg- 
 ings of the cellarer to the west. To this officer was com- 
 mitted the provision of the monks' daily food, as well as 
 that of the guests. He was, therefore, appropriately lodged 
 in the immediate vicinity of the refectory and kitchen, and 
 close to the guest-halL A passage under the dormitory 
 leads eastwards to the smaller or infirmary cloister, appro- 
 priated to the sick and infirm monks. Eastward of this 
 cloister extend the hall and chapel of the infirmary, resem- 
 bling in form and arrangement the nave and chancel of an 
 aisled church. Beneath the dormitory, looking out into 
 the green court or herbarium, lies the "pisalis" or "cale- 
 factory," the common room of the monks. At its north- 
 east corner access was given from the dormitory to the 
 necessarium, a portentous edifice in the form of a Norman 
 hall, 1 45 feet long by 25 broad, containing fifty-five seats. It 
 was, in common with all such offices in ancient monasteries, 
 constructed with the most careful regard to cleanliness and 
 
 1 The Architectural History of the Conventual Buildings of A* 
 Monastery of Christ Church in Canterbury. By the Rev. Robert 
 Willis. Printed far the liinl Archseologicsl Society, 1869.
 
 r.4 
 
 ABBEY 
 
 health, a stream of water running through it from end to 
 end. A s*cond smaller dormitory runs from east to west 
 for the acc&mmodation of the conventual officers,, who were 
 bound io sleep in tho dormitory. Close to the refectory, 
 biK. outside the cloisters, are the domestic offices connected 
 with it ; to the north, the kitchen, 47 feet square, sur- 
 mounted by a lofty pyramidal roof, and the kitchen court; 
 to the west, the butteries, pantries, &c. The infirmary had 
 a 3inall kitchen of its own. Opposite the refectory door in 
 the cloister are two lavatories, an invariable adjunct- to a 
 monastic dining-hall, at which tho monks washed before and 
 after taking food. 
 
 The buildings devoted to hospitality were divided into 
 three groups. The prior's group " entered at the south-east 
 angle of the green court, placed uear the most sacred part 
 of the cathedral, as befitting the distinguished ecclesiastics or 
 nobility who were assigned to him." The cellarer's buddings, 
 ■were near the west end of the nave, in which ordinary 
 ■visitors of the middle class were hospitably entertained. 
 •The inferior pilgrims and paupers were relegated to the 
 north hall or almonry, just within the gate, as far as possible 
 ffrom the other two. 
 
 _ Westminster Abbey is another example of a great Bene- 
 dictine abbey, identical in its general arrangements, so far as 
 they can be traced, with those described above. The clois- 
 ter and monastic buildings lie to the south side of the church. 
 Parallel to the nave, on the south side of the cloister, was 
 the refectory, with its lavatory at the door. On the eastern 
 side we find the remains of the dormitory, raised on a 
 vaulted substructure, and communicating with the south 
 transept. The chapter-house opens out of the same alley 
 of the cloister. The small cloister lies to the south-east of 
 the larger cloister, and still farther to the east we have the 
 remains of the infirmary, with the table hall, the refectory 
 of those who were able to leave their chambers. The 
 abbot's house formed a small court-yard at the west 
 entrance, close to the inner gateway. Considerable por- 
 tions of this remain, including the abbot's parlour, cele- 
 brated as " the Jerusalem Chamber," his hall, now used 
 for the Westminster King's scholars, and the kitchen 
 and butteries beyond. . 
 
 St Mary's Abbey, York, of winch the ground-plan is 
 annexed; exhibits the usual Benedictine arrangements. The 
 precincts are surrounded by a strong fortified wall on three 
 sides, the river Ouse being sufficient protection on the 
 fourth side. The entrance was by a strong gateway (U) 
 to the north. Close to the entrance was a chapel, where is 
 now the church of St Olaf (W), in which the new comers paid 
 their devotions immediately on their arrival. Near the 
 gate to the south was the guest's-hall or kospitium (T). 
 The buildings are completely ruined, but enough remains 
 to enable us to identify the grand cruciform church (A), 
 the cloister-court with the chapter-house (B), the refectory 
 (I), the kitchen-court with its offices (K, O, O), and the 
 other principal apartments. The infirmary has perished 
 completely. 
 
 Some Benedictine houses display exceptional arrange- 
 ments, dependent upon local circumstances, e.g., the dormi- 
 tory of Worcester runs from east to west, from the west 
 walk of the cloister, and that of Durham is built over the 
 west, instead of a3 usual, over the east walk ; but, as a 
 general rule, the arrangements deduced from the examples 
 described may be regarded as invariable. 
 
 The history of Monasticism is one of alternate periods 
 of decay and revival. With growth in popular esteem 
 came increase in material wealth, leading to luxury and 
 worldliness. The first religious ardour cooled, the strict- 
 ness of the rule was relaxed, until by the 10th century the 
 deciy of discipline was so complete in France .that the 
 roriDks are said to have been ireguently unacquainted jviih 
 
 {^BENEDICTINE. 
 
 the rule of St Benedict, and even ignorant that they were 
 bound by any rule at all. (Robertson's Church History, 
 ii. p. 538.) These alternations are reflected in the monastic- 
 buildings and the arrangement)! of the establishment. 
 
 coo thai* 
 
 ^A.<w«^ 
 
 ■Cluu-ton'a Motiast'c linlii*. 
 0. Offices 
 P. Cellars. 
 Q. Uncertain 
 
 R. Passage to Abbot's TTonso. 
 S. Passage to Common Ilousa. 
 T. Hospitium. 
 U. Great Gate. 
 V. Porter's Lodge. 
 W. Church of St Olaf. 
 X. Tower. 
 V. Entrance from Bootham 
 
 St Mary's Abbey, York (Beuetlktiue') 
 
 A. Church. 
 
 B. Chapter-house. 
 
 C. Vestibule to do. 
 
 E. Library or Scrlotorlum. 
 
 F. Calefactory. 
 
 G. Necessary. 
 H. Parlour. 
 I. Refectory. 
 
 K. Great Kitchen and Court. 
 L. Cellarer's Office. 
 M. Cellars. 
 N. Passage to Cloister. 
 
 The reformation of these prevalent abuses generally took 
 the form of the establishment of new monastic orders, witb 
 new and more stringent rules, requiring a modification of 
 the architectural arrangements. One of the earliest of 
 these reformed orders was the Cluniac. This order took; 
 its name from the little village of Clugny, 12 miles N.W. 
 of Macon, near which, about A.D. 90U, a reformed Bene, 
 dictine abbey was founded by William, Duke of Auvergnej 
 under Berno, abbot of Beaume. He was succeeded by 
 Odo, who is often regarded as the founder of the order. 
 The fame of Clugny spread far and wide. Its rigid rula 
 was adopted by a vast number of the old Benedictine ab* 
 beys, who placed themselves in affiliation to the mother 
 society, while new foundations sprang up in large nuin* 
 bers, all owing allegianee to the " archabbot," established 
 at Clugny! By the end of the 12th century the numbel 
 of monasteries affiliated to Clugny in the various com> 
 tries of Western Europe amounted to 2000. The monasJ 
 tic establishment of Clugny was one of the most extensive" 
 and magnificent in France. We may form some idea of 
 its enormous dimensit _s from the fact recorded, that when, 
 A.D/ 1245 j. Pope Innocent xV., accompanied by twelve
 
 CLOTOAC.] 
 
 ABBEY 
 
 15 
 
 cardinals, a patriarch, three archbishops, the two generals 
 of the Carthusians and Cistercians, the king (St Louis), 
 and three of his sons, the queen mother, Baldwin, Count 
 •f Flanders and Emperor of Constantinople, the Duke of 
 Burgundy, and six lords, visited the abbey, the whole 
 party, with their attendants, were lodged within the 
 monastery without disarranging the monks, 400 in num- 
 ber. Nearly the whole of the abbey buildings, including 
 the magnificent church, were swept away at the close of the 
 last century. When the annexed ground-plan was taken, 
 shortly before its destruction, nearly all the monastery, with 
 the exception of the church, had been rebuilt. The church, 
 the ground-plan of which bears a remarkable resemblance 
 to that of Lincoln Cathedral, was of vast dimensions. It 
 was 656 feet by ISO feet wide. The nave was 102 feet, 
 and the aisles 60 feet high. The nave (Q) had double 
 
 Abbey of Clugny, from Viollet le Due 
 
 A. Gateway. 
 
 B. Narthex. 
 
 C. Choir. 
 
 D. High-Altar. 
 
 E. Retro-Altar. 
 
 F. Tomb of St Hugh. 
 
 G. Nave. 
 H. Cloister. 
 
 IC Abbot's House. 
 L. Guest-House. 
 
 M. Bakehouse. 
 N. Abbey Buildings. 
 O. Garden. 
 P. Refectory. 
 
 faulted aisles on either side. Like Lincoln, it had an 
 eastern as well as a western transept, each furnished with 
 apsidal chapels to the east. The western transept was 213 
 feet long, and the eastern 123 feet The choir terminated 
 in a semicircular apse (F), surrounded by five chapels, also 
 semicircular. The western entrance was approached by an 
 ante-church, or narthex (B), itself an aisled church of no mean 
 dimensions, flanked by two towers, rising from a stately 
 flight of steps bearing a large stone cross. To the south 
 of the church lay the cloister-court (H), of immense size, 
 placed much further to the west than is usually the case. 
 On the south side of the cloister stood the refectory (P), an 
 immense building, 100 feet long and 60 feet wide, accommo- 
 dating six longitudinal and three transverse rows of tables. 
 It was adorned with the portraits of the chief benefactors 
 of the abbey, and with Scriptural subjects. The end wall 
 displayed the Last Judgment. We are unhappily unable to 
 identify anyotherof the principal buildings(N). The abbot's 
 residence (K), still partly standing, adjoined the entrance- 
 gate. The guest-house (L) was close by. The bakehouse 
 
 (M), also remaining, is a detached ouuding of immense 
 size. The first English house of the Cluniac order was that 
 of Lewes, founded by the Earl of Warren, dr. a.d. 1077. 
 Of this only a few fragments of the domestic buildings exist. 
 The best preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle 
 Acre, Norfolk, and Wenlock, in Shropshire. Ground-plans 
 of both are given in Britton's Architectural Antiquities. 
 They show several departures from the Benedictine arrange- 
 ment In each the prior's house is remarkably perfect 
 All Cluniac houses in England were French colonies, go- 
 verned by priors of that nation. They did not secure their 
 independence nor become " abbeys " till the reign of Henry 
 VL The Cluniac revival, with all its brilliancy, was but 
 short lived. The celebrity of this, as of other orders, 
 worked its moral ruin. With their growth in wealth and 
 dignity the Cluniac foundations became as worldly in life 
 and as relaxed in discipline as their predecessors, and a 
 fresh reform was needed. The next great monastic re- 
 vival, the Cistercian, Arising in the last years of the 11th 
 century, had a wider diffusion, and a longer and more 
 honourable existence. Owing its real origin, as a distinct 
 foundation of reformed Benedictines, in the year 1098, 
 to a countryman of our own, Stephen Harding (a native of 
 Dorsetshire, educated in the monastery of Sherborne), and 
 deriving its name from Citeaux (Cistercium), a >le-,olate 
 and almost inaccessible forest solitude, on the borders of 
 Champagne and Burgundy, the rapid growth and wide 
 celebrity of the order is undoubtedly to be attributed to 
 the enthusiastic piety of St Bernard, abbot of the first of 
 the monastic colonies, subsequently sent forth in such quick 
 succession by the first Cistercian houses, the far-famed 
 abbey of Clairvaux (de Clara Valle), aj>. 1116. 
 
 The rigid self-abnegation, which was the ruling principle Cisterciat 
 of this reformed congregation of the Benedictine order, 
 extended itself to the churches and other buildings erected 
 by them. The characteristic of the Cistercian abbeys was 
 the extremest simplicity and a studied plainness. Only one 
 tower — a central one — was permitted, and that was to be very 
 low. Unnecessary pinnacles and turrjts were prohibited. 
 The triforium was omitted. The windows were to be plain 
 and undivided, and it was forbidden to decorate them with 
 stained glass. All needless ornament was proscribed. The 
 crosses must be of wood; the candlesticks of iron. The 
 renunciation of the world was to be evidenced in all that 
 met the eye. The same spirit manifested itself in the 
 choice of the sites of their monasteries. The more dismal 
 the more savage, the more hopeless a spot appeared, the 
 more did it please their rigid mood. But they came not 
 merely as ascetics, but as improvers. The Cistercian 
 monasteries are, as a rule, found placed in deep well- 
 watered valleys. They always stand on the border of a 
 stream; not rarely, as at Fountains, the buildings extend 
 over it. These valleys, now so rich and productive, wore a 
 very different aspect when the brethren first chose them as 
 the place of their retirement. Wide swamps, deep mo- 
 rasses, tangled thickets, wild impassable forests, were their 
 prevailing features. The " Bright Valley," Clara Fallis of 
 St Bernard, was known as the " Valley of Wormwood," 
 infamous as a den of robbers. " It was a savage dreary 
 solitude, so utterly barren that at first Bernard and his 
 companions were reduced to live on beech leaves." — (Mil- 
 man's Lat. Christ, vol. iii p. 335.) 
 
 All Cistercian monasteries, unless the circumstances of 
 the locality forbade it, were arranged according to one plan. 
 The general arrangement and distribution of the various 
 buildings, which went to make up one of these vast esta- 
 blishments, may be gathered from that of St Bernard's 
 own Abbey of Clairvaux, which is here given. 
 
 It will be observed that the abbey precincts are surrounded 
 by a strong wall, furnished at intervals with watch-
 
 16 
 
 ABBEY 
 
 CISTKKOtA.N 
 
 CUirraui. towers and other defensive works. The wall is nearly 
 encircled by a stream of water, artificially diverted from the 
 Small rivulets which flow through the precincts, furnishing 
 the establishment with an abundant supply in every part, 
 for the irrigation of the gardens and orchards, the sanitary 
 requirements of the brotherhood, and for the use of the 
 offices and workshops. The precincts are divided across 
 the centre by a wall, running from N. to S. F into an 
 outer and inner ward. — tho former containing the menial, 
 the latter the monastic buildings. The precincts are 
 entered by a gateway (P), at the extreme western ex- 
 tremity, giving admission to the lower ward. Here the 
 barns, granaries, stables, shambles, workshops, and work- 
 men's lodgings were placed, without any regard to sym- 
 
 Clairvaux, No. 1 (Cistercian), General Plan. 
 
 A. Cloisters, 
 ft Ovens, and Corn and 
 Oil-mills. 
 
 C. St Bernard's Cell. 
 
 D. Chief Entrance. 
 
 E. Tanks (or Fish. 
 
 F. Guest House. J 
 O. Abbot's noi^ 
 
 II. Stables. 
 
 I. Wine-press and Hay- 
 
 cliambcr. 
 K- farlour. 
 L. WorkBhopsandwork- 
 
 men's Lodgings. 
 M. Slaughter-house. 
 N. Bams and Stables. 
 
 0. Public Presse 
 
 P. Gateway 
 
 R. Remains of Old 
 
 Monastery. 
 S. Oratory. 
 V. Tile-works. 
 X. Tile-kiln. 
 Y. Water-courses. 
 
 metry, convenience being the only consideration. Ad- 
 vancing eastwards, we have before us the wall separating 
 the outer and inner ward, and the gatehouse (D) affording 
 communication between the two. On passing through the 
 gateway, the outer court of the inner ward was entered, 
 with the western fagade of the monastic church in front. 
 Immediately on the right of entrance was the abbot's 
 house (0), in close proximity to the guest-house (F). On 
 the other side of the court were the stables, for the accommo- 
 dation of the horses of the guests and their attendants (H). 
 The church occupied a central position. To the south 
 were the great cloister (A), surrounded by the chief monas- 
 tic buildings, and further to the east the smaller cloister, 
 opening out of which were the infirmary, novices' lodgings, 
 and quarters for the aged monks. • Still further to the east, 
 divided from the monastic buildings by a wall, were the 
 ▼egetable gardens' and orchards, and tank for fish. The 
 
 large fish-ponds,- an indispensable adjunct to any ecclesias- 
 tical foundation, on tho formation of which tho mocks 
 lavished extreme care and pains, and which often remain 
 as almost the only visible traces of these vast establish- 
 ments, were placed outside the abbey walls. 
 
 The Plan No. 2 furnishes the ichnography of the dis- 
 tinctly monastic buildings on a larger scale. The usually 
 unvarying arrangement of the Cistercian houses allows us 
 to accept this as a typo of the monasteries of this order. 
 The church (A) is the chief feature. It consists of a vast 
 nave of eleven bays, entered by a narthcx, with a transept 
 and short apsidal choir. (It may be remarked that the easto rn 
 limb in all unaltered Cistercian churches is remarkably 
 short, and usually square.) To the east of each limb o(_ 
 
 Clairvaux, No. 2 (Cistercian), Monastic Buildings. 
 
 A. Church. 
 
 B. Cloister. 
 
 C. Chapter-House 
 
 D. Monks' Parlour 
 
 E. Calefactory. 
 
 F. Kitchen and Court 
 
 G. Refectory. 
 H. Cemetery. 
 
 I. Little Cloister. 
 
 K. Infirmary. 
 L. Lodgings of Novices. 
 M. Old Guest-House. 
 N. OldAbbot'sLodgings. 
 0. Cloister of Supernu- 
 merary Monks: 
 P. Abbot's Hal). - 
 Q. Cell of St Bernard. 
 R. Stables. 
 
 S. Cellars and Store- 
 houses. 
 
 T. Water-course. 
 
 C. Saw-mill and Oll-mia 
 
 V. Currier's Workshops. 
 
 X. Sacristy. 
 
 Y. Little Library 
 
 Z. Undercroft of Dor- 
 mitory. 
 
 the transept are two square chapels, divided "according to 
 Cistercian rule by solid walls. Nine radiating chapels, 
 similarly divided, surround the apse. The stalls of the 
 monks, forming the ritual choir, occupy the four eastern 
 bays of the nave. There was a second range of stalls in 
 the extreme western bays of the nave for the fratres conversi, 
 or lay brothers. To the south of the church, so as to 
 secure as much sun as possible, the cloister was invariably 
 placed, except when local reasons forbade it. . Round the 
 cloister (B) were ranged the buildings connected with the 
 monks' daily life. The chapter-house (C) always opened 
 out of the east walk of the sloister in a line with the
 
 CISTERCIAN.! 
 
 ABBEY 
 
 17 
 
 south transept. In Cistercian housor, this was quadran- 
 gular, and was divided -by pillars and arches into two or 
 three aisles. Between it and the transept we find the 
 sacristy (X), and a small book room (Y), armariolum, 
 where the brothers deposited the volumes borrowed from 
 the library. On the other side of the chapter-house, to 
 tho south, is a passage (D) communicating with the courts 
 and buildings beyond. This was sometimes known as the 
 parlour, colloquii locus, the monks having the privilege of 
 conversation here. Here also, when discipline became 
 relaxed, traders, who had the liberty of admission, were 
 allowed to display their goods. Beyond this we often find 
 the cale/aclorium or day-room — an apartment warmed 
 by flues beneath the pavement, where the brethren, half- 
 frozen during the night offices, betook themselves after the 
 conclusion of lauds, to gain a little warmth, grease their 
 sandals, and get themselves ready for the work of the day. 
 In tho plan before us this apartment (E) opens from the 
 south cloister walk, adjoining the refectory. The place 
 usually assigned to it is occupied by the vaulted substruc- 
 ture of the dormitory (Z). The dormitory, as a rule, was 
 placed on the east side of the clofeter, running over the 
 calefactory and chapter-house, and joined the south transept, 
 where a flight of steps admitted the brethren into the 
 church for nocturnal services. Opening out of the dor- 
 mitory was always the necessarium, planned with the 
 greatest regard to health and cleanliness, a water-course 
 invariably running from end to end. The refectory opens 
 out of the south cloister at (G). The position of the refec- 
 tory is usually a marked point of difference between Bene- 
 dictine and Cistercian abbeys. In the former, as at Can- 
 terbury, the refectory ran east and west parallel to the nave 
 of the church, on the side of the cloister furthest removed 
 from it. In the Cistercian monasteries, to keep the noise 
 and sound of dinner still further away from the sacred 
 building, the refectory was built north and south, at right 
 angles to the axis of the church. It was often divided, 
 sometimes into two, sometimes, as here, into three aisles. 
 Outside the refectory door, in the cloister, was the lavatory, 
 where the monks washed their hands at dinner time. The 
 buildings belonging to the material life of the monks lay 
 near the refectory, as far as possible from the church, to 
 the S.W. With a distinct entrance from the outer court 
 was the kitchen court (F), with its buttery, scullery, and 
 larder, and the important adjunct of a stream of running 
 water. Further to the west, projecting beyond the line of 
 the west front of the church, were vast vaulted apartments 
 (SS), serving as cellarsand storehouses, above which was the 
 dormitory of the conversi. Detached from these, and sepa- 
 rated entirely from- the monastic buildings, were various 
 workshops, which convenience required to be banished to 
 the outer precincts, a saw-mill and oil-mill (UU) turned 
 by water, and a currier's shop (V), where the sandals and 
 leathern girdles of the monks were made and repaired. 
 
 ' Returning to the cloister, a vaulted passage admitted to 
 the small cloister (I), opening from the north side of which 
 were eight small cells, assigned to the scribes employed in 
 copying works for the library, which was placed in the 
 upper story, accessible by a turret staircase. To the 
 south of the small cloister a long hall will be noticed. 
 This was a lecture-hall, or rather a hall for the religious 
 disputations customary among the Cistercians. From this 
 cloister opened the infirmary (K), with its hall, chapel, 
 cells, blood-letting house, aDd other dependencies. At the 
 eastern verge of the vast group of buildings we find the 
 novices' lodgings (L), with a third cloister near the 
 novices' quarters and the original guest-house (M). De- 
 tached from the great mass of the monastic edifices was 
 the original abbot's house (N), with its dining-hall (P). 
 Closely adjoining to this, so that the eye of the father of 
 
 the whole establishment should be constantly over those 
 who stood the most in need of his watchful care, — those 
 who were training for the monastic life, and those who had 
 worn themselves out in its duties, — was a fourth cloister 
 (0), with annexed buildings, devoted to the aged and 
 infirm members of the establishment. The cemetery, the 
 List resting-place of the brethren, lay to the north side of 
 the nave of the church (II). 
 
 It will be seen that the arrangement of a Cisterciiin 
 monastery was in accordance with a clearly-defined system, 
 and admirably adapted to its purpose. 
 
 The base court nearest to the outer wall contained the 
 buildings belonging to the functions of the body as agri- 
 culturalists and employers of labour. Advancing into tho 
 inner court, the buildings devoted to hospitality arc found 
 close to the entrance ; while those connected with tho 
 supply of the material wants of the brethren, — the kitchen, 
 cellars, &c, — form a court of themselves outside the cloister, 
 and quite detached from the church. The church refec- 
 tory, dormitory, and other buildings belonging to the 
 professional life of the brethren, surround the great 
 cloister. The small cloister beyond, with its scribes' 
 cells, library, hall for disputations, ic, is the centre of the 
 literary life of the community. The requirements of sick- 
 ness and old age are carefully provided for in the infirmary 
 cloister, and that for the aged and infirm members of tho 
 establishment. The same group contains the qaarters of 
 the novices. 
 
 Thi3 stereotyped arrangement is further illustrated by Cituu. 
 the accompanying bird's eye view of the mother cstablish- 
 
 Bird's eye View of Citeaux. 
 
 A. Cross, 
 
 B. Gate-House. 
 
 C. Almonry. 
 
 D. Chapel. 
 
 E. Inner Gate-House. 
 
 F. Stable. 
 
 G. Dormitory of L.ay 
 
 Brethren. 
 
 II. Abbot's House. 
 
 I. Kitchen. 
 
 C Kefcctory. 
 
 L. StaircasetuL'onniloiy. 
 
 M. Dormitory. 
 
 N. Church. 
 
 F. Library. 
 
 R-Iiiflmiary. 
 S. Door to the Chmca. 
 fortiittLay Eiv.!.er» 
 T. Base Court. 
 V. Great Cloister. 
 W. Small Cloister. 
 X. Boundaiy WjX 
 
 ment of Citeaux. A cross i'A\ planted on the high rtwl 
 
 1-2
 
 IB 
 
 ABBEY 
 
 [ciSTERCIAS. 
 
 'directs travellers to the gate of the monastery, reached by 
 sn avenue of trees. On one side of the gate-house (B) 
 is a long building (C), probably the almonry, with a 
 dormitory above for the lower class of guests. On the other 
 side is a chapel (D). ,As soon as the porter heard a stranger 
 knock at the gate, he rose, saying, Deo gratias, the oppor- 
 tunity for the exercise of hospitality being regarded as a 
 cause for thankfulness. On opening the door he welcomed 
 the new arrival with a blessing — Benedicitc. lie fell on 
 liia knees before him, and then went to inform the abbot. 
 However important the abbot's occupations might be, he 
 it once hastened to receive him whom heaven had sent. 
 He also threw himself at his guest's feet, and conducted 
 him to the chapel (D) purposely built close to the gate. 
 After a short prayer, the abbot committed the gnest to 
 the care of the brother hospitaller, whose duty it was to 
 provide for his wants, and conduct the beast on which he 
 might be riding to the stablo (F), built adjacent to the 
 inner gate-house (E). This inner gate conducted into 
 the base court (T), round which were placed the barns, 
 stables, cow-sheds, <fcc. On the eastern side stood the 
 dormitory of the lay brothers, fratres conversi (G), detached 
 from the cloister, with cellars and storehouses below. At 
 (H), also outside the monastic buildings proper, was the 
 abbot's house, and annexed to it the guest-house. For 
 these buildings there was a separate door of entrance into 
 (the church (S). The large cloister, with its surrounding 
 arcades, is seen at V. On the south end projects the 
 refectory (K), with its kitchen at (I), accessible from the 
 baso court. The long gabled building on the east side of 
 the cloister contained on the ground floor the chapter- 
 house and calefactory, with the monks' dormitory above 
 (M), communicating with the south transept of the church. 
 (At (L) was the staircase to the dormitory. The small 
 cloister is at (JV), where were the carols or cells of the scribes, 
 with the library (P) over, reached by a turret staircase. 
 At (R) we see a portion of the infirmary. The whole pre- 
 cinct is surrounded by a strong buttressed wall (XXX), 
 pierced with arches, through which streams of water are 
 introduced. It will be noticed that the choir of the church 
 is short, and has a square end instead of the usual apse. 
 The tower, in accordance with the Cistercian rule, is very 
 Jew. The windows throughout accord with the studied 
 simplicity of the order. 
 -. The English Cistercian houses, of which there are such 
 txtensive and beautiful remains at Fountains, Rievaulx, 
 Kiikstall, Tintern, Netley, ifcc., were mainly arranged after 
 the same plan, with slight local variations. As an example, 
 we give the ground-plan of Kirkstall Abbey, which is one 
 of tho best preserved and least altsred. The church here 
 is of the Cistercian type, with a short chancel of two 
 squares, and transepts with three eastward chapels to each, 
 divided by solid walls (2 2 2). The whole is of the most 
 studied plainness. The windows are unornamented, and 
 the nave has no triforium. The cloister to the south (4) 
 occupies tho whole length of the nave. On the east side 
 stands the two-aisled chapter house (5), between which and 
 the south transept is a small sacristy (3), and on the other 
 side two small apartments, ono of which was probably 
 the parlour (6). Beyond this stretches southward the 
 calefactory or day-room of the monks (14). Above this 
 whole range of building runs the monks' dormitory, opening 
 by stairs into the south transept of the church. At the 
 other end were the necessaries. On the south side of the 
 cloister we have the remains of the old refectory (11), 
 running, as in Benedictine houses, from east to west, and 
 the new refectory (12), which, with the increase of the 
 inmates of the house, superseded it, stretching, as is usual 
 in Cistercian houses, from north to south. Adjacent to 
 this apartment aro the remains of the kitchen; pantry, and 
 
 buttery. The arches of the lavatory are to be seen near 
 the refectory entrance. Tho western side of the cloister 
 is, as usual, occupied by vaulted cellars, supporting on the 
 upper story the dormitory of tho lay brothers (8). Ex- 
 tending from the south-east anglo of tho main group of 
 buildings are the walls and foundations of a secondary 
 group of considerable extent These have been identified 
 cither with the hospitium or with the abbot's house, but 
 they occupy the position in which the infirmary is more 
 usually found The hall was a very spacious apartment, 
 measuring 83 feet in length by 48 feet 9 inches in breadth 
 
 ft— B- ft-- &-- o a- --& a-a -« 4 
 
 .;."■•■■ .■•■■! B;\lX:.- ■.:■■■ Z 
 
 ff™T8Bli*i 
 
 Kivksthil Abljt-r Yorkshire (Cistercian;. 
 
 1. Ctrnreh. 
 
 2. Chapels. 
 S. Sacristy, 
 
 4. Cloister. 
 
 5. Chapter-House. 
 C. Parlour. 
 
 T. Punishment Cell (?) 
 
 8. Cellars, with Dormitories (or con- 
 versi over. 
 
 9. Guest-House. 
 
 10. Common Room. 
 
 11. Old llcfectory. 
 11 .Ve>« Rcfoct'Ty. 
 11. Kitchen Court. 
 
 14. Calefactory or Ii-iy-Room. 
 
 16. VUcheo inu Offi"*. 
 
 16-10. Uncertain; p^rha|'sO(Tlcttcan> 
 
 ni-cicd with the Infnniary. 
 20. Infirmary or Abbot's House. 
 
 and was divided by two rows of columns. The fish-ponds 
 lay between the monastery and the river to tho south. Tho 
 abbey mill was situated about 80 yards to the north-west 
 The mill-pool may be distinctly traced, together with the 
 gowt or mill stream. 
 
 Fountains Abbey, first founded A.D. 1132, deserves 
 special notice, as one of the largest and best preserved 
 Cistercian houses in England. But the earlier buildings 
 received considerable additions and alterations in the later 
 period of the order, causing deviations from the strict 
 Cistercian type. The church stands a short distance to 
 the north of the river Skell, the buildings of the abbey 
 stretching down to and even across the stream. We have 
 the cloister (H) to the south, with the threo-aisled chapter, 
 house (I) and calefactory (L) opening from its eastern walk, 
 and the refectory (S), with the kitchen (Q) and buttery (T) 
 attached, at right angles to its southern walk. Parallel 
 with the western walk is an immense vaulted substructure 
 (U), incorrectly styled the cloisters, serving as cellars and 
 store-rooms, and supporting the dormitory of the conversi 
 above. This building extended across the river. At itn
 
 CISTEECIAJT.J 
 
 ABBE ^ 
 
 19 
 
 S.W. corner were the necessaries (V), also built, as usual, 
 above the swiftly flowing stream. The monks' dormitory- 
 was in its usual position above the chapter-house, to the 
 eouth of the transept As peculiarities of arrangement 
 may be noticed the position of thb kitchen (Q), between the 
 refectory and calefactory, and of the infirmary (W) (unless 
 there ia some error in its designation) above the river to 
 
 Ground Plan of Fountains Able/, Yorkshire. 
 
 A. Na»e of the Church. 
 
 B. Tra'isept. 
 
 C. Chapels. 
 
 D. Tower. 
 
 E. Sacr sty. 
 
 F. Cbolr. 
 
 G. Chape* of Kino 
 
 Allan. 
 H. Cloister. 
 L Chapter-Horse. 
 K. Base Court. 
 L. Calefactory. 
 M. Water Course. 
 
 N. Cellar. 
 O. Brew House. 
 P. Prisons. 
 Q. Kitchen. 
 R. Offices. 
 S. Refectory. 
 T. Buttery 
 U. Cellars and Store- 
 houses. 
 V. Necessary. 
 W. Infirmary (?) 
 X. Guest-Housea, 
 Y. Mill Bridge. 
 
 Z. Gate-House. 
 Abbot's Hocss 
 
 1. Passage. 
 
 2. Great HalL 
 
 3. Refectory. 
 
 4. Buttery. 
 
 5. Storehouse, 
 
 6. Chapel. 
 
 7. Kitchen. 
 6. Ashpit. 
 9. Yard. 
 
 10. Kitchen Tana. 
 
 thewest, adjoining the guest-houses (XX). We mayalso call 
 attention to the greatly lengthened choir, commenced by 
 Abbot John of York, 1203-1211, and carried on by his 
 successor, terminating, like Durham Cathedral, in an 
 
 eastern transept, the work of Abbot John of Keiu, i220— ' 
 1247, and to the tower (D), added not long before the dis- 
 solution by Abbot Huby, 149-1-1526, in a very unusual 
 position at the northern end of the north transept. The 
 abbot's house, the largest and most remarkable example of 
 this class of buildings in the kingdom, stands south to 
 the east of the church and cloister, from which it i3 divided 
 by the kitchen court(K),surroundedbythe ordinary domestic 
 offices. A considerable portion of this house was erected 
 on arches over the SkelL The size and character of this 
 house, probably, at the time of its erection, the most 
 spacious house of a subject in the kingdom, not a castle, 
 bespeaks the wide departure of the Cistercian order from 
 the stern simplicity of the original foundation. The hall 
 (2) was one of the most spacious and magnificent apart- 
 ments in mediaeval times, measuring 170 feet by 70 feet 
 Like the hall in the castle at Winchester, and Westminster 
 Hall, as originally built, it was divided by 18 pillars and 
 arches, with 3 aisles. Among other apartments, for the 
 designation of which we must refer to the ground-plan, 
 was a domestic oratory or chapel, 46| feet by 23 feet, and 
 a kitchen (7), 50 feet by 38 feet The whole arrangements 
 and character of the building bespeak the rich and powerful 
 feudal lord, not the humble father of a body of hard- 
 working brethren, bound by vows to a life of poverty and; 
 self-denying toil In the words of Dean Milman, " the 
 superior, once a man bowed to the earth with humility, 
 ca»e-worn, pale, emaciated, with a coarse habit bound 
 with a cord, with naked feet, had become an abbot on his 
 curvetting palfrey, in rich attire, with his silver cross before 
 him, travelling to take his place amid the lordliest of the 
 realm." — (Lat. Christ, voL iii. p. 330.) 
 
 The buildings of the Austin Canons or Black Canons "ftlaclt o* 
 (so called from the colour of their habit) present few Austin. 
 distinctive peculiarities. This order had its first seat in C* 001 ** 
 England at Colchester, where a house for Austin Canons 
 was founded about A.D. 1105, and it very soon spread 
 widely. As an order of regular clergy, holding a middle 
 position between monks and secular canons, almost resem- 
 bling a community of parish priests living under rule, 
 they adopted naves of great length to accommodate large 
 congregations. The choir is usually long, and is some- 
 times, as at Llanthouy and Christ Church (Twynham), 
 shut off from the aisles, or, as at Bolton, Kirkham, <i:c., ii 
 destitute of aisles altogether. The nave in the northern. 
 houses, not unfrequently, had only a north aisle, as at. 
 Bolton, Brinkburn, and Lanercost The arrangement of 
 the monastic buildings followed the~ordinary type. The 
 prior's lodge was almost invariably attached to the S.W. 
 angle of thenave. . The annexed plan of the Abbey of 
 St Augustine's at Bristol, now- the cathedral church of 
 
 HO 
 
 St Augustine's Abbey, Bristol (Bristol Cathedral). 
 
 A. Church. 
 
 B. Great Cloister. 
 
 C. Little Cloister. 
 
 D. Chapter-House. 
 
 E. Calefactory. 
 
 F. Refectory. 
 C Parlour. 
 
 H. Kitchen. 
 
 L. Kitchen Court 
 
 K. Cellars. 
 
 L. Ahbofs Hall 
 
 P. Abbot's Gateway. 
 
 R. ln£naar-tv 
 
 S. Friars" Loiglnt 
 T. King's Hall 
 V. Guest-House. 
 W. Abbey Gateway; 
 X. Bams. Stables, «ft 
 T. Lavatory.
 
 20 
 
 that city, shows tne arrangement of the buildings, which 
 departs very little from the ordinary ' Benedictine type. 
 The Austin Canons' house at Thornton, in Lincolnshire, is 
 remarkable for the size and magnificence of its gate-house, 
 the upper floors of which formed the guest-house of the 
 establishment, and for possessing an octagonal chapter- 
 house of Decorated date. 
 
 The Premonstratensian regular canons, or White Canons, 
 had as many as 35 houses in England, of which the most 
 perfect remaining are those of Easby, Yorkshire, and 
 Bayham, Sussex. The head house of the order in England 
 was Welbeck. This order was a reformed branch of the 
 Austin canons, founded, a.d. 1119, by Norbert (born at 
 Xanten, on the Lower Rhine, c. 1080) at Premontr^, a 
 eecluded marshy valley in the forest of Coucy, in the 
 diocese of Laon. The order spread widely. Even in the 
 founder's lifetime it possessed houses in Syria and Pales- 
 tine. It long maintained its rigid austerity, till in the 
 course of years wealth impaired its discipline, and its 
 members sank into indolence and luxury. The Premon- 
 stratensians were brought to England shortly after A.D. 
 1140, and were first settled at Newhouse, in Lincolnshire, 
 near the Humber. The ground-plan of Easby Abbey, 
 owing to its situation on the edge of the Steeply-sloping 
 banks of a river, is singularly irregular. The cloister is 
 duly placed, on the south side of the church, and the 
 chief buildings occupy their usual positions round it. 
 But the cloister garth, as at Chichester, is not rectangu- 
 lar, and all the surrounding buildings are thus made to 
 6prawl in a very awkward fashion.. The church follows 
 the plan adopted by the Austin catroas in their northern 
 abbeys, and has only one aisle to the nave-;-that to the 
 north ; while the choir is long, narrow, and aisleless. 
 Each transept has an aisle to the east, forming three 
 chapels. 
 
 The church at Bayham was destitute of aisle either to 
 «iave or choir. The latter terminated in a three-sided apse. 
 This church is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in 
 proportion to its length. Extending in longitudinal dimen- 
 sions 257 feet, it is not more than 25 feet broad. To 
 adopt the words of Mr Beresford Hope — " Stern Premon- 
 Btratensian canons wanted no congregations, and cared 
 for no processions ; therefore they built their church like a 
 long room." 
 
 The Carthusian order, on its establishment by St Bruno, 
 about a.d. 1084, developed a greatly modified form and 
 arrangement of -a monastic institution. The principle' of 
 this order, which combined the ccenobitic with the solitary 
 life, demanded the erection of buildings on a novel plan. 
 This plan, which was first adopted by St Bruno and his 
 twelve companions at the original institution at Chartreux, 
 near Grenoble, was maintained in all the Carthusian 
 establishments throughout Europe, even after the ascetic 
 severity of the order had been to some extent relaxed, and 
 the primitive simplicity of their buildings had been ex- 
 changed for the magnificence of decoration which charac- 
 terises such foundations as the Certosas of Pavia and 
 .Florence. According to the rale of St Bruno, all the 
 members of a Carthusian brotherhood lived in the most 
 absolute solitude and silence. Each occupiei a small 
 detached cottage, standing by itself in a small garden 
 surrounded by high walls and connected by a common 
 corridor or cloister. In these cottages or cells a Carthusian 
 monk passed his time in the strictest asceticism, only 
 leaving his solitary dwelling to attend the services of the 
 Church, except on certain days when the brotherhood 
 assembled in the refectory. 
 
 The peculiarity of the arrangements of a Carthusian 
 monastery, or charter-house, as it was called in England, 
 from a corruption of the French chartreux, is exhibited in 
 
 ABBEY [CAETUUSIAH 
 
 the plan of that of Clernlont, from Viollet le Due. Tha 
 whole establishment is surrounded with a wall, furnished 
 at intervals with watch towers (R). The enclosure ia 
 divided into two courts, of which the eastern court, sur- 
 rounded by a cloister, from which the cottages of tha 
 monks (I) open, is much the larger The two courts are* 
 
 A. Church. 
 
 II. Monks Choir, 
 
 C. Prior's GardetJ 
 
 D. Crcnt Cloister! 
 
 E. Chaptci --Houasj 
 
 P. Passage. 
 
 C. Priors Lode* 
 Ings. 
 
 II. Dovecot. 
 
 I. Cells. 
 
 K. Chapel of r«n| 
 
 gibaud. 
 L. Sacristy. 
 SI. Chapel. 
 N. Stables. 
 0. Gateway. 
 
 V. Gucst-Chanf 
 I bera. 
 
 'Q. Barns and 
 Granaiics. 
 
 R. Watch Towert 
 
 S. Little Cloister 
 
 T. Bakehouzs. 
 
 V. Kitchen. 
 
 Xj Refectory. 
 
 V. Cemetery. 
 
 Z. Trlsan. 
 
 n\Cell of Sub- prior 
 
 /•, Garden of dr. 
 
 Cftrtlmsioji Monastery of Clermont 
 
 divided by the main buildings of the monastery, including 
 the church, the sanctuary (A), divided from (B), the monks' 
 choir, by a screen with two altars, the smaller cloister to 
 the south (S) surrounded by the chapter-house (E), the 
 refectory (X) — these buildings occupying their normal 
 position — and the chapel of Pontgibaud (K). The kitchen 
 with its offices (V) lies behind the refectory, accessible 
 from the outer court without entering the cloister. To 
 the north of the church, beyond the sacristy (L), and the 
 side chapels (M), we find the cell of the sub-prior (a), with 
 its garden. The lodgings of the prior (G) occupy the 
 centre of the outer court, immediately in front of the west 
 door of the church, and face the gateway of the convent (0). 
 A small raised court with a fountain (C) is before it. This 
 outer court also contains the guest-chambers (P), the 
 stables, and lodgings of the lay brothers (N), the barns 
 and granaries (Q), the dovecot (H), and the bakehouse (T). 
 At (Z) is the prison. (In this outer court, in all the earlier 
 foundations, as at Witham, there was a smaller church in 
 addition to the larger church of the monks.) The outer and 
 inner court are connected by a long passage (F), wide 
 enough to admit a cart laden with wood to supply the 
 cells of the brethren with fuel. The number of cells sur- 
 rounding the great cloister is 1 8. They are all arranged 
 on a uniform plan. Each little dwelling contains three 
 rooms : a sitting-room (C), wanned with a stove in winter; 
 a sleeping-room (D), furnished with a bed, a table, a bench, 
 and a bookcase; and a closet (E). Between the cell and 
 the cloister gallery (A) is a passage or corridor (B), cutting 
 off the inmafe of the cell from all sound or movement 
 which might interruDt his meditations Tha superior hsd
 
 OA.RTHDSIAN.J 
 
 ABBEY 
 
 21 
 
 free access to this corridor, and through open niches was able 
 to inspect the garden without being seen. At (I) is the 
 hatch or turn-table, in which the daily allowance of food was 
 deposited by a brother appointed for that purpose, afford- 
 iag no view either inwards or outwards. (H ) is the garden, 
 
 Hi 
 
 A. Cloister Gallery 
 By Corridor. 
 
 C. Living Room. 
 
 D. Sleeping Room. 
 
 E. Closets. 
 
 F. Covered Walk. 
 
 G. Xecessary 
 U. Garden. 
 I. Hatch. 
 
 K. Wood-hoose. 
 
 Carthnsian Cell, Clermont 
 
 cultivated by the occupant of the cell At (K) is the 
 wood-house. (F) is a covered walk, with the necessary at 
 the end. These arrangements are found with scarcely any 
 variation in all the charter-houses of Western Europe. 
 The Yorkshire Charter-house of Mount Grace, founded by 
 Thomas Holland the young Duke of Surrey, nephew of. 
 Richard II., and Marshal of England, during the revival 
 of the popularity of the order, about A.D. 1397, is the most 
 perfect and best pressrved English example. It is charac- 
 terised by all the simplicity of the order. The church is a 
 modest building, long, narrow, and aisleless. Within the 
 wall of enclosure are two courts. The smaDer of the two, 
 the south, presents the usual arrangement of church, refec- 
 tory, &c, opening out of a cloister. The buildings are 
 plain and solid. The northern court contains the cells, 1-4 
 in number. It is surrounded by a double stone wall, the 
 two walls being about 30 feet or 40 feet apart. Between 
 these, each in its own garden, stand the cells ; low-built 
 two-storied cottages, of two or three rooms on the ground- 
 floor, lighted with a larger and a smaller window to the 
 side, and provided with a doorway to the court, and one at 
 the back, opposite to one in the outer wall, through which 
 the monk may have conveyed the sweepings of his cell and 
 the refuse of his garden to the " eremus " beyond. By the 
 side of the door to the court is a little hatch, through which 
 the daily pittance of food was supplied, so contrived by 
 turning at an angle in the wall that no one could either 
 look in or look out. A very perfect example of this hatch 
 — an arrangement belonging to all Carthusian houses — 
 exists at Miraflores, near Burgos, which remains nearly as 
 it was completed in 1480. 
 
 There were only nine Carthusian houses in England. 
 The earliest was that at Witham in Somersetshire, founded 
 by Henry n. , by whom the order was first brought into 
 England. The wealthiest and .most magnificent was that 
 of Shene or Richmond in Surrey, founded by Henry V. 
 about a.d. 1414. The dimensions of the buildings at 
 Shenei are stated to have been remarkably large. The 
 great court measured 300 feet by 250 feet; the cloisters 
 were a square of 500 feet ; the hall was 110 feet in length 
 by 60 feet in breadth. The most .celebrated historically is 
 the Charter-house of London, founded by Sir Walter Manny 
 A.D. 1371. the name of which is preserved by the famous 
 
 public school established on the site by Thomas Sutton, 
 a.d. 1611. 
 
 An article on monastic arrangements would be incom- 
 plete without some account of the convents of the Mendi- 
 cant or Preaching Friars, including the Black Friars or 
 Dominicans, the Grey or Franciscans, the White or Carmel- 
 ites, the Eremite or Austin Friars. These orders arose at 
 the beginning of the 13th century, when the Benedictines, 
 together with their various reformed branches, had termi- 
 nated their active mission, and Christian Europe was ready 
 for a new religious revival. Planting themselves, as a rule, 
 in large towns, and by preference in the poorest and most 
 densely populated districts, the Preaching Friars were 
 obliged to adapt their buildings to the requirements of the 
 site. Regularity of arrangement, therefore, was not pos- 
 sible, even if they had studied it. Their churches, built 
 for the reception of large congregations of hearers rather 
 than worshippers, form a class by themselves, totally unlika 
 those of the elder orders in ground-plan and character. 
 They were usually long parallelograms unbroken by tran- 
 septs. The nave very usually consisted of two equal bodies, 
 one containing the stalls of the brotherhood, the other left 
 entirely free for the congregation. The constructional 
 choir is often wanting, the whole church forming one unin- 
 terrupted structure, with a continuous range of windows. 
 The east end was usually square, but the Friars Church at 
 Winchclsea had a~polygonal apse. We not unfrcquently 
 find a single transept, sometimes of great size, rivalling or 
 exceeding the nave. This arrangement is frequent in 
 Ireland, where the numerous small friaries afford admirable 
 exemplifications of these peculiarities of ground-plan. The 
 friars' churches were at first destitute of towers; but in tho 
 14th and 15th centuries, tall, slender towers were com- 
 monly inserted between the nave and the choir. The Grey 
 Friars at Lynn, where- the tower is hexagonal, is a good 
 example. The arrangement of the monastic buildings is 
 equally peculiar and characteristic. We miss jntirely the 
 regularity of the buildings of the earlier orders. At the 
 Jacobins at Paris, a cloister lay to the north of the long 
 narrow church of two parallel aisles, while tho refectory — 
 a room of immense length, quite detached from the cloister 
 — stretched across the area before the west front of the 
 church. At Toulouse the nave also has two parallel aisles, 
 but the choir is apsidal, with radiating chapels. The refec- 
 tory stretches northwards at right anglestothecloister, which 
 lies to the north of the church, having the chapter-house 
 and sacristy on the east. As examples of English friaries 
 the Dominican house at Norwich, and those of the Dommi- Norwich, 
 cans and Franciscans at Gloucester, may be mentioned. The Gloucestw 
 church of the Black Friars of Norwich departs from the 
 original typo in the nave (now St Andrew's Hall), in having 
 regular aisles. In this it resembles the earlier examples of 
 the Grey Friars at Reading. The choir is long and aisle- 
 less ; an hexagonal tower between the two, like that exist- 
 ing at Lynn, has perished. The cloister and monastic 
 buildings remain tolerably perfect to the north. The 
 Dominican convent at Gloucester still exhibits the cloister- 
 court, on the north side of which is the desecrated church. 
 The refectory is on the west side, and on the south the 
 dormitory of the 1 3th century. This is a remarkably good 
 example. There were 18 cells or cubiclc3 on each side, 
 divided by partitions, the bases of which remain. On the 
 east side was the prior's house, a building of later date. 
 At the Grey or Franciscan Friars, the church followed the 
 ordinary type in having two equal bodies, each gabled, 
 with a continuous range of windows. There was a slender 
 tower between the nave and choir. Of the convents of the 
 Carmelite or White Friars we have a good example in the 
 Abbey of Hulme, near Alnwick, the first of the order in 
 England, founded a.d. 1240. The church is a narrow
 
 >•> 
 
 ABB-ABB 
 
 oblong, destitute of aisles, 123 feet long by only 26 feet 
 wide. The" cloisters are to the south, with the chapter- 
 bouse, &c, to the east, with the dormitory over. The 
 prior's lodge is placed to the west of the cloister. The 
 guest-houses adjoin the entrance gateway, to which a chapel 
 was annexed on the south side of the conventual area. 
 The nave of the church of the Austin Friars or Eremites 
 in London is still standing. It is of Decorated date, and 
 has wide centre and side aisles, divided by a very light and 
 graceful arcade. Some fragments of the south walk of the 
 cloister of the Grey Friars exist among the buildings of 
 Christ's Hospital or the Blue-Coat School. Of the Black 
 Friars all has perished but the name. Taken as a whole, 
 the remains of the establishments of the friars afford little 
 warrant for the bitter invective of the Benedictine of St 
 Alban's. J'atthew Paris : — " The friars who have been 
 founded hardly 40 years have built residences as the 
 palaces of kings These are they who, enlarging day by 
 clay their sumptuous edifices, encircling them with lofty 
 walls, lay up in them their incalculable treasures, impru- 
 dently transgressing the bounds of poverty, and violating 
 the very fundamental rules of their profession." Allowance 
 must here be made for jealousy of a rival order just rising 
 in popularity. 
 
 Every large monastery had depending upon it one or 
 more smaller establishments known as cells. These cells 
 were monastic colonies, sent forth by the parent house, and 
 planted on some outlying estate. As an example, we may 
 refer to the small religious house of St Mary Magdalene's, 
 a cell of the great Benedictine house of St Mary's, York, in 
 the valley of the Witham, to the south-east of the city of 
 Lincoln. This consists of one long narrow range of build- 
 ing, of which the eastern part formed the chapel, and 
 the western contained tho apartments of the handful of 
 monks of which it was tho home. To the east may be 
 traced the site of the abbey mill, with its dam and mill- 
 lead. These cells, when belonging to a Cluniac house, 
 were allied Obediential. 
 
 The plan given by Viollet le Due of the Priory of St 
 Jean des Boris Hommes, a Cluniac cell, situated between 
 the town of Avallon and the village of Savigny, shows that 
 these diminutive establishments comprised every essential 
 feature of a monastery, — chapel, cloister, chapter-room, 
 refectory, dormitory, all grouped according to the recog- 
 nised arrangement. 
 
 These Cluniac obediential differed from the ordinary 
 Benedictine cells in being also places of punishment, to 
 which monks who had been guilty of any grave infringe- 
 ment of the rules were relegated as to a kind of peniten- 
 tiary. Here they were placed under the authority of a 
 prior, and were condemned to severe manual labour, ful- 
 filling the duties usually executed by the lay brothers, who 
 acted as farm-servants. 
 
 The outlying farming establishments belonging to the 
 monastic foundations were known as villa; or granges. 
 They gave employment to a body of conversi and labourers 
 Under the management of a monk, who bore the title of 
 {Brother Hospitaller — the granges, like their parent in- 
 stitutions, affording shelter and hospitality to belated 
 kravellers. 
 
 Authorities: — Dugdale, Monasticon; Fosbrooke, British 
 Monachism; Hclyot, Dictionnaire des Ordres Religieux; 
 Ijenoir, Architecture Monastique; Viollet le Due, Diction- 
 maire Raisonnee de V Architecture Francawe ; Walcott, 
 Conventual Arrangement; Willis, Abbey of St Gall; Archaeo- 
 logical Journal, voL t., Conventual Buildings of Canter- 
 burg ; Curzon, Monasteries of the Levant. (& v.) 
 
 ABBIATE GRASSO, a town in the north of Italy, near 
 the Ticino, 14 miles W.S.W. of Milan. It has Bilk manu- 
 factures, and contains about 5000 inhabitants. 
 
 ABBON of Fleury. or Abbo Floriacensis, a learned 
 Frenchman, born near Orleans in 045. He distinguished 
 himself in the schools of Paris and Rheims, and was a profi- 
 cient in science, as known in his°tinie. After spending two 
 years in England, assisting Archbishop Oswald of York hi 
 restoring the monastic system, he returned to France, and 
 was made Abbot of Fleury (070). He was twico sent 
 to Rome by Robert the Wise (0SG, 096), and on each occa- 
 sion succeeded in warding off a threatened papal interdict. 
 He was killed in 1004, in endeavouring to quell a monkish 
 revolt He wrote an epitome of the Lives of the Roman 
 Pontiffs, besides controversial treatises, letters, &c. 
 
 ABBOT, the head and chief governor of a community 
 of monks, called also in the East Archimandrita, irova\ 
 mandra, " a fold," or Hegumcnos. The name allot is derived 
 from the Hebrew ss, Ab, or father, through the Syriac 
 Abba. It had its origin in the monasteries of Syria, 
 whence it spread through the East, and soon became 
 accepted generally in all languages as the designation of 
 the head of a monastery. At first it was einplojtd as a 
 respectful title for any monk, as wc learn from St Jerome 
 (in Epist. ad Gal. iv. 6, in Matt, xriii. 9), but it was soon 
 restricted to the Superior. 
 
 The name abbot, though general in the West, wa3 not 
 universal. Among the Dominicians, Carmelites, Augus- 
 tines, &c, the superior was called Prcepositits, " Provost,* 
 and Prior; among the Franciscans, Gustos, "Guardian;" 
 and by the monks of Camaldoli, Major. 
 
 Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was 
 the abbot any exception. All orders of clergy, therefore, 
 even the " doorkeeper," took precedence of him. For 
 the reception of the sacraments, and for other religious 
 offices, the abbot and his monks were commanded t» 
 attend the nearest church. — (Novella;, 133, c. ii.) This rule 
 naturally proved inconvenient when a monastery was 
 situated in a desert, or at a distance from a city, and 
 necessity compelled the ordination of abbots. This innova- 
 tion was not introduced without a struggle, ecclesiastical 
 dignity being regarded as inconsistent with the higher 
 spiritual life, but, before the close of the 5th century, at least 
 in the East, abbots seem almost universally to have becom* 
 deacons, if not presbyters. The change spread more 
 slowly in the West, where the office of abbot was commonly 
 filled by laymen till the end of the 7th century, and 
 partially so up to the 11th. Ecclesiastical Councils were, 
 however, attended by abbots. Thus, at that held at Con- 
 stantinople, A.D. 448, for the condemnation of Eutyches, 
 23 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops, and, 
 cir. A.D. 690, Archbishop Theodore promulgated a canon, 
 inhibiting bishops from compelling abbots to attend 
 councils.. Examples are not uncommon in Spain and 
 in England in Saxon times. Abbots were permitted 
 by the Second Council of Nicsea, A.D. 787, to ordain 
 their monks to the inferior orders. This rule was 
 adopted in the West, and the strong prejudice against 
 clerical monks having gradually broken down, eventually 
 monks, almost without exception, belonged to some grade 
 of the ministry. 
 
 Originally no abbot was permitted to rule over more 
 than one monastic community, though, in some exceptional 
 cases, Gregory the Great allowed the rule to be broken. 
 As time went. on, violations of the rule became increasingly 
 frequent, as is proved by repeated enactments against it. 
 The cases of Wilfrid of York, cir. A.D. 675, who held the 
 abbacy of the monasteries he had founded at Hexham and 
 Ripon, and of Aldhelm, who, at the same date, stood in 
 the same double relation to those of Malmesbury, Frome, 
 and Bradford, are only apparent transgressions of the rule. 
 We find more decided instances of plurality in Hugh oJ 
 the roval Carlovingian house, cir. 720, who was at the same
 
 ABBOT 
 
 23 
 
 lime Bishop of Rouen, Paris, Bayeux, and Abbot of Fonte-> 
 Welle and Jumie'ges ; and Sidonius, Bishop of Constance, 
 who, being already Abbot of Rcichenau, took the abbacy of 
 St Gall also. Hatto of Mentz, cir. 912, annexed to his 
 see no less than 12 abbacies. 
 
 In Egypt, the first home of monasticism, we find abbots 
 in chief or r archimandrites exercising jurisdiction over a 
 large number of communities, each of which had its own 
 abbot. Thus, Cassian speaks of an abbot in the Thebaid 
 who had 500 monks under him, a number exceeded in 
 other cases. In later times also, general jurisdiction was 
 exercised over the houses of their order by the abbots of 
 Monte Cassino, St Dalmatius, Clugny, &c. The abbot of 
 Cassino was styled Abbas Abbatum. The chiefs of other 
 orders had the titles of Abbas Generalis, or Magister, or 
 Minister Generalis. 
 
 Abbots were originally subject to episcopal jurisdiction, 
 and continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the 
 11th century. The Codex of Justinian (lib. L tit.' iii. de 
 Ep. leg. xl.), expressly subordinates the abbot to epis- 
 copal oversight The first case recorded of the partial 
 exemption of an abbot from episcopal control is that of 
 Faustus, Abbot of Lerins, at the Council of Aries, A.D. 
 456 ; but the oppressive conduct, and exorbitant claims 
 and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to 
 episcopal control is to be traced, far more than to the 
 arrogance of abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, 
 and, in the 6th century, the practice of exempting religious 
 houses partly or altogether from episcopal control, and 
 making them responsible to the Popo alone, received an 
 impulse from Gregory the Great. These exceptions, 
 though introduced with a good object, had grown into a 
 wide-spread and crying evil by the 12th century, virtually 
 creating an imperium in imperio, and entirely depriving 
 the bishop of all authority over the chief centres of power 
 and influence in his diocese. In the 12th century the 
 abbots of Fulda claimed precedence of the Archbishop of 
 Cologne. Abbots more and more aped -episcopal state, 
 and in defiance of the express prohibition of early councils, 
 and the protests of St Bernard and others, adopted the 
 episcopal insignia of mitre, ring, gloves, and sandals. A 
 mitre is said to have been granted to the Abbot of Bobbio 
 by Pope Theodorus I., a.d. 643, and to the Abbot of St 
 Saviaius by Sylvester II., A.D. 1000. Ducange asserts 
 that pontifical insignia were first assigned to abbots by 
 John XVIII., A.D. 1004-1009 ; but the first undoubted 
 grant is said to be that to the Abbot of St Maximinian at 
 Treves, by Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), A.D. 1073-1085. 
 The mitred abbots in England were those of Abingdon, 
 St Alban's, Bardney, Battle, Bury St Edmund's, St Augus- 
 tine's Canterbury, Colchester, Croyland, Evesham, Glas- 
 tonbury, Gloucester, St Benet's Hulme, Hyde, Malmes- 
 bury, Peterborough, Ramsey, Reading, Selby, Shrewsbury, 
 Tavistock, Thorney, Westminster, Winchcombe, St Mary's 
 York. Of these the precedence was originally yielded to 
 the Abbot of Glastonbury, until in A.D. 1154 Adrian IV. 
 (Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the Abbot of St 
 Alban's,' in which monastery he had been brought up. 
 Next after the Abbot of St Alban's ranked the Abbot of 
 Westminster. 
 
 To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained that 
 their mitre should be made of less costly materials, and 
 should not be ornamented with gold, a rule which was 
 soon entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their 
 pastoral staff should turn inwards instead of outwards, 
 indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their own 
 house. The adoption of episcopal insignia by abbots 
 was followed by an encroachment on episcopal functions, 
 vliich had to be specially but ineffectually guarded against 
 by the Lateran Council, A.D. 1123. In the East, abbots, 
 
 if in priests' orders, with the consent of the bisEop, were, 
 as we have seen, permitted by the Second Niceno Council, 
 a.d. 787, to confer the tonsure and admit to the order at 
 reader ; but they gradually advanced higher claims, until 
 we find them authorised by Bellarmine to be associated 
 with a single bishop in episcopal consecrations, and per- 
 mitted by Innocent TV., A.D. 1489, to confer both the 
 subdiaconate and diaconatc. Of course, they always and 
 everywhere had the power of admitting their own mOnks, 
 and vesting them with the religious habit. In the first 
 instance, when a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese 
 chose the abbot out of the monks of the convent, but 
 the right of election was transferred by jurisdiction to 
 the monks themselves, reserving to the bishop the con- 
 firmation of the election and the benediction of the new 
 abbot. In abbeys exempt from episcopal jurisdiction, the 
 confirmation and benediction had to be conferred by the 
 Pope in person, the house being taxed with the expenses 
 of the new abbot's journey to Rome. By the rule of St 
 Benedict,' the consent of the laity was in some unde- 
 fined way required ; but this seems never to have been 
 practically enforced. It was necessary that an abbot 
 should be at least 25 years of age, of legitimate birth, a 
 monk of the house, unless it furnished no suitable can- 
 didate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from another 
 convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct others, 
 one also who had learned how to command by having prac- 
 tised obedience. In some exceptional cases an abbot was 
 allowed to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an 
 abbot in Egypt doing this ; and in later tinies we have 
 another example in the case of St Bruno. Popes and 
 sovereigns gradually encroached on the rights of the 
 monks, until in Italy the Pope' had usurped the nomina- 
 tion of all abbots, and the king in France, with the ex- 
 ception of Clugny, Prdmontrd, and other houses, chiefs of 
 their order. The election was for life, unless the abbot 
 was canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order, or, 
 when he was directly subject to them, by the Pope or the 
 bishop. 
 
 The ceremony of the formal admission of a Benedictine 
 abbot in mediaeval times is thus prescribed by the consuetu- 
 dinary of Abingdon. The newly elected abbot was to 
 put off his shoes at the door" of the church, and proceed 
 barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in 
 a procession. After proceeding up the nave, he was to 
 kneel and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the 
 choir, into which he was to be introduced by the bishop 
 or his commissary, and placed in his stall The monks, 
 then kneeling, gave him the kiss of peace on the hand, 
 and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his staff of 
 office. He then put on his shoes in the vestry, and a 
 chapter was held, and the bishop or his commissary 
 preached a .suitable sermon. 
 
 The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, 
 limited, however, by the canons, of the church, and, until 
 the general establishment of exemptions; by episcopal 
 controL As a rule, however, implicit obedience was en- 
 forced ; to act without his orders was culpable ; whilo it 
 was a sacred duty to execute his orders, however unrea- 
 sonable, until they were withdrawn. Examples among the 
 Egyptian monks of this blind submission to the commands 
 of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by those who re- 
 garded the entire crushing of the individual will as the 
 highest excellence, are detailed by Cassian and others, — e.g., 
 a monk watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or 
 endeavouring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding 
 his powers. St Jerome, indeed, lays down, as the principle, 
 of the compact between the abbot and his monks, that thej 
 should obey their superiors in all things, and perform what- 
 ever they commanded. — (Ep. 2 ad Eusto'ch. de custod
 
 24 
 
 ABBOT 
 
 virgin.) So despotic did the tyranny become in the West, 
 that in the time of Charlemagne it was necessary to re- 
 strain abbots by legal enactments from mutilating their 
 monks, and putting out their eyes; while the rule of St 
 Columba ordained 100 lashes as the punishment for very 
 alight offences. An abbot also had the power of excom- 
 municating refractory uuus, which he might use if desired 
 by their abbess. 
 
 The abbot was treated with the utmost submission and 
 reverence by the brethren of his house. When he appeared 
 either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed. 
 His letters were received kneeling, like those of the Pope 
 and the king. If he gave a command, the monk receiving 
 it was also to kneel. No monk might sit in his presence, 
 or leave it without his permission. The highest place was 
 naturally assigned to him, both in church and at table. 
 In the East he was commanded to eat with the other monks. 
 In the West the rule of St Benedict appointed him a sepa- 
 rate table, at which he might entertain guests and strangers. 
 This permission opening the door to luxurious living, the 
 Council of Aix, a.d. 817, decreed that the abbot should 
 dine in the refectory, and be content with the ordinary 
 fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest. 
 These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual to 
 securo strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature 
 abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning 
 the inordinate extravagance of tho tables of the abbots. 
 When the abbot condescended to dine in the refectory, his 
 chaplains waited upon him with the dishes, a servant, if 
 necessary, assisting them. At St Alban's the abbot took 
 the lord's seat, in the centre of the high table, and was 
 served on silver plate, and sumptuously entertained noble- 
 men, ambassadors, and strangers of quality. When abbots 
 dined in their own private hall, the .rule ,of St Benedict 
 charged them to invite their monks to their table, provided 
 there was room, on which occasions the guests were to ab- 
 stain from quarrels, slanderous talk, and idle gossipping. 
 The complaint, however, was sometimes made (as by Matt. 
 Paris of Wulsig, the third abbot of St Alban's), that they invited 
 ladies of rank-to dine with them instead of their monks. The 
 ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be the 
 same as that of the monks. But by the 10th century the 
 rule was commonly set aside, and wo find frequent com- 
 plaints of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting great 
 iumptuousness of attire. Nay, they sometimes laid aside 
 the monastic habit altogether, and assumed a secular dress. 1 
 Thiswasanecessary consequenceof their following the chase, 
 which was quite usual, and indeed at that time only natural. 
 With the increase of wealth and power, abbots had lost 
 much of their special religious character, and become great 
 lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by celibacy. 
 Thus we hear of abbots going out to sport, with their men 
 carrying bows and arrows ; keeping horses, dogs, and 
 huntsmen ; and special mention is made of an abbot of 
 Leicester,- cir. 1360, who was the most skilled of all the 
 nobility in hare-hunting. In magnificence of equipage and 
 retinue the abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm. 
 They rode on mules with gilded bridles, rich saddles and 
 housings, carrying hawks on their wrist, attended by an 
 immense train of attendants. The bells of the churches 
 were rung as they passed. They associated on equal terms 
 with laymen of the highest distinction, and shared all their 
 pleasures and pursuits. This rank and power was, how- 
 ever, often used most beueficiaUy. For instance, we read 
 of Whiting, the last Abbot of Glastonbury, judicially mur- 
 dered by Henry VHI., that his house was a kind of well- 
 ordered court, where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and 
 
 1 Walworth, the fourth abbot of St Alban's, circa 930, is charged by 
 Matthew Paris with adopting the attire oX a sportsman. 
 
 gentlemen, who had been sent to him for virtuous educa- 
 tion, had been brought up, besides others of a meaner rank, 
 whom he fitted for the universities. His table, attendance, 
 and officers were an honour to the nation. He would 
 entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at one time, 
 besides relieviug the poor of the vicinity twice a-week. 
 Ho had his country houses and fisheries, and when he 
 travelled to attend Parliament his rctiuue amounted to 
 upwards of 100 persons. The abbots of Clugny and 
 Yendome were, by virtue of their office, cardinals of tLf 
 Romish Church. 
 
 In process of time the title abbot was improperly trans- 
 ferred to clerics who had no connection with the monastic 
 system, as to the principal of a body of parochial 
 clergy; and under the Carlovingians to the chief chaplain 
 c-f the king, Abbas Curiae, or military chaplain of the em- 
 peror, Abbas Caslrensis. It even came to be adopted by 
 purely secular officials. Thus the chief magistrate of the 
 republic at Genoa was called Abbas Populi. Ducange, in 
 his Glossary, also gives us Abbas Campanilis, Clockerii, 
 Palatii, Scholaris, &c. 
 
 Lay abbots, so called, had their origin in the system oJ 
 commendation, in the 8th century. By this, to meet any 
 {,Teat necessity of the state, such as an inroad of the Sara- 
 cens, the revenues of monasteries were temporarily com- 
 mended, i.e., handed over to some layman, a noble, or even 
 the king himself, who for the time became titular abbot. 
 Enough was reserved to maintain tho monastic brother- 
 hood, and when the occasion passed away the revenues 
 were to be restored to their rightful owners. Tho estates, 
 however, had a habit of lingering in lay hands, so that in 
 tho 9th and 10th centuries most of the sovereigns and 
 nobles among the Franks and Burgundians were titular 
 abbots of some great monastery, the revenues of which 
 they applied to their own purposes. These lay-abbots 
 were styled Abbacomites or Abbates Milites. Hugh Capet, 
 before his elevation to the throne, as an Abbacomes held 
 the abbeys of St Denis and St Germain in commendam. 
 Bishop Hatto, of Mentz, a.d. 891-912, is said to have held 
 12 abbeys in commendam at once. In England, as wc see 
 from the Acts of the Council of Cloveshoo, in the 8tb 
 century, monasteries were often invaded and occupied by 
 laymen. This occurred sometimes from the monastery 
 having voluntarily placed itself under the protection of n 
 powerful layman, who, from its protector, became its op 
 pressor. Sometimes there were two lines of abbots, one ol 
 laymen enjoying the lion's share of the revenues, another 
 of clerics fulfilling tho proper duties of an abbot on a small 
 fraction of the income. The gross abuse of lay commen- 
 dation which had sprung up during the corruption of 
 the monastic system passed away with its reformation in 
 the 10th century, either voluntarily or by compulsion, 
 The like abuse prevailed in the East at a later period. 
 John, Patriarch of Antioch, at the beginning of the 12th 
 century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had 
 been handed over to laymen, beneficiarii, for life, "or for 
 part of their lives, by the emperors. 
 
 In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied 
 the place of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on 
 the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior. 
 In other convents the prior was the second officer next to 
 the abbot, representing him in his absence, and fulfilling 
 his duties. The superiors of the cells, or small monastic 
 establishments dependent on the larger monasteries, were 
 also called priors. They were appointed by the abbots, 
 and held office at their pleasure. 
 
 Authorities : — Bingham, Origines ; Ducange, Glossary ; 
 Herzog, Realwbrterbuch ; Robertson, Oh. Hist. ; Martene, 
 De Antiq. Monast. Ritibus, Montalembert, Monks of ilte 
 West
 
 ABBOT 
 
 25 
 
 ABBOT, Charles,, speaker of the House of Commons 
 &*>m 1802 to 1817, afterwards created Lord' Colchester. 
 See Colchester. 
 
 ABBOT, George, Archbishop of Canterbury, -was born 
 October 19, 15C2, at Guildford in Surrey, where his father 
 was a cloth-worker. He studied at Balliol College, Oxford, 
 and was chosen Master of University College^ in 1597. 
 He was thr^e times appointed to the office of Vice-Chan- 
 cellor of the university. When in 1604 the version of the 
 Bible now in use was ordered to be prepared, Dr Abbot's 
 name stood second on the list of the eight Oxford divines 
 to whom was intrusted the translation of the New Testa- 
 ment, excepting the Epistles. In 1G08 he went to Scotland 
 with the Earl of Dunbar to arrange- for a union between 
 the Churches of England and Scotland, and his conduct in 
 that negotiation laid the foundation of his preferment, by 
 attracting to him the notice and favour of the king. With- 
 out having held any parochial charge, he was appointed 
 Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1609, was translated 
 to the see of London a mouth afterwards, and in less 
 than a year was made Archbishop of Canterbury. This 
 rapid preferment was due as much perhaps to his flat- 
 tering his royal master as to his legitimate merits. After 
 his. elevation he showed on several occasions firmness 
 and courage in resisting the king. In the scandalous 
 divorce suit of the Lady Frances Howard against the Earl 
 of Essex, the archbishop persistently opposed the dissolu- 
 tion of the marriage, though the influence of the king and 
 court was strongly and successfully exerted in the opposite 
 direction. In 1618, when a declaration was published by 
 the king, and ordered to be read in all the churches, per- 
 mitting sports and pastimes on the Sabbath, Abbot had 
 the courage to forbid its being read at Croydon, where he 
 happened to be at the time. As may be inferred from 
 the incident just mentioned, Abbot was of the Protestant or 
 Puritan party in the Church. He was naturally, therefore, 
 a promoter of the match between the Elector Palatine and 
 the Princess Elizabeth, and a firm opponent of the projected 
 marriage of the Prince of Wales with the Infanta of Spain. 
 This policy brought upon him the hatred of Laud and the 
 court. The king, indeed, never forsook him ; but Buck- 
 ingham was his avowed enemy, and he was regarded with 
 dislike by the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles I. 
 In 1622 a sad misfortune befell the archbishop while 
 hunting in Lord Zouch's park at Bramzill. A bolt from 
 his cross-brow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of 
 the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so 
 greatly distressed by the event that he fell into a state of 
 settled melancholy. His enemies maintained that the fatal 
 issue of this accident disqualified him for his office, and 
 argued that, though the homicide was involuntary, the 
 sport of hunting which had led to it was one in which no 
 clerical person could lawfully indulge. The king had to 
 refer the matter to a commission of ten, though he said 
 that " an angel might have miscarried aftpr this sort." A 
 decision was given in the archbishop's favour; but to 'pre- 
 vent disputes, it was recommended that the king should 
 formally absolve him, and confer his office upon him anew. 
 After this the archbishop seldom appeared at the council, 
 chiefly on account of his infirmities. He attended the 
 king constantly, however, in his last illness, and performed 
 the ceremony of the coronation of Charles I. A pretext 
 was soon found by his enemies for depriving him of all his 
 functions as primate, which were put in commission by 
 the king. This high-handed procedure was the result of 
 Abbot's refusal to license a sermon preached by Dr Sibthorp, 
 in which the king's prerogative was stretched beyond con- 
 stitutional limits. The archbishop had his powers restored 
 to him shortly afterwards, however, when the king found 
 it. o^colutely necessary to summon a Parliament. His pre- 
 
 sence being unwelcome at court, he lived from that time 
 in retirement, leaving Laud and his party in undisputed 
 ascendency. He died, at Croydon on the 5th August 1633, 
 and was buried at Guildford, his native plare, where he had 
 endowed an hospital with lands to the value of £300 a year. 
 Abbot wrote a large number of works; but, with the excep- 
 tion of his Exposition on the Prophet Jonah (1600), which 
 was reprinted in 1845, they are now little known. His 
 Geography, or a Brief Description of the Whole World, 
 passed through numerous editions. 
 
 ABBOT, George, known as " The Puritan," has been 
 oddly and persistently mistaken for others. He has been 
 described as a clergyman, which he never was, and as son 
 of Sir Morris Abbot, and his writings accordingly entered 
 in the bibliographical authorities as by the nephew of 
 the Archbishop of Canterbury. One of the sons of Sir 
 Morris Abbot was, indeed, named George, and he was 
 a man of mark, but the more famous George Abbot 
 was of a different family altogether. He was son or 
 grandson (it is not clear which) of Sir Thomas Abbot, 
 knight of Easington, East Yorkshire, having been born 
 there in 1603-4, his mother (or grandmother) being 
 of the ancient house of Pickering. He married a 
 daughter of Colonel Purefoy of Caldecote, Warwickshire, 
 and as his monument, which may still be seen in the 
 church there, tells, he bcavely held it against Prince 
 Rupert and Maurice during the civil war. He was a 
 member of the Long Parliament for Tamworth. As a 
 layman, and nevertheless a theologian and scholar of 
 rare ripeness and critical ability, he holds an almost 
 unique place in the literature of the period. His Wltole 
 Booke of Job Paraphrased, or made easy for any to under- 
 stand (1640, 4to), is in striking contrast, in its concinnity 
 and terseness, with the prolixity of too many of the Puritan 
 expositors and commentators. His Vindicice Sabbathi(16H , 
 8vo) had a .profound . and lasting influence in the long 
 Sabbatic controversy. His Brief Notes upon t/ce Wliole Book 
 of Psalms (1651, 4to), as its date shows, was posthumous. 
 He died February 2, 1648. (MS. collections at Abbey- 
 ville for history of all of the name of Abbot, by J. T. 
 Abbot, Esq., F.S.A., Darlington; Dugdale's Antiquities of 
 Warwickshire, 1656, p. 791; Wood's Aihence (Bliss), s. v.; 
 Cox's Literature of the Sabbath; Dr James Gilfillan on 
 The Sabbath; Lowndes, Bodleian, B. Museum Calal. 
 s. v.) (a. b. g.) 
 
 ABBOT, Robert. Noted as this Puritan divine was in 
 his own time, and representative in various ways, he has 
 hitherto been confounded with others, as Robert Abbot, 
 Bishop of Salisbury, and bis personality distributed over 
 a Robert Abbot of Cranbrook; another of Southwick, 
 Hants; a third of St Austin's, London ; while these succes- 
 sive places were only the successive livings of the one 
 Robert Abbot. He is also described as of the Archbishop's 
 or Guildford Abbots, whereas he was in no way related, 
 albeit he acknowledges very gratefully, in the first of his 
 epistles-dedicatory of A Hand of Fellowship to Helpe Keepe 
 ovt Sinne and Antichrist (1623, 4to), that it was from the 
 archbishop he had " received all" his " worldly mainte- 
 nance," as well as ''best earthly countenance" and "fatherly 
 incouragements." The worldly maintenance was the pre- 
 sentation to the vicarage of Cranbrook in Kent, of which 
 the archbishop was patron. This was in 1616. He had 
 received his education at Cambridge, where he proceeded 
 M.A., and was afterwards incorporated at Oxford. In 
 1639, in the epistle to the reader of his most noticeable 
 book historically, his Triall of our Church-Forsakers. 
 he tells us, " I have lived now, by God's gratious dis- 
 pensation, above fifty years, and in tho place of mj 
 allotment two and twenty full." The former date 
 carries us back to 1588-69. or ptrhaps 1587-88— tht
 
 26 
 
 A B B — A B B 
 
 "Armada" year — as hia birth-time; the latter to 1616-17 
 (ut supra). In his Bee Thankfull London and her Sisters 
 (1626), he describes himself as formerly " assistant to a 
 reverend divine .... now with God," and tho name on 
 the margin is " Master liaiward of Wool Church." This 
 was doubtless previous to his going to Cranbrook, Very 
 reniarkablo and effective was Abbot's ministry at Cran- 
 brook, where the father of Phineas and Giles Fletcher was 
 the first " Reformation" pastor, and which, relatively 6mall 
 as it is, is transfigured by being the birth-place of the poet 
 of the " Locustx" and " Tho Purple Island." His parish- 
 ioners were as his own " sons and daughters" to him, and 
 by day and night ho thought and felt, wept and prayed, for 
 them and with them. He is a noble specimen of the rural 
 clergyman of his age. Puritan though ho was in his deepest 
 convictions, he was a thorough Churchman as toward Non- 
 conformists, e.g., the Brownists, with whom he waged stern 
 warfare. He remained until 1 G 13 at Cranbrook, and then 
 chose the very inferior living of Southwick, Hants, as be- 
 tween the one and the other, the Parliament deciding 
 against pluralities of ecclesiastical offices. Succeeding the 
 " extruded " Udall of St Austine's, Abbot continued there 
 until a good old age. In 1657, in the Warning-piece, he 
 is described as still " pastor of Austine's in London." He 
 disappears silently between 1657-8 and 1662. Robert 
 Abbot's books are distinguished from many of the Puritans 
 by their terseness and variety. (Brook's Puritans, iii 
 182, 3; Walker's Sufferings; Wood's Athence (Bliss); Cata- 
 logus Impressorum Librorum in Bibliotheca Bodleiana, s.v. ; 
 Palmer's Nonconf. Mem., ii 218.) (a. b. o.) 
 
 ABBOTSFORD, the celebrated residence of Sir Walter 
 Scott, situated on the south bank of the river Tweed, about 
 three miles above Melrose. Tho nucleus of the property 
 was a small farm of 100 acres, with the "inharmonious 
 designation" of Clarty Hole, acquired by Scott on the lapse 
 of his lease (1811) of the neighbouring house of Ashestiel. 
 It was gradually increased by various acquisitions, the last 
 and principal being that of Toftfield (afterwards named 
 Huntlyburn ), purchased in 1 8 1 7. The present new house was 
 then commenced, and was completed in 1824. The general 
 ground-plan is a parallelogram, with irregular outlines — 
 one side overlooking the Tweed, and the other facing a 
 courtyard ; and the general style of the building is the 
 Scottish baronial. Scott had only enjoyed his new resi- 
 dence one year when (1825) he met with that reverse of 
 fortune (connected with tho failure of Ballantyne and 
 Constable), which involved the estate in debt. In 1830, 
 the library 1 and museum were presented as a free gift by 
 the creditors ; and after Scott'3 death, which took place at 
 Abbotsford in September 1832, a committee of friends 
 subscribed a further sum of about £8000 towards the same 
 object. The property was wholly disencumbered in 1847, 
 by Mr Cadell, the publisher, accepting the remaining 
 claims of the family over Sir Walter Scott's writings in 
 requital of his obligation to obliterate tho heritable bond on 
 the property. The result of tliis transaction was, that not 
 only was the estate redeemed by the fruit of Scott's brain, 
 but a handsome re°idue fell to the publisher. Scott's only 
 son Walter (Lieutenant-Colonel 15th Hussars) did not live 
 to enjoy the property, having died on his way from India 
 in 1847. Its subsequent possessors have been Scott's 
 son-in-law, J. G. Lockhart, and the tatter's son-in-law, 
 J. R. Hope Scott, Q.C., whose daughter (Scott's great- 
 granddaughter) is the present proprietor. Mr Lockhart 
 died at Abbotsford in 1854. — See Life of Scott, by J. G. 
 Lockhart; Abbotsford and Newstead Abbey, by Washing- 
 ton Irving; Abbotsford Notanda in Gentleman's Mag., 
 
 * The Catalogue of the Library at Abbotsford forms vol. lxi. of Aie 
 *kumatyae Club publications. 
 
 April and May 1869; The Lands of Scott, by James P. 
 Hunncwell, cr. 8vo, 1871; Scott Loan Exhibition Cata 
 logue, 4to, 1871. 
 
 ABBOTSFORD CLUB, one of the principal printing 
 clubs, was founded in 1834 by Mr W. B. D. D. Turnbuil, and 
 named in honour of Sir Walter Scott. Taking a wide* 
 range than its predecessors, the Bannatyno and Maitland 
 Clubs, it did" not confine its printing (as remarked by Ml 
 Lockhart) to works connected with Scotland, but admitted 
 all materials that threw light on the ancient history ol 
 literature of any country, anywhere described or discussed 
 by the Author of Waverley. The club, now dissolved, con- 
 sisted of fifty members ; and the publications extend to, 3 1 
 vols, quarto, issued during the years 1835-1864. 
 
 ABBREVIATION", a letter or group of letters, takcD 
 from a word or words, and employed to represent them for 
 the sake of brevity. Abbreviations, both of single words 
 and of phrases, having a meaning more or less fixed and 
 recognised, are common in ancient writings and inscrip- 
 tions, and very many are in use at the present time. A 
 distinction is to be observed between abbreviations and the 
 contractions that are frequently to be met with in old 
 manuscripts, and even in early printed books, whereby 
 letters are dropped out here and there, or particular collo- 
 cations of letters represented by somewhat arbitrary symbol* 
 Tho commonest form of abbreviation is the substitution for 
 a word of its initial letter ; but, with a view to prevent 
 ambiguity, one.or more of the other letters are frequently 
 added. Letters are often doubled to indicate a plural or a 
 superlative. 
 
 I. Classical Abbreviations. — The following list con- 
 tains a selection from the abbreviations that occur in the 
 writings and inscriptions of the Romans: — 
 
 A. 
 A. Absolvo, JEdilis, jEs, Ager, Ago, Aio, Amicus, Annua, 
 
 Antiquo, Auctor, Auditor, Augustus, Aulas, Aurum, 
 Aut. 
 A. A. jEs alienum, Ante audita, A pud agruni, Aurum argcutuin. 
 AA. Augusti. AAA. Augusti tres. 
 
 A.A.A.F.F. Auro argento oereiiando feriundo. 1 
 A. A. V. Alter ambove. 
 A.C. Acta causa, Alius civis. 
 
 AJ). Ante diem ; e.g., A.D.V. Ante diem •luuituin. 
 Art). A. Ad dandos agros. 
 /ED. iEdes, jEdilis, ^dilitas. 
 /EM. and AIM. .Emilias, .Emilia. 
 /ER. iErarium. • ^EK. P. Mve publico. 
 A. F. Actum fide, Auli filius. 
 AG. Ager, Ago, Agrinpa. 
 A. G. Animo grato, Aulus Gellius. 
 A. L. JR. and A. L.E. Arbitrium litis uistiuiai.ax. 
 A. M. and A. MILL. Ad milliarium. 
 AN. Aniensis, Annus, Ante. 
 ANN. Annales, Anni, Annona, 
 ANT. Ante, Antonius. 
 A. O. Alii omncs, Amico optimo. 
 AP. Appius, Apud. 
 A. P. Ad pedes, jEdilitia potestate. 
 A. P. F. \uro (or argento) publico feriundo. • 
 A. P. M. Amico posuit nionumen turn, Annoruni plus minua. 
 A. P. R.C. Anno post Romam conditam, 
 ARG. Argcntum. 
 
 A R. V. V. D. D. Aram votam volens dedicavit, Anna voti va douu dedn, 
 AT. A tergo. Also A TE. and A TER. 
 A.T.M.D.O. Aao tc mihi dare opertere. 
 AV. Augur, Augustus, Aurclius. 
 
 A. V. Annos vixit. 
 A. V. C. Ab urbe condita. 
 AVG. Augur, Augustus. 
 
 AVGG. Augusti (generally of two). aVGGG. August! trea. 
 AVT.PR.K. Auctoritas Drovinciae Romanorum. 
 
 15. 
 
 B. 
 
 Balbiua, Balbus, Beatus, Bene, Beneficiarius. Beneficium, 
 Bonus, Brutus, Bustum. 
 B. forV. Berna,Bivus, Bixit. 
 15. A. Bixit annos, Bonis auguriis, Bonus amabilis. < 
 
 1 Describing the function of the triumviri menitalcs.
 
 ABBREVIATION 
 
 27 
 
 RB. erB.B Bene bene, i.e., optime, Optimus. 
 
 B. D. Bonae deae, Bonum datum. 
 
 B.DD. Bonis deabus. 
 
 B. D.S.M. Bene de so mcrenti. 
 
 B.F. 
 
 H-.-T- 
 
 li.H. 
 It. I. 
 
 b.m. 
 
 B.N. 
 BN.H.I 
 B.P. 
 B.Q. 
 
 Bona femina, Bona tides, Bona fortuna, Bonum factum. 
 
 Bona femina, Bona filia. 
 
 Bona hereditaria, Bonorum heres. 
 
 Bonum judicium. B. 1. 1. Boni judicis judicium. 
 
 Beatre memoriae, Beno mereuti. 
 
 Bona nostra, Bonum nomen. 
 
 Bona hie invenies. 
 
 Bona paterna, Bonorum potestas, Bonum publicnra. 
 
 Beno quiescat, Bona quaesita. 
 
 B.RP.N. Bono reipublicav natus. 
 
 BRT. Britannicus. 
 
 B.T. Bonorum tutor, Brevi tempore. 
 
 B.V. Bene vale, Bene vixit, Bonus vir. 
 
 B. V. V. Balnea vina Venus. 
 BX. Bixit, for vixit. 
 
 C. 
 
 C. Caesar, Cams, Caput, Causa, Censor, Civis, Conors, Colonia, 
 
 Comitialis (dies), Condemno, Consul, Cum, Curo, 
 Custos. 
 
 fj. Caia, Centuria, Cum, the prefix Con. 
 
 C. B. Civis bonus, Commune bonum, Conjugi benemerenti, Cui 
 bono. 
 
 C.C. C'alumnim causa, Causa cognita, Conjugi carissimae, Con- 
 silium cepit, Curiae consulto. 
 
 C.C.C. Calumnice cavendae causa. 
 
 C.C. F. Caesar (or Caius) curavit faciendum, Caius Caii filius. 
 
 CC.VV. Clarissimi viri. 
 
 CD. C-esaris decreto, Caius Decius. Comitialfbus diebus. 
 
 CliS. Censor, Censores. CESS. Censores 
 
 C. F. Causa fiduciae, Conjugi fecit, Curavit faciendum. 
 
 C. H. Custos heredum, Custos hortorum. 
 
 C.I. Caius Julius, Consul jussit, Curavit judex. 
 
 CL. Clarissimus, Claudius, Clodius, Colonia. 
 
 CL. V. Clarissimus vir, Clypeum vovit 
 
 C. HI. Caius Marius, Causa mortis. 
 
 CN. Cnaeus. 
 
 COH Coheres, Cohors. 
 
 COL. Collega, Collegium, Colonia, Columnv 
 
 COLL. Collega, Coloni, Colonice. 
 
 COM. Comes, Comitium, Comparatum. 
 
 CON. Conjux, Consensus, Consiliarius, Consul, Consularis. 
 
 COR. Cornelia (tribus), Cornelius, Corona, Corpus. 
 
 COS. Consiliarius, Consul, Consulares. COSS. Consulcs. 
 
 C.P. Carissimus or Clarissimus puer, Civis publicus, Curavit 
 ponendum. 
 
 C.R. Caius Rufus, Civis Romanus, Curavit reddendum. 
 
 CS. Caesar, Communis, Consul. 
 
 C. V. Clarissimus or consularis vir. 
 CVR. Cura, Curator, Curavit, Curia. 
 
 D. 
 
 D. Dat, Dedit, &c, De, Deeimus, Decius, Decretnm, Decurin, 
 
 Deus, Dicit, If., Dies, Divus, Dominus, Domus, 
 
 Donum. 
 D.C. Decurio colonise, Diebus comitialibus, Divus Caesar. 
 D. D. Dea Dia, Decurionum decreto, Dedicavit Deo dedit, Donn 
 
 dedit. 
 D.D.D. Datum decreto decurionum, Dono dedit dedicavit. 
 D.E.R. Deearo. 
 DES. Designates. 
 
 D. [. Dedit imperator, Diis immortalibus, Diis inferis. 
 D. I.M. Deo invicto Mithrre, Diis inferis Manibus. 
 D. M. Deo Magno, Dignus memoria, Diis Manibus, Dolomalo. 
 
 D. 0. M. Deo Optimo Maximo. 
 
 D.P.S. Dedit proprio sumptu, Deo pcrpetuo sacrum, De pecuni.i 
 sua. 
 
 E. 
 
 E. Ejus, Eques, Erexit, Ergo, Est, Et, Etiam, Ex. 
 EG. .Sger, Egit, Egregius. 
 
 E. M. Egregiaj memoriae, Ejusmodi, Erexit monumentum. 
 EQ.M. Equitum magister. 
 
 E. K. A, Ea res agitur. 
 
 F. 
 
 F. Fabius, Facere, Feoit, &c., Familia, Fastus (dies\ Felix. 
 
 Femina, Fides, Filius, Flamon, Fortuna, Trater, Fuit, 
 
 Functus. 
 F.C. Faciendum curavit, Fidei commissnm, Fiduciae causa. 
 F. D. Fidem dedit, Flamen Dialis, Fraude donavit 
 F. F. F. Ferro flamma fame, Fortior fortuna fato. 
 FL. Filius, Flamen, Flaminius, Flavius. 
 
 t. L. Favete Unguis, Fecit libens, Felix liber. 
 FR Forum, Fronte, Frumentarius. 
 
 F.R. Forum Romanum. 
 
 G. Gaius (=Caius), Gallia, Gaudium, Cellius, Gemina, Gen*, 
 
 Gesta, Gratia. 
 G. F. Gemina fidelis (zpplied to a legion). SoG.P.F. Genii ns 
 
 pia fidelis. 
 GL. Gloria. 
 
 GN. Cenius, Gens, Genus, Gnseu3 (=Cnams). 
 G.P.R. Genio populi Roniani. 
 
 H. 
 H. ITabet, j feres, Hie, Homo, Honor, Hora. 
 
 HER. Heres, Herennius. HER. and HERC. Hercnlen 
 H.I,. Hae lege, Hoc loco, Honesto loco. 
 H.M. Hoc monumentum, Honesta mulier, Horamaia, 
 H.S.E. Hie sepultus est, Hie situs est. 
 H. V. Haec urbs, Hie vivit, Honeste vixit Honcstus vir. 
 
 I. 
 
 I. Immortalis, Imperator, In, Infra, Inter, Invictns, Ioa» 
 
 Isis, Judex, Julius, Junius, Jupiter, Justus. 
 I A. Jam, Intra. 
 
 I.C. Julius Cirsar, Juris Consultum, Jus civile. 
 ID. Idem, Idus, Interdum. 
 
 I.D. Inferis diis, Jovi dedicatum, Jus dicendum, Jussu Dei 
 I.D. M. « T ovi deo magno. 
 I.F. I&foro, In fronte. 
 I. H. Jacct hie, In honestatem, Justus homo. 
 IM. Imago, Immortalis, Immunis, lmpensa. 
 
 IMP. Imperator, Impcrium. 
 1.031. Jovi Optimo mnximo. 
 
 LP. In publico, Intra prortneiam, Justa persona. 
 
 I.S.V.P. lmpensa sua vivus posuit 
 
 K. 
 
 K. Koeso, Caia, Calumnia, Caput, Carus, Castra. 
 
 K., KAL. , and KL. Kalendae. 
 
 L. 
 L. Lxlius, Legio, Lex, Libens, Liber, Libra, Locus, Lollins. 
 
 Lucius, Ludus. 
 LB. Libens, Liberi, Libertus. . 
 
 L. D. D. D. Locus datus docroto decurionum. 
 LEG. 
 LIB. 
 LL. 
 Lit. 
 L.S. 
 LVD. 
 
 Lcgatus, Legio. 
 
 Liber, Liberalitas, Libertas, Libertus, I.ibrarius. 
 
 Leges, Libentissime, Liberti. 
 
 Libens merito, Locus monumrnti. 
 
 Laribus sacrum, Libens solvit, Locus saecr. 
 
 Ludus. 
 
 LV.P.F. Ludos publicos fecit 
 
 M. 
 
 M. 
 
 jr. 
 
 M.D. 
 MK3. 
 M.F. 
 M.I. 
 
 jragister, jragistratus, Magnus, Manes,' Marcus, Jtarins, 
 Marti, Mater, Memoria, Mcnsis, Jliles, Jlor.umeutuin, 
 Mortuus, JIucius, Mulier. 
 
 Manius. 
 
 JIagno Deo, JTanibus diis, Matri deum, Merenti dedit 
 
 Mensis. MESS. Jlenses. 
 
 Mala fides, Marci filius, Monumentum fecit 
 
 JIatri Idacce, Matri Isidi, JIaximo JovL 
 
 MNT. and MON. Jloneta. 
 
 M.P. 
 
 M.S. 
 
 MVN. 
 
 JIale positus, Monumentum posuit 
 JIanibus sacrum, Wlemorire sacrum, Jlanu. scriptum. 
 Municeps, or municipium: so also MN., MV., and 
 MVNIC. 
 M.V.S. Marti ultori sacrum, Jlcrito votum solvit 
 
 N. 
 N. Natio, Natus, Nefastus (dies), Nepos, Neptunus, Nero, 
 
 Nomen, Non, Nonae, Noster, Novus, Numen, Numo 
 
 rius, Numerus, Nummus. 
 NEP. Nepos, Neptunus. 
 N.F.C. Nostrae fidci commissum. 
 N.L. Non licet, Non liquet, Non longe, 
 N. M.V. Nobilis memoriae vir. 
 
 NN. Nostri. NN., NNO., and NNR. Nostromm. 
 NOB. Nobilis. NOB., NOBR., and NOV. Novcmbris. 
 N.P. Nefastus primo {i.e., priore Darte diei), Non potest 
 
 O. 
 0. Ob, Officium, Omnis, Oportet Optimus, Opns, Ossa 
 
 OB. Okiit, Obiter, Orbis. 
 O.C.S. Ob cives servatos. 
 O.H.F. Omnibus honoribus functus. 
 O.H.S.S. Ossa hie sita sunt 
 OR. Hora, Ordo, Omaroentum, 
 O.T.B.Q. Ossa tua bene quiiscant 
 P. 
 P. Pars, Fossus, Pater, Patronus, Pax, Perpetuus, Pes, Pius, 
 
 Tiebs, Pondo, Populus, Post, l'osuit, Prases, Proctor, 
 
 Primus, Pro, Provincia, Publicus, Publius, Puer. 
 P.C. Pactum conventum, Patres conscripti, Pccunia constitute, 
 
 Potenduni curavit Post consiUatum, rotestatecensorw.
 
 28 
 
 ABBREVIATION 
 
 P.F. Pia fidelis, Tins fellx, Promissa fides, Publii filius. 
 
 P. M. Pia? memoriae, Plus minus, Pontifex maximus. 
 
 P.P. Pater patratus, Pater patriae, Pecania publics, Pranpositus, 
 Primipilus, Proprietor. > 
 
 PR. Prccses, Prator, Priaie, I'rinceps. 
 
 KR. Permissu reipublicse, Populus Romanus. 
 
 P.K.C. Post Romam conditnm. 
 
 PR. PR. Pnefectus prsetorii. Proprietor. 
 
 P. S. Pecunia sua, Plebiseitum, Proprio sumptu, Publicie saluti. 
 
 P.V. Pia victrix, Prxfcctus urbi, Praatantissimus vir. 
 
 Q - 
 
 Q. Quaestor, Qnando, Quantus, Que, Qui, Quinquennalis, 
 
 Quintus, Quirites. 
 Q.D.R Quadere. 
 
 Q.I.S.S. Quae infra scripta sunt ; so Q. S. S. S. Quae supra, &c 
 QQ. Quaecunque, Quinquennalis, Quoque. 
 
 <J. H. Quaestor reipubhese 
 
 R. 
 R. Recte, Res, Respubliea, Retro, Rex, Ripa, Roma, Romanus, 
 
 Rufu9, Rursu3. 
 R.C. /Romana civitas, Romanus civis. 
 RESP. ojuj-RP. Respubliea. 
 RET. P. and RP. Retro pedes. 
 
 S. 
 B Sacrum, Scriptus, Semis, Senatus, Sepultus, Scrvius, 
 
 Scrvus, Sextus, Sibi, Sine, Situs, Solus, Solvit, Sub, 
 
 Suus. 
 SAC Bacerdos, Sacrificium, Sacrum. 
 B. 1 1. Senatus consultum. 
 S.DJ Sacrum diis, Salutem dicit, Senatus docrcto, Sententiam 
 
 dedit 
 S.D.M. Sacrum diis Manibus, Sine dolo malo. 
 S.ER. Servius, Servus. 
 8. E.T.L. Sit ei terra levis. 
 SN. Senatus, Sententia, Sine. 
 S. P. Sacerdos jrerpetua, Sine pecunia, Sua pecunia. 
 S. P.Q.R. Senatus populusque Romanus. 
 S.S.' \ " Sanctissimus senatus, Supra scriptum. 
 S.Y-B.E.E.Q.V. Si Tales bene est, ego quidem valeo. 
 
 T. 
 TV Terminus, Testameiitum, Titus. Tribunus, Tu, Tunna, 
 
 Tutor. 
 7B.~, TI„ and TIB. Tiberius? 
 TB., TR., and TRB. Tribunus. 
 T. F. Tcstamentum . fecit, Titi filius, Titulum fecit, Titus 
 
 Flavhis. 
 TM. Terminus, Testamentum, Thermae. 
 T. P. Terminum posuit, Tribunicia pjlestato, Tribunus plebis. 
 TVL. Tullius, Tullus. " 
 
 v.- 
 
 V. TJrbs, TJsus, Uxor, Vale, Verba, Yestalis, Tester, Tir, 
 
 Vivus, Vixit, Volo, Votum. 
 
 V.A Teterano assignatus, Vixit annos. 
 
 V.C. Vale conjux, virxlarissimus, Vir consularis. 
 
 V. E. Verum etiam, Vir egregius, Visum est. 
 
 V.F. TJsus fructus, Verba fecit, Virus fecit 
 
 V P. Urbis praefectus, Vir peifectissimus, Vivus posuit 
 V.R. Urbs Roma, Uti rogas, Votum reddidit. 
 
 . IL Medleval Abbreviations. — Of the different kinds 
 of abbreviations in use in the middle ages, the following 
 are examples: — 
 
 A.M. Ave Maria. 
 
 B. P. Beatus Paulus, Beatus Petros. 
 
 CC. Carissimus (alsoplur. Carissimi), Clarissimus,.Circum. 
 
 D. Deus, Dominicus, Dux. 
 
 1). N.PP. Dominus noster Papa. 
 
 FF. Felicissimus, Fratrc3, Pandect* (prob. for Or. H). 
 
 l.C. orl.X. Jesus' Christus. 
 
 1. D.N. In Dei nomine. 
 
 KK. Karissimus (or -mi). 
 
 MM. Magistri, Martyres, Matrimonium, Meritissimus. 
 
 O.S. B. Ordinis Sancti Benedict!. 
 
 PP. Papa, Patres, Piissimus. 
 
 R.F. Rex Francorum. 
 
 R. P. D. Revcrendissimus Pater Dominus. 
 
 'J. Sacra Caesarea Majestas. 
 
 S.M.E. Sancta 
 
 s. M. M. Sancta Mater It 
 
 S. R. I. Sanctum Romanum Imperium. 
 
 R. V. Sanctitas Vestra, Sancta Virgo. 
 
 V Venerabilis, Vcnerandus. 
 V.R.P. Vestra Reverendissima Patemitaa, 
 
 in. Abbreviations now in use. — The import of these 
 will often he readily understood from the connection in 
 
 which they occur. Thero is no occasfan to explain here 
 the common abbreviations used for Christian names, booka 
 of Scripture, months of the year, points of the compass, 
 grammatical and mathematical terms, or familiar titles, 
 like " Mr," <fcc. 
 
 The ordinary abbreviations, now or recently in use, may 
 be conveniently classified under the following headings :— 
 
 1." Abbreviated Titles and Designations. 
 A. A. Associate of Arts. 
 A. B. Able-bodied seaman. 
 A.M. (Arliwm Maguier), Master of Arts. 
 A. R. A.' Associato of the Royal Academy. 
 
 A. R.S. A. Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy. 
 H.A. Bachelor of Arts. 
 
 II. i .'. L. Bachelor of Civil Law. 
 
 B.D. Bachelor of Divinity. 
 
 B. I.E. Bachelor of Laws. 
 B.Sc Bachelor of Science. 
 
 C. Chairman. 
 
 C.A. Chartered Accountant 
 
 C. B. Companion of the Bath. 
 
 c. ]■',. Civil Engineer. 
 
 Oil. (Chirurgioz Mogistcr), Master in Surgery. 
 
 C. M. G. Companion of St M ichaei and St George. 
 O.S.I. Companion of the Star of India. 
 
 D.C. L. Doctor of Civil Law, 
 
 D. D. Doctor of Divinity 
 D. Lit. Doctor of Literature. 
 
 D.M. Doctor of Medicino [Oxford ^ 
 
 D.Sc. Doctor of Science. 
 
 Ebor. (Eboracensis), of York. 1 
 
 F.C.S. Fellow of the Chemical Society. 
 
 F.D. (Fidci Defensor), Defender of the Faith. 
 
 F.F.P.S. Fellow of the Faculty of Physicians & Surgeons [Glasgow.] 
 
 F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological Society. 
 
 F.K.Q. C.P.I. Fellow of King and Queen's College of Physician* 
 
 in Ireland. 
 F.L.S. Fellow of the Linnffian Society. 
 ?. M. Field Marshal. 
 F.P.S. Fellow of the Philological Society. 
 F.R.A.S. Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society. 
 F.R.C.P. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. . 
 F.R.C.P.E. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians ef Edin» 
 
 burgh. 
 F.R.C.S. Fellow of the Royal Collcgo of Surgeons. 
 F.R.G.S. Fellow of tho Royal Geographical Society. 
 F.R. S: Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 F.R.S.E. Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 
 
 F. B, S. L. Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. 
 F.S.A. Fellow of tho Society of Antiquaries. 
 F.S.S. Fellow of the Statistical Society. 
 
 F.Z, S. Fellow of the Zoological Society. 
 G.C.B. Knight Grand Cross of the Bath. 
 
 G. C. H. Knight Grand' Cross of H anover. 
 
 G.C.M.G. Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George. 
 
 G. C.S.I. Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India, 
 
 1 1 . R, H. His (or Her) Royal Highness. 
 
 J. P. Justice of the Peace. 
 
 J.U.D. (Juris tUriusgue Doctor), Doctor of Civil and Canon Ij»w. 
 
 K. C.S.I. Knight Commander of the Star of India. 
 
 K.C.B. Knight Commander of the Bath. 
 
 K. G. Knight of tho Garter. 
 
 K. P. Knight of St Patrick. | 
 
 K.T. Knight of the Thistle. 
 
 L. A . IL Licentiate of the Apothecaries' HalL 
 
 L.C.J. Lord Chief Justice. 
 
 LL.B. (Legum Bacealaurtus), Bachelor of Laws. 
 
 LL. D. (Legum Doctor), Doctor of Laws. 
 
 1,1.. M. (Legum Magistcr), Master of Laws. 
 
 L.R.C.P. Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians. 
 
 L.R.C.S. Licentiate of tho Royal College of Surgeons. 
 
 L.S.A. Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Society. 
 
 M.A. Master of Arts. 
 
 M.B. (Medicines Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Medicine. 
 
 M.C. Member of Congress. 
 
 M.D. (Medicines Doctor), Doctor of Medicine. 
 
 M.P. Member of Parliament. 
 
 M. R. C. P. Member of the Royal College of Physicians. 
 
 M.R.I.A. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. 
 
 Mus. B. Bachelor of Music. 
 
 1 An archbishop or bishop, in writing his signature, substitutes for 
 his surname the name of his see ; thus thcprelates of Canterbury, York, 
 Oxford, London, &c., subscribe themselves A. C. Cantuar., W. Ebor., 
 J. F. Oxon.i J. London. &c
 
 ABBREVIATION 
 
 29 
 
 Mnfl. D. Doctor of Music 
 
 N.P. Notary Public. 
 
 P.C. Privy Councillor. 
 
 Ph. D. (Philosophic Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy, 
 
 P. P. Parish Priest. 
 
 P.R.A. President of the Royal Academy. 
 
 Q.C. Queen's Counsel. 
 
 R. (Rex, Regina), King, Queen. 
 
 R.A. Royal Academician. Royal Artillery. 
 
 R.A.M. Royal Academy of Music. 
 
 R. E. Royal Engineers. 
 
 Reg. Trof. Regius Professor. 
 
 R.M. Royal Marines. 
 
 R.N. Royal Navy. 
 
 S. or St Saint. 
 
 S.S.C. Solicitor before the Supreme Courts [of Scotland]. 
 
 S.T.P. (Sacrosanctee Theologicc Professor), Profes-or of Sacred 
 
 Theology. 
 
 V.C. Vice-Chancellor. Victoria Cross. 
 
 V. 0. Vicar-General. 
 
 V.S. Veterinary Surgeon. 
 
 W. S. Writer to the Signet [in Scotland]. Equivalent to Attorney. 
 
 2. Abbreviations denoting Monies, Weights, and 
 Measures : — 1 
 
 ac acre. L., a £,' or I. (libra), pound 
 
 bar. barrel. (money). 
 
 bus. bushel. lb. or lb. (libra), pound (weight). 
 
 c cent. m. or mi. mile ; minute. 
 
 «. (or cub.) ft. &c. cubic foot, 
 
 fee 
 
 cwt hundredweight 
 
 A. (denarius), penny, 
 
 deg. degree. 
 
 dr. drachm or dram. 
 
 dwt pennyweight 
 
 f. franc. 
 
 8. florin, 
 
 ft foot. 
 
 fur. furlong, 
 
 gal. gallon, 
 
 gr. grain, 
 b. or hr. hour, 
 
 hhd. hogshead. 
 
 in. inch, 
 
 kilo, kilometre. 
 
 3. Miscellaneous Abbreviations. 
 A. Accepted. 
 
 A.C (Ante Christum), Before Christ, 
 ace, a/c, or acct. Account 
 A. D. (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord. 
 A. B.I.O.U. Austrian est imperare orbi universo, 3 or Alles Erdrei.-li 
 
 1st Oesterreich Unterthan. 
 Mt or Mtut (jEtalis [anno]), In the year of his age. 
 A.H. (Anno Hegirce), In the year of the Hegira (the Mohammedan 
 
 era). 
 A. M. (Anno Mundi), In the year of the world. 
 A.M. (Ante meridiem), Forenoou. 
 Anon. Anonymous. 
 A.U.C. (Anno urbis conditw), In the year from the buililin" of the 
 
 city (i.e., Rome.) 
 B.C: Before Christ. 
 
 C. or Cap. (Caput), Chapter. 
 
 <S Centigrade (or Celsius's) Thermometer. 
 
 tent 4 (Centum), A hundred, frequently £100. 
 
 l»"f. (Confer), Compare. 
 
 Ch. or Chap. Chapter. 
 
 Co. Company. County. 
 
 Cr. Creditor. 
 
 curt Current, the present month. 
 
 D.G. (Dei gratia), By the grace of God. 
 
 Do. Ditto, the same. 
 
 P.O.M. (Deo Optimo Maximo), To God the Best and Creatcst 
 
 )>r. Debtor. 
 
 D. V. (Deo volente), God willing. 
 
 1 Characters, not properly abbreviations, are used in the same way ; 
 e.g., '. " for "degrees, minutes, seconds," (circular measure) ; 5, J, 3 
 IVir "ounces, drachms, scruples." § is probably to be traced to* tile 
 written form of Wie x in " oz." 
 
 _ a These forms (as well as $, the symbol for tho American dollar) arc 
 placed before their amounts. 
 
 8 It is given to Austria to rule the whole earth. The device of 
 Austria, first adopted by Frederick III. 
 
 ' " Per cent" is often signified by "/„, a form traceable to " 100." 
 
 m- 
 
 minim. 
 
 
 mo. 
 
 month. 
 
 
 na. 
 
 nail. 
 
 
 oz, 
 
 ounce. 
 
 
 pk. 
 
 peck. 
 
 
 po. 
 
 pole. 
 
 
 pt. 
 
 pint. 
 
 
 <1- 
 
 (quadrans), 
 
 farthing. 
 
 qr. * 
 
 quarter. 
 
 
 qt 
 
 quart. 
 
 
 ro. 
 
 rood. 
 
 
 Rs.» 
 
 rupees. 
 
 
 s. or 
 
 / (solidus), si 
 
 tilling. 
 
 3. or sec. -second. 
 
 
 sc. or scr. scruple 
 
 
 sq. f 
 
 . &c. square 
 
 oot, &c. 
 
 St. 
 
 stone. 
 
 
 yd. 
 
 yard. 
 
 
 e g. (Exempli gratia), For example. 
 
 ect. orkc (Et coctcra), And the rest ; and so forth. 
 
 Ex. Example. 
 
 F. or Fahr. Fahrenheit's Thermometer. 
 
 Fee. (Fecit), He made (on did) it 
 
 fl. Flourished. 
 
 Fo. or Fol. Folio. 
 
 f.o.b. Free on board. . 
 
 G.P.O. General Po8t Officn. 
 
 H.M.S. Her Majesty's Ship. 
 
 lb. or I'bid. (Ibidem), In the same place. 
 
 Id. (Idem), The same. 
 
 i. e. (Id est). That is.' 
 
 I..H.S. (Jesus Hominum Salvalor), Jesus the Saviour of men. 
 
 Inf. (Infra), Below. 
 
 inst. Instant, the present month. 
 
 I.O. IT. I owe you. 
 
 i.q. (Idem quod), Tho same as. 
 
 x. t.x. («k) ri \tiirx). El ccclcra, and the rest, 
 
 L. or Lib. (Diber), Book. 
 
 Lat Latitude. 
 
 I.e. (Loco citato), In the place cited. 
 
 Lon. or Long. Longitude. 
 
 L.S. (Locus sigillj), The place of the seal. 
 
 Mem. (Memento), Remember, Memorandum. 
 
 MS. Manuscript MSS. Manuscript. 
 
 N. B. (Nota bene), Mark well ; take notice. 
 
 N.B. North Britain (i.e., Scotland). 
 
 N.D. No date. 
 
 nem. con. (Nemine conlradiccnte), No one contradicting. 
 
 No. (Numero), Number. 
 
 N.S. New Style. 
 
 N.T. New Testament 
 
 ob. (Obiit), Died. 
 
 Obs. Obsolete 
 
 O.H.M.S. On Her Majesty's Service. 
 
 O.S. Old Style. 
 
 O.T. Old Testament 
 
 P. Page.- Pp. Pages. 
 
 $. (Per), For ; e.g., $ lb., For one pound. 
 
 Pinx. (Pinxit), He painted it. 
 
 P.M. (Post meridiem), Afternoon. 
 
 P.O. Post Office. P. O.O. Post Office Older. 
 
 P. P.C. (Pour prendre conge"), To take leave. 
 
 P. R. Prize-ring. 
 
 prox. (Proximo [mensef), Next month. 
 
 P.S. Postscript. 
 
 Pt. Part. 
 
 p.t or pro. tem. (Pro tempore), For the time. 
 
 P.T.O. Please turn over. 
 
 Q., Qu., or Qy. Query ; Question. 
 
 q.d. (Quasi dicat), As if he should say ; as much as to say. 
 
 Q. E.D. (Quod erut demonstrandum), which was to lie demonstrate' L 
 
 Q.E.F. (Quod erat faciendum), wliich was to be done. 
 
 q.s. or quant sutf. (Qwntum suj/icit), As much as is sufficient 
 
 q.v. (Quod vide), Which see. 
 
 R. or R. (Recipe), Take. 
 
 "S (= r. for radix), the sign of the square root 
 
 R.I. P. (Requiescat in pace I), May he rest in peace t 
 
 sc. (Scilicet), Namely ; that is to say. 
 
 Sc. or Sculp. (Sculpsit), He engraved it. 
 
 S.D.U.K. Society for tho Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. 
 
 seq. or sq., seqq. or sqq. (Sequent, sequcntin), The following 
 
 s.p. (Sine prole), Without olfspring. 
 
 S. P.G. Society for the Propagation ol tho CospcL 
 
 Sup. (Supra), Above. 
 
 s.v. (Sub voce). Under the word lor heading). 
 
 T.C.D. Trinity College, Dublin. 
 
 ult (Ultimo [mense]), Last month. 
 
 U.S. United States. 
 
 v. (Versui), Against. 
 
 v. or vid. ( Vide), See. 
 
 viz. ( Videlicet), Namely. 
 
 V. R. ( Victoria Regina), Victoria tho Queen. 
 
 Xmas. Christmas [This X is a Creek letter, corresponding to Oil 
 
 (See Grarvius's Thesaurus Antiquitatum, 1C94, sqq.; 
 Nicolai's Tractatus da Siylis Vetentm ; Mominscn's Corpus 
 fnscriplionvm Lalinarum, 18G3, sqq. ; Natalis de Wailly'a 
 Palnographie, Paris, 18.38; Alph. Ohassant's Paleographies 
 1854, and Diciionnaire des Abrcvialions, 3d ed., 1S66. A 
 manual of the abbreviations in current use is a desideratum.) 
 
 ABBREVJATOUS, a body of . writers in tho Papal 
 Chancery, whose business is to sketch out and prepare in 
 due form the Pope's bulls, briefs, and consistorial decreei
 
 30 
 
 A i5 D — A B D 
 
 They are first mentioned in a bull of Benedict XIL, early 
 in the 14th century. Their number is fixed at seventy- 
 two, of whom twelve, distinguished as de parco mnjori, hold 
 prelatic rank; twenty-two, de parco minori, are clergymen of 
 lower rank ; and the remainder, cxaminatorcs,ma.y be laymen. 
 
 ABDALLATIF, or Abd-ul-Latif, a celebrated physician 
 and traveller, and one of the most voluminous ■writers of 
 the East, was born at Baghdad in 1162. An interesting 
 memoir of Abdallatif, -written by himself, has been pre- 
 served with additions by Ibn-Abu-Osaiba, a contemporary.' 
 From that work we learn that the higher education of the 
 youth of Baghdad consisted principally in a minute and 
 careful study of the rulc3 and principles of grammar, and 
 in their committing to memory the whole of the Koran, a 
 treatise or two on philology and jurisprudence, and the 
 choicest Arabian poetry. After attaining to great pro- 
 ficiency in that kind of learning, Abdallatif applied hirn- 
 oelf to natural philosophy and modicine. To enjoy the 
 society of the learned, he went first to Mosul (1189), and 
 afterwards to Damascus, the great resort of the eminent 
 men of that age. The chemical fooleries that engrossed 
 the attention of some of these had no attraction for him, 
 but he entered with eagerness into speculative discussions. 
 With letters of recommendation from Saladin's vizier, he 
 visited Egypt, where the wish he had long cherished to 
 converse with Maimonides, " the Eagle of the Doctors," 
 was gratified. He afterwards formed one of the circle of 
 learned men whom Saladin gathered around him at Jeru- 
 salem, and shared in the great sultan's favours. He taught 
 medicine and philosophy at Cairo and at Damascus for a 
 number of years, and afterwards, for a shorter period, at 
 Aleppo. His love of travel led him in his old age to visit 
 different parts of Armenia and Asia Jlinor, and he was 
 setting out on a pilgrimage to Mecca when he died at 
 Baghdad in 1231. Abdallatif was undoubtedly a man of 
 greit knowledge and of an inquisitive and penetrating 
 mind, but is said to have been somewhat vain of his attain- 
 ments. Of the numerous works — most of them on medi- 
 cine — which Osaiba ascribes to him, one only, the Account 
 of Egypt, appears to be known in Europe. The manuscript 
 of this work, which was discovered by Pococke the Orien- 
 talist, is preserved in the Bodleian Library. It was trans- 
 lated into Latin by Professor White of Oxford in 1800, and 
 into French, with very valuable notes, by De Sacy in 1810. 
 It consists of two parts : the first gives a general view of 
 Egypt ; the second treats of the Nile, and contains a vivid 
 description of a famine caused, during the author's residence 
 in Egypt, by the river failing to overflow its banks. The 
 work gives an authentic detailed account of the state of 
 Egypt during the middle ages. 
 
 ABD-EL-K A PER, celebrated for his brave resistance to 
 the advance of the French in Algeria, was born near 
 Mascara, in the early part of the year 1807. His father 
 was a man of great influenco among his countrymen from 
 his high rank and learning, and Abd-el-Kader himself at 
 an early age acquired a wide reputation for wisdom and 
 piety, as well as for skill in horsemanship and other manly 
 exercises. In- 1831 he was chosen Emir of Mascara, and 
 leader of the combined tribes in their attempt to check the 
 growing power of the French in Africa. His efforts were 
 at first successful, and in 1834 he concluded a treaty with 
 the French general, which was very favourable to his cause. 
 This treaty was broken in the succeeding year; but as the 
 war that followed was mainly in favour of the Arabs, peace 
 was renewed in 1837. War again broke out in 1839, 
 and for more than a year was carried on in a very 
 desultory manner. In 1841, however, Marshal Bugeaud 
 assumed the chief command of the French force, which 
 numbered nearly 100,000 mea The war was now 
 carried on with great vigour, and ,-bd-el-K.ader, after a 
 
 most determined resistance, surrendered himself to tha 
 Due d'Aumale, on tho 22d December 1847. The promise, 
 that he would be allowed to retire to Alexandria or St 
 Jean d'Acre. upon the faith of which Abd-el-Kader had 
 given himself up, was broken by the French government 
 Ho was taken to France, and was imprisoned first in the 
 castle of Pau, and afterwards in that of Amboise. In 1852 
 Louis Napoleon gave him his liberty on condition of his not 
 returning to Algeria. Since then he resided successively at 
 Broussa, Constantinople, and Damascus. Ho is reported 
 to have died at Mecca in October 1873. Seo Algeria. 
 
 ABDERA (1.), in Ancient Geography, a maritime town of 
 Thrace, eastward from the mouth of the river Ncstus. 
 Mythology assigns the founding of tho town to ncrcules ; 
 but Herodotus states that it was first "colonised by Timesias 
 of Clazomenoe, whom the Thracians in a short time expelled. 
 Rather more than a century later (B.C. 541), the people of 
 Seos recolonised Abdera. The town soon became one of 
 considerable importance, and in B.C. 408, when it was re- 
 duced by Thrasybulus the Athenian, it is described as in a 
 very flourishing condition. Its prosperity was greatly im- 
 paired by its disastrous war with the Triballi (circa B.c 
 37 G), and very little is heard of it thereafter. The 
 Abderits, or Abderitani, were proverbial for their want of 
 wit and judgment; yet their city gave birth to several 
 eminent persons, as Protagoras, Democritus, and Anaxarchus 
 the philosophers, Hecataeus the historian, Nicametus the 
 poet, and others. 
 
 ABDERA (2.), a town in Uispania B<etica, founded by 
 the Carthaginians, on the south coast, between Malaca and 
 Prom. Cliaridemi. It is probably represented by the 
 modern Adra. 
 
 ABDICATION, the act whereby a person in office 
 renounces and gives up the same before the expiry of the 
 time for which it is held. The word is seldom used except 
 in the sense of surrendering the supreme power in a state. 
 Despotic sovereigns are at liberty to divest themselves of 
 their powers at any time, but it is otherwise with a limited 
 monarchy. The throne of Great Britain cannot be lawfully 
 abdicated unless with the consent of the two Houses of Par- 
 liament. When James II., after throwing the Great Seal 
 into the Thames, fled to France in 1088, be did not formally 
 resign the crown, and the question was discussed in Parlia- 
 ment whether he had forfeited the throne or had abdicated. 
 The latter designation was agreed on, for in a full assembly 
 of the Lords and Commons, met in convention, it was re- 
 solved, in spite of James's protest, " that King James II. 
 having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the king- 
 dom, by breaking the original contract between king and 
 people, and, by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons, 
 having violated the fundamental laws, and having with- 
 doawn himself out of this kingdom, has abdicated the 
 government, and that the throne is thereby vacant" The 
 Scotch Parliament pronounced a decree of forfeiture and 
 deposition. Among the most memorable abdications of 
 antiquity may be mentioned that of Sulla the dictator, B.C. 
 79, and that of the Emperor Diocletian, a.d. 305. The follow- 
 ing is a list of the more important abdications of latitr times: — 
 
 A P. 
 
 1048 
 1131 
 1 1 '".9 
 1207 
 1200 
 1355 
 1415 
 1439 
 
 Benedict IX., Pope 
 
 Stephen II. of Hungary, 
 
 Albert (the Bear) of Brnndenburg, 
 
 Eadislaus III., Duke of Poland, • 
 
 John Balliol of Scotland, 
 
 John Cantacuzene, Emperor of the K.ist 
 
 John XXIII., Pope 
 
 Eric VII. of Denmark and XIII. of Swud>-n, 
 
 Amurath IF., Ottoman Emperor, 
 Charles V.fcEmperor,. . 
 Christina oT Sweden, . 
 John Casimir of Poland, 
 James II. of England, 
 Frederick Augustus of Poland 
 
 Mil and 1445 
 155(1 
 
 :c>;8 
 
 1X88 
 I7U<f
 
 A B D — A B E 
 
 31 
 
 ril4 
 
 of S r 
 
 Ull 
 
 
 
 *-D. 
 
 • 
 
 
 1724 
 1730 
 
 n*. 
 
 
 1730 
 
 '"(, « 
 
 
 1759 
 
 • • 
 
 
 1795 
 
 June 
 
 4, 
 
 1S02 
 
 Mar. 
 
 19, 
 
 1803 
 
 June 
 
 6, 
 
 1808 
 
 Mar. 
 
 29, 
 
 1809 
 
 July 
 
 2, 
 
 1810 
 
 and June 
 
 22, 
 
 1815 
 
 Mar. 
 
 13, 
 
 1S21 
 
 Aug. 
 
 2, 
 
 1830 
 
 April 
 
 7, 
 
 1831 
 
 May 
 
 26, 
 
 1834 
 
 Oct. 
 
 7, 
 
 1840 
 
 Feb. 
 
 -1, 
 
 1848 
 
 Mar. 
 
 21, 
 
 1848 
 
 Dec. 
 
 2, 
 
 1843 
 
 Mar. 
 
 23, 
 
 1819 
 
 July 
 
 21, 
 
 1859 
 
 June 
 
 25, 
 
 1870 
 
 Feb. 
 
 11, 
 
 1873 
 
 Philip V. of Spain, . . 
 
 Tictor Amadeus II. of Sardinia, 
 Achmet III., Ottomau Emperor, 
 Charles of Naples (on accession to th 
 Stanislaus II. of Poland, 
 Charles Emanuel IV. of Sardiui 
 Charles IV. of Spain, 
 Joseph Bonaparte of Naples, . 
 Sustavu3 IV. of Sweden, 
 Louis Bonaparte of Holland, M 
 Napoleon ot Franco, . , £\ 
 
 Victor Emanuel of Sardinia, , 
 Charles X. of Fiance, . 
 Pedro of Brazil, 1 ... 
 Don Miguel of Portugal, 
 William I. of Holland, 
 Louis Philippe of France, . 
 Louis Charles of Bavaria, . 
 Ferdinand of Austria, . ■ 
 Charles Albert of Sardinia, , 
 Leopold 1 1, of Tuscany, , 
 
 Isabella II. of Spain, . . 
 Amadeus I. of Spain, . • 
 
 ABDOMEN, in Anatomy, the lower part of the trunk of 
 the body, situated between the thorax and the pelvis. See 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 ABDOMINALES, or Abdominal Fishes, a sub-division 
 of the Malacopterygious Order, whose ventral fins are placed 
 behind the pectorals, under the abdomen. The typical 
 abdominals are carp, salmon, herring, silures, and pike. 
 
 ABDUCTION, a law term denoting the forcible or 
 fraudulent removal of a person, limited by custom to the 
 case where a woman is the victim. In the case of men or 
 children, it has been usual to substitute the term Kid- 
 napping (q.v.) The old severe laws against abduction, 
 generally contemplating its object as the possession of an 
 heiress and her fortune, have been repealed by 24- and 25 
 Vict. c. 100, s. 53, which makes it felony for any one from 
 motives of lucre to take away or detain against her will, 
 with intent to marry or carnally know her, &c, any woman 
 of any age who has any interest in any real or personal 
 estate, or is an heiress presumptive, or co-heiress, or pre- 
 sumptive next of kin to any one having such an interest ; 
 or for any one to cause such a woman to be married or 
 carnally known by any other person ; or for any one with 
 such intent to allure, take away, or detain any such woman 
 under the age of twenty-one, out of the possession and against 
 the will of her parents or guardians. By s. 5 4, forcible taking 
 away or detention against her will of any woman of any age 
 with like intent is felony. Even without such intent, abduc- 
 tion of any unmarried girl under the age of sixteen is a 
 misdemeanour. In Scotland, where there is no statutory 
 adjustment, abduction is similarly dealt with by practice. 
 
 ABDUL MEDJID, Sultan of Turkey, the thirty-first 
 sovereign of the house of Othman, was born April 23, 
 1823, and succeeded his father Mahmoud IL on the 2d 
 of July 1839. Mahmoud appears to have been unable 
 to effect the reforms he desired in ths mode of educating 
 his children, so that his son received no better education 
 than that given, according to use and wont, to Turkish 
 princes in the harem. When Abdul Medjid succeeded to 
 the throne, the affairs of Turkey were in an extremely 
 critical state. At the very time his father died, the news 
 was ou its way to Constantinople that the Turkish army 
 had been signally defeated at Nisib by that of the rebel 
 Egyptian viceroy, Mehemet Ali; apd the Turkish fleet was 
 at the same time on its way to Egypt, to be surrendered 
 perfidiously by its commander to the sam» enemy. But 
 through the intervention of the great European powers, 
 Mehemet Ali was obliged to come to terms, and the Otto- 
 man empire was saved. " In compliance with his father's 
 
 1 Pedro had succeeded to the throne of Portugal in 1826, but abdi- 
 cated It at ODce in favour of bis daughter. 
 
 express instructions, Abdul Medjid set at once about carry- 
 ing out the extensive reforms to which Mahmoud had so 
 energetically unvoted himself. In November 1839 was 
 proclaimed an edict, known as the Hatti-sherif of Gulhane, 
 consolidating and enforcing these reforms, which was 
 supplemented, at the close of the Crimean war, by a 
 similar statute, issued in February 1856. By these enact- 
 ments it was provided that all clajses of the sultan's sub- 
 jects should have security for their lives and property ; 
 that taxes should be fairly imposed and justice impartially 
 administered ; and that all should have lull religious 
 liberty and equal civil rights. The scheme was regarded 
 as so revolutionary by the aristocracv and the educated 
 classes (the, Ulema) that it met with keen opposition, and 
 was in consequence but partially put in force, especially in 
 the remoter parts of the empire ; and more than one con- 
 spiracy was formed against the sultan's life on accouut of 
 it. Of the other measures of reform promoted by Abdul 
 Medjid the more important were — the reorganisation of the 
 army (1843-4), the institution of a council of public in- 
 struction (1846), the abolition of an odious and unfairly 
 imposed capitation tax, the repression of slave trading, and 
 various provisions for the better administration of the public 
 service and for the advancement of commerce. The public 
 history of his times — the disturbances and insurrections in 
 different parts of his dominions throughout his reign, and 
 the great war successfully carried on against Russia by 
 Turkey, and by England, France, and Sardinia, in .the 
 interest of Turkey (1853-56) — can be merely alluded to 
 in this personal notice. When Kossuth and others sought 
 refuge in Turkey, after the failure of the Hungarian rising 
 in 1849, the sultan was called on by Austria and Russia to 
 surrender them, but boldly and determinedly refused. It 
 is to his credit, too, that he would not allow the con- 
 spirators against his own life to be put to death. Ha bore 
 the character of being a kind and honourable man. 
 Against this, however, must be set down his excessive 
 extravagance, especially towards the end of his life. He 
 died on the 25th of June 1861, and was succeeded, not by 
 one of his sons, but by his brother, Abdul Aziz, the present 
 sultan, as the oldest survivor of the family of Othman. 
 
 A BECKET, Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury and 
 Chancellor of England in the 12th century, was born in 
 London on the 21st of December 1118. His father, 
 Gilbert Becket, and his mother Roesa or Matilda, were 
 both, there can be little doubt, of Norman extraction, if 
 indeed they themselves were not immigrants from Normandy 
 to England. Gilbert Becket, a merchant, and- at one time 
 Sheriff of London, a man of generous impulses and some- 
 what lavish hospitality, provided for his only child Thomas 
 all the attainable advantages of influential society and a 
 good education. At ten years of age Thomas was placed 
 under the tuition of the canons regular of Merton on th6 
 Wandle in Surrey. From Merton he proceeded to study in 
 the London schools, then in high repute. .At Pevensey 
 Castle, the seat of his father's friend Richer de l'Aigle, one 
 of the great barons of England, he subsequently became a 
 proficient in all the feats and graces of chivalry. From 
 Pevensey he betook himself to the study of theology in the 
 University of Paris. He never became a scholar, much. 
 Ies3 a theologian, like Wolsey, or even like some of the 
 learned ecclesiastics of his own day ; but his intellect was 
 vigorous and original, and his manners captivating to his 
 associates and popular with the multitude. His father's 
 failure in business recalled him to London, and for three 
 years he acted as a clerk in a lawyer's office. But a man 
 so variously accomplished could not fail to stumble on 
 preferment sooner or later. Accordingly, about 1142, 
 Archdeacon Baldwin, a learned civilian, a friend of the 
 elder Btckfct, introduced him to Theobald, Archbishop ol
 
 32 
 
 A BUCKET 
 
 Canterbury, who ut once appointed him to an office in the 
 Archiepiscopal Court. His talents speedily raised kiui to 
 the archdeaconry of the see. A Bccket's tact in assisting 
 to thwart an attempt to interest the Popo in favour of the 
 coronation of Stephen's son Eustace, paved the way to the 
 archdeacon's elevation to the Chancellorship of England 
 under Henry II., a dignity to which he was raised in 1150. 
 As he had served Theobald the archbishop, so he served 
 Henry the king faithfully and well. It was his nature to 
 be loyal. Enthusiastic partisanship is, in fact, the key to 
 much that is otherwise inexplicable in his subsequent con- 
 duct towards Henry. AYheu at a later period A Becket was 
 raised to the primacy of England, a dignity not of his own 
 seeking, he must needs quarrel with Henry in the interest 
 of the Pope and " for the honour of God." As Chancellor of 
 England he appeared in the war of Toulouse at the head of 
 the chivalry of England, and " who can recount," says his 
 attendant and panegyrist Grim, " the carnage, the desolation 
 he made at the head of a strong body of soldiers J He 
 attacked castles, and razed towns and cities to the ground ; 
 he burned down houses and farms, and never showed the 
 slightest touch of pity to any one who rose in insurrection 
 against his master." In single combat he vanquished and 
 made prisoner the valiant Knight Engelram de Trie. Nor 
 did A Becket the chancellor-seek to quell Henry's secular foes 
 alone. He was the able mouthpiece of the Crown in its 
 contention with the Bishop of Chichester, who had alleged 
 that the permission of the Pope was necessary to the con- 
 ferring or taking away of ecclesiastical benefices ; and he 
 rigorously exacted teutage, a military tax in lieu of personal 
 service in the field, from the clergy, who accused him of 
 " plunging a sword into the bosom of his mother the 
 church." His pomp and munificence as chancellor were 
 beyond precedent. In 1159 he undertook, at Henry's 
 request, an embassy to the French Court for the purpose 
 of affiancing the king's eldest son to the daughter of the 
 king of France. His progress through the country was 
 like a triumphal procession. " How wonderful must be 
 the king of England himself whose chancellor travels in 
 such state I" was on every one's lips. In 1162 he was 
 elected Archbishop of Canterbury, Gilbert Foliot, Bishop 
 of Herford, alone dissenting, and remarking sarcastically, 
 at the termination of the ceremony, that " the king had 
 worked a miracle in having that day turned a layman into 
 an archbishop and a soldier into a saint." Hitherto A 
 Becket had only been in deacon's orders, and had made no 
 profession of sanctity of life. At the same time, there is 
 nothing to show that his character was stained by the gross 
 licentiousness of the times. KW, however, he devoted 
 himself body and soul to the scivice of the church. The 
 fastidious courtier was at once transformed into the squalid 
 penitent, who wore hair-cloth next his skin, fed on roots, 
 drank nauseous water, and daily washed the feet of thirteen 
 beggars. Henry, who had expected to see the archbishop 
 completely sunk in the chancellor, was amazed to receive 
 the following laconic message from A Becket : — " I desire 
 that you will provide yourself with another chancellor, as 
 I find myself hardly sufficient for the duties of one office, 
 much less of two." From that moment there was strife 
 between A Becket and Henry, A Becket straining every 
 nerve to extend the authority of the Pope, and Henry 
 doing his utmost to subject the church to his own will. 
 Throughout the bitter struggle for supremacy which ensued 
 between A Becket and the Jung, A Becket was backed by 
 the sympathy of the Saxon populace, Henry by the support 
 of the Norman barons and by the greater dignitaries of the 
 church. At the outset A Becket was worsted. He was 
 constrained to take an oath. " with good faith and without 
 fraud or reserve, to observe the Constitutions of Claren- 
 don," which subjected clerks guilty of crime tii the ordinary 
 
 civil tribunals, put ecclesiastical dignities at the royal dis 
 posal, prevented all appeals to Borne, and made Henry tht 
 virtual " head of the church." For his guilty compliance 
 with these anti-papal constitutions he received the special 
 pardon and absolution of his holiness, and proceeded to 
 anathematise them with the energy of a genuine remorse. 
 The king resolved on his ruin. He was summoned before 
 a great council at Northampton, and in defiance of justice 
 was called on to account for the sum of 44,000 inarlu 
 declared to have been misappropriated by him during his 
 chancellorship. " For what happened before my consecra- 
 tion," said A Becket, " I ought not to answer, nor will I. 
 Know, moreover, that ye are my children in God ; neither 
 law nor reason allows you to judge your father. I refer my 
 quarrel to the decision of the Pope. To him I appeal, and 
 shall now, under the protection of the Catholic Church and 
 the Apostolic See, depart." He effected his escape to France, 
 and took refuge in the Cistercian monastery of Pontigny, 
 whence he repeatedly anathematised his enemies in 
 England, and hesitated not to speak of Henry as a " mali- 
 cious tyrant." Pope Alexander III., though at heart a 
 warm supporter of Becket, was guarded in his conduct 
 towards Henry, who had shown a disposition to support the 
 anti-pope Pascal III., and it was not till the Archbishop of 
 York, in defiance of a papal bull, had usurped the functions 
 of the exiled primate hy officiating at the coronation of 
 Henry's son, that Alexander became really formidable. A 
 Becket was now resolute for martyrdom or victory. Hci ry 
 began to tremble, and an interview between him and Becket 
 was arranged to take place at Fereitville in 1170. It was 
 agreed that A Becket should return to his see, and that tin. 
 king should discharge his debts and defray the expenses ol 
 his journey. A Becket proceeded to the coast, but the king, 
 who had promised to meet him, broke his engagement in 
 every particular. A Becket, in retaliation, excommunicated 
 the Archbishop of York and the Bishops of London and 
 Salisbury for officiating at the coronation of the king's sou. 
 The terrified prelates took refuge in Normandy with Henry, 
 who, on hearing their tale, accompanied by an account of 
 A Bccket's splendid reception at Canterbury, exclaimed in 
 ungovernable fury, " Of the cowards who cat my bread, is 
 there not one who will free me from this turbulent priest?" 
 Four knights, Fitzurse, Tracy, Morville, and Eiito, resolved 
 to avenge their sovereign, who it appears was ignorant of 
 their intention. They arrived in Canterbury, and finding 
 the archbishop, threatened him with death if he would not 
 absolve the excommunicated bishops. " In vain," replied 
 A Becket, "you threaten me. If all the swords in England 
 were brandishing over my head, your terrors could not move 
 me. Foot to foot you will find me fighting the battle of the 
 Lord." He was barbarously murdered in the great cathedral, 
 at the foot of the altar of St Benedict, on the 20th Decem- 
 ber 1170. Two years thereafter ho was canonised by the 
 Pope; and down to the Reformation innumerable pilgrim- 
 ages were made to the shrine of St Thomas of Canterbury 
 by devotees from every comer of Christendom, So numerous 
 were the miracles wrought at his tomb, that Gervasc ol 
 Canterbury tells us two large volumes kept in the cathedra) 
 were filled with accounts of them. Every fiftieth year a 
 jubilee wa3 celebrated in his honour, which lasted fifteen 
 days; plenary indulgences were then granted to all who 
 visited his tomb; and as many as 100,000 pilgrims were 
 registered at a time in Canterbury. The worship of St 
 Thomas superseded the adoration of God, and even that of 
 the Virgin. In one year there was offered at God's altar 
 nothing; at that of the Virgin .£4, ls.« 8d.; while St 
 Thomas received for his share X'Joi, 0s. 3d. — an enormous 
 sum, if the purchasing power of money in those times be 
 considered. Henry VIII., with a just if somewhat ludi- 
 crous appreciation of the issue which A Becket had raided
 
 A B E — A B E 
 
 33 
 
 with his royal predecessor Henry H, not only pillaged the 
 rich shrine dedicated to St Thomas, but caused the saint 
 himself to be cited to appear in court, and to be tried and 
 condemned as a traitor, at the same time ordering his name 
 to be struck out of the calendar, and his bones to be burned 
 and the ashes thrown in the air. A Becket's character and 
 aims have been the subject of the keenest ecclesiastical and 
 historic controversy down to the present time, but it is im- 
 possible to doubt the fundamental sincerity of the one or 
 the disinterestedness of the other, however inconsistent his 
 actions may sometimes appear. If the fruit of the Spirit 
 be " love, joy, peace, long-suffering, gentleness, goodness, 
 faith, meekness, and temperance," A Becket was assuredly 
 not a saint, for he indulged to the last in the bitterest 
 invectives against his foes ; but that he fought with 
 admirable courage and devotion the " battle of the Lord," 
 according to the warlike ideas of an age with which he was 
 in intense sympathy, is beyond dispute. He was the 
 leading Ultramontane of his day, hesitating not to reprove 
 the Pope himself for lukewarmness in the cause of the 
 " church's liberty." He was the last of the great ecclesiastics 
 of the type of Lanfranc and Anselm, who struggled for 
 supremacy with the civil power in England on almost equal 
 terms. In his day the secular stream was running very 
 strong, and he might as chancellor have floated down the 
 current pleasantly enough, governing England in Henry's 
 name. He nevertheless perished in a chivalrous effort to 
 stem the torrent. The tendency of his principles was 
 to supersede a civil by a spiritual despotism ; " but, in 
 point of fact," says Hook, in his valuable Life, "he was 
 a high-principled, high-spirited demagogue, who taught 
 the people to struggle for their liberties," a struggle 
 soon to commence, and of which he was by no means 
 an impotent if an unconscious precursor. — See Dr Giles's 
 Vita et Epistolce S. Thomoe Cantuariensis ; Canon Morris's 
 Life of St Thomas Becket ; Canon Robertson's Life of 
 Becket ; Canon Stanley's Historical Memorials of Canter- 
 bury ; J. G. Nichol's Pilgrimages of Walsingkam and 
 Canterbury ; Hook's Lives of the Archbishops of Canter- 
 bury; and Lord Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors of 
 England. 
 
 A'BECKETT, Gilbert Abbott, a successful cultivator 
 of light literature, was born in London in 1811, and educated 
 at 'Westminster School. He wrote burlesque dramas with 
 success from his boyhood, took an active share in the 
 establishment of different comic periodicals, particularly 
 Figaro in London and Punch, and was a constant contributor 
 to the columns of the latter from Its commencement till the 
 time of his death His principal publications, all over- 
 flowing with kindly humour, and rich in quaint fancies, 
 are his parodies of living dramatists (himself included), 
 reprinted from Punch (1844) ; The Small Debts Act, with 
 Annotations and Explanations (1845) ; The Quizziology of 
 the British Drama and The Comic Blackslone (1846V J 
 Comic History of England (1847); and A Comic History of 
 Home (1852). He contributed occasionally, too, to the 
 Timet and other metropolitan papers. • A'Beckett was 
 called to the bar in 1841, and from 1843 discharged with 
 great efficiency the duties of a metropolitan police magis- 
 trate. He died at Boulogne on the 30th of August 
 1856. 
 
 ABEL (^ z ^l, breath, vanity, transiloriness), the second 
 son of Adam, slain by Cain his elder brother (Gen. iv 
 1-16). The narrative in Genesis, which tells us that "trip 
 Lord had respect unto Abel and to his offering, but unto 
 Cain and to bis offering he had not respect," is supplemented 
 by the statement of the New Testament, that " by faith 
 Abel offered unto God a more excellent sacrifice than Cain," 
 (Heb. xi. 4), and that Cain slew Abel " because his own 
 works were evil and his brother's rigkeous " (1 John iii. 1 2). 
 
 l-.'i 
 
 In patristic theology the striking contrast between the 
 brothers was mystically explained and typically applied in 
 various ways. Augustine, for example, regard* Abei as 
 the representative of the regenerate or spiritual man, and 
 Cain as the representative of the natural or corrupt man. 
 Augustine in his treatise De Hmrtsibus, c. 86, mentions a 
 sect of Abelilae or Abelians, who seem to have lived in 
 North Africa, and chiefly in the neighbourhood of Hippo- 
 Regius. According to their tradition, Abel, though married, 
 lived in continence, and they followed his practice in this 
 respect, so as to avoid the guilt of bringing sinful creatures i 
 into the world. 
 
 ABEL, Karl Fried-rich (1726-1787), a celebrated Ger- 
 man musician. His adagio compositions have been highly 
 praised,*but he attained greater distinction as a performer 
 than as a composer, his instrument being the Viola digamia, 
 which from his time has given place to the violoncello. 
 He studied under Sebastian Bach, played for ten years 
 (1748-58) in the band formed at Dresden by the Elector 
 of Saxony, under Hasse, and then, proceeding to England, 
 became (1759) chamber-musician to the queen of George III. 
 His life was shortened by habits of intemperance. 
 
 ABEL, Niels Henrik, one of the ablest and acutest 
 mathematicians of modern times, was born at Findbe in 
 Norway in 1802, and died near Arendal in 1829. Con- 
 sidering the shortness of his life, the extent and thorough- 
 ness of his mathematical investigations and analyses are 
 marvellous. His great powers of generalisation were dis- 
 played in a remarkable degree in his development of the 
 theory of elliptic functions. Legendre's eulogy of Abel, 
 " Quelle tele celle du jeune Norvegien ! " is the more forcible, 
 that the French mathematician had occupied himself with 
 those functions for most of his lifetime. Abel's works, 
 edited by M. Holmboe, the professor under whom he studied 
 at Christiania, were published by the Swedish government 
 in 1839. 
 
 ABEL, Thomas, a Roman Catholic divine during the 
 reign of Henry VELI., was an Englishman, but when or 
 where born does not appear. He was educated at Oxford, 
 where be passed B.A. on 4th July 1513, M.A. on 27th 
 June 1516, and proceeded D.D. On 23d June 1530 ho 
 was presented by Queen Catherine to the rectory of Brad- 
 well in Essex, on the sea-coast. He had been introduced 
 to the court through the report of his learning in elassical 
 and living languages, and accomplishments in mnri , and 
 he was appointed domestic chaplain to Queen Catherine 
 It speaks well both for the chaplain and his royal mistress, 
 that to the last he defended the outraged queen against 
 "bluff King Hal." ' The Defence, "Invicta Veritas," was 
 printed at Luneberge in 1532. This pungent little book 
 was replied to, but never answered, and remains the 
 defence on Queen Catherine's part. Abel was ensnared, as 
 greater men were, in the prophetic delusions and ravings of 
 Elizabeth Barton, called the " Holy Maid of Kent" A» 
 belonging to the Church of Rome, he inevitably opposed 
 Henry VIII. 's assumption of supremacy in the church 
 Ultimately he was tried and condemned for " misprision 
 of treason," and perished in the usual cruel and ignoble 
 way. The execution, as described, took place, at Smith- 
 lleld oe July 30, 1540. If we may not concede the vene- 
 rable and holy name of martyr to Abel — and John Foxe, 
 is passionate in his refusal of it — yet we must hold that 
 he at least fell a victim to his unsparing defence of his 
 queen and friend, the " misprision of treason " having 
 been a foregone conclusion. In stat. 25, Henry VIIL, c 
 12, he is described as having "caused to be printed 
 and sot forth in this realme diverse," books against the 
 divorce and separation." , Neither the Tractatus nor the 
 "diverse books" are known. — Dodd, Church History, 
 Brussels, 1737, folio, voL L p. 208; Bourchier, Hut. EccL
 
 34 
 
 ABELARU 
 
 de Martyr. Fratr. minor. (Ingolst. 1583); Pitts, Be 
 Ulustr. Angl. Scrip.; Tanner's BM iotheca Uibcrnico-Britan- 
 hica, p. i. ; Zurich, Original Letters relative to the English 
 iUformation (Parker Society, pt. ii. pp. 209-211, 1846); 
 Foxe's Acts and Monuments (Cattle/s, vol. v. pp. 438-440); 
 Burnet, Soames, Biog. Brit. ; Wood's At/tence (Bliss), s. v. ; 
 Stow, Chron. p. 581. (a. a G.) 
 
 ABELARD, Peter, born at Pallet (Palais), not far 
 from Nantes, in 10 79, was the eldest son of a uoble Breton 
 house. The namo Abalardus (also written Abailardus, 
 Abaielardus, and in many other ways) is said to be a cor- 
 ruption of li abi tardus, substituted by himself for a nick- 
 name Bajolardus given to him when a student.- As a 
 boy, he showed an extraordinary quickness of apprehen- 
 sion, and, choosing a learned life instead of the active 
 career natural to a youth of his birth, early became an 
 adept in the art of dialectic, under which name philosophy, 
 meaning at that time chiefly the logic of Aristotle trans- 
 mitted through Latin channels, was the great subject of 
 bberal • study in the episcopal schools. Roscellin, the 
 famous canon of Compiegne, is mentioned by himself as 
 his teacher ; but whether he heard this champion of 
 extreme Nominalism in early youth, when he wandered 
 about from school to school for instruction and exercise, 
 or some years later, after he had already begun to teach 
 for himself, remains uncertain. His wanderings finally 
 brought him to Paris, still under the age of twenty. There, 
 in the great cathedral school of Notre-Dame, he sat for a 
 while under the teaching of William of Champeaux, the 
 disciple of St Anselm and most advanced of Realists, but, 
 presently stepping forward, he overcame the master in 
 discussion, and thus began a long duel that issued in 
 the downfall of the philosophic theory of Realism, till then 
 dominant in the early Middle Age. First, in the teeth of 
 opposition from the metropolitan teacher, he proceeded to 
 set up a school of his own at Melun, whence, for more 
 direct competition, he removed to Corbeil, nearer Paris. 
 The success of his teaching was signal, though for a time 
 he had to quit the field, the strain proving too great for 
 his physical strength. On his return, after 1 108, he found 
 William lecturing no longer at Notre-Dame, but in a 
 monastic retreat outside the city, and there battle was 
 again joined between them, forcing upon the Realist a 
 material change of doctrine, he was once more victorious, 
 and thenceforth he stood supreme. His discomfited rival 
 still had power to keep him from lecturing in Paris, but 
 soon failed in this last effort also. From Melun, where he 
 had resumed teaching, Abelard passed to the capital, and 
 set up his school on the heights of St Gapevieve, looking 
 over Notre-Dame. When he had increased his distinc- 
 tion still further by- winning reputation in the theological 
 school of Anselm of Laon, no other conquest remained for 
 him. He stepped into the chair at Notre-Dame, being also 
 nominated canon, about the year 1115. 
 
 Few teachers ever held such sway as Abelard now 
 did for a time. Distinguished in figure and manners, he 
 was seen surrounded by crowds — it is said thousands — of 
 students, drawn from all countries by the fame of his 
 teaching, in which acuteness of thought was relieved by 
 simplicity and grace of exposition. Enriched by the offer- 
 ings of his pupils, and feasted with universal admiration, 
 he came, as he says, to think himself the only philosopher 
 standing in the world. But a change in his fortunes 
 was at haud. In his devotion to science, he had hitherto 
 lived a very regular life, varied only by the excitement of 
 conflict: now, at the height of his fame, other passions 
 began to stir within hirn. There lived at that time, 
 within the precincts of Notre-Dame, under the care of her 
 uncle, the canon Fulbert, a young girl named Heloise, of 
 noble extraction and born about 1101. Fair, but still 
 
 more remarkable for her knowledge, which extended beyond 
 Latin, it is said, to Greek and Hebrew, she awoke a feel- 
 ing of love in the breast of Abelard; and with intent to 
 win her, he sought and gained a footing in Fulbert's house 
 as a regular inmate. Becoming also tutor to the maiden, 
 he used the unlimited power which he thus obtained over 
 her for the purpose of seduction, though not without 
 cherishing a real affection which she returned in unparalleled 
 devotion. Their relation interfering with his public work, 
 and being, moreover, ostentatiously sung by himself, soon 
 became known to all the world except the too-confiding 
 Fulbert; and, when at last it could not escape even his 
 vision, they were separated only to meet in secret. There- 
 upon Heloise found herself pregnant, and was carried off 
 by her lover to Brittany, where she gave birth to a son. 
 To appease her furious uncle, Abelard .low proposed a 
 marriage, under the condition that it should be kept 
 secret, in order not to rnar his prospects of advancement in 
 the church; but of marriage, whether public or 6ecret, 
 Heloise would hear nothing. She appealed to him not to 
 sacrifice for her the independence of his life, nor did she 
 finally yield to the arrangement without the darkest fore- 
 bodings, only too soon to be realised. The secret of the 
 marriage was not kept by Fulbert; and when Heloise, true 
 to her singular purpose, boldly then denied it, life was 
 made so unsupportable to her that she sought refuge in the 
 convent of Argenteuil Immediately Fulbert, believing 
 that her husband, who aided in the flight, designed to be 
 rid of her, conceived a dire revenge. He and some others 
 broke into Abelard's chamber by night, and, taking him 
 defenceless, perpetrated on him the most brutal mutilation. 
 Thus cast down from his pinnacle of greatness into an 
 abyss of shame and misery, there was left to the brilliant 
 master only the life of a monk. Heloise, not yet twenty, 
 consummated her work of self-sacrifice at the call of his 
 jealous love, and took the veil. 
 
 It was in the Abbey of St Denis that Abelard, now 
 aged forty, sought to bury himself with his woes out of 
 sight. Finding, however, in the cloister neither calm ncr 
 solitude, and having gradually turned again to study, La 
 yielded after a year to urgent entreaties from without ar.i 
 within, and went forth to reopen his school at the Priory 
 of Maisoncelle (1120). His lectures, now framed in a 
 devotional spirit, were heard again by crowds of students, 
 and all Ids old influence seemed to have returned ; but old 
 enmities were revived also, against which he was no longer 
 able as before to make head. No sooner had he put in 
 writing his theological lectures (apparently the Introductio 
 ad Theologian that has come down to us), than his adver- 
 saries fell foul of his rationalistic interpretation of the 
 Trinitarian dogma. Charging him with the heresy of 
 Sabellius in a provincial synod held at Soissons in 1121, 
 they procured by irregular practices a condemnation of his 
 teaching, whereby he was made to throw his book into the 
 flames, and then was shut up in the convent of St Medard. 
 After the other, it was the bitterest possible experience 
 that could befall him, nor, in the state of mental desola- 
 tion- into which it plunged him, could he find any comfort 
 from being soon again set free. The life in his own 
 monastery proving no more congenial than formerly, he 
 fled from it in secret, and only waited for permission to 
 live away from St Denis before he chose the one lot that 
 suited his present mood. In a desert place near Nogent- 
 sur-Seine, he built himself a cabin of stubble and reeds, 
 atid turned hermit. But there fortune came back to him 
 with a new surprise. His retreat becoming known, students 
 flocked from Paris, and covered the wilderness around him 
 with their tents and huts. When he began to teach again, 
 ho found consolation, and in gratitude ho consecrated the 
 new oratory they built tor him by the name of the Paraclete
 
 A B E — A B E 
 
 35 
 
 Upon the retnm of new dangers, or at least of fears, 
 Abelard left the Paraclete to make trial of another refuge, 
 accepting an invitation to preside over the Abbey of St 
 Gildas-de-Rhuys, on the far-off shore of Lower Brittany. 
 It proved a wretched exchange. The region was inhospit- 
 able, the domain a prey to lawless exaction, the house itself 
 savage and disorderly. Yet for nearly ten years he con- 
 tinued to struggle with fate before he fled from his charge, 
 yielding in the end only under peril of violent death. The 
 misery of those years was not, however, unrelieved ; for he 
 had been able, on the breaking-up of Heloise's convent at 
 Argenteuil, to establish her as head of a new religious 
 house at the deserted Paraclete, and in the capacity of 
 spiritual director he often was called to revisit the spot 
 thus made doubly dear to him. All this time Heloise had 
 lived amid universal esteem for her knowledge and character, 
 uttering no word under the doom that had fallen upon her 
 youth; but now, at last, the occasion came for expressing all 
 the pent-up emotions of her soul. Living on for some time 
 in Brittany after his flight from St Gildas, Abelard wrote, 
 among other things, Ms famous Eistoria Calamitatum, 
 and thus moved her to pen her first Letter, which remains 
 an unsurpassed utterance of human passion and womanly 
 devotion ; the first being followed by the two other Letters, in 
 which she finally accepted the part of resignation which, 
 now as a brother to a sister, Abelard commended to her. 
 He not long after was seen once more upon the field of 
 his early triumphs, lecturing on Mount St Genevieve in 
 1136 (when he was heard by John of Salisbury), but it 
 was only for a brief space : no new triumph, but a last 
 great trial, awaited him in the few years to come of his 
 chequered life. As far back as the Paraclete days, he 
 had counted as chief among his foes Bernard of Clairvaux, 
 in whom was incarnated the principle of fervent and 
 unhesitating faith, from which rational inquiry like his 
 was sheer revolt, and now this uncompromising spirit was 
 moving, at the instance of others, to crush the growing evil 
 in the person of the boldest offender. After preliminary 
 negotiations, in which Bernard was roused by Abelard's 
 steadfastness to put forth all his strength, a council met 
 at Sens, before which Abelard, formally arraigned upon a 
 number of heretical charges, was prepared to plead his 
 cause. When, however, Bernard, not without foregone 
 terror in the prospect of meeting the redoubtable dialec- 
 tician, had opened the case, suddenly Abelard appealed 
 to Rome. The stroke availed him nothing; for Bernard, 
 who had power, notwithstanding, to get a condemnation 
 passed at the council, did not rest a moment till a second 
 condemnation was procured at Rome in the following year. 
 Meanwhile, on his way thither to urge his plea in person, 
 Abelard had broken down at the Abbey of Cluni r and there, 
 an nttorly fallen man. with spirit of the humblest, and 
 only not bereft of his intellectual force, he lingered but a 
 few mouths before the approach of death. Removed by 
 friendly hands, for the relief of his sufferings, to the 
 Priory of St Marcel, he died on the 21st of April 1142. 
 First buried at St- Marcel, his remains soon after were 
 carried off in secrecy to the Paraclete, and given over to 
 the loving care of Heloise, who in time came herself to 
 rest beside them. The bones of the pair were shifted 
 more than once afterwards, but they were marvellously 
 preserved even through the vicissitudes of the French 
 Revolution, and now they lie united in the well-known 
 tomb at Pere-Lachaise. 
 
 Great as was the influence exerted by Abelard on the 
 minds of his contemporaries and the course of mediaeval 
 thought, he has been little known in modern times but 
 for his connection with Heloise. Indeed,' it was not till 
 the present century, when Cousin, in 1836 issued the 
 collection entitled Ouvrages inediit, cCAbilard^ that hia 
 
 philosophical performance could be' judged at first hand : 
 of his strictly philosophical works only one, the ethical 
 treatise Scito te ipsum, having been published earlier, 
 namely, in 1721. Cousin's collection, besides giving ex- 
 tracts from the theological work Sic et Non, (an assemblage 
 of opposite opinions on doctrinal points, cilled from the 
 Fathers as a basis for discussion), includes the Dialeclka, 
 commentaries on logical works of Aristotle, Porphyry, and 
 Boethius, and a fragment, De Generibus et Speciebus. The 
 last-named work,, and also the psychological treatise De 
 Intellectibus, published apart by Cousin (in Frvymeru 
 Philosophiques, vol. ii.), are now considered upon internal 
 evidence not to be by Abelard himself, but only to have 
 sprung out of his school. A genuine work, the Glossulee 
 super Porphyrium, from which M. de Remusat, in his 
 classical monograph Abelard (1845), has given extracts, 
 remains in manuscript. 
 
 The general importance of Abelard lies in his having 
 fixed more decisively than any one before him the 
 scholastic manner of philosophising, with it3 object of 
 giving a formally rational expression to the received 
 ecclesiastical doctrine. However his own particular inter- 
 pretations may have been condemned, they were conceived 
 in essentially the same spirit as the general scheme of 
 thought afterwards elaborated in the 13th century wkli 
 approval from the heads of the church. Through him 
 was prepared in the Middle Age the ascendency of the 
 philosophical authority of Aristotle, which became firmly 
 established in the half-century after his death, when first 
 the completed Organon, and gradually all the other works 
 of the Greek thinker, came to be known in the schools : 
 before his time it was rather upon the authority of Plato 
 that the prevailing Realism sought to lean. As regards 
 the central question of Universals, without having suffi- 
 cient knowledge of Aristotle's views, Abelard yet, in 
 taking middle ground between the extravagant Realism of 
 his master, William of Champeaux, or of St Anselm, and 
 the not less extravagant Nominalism (as we have it 
 reported) of his other master, Roscellin, touched at more 
 than one point the Aristotelian position. Along with 
 Aristotle, also with Nominalists generally, he ascribed full 
 reality only to the particular concretes ; while, in opposi- 
 tion to the " insana sententia" of Roscellin, he declared 
 the Universal to be no mere word (vox), but to consist, or 
 (perhaps we may say) emerge, in the fact of predication. 
 (sermoj. Lying in the middle between Realism asd 
 (extreme) Nominalism, this doctrine has often bees spoken 
 of as Conceptualism, but ighorantly so. Abelard, pre- 
 eminently a logician, did not concern himself with the 
 psychological question which the Conceptualist aims at 
 deciding as to the mental subsistence of the Universal. 
 Outside of his dialectic, it was in ethics that Abelard 
 showed greatest activity of philosophical thought ; laying 
 very particular stress upon the subjective intention as 
 determining, if not the moral character, at least the moral 
 value, of human action. His thought in this direction, 
 wherein he anticipated something of modern speculation, 
 is the more remarkable because his scholastic successors 
 accomplished least in the field of morals, hardly venturing to 
 bring the principles and rules of conduct under pure philo- 
 sophical discussion, even after the great ethical inquries ef 
 Aristotle became fully known to them. (g. c. k.) 
 
 ABENCERRAGES, a family or faction that is said to 
 have held a prominent position in the Moorish kingdom 
 of Granada in the 1 5th century. The name appears to have 
 been derived from the Yussuf ben-Serragh, the head of 
 the tribe in the time of Mahommed VlL, who did that' 
 sovereign good service in his struggles to retain tha 
 crown of which he was three times deprived. Nothing 
 is known of the family with certainty; but the came is
 
 36 
 
 A B E — A B E 
 
 familiar from the interesting romance of Gines Perez de 
 Hita, Guerras civiles de Granada, which celebrates the 
 feuds of the Abencerrages and the rival family of the 
 Zcgris, and the cruel treatment to wbich the former were 
 subjected. Florian's Gonsalvo of Cordova, and Chateau- 
 briand's Last of the Abencerrages, are imitations of Perez 
 de Hit&'ft work. The hall of the Abencerrages in the 
 Alhambra takes its name from being the reputed scene of 
 the massacre of the family. 
 
 ABENEZRA, or Ibn Ezha, is the name ordinarily given 
 to Abraham ben Heir ben Ezra (called also Abenare or 
 Evenare), one of the most eminent of the Jewish literati 
 of the Middle Ages, lie was born at Toledo about 1090; left 
 .Spain for Rome about 1.10: resided afterwards at Mantua 
 (1145), at Lucca (1154), at Rhodes (1155 and 11GG), and 
 in England (1159) ; and died probably in 1168. He was 
 distinguished as a philosopher, astronomer, physician, and 
 poet, but especially as a grammarian and commentator. 
 The works by which he is best known form a series of Com- 
 mentaries on the books of the Old Testament, which have 
 nearly all been printed in the great Rabbinic Bibles of 
 Bomberg (1525-6), Buxtorf (1618-9), and Frankfurter 
 (1724-7). Abenezra's commentaries are acknowledged to 
 be of very great value ; he was the first who raised biblical 
 exegesis to the rank of a science, interpreting the text 
 according te its literal sense, and illustrating it from cognate 
 languagos. His style is elegant, but is so concise as to be 
 sometimes obscure; and he occasionally indulges in epigram. 
 In addition to the commentaries, he wrote several treatises 
 on astronomy or astrology, and a number of grammatical 
 (Corks. 
 
 ABENSBERG, a small town of Bavaria, 18 miles S.W. 
 of Regensburg, containing 1300 inhabitants. Here Napo- 
 leon gained an important victory over the Austrians on 
 the 20th of April 1809. The town is the Abusina of the 
 Romans, and ancient ruins exist in its neighbourhood. 
 
 ABERAVON, a parliamentary and municipal borough 
 of Wales, in the county of Glamorgan, beautifully situated 
 on the Avon, near its mouth, 8 miles east of Swansea. 
 The town and adjacent villages have increased rapidly 
 in recent yeaYs, from the extension of the mines of coal and 
 iron in the vicinity, and the establishment of extensive 
 works for the smelting of tin, copper, and zinc. The 
 harbour, Port Talbot, has been much improved, and has 
 good docks ; and there is regular steam communication 
 with BristoL Ores for the smelting furnaces are imported 
 from Cornwall, and copper, tin, and coal are exported. 
 Aberavon unites with Swansea, Kenfigg, Loughor, and 
 Neath, in returning a member to Parliament. In 1871 the 
 population of the parish was 3396, of the parliamentary 
 borough, 11,906. 
 
 ABERCONWAY. See Conway. 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, John, an eminent physician of Edin- 
 burgh, was the son of the Rev. George Abercrombie of 
 Aberdeen, in which city he was born in 1781. After 
 attending the Grammar School and Marischal College,' 
 Aberdeen, he commenced his medical studies at Edinburgh 
 in 1800, and obtained his degree of M.D. there in 1803. 
 Soon afterwards he went to London, and for about a year 
 gave diligent attention to the medical practice and lectures 
 in St George's Hospital In 1804 he returned to Edin- 
 burgh, became a Fellow of the College of Surgeons, and 
 commenced as general practitioner in that city ; where, in 
 dispensary and private practice, he laid the foundation of 
 that character for sagacity as an observer of disease, and 
 judgment in its treatment, that eventually elevated him to 
 the head of his profession. In 1823, be became a Licen- 
 tiate of the College of Physicians; in 1824, a Fellow of 
 that body; and from the death of Dr Gregory in 1822} 
 he was considered the first physician in Scotland. Aber- 
 
 crombie early began the laudable practice of preserving 
 accurate notes of the cases that fell under his care ; and at 
 a period when pathological anatomy was far too littlo 
 regarded by practitioners in this country, ho had the 
 merit of sedulously pursuing it, and collecting a mass of 
 most important information regarding the changes pro- 
 duced by disease on different organs ; so that, before the 
 year 1824, he had more extended experience, and more 
 correct views in this interesting field, than most of his 
 contemporaries engaged in extensive practice. From 1816 
 he occasionally enriched the pages of the Edinburgh 
 Medical and Surgical Journal with essays, that display 
 originality and industry, particularly those " on tho diseases 
 of the spinal cord and brain," and " on diseases of the 
 intestinal canal, of the pancreas, and spleen." The first 
 of these formed the basis of his great and very original 
 work, Pathological and Practical Researches on Diseases 
 of the Brain and Spinal Cord, which appeared at Edin- 
 burgh in 1828. In the same year he published also 
 another very valuable work, his Researches on t/ie Diseases 
 of the Intestinal Canal, Liver, and other Viscera of the 
 Abdomen. Though his professional practice was very 
 extensive and lucrative, he found time for ciier specula- 
 tions and occupations. In 1830 he published his Inquiries 
 concerning the Intellectual Powers of Man and (he Invests 
 gation of Truth, a work which, though less original ai.il 
 profound than his .medical speculations, contains a popular 
 view of an interesting subject, expressed in simple language. 
 It was followed in 1833 by a sequel, The Philosophy of 
 the Moral Feelings, the object of which, as stated in tha 
 preface, was " to divest the subject of all improbable 
 speculations," and to show " the important relation which 
 subsists between the science of mind and the doctrines of 
 revealed religion." Both works have been very extensively 
 read, reaching the 18th and 14th editions respectively in 
 1869. Soon after the publication of Moral Feelings, the 
 University of Oxford conferred on the author the honorary 
 degree of Doctor of Medicine, and in 1835 he was elected 
 Lord Rector of Marischal College, Aberdeen. Dr Aber- 
 crombie was much beloved by his numerous friends for 
 the suavity and kindness of his manners, and was uni- 
 versally esteemed for his benevolence and unaffected piety. 
 Ho died on the 14th of November 1844 of a very uncom- 
 mon disease, the bursting (from softening of the muscular 
 substance) of the coronary vessels of the heart. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Davtd, M.D. This Scottish physi- 
 cian was sufficiently noteworthy hali a century after his 
 (probable) decease to have his Nova Medicines Praxis 
 reprinted at Paris in 1740; while during his lifetime his 
 Tuta ac efficax luis venerea; satpe absque mercurio ac semper 
 absque salivatione mercuriali curando methodus (1684, 8vo) 
 was translated into German and published at Dresden in 
 1702 (8vo). In 1685 were published De Pulsus Varin- 
 tione (London; Paris, 1688, 12mo), and Ars explorandi 
 medicos facultates planiarum ex solo sap. (London). His 
 Opuscula were ■ collected in 1687. These professional 
 writings gave him a place and memorial in Haller's Biblio- 
 theca Medicine Pract. (4 vols. 8vo, 1779, torn. iii. p. 619); 
 but he claims passing remembrance rather as a meta- 
 physician by his remarkable controversial books in theo- 
 logy and philosophy. Formerly a Roman Catholic and 
 Jesuit, he abjured Popery, and published Protestan-cy 
 ■proved Safer than Popery (London, 1686). But by far 
 the most noticeable of his productions is A Discourse 
 of Wit (London, 1685). This treatise somehow has fallen 
 out of sight— much as old coined gold gets hidden away 
 — so that bibliographers do not seem to have met with 
 it, and assign it at hap-hazard to Patrick Abercromby, 
 M.D. Notwithstanding, the most cursory examination 
 of it proves that in this Discourse of Wit are contained
 
 A B E — A B E 
 
 37 
 
 some of the most characteristic and most definitely-put 
 metaphysical opinions of the Scottish philosophy of com- 
 mon sense. Of this early metaphysician nothing biographi- 
 cally has come down save that he was a Scotchman 
 (" Scotus") — born at Seaton. He was living early in the 
 18th century. (Haller, as supra; Lawrence Charteris's 
 M.S., s. v.) So recently as 1833 was printed A Short 
 Account of Scots Divines by him, edited by James Maidment, 
 Edinburgh. (a. b. G.) 
 
 ABERCROMBY, James, Loed Dunfermline, third son 
 of the celebrated Sir Ralph Abercromby, was born on the 
 7th Nov. 1776. Educated for the profession of the law, 
 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1801, but he 
 was prevented from engaging to any considerable extent in 
 general practice by accepting appointments, first as commis- 
 sioner in bankruptcy, and subsequently, as steward of the 
 estates of the Duke of Devonshire. He commenced his 
 political career in 1807, when he was elected member of 
 Parliament for the borough of Midhurst. His sympathies 
 with the small and struggling Opposition had already been 
 declared, and he at once attached himself to the Whig 
 party, with which he consistently acted throughout life. 
 In 1812 he was returned for Calne, which he continued to 
 represent until his elevation to the Scotch bench in 1830. 
 During this lengthened period he rendered conspicuous and 
 valuable services to his party and the country. In Scotch 
 affairs he took, as was natural, a deep interest; and, by 
 introducing, on two separate occasions, a motion for the 
 redress of a special glaring abuse, he undoubtedly gave a 
 strong impulse to the growing desire for a general reform. 
 In 1824, and again in 1826, he presented a petition from 
 the inhabitants of Edinburgh, and followed it up by a 
 motion " for leave to bring in a Bill for the more effectual 
 representation of the city of Edinburgh in the Commons 
 House of Parliament." The motion was twice rejected, 
 but by such narrow majorities as showed that the monopoly 
 of the self-elected Council of thirty-three was doomed. In 
 1827, on the accession of the Whigs to power under Mr 
 Canning, Abercromby received the appointment of Judge- 
 Advocate-General and Privy Counsellor. In 1830 he was 
 raised to the judicial bench as Chief Baron of the Exche- 
 quer in Scotland. The office was abolished in 1832; and 
 almost contemporaneously, Edinburgh, newly enfranchised, 
 was called to return two members to the first reformed 
 Parliament. As the election marked the commencement 
 of a new political era, the honour to be conferred possessed 
 a peculiar value, and the choice of the citizens fell most 
 appropriately on Francis Jeffrey and James Abercromby, 
 two of the foremost of those to whom they were indebted 
 for their hard-won privileges. In 1834 Mr Abercromby 
 obtained a seat in the cabinet of Lord Grey as Master of 
 the Mint. On the assembling of the new Parliament in 
 1835, the election of a speaker gave occasion for the first 
 trial of strength between the Reform party and the followers 
 of Sir Robert Peel. After a memorable division, in which 
 more members voted than had ever before been known, 
 Abercromby was elected by 316 votes, to 310 recorded for 
 Manners-Sutton. The choice was amply justified, not only 
 by the urbanity, impartiality, and firmness with which 
 Abercromby discharged the public duties of the chair, but 
 also by the important reforms he introduced in regard to 
 the conduct of private business. In 1839 he resigned the 
 office, and received the customary honour of a peerage, with 
 the title of Lord Dunfermline. The evening of his life was 
 passed in retirement at Colkiton, near Edinburgh, where he 
 died on the 17th April 1858. The courage and sagacity 
 which marked his entire conduct as a Liberal were never 
 more conspicuous than when, towards the close of his life, 
 he availed himself of an opportunity of practically asserting 
 his cherished doctrine of absolute religious equality. The 
 
 important part he took in originating and supporting the 
 United Industrial School.in Edinburgh for ragged children, 
 irrespective of their religious belief, deserves to be grate- 
 fully acknowledged and remembered, even by those who 
 took the opposite side in the' controversy which arose with 
 regard to it. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Patrick, M.D., was the third son of 
 Alexander Abercromby of Fetterneir in Aberdeenshire, and 
 brother of Francis Abercromby, who was created by James 
 II. Lord Glasford. He was born at Forfar in 1656. As 
 throughout Scotland, he could have had there the benefits of 
 a good parish school ; but it would seem from after event3 
 that his family was Roman Catholic, and hence, in all pro- 
 bability, his education was private. This, and not the un- 
 proved charge of perversion from Protestantism in subser- 
 viency to James II., explains his Roman Catholicism and 
 adhesion to the fortunes of that king. But, intending to 
 become a doctor of medicine, he entered the University of 
 St Andrews, where he took his degree of M.D. in 1G85. 
 From a statement in one of his preface-epistles to his mag- 
 num opus, the Martial Achievements of the Scots Nation, 
 he must have spent most of his youthful years abroad. 
 It has been stated that he attended the University of 
 Paris. The Discourse of Wit (16S5), assigned to him, 
 belongs to Dr David Abercromby, a contemporary. On his 
 return to Scotland, he is found practising as a physician in 
 Edinburgh, where, besides his professional duties, he gave 
 h im self with characteristic zeal to the study of antiquities, 
 a study to which he owes it that his name still lives, for 
 he finds no place in either Haller or Hutchison's Medical 
 Biographies. He was out-and-out a Scot of the old patriotic 
 type, and, living as he did during the agitations for the 
 union of England and Scotland, he took part in the war 
 of pamphlets inaugurated and sustained by prominent 
 men on both sides of the Border, He crossed swords 
 with no less redoubtable a foe than Daniel Defoe in his 
 Advantages of the Act of Security, compared with those oj 
 the intended Union (Edinburgh, 1707), and A Vindication 
 of the Same against Mr De Foe (ibid.) The logic and 
 reason were with Defoe, but there was a sentiment in the 
 advocates of independence which was not sufficiently 
 allowed for in the clamour of debate ; and, besides, tne 
 disadvantages of union were near, hard, and actual, the 
 advantages remote, and contingent on many things and 
 persons. Union wore the look to men like Abercromby 
 and Lord Belhaven of absorption, if not extinction. Aber- 
 cromby was appointed physician to James II., but the Re- 
 volution deprived him of the post. Crawford (in his Peer- 
 age, 1716) ascribes the title of Lord Glasford to an intended 
 recognition of ancestral loyalty; its bestowment in 1685 
 corresponding with the younger brother's graduation as 
 M.D., may perhaps explain his appointment. A minor 
 literary work of Abercrbmby's was a translation of M. 
 Beague's partizan History (so called) of the War carried on 
 by the Popish Government of Cardinal Beaton, aided by the 
 French, against the English under the Protector Somerset, 
 which appeared in 1707. The work with which Aber- 
 cromby's name is permanently associated is his already 
 noticed Martial Achievements of tlie Scots Nation, issued in 
 two noble folios, vol. i. 1711, vol. ii. 1716. In the title- 
 page and preface to vol. i. he disclaims the ambition of 
 being an historian, but in vol. ii., in title-page and preface 
 alike, he is no longer a simple biographer, but an historian. 
 That Dr Abercromby did not use the word "genuine history" 
 in his title-page without warrant is clear on every page of 
 his large work. Granted that, read in the light of after 
 researches, much of the first volume must necessarily be 
 relegated to the region of the mythical, none the less was 
 the historian a laborious and accomplished reader and inves- 
 tigator of all available authorities, as well manuscript aa
 
 38 
 
 A B E — AB E 
 
 printed ; while the roll of names of those who aided him 
 includes every man of note in Scotland at the time, from 
 Sir Thomas Craig and Sir George Mackenzie to Mr Alex- 
 ander Nisbet and Mr Thomas Ruddiman. The Martial 
 AcJiievernaits has not been reprinted, though practically 
 the first example of ' Scottish typography in any way 
 noticeable, vol. ii. having been printed under the scholarly 
 supervision of Thomas Ruddiman. The date of his death 
 is uncertain. It has been variously assigned to 1715, 
 1716, 17i'0, and 1726, and it is usually added that he left 
 & widow in gTeat poverty. That he was living in 1 7 1 6 is 
 certain, as Crawford speaks of him (in his Peerage, 171 G) 
 is "my worthy friend." Probably he died about 1716. 
 Memoirs of the Abercrombys, commonly given to him, does 
 not appear to have been published. (Chambers's Eminent 
 Scotsmen, s. v. ; Anderson's Scottish Nation, s. v. ; Chalmers's 
 Biog. Diet., s. v. ; Chalmers's Life of Ruddiman; Haller's 
 Bibliotheca Medicinal Pract., 4 vols. 4to, 1779; Hutchin- 
 son's Biog. Medical, 2 vols. 8vo, 1799; Lee's Defoe, 3 vols. 
 8vo.) (a. b. g.) 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Sik^Ralph, K.B., Lieutenant-General 
 in the British army, was the eldest son of George Aber- 
 cromby of Tullibody, Clackmannanshire, and was born in 
 October 1734. After passing some time at an excellent 
 6chool at Alloa, he went to Rugby, and in 1752-53 he 
 attended classes in Edinburgh University. In 1754 he was 
 sent to Leipsic to study civil law, with a view to his pro- 
 ceding to the Scotch bar, of which it is worthy of notice 
 that both his grandfather and his father lived to be the 
 oldest members. On returning from the Continent he 
 expressed a strong preference for the military profession, 
 and a cornet's commission was accordingly obtained for 
 him (March 1756) in the 3d Dragoon Guards. He rose 
 through the intermediate gradations to the rank of lieu- 
 tenant-colonel of the regiment (1773), and in 1781 he 
 became colonel of the 103d infantry. When that regiment 
 was disbanded in 1783 he retired upon half -pay. That 
 up to this time he had scarcely been engaged in active 
 service, was owing mainly to his disapproval of the policy 
 of the Government, and especially to his sympathies with 
 the American colonists in their struggles for independence; 
 and his retirement" is no doubt to be ascribed to similar 
 feelings. But on France declaring war against England 
 in 1793, he hastened to resume his professional duties; 
 and, being esteemed one of the ablest and most intrepid 
 officers in the whole British forces, he was appointed to 
 the command of a brigade under the Duke of York, for 
 service in Holland. He commanded the advanced guard 
 in the action on the heights of Cateau, and was wounded 
 at Niineguen. The duty fell to him of protecting the 
 British army in its disastrous retreat out of Holland, in 
 the winter of 1794-5. In 1795 he received the honour of 
 knighthood, the Order of the Bath being conferred on him 
 in acknowledgment of his services. The same year he 
 was appointed to succeed Sir Charles Grey, as commander- 
 in-chief of the British forces in the West Indies. In 1796, 
 Grenada was suddenly attacked and taken by a detach- 
 ment of the army under his orders. He afterwards 
 obtained possession of the settlements of Demerara and 
 Essequibo, in South America, and of the islands of St 
 Lucia, St Vincent, and Trinidad. He returned in 1797 
 to Europe, and, in reward for his important services, wa.? 
 appointed to the command of the regiment of Scots Greys, 
 intrusted with the governments of the Isle of Wight, Fort 
 George, and Fort Augustus, and raised to' the rank of lieu- 
 tenant-generaL He held, in 1797-8, the chief command 
 of the forces in Ireland. There he laboured to maintain 
 the discipline of the army, to suppress the rising rebellion, 
 and to protect the people from military oppression, with a 
 care worthy alike of a great general and an enlightened 
 
 and beneficent statesman. When he was appointed to the 
 command in Ireland, an invasion of that country by the 
 French was confidently anticipated by the English 
 Government. He used his utmost efforts to restore the 
 discipline of an army that was utterly disorganised; and, 
 as a first step, he anxiously endeavoured to protect the 
 people, by re-establishing the supremacy of the civil power, 
 and not allowing the military to be called out, except when 
 it was indispensably necessary for the enforcement of the 
 law and the maintenance of order. Finding that he received 
 no adequate support from the head of the Irish Govern- 
 ment, and that all his efforts were opposed and thwarted 
 by those who presided in the councils of Ireland, he resigned 
 the command. His departure from Ireland was deeply 
 lamented by the reflecting portion of the people, and was 
 speedily followed by those disastrous results which he had 
 anticipated, and which he so ardently desired and had so 
 wisely endeavoured to prevent. After holding for a short 
 period the office of Commander-in-Chief in Scotland, Sir 
 Ralph, when the enterprise against Holland was resolved 
 upon in 1799, was again called to command under the 
 Duke of York. The difficulties of the ground, the incle- 
 mency of the season, unavoidable delays, the disorderly 
 movements of the Russians, and the timid duplicity of the 
 Dutch, defeated the objects of that expedition. But it 
 was confessed by the Dutch, the French, and the British 
 alike, that even victory the most decisive could not 
 have more conspicuously proved the talents of this distin- 
 guished officer. His country applauded the choice, when, 
 in 1801, he was sent with an army to dispossess the 
 French of Egypt. His experience in Holland and the 
 West Indies particularly fitted him for this new command, 
 as was proved by his carrying his army in health, in spirits, 
 and with the requisite supplies, in spite of vcrj great diffi- 
 culties, to the destined scene of action. The debarkation 
 of the troops at Aboukir, in the face of an opposing force, 
 is justly ranked among the most daring and brilliant 
 exploits of the English army. A battle in the neighbour- 
 hood of Alexandria (March 21, 1801) was the sequel of 
 this successful landing, and it was Sir R. Abercromby's 
 fate to fall in the moment of victory. He was struck by 
 a spent ball, which could not be extracted, and died seven 
 days after the battle. The Duke of York paid a just 
 tribute to the great soldier's memory in the general order 
 issued on the occasion of his death : — " His steady observ- 
 ance of discipline, his ever-watchful attention to the 
 health and wa"nts of his troops, the persevering and un- 
 conquerable spirit which marked his military career, the 
 splendour of his actions in the field, and the heroism of 
 his death, are worthy the imitation of all who desire, like 
 him, a life of heroism and a death of glory." By a vote 
 of the House of Commons, a monument was erected in 
 honour of Sir Ralph Abercrcmby in St Paul's Cathedral. 
 His widow was created a peeress, and a pension of £2000 
 a year was settled on her and her two successors in the 
 title. It may be mentioned that Abercromby was returned, 
 after a keen contest, as member of Parliament for his 
 native county of Clackmannanshire in 1773; but a parlia- 
 mentary life had no attractions for him, and he did not 
 seek re-election. A memoir of the later years of his life 
 (1793-1801), by his son, Lord Dunfermline, was published 
 in 1861. 
 
 ABERDARE, a town of Wales, it tie county of 
 Glamorgan, on the right bank of the river Cynon, four 
 miles S.W. of Merthyr-TydviL The district around is 
 rich in valuable mineral' products, and coal and iron 
 mining are very extensively carried on in the neighbour- 
 hood. Important tin-works, too, have been' recently 
 opened. Part of the coal is used at the Iroa works, and 
 large quantities are sent to Cardiff for exportation. Aber-
 
 ABERDEEN 
 
 39 
 
 dare is connected with the coast by canal and railway. ' 
 Owing to the great development of the coal and iron 
 trade," it has rapidly increased from a mere village to a 
 large 'and flourishing town. Handsome churches, banks, 
 and hotels have been erected, a good supply of water has 
 been introduced, and a public park has been opened. 
 Two markets are held weekly. The whole parish falls 
 within the parliamentary- borough of MerthyT-Tydvil 
 The rapid growth of its population is seen by the fol- 
 lowing figures : in 1841 the number of inhabitants was 
 6471° irT 1851, 14,999 j in 1861, 32,299; and in 1871, 
 37,774. 
 
 ABERDEEN", a royal burgh and city, the chief part of a 
 parliamentary burgh, the capital of the county of Aberdeen, 
 the chief seaport in the north of Scotland, and the fourth 
 Scottish town in population, industry, and wealth. It lies 
 in lat. 57° 9' N. and long. 2° 6' W., on the German Ocean, 
 n?ar the mouth of the river Dee, and is 542 miles north 
 of London, and 111 miles north c£ Edinburgh, by the 
 bhortest railway routes. 
 
 ABERDEEN 
 
 
 
 Aberdeen, probably the Devana on the Diva of Ptolemy, 
 was an important place in the 12th century. William the 
 Lion had a residence in the city, to which he gave a char- 
 ter in 1179 confirming the corporate rights granted by 
 David I. The city received many subsequent royal 
 charters. It was burned by Edward ELL in 1336, but 
 it was soon rebuilt and extended, and called New Aber- 
 deen. The houses were of timber and thatched, and 
 many such existed till 1741. The burgh records are the 
 oldect of any Scottish burgh. They begin in 1398, and are 
 complete to the present time, with only a short break. 
 Extracts from them, extending from 1398 to 1570, have 
 been published by the Spalding Club. For many centuries 
 the city was subject to attacks by the barons of the sur- 
 rounding districts, and its avenues and six ports had to 
 be guarded. The ports had all been removed by 1770. 
 Several monasteries existed in Aberdeen before the Re- 
 formation. Most of the Scottish sovereigns visited the 
 
 city and received gifts from the authorities. In 1497 % 
 blockhouse was built at the harbour mouth as ft protection 
 against the English. During the religious struggle in the 
 17th century between the Royalists and Covenanters the 
 city was plundered by both parties. In. 1715 Earl 
 Marischal proclaimed the Pretender at Aberdeen. In 1745 
 the Duke of Cumberland resided a short time in the city. 
 In the middle of the ISth century boys were kidnapped 
 ir. Aberdeen, and sent as slaves to America. In 1817 the 
 city became insolvent, with a debt uf £225,710, contracted 
 by public improvements, but the debt was soon paid off." 
 The motto on the city arms is Bon-Accord. It formed the 
 watchword of the Aberdonians while aiding King Robert 
 the Bruce in his battles with the English. 
 
 Of eminent men connected with Aberdeen, New and 
 Old, may be mentioned — John Barbour, Hector Boece or 
 Boethius, Bishop Elphinstone, the Earls Marischal ; George 
 Jamesone, the famous portrait painter ; Edward Raban, the 
 first printer in Aberdeen, 1622 ; Rev. Andrew Cant, 
 the Covenanter ; David Anderson (Davie do a' thing), e 
 mechanic; James Gregory, inventor of the reflecting 
 telescope ; Dr Thomas Reid, the metaphysician ; Dr George 
 Campbell, Principal of Marischal College, author *f several 
 important works, and best known by his Philosophy of 
 Rhetoric ; Dr James Beattie ; Lord Byron ; Sir James 
 Mackintosh; Robert Hall; Dr R Hamilton, who wrote on 
 the National Debt. 
 
 Till 1800 the city stood on a z'ew eminences, and had 
 steep, narrow, and crooked streets, but, since the Improve- 
 ment Act of that year, the whole aspect of the place has 
 been altered by the formation of two new spacious and 
 nearly level streets (Union Street and King Street, meet- 
 ing in Castle Street), and by the subsequent laying out of 
 many others, besides squares, terraces, ic., on nearly flat 
 ground. The city is above eight miles in circuit, and is 
 built on sand, gravel, and boulder clay. The highest parts 
 are from 90 to 170 feet above the sea. The chief thorough- 
 fare is Union Street, nearly a mile long and 70 feet broad. 
 It runs W.S.W. from Castle Street, and crosses the Den- 
 burn, now the railway valley, by a noble granite arch 132 
 feet in span and 50 feet high, which cost, with a hidden 
 arch on each side, £13,000. 
 
 Aberdeen is now a capacious, elegant, and well-built 
 town, and from the material employed, consisting chiefly of 
 light grey native granite, is called the "granite city." 
 It contains many fine public buildings. The principal of 
 these is Marischal College or University Buildings, which 
 stands on the site of a pre-Reformation Franciscan Convent, 
 and was rebuilt, 1S36-1841, at a cost of about £30,000. 
 It forms three sides of a court, which is 117 by 105 feet, 
 and has a back wing, and a tower 100 feet high. The 
 accommodation consists of twenty-five large class-rooms and 
 laboratories, a hall," library, museums, <tc 
 
 The University of Aberdeen was formed- by the union 
 and incorporation, in 1860, by Act of Parliament, of the 
 University and King's College of Aberdeen, founded in Old 
 Aberdeen, in 1494, by William Elphinstone, Bishop of 
 Aberdeen, under the authority of a Papal bull obtained by 
 James IT., and of the Marischal College and University of 
 Aberdeen, founded in New Aberdeen, in 1593, by George 
 Keith, Earl Marischal, by a charter ratified by Act of Parr 
 liament. The officials consist of a chancellor, with rector 
 and principal; there. are 21 professors and 8 assistants. 
 Arts and divinity are taught in King's College, and medicine, 
 natural history, and law in Marischal College. The arts 
 session lasts from the end of October to the beg inn ing 
 of ApriL The arts curriculum of four years, with gradua- 
 tion, costs £36, lis. There are 214 arts bursaries, 29 
 divinity, and 1 medical, of the aggregate annual value of 
 £3646, £650, and £26, respectively. About 60 arts
 
 40 
 
 ABERDEEN 
 
 bursaries, mostly from £10 to £35 in vaiue, are given 
 yearly by competition, or by presentation and examination. 
 Two-thirds of the arts students are bursars. Seventeen 
 annual scholarships and prizes of the yearly value of £758 
 are given at the end of the arts curriculum. The average 
 yearly number of arts students, in the thirteen years 
 since the union of the arts classes of the two colleges in 
 18G0, has been 342, while in the separate colleges together 
 for the nine years before the union, it was 431. In winter 
 session 1S72-73 there were 623 matriculated students in 
 ill the faculties. In 1872, 32 graduated in arts, 68 in 
 medicine, 5 in divinity, and 1 in law. The library has 
 above 80,000 volumes. The General Council in 1873 had 
 2075 registered members, who, with those of Glasgow Uni- 
 versity, return one member to Parliament. 
 
 The Free Church Divinity College was built in 1850, 
 at the cost of £2025, in the Tudor-Gothic style It has a 
 large hall, a library of 12,000 volumes, and 15 bursaries of 
 the yearly value of from £10 to £25. 
 
 At the east end of Union Street, and partly in Castle 
 Street, on the north side, are the new County and Muni- 
 cipal buildings, an imposing Franco-Scottish Gothic pile, 
 225 feet long, 109 feet broad, and 64 feet high, of four 
 stories, built 1867-1873 at the cv*c of £80,000, including 
 £25,000 for the site. Its chief feature is a tower 200 
 feet high. It contains a great hall, 74 feet long, 35 feet 
 bro-td, and 50 feet high, with an open timber ceiling : a 
 Justiciary Court-House, 50 feet long, 37 feet broad, and 
 31 feet high; a Town Hall, 41 feet long, 25 feet broad, 
 and 15 feet high, and a main entrance corridor 60 feet 
 long, 16 feet broad, and 24 feet high. A little to the west 
 is the Town and County Bank, a highly ornamented building 
 inside and outside, in the Italian style, costing about 
 £24,000. 
 
 A very complete closed public market of two floors was 
 built in 1842, at a cost of £28,000, by a company incor- 
 porated by Act of Parliament. The upper floor or great 
 hall is 315 feet long, 1C6 feet broad, and 45 feet high, 
 with galleries all round. The lower floor is not so high. 
 The floors contain numerous small shops for the sale of 
 meat, fowls, fish, &c, besides stalls and seats for the sale 
 of vegetables, butter, eggs, &c. The galleries contain small 
 shops for the sale of drapery, hardware, fancy goods, and 
 books. On the upper floor is a fountain of polished Peter- 
 head granite, costing £200, with a basin 1\ feet diameter, 
 cut out of one block of stone. Connected with this under- 
 taking was the laying out of Market Street from Union 
 Street to the quay. At the foot of this street is being built 
 in the Italian style the new post and telegraph office, at a 
 cost of £16,000, including £4000, the cost of the site. 
 It is to form a block of about 100 feet square and 40 feet 
 
 high- 
 Aberdeen has about 60 places of worship, with nearly 
 48,000 sittings. There are 10 Established churches; 20 
 Free, 6 Episcopalian, 6 United Presbyterian, 5 Congre- 
 gational, 2 Baptist, 2 Methodist, 2 Evangelical Union, 1 
 Unitarian, 1 of Roman Catholic, 1 of Friends, and 1 of Origi- 
 nal Seceders. There are also several mission chapels. In 
 1843 all the Established ministers seceded, with 10,000 lay 
 members. The Established and Free Church denomina- 
 tions have each about 11,000 members in communion. 
 The Established West and East churches, in the centre of 
 the city, within St Nicholas churchyard, form a continuous 
 building 220 feet long, including an intervening aisle, over 
 which is a tower and spire 140 feet high. The West was 
 built in 1775 in the Italian style, and the East in 1834 in 
 the Gothic, each costing about £5000. They occupy the 
 site of the original cruciform church of St Nicholas, erected 
 In the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. One of the nine 
 bells in the tower bears the date of 1352. and is 4 feet 
 
 diameter at the mouth, 3i feet high, and very thick. The 
 Union Street front of the churchyard is occupied by a 
 very elegant granite facade, built in 1 830, at the cost of 
 £1460. It is 1 47 A feet long, with a central arched gateway 
 and entablature 32J feet high, with two attached Ionic 
 columns on each side. Each of the two wings has six 
 Ionic columns (of single granite blocks, 15 feet 2 inches, 
 long), with basement and entablature, the whole being 23 J 
 feet high. The following are the style, cost, and date of 
 erection of the other principal Aberdeen churches — St An- 
 drew's, Episcopal, Gothic, £6000, 1817; North Church, 
 Established, Greek, £10,000, 1831; three churches in k 
 cruciform group, Free, simple Lancet Gothic, with a line 
 brick spire 174 feet high, £5000, 1844 ; Roman Catholic, 
 Gothic, £12,000, 1859; Free West, Gothic, £12,856, 1669, 
 with a spire 175 feet high. 
 
 In 1873 there were in Aberdeen about 110 schools, with 
 from 10,000 to 11,000 pupils in attendance. About 2500 
 students attend the University, Mechanics' Institution, and 
 private schools for special branches. 
 
 Five miles south-west of Aberdeen, on the south side of 
 the Dee, in Kincardineshire, is St Mary's Roman Catholic- 
 College of Blairs, with a president and three professors. 
 
 The Aberdeen Grammar School, dating from about 1263, 
 is a preparatory school for the university. It has a rector 
 and four regular masters, who teach classics, English, 
 arithmetic, and mathematics, for the annual fee of £4, 10a. 
 for each pupiL Writing, drawing, itc, are also taught. 
 Nearly 200 pupils attend, who enter about the age of 
 twelve. Like the Edinburgh High School, it has no 
 elementary department. There are 30 bursaries. A new 
 granite building for the school was erected, 1861-1863, 
 in the Scotch baronial style, at the cost of £16,000, in- 
 cluding site. It is 215 feet long and 60 feet high, and 
 has three towers. 
 
 The Mechanics' Institution, founded 1824, and re- 
 organised 1834, has a hall, class-rooms, and a library of 
 14,000 volumes, in a building erected in 1846, at a cost of 
 £3500. During the year 1872-73, there were at the School 
 of Science and Art 385 pupils; and at other evening classes, 
 538. 
 
 Aberdeen has two native banks, besides branch banks, 
 and a National Security Savings Bank ; three insurance 
 companies, four shipping companies, three railway com- 
 panies, and a good many miscellaneous companies. There 
 are ten licensed pawnbroking establishments, with about 
 440,000 pledges in the year for £96,000, and with a 
 capital of £27,000. There are seven incorporated trades, 
 originating between 1398 and 1527, and having charitable 
 funds for decayed members, widows, and orphans. They 
 have a hall, built in 1847 for £8300, in the Tudor Gothic 
 style. The hall, 60 feet long, 29 wide, and 42 high, con- 
 tains curious old chairs, and curious inscriptions on the 
 shields of the crafts. 
 
 Among the charitable institutions is Gordon's Hospital, 
 founded in 1729 by a miser, Robert Gordon, a Dantzic 
 merchant, of the Straloch family, and farther endowed 
 by Alexander Simpson of Collyhill in 1816. It is 
 . managed by the Town Council and four of the Established 
 ministers of Aberdeen, incorporated by royal charters of 
 1772 and 1792. The central part of the house was built 
 'in 1739, and the wings in 1830-1834, the whole cosVing 
 £17,300, and being within a garden of above four acres. 
 It now (1-873) maintains and educates (in English, writing, 
 arithmetic, physics, mathematics, drawing, music, French, 
 &.c.) 180 boys of the age 9 to 15, the eons and grandsons 
 of decayed burgesses of guild and trade of the city; and 
 next those of decayed inhabitants (not paupers). Expendi- 
 ture for year to 31st October 1872, £4353 for 164 boys. 
 It has a head-master, three regular, and several visiting
 
 ABERDEEN 
 
 41 
 
 masters. The Boys' and Girls' Hospital, lately built for 
 .£10,000, maintains and educates 50 boys and 50 girls. 
 
 The Female Orphan Asylum, founded by Mrs Elmslie, 
 in 18-10, and managed by trustees, maintains and educates, 
 chiefly as domestic servants, 46 girls between the ages of 
 4 and 1G, at the yearly cost for each of about £23, 13s. 
 Those admitted must be legitimate orphan daughters of 
 respectable parents, who have lived three years imme- 
 diately before death in Aberdeen or in the adjoining 
 parishes of Old Machar and Nigg. The Hospital for 
 Orphan and Female Destitute Children, endowed by John 
 Carnegie and the trustees of the Murtle Fund, maintains 
 and educates 50 girls, chiefly for domestic service. The 
 Asylum for the Blind, established in 1843, on a foundation 
 by Miss Cruickshauk, maintains and educates about 10 
 blind children, and gives industrial employment to blind 
 adults. There is a boys' and girls' school for 150 boys 
 and 150 girla on Dr Bell's foundation. The Industrial 
 Schools, begun by Sheriff Watson in 1841, and the Re- 
 formatory Schools, begun in 1857, having some 600 pupils 
 on the roll, have greatly diminished juvenile crime in the 
 district. The Murtle or John Gordon's Charitable Fund, 
 founded in 1815, has an annual revenue from land of about 
 £2400, applicable to all kinds of charity, in sums from 
 £5 to £300. The Midbeltie Fund, founded by a bequest 
 of £20,000, in 1848, by James Allan of Midbeltie, gives 
 yearly pensions ranging from £5 to £15 to respectable 
 decayed widows in the parishes of St Nicholas and Old 
 Machar. 
 
 The two parishes in which Aberdeen is situated, viz., 
 St Nicholas and Old Machar, have each a large poor-house. 
 The poor of both parishes cost about £20,000 a year. 
 
 The Royal Infirmary, instituted in 1740, was rebuilt 
 1833-1840, in the Grecian style, at the cost of £17,000. 
 It is a well-situated, large, commodious, and imposing 
 building. It has three stories, the front being 166 feet 
 long and 50 feet high, with a dome. A detached fever- 
 house was built in 1872 for about £2500. The managers 
 were incorporated by royal charter in 1773, and much 
 increased in number in 1852. The institution is sup- 
 ported by land rents, feu-duties, legacies, donations, sub- 
 scriptions, church collections, &c. Each bed has on an 
 average 1200 cubic feet of space. There are on the average 
 1 30 resident patients, costing each on the average a shilling 
 daily, and the number of patients treated may be stated at 
 1 700 annually, besides outdoor patients receiving advice and 
 medicine. The recent annual expenditure has been about 
 £4300. There is a staff of a dozen medical officers. 
 
 The Eoyal Lunatic Asylum, opened in 1800, consists of 
 two separate houses, valued in 1870 at £40,000, in an 
 enclosure of 40 acres. It is under the same management 
 as the Infirmary. The recent daily average of patients has 
 been about 420, at an annual cost of £13,000. The annual 
 rate for each pauper is £25, 10s. The General Dispensary, 
 Vaccine, and Lying-in Institution, founded in 1823, has 
 bad as many as 6781 c<\ses in one year. The Hospital for 
 Incurables has a daily average of 26 patients, and the Oph- 
 thalmic and Auric Institution has had 671 cases in a year. 
 
 The Music Hall, built in 1821 and 1859 at the cost 
 of £16,500, has a front 90 feet long, with a portico of 6 
 Ionic pillars 30 feet high ; large, highly-decorated lobbies 
 and looms; and a hall 150 feet long, 68 broad, and 50 
 high, with a flat ceiling, and galleries. The hall holds 2000 
 persons seated, and has a fine organ and an orchestra for 
 300. Here H.R.H. Prince Albert opened the British 
 Association, as president, 14th September 1859. A new 
 Theatre and Opera House was built in 1872, in the mixed 
 Gothic style, for £8400, with the stage 52i feet by 29, and 
 the auditorium for 1700 to 1800 persons. " The front wall 
 is of bluish granite and red and yellow freestone, with 
 
 1-3* 
 
 some polished Peterhead granite pillars, the rest beinc 
 built of concrete. 
 
 In Castle Street, the City Place and Old Market Stance, 
 is the Market Cross, a beautiful, open-arched, hexagonal 
 structure of freestone, 21 feet diameter, and 18 feet high. 
 It has Ionic columns and pilasters, and an entablature of 
 twelve panels. On ten of the panels are medallions, 
 cut in stone, in high relief, of the Scottish sovereigns from 
 James I. to James VIE From the centre rises a com- 
 posite column 121 f ee t high, with a Corinthian capital, on 
 which is the royal unicorn rampant. This cross was planned 
 and erected about 1682 by John Montgomery, a native 
 architect, for £100 sterling. On the north side of the 
 same street, adjoining the municipal buildings, is the 
 North of Scotland Bank, a Grecian building in granite, 
 with a portico of Corinthian columns, having most elabo- 
 rately carved capitals. On an eminence east of Castle 
 Street are the military barracks for 600 men, built in 1796 
 for £16,000. 
 
 The principal statues in the city are those of the last 
 Duke of Gordon — died 1836 — in grey granite, 10 feet high; 
 Queen Victoria, in white Sicilian marble, 8 J feet high; 
 Prince Albert, bronze, natural-size, sitting posture; and a 
 curious rough stone figure, of unknown date, supposed to 
 be Sir William Wallace. 
 
 The Dee to the south of the city is crossed by three 
 bridges, the old bridge of Dee, an iron suspension bridge, 
 and the Caledonian Railway bridge. The first, till 1832 
 the only access to the city from the south, consists of 
 seven semicircular ribbed arches, is about 30 feet high, 
 and was built early in the 16th century by Bishops Elphin- 
 stone and Dunbar. It was nearly all rebuilt 1718-1723, 
 and from being 14J feet wide, it was in 1842 made 26 
 feet wide. From Castle Street, King Street leads in the 
 direction of the new bridge of Don (a little east of the old 
 " Brig o' Balgownie "), of five granite arches, each 75 feet 
 span, built for nearly £13,000 in 1827-1832. 
 
 A defective harbour, and a shallow sand and gravel bar at 
 its entrance, long retarded the trade of Aberdeen, but, under 
 various Acts since 1773, they have been greatly deepened. 
 The north pier, built partly by Smeaton, 1775-1781, and 
 partly by Telford, 1810-1815, extends 2000 feet into the 
 German Ocean. It is 30 feet broad, andj with the parapet, 
 rises 15 feet above high water. It consists of large granite 
 blocks. It has increased the depth of water on the bar 
 from a few feet to 22 or 24 feet at spring tides, and to 17 
 or 18 feet at neap. The wet dock, of 29 acres, and with 
 6000 feet of quay, was completed in 1848, and called 
 Victoria Dock, in honour of Her Majesty's visit to the 
 city in that year. These and other improvements of the 
 harbour and its entrance cost £325,000 down to 1848. 
 By the Harbour Act of 1868, the Dee near the harbour 
 has been diverted to the south, ac the cost of £80,000, 
 and 90 acres of new ground (in addition to 25 acres 
 formerly made up} for harbour works are being made up on 
 the city or north side of the river; £80,000 has been 
 laid out in forming in the sea, at the south side of the 
 river, a new breakwater of concrete, 1050 feet long, against 
 south and south-east storms. The navigation channel is 
 being widened and deepened, and the old pier or break- 
 water on the north side of the river mouth is to be 
 lengthened at least 500 feet seaward. A body of 31 com- 
 missioners manage the harbour affairs. 
 
 Aberdeen Bay affords safe anchorage with off-shore winds, 
 but not with those from the N.E., E., and S.E. On the. 
 Girdleness, the south point of the bay, a lighthouse was. 
 built in 1833, in lat 57° 8' N., and long. 2° 3' W., with 
 two fixed lights, one vertically below the other, and re- 
 spectively 115 and 185 feet above mean tide.-. There are 
 also fixed leading lights to direct ships entering the harbour
 
 42 
 
 ABERDEEN 
 
 at night In fogs, a steam whistle near tho lighthouse is 
 Bounded ten seconds every minute. Near the harbour 
 mouth are three batteries mounting nineteen guns. • 
 
 The water supplied to the city contains only 3J grains 
 Solid mattoi- in a gallon, with a hardness oi about 2 degrees. 
 It is brought by gravitation, in a close brick culvert, 
 from tho Dee, 21 miles W.S.W. of the city, to a reservoir, 
 whii-h supplies sine-tenths of the city. The other tenth, 
 or higher part of the city, is supplied by a separate reser- 
 voir, to wliich pfirt of the water from the culvert is forced 
 ap by a hydraulic engine. Nearly 40 gallons water per 
 h»ad of the population are consumed daily for all purposes. 
 The new water works cost £160,000, and were opened by 
 Her Majesty, ICth October 18G6. 
 
 The gas is made of cannel coal, and is sent through 71 
 miles of main pipes, which extend 5 miles from the works. 
 
 The manufactures, arts, and trade of Aberdeen and 
 vicinity are large, and flourishing. Woollens were made as 
 early as 1 703, and knitting of stockings was a great industry 
 in the 18th century. There are two large firms in the 
 woollen trade, with 1550 hands, at £1000 weekly wages, 
 and making above 1560 tons wool in the year into yarns, 
 carpets, hand-knit hosiery, cloths, and tweeds. The linen 
 trade, much carried on since 1749, is now confined to one 
 firm, with 2G00 hands, at £1200 wages weekly, who spin, 
 weave, and bleach 50 tons flax and 60 tons tow weekly, 
 &ud produce yarns, floorcloths, sheetings, dowlas, ducks, 
 towels, sail-canvas, etc. The cotton manufacture, introduced 
 in 1779, employs only one firm, with 550 hands, at £220 
 weekly wages, who spin 5000 bales of cotton a-year into 
 mule yarn. The wincey trade, begun in 1839, employs 
 400 hands, at £200 weekly wages, who make 2,100,000 
 yards cloth, 27 to 36 inches broad, in the year. Paper, 
 first made here in 1696, is now manufactured by three 
 firms in the vicinity. The largest has 2000 hands, at 
 £1250 weekly wages, and makes weekly 75 to 80 tons of 
 writing paper, and 6 J millions of envelopes, besides much 
 | cardboard and stamped paper; another firm makes weekly 
 77 tons coarse and card paper; and a third, 20 tons print- 
 ing and other paper. The comb works of Messrs Stewart 
 <fe Co., begun in 1827, are the largest in the world, em- 
 ploying 900 hands, at £500 weekly wages, who yearly 
 convert 1100 tons horns, hoofs, india-rubber, and tortoise- 
 shells into 11 millions of combs, besides spoons, cups, 
 scoops, paper-knives, «fec. Seven iron foundries and 
 many engineering works employ 1000 men, at £925 
 weekly wages, and convert 6000 tons of iron a-year into 
 marine and land Bteam engines and boilers, corn mills, 
 wood-preparing machinery, machinery to grind and pre- 
 pare artificial manures, besides sugar mills and frames and 
 coffee machinery for the colonies. 
 
 The Sandilands Chemical Works, Degun in 1848, cover 
 (five acres, and employ over 100 men and boys, at £90 to 
 £100 weekly wages. Here are prepared naphtha, benzole, 
 weosote oil, pitch, asphalt, sulphate of ammonia, sulphuric 
 acid, and artificial manures. Paraffin wax and ozokerite 
 are refined An Artesian well within the works, 421 feet 
 deep, gives a constant supply of good water, always at 
 61° Fahr. Of several provision-curing works, -the largest 
 employs SCO hands, chiefly females, in preserving meats, 
 soups, sauces, jams, jellies, pickles, <fec, and has in con- 
 nection with it, near the city, above 230 acres of fruit, vege- 
 table, and farm ground, and a large piggery. The products 
 of the breweries and distilleries are mostly comsumed at 
 home. A large agricultural implement work employs 70 
 or 80 men and boys. Nearly 200 acres of ground, within 
 three miles of the city, are laid out in rearing shrub and 
 forest-tree seedlings. In 1872 about 145 acres of straw- 
 berries were reared within three miles of Aberdeen, and 
 by Urns of this fruit are said to have been exported. 
 
 Very durable grey granite has been quarried near Aber- 
 deen for 300 years, and blocked and dressed paving, kerb, 
 and building granite stones have long been exported from 
 the district In 1764, Aberdeen granite pavement was first 
 used in London. About the year 1795, large granite blocks 
 were sent for the Portsmouth docks. Tho chief stones of 
 the New Thames Embankment, Loudon, are from Kemnay 
 granite quarries, 16 miles north-west of the city. Aber- 
 deen is almost entirely built of granite, and large quantities 
 of the stone are exported to build bridges, wharfs, docks, 
 lighthouses, &c., elsewhere. Aberdeen is famed for its 
 polishing-works of granite, especially grey and red They 
 employ about 1500 hands in polishing vases, taoles, 
 chimney-pieces, fountains, monuments, columns, &c, for 
 British and foreign demand Mr Alexander Macdonald, 
 in 1818, was the first to begin the granite polishing trade, 
 and the works of the same firm, .the only ones of the kind 
 till about 1850, are still the largest in the kingdom. 
 
 In 1820, 15 vessels from Aberdeen were engaged in the 
 northern whale and seal fishing; in 1860, one vessel, but 
 none since. The white fishing at Aberdeen employs some 
 40 boats, each with a crew of 5 men. Of tho 900 tons 
 wet fish estimated to be brought to market yearly, above a 
 third are sent fresh by rail to England. The salmon 
 caught in the Dee, Don, and sea are near.'^ all sent to 
 London fresh in ice. The herring fishing b?s been pro- 
 secuted since 1836, and from 200 to 350 boats are 
 engaged in it. 
 
 Aberdeen has been famed for shipbuilding, especially 
 for its fast clippers. Since 1855 nearly a score of vessels 
 have been built of above 1000 tons each. The largest 
 vessel (a sailing one) ever built here was one in lS55,if 2400 
 tons. In 1872 there were built 11 iron vessels oi' 9450 
 tons, and 6 wooden of 2980 tons, consuming 5900 tons 
 iron, and costing £252,700, including £70,700 for engines 
 and other machinery. 1400 hands were employed in 
 shipbuilding in that year, at the weekly wages of about 
 £1230. 
 
 In 1872, there belonged to the port of Aberdeen 236 
 vessels, of 101,188 tons, twenty-four of the vessels, of 7483 
 tons, being steamers. They trade with most British and 
 Irish ports, the Baltic and Mediter-anean ports, and many 
 more distant regions. In 1872, 434,108 tons shipping 
 arrived at the port, and the custom duties were £11 2,414. 
 The export trade, exclusive of coasting, is insignificant 
 The shore or harbour dues were £126 in 1765, and £1300 
 in 1800. In the year ending 30th September 1872, they 
 were £25,520; while the ordinary harbour revenue was 
 £37,765, expenditure £28,598, and debt £324,614. The 
 introduction of steamers in 1821 greatly promoted in- 
 dustry and traffic, and especially the cattle trade of 
 Aberdeenshire with London. These benefits have been 
 much increased by the extension of railways. Commodious 
 steamers ply regularly between Aberdeen and London, 
 Hull, Newcastle, Leith, Wick, Kirkwall, and Lerwick. 
 
 The joint railway station for the Caledonian, Great 
 North of Scotland, and Deeside lines, was opened 1867, 
 and is a very handsome erection, costing about £26,000. 
 It is 500 feet long, and 102 feet broad, with the side walls 
 32 feet high. The arched roof of curved lattice-iron ribs, 
 covered with slate, zinc, and glass, is all in one span, rising 
 72 feet high, and is very light and airy. 
 
 The Medico-Chirurgical Society of Aberdeen was founded 
 in 1789. The hall was built in 1820 at a cost of £4000, 
 and is adorned with an Ionic portico of four granite columns, 
 27 feet high. It has 42 members, and a library of 5000 
 volumes. The legal practitioners of Aberdeen have been 
 styled advocates since 1633, and received royal charters 
 in 1774, 1779, and 1862. They form a society, called 
 tho Society of Advocates, of 127 members in 1873, with a
 
 ABERDEEN 
 
 43 
 
 tall built in 1871 for £5075, a library of nearly 6000 
 (volumes, and a fund to support decayed and indigent 
 members, and their nearest relatives. The revenue in 
 1872 was £2880/ 
 
 Aberdeen has one daily and three weekly newspapers. 
 The Aberdeen Journal, established in 1748, is the oldest 
 Bewspaper north of the Forth. 
 
 The places of out-door recreation and amusement are 
 chiefly the following: — The Links, a grassy, benty, and 
 eandy tract, 2 miles long and i to J mile broad, along 
 the shore between the mouths of the Dee and the Don. 
 It is mostly only a few feet above the sea, but the Broad 
 Hill rises to 94 feet. Cattle shows, reviews, 4c, are held 
 on the Links. To the north-west of the town, a Public 
 Recreation Park of 13 acres was laid out in 1872, at the 
 cost of £3000, with walks, grass, trees, shrubs, and flowers. 
 Daily observations from 1857 to 1872 show the mean 
 temperature of Aberdeen for the year to be 45 0, 8 Fahr., 
 for the three summer months 56° Fahr., and for the thjee 
 winter months 37 0- 3. The average yearly rainfall is 30'57 
 inches. Aberdeen is the healthiest of the large Scottish 
 towns. East winds prevail in spring. 
 
 Since 1867 £50,000. has been spent in constructing 
 main sewers throughout the city. A few acjes of fann 
 laud have been irrigated by part of the sewage. 
 
 The city is governed by a corporation, the magistrates 
 and town council, consisting of twenty-five councillors, 
 including a provost, six bailies, a dean of guild, a trea- 
 surer, &c. The corporation revenue in the year 1871-72 
 was £11,498. The police, water, and gas are managed by 
 the council. The municipal and police burgh has an area 
 of nearly three square miles, with 12,514 municipal electors, 
 and with assessable property valued at £230,000 in 1873. 
 The Parliamentary burgh has an area of nine square miles, 
 including Old Aberdeen and Woodside, with 14,253 Par- 
 liamentary electors, and real property to the value of 
 £309,328 in 1873. It returns one member to Parliament. 
 The population of Aberdeen in 1396 was about 3000; in 
 1643, 8750; in 1708, 5556; in 1S01, 26,992; in 1841, 
 63,262; and in 1871, 88,125; with 6718 inhabited 
 houses, 292 uninhabited, and 77 building. 
 
 Aberdeen, Old, is a small, quiet, ancient town, a 
 burgh of barony and regality, a mile north of Aberdeen, 
 and as far south-west of the mouth of the Don. It mostly 
 forms one long street, 45 to 80 feet above the sea. The 
 Don, to the north of the town, runs through a narrow, 
 wooded, rocky ravine, and is spanned by a single Gothic 
 arch, the " Brig o' Balgownia" of Lord Byron. The bridge 
 rests on gneiss, and is 67 feet wide and 34£ feet high above 
 the surface of the river, which at ebb tide ia here 19 feet 
 deep. The bridge is the oldest in the north of Scotland, 
 and i3 said to have been built about 1305. The funds 
 belonging to the bridge amount to £'24,000. 
 
 The town was formerly the see of a bishop, and had a 
 large cathedral dedicated to St Machar. In 1137 David L 
 translated to Old Aberdeen the bishopric, founded at 
 Mortlach in Banffshire in 1004 by Malcolm IL in memory 
 of his signal victory there over the Danes. In 1153 
 Malcolm IV. gave the bishop a new charter. 
 
 The cathedral of St Machar, begun about 1357, occupied 
 \ nearly 170 years in building,, and did not remain entire 
 fifty yeiu-s. What is still left is the oldest part, viz., the 
 nave and side aisles, 126 feet long and 62J feet broad, 
 now used as the parish church. It is chiefly built of 
 outlayer granite stones, and while the plainest Scottish 
 cathedral, is the only one of granite in the kingdom. On 
 the flat pannelled ceiling of the nave are 48 heraldic shields 
 of the princes, noble?, and bishops who aided in its erection. 
 It has been lately repaired, and some painted windows 
 inserted, at the cost of £4280. 
 
 The chief structure in Old Aberdeen is the stately fabric 
 of King's College near the middle of the town. It forma 
 a quadrangle, with interior court 108 feet square, two 
 sides of which have been rebuilt, and a projecting wing for 
 a library added since 1860. The oldest part3, the Crown 
 Tower and Chapel, date from about 1500. The former 
 is 30 feet square and 60 feet high, and is surmounted 
 liy a structure about 40 feet high, consisting of a six-sided 
 lantern and a royal crown, both sculptured, and resting ou 
 the intersections of two arched ornamented slips rising from 
 the four corners of the top of the tower. Tha chapel, 120 
 feet long, 28 feet broad, and 37 feet high, still retains in 
 the choir the original oak canopied stalls, miserere seat, and 
 .lofty open screen. These fittings are 300 years old, in 
 the French flamboyant style, and are unsurpassed, in taste- 
 ful design and delicate execution, by the oat carving of 
 any other old church in Europe. This carved woodwork 
 owes its preservation to the Principal of Reformation 
 times, who armed his people, and protected it from th« 
 fury of the barons of the Jlearns after they had robbed 
 the cathedral of its bells and lead. The chapel is still used 
 for public worship during the University session. 
 
 Connected with Old Aberdeen is a brewery in the town, 
 and a brick and coarse pottery work in the vicinity. There 
 are also a Free church, two secondary schools, and two 
 primary schools. Old Aberdeen has its own municipal 
 officers, consisting of a provost, 4 bailies, and 13 councillors. 
 The town is drained, lighted, supplied with water, and is 
 within the Parliamentary boundary of New Aberdeen. 
 There are several charitable institutions. Population iu 
 1871, 1857; inhabited houses, 233. (a. c.) 
 
 ABERDEENSHIRE, a maritime county in the north- 
 east of Scotland, between 56° 52' and 57° 42' N. lat. and 
 between 1° 49' and 3° 48' long. W. of Greenwich. It is 
 bounded on the north and east by the German Ocean ; on 
 the south by the counties of Kincardine, Forfar, and Perth ; 
 and on the west by those of Inverness and Banff. Its 
 greatest length is 102 miles, and breadth 50 miles. Its 
 circuit with sinuosities is about 300 miles, 60 being sea- 
 coast. It is the fifth of Scotch counties in size, and is one- 
 sixteenth of the extent of Scotland. Its area is 1970 
 square miles, or 1,260,625 acres, of which, in 1872, 366 
 per cent., or 585,299 acres, were cultivated, 93,339 in woods 
 (mostly Scotch fir and larch), and 6400 in lakes. It con- 
 tains 85 civil parishes and parts of 6 others, or 101 parishes, 
 including civil and quoad sacra. The county is generally 
 hilly, and mountainous in the south-west, whence, near the 
 centre of Scotland, the Grampians send out various branches, 
 mostly to the north-east, through the county. The run of 
 the rivers and the general slope of the county is to the 
 north-east and east. It is popularly divided into five 
 districts: — First, Mar, mostly between the Deo and Don, 
 and forming nearly th« seuth half of the county. It is 
 mountainous, especially Braemar, its west and Highland 
 part, which contains the greatest mass of elevated land in 
 the British Isles: Here the Dee rises amid the grandeur 
 and wildness of lofty mountains, much visited by tourist?, 
 and composed chiefly of granite and gneiss, forming many 
 high precipices, and showing patches of snow throughout 
 every summer. Here rises Ben Muichdhui, the second highest 
 mountain in Scotland and in the British Isles, 4296 feet ; 
 Braeriach, 4225 ; Cairntoul, 4245 ; Cairngorm (famed for 
 " Cairngorm stones," a peculiar kind of rock crystal), 4090 ; 
 Ben-a-Buird, 3860; Ben Avon, 3826; and Byron's "darlc 
 Lochnagar," 3786. The soil on the Dee is sandy, and 
 on the Don loamy. The city of Aberdeen is in Mar. 
 Second, Formartinj between the lower Don and Ythan, 
 with a sandy coast, succeeded by a clayey, fertile, tilled 
 tract, and then by low hills, moors, mosses, and tilled land. 
 Third, Buchan. north of the Ythan, and next in size te
 
 44 
 
 ABERDEENSHIRE 
 
 Mar, with parts of tho coast bold and rocky, and with the 
 interior bare, low, flat, undulating, and in parts peaty. On 
 the coast, six miles south of Peterhead, are the Bullers of 
 Buchan, — a basin in which tho sea, entering by a natural 
 arch, boils up violently in stormy weather. Buchan Ness 
 ia the eastinost point of Scotland. Fourth, Garioch, a 
 beautiful, undulating, loamy, fertile valley, formerly called 
 the granary of Aberdeen, with the prominent hill Benachie, 
 1676 feet on the soutk Fifth, Strathbogie, mostly con- 
 sisting of 'lulls (The Buck, 2211 feet; Noath, 1830 feet), 
 moors, and mosses. The county as a whole, except the low 
 grounds of Buchan, and the Highlands of Braemar, consists 
 mainly of nearly level or undulating tracts, often naked 
 and infertile, but interspersed with many rich and highly 
 cultivated spots. 
 
 The chief rivers are the Dee, 96 miles long; Don, 78; 
 Vtban, 37, with mussel beds at its mouth; Ugie, 20; and 
 Deveron, 58, partly on the boundary of Banffshire. The 
 pearl mussel occurs in the Ythan and Don. A valuable 
 pearl in the Scottish crown is said to be from the Ythaa 
 Loch Muick, the largest of the few lake* in the county, 
 1310 feet above the sea, is only 2 \ miles long and \ to \ 
 mile broad. The rivers have plenty of salmon and trout. 
 There are noted chalybeate springs at Peterhead, Fraser- 
 burgh, and Pananich near Ballater. 
 
 The climate of Aberdeenshire, except in the mountainous 
 districts, is comparatively mild, from the sea being on two 
 sides. The mean annual temperature at Braemar is 43°'6 
 Fahr., and at Aberdeen 45°-S. The mean yearly rainfall 
 varies from about 30 to 37 inches. The summer climate 
 of the Upper Dee and Don valleys is the driest and most 
 bracing in the British Isles, and grain is cultivated up to 
 1600 feet above the sea, or 400 to 500 feet higher than 
 elsewhere in North Britain. All the crops cultivated in 
 Scotland ripen, and the people often live to a great age. 
 
 The i-ocka ore mostly granite, gneiss, with small tracts of 
 syenite, mica slate, quartz rock, clay slate, grauwacke, 
 primary limestona, old red sandstone, serpentine, and trap. 
 Lias, greensand, and chalk flints occur. The rocks are 
 much covered with boulder clay, gravel, sand, and allu- 
 vium. Brick clay occurs near the coast The surface of 
 the granite under the boulder clay often presents glacial 
 <smoothings, grooves, and roundings. Cairngorm stone, 
 beryl, and amethyst are found in the granite of Braemar. 
 
 The tops of the highest mountains have an arctic flora. 
 At Her Majesty's Lodge, Loch Muick, 1350 feet above the 
 sea, grow larches, vegetables, currants, laurels, roses, <tc 
 Some ash trees, 4 or 5 feet in girth, are growing at 1300 
 feet above the sea. The mole occurs at 1800 feet above 
 the sea, and the squirrel at 1400. Trees, especially Scotch 
 fir and larch, grow well in the county, and Braemar abounds 
 in natural timber, said to surpass any in the north of 
 Europe. Stumps of Scotch fir and oak found in peat in 
 the county are often far larger than any now growing. 
 Grouse, partridges, and hares abound in the county, and 
 rabbits are often too numerous. Bed deer abound in 
 Braemar, the deer forest being there valued at £5000 a 
 year, and estimated at 500,000 acres, or one-fourth the 
 area of deer forests in Scotland. 
 
 Poor, gravelly, clayey, and peaty soils prevail much more 
 in Aberdeenshire than good rich loams, but tile draining, 
 bones, and guano, and the best modes of modern tillage, 
 have greatly increased the produce. Farm-houses and 
 steadings have greatly improved, and the best agricultural 
 implements and machines are in general use. About two- 
 thirds of the population depend entirely on agriculture, and 
 oatmeal in various forms, with milk, is the chief food of 
 farm-3ervants. Farms are generally small, compared with 
 those in the south-east counties. The fields are separated 
 br dry-stone dykes, and ab</) by wooden and wire fences. 
 
 Leases of 19 or 21 years prevail, and the live, six, or seven 
 shift rotation is in general use. In 1872 there were 11,642 
 occupiera of land, with an average of 50 acres each, and 
 paying about £536,000 in rent. Of the 585,299 acres of 
 the county in crop in 1872, 191,880 acres were in oats, 
 18,930 in barley and bere, 1633 in rye, 1357 in wheat, 
 95,091 in turnips (being one-fifth of the turnips grown in 
 Scotland), 8414 in potatoes, 232,178 in grasses and clover. 
 In 1872 the county had 23,117 horses, 157,960 cattU 
 (being above one-seventh of all the cattle in Scotland), 
 123,308 sheep, and 13,579«pigs. The county is unsui< 
 passed in breeding, and unrivalkd in feeding cattle, aud 
 this is more attended to than the cultivation of grain-cro]*. 
 About 40,000 fat cattle are reared, and above £1,000,000 
 value of cattle and dead meat is sent from the county to 
 London yearly. The capital invested in agriculture within 
 the county is estimated at about £5,133,000. 
 
 The great mineral wealth in Aberdeenshire is its long- 
 famed durable granite, which is largely quarried for build- 
 ing, paving, causewaying, and polishing. An acre of land 
 on being reclaimed has yielded £40 to £50 worth of cause- 
 waying stones. Gneiss i3 also quarried, as also primary 
 limestone, old red sandstone, conglomerate millstone, grau- 
 wacke, clay slate, syenite, and hornblende rock. Iron ore, 
 manganese, and plumbago occur in the county. 
 
 A large fishing population in villages along the coast 
 engage in the white and herring fishery. Haddocks are 
 salted and rock-dried (speldings), or smoked (finnans). The 
 rivers and coasts yield many salmon. Peterhead was long 
 the chief British port for the north whale and seal fishery, 
 but Dundee now vies with it in this industry. 
 
 Tho manufactures and arts of the county are mainly 
 prosecuted in or near the town tf Aberdeen, but throughout 
 the rural districts thero are much milling of corn, brick and 
 tile making, stone-quarrying, smith-work, brewing and 
 distilling, cart and farm implement making, casting and 
 drying of peat, timber felling, especially on Dceside and 
 Donside, for pit-props, railway sleepers, lath, barrel staves, 
 ic. The chief imports into the county are, coals, lime,' 
 timber, iron, slates ( raw materials of textile manufac- 
 tures, wheat, oattle-feeding stuffs, bones, guano, sugar, 
 alcoholic liquors, fruits, &c The chief exports are granite 
 (rough, dressed, and polished), flax, woollen, and cotton 
 goods, paper, combs, preserved provisions, oats, barley, 
 live and dead cattle, <fcc In the county there are about 
 520 fairs in the year for cattle, horses, sheep, hiring ser- 
 vants, &c 
 
 Aberdeenshire communicates with the south by the 
 Caledonian Bailway, and five macadamised roads across 
 the east Grampians, the highest rising 2200 feet above the 
 sea. About 188 miles of railway rthe Great North of 
 Scotland, Formartin and Buchan, and Deeside lines), and 
 2359 miles of public roads, ramify through the county. 
 Tolls over the county were abolished in 1865, and the 
 roads are kept up by assessment. The railway lines in the 
 cou»ty have cost on the average about £13,500 a mile. 
 Several macadamised roads aud the Great North of Scot- 
 land Railway form the main exits from the county to the 
 north-west. 
 
 The chief antiquities in Aberdeenshire are Picts' houses 
 or weems; stone foundations of circular dwellings; mono- 
 liths, some being sculptured; the so-called Druid circles; 
 stone cists; stone and earthen enclosures; the vitrified 
 forts of Dunnideer and Noath ; cairns; crannoges; earthen 
 mounds, as the Bass; flint arrow-heads; clay funeral urns-, 
 stone celts and hammers. Remains of Roman camps occur 
 at Peterculter, Kintore, and Auchterless, respectively 107 J, 
 100, and 115 acres. Roman arms have been found. Ruins 
 of ancient edifices occur. On the top of a Conical hill called 
 Dunnideer. in the Garioch district, are the remains of a
 
 ABERDEENSHIRE 
 
 45 
 
 eastlc, supposed to be 700 years old, and surrounded by a 
 vitrified wall, which must be still older. The foundations 
 oi two buildings still remain, the one in Braemar, and the 
 other in th-> Loch of Cannor (the latter with the remains 
 of a wooden bridge between it and the land), which are 
 supposed to have belonged to Malcolm Canmore, King of 
 Scotland. The most extensive ruins are the grand ones of 
 Kildrummy Castle, evidently once a princely seat, and still 
 covering nearly an acre of ground. It belonged to David 
 Earl of Huntingdon in 1150, and was the seat of the Earls 
 of Marr attainted in 1716. The Abbey of Deer, now in 
 |ruins, was begun by Cunryn Earl of Buchan about 1219/ 
 
 In Roman times, Aberdeenshire formed part of Ves- 
 pasiana in Caledonia, and was occupied by the Taixali, a 
 warlike tribe. The local names are mostly Gaelic St 
 Columba and his pupil Diostan visited Buchan in the Gth 
 century. In 1052 Macbeth fell near the Peel Bog in 
 Lumphanan, and a cairn which marks the spot is still 
 shown. In 1309 Bruce defeated Comyn, Earl of Buchan, 
 near Inverurie, and annihilated a powerful Norman family. 
 In 1411 the Earl of Marr defeated Donald of the Isles in 
 the battle of Harlaw, near Inverurie, when Sir Robert- 
 Davidson, Provost of Aberdeen, was killed. In 1562 
 occurred the battle of Corrichie on the Hill of Fare, when 
 the Earl of Murray defeated the Marquis of Huntly. In 
 1715 the Earl of Marr proclaimed the Pretender in Braemar. 
 In 1746 the Duke of Cumberland with his army marched 
 through Aberdeenshire to Culloden. In 1817 a base line 
 of verification, 5 miles 100 feet long, was measured in con- 
 nection with the Trigonometrical Survey of the British Isles, 
 on the Belkelvie Links 5 to 10 miles north of Aberdeen. 
 
 Among eminent men connected with Aberdeenshire are, 
 Robert Gordon Of Straloch, who in 1648 published the first 
 atlas of Scotland from actual survey ; the Earls Marischal, 
 whose chief seat was Inverugie Castle ; Field-Marshal 
 Keith, born at Inverugie Castle, 1696 ; Dr Thomas Reid, 
 the metaplvysician, minister of New Machar 1737 to 1752 ; 
 Lord Pitsligo, attainted 1745; Sir Archibald Grant of 
 Monymusk, who introduced turnips into the county 1756, 
 and was the first to plant wood on a great scale ; Peter 
 Ga:den, Auchterless, said to have died at the age of 132, 
 about 1780; Rev. John Skinner, author of some popular 
 Scottish songs ; Morrison the hygeist ; the Earl of Aberdeen, 
 Prime Minister during the Crimean war. 
 
 The native Scotch population of Aberdeenshire are long- 
 Headed, shrewd, careful, canny, active, persistent, but 
 reserved and blunt, and without demonstrative enthusiasm. 
 They have a phj-siognomy distinct from the rest of the 
 Scottish people, and have a quick, sharp, rather angry 
 accent. The local Scotch dialect is broad, and rich in 
 diminutives, and is noted for the use of e for oor «,/ for 
 k\, d for th, &c. In 1 830 Gaelic was the fireside language 
 
 almost every family in Braemar, but now it is little used. 
 
 Aberdeenshire has a Loid-Lieutenant and 3 Vice and 60 
 Deputy-Lieutenants. The Supreme Court of Justiciary sits 
 in Aberdeen twice a-year to tiy cases from the counties of 
 Aberdeen, Banff, and Kincardine. The counties of Aberdeen 
 and Kincardine are under a Sheriff and two Sheriffs-Substi- 
 tute. The Sheriff Courts are held in Aberdeen and Peter- 
 head. Sheriff Small-Debt and Circuit Courts are held at 
 seven places in the county. There are Burgh or Bailie Courts 
 in Aberdeen aud the other royal burghs in the county. 
 Justice of the Peace and Police Courts are held in Aberdeen, 
 &c. The Sheriff Courts take cognisance of Commissary 
 business. During 1871, 994 persons were confined in the 
 Aberdeenshire prisons. In the year 1870-71, 74 parishes 
 in the county were assessed £53,703 for 7702 poor on the 
 i roll and 1847 casual poor. 
 
 Aberdeenshire contains 105 Established churches, 99 
 Free, 31 Episcopal, 15 United Presbyterian, 9 Roman 
 
 Catholic, and 31 of other denominations. This includes 
 detached parts of the two adjacent counties. 
 
 By the census of 1871, 84-83 per cent, of the children 
 in the county, of the ages 5 to 1 3, were receiving education. 
 Those formerly called the parochial schoolmasters of 
 Aberdeenshire participate in the Dick and Milne Bequests, 
 which contributed more salary to the schoolmasters in some 
 cases than did the heritors. Most of the schoolmasters are 
 Masters of Arts, and many are preachers. Of 114 parochial 
 schools 'in the county before the operation of the new 
 Education Act, 89 received the Milne Bequest of £20 a 
 year, and 91 the Dick Bequest, averaging £30 a year,, and 
 a schoolmaster with both bequests would have a yearly 
 income of £145 to £150, and in a few cases £250. Tht 
 higher branches of education have been more taught in the 
 schools of the shires of Aberdeen and Banff than in the 
 other Scotch counties, and pupils have been long in the 
 habit of going direct from the schools of these two counties 
 to the University. 
 
 The value of property, or real rental of the lauds and 
 heritages in the county (including the burghs, except that 
 of Aberdeen), for the year 1S72-73, was £769,191. The 
 railway and the water works in the city and county were 
 for the same year valued at £11,133. For general county 
 purposes for the year ending 15th May 1872, there was 
 assessed £14,803 to maintain police, prisons, militia, county 
 and municipal buildings, <fcc, and £19,320 to maintain 
 2359 miles of public county roads. 
 
 The chief seats on the proprietary estates are — Balmoral 
 Castle, the Queen ; Mar Lodge and Skene House, Earl 
 of Fife ; Aboyne Castle, Marquis of Huntly ; Dunecht 
 House, Earl of Crawford and Balcarres ; Keith Hall, Earl 
 of Kintore ; Slains Castle, Earl of Errol ; Haddo House, 
 Earl of Aberdeen ; Castle Forbes, Lord Forbes ■; Philorth 
 House, Lord Saltoun ; Huntly Lodge, the Duke of Rich- 
 mond. Other noted seats are — Drum, Irvine ; Invercauld, 
 Farquharson ; Newe Castle, Forbes ; Castle Fraser, Fraser ; 
 Cluny Castle, Gordon ; Meldrum House, Urquhart ; Craigs- 
 ton Castle, Urquhart ; Pitfour, Ferguson ; Ellon Castle, 
 Gordon; Fyvie Castle, Gordon. Ten baronets and knights 
 have residences in the county. Of the proprietors many 
 live permanently on their estates. Their prevailing n3nses 
 are Gordon, Forbes, Grant, Fraser, Duff, and Farquharson. 
 
 Aberdeenshire has one city, Aberdeen, a royal parlia- 
 mentary .burgh ; three other royal parliamentary burghs, 
 Inverurie, Kintore, and Peterhead ; and seven burghs of 
 barony, Old Aberdeen, Charleston of Aboyne, Fraserburgh, 
 Huntly, Old Meldrum, Rosehearty, and Turriff. 
 
 The county sends two members to Parliament — one for 
 East Aberdeenshire, with 4341 electors, and the other for 
 West Aberdeenshire, with 3942 electors. The county has 
 also four parliamentary burghs, which, with their respective 
 populations in 1871, are — Aberdeen, 8S,125; Peterhead, 
 8535 ; Inverurie, 2S56 ; and Kintore, 659. The first 
 sends one member to Parliament, and the other three unite 
 with Elgin, Cullen, and Banff, in sending another. 
 
 By the census 1801 the county had 121,065 inhabitants, 
 and by that of 1871, 244,603, with 53,576 families, 111 
 females to 100 males, 34,5S9 inhabited houses, 1052 unin- 
 habited houses, and 256 building. In 1871 there were in 
 eight towns (Aberdeen, Peterhead, Fraserburgh, Huntly, 
 Inverurie. Old Meldrum, Turriff, and New Pitsligo), 
 111,978 inhabitants; in 32 villages, 19,561; and in rural 
 districts, 113,064. 
 
 (New Statistical Account of Scotland, voL xiL ; the charters 
 of the burgh; extracts from the Council Register down to 
 1625, and selections from the letters, guildry, and trea- 
 surer's accounts, forming 3 volumes of the Spalding Club; 
 Collections for a History of the Shires of A. and Banf, 
 edited by Joseph Robertson, Esq., 4to, Spalding Club;
 
 46 
 
 ABE-ABE 
 
 llegi/trum Episcopatus Aberdonensis, vols. i. and ii, by 
 I'rof. Cosmo lanes, 4to, Spalding Club ; The History of A., 
 by Walter Thorn, 2 vols. 12mo, 1811; Buchan, by the Rev. 
 John B. Pratt, 12mo, 1859; Historical Account and Delinea- 
 tion of A., by Robert Wilson, 1822; First Report of Royal 
 Com. on Hist. MSS., 1869; The Annals of A., by William 
 Kennedy, 1818; Orem's Description of the Chanonry, Cathe- 
 dral, and King's College of Old A., 1724-25, 1830;' The 
 Castellated Architecture of A., by Sir Andrew Leith Hay 
 of Rannes, imp. 4to ; Specimens of Old Castellated Houses 
 of A., with drawings by Giles, folio, 1838 ; Lives of Eminent 
 }fen of A., by James Bruce, 12mo, 1841). (a. c.) 
 
 ABERDEEN, George Hamilton Gordon, Fourth 
 Earl of, was born at Edinburgh on the 28tli January 
 1784. He was educated at Harrow School, and at St" 
 John's College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1804. 
 He succeeded his grandfather iu the earldom in 1801, and 
 in the same year ho made an extended tour through 
 Europe, visiting France, Italy, and Greece. On his 
 return he founded the Athenian Club, the membership 
 of which was confined to those who had travelled in 
 Greece. This explains Lord Byron's reference in the 
 English Bards and Scotch Reviewers to "the travelled 
 Thane, Athenian Aberdeen." Soon after his return he 
 contributed a very able article to the Edinburgh Review 
 (vol. vi), on Gell's Topography of Troy. Another 
 literary result of his tour was the publication in 1822 of 
 An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Archi- 
 tecture, the substance of which had appeared some years 
 before in the form of an introduction to a translation of 
 Vitruvius' Civil Architecture. In 1806, having been 
 erected one of the representative peers for Scotland, he 
 took his seat in the House of Lords on the Tory. side. 
 He was already on- terms of intimacy with the leading 
 members of tho then predominant party, and in particular 
 with Pitt, through the influence of Ms relative, the cele- 
 brated Duchess of Gordon. In 1813 he was intrusted 
 with a delicate and difficult special mission to Vienna, the 
 object being to induce the Emperor of Austria to join the 
 alliance against his son-in-law Napoleon. His diplomacy 
 was completely su. ^sful; the desired alliance was secured 
 by the treaty of To'plrtz, which the Earl signed as repre- 
 sentative of Great Britain in September 1813. On his 
 return at the conclusion of the war, he was raised to a 
 British-peerage, with the title of Viscount Gordon. Lord 
 Aberdeen was a member of tho Cabinet formed by the Duke 
 of Wellington in 1828, for a short time as Chancellor of the 
 Duchy of Lancaster, and then as Foreign Secretary. He 
 was Colonial Secretary in the Tory Cabinet of 1834-5, and 
 again received the seals of the Foreign Office under Sir 
 Robert Peel's administration of 1841. The policy of non- 
 intervention, to which he stedfastly adhered in his conduct 
 of foreign affairs, was at once his strength and his weakness. 
 According to the popular idea, he failed to see the limita- 
 tions and exceptions to a line of policy which nearly all 
 admitted to bo as a general rule both wise and just. On 
 tho whole, his administration was perhaps more esteemed 
 abroad than at home. It has been questioned whether 
 any English minister ever was on terms of greater 
 intimacy with foreign courts, but there is no substantial 
 warrant for tho charge of want of patriotism which was 
 sometimes brought against him. On the two chief ques- 
 tions of homo politics which were finally settled during 
 his tenure of office, he wa3 in advance of most of his 
 party. While the other members of the Government 
 yielded Catholic Emancipation and the repeal of the Corn 
 Laws as unavoidable concessions, Lord Aberdeen spoke 
 and voted for both measures from conviction of their 
 justice. On the 13th June 1843, he moved the second 
 raiding of his bill "to remove doubts respecting t'le 
 
 admission of ministers to benefices in Scotland," and it 
 was passed into law in that Bession, though a similar 
 measure had been rejected in 1840. As tho first proposal 
 did not prevent, so the passing of the Act had no effect in 
 healing, the breach in the Established Church of Scotland 
 which occurred in 1843. On the defeat of Lord Derby's 
 government in 1852, the state of parties was such as to 
 necessitate a coalition government, of which Lord Aber- 
 deen, in consequence of the moderation of his views, was 
 the natural chief. He had been regarded as the leader of 
 the Peel party from the time of Sir Robert's death, but 
 his views on the two great questions of home policy above 
 mentioned rendered him more acceptable to the Liberals, 
 and a more suitable leader of a coalition government than 
 any other member of that party could have been. Hia 
 administration will chiefly be remembered in connection 
 with the Crimean war, which," it is now generally believed, 
 might have been altogether prevented by a more vigorous 
 policy. The incompetence of various departments at 
 home, and the gross mismanagement of the commissariat 
 in the terrible winter of 1854, caused a growing dissatis- 
 faction with the government, which at length found 
 emphatic expression in the House of Commons, when a 
 motion submitted by Mr Roebuck, calling for inquiry, was 
 carried by an overwhelming majority. Lord Aberdeen 
 regarded the vote as one of no-confidence, and at once 
 resigned. From this period Lord Aberdeen took little part 
 in public business. In recognition of his services he 
 received, soon after his resignation, the decoration of the 
 Order of the Garter. He died: December 13, 1860. Lord 
 Aberdeen was twice married, — first in 1805, to a daughter 
 of the first Marquis of Abercorn, who died in 1812, and 
 then to the widow of Viscount Hamilton. He was suc- 
 ceeded in the title and estates by Lord Haddo, his son 
 by the second marriage. 
 
 ABERDOUR, a village in the county of Fife, in Scot- 
 land, pleasantly situated on the north shore of the Firth 
 of Forth, and much resorted to for sea-bathing. It is 10 
 miles N.W4 of Edinburgh, with which there is a frequent 
 communication by steamer. 
 
 ABERFE.LDY, a village in Perthshire, celebrated in 
 Scottish song for its " birks " and for the neighbouring 
 falls of Muness. It is the terminus of a branch of the 
 Highland Railway. 
 
 ABERGAVENNY, a market town in Monmouthshire, 
 14 miles west of Monmouth, situated at the junction 
 of a small stream called the Gavenny, with the river Usk. 
 It is supposed to have been the Gobannium of the Romans, 
 so named from Gobannio, the Gavenny. The town was 
 formerly walled, and has the remains of a castle built 
 soon after the Conquest, and also of a Benedictine monas 
 tery. The river Usk is here spanned by a noble stone 
 bridge of fifteen arches. Two markets are held weekly, 
 and elegant market buildings have recently been erected. 
 There is a free grammar school, with a fellowship and 
 exhibitions at Jesus College, Oxford. No extensive 
 manufacture is carried on except that of shoes ; the town 
 owe3 its prosperity mainly to the large coal and iron 
 works in the neighbourhood. Abergavenny is a polling 
 place for the eounty. Population of parish (1871), 6318. 
 
 ABERNETHY, a town in Perthshire, situated in the 
 parish of the same name, on the right bank of the Tay, 
 7 miles below Perth. The earliest of the Culdee houses 
 was founded there, and it is said to have been the capitil of 
 the Pictish kings. It was long the chief seat of the Epis- 
 copacy in the country, till, in the 9th century, the bishopric 
 was transferred to St Andrews. There still remains at Aber- 
 nethy a curious circular tower, 74 feet high and 48 feet 
 in circumference, consisting of sixty-four courses of hewn 
 stone. A number of similar towers, though not so wed
 
 A B E — A B E 
 
 47 
 
 built, are to be met with In Ireland, but there is only one 
 ather in Scotland, viz., that at Brechin. Petrie argues, in 
 his Round Towers of Ireland, that these structures have 
 been used as belfries, and also as keeps. 
 
 ABERNETHY, John, — a Protestant dissenting divine of 
 Ireland, was born at Coleraine, county Londonderry, Ulster, 
 where his father was minister (Nonconformist), on the 
 19 th October 1680. In his thirteenth year he entered a 
 student at the University of Glasgow. On concluding his 
 course at Glasgow he went to Edinburgh University, 
 where his many brilliant gifts and quick and ready wit — 
 thought born, not verbal merely — struck the most eminent 
 of his contemporaries and even his professors. Returning 
 home, he received licence to preach from his Presbytery 
 before ho was twenty-one. In 1701 he was urgently 
 invited to acoept the ministerial charge of an important 
 congregation in Antrim; and after an interval of two 
 years, he was ordained there on 8th August 1703. His 
 admiring biographer tells of an amount and kind of 
 work done there, such as only a man of fecund brain, of 
 large heart, of healthful frame, and of resolute will, could 
 have achieved. In 1717 he was invited to the congrega- 
 tion of Usher's Quay, Dublin, as colleague with Rev. Mr 
 Arbuckle, and contemporaneously, to what was called the 
 Old Congregation of Belfast. The Synod assigned him to 
 Dublin. He refused to accede, and remained at Antrim. 
 This refusal was regarded then as ecclesiastical high- 
 treason; and a controversy of the most intense and dis- 
 proportionate character followed. The controversy and 
 quarrel bears the name of the two camps in the con- 
 flict, the " Subscribers" and the " Non-subscribers." Out- 
 and-out evangelical as John Abernethy was, there can be 
 no question that he and his associates sowed the seeds of 
 that after-struggle in which, under the leadership of Dr 
 Henry C6oke, the Arian and Socinian elements of the Irish 
 Presbyterian Church were thrown out. Much of what he 
 contended for, and which the " Subscribers " opposed bitterly, 
 has been silently granted in the lapse of time. In 1726 the 
 " Non-subscribers," spite of an almost wofully pathetic 
 pleading against separation by Abernethy, were cut off, with 
 due ban and solemnity, from the Irish Presbyterian Church. 
 In 1730, spite of being. a "Non-subscriber," he was called 
 by his early friends of Wood Street, Dublin, whither he 
 removed. In 1731 came on the greatest controversy in 
 which Abernethy engaged, viz., in relation to the Test Act 
 nominally, but practically on the entire question of tests 
 and disabilities. His stand was "against all laws that, upon 
 account of mere differences of religious opinions and forms 
 of worship, excluded men of integrity and ability from 
 serving their country." He was nearly a century in 
 advance of his century. He had to reason with those who 
 denied that a Roman Catholic or Dissenter could be a 
 "man of integrity and ability." His Tracts — afterwards 
 collected — did fresh service, generations later. And so 
 John Abernethy through life was ever foremost where un- 
 popular truth and right were to be maintained ; nor did he, 
 for sake of an ignoble expediency, spare to smite the highest- 
 seated wrongdoers any more than the hoariest errors (as he 
 believed). He died in 1740, having been twice married. 
 (Kippis' Biog. Brit, s. v.; Dr Duchal's Life, prefixod to 
 Sermons; Diary in MS., 6 vols. 4to; History of Irish Pres- 
 byterian Church). (a. b. O.) 
 
 ABERNETHY, John, grandson of Jbe preceding, an 
 eminent surgeon, was born in London on the 3d of April 
 1764. His father was a London merchant. Educated 
 at Wolverhampton Grammar School, he was apprenticed 
 in 1779 to Sir Charles Blicke, a surgeon in extensive 
 practice in the metropolis. He attended Sir William 
 Blizzard's anatomical lectures at the London Hospital, 
 and was early employed to assist Sir William as " de- 
 
 monstrator ;" he also attended Pdtt's surgical lectures at 
 St Bartholomew's Hospital, as well as the lectures of the 
 celebrated John Hunter. On Pott's resignation of the 
 office of surgeon of St Bartholomew's, Sir Charles Blicke, 
 who was assistant-surgeon, succeeded him, and Abernethy 
 was elected assistant-surgeon in 1787. In this capacity 
 ho began to give lectures in Bartholomew Close, which 
 were so well attended that the governors of the hospital 
 built a regular theatre (1790-91), and Abernethy thus 
 became the founder of the distinguished School of St 
 Bartholomew's. He hold the office of assistant-surgeon of 
 the hospital for the long period of twenty-eight years, till, in 
 1815, he was elected principal surgeon. He had before that 
 time been appointed surgeon of Christ's Hospital (1813), 
 and Professor of Anatomy and Surgery to the Royal 
 College of Surgeons (1814). Abernethy had great fame 
 both as a practitioner and as a lecturer, his reputation iu 
 both respects resting on the efforts he made to promote 
 the practical improvement of surgery. His Surgical Ob- 
 servations on the Constitutional Origin and Treatment oj 
 Local Diseases (1809) — known as "My Book," from the 
 great frequency with which he referred his patients to it, 
 and to page 72 of it in particular, under that name — was 
 one of the earliest popular works on medical science. 
 The views he expounds in it are based on physiological 
 considerations, and are the more important that the con- 
 nection of surgery with physiology had scr.rccly been 
 recognised before the time he wrote. The leading prin- 
 ciples on which he insists in "My Book " are chiclly these 
 two : — 1st, That topical diseases are often mere symptoms 
 of constitutional maladies, and then can only be removed 
 by general remedies ; and 2d, That the disordered state of 
 the constitution very often originates in, or is closely 
 allied to deranged states of the stomach and bowels, and 
 can only be remedied by means that beneficially atfect the 
 functions of those organs. His profession owed him 
 much for his able advocacy of the extension in this way 
 of the province of surgej-y. He had great success as a 
 teacher from the thoro'igh knowledge he had of his 
 science, and the persuasiveness with which he enunciated 
 his views. It has been said, however, that the iufliienco 
 he exerted on those who attended his lectures was not 
 beneficial in this respect, that his opinions were delivered 
 so dogmatically, and all who differed from him were dis- 
 paraged and denounced so contemptuously, as to repress 
 instead of stimulating inquiry. It ought to be mentioned, 
 that he was the first to suggest and to perform the daring 
 operation of securing by ligature the carotid and the exter- 
 nal iliac arteries. The celebrity Abernethy attained in 
 his practice was due not only to his great professional 
 skill, but also in part to the singularity of his manners. 
 He used great plainness of speech in his intercourse with 
 his patients, treating them often brusquely, and sometimes 
 even rudely. In the circle of his family and friends he 
 was courteous and affectionate ; and in all his dealings he 
 was strictly just and honourable. He resigned his surgery 
 at St Bartholomew's Hospital in 1827, and his professor- 
 ship a '..the College of Surgeons two years later, on account 
 of failing health, and died at his residence at Enfield 
 on the 20th of April 1831. A collected edition of his 
 works in five volumes was published in 1830. A bio- 
 graphy, Memoirs of John Abernethy, by George MacUwain, 
 F.R.C.S., appeared in 1853, and though anything but 
 satisfactory, passed through several editions. 
 
 ABERRATION, or (more correctly) the Adequation 
 of Light, is a remarkable phenomenon, by which stars 
 appear to deviate a little, in the course of a year, from 
 their true places in the heavens. It results from the eye 
 of the observer being carried onwards by the motion of the 
 earth on its orbit, during the time that light takes to
 
 48 
 
 A B E — A B I 
 
 travel from the star to the earth. The effect of this com- 
 bination of motions may be best explained by a familiar illus- 
 tration. Suppose a rain-drop falling vertically is received 
 in a tube that has a lateral 
 motion. In order that the 
 drop may fall freely down 
 the axis of the tube, the 
 latter must be inclined at 
 such an angle as to move 
 from the position AD to BE, 
 and again to CF, in the 
 times the drop moves from 
 D to G, and from G to C. 
 The drop in this case, since 
 it moves down the axis all 
 the way, must strike the 
 bottom of the tube at C — 
 tn the direction FC. The 
 
 light proceeding from a star is not seen in its true direc- 
 tion, but strikes tho eye obliquely, for a precisely similar 
 reason. If hncs be taken to represent the motions, so that 
 the eye is carried from A to C during the time that light 
 moves from D to C, tho light will appear to the eye at C 
 to come, not from D, but from F. The angle DCF, con- 
 tained by the true and apparent directions of the star, is 
 the aberration. It is greatest when the two motions are 
 at right angles to each other, i.e., when the star's longitude 
 is 90° in advance of, or behind, the heliocentric longitude 
 of the earth, or (which amounts to the same thing) 90° 
 behind, or in advance of, the geocentric longitude of the 
 sun. (See Astronomy.) Now, in the right-angled triangle 
 
 AO 
 ACD, tan ADC (i.e., DCF) = =r^ ; whence it appears that 
 
 the tangent of the angle of aberration (or, since the angle 
 is very small, tho aberration itself) is equal to the ratio, 
 velocity of earth in orbit _, , , , , 
 
 V ei 0C ity of light The rat0 of the earih3 motlon 
 
 being to the velocity of light in the proportion of 1 to 
 10,000 nearly, the maximum aberration is small, amount- 
 ing to about 20 4 seconds of arc, — a quantity, however, 
 which is very appreciable in astronomical observations. 
 
 Aberration always takes place in the direction of the 
 earth's motion ; that is, it causes the stars to appear nearer 
 than they really are to the point towards which the earth 
 is at the moment moving. That point is necessarily on 
 the ecliptic, and 90° in advance of the earth in longitude. 
 The effect is to make a star at the pole of the ecliptic 
 appear to move in a plane parallel to the ecliptic, so as to 
 form a small ellipse, similar to the earth's orbit, but having 
 its rnajo: axis parallel to the minor axis of that orbit, and 
 vice versd. As we proceed from the pole, the apparent 
 orbits the stars describe become more and more elliptical, 
 till in the plane of tho ecliptic the apparent motion is in 
 a straight line. The length of this line, as well as of the 
 major axes of the different ellipses, amounts, in angular 
 measure, to about 40" 8. The stars thus appear to oscil- 
 late, in the course of the year, 20" '4 on each side of their 
 true position, in a direction parallel to the plane of the 
 ecliptic, and the quantity 20" - 4 is therefore called the 
 constant of aberration. 
 
 For the discovery of the aberration of light, one of the 
 ilnest in modern astronomy, we are indebted to the dis- 
 tinguished astronomer Dr Bradley. He was led to it, in 
 1727, by the result of observations he made with the vi«w 
 of determining the annual parallax of some of the stars ; 
 thai is, the angle subtended at these stars by the diameter 
 of the earth's orbit. He observed certain changes in the 
 positions of the stars that he could not account for. The 
 deviations were not in the direction of the apparent motion 
 that parallax would give rise to; and he had no better 
 
 I success in attempting to explain the phenomenon by the 
 nutation of the earth's axis, radiation, errors of observa- 
 tion, <tc. At last the true solution of the difficulty occurred 
 t • him, suggested, it is said, by the movements of a vane 
 on the top of a boat's mast. Roemer had discovered, a 
 quarter of a century before, that light has a velocity which 
 admits of measurement; and Bradley perceived that the 
 earth's motion, having a perceptible relation to that of 
 light, must affect the direction of the visual rays, and with 
 this the apparent positions of the stars. He calculated tho 
 aberration from the known relative velocities of tho earth 
 and of light, and the results agreed entirely with his 
 observations. 
 
 The observed effects of aberration are of importance as 
 supplying an independent method of measuring the velocity 
 of light, but more particularly as presenting one of the few 
 direct proofs that can be given of the earth's motion round 
 the sun. It is indeed the most satisfactory proof of this 
 that astronomy furnishes, the phenomenon being quite in- 
 explicable on any other hypothesis. 
 
 ABERYSTWITH, a municipal and parliamentary bo- 
 rough, market town, and seaport of Wales, in the county 
 of Cardigan, is situated at the western end of the Vale 
 of Rhcidol, near the confluence of tho rivers Ystwith 
 and Rheidol, and about the centre of Cardigan Bay. It 
 is the terminal station of the Cambrian Railway, and a 
 line to the south affords direct communication with South 
 Wah 9, Bristol, <kc. Tho borough unites with Cardigan, 
 Lampeter, <fcc, in electing a member of Parliament. Coal, 
 timber, and lime are imported, and the exports are lead, 
 oak bark, flannel, and corn. The harbour has of late beca 
 much improved; and the pier, completed in 18U5, forma 
 an excellent promenade. There are many elegant build- 
 ings, and it has been proposed to establish here a Uni- 
 versity College of Wales. On a promontory' to the S.W. 
 of ths town are the ruins of its ancient castle, erected in 
 1277, by Edward I., on the site of a fortress of great 
 strength, built by Gilbert de Strongbow, and destroyed by 
 Owen Gwynedd. From its picturesque situation and 
 healthy climate, and the suitableness of the beach for 
 bathing, Aberystwith has risen into great repute as a 
 watering-place, and attracts many visitors. Much of the 
 finest scenery in Wales, such as the Devil's Bridge, &c, 
 lies within easy reach. Population (1871), 6898. 
 
 ABETTOR, a law term implying one who instigates, 
 encourages, or assists another to perform some criminal 
 action. See Accessory. 
 
 ABEYANCE, a law term denoting the expectancy of an 
 estate. Thus, if lands be leased to one person for life, with 
 reversion to another for years, the remainder for years is 
 in abeyance till the death of the lessee. 
 
 ABGAR, the name or title of a line of kings of Edessa 
 in Mesopotamia. One of them is known from a corre- 
 spondence he is said to have had with Jesus Christ. Tho 
 letter of Abgar, entreating Jesus to visit him and heal him 
 of a disease, and offering Him an asylum from the wrath 
 of the Jews, and the answer of Jesus promising to send a 
 disciple to heal Abgar after His ascension, are given by 
 Eusebius, who believed the documents to be genuine. The 
 same belief has been held by a few moderns, but there can 
 be no doubt whatever that the letter of Jesus at least ia 
 apocryphal. It has also been alleged that Abgar possessed 
 a picture of Jesus, which the credulous may see either at 
 Rome or at Genoa. Some make him the possessor of the 
 handkerchief a woman gave Jesus, as He bore the cross, 
 to wipe the sweat from His face with, on which, it ia 
 fabled, His features remained miraculously imprinted. 
 
 ABIAD, Bahr-el-, a name given to the western branch 
 of the Nile, above Khartoum. It is better known as th« 
 White Nile. See Nile.
 
 AB1-ABI 
 
 49 
 
 ABIES. See Fib. 
 
 ABILA, a city of ancient Syria, the capital of the 
 tetrarchy of Abilene, a territory whose limits and extent it 
 is impossible now to define. The site of Abila is indi- 
 cated by some ruins and inscriptions on the banks of the 
 river Barada, between Baalbec and Damascus, about twelve 
 miles from the latter city. Though the names Abel and 
 Abila differ in derivation and in meaning, their similarity 
 has given rise to the tradition that this was the scene of 
 Abel's death. 
 
 ABILDGAAKD, Nikolaj, called "the Father of Danish 
 Fainting," was born in 1744. He formed his style on 
 that of Claude and of Nicolas Poussin, and was a cold 
 theorist, inspired not by nature but by art. As a technical 
 painter he attained remarkable success, his tone being 
 very harmonious and even, but the effect, to a foreigner's 
 eye, is rarely interesting. His works are scarcely known 
 out of Copenhagen, where he won an immense fame in his 
 own generation, and where he died in 1809. He was the 
 founder of the Danish school of painting, and the master 
 of Thorwaldsen and Eckersberg. 
 
 ABIMELECH (m^"?*, father of the king, or rather 
 perhaps king-father), occurs first in the Bible as the name 
 of certain kings of the Philistines at Gerar (Gen. xx. 2, 
 xxi. 22, xxvi. 1). From the fact that the name is applied 
 in the inscription of the thirty-fourth psalm to Achish, it 
 has been inferred with considerable probability that it wa3 
 used as the official designation of the Philistinian kings. 
 The name was also borne by a son of Gideon, judge of 
 Israel, by his Shechemite concubine (Judges viii. 31). 
 On the death of Gideon, who had refused the title of king 
 both for himself and his children, Abimelech set himself 
 to obtain the sovereignty through the influence of his 
 mother's relatives. In pursuance of his plan he slew 
 seventy of his brethren " upon one stone " at Ophrah, 
 Jotham, the youngest of them, alone contriving to escape. 
 This is one of the earliest recorded instances of a practice 
 exceedingly common on the accession of Oriental despots. 
 Abimelech was eventually made king, although his election 
 was opposed by Jotham, who boldly appeared on Mount 
 Gerizim and told the assembled Shechemites the fable of 
 the trees desiring a king. At the end of the third year 
 of his reign the Shechemites revolted, and under the 
 leadership of Gaal made an unsuccessful attempt to throw 
 off the authority of Abimelech. In Judges ix. there is 
 an account of this insurrection, which is specially interest- 
 ing owing to the full details it gives of the nature of the 
 military operations. After totally destroying Shechem, 
 Abimelech proceeded against Thebez, which had also re- 
 volted. Here, while storming the citadel, he was struck on 
 the head by the fragment of a millstone thrown from the 
 wall by a woman. To avoid the disgrace of perishing by 
 a woman's hand, he requested his armour-bearer to run 
 him through the body. Though the immediate cause of 
 his death was thus a sword-thrust, his memory was not 
 Baved from the ignominy he dreaded (2 Sam. xi. 21). It 
 has been usual to regard Abimelech's reign as the first 
 attempt to establish a monarchy in Israel. The facts, 
 however, seem rather to support the theory of Ewald 
 (Gesch. ii. 444), that Shechem had asserted its independ- 
 ence of Israel, when it chose Abimelech as its king. 
 
 ABINGDON, a parliamentary and municipal borough 
 and market town of England, in Berkshire, on a branch 
 of the Thames, 7 miles south of Oxford, and 51 miles 
 W.N.W. of London. It is a place of great antiquity, and 
 was an important town in the time of the Heptarchy. Its 
 name is derived from an ancient abbey. The streets, whi>:b 
 are well paved, converge to a spacious area, in which the 
 market is held. In the centre of this area stands the 
 market-house, supported on lofty pillars, with a largehall 
 
 above, appropriated to the summer assizes for the county, 
 and the transaction of other public business. The town 
 contains two churches, which are said to have been erected 
 by the abbots of Abingdon, one dedicated to St Nicholas 
 and the other to St Helena ; several charitable institutions, 
 and a free grammar school, with scholarships at Pembroke 
 College, Oxford. In 1864 a memorial of Prince Albert 
 was erected at Abingdon, a richly ornamented structure, 
 surmounted by a statue of the Prince. Abingdon wai 
 incorporated by Queen Mary. It send3 one member td 
 Parliament, and is governed by a mayor, four aldermen, 
 and twelve councillors. In the beginning of the century 
 it manufactured much sail-cloth and sacking; but its chief 
 trade now. is in corn and malt, carpets, and coarse linen. 
 It is a station on a branch of the Great Western Railway. 
 Population (1871), 6571. 
 
 ABIOGENESIS, as a name for the production of living 
 by not-living matter, has of late been superseding the less 
 accurate phrase "Spontaneous Generation." Professor 
 Huxley,* who made use of the word in his presidential 
 address to the British Association in 1870, distinguished 
 Abiogenesis from " Xenogenesis " or " Heterogenesis," 
 which occurs, or is supposed to occur, not when dead 
 matter produces living matter, but when a living parent 
 gives rise to offspring which passes through a totally 
 different series of states from those exhibited by the 
 parent, and does not return into the parent's cycle of 
 changes. When a " living parent gives rise to offspring 
 which passes through the same cycle of changes as itself,' 
 there occurs " Homogenesis." " Biogenesis " includes both 
 of these. Other names for Abiogenesis are Generatia 
 jEquivoca, Generatio Primaria, Aixhigenesis (Urzeugung), 
 Archebiosis, &c. The question of Abiogenesis — whether 
 under certain conditions living matter is produced by not- 
 living matter — as it is one of the most fundamental, is per- 
 haps also the oldest in Biology; but within recent years — 
 partly because the means of accurate experimentation have 
 been increased and the microscope improved, and partly 
 because the question has been recognised in its impor- 
 tant bearings on evolution, the correlation of forces, and 
 the theory of infectious diseases— naturalists have been 
 led to bestow more attention upon it than at any previous 
 period. While, therefore, the doctrine of Abiogenesis 
 cannot be said to be either finally established or refuted, 
 it is at least reasonable to believe that we are gradually 
 advancing to a solution. Among the older observers 
 of phenomena bearing on the question may be named 
 Aristotle, who, with the ancients generally, favoured 
 Abiogenesis ; Piedi, the founder of the opposite view ; 
 Vallisnieri ; Buffon ; Needliam ; and Spallanzani ; among 
 later observers, Schwann and Schulze, Schrceder and 
 Dusch, Pasteur, Pouchet, Haeckel, Huxley, Bastian, and 
 many others. The experiments and observations made by 
 these naturalists, and their results — the ingenious ex- 
 pedients employed to prevent inaccuracy — the interesting 
 and often marvellous transformations which microscopists 
 declare they have witnessed — will be discussed in the 
 article Histology; here it will be enough to note the 
 general nature of the reasonings with which the opponents 
 and defenders of Abiogenesis support their views. The 
 opponents maintain that all trustworthy observations 
 have hitherto shown living matter to have sprung from 
 pre-existing living matter ; and that the further we search 
 and examine, the smaller becomes the number of those 
 organisms which we cannot demonstrate to have arisen from 
 living parents. They hold that seeming instances of 
 spontaneous generation are usually to be explained by the 
 germ-theory — the presence of invisible germs in the air ; 
 and they call to their aid- such high authorities as Pasteur 
 and TyndalL The defenders of Abiogenesis. on the other
 
 50 
 
 ABI-ABL 
 
 hand, while interpreting the results of past observation 
 and experiment in their own favour, are yet less disposed 
 to rest on these, rather preferring to argue from those 
 wide analogies of evolution and correlation which seem to 
 support their doctrine. Thus Haeckel expressly embraces 
 Abiogenesis as a necessary and integral part of the theory 
 of universal evolution ; and Huxley, in the same spirit, 
 though from the opposite camp, confesses that if it were 
 given him to look beyond the abyss of geologically 
 recorded time to the still more remote period when the 
 earth was passing through physical and chemical con- 
 ditions, he should expect to be a witness of the evolution 
 of living protoplasm from not-living matter. (Critiques 
 and Addresses, p. 239.) From this point of view, of 
 course, any microscopic observations that have been made 
 6eem very limited and comparatively unimportant. The 
 Abiogenists, indeed, are not without arguments to oppose 
 the results of past observation that seem unfavourable to 
 their views; they argue that, as yet, all the forms 
 observed and shown to be produced by Biogenesis are 
 forms possessing a certain degree of organisation, which 
 in their case makes Abiogenesis unlikely, from the first ; 
 whereas it has not been shown that the simplest struc- 
 tures — the JUonera — do not arise by Abiogenesis. But 
 it is not so much on grounds of fact and experiment the 
 defenders of the Abiogenesis theory are convinced of 
 its truth, as because it seems to gain confirmation from 
 reasonings of much wider scope; because Abiogenesis aids 
 the theory of evolution by tracing the organic into the 
 inbrganic ; because it fosters the increasing unpopularity 
 of the hypothesis of a special " vital force;" and because, 
 if this theory of the " perpetual origination of low forms 
 of life, now, as in all past epochs," were established, it 
 would agree well with the principle of uniformity, and by 
 disclosing the existence of unknown worlds of material for 
 development, would relieve natural selection with its assist- 
 ing causes from what many consider the too Herculean 
 labour of evolving all species from one or a very few 
 primary forms. The 1 fullest discussion of the subject of 
 Abiogenesis, from the Abiogenist's point of view, is to be 
 found in Dr Bastian's Beginnings of Life. Professor 
 Huxley's address, already referred to, contains an interest- 
 ing historical survey, as well as a masterly summary of 
 facts and arguments in favour of Biogenesis. For many 
 interesting experiments, see Nature, 1870-73. 
 
 ABIPONES, a tribe of South American Indians, inhabit- 
 ing the territory lying between Santa Fe and St Iago. 
 They originally occupied the Chaco district of Paraguay, 
 but were driven thence by the hostility of the Spaniards. 
 According to M. Dobrizhoffer, wio, towards the end of 
 last century, lived among them for a period of seven years, 
 they have many singular customs and characteristics. 
 They seldom marry before the age of thirty, are chaste 
 and otherwise virtuous in their lives, though they practise 
 infanticide, and axe without the idea of God. " With the 
 Abipones," says Darwin, " when a man chooses a wife, he 
 bargains with the parents about the price. But it fre- 
 quently happens that the girl rescinds what has been 
 agreed upon between the parents and bridegroom, obsti- 
 nately rejecting the very mention of marriage. She often 
 runs away and hides herself, and thus eludes the bride- 
 groom." The Abiponian women suckle those infants that 
 are spared for the space of two years, — an onerous habit, 
 which is believed to have led to infanticide as a means of 
 escape. The men are brave in war, and pre-eminently 
 expert in swimming and horsemanship. Numerically the 
 tribe is insignificant. M. Dobrizhoffer's account of the 
 Abiponians was translated into English by Sara Coleridge, 
 at the suggestion of Mr Southey, in 1822. 
 ABJURATTON. See Alleoiancb, Oath of. 
 
 ABKHASIA, or Abasia, a tract of Asiatic Russia, on 
 the border of the Black Sea, comprehending between lat. 
 42° 30' and 44° 45' N. and between long. 37° 3' and 40° 36' 
 E. The high mountains of the Caucasus ou the N and 
 N.E. divide it from Circassia; on the S.E. it is bounded 
 by Mingrelia; and on the S.W. by the Black Sea. Though 
 the country is generally mountainous, there are some deep 
 well-watered valleys, and the climate is mild. The soil 
 is fertile, producing grain, grapes, and other fruits. 
 Some of the inhabitants devote themselves to agriculture, 
 some to the rearing of cattle and horses, and not a fen 
 support themselves by piracy and robbery. Honey is 
 largely produced, and is exported to Turkey; and excellent 
 arms are made. Both in ancient and in modern times 
 there has been considerable traffic in slaves. This country 
 was early known to the ancients, and was subdued by the 
 Emperor Justinian, who introduced civilisation and Chris- 
 tianity. Afterwards the Persians, then the Georgians, and 
 more recently the Turks, ruled over the land. Under 
 the Turks Christianity gradually disappeared, and Moham- 
 medanism wa3 introduced in its stead. By the treaties of 
 Akerman and Adrianople, Russia obtained possession of 
 the fortresses of this territory; but till the insurrection of 
 1866, the chiefs had almost unlimited power. The prin- 
 cipal town is Sukumkaleh. The population of Abkhasia 
 is variously stated at from 50,000 to 250,000. See Pal- 
 grave's Essays on Eastern Questions, 1872. 
 
 ABLUTION, a ceremonial purification, practised in 
 nearly every age and nation. It consisted in washing the 
 body in whole or part, so as to cleanse it symbolically 
 from defilement, and to prepare it for religious observances. 
 Among the Jews we find no trace of the ceremony in patri- 
 archal times, but it was repeatedly enjoined and strictly 
 enforced under the Mosaic economy. It denoted either — 
 (1.) Cleansing from the taint of an inferior and less pure 
 condition, and initiation into a higher and purer state, as 
 in the case of Aaron and his sons on their being set apart 
 to the priesthood; or (2.) Cleansing from the soil of 
 common life, in pi eparation for special acts of worship, a3 
 in the case of the priests who were commanded, upon pain 
 of death, to wash their hands and feet before approaching 
 the altar; or (3.) Cleansing from the pollution- occasioned 
 by particular acts and circumstances, as in the case of the 
 eleven species of uncleanness mentioned in the Mosaio 
 law; or (4.) The absolving or purifying one's self from the 
 guilt of some particular criminal act, as in the case of 
 Pilate at the trial of the Saviour. The sanitary reasons 
 which, in a warm climate and with a dry sandy soil, ren- 
 dered frequent ablution an imperative necessity, must not 
 be allowed to empty the act of its symbolic meaning. In 
 the Hebrew different words are used for the washing of 
 the hands before meals, which was done for the sake^ of 
 cleanliness and comfort, and for the washing or plunging 
 enjoined by the ceremonial law. At the same time it is 
 impossible to doubt that the considerations which made 
 the law so suitable in a physical point of view were present 
 to the mind of the Lawgiver when the rite was enjoined 
 Traces of the practice are to be found in the history of 
 nearly every nation. The customs of the Mohammedans, 
 in this as in other matters, are closely analogous to those 
 of the Jews. With them ablution must in every case pre. 
 cede the exercise of prayer, and their law provides that in 
 the desert, where water is not to be found the Arabs may 
 perform the rite with sand Various forms of ablution 
 practised by different nations are mentioned in the sixth 
 book of the .^neid, and we are told that iEneas washed 
 his ensanguined hands after the battle before touching his 
 Penates. Symbolic ablution finds a place under the New 
 Testament dispensation in the rite of baptism, which is 
 i observed, though with some variety of form and circum-
 
 A B N — A B O 
 
 51 
 
 stances, throughout the whole Christian Church. By 
 Roman Catholics and Ritualists, the term ablution is 
 applied to the cleansing of the chalice and the fingers of 
 the celebrating priest after the administration of the Lord's 
 Supper. 
 
 ABNER ("2*5, father of light), first cousin of Saul 
 (1 Sam. xiv. 50) and commander-in-chief of his army. 
 The chief references to him during the lifetime of Saul are 
 found in 1 Sam. xvii 55, and xxvi. 5. It was only after 
 that monarch's death, however, that Abner was brought 
 into a position of the first political importance. David, 
 who had some time before been designated to the throne, 
 was accepted as king by Judr.1i alone, and was ex*)imei At 
 Hebron. The other tribes were actuated by a feeling 
 hostile to Judah, and, as soon as they had thrown ?S the 
 Philistinian yoke, were induced by Abner to recognise 
 Ishbosbeth, the surviving son of Saul, as their king. One 
 engagement between the rival factions under Joab and 
 Abner respectively (2 Sam. ii 12) is noteworthy, inasmuch 
 as it was preceded by an encounter between twelve chosen 
 men from each side, in which the whole twenty-four seem 
 to have perished. In the general engagement which fol- 
 lowed, Abner was defeated and put to flight. He was 
 closely pursued by Asahel, brother of Joab, who is said to 
 have been " light of foot as a wild roe." .As Asahel would 
 not desist from the pursuit, though warned, Abner was 
 compelled to slay "him in self-defence. Thi3 originated a 
 deadly feud between the leaders of the opposite parties, for 
 Joab, as next of kin to Asahel, was by the law and custom 
 of the countiy the avenger cf his blood. For some time 
 afterwards the war was carried on, the advantage being 
 invariably on the side of David. At length Ishbosheth 
 lost the main prop of his tottering cause by remonstrating 
 with Abner for marrying Rizpah, one of Saul's concubines, 
 an alliance which, according to Oriental notions, implied 
 pretensions to the throne. Abner was indignant at th'i 
 rebuke, and immediately transferred his allegiance to 
 David, who not only welcomed him, but promised to give 
 him the command of the combined armies on the re-union 
 of the kingdoms. Almost immediately after, however, 
 Abner was slain by Joab and his brother Abishai at the 
 gate of Hebron. The ostensible motive for the assassina- 
 tion was a desire to avenge Asahel, and this would be a 
 sufficient justification for the deed according to the moral 
 standard of the time. There can be little doubt, however, 
 that Joab was actuated in great part by jealousy of a new 
 and formidable rival, who seemed not unlikely to usurp 
 his place in the king's favour. The conduct of David 
 after the event was such as to show that he had no com- 
 plicity in the act, though he could not venture to punish 
 its perpetrators. The dirge which he repeated over the 
 grave of Abner (2 Sam. iii 33-4) ha3 been thus trans- 
 lated :— 
 
 Should Abner die &3 a villain dies ? — 
 
 Thy hands — not bound- 
 
 Thy feet — nnt brought u>to fetters : 
 
 As one falls before the sons of wickedness, fellest thou. 
 
 ABO, a city and seaport, and chief town of the district 
 of the same name in the Russian province of Finland, is 
 situated in N. lat. 60° 26', E. long. 22° 19', on 'Jae avts- 
 joki, about 3 miles from where it falls into the Gulf oi 
 Bothnia. It was a place of importance when -Finland 
 formed part of the kingdom of Sweden, and the inhabi- 
 tants of the city and district are mostly of Swedish descent. 
 By the treaty of peace concluded here between Russia and 
 Sweden on'17th August 1743, a great part of Finland was 
 ceded to the former. Abo continued to be the capital of 
 Finland till 1819. In November 1827, nearly the whole 
 city was burnt down, the university and its valuable library 
 
 being entirely destroyed. Before tLis calamity Abo con. 
 tained 1100 houses, and 13,000 inhabitants; and it* 
 university had 40 professors, more tl.*n COX) student*, \ad 
 a library of upwards of 30,000 "volumes, together with a 
 botanical garden, an observatory, and a chemical laboratory. 
 The university has since been removed to Helsingfors. 
 Abo is the seat of an archbishop, and of the supreme court 
 of justice for South Finland; and it has a cathedral, a 
 town-hall, and e. custom-house. Sail-cloth, linen, leather, 
 and tobacco are manufactui^d; shipbuilding is carried on, 
 and there are extensive saw-mills. There is also a large 
 trade in timber, pitch, and tar. Vessels drawing 9 or 10 
 feet come up to the town, but ships of greater draught are 
 lad?n and discharged at the mouth of the river, which 
 forms an excellent harbour and is protected. Population 
 in 1867, 18,109. 
 
 ABOLITIONIST. See Suiveby. 
 
 ABOMASUM, caillette, the fourth or rennet stomach oi 
 Ruminantia. From the omasum the food is finally depo- 
 sited in the abomasum, a cavity considerably larger than 
 -eithei the second or third stomach, although less than the 
 first. The base of the abomasum is f urned to the omasum. 
 It is of an irregular conical form. It is that part of the 
 digestive apparatus which is analogous to the single stomach 
 of other Mammalia, as the food there undergoes the process 
 of chymification, after being macerated and ground down 
 in the three first stomachs. 
 
 AEOMEY, the capital of Dahomey, in West Africa, is 
 situated in N. lat 7°, E. long. 2° 4', about 60 miles 
 N. of Whydah, the port of the kingdom. It is a clay- 
 built town, surrounded by a moat and mud walls, and 
 occupies a large area, part of which is cultivated. The 
 houses stand apart; there are no regular streets; and the 
 place is very d : rty. It has four larger market-places, and 
 trade is carried on in palm-oil, ivory, and gold, Moham- 
 medan traders from the interior resorting to its markets. 
 The town contains the principal palace of the king of 
 Dahomey. It is the scene of frequent human sacrifices, 
 a " custom'' being held annually, at which many criminals 
 jind i&pti?*s -»r* slain; while on tb? death of a king a 
 "grand custom" is holi, at which sometimes as many as 
 2000 victims have perished. The slave-trade is also pro- 
 secuted, and the efforts of the British Government to induce 
 the king to abolish it and the " customs" have proved un- 
 successful Population, about 30,000. See Dahomey. 
 
 ABORIGINES, originally a proper name given to an 
 Italian people who inhabited the ancient Latium, or 
 country now called Campagna di Boma. Various deriva- 
 tion? of this name have bfien suggested; but there can be 
 scarcely any doubt that the usual derivation {ab origine) is 
 correct, and that the word simply indicated a settled tribe, 
 whose origin and earlier history were unknown. It is thus 
 the equivalent of the Greek autochthones. It is therefore, 
 strictly speaking, not a proper name at all, although, from 
 being applied to one tribe (or group of tribes), it came to 
 be regarded as such. Who the Aborigines were, or whence 
 they came, is uncertain; but various traditions that art 
 recorded seem to indicate that they were an Oscan oi 
 Opican tribe that descended from the Apennines inte 
 Latium, and united with some Pelasgic tribe to form the 
 Latins. The stories about jEneas's landing' in Italy repre 
 sent the Aborigines as at first opposing and then coalescing 
 with the Trojans, and state that the united people then 
 assumed the name of Latins, from their king Latinus. 
 These traditions clearly point to the fact that the Latins 
 were a mixed race, a circumstance which is proved by the 
 structure of thsir language, in which we find numerous 
 words closely conpeaed with the Greek, and also numerous 
 words that are of an entirely different origin. These non- 
 Greek words are mostly related to the dialects of th*
 
 52 
 
 ABO-ABR 
 
 Opiean tribes. In modern times the term Aborigines has 
 been extended in signification, and is used to indicate 
 the inhabitants found in a country at its first discovery, in 
 contradistinction to colonies or new races, the time of "whoso 
 introduction into the country is known. 
 
 ABORTION, in Midwifery (from aborior, I perish), 
 the premature separation and expulsion of the contents of 
 the pregnant uterus. When ocourring before the eighth 
 lunar month of gestation, abortion is the term ordinarily 
 employed, but subsequent to this period it is designated 
 premature labour. The present notice includes both these 
 terms. As an accident of pregnancy," abortion is far from 
 uncommon, although its relative frequency, as compared 
 with that of completed gestat'.on, has been very differently 
 estimated by accoucheurs. It is more liable to occur in 
 the earlier than in the later months of pregnancy, and it 
 would also appear to occur more readily, at the periods 
 corresponding to those of the menstrual discharge. Abor- 
 tion may be induced by numerous causes, both of a local 
 and general nature. Malformations of the pelvis, acci- 
 dental injuries, and the diseases and displacements to 
 which the uterus is liable, on the one hand ; and, <J>n the 
 other, various morbid conditions of the ovum or placenta 
 leading to the death of the foetus, are among the direct 
 local -causes of abortion. The general causes embrace 
 certain states of the system which are apt to exercise a 
 more or less direct influence upon the progress of utero- 
 gestation. A deteriorated condition of health, whether 
 hereditary or as the result of habits of life, certainly pre- 
 disposes to the occurrence of abortion. Syphilis is known 
 to be a frequent cause of the death of the foetus. Many 
 diseases arising in the course of pregnancy act as direct 
 exciting causes of abortion, more particularly the eruptive 
 fevers and acute inflammatory affections. Prolonged 
 irritation in other organs may, by reflex action, excite 
 the uterus to expel its contents. Strong impressions 
 made upon the nervous system, as by sudden shocks and 
 mental emotions, occasionally have a similar effect. Further, 
 certain medicinal substances, particularly ergot of rye, 
 borax, savin, tansy, and cahtharides, are commonly be- 
 lieved to be capable of exciting uterine action, but the 
 effects, as regards at least early pregnancy, are very un- 
 certain, while the strong purgative medicines sometimes 
 employed with the view of procuring abortion have no 
 effect whatever upon the uterus, and can only act remotely 
 and indirectly, if they act at all, by irritating the alimen- 
 tary canaL In cases of poisoning with carbonic acid, 
 abortion has been observed to take place, and the experi- 
 ments of Dr Brown Sequard show that anything inter- 
 fering with the normal oxygenation of the blood may 
 cause the uterus to contract and expel its contents. Many 
 cases of abortion occur without apparent cause, but in 
 such instances the probability is that some morbid condition 
 of the interior of the uterus exists, and the same may be 
 said of many of those cases where the disposition to abort 
 has become habitual. The tendency, however, to the 
 recurrence of abortion 'in persons who have previously 
 miscarried is well known, and should ever be borne in 
 mind with the view of avoiding any cause likely to lead 
 to a repetition of the accident. Abortion resembles ordi- 
 nary labour in its general phenomena, excepting that in 
 the : former hemorrhage often to a large extent forms one 
 of the leading symptoms. The treatment of abortion 
 embraces the means to be used by rest, astringents, and 
 sedatives, to prevent the occurrence when it merely 
 threatens ; or when, on the contrary, it is inevitable, to 
 accomplish as speedily as possible the complete removal 
 of the entire contents of the uterus. The artificial induc- 
 tion of premature labour is occasionally resorted to by 
 Bocoucheurs under certain conditions involving the safety 
 
 of the mother or the foetus. For Criminal Abortion, see 
 Medical Jurisprudence. 
 
 ABOUKIR, a small village on the coast of Egypt, 1 3 
 miles N.E. of Alexandria, containing a castle which was 
 used as a state prison by Mehemet Ali. Near the village, 
 and connected with the shore by a ch,ain of rocks, is a 
 small island remarkable for remains of, ancient buildings. 
 Stretching to the eastward as far as the Rosetta mouth of 
 the Nile is the spacious bay of Aboukir, where Nelson 
 fought "the Battle of the Nile," defeating and almost 
 destroying the French fleet that had conveyed Napoleon 
 to Egypt. It was near Aboukir that tho expedition to 
 Egypt, under Sir Ralph Abercromby, in 1801, effected a 
 landing in. the face of an opposing force. 
 
 ABRABANEL, Isaac (called also Abravanel, Abarbanel, 
 Barbanella, and Ravanella), a celebrated Jewish statesman, 
 philosopher, theologian, and commentator, was born at 
 Lisbon in 1437. He belonged to an ancient family that 
 claimed descent from the royal houso of David, and his 
 parents gave him an education becoming so renowned a 
 lineage. He held a high place in the favour of King 
 Alphonso V., who intrusted him with the management of 
 important state affairs. On the death of Alphonso in 
 1481, his counsellors and favourites were harshly treated 
 by his successor John; and Abrabanel was, in consequence, 
 compelled to flee to Spain, where he held for eight years 
 (1484— 1492), the post of a minister of state under Ferdi- 
 nand and Isabella. When the Jews were banished from 
 Spain' in 1492, no exception was made in AbrabancFs 
 favour. Ho afterwards resided at Naples, Corfu, and 
 Monopoli, and in 1503 removed to Venice, where he held 
 office as a minister of state till his death in 1508. Abra- 
 banel was one of the most learned of the rabbis. His 
 writings are chiefly exegetical and polemical ; he displays 
 in them an intense antipathy to Christianity, though he 
 lived on terms of friendship with Christians. He wrote 
 commentaries on the greater part of the Old Testament, 
 in a clear but somewhat diffuse style, anticipating much 
 that has been advanced as new by modern theologians. 
 
 ABRACADABRA, a meaningless word once supposed 
 to have a magical efficacy as an antidote against agues and 
 other fevers. Ridiculously minute directions for the 
 proper use of the charm are given in the Pracepta de 
 Medicina of Serenus Sammonicus. The paper on which 
 the word was written had to be folded in the form of 
 a cross, suspended from the neck by a strip of linen so as 
 to rest on the pit of the stomach, worn in this way for 
 nine days, and then, before sunrise, cast behind the wearer 
 into a stream running to the east. The letters of this word 
 were usually arranged to form a triangle in one or other of 
 the following ways : — 
 
 ABRACADABRA ABRACADABRA 
 
 ABRACADABR 
 
 BRACADABE 
 
 ABRACADAB 
 
 RACADAB 
 
 ABRACADA 
 
 ACADA 
 
 ABRACAD 
 
 CAD 
 
 ABRACA 
 
 A 
 
 ABRAO 
 
 ABSA 
 
 ABR 
 
 AB 
 
 A 
 
 ABRAHAM or ABRAM. father" of the Israelite race, 
 was the first-born son of Terah, a Sbemite, who left Ur 
 of the Chaldees, in the north-east of Mesopotamia, along 
 with Abram, Sarai, and Lot, and turned westwards in the 
 direction of Canaan. Abram had married his half-sister 
 Sarai, who was ten years younger than himself; and 
 though such relationship was afterwards forbidden by the 
 law, it was common in ancient times, both among other
 
 A B [{ A H A M 
 
 53 
 
 peoples, and among the Hebrews tbemscive3 at least before 
 Moses. lhe cause of Tcrah's removing from bis native 
 country is not given. Having come to Haran, be abode 
 tbere till his death, at the age of 205. According to 
 Genesis xii., Abram left liaran when he was 75 years of 
 age, that is, before the death of his father, in consequence 
 of a divine command, to which was annexed a gracious 
 promise, " And I will make of thee a great nation, and I 
 will bless thee, and inake thy name great ; and thou shalt 
 be a blessing. And I will bless them that bless thee, and 
 curse him that curseth thee ; and in thee shall all families 
 of the earth be blessed" (xii. 2, 3). Another tradition 
 makes him leave Haran only after Terah's decease (Acts 
 vii. 4). The later account is that Abram's departure was 
 the result of religious considerations, because be had 
 already become emancipated from surrounding idolatry. 
 Perhaps the desire of a nomadic life, the love of migration 
 natural to an Oriental, had more to do with his pilgrimage 
 than a spiritual impulse from within ; but it is likely that 
 his culture advanced in the course of his sojournings, and 
 that he gradually attained to purer conceptions of duty 
 and life. Traditions subsequent to the Jehovistic represent 
 him as driven forth by the idolatrous Chaldeans (Judith 
 v. 6, &c.) on account of his monotheistic doctrines, and 
 then dwelling in Damascus as its king (Josephus's Anti- 
 quities, i. 7). The true cause of departure may be sug- 
 gested by Nicplaus of Damascus saying that he came out 
 ef Chaldea with an army. The leader of a horde, worsted 
 in some encounter or insurrection, he emigrated at the 
 head of his adherents in quest of better fortunes. The 
 word redeemed, in Isaiah xxix. 22, out of which Ewald 
 conjectures so much, as if Abram had been rescued from 
 great bodily dangers and battles, does not help the portrait, 
 because it means no more than the patriarch's migration 
 from heathen Mesopotamia into the Holy Land. Journey- 
 ing south-west to Canaan with his wife and nephew, he 
 arrived at Sichem, at the oak of the seer or prophet, where 
 Jehovah appeared to him, assuring him for the first time 
 ihat his seed should possess the land he had come to. 
 He travelled thence southward, pitching his tent east of 
 Bethel. Still proceeding in the same direction, he arrived 
 at the Negeb, or most southern district of Palestine, 
 whence a famine forced him down to Egypt. His plea 
 that Sarai was his sister did not save her from Pharaoh ; 
 for she was taken into the royal harem, but restored to 
 her husband in consequence of divine chastisments inflicted 
 upon the lawless possessor of her person, leading to the 
 discovery of her true relationship. The king was glad to 
 eend the patriarch away under the escort and protection 
 of his men. A similar thing is said to have subsequently 
 happened to Sarai at Gerar with the Philistine king 
 Abimelech (Genesis xx.), as also to Rebekah, Isaac's wife 
 (xxvi.) The three narratives describe one and the same 
 event in different shapes. But the more original (the 
 junior Elohistic) 1 is that of the 20th chapter, so that Gerar 
 was the scene, and Abunelech the offender; while the later 
 Jehovistic narrative (xii.) deviates still more from veri- 
 similitude. Though this occurrence, however, belongs to 
 the southern borders of Palestine, we need not doubt the 
 fact of Abram's sojourn in Egypt, especially as he had an 
 Egyptian slave (Genesis xvi.) How long the patriarch 
 remained there is not related ; nor are the influences which 
 the religion, science, and learning of that civilised land 
 had upon him alluded to. That they acted beneficially 
 upon his mind, enlightening and enlarging it, can scarcely 
 be doubted. His religious conceptions were transformed. 
 
 1 Three documents at least are traceable in the Pentateuch ; the 
 Schistic, the junior Elohistic, and the Jehovistic. These were put 
 together by a redactor. Nearly the rtoie cf the £ftt book was 
 added by the Dcuteronomiat. 
 
 The manifold wisdom of Egypt impressed him. Liter- 
 course with men far advanced in civilisation taught him 
 much. Later tradition speaks of his communicating to 
 the Egyptians the xiences of arithmetic and astronomy 
 (Josephus i. 7) ; but this is founded upon the notion 
 entertained at the time of the civilised Chaldeans of 
 Babylon, whereas Ur of the Chaldees was a district 
 remote from the subsequent centre of recondite knowledge. 
 Abram received more than he imparted, for the Egyptians 
 were doubtless his superiors in science. He found the 
 rite of circumcision in use. There, too, he acquired great 
 substance — flocks and herds, male and female slaves. 
 After returning to Canaan, to his former locality, Abram 
 and Lot separated, because of disputes between their 
 herds m en, there not being sufficient room for all their 
 cattle in common. After this separation the possession of 
 Canaan was again assured to Abram and to his seed, who 
 should be exceedingly numerous. This is the third 
 theocratic promise he received. He is also commanded 
 by Jehovah to walk through it in its length and breadth 
 as a token of inheritance, — a later Jehovistic tradition that 
 must be judged according to its inherent verisimilitude. 
 Abram settled again at the»ak of Mamre near Hebron. 
 This was his headquarters. After Lot had been taken 
 prisoner in the expedition of the kings of Shinar, Ellasar, 
 Elam, and Goyim, against the old inhabitants of Basan, 
 Ammonitis, Moabitis, Edomitis, and others besides, Abram 
 gave chase to the enemy, accompanied by his 318 slaves 
 and friendly neighbours, rescuing his nephew at Hobah, 
 near Damascus. On his return, the royal priest Melchizedek 
 of Salem came forth to meet him with refreshments, blessed 
 the patriarch, and received from him the tithe of the spoils. 
 The long acted generously towards the victor, and was still 
 more generously treated in return. 
 
 Jehovah again promised to Abram a numerous offspring, 
 with the possession of Canaan. He also concluded a 
 covenant with him in a solemn form, and revealed the 
 fortunes of his posterity in Egypt, with their deliverance 
 from bondage. In consequence of the . barrenness of 
 Sarai, she gave her handmaid Hagar to Abram, who, 
 becoming pregnant by him, was haughtily treated by her 
 mistress, and fled towards Egypt. But an angel met 
 her in the desert and sent her back, telling of a numerous 
 race that should spring from her. Having returned, she 
 gave birth to Ishmael, in the 86th year of Abram's age. 
 
 Again did Jehovah appear to the patiiarch, promising as 
 before a multitudinous seed, and changing his name in 
 conformity with such promise. He assured him and his 
 posterity of the possession of Canaan, and concluded a 
 covenant with him for all time. At the institution of 
 circumcision on this occasion, Sarai's name was also changed, 
 because she was to be the maternal progenitor of the 
 covenant people through Isaac her sou. Abram, and all 
 the males belonging to him, were then circumcised. He 
 had become acquainted with the rite in Egypt, and trans- 
 ferred it to his household, making it a badge of distinction 
 between the worshippers of the true God and the idolatrous 
 Canaanites — the symbol of the flesh's subjection to the 
 spirit. Its introduction into the worship of the colony at 
 Mamre indicated a decided advance in Abram's religious 
 conceptions. He had got beyond the cruel practice of human 
 sacrifice. The gross worship of the Canaanites was left 
 behind; and the small remnant of it which he retained com- 
 ported with a faith approaching monotheism. Amid pre- 
 vailing idolatry this institution was a protection to his 
 family and servants — a magic circle drawn around them. 
 But, though powerful and respected wherever his name 
 was known, he confined the rite to. his own domestics, 
 without attempting to force it on the inhabitants of 
 the land where he sojourned. The punishment of death
 
 64 
 
 ABRAHAM 
 
 for neglecting it, because the uncircumcised person "was 
 thought to be a breaker of tho covenant and a despiser 
 of its Author, seems a harsh measure on the part of 
 Abram; yet it can hardly be counted an arbitrary trans- 
 ference of the later Levitical severities to the progenitor of 
 the race, since it is in the Elohist. 
 
 Accompanied Dy two angels, Jehovah appeared again to 
 Abram at the-oak of JIamre, accepted his proposed hospi- 
 tality, and promised him a son by Sarai within a year. 
 Though she laughed incredulously, the promise was definitely 
 repeated. When the angels left, Jehovah communicated 
 to Abram the divine purpose of destroying the dwellers 
 in Siddim because of their wickedness, but acceded to the 
 patriarch's intercession, that the cities of the plain should 
 be spared if ten righteous men could be found in them. 
 The two angels, who had gone before, arrived at Sodom in the 
 evening, and were entertained by Lot, but threatened with 
 shameful treatment by the depraved inhabitants. Seeing 
 that the vengeance of Heaven was deserved, they proceeded 
 to e ~ecute it, saving Lot with- his wife and two daughters, 
 and sparing Zoar as a place of refuge for them. Jehovah 
 rained down fire and brimstone from heaven, turning all 
 tho Jordan district to desolation, so that when Abram 
 looked next morning from the spot where Jehovah and 
 himself had parted, he saw a thick smoke ascend from the 
 ruins. 
 
 Abram then journeyed from Hebron to the Negeb, settled 
 between Kadesh and Shur in Gerar, where Sarai is said to 
 have been treated as a prior account makes her to have been 
 in Egypt. At the patriarch's prayer the plague inflicted on 
 the king and his wives was removed. This is a duplicate of 
 the other story.. Whatever historical truth the present nar- 
 rative has belongs to an earlier period of Abram's life. His 
 second removal to Gerar originated in the former journeying 
 through it into Egypt. He must have remained in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Hebron, his first settlement, where Isaac was 
 born according to the Elobistic account. After the b irth of 
 the legitimate heir, succeeding events were the expulsion of 
 Hagar and Ishmael from the paternal home, and the making 
 of a covenant between Abimelech and Abram at Beersheba. 
 Here Abram " called on the name of the Lord," and is 
 said to have planted a noted ^tamarisk in commemoration 
 of the event. 
 
 Abram was now commanded by God to offer up Isaac in 
 the land of Moriah Proceeding to obey, he was prevented 
 by an angel just as he was about to slay his son, and 
 sacrificed a ram that presented itself at the time. In 
 reward of his obedience he received the promise of a numer- 
 ous seed and abundant prosperity. Thence he returned to 
 Beersheba. 
 
 Sarai died and was buried in the cave of Machpelah near 
 Hebron, which Abram purchased, with the adjoining field, 
 from Ephron the Hittite. The measures taken by the 
 patriarch for the marriage of Isaac are circumstantially 
 described. His steward Eliezer was sent to the country 
 and kindred of Abram to find a suitable bride, which he 
 did in Haran, whither he was divinely conducted. Rebekah 
 appeared as the intended one; she parted from Bethuel 
 and her family with their full approbation, was brought 
 to Isaac, and became a maternal ancestor of the chosen 
 people. 
 
 It is curious that, after Sarah's death, Abram should 
 have contracted a second marriage with Keturah, and 
 begotten six sons. The Chronicles, however, make her 
 his concubine (1 Chron. i 32), so that these children may 
 have been born earlier. Probably the narrative intends 
 to account for the diffusion of Abram's posterity in Arabia. 
 Keturah's sons were sent away with gifts from their home 
 into Arabia, and all the father's substance was given 
 to Isaac. The patriarch died at the age of 175 years, 
 
 and was buried by Isaac and Ishmael beside Sarai in 
 Machpelah. The book of Genesis give3 two lists of Arab 
 tribes, descended partly from Abram and Keturah, partly 
 from him and Hagar or Ishmael These dwelt in Arabia 
 Dcserta and Petraja, as also in the northern half of Arabia 
 Felix. 
 
 1 . We cannot adopt the opinion of Von Bohlen and Dozy 
 that Abram is a mythical person. He must be regarded as a 
 historical character, though the accounts of his life have 
 mythical elements intermingled with much that is tradi- 
 tional or legendary. The difficulty of separating the historic 
 from the merely traditional, hinders the presentation of a 
 natural portrait. Later legends have invested him with ex- 
 traordinary excellence. They have made him a worshipper 
 of Jehovah, a prophet, the friend of God, favoured with 
 visible manifestations of His presence, a^d receiving 
 repeated promises of the most fax-reaching character. He 
 is the typical ancestor of the chosen ro.ee, living under the 
 constant guidance of God, prospering in worldly goods, 
 delivered from imminent perils. A superhuman halo 
 surrounds him. It is the Jehovist in particular who 
 invests him with the marvellous and improbable, con- 
 necting him with altars and sacrifices — a cultu3 posterior 
 to. both his time and mental development — maki n g him 
 the subject of theophanies, talking familiarly to Jehovah 
 himself, and feeding angels with flesh. The Elohist's 
 descriptions are simpler. His patriarchs are usually colour- 
 less men, upright and plain. .They have neither char- 
 acteristic features nor distinct outline. Abrain stands 
 out an honest,- peaceable, generous, high-minded patriarch; 
 a prince, rich, powerful, and honoured, fitted for rule, 
 and exercising it with prudence. We need not expect 
 a full history of the man from writers long posterior, the 
 representatives of popular traditions. Only fragments 
 of the life are given, designed to show his greatness. 
 Legend assigned ideal lineaments to the progenitor whom 
 a remote antiquity shrouded with its hoary mantle, and 
 thus he became a model worthy of imitation. 
 
 2. The biblical sources of his biography are three at 
 least; and sometimes all appear in a single chapter, as in 
 Gen. xxii., which describes the severest trial of faith. The 
 oldest or Elohim-document is seen in verses 20-24, which 
 link on to chap. xxi. 2-5, from the same. The rest of the 
 chapter belongs to the junior Elohist, except verses 14-18, 
 added by the Jehovist to connect Abram's sacrifice with 
 Jerusalem. These different documents, out of which the 
 general narrative was finally put together by a redactor, 
 create diversities and contradictions. Thus the Elohist 
 makes Abram laugh at the announcement of a son by Sarai 
 (xvii. 17); the Jehovist, jealous for th<2 patriarch's honour, 
 assigns the laughter to the woman as a sign of incredulity 
 (xviii. 12). 
 
 3. The account of the change of names given to Abram 
 and Sarai when circumcision was instituted, cannot be 
 regarded as historical. The Elohist says that Abram became 
 Abraham, the latter meaning father of much people. But 
 the Hebrew tongue has no word rahdm, and no root with 
 the three letters om. Hence the Jews found the etymo- 
 logy a puzzle. 1 The old reading was undoubtedly Abram 
 and Sarai, though the later Jews expressly forbade Abram 
 either in speaking or writing. The difference is one of 
 mere orthography. The forms Dm and oil are cognate 
 ones, as are ryff and rnff- The etymologising propensity 
 of the Elohist is well known. The names signify father of 
 height and princess respectively. 
 
 4. The religion of Abram was not pure Jehovism Ac- 
 cording to Exodus vi. 3, the name Jehovah was unknown 
 before Moses. Pure Jehovism was a growth not reached 
 
 1 See Beer's Lelen Alraham's, pp. 150, 151.
 
 ABK-ABR 
 
 55 
 
 before the prophets. It was a late development, the creed 
 Of the most spiritual teachers, not of the people generally. 
 Abram was a distinguished Oriental sheikh, who laid aside 
 the grdssness of idolatry, and rose by degrees, through con- 
 tact with many peoples and his own reflection, to the con- 
 ception of a Being higher than the risible world, the God 
 Of, the light and the sun. He was a civilised nomad, 
 having wider and more spiritual aspirations than the 
 peoples with whom he livecL. As a worshipper of God, 
 his faith was magnified by Liter ages throwing back 
 their more advanced ideas into his time, because he was 
 the founder of a favoured i race, the type of Israel as 
 they were or should be. 
 
 5. The leading idea forming the essence of the story re- 
 specting Abram's sacrifice of Isaac, presents some difficulty 
 Of explanation. The chapter did not proceed from the 
 earliest writer, but from one acquainted with the institu- 
 tion of animal sacrifices. That the patriarch was familiar 
 with human sacrifices among the peoples round about is 
 beyond a doubt. Was he tempted from within to comply, 
 on one occasion, with the prevailing custom; or did the 
 disaffected Canaanites call upon him. to give such proof 
 of devotion to his God ] Perhaps there was a struggle in 
 his mind between the better ideas which led to the habitual 
 renunciation of the barbarous rite, and scruples of the uni- 
 versal impropriety attaching to it. The persuasion that it 
 could never be allowed may have been shaken at times. 
 The general purport of the narrative is to place in a strong 
 light the faith of one prepared to make the most costly 
 sacrifice in obedience to the divino command, as well as 
 God's aversion to human offerings. 
 
 6. It is impossible to get chronological exactness 1 in 
 Abram's biography, because it is composed of different tra- 
 ditions incorporated with one another, the product of dif- 
 ferent times, and all passing through the hands of a later 
 redactor for whom the true succession of events was not 
 of primary importance. The writers themselves did not 
 know the accurate chronology, having to do with legends 
 as well as facts impregnated with the legendary, which the 
 redactor afterwards altered or adapted. The Elohist is 
 much more chronological than the other writers. It is 
 even impossible to tell the time when Abram lived. Ac- 
 cording to Lepsius, he entered Palestine 1700-1730 B.c. ; 
 according to Bunsen, 2S86; while Schenkel gives 2 130-2 140 
 B.C. In Beer's Leben Abraham's his birth is given 1948 
 A.M., i.e., 2040 B.C. 
 
 7. The Midrashim contain a good deal about Abram 
 which is either founded on biblical accounts or spun out 
 ef the fancy. Niinrod was king of Babylon at the time. 
 The patriarch's early announcement of the doctrine of one 
 God, his zeal in destroying idols, including those worshipped 
 by his father, his miraculous escape from Nimrod's wrath, 
 his persuading Terah to leavo the king's service and go 
 with him to Canaan, are minutely told. During his life 
 he had no fewer than ten temptations. Satan tried to ruin 
 him, after the fieri had appearedat the great feast given 
 when Isaac was weaned, in the form of a poor bent old man, 
 who had been neglected. We can only refer to one speci- 
 men of rabbinic dialogue-making. God appeared to 
 Abram by night, saying to him, " Take thy son" — (Abram 
 interrupting), "Which] I have two of them." The voice 
 •f God — " Him who is esteemed by. you as your only son." 
 Abram — " Each of them is the only son of his mother." 
 God's voice — " Him whom thou lovest." Abram — " I love 
 both." God's voice — " Him whom thou especially lovest" 
 Abram—" I cherish .my children with like love." God's 
 voice — "Now, then, take Isaac." Abram — "And what 
 ehall I begin with in him?" God's voice — " Go to the land 
 where at my call mountains will rise up out of valleys 
 • i ... to Moriah, and offer thy son Isaac as a holocaust." 
 
 Abram — "Is it a sacrifice I shall offer, Lordl Where is the 
 priest to "prepare it?" "Be thou invested with that dig- 
 nity as Shem was formerly." Abram — " But that land 
 counts several mountains, which shall I ascend?" "The 
 top of the mountain where thou shalt see my glory veiled 
 in the clouds," &c (Beer, pp. 59, 60.) 
 
 The Arabic legends about Ibrahim are mostly taken from 
 the Jewish fountain, very few bein & independent and pre- 
 Islamite. Mohammed collected all that were current, and 
 presented them in forms best suited to his purpose. His 
 sources were the biblical accounts and later Jewish legends. 
 Those about the patriarch building the Kaaba along with 
 Ishmael, his giving this son the house and all the country 
 in which it was, his going as a pilgrim to Mecca every 
 year, seeing Ishmael, and then returning to his own land, 
 Syria, his foot-print on the black stone of the temple, 
 and similar stories, aie of genuine AraDic origin. The 
 rest are Jewish, with certain alterations. The collected 
 narratives of the Arabic historians are given by Tabari, 
 constituting a confused mass of legends drawn from the 
 Old Testament, the Koran, and the Rabbins. (See 
 Ewald's Geschichte des Volkes Israel, vol i. pp. 440-484, 
 third edition; Bertheau's Zur Geschichte der Israeliten, 
 p. 206, et seq.~; Tuch's Kommentar veber die Genesis, 
 1838; Knobel's Die Genesis, 1852; Dozv"s Die Israeliten 
 in Mekka, p. 16, et seq.; B. Beer's Leben Abraham's 
 nach Auffassung der jiidischen Sage, 1859; Chroniqus 
 cCAbou Djafar Mohammed Tabari, par L. Dubeur, tome 
 premier, chapters 47-60; Chwolson's Ssabier vnd der 
 Ssabismus, voL ii) ( s - i>.) 
 
 ABRAHAM-A-SANCTA-CLARA. was born at Krahen- 
 heimstetten, a village in Suabia, on the 4th of June 1642. 
 His family name was Ulrich Megerle. In 1662 he joined 
 the order of Barefooted Augustinians, and assumed the 
 name by which alone he is now known. In this order he 
 rose step by step until he became prior provincialis and 
 definitor of his province. Having early gained a great 
 reputation for pulpit eloquence, he was appointed eourt 
 preacher at Vienna in 1669. There the people nocked in 
 crowds to hear him, attracted by the force and homeliness 
 of his language, the grotesqueness of his humour, and the 
 impartial severity with which he lashed the follies of all 
 classes of society. The vices of courtiers and court-life 
 in particular were exposed with an admirable intrepidity. 
 In general he spoke as a man of the people in the lan- 
 guage of the people, the predominating quality of his 
 style, which was altogether unique, being an overflowing 
 and often coarse wit There are, however, many passages 
 in his sermons in which he rises to loftier thought, and 
 uses more refined and dignified language. He died at 
 Vienna on the 1st December 1709. In his published 
 writings Abraham-a-Sancta-Clara displayed much the same 
 qualities as in the pulpit. Perhaps the most favourable 
 specimen of his style is furnished in Judas der Erzschelnu 
 "His works have been several times reproduced in whole 
 or part, though with many spurious interpolations, within 
 the last thirty years, and have been very extensively read 
 by both Protestants and Catholics. A selection was issued 
 at Heilbronn in 1845, and a complete edition in 21 vols, 
 appeared at Passau and Lindau, in 1835-54. 
 
 ABRANTES, a town of Portugal, Estremadura province, 
 on the Tagus, about 70 miles N.E. of Lisbon, delightfully 
 situated on the brow of a hill, of which the slopes are 
 covered with olive trees, gardens, and vineyards. It has 
 considerable trade with Lisbon, particularly in fruit, 
 corn, and oik The town is strongly fortified, and is 
 an important military position. At thp convention of 
 Cintra it was surrendered to the British Junot derived 
 from it his title of Duke of Abrantes. Population about 
 6000.
 
 56 
 
 A B It — A B S 
 
 ABRANTES, Duke and Duchess of. See Junot. 
 
 ABRAXAS, or Abrasax, a word engraved on certain 
 antique stones, which were called on that account Abraxas 
 stories, and were used as 'amulets or charms. The Basili- 
 dSans, a Gnostic sect, attached importance to the word, if, 
 indeed, they did not bring it into use. The letters of 
 ii/Jpafas, in the Greek notation, make up the number 3G5, 
 and the Basilidians gave the name to the 365 orders of 
 spirits, which, as they conceived, emanated in succession 
 from the Supreme Being. These orders were supposed to 
 occupy as many heavens, each fashioned like, but inferior 
 to that above it; and the lowest of the heavens was 
 thought to be the abode of the spirits who formed the 
 earth and its inhabitants, and to whom was committed 
 the administration of its affairs. The Abraxas stones, 
 which are frequently to be met with in the cabinets 
 of the curious, are of very little value. In addition to 
 the word Abraxas and other mystical characters, they 
 have often engraved on them cabalistic figures. The com- 
 monest of these have the head of a fowl, and the arms 
 and bust of a man, and terminate in the body and tail of 
 a serpent. 
 
 ABRUZZO, originally one of the four provinces of the 
 continental part of the kingdom of the two Sicilies, after- 
 ward subdivided into AbruziO Ulteriore I., Abruzzo Ulte- 
 riore II., and Abruzzo Citeriore, which were so named from 
 their position relative to Naples, and now form three of 
 the provinces of the kingdom of Italy. The district, 
 which was the most northerly part of the kingdom of the 
 two Sicilies, is bounded by the Adriatic on the E., and 
 by the provinces of Ascoli Piceno on the N., Umbria and 
 Rome on the W., and Terra di Lavoro, Molise, and Capi- 
 tanata on the S. The Abruzzi provinces have an area of 
 nearly 4900 English square miles, and extend from N. lat. 
 41°40' to 42°55'. Though presenting to the Adriatic a coast 
 of about 80 miles in length, they have not a single good 
 •port. This territory is mostly rugged, mountainous, and 
 covered with extensive forests, but contains also many 
 fertile and well-watered valleys. The Apennines traverse 
 its whole extent, running generally from N.W. to S.E., and 
 here attaining their greatest elevation. Near Aquila is 
 Monte Corno, the loftiest peak of that chain, called II gran 
 Sasso d' Italia, or the great rock of Italy, which rises to the 
 height of 9S13 feet. Monte Majella and Monte Velino 
 attain the height of 9500 and 8792 feet respectively, 
 from the main range of the Apennines a number of smaller 
 branches run off towards the west. The country is 
 watered by numerous small rivers, most of which fall into 
 the Adriatic. They are often suddenly swollen by the 
 rains, especially in the spring, and thus cause considerable 
 damage to the lands through which they pass. The 
 principal rivers are the Tronto, Trentino, Pescara, and 
 Sangro. In Abruzzo Ulteriore IL is lake Celano or Lago 
 di Fucino, the Lacus Fucinus of the Romans, now reduced 
 to about one-third of its former extent. The climate varies 
 with the elevation, but, generally speaking, is temperate 
 and healthy. Agriculture is but little understood or 
 attended to, although in many of the lower parts of the 
 country the land is fertile. The rivers are not embanked, 
 nor is irrigation practised; so that the best of the land is 
 frequently flooded during the rainy season, and parched in 
 the heat of summer. The principal productions are corn, 
 hemp, flax, almonds, olives, figs, grapes, and chestnuts. 
 In the neighbourhood of Aquila saffron is extensively 
 cultivated, although not to such an extent as formerly. 
 The rearing and tending of sheep i3 the chief occupation 
 of the inhabitants of the highlands; and the wool, which 
 is of a superior quality, is an important article of com- 
 merce, while the skins are sent in large quantities to the 
 Levant. Be&rs, wolves, and wild boars inhabit the moun- 
 
 tain fastnesses ; and in the extensive oak forests numerous 
 herds of swine are fed, the hams of which are in high 
 repute. The manufactures are very inconsiderable, being 
 chiefly woollen, linen, and silk stuffs, and earthen and 
 wood wares. Abruzzo was of great importance to the 
 kingdom of Naples, being its chief defence to the north, 
 and presenting almost insurmountable difficulties to the 
 advance of an enemy. The country is now free of the 
 daring brigands by whom it was long infested. The 
 inhabitants are a stout, well-built, brave, and industrious 
 race. Their houses are generally miserable huts ; their 
 food principally maize, and their drink bad wine. The 
 railway from Ancona to Brindisi passes through Abruzzo 
 Ulteriore I. and Abruzzo Citeriore, skirting the coast; and 
 a line has been projected from Pescara, by Popoli, the Lago 
 di Fucino, and the valley of the Liris, to join the railway 
 from Rome to Naples, and thus open up the interior of the 
 country. The line is open for traffic between Pescara 
 and Popoli. 
 
 Abruzzo Ulteriore I. is the most northerly of the 
 three provinces, and has an area of 1283 square miles, with 
 a population in 1871 of 245,684. The western part of the 
 province is very mountainous, the highest crest of the Apen- 
 nines dividing it from Abruzzo Ulteriore II. The valleys 
 possess a rich soil, well watered by rivulets and brooks in 
 the winter and spring, but these are generally dried up in 
 the summer months. The streams run mostly into the 
 Pescara, which bounds the province towards Abruzzo 
 Citeriore, or into the Tronto, which is the northern 
 boundary. The city of Teramo is the capital of the 
 province. 
 
 Abruzzo Ulteriore IT. is an inland district, nearly 
 covered with mountains of various heights, one of which 
 is the Gran Sasso. There are no plains ; but among the 
 mountains are some beautiful and fruitful valleys, watered 
 by the various streams that run through them. None of 
 the rivers are navigable. The province has an area of 2510 
 square miles, and in 1871 contained 332,782 inhabitants. 
 Its chief town is Aquila. 
 
 Abruzzo Citeriore lies to the south and east of the 
 other two provinces. It is the least hilly of the three, but 
 the Apennines extend through the south-west part. They, 
 however, gradually decline in height, and stretch away into 
 plains of sand and pebbles. The rivers all run to the 
 Adriatic, and are very low during the summer months. 
 The soil is not very productive, and agriculture is in a 
 very backward state ; the inhabitants prefer the chase 
 Rnd fishing. The province contains 1104 square miles, 
 with a population of 340,299 in 1871. Its ehief town is 
 ChietL 
 
 ABSALOM (x/bri», father of peace), the third son of 
 David, king of Israel. He was deemed the handsomest 
 man in the kingdom. His sister Tamar having been 
 violated by Amnon, David's eldest sou, Absalom caused 
 his servants to murder Amnon at a feast, to which he had 
 invited all the king's sons. After this deed he fled to the 
 kingdom of his maternal grandfather, where he remained 
 three years ; and it was not till two years after his return 
 that he was fully reinstated in his father's favour. Absalom 
 seems to have been by this time the eldest surviving son 
 of David, but he was not the destined heir of his father's 
 throne. The ' suspicion of this excited the impulsive 
 Absalom to rebellion. For a time the tide of public 
 opinion ran so strong in his favour, that David found it ex- 
 pedient to retire beyond the Jordan. But, instead of adopt- 
 ing the prompt measures which his sagacious counsellor 
 Ahithophel advised, Absalom loitered at Jerusalem till a 
 large force was raised against him, and when he took the 
 field his army was completely routed. The battle was 
 fought in the forest of Ephraim ; and Absalom, caught in
 
 A B S — A B S 
 
 57 
 
 the boughs of a tree by the superb hair in which he gloried, 
 ■was run through the body by Joab. The king's grief for 
 his worthless son vented itself in the touching lamentation 
 — " my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom ! would 
 God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!" 
 
 ABSALON, Archbishop of Lund, in Denmark, was bora 
 in 1128, near Soroe in Zealand, his family name being 
 Axel. In 1148 he went to study at Paris, where a college 
 for Danes had been established. He afterwards travelled 
 extensively in different countries; and returning to Den- 
 mark in 1157, was the year after chosen Bishop of Boes- 
 kilde or Bothschild. Eloquent, learned, endowed with 
 Uncommon physical strength, and possessing the confidence 
 of the king, Waldemar I., known as the Great, Absalon 
 held a position of great influence both in the church and 
 state. In that age warlike pursuits were not deemed in- 
 consistent with the clerical office, and Absalon was a 
 renowned warrior by sea and land, as well as a zealous 
 ecclesiastic, his avowed principle being that " both swords, 
 the spiritual and the temporal were entrusted to the 
 clergy." To his exertions as statesman and soldier Wal- 
 demar was largely indebted for the independence and con- 
 solidation of his kingdom. In 1177 he was chosen by the 
 chapter Archbishop of Lund and Primate of the church, 
 but he declared himself unwilling to accept;, the appoint- 
 ment; and when an attempt was made to install him by 
 force, he resisted, and appealed to Borne. The Pope de- 
 cided that the choice of the chapter must be respected, 
 and commanded Absalon to accept the Primacy on pain of 
 excommunication. He was consecrated accordingly by the 
 papal legate Galandius in 1178. He set the Cistercian 
 monks Of Soroe the task of preparing a history of the 
 country, the most valuable result being the Danish 
 Chronicle of Saxo Grammaticus, who was secretary to 
 Absalon and his companion in an expedition against the 
 Wendish pirates. A tower or castle which the archbishop 
 caused to be built as a defence against these pirates, was 
 the commencement of the present capital, Copenhagen, 
 which from this circumstance is sometimes known in his- 
 tory as Axelstadt. The archbishop died in 1201, in the 
 monastery at Soroe, and was buried in the parish church, 
 where his grave may still be seen. 
 
 ABSCESS, in Surgery (from abscedo, to separate), a 
 collection of pus among the tissues of the body, the result 
 of inflammation. Abscesses are divided into acute and 
 chronic. See Surgery. 
 
 ABSINTHE, a liqueur or aromatised spirit, prepared by 
 pounding the leaves and flowering tops of various species 
 of wormwood, chiefly Artemisia Absinthium, along with 
 angelica root (Archangelica officinalis), sweet flag root 
 (Acorus Calamus), the leaves of dittany of Crete (Origanum 
 Dtctamnus), star-anise fruit (Illicium anisalum), and other 
 aromatics, and macerating these in alcohol. After soaking 
 for about eight days the compound is distilled, yielding an 
 emerald-coloured liquor, to which a proportion of an 
 essential-oil, usually that of anise, is added. The liqueur 
 thus prepared constitutes the genuine Extrait d Absinthe 
 of the French; but much of an inferior quality is made 
 with other herbs and essential oils, while the adulterations 
 practised in the manufacture of absinthe are very numerous 
 and deleterious. In the adulterated liqueur the green 
 colour is u o ".al)y produced by turmeric and indigo, but the 
 presence of even cupric sulphate (blue vitriol) as a colour- 
 ing ingredient has been frequently detected. In com- 
 merce two varieties of absinthe are recognised — common 
 and Swiss absinthe — the latter of which is prepared with 
 highly co..cuutrated spirit; and when really of Swiss manu- 
 facture, is of most trustworthy quality as regards the herbs 
 used in its preparation. The chief seat of the manufac- 
 ture is in the canton cf Noufchatel ia Switzerland, although 
 
 absinthe distilleries are scattered generally throughout 
 Switzerland and France. The liqueur is chiefly consumed 
 in France, but there is also a considerable export trade to 
 the United States of America. In addition to the quan- 
 tity distilled for home consumption in France, the amount 
 imported from Switzerland in recent years has not been 
 less than 2,000,000 gallons yearly. The introduction of 
 this beverage into general use in France is curious. Dur- 
 ing the Algerian war (1844-47) the soldiers were advised 
 to mix absinthe with their wine as a febrifuge. On their 
 return they brought with them the habit of drinking it, 
 which is now so widely disseminated in French society, 
 and with such disastrous consequences, th.H the custom is 
 justly esteemed a grave national evil A French physician, 
 M. Legrand, who has studied the physiological effects of 
 absinthe drinking, distinguishes two trains of results accord- 
 ing as the victim indulges in violent excesses of drinking 
 or only in continuous steady tippling. In the case of 
 excessive drinkers there is first the feeling of exaltation 
 peculiar to a state of intoxication. The increasing dose 
 necessary to produce this state quickly deranges the diges- 
 tive organs, and destroys the appetite. An unappeasable 
 thirst takes possession of the victim, with giddiness, tingling 
 in the ears, and hallucinations of sight and hearing, followed 
 by a constant mental oppression and anxiety, loss of brain 
 power, and, eventually, idiocy. The symptoms in the 
 case of the tippler commence with muscular quiverings and 
 decrease of physical strength; the hair begins to drop off, the 
 face assumes a melancholy aspect, and he becomes ema- 
 ciated, wrinkled, and sallow. Lesion of the brain follows, 
 horrible dreams and delusions haunt the victim, and gradu- 
 ally paralysis overtakes him and lands him in his grave. 
 It has been denied by a French authority, M. Moreau, that 
 these symptoms are due to wormwood or any of the essen- 
 tial oils contained in absinthe, and he maintains that the 
 strong spirit and such adulterations as salts of copper are 
 sufficient to account for the effects of the liqueur. There 
 is, however, no doubt that proportionately the consumption 
 of absinthe is much more deleterious to the human frame 
 than the drinking of brandy or other strong spirits. The 
 use of absinthe has been prohibited in both the army and 
 navy of France. 
 
 ABSOLUTE (from the Latin absolvere), having the 
 general meaning of loosened from, or unrestricted, in which 
 sense it is popularly used to qualify such words as "mon- 
 archy" or " power," has been variously employed in philo- 
 sophy. Logicians use it to mark certain classes of names. 
 Thus a term has been called absolute in opposition to attri- 
 butive, when it signifies something that has or is viewed as 
 having independent existence ; most common!}', however, 
 the opposition conveyed is to relative. A relative name 
 being taken as one which, over and above the object 
 which it denotes, implies in its signification the existence 
 of another object, also deriving a denomination from he 
 same fact, which is the ground of the first name (Mill), 
 as, e.g., father and son, the non-relative or absolute name 
 is one that has its meaning for and in itself, as man. 
 This distinction is a convenient one, although, as has been 
 observed, it can hardly in perfect strictness be maintained. 
 The so-called rbsolute name, if used with a meaning, does 
 always stand in some relation, however variable or in- 
 definite, and the meaning varies with the relation. Thus 
 man, which is a word of very different meanings, as, e.g., 
 not woman, not boy, not master, not brute, and so forth, 
 may be said to have them according to the different 
 relations in which it admits of being viewed, or, as it has 
 been otherwise expressed, according to the different notions 
 whose " universe " it composes, along with its different 
 correlatives. From this point of view there is always one 
 relation in which a real thing must btand, namely, the
 
 58 
 
 A B S — A B S 
 
 t elation to its contradictory (as not man) within the 
 iniverse of being ; the correlatives, under less general 
 Lotions, being then generally expressed positively as con- 
 traries (woman, boy, master, brute, and so forth, for man). 
 If there is thus no name or notion that can strictly be 
 allied absolute, all knowledge may be said to be relative, 
 or of the relative. But the knowledge of an absolute has 
 also been held impossible, on the ground that knowing is 
 itself a relation between a subject and an object ; what is 
 known only in relation to a mind cannot be known as 
 absolute. This doctrine, now commonly spoken of under 
 the name of the Relativity of Knowledge, may, indeed, be 
 brought under the former view, in which subiect-object 
 marks the relation of highest philosophical significance 
 within the whole universe of things. Keeping, however, 
 the two views apart, we may say with double force that 
 of the absolute there is no knowledge, — (1), because, to be 
 kuown, a thing must be consciously discriminated from 
 other things ; and (2), because it- can be known only in 
 relation with a knowing mind. Notwithstanding, there 
 have been thinkers from the earliest times, who, in dif- 
 ferent ways, and more or less explicitly, allow of no such 
 restriction upon knowledge, or at least consciousness, but, 
 cm the contrary, starting from a notion, by the latter 
 among them called the absolute, which includes- within it 
 th6 opposition of subject and object, pass therefrom to 
 the explanation of all the phenomena of nature and of 
 mind. In earlier days the Eleatics, Plato, and Flotinus, 
 in modern times Spinoza, Leibnitz, Fichte, Schelling, 
 Hegel, and Cousin, all have joined, under whatever dif- 
 ferent forms, in maintaining this view. Kant, while 
 denying the absolute or unconditioned as an object of 
 knowledge, leaves it conceivable, as an idea regulative of 
 the mind's intellectual experience. It is against any such 
 absolute, whether as real or conceivable, that Hamilton 
 and Mansel have taken ground, the former in his famous 
 review of Cousin's philosophy, reprinted in his Discussions, 
 the latter in his Bampton Lectures on Tlie Limits of 
 Religious Thought, basing their arguments indifferently on 
 the positions as to the Relativity of Knowledge indicated 
 above. For absolute in its more strictly metaphysical use, 
 see Metaphysics. (o. c. e.) 
 
 ABSOLUTION, a term used in civil and ecclesiastical 
 law, denotes the act of setting free or acquitting. In a 
 criminal process it signifies the acquittal of an accused 
 person on the ground that the evidence has either dis- 
 proved or failed to prove the charge brought against him. 
 It is now little used except in Scotch law, in the forms 
 assoilzie and absolvitor. The ecclesiastical usage of the 
 word is essentially different from the civil. It refers to 
 sin actually committed, and denotes the setting of a person 
 free from its guilt, or from its penal consequences, or from 
 both. It is invariably connected with penitence, and some 
 form of confession, the Scripture authority, to which the 
 Roman Catholics, the Greek Church, and Protestants 
 equally appeal, being found in John xx. 23, James v. 16, 
 Ac. In the primitive church the injunction of James was 
 literally obeyed, and confession was made before the 
 whole congregation, whose presence and concurrence were 
 reckoned necessary to the validity of the absolution pro- 
 nounced by the presbyter. In the 4th century the bishops 
 began to exercise the power of absolution in their own 
 right, without recognising the congregations. In conse- 
 quence of this the practice of private confession (con/essio 
 auricularis) was established, and became more and more 
 common, unti it was rendered imperative once a year by 
 a decree of the fourth Lateran Council (1215). A dis- 
 tinction, indeed, was made for a time between peccata 
 venialia, which might be confessed to a layman, and 
 peccata mortal ia, which could only be confessed to a priest; 
 
 but this was ultimately abolished, and the Roman Canon 
 Law now stands, -Vec venialia nee mortalia possumtu 
 emflteri sacramentaliter, nisi sacerdoti. A change in the 
 f f>rm of absolution was almost a logical sequence of the 
 change in the nature of the confession. At first the priest 
 acted ministerially as an intercessory, using tho formula 
 absolutionis precativa or deprecativa, which consisted of the 
 words : Dominus absolvat te — Misereatur tui omnipotent 
 Deus et dimittat libi omnia peccata tua. This is still the 
 only form in the Greek Church, and it finds a plaoe in the 
 Roman Catholic service, though it is no longer used in 
 the act of absolution. The Romish form was altered in 
 the 13th century, and the Council of Trent decreed the 
 use of the formula absolutionis indicativa, where the priest 
 acts judicially, as himself possessed of the power of bind- 
 ing and loosing, and says, Ego absolvo te. Where a form 
 of absolution is used in Protestant Churches, it is simply 
 declarative, the state being only indicated, and in no sense 
 or degree assumed to be caused by the declaration. 
 
 ABSORPTION, in the animal economy, the function 
 possessed by the absorbent system of vessels of taking up 
 nutritive and other fluids. See Physiology. 
 
 ABSTEMII, a name formerly given to such persons as 
 could not partake of the cup of the eucharist on account 
 of their natural aversion to wine. Calvinists allowed these 
 to communicate in the species of bread only, touching 
 the cup with their lip; which was by the Lutherans 
 deemed a profanation. Among several Protestant sects, 
 both in Great Britain and America, abstemii on a some- 
 what different principle have recently appeared. These 
 are total abstainers, who maintain that the use of stimu- 
 lants is essentially sinful, and allege that the wine used 
 by Christ and his disciples at the supper was unf ermented. 
 They accordingly communicate in the unfermented "juice 
 of the grape." The difference of opinion on this point 
 has led to a good deal of controversy in many congrega- 
 tions, the solution generally arrived at being to allow both 
 wine and the pure juice of the grape to be served at the 
 -communion table. 
 
 ABSTRACTION, in Psychology and Logic, is a word 
 used in several distinguishable but closely allied ' senses. 
 First, in a comprehensive sense, it is often applied to that 
 process by which we fix the. attention upon one part of 
 what is present to the mind, to the exclusion of another 
 part; abstraction thus conceived being merely the nega- 
 tive of Attention (q. v.) In this sense we are able in 
 thought to abstract one object from another, or an attribute 
 from an object, or an attribute perceived by one sense 
 from those perceived by other senses. Even in cases 
 when thoughts or images have become inseparably 
 associated, we possess something of this power of abstract- 
 ing or. turning the attention upon one rather than another. 
 Secondly, tho word is used, with a more special significa- 
 tion, to describe that concentration of attention upon tho 
 resemblances of a number of objects, which constitutes 
 classification. And thirdly, not to mention other less 
 important changes of meaning, the whole process of 
 generalisation, by which the mind forms the notions 
 expressed by common terms, is frequently, through a 
 curious transposition of names, spoken of as abstraction. 
 Especially when understood in its less comprehensive 
 connection, the process of abstraction possesses a peculiar 
 interest. To the psychologist it is interesting, because 
 there is nothing he is more desirous to understand than 
 the mode of formation and true nature of what are called 
 general notions. And fortunately, with regard to the 
 abstractive process by which these are formed, at least in 
 its initial stages, there is little disagreement ; since every 
 one describes it as a process of comparison, by which the 
 mind is enabled to consider the objects confusedly pre-
 
 A B S — A B U 
 
 59 
 
 cented to it in intuition, to recognise and attend exclusively 
 to their points of agreement; and so to classify them in 
 accordance with their perceived resemblances. Further, 
 this process is admitted without much dispute to belong 
 to the discursive or elaborative action of the intellect ; 
 although, perhaps — should the view of some modern 
 psychologists be correct, that all intelligence proceeds by 
 the establishment of relations of likeness and unliheness 
 — abstraction will be better conceived as thus related to 
 intelligence in general and typical of all its processes, than 
 as the action merely of a special and somewhat indefinite 
 faculty. No such harmony, however, exists regarding the 
 nature of the product of abstraction; for that is the subject- 
 matter of Nominalism and Realism, which has produced 
 more controversy, and stimulated to more subtlety of 
 thought,, than any other subject ever debated in philo- 
 sophy. The concept or abstract idea has been represented 
 in a multitude of ways : sometimes as an idea possessing 
 an objective existence independent of particulars, even 
 more real and permanent than theirs; sometimes as an 
 idea composed of all the circumstances in which the par- 
 ticulars agree, and of no others ; again, as the idea of an 
 individual, retaining its individualising qualities, but with 
 the accompanying knowledge that these are not the pro- 
 perties of the class ; and yet again, as the idea of a 
 miscellaneous assemblage of individuals belonging to a 
 class. It is still impossible to say that the many-sided 
 controversy is at an end. The only conclusion generally 
 admitted seems to be, that there exists between the con- 
 cept and the particular objects of intuition some very 
 intimate relation of thought, so that it is necessary, for all 
 purposes of reasoning, that the general and particular go 
 hand in hand,, that the idea of the class — if such exists 
 — be capable of being applied, in every completed act of 
 thought, to the objects comprised within the class. 
 
 To the student of ontology, also, abstraction is of 
 special interest, since, according to many distinguished 
 thinkers, the recognition of abstraction as a powerful and 
 universal mental process is to explain all ontology away, 
 and give the ontologist his eternal quietus. The thorough- 
 going nominalist professes to discover in the mind an 
 inveterate tendency to abstraction, and a proneness to 
 ascribe separate existence to abstractions, amply sufficient 
 to account for all those forms of independent reality which 
 metaphysics defend, and to exhibit them all in their true 
 colours as fictitious assumptions. In reply, the ontologist, 
 strengthened by the instinct of self-preservation, commonly 
 contends that the analogy between general notions and 
 metaphysical principles does not hold good, and that the 
 latter are always more than simple abstractions or mere 
 names. Only after abstraction is understood can the 
 question be settled. 
 
 In like manner to logic, whether regarded as the science 
 of the formal laws of thought, or, more widely, as the science 
 of scientific methods, a true understanding of abstraction 
 is of the greatest importance. It is important in pure 
 logic, because, as we have seen, every act of judgment and 
 reasoning postulates a concept or concepts, and so pre- 
 supposes abstraction. Abstraction, determining the possi- 
 bility alikB of reason and speech, creates those notions 
 that bear common names ; it is indispensable to the 
 formation of classes, great or small; and just according as 
 it ascends, increasing the extension and diminishing the 
 intension of classes, the horizon visible to reason and to 
 logic gradually recedes and widens. And to logic as the 
 science of the sciences a true doctrine of abstraction is not 
 less necessary ; because the process of extending know- 
 ledge is, in all its developments, essentially the same as 
 the first rudimentary effort to form a concept and think of 
 ©articulars as members of a class ; a " natural law " at 
 
 least in its subjective aspect, is invariably an abstraction 
 made by comparing phenomena — an abstraction under 
 which phenomena are classed in order to the extension of 
 knowledge, just as under a concept are grouped the par- 
 ticulars presented in intuition. As proof of this identity 
 it is found that the same differences exist regarding tha 
 objective or subjective nature of the " natural law " as 
 regarding that of the concept. Some affirm that the law 
 is brought ready-made by the mind and superinduced on 
 the facts - } others, that it is never in any sense more than 
 a mere mental conception, got by observing the facts ; 
 while there are yet others who maintain it to be such a sub- 
 jective conception, but one corresponding at the same time 
 to an external relation which is real though unknowable. 
 
 ABSURDUM, Reductio ad, a mode of demonstrating 
 the truth of a proposition, by showing that its contra- 
 dictory leads to an absurdity. It is much employed by 
 Euclid. 
 
 ABU, a celebrated mountain of 'Western India, between 
 5000 and 6000 feet in height, situated in 24° 40' N. lat, 
 and 72° 48' R long., within the Rajputana State of Sirohi. 
 It is celebrated as the site of the most ancient Jain temples 
 in India, and attracts pilgrims from all parts of the country. 
 The Jains are the modern Indian representatives of the 
 Buddhists, and profess the ancient theistic doctrines of that 
 sect, modified by saint worship and incarnations. The 
 elevations and platforms of the mountain are covered with 
 elaborately sculptured shrines, temples, and tombs. On 
 the top of the hill is a small round platform containing a 
 cavern, with a block of granite, bearing the impression of 
 the feet of Data-Bhrigu, an incarnation of Vishnu. This 
 is the chief great place of pilgrimage for the Jains, Shrawaks, 
 and Banians. The two principal temples are situated at 
 Deulwara, about the middle of the mountain, and five rniles 
 south-west of Guru Sikra, the highest summit. They are 
 built of white marble, and are pre-eminent alike for their 
 beauty and as typical specimens of Jain architecture in 
 India. The following description is condensed from Mr 
 Fergusson's History of Architecture, voL ii pp. 623 to 
 625 : — The more modern of the two was built by two 
 brothers, rich merchants, between the years 1197 and 
 1247, and for delicacy of carving and minute beauty of 
 detail stands almost unrivalled, even in this land of patient 
 and lavish labour. The other was built by another 
 merchant prince, Bimala Shah, apparently about 1032 A.D. 
 and although simpler and bolder in style, is as elaborate as 
 good taste would allow in a purely architectural object. 
 It is one of the oldest as well as one of the most complete 
 examples of Jain architecture known. The principal object 
 within the temple is a cell lighted only from the door,, con- 
 taining a cross-legged seated figure of the god Paresnath. 
 The portico is composed of forty-^ight pillars, the whole 
 enclosed in an oblong court-yard about 140 feet by 90 
 feet, surrounded by a double colonnade of smaller pillars, 
 forming porticos to a range of fifty-five cells, which enclose 
 it on aS sides, exactly as they do in a Buddhist monastery 
 (vihdra). In this temple, however, each cell, instead of 
 being the residence of a monk, is occupied by an image of 
 Paresnath, and over the door, or on the jambs of each, are 
 sculptured scenes from the life of the deity. ' The whole 
 interior is magnificently ornamented. The Emperor Akbar, 
 by a farman dated in the month of Rabi-ul-Aul, in the 
 37th year of his reign, corresponding with 1593, made a 
 grant of the hill and temples of Abu, as well as of the 
 Other hills and places of Jain pilgrimage in the empire, to 
 Harbijai Sur, a celebrated preceptor of the Setdmbarf sect 
 of the Jain religion. He also prohibited the slaughter of 
 animals at these places. The farman of this enlightened 
 monarch declared that "it is the rule of the worshippers 
 oi God to preserve all religions."
 
 60 
 
 ABU-ABU 
 
 ABU-BEKK [father of the virgin), was originally called 
 Abd-el-Caaba (servant of the temple), and received the name 
 by which ho is known historically in consequence of the 
 marriage of his virgin daughter Ayesha to Mohammed. He 
 was born at Mecca in the year 573 A.D., a Koreishite of 
 the tribe of Benn-Taim. Possessed of immense wealth, 
 which he had himself acquired in commerce, and held in 
 high esteem as a judge, an interpreter of dreams, and a 
 depositary of the traditions of his race, his early accession 
 to Islamism was a fact of great importance. On his con- 
 version ho assumed the name of AbdAlla (servant of God). 
 His own belief in Mohammed and his doctrines was so 
 thorough as to procure for him the title El Siddik (the 
 faithful), and his success in gaining converts was corre- 
 spondingly great. In his personal relationship to the 
 prophet he showed the deepest veneration and most un- 
 swerving devotion. When Mohammed fled from Mecca, 
 Abu-Bekr was his sole companion, and shared both his 
 hardships and his triumphs, remaining constantly with 
 him until the day of his death. During his last illness 
 the prophet indicated Abu-Bekr as his successor, by desir- 
 ing him to offer up prayer for the people. The choice 
 was ratified by the chiefs of the army, and ultimately con- 
 firmed, though Ali, Mohammed's son-in-law, disputed it, 
 asserting his own title to the dignity. After a time Ali 
 submitted, but the difference of opinion as to his claims 
 gave rise to a controversy which still divides the followers 
 of the prophet into the rival factions of Sunnites and 
 Shiites. Abu-Bekr had scarcely assumed his new position 
 under the title Khalifet-Besul- Allah (s'uecessor of the prophet 
 of God), when he was called to suppress the revolt of the 
 tribes Hedjaz and Nedjd, of which the former rejected 
 Islamism, and the latter refused to pay tribute. He en- 
 countered formidable opposition from different quarters, 
 but in every case he was successful, the severest struggle 
 being that with the impostor Mosailima, who was finally 
 defeated by Khaled at the battle of Akraba. Abu-Bekr's 
 zeal for the spread of the new faith was as conspicuous as 
 that of its founder had been. When the internal disorders 
 had been repressed and Arabia completely subdued, he 
 directed his generals to foreign conquest. The Irak of 
 Persia was overcome by Khaled in a single campaign, and 
 there was also a successful expedition into Syria. After 
 the hard-won victory over Mosailima, Omar, fearing that 
 the sayings of the prophet would be entirely forgotten 
 when those who had listened to them had all been re- 
 moved by death, induced Abu-Bekr to see to their preserva- 
 tion in a written form. The record, when completed, was 
 deposited with Hafsu, daughter of Omar, and one of the 
 wives of Mohammed. It was held in great reverence by all 
 Moslems, though it did not possess canonical authority, 
 and furnished most of the materials out of which the 
 Koran, as it now exists, was prepared. When the authori- 
 tative version was completed, all copies of Hafsu's record 
 were destroyed, in order to prevent possible disputes and 
 divisions. Abu-Bekr died on the 23d of August 634, 
 having reigned as Khalif fully two years. Shortly before 
 his death, which one tradition ascribes to poison, another 
 to natural causes, he indicated Omar as his successor, after 
 the manner Mohammed had observed in his own case. 
 
 ABULFABAGIUS, Gregor Abulfaraj (called also 
 Barhebrxus, from his Jewish parentage), was born at 
 Malatia, in Armenia, in 1226. His father Aaron was a 
 physician, and Abulfaragius, after studying under him, 
 also practised medicine witn great success. His command 
 of the Arabic, Syriac, and Greek languages, and his know- 
 ledge of philosophy and theology, gained for him a very 
 high reputation. In 1244 he removed to Antioch, and 
 shortly after to Tripoli, where he was consecrated Bishop 
 of Guba, when only twenty years of age. He was subse- 
 
 quently transferred to the see of Aleppo, and was elected 
 in 1266 Maphrian or Primate of the eastern section of 
 the Jacobite Christians. This dignity he held till his 
 death, which occurred at Maragha, in Azerbijan, in 1286. 
 Abulfaragius wrote a large number of works on various 
 subjects, but his fame as an author rests chiefly on his 
 History of the World, from the creation to his own 
 day. It was written first in Syriac, and then, after a 
 considerable interval, an abridged version in Arabic 
 was published by the author at the request of friends. 
 The latter is divided into ten sections, each of which con' 
 tained the account of a separate dynasty. The historic 
 value of the work lies entirely in the portions that treat of 
 eastern nations, especially in those relating to the Saracens, 
 the Tartar Mongols, and the conquests of Genghis Kban. 
 The other sections are full of mistakes, arising partly na 
 doubt from the author's comparative ignorance of classical 
 languages. A Latin translation of the Arabic abridgement 
 was published by Dr Pococke at Oxford in 1663. A por- 
 tion of the original text, with Latin translation, edited, by 
 no means carefully or accurately, by Bruns and F. W. 
 Kirsch, appeared at Leipsic in 1788. 
 
 ABULFAZL, vizier and historiographer of the great 
 Mongol emperor, Akbar, was born about the middle of 
 the 16th century, the precise date being uncertain. His 
 career as a minister of state, brilliant though it was, would 
 probably have been by this time forgotten but for the 
 record he himself has left of it in his celebrated history. 
 The Akbar Nameh, or Book of Akbar, as Abulfazl's chief 
 literary work is called, consists of two parts, — the first being 
 a complete history of Akbar's reign, and the second, 
 entitled Ayin-i-Akbari, or Institutes of Akbar, being an 
 account of the religious and political constitution and 
 administration of the empire. The style is singularly 
 elegant, and the contents of the second part possess a 
 unique and lasting interest. An excellent translation of 
 that part by Mr Francis Gladwin was published in Cal- 
 cutta, 1783-6. It was reprinted in London very in- 
 accurately, and copies of the original edition are dow 
 exceedingly rare and correspondingly valuable. Abulfazj 
 died by the hand of an assassin, while returning from a 
 mission to the Deccan in 1602. Some writers say that the 
 murderer was instigated by the heir-apparent, who had 
 become jealous of the minister's influence. 
 
 ABULFEDA, Ismael ben-Ali, Emad-eddin, the. cele- 
 brated Arabian historian and geographer, born at Damascus 
 in the year 672 of the Hegira (1273 A.r>.), was directly 
 descended from Ayub, the father of the emperor Saladin. 
 In his boyhood he devoted himself to the study of the 
 Koran and the sciences, but from his twelfth year he was 
 almost constantly engaged in military expeditions, chiefly 
 against the crusaders. In 1285 he was present at the 
 assault of a stronghold of the Knights of St John, and he 
 took part in the sieges of Tripoli, Acre, and Rourn. In 
 1298 the princedom of Hamah and other honours, origin- 
 ally conferred by Saladin upon Omar, passed by inherit- 
 ance to Abulfeda; but the succession was violently dis- 
 puted by his two brothers, and the Court availed itself of 
 the opportunity to supersede all the three, and to abolish 
 the principality. The sultan Melik-el-Nassir ultimately 
 (1310) restored the dignity to Abulfeda, with additional 
 honours, as an acknowledgment of his military services 
 against the Tartars and Bibars, the sultan's rival. H» 
 received an independent sovereignty, with the right of 
 coining money, &c, and had the title Melik Mowayyad 
 (victorious prince) conferred upon him. For twenty years, 
 till his death in October 1331, he reigned in tranquillity 
 and splendour, devoting himself to the duties of govern; 
 ment and to the composition of the works to which he is 
 chiefly indebted for his fame. He was a munificent patron
 
 A B U — A B Y 
 
 61 
 
 of men of letters, who repaired in large numbers to his 
 court. Abulfeda's chief historical work is An Abridgement 
 of tlue Bistort/ of ike Human Race, in the form of annals, 
 extending from the creation of the world to the year 1328. 
 A. great part of it is compiled from the works of previous 
 writers, and it is difficult to determine accurately what is 
 the author's and what is not. Up to the time of the birth 
 of Mohammed, the narrative is very succinct; it becomes 
 more full and valuable the nearer the historian approaches 
 his own day. It is the only source of information on 
 many facts connected with the Saracen empire, and alto- 
 gether is by far the most important Arabian history we 
 now possess. Various translations of parts of it exist, 
 the earliest being a Latin rendering of the section relating 
 tp the Arabian conquests in Sicily, by Dobelius, Arabic 
 professor at Palermo, in 1610. This is preserved in 
 Muratori's Rerum llalicarum Scripiores, vol. i. The his- 
 tory from the time of Mohammed was published with a 
 Latin translation by Keiske, under the title Annates Mos- 
 lemici (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1789-94), and a similar 
 edition of the earlier part was published by Fleischer at 
 Leipsic in 1831, under the title Abulfedae Historia Ante- 
 Islamitica. His Geography is cliiefly valuable in the his- 
 torical and descriptive parts relating to the Moslem empire. 
 From his necessarily imperfect acquaintance with astro- 
 nomy, his notation of latitude and longitude, though fuller 
 than that of any geographer who preceded him, can in no 
 case be depended on, and many of the places whose posi- 
 tion he gives with the utmost apparent precision cannot 
 be now identified. A complete edition was published by 
 MM. Reinaud and De Slane at Paris in 1840; and Reinaud 
 published a French translation, with notes and illustrations, 
 in 1848. MSS. of both Abulfeda's great works are pre- 
 served in the Bodleian Library and in the National 
 Library of France. 
 
 ABULGHAZI-BAHADTJR (1605-1663), a khan of 
 Khiva, of the race of Genghis-Khan, who, after abdicating 
 in favour of his son, employed his leisure in writing a 
 history of the Mongols and Tartars. He produced a 
 valuable work, which has been translated into German, 
 French, and Russian. 
 
 ABUNA, the title given to the archbishop or metropoli- 
 tan of Abyssinia. 
 
 ABUSHEHR. See BrjSHntE. 
 
 ABU-SDIBEL, or Ipsamrttl, the ancient Aboccis or 
 Abuncis, a place in Nubia, on the left bank of the Nile, 
 
 about 50 miles S.W. of Derr, remarkable for its ancient 
 Egyptian temples and colossal figures hewn out of the 
 solid rock. For a description of these see Nubia. 
 
 ABU-TEMAN, one of the most highly esteemed of 
 Arabian poets, was born at Djacem in the ye?r 1 90 of the 
 Hegira (806 a.d.) In the little that is told of his lileit 
 is difficult to distinguish between truth and fable. He 
 seems to have lived in Egypt in his youth, and to have 
 been engaged in servile employment, but his rare poetic 
 talent speedily raised him to a distinguished position at 
 the court of the caliphs of Bagdad Arabian historian^ 
 assert that a single poem frequently gained for him many 
 thousand pieces of gold, and the rate at which his con- 
 temporaries estimated his genius may be understood from 
 the saying, that " no one could ever die whose name had 
 been praised in the verses of Abu-Teman." Besides 
 writing original poetry, he made three collections of select 
 pieces from the poetry of the East, of the most important 
 of which, called Hamasa, Sir William Jones speaks highly. 
 Professor Carlyle quoted this collection largely in his Speci- 
 mens of Arabic Poetry (1796). An edition of the text, 
 with Latin translation, was published by Freytag at 
 Bonn (1828-51), and a meritorious translation in German 
 verse by Riickert appeared in 1846. Abu-Teman died 
 845 a.d. 
 
 ABYDOS (1.), in Ancient Geography, a city of Mysia 
 in Asia Minor, situated on the Hellespont, which is hert 
 scarcely a mile • broad. It probably was originally a 
 Thracian town, but was afterwards colonised by Milesians. 
 Nearly opposite, on the European side of the Hellespont, 
 stood Sestos; and it was here that Xerxes crossed the 
 strait on his celebrated bridge of boats when he invaded 
 Greece. Abydos was celebrated for the vigorous resistance 
 it made when besieged by Philip II. of Macedon; and is 
 famed in story for the loves of Hero and Leander. The 
 old castle of the Dardanelles, built by the Turks, lies a 
 little southward of Sestos and Abydos. 
 
 ABYDOS (2.), in Ancient Geography, a town of Upper 
 Egypt, a little to the west of the Nile, between Ftolemah 
 and Diospolis Parva, famous for the palace of Memnon and 
 the temple of Osiris. Remains of these two edifices aro 
 still in existence. In the temple of Osiris Mr Bankes 
 discovered in 1818, the tablet of Abydos, containing a 
 double series of twenty-six shields of the predecessors of 
 Rameses the Great This tablet is now deposited in the 
 British Museum. 
 
 ABYSSINIA 
 
 ABYSSINIA is an extensive country of Eastern Africa, 
 the limits of which are not well defined, and authorities 
 are by no means agreed respecting them. It may, however, 
 be regarded as lying between 7° 30' and 15° 40' N. lat, and 
 35° and 40° 30' E.long., having, N. and N.W., Nubia ;E., 
 the territory of the Danakils ; S., the country of the Gallas; 
 and W., the regions of the Upper Nile. 1 ' It has an area of 
 
 1 It is usual to iuclude in Abyssinia the flat country which lies between 
 it and the Red Sea, and to regard the latter as forming its boundary on 
 the east. This, however, is not stiictly correct. Abyssinia proper com- 
 prises only the mountainous portion of this territory, the low lying por- 
 tion being inhabited by distinct and hostile tribes, and claimed by the 
 Viceroy of Egypt as part of his dominions. The low country is very 
 unhealthy, the soil dry and arid, and with few exceptions uncultivated, 
 whereas the highlands are generally salubrious, well watered, and in 
 many parts very fertile. This arid track of country is only a few miles 
 broad at Massowah, in the north, but widens out to 200 or 300 miles at 
 Tujurrah, in the south. It is, in a gTeat measure, owing to Abyssinia 
 being thus cut off from intercourse with the civilised world by this in- 
 hospitable region, which has for three centuries been in the hands of 
 enemies, that it is at present so far sunk in ignorance and barbarism. 
 
 about 200,000 square miles, and a population of from 
 3,000,000 to 4,000,000. 
 
 The name Abyssinia, or more properly Habessinia,' is 
 derived from the Arabic word Habesch, which signifies 
 mixture or confusion, and was applied to this country by 
 the Arabs on account of the mixed character of the people. 
 This was subsequently Latinised by the Portuguese into 
 Abassia and Abassinos, and henco the present name. The 
 Abyssinians call themselves Itiopyavan, and their country 
 Itiopia, or Manghesta Jtiopia, the kingdom of Ethiopia. 
 
 The country of Abyssinia rises rather abruptly from the 
 low arid district on the borders of the Bed Sea in lofty 
 ranges of mountains, and slopes away more gradually to 
 the westward, where the tributaries of the Nile have formed 
 numerous deep valleys. It consists for the most part of 
 extensive and elevated table-lands, with mountain ranges 
 extending indifferent directions, and intersected bynumerous 
 valleys. The table-lands are generally from 6000 to 9000 
 feet above the level of the sea, but in the south there art
 
 t>2 
 
 ABYSSINIA 
 
 lome of considerable extent, which attain a height of moro 
 than 10,000 feet. The mountains in various parts of the 
 country rise to 12,000 and 13,000 feet above the sea, and 
 tome of the peaks of Samen are said to reach to 15,000 
 feet, and to be always covered with suow. The average 
 height of the range which divides the streams flowing to 
 the east from those that flow westward is <ib»ut S00O feet, 
 rising to 10, QCH) or 11,000 in the south, and sinking in the 
 north. The whole country presents the appearance of 
 having been broken up and tossed about in a remarkable 
 manner, the mountains assuming wild and fantastic forms, 
 with sides frequently abrupt and precipitous, and only 
 accessible by very difficult passes. The Samen range of 
 mountains are the highest in Abyssinia, and together with 
 the Lamalmon and J.eata maintains form a long but not 
 continuous chain, running from north to south. 
 
 Sketch Chait of Abyssinia. 
 
 The principal rivers of Abyssinia are tributaries of the 
 Nile. The western portion of the coantry may be Oi.idud 
 into three regions, drained respectively by the March, the 
 Atbara, and the Abai. The most northern of these rivers 
 is the Mareb, which rises in the ^>ou."tii''n3 of Taranta, 
 flows first south, then west, and afterwards turns to the 
 north, where it is at length, after a coaree o! upwards of 
 500 miles, lost in the sand, but in the rainy season it falls 
 into the Atbara. The Atbara. or Takazra, rises in the 
 mountains of Lasta, and flowing first north, then west, and 
 again turning to the north, at length ialls into the Nile, 
 after a course of about 800 miles. The Abai, Bahr-el-Azrek 
 or Blue River, tht caters branch of the Nile, and considered 
 by Bruce to be the main stream of that river, rises from 
 two mountains near Geesh, in lat. 10° 59' 25" N., long. 
 36° 55' 30" E, about 10,000 feet above the level of the 
 sea. It flows first north to the Lake of Dembea or Tzana, 
 then takes a long stn.icircular sweep round the province of 
 Godjam, and afterwards flows northward to about the 15th 
 degree of N. lat., where it unites with the Bahr-el-Abiad, 
 which has now been ascertained to be the true Nile. The 
 Hawash, the principal river of eastern Abyssinia, rises about 
 lat. 9° 30' N., long. 38° E., and, flowing in a nurth-easterly 
 direction towards the Red Sea. is lost in Lake Aussa. lat. 
 
 1 1° 25' N., long. 41° 40' E. The principal lake of Abyssfnf* 
 is the Dembea, which lies between 11° 3d' and 12* 30' N. 
 lat, and 37° and 37° 35' E. long., boing about 60 miles in 
 length by 40 in width, and containing a number of small 
 islands. It is fed by numerous small streams T'.e hike 
 of Ashangi, in lat. 12° 35' N., long. 39° 40' E., is about 4 
 miles long by 3 broad, and upwards of 8000 feet above the 
 sea. 
 
 The fundamental rocks of Tigre, and probably of all 
 Abyssinia, are metamuipLic. They compose the mass of 
 the table-land, and while they occupy i.o inconsiderable 
 portion of its surface, they are exposed, in Tigre at least, in 
 every deep valley. The metamorphics vary greatly in 
 mineral character, "every intermediate grade being found 
 between the most coarsely crystalline granite and a slaty 
 rock so little altered that the lines of the origiual bedding 
 are still apparent. Perhaps the most prevalent form of 
 rock is a rather finely crystalline gneiss. Hornblende-echist 
 and mkv^hist ara met with, but neither of tLu minerals 
 fivsn whicL Oey are name.) appears to be so abundant as 
 in some metamorphic tre.cts. On the otLet hand, a compact 
 felspatldc rock, approaching felsite in composition, is pre- 
 valent in places, as in the Sun defile, between Komayli 
 and iSenafeV There are a few exceptions, bnt as a general 
 nuk ':■■> way be asserted that in the neighbourhood of the 
 route followed by the British army, so much of the country 
 as is more than 8000 feet above the sea consists of bedded 
 traps, and tliis is probably the case in general over Abys- 
 siuia. " Between the traps and the metamorphics a 
 ; e IstOE '■- tad limestones intervene, one group of 
 tne former underlying the latter. The limestone alone is 
 
 ilifanns, and is of Jurassic age." ''On the route to 
 Magdala volcanic rocks were first met with at Senate, where 
 severe,! hills consist of trachyte, passing into clnystone and 
 basalt. T;-tp hills, chiefly of trachyte, are dotted over the 
 country to the southward as far as Fokada, a distance of 
 nearly 30 miles. Here a great range of bedded traps com- 
 mences, and extends for about 25 miles to the south, pass- 
 ing to the west of Adigerat." At Mcsbek, two marches 
 SOatil ■/. Antalo, "the route entered high ranges entirely 
 composed if trap, and thence no other rocks were seen as 
 far as Magdala." " The trappean rocks belong to two dis- 
 
 t ".ill unconformable groups. The lower of these is 
 much inclined, while the higher rests on its upturned and 
 denuded edges.'' Denudation has evidently been going on 
 to a great extent in this country. One of its most striking 
 features are the deep ravines which have been worked out 
 by the action of the streams, sometimes to the depth of 
 3000 or 4'ji)Q feet. "How much of the Abyssinian high- 
 lands has been removed by tb^se great torrents, and spread 
 as an alluvial deposit over the bjsin of the Nile 1" "Probably 
 over the whole of northern Abyssinia there existed at least 
 4000 feet of bedded traps, of which now only a few vestiges 
 remain."—(F. T. Blanford. 
 
 Abyssinia is said to enjoy "probably as salubrious a 
 climate as any country on the face of the globe."— 
 Parkyns. The heat is by no means oppressive, a fine 
 light air counteracting the power oi the sun ; and during 
 the rainy season, the sky being cloudy, the weather is 
 always agreeable and cool, while the rain itself is not very 
 severe. In certain of the low valleys, bowvt-r, malarious 
 influences prevail before and after the rainy season, and 
 bring on dangerous fevers. On the higher parts the cold 
 is sometimes intense, particularly at night. The natural 
 division of th» seasons is into a cold, a hot, and a rainy 
 season. The cold season may be said to extend from 
 October to February, the hot from the beginning of March 
 to the middle of June, and the wet or monsoon period from 
 this time to the end of September. The rainy season is of 
 importance, not only in equalising the temperature, increasing
 
 ABYSSINIA 
 
 63 
 
 Hie fertility, and keeping up the water supply of the country, 
 bu'o, as Sir S. Baker has shown, it plays a most important 
 part in the annual overflow of the Nile. 
 
 On the summits and slopes of the highest mountains 
 the vegetation is of a thoroughly temperate and even 
 English character; the plateaux have a flora of the same 
 character; while on the lower slopes of the hills and in the 
 ravines occur many trees and shrubs of warmer climes. 
 "The general appearance of the plateaux and plains is that 
 of a comparatively bare country, with trees and bushes 
 thinly jesttersd over it, and clumps and groves only occur- 
 ring round villages and churches. But the glens and ravines 
 in the plateau sides, each with its little bright spring, are 
 often thickly wooded, and offer a delicious contrast to the 
 open country." — Markham. This refers more particularly 
 to the northern portion of the country, that drained by the 
 Mareb; the central and southern parts are much more fertile 
 and productive. Here the fertility is so great that in some 
 parts three crops are raised annually. Agriculture receives 
 considerable attention, and large quantities of maize, wheat, 
 barley, peas, beans, &c, are grown. Very extensively 
 cultivated is teff (Poa abyssinica), a herbaceous plant with 
 grains not larger than the head of a pin, of which is made 
 the bread in general use throughout the country. The low 
 grounds produce also a kind of corn called tocussa, of 
 which a black bread is made, which constitutes the food of 
 the lower classes. Coffee grows wild on the western 
 mountains, and the vine and sugar-cane are cultivated in 
 favourable localities. Cotton is also grown to a consider- 
 able extent. • Among the fruit-trees are the date, orange, 
 lemon, pomegranate, and banana. Myrrh, balsam, and 
 various kinds of valuable medicinal plants are common. 
 
 Most of the domestic animals of Europe are found here. 
 The cattle are in general small, and the oxeu belong to the 
 humped race. The famous Galla oxen have horns some- 
 times four feet long. The sheep belong to the short and 
 fat-tailed race, and are covered with wooL Goats are very 
 common, and have sometimes horns two feet in length. 
 The horses are strong and active. Of wild animals the 
 spotted hyaena is among the most numerous, as well as the 
 fiercest and most destructive, not only roaming in immense 
 numbers over the country, but frequently entering the 
 towns, and even the houses of the inhabitants. The 
 elephant and rhinoceros are numerous in the low grounds. 
 The Abyssinian rhinoceros has two horns ; its skii, which 
 has no folds, is used for shields, and for lining drinking 
 vessels, being regarded as an antidote to poison. Crocodiles 
 and hippopotami are plentiful in the rivers ; lions, panthers, 
 and leopards are seen occasionally, and buffaloes frequently. 
 Among other animals may be mentioned as common various 
 species of antelopes, wild swine, monkeys, hares, squirrels, 
 several species of hyrax, jackals, &c. 
 
 The birds of Abyssinia are very numerous, and many of 
 them remarkable for the beauty of their ph'mage. Great 
 numbers of eagles, vultures, hawks, and other birds of prey 
 are met with; and partridges, snipes, pigeons, parrots, 
 thrushes, and swallows are very plentiful Among insects 
 the most numerous and useful is the bee, honey everywhere 
 constituting an important part of the food of the inhabi- 
 tants, and several of the provinces paying a large proportion 
 of their tribute in this article. Of an opposite class is the 
 locust, the ravages of which here, as in other parts of 
 Northern Africa, are terrible. Serpents are not numerous, 
 but several species are poisonous. 
 
 The inhabitants of Abyssinia form a number of different 
 tribes, and evidently belong to several distinct races. The 
 majority are of the Caucasian race, and are in general well- 
 formed and handsome, with straight and regular features, 
 lively eyes, hair long and straight or somewhat curled, and 
 colour dark olive, approaching to. black. Buppell regards 
 
 them as identical in features with the Bedouin Arabs. The 
 tribes inhabiting Tigre, Amhara, Agow, <fcc, belong to this 
 race. The Galla race, who came originally from the south, 
 have now overrun the greater part of the country, consti- 
 tuting a large portion of the soldiery, and, indeed, there arc 
 few of the chiefs who have not an intermixture of Gulla 
 blood in their veins. They are fierce and turbulent in 
 character, and addicted to cruelty. Many of them are still 
 idolaters, but most of them have cow adopted the Moham- 
 medan faith, and not a few of them the Christianity of the 
 Abyssinians. They are generally large and well-built, of a 
 brown complexion, with regular features, small deeply-sunk 
 but very bright eyes, and long black hair. A race of Jews, 
 known by the name of Falaskas, inhabit the district of 
 Samen. They affirm that their forefathers came into the 
 country in the days of Rehoboam, but it seems more 
 probable that they arrived about the time of the destruction 
 of Jerusalem. From the 10th century they enjoyed theii 
 own constitutional rights, and were subject to their own 
 kings, who, they pretend, were descended from King David, 
 until the year 1800, when the royal race became extinct, 
 and they then became subject to Tigre. 
 
 The prevailing religion of Abyssinia is a very corrupted 
 lorm of Christianity. This is professed by the majority of 
 the people, as well as by the reigning princes of the different 
 states. There are also scattered over the country many 
 Mohammedans, and some Falashas or Jews. Christianity 
 was introduced into this country about the year 330, but 
 since that time if has been so corrupted by errors of various 
 kinds as to have become little more than a dead formality 
 mixed up with much superstition and Judaism. Feasts 
 and fast-days are very frequent, and baptism and the Lord's 
 supper are dispensed after the manner of the Greek Church. 
 The children are circumcised, and the Mosaic command- 
 ments with respect to food and purification are observed. 
 The eating of animals which do not chew the cud and which 
 have not cloven hoofs is prohibited. The ecclesiastical body 
 is very numerous, consisting of priests, of various kinds, 
 with monks and nuns, and is looked upon with great awe 
 and reverence. If a priest be married previous to his 
 ordination, he is allowed to remain so; but no one can 
 marry after having entered the priesthood. The primate 
 or chief bishop is called Abuna {i.e., our father), and is 
 nominated by the patriarch of Cairo, whom they acknow- 
 ledge as their spiritual father. The churches are rude 
 edifices, chiefly of a circular form, with thatched roofs, the 
 interior being divided into three compartments,— an outei 
 one for the laity, one within for the priests, and in the 
 centre the Holy of Holies, exactly after the manner of a 
 Jewish temple. The worship consists merely in reading 
 passages of Scripture and dispensing the Lord's supper, 
 without any preaching. Like the Greek Church, they have 
 no images of any kind in their places of worship, but paint- 
 ings of the saints are very common — their faces always in 
 full, whatever may be the. position of their bodies. They 
 have innumerable saints, but above all is the Virgin, whom 
 they regard as queen of heaven and earth, and the great 
 intercessor for the sins of mankind. Their reverence for a 
 saint is often greater than for the Almighty, and a man 
 who would not hesitate to invoke the name of his Maker in 
 witness to a falsehood may decline so to use the name of 
 St Michael or St George. ' Legends of saints and works of 
 religious controversy form almost their entire literature. 
 "At preset," says Bishop Gobat, "the Christians of 
 Abyssinia are divided into three parties, so mimical to eaoh 
 other that they curse one another, and will no longer par- 
 take of the sacrament, together. It is one single point of 
 theology that disunites them — the unceasing dispute con- 
 cerning; the unction of Jesus Christ," 
 
 In manners the Abyssinians are ruae and barbarous
 
 64 
 
 ABYSSINIA 
 
 Engaged as they are in continual ware, and accustomed 
 to bloodshed, human life is little regarded among them. 
 Murders and executions are frequent, and yet cruelty is 
 said not to be a marked feature of their character ; and in 
 war they seldom kill their prisoners. When one is con- 
 victed of murder, he is handed over to the relatives of the 
 deceased, who may either put him to death or accept a 
 ransom. When the murdered person has no relatives, the 
 priest3 take upon themselves the office of avengers. The 
 Abyssinians are irritable, but easily appeased ; and are a 
 gay people, fond of festive indulgences. On. every festive 
 occasion, as a saint's day, birth, marriage, &c, it is 
 customary for a rich man to collect his friends and neigh- 
 bours, and kill a cow and one or two sheep. The principal 
 parts of the cow are eaten raw while yet warm and quiver- 
 ing, the remainder being cut into small pieces, and cooked 
 with the favourite sauce of butter and red pepper paste. 
 The raw meat in this way is considered to be very superior 
 in taste and much tenderer than when cold. " I can 
 readily believe," says Mr Parkyns," that raw meat would be 
 preferred to cooked meat by a man who from childhood 
 had been accustomed to it." The statement by Bruce 
 respecting the cutting of steaks from a live cow has fre- 
 quently been called in question, but there can be no doubt 
 that Bruce actually saw what he narrates, though it would 
 appear to have been a very exceptional case Mr Parkyns 
 was told by a soldier, " that such a practice was not un- 
 common among the Gallas, and even occasionally occurred 
 among themselves, when, as in the case Bruce relates, a cow 
 had been stolen or taken in foray." The principal drinks 
 are me.se, a kind of mead, and bousa, a sort of beer made 
 from fermented cakes. Their dress consists of a large 
 folding mantle and close-fitting drawers ; and their houses 
 are very rude structures of a conical form, covered with 
 thatch. Marriage is a very slight connection among them, 
 dissolvable at any time by either of the parties ; and poly- 
 gamy is by no means uncommon. Hence there is little 
 family affection, and what exists is only among children of 
 the same father and mother. Children of the same father, 
 but of different mothers, are said to be " always enemies to 
 each other." — Gobat. 
 
 Abyssinia is one of the most ancient monarchies in the 
 world, and has been governed from time immemorial by an 
 emperor. For many years, however, until the accession of 
 the late Emperor Theodore, he had "been a mere puppet in 
 the hands of one or other of his chiefs. Each chief is 
 entire master of all sources of revenue within his territory, 
 and has practically full power of life and death. His sub- 
 jection consists in an obligation to send from time to time 
 presents to his superior, and to follow him to war with as 
 large a force as he can muster. For several generations 
 the emperor had been little better than a prisoner in his 
 palace at Gondar, his sole revenue consisting of a small 
 stipend and the tolls of the weekly markets of that city, 
 the real power being'in the hands of the ras or vizier of 
 the empire, who was always the most powerful chief for the 
 time. H at any time a chief " has found himself strong 
 enough to march upon the capital, he has done so, placed 
 upon the throne another puppet emperor, and been by him 
 appointed ras or vizier, till a rival stronger than himself 
 could turn him out and take his place." — Dr Beke. 
 
 The three principal provinces of Abyssinia air Tigri in 
 tho north, Amhara (in which Gondar the capital is situated) 
 in the centre, and Shoa in the south. The governors of 
 these have all at different times assumed the title of Kas. 
 Three other provinces of some importance are Lasta and 
 Waag, whose capital is Sokota ; Godjam, to the south of 
 Lake Dembea ; and Kivara, to the west of that lake, the 
 birth-place of the Emperor Theodore The two provinces 
 of Tigr6 and Shoa have generally been in a state of rebellion 
 
 from or acknowledged independence of the central power at 
 Gondar. The geographical position of Tigr<5 enhances us 
 political importance, as it lies between Gondar and the sea 
 at Massowah, and thus holds as it were the gate of the 
 capital The province of Shoa is almost separated from 
 that of Amhara by the Wolla Gallas, a Mohammedan tribe, 
 and for a long time the former had been virtually indepen- 
 dent, and governed by a hereditary line of princes, to one 
 of whom the Indian government sent a special embassy 
 under Major Harris in. 1841. 
 
 The principal towns are Gondar in Amhara, the former 
 capital of the kingdom, and containing about 7000 inhabit- 
 ants, and DebraTtilror in Aniliara, formerly a small village, 
 but which rose to be a place of considerable size in conse- 
 quence of the Emperor Theodore having fixed upon it as 
 his residence, and near it was Gaffat, where the European 
 workmen resided. It was burned by the emperor when he 
 set out on his fatal march to Magdala. Adowa is the 
 capital of Tigre, and the second city in the empire, having 
 about 6000 inhabitants. Antalo is also one of the principal 
 towns of Tigre, and the capital of Enderta. Near Antalo 
 is Chelicut. Sokota, the capital of Lasta Waag, is a town 
 of considerable size. The capital of Shoa is Ankobar, and 
 near it is Angolala, also a place of considerable size. The 
 capital of Agame^ is Adigerat. 
 
 The language of the religion and literature of the country 
 is the Geez, which belongs to the Ethiopic class of languages, 
 and is the ancient language of TigriS; of this the modern 
 Tigre is' a dialect. The Amharic, the language of Amhara, 
 is that of the court, the army, and the merchants, and is 
 that too which travellers who penetrate beyond Tigr6 have 
 ordinarily occasion to use. But the Agow in its various 
 dialects is the language of the people in some provinces 
 almost exclusively, and in others, where it has been super- 
 seded by the language of the dominant race, it still exists 
 among the lowest classes. This last is believed to be the 
 original language of the people; and from the affinity of the 
 Geez, Amharic, and cognate dialects, to the Arabic, it 
 seems probable that they were introduced by conquerors ot 
 settlers from the opposite shores of the Bed Sea. The 
 Gallas, who have overrun a great part of Abyssinia, have 
 introduced their own language into various parts of the 
 country, but in many cases they have adopted the language 
 of the people among whom they have come. The literature 
 of Abyssinia is very poor, and contains nothing of much 
 value. During tho late war the libraries in connection 
 with the religious communities were found to contain only 
 modern works of little interest. On the capture of Magdala, 
 a large number of MSS. were found there, which had bee n 
 brought by Theodore from Gondar and other parts. Of 
 these 359 were brought home for examination, and are 
 now deposited in the British Museum The oldest among 
 [hem belong to the 15th and 16th centuries, but the great 
 bulk of them are of the 17th and 18th, and some are of 
 the present century. They are mostly copies of the Holy 
 Scriptures, canonical and apocryphal, including the Book-of 
 Enoch, prayer and hymn books, missals, lives of saints, and 
 translations of various of the Greek fathers. 
 
 The trade and manufactures of Abyssini.i are insignificant, 
 the people being chiefly engaged in agriculture and pastoral 
 pursuits. Cotton cloths, the universal dress of the country, 
 aie made in large quantities. The preparation of leather 
 and parchment is also carried on to some extent, and manu- 
 factures of iron and bras3. " The Abyssinians are, I 
 think," says Mr Markham, " capable of civilisation. Their 
 agriculture is good, their manufactures are not to be 
 despised; but the combined effects of isolation, Galla 
 inroads, and internal anarchy, have thrown them back for 
 centuries." The foreign trade of Abyssinia is carried on 
 entirely through Massowah. Its principal imports are lead,
 
 ABYSSINIA 
 
 65 
 
 tin, copper, silk, gunpowder, glass wares. Persian carpets, 
 and coloured cloths. The chief exports are gold, ivory, 
 slaves, coffee, butter, honey, and wax. 
 
 Abyssinia, or at least the northern portion of it," was 
 included in the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia. The conncc-' 
 tion between Egypt and Ethiopia was in early times very 
 intimate, and occasionally the two countries were under 
 the same ruler, so that the arts and civilisation of the one 
 naturally found their way into the other. In early times,' 
 too, the Hebrews had commercial intercourse with the 
 Ethiopians ; and according to the Abyssinians, the Queen 
 of Sheba, who visited Solomon, was a monarch of their 
 country, and from her son Mcnilek the kings of Abyssinia 
 are descended. During the captivity many of the Jews 
 settled here, and brought with them a knowledge of the 
 Jewish religion. Under the Ptolemies, the arts as well as 
 the enterprise of the Greeks entered Ethiopia, and led to 
 the establishment of Greek colonies. A Greek inscription 
 at Adalis, no longer extant, but copied by Cosmos, and 
 preserved in his Topograpkia Christiana, records that 
 Ptolemy Euergetes, the third of the Greek dynasty in Egypt, 
 invaded the countries on both sides of the Red Sea, and, 
 having reduced most of the provinces of Tigre to subjection, 
 returned to the port of Adulis, and there offered sacrifices 
 to Jupiter, Mars, and Neptune. Another inscription, not 
 so ancient, found at Axum, and copied by Salt and others, 
 states that Aeizanas, king of the Axomites, the Home- 
 rites, <tc, conquered the nation of the Bogos, and returned 
 thanks to his father, the god Mars, for his victory. The 
 ancient kingdom of Auxume flourished in the first or 
 second century of our era, and was at one time nearly 
 coextensive with the modern Abyssinia. The capital 
 Auxume and the seaport Adulis were then the chief 
 centres of the trade with the interior of Africa in gold dust, 
 ivory, leather, aromatics, ic. At Axum, the site of the 
 ancient capital, many vestiges of its former greatness still 
 exist ; ' and the ruins of Adulis, which was once a seaport 
 on the Bay of Anncslcy, are now about 4 miles from the 
 shore. Christianity was introduced into the country by 
 Frumentius, who was consecrated first bishop of Abyssinia 
 by St Athanasius of Alexandria about a.d. 330. Subse- 
 quently the monastic system was introduced, and between 
 470 and 480 a great company of monks appear to have 
 entered and established themselves in the country. Since 
 that time Monachism has been a power among the people, 
 and not without its influence on the course of events In 
 522 the king of the Homerites, on the opposite coast of 
 the Red Sea, having persecuted the Christians, the Emperor 
 Justinian requested the king of Abyssinia, . Caleb or 
 Elesbaan, to avenge their cause. He accordingly collected 
 an army, crossed over into Arabia, and conquered Yemen, 
 which remained subject to Abyssinia for 67 years. This was 
 the most flourishing period in the annals of the countiy. The 
 Ethiopians possessed the richest part of Arabia, carried on a 
 large trade, which extended as far as India and Ceylon, and 
 were in constant communication with the Greek empire. 
 Their expulsion from Arabia, followed by the conquest of 
 Egypt by the Mohammedans in the middle of the 7th 
 century, changed this state of affairs, and the continued ad- 
 vances of the followers of the Prophet at length cut them 
 off from almost every means of communication with the 
 civilised world ; so that, as Gibbon says, " encompassed by 
 the enemies of their religion, the Ethiopians slept for near a 
 thousand years, forgetful of the world by whom they were 
 forgotten." About a.d. 960, a Jewish princess, Judith, 
 conceived the bloody design of murdering all the members 
 of the royal family, and of establishing herself in their steal 
 During the execution of this project, the infant king was 
 tarried off by some faithful adherents, and conveyed to Shoa, 
 where his authority was acknowledged, while Judith reigned 
 
 for 40 years over the rent of the kingdom, and transmitted 
 the crown to her descendants. In 1268 the kingdom was 
 restored to the royal house in the person of Icon Iinlac. 
 
 Towards the close of the loth century the Portuguese 
 missions into Abyssinia commenced. A belief had long 
 prevailed in Europe of the existence of a Christian kingdom 
 in the far oast, whose monarch was known as Prcstcr John, 
 and various expeditions had been sent in quest of it. 
 Among others who had engaged in this search was Tcdro 
 de Covilham, who arrived in Abyssinia in 1490, and, 
 believing that he had at length reached the far-faincd king- 
 dom, presented to the Negus, or emperor of the country, a 
 letter from his master the long of Portugal, addressed to 
 Prester JMin. Covilham remained in the country, but in 
 1507 an Armenian named Matthew was sent by the Negus 
 to the king of Portugal to request his aid against the Turks. 
 In 1520 a Portuguese fleet, with Matthew on board, entered 
 the Red Soa in compliance with this request, and an 
 embassy from the fleet visited the country of the Negus, 
 and remained there for about six years. One of this 
 embassy was Father Alvarez, from whom we have the 
 earliest and not the least interesting account of the country. 
 Between 1528 and 1540 armies of Mohammedans, under the 
 renowned general Mohammed Gragn, entered Abyssinia from 
 the low country, and overran the kingdom, obliging the 
 emperor to take refuge in the mountain fastnesses. In this 
 extremity recourse was again had to the Portuguese, and 
 Bermudez, who had remained in the country after the 
 departure of the embassy, was ordained successor to the 
 Abuna, and sent on this mission. In consequence a 
 Portuguese fleet, under the command of Stephen de Gama, 
 was sent from India and arrived at Massowah. A force 
 of 450 musqueteers, under the command of Christopher 
 de Gama, younger brother of the admiral, marched into 
 the interior, and being joined by native troops were at first 
 successful against the Turks, but were subsequently defeated, 
 and their commander taken prisoner and put to death. 
 Soon afterwards, however, Mohammed Gragn was shot in 
 an engagement, and his forces totally routed. After this, 
 quarrels arose between the Negus and the Catholic primatu 
 Bermudez, who wished the former publicly to profess him- 
 self a convert to Rome. This the Negus refused to do, 
 and at length Bermudez was obliged to make his way out of 
 the country. The Jesuits who had accompanied or followed 
 Bermudez into Abyssinia, and fixed their head-quarters 
 at Fremona, were oppressed and neglected, but not actually 
 expelled. In the beginning of the following century Father 
 Paez arrived at Fremona, a man of great tact and judgment, 
 who soon rose into high favour at court, and gained over 
 the emperor to his faith. He directed the erection of 
 churches, palaces, and bridges in different! parts of tLe 
 country, and carried out many useful worka. His successor 
 Mendez was a man of much less conciliatorymanners,andthe 
 feelings of the people became more strongly excited against 
 the intruders, till at length, on the death of the Negus, and 
 the accession of his son Facilidas in 1633, they were all 
 sent out of the country, after having had a footing there 
 for nearly a centuiy and a half. The French physician 
 Poncet, who went there in 1698, was the only European 
 that afterwards visited the country before Bruce in 1769. 
 
 It was about' the middle of the loth century that the 
 Galla tribes first entered Abyssinia from the south; and 
 notwithstanding frequent cfl'orts to dislodge them, they 
 gradually extended and strengthened their positions till 
 they had overrun the greater part of the country. The power 
 of. the emperor was thus weakened, independent chiefs set 
 themselves up in different parts, until at length he becamt 
 little better than a puppet in the hands of the -most power- 
 ful of his chiefs. In 1805 the country was visited by 
 Lord Valentia and Mr Salt, and again by Sal' in 1810. In
 
 G6 
 
 ABYSSINIA 
 
 1829 Messrs Gobat and Kugtcr were sent out as missionaries 
 by the Church. Missionary Society, and were well received 
 by the Ras of Tigr6. Mr Kugler died soon after liis 
 arrival, and his place was subsequently supplied by Mr 
 Isenberg, who was followed by Messrs Blumhardt and Krapf. 
 In 1830 Mr Gobat proceeded to Gondar, where he also 
 met with a favourable reception. In 1833 he returned to 
 Europe, and published a journal of his residence here. In 
 the following year ho went back to Tigre, but in 1836 he 
 was compelled to leave from ill health. In 1838 other 
 missionaries were obliged to leave the country, owing to 
 the opposition of the native priests. Messrs Isenberg and 
 Krapf went south, and established themselves at Shoa. 
 The formor soon after returned to Engjand, and Mr Krapf 
 remained in Shoa till March 1842. Dr Ruppel,the German 
 naturalist, visited the country in 1831, and remained 
 nearly two years. MM. Combes and Tamisier arrived at 
 Massowah in 1835, and visited districts which had not been 
 traversed by Europeans since the time of the Portuguese. 
 In 1839 the French Government sent out a scientific com- 
 mission under M. Lefebvre. Its labours extended over five 
 years, and have thrown great light on the condition and 
 productions of the country. In 1841 a political mission 
 was sent by the Governor-General of India to Shoa, under 
 the direction of Major Harris, who subsequently published 
 an account of his travels. One who has done much to ex- 
 tend our geographical knowledge of this country is Dr Beke, 
 who was there from 1840 to 1843. Mr Mansfield Parkyns 
 was there from 1843 to 1846, and has written the most 
 interesting book on the country since the time of Bruce. 
 Bishop Gobat having conceived the idea of sending lay 
 missionaries into the country, who would engage in secular 
 occupations as well as carry on missionary work, Dr Krapf 
 and Mr Flad arrived in 1855 as pioneers of that mission. 
 Six came out at first, and they were subsequently joined by 
 others. Their work, however, was more valuable to Theodore 
 than their preaching, so that he employed them as work- 
 men to himself, and established them at Gaffat, near his 
 capital. Mr Stern arrived in Abyssinia in 1860, but re- 
 turned to Europe, and came back in 1863, accompanied by 
 Mr and Mrs Rosenthal. 
 
 Lij Kassa, who came subsequently to be known as the 
 Emperor Theodore, was born in Kuara, a western province 
 of Abyssinia, about the year 1818. His father was of noble 
 family, and his uncle was governor of the provinces of 
 Dembea, Kuara, and Chclga. He was educated in a con- 
 vent, but, preferring a wandering life, he became leader of 
 a band of malcontents. On the death of his uncle he was 
 made governor of Kuara, but, not satisfied with this, he 
 seized upon Dembea, and having defeated several generals 
 sent against him, peace was restored on his receiving 
 Tavavitch, daughter of Has Ali, in marriage. This lady is 
 said to have been his good genius and counsellor, and during 
 her life his conduct was most exemplary. He next turned 
 his arms against the Turks, but was defeated ; and the mother 
 of Has Ali having insulted him in his fallen condition, he 
 proclaimed his independence. The troops sent against him 
 were successively defeated, and eventually the whole of the 
 possessions' of Ras Ali fell into his hands. He next de- 
 feated the chief of Godjam, and then turned his arms 
 against the governor of Tigr6, whom he totally defeated in 
 February 1855. In March of the same year he took the 
 title of Theodore III., and caused himself to be crowned 
 king of Ethiopia by the Abnna. Theodore was now in the 
 genith of his career. He is described as being generous 
 to excess, free from cupidity, merciful to his vanquished 
 enemies, and strictly continent, but subject to violent bursts 
 of anger, and possessed of unyielding pride and fanatical 
 religious zeal. He was also a man of education and intelli- 
 gence, superior to those among whom he lived, with natural 
 
 talents for governing, and gaining tne esteem of others 
 He had further a noble bearing and majestic walk, a frame 
 capable of enduring any amount of fatigue, and is said t> 
 have been " the best shot, the best spearman, the best 
 runner, and the best horseman in Abyssinia." Had he 
 contented himself with what he now possessed, the sove- 
 reignty of Amhara and Tigr(5, he might have maintained hi; 
 position ; but he was led to exhaust his strength against 
 the Gallas, which was probably one of the chief causes o) 
 his ruin. Ho obtained several victories over that people 
 ravaged their country, took possession of Magdala, whict 
 he afterwards made his principal stronghold, and enlistee 
 many of the chiefs and their followers in his own ranks. 
 Ho shortly afterwards reduced the kingdom of Shoa, 
 and took Ankobar, the capital ; but in the meantime hi 
 own people were groaning under his heavy exactions, 
 rebellions were breaking out in various parts of his pro- 
 vinces, and his good queen was now dead. He lavished 
 vast sums of money upon his army, which at one time 
 amounted to 100,000 or 150,000 fighting men; and ii: 
 order to meet this expenditure, he was forced to exact 
 exorbitant 'tributes from his people. The British consul. 
 Plowden, who was strongly attached to Theodore, having 
 been ordered by his Government in 1860 to return tc 
 Massowah, was attacked on his way by a rebel namec 
 Garred, mortally wounded, and taken prisoner. Theodore 
 attacked the rebels, and in the action the murderer of Mi 
 Plowden was slain by his friend and companion Mr Bell, 
 but the latter lost his life in preserving that of Theodore. 
 The deaths of the two Englishmen were terribly avenged by 
 the slaughter or mutilation of nearly 2000 rebels. Theodore 
 soon after married his second wife Terunish, the proud 
 daughter of the late governor of Tigrd, who felt neithei 
 affection hot respect for the upstart who had dethroned hei 
 father, and the union was by no means a happy one. In 
 1862 he made a second expedition against the Gallas, which 
 was stained with atrocious cruelties. Theodore had now 
 given himself up to intoxication and lust. When the 
 news' of Mr Plowden's death reached England, Captain 
 Cameron was appointed to succeed him as consul, and 
 arrived at Massowah in February 1862. He proceeded tc 
 the camp of the king, to whom he presented a rifle, a paii 
 of pistols, and a letter in the Queen's name. In Octobei 
 Captain Cameron was dismissed by Theodore, with a letter 
 to the Queen of England, which reached the Foreign Office 
 on the 12th of February 1863. For some reason or other 
 this letter was put aside and no answer returned, and to 
 this in no small degree is to be attributed the difficulties 
 that subsequently arose with that country. After forward- 
 ing the letter, Captain Cameron, hearing that the Chri 
 of Bogos had been attacked by the Shangallas and other 
 tribes under Egyptian rule, proceeded to that district, and 
 afterwards went to Kassala, the seat of the Egyptian ad- 
 ministration in that quarter. Thence he went to Metemeh, 
 where he was taken ill, and in order to recruit his health 
 he returned to Abyssinia, and reached Jcnda in August 
 1863. In November despatches were received from 
 England, but no answer to the emperor's letter, and this, 
 together with the consul's visit to Kassala, greatly 
 offended him, and in January 1864 Captain Cameron ane! 
 his suite, with Messrs Stern and Rosenthal, were cast intc 
 prison. .When the news of this reached England, the 
 Government resolved, when too late, to sendan answer tc 
 the emperor's letter, and selected Mr Hormuzd Rassam tc 
 be its bearer. He arrived at Massowah in July 1864, and 
 immediately despatched a messenger requesting permission 
 to present himself before the emperor. Neither to this noi 
 a subsequent application was any answer returned UL' 
 August 1865, when a curt ncte was received, stating that 
 Consul Cameron had been released, and if Mr Rassam still
 
 ABYSSINIA 
 
 67 
 
 desired to visit the king, lie was to proceed by the route of 
 Metemeh. They reached Metemeh on 21st November, and 
 five weeks more were lost before they heard from the 
 emperor, whose reply was now courteous, informing them 
 that the governors of all the districts through which they 
 had to march had received orders to furnish them with 
 every necessary. They left Metemeh on the 28th December, 
 and on 25th January following arrived at Theodore's camp 
 in Damot. They were received with all honour, and were 
 afterwards sent to Kuarata, on Lake Dembea, there to await 
 the arrival of the captives. The latter reached this on 12th 
 '.March, and everything appeared to proceed very favourably. 
 'A month later they started for the coast, but had not pro- 
 ceeded far when they were all brought back and put into 
 confinement. Theodore then wrote a letter to the Queen, 
 requesting European workmen and machinery to be sent to 
 him, and despatched it by Mr Flad. The Europeans, 
 although detained as prisoners, were not at first unkindly 
 treated ; but in the end of June they were sent to Magdala, 
 where they were soon afterwards put in chains. They 
 suffered hunger, cold, and misery, and were in constant 
 fear of death, till the spring of 1868, when they were 
 relieved by the British troops. In the meantime the power 
 of Theodore in the country was rapidly waning. In order 
 to support his vast standing army, the country was drained 
 of its resources : the peasantry abandoned the fertile plains, 
 and took refuge in the fastnesses, and large fertile tracts 
 remained uncultivated. Rebellions broke out in various 
 parts of the country, and desertions took place among his 
 troops, till his army became little more than a shadow of 
 what it once was. Shoa had already shaken off his yoke ; 
 Godjam was virtually independent ; Walkeit and Samen 
 were under a rebel chief ; and Lasta Waag and the 
 country about Lake Ashangi had submitted to Wagsham 
 Gobaze, who had also overrun Tigrd, and appointed Dejach 
 Kassai his governor. The latter, however, in 1867 rebelled 
 against his master, and assumed the supreme power of that 
 province. This was the state of matters when the English 
 troops made their appearance in the country. With a view 
 if possible to effect the release of the prisoners by con- 
 ciliatory measures, Mr Flad was sent back, with some 
 artisans and machinery, and a letter from the Queen, 
 stating that these would be handed over to his Majesty on 
 the release of the prisoners and their return to Massowah. 
 This, however, failed to influence the emperor, and the 
 English Government at length saw that they must have 
 recourse to arms. In July 1867, therefore, it was resolved 
 to send an army into Abyssinia to enforce the release of 
 the captives, and Sir Robert Napier was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief. A reconnoitring party was despatched 
 beforehand, under Colonel Merewether, to select the landing- 
 place and anchorage, and explore the passes leading into 
 the interior. They also entered into friendly relations 
 with the different chiefs in order to secure their co-operation. 
 The landing-place selected was Mulkutto, on Annesley Bay, 
 the point of the coast nearest to the site of the ancient 
 Adulis, and we are told that " the pioneers of the English 
 expedition followed to some extent in the footsteps of the 
 r.dventurous soldiers of Ptolemy, and met with a few faint 
 traces of this old world enterprise." — C. R. Marhlmm. 
 The force amounted to upwards of 16,000 men, besides 
 '.12,640 belonging to the transport service, and followers, 
 ■making in all upwards of 32,000 men. The task to be 
 accomplished was to march over 400 miles of a mountainous 
 and little-known country, inhabited by savage tribes, to 
 the caiup or fortress of Theodore, and compel him to deliver 
 up hi-, captives. The commander-in-chief landed on 7th 
 January 1S68, and soon after the troop3 began to move 
 forward through the pass of Senafe\ and southward through 
 the districts of AgaintS, Tera, Endarta, Wojcrat, Lasta, and 
 
 Wadela. In tne meantime Theodore had been reduced to 
 great straits. His army was rapidly deserting him, and he 
 could hardly obtain food for his followers. He resolved to 
 quit hi3 capital Debra Tabor, which he burned, and set 
 out with the remains of lus army for Magdala. During 
 this march he displayed an amount of engineering skill in 
 the construction of roads, of military talent, and fertility 
 of resource, that excited the admiration and astonishment 
 of his enemies. On the afternoon of the 10th of April a 
 force of about 3000 men suddenly poured down upon the 
 English in the plain of Arogie, a few miles from Magdala. 
 They advanced again and again to the charge, but were 
 each time driven back, and finally retired in good order. 
 Early next morning Theodore sent Lieut. Prideaux, one of 
 the captives, and Mr Flad, accompanied by a native chief, 
 to the English camp to sue for peace. Answer was returned, 
 that if he would deliver up all the Europeans in his hands, 
 and submit to the Queen of England, ho would receive 
 honourable treatment. The captives were liberated and 
 sent away, and along with a letter to the English general 
 was a present of 1000 cows and 500 sheep, the acceptance 
 of which would, according to Eastern custom, imply that 
 peace was granted. Through some misunderstanding, word 
 was sent to Theodore that the present would be accepted, 
 and he felt that he was now safe ; but in the evening he 
 learned that it had not been received, and despair again 
 seized him. Early next morning he attempted to escape 
 with a few of his followers, but subsequently returned. 
 The same day (13th April) Magdala was stormed and 
 taken, and within they found the dead body of the 
 emperor, who had fallen by his own hand. The inhabitants 
 and troops were subsequently sent away, the . fortifications 
 destroyed, and the town burned. The queen Terunish 
 having expressed her wish to go back to her own country, 
 accompanied the British armyj but died during the marchy 
 and her son Alam-ayahu, the only legitimate son of the 
 emperor, was brought to England, as this was the desire 
 of his father. The success of the expedition was in no> 
 small degree owing to the aid afforded by the several native 
 chiefs through whose country it passed, and no one did 
 more in this way than Prince Kassai of Tigr6.- In acknow- 
 ledgment of thi3 several pieces of ordnance, small arms, 
 and ammunition, with much of the surplus stores, were 
 handed over to him, and the English troops left the country 
 in May 1868. Soon after this Prince Kassai declared his 
 independence; and in a war which broke out between him 
 and Wagsham Gobaze, the latter was defeated, and his 
 territory taken possession of by the conqueror. In 1872 
 Kassai was crowned king of Abyssinia with great ceremony 
 at Axam, under the title of King Johannes. In that year the 
 governor of Massowah, Munzinger Bey, a Swiss, by com- 
 mand of the Viceroy of Egypt, marched an armed force 
 against the Bogos country. The king solicited the aid of 
 England, Germany, and Russia against the Egyptians, whose 
 troops, however, were after a time withdrawn. Sir Bartla 
 Frere, in the blue-book published respecting his mission to 
 Zanzibar, is of the opinion that England, having regard to 
 the passage to India by the Red Sea, should not have wholly 
 abandoned Abyssinix (d. k.) 
 
 (See Travels of Bruce, 1768-73; Lord Valentia, Salt, 
 1809-10; Combes et Tamisier, 1835-37; Ferret et Galmier, 
 1839-43; Ruppell, 1831-33; MM. Th. Lefebvre, A Petit,et 
 Quartin-Dillon, 1839-43; Major Harris; Gobat; Dr C. 
 Beke; Isenberg and Krapf, 1839-42; Mansfield Parkyns 
 Von Heuglin, 1861-62; H. A Stern, 1860 and 1868 
 Dr Blanc, 1868; A Rassam, 1869; C. R Markham, 1869. 
 W. T. Blanford, 1870; Recordof the Expedition to Abyssinia, 
 compiled by order of the Secretary of State for War, \>j 
 Major T. J. Holland and Captain H. Hozier, 2 vols. 4to, 
 and plates, 1870; various Parliamentary Papers, 1867.-68.^
 
 <?8 
 
 A C A — A C A 
 
 ACACIA, a genus of shrubs and trees Delonging to 
 the natural family Leguuiinosoe and the section Mimosesj. 
 The flowers are small, 
 arranged in rounded or 
 elongated clusters. The 
 leaves are compound 
 pinnate in general In 
 some instances, how- 
 ever, more especially in 
 the Australian species, 
 the leaf-stalks become 
 flattened, and serve the 
 purpose of leaves; the 
 plants are hence call- 
 ed leafless Acacias, and 
 as t'ta leaf-stalks are 
 often placed with their 
 edges towards the sky 
 and earth, they do not 
 intercept light so fully 
 as ordinary trees. There are about 420 species of 
 Acacias widely scattered over tho warmer regions of the 
 globe. They abound in Australia and Africa. Various 
 species, such as Acacia vera, arabica, Ekrenbergii, and 
 tortilis, yield gum arabic ; while Acacia Verek, Seyal, and 
 Adansonii furnish a similar gum, called gum Senegal. These 
 species are for the most part natives of Arabia, the north- 
 •utern part of Africa, and the East Indies. The wattles 
 
 Leaf of- Acacia heteropkylla. 
 
 of Australia are species of Acacia with astringent barks. 
 Acacia dcalbata is used for tanning. An astringent 
 medicine, called catechu or cutch, is piocured from several 
 species, but more especially horn.' Acacia Catechu, by boiling 
 down the wood and evaporating the solution so as to get 
 an extract. The bark of Acacia arabica, under the 
 name of Babul or Babool, is used in Scinde for tanning. 
 Acacia formosa supplies the valuable Cuba timber called 
 sabicu. Acacia Seyal is the plant which is supposed to be 
 the shittah tree of the Bible, which supplied shittim-wuod. 
 The pods of Acacia nilotica, under the name of neb-neb, are 
 used by tanners. The seeds of Acacia Niopo are roasted 
 and used as snuff in South America. The seeds of all tho 
 varieties of Acacia in South Australia to the west called 
 Nundo, are used as food after being roasted. Acacia 
 melanoxylon, black wood of Australia, sometimes called 
 light wood, attains a great size ; its wood is used for 
 furniture, and receives a high polish. Acacia homalophylla, 
 myall wood, yields a fragrant timber, used for ornamental 
 purposes. A kind of Acacia is called in Australia Bricklow. 
 In common language the term Acacia is often applied to 
 species of the genus Robinia, which belongs also to the 
 Leguminous family, but is placed in a different section. 
 Robinia Pseudo-acacia, or false Acacia, is cultivated in 
 the milder parts of Britain, and forms a large tree, with 
 beautiful pink pea-like blossoms. The tree is sometimes 
 called the Locust tree. 
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 ACADEMY,' aKaSjJ/icta, 1 a suburb of Athens to the north, 
 forming part of the Ceramicus, about a mile beyond 
 the gate named Dypilum. It was. said to have belonged 
 to the hero Academus, but tho derivation of the word is 
 unknown. It was surrounded with a wall by Hipparchus, 
 and adorned with walks, groves, and fountains by Cimon, 
 the son of Miltiades, who at his death bequeathed it as a 
 public pleasure-ground to bis fellow-citizens. The Academy 
 was the resort of Plato, who possessed a small estate in the 
 neighbourhood. Here he taught for nearly fifty years, till 
 his death in 348 b.o. ; and from these "groves of the 
 Academy where Plato taught the truth," 2 his school, as 
 distinguished from the Peripatetics, received the name of 
 the Academics. 
 
 The same name (Academia) was in after times given by 
 Cicero to his villa or country-house near Puteoli, There 
 was composed his famous dialogue, The Academic Ques- 
 tions. ' 
 
 Of the academic school of philosophy, in so far as it 
 diverged from the doctrines of its great master see Plato), 
 we must treat very briefly, referring the reader for parti- 
 culars to the founders of the various schools, whose names 
 we shall have occasion to mention. 
 
 The Academy lasted from the days of Plato to those of 
 Cicero. As to the number of successive schools, the critics 
 are not agreed. Cicero himself and Varro recognised only 
 two, the old and the new; Sextus Empiricus adds a, third, 
 the middlb; others a fourth, that of Philo and Charmida3 ; 
 and some even a fifth, the Academy of Antiochus. 
 
 Of the old Academy, the principal leaders were Speusip- 
 pus, Plato's sister's son, and his immediate successor; 
 Xenocrates of Chalcedon, who with Speusippus accompanied 
 Plato in his journey to Sicily; Polemo, a dissolute yo-ing 
 
 The bye-form iMinpi'o, which occurs in Diogenes Laertius, is pro- 
 bably a rationalistic attempt to interpret the word, such as we com- 
 monly meet with in the writings of Plato 
 « Horace, Ep. ii. 2, 4i. 
 
 Athenian, who came to laugh at Xenocrates, and remained 
 to listen (Horace, Sat., ii. 3, 253); Crates, and Crantor, the 
 latter of whom wrote a treatise, wept xcVfovs, praised by 
 Cicero. Speusippus, Like the Pythagoreans, with whom 
 Aristotle compares him, denied that tho Platonic Good 
 could be the first principle of things, for (he said) the 
 Good is not like the germ which gives birth to plants and 
 animals, but is only to be found in already existing things. 
 He therefore derived the universe from a primeval indeter- 
 minate unit, distinct from the Good; from this unit he 
 deduced three principles — one for numbers, one for magni- 
 tude, and one for the soul. The Deity he conceived as 
 that living force which rules all and resides everywhere. 
 Xenocrates, though like Speusippus infected with Pythx- 
 goreanism, was the most faithful of Plato's successors. He 
 distinguished three essences : the sensible, the intelligible, 
 and a third, compounded of the other two. The sphere of 
 the first is all below the heavens, of the second aLl beyond 
 the heavens, of the third heaven itself. To each of these 
 three spheres one of our faculties corresponds. To the sen- 
 sible, sense; to the int'elligible, intellect or reason; to the 
 mixed sphere, opinion (S6$a). So far he closely follows 
 the psychology and cosmogeny of his master; but Cicero 
 notes as the characteristic of both Speusippus and Xeno- 
 crates, the abandonment of the Socratic principle of 
 hesitancy. 
 
 Of the remaining three, the same writer (who is our prin- 
 cipal authority for the history of the Academic school) tells 
 us that they preserved the Platonic doctrine, but emphasised 
 the moral part. On the old Academy he pronounces the 
 following eulogium (De Fin. v. 3) ; " Their writings and 
 method contain all liberal learning, all history, all polite 
 discourse; and besides, they embrace such a variety of 
 arts, that no one can undertake any noble career without 
 their aid. .... In a word, the Academy is, as it were, the 
 workshop of every artist." Modern criticism has not en- 
 dorsed this high estimate. They preserved, it is true, and
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 63 
 
 elaborated many details of the Platonic teaching, which wb 
 couia ill have spared; but of Plato's originality and specu- 
 lative power, of his poetry and enthusiasm, they inherited 
 nothin"; "nor amid all the learning which has been pro- 
 fusely lavished upon investigating their tenets, is there a 
 single deduction calculated to elucidate distinctly the 
 character of their progress or regression." 1 ' There is a 
 saying of Polemo's, which will illustrate their virtual 
 abandonment of philosophy proper : " We should exercise 
 ourselves in business, not in dialectical speculation." 
 
 Arcesilaus, the successor of Crates, the disciple of Theo- 
 phrastus and Polemo, was the founder of the second or 
 middle Academy. He professed himself the strict fol- 
 lower of Plato, and seems to have been sincerely of opinion 
 that his was nothing but a legitimate development of the 
 true Platonic system. He followed the Socratic method 
 of teaching in dialogues ; and, like Socrates, left no writ- 
 ings, — at least the ancients were not acquainted with any. 
 But we have no evidence that he maintained the ideal 
 theory of Plato, and from the general tendency of his 
 teaching it is probable that he overlooked it. He affirmed 
 that neither our senses nor our mind can attain to any 
 certainty; in all we must suspend our judgment; proba- 
 bility is the guide of life. Cicero tells us that he was 
 more occupied iu disputing the opinions of others than in 
 advancing any of his own. Arcesilaus is, in fact, the 
 founder of that academic scepticism which was developed 
 and systematised by Carneades, the founder of the third 
 or new Academy. He was the chief opponent of the 
 Stoics and their doctrine of certitude. This is attested by 
 a well-known saying of his : "If there had been no Chry- 
 sippus, there would have been no Carneades." To the 
 Stoical theory of perception, the tfravrao-ia. KaTaXrprriK-rj, by 
 which they expressed a conviction of certainty arising 
 from impressions so strong as to amount to science, he 
 opposed the doctrine of o.KaToXr)[j,La, which denied any 
 necessary correspondence between perceptions and the 
 objects perceived. But while denying the possibility of 
 any knowledge of things in themselves, he saved himself 
 from absolute scepticism by the doctrine of probability or 
 verisimilitude, which may serve as a practical guide in life. 
 Thus he announced as his criterion of truth an imagination 
 or impression (<f>avTaa-ui) at once credible, irrefragable, and 
 attested by comparison with other impressions. The wise 
 man might be permitted to hold an opinion, though he 
 allowed that that opinion might be false. In ethics, how- 
 ever, he appeared as the pure sceptic. On his visit to 
 Rome as an ambassador from Athens, be alternately main- 
 tained and denied in his public disputations the existence 
 of justice, to the great scandal of Cato and all honest 
 citizens. 
 
 On the fourth and fifth Academies, we need not dwell 
 long. Philo and Antiochus both taught Cicero, and with- 
 out doubt communicated to him that mild scepticism, that 
 eclecticism compounded of almost equal sympathy with 
 Plato and Zeno, which is the characteristic of his philo- 
 sophical writings. The Academy exactly corresponded to 
 the moral and political wants of Rome. With no genius 
 for speculation, the better Romans of that day were con- 
 tent to embrace a system which, though resting on no 
 philosophical basis, and compounded of heterogeneous 
 dogmas, offered notwithstanding a secure retreat from 
 religious scepticism and political troubles. " My words," 
 says Cicero, speaking as a true Academician, "do not 
 proclaim the truth, like a Pythian priestess; but I conjec- 
 ture what is probable, like a plain man ; and where, I ask, 
 am I to search for anything more than verisimilitude ?" 
 And again : " The characteristic of the Academy is never to 
 
 > Archer Butler. Led. on Anc. PhiL ii. 315. 
 
 interpose one's judgment, to approve what scorns most pro- 
 bable, to compare together different opinions, to see what 
 may b* advanced on either sido, and to leave one's listeners 
 free to judge without pretending to dogmatise." 
 
 Academy, in its modem acceptation, signifies a society 
 or corporate body of learned men, eotablished for the ad- 
 vancement of science, literature, or the arts. 
 
 The first institution of this sort we read of in history 
 was that founded at Alexandria by Ptolemy Soter, which 
 he named the Museum, pmailov. After completing his 
 conquest of Egypt, he turned his attention to the cultiva- 
 tion of letters and science, and gathered about him a large 
 body of literary men, whom he employed in collecting 
 books and treasures of art. This was the origin of the 
 library of Alexandria, the most famous of the ancient world. 
 Passing by the academies which were founded by the 
 Moors at Grenada. Corduba. and as far east as Samarcand, 
 the next instance of an academy is that founded by Charle- 
 magne at the instigation of the celebrated Alcuin, for 
 promoting the study of grammar, orthography, rhetoric, 
 poetry, history, and mathematics. In order to equalise all 
 ranks, each member took the pseudonj-m of some ancient 
 author or celebrated person of antiquity. For instance, 
 Cnariemagne himself wa3 David, Alcuin became Flaccus 
 Albums. Though none of the labours of this academy 
 have come down to us, it undoubtedly exerted considerable 
 influence in modelling the language and reducing it to rules. 
 
 In the following century Alfred founded an academy at 
 Oxford. This was rather a grammar school than a society 
 of learned men, and from it the University of Oxford 
 originated. 
 
 But the academy which may be more justly considered 
 as the mother of modern European academies is that of 
 Floral Games, founded at Toulouse in the year 1325, by 
 Clemens Isaurus. Its object was to distribute prizes and 
 rewards to the troubadours. The prizes consisted of 
 flowers of gold and silver. It was first recognised by the 
 state in 1694, and confirmed by letters-patent from the 
 king, and its numbers limited to thirty-six. It has, except 
 during a few years of the republic, continued to the present 
 day, and distributes annually the following prizes : — An 
 amaranth of gold for the best ode, a silver violet for a 
 poem of sixty to one hundred Alexandrine lines, a silver 
 eglantine for the best prose composition, a silver marigold 
 for an elegy, and a silver lily presented in the last century 
 by M de Malpeyre for a hymn to the Virgin. 
 
 It was the Renaissance which was par excellence the era 
 of academies, and as the Italians may be said to have dis- 
 covered anew the buried world of literature, so it was in 
 Italy that the first and by far the most numerous academies 
 arose. The earliest of these was the Platonic Academy, 
 founded at Florence by Cosmo de Medici for the study of 
 the works of Plato, though subsequently they added the 
 explanation of Dante and other Italian authors. 
 
 Marsilius Ficinus, its principal ornament, in his Theologica 
 Platonica, developed a system, chiefly borrowed from the 
 later Platonists of the Alexandrian school, which, as it 
 seemed to coincide with some of the leading doctrines of 
 Christianity, was allowed by the church. His Latin trans- 
 lation of Plato is at once bteral, perspicuous, and correct; 
 and as he had access to MSS. of Plato now lost, it has in 
 several places enabled us to recover the original reading. 
 I After the expulsion of the Medici from Florence, the 
 Platonic Academy was dissolved. 
 
 In giving some account of the principal academies ol 
 Europe, which is all that this article professes to do, we 
 shall, as far as possible, arrange them under different heads, 
 according to— 1st, The object which they were designed 
 to promote , 2d, The countries to which they belong. 
 This classification, though, perhaps, the best available, it
 
 70 
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 necessarily imperfect, inasmuch as several of those we shall 
 mention were at once literary and scientific, and many 
 associations for similar objects -were known by some other 
 na;ue. Thus, with the doubtful exception of the Royal 
 Academy of Arts, England has no academies in the proper 
 sense of the word. For those institutions in England which 
 answer to Italian academies, we must refer the reader to 
 th° article Society. 
 
 I Scientific Academies. — Italy. — The first society 
 for the prosecution of physical science was that established 
 at Naples, 1560, under the presidency of Bapti6ta Porta. 
 It was called Acadcmia Secrelorum Naturae or de Sccrcti. 
 It arose from a meeting of some scientific friends, who 
 assembled at Forta's house, and called themselves the Olinn. 
 No member was admitted who had not made some useful 
 discovery in medicine or natural philosophy The name 
 suggested to an ignorant public the prosecution of magic 
 and the black arts. Porta went to Rome to justify himself 
 before Paul III. He was acquitted by the Pope, but the 
 academy was dissolved, and he was ordered to abstain for 
 the future from the practice of all illicit arts. 
 
 At Rome he was admitted to the Lincei, an academy 
 founded by Federigo Cesi, the Marcese di Monticelli. The 
 device of the Lincei was a lynx with its eyes turned towards 
 leaven tearing a Cerberus with its claws, intimating that 
 they were prepared to do battle with error and falsehood. 
 Their motto was the verse of Lucretius describing rain 
 dropping from a cloud — "Redit agmine dulcL" Besides 
 Porta, Galileo and Colonna were enrolled among its mem- 
 bers. The society devoted itself exclusively to physical 
 science. Porta, under its auspices, published his great work, 
 llagice Naturalis libri xx., 1589, in fol. ; his Phytogno- 
 monica, or, the occult virtue of plants ; his Be Humana Phy- 
 tiognomia,hoxa which Lavater largely borrowed ; also various 
 works on optics and pneumatics, in which he approached 
 the true theory of vision. He is even said by some to 
 have anticipated Galileo in the invention of the telescope. 
 
 But the principal monument still remaining of the zeal 
 and industry of Cesi and his academy is the Phytobasanos, 
 a compendium of the natural history of Mexico, written by 
 a Spaniard, Hernendez. During fifty years the IIS. had 
 been neglected, when Cesi discovered it, and employed 
 Terentio, Fabro, and Colcnna, all Lynceans, to edit it and 
 enrich it with notes and emendations. Cesi's own great 
 work, Tlieatrum Natural, §was never published The MS. 
 still exists in the Albani Library at Rome. After Cesi's 
 death, 1630, the academy languished for some years under 
 the patronage of Urban VI IL An academy of the same 
 name was inaugurated at Rome 1784, and still flourishes. 
 It numbers among its members some of our English philo- 
 sophers. But the fame of the Lincei was far outstripped 
 1 y that of the Accademia del Cimento, established in 
 l'lorence 1 657, under the patronage of the Grand Duke 
 Ferdinand II., at the instigation of his brother Leopold, 
 acting under the advice of Viviani, one of the greatest 
 geometers of Europe. The object of this academy was 
 (as the name implies) to make experiments and relate them, 
 abjuring all preconceived notions. Unfortunately for 
 science, it flourished for only ten years. Leopold in 16G7 
 was made a cardinal, and the society languished without 
 its head. It has, however, left a record of its labours in 
 a volume containing an account of the experiments, pub- 
 lished by the secretary in 1667. It is in the form of a 
 beautifully printed folio, with numerous full print pages of 
 illustrations. It contains, among others, those on the 
 supposed inctrmpressibility of water, on the pressure of the 
 air, and on the universal gravity of bodies. Torricelli, the 
 inventor of the barometer, was one of its members. 
 
 Passing by numerous other Italian Academies of Science, 
 we come to those uf modern times. 
 
 The Royal Academy of Sciences at Turin originated In 
 1757 as a private society; in 1759 it published a volume 
 
 of Jfiseellanea Pliilosoplaco-Mathemalica. Huciitatis pricaloe 
 Taurinensis ; shortly after it was constituted a Royal 
 Society by Charles Emanuel III., nnd in 1783 Victor 
 Amadous III. made it a Royal Academy of Sciences. It 
 consists ol 40 members, residents of Turin, 20 non- 
 resident, and 20 foreign members. It publishes eaclt 
 year a quarto volume of proceedings, and has crowned 
 and awarded prizes to many learned works. 
 
 France. — The Old Academy of Sciences originated in mnch 
 the same way as the French Academy. A privute society 
 of scientific men had for some thirty years been accustomed 
 to meet first at the house of Montmort, the niaitro dc* 
 requites, afterwards at that of Thcveuot, a great traveller 
 and man of universal genius, in order to converse on their 
 studies, and commuuicate their discoveries. To this 
 society belonged, among others, Descartcis, Gasscudi, 
 Blaise Pascal, and his father. Hobbe.s, the philosn|ibvr 
 of Malmesbury, was presented to it during his vi^it to 
 Paris in 1640. Colbert, just as Richelieu in the case 
 of the French Academy, conceived the idea of giving an 
 official status to this body of learned men. Seven eminent 
 mathematicians, among whom were Huyglien.t and De 
 Bessy, the author of a famous treatise on magic squares, 
 were chosen to form the nucleus of the new society. A 
 certain number of chemists, physicians, and anatomists 
 were subsequently added Pensions were granted by 
 Louis XIV. to each of the members, and a fund for 
 instruments and experimentations placed at their disposal 
 They commenced their session the 22d December 1GCG 
 in the Royal Library. They met twice a week — the 
 mathematicians on the Wednesdays, the physicists (as the 
 naturalists and physiologists were then called) on th' 
 Saturdays. Duhamel was appointed secretary by the 
 king. This post he owed more to his polished Latinity 
 than to hi3 scientific attainments, all the proceedings 
 of the society being recorded in Latin. A treasurer 
 was also nominated, who, notwithstanding his pretentious 
 title, was nothing more than conservator of the scientific 
 instruments, &c. At first the academy was rather 3 
 laboratory and observatory than an academy proper 
 Experiments were undertaken in common and results 
 discussed. Several foreign savants, in particular the 
 Danish astronomer Rcemer, joined the society, attracted 
 by the liberality of the Grand Monarque; and the German 
 physician and geometer Tschirnhausen and Sir Isaac 
 Newton were made foreign associates. The death of 
 Colbert, who was succeeded by Louvois, exercised a disas- 
 trous effect on the fortunes of the academy. The labours 
 of the academicians were diverted from the pursuit of 
 pure science to such works as the construction of fountains 
 and cascades at Versailles, and the mathematicians were 
 employed to calculate the odds of the games of lansquenet 
 and bassett. In 1699 the academy was reconstituted 
 by M. de Pontchartrain, under whose department as 
 secretary of state the academies came. By its new con- 
 stitution it consisted of ten honorary members, men of 
 high rank, who interested themselves in science, fifteen 
 pensionaries, who were the working members, viz., three 
 geometricians, and the same number of astronomers, 
 mechanicians, anatomists, and chemists. Each section of 
 three had two associates attached to it, and besides, each 
 pensionary had the power of naming a pupil. there were 
 eight foreign and four free associates. The offjeers were, 
 a president and a vice-president, named 'by the king from 
 among the honorary memberc, and a secretary and treasurer 
 chosen from the pensionaries, who held their offices for 
 life. Fontenelle, a man of wit, and rather a populariser of 
 sciences than an original investigator, succeeded Duhamel r
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 71 
 
 secretary. The constitution, as is evident, was purely aristc- 
 cratical, and unlike that of the French Academy, in which 
 the principle of equality among the members was never 
 violated. Science was not yet strong enough to dispense 
 with the patronage of the great. The two leading spirits 
 of the academy at this period were Clairaut and Reaumur. 
 Clairaut was the first to explain capillary attraction, and 
 predicted within a few days of the correct time the return 
 of 113116/3 comet. His theory on the figure of the earth 
 was only superseded by Laplace's Mecanique Celeste. 
 Reaumur was principally distinguished by his practical 
 discoveries, and a thermometer in common use at the 
 present day bears his name. 
 
 To trace the subsequent fortunes of this academy would 
 far exceed our limits, being equivalent to writing the history 
 ■of the rise and progress, of science in France. It has 
 reckoned among its members Laplace, BufTon, Lagrange, 
 D'Alembert, Lavoisier, and Jussieu, the father of modern 
 botany. Those of our readers who wish for further informa- 
 tion we would refer to M. Alfred Maury's excellent history. 
 
 On 21st December 1792, the old Academy of Sciences 
 met for the last time. Many of the members fell by the 
 guillotine, many were imprisoned, more reduced to indi- 
 gence. The aristocracy of talent was almost as much 
 detested and persecuted by the Revolution as that of rank. 
 
 In 1795 the Convention decided on founding an Insti- 
 tute, which was to replace all the academies. The first 
 class of the Institute corresponded closely to the old 
 academy. See Institute. 
 
 In 1816 the Academy was reconstituted a3 a branch of 
 the Institute. The new academy has reckoned among its 
 members, besides many other brilliant names, Carnot the 
 engineer, the physicians FresneL Ampere, Arago, Riot, the 
 chemists Gay-Lussac and Thenard, the zoologists G. Cuvier 
 and the two Geoffroy Saint-Hilaires. 
 
 The French had also considerable academies in most of 
 their large towns. Montpellier, for example, had a Royal 
 Academy of Sciences, founded in 1706 by Louis XIV., on 
 nearly the same footing as that at Paris, of which, indeed, 
 it was in some measure the counterpart. It was recon- 
 stituted in 1847, and organised under three sections — 
 medicine, science, and letters. It has continued to publish 
 annual reports of considerable value. Toulouse also had 
 an academy under the denomination of Lanternists; and 
 thore were analogous institutions at Ximes, Aries, Lyons, 
 Dijon, Bordeaux, and other places. Of these several, we 
 believe, arc still in existence, if not in activity. 
 
 Before passing on to German academies, we may here 
 notice a private scientific and philosophical society, the 
 precursor of the French Academy of Sciences. It does not 
 appear to have had any distinguishing name; but the pro- 
 moter of it was Eusebius Renaudot, Counsellor and Phy- 
 siciar in Ordinary to the King of France, and Doctor 
 Regent of the Faculty of Physic at Paris, by whom a full 
 account of its conferences was published, translated into 
 English by G. Havers, 1664. In the preface it is said to 
 be " a production of an assembly of the choicest wits of 
 France." We will quote a few of the subjects of these 
 discussions in order to show the character of the society : — 
 " Why the loadstone draws iron;" "Whether the soul's 
 immortality is demonstrable by natural reason ;" " Of the 
 little hairy girl lately seen in this city." On subjects of 
 popular superstition their views were far in advance of the 
 time. Of judicial astrology it is said, "Why should we 
 seek in heaven the causes of accidents which 'befall us if 
 we can find them on earth?" Of the philosopher's stone — 
 " This most extravagant conceit, that it is the panacea, 
 Coined to the other absurdities of that chimerical art, make3 
 us believe that it is good for nothing but to serve for 
 imaginary consolation to the miserable." 
 
 Germany. — The .Collegium Curioswn was a scientific 
 society, founded by J. C. Sturm, professor of mathematics 
 and natural philosophy in the University of Altorff, in 
 Franconia, in 1672, on the plan of the Accademia del 
 Cimento. It originally consisted of 20 members, and con- 
 tinued to flourish long after the death of its founder. The 
 early labours of the society were devoted to the repetition 
 (under varied conditions) of the most notable experiments 
 of the day, or to the discussion of the results. Two volumes 
 of proceedings were published by Sturm in 1676 and 1685 
 respectively. The Programma Invitalorium is dated June 
 3, 1672; and Sturm therein urges that, as the day of dis- 
 putatious philosophy had given way to that of experi- 
 mental philosophy, and as, moreover, scientific societies had 
 been founded at Florence, London, and Rome, it would 
 therefore seem desirable to found one in Germany, for the 
 attainment of which end. he requests the co-operation of 
 the learned. 
 
 The work of 1676, entitled Collegium Experimentale sivt 
 Curiosum, commences with an account of the diving-bell, 
 "a new invention;" next follow chapters on the camera 
 obscura, the Torricellian experiment, the air-pump, micro- 
 scope, telescope, &c. The two works have been pronounced 
 by a competent authority J to constitute a nearer approach 
 to a text-book of the physic3 of tb.6 period than any pre- 
 ceding work. 
 
 The Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin was founded 
 in 1700 by Frederic I. after Leibnitz' comprehensive plan, 
 but was not opened till 1711. Leibnitz was the first presi- 
 dent. Under Maupertuis, who succeeded him, it did good 
 service. Its present constitution dates from January 24, 
 1812. It is divided into four sections — physical, mathe- 
 matical, philosophical and historical Each section is under 
 a paid secretary elected for life , each secretary presides in 
 turn for a quarter of a year. The members are — 1st, Re- 
 gular members who are paid; these hold general meetings 
 every Thursday, and sectional meetings every Monday. 2d, 
 Foreign members, not to exceed 24 in number. . 3d, Hon- 
 orary members and correspondents. Since 1811 it has 
 published yearly, Memoires de VAcademie Eoyale des Science* 
 et Belles Leltres d Berlin. For its scientific and philoso- 
 phical attainments the names of W. and A. v. Humboldt, 
 Ideles, Savigny, Schleiermacher, Bopp, and Ranke, will 
 sufficiently vouch. 
 
 The Academy of Sciences at Mannlieim was established 
 by Charlc3 Theodore, Elector Palatine, in the year 1755. 
 The plan of this institution was furnished by Schaepflin, 
 according to which it was divided into two classes, the his- 
 torical and physical In 1780 a sub-division of the latter 
 took place into the physical, properly so-called,* and the 
 meteorological The meteorological observations are pub- 
 lished separately, under the title of Ephemerides Societatis 
 Meteorological PaJatince. The historical and physical me- 
 moirs are published under the title of Acta Academic 
 Theodoro-Palatince. 
 
 The Electoral Bavarian Academy of Sciences at Munich 
 was established iu 1759, and publishes its memoirs under 
 the title of Abhandlungen der Baieriscken Akademie. Soon 
 after the Elector of Bavaria was raised to the rank of king, 
 tho Bavarian government, by his orders, directed its atten- 
 tion to a new organisation of the Academy of Sciences of 
 Munich. The design of the king was, to render its labours 
 more extensive than those of any similar institution in 
 Europe, by giving to it, under the direction of the ministry, 
 the immediate superintendence over all the establishments 
 for public instruction in the kingdom of Bavaria. The Privy- 
 Councillor Jacobi, a man of most excellent character, and of 
 considerable scientific attainments, was appointed president 
 
 1 Mr Q. F. RodwcH, la the Chemical yews. June 21, 1867.
 
 72 
 
 iCADilMY 
 
 The Electoral Academy at Erfurt was established by the 
 Elector of Mentz, in the year 1754. It consists of a pro- 
 tector, president, director, assessors, adjuncts, and asso- 
 ciates. Its object is to promote the useful sciences. The 
 memoirs were originally published in Latin, but afterwards 
 In German. The Hessian Academy of Sciences at Giessen 
 publish their transactions under the title of Acta Philo- 
 topkico-AIedica Academim Scientiarum Principalis Ilessiacm. 
 In the Netherlands there are scientific academies at Flush- 
 ing and Brussels, both of which have published their 
 transactions; 
 
 Russia, — The Imperial Academy of Sciences at St 
 Petersburg was projected by the Czar Peter the Great. 
 Having in the course of his travels observed \he advan- 
 tage of public societies for the encouragement and promo- 
 tion of literature, ho formed the • design ot founding an 
 academy of sciences at St Petersburg. By the advice 
 of Wolff and Leibnitz, whom he consulted on this occasion, 
 the society was accordingly regulated, and several learned 
 foreigners were invited to become members. Peter him- 
 self drew the plan, and signed it on the 10th of February 
 1724; but he was prevented, by the suddenness of his 
 death, from carrying it into execution. His decease, how- 
 ever, did not prevent its completion; for on the 21st of 
 December 1725, Catharine I. established it according to 
 Peter's plan, and on the 27th of the same month the society 
 assembled for the first time. On the 1st of August 1726, 
 Catharino honoured the meeting with her presence, when 
 Professor Bulfinger, a German naturalist of great eminence, 
 pronounced an oration upon the advances made in the 
 theory of magnetic variations, and also on the progress of 
 research in so far as regarded the discovery of the longi- 
 tude., L short time afterwards the empress settled a fund 
 of £4982 per annum for the support of the academy; and 
 15 members, all eminent for their learning and talents, 
 were admitted and pensioned, under the title of professors 
 in the various branches of science and literature. The most 
 distinguished of these professors were Nicholas and Daniel 
 Bernoulli;, the two De Lisles. Bulfinger, and Wolff. 
 
 During the short reign of Pet"- U. the salaries of the 
 members were discontinued, and the academy utterly 
 neglected by the Court; but it was again patronised by the 
 Empress Anne, who even added a seminary for the educa- 
 tion of youth under the superintendence of the professors. 
 Both institutions flourished for , some time under the 
 direction of Baron Korf ; but upon his death, towards the 
 «nd of Anne's reign, an ignorant person being appointed 
 president, many of the most able members quitted Russia. 
 At the accession of Elizabeth, however, new life and vigour 
 were infused into the academy. The original plan was 
 enlarged and improved ; some of the most learned foreigners 
 were again drawn to St Petersburg; and, what was considered 
 as a good omen for the literature of Russia, two natives, 
 Lomonosof and Rumovsky, men of genius and abilities, 
 who had prosecuted their studies in foreign universities, 
 were enrolled among its members. Lastly, the annual 
 income was increased to £10,059, and sundry other advan=- 
 tages were conferred upon the institution. 
 
 The Empress (.Hitharine II., with her usual eeal lor 
 promoting the diffusion of knowledge, took this useful 
 society under her immediate protection. She altered the 
 court of directors greatly to the advantage of the whole 
 body, corrected many of its abuse3, and infused a new 
 vigour and spirit into their researches. By Catharine's 
 particular recommendation the most ingenious professors 
 visited the various provinces of her vast dominions ; and as 
 the funds of the academy were not sufficient to defray the 
 whole expense of these expeditions, tho empress supplied 
 the deficiency by a grant of £2000, which was renewed as 
 occasion required. 
 
 The purpose and object of these travels will -mppir from 
 the instructions given by the academy to the several per- 
 sons who engaged in them. They wure ordered to institute 
 inquiries respecting the different sorts of earths and waters; 
 the best methods of cultivating barren and desert spots; 
 the local disorders incident to men and animals, together 
 with the most efficacious means of relieving them; the 
 breeding of cattle, particularly of sheep; the rearing of bees 
 and silk-worms; the different places and objects for fishing 
 and hunting; minerals of all kinds; the arts and trades; 
 and the formation of a Flora Russica, or collection of indi- 
 genous plants. They were particularly instructed to rectiiy 
 the longitude and latitude of the principal towns; to make 
 astronomical, geographical, and meteorological obscrva 
 tions; to trace the courses of rivers; to construct the most 
 exact charts ; and to be very distinct and accurate in re 
 marking and describing the manners and customs of the 
 different races of people, their dresses, languages, anti- 
 quities, traditions, history, religion; in a word, to gain 
 every information which might tend to illustrate the real 
 state of the whole Russian empire. More ample instruc- 
 tions cannot well be conceived ; and they appear to have 
 been very zealously and faithfully executed. The conse- 
 quence was that, at that time, no country could boast, 
 within the space of so few years, such a number of excellent 
 publications on its internal state, its natural productions, 
 its topography, geography, and history, and on the manners, 
 customs, and languages of the different tribes who inhabit 
 it, as issued from the press of this academy. In its researches 
 in Asiatic languages, and general knowledge of Oriental 
 customs and religions, it proved itself the worthy rival of 
 our own Royal Asiatic Society 
 
 The first transactions of this society were published m 
 1728, and entitled Commcntarii Academio? Scientiarum 
 Imperialis Petropolitana; ad annum 1726, with a dedica- 
 tion to Peter TT. The publication was continued -under 
 this form until the year 1747, when the transactions woro 
 called Xovi Commcntarii Academics, &c. ;and in 1777, the 
 academy again changed the title into Acta Academics Scitn- 
 tiarum Imperialis Petropolitana;, and likewise made some 
 alteration in the arrangements and plan of the work. The 
 papers, which had been hitherto published in the Latin 
 language only, were now written indifferently either in 
 that language or in French, and a preface added, entitled 
 Partie Historique, which contains an account of its pro- 
 ceedings, meetings, the admission of new members, and 
 other remarkable occurrences. Of the Commentaries, 14 
 volumes were published: the first of the New Commen- 
 taries made its appearance in 1750, and the twentieth in 
 1 776. Under the new title of Ada Acadtmio?, a number of 
 volumes have been given to the public; and two are printed 
 every year. These transactions abound with ingenious and 
 elaborate disquisitions upon various parts of science and 
 natural history; and it may not be an exaggeration to assert, 
 that no society in Europe has more distinguished itself for 
 the excellence of its publications, particularly in the more 
 abstruse parts of pure and mixed mathematics. 
 
 Tho academy is still composed, as at first, of 15 pro- 
 fessors, besides the president and director. Each of these 
 professors has a house and an annual stipend of from £200 
 to £600. Besides the professors, there are four adjuncts, 
 with pensions, who are present at the sittings of the society, 
 and* succeed to the first vacancies. The direction of the 
 academy is generally entrusted to a person of distinction. 
 
 The buildings and apparatus of this academy are on a 
 vast scale. There is a fine library, consisting of 36,000 
 curious books and manuscripts ; together with an extensive 
 museum, in which the various branches of natural history, 
 &c, are distributed in different apartments. The latter is 
 extremely rich in native productions, having been comi-
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 73 
 
 derably augmented by the collections made by Pallas, 
 Smelin, Guldenstaedt, and other professors, during their 
 expeditions, through the various parts of the Russian em- 
 pire. The stuffed animals and birds occupy one apartment. 
 The chamber of rarities, the cabinet of coins, &c, contain 
 innumerable articles of the highest curiosity and value. 
 The motto of the society is exceedingly modest ; it consists 
 of only one word, Paulatim. 
 
 Sweden. — The Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, or the 
 Royal Swedish Academy, owes its institution to six persons 
 of distinguished learning, among whom was the celebrated 
 Linnaius. They originally met on the 2d of June 1739, 
 when they formed a private society, in which some dis- 
 sertations were read ; and in the end of the same year 
 their first publication made its appearance. As the meet- 
 ings continued and the members increased, the society 
 cttracted the notice of the king; and, accordingly, on the 
 31st of March 1741, it was incorporated under the name 
 of the Royal Swedish Academy. Not receiving any pen- 
 sion from the crown, it is. merely under the protection of 
 tho king, being directed, like our Royal Society, by its own 
 members. It has now, however, a large fund, which has 
 chiefly arisen from legacies and other donationsj but a pro- 
 fessor of experimental philosophy, and two secretaries, are 
 still the only persons who receive any salaries. Each of 
 the members resident at Stockholm becomes president by 
 rotation, and continues in office during three months. 
 There are two kinds of members, native and foreign ; the 
 election of the former take places in April, that of the latter 
 in July; and no money is paid at the time of admission. 
 The dissertations read at each meeting are collected and 
 published four times in the yoar : they are written in the 
 Swedish language, and printed in octavo, and the annual 
 publications make a volume. Thcfirst 40 volumes, which 
 were completed in 1779, are called the Old Transactions. 
 
 Denmark. — Tho Royal A<ademy of Sciences at Copen- 
 hagen owes its institution to the zeal of six individuals, 
 whom Christian VI., in 1 742, ordered to arrange his cabinet 
 of medals. These persons were John Gram, Joachim Fre- 
 deric Ramus, Christian Louis Scheid, Mark Woldickey, 
 Eric Pontopidan, and Bernard Moelmanf who, occasionally 
 meeting for this purpose, extended their designs ; associated 
 with them others who were eminent in several branches of 
 science; and forming a kind of literary society, employed 
 themselves in searching into, and explaining the history and 
 antiquities of their country. The Count of Holstein, the 
 first president, warmly patronised this society, and recom- 
 mended it so strongly td Christian VI. that, in 1743, his 
 Danish majesty took it under his protection, called it the 
 Royal Academy of Sciences, endowed it with a fund, and 
 ordered the members to join to their former pursuits' 
 natural history, physics, and mathematics. In consequence 
 of the royal favour the members engaged with fresh zeal 
 in their pursuits; and the academy has published 15 
 volumes in the Danish language, some of which have been 
 translated into Latin. 
 
 England. — In 1616 a scheme for founding a Royal 
 Academy was started by Edmund Bolton, an eminent 
 scholar and antiquary. Bolton, in his petition to King 
 James, which was supported by George Villiers, Marquis of 
 Buckingham, proposed that the title of the academy should 
 be " King James, his Academe or College of honour." 
 In the list of members occurs the name of Sir Kenelm 
 Digby, one of the original members of the Royal Society. 
 The death of the king proved fatal to the undertaking. 
 In 1635 a second attempt was made to found an academy, 
 under the patronage of Charles I., with the title of 
 " Minerva's Musajum," for tho instruction of young noble- 
 men in the liberal arts and sciences, but the project was 
 soon dropped. About 1 6 1 5 some of the more ardent followers 
 
 1-4* 
 
 of Bacon used to. meet, some in London, Bomo at Oxford, 
 for the discussion of subjects connected with experimental 
 science. This was the origin of the Royal Society, which 
 received its charter in 1662. See Royal Society. 
 
 Ireland. — The Royal Irish Academy arose out of a 
 society established at Dublin about the year 1782, and 
 Consisting of a number of gentlemen, most of whom 
 belonged to thc_ university. They held weekly meetings, 
 and read essays in turn on various subjects. The members 
 of this society afterwards formed a more extensive plan, 
 and, admitting only such names as might add dignity to 
 their new instilution, became the founders of the Royal 
 Irish Academy. They professed to unite tho advancement 
 of science with the history.of mankind and polite literature. 
 The first volume of their transactions (for 1787) appeared 
 in 1788, and Beven volumes were afterwards published 
 A society was formed in Dublin, similar to tho Royal 
 Society in London, a3 early a3 the year 1683; but the 
 distracted state of the country proved unpropitious to the 
 cultivation of philosophy and literature. 
 
 Holland. — The Royal Academy of Sciences at Amsterdam, 
 erected by a royal ordinance 1852, succeeded the Royal 
 Institute of the Low Countries, founded by Louis Napoleon, 
 King of Holland, 1808. In 1855 it had published 192 
 volumes of proceedings, and received an annual subsidy of 
 14,000 florins from the state. 
 
 Spain. — Tho Academy of Sciences at Madrid, founded 
 1774, after the model of the French Academy. 
 
 Portugal. — The Academy of Sciences at Lisbon is divided 
 into three classes — natural history, mathematics, and 
 national literature. It consists of 24 ordinary and 36 
 extraordinary members. Since 1779 it has published 
 Memorias de Letteratura Portugueza; Memorias Economical; 
 Colleccao de Livros ineditos di Historia Portugueza. 
 
 II. Academies of Belles Lettees. — Italy.— rltex\y in the 
 1 6th century was remarkable for the number of its literary 
 academies. Tiraboschi, in his History of Italian Literature, 
 has given a list of 171 ; and Jarkius, in his Specimen 
 Historia; Academiarum Conditarum, enumerates nearly 
 700. Many of these, with a sort of Socratic irony, gave 
 themselves names expressive of ignorance or simply ludi- 
 crous. Such were the Lunatici of Naples, the Estravaganti, 
 the Fulminates, the Trapessati, the Drowsy, the Sleepers, 
 the Anxious, the Confused, the Unstable, the Fantastic, 
 tho Transformed, the jEtherial. " The first academies of 
 Italy chiefly directed their attention to classical literature ; 
 they compared manuscripts ; they suggested new readings, or 
 new interpretations; they deciphered inscriptions or coins; 
 they sat in judgment on a Latin ode, or debated the pro- 
 priety of a phrase. Their own poetry had, perhaps, never 
 been neglected ; but it was not till the writings of Bembo 
 furnished a new code of criticism in the Italian language, 
 that they began to study it with the same minuteness as 
 modern Latin." " They were encouragers of a numis- 
 matic and lapidary erudition, elegant in itself, and throw- 
 ing for ever little specks of light on the still ocean of the 
 past, but not very favourable to comprehensive observation, 
 and tending to bestow on an unprofitable pedantry the 
 honours of real learning." 1 The Italian nobility, excluded 
 as they mostly were from politics, and living in cities, 
 found in literature a consolation and a career. Such 
 academies were oligarchical in their constitution ; they 
 encouraged 'culture, but tended to hamper genius and 
 extinguish originality. Of their academies, by far the 
 most celebrated was the Accademia delta Crusca or Fvr- 
 furatorum; that is, of Bran, or of the Sifted The title 
 was borrowed from a previous society at Perugia, the 
 Accademia degli Scossi, of the Well-shaken. Its device 
 
 • IlauWs Int. to Lit. of Europe, vol. i. 05 1, in.l «ul U. 50?.
 
 u 
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 was a sieve ; it3 motto, " 11 piu bcl fior no coglie, it 
 collects the finest flour of it ; its principal object the puri- 
 fication of tho language. Its great work was the Yocabu- 
 lario della Crusca, the first edition of which was published 
 1613. It was composed avowedly on Tuscan principles, 
 and regarded the 14th century as the Augustan period of 
 the language. Beni assailed it in his Anti-Crusca, and 
 this exclusive Tuscan spirit hae disappeared in subsequent 
 editions. The Accademia della Crusca is now incorporated 
 with two older societies — the Accademia degli Apatici 
 (the Impartials) and the Accademia Fiorentina. 
 
 Among the numerous other literary academies of Italy 
 we may mention the Academy of Naples, founded about 
 1 HO by Alfonso, the king; the Academy of /Vorracc, founded 
 1540, to illustrate and perfect the Tuscan tongue, especially 
 by a close study of Petrarch ; the Intronati of Siena, 1525; 
 the Infiammati of Padua, 1531; the Ho:zi of Siena, sup- 
 pressed by Cosmo, 1568. 
 
 The Academy of Humourists, Umoristi, had its^rigin at 
 Rome in the marriage of Lorenzo Marcini, a Roman gentle- 
 man, at which several persons of rank were guests. It 
 was carnival time, and so to give the ladies some diversion, 
 they betook themselves to the reciting of verses, sonnets, 
 speeches, first extempore, and. afterwards premeditately, 
 which gave them the denomination of Belli Humori. 
 After some experience, and coming more and more into 
 the taste of these exercises, they resolved to form an 
 academy of belles lettres, and changed the title of Belli 
 Humori for that of Humoristi. 
 
 In 1690 the Academy or Society of Arcadians was 
 established at Rome, for the purpose of reviving the study 
 of poetry. The founder Crescimbeni is tho author of a 
 well-known history of Italian poetry. It numbered among •' 
 its members many princes, cardinals, a:.d other ecclesias- 
 tics; and, to avoid disputes about pre-eminence, all appeared 
 masked after the manner of Arcadian shepherds. Within 
 ten years from its first establishment the number of 
 academicians amounted to 600. 
 
 The Royal Academy of Savoy dates from 1719, and was 
 mado a royal academy by Charles Felix in 1848. -Its 
 emblem is a gold orange tree full of flowers and fruit; its 
 motto " Flore3 fructusque perennes," being the same as 
 those of the famous Florimenlane Academy, founded at 
 Annecy by St Francis de Sales. • It has published valuable 
 memoirs on the history and antiquities of Savoy. 
 
 Germany. — Of the German literary academies, the 
 most celebrated was Die Fruchtbringende Gesdlscliaft, the 
 Fruitful Society, established at Weimar 1617. Five 
 princes enrolled their names among the original members. 
 The object was to purify the mother tongue. The German 
 academies copied those of Italy in their quaint titles and 
 petty ceremonials, and exercised little permanent influence 
 on the language or literature of the country. 
 
 France. — The French Academy was established Dy order 
 of the king in the year 1 635, but in its original form it came 
 into existence some four or five years earlier. About the 
 year 1629 certain literary friends in Paris agreed to meet 
 weekly at the house of one of their number. These meet- 
 ings were quite informal, but the conversation turned mostly 
 on literary topics; and when, as was often the case, one of 
 tho number had composed some work, he read it to the 
 rest, and they gave their opinions upon it. The place of 
 meeting was the house of M. Conrard, which was chosen 
 as being the most central. The fame of these meetings, 
 though the members were bound over to secrecy, reached at 
 length the ears of Cardinal Richelieu, who conceived so 
 high an opinion of them, that he at once promised them 
 his protection, and offered to incorporate them by letters 
 patent. Nearly all the members would have preferred the 
 <diarm3 of privacy, bit, considering the risk they would run in 
 
 incurring the cardinal's displeasure, and that by the letter 
 of the law all meetings of any sort or kind were prohibited, 
 they expressed their gratitude for the high honour the 
 cardinal thought fit to confer on them. They proceeded 
 at once to organise their body, settle their laws and consti'u- 
 tion, appoint officers, and choose their name. Their officers 
 consisted of a director and a chancellor, both chosen by 
 lot, and a permanent secretary, chosen by votes. They 
 elected besides a publisher, not a member of the body. 
 The director presided at the meetings, being considered 
 as primus inter pares, and performing much, the same part 
 as the speaker in the English Ilouse of Commons. The 
 chancellor kept tho seals, and sealed all the official docu- 
 ments of the academy. The office of the secretary explain 
 itself. The cardinal was ex officio protector. Tho meet- 
 ings were weekly as before. 
 
 The letters patent were at once granted by the king, but 
 it was only after violent opposition and long delay that the 
 president, who was jealous of the cardinal's authority, con- 
 sented to grant tho verification required by the old con- 
 stitution of France. 
 
 The object for which the academy was founded, as set forth 
 in its statutes, was tho purification of tho French language. 
 " Tho principal function of the academy shall be to labour 
 with all care and diligence to give certain rules to our 
 language, and to render it pure, eloquent, and capable of 
 treating the arts and sciences" (Art. 24). They proposed 
 " to cleanse the language from the impurities it has con- 
 tracted in the mouths of the common people, from the 
 jargon of tho lawyers, from the misusages of ignorant 
 courtiers, and the abuses of the pulpit" — Letter of Academy 
 to Cardinal Jiichclieu. 
 
 Their numbers were fixed at forty. The original members 
 who formed the nucleus of the body were eight, and it was 
 not till 1639 that the full number was completed. Their 
 first undertaking consisted of essays written by all the 
 members in rotation. To judge by the titles and speci- 
 mens which have come down to us, these possessed no 
 special originality or merit, but resembled the tVi8e('£«s of 
 the Greek rhetoricians. They next, at the instance of 
 Cardinal Richelieu, undertook a criticism of Corueille's 
 Cid, the most popular work of the day. It was a rule of 
 the academy that no work could be criticised except at tho 
 author's request. It wa3 only the fear of incurring the 
 cardinal's displeasure which wrung from Corneillc an un- 
 willing consent. The critique of the academy was re- 
 written several times before it met with the cardinal's 
 approbation. After six months of elaboration, it was pub- 
 lished under. the title, Sentiments de I 'Academic Francoisa 
 sur le Cid. 'This judgment did not satisfy Corneille, as a 
 saying attributed to him on the occasion shows. " Hora- 
 tius," he said, referring to his last play, " was condemned 
 by the Duumviri, but he was absolved by the people." 
 But the crowning labour of the academy, commenced in 
 1639, was a dictionary of the French language. By the 
 twenty-sixth article of their statutes, they were pledged to 
 compose a dictionary, a grammar, a treatise on rhetoric, 
 and one on poetry. M. Chapelain, one of the original 
 members and leading spirits of the academy, pointed out 
 that the dictionary would naturally be the first of these 
 works to be undertaken, and drew up a plan of the work, 
 which was to a great extent carried out. A catalogue wa3 
 to be made of all the most approved authors, prose and verse : 
 these were to be distributed among the members, and all 
 words and phrases of which they approved to be marked 
 by them in order to be incorporated in the dictionary. 
 For this they resolved themselves into two committees, 
 which sat on other than the regular days. M. de Vaugelas 1 
 
 1 A ban mot of his u worth recording. When returning thanks for
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 75 
 
 wa9 appointed editor in chief. To remunerate nim for his 
 labours, he received from the cardinal a pension of 2000 
 francs. The first edition of this dictionary appeared in 
 1691, the last Complement in 1854. 
 
 Instead of following the history of the FrenchAcademy, — 
 which, like its two younger sisters, the Academy of 
 Sciences and the Academy of Inscriptions, was suppressed 
 in 1793, and reconstituted in 1795, as a class of the Insti- 
 tute, — a history which it would be impossible to treat 
 adequately in the limit of an article, we will attempt 
 briefly to estimate its influence on French literature and 
 language, and point out its principal merits and defects. 
 To begin with its merits, it may justly boast that there is 
 hardly a single name of the first rank among French 
 litterateurs that it has not enrolled among its members. 
 Moli-ere, it is true, was rejected as a player; but we can 
 hardly blame the academy for a social prejudice which it 
 shared with the age; and it is well known that it has, as 
 far as was in its power, made the amende honorable. In 
 the Salle des Seances is placed the bust of the greatest 
 of modern comedians, with the inscription, "Rien ne 
 manque k sa gloire ; il manquait a la notre." Descartes 
 was excluded from the fact of his residing in Holland. 
 Scarron was confined by paralysis to his own house. 
 Pascal is the only remaining exception, and Pascal was 
 better known to his contemporaries as a mathematician 
 than a writer. His Lcttres Provunciales were published 
 anonymously; and just when his fame was rising he 
 retired to Port-Royal, where he lived the life of a recluse. 
 On the other hand, it cannot be denied that the fauteuils 
 have often been occupied by men of "no mark in literature. 
 Nor is the academy wholly exonerated by M. Livet's in- 
 genious defence, that there are but eight marshals in the 
 French army, and yet the number has never appeared too 
 restricted ; for its most ardent admirers will not assert that 
 it has, as a rule, chosen the forty most distinguished living 
 authors. Court intrigue, rank, and finesse, have too often 
 prevailed over real merit and honest} Though his facts 
 are incorrect, there is much truth in Courier's caustic 
 satire : — "_Dans une compagnie de gens faisant profession 
 d'esprit ou de savoir, nul ne veut pros de soi un plus habile 
 que soi, mais bien un plus noble, un plus riche : un due 
 et pair honore l'Acadimie Francaise, qui ne veut point de 
 Boilea-u, 1 refuse la Bruyere, fait atteudre Voltaire, mais 
 recoit tout d'abord Chapelain et Conrart." 
 
 We have next to consider the influence of the French 
 Academy on the language and literature, a subject on which 
 the most opposite opinions have been advanced. On the 
 one hand, it has been asserted that it has corrected the 
 judgment, purified the taste, and formed the language of 
 French writers, and that to it we owe the most striking 
 characteristics of French literature, its purity, delicacy, and 
 flexibility. Thus Mr Matthew Arnold, in his well-known 
 Essay on the Literary Influence of Academies, has pro- 
 nounced a glowing panegyric on the French Academy as a 
 hiirh court of letters, and rallying point for educated opinion, 
 as asserting the authority of a master in matters of tone 
 and taste. To. it he attributes in a great measure that 
 thoroughness, that openness of mind, that absence of 
 vulgarity which he finds everywhere in French literature ; 
 and to the want of a similar institution in England he 
 traces that eccentricity, that provincial spirit, that coarse- 
 ness, which, as he thinks, is barely compensated by English 
 genius. Thus, too, M. Renan, one of its most distinguished 
 living members, say's that it is owing to the academy "qu'on 
 
 liia pension, the cardinal remarked, " Tfell, Monsieur, you will not 
 forget the word pension in your dictionary." "No, Monscigneur," 
 replied. Vaugelas, "and still less the word gratitude." 
 
 1 Bnileau was elected to the French Academy 1C8-J, La Bruyere 
 
 pent tout dire earn appa/cil sfcholastique avec la langue 
 des gens du monde." 'Ah ne dites," he exclaims, " qu'ils 
 n'ont rien fait, ces obscures beaux esprits dont la vie se 
 passe a instruire le proces des mots, a peser les syllables, 
 lis ont fait un chef-d'oeuvre — la langue francaise." On the 
 other hand, its inherent defects have been so well summed 
 up by M. Lanfrey, that we cannot do better than quote 
 from his recent History of Napoleon. "This institution," 
 he says, speaking of the French Academy, " had never 
 shown itself the enemy of despotism. Founded by the 
 monarchy and for the monarchy, eminently favourable to 
 the spirit of intrigue and favouritism, incapable of any 
 sustained or combined labour, a stranger to those great 
 works pursued m common which legitimise and glorify 
 the existence of scientific bodies, occupied exclusively with 
 learned trifles, fatal to emulation, which it pretends to 
 stimulate, by the compromises and calculations to which it 
 subjects it, directed in everything by petty considerations, 
 and wasting all its energy in childish tournaments, in 
 which the flatteries that it showers on others are only the 
 foretaste of the compliments it expects in return for itself, 
 the French Academy seems to. have received from its 
 founders the special mission to transform genius into bet 
 esprit, and it would be hard to produce a man of talent 
 whom it has not demoralised. Drawn in spite of itself 
 towards politics, it alternately pursues and avoids them ; 
 but it is specially attracted by the- gossip of politics, and 
 whenever it has so far emancipated itself as to go into 
 opposition, it does so as the champion of ancient prejudices. 
 If we examine its influence on the national genius, we 
 shall see that it has given it a flexibility, a brilliancy, a 
 polish, which it never possessed before,; but it has done 
 so at the expense of its masculine qualities, its originality, 
 its spontaneity, its vigour, its natural grace. It has dis- 
 ciplined it, but it has emasculated, impoverished, and 
 rigidified it. It sees in taste, not a sense of the beautiful, 
 but a certain type of correctness, an elegant form of medio- 
 crity. It has substituted pomp for grandeur, school 
 routine for individual inspiration, elaborateness for sim- 
 plicity, fadeur and the monotony of literary orthodoxy for 
 variety, the source and spring of intellectual life; and in 
 the works produced under its auspices we discover the 
 rhetorician and the writer, never the man. By all its 
 traditions the academy was made to be the natural orna- 
 ment of a monarchical society. Richelieu conceived and 
 created it as a sort of superior centralisation applied to 
 intellect, as a high literary court to maintain intellectual 
 unity, and protest against innovation. Bonaparte, aware of 
 all this, had thought of re-establishing its ancient privileges; 
 but it had in his eyes one fatal defect — esprit. Kings of 
 France could condone a witticism even against themselves, 
 a parvenu could not." 
 
 In conclusion, we would briefly state our own opinion. 
 The influence of the French Academy has been conservative 
 rather than creative. While it has raised tho general 
 standard of writing, it has tended to hamper and crush 
 originality.- It has done much by its example for style, 
 but its attempts to impose its laws on language have, from 
 the nature of the case, failed. For, however perfectly a 
 dictionary or a grammar may represent the existing lan- 
 guage of a nation, an original genius is certain to arise — a 
 Victor Hugo, or ai> Alfred de Musset, who will set a t de- 
 fiance all dictionaries and academic rules. 
 
 Spain. — The Royal Spanish Academy at 3fadrid held 
 its first meeting in July 1713, in the palace of its founder, 
 the Duke (TEscalona. It consisted at first of 8 academicians, 
 including the duke; to which number 14 others were 
 afterwards added, the founder being chosen president or 
 director. In 1714 the king granted -them the royal con- 
 firmation and protection. Their device is a crucible in
 
 7ti 
 
 the middle of the fire, with this motto, Limpia, fixa, y 
 da esplendor — " It purifies, fixes, ar.d gives brightness." 
 The number of its members was limited to 24; the Duke 
 d'Escalona was chosen director for life, but his successors 
 were elected yearly, and the secretary for life. Their 
 object, as marked out by the royal declaration, was to 
 cultivate and improve the national language. They were 
 to begin with choosing carefully such words and phrases 
 as have been used by the best Spanish writers; noting 
 the low, barbarous, or obsolete ones ; and composing a 
 dictionary wherein these might be distinguished from the 
 former. 
 
 Sweden. — The Royal Swedish Academy was founded in 
 the year 1786, for the purpose of purifying and perfecting 
 the Swedish language. A medal is struck by its direction 
 every year in honour of some illustrious Swede This 
 academy does not publish its transactions. 
 
 Belgium. — Belgium has always been famous for its 
 literary societies. The little town of Diest boasts that it 
 possessed a society of poets in 1302, and the Catheriuists 
 of Alost date from 1107. Whether or not there is any 
 foundation for these claims, it is certain that numerous 
 Chambers of Rhetoric (so academies were then called) 
 existed in the first years of the rule of the house of Bur- 
 gundy. 
 
 The present Royal Academy of Belgium was founded by 
 the Count of Coblenzl at Brussels, 17G9. Count Stahren- 
 berg obtained for it in 1772 letters patent from Maria 
 Theresa, who also granted pensions to all the members, 
 and a fund for printing their works. All academicians 
 wero ipso facto ennobled. It was reorganised, and a class 
 of fine arts added in 1845 through the agency of M..Van 
 de Weyer, the learned Belgian ambassador at London. It 
 has devoted itself principally to national history and anti- 
 quities. 
 
 III. Academies of Archeology and History. — 
 Italy. — Under this class the Academy of Herculaneum pro- 
 perly ranks. It wa3 established at Naples about 1755, at 
 which period a museum was formed of the antiquities 
 found at Herculaneum, Pompeii, and other places, by the 
 Marquis Tanucci, who was then minister of state. Its ob- 
 ject was to explain the paintings, &c, which were discovered 
 at those places; and for this purpose the members met 
 every fortnight, and at each meeting three paintings were 
 submitted to three academicians, who made their report 
 on them at their next sitting. The first volume of their 
 labours appeared in 1775, and they have been continued 
 under the title of Antichita °di Ercolano. They contain 
 engravings of the principal paintings, statues, bronzes, 
 marble figures, medals, utensils, &c, with explanations. 
 In the year 1807, an Academy of History and Antiquities, 
 on a new plan, was established at Naples by Joseph Bo»a- 
 parte. The number of members was limited to forty; 
 twenty of whom were to be appointed by the king, and 
 these twenty were to present to him, for his choice, three 
 names for each of those wanted to complete the full num- 
 ber. Eight thousand ducats were to be annually allotted 
 for the current expenses, and two thousand for prizes to 
 the authors of four works which should be deemed by the 
 academy most deserving of such a reward. A grand meet- 
 ing was to be held every year, when the prizes were to be 
 distributed, and analyses of the works read. The first 
 meeting took place on the 25th of "April 1807; but the 
 subsequent changes in the political state of Naples pre- 
 vented the full and permanent establishment of this insti- 
 tution. In the same year an academy was established at 
 Florence for the illustration of Tuscan antiquities, which 
 published some volumes of memoirs. 
 
 France. — The old Academy of Inscriptions and Belles 
 Lettres was an off-shoot from the French Academy, which 
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 then at least contained the elite of French learning. Louis 
 XIV. was of all French kings the one most occupied with 
 his own aggrandisement. Literature, and even science, ha 
 only encouraged so far as they redounded to his own glory. 
 Nor were literary men inclined to assert their independence. 
 Boileau well represented the spirit of the age when, in 
 dedicating his tragedy of Berenice to Colbert, he wrote — 
 " The least things become important if in any degree 
 they can serve the glory and pleasure of the king." Thus 
 it was that the Academy of Inscriptions arose. At the 
 suggestion of Colbert, a company (a committee wc should 
 now call it) had been appointed by tho king, chosen from 
 the French Academy, charged with the office of furnishing 
 inscriptions, devices, and legends for medals. It consisted 
 of four academicians : Chapelain, then considered the poet 
 laureate of France, one of the authors of the critique on 
 the Cid (see above); labb6 de Bourzeis; Francois Cai- 
 penticr, an antiquary of high repute among his contem- 
 poraries ; and l'abbe de Capagnes, who owed his appoint- 
 ment more to the fulsome flattery of his odes than his 
 really learned translations of Cicero and Sallnst. This 
 company used to meet in Colbert's library in the winter, 
 at his country-house at Sceaux in the summer, generally 
 on Wednesdays, to serve the convenience of the minister, 
 who was constantly present. Their meetings were princi- 
 pally occupied with discussing the inscriptions, statues, 
 and pictures intended for the decoration of Versailles; but 
 M. Colbert, a really learned man and an enthusiastic col- 
 lector of manuscripts, was often pleased to converse with 
 them on matters of art, history, and antiquities. Their 
 first published work was a collection of engravings, accom- 
 panied by descriptions, designed for some of the tapestries 
 at Versailles. Louvois, who succeeded Colbert as a super- 
 intendent of buildings, revived the company, 'which had 
 begun to relax its labours. Felibien, the learned architect, 
 and the two great poets Bacine and Boileau, were added 
 to their number. A series_ of medals was commenced, 
 entitled lledailles de la Grande Histoire, or, in other words, 
 the history of le Grand Monarque. 
 
 But it was to M. de Fortchartrain, comptroller-general 
 of finance and secretary of state, that the academy owed 
 its institution. He added to tho company llenaudot ano 
 Tourreil, both men of vast learning, the latter tutor to his 
 son, and put at its head his nephew, l'abbe Bignon, librarian 
 to the king. By a new regulation, dated the lGth July 
 1701, the Royal Academy of Inscriptions and iledals 
 was instituted, 'being composed of ten honorary members 
 ten pensioners, ten associates, and ten pupils. On its 
 constitution we need not dwell, as it was an almost exact 
 copy of that of the Academy of Science. Among th» 
 regulations we find the following, which indicates clearly 
 the transition from a staff of learned officials to a learned 
 body : — " The academy shall concern itself with all that can 
 contribute to the perfection of inscriptions and legends, of 
 designs for such monuments and decorations as may be 
 submitted to its judgment; also with the description of all 
 artistic works, present and future, and the historical ex- 
 planation of the subject of such works: and as the know- 
 ledge of Greek and Latin antiquities, and of these two 
 languages, is the best guarantee for success in labours of 
 this class, the academicians shall apply themselves to all 
 that this division of learning includes, as one of the most 
 worthy objects of their pursuit." 
 
 Among the first honorary members we find the indefa- 
 tigable Mabillon (excluded from the pensioners by reason 
 of his orders), Pere La Chaise, the king's .confessor, and 
 Cardinal Kohan ; among the associates Fontenelle, and 
 Rollin, whose Ancient History was submitted to the 
 academy for revision. In 1711 ixity completed L' Histoire 
 Metallique du Roi, of which Saint-Simon was asked to
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 77 
 
 writo the preface. In 1716 the regent changed its title 
 to that of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, 
 a title which better f uited its new character. 
 
 In the great battle between the Ancients and the Moderns 
 which divided the learned world in the first half of the 
 18th century, the Academy of Inscriptions naturally 
 espoused the cause of the Ancients, as the Academy of 
 Sciences did that of the Moderns. During the earlier 
 years of the French Revolution the academy continued 
 its labours uninterruptedly; and on the 22d of January 
 1793, the day after the death of Louis XVI., we find in 
 'the Proceedings that M. Brequigny read a paper on the 
 projects of marriage between Queen Elizabeth and the 
 Dukes of Anjou and Alencon. In the same year were 
 published the 45th and 4Cth vols, of the Memoires de 
 I' Academic On the 2d of August of the same year the 
 last seance of the old academy was held. More fortunate 
 than its sister Academy of Sciences, it lost only three of its 
 members by the guillotine. One of these was the astro- 
 nomer Sy'vain Bailly. Three others sat as members of 
 the Convention ; but for the honour of the academy, we 
 must add that all three were distinguished by their mode- 
 ration. 
 
 In the first draught of the new Institute, October 25, 
 1795, no class corresponded exactly to the old Academy 
 of Inscriptions ; but most of the members who survived 
 found themselves re-elected either in the 2d class of moral 
 and political science, under which history and geography 
 were included as sections, or more generally under the 3d 
 class of literature and fine arts, which embraced ancient 
 languages, antiquities, and monuments. 
 
 In 1816 the academy received again its old name. 
 The Proceedings of the Society embrace a vast field, and 
 are of very various merits. Perhaps the subjects on which 
 it has shown most originality are comparative mythology, 
 the history of science among the ancients, and the geo- 
 graphy and antiquities of France. The old academy has 
 reckoned among its members De Sacy the Orientalist, 
 Dansse de Villoison the philologist, Du Perron the traveller, 
 Sainte-Croix and Du Theil the antiquarians, and Le Beau, 
 who has been named the last of the Romans. The new. 
 academy has already inscribed on its lists the well-known 
 names of Cbampcllion, A Beinusat, Baynouard, Burnouf, 
 and Augustin Thierry. 
 
 Celtic Academy.— In consequence of the attention of 
 several literary men in Paris having been directed to Celtic 
 antiquities, a Celtic Academy was established in that city in 
 the year 1800. Its objects were, first, the elucidation of the 
 aistory, customs, antiquities, manners, and monuments of 
 the Celts, particularly in France; secondly, the etymology 
 of all the European languages, by the aid of the Celto- v 
 British, Welsh, and Erse ; and, thirdly, researches relating to 
 Druidism. The attention of the members was also parti- 
 cularly called to the history and settlements of the Galatae 
 in Asia. Lenoir, the keeper of the museum of French 
 monuments, was appointed president. The academy still 
 exists as La Societe Koyale des Antiquaires de France. 
 
 IV. Academies of Medicine and Surgery. — Germany. 
 t— The Academy of Natural Curiosi, called also the Leo- 
 poldine Academy, was founded in 1692, by J. L. Bausch, 
 a physician of Leipsic, who, imitating the example of the 
 English, published a general invitation to medical men to 
 communicate all extraordinary cases that occurred in the 
 course of their practice. The works of the Nature Curiosi 
 were at first published separately ; but this being attended 
 with considerable inconvenience, a new arrangement was 
 formed, in 1770, for publishing a volume of observations 
 annually. From some cause, however, the first volume 
 did not make its appearance until 1784, when it came 
 forth under the title of Ephemerides. In 1 687, the Emperor 
 
 Leopold took the society under his protection, and estab- 
 lished it at Vienna; hence the title of Leopoldine which it 
 in consequence assumed. But though it thus acquired a 
 name, it had no fixed place of meeting, and no regular 
 assemblies ; instead of which there was a kind of bureau 
 or office, first established at Breslau, and afterwards re- 
 moved to Nuremberg, where communications from corre- 
 spondents were received, and persons properly qualified 
 admitted as members. By its constitution the Leopoldine 
 Academy consists of a president, two adjuncts or secretaries, 
 and colleagues or members, without any limitation as to 
 numbers. At their admission the last come under a two 
 fold' obligation — first, to choose some subject for discussion 
 out of the anim al, vegetable, or mineral kingdom, provided 
 it has not been previously treated of by any colleague of 
 the academy; and, secondly, to apply themselves to furnish 
 materials for the annual Ephemerides. Each member also 
 bears about with him the symbol of the academy, consist- 
 ing of a gold ring, whereon is represented a book open, 
 with an eye on one side, and on the other the academical 
 motto of Nunquam otiosus. 
 
 Tho Academy of Surgery at Vienna was instituted by 
 the present emperor, under the direction of the celebrated 
 Brambella In it there were at first only two professors ; 
 and to their charge the instruction of a hundred and thirty 
 young men was committed, thirty of whom had formerly 
 been surgeons in the army. But latterly the number both 
 of teachers and pupils was considerably increased. Gab- 
 rielli was appointed to teach pathology and practice : 
 Boecking, anatomy, physiology, and physics; Streit, medical 
 and pharmaceutical surgery; Hunczowsky, surgical ope- 
 rations, midwifery, and chirurgia forensis ; and Plenk, 
 chemistry and botany. To these was also added Beindel, 
 as prosesutor and extraordinary professor of surgery and 
 anatomy. Besides tins, the emperor provided a large and 
 splendid edifice in Vienna, which affords accommodatio.. 
 both for the teachers, the students, pregnant women, 
 patients for clinical lectures, and servants. For the use 
 of this academy the emperor also purchased a medical 
 library, which is open every day ; a complete set of chirur- 
 gical instruments; an apparatus for experiments in natural 
 philosophy ; a collection of natural history ; a number ot 
 anatomical and pathological preparations; a collection of 
 preparations in wax, brought from Florence ; and a variety 
 of other useful articles. Adjoining the building there 
 is also a good botanical garden. With a view to encourage 
 emulation among the students of this institution, three 
 prize medals, each of the value of 40 florins, are annually 
 bestowed on those who return the best answers to questions 
 proposed the year before. These prizes, however, are not 
 entirely founded by the emperor, but are in part owing to 
 the liberality of Brendellius, formerly protochirurgus at 
 Vienna. 
 
 France. — Royal Academy of Medicine. — Medicine is a 
 science which has always engaged the attention of the 
 kings of France. Charlemagne established a school of 
 medicine in the Louvre, and various societies have been 
 founded, and privileges granted to the faculty by his suci 
 cessors. The Royal Academy of Medicine succeeded to the 
 old Boyal Society of Medicine and the Academy of Sur- 
 gery. It was erected by a royal -ordinance, dated Decemben 
 20, 1820. It was divided into three sections — medicinej 
 surgery, and pharmacy. In its constitution it closely 
 resembled the Academy of Sciences (vid. sup.) Its function 
 was to -preserve or propagate vaccine matter, and answer 
 inquiries addressed to it by the Government on the subjeci 
 of epidemics, sanitary reform, and public health generally. 
 It has maintained an enormous correspondence in ail 
 quarters of the globe, and published extensive minutes. 
 
 V. Academies of the Fin? Arts. — Rusaa. — Th<
 
 78 
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 academy at St Petersburg was established by the Em yre aB 
 Kluabeth, at' the suggestion of Count' Ghuvaloff, and 
 annexed to the Academy of Sciences. The fund for its 
 support was £4000 per annum, and the foundation 
 admitted forty scholars. Catharine It. formed ii into a 
 separato institution, augmented the annual revenue to 
 -DI-,000, and increased the number of scholars to three 
 hundred; she also constructed, for the use and accommo- 
 dation of tho members, a large circular building, which 
 fronts tho Neva. The scholars are admitted at the age of 
 six, and continue until they have attained that of eighteen. 
 ure clothed, fed, and lodged at the expense of the 
 crown , and are all instructed in reading and writing, 
 arithmetic, the French and German languages, and draw- 
 ing At the age of fourteen they are at liberty to choose 
 any of the following arts, divided into four classes, vfe., 
 first, painting in all its branches of history portraits, war- 
 pieces, and landscapes, architecture, mosaic, enamelling, 
 Ax. ; secondly, engraving on copperplates, seal-cutting, &c, ; 
 thirdly, carving on wood, ivory, and amber; fourthly, watch- 
 making, turning, instrument making, casting statues in 
 bronze and other metals, imitating gems and medals in 
 paste and other compositions, gilding, and varnishing. 
 Prizes are annually distributed to those who excel in any 
 particular art ; and, from those who have obtained four 
 prizes, twelve are selected, who are sent abroad at the 
 charge of the crown. A certain sum is paid to defray 
 their travelling expenses ; and when they are settled in 
 any town, they receive an annual salary of £60, which is 
 continued during four years. There is a small assortment 
 of paintings for the use of the scholars ; and those who 
 have made great progress are permitted to copy the pictures 
 in the imperial collection. For the purpose cf design, 
 there are models in plaster, al! done at Rome, of the best 
 «utique statues in Italy, and of the same size with the 
 originals, which the artists of the academy were employed 
 to cast in bronze. 
 
 France. — The Academy of Painting and Sculpture at 
 Paris was founded by Louis XIV. in 1G48, under the title of 
 Academic Royale des Beaux Arts, to which was afterwaids 
 united the Academy of Architecture, erected 1671. The 
 academy is composed of painters, sculptors, architects, 
 engravers, and musical composers. From among the 
 members of the society, who are painters, is chosen the 
 director of the French Aeademie des Beaux Arts at Berne, 
 also instituted by Louis XIV. in 1G77.' The director's pro- 
 vince is to superintend the studies of the painters, sculptors, 
 ic, who, having been chosen by competition, are sent to 
 Italy at the expense of the Government, to complete their 
 studies in that country. Most of the celebrated French 
 painters have begun their career in this way. 
 
 The Royal Academy of Music is the name which, by a 
 strange perversion of language, is given in France to the 
 grand opera. In 1571 the poet Baif established in his 
 house an academy or school of music, at which ballets and 
 masquerades were given. In 1645 Mazarin brought from 
 Italy a troupe of actors, and established them in the Rue 
 du Petit Bourbon, where they executed Jules Strozzi's 
 •■ Achille in Sciro," the first opera performed in France. 
 After Moliere's death in 1673, his theatre in the Palais 
 Royal was given to Sulli, and there were performed all 
 Cluck's great operas ; there Vestris danced, and there was 
 produced Jean Jacques Rousseau's " Devin du Village." 
 
 Italy. — In 1778 an Academy of Painting and Sculp- 
 ture was established at Turin. The meetings- were held 
 in the palace of the king, who distributed prizes among 
 the most successful members. In Milan an Academy of 
 Architecture was established so early as the year 13S0, by 
 Galeas Visconti. About the middle of the last century an 
 Academy of the Arts was established there, after the 
 
 example of those at Paris and Rome. Tho pupils were 
 furnished with originals and models, and prizes were dis- 
 tributed annually. The prize for painting was a gold 
 medal, and no prize was bestowed till all the competing 
 pieces had been subjected to the examination and criticism 
 of competent judges. Before the effects of the French 
 Revolution reached Italy this was one of the best establish- 
 ments of the kind in that kingdom. In the hall of the 
 academy were some admirable pieces of Correggio, as well 
 as several ancient paintings and statues of great merit, — 
 particularly a small bust of Vitellius, and a statue of 
 Agrippina, of most exquisite beauty, though it wants the 
 bead and arms. Tho Academy of the Arts, which had 
 been long established at Florence, fell into decay, but was 
 restored in the end of last century. In it there are halls 
 for nude and plaster figures, for the use of the sculptor and 
 the painter. The hall for plaster figures had models of all 
 the finest statues in Italy, arranged in two lines; but th* 
 treasures of this and the other institutions for the fine art? 
 were greatly diminished during the occupancy of Italy by 
 the French. In the saloon of tho Academy of the Arts at 
 Modena there are many casts of antique statues ; but after 
 being plundered by the French it dwindled into a petty 
 school for drawings from living models ; it contains tho 
 skull of Correggio. There is also an Academy of the Fine 
 Arts in Mantua, and another at Venice. 
 
 Spain. — In Madrid an Academy for Painting, Sculp- 
 ture, and Architecture, was founded by Philip V. The 
 minister for foreign affairs is president. Prizes are dis- 
 tributed _ every three years. In Cadiz a few students 
 are supplied by Government with the means of drawing 
 and modelling from figures ; and such as are not able 
 to purchase the requisite instruments are provided with 
 them. 
 
 Sweden. — An Academy of the Fine Arts was founded at 
 Stockholm in the year 1733 by Count Tessin. In its hall 
 are the ancient figures of plaster presented by Louis XIV. 
 to Charles XL The works of the students are publicly 
 exhibited, and prizes are distributed annually. Sucn oi 
 them as display distinguished ability obtain pensions from 
 Government, to enable them to reside in Italy for some 
 years, for the purposes of investigation and improvement. 
 In this academy there are nine professors, and generally 
 about four hundred students. In the year 1705 an 
 Academy of Painting, Sculpture, aud Architecture was 
 established at Vienna, with tho new of encouraging and 
 promoting the fine arts.. 
 
 England. — The Jioyal Academy of Arts in London wa» 
 instituted for the encouragement of designing, painting, 
 sculpture, &c, in the year 1768, with Sir J. Reynolds 
 for its president. This academy is under t'"> immediate 
 patronage of the queen, and under the direction of forty 
 artists of the first rank in their several professions. It 
 furnishes, in winter, living models of different characters 
 to draw after ; and in summer, models of the same kind 
 to paint after. Nine of the ablest academicians are 
 annually elected out of the forty, whose business it is to 
 attend by rotation, to set the figures, to examine the 
 performance of the students, and to give them necessary 
 instructions. There are likewise professors of painting, 
 sculpture, architecture, anatomy, and chemistry, who 
 annually read public lectures on the subjects of their 
 several departments ; besides a president, a council, and 
 other officers. The admission to this academy is free to 
 all students properly qualified to reap advantage from the 
 studies cultivated in it ; and there is an annual exhibition 
 at Burlington House of paintings, sculptures, and designs, 
 open to all artists of distinguished merit. 
 
 The Academy of Ancient Music was established in Lon- 
 don in 1710, by several persons of distinction, and othei
 
 / 1 
 
 A — A C G 
 
 79 
 
 amateurs, in conjunction with the most eminent masters of 
 the time, with the view of promoting the study and practice 
 of vocal and instrumental harmony. This institution, 
 which had the advantage of a library, consisting of the most 
 celebrated compositions, both foreign and domestic, in 
 manuscript and in print, and which was aided by the per- 
 formances of the gentlemen of the chapel royal, and the 
 choir of St Paul's, with the boys belonging to each, con- 
 tinued to flourish for many years. In 1731 a charge of 
 plagiarism brought against Bononcini, a member of the 
 academy, for claiming a madrigal of Lotti of Venice as 
 his own, threatened the existence of the institution. Dr 
 Greene, who had introduced the madrigal into the aca- 
 demy, took part with Bononcini, and withdrew from the 
 °ociety, taking with him the boys of St Paul's. In 1734 
 Mr Gates, another member of the society, and roaster of 
 the children of the royal chapel, also retired in disgust; 
 so that the institution was thus deprived of the assistance 
 which the boys afforded it in singing the soprano parts. 
 From this time the academy became a seminary for the 
 instruction of youth in the principles of music and the 
 laws of harmony. Dr Pepusch, who was one of its foun- 
 ders, was active in accomplishing this measure; ani by 
 the expedient of educating boys for their purpose, and 
 admitting auditor members, the subsistence of the aca- 
 demy wa3 continued. T>-e Royal Academy of Music 
 
 was formed by the principal nobility and gentry of th6 
 kingdom, for the performance of operas, composed by 
 Handel, and conducted by him at the theatre in the Hay- 
 market. The suWrl ; ,!lon amounted to £50,000, and the 
 king, besides subscribing £1000, allowed the society to 
 assume the title of Royal Academy. It consisted of a 
 governor, deputy-governor, and twenty directors. A con- 
 test between Handel and Senesino, ono of the performers, 
 in which the directors took the part of the latter, occa- 
 sioned the dissolution of the academy, after it had subsisted 
 with reputation for more than nine years. The present 
 Royal Academy of Music dates from 1822, and was incor- 
 porated in 1830 under the patronage of the queen. Il 
 instructs pupils of both sexes in music, charging 33 guineas 
 per annum; but many receive instruction free. It also 
 gives public concerts. In this institution the leading 
 instrumentalists and vocalists of England have received 
 their education. (See Musical Directory published by 
 Rudall, Carte, and Co.) 
 
 Academy is a term also applied to those royal collegiate 
 seminaries in which young men are educated for the navy 
 and army. In our country there are three colleges ci 
 this description — the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth, 
 the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, acd tl« R„yal 
 Military College, Sandhurst. 
 
 (f. a 
 
 A CADIZ, or Acadia, the name Dome by Nova Scotia 
 while it remained a French settlement. 
 
 AGALEPHJ2 (from 6.Ka\ri<j>ri, a nettle), a name given to 
 the animals commonly known as jelly-fish, sea-blubber, 
 Medusa;, sea-neltles, ic. 
 
 ACANTHOCETHALA (from <W0a, a thorn, and 
 Kc^aXrj, the head), a group 'of parasitic worms, having the 
 heads armed with spines or hooks. 
 
 ACANTHOPTERYGU (from S K av9a, a thorn, and 
 Ttripv^, a wing), an order of fishes, having bony skeletons 
 with prickly spinous processes in the dorsal fins. 
 
 ACANTHUS, a genus of plants belonging to the natural 
 order Acanthacece. The species are natives of the southern 
 parts of Europe. The most common species is the Acan- 
 thus mollis or Brankursinc. It has large, deeply-cut, hairy, 
 sLimng leaves, which are supposed to have suggested the 
 decoration of the Corinthian column. Another species, 
 Acanthus spiiwsus, is so called from its spiny leaves. 
 
 ACAPULCO, a town and port in Mexico, on a bay of 
 the Pacific Ocean, about 190 miles S.S.W. of Mexico, in 
 N. lat 16° 50', W. long. 99° 46'. The harbour, which is 
 the best on the Pacific coast, is almost completely land- 
 locked. It is easy of access, and the anchorage is so 
 6ecure that heavily-laden ships can lie close to the rocks 
 which surround it. The town lies N.W. of the harbour, 
 and is defended by the castla of San Diego, which stands 
 on an eminence. During a part of the dry season the air 
 is infected with the putrid effluvia of a morass eastward of 
 the town. This, together with the heat of the climate, 
 aggravated by the reflection of the sun's rays from the 
 granite rocks that environ the town, rend. ■ it .very un- 
 healthy, especially to Europeans, though a p-. "e cut 
 through the rocks, to let in the sea breeze, has tentu.. *•» 
 improve its salubrity. Acapu'io was in former times tLe 
 great depot of the trade of Spain with the East Indies. 
 A gallenr sailed from this port to Manilla in the Philippine 
 Islands, and another returned once a. year laden with the 
 treasures and luxuries of the East. On the arrival of this 
 galleon a great fair was held, to which merchants rcc rted 
 fiom all parts of Mexico, liid trade between Acapulco 
 
 and Manila was annihilated when Mexico became mde 
 pendent, and, from 'las cause, anu a»so on account of the 
 frequent earthquakes by which the town has been visited, 
 it had sunk to comparative insignificance, when the dis- 
 covery of gold in California gave its trade a fresh impetus 
 It is now the most important seaport in Mexico, and is 
 regularly touched at by the Pacific mail steamera Beside? 
 having a large transit trade, it exports wool, skins, cocoa, 
 cochineal, and indigo; and the imports include cottons, 
 silks, and hardware. Population about 5000. 
 
 ACARNANLA., a province of ancient Greece, now called 
 Carnia. It was bounded on the N. by the Ambraciao 
 gulf, on iii& N.E. by Amphilochia, on the W. and S.W. 
 by the Ionian Sea, and on the E. by iEtolia. It was 
 a hilly country, with numerous lakes and tracts of rich 
 pasture, and its hills are to the present day crowned with 
 thick wood. It was celebrated for its exc<>ll»i:» breed of 
 horses. The Ac&rnanians, according to Mr Grotc, though 
 admitted as Greeks to the Pan-Hellenic games, were more 
 akin in character and manners to their barbarian neighbours 
 of Epirus. Up to the time of the Peloponnesian war, they 
 are mentioned only as a race of rude sheihwdo, divided 
 into numerous petty tribes, and engaged in continual strife 
 and rapine. They were, however, favourably distinguished 
 from their ^Etolian neighbours by the fidelity and stead- 
 fastness of their character. They were good soldiers, and 
 excelled as slingers. At the date above mentioned they 
 begin, as the allies of the Athenians, to make a more pro 
 minent figure in the history of Greece. The chief town 
 was Stratos, and subsequently Leucaa. 
 
 ACARUS (from axapi, a mite), a genus of Arachnides, 
 represented by the cheese mite and other forms. 
 
 ACCELERATION is a term employed to denote gene- 
 rally the rate at which tho velocity of a body, whose 
 motion is not uniform, either increases or decreases. As 
 the velocity is continually changing, and cannot therefore 
 be estimated as in nniforrr-. motion, by the space actually 
 passed over in a certain time, its value at any instant has 
 to be measured by the space the bndv weald describe in 
 the iv'it .£ lin.c, ..uppcoiiig that at ana Ixom tne instant in
 
 80 
 
 A C C — A C C 
 
 question the motion became and continued uniform. If 
 the motion is such that the velocity, thus measured, in- 
 creases or decreases by equal amounts in equal intervals of 
 time, it is said to be uniformly accelerated or retarded. 
 In that case, if / denote the amount of increase or decrease 
 of velocity corresponding to the unit of time, the whole of 
 such increase or decrease in t units of time will evidently 
 be ft, and therefore if u be the initial and v the final 
 velocity for that interval, v = u ±fl, — the upper sign apply- 
 ing to accelerated, the lower to retarded, motion. To find 
 the distance or space, s, gone over in I units of time, let t 
 be divided into n equal intervals. The velocities at the 
 
 t it 
 
 end of the successive intervals will be it ± / - , u ±/ — , 
 
 ' n J n 
 
 u ±/ — , &c. Let it now be supposed that during each 
 
 of these small intervals the body has moved uniformly 
 with its velocity at the end of the interval, then (since a 
 body moving uniformly foi x seconds with a velocity of y 
 feet per second will move through xy feet) the spaces 
 described in the successive intervals would be the product 
 
 of the velocities given above by - , and the whole space in 
 
 the time t would be the sum of these spaces; i.e., 
 
 t t 2 
 t = «-(! + !.... repeated n times) ±/--j(l + 2 + 3 +n) 
 
 —4"-^ 
 
 - at =•= 
 
 >H)- 
 
 It is evident, however, that as the increase or decrease of 
 velocity takes place continuously, this sum will be too 
 large; but the greater n is taken, or (which is the same 
 thing) tho smaller the intervals are during which the 
 velocity is supposed to be uniform, the nearer will the 
 result be to the truth. Hence making n as large as pos- 
 sible, or - as small as possible, i.e., = 0, we obtain as the 
 
 correct expression J — ut * - ft*. In the case of motion 
 from rest, u'= 0, and the above formulae become v =ft, 
 
 2 ' 
 
 We have a familiar instance of uniformly accelerated 
 and uniformly retarded motion m the case of bodies fall- 
 ing and rising vertically near the earth's surface, where, if 
 the resistance of the air be neglected, the velocity of the 
 is increased or diminished, in consequence of the 
 earth's attraction, by a uniform amount in each second of 
 time. To this amount is given the name of the accelera- 
 ■ of .gravity (usually denoted by the letter^), the value 
 of which, in our latitudes and at the surface of the sea, is 
 very nearly 32 J- feet per second. Hence the space a body 
 falls from rest in any number of seconds is readily found 
 by multiplying 16^ feet by the square of the number of 
 seconds. For a fuller account of accelerating force, — ex- 
 pressed in the notation of the Differential Calculus by 
 dv , dri 
 
 it 
 
 a , — the reader is referred to the article 
 
 /= * Tt or/ 
 
 Dynamics. 
 
 ACCENT, in reading or speaking, is the stress or 
 pressure of tho voice upii a syllable of a word. The deriva- 
 tion of the term (Lat. aecentus, quasi adcanlus) clearly shows 
 that it was employed by the classical grammaiians to- 
 express the production of a musical effect. Its origin is 
 therefore ty be sought in the natural desire of man to 
 gratify the ear by modulated sound, and probably no 
 language exists in which it does not play a more pr less 
 important part. ■ " Only a machine," says Professor Blackie 
 (Tlace and Power of Accent in Language, in the Transac- 
 tion* of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1871), " could 
 
 produco a continuous series of sounds in undistinguished 
 monotonous repetitions like the turn, turn, turn, of a drum; 
 a rational being using words for a rational purpose to 
 manifest his .thoughts and feelings, necessarily accents both 
 words and sentences in some way or other." That tho 
 accentuation of some languages is more distinct, various, 
 and effective than that of others is beyond question, but 
 there are none, so far as we know, in which its power is 
 not felt. The statement sometimes made, that the French 
 have no accent in their words, can only mean that their 
 accent is less emphatic or less variously so than that 
 of certain other nations. U it means more, it is not 
 merely an error, but an absurdity. From this conception 
 of the subject, it is obvious that accent must be funda- 
 mentally the same thing in all languages, and must aim 
 more or less successfully at the same results, however 
 diverse the rules by which it is governed. But there are, 
 nevertheless, important differences between the conditions 
 under which accent operated in the classical, and those in 
 which it operates in modern tongues. It did not wholly 
 determine the rhythm, nor in the least affect the metre of 
 classical verse ; it did not fix the quantity or length of 
 classical syllables. It was a musical element superadded 
 to the measured structure of prose and verse. 
 
 Passing over the consideration of the accentual system of 
 the Hebrews with the single remark, that it exhibits, though 
 with more elaborate and complicated expression, most of 
 the characteristics both of Greek and English accent, wo 
 find that the Greeks employed three grammatical accents, 
 viz., the acute accent ('), which shows when the tone of the 
 voice is to be raised ; the grave accent ('), when it is to be 
 depressed ; and the circumflex accent ( A ), composed of both 
 the acute and the grave, and pointing out a kind of undula- 
 tion of the voice. The Latins have made the same use as tho 
 Greeks of these three accents, and various modern nations, 
 French, English, ia, have also adopted them. As to the 
 Greek accents, now seen both in manuscripts and printed 
 books, there has been great dispute about their antiquity 
 and usa But the following things seem to be undoubtedly 
 taught by the ancient grammarians and rhetoricians: — (1.) 
 That by accent (TrpoauSia, toVos) the Greeks understood the 
 elevation or falling of the voice on a particular syllable 
 of a word, either absolutely, or in relation to its position 
 in a sentence, accompanied with an intension or remission 
 of the vocal utterance on that syllable (c-n-iTao-ii, awo-is), 
 occasioning a marked predominance of that syllable over 
 the other syllables of the word. The predominance thus 
 giten, however, had no effect whatever on the quantity 
 - — long or short — of the accented syllable. The accented 
 syllable in Greek as in English, might be long or it might 
 be short ; elevation and emphasis of utterance being one 
 thing, and prolongation of the vocal sound quite another 
 thing, as any onn acquainted with the first elements of 
 music will at once perceive. The difficulty which many 
 modern scholars have experienced in conceiving how a 
 syllable could be accented and not lengthened, has arisen 
 partly from a complete want of distinct ideas on the nature 
 of the elements of which human speech is composed, and 
 partly also from a vicious practice which has long pre- 
 vailed in the English schools, of reading Greek, not accord- 
 ing to the laws of its own accentuation, but according to 
 the accent of Latin handed down to us through the Roman 
 Catholic Church. For the rules of Latin accentuation are, 
 as Quintilian and Cicero and the grammarians expressly 
 mention, very different from the Greek ; and the long syllable 
 of a word has the accent in Latin in a hundred cases, where 
 the musical habit of the Greek ear placed it upon the short. 
 There is, besides, a ^ast number of words in Greek accented 
 on tho last syllable (like voluntee!r, ambuscade, in English), 
 of which not a single instance occurs in the Latin lau-
 
 ACCENT 
 
 81 
 
 ,Tiago. Partly, however, from ignorance, partly from care- 
 lessness, and partly perhaps from stupidity, our scholars 
 transferred the pronunciation of the more popular learned 
 language to that which was less known; and with the 
 help of time and constant usage, so habituated themselves 
 to identify the accented with the long syllable, according 
 to the analogy of the Latin, that they began seriously 
 to doubt the possibility of pronouncing otherwise. Eng- 
 lish scholars have long ceased to recognise its existence, 
 and persist in reading Greek as if the accentual marks 
 meant nothing at all Even those who allow (like Mr 
 W. G. Clark and Professor Munro) that ancient Greek 
 Accent denoted an elevation of voice or tone, are still of 
 opinion that it 13 impossible to reproduce it in modern 
 times. " Here and there," says the former (Cambridge 
 Journal of Philology, vol. L 1868), "a person may be 
 found with such an exquisite ear, and such plastic organs 
 >f speech, as to be able to reproduce the ancient distinction 
 between the length and tone of syllables accented and 
 unaccented, and many not so gifted may fancy that they 
 reproduce it when they do nothing of the kind. For the 
 mass of boys and men, pupils as well as teachers, the dis- 
 tinction is practically impossible." But, in spite of such 
 pessimist views, it may, on the whole, be safely asserted 
 that since the appearance of a more philosophical spirit in 
 philology, under the guidance of Hermann, Boeckh, and 
 other master-minds among the Germans, the best gram- 
 marians have come to recognise the importance of this 
 element of ancient Hellenic enunciation, while not a few 
 carry out their principles into a consistent practice. The 
 only circumstance, indeed, that prevents our English 
 scholars from practically recognising the element of accent 
 in classical teaching, is the apprehension that this would 
 interfere seriously with the practical inculcation of quantity; 
 an apprehension in which they are certainly justified by 
 the practice of the modern Greeks, who have given such a 
 predominance to accent, as altogether to subordinate, and 
 in many cases completely overwhelm quantity; and who 
 also, in public token of this departure from the classical 
 habit of pronunciation, regularly compose their verses with 
 a reference to the spoken acceat only, leaving the quantity 
 — as in modern language generally— altogether to the dis- 
 cretion of the poet. But, as experiment will teach any 
 one that there is no necessity whatever in the nature of 
 the human voice for this confusion of two essentially 
 different elements, it is not unlikely that English scholars 
 will soon follow the example of the Germans, and read 
 Greek prose at least systematically according to the laws 
 of classical speech, as handed down to us by the gram- 
 marians of Alexandria and Byzantium. In the recitation 
 of classical verse, of course, as it was not constructed on 
 accentual principles, the skilful reader will naturally allow 
 the musical accent, or the emphasis of the rhythm to over- 
 bear, to a great extent, or altogether to overwhelm, the 
 accent of the individual word ; though with regard to the 
 recitation of verse, it will always remain a problem how far 
 the ancients themselves did not achieve an " accenluum 
 am quantitate apta conciliatlo," such as that which Her- 
 mann (Be emendanda ratione, etc.) describes as the per- 
 fection of a polished classical enunciation. A historic 
 survey of the course of learned opinion on the subject of 
 accent, from the age of Erasmus down to the present day, 
 forms an interesting and important part of Professor 
 Blackie's essay quoted above. See Pennington's work on 
 Greek Pronunciation, Cambridge, 1844 ; the German work 
 on Greek Accent by Gottling (English), London, 1.S31 ; and 
 Blackie's essay on the Place and Power of Accent, in the 
 Transactions of tlie Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1S70-71. 
 If there is any perplexity regarding the nature or influ- 
 ence of classical accent, there is none about English, fi 
 
 does not conflict or combine with the modulations of quan- 
 tity. It is the sole determining element in our metrical 
 system. Almost the very earliest of our authors, the 
 Venerable Bede, notices this. In denning rhythm he 
 say3 — "It is a modulated composition of words, not 
 according to the laws of metre, but adapted in the number 
 of its syllables to the judgment of the ear, as are the verses 
 of our vulgar poets" (Bede, Op. voL i. p. 57, ed. 1553). 
 We have, of course, long vowels and short, like the Greeks 
 and the Romans, but we do not regulate our verse by 
 them; and our mode of accentuation is sufficiently despotic 
 to occasionally almost change their character, so that a 
 long vowel shall seem short, and vice versa. In reality 
 this is not so. The long vowel remains long, but then its 
 length gives it no privilege of place in a verse. It may 
 modify the enunciation, it may increase the roll of sound, 
 but a short vowel could take its place without a violation 
 of mstre. Take the word far, for example; there the 
 vowel a is long, yet in the Una 
 
 " Moon, far-spooming Ocean bows to thee, 
 
 it is not necessary that the a in far should be long; a 
 short vowel would do as well for metrical purposes, and 
 would even bring out more distinctly the accentuation of 
 the syllable spoom. 
 
 Originally English accent was upon the root, and not 
 upon inflectional syllables. Gottling finds the same prin- 
 ciple operating in Greek, but in that language it certainly 
 never exercised the universal sway it does in the earlier 
 forms of English. In the following passage from Beowulf, 
 the oldest monument of English literature, belonging, in its 
 first form, to a period even anterior to the invasion of 
 Britain by the Angles and Saxons, we shall put the 
 accented or emphatic syllables in italics : — 
 
 Strdel waes sMn-fah . . The street was of variegated stonft 
 
 stig wisode • . • • • the path directed 
 
 gumum aet-y<Ka*ero . . the men together ; 
 
 yid-'byme scan .... the war- corselet shone 
 
 heard, AonaMocen • • • hard, hand-locked ; 
 
 hring-iien scir .... the ring-iron bright 
 
 song hi searwum ... sang in their trappings, 
 
 pa hie t6 *ele furduiu . when they to the hall forward 
 
 in hyra grj/re-gcatvram . in their terrible armour 
 
 gangan cwomon ... came to go. 
 
 It will be observed that in these verses the accent (not to 
 be confounded with the mark which is used in Anglo-Saxon 
 to show that the vowel over which it is placed is long) is 
 invariably on a monosyllable, or on the root part of a 
 word of more than one syllable. The passage is also a 
 good illustration of what has previously been stated, that 
 the metre or rhythm in English is determined not by the 
 vowel-quantity of a syllable, but by the stress of the voice 
 on particular syllables, whether the vowels are long or 
 short. In the older forms of English verse the accent i>; 
 somewhat irregular; or, to put it more accurately, the 
 number of syllables intervening between the recurrent 
 accents is not definitely fixed. Sometimes two or more 
 intervene, sometimes none at all. Take, for example, the 
 opening lines of Langland's poem, entitled the Vision oj 
 Piers the Plowman: — 
 
 "In a somer sesort 
 
 Whan soft was the sonne, 
 
 I skope me in shroudes, 
 
 As I a shept were, 
 
 In habit as an Eremite 
 
 UnAoly of workes, 
 
 Went wide in this world 
 
 JFcmdere to here. 
 
 Ac on a May mornyngo 
 
 On JAiZuerne hulles, 
 
 Meby/cJa/frly, 
 Of /airy, me thonghte ; 
 I was way {orwandted, 
 And went me to rate 
 Under a brode tanke 
 By a comes side. 
 Aid as I lay and lened, 
 And lohti. in the waters, 
 I sfombred in a slepyvg, 
 It siceyuei so merye," 
 
 But no matter how irregular the time elapsing between the
 
 82 
 
 ACCENT 
 
 recurrence of the accents, they are always on the root- 
 syllables. 
 
 The Norman Conquest, however, introduced a different 
 system, which gradually modified the rigid uniformity of 
 the native English accentuation. The change is visible as 
 early as the end of tho 12th century. By the middle of 
 the 14th, that is to say, in the age of Chaucer, it is in full 
 operation: Its origin is thus explained by Mr Mirsh, in 
 his Origin and History of the English Language (Lond., 
 1862): — " The vocabulary of the French language is de- 
 rived, to a great extent, from Latin words deprived of their 
 terminal inflections. The French adjective^ mortal and 
 fatal are formed from the Latin mortalis and fatalis, by 
 dropping the inflected syllable ; the French nouns nation 
 and condition from the Latin accusatives nationem, condi- 
 tioncm, by rejecting the em final. In most cases, the last 
 syllable retained in the French derivatives was prosodically 
 long in the Latin original ; and either because it was also 
 accented, or because the slight accent which is perceivable 
 in the French articulation represents temporal length, tho 
 stress of the voice was laid on the final syllable of all these 
 words. When we borrowed such words froin the French 
 ■we took them with their native accentuation ; and as ac- 
 cent is much stronger in English than in French, the final 
 syllable was doubtless more forcibly enunciated in the 
 former than in the latter language." The new mode of ac- 
 centuation soon began to affect even words of pure English 
 origin — e.g., in Robert of Gloucester we find iaishede instead 
 of falshcde, tidinge instead of tidinge, treweA«fe instead 
 of treweh.ede, gladrfore instead of gladdove, wisliche instead 
 of wisliche, hegynnyng instead of begynrcyng, endyng in- 
 stead of endjag. In the Proverbs of Hendyng we have no- 
 tkyng for noting, hab&era for habhen, iomon for/omon ; in 
 Robert of Brunne, halycforo for Aafydom, clothy?!<7 for cloth- 
 ing, gcetand for preiand. Chaucer furnishes numerous in- 
 stances of the same foreign influence revolutionising the 
 native accent; fredom for/redom, hethenesse for A^Aenesse, 
 worthinesse for wortAinesse, lowly for louAj, wynnynge for 
 tvynnynge, weddynge for weddynge, cotnynge for comynge ; 
 and it is traceable even in Spenser. On the other hand, 
 a contrary tendency must not be overlooked. We see an 
 effort, probably unconscious, to compel words of French 
 origin to submit to the rule of English accentuation. It is 
 noticeable in the century before Chaucer : in Chaucer him- 
 self it begins to work strongly ; mortal becomes mortal ; 
 tempest, tempest; substance, suostance; amyaWe, amyable; 
 nionsdL morsel ; servise, servise ; duchesse, duchesf.e ; cosyn, 
 cosyn, &c. ; while a multitude of words oscillate between 
 the rival modes of accentuation, now following the French 
 and now the English. Before and during the Elizabethan 
 period, the latter began to prove the Stronger, and for the 
 last 300 years it may be said to have, for the most part, 
 Anglicised the accent and the nature of the foreign additions 
 to our vocabulary. Nevertheless, many French words still 
 retain tlieir own accent. Morris (Historical Outlines of 
 English Accidence, p. 75) thus classifies these : — 
 
 " (1.) Nouns in -ade, -ier (-eer), -e', -ee, or -con, -ine, (-in), asms- 
 cade', crusade', &c. ; cavalier', chandelier', &c ; gazetteer', pioneer', 
 &c (in conformity with these we say harpoonetr 1 , mountaineer',) ; 
 legatee 1 , payee", &c. ; balloon', cartoon', &c ; chagriA', violin', 4c ; 
 routine 1 , marine', &c 
 
 "Also the following words: — cadet', brunette', gazette', cravat', 
 canaV, control', gazelle, amateur 1 ', fatigue' ', antique', police', &c 
 
 "(2.) Adjectives (a) from Lat. adj. in us, as august!, benign', ro- 
 bust', &c. ; (b) in -ose, as morose', verbose", &c ; (c) -esque, as bur- 
 lesque ', grotesque!, &c. 
 
 " (3.) Some verbs, as baptize 1 , cajole', caress 1 , carouse', chastise', 
 escape', esteem', &c" 
 
 To these may be added the Greek and Latin -words 
 which have been introduced into English for scientific and 
 other learned purposes, and which, not having been altered 
 in form, retain their original accentuation — as aurora, 
 
 coro'na, colos'sus, ide'a,hypoth'esis, exsu'ra, dice'resis, diag- 
 nosis, diluvium, diploma, efilu'vium, elys'ium, ore. ; besides 
 the still larger number that have suffered a slight modifi- 
 cation of form, but no change of accent, as dialectic, diag- 
 nostic, efflorescent, elliptic, emersion, emol'lient, ic. The 
 Italian contributions to our tongue retain their original 
 accent when the form is untouched, as mulat'to, sona'ta, vol- 
 cano, but lose it when the form is shortened, as bandit 
 (It. bandi'to). 
 
 A change in the position of the accent serves a variety 
 of purposes in English. It distinguishes (1.) a noun from 
 a verb,, as ac'cent, accent'; augment, augment'; torment, 
 torment'; com'ment, comment'; con'sort, consort'; contest, 
 contest'; contrast, contrast'; digest, digest'; dis'count, dis- 
 count'; in'sult, insult', &c. ; (2.) an adjective from a verb, 
 as ab'sent, absent'; fre'queut, frequent'; pre'sent, present'; 
 com'pound, compound', &c. ; (3.) an adjective from a noun, 
 as ex'pert, expert'; com'pact, compact'. It also denotes a 
 difference of meaning, e.g., conjure, conjure': in 'cense, 
 incense'; au'gust, august'; supine, supine'. 
 
 Accent has exercised a powerful influence in changing 
 the forms of words. The unaccented syllables in tho 
 course of time frequently dropped off. This process was 
 necessarily more rapid and thorough in English than in 
 many other languages which were not subjected to equal 
 strain. The Norman Conquest made havoc of the English 
 tongue for a time. It was expelled from the court, the 
 schools, the church, and the tribunals of justice ; it ceased 
 to be Bpoken by priests, lawyers, and nobles ; its only 
 guardians were churls, ignorant, illiterate, indifferent to 
 grammar, and careless of diction. Who can wonder if, 
 in circumstances like these, it suffered disastrous eclipse 1 
 The latter part of tho Anglo-Saxon Chronicle furnishes 
 melancholy evidence of the chao3 into which it had fallen, 
 yet out of this chaos it rose again into newness of life, 
 reforming and re-accenting its half-ruined vocabulary, and 
 drawing from the very agent of its destruction the elements 
 of a richer and more plastic expression. For it cannot be 
 doubted that the irregularities now existing in English 
 accent, though perplexing to a' foreigner, copiously vary 
 the modulation, and so incrftise the flexibility and power 
 of the language. Tho older forms of English, those in uso 
 before the Conquest, and down to the period of Chaucer, 
 are stiff, monotonous, and unmusical A hard strength is 
 in the verso, but no liquid sweetness or nimble grace. 
 Now, it is possible, in spite of our deficiency in vowel 
 endings, to produce the noblest melody in accent words 
 known to the modern world. Almost every kind of metre, 
 swift or slow, airy or majestic, has been successfully 
 attempted since the age of the Canterbury Tales. When 
 we compare the drone of Caedmon with the aerial melody 
 of the Skylark, the Cloud, and the Arethusa of Shelley, 
 we see what an infinite progress has been made' by 
 the development of accent in the rhythm of our native 
 tongue. 
 
 See Lectures on the English Language, by G. P. Marsh 
 (Lond. 1S61); the Origin and History of the English 
 L t.fjiiage, &c, by G. P. Marsh (Lond. 1862); Historische 
 Grammalik der Englisclie Sprache, von. C. Friedrich Koch 
 (18G3-69); Tlie English Language, by R. G. Latham 
 • (1855) ; Philological Essays, by the Eev. Richard Garnett 
 (Lond. 1859); On. Early English Pronunciation, with 
 especial reference to Sha&spere and Chaucer, by A. J. Ellis 
 'Lond. 1SG7-71); Historical Outlines of English Accidence, 
 by Dr R. Morris (Lond. 1872). (j. M. R.) 
 
 ACCEPTANCE is the act by which a person binds 
 himself to comply with the request contained in a bill of 
 exchange addressed to him by the drawer. In all cases it 
 is understood to be a promise to pay the bill in money, the 
 law not recognising an acceptance in which the promise is
 
 A C C-AC C 
 
 83 
 
 to pay in some other way, as, for example, partly in money 
 and partly by another bill Acceptance may be absolute, 
 conditional, or partial. Absolute acceptance is an engage- 
 ment to pay the bill strictly according to its tenor, and is 
 made by the drawee subscribing his name, with or without 
 -tho word " accepted," at the bottom of the bill, or across 
 •the face of it. Conditional acceptance is a promise to pay 
 ■on a contingency occurring, as, for example, on the sale of 
 vertain goods consigned by tlie drawer to the acceptor. No 
 •contingency is allowed to be mentioned in the body of the 
 bill, but a contingent acceptance is quite legal, and- equally 
 binding with an absolute acceptance upon the acceptor 
 when the contingency has occurred. Partial acceptance is 
 where the promise is to pay only part of the sum mentioned 
 in the bill, or to pay at a different time or place from 
 those specified. In all cases acceptance involves the 
 iigna'ture of the acceptor either by himself or by some 
 person duly authorised on his behalf. A bill can be 
 accepted in the first instance only by the person or persons 
 to whom it is addressed ; but if he or they fail to do so, it 
 may, after being protested for non-acceptance, be accepted 
 by another " supra protest," for the sake of the honour of 
 one or more of the parties concerned in it. 
 
 ACCESSION is applied, in a historical or constitutional 
 ■sense, to the coming to the throne of a dynasty or line of 
 sovereigns, as the accession of the House cf Hanover. The 
 corresponding term, when a single sovereign is spoken of, 
 is " succession." In law, accession is a method of acquiring 
 property, by which, in things that have a close connection with 
 or dependence on one another, the property of the principal 
 draws after it the property of the accessory, according to the 
 principle, accessio cedet principali, or accessorium sequitur 
 principale. Thus, the owner of a cow becomes likewise the 
 owner of the calf, and a landowner becomes proprietor of 
 what is added to his estate by alluvion. Accession produced 
 by the art or industry of man has been called industrial 
 accession, and may be by specification, as when wine is made 
 out of grapes, or by Confusion or commixture. Accession 
 ■sometimes likewise signifies consent or acquiescence. Thus, 
 in the bankrupt law of Scotland, when there is a settlement 
 by a trust-deed, it is accepted on the part of each creditor 
 by a deed of accession. 
 
 ACCESSORY, a person guilty of a felonious offence, 
 net as principal, but by participation ; as by advice, command, 
 aid, or concealment. In treason, accessories are excluded, 
 every individual concerned being considered as a principal. 
 In crimes under the degree of felony, also, all persons 
 concerned, if guilty at all, are regarded as principals. (See 
 24 and 25 Vict. c. 04. s. 8.) There are two kinds of 
 accessories — before the fact, and after it. The first is he 
 -who commands or procures another to commit felony, and 
 is not present himself ; for if he be present, he is a principal 
 The second is he who receives, assists, or comforts any 
 man that has done murder or felony, whereof he ha3 
 knowledge. An accessory before the fact is liable to th > 
 same punishment as the principal ; and there is now indeed 
 no practical difference between such an accessory and a 
 principal in regard either to indictment, trial, or punishment 
 (24 and 25 Vict. c. 94). Accessories after the fact are in 
 g-oneral punishable with imprisonment for a period not 
 exceeding two years (ib. s. 4). The law of Scotland makes 
 no distinction between the accessory to any crime (called 
 art and part) and the principal. Except in the case of 
 treason, accession after the fact is not noticed by tho 
 law of Scotland, unless as an element of evidence to Drove 
 previous accession. 
 
 ACCIAJUOLI, Donato, was born at Florence in 1428. 
 lie was famous for his learning, especially in Greek and 
 mathematics, and for his sendees to his native state. 
 Having previously been intrusted with several important 
 
 embassies, he became Gonfalonier of Florence in 1 473. He 
 died at Milan in 1478, when on his way to Paris to ask the 
 aid of Louis XL on bshalf of the Florentines against Pope 
 Sixtus IV. His body, was taken back to Florence, and 
 buried in the church of tho Carthusians at the public 
 expense,- and his daughters were portioned by his fellow- 
 citizens, the fortune he left being, owing to his probity and 
 disinterestedness, very smalL He wrote a Latih transla- 
 tion of some of Plutarch's Lives (Florence, 1478); Com- 
 mentaries on Aristotle's Ethics and Politics ; and the lives 
 of Hannibal, Scipio, and Charlemagne. In the work on 
 Aristotle he had the co-operation of his master Argyropylus. 
 
 ACCIDENT. An attribute of a thing as class of things, 
 which neither belongs to, nor is in any way deducible from, 
 the essence of that thing or class, is termed its accident. 
 An accident may be either inseparable or separable : tho 
 former, when we can conceive it to be absent from that 
 with which it is found, although it is always, as far as we 
 know, present, i.e., when it is not necessarily but is uni- 
 versally present ; the latter, when it is neither necessarily 
 nor universally present. It is often difficult to determine 
 whether a particular attribute is essential or accidental to the 
 object we are investigating, subsequent research frequently 
 proving that what we have described as accidental ought to 
 be classed as essential, and vice versa. Practically, and 
 for the time being, an attribute, which neither directly nor 
 indirectly forms part of the signification of the term used 
 to designate the object, may be considered an accident ; 
 and many philosophers look upon this as the only intelligible 
 ground for the distinction. Propositions expressing the 
 relation between a thing or class and an accident, and also 
 between a thing or class and its property (i.e., something 
 deducible from, but not strictly forming part of, its essence), 
 are variously styled "accidental," "synthetical," "real," 
 " ampliative," in contradistinction to " essential," " analy- 
 tical," v-verbal," and " explicative" propositions. The 
 former give us information that we could not have dis- 
 covered from an analysis of the subject notion — e.g., "man 
 is found in New Zealand ;" the latter merely state what we 
 already know, if we understand the meaning of the languago 
 employed, e.g., " man is rational." 
 
 ACCIUS, a poet of the lGth century, to whom is 
 attributed A Parapkrase of JEsop's Fables, of which Julius 
 Scaliger speaks with great praise. 
 
 ACCIUS (or Ainus), Lucius, a Latin tragic poet, was 
 the son of a freedman, born, according to St Jerome, in 
 the year of Rome 583, though this appears somewhat 
 uncertain. He made himself known before the death of 
 Pacuvius by a dramatic piece, which he exhibited the same 
 year that Pacuvius brought one on the stage, the latter being 
 then eighty years of age, and Accius only thirty. We do 
 not know the name of thij piece of Accius's, but the titles 
 of several of his tragedies are mentioned by various authors. 
 Ho wrote on the most celebrated stories which had been 
 represented on the Athenian stage; but he did not always 
 take his subject from Grecian story; for he composed at 
 least one dramatic piece wholly Roman, entitled Brutus, 
 and referring to the expulsion of the Tarquins. Only 
 fragments of his tragedies remain. Ho did not confine 
 himself to dramatic writing, having left other productions, 
 ■ urticularly his Annals, mentioned by Macrobius, Priscian, 
 Festus, and Nonniua Marcellu?. He. has been censured 
 for the harshness of his style, but in other lespects he has 
 been esteemed a great poet. He died at an advanced age ; 
 and Cicero, who evidently attaches considerable weight to 
 his opinions, speaks of having conversed with Lim in his 
 youth. 
 
 ACCLAMATION, the expression of the opinion, favour- 
 able or unfavourable, of any assembly by means of tho 
 voice. Applause denotes strictly a similar expression by
 
 84 
 
 A C C — A C C 
 
 clapping of hands, but this distinction in the usage of the 
 words is by no meai)3 uniformly maintained. Among the 
 Romans acclamation was varied both in form and purpose. 
 At marriages it was usual for the spectators to shout Io 
 Hymen, Ilymen&e, or Talassio; a victorious army or general 
 was greeted with Io triumphe ; in the theatre acclamation 
 was called for at the close of the play by the last actor, 
 who said, Plaudite ; in the senate opinions were expressed 
 and votes passed by acclamation in such forms as Omnes, 
 omnes, jEquum est, Justum est, &c ; and the praises of the 
 emperor were celebrated in certain pre-arranged sentences, 
 which seem to have been chanted by the whole body of 
 senators. The acclamations which authors and poets who 
 recited their works in public received were at first spon- 
 taneous and genuine, but in time became very largely 
 mercenary, it being customary for men of fortune who 
 affected literary tastes to keep applauders in their service 
 and lend them to their friends. When Nero performed in 
 the theatre his praises were chanted, at a given signal, by 
 five thousand soldiers, who were called Augustals. The 
 whole was conducted by a music-master, mesochorus or 
 pausarius. It was thi3 case of Nero which, occurring to 
 the recollection of the French poet Dorat, may be said to 
 have originated the well-known Paris claque. Buying up 
 a number of the tickets for a performance of one of his 
 plays, he distributed them gratuitously to those who pro- 
 mised to express approbation. From that time the claque, 
 or organised body of professional applauders, has been a 
 recognised institution in connection with the theatres of 
 Paris. In the early age3 of the Christian church it was by 
 no means uncommon for an audience to express their appro- 
 bation of a favourite preacher during the course of his 
 sermon. Chrysostom especially was very frequently inter- 
 rupted both by applause and by acclamations. In eccle- 
 siastical councils vote by acclamation is very common, the 
 question being usually put in the form, placet or non placet. 
 This differs from the acclamation with which in other 
 assemblies a motion is said to be carried, when, no amend- 
 ment being proposed, approval is expressed by shouting 
 such words as A ye or Agreed. 
 
 ACCLIMATISATION is the process of adaptation by 
 wliich animals and plants are gradually rendered capable 
 of surviving and flourishing in countries remote from their 
 original habitats, or under meteorological conditions dif- 
 ferent from those which they have usually to endure, and 
 which are at first injurious to them. 
 
 The subject of acclimatisation is very little understood, 
 and some writers have even denied that it can ever take 
 place. It is often confounded with domestication or with 
 naturalisation; but these are both very different pheno- 
 mena. A domesticated animal or a cultivated plant need not 
 necessarily be acclimatised ; that is, it need not be capable 
 of enduring the severity of the seasons without protection. 
 The canary bird is domesticated but not acclimatised, and 
 many of our most extensively cultivated plants are in the 
 same category. A naturalised animal or plant, on the 
 other hand, must be able to withstand all the vicissitudes 
 of the seasons in its new home, and it may therefore be 
 thought that it must have become acclimatised. But in 
 many, perhaps most cases of naturalisation, there is no 
 evidence of a gradual adaptation to new conditions which 
 were at first injurious, and this is essential to the idea of 
 acclimatisation. On the contrary, many species, in a new 
 country and under somewhat different climatic conditions, 
 seem to find a more congenial abode than in their native land, 
 and at once flourish and increase in it to such an extent as 
 often to exterminate the indigenous inhabitants. Thus Agassiz 
 (in his work on Lake Superior) tells us that (he road-aide 
 weeds of the north-eastern United States, to the number of 
 130 species, are all European, the native weeds having dis- 
 
 appeared westwards ; while in New Zealand there are, 
 according to Mr T. Kirk (Transactions of the New Zealand 
 Institute, vol. ii. p. 131), no less than 250 species of 
 naturalised plants, more than 100 of which spread widely 
 over the country, and often displace the native vegetation. 
 Among animals, the European rat, goat, and pig, are 
 naturalised in New Zealand, where they multiply to such 
 an extent as to injure and probably exterminate many 
 native productions. In neither of these cases ia there 
 any indication that acclimatisation was necessary or ever 
 took place. 
 
 On the other hand, the fact that an animal or plant 
 cannot be naturalised is no proof that it is not acclimatised. 
 It has been shown by Mr Darwin that, in the case of most 
 animals and plants in a state of nature, the competition of 
 other organisms is a far more efficient agency in limiting 
 their distribution than the mere influence of climate. We 
 have a proof of this in the fact that so few, comparatively, 
 of our perfectly hardy garden plants ever run wild; and 
 even the most persevering attempts to naturalise them 
 usually fail. Alphonse de Candolle (Geography Botanique, 
 p. 798) informs us that several botanists of Paris, Geneva, 
 and especially of Montpellier, have sown the seeds of many 
 hundreds of species of exotic hkrdy plants, in what appeared 
 to be the most favourable situations, but that in hardly 
 a single case has any one of them become naturalised. 
 Attempts have also been made to naturalise continental 
 insects in this country, in places where the proper food- 
 plants abound and the conditions seem generally favour- 
 able, but in no case do they seem to have succeeded. 
 Even a plant like the potato, so largely cultivated and so 
 perfectly hardy, has not established itself in a wild state 
 in any part of Europe. 
 
 Different Degrees of Climatal Adaptation in Animals and 
 Plants. — Plants differ greatly from animals in the closeness 
 of their adaptation to meteorological conditions. Not only 
 will most tropical plants refuse to live in a temperate 
 climate, but many species are seriously injured by removal 
 a few degrees of latitude beyond their natural limits. This 
 is probably due to the fact, established by the experiments 
 of M. Becquerel, that plants possess no proper temperature, 
 but are wholly dependent on that of the surrounding 
 medium. 
 
 Animals, especially the higher forms, are much less 
 sensitive to change of temperature, as shown by the exten- 
 sive range from north to south of many species. Thus, 
 the tiger ranges from the equator to northern Asia as far 
 as the river Amour, and to the isothermal of 32° Fahr. The 
 mountain sparrow (Passer montana) is abundant in Java 
 and Singapore in a uniform equatorial climate, and abo 
 inhabits this country and a considerable portion of northern 
 Europe. It is true that most terrestrial animals are 
 restricted to countries not possessing a great range of 
 temperature or very diversified climates, but there is reason 
 to believe that this is due to quite a different set of causes, 
 such as the presence of enemies or deficiency of appropriate 
 food. When supplied with food and partially protected 
 from enemies, they often show a wonderful capacity of 
 enduring climates very different from that in which they 
 originally flourished. Thus, the horse and the domestic 
 fowl, both natives of very warm countries, flourish without 
 special protection in almost every inhabited portion of the 
 globe. The parrot tribe form one of the most pre-eminently 
 tropical groups of birds, only a few species extending into 
 the warmer temperate regions ; yet even the most exclu- 
 sively tropical genera are by no means delicate birds as 
 regards climate. In the Annals and Magazine of Natural 
 History to* 1868 (p. 381) is a most interesting account, by 
 Mr Charles Buxton, M.P., of the naturalisation of parrots 
 at Northreps HalL Norfolk. A considerable number of
 
 ACCLIMATISATION 
 
 85 
 
 African and Amazonian parrots, Bengal parroquete, four 
 species of white and. rose crested cockatoos, and two species 
 of crimson lories, have been at large for many years. 
 Several of these birds have bred, and they almost all live 
 in the woods the whole year through, refusing to take 
 shelter in a house constructed for their use. Even when 
 the thermometer fell 6° below zero, all appeared in good 
 spirits and vigorous health. Some of these birds have 
 lived thus exposed for nearly twenty years, enduring our 
 cold easterly winds, rain, hail, and snow, all through the 
 winter, — a marvellous contrast to the equable equatorial 
 temperature (hardly ever less than 70°) which many of them 
 had been accustomed to for the first year or years of their 
 existence. 
 
 Mr Jenner Weir records somewhat similar facts in the 
 Zoologist for 1865 (p. 9411). He keeps many small birds 
 in an open aviary in his garden at Blackheath, and among 
 these are the Java rice bird {Padda oryzivora), two West 
 African weaver birds (Hyphantornis tcztor and Euplectes 
 sanguinirostris), and the blue bird of the southern United 
 States (Spiza cyanea). These denizens of the tropics prove 
 quite as hardy as our native birds, having lived during 
 the severest winters without the slightest protection 
 against the cold, even when their drinking water had to be 
 repeatedly melted. 
 
 Hardly any group of Mammalia is more exclusively 
 tropical than the Quadrumana, yet there is reason to believe 
 that, if other conditions are favourable, some of them can 
 withstand a considerable degree of cold. The Semnopithecus 
 ichistaceus was found by Captain Hutton at an elevation of 
 11,000 feet in the Himalayas, leaping actively among fir- 
 trees whose branches were laden with snow-wreaths. In 
 Abyssinia a troop of dog-faced baboons were observed by 
 Mr Blandford at 9000 feet above the sea. We may there- 
 fore conclude that the restriction of the monkey tribe to 
 warm latitudes is probably determined by other causes than 
 temperature alone. 
 
 Similar indications are given by the fact of closely allied 
 species inhabiting very extreme climates. The recently 
 extinct Siberian mammoth and woolly rhinoceros were 
 closely allied to species now inhabiting tropical regions 
 exclusively. •> Wolves and foxes are found alike in the 
 coldest and hottest parts of the earth, as are closely allied 
 species of falcons, owls, sparrows, and numerous genera of 
 waders and aquatic birds. 
 
 A consideration of these and many analogous facts might 
 induce us to suppose that, among the higher animals at 
 least, there is little constitutional adaptation to climate, 
 md that in their case acclimatisation is not required. But 
 there are numerous examples of domestic animals which 
 show that such adaptation does exist in other cases. The 
 yak of Thibet cannot long survive in the plains oi India, 
 or even on the hills below a certain altitude ; and that this 
 is due to climate, and not to the increased density of the 
 atmosphere, is shown by the fact that the same animal 
 appears to thrive well in Europe, and even breeds there 
 readily. The Newfoundland dog will not live in India, and 
 the Spanish breed of fowls in this country suffer more 
 from frost than most others. When we get lower in the 
 scale the adaptation is often more marked. Snakes, which 
 are so abundant in warm countries, diminish rapidly as 
 we go north, and wholly cease at lat. 62°. Most insects are 
 also very susceptible to cold, and seem to be adapted to 
 very narrow limits of temperature. 
 
 From the foregoing facts and observations we may con- 
 clude, firstly, that some plants and many animals are not 
 constitutionally adapted to the climate of their native 
 country only, but are capable of enduring and flourishing 
 under a more or less extensive range of temperature and 
 other climatic conditions ; and, secondly, that most plants 
 
 and some animals are, more or less closely, adapted to 
 climctes similar to those of then: native habitats. In order 
 to domesticate or naturalise the former clas3 in countries 
 not extremely differing from that from which the specie* 
 was brought, it will not be necessary to acclimatise, in 
 the strict sense of the word. In the case of the latter 
 class, however, acclimatisation is a necessary preliminary 
 to naturalisation, and in many cases to useful domestica- 
 tion, and we have therefore to inquire whether it is 
 possible. 
 
 Acclimatisation by Individual Adaptation. — It is evi- 
 dent that acclimatisation may occur (if it occurs at all) in 
 two ways, either by modifying the constitution • of the 
 individual submitted to the new conditions, or by the 
 production of offspring which may be better adapted to 
 those conditions than their parents. The alteration of the 
 constitution of individuals in this direction is not easy to 
 detect, and its possibility has been denied by many writers. 
 Mr Darwin believes, however, that there are indications 
 that it occasionally occurs in plants, where it can be best 
 observed, owing to the circumstance that so many plants 
 are propagated by cuttings or buds, which really continue 
 the existence of the same individual almost indefinitely. 
 He adduces the example of vines taken to the West Indies 
 from Madeira, which have been found to succeed better 
 than those taken directly from France. But in most cases 
 habit, however prolonged, appears to have little effect on 
 the constitution of the individual, and the fact has no 
 doubt led to the opinion that acclimatisation is impossible. 
 There is indeed little or no evidence to show that any 
 animal to which a new climate is at first prejudicial cau 
 be so acclimatised by habit that, after subjection to it for a 
 few or many seasons, it may live as healthily and with a. 5 
 little care as in its native country ; yet we may, on general 
 principles, believe that under proper conditions such accli' 
 matisation would take place. In his Principles of Biology 
 (chap, v.), Mr Herbert Spencer has shown that every organ 
 and every function of living beings undergoes modification 
 to a limited extent under the stimulus of any new con- 
 ditions, and that the modification is almost always such as 
 to produce an adaptation to those conditions. We may feel 
 pretty sure, therefore, that if robust and healthy individuals 
 are chosen for the experiment, and if the change they are 
 subjected to is not too great, a real individual adaptation 
 to the new conditions — that is, a more or less complete 
 acclimatisation — will be brought about. H now animals 
 thus modified are bred from, we know that their descendants 
 will inherit the modification. They will thus start more 
 favourably, and being subject to the influence of the same 
 or a slightly more extreme climate during their whole lives, 
 the acclimatisation will be carried a step further; and 
 there seems no reason to doubt that, by this process alone, 
 if cautiously and patiently carried out, most animals which 
 breed freely in confinement could in time be acclimatised 
 in almost any inhabited country. ' There is, however, a 
 much more potent agent, which renders the process of 
 adaptation almost a certainty. 
 
 Acclimatisation by Variation. — A mass of evidence exists 
 showing that variations of every conceivable kind occur 
 among the offspring of all plants and animals, and that, in 
 particular, constitutional variations are by no means un- 
 common. Among cultivated plants, for example, hardier 
 and more tender varieties often arise. The following cases 
 are given by Mr Darwin : — Among the numerous fruit-trees 
 raised in North America, some are well adapted to the 
 climate of the Northern States and Canada, while others 
 only succeed well in the Southern States. Adaptation of 
 this kind is sometimes very close, so that, for example, few 
 English varieties of wheat will thrive in Scotland. Seed- 
 wheat from India produced a miserable crop when planted
 
 86 
 
 ACCLIMATISATION 
 
 by the liev. M. J. Berkeley on land which would have 
 prodoced a good crop of English wheat. Conversely, 
 French wheat taken to the West Indies produced only 
 barren spikes, wliile nativo wheat by its side yielded an 
 enormous harvest. Tobacco in Sweden, raised from home- 
 grown seed, ripens its seeds a month earlier than plants 
 grown from foreign seed. In , iLily, as long as orange 
 trees were propagated by grafts, they were tender ; but 
 fitter many of the trees were destroyed by the severe frosts 
 of 1709 and 17C3, plants were raised from seed, and these 
 were fuund to be hardier and more productive than the 
 former kinds. Where plants are raised from seed in large 
 quantities, varieties always occur differing in constitution, 
 tm well as others differing in form or colour ; but the former 
 :annot be perceived by U3 unless marked out by their 
 behaviour under exceptional conditions, as in the following 
 cases. After the severe winter of 1 860-6 1 , it was observed 
 'hat in a large bed of araucarias some plants stood quite 
 •luhurt among numbera killed around them. In Mr DaTwin's 
 garden two rows of scarlet runners were entirely killed by 
 .'rest, except three plants, which had not even the tips of 
 their leaves browned. A very excellent example is to be 
 found in Chinese history, according to M. Hue, who, in 
 his L 'Empire Chinois (torn. ii. p. 359), gives the following 
 extract from the Afcmoirs of lite Emperor Kltang : — "On 
 the 1st day of the 6th moon I was walking in some fields 
 where rice had been sown to be ready for the harvest in 
 the 9th moon. I observed by chance a stalk of rice 
 which wa3 already in ear. It was higher than all the rest, 
 and w^s ripe enough to be gathered. I ordered it to be 
 brought to me. The grain was very fine and well grown, 
 which save me the idea to keep it for a trial, and see if the 
 following year it would preserve its precocity. It did so. 
 Ail the stalks which came from it showed ear before 
 the usual time, and were ripe in the 6th moon. Each year 
 has multiplied the produce of the preceding, and for thirty 
 years it is this rice which has been served at my table. The 
 grain is elongate, and of a reddish colour, but it has a sweet 
 smell and very pleasant taste. It is called Yu-mi, Imperial 
 rice, becauso it was first cultivated in my gardens. It is 
 the only sort which can ripen north of the great wall, 
 where the winter ends late and begins very early ; but in 
 the southern provinces, where the climate is milder and the 
 land more fertile, two harvests a year may be easily ob- 
 tained, and it is for me a sweet reflection to have procured 
 this advantage for my people." M_Huc adds his testimony 
 that this kind of rice flourishes in Mandtchuria, where no 
 other will grow. We have here, therefore, a perfect 
 example of acclimatisation by means of a spontaneous con- 
 stitutional variation. 
 
 That this kind of adaptation may be carried on step by 
 step to more and more extreme climates is illustrated by 
 v -he following examples. Sweet-peas raised in Calcutta 
 (rom seed imported from England rarely blossom, and never 
 yield seed ; plants from French seed flower better, but are 
 still sterile ; • but those raised from Darjeeling seed (originally 
 imported from England) both flower and seed profusely. The 
 peach is believed to have been tender, and to have ripened 
 its fruit with difficulty, when first introduced into Greece; so 
 that (as Darwin observes) in travelling northward during 
 two thousand years it must have become much hardier. 
 Dr Hooker ascertained the average vertical range of 
 flowering plants in the Himalayas to be 4000 feet, while in 
 «nme cases it extended to 8000 feet. The same species can 
 thus endure a great difference of temperature; but the 
 important fact is, that the individuals have become accli- 
 matised to the altitude at which they grow, so that seeds 
 gathered near the upper limit of the range of a species will 
 '•«■ more hardy than those gathered near the lower limit. 
 This was Droved by JJr Hooker to be the case with 
 
 Hima layan conifers and rhododendrons, raised in this, 
 country from seed gathered at different altitudes. 
 
 Among animals exactly analogous facts occur. M. Roulin 
 states that when geese wero first introduced into Bogota, 
 they laid few eggs at long intervals, and few of the young 
 survived. By degrees the fecundity improved, and in. 
 about twenty years became equal to what it is in Europe. 
 Tlie same author tells us that, according to Garcilaso, 
 when fowls were first introduced into Peru they were not- 
 fertile, whereas now they are as mur:h so as in Europe. 
 Mr Darwin adduces the following exan.ples. Merino sheep- 
 bred at the Cape of Good Hope have been found far better 
 adapted for India than those imported from England ; and 
 while the Cliineso variety of the Ailanthus silk-moth is- 
 quite hardy, the variety found in Bengal will only flourish 
 in warm latitudes. Mr Darwin also calls attention to the 
 circumstance that writers of agricultural works generally 
 recommend that animals should be removed from one 
 district to another as little as possible. Tliis advice occurs 
 even in classical and Chinese agricultural books as well 
 as in those of our own day, and proves that the close- 
 ,ultpt;ition of each variety or breed to the country in which 
 it originated has always been recognised. 
 
 Constitutional Adaptation often accompanied by External 
 Dfodijkatien. — Although in some cases no perceptiblo altera- 
 tion of form or structure occurs when constitutional adapta- 
 tion to climate has taken place, in others it is very marked 
 Mr Darwin has collected alargenumber of cases iahisAnimal* 
 and Plants under Domestication, (vol ii. p. 277), of which the 
 following are a few of the most remarkable. Dr Falconer 
 observed that several trees, natives of cooler climates, 
 assumed a pyramidal or fastigiate form when grown in the 
 plains of India ; cabbages rarely produce heads in hoi 
 climates ; the quality of the wood, the medicinal products, 
 the odour and colour of the flowers, all change in many 
 cases when plants of one country are grown in another. 
 One of the most curious observations is that of Mr Meehan, 
 who "compared twenty-nine kinds of American trees^ 
 belonging to various orders, with their nearest European; 
 allies, all grown in close proximity in the same garden, and 
 under as nearly as possible the same conditions. In the 
 American species Mr Meehan finds, with the rarest excep- 
 tions, that the leaves fall earlier in the season, and assume 
 before falling a brighter tint; that they are less deeply- 
 toothed or serrated ; that the buds are smaller ; that the 
 trees are more diffuse in growth, and have fewer branchlets ;. 
 and, lastly, that the seeds are smaller ; — all in comparison 
 with the European species." Mr Darwin concludes th-l 
 there is no way of accounting for these uniform difference.* 
 in the two series of trees tlian by the long-continued action- 
 of the different climates of the two continents. 
 
 In animals., equally remarkablo changes occur. In 
 Angora, not only goats, but shepherd-dogs and cats, have 
 fine fleecy hair ; the wool of sheep changes its character in 
 the West Indies in three generations; M. Costa states 
 that young oysters, taken from the coast of England, 
 and placed in the Mediterranean, at once altered their 
 maimer of growth and formed prominent diverging rays, 
 like those on the shells of tho proper Mediterranean 
 oyster. 
 
 In his Contributions to Hue Tlwory of Natural Selection 
 (p. 167), Mr Wallace has recorded cases of simultaneous- 
 variation among insects, apparently duo to climate or other 
 strictly local causes. He finds that the butterflies of the- 
 family Papilionidx, and some others, become similarly 
 modified in different islands and groups of islands. Thus, 
 the species inhabiting Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, are 
 almost always much smaller than the closely allied species- 
 of Celebes and the Moluccas; tho species or varieties of 
 the small island of Amboyna are iar^-ir than the same
 
 ACCLIMATISATION 
 
 b7 
 
 Bpccica or closely allied forms inhabiting the surrounding 
 islands ; the species ftund in Celebes possess a peculiar 
 form of wing, quite distinct from that of the same or 
 closely allied species of adjacent islands; and, lastly, 
 numerous species which have tailed wings in India and the 
 western islands of the Archipelago, gradually lose the tail 
 a3 wo proceed eastward to New Guinea and the Pacific. 
 
 Many of these curious modifications may, it is true, be 
 due to other causes than climate only, but they serve to 
 show how powerfully and mysteriously local conditions 
 affect the form and structure of both plants and animals ; 
 and they render it probable that changes of constitution 
 are also continually produced, although we have, in tt>3 
 majority of cases, no means of detecting them. It is aiso 
 impossible to- determine how far the effects described are 
 produced by spontaneous favourable variations or by the 
 direct action of local conditions; but it is probable that in 
 every case both causes are concerned, although in constantly 
 varying proportions. 
 
 The Influence of Heredity. — Adaptation by variation 
 would, however, be a slow and uncertain process, and might 
 for considerable periods of time cease to act, did not heredity 
 come into play. This is the tendency of every organism to 
 produce its like, or more exactly, to produce a set of newforms 
 varying slightly from it in many directions — a groupof which 
 the parent form is the centre. If now one of the most ex- 
 treme of these variations is taken, it is found to become the 
 centre of a new set of variations ; and by continually taking 
 the extreme in the same direction, an increasing variation in 
 that direction can be effected, until checked by becoming 
 so great that it interferes with the healthy action of the 
 organism, or is in any other way prejudicial It is also 
 found that acquired constitutional peculiarities are equally 
 hereditary; so that by a combination of those two modes of 
 variation any desired adaptation may be effected with 
 greater rapidity. The manner in which the form or 
 constitution of an organism can be made to change con- 
 tinuously in one direction, by means of variations which 
 are indefinite and in all directions, is often misunderstood. 
 It may perhaps be illustrated by showing how a tree or 
 grove of trees might, by natural causes, be caused to travel 
 during successive generations in a definite course. The 
 tree has branches radiating out from its stem to perhaps 
 twenty feet on every side. Seeds are produced on the 
 extremities of all these branches, drop to the ground, and 
 produce seedlings, which, if untouched, would form a ring 
 of young trees around the parent. But cattle crop off 
 every seedling as soon as it rise3 above the ground, and 
 none can ever arrive at maturity. If, however, one side is 
 protected from the cattle, young trees will grow up on that 
 side only. This protection may exist in the case of a grove 
 of trees which we may suppose to occupy the • whole space 
 between two deep ravines, the cattle existing on the lower 
 side of the wood only. In this case young trees would 
 reach maturity on the upper side of the wood, while on the 
 lower side the trees would successively die, fall, and rot 
 away, no young ones taking their place. If this state of 
 things continued unchanged for some centuries, the wood 
 might march regularly up the side of the mountain tiH it 
 * occupied a position many miles away from where it once 
 stood ; and this would have taken place, not because more 
 seed was produced on one side than the other (there might 
 even be very much less), nor because soil or climate wero 
 better on the upper side (they might be worse), nor because 
 any intelligent being chose which trees should be allowed 
 to livo and which should be destroyed; — but simply because, 
 for a series of generations, the conditions permitted the 
 existence of young trees on one side, and wholly prevented 
 it on the other. Just in an analogous way animals or 
 plants aro caused to vary in definite directions, either by 
 
 the influence of natural agencies, which render existence 
 impossible for those that vary in any other direction, 01 
 by the action of the judicious breeder, who carefully selects 
 favourable variations to be the parents of his future stock ; 
 and in either case the rejected variations may far outnumber 
 those which are preserved. 
 
 Evidence has been adduced by Mr Darwin to show that 
 the tendency to vary is itself hereditary; so that, so far 
 from variations coining to an end, as some persons imagine, 
 the more extensively variation has occurred in any species 
 in the past, the more likely it is to occur in the future. 
 There is also reason to behove that individuals which havo 
 varied largely from their parents in a special direction will 
 have, a greater tendency to produce offspring varying in 
 that direction than in any other ; so that the facilities for 
 adaptation, that is, for the production and increase of 
 favourable variations in certain definite directions, are far 
 greater than the facilities for locomotion in one direction in 
 the hypothetical illustration just given. 
 
 Selection and Survival of the Fittest as Agents in Natura- 
 lisation. — We may now take it as an established fact, that 
 varieties of a n imals and plants occur, both, in domesticity and 
 in a state of nature, which are better or worse adapted to- 
 special climates. There is no positive evidence that the 
 influence of new climatal conditions on the parents has any 
 tendency to produce variations in the offspring better adapted 
 to such conditions, although some of the facts mentioned, 
 in the preceding sections render it probable that such may 
 be the case. Neither does it appear that this class ^of 
 variations are very frequent. It is, however, certain that 
 whenever any animal or plant is largely propagated con- 
 stitutional variations will arise, and some of these will be 
 better adapted than others to the climatal and other 
 conditions of the locality. In a state of nature, every 
 recurring severe winter or otherwise unfavourable season, 
 weeds out those individuals of tender constitution or 
 imperfect structure which may have got on very well during 
 favourable years, and it is thus that the adaptation of the 
 species to the climate in which it has to exist is kept up. 
 Under domestication the same thing occurs by what Mr 
 Darwin has termed "unconscious selection." Each culti- 
 vator seeks out the kinds of plants best suited to his soil 
 and climate, and rejects those which are tender or otherwise 
 unsuitable. The farmer breeds from such of his stock 83 
 he finds to thrive best with him, and gets rid of those 
 which suffer from cold, damp, or disease. A more or less- 
 close adaptation to local conditions is thus brought about, 
 and breeds or races are produced which are sometimes 
 liable to deterioration on removal even to a short distance 
 in the same country, as in numerous cases quoted by Mr 
 Darwin (Animals and Plants under Domestication, voL ii. 
 p. 273). 
 
 The Method of Acclimatisation. — Taking into considera- 
 tion the foregoing facts and illustrations, it maytbe con- 
 sidered as proved — lit, That habit has little (though it 
 appears to have some) definite effect in adapting the 
 constitution of animals to a new climate ; but that it has a 
 decided, though still slight, influence in plants when, by 
 the process of propagation by buds, shoots,, or grafts, the 
 individual can be kept under its influence for long periods ; 
 2d, That the offspring of both plants and animals vary 
 in their constitutional adaptation to climate, and that 
 this adaptation may be kept up and increased by means 
 of heredity; and, 3d, That great and sudden changes 
 of climate often check reproduction even when the health 
 of the individuals does not appear to suffer. In order, 
 therefore, to have the best chance of acclimatising any 
 animal or plant in a climate very dissimilar from that of 
 its native country, and in which it has been proved that 
 the species in question cannot live and maintain itself
 
 88 
 
 ACCLIMATISATION 
 
 without acclimatisation, we must adopt some such plan 
 as the following : — 
 
 1. We must transport as large a number as possible of 
 adult healthy individuals to some intermediate station, 
 and increase them as much as possible for some years. 
 Favourable variations of constitution will soon show them- 
 selves, and these should be carefully selected to breed from, 
 the tender and unhealthy individuals being rigidly elimi- 
 nated. 
 
 2. As soon as the stock has been kept a sufficient time 
 to pass through all the ordinary extremes of climate, a 
 number of the hardiest may be removed to the more remote 
 station, and the same process gone through, giving protection 
 if necessary while the stock is being increased, but as soon 
 as a largo number of healthy individuals are produced, sub- 
 jecting them to all the vicissitudes of the climate. 
 
 It can hardly be doubted that in most cases this plan would 
 succeed. It has been recommended by Mr Darwin, and at 
 one of the early meetings of the Society Zoologique d'Acclim- 
 atisation, at Paris, M. Geoffroy St Hilaire insisted that it was 
 the only method by which acclimatisation was possible. 
 But in looking through the long series of volumes of Reports 
 published by this Society, there is no sign that any systematic 
 attempt at acclimatisation has even once been made. A 
 number of foreign animals have been introduced, and more or 
 less domesticated, and some useful exotics have been culti- 
 vated for the purpose of testing their applicability to French 
 agriculture or horticulture ; but neither in the case" of 
 animals nor of plants has there been any systematic effort 
 to modify the constitution of the species, by breeding largely 
 and selecting the favourable variations tliat appeared. 
 
 Take the case of the Eucalyptus globulus as an example. 
 This is a Tasmanian gum-tree of very rapid growth and 
 great beauty, which will thrive in the extreme south of 
 France. In the Bulletin of the Society a large number of 
 attempts to introduce this tree into general cultivation in 
 other parts of France are recorded in detail, with the failure 
 of almost all of them. But no precautions such as those 
 above indicated appear to have been taken in any of these 
 experiments; and we have no intimation that either the 
 Society or any of its members are making systematic 
 efforts to acclimatise the tree. The first step would be, to 
 obtain seed from healthy trees growing in the coldest 
 climate and at the greatest altitude in its native country, 
 sowing these very largely, and in a variety of soils and 
 situations, in a part of France where the climate is some- 
 what but not much more extreme. It is almost a certainty 
 that a number of trees would ba found to be quite hardy. 
 As soon as these produced seed, it should be sown in 
 the same district and farther north in a climate a little 
 more severe. After an exceptionally cold season, seed 
 should be collected from the trees that suffered least, and 
 should be sown in various districts all over France. By 
 such a process there can be hardly any doubt that the tree 
 would be thoroughly acclimatised in any part of France, 
 and in many other countries of central Europe ; and more 
 good would be effected by one well-directed effort of this 
 kind than by hundreds of experiments with individual 
 animals and plants, which only serve to show us which are 
 the species that do not require to be acclimatised. 
 
 Acclimatisation of Man. — On this subject we have, un- 
 fortunately, very little direct or accurate information. The 
 general laws of heredity and variation have been proved to 
 apply to man as well as to animals and plants ; and nume- 
 rous facts in the distribution of races show that man must, in 
 remote ages at least, have been capable of constitutional 
 adaptation to climate. If the human race constitutes a single 
 species, then the mere fact that man now inhabits every 
 region, and is in each case constitutionally adapted to the 
 climate, proves that acclimatisation has occurred. But we 
 
 have the same phenomenon in single varieties of man, such at 
 the American, which inhabits alike the frozen wastes of 
 Hudson's Bay and Terra del Fuego, and the hottest regions 
 of the tropics, — the low equatorial valleys and the loft) 
 plateaux of the Andes. No doubt a sudden transference 
 to an extreme climate is often prejudicial to man, as it is 
 to most animals and plants ; but there is every reason to 
 believe that, if the migration occurs step by step, man can 
 be acclimatised to almost any part of the earth's surface 
 in comparatively few generations. Some eminent writers 
 have denied this. Sir Ranald Martin, from a consideration 
 of tho effects of the climate of India on Europeans and 
 their offspring, believes that there is no such thing as 
 acclimatisation. Dr Hunt, in a report to the British 
 Association in 1861, argues that "time is no agent," and 
 — " if there is no sign of acclimatisation ii one generation, 
 there is no such process." But he entirely ignores the 
 effect of favourable variations, as well us the direct in- 
 fluence of climate acting on the organisatio a from infancy. 
 
 Professor Waitz, in his Introduction ti Anthropology, 
 adduces many examples of the comparatively rapid con- 
 stitutional adaptation of man to new climatic conditions. 
 Negroes, for example, who have been for three or four 
 generations acclimatised in North Americ on returning to 
 Africa become subject to the same local diseases as other 
 unacclimatised individuals. He well remarks, that the 
 debility and sickening of Europeans in many tropica) 
 countries are wrongly ascribed to the climate, but are 
 rather the consequences of indolence, sensual gratification, 
 and an irregular mode of life. Thus the English, who 
 cannot give up animal food and spirituous liquors, are leaf 
 able to sustain the heat of the tropics than the more sobe> 
 Spaniards and Portuguese. The excessive mortality o' 
 European troops in India, and the delicacy of the children 
 of European parents, do not affect the real question of 
 acclimatisation under proper conditions. They only show 
 that acclimatisation is in most cases necessary, not that it 
 cannot take place. The best examples of partial or com- 
 plete acclimatisation are to be found where European races 
 have permanently settled in the tropics, and have maintained 
 themselves for several generations. There are, however, 
 two sources of inaccuracy to be guarded against, and these 
 are made the most of by the writers above referred to, and 
 are supposed altogether to invalidate results which are 
 otherwise opposed to their views. In the first place, we 
 have the possibility of a mixture of native blood having 
 occurred ; in the second, there have almost always been a 
 succession of immigrants from the parent country, who 
 continually intermingle with the families of the early 
 settlers. It is maintained that one or other of these 
 mixtures is absolutely necessary to enable Europeans to 
 continue long to flourish in the tropics. 
 
 There are, however, certain cases in which the sources 
 of error above mentioned are reduced to a minimum, and 
 eannot seriously affect the results ; such as those of the 
 Jews, the Dutch at the Cape of Good Hope and in the 
 Moluccas, and the Spaniards in South America. 
 
 The Jews are a good example of acclimatisation, because 
 they have been established for many centuries in climates 
 very different from that of their native land ; they keep 
 themselves almost wholly free from intermixture with the 
 people around them ; and they are often so populous in a 
 country that the intermixture with Jewish immigrants from 
 other lands cannot seriously affect the. local purity of the 
 race. They have, for instance, attained a population of near 
 two milli ons in such severe climates as Poland and Russia ; 
 and according to Mr Brace (Races of the Old World, p. 185), 
 " their increase in Sweden is said to be greater than that 
 of the Christian population ; in the towns of Algeria they 
 are the only race able to maintain its numbers : and in
 
 ACCL1M A.TISATION 
 
 80 
 
 Cochin China and Aden they succeed in rearing children 
 and forming permanent communities." 
 
 In some of the hottest parts of South America Europeans 
 are perfectly acclimatised, and where the ract is kept pure 
 it seems to be even improved. Some very valuable notes 
 on this subject have been furnished to the present writer 
 by the well-known botanist Dr Richard Spruce, who resided 
 many year3 in South America, but who has hitherto been 
 prevented by ill health from giving to the world the results 
 of his researches. As a careful, judicious, and accurate 
 observer, both of man and nature, he has few superiors. 
 He says — 
 
 "The white inhabitants of Guayaquil (lat. 2° 13' S.) are 
 kept pure by careful selection. The slightest tincture of 
 red or black blood bars entry into any of the old families 
 who are descendants of Spaniards from the Provincias 
 Vascongadas, or those bordering the Bay of Biscay, where 
 the morals are perhaps the purest (as regards the intercourse 
 of the sexes) of any in Europe, and where for a girl, even 
 of the poorest class, to have a child before marriage is the 
 rarest thing possible. The consequence of this careful 
 breeding is, that the women of Guayaquil are considered 
 (and justly) the finest along the whole Pacific coast. They 
 are often tall, sometimes very handsome, decidedly healthy, 
 although pale, and assuredly prolific enough. Their sons 
 are big, stout men, but when they lead inactive lives are 
 apt to become fat and sluggish. Those of them, however, 
 who have farms in the savannahs, and are accustomed to 
 take long rides in all weathers, and those whose trade 
 obliges them to take frequent journeys in the mountainous 
 interior, or even to Europe and North America, are often as 
 active and as little burdened with superfluous flesh as a 
 Scotch farmer. 
 
 " The oldest Christian town in Peru is Piura (lat. 5° S.), 
 which was founded by Pizarro himself. The climate is 
 very hot, especially in the three or four months following 
 the southern solstice. In March 1813 the temperature 
 only once fell as low as 83°, during the whole month, the 
 usual lowest night temperature being 85°. Yet people of 
 all colours find it very healthy, and the whites are very 
 prolific. I resided in the town itself nine months, and in 
 the neighbourhood seven months more. The population 
 (in 1863-4) was about 10,000, of which not only a 
 considerable proportion was white, but was mostly descended 
 from the first emigrants after the conquest. Purity of 
 descent was not, however, quite so strictly maintained as 
 at Guayaquil The military adventurers, who have often 
 risen to high or even supreme rank in Peru, have not seldom 
 been of mixed race, and fear or favour has often availed to 
 procure them an alliance with the oldest and purest-blooded 
 families." 
 
 These instances, so well stated by Dr Spruce, seem to 
 demonstrate the «omplete acclimatisation of Spaniards in 
 some of the hottest parts of South America. Although 
 we have here nothing to do with mixed races, yet the want 
 of fertility in these has been often taken to be a fact 
 inherent in the mongrel race, and has been also sometimes 
 held to prove that neither the European nor his half-bred 
 offspring can maintain themselves in the tropics. The 
 following observation is therefore of interest : — 
 
 " At Guayaquil for a lady of good family — married or 
 unmarried — to be of loose morals is so uncommon, that 
 when it does happen it is felt as a calamity by the whole 
 community. But here, and perhaps in most other towns 
 in South America, a poor girl of mixed race — especially if 
 good-looking — rarely thinks of marrying one of her own 
 class until she has — as the Brazilians say — ' approveitada 
 de sua mocidade' (made the most of her youth) in receiving 
 presents from gentlemen. If she thus bring a good dowry 
 to her husband, he does not care to inquire, or is not 
 
 sensitive, about the mode in which it was acquired. The 
 consequences of this ^discriminate sexual intercourse, espe- 
 cially if much prolonged, is to diminish, in some cases to 
 paralyse, the fertility of the female. And as among people 
 of mixed race it 13 almost universal, the population of 
 these must fall off both in numbers and quality." 
 
 The following example of divergent acclimatisation of 
 the same race to hot and cold zones is very interesting, 
 and will conclude our extracts from Dr Spruce's valuable 
 notes : — 
 
 " One of the most singular cases connected with this 
 subject that have fallen under my own observation, is the 
 difficulty, or apparent impossibility, of acclimatising the 
 Bed Indian in a certain zone of the Andes. Any person 
 wlro has compared the physical characters of the native 
 races of South America must be convinced that these have 
 all originated in a common stirps. Many local differences 
 exist, but none capable of invalidating this conclusion. 
 The warmth yet shade-loving Indian of the Amazon ; the 
 Indian of the hot, dry, and treeless coasts of Feru and 
 Guayaquil, who exposes his bare head to the sun with as 
 much zest as an African negro ; the Indian of the Andes, 
 for whom no cold seems too great, who goes constantlj 
 bare-legged and often bare-headed, through whose rude 
 straw hut the piercing wind of the paramos sweeps, and 
 chills the white man to the very bones ; — all these, in the 
 colour and texture of the skin, the hair, and other important 
 features, are plainly of one and the same race. 
 
 " Now there is a zone of the equatorial Andes, ranging 
 between about 4000 and 6000 feet altitude, where the very 
 best flavoured coffee is grown, where cane is less luxuriant 
 but more saccharine than in the plains, and which is 
 therefore very desirable to cultivate, but where the red 
 man sickens and dies. Indians taken down from the sierra 
 get ague and dysentery. Those of the plains find the 
 temperature chilly, and are stricken down with influenza 
 and pains in the limbs. I have seen the difficulty 
 experienced in getting farms cidtivated in this zone, on 
 both sides of the Cordillera. The permanent residents are 
 generally limited to the major domo and his family ; and 
 in the dry season labourers are hired, of any colour that 
 can be obtained — some from the low country, others from 
 the highlands — for three, four, or five months, who gather 
 in and grind the cane, and plant for the harvest of the 
 following year; but a staff of resident Indian labourers, 
 such as exists in the farms of the sierra, cannot be kept up 
 in the Tungas, as these half-warm valleys are called. 
 AThite men, who take proper precautions, and are not 
 chronically soaked with ca'ae-spirit, stand the climate 
 perfectly, but the Creole whites are still too much caballeros 
 to devote themselves to agricultural work. 
 
 "In what i3 now the lepublic of Ecuador, the only 
 peopled portions are the central valley, between the two 
 ridges of the Andes— height 7000 to 12,000 feet — and the 
 hot plain at their western base; ncr do the wooded slopes 
 appear to have been inhabited, except by scattered s 
 hordes, even in the time of the Incas. The Indians of the 
 highlands are the descendants of others who have inhabited 
 that region exclusively for untold ages; and a similar 
 affirmation may be made of the Indians of the plain. Now 
 there is little doubt that the progenitors of both these 
 sections came from a temperate region (in North America) ; 
 so that here we have one moiety acclimatised to endure ex- 
 treme heat, and the other • extreme cold ; and at this day 
 exposure of either to the opposite extreme (or even, as wc 
 have seen, to the climate of an intermediate zone) is always 
 pernicious and often fatal. But if this great difference has 
 been brought about in the red man, might not the same 
 have happened to the white man 1 Plainly it might, time 
 being given ; for one cannot doubt that the inherent adapta-
 
 <K) 
 
 A C C — A C (J 
 
 bility is the same in both, or (if not) that the white man 
 possesses it in a higher degree." 
 
 The observations of Dr Spruce are of themselves almost 
 conclusive as to the possibility of Europeans becoming ac- 
 climatised in the tropics ; and if it is objected that this 
 evidence applies only to the dark-haired southern races, we 
 are fortunately able to point to facts, almost equally well 
 authenticated and conclusive, in the case of one of the typi- 
 cal Germanic races. At the Cape of Good Hope the Dutch 
 have been settled and nearly isolated for about 200 years, 
 and have kept themselves almost or quite free from native 
 intermixture. They are described as being still perfectly 
 fair in complexion, while physically they are the finest body 
 of men in the colony, being very tall and strong. They 
 marry young, and have large families. The population, 
 according to a census taken in LZ98, was under 22,000. 
 Id 1 66o it was near 182,000, the majority being (according 
 to the Statesman's YearJJookior 1873) of " Dutch, German, 
 or French origin, mostly descendants of original settlers." 
 We have here a population which has doubled itself every 
 twenty-two years ; and the greater part of this rapid in- 
 crease must certainly be due to the old European immi- 
 grants. In the Moluccas, where the Dutch have had settle- 
 ments for nearly 250 years, some of the inhabitants trace 
 their descent to early immigrants ; and these, as well as 
 iuost of the people of Dutch descent in the East, are quite 
 as fair as their European ancestors, enjoy excellent health, 
 and are very prolific. But the Dutch accommodate them- 
 selves admirably to a tropical climate, doing much of their 
 work early in the morning, dressing very lightly, and living 
 a quiet, temperate, and cheerful life. They also pay great 
 attention to drainage and general cleanliness. In addition 
 to these examples, it may be maintained that the rapid in- 
 crease of English-speaking populations in the United States 
 and in Australia, only a comparatively small portion of 
 which can be due to direct immigration, is far from support- 
 ing the view of Dr Knox, that Europeans cannot per- 
 manently maintain themselves in those countries. .Mr 
 Brace expressly denies that the American physique has 
 degenerated from the English type. He asserts that manu- 
 facturers and others find that " for labours requiring the 
 utmost physical endurance and muscular power, such as 
 iron-puddling and lumbering in the forests and on the 
 streams, and pioneer work, foreigners are never so suitable 
 as native Americans. The reports of the examining sur- 
 geons for volunteers — such as that of Dr W. H. Thomson 
 to the Surgeon-General in 18G2, who examined 9000 men 
 — show a far higher average of physique in the Americans 
 examined than in the English, Germans, or Irish. It is a 
 fact well known to our life insurance companies, that the 
 average length of life here is greater than that of the 
 English tables."— The Races of the Old World, p. 375. 
 Although the comparisons here instituted may not be quite 
 fair or conclusive, they furnish good arguments against those 
 who maintain that the Americans are physically deteriorat- 
 ing. 
 
 On the whole, we seem justified in concluding that, under 
 favourable conditions, and with a proper adaptation of means 
 to the end in view, man may become acclimatised with at 
 least as much certainty and rapidity (counting by generations 
 rather than by years) as any of the lower animals, (a. e. w.) 
 
 ACCOLADE (from collum, the neck), a ceremony an- 
 ciently used in conferring knighthood ; but whether it was 
 an embrace (according to the use of the modern French word, 
 accolade), or a slight blow on the neck or check, is not 
 agreed. Both these customs appear to be of great antiquity. 
 Gregory of Tours writes that the early kings of France, in 
 conferring the gilt shoulder-belt, kissed the knights on the 
 left cheek ; and William the Conqueror is said to have 
 made use of the blow in conferring the honour of knight- 
 
 hood on his son nenry. At first It wus givea with the 
 naked fist, a veritable box on the ear, but for this was 
 substituted a gentle stroke on the shoulder with the fiat of 
 the sword. A custom of a similar kind is still followed in 
 .. mg the honour of knighthood. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Benedict, was born in 1415 at Arezzo, in 
 Tuscany, of a noble family, several members of which wer* 
 distinguished like himself for their attainments in law. 
 He was for some time professor of jurisprudence in the 
 University of Florence, and on the death of the celebrated 
 o in 1459 became chancellor of the Florentine re- 
 public. He died in 1466. In conjunction with his brother 
 Leonard, he wrote in Latin a history of the first crusade, 
 entitled Be Hello a Christianis contra Barbaros, pro Christi 
 Stvulchro et Judwa recuperandis, libri tres, which, though 
 itself of little interest, furnished Tasso with the historie 
 basis for his Jerusalem Delivered. This work appeared at 
 Venice in 1432, and was translated into Italian in 1543> 
 and into French in 1620. Another work of Accolti's — Be 
 Prwdaiiiia 7irorv.m sui JEvi — was published at Parma in 
 1689. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Berxaed (1465-1535), son of the preced- 
 ing, known in his own day as I'Unico Aretino, acquired great 
 fame as a reciter of impromptu verse. He was listened to by 
 large crowds, composed of the most learned men and the most 
 distinguished prelates of the age. Among others, Cardinal 
 Bembo has left on record a testimony to his extraordinary 
 talent. His high reputation with his contemporaries seems 
 scarcely justified by the poems he published, though they 
 give evidence of brilliant fancy. It is probable that he 
 succeeded better in his extemporary, productions than in 
 those which were the fruit of deliberation. His works, 
 under the title Virginia, Comedia, Capitoli e Slrambotti di 
 Messer Bernar/lo Accolti Aretino, were published at Florence 
 in 1513, and have been several times reprinted 
 
 ACCOLTI, Pietro, brother of the preceding, was born 
 at Florence in 1455, and died there in 1549. He was 
 abbreviator under Leo X., and in that capacity drew up 
 in 1520 the famous bull against Luther. In 1527 he was 
 made a cardinal by Clement VII., who had employed him 
 as hie secretary. 
 
 ACCOMMODATION, a term used in Biblical interpre- 
 tation to denote the presentation of a truth not absolutely 
 as it is in itself, but relatively or under some modification, 
 with the view of suiting it either to some other truth or to 
 the persons addressed. It is generally distinguished into 
 formal and material, — the accommodation in the one case 
 being confined to the method of teaching, and in the other 
 being extended to the matter taught. To the former head 
 may be referred teaching by symbols or parables, by pro- 
 gressive stages graduated according to the capacity of the 
 learner, by the application of prophecy to secondary fulfil- 
 ments, ifcc. To the latter head are to be referred the alle- 
 gations of the anti-supranaturalistic school, that Christ and 
 the writers of Scripture modified or perverted the truth 
 itself in order to secure wider acceptance and speedier 
 success, by speaking in accordance with contemporary ideas 
 rather than with absolute and eternal truth. 
 
 ACCOMMODATION, in commerce, denotes generally 
 temporary pecuniary aid given by one trader to another, or 
 by a banker to his customers, but it is a-ted more par- 
 ticularly to describe that class of bills of eichange which 
 represents no actual exchange of real value between the 
 parties. 
 
 ACCORAMBONI, Vittoeia, an Italian lady remark- 
 able for her extraordinary beauty and her tragic history. 
 Her contemporaries regarded her as the most captivating 
 woman that had ever been seen in Italy. She was sought 
 in marriage by Paolo Giordano Orsini, Duke of Bracciano, 
 who, it was generally believed, had murdered his wife,
 
 A C C — A C C 
 
 tfl 
 
 fsabellar de Medici, with his own hand; but her father 
 gave her in preference to Francesco Peretti, nephew of 
 ■Cardinal Montalto. Teretti was assassinated (1581), and 
 a few dnya afterwards Vittoria, fled from the house of the 
 Cardinal, where she had resided, to that of the Duke of 
 Bracciano. The opposition of Pope Gregory XIIL, who 
 even went so far as to confine Vittoria to Fort St Angelo 
 for nearly a year, did not prevent her marriage with the 
 duke. On the accession of Montalto to the papal throne 
 as Sixtus V. (1585), the duke thought it prudent to take 
 refuge with his wife in the territory of the Venetian 
 republic. After a few months' residence at Salo, on the 
 Lake of Garda, he died, bequeathing nearly the whole of 
 Lis large fortune to his widow. This excited the anger of 
 Ludovico Orsini, a relative, who caused Vittoria to be 
 murdered in her residence at Padau (Dec. 22, 15S5). The 
 .history of this beautiful and accomplished but imfortuuate 
 -woman has been written by Adry (1S00), and recently by 
 •Count Gnoli, and forms the basis of Webster's tragedy, The 
 White Devi/, and of Tieck's romance, Vittoria Accoramboni. 
 
 ACCORDION (from the French accord), a small musical 
 instrument iu the shape of a bellows, which produces sounds 
 "by the action of wind on metallic reeds of various sizes. 
 It is played by being held in both hands and puDed back- 
 wards and forwards, the fingers being left free to touch 
 •the keys, which are ranged along each side. The instru- 
 ment is akin to the concertina, but differs from it in having 
 •the chords fixed by a mechanical arrangement. It is manu- 
 factured chiefly in Paris. 
 
 ACCORSO (in Latin Accursius), Fkancis, an eminent 
 lawyer, born at Florence about 11S2. After practising 
 ■for some time in his native city, Le was appointed professor 
 ■at Bologna, where he had great success as a teacher He 
 ■undertook the great work of arranging into one body the 
 almost innumerable comments and remarks upon the Code, 
 -the Institutes, and Digest s, the confused dispersion of which 
 among the works of different writers caused much obscurity 
 *ind contradiction. When he was employed in this work, 
 it is said that, hearing of a similar one proposed and begun 
 by Ovlofred, another lawyer of Bologna, he feigned indis- 
 position, interrupted his public lectures, and shut himself 
 ■up, till he had, with the utmost expedition, accomplished 
 lis design. His work has the vague title of the Great Gloss, 
 and, though written in barbarous Latin, has more method 
 than that of any preceding writer on the subject. The 
 "best edition of it is that of Godefroi. published at Lyons in 
 1589, in 6 vols, folio. Accursms was greatly extolled by 
 the lawyers of his own and the immediately succeeding age, 
 and he was even called the Idol of Jurisconsults, but those 
 -of later times formed a much lower estimate of his merits. 
 There can be no doubt that he has disentangled with 
 much skill the sense of many laws ; but it is equally un- 
 deniable that his ignorance of history and antiquities has 
 •often led him into absurdities, and been the cause of many 
 •defects in his explanations and commentaries. He died at 
 Bologna in 1260. His eldest son Francis, who filled the 
 ■chair of law at Bologna with great reputation, was invited 
 to Oxford by King Edward I., and in 1275 or 1276 read 
 lectures on law in that university. In 1280 he returned to 
 Bologna, where he died in 1293. 
 
 ACCORSO (or Accuesius). if artaxgzlo. a learned and 
 ingenious critic, was born at Aquila, in the kingdom of 
 Naples, about 1490. He was a great favourite with 
 Charles V., at whose court he resided for thirty-three years. 
 and by whom he was employed on various foreign missions. 
 To a perfect knowledge of Greek and Latin he added an- 
 intimate acquaintance with several modern languages. In 
 ■discovering and collating ancient manuscripts, for which hi« 
 travels abroad gave him special opportunities, he displayed 
 ■wncommon dibgence. His work entitled Dialritirr in 
 
 Ausonntm, Soh'num, et Ovidium, printed at Rome, in folio, 
 in 1524, is a singular monument of erudition and critical 
 skill. He bestowed, it is said, unusual pains on Claudian, 
 and made, from different manuscripts, above r even hundred 
 corrections on the works of that poet. Unfortunately these 
 criticisms were never pubbshed. He was the first editor 
 of the Letters of Cassiodoncs, with hi3 Treatise on the Soul; 
 and his edition of Ammianus Marcellinm (1533) contains 
 five books more than any former one. The affected use of 
 antiquated terms, introduced by some of the Latin writers 
 of that age, is humorously ridiculed by him, in a dialogue 
 published in 1531 (republished, with his name, in 1574), 
 entitled Osco, Vo/sco, Jiomanaque Eloqueutia Inlerlocv- 
 toribug, Dialogue Ludis Romania actus. Accorso was 
 accused of plagiarism in his notes on Ausonius ; and the 
 determined manner in which he repelled, by a most solemn 
 oath, this charge of literary theft, presents us with a singular 
 instance of anxiety and care to preserve a literary reputa- 
 tion unstained. 
 
 ACCOUNT, a Stock Exchange term: e.g., "To Buy or 
 Sell for the Account," &c. The word has different, though 
 kindred, significations, all derived from the making up and 
 settling of accounts on particular days, in which stricter 
 sense the word " Settlement" is more specially used. 
 
 The financial importance of the Account may be gathered 
 from the Clearing House returns. Confining ourselves to 
 the six years, from the 30th of April 1S67 to the 30th of 
 April 1873, we have the following figures, furnished by 
 the Clearing House to Sir John Lubbock, and communi- 
 cated by him to the Times: — 
 
 On fourths On Stock Exchange On Consols 
 
 April April of the Month. Account liti\ Settling Darg. 
 
 1867tol!>GS £147,113,000 £444,443,000 £132,21'3,U00 
 
 186S to 1869 161,801,000 550,622.000 142,270,0' 
 
 1869tolS70 163,523,000 594,763,000 148,822,000 
 
 1870tolS71 186,517,000 635,946,000 169,141,000 
 
 1871 to 1S72 229,629,000 942,446,000 233,843,000 
 
 1872 to 1S73 265,965,000 1,032,474,000 243,561,000 
 
 During the year ending April 30, 1S73, the total amount of hills, 
 cheeks, kc, paid at the Hearing House showed an increase of 
 £6t3,S13,<i00 during the &ime period ending April 1872, and of 
 £2,74"5.924,000 over 1868. The amounts passing through on thn 
 Aths nf the month amounted to i'265, 965,000, showing an inereasi) 
 of £36,336,000 over 1872. The payments on Slock Erclunyt 
 Account Days formed n sum of £1,032,474,600, heing an increase 
 of £90.02S,000 over 1872. The pigments on Consols Account Days 
 for the same period amounted to £243,561,000, giving an increase 
 of £9,718,000 over 1872. 
 
 In English and Indian Government Securities, the settle- 
 ments are monthly, and for foreign, railway, and other 
 securities, generally speaking, they are fortnightly. It 
 follows therefore that in 1867-1868, an ordinary Stock 
 Exchange Account Day involved 'payments, on Stock 
 Exchange accounts only, averaging about £10,000.000 
 sterling, and in 1872-3 something like £25,000.000 ster- 
 ling; and these sums again, enormous as they are, repre- 
 sent for the most part only the balance of much larger 
 transactions. The London Account is, in fact, probably 
 the greatest and most important periodical event in tho 
 financial world. The great European, centres have their 
 own Account Days and methods of settlement, but the 
 amounts dealt in are very much less than on the London 
 market. The leading cities in the United Kingdom have 
 also their Stock Exchanges, but their practice follows more 
 or less that of London, where the bulk of their business ia 
 transacted by means of post and telegraph. 
 
 The Account in Consols or other English Government 
 Securities, or in the securities of the Government of India, 
 or in Bank of England Stock, or other Stocks transferable 
 at the Bank of England, extends over a month, the settle- 
 ments being monthly, and in them the committee of the 
 Stock Exchange does not take cognisance of any bargain 
 for a future account if it shall have been effected more
 
 92 
 
 A C C - A E 
 
 than eight days previously to the close of the existing 
 account. 
 
 The Account in Securities to Bearer, and, with the above 
 exceptions, in Registered Securities also, extends over a 
 period of from twelve to nineteen days. This period is in 
 each case terminated by the "settlement," which occurs 
 twice in each month (generally about the middle and T.d), 
 on days fixed by the committee for general purposes of tho 
 Stock Exchange in the preceding month. 
 
 This " settlement" occupies three continuous days, which 
 are all termed Account days, but the third day is the true 
 Account, Settling, or Pay Day. 
 
 Continuation or Carrying-over is the operation by which the 
 settlement of a bargain transacted for money, or for a given account, 
 may for a consideration (called either a "Contango" or a "back- 
 wardation") be deferred for the period of another account. Such 
 a continuation is equivalent to a sale "for the day," and a repur- 
 chase for the succeeding account, or to a purchase " for thp day." 
 and a re-sale for the succeeding account. The price at which such 
 transactions are adjusted is the "Makirg-Up" price of the day. 
 
 Contango is a technical term which expresses the rate of in- 
 terest charged for the loan of money upon the security of stock- 
 transferred for the period of an account or otherwise, or the rate of 
 interest paid by the buyer to the seller to be allowed to defer paying 
 for the stock purchased, until the next settlement day. 
 
 Backwardation, or, as it is more often called, Back (for brevity), 
 in contradistinction to contango, is the amount charged for the 
 loan of stock from one account to the other, and it is paid to the 
 purchaser by the seller in order to allow the seller to defer the deli- 
 eery of the stock. 
 
 A Bull Account is one in which either the purchases have pre- 
 dominated over the sales, or the disposition to purchase has been 
 more marked than the disposition to sell. 
 
 A Bear Account is one in which either the sales have preponderated 
 over the purchases, or in which the disposition to sell has been 
 more strongly displayed than the disposition to buy. 
 
 Sometimes the Bull or the Bear disposition extends to the great 
 majority of securities, as when there are general falls or general 
 rises. Sometimes a Bull Account in one set of securities is con- 
 temporaneous with a Bear Account in another. — Vide Cracroft's 
 Stock Exchange Manual. 
 
 ACCOUNTANT, earlier form Accomftant, in the 
 most general sense, is a person skilled in accounts. It is 
 applied to the person whe has the charge of the accounts 
 in a public office or in the counting-house of a large private 
 business. It is also the designation of a distinct profession, 
 which deals in any required way with mercantile accounts. 
 
 ACCOUNIANT-GLNERAL, an officer in the English 
 'Tourt of Chancery, who receives all monies lodged in court, 
 ind by whom they are deposited in bank and disbursed. 
 
 ACCRA or Acra, a town, or rather a collection of 
 forts, in a territory of the same name, on the Gold Coast of 
 Africa, about 75 miles east of Cape Coast Castle. Of the 
 forts, Fort St James is a British settlement, Creveceeur 
 was established by the Dutch, and Christianborg by the 
 Danes ; but the two last have since been ceded to Britain — 
 Christianborg in 1850, and Creveceeur in 1871. Accra 
 is considered to be one of the healthiest stations on the west 
 coast of Africa, and has some trade in the productions of 
 the interior, — ivory, gold dust, and palm-oil ; while cotton 
 goods, tobacco, rum, and beads are imported in exchange. 
 It is the residence of a British civil commandant. 
 
 ACCRINGTON, an important manufacturing town of 
 England, in Lancashire, lies on the banks of a stream called 
 the Hindburn, in a deep valley, 19 miles N. from Man- 
 chester and 5 miles E. of Blackburn. It has increased rapidly 
 in recent years, and is the centre of the Manchester cotton- 
 printing trade. There are large cotton factories and print- 
 works, besides bleach-fields, 4c., employing many hands. 
 Coal is extensively wrought in the neighbourhood. The 
 town has a good appearance, and among the more handsome 
 buildings are a fine church, in the Gothic style, erected in 
 1 838, and the Peel Institution, an Italian structure, contain- 
 ing an assembly room, a lecture room, ore, The sanitary 
 arrangements generally are good, and a reservoir capable 
 
 of containing 140,000,000 gallons has been constructed for 
 the water supply of the town. Accrington is a station ou 
 the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway. The population of 
 the two townships of Old and New Accrington was in 180}, 
 17,688; and in 1871, 21,788. 
 
 ACCUM, Frederick, chemist, born at Biickeburg in 
 1709, came to London in 1793, and was appointed teacher 
 of chemistry and mineralogy at the Surrey Institution in 
 1801. While occupying this position he published several 
 scientific manuals (Chemistry, 1803; Mineralogy, 1808; 
 Crystallography, 1813), but his name will bo chiefly re- 
 membered in connection with gas-lighting, the introduction 
 of which was mainly due to him and to the enterprising 
 printseller, Ackermann. His excellent Practical Treatise 
 on Gaslight appeared in 1815; and lie tendered another 
 valuable service to society by his Treatise on Adulterations 
 of Food and Culinary Poisons (1820), which attracted 
 much notice at the time it appeared. Both works, as well 
 as a number of his smaller publications, were translated 
 into German. In consequence of charges affecting his 
 honesty, Accum left London for Germany, and in 1822 
 was appointed professor in the Industrial Institute and 
 Academy <»f Architecture at Berlin. He died there in 1838. 
 
 ACCUMULATOR, a term applied frequently to a 
 powerful electrical machine, which generates or accumu- 
 lates, by means cf friction, electric currents of high ten- 
 sion, — manifested by sparks of considerable length. 
 Accumulators have been employed in many places for 
 exploding torpedoes and mmes, for blasting, &c. An 
 exceedingly powerful apparatus of this kind was employed 
 by the Confederate authorities during the civil war in 
 America for discharging submarine and river torpedoes. 
 Whatever the nature of the materials employed in the con- 
 struction of the accumulator, or the form which it may 
 assume mechanically, it is simply a modification of, or an 
 improvement upon, the ordinary cylindrical or the plate- 
 glass frictional electrical machine, — the .fundamental 
 scientific principles being the same in nearly every case. The 
 exciting body consists generally of a large disc or circular 
 plate of vulcanite, — more frequently termed by electricians 
 " ebonite," in consequence of its resemblance, in point of 
 hardness and of polish, to polished ebony, — the vulcanite 
 disc taking the place of the ordinary circular plate of 
 thick glasa. 
 
 ACE, the received name for the single point on cards or 
 dice — the unit. Mr Fox Taibot has a speculation {English 
 Etymologies, p. 262) that the Latins invented, if not the 
 game of dice, at least the name for the single point, which 
 .they called mius. The Greeks corrupted this into 6V05, 
 and at length the Germanic races, learning the game from 
 the Greeks, translated the word into ass, which has now 
 become ace. The fact, -however, is, that the root of the 
 word lies in the Latin as, the monetary unit, which is to 
 be identified with the Greek €*s; Doric, at? or as. 
 
 ACEPHALA, a name sometimes given to a section of 
 the molluscous animals, which are divided into encephala 
 and acephala, according as they have or want a distinctly 
 differentiated head. The Acephala, or Lamellibranchiala, 
 as they are also called, are commonly known as bivalvo 
 shell-fish. 
 
 ACEPHALI (from a privative, and Kc<j>a\rj, a head), a 
 term applied to several sects as having no head or leader; 
 and in particular to a sect that separated itself, in the end 
 of the 5th century, from the rule of the patriarchs of Alex- 
 andria, and remained without king or bishop for more than 
 300 years (Gibbon, c. xlvii.) 
 
 Acephali was also the name given to the levellers i;i 
 the reign of Henry I, who are said to have been so poor 
 as to have no tenements, in virtue of which .they might- 
 acknowledge a superior lord.
 
 A C E — A C H 
 
 93 
 
 Acephali, or Acepnalous Persons, fabulous monsters, 
 described by some ancient naturalists and geographers as 
 having no heads. 
 
 ACER. See Maple. 
 
 ACERBI, Giuseppe (Joseph), an Italian traveller, born 
 at Castel-Goffredo, near Mantua, on the 3d May 1773, 
 studied at Mantua, and devoted himself specially to natural 
 science. * In 1798 he undertook a journey through Den- 
 mark, Sweden, Finland, and Lapland; and in the follow- 
 ing year he reached the North Cape, which no Italian had 
 previously visited. He was accompanied in the latter part 
 of the journey by the Swedish colonel Skioldebrand, an 
 excellent landscape-painter. On his return Acerbi stayed 
 for some time in England, and published his Travels 
 through Sweden, &c. (London, 1802), which was translated 
 into German (Weimar, 1803), and, under the author's per- 
 sonal superintendence, into French (Paris, 1S04). The 
 French translation received numerous corrections, but even 
 in this emended form the work contains many mistakes. 
 Acerbi rendered a great service to Italian literature by 
 starting the" B'Mioteca Italiana (1816), in which he 
 opposed the pretensions of the Academy della Crusca. 
 Being appointed Austrian consul-general to Egypt in 
 1826, he entrusted the management of the Billioteca to 
 Gironi, contributing to it afterwards a series of valuable 
 articles on Egypt. While in the East he obtained for the 
 museums of Vienna, Padua, Milan, and Pavia many 
 objects of interest. He returned from Egypt in 1836, 
 and took up his residence in his native place, where he 
 occupied himself with his favourite study till his death in 
 August 1846. 
 
 ACEKNUS, the j_,atinised name by wnich Sebastian 
 Fabian Klonowicz, a celebrated Polish poet, is generally 
 known, was born at Sulmierzyce in 1551, and died at 
 Lublin in 1608. He was for some time burgomaster and 
 president of the Jews' civil tribunal in the latter town, 
 where he had taken up his residence after studying at 
 Cracow. Though himself of an amiable disposition, his 
 domestic life was very unhappy, the extravagance and 
 misconduct of his wife driving him at last to the public 
 hospital of Lublin, where he ended his days. He wrote 
 both Latin and Polish poems, and the genius they dis- 
 played won for him the name of the Sarmatian Ovid. 
 The titles of fourteen of his works are known; but a 
 number of these were totally destroyed by the Jesuits and 
 a section of the Polish nobility, and copies of the others 
 are for the same reason exceedingly rare. The Victoria 
 Deornm nbi continelur Veri Herois Educatio, a poem in forty- 
 four cantos, cost the poet ten years' labour. 
 
 ACERRA, in Antiquity, a little box or pot, wherein were 
 put the incense and perfumes to be burned on the altars of 
 the gods, and before the dead. It appears to have been 
 the same with what was otherwise called ihuiibvlum arid 
 pyxis. The censers of the Jews were ar.errm ; and the 
 Romanists still retain the use of aceirce, under the name 
 of incense pots. 
 
 The name acerra was also applied to an altar erected 
 among the Romans, near the bed of a person recently de- 
 reused, on which his friends offered incense daily till his 
 burial. The real intention probably was to fumigate the 
 apartment. The Chinese have still a somewhat similar 
 custom. 
 
 ACERRA, a town of Italy, in the province of Terra 
 di Lavoro. situated on the river Agno, 7 miles N.E. of 
 Naples, with which it is connected by rail. It is the an- 
 cient Acerrae. the inhabitants of which were admitted to 
 •he privileges of Roman citizenship so early as 332 B.C., 
 and which was plundered and burnt by Hannibal during 
 the second Punic war. A few inscriptions are the only 
 traces time has left of the ancient city. The town standi 
 
 in a fertile district, but is rendered very unhealthy by the 
 malaria rising from the artificial watercourses of the sur- 
 rounding Campagna. . It is the scat of a bishop, and has a 
 cathedral and seminary. Flax is grown in the neighbour- 
 hood. Population, 11,717. 
 
 ACETIC ACID, one of the most important orgaiuc acids. 
 It occurs naturally in the juice of many plants, aud in cer- 
 tain animal secretions ; but is generally obtained, on the 
 large scale, from the oxidation of spoiled wines, or from the 
 destructive distillation of wood. In the former process it 
 is obtained in the form of a dilute aqueous solution, in whicli 
 also the colouring matters of the wine, salts, &c, arc dis- 
 solved ; and this impure acetic acid is what we ordinarily 
 term vinegar. The strongest vinegar sold in commerce 
 contains 5 per cent, of real acetic acid. It is used as a 
 mordant in calico-printing, as a local irritant in medicine, 
 as a condiment, and in the preparation of various acetates, 
 varnishes, &c. Pure acetic acid is got from the distillation 
 of wood, by neutralising with lime, separating the tarry 
 matters from the solution of acetate of lime, evaporating 
 off the water, and treating the dry residue with sulphuric 
 acid. On applying heat, pure acetic acid distills over as 
 a clear liquid, which, after a short time, if the weather 
 is cold, becomes a crystalline mass known by the name of 
 Glacial Acetic Acid. For synthesis, properties, ice, Bet" 
 Chemistry. 
 
 ACHAIA. in Ancieni Geograpny, a name differently 
 applied at different periods. In the earliest times the name 
 was borne by a small district in the south of The.ssaly, and 
 was the first residence of the Achaeans. At a later period 
 Achaia Propria was a narrow tract of country in the north 
 of the Peloponnesus, running 65 miles along the Gulf of 
 Corinth, and bounded by the Ionian Sea on the W., by 
 Elis and Arcadia on the S., and by Sicyonia on the E. 
 On the south it is separated from Arcadia by lofty moun- 
 tains, but the plains between the mountains and the sea are 
 very fertile. Its chief town was Patrse. The name of 
 Achaia was afterwards employed to denote collectively the 
 ■ states that joined the Achasan League. When Greece was 
 subdusd by the Romans, Achaia was the name given to the 
 most southerly of the provinces into which they divided the 
 country, and included the Peloponnesiis, the greater part of 
 Greece Proper, and the islands. 
 
 Achceans and the Achccan League. — The early inhabitants 
 of Achaia were called Achaans. The name was given also 
 in those times to some of the tribes occupying the eastern 
 portions of the Peloponnesus, particularly Argos and Sparta. 
 Afterwards the inhabitants of Achaia Propria appropriated 
 the name. This republic was not considerable, in early times, 
 as regards either the number of its troops, its wealth, or 
 the extent of its territory, but was famed for its heroic 
 virtues. The Crotonians and Sybarites, to re-establish 
 order in their towns, adopted the laws and customs of 
 the Achaeans. After the famous battle of Leuctra, a dif- 
 ference arose betwixt the Lacedaemonians and Thebant, 
 who held the virtue of this people in such veneration, that 
 they terminated the dispute by their decision. The govern- 
 ment of the Achseans was democraticaLi They preserved 
 their liberty till the time of Philip and Alexander; but in 
 the reign of these princes, and afterwards, they were either 
 subjected to the Macedonians, who had made themselves 
 masters of Greece, or oppressed by domestic tyrants. The 
 Achaean commonwealth consisted of twelve inconsiderable 
 towns in Peloponnesus. About 280 years before Christ the 
 republic of the Achaeans recovered its old institutions and 
 unanimity. This was the renewal of the ancient confede- 
 ration, which subsequently became so famous under the 
 name of the Achjian League — having for it3 object, not 
 as formerly a comn.on worship, but a substantial political 
 uni^n. Though dating from the year B.c. 2S0. its import-
 
 94 
 
 A C H — A C H 
 
 ance maybe referred to its connection with Aratus of Sicyon, 
 about 30 years later, as it was further augmented by the 
 splendid abilities of Philopcemen. Thus did this people, so 
 celebrated in the heroie age, onco more emerge from com- 
 parative obscurity, and become the greatest among the states 
 of Gieece in the last days of its national independence. The 
 inhabitants of Patrre and of Dyme wero the first assertors of 
 ancient liberty. The tyrants wero banished, and the towns 
 again made one commonwealth. A public council was then 
 h Id, in which affairs of importance wero discussed and deter- 
 mined; and a register was provided for recording the trans- 
 actions of the council. This assembly had two presidents, 
 who were nominated alternately by tho different towns. 
 But instead of two presidents, they soon elected but one. 
 Many neighbouring towns, which admired the constitution 
 of this republic, founded on equality, liberty, the love of 
 justice, and of the public good, were incorporated with the 
 Achajans, and admitted to tho full enjoyment of their 
 laws and privileges. The Achaean League affords the most 
 perfect example in antiquity of the federal form of govern- 
 ment; and, allowing for difference of time and place, its 
 resemblance to that of tbe United States government is 
 very remarkable. (See Arts. Amphictyony and Federal 
 Government; also Freeman's Federal Government, 2 vols. 
 8vo. 1863, and Comparative Politics, 8vo. 1873; Droysen, 
 Geschichte des Uellenismus, 2 vols. ; Helwing, Geschichte 
 des Afha'inchen Bundes.) 
 
 ACHAN, the son of Carmi, of the tribe of Judah, at 
 the taking of Jericho concealed two hundred shekels of 
 silver, a Babylonish garment, and a wedge of gold, con- 
 trary to the express command of God. This sin proved 
 fatal to the Israelites, who were repulsed -at the siege of 
 Ai. In this emergency Joshua prostrated himself before 
 the Lord, and begged that he would have mercy upon his 
 people. Achan was discovered by casting lots, and he 
 and his children were stoned to death. This expiation 
 being made, Ai was taken by stratagem. (Josh. vii. viii.) 
 
 ACHARD, Franz Carl, a Prussian chemist, born at 
 Berlin on the' 28th April 1753, was the first to turn 
 MarggrafFs discovery of the presence of sugar in beet-root 
 to commercial account. He erected a factory on an estate 
 in Silesia, granted to him about 1800 by the king of Prussia, 
 and produced there large quantities of sugar to meet 
 the scarcity occasioned by the closing of the West Indian 
 ports to continental traders. In 1812 a similar establish- 
 ment was erected by Napoleon at Rambouillet, although 
 the Institute of France in 1800, while honouring Achard 
 for his researches, had declared his process to have little 
 practical value. At the close of the war the manufacture 
 of beet-root sugar was protected by duties on other sugars 
 that were almost prohibitive, so that the real worth of 
 Achard's discoveries could not be tested. Achard was a 
 frequent contributor to theMemoirs of the Academy of Berlin, 
 and published in 1780 ChymiscltrPhysisclie Schriften, con- 
 taining descriptions and results of his very numerous and 
 carefully conducted experiments on the adhesion of bodies. 
 He died in 1821. 
 
 ACHARIUS, Erik, a Swedish physician and botanist, 
 born at Gefle in 1757. The son of a comptroller of 
 customs, he studied first in his native town, and then in 
 1773 at the University of Upsal, where Linnreus was one 
 of his teachers. In 1782 he took the degree of M.D. at 
 the University of Lund, and practised thereafter in various 
 districts of Sweden. But the direction of his studies had 
 been determined by his contact with Linnxus, and he 
 found his appropriate sphere when he was appointed 
 Professor of Botany at the Wadstena Academy in 1801. 
 Five years before he had been admitted a member of the 
 Academy at Stockholm. He devoted himself to the study 
 of the cryptogamic orders of plants, and especially of the 
 
 family of lichens. ' All his publications were connected? 
 with this subject, the Lichenographia Universalis (Got- 
 tingen, 1801) being the most important. Acharius died, 
 of apoplexy in 1819. His name ha3 been given by- 
 botanists to more than one species of plants. 
 
 ACHATES, the faithful friend and companion of ^Eneas, 
 'celebrated in Virgil's^MeM aafdus Acltates. 
 
 ACIIEEN. See Acuta 
 
 ACHELOUS, the largest river in Greece, rises in Mount 
 Pindus, and dividing A'tolia from Acarnania, falls iuti- 
 the Ionian Sea. In the lower part of its course the river 
 winds in an extraordinary manner through very fertile but 
 marshy plains. Its water descends from the mountains,, 
 heavily charged with fine mud, wliich is deposited along 
 its banks and in the sea at its mouth, whero a number of 
 small islands have gradually been formed. It was formerly 
 called T/toas, from its impetuosity in its upper portion, and 
 Homer gave it the name of king of rivers. It has a course 
 of 130 miles. The epithet Acheloius-ls used for aqucus 
 (Virgil), the ancients calling all water Achelolis, according 
 to Ephorus. The river is now called Aspro Potamo. 
 
 ACHENWALL, Gottfried, a German writer, cele- 
 brated as having formulated and developed the science 
 ( Wissenschaft der Staatcn), to which he was the first to- 
 apply the name scientia stalislica, or statistics. Born at 
 Elbing, in East Prussia, in October 1719, he studied at 
 Jena, Halle, and Leipsic, and took a degree at the last- 
 named university. He removed to Marburg in 1746, 
 where for two years he read lectures on history, and on the 
 law of nature and of nations. Here, too, he commenced 
 those inquiries in statistics by which his name became 
 known In 1748, having been invited by Miinchhausen, 
 the Hanoverian minister, to occupy a chair at the univer- 
 sity, he removed to Gbttingen, where he resided till his 
 death in 1772. His chief works were connected with 
 statistics. The Staalsverfassungen der europdischen Eeiche 
 appeared first in 1752, and revised editions — corrected 
 from information which he travelled through England, 
 France, and other countries to collect — were published in 
 1762 and 1768. He was married in 1752 to a lady 
 named Walther, who obtained some celebrity by a volume 
 of poems published in 1750, and by other writings. 
 
 ACHERON, in Classical Mythology, the son of Ceres, 
 who, for supplying tho Titans with drink when they were 
 in contest with Jupiter, was turned into a river of Hades, 
 over which departed souls wero ferried on their way to 
 Elysium. The name eventually was used to designate the 
 whole of the lower world. 
 
 ACIIILL, or "Eagle" Island, off the west coast of Ire- 
 land, forms part of the county of Mayo. It is of triangular 
 shape, and extends 15 miles from east to west, and 12 
 from north to south, its total area being 51,521 acres. 
 The island is very mountainous; its extreme western poiut, 
 Achill Head, is a bold and rugged promontory rising to a 
 height of 2222 feet above the sea. Large bogs, incapable 
 of cultivation, alternate with the hills of this desolate isle, 
 of whose extensive surface not more than 500 acres have 
 been reclaimed. The inhabitants earn a scanty subsistence 
 by fishing and tillage ; their dwellings are miserable 
 hovels. There is a mission-station on the island, and 
 remains of ancient churches are still extant. 
 
 ACHILLES ('AxiAAtuj's). Wheu first taken up by the 
 legendary history of Greece, the ancestors of Achilles were 
 settled in Phthia and in yKgina. That their original seat, 
 however, was in the neighbourhood of Dodona and the 
 Achelous is made out from a combination of the following 
 facts: That in the Iliad (xvi. 233) Achilles' prays to Zeus 
 of Dodona; that this district was the first to bear the 
 name of Hellas; that the followers of Achilles at Troy were 
 the only persons named Hellenes in the time cf Homer
 
 A C H— A C H 
 
 95 
 
 (Thucyd. i .3 ; of. Iliad, ii. 6S4, where the more usual name 
 of Myrmidones also occurs); that in jEgina Zeus was styled 
 ," Helianios j" and that the name of Selloi, applied to the 
 priesthood at Dodona, is apparently identical with the name 
 Hellenes. Whether from this local connection the derivation 
 of the name of Achilles from the same root as 'A^tAiuos 
 should be preferred to the other .derivations, such as 
 'A^i-X fvs = 'Ex £ 'Aao5, "ruler," or 'A^-iXcu';, = " the bane of 
 the Hums," remains undecided. But this is gained, that we 
 see in what manner the legend of Achilles had its root in 
 the earlier Pelasgic religion, his adherence to which in the 
 prayer just cited would otherwise appear very strange on 
 the part of a hero who, through the influence of Homer and 
 his successors, is completely identified with the Olympian 
 system of gods. According to the genealogy, ./Eacus had 
 two sons, Peleus and Telamon, of whom the former became 
 the father of Achilles — the latter, of Ajax ; but of this 
 relationship between Achilles and Ajax there is no sign in 
 the Iliad. Peleus ruled in Phthia ; and the gods remark- 
 ing his piety, rewarded him with, among other presents, a 
 wife in the person of the beautiful nereid Thetis. After 
 her son was born, Thetis appears to have returned to her 
 life in the sea. The boy was placed under his father's 
 friend, tho centaur Cheiron. Wh<?n six years old he slew 
 lions and boars, and could run down a stag. When nine, 
 he was removed fiom his instruction to the island of Scyrus, 
 whe> - e, dressed as a girl, he was to be brought up among 
 the daughters ot Lycoraedcs, his mother preferring for 
 him a long inglorious life to a brief but splendid career. 
 The samo desire for his safety is apparent in other legends, 
 which describe her as trying to make him invulnerable 
 when a child by placing him in boiling water or in a fire, 
 and then salving him with ambrosia ; or again, in later 
 story, by dipping him in the river Styx, from which ho 
 came out, all but the heel which she held, proof against 
 wounds. When the aid of Achilles was found indispensable 
 to the expedition against Troy, Odysseus set out for Scyrus 
 as a pedlar, spread his wares, including a shield and spear, 
 before the king's daughters, among whom was Achilles 
 in disguise. Then he caused an alarm of danger to be 
 sounded, upon which, while the girls fled, Achilles seized 
 the arms, and t.hu3 revealed himself. Provided with a 
 contingent of 50 ships, and accompanied by the aged 
 Phcenix and Patroclus, he joined the expedition, which 
 after occupying nine years in raids upon the towns in the 
 neighbourhood of Troy and in Mysia, as detailed in the 
 epic poem entitled the Cypria, culminated in the regular 
 siege of Troy, as described in the Iliad, the grand object 
 of which is the glorification of our hero. Estranged from 
 his comrades, because his captive Briseis had been taken 
 from him, Achilles remained inexorable in his tent, while 
 defeat attended the Greeks. At length, at their greatest 
 need, he yielded so far as to allow Patroclus to take his 
 chariot and to assume his armour. Patroclus fell, and 
 the news of his death roused Achilles, who, now equipped 
 with new armour fashioned by Hephaestus, drove back the 
 Trojans, slew Hector, and after dragging his body thrice 
 round the Trojan walls, restored it to Priam. With the 
 I funeral rites of Patroclus the Iliad concludes, and the story 
 ( is taken up by the JZl'iiopis, a poem by Arctinus of Miletus, 
 in which is described the combat of Achilles first with the 
 ainazon Penthesilea, and next with Memnon. When the 
 latter fell, Achilles drove back the Trojans, and, impelled 
 by fate, himstlf advanced to the Screan gate, where an 
 arrow from the bow of Paris' struck his vulnerable heel, 
 and he fell, bewailed through the whole camp. (a. s. ii.) 
 
 ACHILLES TATIUS, a Greek writer, born at Alexan- 
 dria. The precise time when he flourished is uncertain, but 
 it cannot have been earlier than the 5th century, as in his 
 principal work he evidently unit-iUs Helioduiua. Suidas, 
 
 wno calls him Achilles Statius", says that he was converter! 
 from heathenism and became a Christian bishop, but this 
 is doubtful, the more so that Suidas also attributes to him 
 a work on the sphere (-repi o-^at'pos) which is referred to 
 by Firmicus (330-50), and must, therefore, have been 
 written by another person. The erotic romance of Achilles 
 Tatius, entitled T/ie Loves of Clitophon and Leucippe, is 
 almost certainly the work of a heathen writer. The style 
 of the work is ornate and rhetorical, while the story is 
 often unnatural, and sometimes coarse, and the develop- 
 ment of the plot irregular and frequently interrupted. Its 
 popularity at the time it appeared is proved by the many 
 manuscripts of it which still exist, and the value attached 
 to it by modern scholars and critics is seen in the frequency 
 with which it has been reprinted and translated. A Latin 
 translation by Annibal Crucceius was published, first in 
 part at Leyden in 1544, and then complete at Basel in 
 1554. The Greek text was first printed by Coimnelin, at 
 Heidelberg, in 1601. Other editions by Salmasius (Leyden, 
 1640K Mitscherlich (Biponti, 1792), and Jacobs (Leipsic, 
 1821), have been superseded by the editions of Hirschig 
 (Paris, 1S56), and Hercher (Leipsic, 1857). An English 
 translation by A. H. (Anthony Hodges) appeared at 
 Oxford in 1638. 
 
 ACHILLLNI, Alexander (1463-1512), a native of 
 Bologna, was celebrated as a lecturer both in medicine and 
 in philosophy, and was styled the second Aristotle. - He and 
 Mundinus were the first at Bologna to avail themselves of 
 the permission given by Frederick IL to dissect dead 
 bodies. His philosophical works were printed in one 
 volume folio, at Venice, in 1508, and reprinted with con- 
 siderable additions in 1545, 1551, and 1568. He also 
 wrote several medical works, chiefly on anatomy. 
 
 ACHIN (pronounced A tcheen),. a town and also a state of 
 Northern Sumatra; the one state of that island which has 
 been powerful at any time since the discovery of the Cape 
 route to the East, and the only one that still remains indepen- 
 dentof the Dutch, though that independence is nowmenaced. 
 De Barros names Achin among the twenty-nine states 
 that divided the sea-board of Sumatra when the Portuguese 
 took Malacca. Northern Sumatra had been visited by 
 several European travellers in the Middle Ages, such as 
 Marco Polo, Friar Odorico, and Nicolo ContL Some of 
 these as well as Asiatic WTiters mention Lambri,'a stato 
 which must have nearly occupied the position of Achfn. 
 But the first voyager to visit Achin, by that name, was 
 Alvaro Tellez, a captain of Tristan d'Acunha's fleet, in 
 1506. It was then a mere dependency of the adjoining 
 state of Pedir; and the latter, with Pasei, formed the only 
 states on the coast whose chiefs claimed the title of Sultan. 
 Yet before twenty years had passed Achfn had not only 
 gained independence, but had swallowed up all other states 
 of Northern Sumatra. It attained its climax of power in 
 the time of Sultan Iskandar Muda (1607-1636), under 
 whom the subject coast extended from Aru opposite 
 Malacca round by the north to Padang on the west coast, 
 a sea-board of not less than 1100 miles ; and besides tiiis, 
 the king's supremacy was owned by the large island of 
 Nyas, and by the continental Malay states of Johor, 
 Pahang, Quedah, and Perak. 
 
 The present limits of Achin supremacy in Sumatra are 
 reckoned to be, on the east coast the River Tamiang, in 
 about 4° 25' N. lat., which forms the frontier of territories 
 tributary to Siak; and on the west coast a line in about 
 2° 48' N., the frontier of Trumon, a small modern state 
 lying between Achin and the Dutch government of Tadang. 
 Even within these limits the actual power of Achin is pre- 
 carious, and the interior boundary can be laid down only 
 from conjecture. This interior country is totally unex- 
 plored. It is believed to be inhabited by tribes kindred
 
 96 
 
 A C H I N 
 
 to the Battas, that remarkable race of anthropophagi who 
 adjoin on the south. The whole area of Achfn territory, 
 defined to the best of our ability, 'will contain about 16,400 
 English square miles. A rate of 20 per square mile, per- 
 haps somewhat too ■ largo an average, gives a probablo 
 population of 328,000. 
 
 The production of rice and pepper forms the chief 
 industry of the Achin territory. From Pedir and other 
 ports on the north coast large quantities of betel-nut are 
 exported to continental India, to Burmah, and to Penang 
 for China. Some pepper is got from Pcdir, but the chief 
 export is from a number of small ports and anchorages on 
 the west coast, where vessels go from port to port making 
 up a cargo. Achin ponies are of good repute, and are 
 exported. Minor articles of export are sulphur, iron, 
 s.ippan-wood, gutta-percha, damvier, rattans, bamboos, 
 benzoin, and camphor from the interior forests. The 
 camphor is that from the Dryabalanops camphora, for 
 which so high a price is paid in. China, and the whole goes 
 thither, the bulk of that whole being, however, extremely 
 small. Very little silk is now produced, but in the lGth 
 century the quantity seems to have been considerable. 
 What is now wanted for the local textures, which are in 
 some esteem, is imported from China. 
 
 The chief attraction to the considerable trade that existed 
 at Achin two centuries ago must have been gold. No 
 place in the East, unless Japan, was so abundantly sup- 
 plied with gold. We can form no estimate of the annual 
 export, for it is impossible to accept Valentyn's statement 
 that it sometimes reached 80 bahars (512,000 ounces !). 
 Crawford (1820), who always-reckoned low,' calculated the 
 whole export of Sumatra at 35,530 ounces, and that of 
 Achin at 10,450; whilst Anderson (182G), who tends to 
 put figures too high, reckoned the whole Achin export 
 alone at 32,000 ounces. The chief imports to Achin are 
 opium (largely consumed), rice (the indigenous supply 
 being inadequate), salt, iron ware, piece-goods, arms and 
 ammunition, vessels of copper and pottery, China goods of 
 sorts, and a certain kind of dried fish. 
 
 The great repute of Achin at one time as a place of 
 trade is shown by the fact, that to this port the first Dutch 
 (1599) and first English (1602) commercial ventures to 
 the Indies were directed. Lancaster, the English com- 
 modore, carried letters from Queen Elizabeth to the king 
 of Achin, and was well received by the prince then reign- 
 ing, Alauddin Shah. Another exchange of letters took 
 place between King James I. and Iskandar. Muda in 1613. 
 But native caprice and natural jealousy at the growing 
 force of the European nations in those seas, the reckless 
 rivalries of the latter and their fierce desire for monopoly, 
 •were alike destructive of sound trade; and the English 
 factory, though several times set up, was never long main- 
 tained. The French made one great effort under Beaulieu 
 (1621) to establish relations with Achin, but nothing 
 came of it. 
 
 Still the foreign trade of Achin, though subject to spas- 
 modic interruptions, was important. Dampier and others 
 speak of the number of foreign merchants settled there, — 
 English, Dutch, Danes, Portuguese, Chinese, Banyans 
 from Guzerat, &c. Dampier says the roads were rarely 
 without ten or fifteen sail of different nations, bringing 
 vast quantities of nee, as well as silks, chintzes, muslins, 
 and opium. Besides the Chinese merchants -settled at 
 Achin, others used to come annually with the junks, ten 
 or twelve in number, which arrived in June. A regular 
 fair was then established, which lasted two months, and 
 was known as the China camp, — a lively scene, and great 
 resort of foreigners. 
 
 The Achinese are not identical with the Malays proper 
 either in asrject or language. They are said to be taller, 
 
 handsomer, and darker, as if with a mixture of blood from 
 India proper. Their langimge is little known; but though 
 it has now absorbed much Malay, the original part of it is 
 said to have characteristics connecting it both with the 
 Batta and with the Indo-Chinese tongues. The Achin 
 literature, however, is entirely Malay; it embraces poetry, 
 a good deal of theology, and several chronicles. 
 
 The name of the state is properly A~chch. This the 
 Portuguese made into Ackem; whilst we, with the Dutch, 
 learned to call it Achin. The last appears to have been a 
 Persian or Indian form, suggested by jingling analogy with 
 M4cMn (China). 
 
 The town itself lies very near the north-west extremity 
 of Sumatra, known in charts as Achin Head. Here a 
 girdle of ten or twelve small islands affords protection to 
 the anchorage. This fails in N.W. winds, but it is said 
 that vessels may find safe riding at all seasons by shifting 
 their berths. The town lies between two and three miles 
 from the sea, chiefly on the left bank of a river of no great 
 size. This forms a swampy delta, and discharges by three 
 mouths. The central and chief mouth is about 100 yards 
 wide, and has a depth of 20 to 30 feet within the bar. 
 But the latter has barely 4 feet at low tide; at high tide 
 it admits native craft of 20 or 30 tons, and larger craft in 
 the rainy season. The town, like most Malay towns, con- 
 sists of detached houses of timber and thatch, clustered in 
 enclosed groups called karnpongs, and buried in a forest of 
 fruit-trees. The chief feature is the palace of the Sultan, 
 which communicates with the river by a canal, and is 
 enclosed, at least partially, by a wall of cut stone. 
 
 The valley or alluvial plain in which Achin lies is low, 
 and subject to partial inundation; but it is shut in at a 
 short distance from the town, on the three landward sides, 
 by hills. It is highly cultivated, and abounds in small 
 villages and kampongs, with white mosques interspersed. 
 The hills to the eastward are the spurs of a great volcanic 
 mountain, upwards of 6000 feet in height, called by natives 
 Yamuria, by mariners " the Golden Mountain." x Of the 
 town population we find no modern estimate. 
 
 The real original territory of the Achinese, called by 
 them Great Achin (in the sense of Achin proper), consists 
 of three districts immediately round the city, distinguished 
 respectively as the 26, the 25, and the 22 miliums 2 (or 
 hundreds, to use the nearest English term). 
 
 Each of these three districts has two heads, called pang- 
 hmas; and these, according to some modern accounts, 
 constitute the council of state, who are the chief adminis- 
 trators, and in whose hands it lies to depose the sovereign 
 or to sanction his choice of a successor. Late notices 
 speak of a chief minister, apparently distinct from these; 
 and another important member of the government is the 
 Shabandar, who is over all matters of customs, shipping, 
 and commerce. 
 
 The court of Achin, in the 1 7th century, maintained a 
 good deal of pomp; and, according to Beaulieu, the king 
 had always 900 elephants. These animals, though found 
 throughout Sumatra, are now no longer tamed or kept. 
 
 Hostilities with the Portuguese began from the time of 
 the first independent king of Achin; and. they had little 
 remission till the power of Portugal fell with the loss of 
 Malacca (1G41). Not less than ten times before that 
 event were armaments despatched from Achin to reduce 
 Malacca, and more than once its garrison was very hard 
 pressed. One of these armadas, equipped by Iskandar 
 Muda in 1615, gives an idea of the king's resources. It 
 consisted of 500 sail, of which 250 were galleys, and 
 
 1 Several other great volcanic cones exist in the Achin territory, and 
 two visible from seaward rise to a height of 11,000 feet or more in t!:f 
 unexplored interior. 
 
 * A mukim is said properly to embrace 44 households.,
 
 A C H —A C L 
 
 97 
 
 'among these a hundred were greater than any then used in 
 Europe. 60,000 men were embarked, with the king and 
 hJ8 women. 
 
 On the death of Iskandar's successor in 1641, the widow 
 was placed on the throne ; and as a female reign favoured 
 the oligarchical tendencies of the Malay chiefs, three more 
 queens were allowed to reign successively. Though this 
 series of female sovereigns lasted only fifty-eight years alto- 
 gether, so dense is apt to be the ignorance of recent history, 
 that long before the end of that period it had become ^n 
 accepted belief among foreign residents at Acbin that there 
 never had been any sovereigns in Achin except females; 
 and hence, by an easy inference, that the Queen of Sheba 
 had been Queen of Achin ! 
 
 In 1699 the Arab or fanatical party suppressed female 
 government, and put a chief of Arab blood on the throne. 
 The remaining history of Achin is one of rapid decay. 
 Thirty sovereigns in all have reigned from the beginning 
 of the 16th century to the present day. 
 
 After the restoration of Java to the Netherlands in 1816, 
 a good deal of weight was attached by the neighbouring 
 English colonies to the maintenance of our influence in- 
 Achin; and in 1819 a treaty of friendship was concluded 
 with the Calcutta Government, which excluded other 
 European nationalities from fixed residence in Achin. 
 When the home Government, in 1824, made a treaty with 
 the Netherlands, surrendering our remaining settlements 
 in Sumatra in exchange for certain possessions on the con- 
 tinent of Asia, no reference was made in the articles to the 
 Indian treaty of 1819; but an understanding was exchanged 
 that it should be modified by us, whilst no proceedings 
 hostile to Achin should be attempted by the Dutch. 
 
 This reservation was formally abandoned by our Govern- 
 ment in a convention signed at the Hague, November 2, 
 1871; and little more than a year elapsed before the 
 government of Batavia declared war tpon Achin. Doubt- 
 less there was provocation, as there always will be between 
 such neighbours; but the necessity for war has been 
 greatly doubted, even in Holland. A Dutch force landed 
 at Achin in April 1873, and attacked the palace. It was 
 defeated with considerable loss, including that of the 
 general (Kbhler). The approach of the south-west mon- 
 soon was considered to preclude the immediate renewal of 
 the attempt ; but hostilities were resumed, and Achin fell 
 in January 1874. 
 
 (De Barros; Faria y Souza; Valentyn, voL v.; Beaulieu 
 (in Thevenot's Collection); Dampier; Marsden;Crawfurd's 
 Hist, and Decl. of the Ind. Archip.; J. of Ind. Archip.; 
 Dulaurier in J. Asiatique, 3d s. vol viii.; Anderson's Acheen, 
 1840; Veth, Atchin, <fec. Leyden, 1873, <tc.) (h. y.) 
 
 ACHMET, or Ahmed, the name of three emperors or 
 sultans of Turkey, the first of the name reigning from 1C03 
 to 1617, the second from 1691 to 1695. Achmet III. 
 succeeded his brother Mustapha II., whom the Janissaries 
 deposed in 1703. After the battle of Pultowa in 1709, 
 Charles XH. of Sweden took refuge with him, and incited 
 him to war with Peter the Great, Czar of Russia, Achmet 
 recovered the Morea from the Venetians (1715); bui.' his 
 expedition into Hungary was less fortunate, his army being 
 defeated at Peterwardein by Prince Eugene in 1716, and 
 again near Belgrade the year after. The empire was dis- 
 tracted uuring his reign by political disturbances, which 
 were occasioned, in part at least, by his misgovernment ; 
 /and the discontent of his soldiers at last (1730) drove him 
 from the throne. He died in prison in 1736. 
 
 ACHRAY, a small picturesque lake in Perthshire, near 
 
 Loch Katrine, 20 miles W. of Stirling, which has obtained 
 
 botoriety from Scott's allusion to it in the Lady of the Lake. 
 
 ACHROMATIC GLASSES are so named from being 
 
 Specially constructed with a view to prevent the confusion 
 
 1-5 
 
 of colours and distortion of images that result from the 
 use of lenses in optical instruments. When white light 
 passes through a lens, the different-coloured rays that con- 
 stitute it are refracted or bent aside at different angles, and 
 so converge at different foci, producing a blurred and 
 coloured image. To remedy this compound lense3 havo 
 been devised, which present a well-defined image, unsur- 
 rounded by coloured bauds of light. To instruments fitted 
 with lenses of this kind has been given the name achromatic, 
 from d privative, and xpw,.ia, colour. The celebrated opti- 
 cian, John Dollond, was the first to surmount this practical 
 difficulty, about the year 1757, by the use of a combination 
 of crown and flint glass. See Optics, Microscope, &c. 
 
 ACI REALE, a city and seaport of Sicily, in the 
 Italian province of Catania, near the base of Mount Etna. 
 It stands on solidified lava, which has here been deposited 
 by different streams to a depth of 560 feet. The town, 
 which has been almost entirely re-erected since the earth- 
 quake of 1693, is built of lava, contains many handsome 
 edifices, and is defended by a fortress. Linen, silks, and 
 cutlery are manufactured, and the trade in cotton, flax, 
 grain, and wines is considerable. The place is celebrated 
 for its cold sulphurous mineral waters. Near Aci Reale 
 is the reputed scene of the mythical adventures of Acis and 
 Galatea; and on this account several small towns in the 
 neighbourhood also bear the name of Aci, such as Aci 
 Castello, Aci Terra, &c. Aci Reale has a population of 
 24,151. 
 
 ACID, a general term in chemistry, applied to a 
 group of compound substances, possessing certain very 
 distinctive characteristics. All acids have one essential 
 property, viz., that of combining chemically with an alkali 
 or base, forming a new compound that has neither acid 
 nor alkaline characters. The new bodies formed in this 
 way are termed salts. Every acid is therefore capable of 
 producing as many salts as there are basic substances to be 
 neutralised; and this salt-forming power is the best de- 
 finition of an acid substance. 
 
 The majority of acids possess the following contingent 
 properties : — 
 
 1. When applied to the tongue, they excite that sensation 
 which is called sour or acid. 
 
 2. They change the blue colours of vegetables to a red. 
 The vegetable blues employed for this purpose are generally 
 tincture of litmus and syrup of violets or of radishes, which 
 have obtained the name of re-agents or tests. If these 
 colours have been previously converted to agreen by alkalies, 
 the acids restore them. 
 
 All these secondary properties are variable; and if we 
 attempted to base a definition on any one of them, many 
 important acids would be excluded. Take the case of a 
 body like silica, so widely diffused ill nature. ■ Is pure 
 silicious sand or flint an' acid or a neutral substance? When 
 it is examined, it is found to be insoluble in water, to be 
 devoid of taste, and to possess no action on vegetable colour- 
 ing matters; yet this substance is a true acid, because when 
 it is heated along with soda or lime, it forms the new body 
 commonly called glass, which is chemically a salt of silicie 
 acid. Many other acids resemble silica in properties, and 
 would be mistaken for neutral bodies if the salt-forming 
 power was overlooked. 
 
 Another method of regarding an acid, which is found of 
 great importance in discussing chemical reactions, is to say 
 an acid is a salt whose base is water. This definition is 
 very apparent if we regard what takes place in separating 
 the acid from a salt In this decomposition the acid would 
 appear to be left without having any substitute for the 
 removed alkali. This is not however the case, as water is 
 found to enter into union instead of the base. Thus every 
 true acid must contain hydrogen; and if this is displaced
 
 D8 
 
 A C I — A C O 
 
 by a metal, salts are formed directly, -n.il acid is there- 
 fore a salt, whose metal is hydrogen. The full importance 
 of the definition of an acid will be learned under the head- 
 ing Chemistry. 
 
 ACIDALIUS, Vaxeits, a very distinguished scholar 
 and critic, born in 15G7 at Wittstock, in Brandenburg.' 
 After studying at Rostock and Helmstaedt, and residing 
 about three years in Italy, he took up his residence at 
 Breslau, where he professed the Roman Catholic religion. 
 His excessive application to study was supposed to have 
 caused his untimely death, which occurred in 1595, when 
 he had just completed his twenty-eighth year. Ho wrote 
 notes on Tacitus and Curtius, a commentary on Plautus, 
 and a number of poems, which are inserted in the Delicice 
 of the German poets. Baillet gave him a place among hi3 
 Enfana Celebres, and tells that he wrote the commentary 
 on Plautus and several of the Latin poems when he was 
 only seventeen or eighteen years of age. 
 
 ACINACES, an ancient Persian sword, short and 
 straight, and worn, contrary to the Roman fashion, on the 
 right side, or sometimes in front of the body, as shown in 
 the bas-relief3 found at Persepolis. Among the Persian 
 nobility they were frequently made of gold, being worn as 
 a badge of distinction. The acinaces was an object of 
 religious worship with the Scythians and others (Herod. 
 ir. 62). 
 
 ACIS, in Mythology, the son of Faunus and the nymph 
 Symcethis, was a beautiful shepherd of Sicily, who being 
 beloved by Galatea, Polyphemus the giant was so enraged 
 that he crushed his rival with a rode,' and his blood gush- 
 ing forth from under the rock, was metamorphosed into 
 the river bearing his name (Ovid, Met. xiii. 750; SiL Ital. 
 xiv. 221). This river, now Fiume di Jaci, orAcque Grandi, 
 rises under a bed of lava on the eastern base of Etna, and 
 passing Aci Reale, after a rapid course of one mile, fall3 
 into the sea. The waters of the stream, once celebrated 
 for their purity, are now sulphureous. 
 
 ACKERMANN, John Christian Gottlieb, a learned 
 physician and professor of medicine, born at Zeulenroda, 
 in Upper Saxony, in 1756. At the early age of fifteen he 
 became a student of medicine at Jena, where he soon 
 attracted the favourable notice of Baldinger, who undertook 
 the direction of his studies. When Baldinger was trans- 
 ferred to Gottingen in 1773, Ackermann went with him, 
 and afterwards studied for two years at Halle. A few 
 years' practice at Stendal (1778-99), where there were 
 numerous factories, enabled him to add many valuable 
 original observations to his translation of Ramazzini's 
 Treatise of the Diseases of Artificers (1780-83). In 1786 
 he became professor of medicine at the university of 
 Altorf, in Franconia, occupying first the chair of chemistry, 
 and then, from 1794 till his death in 1801, that of patho- 
 logy and therapeutics, Dr Ackermann's knowledge of the 
 history of medicine may be estimated by his valuable con- 
 tributions to Harless's edition of Fabricius' Bibliotheca 
 Grceca. He wrote numerous original works, besides trans- 
 lations. 
 
 ACCEMET^E (aKo'/x-rp-os, sleepless), an order of monks 
 instituted by Alexander, a Syrian, about the middle of 
 the 5th century. Founding on the precept, Pray without 
 ceasing, they celebrated divine service uninterruptedly night 
 and day, for which purpose they divided themselves into 
 three sections, that relieved each other in turn. The 
 chief seat of the Accemetae was the cloister Studium at 
 Constantinople, whence they were sometimes called Studites. 
 Having adopted the monophysite heresy, they were put 
 under the Papal baD about the year 536. 
 
 ACOLYTE (from &k6Kov0os, an attendant), one of a 
 minor order of clergy in the ancient church, ranking 
 next to the sub-deacon. We Jearn from the canons of the 
 
 fourth Council of Carthage that the archdeacon, at their 
 ordination, put into their hands a candlestick with a taper 
 and an empty pitcher, to imply that they were appointed 
 to light the candles of the church and to furnish wine 
 for the eucharist. Their' dress, was the cassock and sur- 
 plice. The name and office still exist in the church. 
 
 ACONCAGUA, a province of Chile, South America, ia 
 about 100 miles long by 40 miles wide, and lies between 
 31° 30' and 33° 20' S. lat., and 70° and 71° 30' W. long., 
 between the provinces of Valparaiso and Santiago on the N. 
 and Coquimbo on the S. A large part of the province 
 is mountainous, but it contains several rich and fertile 
 valleys, which yield wheat, maize, sugar-cane, fruits, and 
 garden produce in abundance. In the agricultural dis- 
 tricts there are raised from 50 to 60 fanegas of wheat for 
 every quadra, equal to about 35 bushels per English acre. 
 The province "has also mineral resources, but not to such 
 extent as Coquimbo or Atacama. Its chief town is San 
 Felipe. The mountain Acbncagua, one of the loftiest 
 peaks of the Andes, rises to the height of 23,910 feet 
 above the sea on the frontier between this province and 
 Mendoza, a department of the Argentine Republic. A 
 river of the same name rises on the south side of the 
 mountain, and after a course of 230 miles falls into the 
 Pacific 12 miles N. of Valparaiso. Population (1870), 
 134,178. 
 
 ACONITE, Aconitum, a genus of plants commonly 
 known as Aconite, Monkshood, Friar's Cap, or Helmet 
 flower, and embracing about 18 species, chiefly natives o! 
 the mountainous parts of the northern hemisphere. They 
 are distinguished by having one of the five blue or yellow 
 coloured sepals in the form of a helmet ; hence the English 
 name. Two of the petals placed under the hood of the 
 calyx are supported on long stalks, and have a hollow 
 spur at their apex. The genus belongs to the natural 
 order Ranunculacece, or the Buttercup, family. Aconitum 
 Napellus, common monkshood, is a doubtful native of 
 Britain. It is an energetic irritant and narcotic poison. 
 It causes death by a depressing effect on the nervous system, 
 by producing palsy of the muscles concerned in breathing, and 
 by fainting. A tincture prepared oy the action of spirit 
 on the roots is used medicinally to allay pain, especially 
 in cases of tic. Its roots have occasionally been mistaken 
 for horse-radish. The Aconite has a short underground 
 stem, from which dark-coloured tapering roots descend. The 
 crown or upper portion of the root gives rise to new plants. 
 When put to the lip, the juice, of the Aconite root pro- 
 duces a feeling of numbness and tingling. The horse- 
 radish root, which belongs to the natural order Cruci- 
 fenc, is much longer than that of the Aconite, and it is 
 not tapering ; its colour is yellowish, and- the top of the 
 root has the remains of the leaves on it. It has a pun- 
 gent taste. Many species of Aconite are cultivated in 
 gardens, some- having blue and others yellow flowers. 
 Aconitum Lycoctonum, Wolfsbane, is a yellow-flowered 
 species common on the Alps of Switzerland. One species, 
 Aconitum heterophyllum, found in the East Indies, and 
 called Butees, has tonic properties in its roots. The roots 
 of Aconitum ferox supply the famous Indian (Nipal) 
 poison called Bikh, Bish, or Nabee. This species is con- 
 sidered by Hooker and Thomson as a variety of Aconitum 
 Napellus. Aconitum palmatum yields another of the 
 celebrated Bikh poisons. Aconitum luridum, of the Hima- 
 layas, also furnishes a poison. 
 
 ACONTIUS, the Latinised form of the name of Giacomo 
 Aconcio, a philosopher, jurisconsult, engineer, and theolo- 
 gian, born at Trent on the 7th September 1492. He em- 
 braced the reformed religion; and after having taken refuge 
 for a time in Switzerland and Strasburg, he came to Eng- 
 land about 1558. He was very favourably received by
 
 A C 
 
 A C 
 
 99 
 
 Queen Elizabeth, at whose court, it is said, though on 
 doubtful authority, that he resided for a considerable period. 
 With the sanction of Parliament, he carried on for several 
 years extensive works for the embankment of the Thames, 
 and so reclaimed a large quantity of waste land, part of 
 which was bestowed upon him by way of recompense. His 
 gratitude to Queen Elizabeth was expressed in the dedica- 
 tion to her of his celebrated Collection of the Stratagems of 
 Satan, which has been often translated, and has passed 
 through many editions. Various opinions have been given 
 of this work, which advocated toleration to an- extent that 
 many considered indifference. The nature of its doctrine 
 may perhaps be best gathered from the fact that it gained 
 for the author the praise of Arminius, and the strong con- 
 demnation of the Calvinists. Acontius also wrote a treatise, 
 De Methodo, which was published at Basel in 1558. He 
 died in London about the year 1566. 
 
 ACORUS, a genus of monocotyledonous plants belonging 
 to the natural order Aroidese, and the sub-order Orontiaceae. 
 Acorns Calamus, sweet-sedge or sweet-flag, is a native of 
 Britain. It has an agreeable odour, and has been used as 
 a strengthening remedy, as well as to allay spasms. The 
 starchy matter contained in its running stem or rhizome 
 is associated with a fragrant oil, and it is used as hair- 
 powder. Confectioners form a candy from the rhizomes 
 of the plant, and it is also used by perfumers in preparing 
 aromatic vinegar. 
 
 ACOSTA, Cekistoval d', a Portuguese naturalist, born 
 at Mozambique in the early part of the 1 6th century. On 
 a voyage to Asia he was taken captive by pirates, who 
 ezacted from him a very large ransom, ^iter spending 
 some years in India; chiefly at Goa, a Portuguese colony, 
 he returned home, and settled as a surgeon at Burgos. 
 Here he published his Tratado de las drogas y medecinas 
 de las Indias orientates (1578). This work was translated 
 into Latin, Italian, and French, became well known through- 
 out Europe, and is still consulted as an authority. Acosta 
 also wrote an account of his travels, a book in praise of 
 women, and other works. He died in 1580. 
 
 ACOSTA, Joseph d', a celebrated Spanish author, was 
 born at Medina del Campo about the year 1539. In 1571 
 he went to Peru as a provincial of the Jesuits ; and, after 
 remaining there for seventeen years, he returned to his 
 native country, where he became in succession visitor for 
 his order of Aragon and Andalusia, superior of Valladolid, 
 and rector of the university of Salamanca s in which city he 
 died in February 1600. About ten years before his death 
 he published at Seville his valuable Historia Natural y 
 Moral de las Indias, part of which had previously appeared 
 in Latin; with the title De Nalura Novi Orbis, libri duo. 
 This work, which has been translated into all the principal 
 languages of Europe, gives exceedingly valuable informa- 
 tion regarding the condition of South America at the time. 
 On the subject of climate Acosta was the first to propound 
 the theory, afterwards advocated by Buffon, which attri- 
 buted the different degrees of heat in the old and new con- 
 tinents to the agency of the winds. He also contradicted, 
 from his own experience, the statement of Aristotle, that 
 the middle zone of the earth was so scorched by the sun as 
 to be destitute of moisture, and totally uninhabitable. Even 
 after the discovery of America this Aristotelian dogma was 
 an article of faith, and its denial was one ground of the 
 charge of scepticism and atheism brought against Sir Walter 
 Raleigh. Acosta, however, boldly declared that what he 
 had seen was so different from what he had expected, that 
 he could not but "laugh at .ArrsTOTOs meteors and his 
 philosophy." In speaking of the conduct of his country- 
 men, and the means they employed for the propagation of 
 their faith, Acosta is in no respect superior to the other 
 prejudiced writers of his country and age. Though he 
 
 acknowledges that the career of Spanish conquest was 
 marked by the most savage cruelty and oppression, he yet 
 represents this people as chosen by God to spread the gospel 
 among the nations of America, and recounts a variety of 
 miracles as a proof of the constant interposition of 1 leaven 
 in favour of the merciless aiid rapVions invaders. Besides 
 his History, Acosta wrote the following works : — 1. De Pro- 
 mulgation Evangelii apud Barbaras ; 2. De Christo Eeve- 
 lato; 3. De Temporibus Novissimis, lib. vL; 4. Concionum 
 tomi Hi. 
 
 ACOSTA, Uriel d', a Portuguese of noble family, was 
 born at Oporto towards the cli*e of the ICth century. 
 His father being a Jewish convert to Christianity, he was 
 brought up in the Roman Catholic faith, and strictly ob- 
 served the rites of the church till the course of his inquiries 
 led him, after much painful doubt, to abandon the religion 
 of his youth for Judaism. Passing over to Amsterdam, he 
 was received into the synagogue, having his tame changed 
 from Gabriel to Uriel. He soon discovered, however, that 
 those who sat in Moses' seat were shameful perverters of 
 the law ; and his bold protests served only to exasperate 
 the rabbis, who finally punished his contumacy with the 
 greater excommunication. Persecution seemed only to 
 stimulate his temerity, and li6 soon after published a de- 
 fence, Examen das tradicoens Pliariseas, jfcc, in which he 
 not merely exposed the departures of the Jewish teachers 
 from the law, but combated the doctrine of a future life, 
 holding himself supported in this position by the silence of 
 the Mosaic Books. For this he was imprisoned and fined, 
 besides incurring public odium as a blasphemer and atheist. 
 Nothing deterred, he pursued his speculations, which ended 
 in his repudiating the divine authority of the law of Moses. 
 AVearied, however, by his melancholy isolation, and longing 
 for the benefits of society, he was driven, in the inconsis- 
 tency of despairing scepticism, to seek a return to the Jewish 
 communion. Having recanted his heresies, he was re- 
 admitted after an excommunication of fifteen years, but 
 was soon excommunicated a second time. After seven 
 years of miserable exclusion, he once more sought admis- 
 sion, and, on passing through a humiliating penance, was 
 again received. These notices of his singular and unhappy 
 life are taken from his autobiography, Exemplar Uumanat 
 Vita, published, with a " refutation," by Limborch, and 
 republished in 18-17. It has been said that he died by 
 his own hand, but this is, to say the least, doubtful. Hi a 
 eventful history forms the subject of a tale and of a tragedy 
 by Gutzkow. 
 
 ACOTYLEDONES, the name given to one of the Classes 
 of the Natural System of Botany, embracing flowerles3 
 plants, such as ferns, lycopods, horse-tailsy mosses, liverworts, 
 lichens, sea-weeds, and mushrooms. The name is derived 
 from the character of the embryo, which has no cotyledon. 
 Flowering plants have usually one or two cotyledons, that 
 is, seed-leaves or seed-lobes connected with their embryo ; 
 while in ilowerless plants the body representing the embryo 
 consists of a cell, called a spore, without any leaves. Th« 
 plants have no flowers, and their organs of reproduction are 
 inconspicuous, hence they are called by Linnaeus crypto- 
 gamous. Some flowering plants, such as dodders, have nc 
 cotyledons ; and some have the cotyledons divided intc 
 more than two, as in conifers. Some acotyledonou3 spores, 
 when sprouting, produce a leaf-like expansion catted a pro. 
 thallns, on which the organs of reproduction, consisting 
 of antherldia and archegonia, are produced. This is weO 
 seen in the case of ferns. In the interior of the antheri 
 dian cells, moving filamentous bodies, called spermatozoids, 
 have been observed. These fertilise the archegonial cells, 
 ■whence new plants are produced. In the article Botjlxy 
 these plants will be noticed under Class III. of the Natural 
 System.
 
 100 
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 I. A UOUST1US (from &kov<j>, to hear) is that branch of 
 XX Natural Philosophy which treats of the nature of 
 sound, and the laws of its production and propagation, in so 
 far as these depend on physical principles. The description 
 of the mechanism of the organ of voice and of the ear, and 
 the difficult questions connected with the processes by 
 •which, when sound reaches the drum of the ear, it is trans- 
 mitted to the brain, must be dealt with in separate articles 
 of this work. It is to the physical part of the science of 
 acoustics that the present article is restricted. 
 
 Taut L 
 
 General notions as to Vibrations, Waves, <&c. 
 
 Sound is 2. We may easily satisfy ourselves that, in every in- 
 
 iue to stance in which the sensation of sound is excited, the body, 
 
 notations. wnence the sound proceeds, must have been thrown, by a 
 
 blow or other means, into a state of agitation or tremor, 
 
 implying the existence of a vibratory motion, or motion to 
 
 and fro, of the particles of which it consists. 
 
 Thus, if a common glass-jar be struck so as to yield an 
 audible sound, the existence of a motion of this kind may 
 be felt by the finger lightly applied to the edge of the 
 glass ; and, on increasing the pressure so as to destroy this 
 motion, the soand forthwith ceases. Small pieces of cork 
 put in the jar will be found to dance about during the con- 
 tinuance of the sound ; water or spirits of wine poured into 
 the glass will, under the same circumstances, exhibit a 
 ruffled surface. The experiment is usually performed, in a 
 more striking manner, with a bell-jar and a number of 
 EKall light wooden balls suspended by silk strings to a 
 fixed frame above the jar, so as to be just in contact with 
 the widest part of the glass. On drawing a violin bow 
 across the edge, the pendulums are thrown off to a con- 
 siderable distance, and falling back are again repelled, 
 <tc. 
 
 It is also in many cases possible to follow with the eye 
 the motions of the particles of the sounding body, as, for 
 instance, in the case of a violin string or any string fixed 
 at both ends, when the string will appear, by a law of 
 optics, to occupy at once all the positions which it suc- 
 cessively assumes during its vibratory motion. 
 
 3. It is, moreover, essential, in order that the ear may 
 be affected by a sounding body, that there be interposed 
 between it and the ear one or more intermediate bodies 
 (media), themselves capable of molecular vibration, which 
 shall receive such motion from the source of sound, and 
 transmit it to the external parts of the ear, and especially 
 to the membrana tympani or drum of the ear. This state- 
 ment is confirmed by the well-known effect of stopping the 
 ear with soft cotton, or other substance possessing little 
 elasticity. 
 
 The air around us forms the most important medium of 
 communication of sound to our organs of hearing ; in fact, 
 were air devoid of this property, we should practically be 
 without the sense of hearing. In illustration of the part 
 thus assigned to the atmosphere in acoustics, an apparatus 
 has been constructed, consisting of a glass receiver, in which 
 is a bell and a hammer connected with clock-work, by' 
 which it can be made to strike the bell when required. 
 The receiver is closed air-tight by a metal plate, through 
 which passes, also air-tight, into the interior, a brass rod. 
 By properly moving this rod with the hand, a detent is 
 released, which checks the motion of the wheel-work„and 
 the hammer strikes the bell continuously, till the detent is 
 pushed into its original position. As long as the air in 
 
 the receiver is of the usual atmospheric density, the sound 
 is perfectly audible. But on rarefying the air by means' 
 of an air-pump (the clock-work apparatus having been 
 separated from the plate of the pump by means of a pad- 
 ding of soft cotton), the sound grows gradually fainter, 
 and at last becomes inaudible when the rarefaction of the 
 air has reached a very low point. If, however, at this 
 stage of the experiment, trie metal rod be brought into 
 contact with the bell, the sound will again bo heard 
 clearly, because now there is the necessary communication 
 with the ear. On readmitting the air, the sound recovers 
 its original intensity. This experiment was first performed 
 by Ilawksbee in 1705. 
 
 4. Inasmuch, then, as sound necessarily implies the Laws of 
 existence in the sounding bcdy, in the air, &c, and (we vibraton 
 may add) in the ear itself, of vibratory motion of the par- mo - iOQ 
 tides of the various media concerned in the phenomenon, 
 a general reference to the laws of such motion is essential 
 to a right understanding of the principles of acoustics. 
 
 The most familiar instance of this kind of motion is 
 afforded by the - pendulum, a small heavy ball, for instance, 
 attached to a fine string, which is fixed at its other end. 
 There is but one position in which the ball will remain at 
 rest, viz., when the string is vertical, there being then 
 equilibrium between the two forces acting on the body, 
 the tension of the string and the earth's attractive force or 
 gravity. Thus, in the adjoining fig., if C is the point of 
 suspension, and CA the vertical through that poiut of 
 length I, equal to the string, A is the equilibrium position 
 of the particle. 
 
 Let now the ball be removed from A to P, the string being 
 kept tight, so that P describes 
 the arc AP of a circle of radius 
 equal to I, and let the ball be 
 there dropped. The tension of 
 the string not being now directly 
 opposite in direction to gravity 
 (g), motion will ensue, and the 
 body will retrace the arc PA. 
 In doing so, it will continually 
 increase its velocity until it 
 reaches the point A, where its 
 velocity will be a maximum, and 
 will consequently pass to the 
 other side of A towards Q. 
 
 Fig.l 
 
 But now gravity tends to 
 draw it back towards A, and hence the motion becomes 
 a retarded one ; the velocity continually diminishes, and 
 is ultimately destroyed at some point Q, which would be 
 at a distance from A equal to that of P, but for the 
 existence of friction, resistance of the air, &c, which make 
 that distance less. From Q it will next move down with 
 accelerated motion towards A, where it will have its greatest 
 velocity in the direction from left to right, and whence it 
 will pass onwards towards P, and so on. Thus the body 
 will vibrate to and fro on either side of A, its amplitude of 
 vibration or distance between its extreme positions gradually 
 diminishing in consequence of the resistances before men- 
 tioned, and at last being sensibly reduced to nothing, the 
 body then resuming its equilibrium-position A. 
 
 L* the amplitude of vibration is restricted vithin incon- 
 siderable limits, it is easy to prove that the motion takes 
 place just as if the string were removed, the ball deprived 
 altogether of weight and urged by a force directed to the 
 point A, and proportional to the distance from that point 
 For then, if m be any position of the ball, the chord mA 
 may be regarded as coincident with the tangent to the
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 101 
 
 'circle at m, and therefore as being perpendicular to Cm. 
 Hence g, acting parallel to CA, being resolved along Cm 
 and toA, the former component is counteracted by the 
 tension of the string, and there re-mains as the only effec- 
 tive acceleration, the tangential component along mA, 
 
 •which, by the triangle of forces, is equal to^r-— - or j- Am, 
 
 and is therefore proportional to A?a. 
 
 On this supposition of indefinitely small vibrations, the 
 pendulum is isochronous; that is, the time occupied in 
 passing from one extreme position to the other is the same, 
 for a given length I of the pendulum, whatever the extent 
 of vibration. 
 
 We conclude from this that, whatever may be the nature 
 of the forces by which a particle is urged, if the resultant 
 of those forces is directed towards a fixed point, and is 
 proportional to the distance from that point, the particle 
 will oscillate to and fro about that point in times which 
 are independent of the amplitudes of the vibrations, pro- 
 vided these are very small. 
 
 5. The particle, whose vibratory motion we Lave been 
 considering, is a solitary particle acted on by external 
 forces. But, in acoustics, we have to do with the motion 
 of particles forming a connected system or medium, ir 
 which the forces to be considered arise from the mutual 
 actions of the particles. These forces are in equilibrium 
 with each other when the particles occupy certain relative 
 positions. But, if any new or disturbing force act for a 
 short time on any one or more of the particles, so as to i 
 cause a mutual approach or a mutual recession, on the 
 removal of the disturbing force, the disturbed particles 
 will, if the body be elastic, forthwith move towards their 
 respective positions of equilibrium. Hence arises a vibra- 
 tory motion to and fro of each about a given po.nt, 
 annlogous to that of a pendulum, the velocity at that point 
 being always a maximum, alternately in opposite directi ms. 
 Thus, for example, if to one extremity of a pipe contain- 
 ing air were applied a piston, of section equal to that of • 
 the pipe, by pushing in the piston slightly and then remov- 
 ing it, we should cause particles of air, forming a thin 
 section at the extremity of the pipe, to vibrate in directions 
 parallel to its axis. 
 
 In order that a medium may be capable of molecular 
 vibrations, it must, as we have mentioned, possess elasticity, 
 that is, a tendency always to return to its original condi- 
 tion when slightly disturbed out of it. 
 
 6. We now proceed to show how the disturbance where- 
 by certain particles of an elastic medium are displaced from 
 their equilibrium-positions, is successively transmitted to 
 the remaining particles of the medium, so as to cause these 
 also to vibrate to and fro. 
 
 Let us consider a line of such particles y. x, a, 6, fcc. 
 
 y j: a 1 a a_ 6 c d e f g h i h I m n 
 
 o p 
 
 equidistant from each other, as above ; and suppose one of 
 them, say a, to be displaced, by any means, to a 1 . As we 
 have seen, this particle will swing from o, to a., and back 
 .again, occupying a certain time T, to complete its double 
 . vibration. But it is obvious that, the distance between a 
 and the next particle b to the right being diminished by 
 I the displacement of the former to a v a tendency is gene- 
 rated in b to move towards o,, the mutual forces being 
 no longer in equilibrium, but having a resultant, in the 
 direction 6a,. The particle 6 will therefore also suffer 
 displacement, and be compelled to swing to and fro about 
 the point 6. For similar reasons the particles c, d . . . 
 will all likewise be thrown into vibration. Thus it is, then, 
 that the disturbance propagates itself in the direction under 
 consideration. There is evidently alio, in the case sup- 
 
 posed, a transmission from a lo *, y, &c, i.e., in the opposite 
 
 direction. 
 
 Confining our attention to pr*,jagation in the direction 
 abc . . ., we have next to remark that each particle in that 
 line will be affected by the disturbance always later than 
 the particle immediately preceding it, so as to be found in 
 the same stage of vibration a certain interval of time after 
 the preceding particle. 
 
 7. Two particles which' are In the same stage of vibra- 
 tion, that is, are equally displaced from their equilibrium- 
 positions, and are moving in the same direction and with 
 equal velocities, are said to be in the same phase. Hence 
 we may express the preceding statement more briefly thus . 
 Two particles of a disturbed medium at different distances 
 from the centre of disturbance, are in the same phase at 
 different times, the one whose distance from that centre is 
 the greater being later than the other. 
 
 8. Let us in the meantime assume that, the interval* 
 ab, be, cd . . . . being equal, the intervals of time which 
 elapse between the like phases of b and a, of c and 6 . . . . 
 are also equal to each other, and let us ooiitider wiiat at 
 any given instant are the appearances presented by the 
 different particles in the row. 
 
 T being the time of a complete vibration of each particle, 
 
 T 
 let — be the interval of time requisite for any phase of a 
 
 to pass on to b. If then at a certain instant a is displaced 
 to its greatest extent to the right, b will be somewhat short 
 of, but moving towards, tts corre»pon<ljng position, c still 
 further short, and so on. Proceeding in tins way, we shil] 
 come at length to a particle p, for which the distance 
 ap=p. ab, which therefore lags in its vibrations behind a 
 
 T 
 
 by a time =;jx--= T, and is consequently precisely in 
 
 the same phase as a. And between these two particles 
 a, p, we shall evidently have particles iu «.i tiiu jiossible 
 phases of the vibratory motion. At /(, which is at distance 
 from a = hip, the difference of phase, compared with o, 
 will be JT, that is, h will, at the given instant, be dis- 
 placed to the greatest extent on the opposite side of its 
 equilibrium-position from tbnt. in which a is displaced; ia 
 other words, h is in the exactly opposite phase to a. 
 
 9. In the case we have just been considering, the vibra- 
 tions of the particles have been supposed to take place in 
 a direction coincident with that in which the disturbance 
 passes from one particle to unother. The vibrations are 
 then termed longitudinal. 
 
 But it need scarcely be observed that the vibrations may 
 take place in any direction whatever, and may even be 
 curvilinear. H they take place in directions at right 
 angles to the line of progress of the disturbance, they are 
 said to be transversal. 
 
 10. Now the reasoning employed in the preceding case 
 will evidently admit of general application, and wii), in 
 particular, hold for transversal vibrations. Hence if we 
 mark (as is done in fig. 2) the positions n x b l c i . . ., occupied 
 by the various particles, when swinging transversely, at the 
 instant at which a has its maximum displacement above its 
 equilibrium-position, and trace a :ontinuous line running 
 through the points so found, that line will by its ordinate's 
 indicate to the eye the state of motion at the given instant. 
 
 i rrxfi-— ^. "^fTF" 
 
 o d 
 
 f *T t (.,1^/' 
 
 U^V 7 r s 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 Thus a and p are in the same phase, as are also b and 
 </, c and r, <fec. a and h are in opjxisite phases, as are also 
 and t, c and k, <fcc.
 
 102 
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 Distances ap, bq, &c, separating particles in tbe same 
 phase, and each of which, as we have seen, is passed over 
 by the disturbance in the time T of a complete vibra- 
 tion, include within them all the possible phases of the 
 motion. 
 
 Beyond this distance, tie curve repeats itself exactly, 
 that is, the phases recur in tbe same order as before. 
 
 Now tbe figure so traced offers an obvious resemblance 
 to the undulating surface of a lake or other body of water, 
 after it has been disturbed by wind, exhibiting a wave 
 with its trough AA,B, and its crest B/>,C. Hence have 
 been introduced into Acoustics, as also into Optics, the 
 terms wave and undulation. The distance ap, 01 
 or A C, which separates two particles in same^phase, 
 or which includes both a wave-crest and a wave-trough, 
 is termed the length of the wave, and is usually denoted 
 by X. 
 
 As the curve repeats itself at intervals each = X, it 
 follows that particles are in the same phase at any given 
 moment, when the distances between them in the direction 
 of transmission of the disturbance = X, 2X, 3X . . . and gene- 
 rally = n\, where n is any whole number. 
 
 Particles such as a and h, b and i, etc., which are at 
 
 distances = -\ , being in opposite phases, bo will also be 
 
 1 3 
 
 particles separated by distance, -X + X = rX,or, in general, 
 
 by -X + mX =? (2m + 1)- , that is, by any odd multiple of 3 . 
 
 Wave of 11. A like construction to the one just adopted for tbe 
 
 velocities displacements of the particles at any given instant, may be 
 also applied for exhibiting graphically their velocities at 
 the same instant. Erect at the various points a, b, c, ic, 
 perpendiculars to the line joining them, of lengths pro- 
 portional to and in the direction of their velocities, and 
 draw a line through the extreme points of these perpendi- 
 culars; this line will answer the purpose required. It is 
 indicated by dots in the previous figure, and manifestly 
 form3 a wave of the same length as the wave of displace- 
 ments, but the highest and lowest points of the one wave 
 correspond to the points in which the other wave crosses 
 the line of equilibrium. 
 Waves for 12. In order to a graphic representation of the displace- 
 loagitu- ments and velocities of particles vibrating longitudinally, 
 diD»l vibra- jj jg convenient to draw tbe lines which represent those 
 quantities, not in the actual direction in which the motion 
 takes place and which coincides with the line ab c . . ., but 
 at right angles to it, ordinates drawn upwards indicating 
 displacements or velocities to the right (i.e., in the direc- 
 tion of transmission of the disturbance), and ordinates 
 drawn downwards indicating displacements or velocities in 
 the opposite direction. When this is done, waves of dis- 
 placement and velocity are figured identically with those 
 for transversal vibrations, and are therefore subject to the 
 same resulting laws. 
 
 13. But not only will the above waves enable us to see 
 at a glance the circumstances of the vibratory motion at 
 the instant of time for which it has been constructed, but 
 U*o for any subsequent moment. Thus, if we desire to 
 
 T 
 
 consider what is going on after an interval — , we have 
 
 simply to conceive the whole wave (whether of displace- 
 ment or velocity) to be moved to the right through a dis- 
 tance =a b. Then the state of motion in which a was 
 before will have been transferred to b, that of b will have 
 been transferred to c, and so on. At the end of another 
 such interval, the state of the particles will in like manner 
 be represented by the wave, if pushed onward through 
 another equal space. In short, the whole circumstances 
 may be pictured to the eye by two waves (of displacement 
 
 lions 
 
 and of velocity) advancing continuously in the line abe ... 
 with a velocity V which will take it over the distance ab in 
 
 the time — ,V being therefore = ^ =^- = -^- or V = ^ . 
 
 T 
 This is termed the velocity of propagation of the wave, 
 
 and, as we see, is equal to the length of the wave divided 
 
 by the time of a complete vibration of each particle. 
 
 If, as is usually more convenient, we express T in terms 
 
 of the number n of complete vibrations performed in 11 
 
 given time, say in the unit of time, we shall have -„ = n . 
 
 and hence 
 
 V = n\. 
 
 14. There is one very important distinction between the 
 two cases of longitudinal and of transversal vibrations which 
 now claims our attention, viz., that whereas vibrations of 
 the latter kind, when propagated from particle to particle 
 in an elastic medium, do not alter the relative distances of 
 the particles, ^r, in other words, cause no change of density 
 throughout the medium; longitudinal vibrations, on tho 
 other hand, by bringing the particles nearer to or further 
 from one another than they are when undisturbed, are 
 necessarily accompanied by alternate condensations and 
 rarefactions. 
 
 Thus, in fig. 2, we see that at the instant to which that 
 fig. refers, the displacements of the particles immediately 
 adjoining a are equal and in the same direction ; hence at 
 that moment the density of the medium at a is equal to 
 that of the undisturbed medium. The same applies to the 
 point3 h, p, ic, in which the displacements are at thcil 
 maxima and the velocities of vibration = 0. 
 
 At any point, such as c, between a and A, the displace- 
 ments of the two adjoining particles on eithei side sre both 
 to the right, but that of the preceding particle is now the 
 greater of the two, and hence the density of the medium 
 throughout aA exceeds the undisturbed density. So at 
 any point, such as/, between A and.A, the same result holds 
 good, because now the displacements are to the left, but 
 are in excess on the right side of the point /. From a 
 to h, therefore, the medium is condensed. 
 
 From h to B, as at k, the displacements of the two 
 particles on either side are both to the left, that of the pre- 
 ceding particle being, however, the greater. The medium, 
 therefore, is here in a state of rarefaction. And in like 
 manner it may be shown that there is rarefaction from B 
 to p; so that the medium is rarefied from h to p. 
 
 At A the condensation is a maximum, because the dis- 
 placements on the two sides of that point are equal and 
 both directed towards A. At B, on the other hand, it is 
 the rarefaction which is a maximum, the displacements on 
 the right and left of that point being again equal, but 
 directed outwards from B. 
 
 It clearly follows from all this that, if we trace a curve 
 of which any ordinate shall be proportional to the differ- 
 ence between thedensity of the corresponding point of the 
 disturbed medium and the density of the undisturbed 
 medium — ordinates drawn upwardsindicating condensation, 
 and ordinates drawn downwards rarefaction — that curve 
 will cross the line of rest of the particles abc. .. in the 
 same points as does the curve of velocities, and will there- 
 fore be of the same length X, and will also rise above that 
 liiie and dip below it at the same parts. But the connec- 
 tion between the wave of condensation and rarefaction and 
 the wave of velocity, is still more intimate, when the 
 extent to which the particles are displaced is very small, ^a 
 is always the case in acoustics. For it may be shown t'nat 
 then the degree of condensation or rarefaction at any point 
 of the medium is proportional to the velocity of vibration 
 at that point The same ordinates, therefore, will rcpre»
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 103 
 
 eeut the degrees of condensation, which represent the 
 a elocities, or, in other words, the wave of condensation and 
 rarefaction may be regarded as coincident with the velocity 
 wave. 
 
 Part EL 
 
 Velocity of propagation of waves of longitudinal disturbance 
 through any elastic medium. 
 
 ! 15. Sir Isaac Newton was the first who attempted to de- 
 termine, on theoretical grounds, the velocity of sound in 
 air and other fluids. The formula obtained by him gives, 
 however, a numerical value, as regards air, falling far .short 
 of the result derived from actual experiment; and it was 
 not till long afterwards, when Laplace took up the ques- 
 tion, that complete coincidence was arrived at between 
 theory and observation. We are indebted to the late Pro- 
 fessor Kankine, of Glasgow (Phil. Trans. 1870, p. 277) 1 , 
 for a very simple and elegant investigation of the question, 
 which we will here reproduce in an abridged form. 
 
 Let us conceive the longitudinal disturbance to be pro- 
 pagated through a medium contained in a straight tube 
 having a transverse section equal to unity, but of indefinite 
 length. 
 
 Let two transverse planes A 1 A, (fig. 3) be conceived 
 as moving along the in- 
 terior of the tube in the 
 eame direction and with 
 the same velocity V as the 
 disturbance-wave itself. 
 
 *>", 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Let «, u„ be the velocities of displacement of the particles 
 of the medium at ^ Aj respectively, at any given instant, 
 estimated in the same direction as V; and p x p 2 the corre- 
 sponding densities of the medium. 
 
 The disturbances under consideration, being such as 
 preserve a permanent type throughout their propagation, 
 it follows that the quantity of matter between A, and A 2 
 remains constant during the motion of these planes, or that 
 as much must pass into the intervening space through one 
 of them as issues from it through the other.' Now at Aj 
 the velocity of the particles relatively to \ itself is V - «, 
 inwards, and consequently there flows into the space Aj A^ 
 through A, a mass (V — u 1 )p l in the unit of time. 
 
 Forming a similar expression as regards A;, putting m for 
 the invariable mass through which the disturbance is pro- 
 pagated in the unit of time, and considering that if p de- 
 note the density of the undisturbed medium, m is evidently 
 equal to Vp, we have — 
 
 T-« 1 ) Pl =(V-« J )A=Vp=i». . (1.) 
 
 Now, p x p 3 being the pressures at Aj, A, respectively, 
 and therefore p, -p l the force generating the acceleration 
 «, - «„ in unit of time, on the mass m of- the medium, by the 
 second law of motion, 
 
 Pi-P^m^-Ut) . . . (2.) 
 
 Eliminating u v u t from these equations, and putting for 
 
 — , — , - the symbols s„ s,, s (which therefore denote the 
 
 »olumes of the unit of mass of the disturbed medium at 
 A u A,, and of the undisturbed medium), we get : 
 
 m* = ?T2± andV^s* ^h 
 
 Sj — S 2 5j — £g 
 
 Now, if (as is generally the case in sound) the changes 
 of pressure and volume occurring during the disturbance of 
 the medium are very small, we may assume that these 
 changes are proportional one to the other. Hence, denot- 
 ing the ratio which any increase of pressure bears to the 
 diminution of the unit of volume of the substance, and 
 
 • See also Maxwell Theory of Heat, p. 203. 
 
 which is termed the elasticity of the substance, by e, we 
 shall obtain for the velocity of a wave of longitudinal dis- 
 placements, supposed small, the equation: 
 V = 
 
 
 16. In applying this formula to the determination of 
 the velocity of sound in any particular medium, it is 
 requisite, as was shown by Laplace, to take into account 
 the thermic effects produced by the condensations and 
 rarefactions which, as we have seen, take place in the sub- 
 stance. The heat generated during the sudden compres- 
 sion, not being conveyed away, raises the value of the 
 elasticity above that which otherwise it would have, and 
 which was assigned to it by Sir Isaac Newton. 
 
 Thus, in a perfect gas, it is demonstrable by the prin, 
 ciples of Thermodynamics, that the elasticity e, which, in 
 the undisturbed state of the medium, would be simply 
 equal to the pressure p, is to be made equal to yp, wher* 
 y is a number exceeding unity and represents the ratio ol 
 the specific heat of the gas under constant pressure to its 
 specific heat at constant volume. 
 
 Hence, as air and most other gases may be practically 
 regarded as perfect gases, we have for them: 
 
 V= Jfii= J 
 
 W 
 
 (II) 
 
 17. From this the following inference may be dra<vn: — 
 The velocity of sound in a given gas is unaffected by 
 change of pressure if unattended by change of temperature. 
 
 For, by Boyle's law, the ratio - is constant at a given 
 
 temperature. The accuracy of this inference has been con- 
 firmed by recent experiments of Eegnault. 
 
 18. To ascertain the influence of change of temperature 
 on the velocity of sound in a gas, we remark that, by Gay 
 Lussac's law, the pressure of a gas at different tempera- 
 tures varies proportionally both to its density p and to 
 1 + a t, where t is the number of degrees of temperature 
 above freezing point of water (32° Fahr.), and ais the expan- 
 sion of unit of volume of the gas for every degree above. 
 32°. 
 
 If, therefore, p, p„ p, p denote the pressures and densities 
 corresponding to temperatures 32° + t° and 32°, we have: 
 
 L=L (l + at) 
 
 Po H 
 and hence, denoting the corresponding velocities of sound 
 by V, V , we get: 
 
 v o 
 whence, a being always a very small fraction, is obtained 
 very nearly: 
 
 Velocity ef 
 sound in 
 air is inde- 
 pendent 
 of the 
 pressure. 
 
 Effect of 
 change of 
 temper*- 
 tare. 
 
 ^-=1 +-s»andV-V, 
 
 ■-tV 
 
 2 "• 
 
 The velocity increases, therefore, by - V for every de- 
 gree of rise of temperature* above 32°. 
 
 19, The general expression for V given in (II.) may be Another 
 put in a different form : if we introduce a height H of the ^j?* 1 " 
 gas, regarded as having the same density p throughout and 
 exerting the xjressure p, then p^gpS., where g is the 
 acceleration of gravity, and there results : 
 
 V= J^B . • • (HL> 
 
 Now JgR or a/2^.— is the velocity U which would 
 
 . E 
 
 be acquired by a body falling t» vacuo from a height — 
 
 Hence V = UVy-
 
 104 
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 If y were equal to 1, V = TJ, which is the result obtained 
 by Newton, and would indicate that the velocity of sound 
 iu a gas equals the velocity of a body falling from a height 
 equal to half of that of a homogeneous atmosphere of the 
 gas. 
 
 20. In common dry air at 32" Fahr., g being 32-2 ft., and 
 the mercurial barometer 30 ins. or 2-5 ft., the density of 
 air i3 to that of mercury as 1: 10,485 - 6; hence H«» 
 10,458-6x2-5 ft -26,214 ft 
 
 A!*r> y=l-408 
 
 Hence V, = ,^1,403 x 32,2 x 26,214 = 1090 ft. 
 
 md, by § IS, the increase of velocity for each degree of rise 
 
 / . . 1 \ . 1090 645 . _- n -, 
 of temperatare [a being —J is — or -j^j -1 lll> ft. 
 
 1- ft very nearly. 
 
 21. If the value of y were the same for different gases, 
 
 it is obvious from form'Ua Y= A /y - that) at a given 
 
 V ' p 
 temperature, thevelocities of soundin those gases would be to 
 each other inversely as the square roots of their densities. 
 Eegnault has found that this is so for common air, carbonic 
 acid, nitrous oxide, hydrogen and ammoniacal gas (though 
 less so as regards the two lost). 
 
 22. The experimental determination of the velocity of 
 lound in air has been carried out by ascertaining accurately 
 the time intervening between the Sash and report of a grin 
 as observed at a given distance, and dividing the distance 
 by the time. A discussion of the many experiments con- 
 ducted on this principle in various countries and at various 
 periods, by Yan Der Kolk (Lond. and Edin. Phil. Mag., 
 July 1865), assigns to the velocity of sound in dry air at 
 S2° Fahr., 1091 ft. 8 in. per second, -with a probable error 
 of ±3-7 ft.; and still more recently (in 1871) Mr Stone, 
 the Astronomer Eoyal at the Cape of Good Hope, has 
 found 1090'6 as the result of careful experiments by him- 
 eelf there. The coincidence of these numbers 'with that 
 we have already obtained theoretically sufficiently estab- 
 lishes the general accuracy of the' theory. 
 
 23. Still it cannot be overlooked that the formula for 
 V is founded on assumptions which, though approximately, 
 ere not strictly correct. Thus, the air is not a perfect gas, 
 nor is the variation of elastic force, caused by the passage 
 through it of a -wave of disturbance always very small in 
 comparison with the elastic force of the undisturbed air. 
 Earnshaw (1S5S) first drew attention to these points, and 
 came to the coi.clusion that the velocity of sound increases 
 with its loudness, that is, with the violence of the disturb- 
 ance. In confirmation of this statement, he appeals to a 
 singular fact, viz., that, during experiments made by 
 Captain Parry, in the North Polar Regions, for determin- 
 ing the velocity of sound, it was invariably found that the 
 report of the discharge of cannon was heard, at a distance 
 of 2 J miles, perceptibly earlier than the sound of the word 
 fire, which, of course, preceded the discharge. 
 
 As, in the course of propagation in unlimited air, there 
 Is a gradual decay in the intensity of sound, it would fol- 
 low that the velocity must also gradually decrease as the 
 sound proceeds onwards. This curious inference has been 
 verified experimentally by Eegnault, who found the velocity 
 of sound to have decreased by 2 -2 ft. per second in passing 
 from a distance of 4000 to one of 7500 feet 
 
 24. Among other "interesting results, derived by the 
 a«uraie methods adopted- by Eegnault, but which want of 
 •pace forbids us to describe, may be mentioned the de- 
 pendence of the velocity of sound on its pitch, lower notes 
 being, cast, par., transmitted at a more rapid rate than higher 
 ones. Thus, the fundamental note of a trumpet travels 
 (aver than it< harmonica. 
 
 25. The velocity of sound in liquids and Bollib (the rKs 
 placements being longitudinal), may be obtained by formula 
 (I.), neglecting the thermic effects of the compressions and 
 expansions as being comparatively inconsiderable, and may 
 be put in other forms : 
 
 Thus, if we denote by • the change in length of cne foot 
 of a column of the substance produced by its own weight 
 
 w, then e being = - or — , we have - = - and hence: 
 ii si 
 
 7-y«. . . . <iv,> 
 
 or, replacing - (which is the length in feet of a coluum 
 
 that would be increased 1 foot by the weight of 1 cubia 
 foot) by /, 
 
 v- ^r (v.) 
 
 which shows that the velocity is that due to a fall through 
 I 
 2* 
 
 Or, again, in the case of a liquid, if >; denote the change 
 of volume, ■which would be produced by an increase of 
 pressure equal to one atmosphere, or to that of a columB 
 H of the liquid, since « is the change of Tolume due to 
 
 weight of a column 1 of the liquid, and \ 
 
 11 a l 
 — and - 
 
 H 
 
 = — , we get 
 
 ,</H 
 
 (VI 
 
 Ex. 1. For water, — •= 20,000 very nearly; H=34 ft 
 n 
 and hence V = 4680 feet. 
 
 This number coincides very closely with the value ob- 
 tained, whether by direct experiment, 83 by Colladon and 
 Sturm on the Lake of Geneva in 1826, who found 4708, 
 or by indirect means which assign to the velocity in the 
 water of the Eivcr Seine at 59° Fahr. a velocity of 4714 ft 
 (Wertheim). 
 
 Ex. 2. For iron. Let the weight necessary to dot. Me 
 
 the length of an iron bar be 4^30 millions of VjS. on :he 
 
 square foot Then a length I will bo extended to M- 1 by 
 
 . 4260 millions lbs. ,, , m, • i\. a . a ( „ 
 
 a force of — j on the sq. ft. This, tneref ,re, 
 
 by our definition of I, must be the weight of a cubic toot 
 of the iron. Assuming the density of iron to bo 78, and 
 62-32 lbs. as the weight of a cubic foot of water, we ge* 
 7-8 x 62-32 or 486 lbs. as the weight of an equal buli o» 
 
 millions. 
 
 iron. 
 
 4260 millions .„- , ; _ 4 260 
 Hence ; 486 and I = -— 
 
 /oo-q x 4260 
 
 which gives V= Jgl = ^ — ^ — millions 
 
 = /H22 x 1000 = 1000.7284 
 V 15 
 or V = 17,000 feet per second- nearly. 
 As in the case of water and iron, so, in general, it may 
 be stated that sound travels faster in liquids than in air, 
 and still faster in solids, the ratio °- being least in gases 
 
 and greatest in solids. # 
 
 26. Biot, about 50 years ago, availed himself of the Exp€rt . 
 great difference in the velocity of the propagation of sound mental a. 
 through metals and through air, to determine the ratio of ten™* 
 the one velocity to the other. A bell placed near one ex- ^ goUda 
 tremity of a train of iron pipes forming a joint length of 
 upwards of 3000 feet, being struck at the same instant as 
 the same extremity of the pipe, a person placed at the 
 other extremity heard first the sound of the blow oa tha 
 pipe, conveyed through the iron, and then, after an interval
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 105 
 
 t>i time, -which was noted as accurately as possible, the 
 sound of the bell transmitted through the air. The 
 result was a velocity for the iron of 105 times that in air. 
 Similar experiments on iron telegraph wire, made more 
 recently near Paris by Wertheim and Brequet, have led to 
 an almost identical number. Unfortunately, owing to 
 the metal in those experiments not forming a continuous 
 whole, and to other causes, the results obtained, which fall 
 6hort of those otherwise found, cannot be accepted as correct. 
 Other means therefore, of an indirect character, to which 
 we will refer hereafter, have been resorted to for deter- 
 mining the velocity of sound in solids. Thus Wertheim, 
 from the pitch of the lowest notes produced by longitudinal 
 friction of wires or rods, has been led to assign to that 
 velocity values ranging, in different metals, from 16,822 
 feet for iron, to 4030 for lead, at temperature 68° Fahr., 
 and which agree most remarkably with those calculated by 
 
 means of the formula V = / - . He points out, however, 
 
 that these values refer only to solids whose cross dimensions 
 are small in comparison with their length, and that in order 
 to obtain the velocity of sound in an unlimited solid mass, 
 * it is requisite to multiply the value as above found by 
 J f or J nearly. For while, in a solid bar, the extensions 
 and contractions dueio any disturbance take place laterally 
 as well as longitudinally ; in an extended solid, they can 
 only occur in the latter direction, thus increasing the 
 value of e. 
 
 27. To complete the discussion of the velocity of the 
 propagation of sound, we have still to consider the case of 
 transversal vibrations, such as. are executed by the points 
 of a stretched wire or cord when drawn out of its position 
 of rest by a blow, or by the friction of a violin-bow. 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 m 
 
 &r 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 Bg.4 
 docity of i^ej ox (gg 4) De tne position of the rtring when nndis- 
 jfjf k " turbed, map when displaced. We will suppose the amount 
 aisversal °f displacement to be very small, so that we may regard 
 irations. the distance between any two given points of it as remain- 
 ing the same, and also that the tension P of the string 
 is not changed in its amount, but only in its direction, 
 which is that of the string. 
 
 Take any origin in or; and 06 = 6c— ix (a very small 
 quantity), then the perpendiculars am, bn, cp, are the dis- 
 placements of abc. Let k, I be the middle points of ran, 
 np; then Id (which = ran or ab very nearly) may be re- 
 garded as a very small part of the string acted on by two 
 forces each — P, and acting at n in the directions np, nrn. 
 These give a component parallel to ac, which on our sup- 
 position is negligible, and another F along nb, such that 
 
 F = P (sin 6 - sin ff\ = P. (0* _£\ = p. VSfE . 
 \mn nq; to 
 
 Now if e « a length of string of weight equal to P, and 
 
 the string be supposed of uniform thickness and density, 
 
 P P 
 
 the weight of U~>-.kl = -. Sx, and the mass m of jU = 
 
 c c 
 
 p. 
 
 ge 
 
 Sx. 
 
 Hence the acceleration / in direction nb i 
 
 is— 
 
 / 
 
 = -=9c 
 
 nq-pr 
 
 U we denote ma by y, oa by x, and the time by t, we 
 shall readily see that this equation becomes ultimately, 
 dry dry 
 
 which is satisfied by putting 
 
 y = 4> (x +• jg~c~. t) + f (*~ Jge. t) 
 
 where <f> and \p indicate any functions. 
 
 Now we know that if for a given value of t, x be in- 
 creased by the length A of the wave, the value of y remains 
 unchanged; hence, 
 
 4>{z+ Jgc.t) + &,c = tj>(x + ).+ Jgc. t) &c 
 
 But this condition is equally satisfied for a given value of 
 
 x, by increasing Jgc t. by X, i.e., increasing ( by j?= . 
 
 This therefore must = T (the time of a complete vibration 
 of any point of the string). But V= =. Hence, 
 
 v°JJc (vn.) 
 
 is the expression for the velocity of sound when due to 
 very small transversal vibrations of a thin wire or chord, 
 which velocity is consequently the same as would be 
 acquired by a body falling through a height equal to one 
 half of a length of the chord such as to have a weight 
 equal to the tension. 
 
 The above may also be put in the form — 
 
 -= /si 
 
 \/ ID 
 
 where P is the tension, and w the weight of the unit of 
 length of the chord. 
 
 28.. It appears then that while sound is propagated by 
 longitudinal vibrations through a given substance with the 
 same velocity under all circumstances, the rate of its trans- 
 mission by transversal vibrations through the same sub- 
 stance depends on the tension and on the thickness. The 
 former velocity bears to the latter the ratio of «/7 : «/c , 
 (where I is the length of the substance, which would be 
 lengthened one foot by the weight of one foot, if we take 
 
 the foot as our unit) or of I - : 1, that is, of the square 
 
 root of the length which would be extended one foot by 
 the weight of c feet, or by the tension, to 1. This, for 
 ordinary tensions, results in the velocity for longitudinal 
 vibrations being very much in excess of that for transversal 
 vibrations? 
 
 29. It is a well known fact that, in all but very excep- 
 tional cases, the loudness of any sound is less as the dis- 
 tance increases between the source of sound and the ear. 
 The law according to which this decay takes place is the 
 same as obtains in other natural phenomena, viz., that in 
 an unlimited and uniform medium the loudness or intensity 
 of the sound proceeding from a very small sounding body 
 (strictly speaking, a point) varies inversely as the square 
 of the distance. This follows from considering that the 
 ear AC receives only the conical portion OAC of the whole 
 volume of sound emanating from 0, and that in order that 
 an ear BD, placed at a 
 greater distance from O, 
 may admit the same 
 quantity, its area must be 
 to that of AC : as OB* : 
 OA 2 . But if A' = AC 
 be situated at same dis- ^i- 5- 
 
 tance as BD, the amount of sound received by it and by 
 BD (and therefore by AC) will be as the area of A 1 or 
 AC to that of BD. Hence, the intensities of the sound a* 
 
 Compare 
 son of V 
 for trans 
 versal aiv 
 for longi- 
 tudinal 
 vibritiot 
 
 Law of 
 
 decay, of 
 
 intensi^J 
 
 sounds 
 
 with ia- 
 
 creas«> 
 
 tance. 
 
 1—5*
 
 106 
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 heard by the same car at the distances OA and OB are to 
 
 each other as OB 2 to OA-. 
 
 hnnenoeof 30. In order to verify the above law -when the ntmo- 
 
 Hmini»heJ sphere forms the intervening medium, it would be necessary 
 
 lensity of ^ ^ st j t at a considerable elevation above the earth's 
 
 t "slvof sn rf ace ) tne ear aQ d tno 80urce °f sound being separated 
 
 ioumL by air of constant density. As the density of the air 
 
 diminishes, we should then find that the loudness of the 
 
 "sound at a given distance would decrease,- as is the case in 
 
 the air-pump experiment previously described. This arises 
 
 from the decrease of the quantity of matter impinging on 
 
 the ear, and the consequent diminution of its vis-viva. 
 
 The decay of sound due to this cause is observable in tho 
 
 rarefied air of high mountainous regions. De Saussure, the 
 
 celebrated Alpine traveller, mentions that the report of a 
 
 pistol at a great elevation appeared no louder than would 
 
 a small cracker at a lower leveL 
 
 But it is to be remarked that, according to Poisson, 
 when air-strataof different densities are interposed between 
 the source of sound and the ear placed at a given distance, 
 the intensity depends only on the density of the air at the 
 source itself; whenco it follows that sounds proceeding 
 from the surface of the earth may be heard at equal dis- 
 tances as distinctly by a person in a floating balloon as by 
 one situated on tho surface itself; whereas any noise origi- 
 nating in the balloon would be heard at the surface as 
 faintly as if the ear were placed in the rarefied air on a 
 level with the balloon. This was exemplified during a 
 balloon ascent by Qlaisher and Coxwell, who, when at an 
 elevation of 20,000 feet, heard with great distinctness the 
 whistle of a locomotive passing beneath them. 
 
 Part EX 
 Reflexion and Refraction of Sound. 
 ,31. When a wave of sound travelling through one 
 medium meets a second medium of a different kind, the 
 vibrations of its own particles are communicated to the 
 particles of the new medium, so that a wave is excited in 
 the latter, and is propagated through it with a velocity de- 
 jwndent on the density and elasticity of the second medium, 
 and therefore differing in general from the previous velocity. 
 The direction, too, in which the new wave travels is dif- 
 ferent from the previous one. This change of direction is 
 termed refraction, and takes place according to the same 
 laws as does the. refraction of light, viz., (1.) The new 
 direction or refracted ray lies always in the plane of 
 incidence, or plane which contains the incident ray (i.e., 
 the direction of the wave in the first medium), and the 
 normal to the surface separating the two media, at the 
 point in which the incident ray meets it; (2.) The sine of 
 the angle between the normal and the incident ray bears to 
 the sine of the angle between the normal and the refracted 
 ray, a ratio which is constant for the same pair of media. 
 
 For a theoretical demonstration of these laws, we must 
 refer to the art. Oracs, where it will be shown that tho 
 ratio involved in the second law is always equal to the 
 ratio of the velocity of the wave in the first medium to the 
 velocity in the second ; in other words, the sines of the 
 angles in question are directly proportional to the velocities. 
 
 32. Hence sonorous rays, in passing from one medium 
 Into another, are bent in towards the 
 normal, or the reverse, according as the 
 velocity of propagation in the former 
 exceeds or falls short of that in the latter. 
 Thus, for instance, sound i3 refracted 
 towards the perpendicular when passing 
 into air from water, or into carbonic acid 
 gas from air; the converse is the case when 
 the passage takes place the opposite way. 
 
 33. It further follows, as in the analogous case of light, 
 
 Laws of 
 
 refraction. 
 
 Be fraction 
 Is to or 
 from the 
 normal ac- 
 cording to 
 relative 
 
 Tklut | Of 
 
 the t elo- 
 crUea. 
 
 limiting 
 an^le and 
 total re- 
 flexion. 
 
 that there is a certain .angle termed the limiting angle, 
 whoso sine is found by dividing the less by the greater 
 velocity, such that all rays of sound meeting the surface 
 separating two different bodies will not pass onward, 
 but suffer total reflexion back into the first body, if 
 the velocity in that body is less than that in the other 
 body, and if the angle of incidence exceeds tho limiting 
 angle. 
 
 The velocities in air and water being respectively 1090 
 and 4700 feet, the limiting angle for these media may be 
 easily shown to be slightly above 15J°. Hence, rays of 
 sound proceeding from a distant source, and therefore 
 nearly parallel to each other, and to PO (fig. 0), the angle 
 POM being greater than 15 j°, will not pass into tho water 
 at all, but suffer total reflexion. Under such circumstances, 
 the report of a gun, however powerful, would be inaudible 
 by an ear placed in the water. 
 
 34. As light is concentrated into a focus by a convex 
 glass lens (for which the velocity of light is less than for 
 the air), so sound ought to be made to converge by passing 
 through a convex lens formed of carbonic acid gas. On 
 the other hand, to produce convergence with water or 
 hydrogen gas, in both which the velocity of sound exceeds 
 its rate in air, the lens ought to be concave. These results 
 have been confirmed experimentally by Sondhaus and 
 Hajech, who also succeeded in verifying the law of the 
 equality of the index of refraction to the ratio of the 
 velocities of sound. 
 
 35. When a wave of sound falls on a surface separating 
 two media, in addition to the refracted wave transmitted 
 into the new medium, which we have just been consider- 
 ing, there is also a fresh wave formed in tho new medium, 
 and travelling in it in a different direction, but, of course, 
 with the same velocity. This reflected wave is subject to 
 the same laws as regulate the reflexion of light, viz., (1.) 
 the coincidence of the planes of incidence and of reflexion, 
 and (2.) the equality of the angles of incidence and 
 reflexion, that is, of the angles made by the incident and 
 reflected rays with the normal. 
 
 3C. As in an ellipse (fig. 7), the normal PG at any point 
 bisects the angle SPH (S, H 
 being the foci), rays of sound 
 diverging from S, and falling on 
 the spheroidal surface formed by 
 the revolution of the ellipse about 
 the longest diameter AB, will be 
 reflected to H, Also, since SP 
 + PH is always = AB, the times in which the different rays 
 will reach H will all be equal to each other, and hence a 
 crash at S will be heard as a crash at H. 
 
 37. At any point P of -a parabola (fig. 8) of which S is 
 tho focus, and AX the axis, the normal. PG bisects the 
 angle SPX, PX being 
 drawn parallel to AX. 
 
 Hence rays of sound 
 diverging from S, and 
 falling on the paraboloid 
 formed by the revolution 
 of the parabola about its 
 axis, will all be reflected 
 in directions parallel to 
 the axis. And vice ver;a 
 rays of sound XP, XQ, 
 <fec, from a very distant source, and parallel to the axis of 
 a paraboloid, will be reflected into the focus. Con 
 sequently, if two reflecting paraboloids be placed at a 
 considerable distance from and opposite to each other, 
 with their axis coincident in direction (fig. 9), tho tick of 
 a watch placed at the focus S of one will be heard di* 
 tinctly by an ear at S' the focus of the other. 
 
 Acoustic 
 
 lmse, 
 
 Lows of 
 
 rctiexion. 
 
 P.cJlexioa 
 by a spba 
 roid. 
 
 TteflexMn 
 by para- 
 bolic ra*< 
 faces. 
 
 Fig. 8.
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 107 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 38. As a luminous object may give a succession of 
 images when placed between two or more reflecting sur- 
 faces, so also in like circum- 
 stances may a sound sulfur 
 repetition. 
 
 To these principles are 
 easily traceable all the pecu- 
 liarities of echoes. A vail 
 or steep cliff may thus send 
 back, somewhat reduced in 
 intensity, a shout, the report 
 of a pistol, &c. The time 
 which elapses between the sound and its echo may be 
 easily deduced from the known velocity of sound in air, 
 if the distance of the wall be given. Thus, for a distance 
 of 37 yards, the interval will be found by dividing the 
 double of that or 74 yards by 370 yards, the velocity of 
 Bound at 50°Fahr., to amount to y of a second. Hence, if 
 wo assume that the rate at which syllables can be distinctly 
 uttered is five per second, the wall must be at a distance 
 exceeding 37 yards to allow of the echo of a word of one 
 syllable reaching the ear after the word has been uttered. 
 74 yards for a word of two syllables, and so on. 
 
 If the reflecting surface consists of one or more walls, 
 cliffs, &,c, forming together a near approach in shape to 
 that of a prolate spheroid or of a double parabolic surface, 
 then two points may be found, at one of which if a source 
 of sound be placed, there will be produced, by conver- 
 gence, a distinct echo at the other. As examples of this 
 may be mentioned the whispering gallery in St Paul's, 
 London, and the still more remarkable case of the 
 Cathedral of Girgenti in Sicily mentioned by Sir John 
 fierschel. 
 
 39. On similar principles of repeated reflexion may be 
 explained the well-known fact that sounds may be con- 
 veyed to great distances with remarkably slight loss of 
 intensity, on a level piece of ground or smooth sheet of 
 water or ice, and still more so in pipes, chimneys, tunnels, 
 <tc. Thus, in one of Captain Parry's Polar expedi- 
 tions, a conversation was on one occasion carried on, 
 at a distance of \\ mile, between two individuals sepa- 
 rated by a frozen sheet of water. M. Biot heard distinctly 
 from one end of the train of pipes f of a mile long, 
 previously referred to. a low whisper proceeding from 
 the opposite end. 
 
 Practical illustrations are afforded by the system of 
 communication by means of tubing now so extensively 
 adopted in public and private buildings, and by the speak- 
 ing trumpet and the far trumpet. 
 
 40. The prolonged roll of thunder, with its manifold 
 varieties, is partly to be ascribed to reflexion by moun- 
 tains, clouds, &c. ; but is mainly accounted for on a diffe- 
 rent acoustic principle, viz., the comparatively low rate of 
 transmission of sound through air, as was first shown 
 by Dr Hooke at the close of the 1 7th century. The ex- 
 planation will be more easily understood by adverting 
 to the case of a volley fired by a long line of troops. A 
 person situated at a point in ^hat line produced, will first 
 it is evident hear the report of the nearest musket, fol- 
 lowed by that of the one following, and so down to the 
 last one in the line, which will close the prolonged roll 
 thus reaching his ear; and as each single report will appear 
 to him less intense according as it proceeds from a greater 
 distance, the roll of musketry thus heard will be one of 
 gradually decreasing loudness. But if he were to place 
 himself at a relatively great distance right opposite to 
 the centre of the line, the separate reports from each of 
 the two wings would reach him nearly at the same moment, 
 and hence the sound of the volley would now approach 
 more nearly to that of a single loud crash. If the line of 
 
 soldiers formed an arc of a circle having its centre in his 
 position, then the distances gone over by the separata 
 reports being equal, they would reach his ear at the same 
 absolute instant of time, and with exactly equal intensi- 
 ties; and the effect produced would be strictly the same 
 as that of a single explosion, equal in violence to the sum 
 of all the separate discharges, occurring at the same dis- 
 tance. It is easy to see that, by varying the form of the 
 line of troops and the position of the observer, the sonorous 
 effect will be diversified to any extent desired. If then 
 we keep in view the great diversity of form exhibited by 
 lightning-flashes, which may be regarded as being lines, at 
 the points of which are generated explosions at the same 
 instant of time, and the variety of distance and relative 
 position at which the observer may be placed, we shall 
 feel no difficulty in accounting for all those acoustic pheno- 
 mena of thunder to which Hooke's theory is applicable. 
 
 PahtIV. 
 The Principles of Musical Harmony. 
 
 41. A few words on the subject of musical harmony 
 must be introduced here fon the immediate purposes of 
 this article, further details being reserved for the special 
 article on that subject. 
 
 Sounds in general exhibit three different qualities, so 
 far as their effect on the ear is ooncerned, viz., loudness, 
 pitch, and timbre. 
 
 Loudness depends, ccet. par., on the violence with which Loudnesi 
 the vibrating portions of the ear are excited; and there- »»epends« 
 fore on the extent or amplitude of the vibrations of the ^rationf 
 body whence the sound proceeds. Hence, after a bell has 
 been struck, its effect on the ear gradually diminishes as 
 its vibration becomes less and less extensive. By the 
 theory of vibrations, loudness or intensity is measured by 
 the vis-viva of the vibrating particles, and is consequently 
 proportional to the square of their maximum velocity or 
 to the square of their maximum displacement. Helm- 
 holtz, however, in his remarkable work on the perception 
 of tone, observes that notes differing in pitch differ also in 
 loudness, where their vis viva is the same, the higher note 
 always exhibiting the greater intensity. 
 
 42. Difference of pitch is that which finds expression in Pitch de- 
 the common terms applied to notes : Acute, shrill, high, pend* °* 
 sharp, grave, deep, low, flat. TTe will point out presently in ^['^-^ 
 what manner it is established that this quality of sound de- 
 pends on the rapidity of vibration of the particles of air in 
 contact with the external parts of the ear. The pitch of 
 
 a note is higher in proportion to the number Of vibrations 
 of the air corresponding to it, in a given time, such as one 
 
 second. If n denote this number, then, by § 13, n =— , 
 
 and hence, V being constant, the pitch is higher the less 
 the length X of the wave. 
 
 43. Timbre, or, as it is termed by German authors, Timbf*. 
 klang-farbe, rendered by Tyndall^into clang-colour or clang- 
 tiui,h\xt fo'i which we would substitute the expression acoustic 
 colour, denotes that peculiarity of impression produced on 
 
 the ear by sounds otherwise, in pitch, loudness, &c, alike, 
 whereby they are recognisable as different from each other. 
 Thus human voices are readily interdistinguishable ; so 
 are notes of the same pitch and intensity, produced by 
 different instruments. The question whence arises this dis- 
 tinction muot be deferred for the present. 
 
 44. Besides the three qualities above mentioned, there 
 exists another point in which sounds may be distingu i shed 
 amon" each other, and which, though perhaps reducible to 
 difference of timbre, requires some special remarks, viz., 
 that by which sounds are characterised, either as nours oi 
 as musical notes. A musical note is the result of icjgular,
 
 108 
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 periodic vibrations of the air-particles acting on the car, 
 and therefore also of the body whence they proceed, each 
 particle passing through the same phase at stated intervals 
 of time. On the other hand, the motion to which noise is 
 due is irregular and flitting, alternately fast and slow, 
 »nd creating in the mind a bewildering and confusing 
 effect of a more or less unpleasant character. Noise may 
 also be produced by combining in an arbitrary manner 
 several musical notes, as when one leans with the fore-arm 
 against the keys of a piano. In fact, the composition of 
 regular periodic motions, thus effected, is equivalent to an 
 irregular motion. 
 
 45. We now proceed to state the laws of musical har- 
 mony, and to describe certain instruments by means of 
 which they admit of being experimentally established. 
 The chief of these laws are as follow : — 
 
 (1.) The notes employed in music always correspond 
 to certain definite and invariable ratios between the num- 
 bers of vibrations performed in a given time by the air 
 when conveying these notes to the ear, and these ratios 
 are of a very simple kind, being restricted to the various 
 permutations of the first four prime numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, 
 and their powers. 
 
 (2.) Two notes are in unison whose corresponding vibra- 
 tions are executed exactly at the same rate, or for which 
 
 (denoting by n, n x the numbers per second) -» = 1. This 
 
 fctio or interval (as it is termed) is the simplest possible. 
 
 (3.) The next interval is that in which — = 2, and is 
 termed the octave. 
 
 (4.) The interval — = 3 is termed the twelfth, and if 
 
 we reduce the higher note of the pair by an 8'*, i.e., divide 
 its number of vibrations by 2, we obtain the interval 
 
 — o -, designated as the interval of the fifth. 
 
 (5.) The interval - l = 5 has no particular name at- 
 tached to it, but if we lower the higher note by two 
 8™ or divide r\ by 4, we get the interval -- = ;:■ or the 
 interval of the major third. 
 
 (6.) The interval — = - is termed the major sixth. 
 
 CI.) The interval - 1 = — — = - is termed the minor 
 n 5 5 
 
 third. 
 
 (8.) The interval ^ = — - = - is termed the fourth, 
 n o 3 
 
 3 3 
 
 being = - x g/may be re- 
 
 garded as formed by taking in the first place a note one- 
 fifth higher than the key-note or fundamental, i.e., higher 
 
 than the latter by the interval '-, thence ascending by 
 
 (9.) The interval - which, 
 
 another fifth, which gives 
 an octave, which results in - 
 
 US r X t 
 
 2 2 
 
 and lowering this by 
 
 which is called the second. 
 -o 
 
 (10.) The interval — or 5 x - may be regarded as the 
 
 major third] f-J of the fifth (Aand is called the interval 
 
 of the seventh. 
 
 46. If the key-note or fundamental be denoted by C, 
 and the notes, wiose intervals above C are those just 
 enumerated, by D, E, F, G, A, B, C, we form what is 
 
 known in music as the natural or diatonic scale, in whici 
 therefore the intervals reckoned from C are successively 
 9 5 4 3 5 15 
 8' 4' 3' 2' 3' 8' ' 
 and therefore the intervals between eacn note and the 
 one following are 
 
 9 10 16 10 9 16 
 8' 9' Lb' 8' 9' 8' 15 
 
 Of these last intervals the first, fourth, and sixth are 
 
 9 
 each = -, which is termed a major tone. The second and 
 
 8' 
 
 10 
 
 fifth are each = — , which is a ratio slightly less than ' 
 the former, and hence is called a minor tone. The third 
 and seventh are each = — , to which is given the name of 
 
 15 
 
 semi-tone. 
 
 By interposing an additional note between each pair of 
 notes whose interval is a major or a minor tone, the result- 
 ing series of notes may be made to exhibit a nearer ap- 
 proach to equality in the intervals successively separating 
 them, which will be very nearly semi-tones. This sequence 
 of twelve notes forms the chromatic scale. The note inter- 
 posed between C and D is either C sharp (C#) or D flat 
 (Db), according as it is formed by raising C a semi-tone or 
 lowering D by the same amount. 
 
 47. Various kinds of apparatus have been contrived with 
 a view of confirming experimentally the truth of the laws 
 of musical harmony as above stated 
 
 Savart's toothed wheel apparatus consists of a brass g aTart i,, 
 wheel, whose edge is divided into a number of equal pro- tooths- 
 jecting teeth distributed uniformly over the circumference, wheel », 
 and which is capable of rapid rotation about an axis per- param* 
 pendicular to its plane and passing through its centre, by- 
 means of a series of multiplying wheels, the last of which 
 is turned round by the hand. The toothed wheel being 
 set in motion, the edge of a card or of a funnel-shaped 
 piece of common note paper is held against the teeth, 
 when a note will be heard arising from the rapidly suc- 
 ceeding displacements of the air in its vicinity. The pitch 
 of this note will, agreeably to the theory, rise as the rat9 
 of rotation increases, and becomes steady when that rota- 
 tion is maintained uniform. It may thus be brought into 
 unison with any sound of which it may be required to 
 determine the corresponding number of vibrations per 
 second, as for instance the note A 3 , three 8 ve * higher than 
 the A which is indicated musically by a small circle placed 
 between the second and third bines of the G clef, which 
 A is the note of the tuning-fork usually employed for 
 regulating concert-pitch. A s may be given by a piano. 
 Now, suppose that the note produced with Savart's appa- 
 ratus is in unison with A 3 , when the experimenter turns 
 round the first wheel at the rate of 60 turns per minute or 
 one per second, and that the circumferences of the various 
 multiplying wheels are such that the rate of revolution of 
 the toothed wheel is thereby increased 44 times, then the 
 latter wheel will perform 44 revolutions in a second, and 
 hence, if the number of its teeth be 80, the number of 
 taps imparted to the card every second will amount to 
 44 x 80 or 3520. This, therefore, is the number of vibra- 
 tions corresponding to the note A 3 . If we divide this by 
 2 3 or 8, we obtain 440 as the number of vibrations answer- 
 ing to the note A. This, however, tacitly assumes that 
 the bands by which motion is transmitted from wheel to 
 wheel do not slip during the experiment. If , as is always 
 more or less the case, slipping occurs, a different mode for 
 determining the rate at which the toothed wheel revolves, 
 such as is employed in the syren of De la Tour {vide below), 
 must be adopted
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 109 
 
 If, for the single toothed wheel, be substituted a set 
 of four with a common axis, in which the teeth are in 
 the ratios 4:5:6:8, and if the card be rapidly passed 
 along their edges, we shall hear distinctly produced the 
 fundamental chord C, E, G, C'j and shall thus satisfy our- 
 selves that the intervals C, E ; C t G, and C C x are (as they 
 
 5 3 
 
 ought to be) -, -, and 2 respectively. 
 
 48. The syren of Seebeck is the simplest form of appa- 
 ratus thus designated, and consists of a large circular disc 
 of pasteboard mounted on a central axis, about which it 
 may be made to revolve with moderate rapidity. This disc 
 is perforated with small round holes arranged in circles 
 about the centre of the disc. In the first series of circles, 
 reckoning from the centre, the openings are so made as to 
 divide the respective circumferences, on which they are 
 found, in aliquot parts bearing to each other the ratios of 
 the numbers 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 24, 32, 40, 48, 
 64. The second series consists of circles each of which is 
 formed of two sets of perforations, in the first circle arranged 
 as 4 : 5, in the next as 3:4, then as 2 : 3, 3 : 5, 4 : 7. 
 In the outer series is a circle divided by perforations into 
 four sets, the numbers of aliquot parts being as 3 : 4 : 5 : 6, 
 followed by others which we need not further refer to. 
 
 The disc being started, then by means of a tube held at 
 one end between the lips, and applied near to the disc at 
 the other, or more easily with a common bellows, a blast 
 of air is made to fall on the part of the disc which con- 
 tains any one of the above circles. The current being 
 alternately transmitted and shut off, as a hole passes^on 
 and off the aperture of the tube or bellows, causes a vibra- 
 tory motion of the air, whose rapidity depends on the 
 number of times per second that a perforation passes the 
 mouth of the tube. Hence the note produced with any 
 given circle of holes rises in pitch as the disc revolves 
 more rapidly; and if, the revolution of the disc being kept 
 as steady as possible, the tube be passed rapidly across the 
 eircles of the first series, the notes heard are found to pro- 
 duce on the ear, as required by theory, the exact impres- 
 sion corresponding to the ratios 2:4: &c, i.e., of a series 
 of notes, which, if the lowest be denoted by C, form the 
 sequence C C\ E, G, C 2 &c, &c. In like manner, the first 
 circle in which we have two sets of holes d'viding the circum- 
 ference, the one into say 8 parts, and the other into 10, or 
 in ratio 4 : 5, the note produced is a compound one, such 
 as would be obtained by striking on the piano two notes 
 
 separated by the interval of a major third (-). Similar 
 
 results, all agreeing with the theory, are obtainable by 
 means of the remaining perforations. 
 
 A still simpler form of syren may be constituted with a 
 good spinning top, a perforated card disc, and a tube for 
 blowing with. 
 
 49. The syren of Cagnard de la Tour is founded on the 
 same principle as the preceding. It consists of a cylindrical 
 chest of brass, the base of which is pierced at its centre 
 with an opening in which is fixed a brass tube projecting 
 outwards, and intended for supplying the cavity of the 
 cylinder with compressed air or other gas, or even liquid. 
 The top of the cylinder is formed of a plate perforated near 
 its edge by holes distributed uniformly in a circle concen- 
 tric with the plate, and which are cut obliquely through 
 the thickness of the plate. Immediately above this fixed 
 plate, and almost in contact with it, is 
 another of the same dimensions, and 
 furnished with the same number, n, of 
 openings similarly placed, but passing 
 obliquely through in an opposite direction 
 from those in the fixed plate, the one set 
 
 Fi B . 10. 
 
 being inclined to the left, the other to the right 
 
 This second plate is capable of rotation about a steel 
 axis perpendicular to its plane and passing through its 
 centre. Now, let the movable plate be at any time in a 
 position such that its holes are immediately above those in 
 the fixed plate, and let the bellows by which air is forced 
 into the cylinder (air, for simplicity, being supposed to be 
 the fluid employed) be put in action ; then the air in its 
 passage will strike the side of each opening in the mov- 
 able plate in an oblique direction (as shown in fig. 10), and 
 will therefore urge the latter 1,0 rotation round its centre. 
 
 After -th of a revolution, the two sets of perforations will 
 
 again coincide, the lateral impulse of the air repeated, and 
 hence the rapidity of rotation increased. This will go on 
 continually as long as air is supplied to the cylinder, and 
 the velocity of rotation of the upper plate will be accelerated 
 up to a certain maximum, at which it may be maintained 
 by keeping the force of the current constant. 
 
 Now, it is evident that each coincidence of the perfora- 
 tions in the two plates is followed by a non-coincidence, 
 during which the air-current is shut off, and that con- 
 sequently, during each revolution of the upper plate, there 
 occur n alternate passages and interceptions of the current. 
 Hence arises the same number of successive impulses of 
 the external air immediately in contact with the movable 
 plate, which is thus thrown into a state of vibration at the 
 rate of n for every revolution of the plate. The result is 
 a note whose pitch rises as the velocity of rotation increases, 
 and becomes steady when that velocity reaches its constant 
 value. If, then, we can determine the number m of revolu- 
 tions performed by the plate in every second, we shall at 
 once have the number of vibrations' per second correspond- 
 ing to the audible note by multiplying m by n. 
 
 For this purpose the steel axis is furnished at its upper 
 part with a screw working into a toothed wheel, and driv- 
 ing it round, during each revolution of the plate, through 
 a space equal to the interval between two teeth. An 
 index resembling the hand of a watch partakes of this 
 motion, and points successively to the divisions of a 
 graduated dial. On the completion of each revolution of 
 this toothed wheel (which, if the number of its teeth be 
 100, will comprise 100 revolutions of the movable plate), 
 a projecting pin fixed to it catches a tooth of another 
 toothed wheel and turns it round, and with it a correspond- 
 ing index: which thus records the number of turns of the 
 first toothed wheel. As an example of the application of 
 this syren, suppose that the number of revolutions of the 
 plate, as. shown by the indices, amounts to 5400 in a 
 minute of time, that is, to 90 per second, then the number 
 of vibrations per second of the note heard amounts to 
 90re, or (if number of holes in each plate = 8) to 720. 
 
 50. Dove, of Berlin, has produced a modification of the Do70 ' 
 syren by which the relations of different musical ma£es s J TOn - 
 may be more readily ascertained. In it the fixed and 
 movable plates are each furnished with four concentric 
 series of perforations, dividing the circumferences into 
 different aliquot parts, asp. ex., 8, 10, 12, 16. Beneath 
 
 the lower or fixed plate are four metallic rings furnished 
 with holes corresponding to those in the plates, and which 
 may be pushed round by projecting pins, so as to admit 
 the air-current through any one or more of the series of 
 perforations in the fixed plate. Thus, may be obtained, 
 either separately or in various combinations, the four notes 
 whose vibrations are in the ratios of the above numbers, 
 and which therefore form the fundamental chord (CEGCj). 
 The invenvor has given to this instrument the name of the _ 
 many-voiced syren. 
 
 51. Helrnholtz has further adapted the syren for more ll( l™* 
 extensive use, by the addition to Dove's instrument of jo^k 
 another chest containing its own fixed and movable per- syren.
 
 110 
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 fig. n. 
 
 forated piates and perforated rings, both the moveable plates 
 being driven by the same current and revolving about a com- 
 mon axia Annexed is a figure of this instrument (fig. 11). 
 
 Vibro- 52. The palatum between the pitch of a note and the 
 
 graphs, frequency of the correspond- 
 ing vibrations has also been 
 studied by graphic methods. 
 Thus, if an elastic metal slip 
 or a pig's bristle be att a 
 to one prong of a tuning- 
 fork, and if the fork, while 
 in vibration, is moved rapidly 
 over a glass plate coated with 
 lamp black, the attached slip 
 touching the plate lightly, a 
 va\-y line will be traced on 
 :he plate answering to the 
 vibrations to and fro of the 
 fork. The same result wiH 
 be obtained with a stationary 
 fork and a movable glass 
 plate; and, if the time oc- 
 cupied by the plate in moving 
 through a given distance can 
 be ascertained, and the number of complete undulations ex- 
 hibited on the plate for that distance, -which -is evidently 
 the number of vibrations of the fork in that time, is 
 reckoned, we shall have determined the numerical vibra- 
 tion-value of the note yielded by the fork. Or, if the same 
 plate be moved in contact -with two tuning-forks, we shall, 
 by comparing the number of sinuosities in the one trace 
 with that in the other, be enabled to assign the ratio of 
 the corresponding numbers of vibrations per second. Thus, 
 if the one note be an octave higher than the other, it will 
 give double the number of waves in the same distance. The 
 motion of the plate may be simply produced by dropping 
 it between two vertical grooves, the tuning-forks being 
 properly fixed to a frame above. 
 
 53. Greater accuracy may be attained with the so-called 
 Yibrograph or Phonautograph (Duhamcl's or Kcenig's), 
 consisting of a glass cylinder coated with lamp-black, or, 
 better still, a metallic cylinder round which a blackened 
 sheet of paper is wrapped. The cylinder is mounted on a 
 horizontal axis and turned round, while the pointer attached 
 to the vibrating body is in light contact with it, and traces ! 
 therefore a wavy circle, which, on taking off the paper and 
 flattening it, becomes a wavy straight line. The superiority 
 of this arrangement arises from the comparative facility 
 with which the number of revolutions of the cylinder in a 
 given time may be ascertained. In Kcenig's phonauto- 
 graph, the axis of the cylinder is fashioned as a screw, 
 which works in fixed nuts at the ends, causing a sliding as 
 well as a rotatory motion of the cylinder. The linen traced , 
 out by the vibrating pointer are thus prevented from over- 
 lapping when more than one turn is given to the cylinder. 
 Any sound whatever may be made to record its trace on 
 the paper by means of a large parabolic cavity resembling 
 a speaking-trumpet, which is freely open at the wider ex- 
 tremity, but is closed at the other end by a thin stretched 
 membrane. To the centre of this membrane is attached a 
 small feather-fibre, which, when the reflector is suitably 
 placed, touches lightly the surface of the revolving cylinder. 
 Any eound (such aa that of the human voice) transmitting 
 its rays into the reflector, and communicating vibratory 
 motion to the membrane, will cause the feather to trace a 
 sinuous line on the paper. If, at the same time, a tuning- 
 fork of known number of vibrations per second be made to 
 trace its own line close to the other, a comparison of the 
 two lines gives the number corresponding to the sound 
 aader consideration. 
 
 •Past V. 
 
 Stationary Waves. 
 
 54. We have hitherto, in treating of the propagation of Stationary 
 waves of sound, assumed that the medium through which T.-aves P"*" 
 it took place was unlimited in all directions, and that the ^ acei b -" 
 source of sound was single. In order, however, to under- j^^i^pro 
 stand the principles of the production of 60und by musical p-esaWo 
 instruments, we must now direct our attention to the case vavea. 
 of two waves from different sources travelling through tho 
 same medium in opposite directions. Any particle of the 
 medium being then affected by two different vibrations at 
 the same instant will necessarily exhibit a different state 
 of motion from that due to cither wave acting separately 
 from the other, and we have to inquire what is the resuli of 
 this mutual interference (as it is termed) of the two given 
 waves. Supposing, as sufficient for our purpose, that the 
 given waves are of equal lengths and of equal amplitudes, 
 in other words, tha*, the corresponding notes are of the 
 same pitch and equally loud ; and supposing, further, that 
 they are advancing in exactly opposite directions, we shall 
 now show that the result of the mutual interference of two 
 such waves is the production of a stationary wave, that 
 is, taking any line of particles of the medium along 
 the direction of motion of 
 
 the component waves, cer- 1 S 1 •; ' 
 
 tain of them, such as a, c, 
 
 « ... at intervals each F 'S- 12 - 
 
 = -, will remain constantly in their usual undisturbed poai 
 
 tions. All the particles' situated between a and c will 
 vibrate (transversely or longitudinally, as the case may 
 be) to and fro in tho same direction as they would if 
 affected by only one of the interfering waves, but with 
 different amplitudes of vibration, ranging from zero at a to 
 a maximum at 6 and thence to zero at c. Those between < 
 and e will vibrate in like manner, but always in an opposite 
 direction to the similarly placed particles in ac, and so on 
 alternately. 
 
 The annexed figures will represent to the eye tne states of 
 motion at intervals of time = \ of the timeT of a complete 
 vibration of the ^articles. In fig. 13, 1, the particiea in 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 ac are at their greatest distances from tneir undisturbed 
 positions (above or to the right, according as the motion is 
 transversal or longitudinal). In fig. 13, 2, they are all in 
 their undisturbed positions. In fig. 13, 3, the displace* 
 ments are all reversed relatively to fig. 13, 1. In fig. 13, 
 4, the particles are again passing through their equilibrium 
 positions, resuming the positions indicated in fig. 13, 1, 
 after the time T. 
 
 The points ace, &c, wnicn remain stationary are termed Nodes arl 
 nodes, and the vibrating parts between them ventral '^'""-l 
 segments. segment!. 
 
 54a. Proof. In fig. 14, 1, the full curved line represents Proof 
 the two interfering waves at an instant of time such that,'
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 111 
 
 in their progress towards each other, ttiey are then coinci- 
 dent. It is obvious that the particles of the medium will 
 at the moment in question be displaced to double the ex- 
 tent of the displacement producible by either wave alone, 
 so that the resultant wave may be represented by the dotted 
 curve. In fig. 14, 2, the two interfering waves, repre- 
 sented by the full and dotted curves respectively, have each 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 passed over a distance = J A, the one to the right, the other 
 to the left, and it is manifest that any disturbance of the 
 medium, producible by the one wave, is completely neutra- 
 lised by the equal and opposite action of the other. Hence, 
 the particles of the medium are now in their undisturbed 
 positions. In fig. 14, 3, a further advance of the two 
 waves, each in its own direction, over a space = \ A, has 
 again brought them into coincidence, and the result is the 
 wave represented by the dotted line, which, it will be re- 
 marked, has its crests, where, in fig. 1, are found troughs. 
 In fig. 14, 4, after a further advance = \ A, we have a repeti- 
 tion of the case of fig. 14, 2, the particles are now again un- 
 affected by the waves. A still further advance of \ A, or 
 of A reckoned from the commencement, brings us back to 
 the same state of things as subsisted in fig. 14, 1. An in- 
 spection and inter-comparison of the dotted lines in these 
 figures are now sufficient to establish the accuracy of th^ 
 laws, before mentioned, of stationary waves. 
 
 Pakt VI 
 Musical Strings. 
 teal 55. We have in musical string3 an instance of the 
 
 **■ occurrence of stationary waves. 
 Let AB (fig. 15) be a wire or 
 
 string, supposed meanwhile to 
 
 neanwniie to ^ .. ^ — ^ -j> 
 
 be fixed only at one extremity B, £y \^ y\r 7^7? 
 
 and let the wire be, at any part; ft 
 
 excited (whether by passing a 
 violin bow across or by friction g- 
 
 along it), so that a wave (whether of transversal or longi- 
 tudinal vibrations) is propagated thence towards B. On 
 reaching this point, which is fixed, reflexion will occur, 
 in consequence of which the particles there will suffer a 
 complete reversal of velocity, just as when a perfectly 
 elastic ball strikes against a smooth surface perpendi- 
 cularly, it rebounds with a velocity equal and opposite to 
 diat it previously had. TIence, the displacement due to 
 
 the incident wave being BM, the displacement after re- 
 flexion will be BN. equal and opposite to BM, and a 
 reflected wave will result, represented by the faint lino 
 in the fig., which will travel with the same velocity, but 
 in the opposite direction to the incident wave fully lined in 
 the fig. The interference of these two oppositely pro- 
 gressing waves will consequently give rise to a stationary 
 
 wave (tig. 16), and if We ^ ^ ^ 
 
 take on the wire distances •" ~~- e z/~ "C" 2 
 
 BC, CD, DE, &c. = J A, Fig. 16. 
 
 the points B, C, D, E, . . . will be nodes, each of which 
 separate portions of the wire vibrating in opposite direo. 
 tions, i.e., ventral segments. 
 
 56. Now, it is obvious that, inasmuch as a node is a point 
 which remains always at rest while other parts of the 
 meaium to which it belongs are vibrating, such point may 
 be absolutely fixed without thereby interfering with the 
 oscillatory motion of the medium. If, therefore, a length 
 
 AB of wire be taken equal to any multiple of - , A may bo 
 
 fixed as well as B, the motion remaining the same as 
 before, and thus we shall have the usual case of a musical 
 string. The two extremities being now both fixed, there 
 will be repeated reflexions at both, and a consequent 
 poisistence of two progressive waves advancing in opposite 
 directions and producing together the stationary wave 
 above figured. 
 
 57. We learn from this that a musical string is suscep^- Fun?.-r 
 tible of an infinite variety of modes of vibration corre-™ en . 
 sponding to different numbers, of subdivision into 'ventral 
 segments. 
 
 Thus, it may have but one ventral segment (fig. 17), or 
 but two nodes formed by its 
 
 fixed extremities. In this case, — . 
 
 the note emitted by it is the ° 
 
 lowest which can possibly be Fig. 17. 
 
 obtained from it, or, as it is called, its fundamental nota 
 If I denote the length of the wire, by what has been already 
 
 1= r,and therefore the length of the wave A = 
 
 proved, 
 
 21. Hence, V being the velocity of propagation of the wave 
 through the wire, the number n x of vibrations performed 
 
 in the unit of time with the fundamental note is — . 
 
 The next possible sub-division of the wire is into two 
 ventral segments, the three 
 
 nodes being the two fixed ^ — ""-y c 
 
 end3 A, B, and the middle ^ ^ ^* 
 
 point C (fig. 18). Hence, l = \, F, g is. 
 
 and the number of vibrations n t 
 
 V 
 = -j or double of those of the fundamental The note, 
 
 therefore, now is an 8™ higher. 
 
 Reasoning in a like manner for the cases of three, four, 
 &c, ventral -segments, we obtain the following general 
 law, which is applicable alike to transversely and to longir 
 tudinally vibrating wires: 
 
 A wire or string fixed at both ends is capable of yielding, in 
 addition to its fundamental note, any one of a series of nota 
 corresponding to 2, 3, 4 times, &c, the number of vibration* 
 per second of the fundamental, viz., he octave, twelfth, double 
 octave, &c. 
 
 These higher notes are termed the harmonics or (by the 
 Germans) the overtones of the string. 
 
 It is to be remarked that the overtones are in general 
 fainter the higher they are in the series, because, as the.- 
 number of ventral segments or independently vibrating 
 parts of the string increases, the extent or amplitude of jr ;17 -jj 
 the vibrations diminishes. -i t<» 
 
 58. Not only may the, fundamental and its harmonics gather.
 
 112 
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 Jampart- 
 idd of fun- 
 iamentals 
 af 6trings 
 rtbrating 
 transverse- 
 bj and Ion • 
 rftudinally, 
 
 be obtained independently of each other, but they are also 
 to bo heard simultaneously, particularly, for the reason 
 just given, those that are loner in the scale. A practised 
 ear easily discerns the coexistence of these various tones 
 when a pianoforte or violin string is thrown into vibration. 
 It is evident that, in such case, the string, while vibrating 
 as a whole between its fixed 
 extremities, is at the same ^--~~^ ::r ' -=:::=:::::;::: ^^ 
 
 time executing subsidiary oscil- a ~~ jj 
 
 lations about its middle point, 
 its points of bisection, &c, as F! E- 19 - 
 
 shown in fig. 19, for the fundamental and the first har- 
 monic. 
 
 59. The easiest means for bringing out the harmonics of 
 a string consists in drawing a violin-bow across it near to 
 one end, while the feathered end of a quill or a hair-pencil 
 is held lightly against the string at the point which it is 
 intended shall form a node, and is removed just alter the bow 
 is withdrawn. Thus, if a node is made in this way, at ^ 
 of AB from A, the note heard will be the twelfth. If 
 light paper rings be strung on the cord, they will be 
 driven by the vibrations to the nodes or points of rest, 
 which will thus be clearty indicated to the eye. 
 V 
 
 60. The formula n^ = — shows that the pitch of the funda- 
 mental note of a wire of given length rises with the velocity 
 of propagation of sound through it. Now we have learned 
 (§ 28) that this velocity, in ordinary circumstances, is 
 enormously greater for a wire vibrating longitudinally than 
 for the samo wire vibrating transversely. The fundamental 
 note, therefore, is far higher in pitch in the former than in 
 the latter case. 
 
 As, however, the quantity V depends, for longitudinal 
 vibrations, solely on the nature of the medium, the pitch of 
 the fundamental note of a wire rubbed along its length 
 depends — the material being the same, brass for instance — 
 on its length, not at all on its thickness, &c. 
 
 But as regards strings vibrating transversely, such as 
 are met with in our instrumental music, V, as we have 
 6een (§ 27), depends not only on the nature of the sub- 
 ttance used, but also on its thickness and tension, and hence 
 the pitch of the fundamental, even with the same length 
 of string, will depend on all those various circumstances. 
 
 ^ 61. If we put for V its equivalent expressions before 
 given, we have for the fundamental note of transversely 
 vibrating strings : 
 
 21 
 
 ^-. or 
 
 •4*/?- 
 
 whence the following inferences may be easily drawn: 
 If a string, its tension being kept invariable, have its 
 
 length altered, the fundamental note will rise in pitch in 
 
 exact proportion with its diminished length, that is, n 
 
 varies then inversely as I. 
 
 Hence, on the violin, by placing a finger successively on 
 
 any one of the strings at-, -, -, -, -, -, -, we shall ob- 
 tain notes corresponding to numbers of vibrations bearing 
 to the fundamental the ratios to unity of the following, 
 . 934 3 15 „ ,. 
 VU "' 6' 4' 3' 2' IT' * w ' uc " notes form, therefore, with 
 the fundamental, the complete scale. 
 
 62. By tightening a musical string, its length remaining 
 unchanged, its fundamental is rendered higher. In fact, 
 then, n is proportional to the square root of the tension. 
 Thus, by quadrupling the tension, the note is raised an 
 octave. Hence, the use of keys in tuning the violin, the 
 pianoforte, Sec. 
 
 63. Equal lengths of strings of the same density and 
 equally stretched, but of different thicknesses, give funda- 
 
 VwelgbtS 
 
 given 
 
 length. 
 
 Vdensity. 
 
 Meldo's ex- 
 perimental 
 illustra- 
 tion. 
 
 mentals which are higher in pitch in proportion to diml 
 nution of thickness (i.e., n varies inversely as the thickness^ 
 Thus, of two strings of same kind of gut, same length anc 
 same tension, if one bo twice as thick as the other, its 
 fundamental will be an octave lower. Hence, three of th* 
 strings of the violin, though all of gut, have differen 
 fundamentals, because unequally thick. 
 
 64. Equally long and equally stretched strings or wires 
 of different thickness and different material, have funda- 
 mentals higher in pitch the less the weights of the strings; 
 n here varies inversely as the square root of the weight w 
 of a given length of the string. 
 
 65. H, in last case, the thicknesses of the strings 
 which are to be compared together are equal, then n varies 
 inversely as the square root of the density. 
 
 Hence, in the violin and in the pianoforte, the lower 
 notes are obtained from wires formed of denser material. 
 Thus, the fourth string of the violin is formed of gut 
 covered with silver wire. 
 
 66. A highly ingenious and instructive method for 
 illustrating the above laws of musical strings, has been 
 recently contrived by II. Melde, and consists simply m 
 attaching to the ventral segment of a vibrating body, 
 such as a tuning-fork or a bell-glass, a silk or cotton thread, 
 the other extremity being either fixed or passing over a 
 pulley and supporting weights by which the thread may be 
 stretched to any degree required. The vibrations of the 
 larger mass are communicated to the thread which, by 
 proper adjustment of its length and tension, vibrates in 
 unison and divides itself into one or more ventral segments 
 easily discernible by. a spectator. H the length of the 
 thread be kept invariable, a certain tension will give but 
 one ventral segment; the fundamental note of the thread 
 is then of same pitch as the note of the body to which it 
 is attached. By reducing the tension to ^ of its previous 
 amount, the number of ventral segments will be seen to be 
 increased to two, indicating that the first harmonic of the 
 thread is now in unison with the solid, and consequently 
 that its fundamental is an octave lower than it was with 
 the former tension; thus confirming the law that n varies 
 as ,/P. In like manner, on further lowering the tension 
 to \, three ventral segments will be formed, and so on. 
 
 The law that, coet. par., n varies inversely as the thick- 
 ness may be tested by forming a string of four lengths of 
 the single thread used before, and consequently of double 
 the thickness of the latter, when, for the same length and 
 tension, the compound thread will exhibit double the num- 
 ber of ventral segments presented by the single thread. 
 
 The other laws admit of similar illustration. 
 
 Part VEL 
 Stiff Rods, Plates, dte. 
 
 67. If, instead of a string or thin wire, we make use of Rod, flre4 
 a rod or narrow plate, sufficiently stiff to resist flexure, we * t ,°_^.™ < ^ 
 may cause it to vibrate 
 transversely when fixed 
 at one end only. In this 
 case the number of vi- 
 brations corresponding to 
 the fundamental note 
 varies as the thickness 
 directly, and as the square 
 of the length '"nversely. 
 The annexed figures re- 
 present the modes of vi- 
 bration corresponding to 
 the fundamental and the 
 first two overtones, the- 
 rod passing to and fro 
 between the positions AGKC and AHLD. 
 
 ") b-ating 
 trans- 
 versely. 
 
 In all cases A
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 113 
 
 being fixed is necessarily a node, and B being free is the 
 middle of a ventral segment. We have thus a succession 
 of cases in which the rod contains ^, $ , -f , &c. ventral seg- 
 ments. The numbers of vibrations per second are as the 
 squares of these, or, as 1 : 9 : 25 : &c. The reason of this 
 is, that (taking the case of fig. 20, 3) the part FB, which 
 may be regarded as an independent rod fixed at the end 
 F, is evidently y of the length of AB, and consequently, 
 
 since noc -, has a proper note of 5 2 or 25 times the 
 
 rapidity of vibration in fig. 20, 1. 
 
 By attaching, with a little bees' wax, stiff hog's bristles 
 tojone prong of a*tuning-fork, or to the edge of a bell- 
 glass, or even a common jar, and clipping them on trial to 
 suitable lengths, we shall find that, on drawing a note in 
 the" usual way from the tuning-fork or glass, the bristles 
 will divide into one or more separately vibrating segments, 
 as in the above figs. 
 
 68. The tuning-fork itself may be re- 
 garded as belonging to the class of stiff 
 rods. When emitting its fundamental 
 note, it vibrates, as in fig. 21, with nodes 
 at b and d and extreme positions abcde 
 and fbgdh. 
 
 69. The transversal vibrations of thin 
 square, circular, and other plates of metal 
 or glass, are interesting, because, if these are 
 kept in a horizontal position, light dry sand 
 or powder sifted over the upper surface, will be thrown off 
 the ventral segments to the nodal lines, which will thus be 
 rendered manifest to the eye, forming what are termed 
 Chladni's figures. As in the case of a musical string, so 
 here we find that the pitch of the note is higher for a given 
 plate the greater the number of ventral segments into 
 which it is divided; but the converse of this does not hold 
 good, two different notes being obtainable with the same 
 number of such segments, the position of the nodal lines 
 being, however, different. 
 
 r 70. The upper line of annexed figures shows how 
 the sand arranges itself in three cases, when the plates 
 are square. The lower line gives the same in a sort of 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 
 ( 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 idealised form, ana as usually to be found in acoustical 
 works. Fig. 22, 1 corresponds to the lowest possible note 
 of the particular plate used; Fig. 22, 2 to the fifth 
 higher; Fig. 22, 3 to the tenth or octave of the third, 
 the numbers of vibration in the same time being as 2 
 to 3 to 5. 
 
 If the plate be small, it is sufficient, in order to bring 
 out the simpler sand-figures, to hold the plate firmly 
 between two fingers of the same hand placed at any point 
 where at least two nodal lines meet, for instance the centre 
 in (1) and (2), and to draw a violin bow downwards across 
 the edge near the middle of a ventral segment. But with 
 larger plates, which alone will furnish the more complicated 
 figures, a clamp-screw must be used for fixing the plate, and. I 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 at the same time, one or more other nodal points ought 
 to be touched with the fingers while the bow is being 
 applied. In this way, any of the possible configurations 
 may be easily produced. 
 
 71. By similar methods, a circular plate may be made Circular 
 to exhibit nodal lines dividing the surface by diametral f latea - 
 lines into four or a greater, but always, even, number of 
 sectors, an odd number being incompatible with the general 
 
 law of stationary waves that the parts of a body adjoining 
 a nodal line on either gide must always vibrate oppositely 
 to each other. 
 
 Another class of figures consists of 
 circular nodal lines along with dia- 
 metral (fig. 23). 
 
 Circular nodal lines unaccompanied 
 by intersecting lines cannot be pro- 
 duced in the manner described ; but may be got either 
 by drilling a small hole through the centre, and draw- 
 ing a horse-hair along its edge to bring out the note, or 
 by attaching a long thin elastic rod to the centre of the 
 plate, at right angles to it, holding the rod by the middle 
 and rubbing it lengthwise with a bit of cloth powdered 
 with resin, till the rod gives a distinct note; thft vibra- 
 tions are communicated to the plate, which consequently 
 vibrates transversely, and causes the sand to heap itself 
 into one or more concentric rings. 
 
 72. The theory of the vibrations of plates has not yet Theory 
 been put on a quite satisfactory basis. The following law ofChladni"* 
 may, however, be regarded as confirmed by experiment, fi S ures - 
 viz., that when two different plates of the same substance 
 present the same nodal configuration, the numbers of 
 vibrations are to each other directly as the thicknesses, and 
 inversely as the superficial areas. 
 
 73. Paper, parchment, or any other thin membrane Vibrations^ 
 stretched over a square, circular, ifec, frame, when in the ° f mem - 
 vicinity of a sufficiently powerful vibrating body, will, raEes " 
 through the medium of the air, be itself made to vibrate 
 
 in unison, and, by using sand, as in previous instances, 
 the nodal lines will be depicted to the eye, and seen to 
 vary in form, number, and position with the tension of the 
 plate and the pitch of the originating sound. The mem- 
 brana tympani or drum of the ear has, in like manner and 
 on the same principles, the property of repeating the 
 vibrations of the external air which it communicates to the 
 internal, parts of the ear. 
 
 74. Kods vibrating longitudinally are, as we have already Longitn- 
 remarked, subject to the laws of stationary waves. If, for j. lnal ^ >r * 
 instance, a wooden rod fixed at one end, be rubbed near ro(is _ 
 the" top between the finger and thumb previously coated 
 
 with powdered resin, it will yield a fundamental note when 
 
 it so vibrates as to have only one node (at the fixed 
 
 extremity) and half a ventral segment reaching from that 
 
 extremity to the other, that is, when the length I of the 
 
 V 
 rod is \ A, or X = M, and therefore n — -j. But it may 
 
 also give overtones corresponding to 2, 3, <fec. nodes, (he 
 free end being always the middle of a ventral segment, 
 
 and for which therefore the lengths of waves are — , — , 
 
 o o 
 
 &c. -(as will be easily seen by referring to figs, in § 67, 
 which may equally represent transversal and longitudinal 
 displacements). Hence, tho fundamental and harmonics 
 of a rod such as we are now considering, have vibrations 
 whose rates are as the successive odd numbers. 
 
 A series of like rods, each fixed at one end into a block 
 of wood, and of lengths bearing to each other, the ratios 
 1 : f * &c. (as in § 61), will give the common scale when 
 rubbed in the manner already mentioned. This follows 
 
 V i 
 
 from the f ondameutal having n - — , and therefore noc - r 
 
 4t i
 
 114 
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 ■Open pipe 
 
 Pipe 
 
 stopped at 
 one end 
 
 only 
 
 Glass rods or tubes may also be made to vibrate longi- 
 rodinally by means of a moist piece of cloth ; but it is 
 idvisable to clamp them firmly at the centre, when each 
 naif will vibrate according to the same laws as the wooden 
 fod3 above. The existence of a motion of the particles of 
 Jlass to and fro in the direction of its length may be well 
 txhibited, by allowing a small ball of stone or metal 
 mspended by a string to rest against one extremity of the 
 rod, when, as soon as the latter i3 made to sing by friction, 
 the ball will be thrown tiff with considerable violence. 
 
 Past VIIL 
 
 Theory of Pipes. 
 
 75. The longitudinal vibrations of air enclosed in pipes 
 are of greater practical importance than those of other 
 bodies, because made available to a very great extent for 
 musical purposes. In the flute, horn, trumpet, and other 
 wind instruments, it is the contained air that forms 
 the essential medium for the production of sound, the wood 
 or metal enclosing it having no other effect but to modify 
 the timbre or acoustic colour of the note. 
 
 76. In dealing with the theory of pipes, we must treat 
 the air precisely in the same' manner as we have dealt with 
 elastic rods vibrating lengthwise, a pipe stopped at both 
 ends being regarded as equivalent to a rod fixed at both 
 ends, a pipo open at both ends to a rod free at both ends, 
 and a pipe stopped at one end and open at the other to a 
 rod fixed at one end and free at the other. When there- 
 fore the air within the pipe is anywhere displaced along 
 the length of the pipe, two waves travel thence in opposite 
 directions, and being reflected at the extremities of the 
 pipo, there results a stationary wave with one or more 
 fixed nodal sections, on one side oi which the air is at any 
 moment being displaced in one direction, while on the 
 other side it is displaced in the opposite. Hence, when 
 the air on both sides of the node 
 is moving in towards it, there is 
 condensation going on at the 
 node, followed by rarefaction on 
 the reversal of the motion of the 
 air. The full lines in annexed 
 figs, are curves of displacements, 
 the dotted lines curves of velocity 
 »nd density (vid. § 10 and 14). 
 
 As a stopped end prevents any 
 .notion of the air, a nodal section 
 «• always found there. And as, 
 it the open end, we may conceive the internal air to be 
 maintained at the iame density as the external air, we may 
 issume that such end coincides with the middle of a ven- 
 iral segment. 
 
 From these assumptions, which form the basis of 
 Bernouilli's Theory of Pipes, we infer : 
 
 77. That in a pipe stopped at both ends, as in a rod 
 fixed at both ends, the fundamental 
 sote (fig. 25, 1), corresponds to X = 21, 
 
 and therefore to n = ^j , V denoting 
 
 the velocity of sound in air, and the 
 overtones to numbers of vibrations 
 = 2n, 3n, and so on. Fig. 25, 2, 
 represents the octave. 
 
 78 That in a pipe open at both ends the same holds 
 good as in the previous case. For (fig. 26, 1) AC = \ X 
 .-. X = 4 AC = 21, and in fig. 26, 2, AD = $ X, and also 
 ■= \ I . \ X = I, or I its value for the fundamental; and 
 similarly for the other harmonics. 
 
 79. That in a pipe open at one end and stopped at 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 T^r ■" 
 
 Fig. 26 
 Similarly for the 
 
 a given pipe 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 the other (or, as it is usually termed, a slopped pipe, case § 
 77, being purely imaginary), 
 the fundamental note has n = 
 
 vr, and the overtones corres- 
 
 pond to 3ra, 5ra. . . . 
 
 For, in fig. 27, 1, AB or 
 l = \\ and in fig. 27, 2, CB 
 or \ X is evidently = \ AB or 
 \ I, whence X = £?, which being 
 j of value of X in previous 
 case, shows that the number 
 of vibrations is three times greater, 
 other overtones. 
 
 80. It follows from the above, that 
 (whether open or stopped) may 
 be made to emit, in addition 
 to or in combination with its 
 fundamental, a series of over- 
 tones, which, in an open pipe, 
 follow the natural numbers, 
 and hence are *he octave, 
 twelfth, &c, but, in a stopped 
 pipe, follow the odd numbers, 
 so as to want the octave and 
 other notes represented by the 
 even numbers. The succession of overtones may be 
 practically obtained by properly regulating the force 
 of the blast of air by which the air-column is put into 
 vibration. 
 
 81. If the fundamental notes of two pipes of equal NoU€ <■ _ 
 
 lengths, but of which one is open, the other stopped, be °P en •* 
 
 compared together, they will be found to differ in pitch by L"^^ 
 
 an octave, the stopped being the lower. This fact is in equal 
 
 keeping with the theory, for the numbers of vibrations length- 
 
 V V 
 being respectively tt and -j, are in the ratio of 2 to 1 
 
 82. By altering the length of the same pipe, we can 
 vary the pitch of the fundamental at pleasure, since n 
 varies inversely as I. This is effected in the flute and 
 some other wind instruments by means of openings along 
 part of the pipe, which, being closed or opened by means 
 of keys and of the fingers, increase or diminish the length 
 of the vibrating air-column. In this manner the successive 
 notes of the scale are usually obtained within the range of 
 an octave. The scale is further extended by bringing into 
 play the higher harmonics. 
 
 V V 
 
 83. Since in an open pipe n = xr, and therefore I = — , 
 
 if for V we 'put 1090 ft., and for n 264, which is the 
 number of vibrations per second usually assigned to the 
 note C, we get I = 2 ft. very nearly. This, accordingly, is 
 the length of the so-called C open pipe. The C stopped 
 pipe must, by what has been stated above, be 4 feet in 
 length. 
 
 84. Conversely it is obvious that the velocity V of sound 
 in air, and generally in any gas, may be deduced from the 
 equation V = 2nl, and that if two pipes of equal length 
 contain respectively air and any other gas, the velocities 
 in the two media being to each other directly as the 
 number of vibrations of the notes they respectively emit, 
 we may, from the well-ascertained value of the velocity ia 
 air, determine in this way the velocities in other gases, 
 and thence the values of their coefficients y (vid. § 21). 
 
 85. While the inferences drawn by means of Bernouilli's 
 theory agree, to a certain extent, with actual observation, 
 there are discrepancies between the two which point to 
 the existence of some flaw in one or both of the hypotheses 
 on which the theory rests. In truth, the condition* 
 assumed by Bernouilli are such as do not fully occur ia 
 
 Lengtn 
 C pipe
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 115 
 
 practice. The stopped extremity of a pipe is always to 
 some extent of a yielding nature, and does not therefore 
 exactly coincide with a nodal surface; nor can the internal 
 air immediately adjoining the open end be perfectly free 
 from variation of density during the 'vibrations of the 
 whole mass,' particularly so at the embouchure, where the 
 blast is introduced by which the tone is originated It 
 would appear from recent experiments that the pitch of a 
 pipe is somewhat lower than the above theory would 
 i indicate. 
 
 I 86. The reed-pipe differs in many respects from the 
 simple pipe which we have been considering. A small 
 elastic strip of metal, fixed at one extremity (the reed), 
 lies over a slit of the same shape, and is set in transverse 
 vibration by a current of air acting underneath. If, as is 
 the case in the accordion and harmonium, the reed is un- 
 provided with a pipe, the pitch of its note is regulated 
 altogether by the dimensions of the reed, in conformity 
 with the law of tranversely vibrating plates ; although, it 
 is to be remarked, the note is really due to the vibrations 
 of the air which alternately escapes through the slit of the 
 reed, and is prevented doing so exactly as often as the 
 reed executes a movement to and fro. The proper note of 
 the reed itself is very poor and faint. 
 eof 87. In the reed-pipe there is added above the reed r pipe 
 the air in which partakes of the vibratory motion, and im- 
 proves the quality of the sound. The pitch is, however, 
 not affected by this pipe, unless it exceed a certain length 
 I, when the pitch begins to fall, and continues to do so as 
 / is, increased, till, when the length of pipe is 21, the note 
 is again restored to its original pitch, &c. 
 
 88. M. Weber, to whom we are indebted for these and 
 '■ other curious facts respecting reed pipes, has explained 
 ,e ' them thus: — If the reed be exactly at that part of the 
 
 vibrating air-column where the air-displacements are at 
 their maximum, and where consequently the air suffers no 
 variation of density during the vibratory motion of the 
 column, the oscillations of the reed are not at all affected 
 by the air-vibrations, and consequently the pitch of the 
 reed-pipe is the same as that of the reed itself. But if the 
 reed be situated at any other part of the air-column, and 
 especially at a nodal section, where the air is undergoing 
 alternate condensation and rarefaction, then, when the air- 
 blast from the wind chest pushes in the reed, the air in 
 the pipe is i" the act of rarefaction,' and consequently tends 
 to accelerate the reed inwards, whereas the elasticity of 
 the reed tends in an opposite direction. When, again, the 
 reed is passing to the other extreme of its vibration, the 
 air in the pipe is in the act of condensation, and tends to 
 accelerate the reed outwards or in the opposite direction to 
 the elasticity of the reed. Hence the reed is affected just 
 as if its elasticity, and therefore the rapidity of its vibra- 
 tions, were diminished, and thus the pitch is lowered. 
 
 Pakt IX. 
 
 Singing Flames. 
 
 89. The chemical or gas harnumicon, which consists of 
 a small flame of hydrogen or of coal gas, burning at the 
 lower part of the interior of a glass tube, and giving out a 
 very distinct note, exhibits considerable analogy with the 
 reed-pipe. For, as Sondhaus seems to have established, 
 the primary cause of the note lies in the oscillations of the 
 gas within the burner and the feeding-pipe, which there- 
 fore play exactly the same part as does the reed portion of 
 the reed-pipe. The air in the glass tube being heated by 
 the flame ascends, and the pressure above the flame being 
 thence diminished, the flame is forced upwards by the gas 
 beneath, until an influx of atmospheric air at the top of 
 the tube forces the flame back. Thus a periodic agitation 
 
 I of the flame ensues, accompanied by 'a corresponding dis- 
 turbance of the air-column in the glass tube. The size of 
 the flame and its position within the tube must be so 
 regulated as to bring out the best possible note, which will 
 then be found to be the same as the air in the tur« would 
 itself emit, according to the laws of pipes, allowance being 
 made for the high temperature of flie air. A series 
 of tube3 may thus be arranged of suitable lengths to give 
 the ' common scale. It sometimes happens, particularly 
 with short tubes, that the note wiL not come out spontane- 
 ously, all that is required, then, is either by blowing gently 
 at the top of the tube, or by singing in unison with the 
 expected note, to give to the air the requisite initial move- 
 ment. 
 
 The flame, which burns steadily with a yellowish light 
 before the tube sounds, will, as soon as the note is heard, 
 be seen to flicker up and down, changing rapidly from 
 yellow to blue and blue to yellow, its intensity also chang- 
 ing periodically. These fluctuations are best seen by view- 
 ing the image of the flame reflected by a small plane miiTor, 
 held in the hand and moved to and fro. Before the note 
 is heard, the image of the then quiescent flame, being im- 
 pressed on different points of the retina, appears as a con- 
 tinuous lominous strip; but, when the harmonicon speaks, 
 the various images become quite detached from one another, 
 showing that the portion of the retina over which the 
 reflected light passes is sensibly affected only at certain 
 points of it, which evidently correspond to the instants of 
 time at which the flame, in its periodical fluctuations, is at 
 its brightest. 
 
 90. Naked flames, that is, flames unaccompanied by tubes, Naked 
 may also give out musical notes, and many singular in- flames. 
 stances are mentioned by Tyndall and others of their 
 sensitiveness to external sounds. 
 
 91. Koenig of Paris has constructed an apparatus in- Flame 
 tended to indicate the modes of vibration of the different rn»»o"»etor. 
 parts of vibrating bodies, such as columns of eir, <fcc, by 
 
 means of flames, and to which he has given the name of 
 the Flame Manometer. We will here describe its applica- 
 tion to the case of organ-pipes. An open pipe has three 
 apertures along one side, one at the middle, o (fig. 28), i.e., 
 at a node of the fundamental tone, and the two others, a, b, 
 
 half way between o and the extremities of the „ .. 
 
 pipe, and coinciding therefore with the nodes of 
 the first overtone or octave. These openings are 
 closed by thin flexible membranes forming the 
 ends of small boxes or capsules, the spaces within 
 which communicate by caoutchouc tubes with a 
 coal-gas reservoir, and also by separate tubes with 
 small gas burners arranged on a vertical stand. 
 The pas being introduced, and the three flames 
 kindled and adjusted to equal heights of about f 
 of an inch ; if the pipe be made now to utter its first over- 
 tone, the flame connected with o will remain stationary 
 and of the same brightness as before, but those communi- 
 cating with a and b will become longer and thinner, and 
 assume a bluish and faint luminosity. But, if the funda- 
 mental be brought out of the pipe, then it is o's flame 
 that -is violently affected, while those of a and b are scarcely 
 affected at alL If the flames be originally made less in 
 height (say J inch), those of a an<! 6 in the former case, and 
 of o in the latter, will be extinguished. These results are 
 due to the condensations and rarefactions of the air in the 
 pipe which are at their maximum at a node, causing the 
 membrane placed there to vibrate outwards and inwards, 
 .and hence to force more or less of the- gas into the burner. 
 In order to compare together the notes of different pipes, 
 four plane reflecting surfaces are connected together in the 
 form of a cube, which is mounted on a vertical axis about 
 which it is capable of being turned round. Each pipe if 
 
 Fig. 28.
 
 116 
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 furnished with one opening, a memDraue, <kc. (as above), 
 at its middle. As pointed out (§ 87), if any of the pipes 
 be made to sound, the reflector being at the same time put 
 in motion, a series of separate images will be seen. On 
 Bounding another pipe, whose fundamental is an octave 
 higher, we shall have a second line of images separated 
 from each other by half the interval of those in the former 
 series. This is best observed when the two flames are placed 
 in the same vertical lin<3. If the note of the second pipe 
 is a fifth higher than the first, and consequently its vibra- 
 tions to those of the first as 3 to 2, then the same space 
 which contains two images of the lower note will contain 
 three of the higher, and so on, for other combinations. 
 When more complicated ratios are to be tested, it is pre- 
 ferable to connect both capsules with the same burner, 
 either with or without the reflector. 
 
 Part X. 
 Communication of VibratiottS. 
 
 92. The communication of sonorous vibrations from one 
 body to another play3 so essential a part in acoustics that 
 a few words must here be given to the subject. It appears 
 to be well established that while the vibrations of a solid 
 are in general most readily communicated to other solids 
 in .contact with it, they are not so to ] iquids, and still less 
 so to air and other aeriform fluids. Thus, a tuning-fork 
 is inaudible at any moderate distance unless applied to a 
 table, by whose 1 extended surface the air can be more 
 intensely affected. So likewise a musical string sounds 
 very poorly unless connected with a resonant cavity or 
 wooden chest, to the wood of which it first imparts its 
 vibratory motion, which then produces stationary waves in 
 the continued air. 
 
 93. A few years ago M. Kundt made known a method 
 founded on the communicability of vibration, by which 
 the velocities of sound in different media may be compared 
 together w^ith great' facility. Take a glass tube 3 feet or up- 
 wards in length, drop into it a small quantity of the fine 
 powder of the club-moss cr lycopodium, and turn the tube 
 round so as to spread the powder over the internal surface 
 >f the tube. Stop both ends of the tube with corks, clamp 
 it at its centre, and nib one of its halves lengthwise with 
 a moist cloth, so as to cause the glass to sound a note. It 
 will then be found that, the air within the tube taking up 
 the motion, and a stationary wave being formed in it, the 
 powder is driven off from tho ventral segments and forms 
 little heaps at the nodes. The dust-heaps are, by the laws 
 of stationary waves, separated therefore from each other 
 by intervals each equal to half the length of an air-wave, or 
 
 - . If, then, the number of heaps = m, and the length 
 
 "I 
 of the tube = I • A = — . 
 m 
 
 But, by the laws of longitudinal vibrations of rods, thf 
 
 length V of the glass-wave =4(5] = 2/. Hence — = m, 
 
 that is, the number of dust-heaps is equal to the ratio of 
 the lengths of a wave of sound in glass and in air, and 
 consequently to the ratio of the velocities of sound in those 
 media. (For the vibrations being in unison, their number 
 in a given time must bo the same for the class and the 
 
 . . V V 
 *"■» *•«•! -^ = ^7 ; V, V being the velocities). 
 
 Kundt found 16 to bo the number of heaps; prior 
 experiments of a different kind had, as we have before 
 mentioned, given this as the number of times that the 
 velocity of sound in glas3 exceeds its velocity in air. 
 
 Instead of producing the air-vibrations by friction of the 
 tube containing the air, it is preferable to make use" of a 
 smaller tube or rod, furnished with a cork at one end, which 
 
 tits like a piston into the tube, and projecting at its outer 
 end through an opening in the cork which closes the air- 
 tube. The rod thus inserted is the one which is rubbed 
 longitudinally and ccjmmunicates its vibrations to the air 
 in the enclosing tube. By means of an apparatus of this 
 kind, Kundt determined the ratio to the velocity of sound 
 in air of its velocity in various solids, and also (replacing 
 the air in the tube by different gases) of its velocity in 
 these gases. 
 
 Part XI. 
 
 Interference of Sound. 
 
 94. When two or more sonorous waves travel through 
 the same medium, each particle of the air being simultane- 
 ously affected by the disturbances dhe to tho different 
 waves, moves in a different manner than it would if only 
 acted on by each wave singly. The waves are said mutually 
 to interfere. We shall exemplify this subject by consider- 
 ing the case of two waves travelling in the same direction 
 through the air. We shall then obviously be led to the 
 following results : — 
 
 95. If the two waves are of equal length A, and are in Two w 
 the same phase (that is, each producing at any given ot eqm 
 moment the same state of motion in the air-particles), th sir '">«tlu 
 combined effect is' equivalent to that of a wave of the same 
 length A, but by which the excursions of tho particles are 
 increased, being the 
 sum of ' those due 
 to the two com- 
 ponent waves re- 
 spectively. 
 
 If the two inter- 
 fering waves, being 
 still of same length 
 A, be in opposite 
 phases, or so that 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 one is in advance of the other by -, and consequently one 
 
 produces in the air the opposite state of motion to the 
 other, then the resultant wave is one of the same length 
 A, but by which the excursions of the particles are de- 
 creased, being the difference between those due to the 
 component waves. If the amplitudes of vibration vhich 
 thus mutually interfere are moreover equal, the effect is 
 the total mutual destruction of the vibratory motioD 
 
 Thus we learn that two musical notes, of the same pitch, 
 conveyed to the ear through the air, will produce the effect 
 of a single note of the same pitch, but of increased loudness, 
 if they are in the same phase, but affect the ear very 
 slightly, if at all, when in opposite phases. If the differ- 
 ence of phase be varied gradually from zero to n \, the result. 
 
 ing sound will gradually decrease from a maximum to a 
 minimum, 
 
 96. Among the many experimental confirmations which Ejtr»ri 
 may be adduced of these proportions. mes.ul 
 
 we will mention the following: — 
 
 Take a circular plate, such as is 
 available for the production of Chladni's 
 figures (§ 71), and cut out of a sheet 
 of pasteboard a piece of the shape 
 ABOCD (fig. 30), consisting of two 
 circular quadrants of the same diameter 
 as the plate. Let, now, the plate be *''S- 30i 
 made in the usual manner to vibrate so as to exhibit two 
 nodal lines coinciding with two rectangular diameters. If 
 the ear be placed right above the centre of the plate, the 
 sound will be scarcely audible. But, if the pasteboard be 
 interposed so as to intercept the vibrating segments AOB, 
 DOC, the note becomes much more distinct. The reason! 
 
 Vibrati 
 plate.
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 117 
 
 of this is, that the segments of the plate AOD, BOC 
 always vibrate in the same direction, but oppositely to 
 the segments AOB, DOC. Hence, when the pasteboard 
 is in its place, there are two waves of same phase starting 
 from the two former segments, and reaching the ear after 
 equal distances pf transmission through the air, are again 
 in the same phase, and produce on the oar a conjunct im- 
 pression. But when the pasteboard is removed, then there 
 is at the ear opposition of phase between the first and the 
 second pair of waves, and consequently a minimum of sound. 
 97. A tubular piece of wood shaped as in fig. 31, and 
 having a piece of thin membrane stretched over 
 the opening at the top C, some dry sand being 
 strewn over the membrane, is so placed over a 
 circular or rectangular vibrating plate, that the 
 ends A, B lie over the segments of the plate, 
 such as AOD, COB in the previous fig., which 
 are in the same state of motion. The sand at C will 
 be set in violent movement. But if the same ends 
 A, B, be placed over oppositely vibrating segments (such as 
 AOD, COD), the sand will be scarcely, if at all, affected, 
 ig 98. If a tuning-fork in vibration be turned round before 
 
 the ear, four positions will be found in which it will be 
 inaudible, owing to the mutual interference of the oppo- 
 sitely vibrating prongs of the fork. On interposing the 
 hand between the ear and either prong of the fork when 
 in one of thoss positions, the sound becomes audible, be- 
 cause then one of the two interfering waves is cut off from 
 the ear. This experiment may be varied by holding the 
 fork over a glass jar into which water is poured to such a 
 depth that the dir-columri within reinforces the note of 
 the fork when suitably placed and then turning the fork 
 round. 
 ,1s 99. Helmholtz's double syren (§ 51) is well calculated 
 
 i. for the investigation of the laws of interference of sound. 
 
 For this purpose a simple mechanism is found in the in- 
 strument, by means of which the fixed upper plate can be 
 turned round and placed in any position relatively to the 
 lower one. If. now, the apparatus be so set that the notes 
 from the upper and lower chest are in unison, the upper 
 fixed plate may be placed in four positions, such as to 
 cause the air-current to be cut off in the one c|jest at the 
 exact instant when it is freely passing through the other, 
 and vice versa. The two waves, therefore, being in opposite 
 phases, neutralise one another, and the result is a faint 
 sound. On turning round the upper chest into any inter- 
 mediate position, the intensity of the sound will increase 
 up to a maximum, which occurs when the air in both chests 
 is being admitted and cut off contemporaneously. 
 „ 100. If two pipes, in exact unison, and furnished with 
 
 ometer. flame manometers, are in communication with the same 
 wind-chest, and the two flames be placed in the same 
 vertical line, on introducing the current from the bellows, 
 we shall find that the two lines of reflected images will be 
 60 related that each image in one lies between two images 
 in the other. This shows that the air-vibrations in one 
 pipe are always in an opposite phase to the other, or that 
 condensation is taking place in the one when rarefaction 
 occurs in the other. This arises from the current from the 
 lr f er . bellows passing alternately into the one and the other pipe, 
 s of two There will also be a remarkable collapse of . the sound 
 of when both pipes communicate with the wind-chest com- 
 ■ationa p are( j with that produced from one pipe alone. 
 
 101. If the two interfering waves are such as produce 
 vibrations whose numbers per second are n, ri respectively, 
 these being to each other in the ratio of two integers m, m 
 when expressed in its lowest terms, then the lengths of the 
 waves X, X' being inversely as n to n, will be to each 
 other as m :m, and consequently ctX = to'X'. Particles 
 therefore of the air separated by this distance from each 
 
 wliica 
 
 other will be in the same phase, that is, the length of tha 
 resultant wave will be m X or m' X', and if N denote-the 
 
 n n' 
 corresponding number of vibrations N = — or — ,. 
 
 Thus, for the fundamental and its octave -^ = \, and 
 
 therefore N = re or j; that is, the note of interference 
 
 is of the same pitch as the fundamentaL 
 
 For the fundamental and its major third, — =-. Sence meata , ^ 
 . majorthird. 
 
 N = - or — , that is, the resulting sound is two octaves 
 
 lower than the fundametaL 
 
 For the fundamental and its major sixth, -7=7; ^ men tal in* 
 
 n n' . nia i or 
 
 therefore = - or — , and the resulting sound is a twelfth sixth. 
 
 below the lower of the two interfering notes. 
 
 If m and m differ by 1, then N = »-»'; for m — ml 
 
 or 1=^-- %-. Hence, if the ratio of the vibrations Case °f . 
 
 of two interfering sounds is expressible in its lowest terms 
 by numbers whose difference is unity, the resulting note 
 has a number of vibrations simply equal to the difference 
 of those of the interfering notes. 
 
 The results stated in this section may be tested on a har- 
 ' monium. Thus, if the notes B, C, at the extreme' right of 
 the instrument be struck together, there will be heard an 
 interference note four octaves lower in pitch than the 
 above C, because the interval in question being a semi- 
 tone, is -ff , and, consequently, by last case, the interferenco 
 note is lower than the C by interval -fa. 
 
 Other notes may be heard resultiug from the mutual 
 interference of the overtones. 
 
 102. When two notes are not quite in tune, the resultingBeas*. 
 sound is found to alternate between a maximum and mini- 
 mum of loudness recurring periodically. To these periodical 
 alternations has been given the name of Beats. Their 
 origin is easily explicable. Suppose the two notes to cor- 
 respond to 200 and 203 vibrations per second; at some 
 instant of time, the air-particles, through, which the waves 
 are passing, will be similarly displaced by both, and con- 
 sequently the joint effect will be a sound of some intensity. 
 But, after this, the first or less rapidly vibrating note will 
 fall behind the other, and cause a diminution in the joint 
 displacements of the particles, till, after the lapse of ^ of 
 a second, it will have fallen behind the other by i a vibra- 
 tion. At this moment, therefore, opposite displacements 
 • will be produced of the air-particles by the two notes, and 
 the sound due to them will be at a min im um. This will 
 be followed by an increase of intensity until the lapse of 
 another sixth of a second, when the less rapidly vibrating 
 note will have lost another half-vibration relatively to the 
 other, or one vibration reckoning from the original period 
 of time, and the two component vibrations will again con- 
 spire and reproduce a maximum effect. Thus, an inter 
 val of £ of a second elapses between two successive maxima 
 or beats, and there are produced three beats per second. 
 By simil ar reasoning it may be shown that the number of. 
 beats per second is always equal to the difference between 
 the numbers of vibrations in the same time corresponding 
 to the two interfering notes. The more, therefore, these 
 are out of tune, the more rapidly will the beats follow each 
 other. 
 
 Beats are also heard, though less distinctly, when other 
 concprds such as thirds, fifths, <tc, are not perfectly in tune ; 
 thus, 200 vibrations and 303 vibrations per second, which 
 form, in combination, an imperfect fifth, produce beats 
 occurring at the rate of three per second.
 
 118 
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 103. The phenomena of beats maybe easily observed 
 with two organ-pipes put slightly out of tune by placing 
 the hand near the open end of one of them, with two 
 musical strings on a resonant chest, or with two tuning- 
 forks of same pitch held over a resonant cavity (such as a 
 glass jar, rid. § ( J7), one of the forks being put out of time by 
 loading one prong with a small lump of bees'-wax. In the 
 last instance, if the forks are fixed on one solid piece of wood 
 which can be grasped with the hand, the beats will be 
 actually felt by the hand. If one prong of each fork be 
 furnished with a small plain mirror, and a beam of light 
 from a luminous point be reflected successively by the two 
 mirrors, so as to form an image on a distant screen, when 
 one fork alone is put in vibration, the image will move on 
 the screen and be seen as a line of a certain length. If 
 both foTks are in vibration, and are perfectly in tune, this 
 line may either be increased or diminished permanently in 
 length, according to the difference of phase between the 
 two sets of vibrations. But if the forks bo not quite in 
 tune, then the length of the image will be found to fluc- 
 tuate between a maximum and a minimum, thus making the 
 beats sensible to the eye. The vibrograph (§ 52, 53) is 
 also well suited for the same purpose, and so in an especial 
 manner is Helmholtz' double syren (§ 51), in which, by 
 continually turning round the upper box, a note is pro- 
 duced by it more or less out of tune with the note formed 
 by the lower chest, according as the handle is moved more 
 or less rapidly, and most audible beats ensue. .The gas 
 harmonica and the flame manometer also afford excellent 
 illustrations of the laws of beats. 
 Tb« iram- 104. Advantage has been taken of these laws for the 
 ber of vi- purpose of determining the absolute number of vibrations 
 bntkme of p er second corresponding to any given note in music, 
 ?"■?. whence may be derived the number for all the other notes 
 ^^ (§ 45). The human ear may be regarded as most correctly 
 
 appreciating two notes differing by an octave. Two tuning- 
 forks then are taken, giving respectively the note A and 
 its lower octave, and a number of other forks are prepared 
 intermediate in pitch to these, say 54, and by means of 
 bees'-wax these are so tuned, that the first gives four beats 
 with the A fork, the second four beats with the fourth, and 
 60 on up to the last, which also gives foiir'beats with the 
 A_, fork. Now, if n — the unknown number of vibrations 
 for the note A, n - 4, n - 8 ... n - 55 x 4, will be the 
 numbers for all the successive forks down to the A_ t fork, 
 
 which being an octave below A, we have = J and 
 
 n * 
 
 consequently n = 440. 
 Tuning by 105. Beats also afford an excellent practical guide in the 
 iwato. tuning of instruments, but more so for the higher notes of 
 
 the register, inasmuch as the same number of beats, that 
 is, the same difference between the numbers of vibrations, 
 for two notes of high pitch, indicates greater deviation 
 from perfect unison, than it does for two notes of low 
 pitch. Thus, two low notes of 32 and 30 vibrations 
 
 32 16 
 
 respectively, whose interval is therefore — or— i.e., a. semi- 
 
 tone, give two beats per second, while the same number of 
 vbeats are given by notes of 32 x 16 (four octaves higher 
 than the first of the preceding) or 512 and 514 vibrations, 
 which are only slightly out of tune. 
 
 106. As the interval between two notes, and con- 
 sequently the number of beats increases, the effect on the car 
 becomes more and more unpleasant, and degenerates at last 
 into an irritating rattle. With the middle notes' of the musical 
 register, this result occurs when the number of beats comes 
 up to 20 or 30 per second, the musical interval between 
 the two interfering notes being then between half and 
 a whole tone. Helmholtz attributes the disagreeable im- 
 pression of beats on the ear. to the same physiological cause 
 
 to which is due the painful effect on the eye of a faint- 
 flickering light, as, for instance, the light streaming through, 
 a wooden paling with intervening openings when the 
 individual affected is passing alongside. In this c?se, the- 
 retina, which, when continuously receiving the same amount 
 of light, thereby loses its sensitiveness in a great degree, is 
 unable to do so. 
 
 It is, however, remarked by the above-mentioned author 
 that the same number of beats, which has so irritating an 
 effect when due to two notes in the middle of the register, 
 is not attended by the same result when due to notes of 
 much lower pitch. Thus, the note3 C, D forming a tone 
 give together 33 beats per second, while a note two octaves 
 lower than C also gives 33 beats with its fifth; yet the 
 former combination forms a discord, the latter a most 
 pleasing concord. 
 
 107. When the number of beats reaches to 132 oi Dintren 
 upwards per second, the result is a continuous and not tones, 
 unpleasing impression on the ear, and it was formerly held 
 
 that the effect was always equivalent to that of a note 
 having that number of vibrations. Helmholtz has shown 
 that this opinion is inaccurate, except when the interfering 
 tones are very loud, and consequently accompanied by 
 very considerable displacements of the particles of the 
 vibrating medium. These resultant tones being, as to 
 their vibration-number, equal to the difference between the 
 numbers corresponding to the two primaries, are termed 
 difference-tones, and may be best observed with the double 
 syren. The same author was led also, on theoretical 
 grounds, to surmise the formation of summation-tones by Summi 
 the interference of two loud primaries, the number of tion-toi 
 resultant vibrations being then equal to the sum of tho 
 numbers for the two components, and appealed for experi- 
 mental proof to Kis syren. But, at the last meeting of the 
 British Association (1872), Koenig, the celebrated Pari ian 
 acoustician, maintained that the notes of the syren, thus 
 held to be summation-tones, were in reality the difference- 
 tones of the harmonics. 
 
 108. By reference to the lavs of the interference of Helm- 
 vibrations, Helmholtz has been enabled to offer a highly holu's 
 satisfactory explanation of the cause whence arises dif- l , ' anatl< 
 ference of quality or timbre or acoustic colour between ^o^ 
 different sounds. He has shown conclusively that there 
 
 are but few sounds which are of a perfectly simple character, 
 that is, in which the fundamental is not accompanied by 
 one or more overtones. Now, when a note is pimple, there 
 can be no jarring on the ear, because there is on room for 
 interference of sound. Hence, the softness of the tuning- 
 fork when its fundamental is reinforced by a resonant 
 cavity, and also of the flute. The same character of soft- 
 ness belongs also to those instruments in which the powerful 
 harmonics are limited to the vibration ratios 2, 3 ... 6 
 (§ 57, 80); because the mutual interference of the funda- 
 mental and their harmonics give rise to concords only. 
 The piano, the open organ pipe, the violin, and the softer 
 tones of the human voice, are of this class. But if the odd 
 harmonics alone are present, as in the narrow stopped 
 organ pipe, and in the, clarionet^ then the sound is poor, 
 and even nasal; and if the higher harmonics beyond the 
 sixth or seventh are very marked/ the result is very 
 harsh (as in reed-pipes). 
 
 109. The human voice (for a description of the organ in 
 which it originates, we refer to Art. Physiology — Voice and 
 Speech)'i3 regarded by the best authorities as being analogous 
 to a" reed-pipe, the vocal chords forming the reed, and the 
 cavity of the mouth the pipe, and, like th^ reed, is rich in 
 harmonics, as many as sixteen having been detected in a basa 
 voice. But their number and relative intensities differ much 
 in different individuals, or even in the same person at dif- 
 ferent times ; and it is on this variety that, agreeably to Helnv
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 11» 
 
 boltz's theory of timbre, the peculiarities depend by -which 
 any one voice may be unmistakably distinguished from 
 every other. Voices in which overtones abound ure sharp, 
 and even rough; those in which they are few ox faint; are 
 soft and sweet. In every voice, however, the number and 
 relative intensity of the overtones depend on the form 
 assumed by the cavity of the mouth, which acts relatively 
 to tue vocal chords precisely as a resonator does to a 
 tuning-fork, or a pipe to a reed. This may be easily tested 
 by holding a tuning-fork before the open mouth, when, 
 by giving to the cavity a suitable form, the fundamental 
 or somo overtone of the fork may bo heard distinctly 
 reverberated from the interior of the mouth. Each vowel 
 sound, as Helmholtz ha!s shown, is simply the result of 
 the reinforcements by the air in the cavity of the mouth, 
 and its prolongation towards the larynx, of one or in some 
 cases two overtones of determinate pitch, contained in the 
 
 sound which proceeds from the vocal chords, 
 assigns the following notes as characteristic of thr 
 simpler vowel sounds (adopting the foreign pro- 
 nunciation): — To U, the note Bb below the line 
 in the G clef, corresponding to 225 vibrations 
 
 Koenig 
 
 te- 
 
 per second ; to O, the next higher octave, consequently of 
 
 double the number of vibrations, and thenco ascending 
 by octaves for A, E, and I, the last of which is therefore 
 characterised by a note of 3000 vibrations per second. 
 
 The above theory of vowel sounds may be satisfactorily 
 confirmed by means of tuning-forks, vibrating in front of 
 resonant cavities, which can, by suitable combination, be 
 made to utter any vowel sound. 
 
 Works on Acoustics. 
 
 Chladni, TrailS d" Acoustique. Paris, 1809. 
 
 Herschel, Sir John. Encycl. Metrop., art " Sound." Lou 
 
 don, 1830. 
 Tyndall, Lectures on Sound, 2d edit. London, 18G9. 
 Helmholtz, Die Lehre von der Tonempflndungen, 3d edit. 
 Braunschweig, 1870, of which there is a French trans- 
 lation, and an English one is promised. 
 Besides the above, some account of the subject is to \x 
 found in such general works on Physics as Ganot's, 14tt 
 edit., Paris, 1870, of which a translation is published bj 
 Longmans, London ; Deschanei's Natural Philosophy, 
 translated by Prof. Everett, London, 1873; Jamin, Court 
 ds Physique, 3d edit., Paris, 1871; Wulner, Physik, 2d 
 edit, Leipzig, 1870. (d. t.) 
 
 Air, essential for hearing, 
 
 velocity of sound in, . 17,18,22 
 
 Amplitude of vibrations, . . 4 
 
 Beats, how produced, . . . 102 
 
 examples of, . . . 103 
 
 application to finding n for 
 
 any note, . . . 104 
 tuning by, . . . 105 
 rapid effect of, on ear, . 106 
 Bell m vacuo, .... 3 
 Chemical harmonicon, ... 87 
 Chladni's figures, . . . 69 to 71 
 Communication of vibrations, . 92, 93 
 Do la Tour's syren, ... 49 
 Density, variations in, by longitu- 
 dinal vibrations, ... 14 
 
 Diatonic scale 46 
 
 Difference tones, .... 106 
 
 Dove's syren 50 
 
 Echoes, 38 
 
 Elasticity, 15 
 
 Flames, singing, . . . . 89, 90 
 Flame manometer, . . .91, 103 
 
 Fundamental note, ... 57 
 
 Gas harmonica 87. 103 
 
 Gases, velocity of sound in, . .21, 84, 93 
 
 Harmonics in strings, . . . 57 to CO 
 
 rods, . . . 67 
 
 pipes, . . . 77 to 80 
 
 Harmony, laws of, 45, 46 
 
 Helmholtz, his double syren, . 51, 99 
 
 on resultant tones, . 107 
 
 on timbre, . . 103 
 
 Intensity of sound — 
 
 at different distances, . . 29 
 
 in air of different densities, . 30 
 
 Sruujotedby sheet of water, &c, 89 
 epend3 on amp?itude of vibra- 
 tions, 41 
 
 Interference of sound — 
 
 laws of, 04, 95 
 
 examples of, . . . .93 to 100 
 
 Intervals, musical, ... 45 
 
 Eoenig's phor.autograph, . . 53 
 
 flame manometer, . . 91, 100 
 
 denial of summation-tones, 107 
 
 Knndt's experiments, ... 93 
 
 Laplace's corrected velocity of 
 
 sound in air, .... 16 
 
 Lenses, acoustic 34 
 
 Liquids, velocity of sound in, . 25 
 
 Longitudinal vibrations, . . 0, 28 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Tlie numerals refer to the sections. 
 
 Loudness (vid. intensity). 
 Mclde's experiments on vibrating 
 
 strings, 66 
 
 Membranes, vibratipns of, . . 72 
 
 Musical 6ounds and noises, . . 44 
 
 notes, vibration-ratios of, 45 
 Newton's investigation of velocity 
 
 in air, 15 
 
 Nodes, ..... 54 
 
 Noises and musical sounds, . • 44 
 Overtones (vid. harmonics). 
 
 Parabolic reflectors, ... 37 
 
 Phase 7 
 
 rhonautograph, .... 60 
 
 Pipes, Bernouilli's theory of, . 75 
 stopped (at both, ends) • 
 
 open, .... 78 
 
 stopped, .... 79 
 
 harmonics in, . . SO 
 open and stopped, of equal 
 
 lengths, .... 81 
 
 influence of length of, on pitch, 82 
 
 length of C pipe, . fB 
 
 is of theory, . . S5 
 
 illustrations by manometer, 91 
 
 Pitch, depends on n, . . . 42 
 
 Plates, square, vibrations of, . 69, 70 
 
 circular, do. . . 71 
 
 interference in, . . 96, 97 
 
 Rankine's investigation of velocity 
 
 of sound 15 
 
 Reeds and reed-pipes, . . . 86 to 88 
 
 Reflexion, laws of, . . . 35 to 39 
 
 total 33 
 
 Refraction, laws of, 31 to 34 
 
 Rods, transversal vibrations of, . 67 
 
 longitudinal vibrations of, . 74 
 
 Savart's toothed wheel apparatus, 47 
 
 . diatonic and chromatic, . 46 
 
 Seebeck's syren 48 
 
 Solids, velocity of sound in (longi- 
 tudinal) 23, 20 
 
 Solids, velocity of sound in (trans- 
 versal) 2", 2S 
 
 Solid ;, velocity of sound in, Kundt'g 
 
 method 92 
 
 Stationary waves, ... 54 
 
 Strings, musical, laws of, . . 55 to 65 
 fundamental and 
 
 overtones of, ■ 57, 58 
 overtones how 
 
 obtained from. 59 
 
 Strings, musical, comparison of fun- 
 damental notes 
 due to trans- 
 versal and Ion 
 gitudinal vib 
 rations, . 
 influence on pitch 
 of length, ten- 
 sion, &c, 
 Melde's erpen 
 mental ill us 
 trations. 
 Spheroidal reflectors, . 
 Summation tones, . 
 Syren of Seebeck, 
 
 of De la Tour, . 
 of Dove, . . . 
 of Helmholtz, . 
 Thunder, roll of, . 
 
 Timbre 
 
 Tones, major, minor, and seiui, 
 Transversal vibrations, 
 Tuning by beats, . 
 Tuning-forks, mode of vibration, 
 interference in 
 heats in, 
 Ventral segments, . . 
 Vibrations, sound due to, 
 laws of, 
 of pendulum, 
 transmission of, 
 longitudinal and trans 
 
 versal, . 
 relation between fre 
 quency of, and length 
 of wave, 
 communication of, 
 number of, for any note 
 determined by beats, 
 Vibrograph, 
 
 Voice, its seat in vocal chords, 
 Vowel sc jnds, how accounted for, 
 Water, velocity of sound in, 
 Waves of displacement, 
 of velocity, 
 of condensation and rare 
 
 faction, . . 
 
 lengths of, 
 
 relation of, to n, 
 propagation of, . 
 Weber's theory of reed-pipes, 
 
 60 
 61 
 
 *66 
 
 36 
 
 106 
 
 43 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 40 
 
 43, 108 
 
 46 
 
 9, 23 
 
 105 
 
 68 
 
 97 
 
 103 
 
 54 
 
 2 
 
 4,5 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 92, 93 
 
 104 
 
 52 
 
 109 
 
 109 
 
 30 
 
 10, 12 
 
 11, 12 
 
 14 
 10 
 13 
 18 
 88
 
 120 
 
 A C Q — A C R 
 
 AGQUT, a town of Northern Italy, in the province, of 
 iSessandria, 18 miles S.S.W. of the city of that name, on 
 the left bank of the Bormida. It is a place of great 
 antiquity; and its hot sulphur baths, which are still much 
 frequented, were known to the Romans, who gave the place 
 the name of Aqua Statielloe. There are still to be found 
 numerous ancient inscriptions, and the remains of a Roman 
 aqueduct The town is the seat of a bishop, and has a fine 
 cathedral, several convents, and a royal college. Good 
 wine is produced in the vineyards of the district, and great 
 attention is given to the rearing of silk -worms. There are 
 also considerable silk manufactures. Population, 8600. 
 
 ACRE, a measure of surface, being the principal deno- 
 mination of land-measure used in Great Britain. The 
 word (akin to the Saxon acer, the German acker, and the 
 Latin ager, a field) did not originally signify a determinate 
 quantity of land, but any open ground. The English 
 standard or imperial acre contains 4810 square yards, 0i 
 10 square chains, and is also divided into roods, of which 
 it contains 4, the rood s^ain being divided in 40 perches. 
 The imperial acre has, by the Act 5 Geo. IV. c 74, super- 
 seded the acres, of very different extent, that were in use 
 in different parts of the country. ' The old Scottish acre 
 was equal to 1 '26118345 imperial acres. The Irish acre 
 contains 7840 square yards. The acre is equivalent to 
 •40467, i.e., about fths, of the French hectare (now the basis 
 of superficial measurement in Germany, Italy, and Spain, 
 as well as in France), '7 of the Austrian joch, - 37 of the 
 Russian desdtine, and 1 62 ancient Roman jugera. The 
 hectare corresponds to 2 acres 1 rood 35 '38 perches. 
 
 ACRE, A k k a, or St Jean D'Acre, a town and seaport 
 of Syria, and in ancient times a celebrated city. No town 
 has experienced greater changes from political revolutions 
 and the calamities of war. According to some this was the 
 Accho of the Scriptures; and its great antiquity is proved 
 by fragments of houses that have been found, consisting of 
 that highly sun-burnt brick, with a mixture of cement and 
 sandj which was only used in erections of the remotest 
 ages. It was known among the ancients by the name of 
 Ace, but it is only from the period when it was taken posses- 
 sion of by Ptolemy Soter, king of Egypt, and received 
 from him the name of Ptolemais, that history gives any 
 certain account of it. When the empire of the Romans 
 began to extend over Asia, Ptolemais came into their pos- 
 session. It is mentioned by Strabo as a city of great 
 importance; and fine granite and marble pillars, monu- 
 ments of its ancjent grandeur, are still to be seen. During 
 the Middle Ages rtolemais passed into the hands of the 
 Saracens. They were expelled from it in 1110 by the 
 Crusaders, who made it their principal port, and retained 
 it until 1187, when it was recovered by Saladin. In 1191 
 it was retaken by Richard L of England and Philip of 
 France, who purchased this conquest by the sacrifice of 
 100,000 troops. They gave the town to the knights of St 
 John of Jerusalem, from whom it received the name of St 
 Jean D'Acre. In their possession it remained for a century, 
 though subject to continual assaults from the Saracens. 
 It was at this time a large and extensive city, populo-is and 
 wealthy, and contained numerous churches, convents, and 
 hospitals, of which no traces now remain. Acre was finally 
 lost to the Crusaders in 1291, when it was taken by the 
 Saracens after a bloody, siege, during which it suffered 
 severely. From this time its prosperity rapidly declined. 
 In 1517 it fell into the hands of the Turkish sultan, Selim 
 L; and in the beginning of the 18th century, with the 
 exception of the residences of the French factors, a mosque, 
 and a few poor cottages, it presented a vast scene of ruin. 
 Towards the end of that century Acre was much strength- 
 ened and improved by the Turks, particularly by Djezzar 
 Pacha, and again rose to some importance. It is memor- 
 
 able in modern historj for the gallantry with which it was 
 defended b 1799 by the" Turks, assisted by Sir Sydney 
 Smith, against Bonaparte, who, after spending sixty-one 
 days before it, was obliged to I It continued to 
 
 enjoy an increasing degn e of prosperity till I 832. Though 
 fettered by imposts and monopolies, it carried on a con- 
 siderable foreign trade, and had resident consuls from most 
 of the great states of Europe. On the revolt of Mchemet Ali, 
 the pacha of Egypt, Acre was besieged by his son, Ibrahim 
 . in the winter of' 1831-32 The siege lasted five 
 months and twenty-one days, and, before the city was 
 taken, its public and private buildings were mostly destroyed. 
 Its fortifications were subsequently repaired and improved 
 by the Egyptians, in whose hands it remained until 3d Nov. 
 1S40, when the town was reduced to ruins by a three hours' 
 bombardment from the British fleet, acting aa lae allies of 
 the sultan. The Turks were again put in possession of it 
 in 1841. 
 
 Acre is situated on a low promontory, at the northern 
 extremity of the Bay of Acre. The bay affords no shelter 
 in bad weather; and the port is scarcely capable of contain- 
 ing a dozen boats. Vessels coming to this coast, therefore, 
 generally frequent the anchorage of Caiffa, on the south 
 side of the bay. Acre is 80 miles N.N.W. of Jerusalem, 
 and 27 S. of Tyre. Population, 10,000. 
 
 ACROBAT (from aKpofiariui, to walk on tiptoe), a rope- 
 dancer. Evidence exists that there were very skilful per- 
 formers on the tight-rope (funambuli) among the ancient 
 Romans. Modern acrobats generally >se a long pole, 
 loaded at the ends, and by shifting (Jus are enabled to 
 maintain, or readily to recover, their eauilibrium. By an 
 extension of the meaning of the term, acrobatic feats now 
 include trapeze leaping and similar performances. 
 
 ACROCERAUNIA, in Ancient Geography, a promon- 
 tory in the N.W. of Epirus, which terminates the Montes 
 Ceraunii, a range that runs S.E. from the promontory 
 along the coast for a number of miles, and is supposed to 
 have derived its name from being often struck withjight- 
 ning. The cape (now called Glossa by the Greeks, and Lin- 
 guetta by the Italians) is in lat 40° 25' N. 
 
 ACROGEN^E is the name applied to a division of acoty 
 Icdonous or cryptogamous plants, in which leaves are pre- 
 sent along with vascular tissue. In the higher divisions of 
 Acrogens, as ferns and lycopods, the tissue consists of scalari- 
 form vessels, while in the lower divisions spiral cells are 
 observed, which take the place of vessels. The term Acro- 
 gen means summit-grower, that is, a plant in which the 
 stem increases specially by the summit This is not, how- 
 ever, strictly accurate. 
 
 ACROLITH (<ucpo.kv?o(), statues of a transition period 
 in the history of plastic art, in which the trunk of the 
 figure was of wood, and the head, hands, and feet of 
 marble. The wood was concealed either by gilding or, 
 more commonly, by drapery, and the marble parts alone 
 were exposed. Acroliths are frequently mentioned by 
 Pausanias, the best known specimen being the Minerva 
 Areia of the Plataeans. 
 
 ACRON, a celebrated physician, born at Agrigentum 
 in Sicily, who was contemporary with Empedocles, and 
 must therefore have lived in the 5th century before Christ, 
 The successful measure of lighting large fires, and purify- 
 ing the air with perfumes, to put a stop to the pestilence 
 that raged in Athens (430 b.c), is said to have originated 
 with him; but this has been questioned on chronological 
 grounds. Pliny is mistaken in saying that Acron was the 
 founder of the sect of the Empirici, which did not exist 
 until the 3d century before Christ. The error probably 
 arose from a desire on the part of the sect to establish for 
 itself a greater antiquity than that of the Dogmatici. 
 Suidas gives the titles of several works written by Acron.
 
 ACE-ACT 
 
 121 
 
 on medical subjects, In the Doric dialect, but none of 
 these now exist 
 
 ACROPOLIS ('A(cpoVo\«), a word signifying the upper 
 town, or chief place of a city, a citadel, usually on the 
 summit of a rock or hill. Such buildings were common in 
 Greek cities; and they are also found elsewhere, as in the 
 case of the Capitol at Rome, and the Antonia at Jerusalem ; 
 but the most celebrated was that at Athens, the remains of 
 which still delight and astonish travellers. It was enclosed 
 by walls, portions of which show traces of extreme antiquity. 
 It had nine gates; the principal one was a -splendid struc- 
 ture of Pentelican marble, in noble Doric architecture, 
 which bore the name of Propylaia. Besides other beauti- 
 ful edifices, it contains the Hapdev&v, or temple of the 
 virgin goddess Athene, the most glorious monument of 
 ancient Grecian architecture. 
 
 Ground plan of the Acropolis of Athens. 
 
 a, Pedestal of Rome and Augustas. 
 
 b, c, d, Sites of temples of Minerva, 
 Diana, and Venua\ 
 
 e, Erectheium. 
 /, Dionysiac theatre. 
 g, Odeon of Herodes. 
 A and o. Grottoes. 
 i, Ruined mosque. 
 
 it, I, Gate and portico, 
 m, Choragic monument of Thrasyclet, 
 dow church of our lady of the grotto, 
 n, n, Remains of Peiasgic wall. 
 p. «, Walls of outworks, <fcc. 
 «, Gate to Propylasa. 
 o, r, f. Forts. 
 u, c, Ancient walla. 
 
 ACROSTIC (from uKpos and 0-7-9(05, meaning literally 
 f he extremity of a verse), is a species of poetical composi- 
 tion, so constructed that the initial letters of the lines, 
 taken consecutively, form certain names or other particular 
 words. This fancy is of considerable antiquity, one of the 
 most remarkable examples of it being the verses cited by 
 Lactantius and Eusebius in the 4th century, and attri- 
 buted to the Erythraean sibyl, the initial letters of which 
 form the words 'Ljo-oCs Xpto-ros ©eou vtos o-iunjp: "Jesus 
 Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour," with- the addition, 
 according to some, of oravpo's, " the cross." The initials 
 of the shorter form of this again make up the word l\S^, 
 to which a mystical meaning has been attached (Augustine, 
 De Civitate Dei, 18, 23), thus constituting another kind 
 of acrostic. The arguments of the comedies of Plautus, 
 with acrostics on the names of the respective plays, are 
 probably of still earlier date. Sir John Davies (1570- 
 1G26) wrote twenty-six elegant Hymns to Astrcece, each an 
 acrostic on " Elizabetha Regina;" and Mistress Mary Fage, 
 ■in Fame's Roule, 1G37, commemorated 420 celebrities of 
 her time in acrostic verses. The same form of composition 
 is often to be met with in the writings of more recent 
 versifiers. Sometimes the lines are so combined that the 
 final letters as well as the initials are significant. Edgar 
 Allan Poe, with characteristic ingenuity, worked two 
 names — one of them that of Frances Sargent Osgood — into 
 ▼erses in such a way that the letters of the names corre- 
 sponded to the first letter of the first line, the second letter 
 of the second, the third letter of the third, and so on. 
 
 Generally speaking, acrostic verse is not of much value, 
 and is held in slight estimation. Dr Samuel Butler says, 
 in his " Character of a Small Poet," " He uses to lay the 
 outsides of his verses even, like a bricklayer, by a line of 
 rhyme and acrostic, and fill the middle with rubbish." 
 Addison {Spectator, No. 60) found it impossible to decide 
 whether the inventor of the anagram or the acrostic were 
 the greater blockhead ; and, in describing the latter, sayp, 
 "I have seen some of them where the verses have not only 
 been edged by a name at each extremity, but have had the 
 same name running down like a seam through the middle 
 of the poem." And Dryden, in Mac Flechwe, scornfully 
 assigned Shadwell the rule of 
 
 " Some peaceful province in acrostic land." 
 
 The name acrostic is also applied to alphabetical or 
 "abecedarian" verses. Of these we have instances in some 
 of the Hebrew psalms {e.g., Ps. xrv. and xxxiv.), the 
 successive verses of which begin with the letters of the 
 alphabet in their order. The structure of Ps. cxix is still 
 more elaborate, each of the verses of each of the twenty- 
 two parts commencing with the letter which stands at the 
 head of the part in our English translation. Alphabetical 
 verses have been constructed with every word of the suc- 
 cessive bines beginning with the successive letters of the 
 alphabet. 
 
 By an extended use of the term acrostic, it is applied 
 to the formation of words from the initial letters of • other 
 words. 'Ix^us, referred to above, is an illustration of this. 
 So also is the word " Cabal," which, though it was in use 
 before, with a s imil ar meaning, has, from the time of 
 Charles II., been associated with a particular ministry, 
 from the accident of its being composed, of Clifford, Ashley, 
 Buckingham,. Arlington, and Lauderdale. Akin to this 
 are the names by which the Jews designated their 
 Rabbis; thus Rabbi Moses ben Maimon (better known 
 as Maimonides), was styled " Rambam," from the initials 
 R. M. B. M.; Rabbi David Kimchi (R. D. K.), " Radak," &c. 
 
 A species of puzzle, scarcely known twenty years ago, 
 but very common now (see English Catalogue, 1863-71, s. v. 
 Acrostics), is a combination of enigma and double acrostic, 
 in which words are to be guessed whose initial and final 
 letters form other words that are also to be guessed. Thus 
 Sleep and Dream may have to be discovered from the first 
 and last letters of Sound, Lover, Europe, Elia, and Palm, 
 all expressed enigmatically. 
 
 ACT, in Dramatic Literature, signifies one of those 
 parts into which a play is divided to mark the change of 
 of time or place, and to give a respite to the actors and to 
 the audience. In Greek plays there are no separate acts, 
 the unities being strictly observed, and the action being 
 continuous from beginning to end If the principal actors 
 left the stage the chorus took up the argument, and con- 
 tributed an integral part of the play, though chiefly in the 
 form of comment upon the action. When necessary, 
 another drama, which is etymologically the same as an act, 
 carried on the history to a later time or in a different place, 
 and thus we have the Greek trilogies or groups of three 
 dramas, in which the same characters reappear. The 
 Roman poets first adopted the division into acts, and sus- 
 pended the stage business in the intervals between them. 
 Their number was usually five, and the rule was at last 
 laid down by Horace in the Ars Poetica — 
 
 " Keve minor, neu sit quinto productior acta 
 Fabula, qu» posci vult, et spectata reponi." 
 
 " If you would have your play deserve success, 
 Give it five acta complete, nor more nor less." 
 
 — Francis. 
 
 On the revival of letters this rule was almost universally 
 observed by dramatists and that there is vu inherent con-
 
 122 
 
 A C T — A C T 
 
 venianoe and fitness in the number five is evident from the 
 fact that Shakespeare, who . refused to be trammelled by 
 merely arbitrary rules, adopts it in all his plays. Some 
 critics have laid down rules as to the part each act should 
 sustain in the development of the plot, but these are not 
 essential, and are by no means universally recognised. In 
 comedy the rule as to the number of acts has not been so 
 strictly adhered to as in tragedy, a division into two acts 
 or three acts being quite usual since the time of iloliere, 
 who first introduced it. 
 
 It may be well to mention here Milton's Samson Agoniste* 
 as a specimen in English literature of a dramatic work 
 founded on a purely Greek model, in which, consequently, 
 there is no division into acts. 
 
 ACT, in Law, is an instrument in writing for declaring 
 or justifying the truth of anything; in which sense records, 
 decrees, sentences, reports, certificates, <tc, are called acts. 
 The origin of the legal use of the word Act is in the acta 
 of the Roman magistrates or people, of their courts of law, 
 or of the senate, meaning (1) what was done before the 
 magistrates, the people, ov the senate; (2) the records of 
 such public proceedings. 
 
 ACT OF PARLIAMENT. An Act of Parliament may 
 be regarded as a declaration of the Legislature, enforcing 
 certain rules of conduct, or defining right3 and conferring 
 them upon or withholding them from certain persons or 
 classes of persons. The collective body of such declara- 
 tions constitutes the statutes of the realm or written law 
 of the nation, in the widest sense, from Anglo-Saxon times 
 to the present day. It is not, however, till Magna Charta 
 that, in a more limited constitutional sense, the statute- 
 book is generally held to open, and the Parliamentary 
 records only begin to assume distinct outlines late in the 
 reign of Edward L The maladministration of the common 
 law by the royal judges had gradually taught the people 
 the necessity of obtaining written declarations of their 
 rights — often acknowledged, still oftener violated. Insen- 
 sibly almost, the Commons, whose chief function it origin- 
 ally was to vote supplies to the crown, began to couple 
 their grant3 with petitions for the redress of grievances. 
 The substance of these petitions and of the royal responses 
 was in time made the groundwork of Acts which, as framed 
 by court redactors, and appearing annexed to proclamation- 
 writs after the dissolution of Parliament, were frequently 
 found seriously to misrepresent its wilL To check' this 
 evil an Act was passed (8 Henry IV.), authorising the 
 Commons to be represented at the engrossing of the Par- 
 liament roll; but even this surveillance was not enough, 
 for in the beginning of the reign of Henry V. it was enacted, 
 at the instance of the Commons, that in regard to their 
 petitions the royal prerogative should in future be limited 
 to granting or refusing them simpliciter. In this way.it 
 became a fixed constitutional principle that an Act of Par- 
 liament, to be valid, must express concurrently the will of 
 the entiro Legislature. It was not, however, till the reign 
 of Henry VL that it became customary, as now, to intro- 
 duce bills into Parliament in the form of finished Acts; and 
 the enacting clause, .regarded by constitutionalists as the 
 first perfect assertion, in words, of 1 popular right, came into 
 general use as late as the reign of Charles LT. It is thus 
 expressed : — " Be it enacted by the King's most excellent 
 Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords 
 Spiritual and Temporal and Commons in this present Par- 
 liament assembled, and by the authority of the same." 
 The use of the preamble with which Acts are usually pre- 
 faced, is thus quaintly set forth by Lord Coke,—" The 
 rehearsal or preamble of the statute is a good meane to 
 find out the meaning of the statute, and, as it were, a key 
 to open the understanding thereof." Originally, the col- 
 lective Acta of each session formed but one statute, to 
 
 which a general title was attached, and for this reason an 
 Act of Parliament is always cited as the chapter of a par- 
 ticular statute— e.g., 24 and 25 Vict, c 101. Titles were, 
 however, prefixed to individual Acts us early as 1488. 
 Since 33 Geo. IIL c. 13, an Act of Parliament is com- 
 plete whenever it receives the royal assent, and takes effect 
 from that date, unless the Act itself fix some other. British 
 Act3 require no formal promulgation, for it is presumed that 
 every subject of the realm is cognisant of the resolutions 
 of Parliament, either by. himself or hi3 representative 
 therein. 
 
 Modem Acts of Parliament are — I. Public. These are binding on 
 all citizens, and are ex officio cognisable by the judges. Since 1860 
 every Act is held to be public unless the contrary be expressly declared. 
 2. Private Acts. These relate to particular classes, persons, or places. 
 Private Acts are (1.) Personal, viz., those which relate to name, 
 naturalisation, estate, &c, of particular persons. (2.) Local, affect- 
 ing bridges, canals, docks, turnpikes, railways, 4c TopreveLt such 
 Acts from being unduly passed, the promoters of private bills are 
 required to comply with the standing orders of the two Houses, by 
 which privato bill procedure is regulated. Acts of Parliament, for 
 convenience of reference, are classified as Public General Acts, Local 
 and Personal Act3 declared Public, Private Acts printed, and Private 
 Acts not printed. Public General Acta (if no exception be expressed), 
 extend to Great Britain and Ireland, exclusively only of the Channel 
 Islands and tho Isle of Man. 
 
 The first complete edition of English Acts of Parliament published 
 by state authority appeared between the years 1810 and 1824. It 
 includes the early charters, and ends with the reign of Queen Anne. 
 Many private editions*of the statutes had appeared previous to that 
 of the Record Commissioners. The practice of printing Acts of Par- 
 liament commenced in the reign of Richard III. The charters and 
 Acts were written in Latin till the Slatutum de Scaccario, 51 Henrv 
 III. (1266), which is in French. Tho Acts of Edward I. are indis- 
 criminately in Latin or French ; but from the fourth year of Henry 
 VII. Acts are exclusively in English. 
 
 Scotch Acts. — The earliest attempts at a written record of the pro- 
 ceedings of the Parliament of Scotland consisted of detached instru- 
 ments or indentures, and the next step was the entering of these 
 detached instruments on a roll for more permanent preservation. 
 No such record, however, is preserved before the disputed succes- 
 sion, which commenced in 1?S9. The earliest roll of placiia in 
 parliammto is dated 1292 ; but the Blak Buik, containing a series 
 of proceedings in Parliament from 1357 to 1402, is the most im- 
 portant of the earliest records of Parliament. The original books of 
 Parliament of the reigns of James I. and James II. are not preserved, 
 but fron, the year 1466 down to the Union a voluminous, but not 
 unbroken, series has been preserved. Down to the reign of James 
 V., scarcely any Act in the original registers is distinguished by a 
 title or rubric; and even after that period the practice has not in 
 this respect been uaifonn. In like manner there is no numeration 
 of the Acts of Parliament during this period. The language of tho 
 earliest Scotch records is in Latin ; but as early as 1398 some of the 
 proceedings of Parliament or the Council-General were written in 
 Scots, and subsequently to 1 424 always in that language. Unlike the 
 English Acts, French was never used in Scotch legislation. In 1541 
 a selection of the Acts of James V. was printed. . The first edition ol 
 the Acts was published in 1566, the second in 1597, the third in 
 1681 ; and the great national work, the complete record of Parlia- 
 ment, has just been completed, with a general index to the whole 
 Acts from 1124 to 1707, which forms the great repertory of tha 
 legal, constitutional, and political history of Scotland. In 1540 an 
 Act was passed requiring all the Acts of Parliament to be pronounced 
 in presence of the king and the estates, — the assent of the king 
 being indicated by his touching them with the sceptre; and in 1641 it 
 was ordained that the Acts passed in 1640 be published in the king's 
 name, and with the consent of the estates. But during the civil 
 war the Acts of Parliament were passed in name of the estates alone. 
 These Acts, however, were rescinded after the restoration of Charles 
 II. by Act 1661, c. 126, because "the power of making laws is an 
 essential privilege of the royal prerogative." In 1457 an Act was 
 passed for proclaiming tho Acts of Parliament in the shires and 
 burghs, that none be ignorant; and in 1581 it was ordained that 
 Acts need not be proclaimed at the market-cross of the head burgh 
 of each shire, but at the market-cross of Edinburgh only, the lieges 
 obeying theni forty days thereafter. The clerk of register was 
 always bound to give extracts of Acts to the lieges in their parti- 
 cular affaire. In 1425 a committee, consisting of an equal number 
 of each estate, was appointed to amend the books of law ; and in 
 1567 a commission was issued to codify the laws, civil and muni- 
 cipal, dividing them into heads like the Roman law, — the heads as 
 they are ready to be brought to Pariiament to be confirmed. Lord 
 Bacon recommended the Scotch Acts for their "exceLent brevity." 
 His lordship's praise applies very properly to the Acts down to the.
 
 A C T-r-A C T 
 
 123 
 
 reign of Queen Mary and the early part of the reign of Jame3 VI. ; 
 but the logomachy of subsequent legislation is intolerable to the 
 consul ter. 
 
 Irish Acts may be said to commence A.D. 1310, in- the reign of 
 Edward II., and to close with the union with the British Parlia- 
 ment in 1801. . From the former date, however, there i3 a break 
 till 1429. In 1495 Poyning's Law provided that no bill should 
 be introduced into the Irish Parliament which has not pre- 
 viously received the royal assent in England; and till 1782 the 
 Parliament of Ireland remained in tutelage to that of England. 
 Since 1801 it has been incorporated with the Parliament of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 ACT OF SEDERUNT, in Scotch Law, an ordinance for 
 regulating the forms of procedure before the Court of 
 Session, passed by the judges in virtue of a power con- 
 ferred by an Act of the Scotch Parliament, 1540, c 93. In 
 former times this power was in several instances clearly 
 exceeded, and such Acts of Sederunt required to be rati- 
 fied by the Scotch Parliament; but for more than a century 
 and a half Acts of Sederunt have been almost exclusively 
 confined to matters relating to the regulation of judicial 
 procedure. Many recent statutes contain a clause empower- 
 ing the court to make the necessary Acts of Sederunt. A 
 quorum of nine judges is required to pass an Act of 
 Sederunt. 
 
 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, the fifth among the 
 canonical books of the New Testament. What has to be 
 said on this book will naturally fall under the following 
 heads : The state of the text; the authorship; the object 
 of the work ; the date and the place of its composition. 
 
 The State of the Text. — The Acts is found in two MSS. 
 generally assigned to the 4th century, the Codex Sinai- 
 ticus, in St Petersburg, and the Codex Vaticanus, in Rome; 
 in one MS. assigned to the 5th century, the Codex Alex- 
 andrinus, in the British Museum ; in two MSS. belonging 
 to the 6th century, the Codex Bezce, in Cambridge, and 
 the Codex Laudianus, in Oxford ; and in one of the 9th 
 century, the Codex Palimpsest us Porflrianus, in St Peters- 
 burg, with the exception of chapter first an.d eight verses 
 of chapter second. Large fragments are contained in a 
 MS. of the 5th century, the Codex Ephrcevii, in Paris. 
 Fragments are contained in five other MSS., none of which 
 is later than the 9th century. These are all the uncial 
 MSS. containing the Acts or portions of it. 
 
 The MSS. in Oxford and Cambridge differ widely from 
 the others. This is especially the case with the Cambridge 
 MS., the Codex Bezos, which is said to contain no less 
 than six hundred interpolations. Scrivener, who has edited 
 this MS. with great care, says, " While the general course 
 of the history and the spirit of the work remain the same 
 as in our commonly received text, we perpetually encounter 
 long passages in Codex Bezce which resemble that text 
 only as a loose and explanatory paraphrase recalls the 
 original form from which it sprung; save that there is no 
 difference in the language in this instance, it is hardly an 
 exaggeration of the facts to assert that Codex D [i.e., 
 Codex Beza;] reproduces the textus receptus of the Acts 
 much in the same way that one' of the best Chaldee 
 Targums doe3 the Hebrew of the Old Testament, so wide 
 are the variations in the diction, so constant and inveterate 
 the practice of expanding the narrative by means of inter- 
 polations." Scrivener here assumes that the additions of 
 the Codex Bezce are interpolations, and this is the opinion 
 of nearly all critics. There is one, however, Bornemann, 
 who thinks that the Codex Bezos contains the original 
 text, and that the others are mutilated. But even sup- 
 posing that we were quite sure that the additions were 
 interpolations, the Codex Bezce makes it more difficult, to 
 determine what the real text was. Scrivener, with good 
 reason, supposes that the Codex Bezce is derived from an 
 original which would most likely belong to the third cen- 
 tury at the latest 
 
 Aut/iorship of the Work. — In treating this subject we 
 begin with the external evidence. 
 
 The first mention of the authorship of the Acts in a well- 
 authenticated book occurs in the trea.ise of Irenasus against 
 heresies, written between the yeare 182 and 188 A.D. 
 Irenaeus names St Luke as the author, as if the fact were well 
 known and undoubted. He attributes the third Gospel to 
 him, and calls him " a follower and disciple of apostles " (II. 
 iii. 10, 1). - He states that "he was inseparable from Paul 
 and was his fellow-worker in the gospel" (H. iii 14, 1). 
 The next mention occurs in the Stromata of Clemens 
 Alexandrinus, written about 195 a.d., where part of St 
 Paul's speech to the Athenians is quoted with the words, 
 " Even as Luke also, in the Acta of the Apostles, records 
 Paul as saying" (Strom, v. xii. 82, p. 696, Pott). The 
 Acts of the Apostles is quoted by Tertullian as Scripture, 
 and assigned to St Luke (Adv. Mar. v. 2 and 3). Origen 
 speaks of " Luke who wrote the Gospe) and the Acts " 
 (Eus. H. E. vi. 25) ; and Eusebius includes the Acts of 
 the Apostles in his summary of the books of the New 
 Testament (Hist. Eccl. iii. 25). The Muratorian canon, 
 generally assigned to the end of the second or beginning of 
 the third century, includes the Acts of the Apostles, assigns 
 it to St Luke, and says that he was an eye-witness of the 
 facts recorded. Theie is thus unanimous testimony up to 
 the time of Eusebius that St Luke was the author of the 
 Acts. This unanimity is not disturbed by the circum- 
 stance that some heretics rejected the work, for they did 
 not deny the authorship of the book, but refused to 
 acknowledge it as a source of dogmatic truth. 
 
 After the time of Eusebius we find statements to the 
 effect that the Acts was little known. " The existence 
 of this book," Chrysostom says, " is not known to many, 
 nor the person who wrote and composed it." And Fhotius, 
 in the ninth century, says, " Some maintain that it was 
 Clement of Rome that was the writer of the Acts, others 
 that it was Barnabas and others that it was Luke the 
 Evangelist." 
 
 Irenaeus makes such copious quotations from the Acta 
 that we can feel sure that he had before him substantially 
 our Acts. We cannot go further back than Irenaeus with 
 certainty. H, as we shall see, the writer of the Acts was 
 also the writer of the third Gospel, we have Justin Martyr's 
 testimony (about 150 a.d.) for the existence of the third 
 Gospel in his day,"and therefore a likelihood that the Acts 
 existed also. But 'We have no satisfactory evidence that 
 Justin "used the Acts, and there is nothing in the Apostolic 
 Fathers, nor in any work anterior to the Letter of the 
 Churches of Vienne and Lyons, written probably soon after 
 177 A.D., to prove the existence of the Acts. 
 
 The weight of external evidence therefore goes entirely 
 for St Luke as the author of the Acts. But it has to be 
 noticed, that the earliest testimony is more than a hundred 
 years later than the events described in the Acts. We 
 have also to take into account that Irenaeus was not 
 critical. We find him calling the Pastor of Hermas Scrip- 
 ture; Clemens Alexandrinus also calls the Pastor inspired; 
 and Origen not merely attributes inspiration to the work, 
 but makes the author of it the Hennas mentioned in the 
 Epistle to the Romans. AH scholars reject the testimony 
 of Irenaeus, Clemens Alexandrinus, and Origen in this 
 matter. The question arises, How far are we to trust 
 them in others of a similar nature 1 
 
 We turn to the internal evidence. And in the very 
 commencement we find the author giving himself out as 
 the person who wrote the third GospeL This claim haj 
 been almost universally acknowledged. There is a remark- 
 able similar ity of style in both. The same peculiar modes 
 of expression continually occur in both; and throughout 
 I both there exist continual references backward and for
 
 f24 
 
 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 
 
 ■ward, which imply the same authorship. There are some 
 difficulties in the way of this conclusion. Two of these 
 deserve special notice. If we turn to tha last chapter of 
 tho Gospel, we find it stated there (ver. 13) that two dis- 
 ciples met Jesus on the day of the resurrection, as they 
 were going to Emmaus. Towards nightfall (ver. 29) he 
 entered the village with them; and as he reclined with 
 them, he became known to them, and disappeared. 
 Whereupon " at that very hour" (ver. 33) they rose up and 
 returned to Jerusalem. They found the eleven assembled, 
 and told them what had happened to them. " While they 
 were saying these things, he himself stood in the midst of 
 them" (ver. 36) Tho apostles gave him a piece of fish, 
 and he ate it "But he said to them" (ver. 44), so the 
 narrative goes on, and it then relates his speech; and at 
 ver. 50 it says, " He led them out to Bethany," and then 
 disappeared from them. This disappearance was final; 
 and if the words used in the Gospel make us hesitate in 
 determining it to bo his ascension, such hesitation is 
 removed by the opening words of the Acts. According 
 to the Gospel, therefore, all the events now related took 
 place, or seem to have taken place, on the day of the 
 resurrection, or they may possibly have extended into the 
 next morning, bat certainly not later. Tho Acts, on the 
 contrary, states that Jesus was seen by the disciples for 
 forty days, and makes him deliver the speech addressed to 
 his disciples and ascend into heaven forty days after the 
 resurrection. The other instance is perhaps still more sin- 
 gular. In the Acts we have three accounts of the conversion 
 of St Paul — the first by the writer himself, the other two by 
 St Paul in bis speeches. The writer states that (ix. 4, 7) 
 when the light shone round Paul, he fell to the ground, 
 " but the men who were journeying with him stood dumb." 
 St Paul himself says (xxvi. 14) that they all fell to the 
 ground. The writer says (ix. 7) that St Paul's com- 
 panions heard the voice, but saw no one. St Paul himself 
 says (xxii. 9) that his companions saw the light, but did 
 not hear the voice of him who spake to him. And finally, 
 all these accounts differ in their report of what was said 
 on the occasion. Notwithstanding these differences, even 
 these very accounts contain evidence in them that they were 
 written by the same writer, and they do not destroy the force 
 of the rest of the evidence. The case would be quite different 
 if Baur, Schwegler, and Wittichen were right in supposing 
 that the Gospel of Luke contained documents of opposite 
 tendencies. It would then be necessary to assume different 
 authors for the different parts of the Gospel, and still an- 
 other for the Acts. But this theory falls to the ground if 
 the Tubingen theory of tendencies is rejected. 
 
 The Acts itself claims to be written by a companion of 
 St Paul. In chap. xvi. 10, the writer, without any previous 
 warning, passes from the third person to the first. St Paul 
 had reached the Troad. There he saw a vision inviting 
 him to go to Macedonia. " But when he saw the vision, 
 straightway we sought to go out into Macedonia." The 
 use of the "we" continues until Paul leaves Philippi. In 
 chap. xx. Paul returns to Philippi, and the "we" is 
 resumed, and is kept up till the end of the work. Irenteus 
 (//. iii. 14, 1) quotes these passages as proof that Luke, 
 the author, was a companion of the apostle. The minute 
 character of the narrative, the accurate description of the 
 various journeyings, the unimportance of some of the 
 details, and the impossibility of contriving all the inci- 
 dents of the shipwreck without experiencing them, are 
 strong reasons for believing that we have the narrative of 
 an eye-witness. And if we allow this much, we can 
 scarcely help coming to the conclusion that this eye-witness 
 was the author of the work; for the style of this eye-witness 
 is exactly the style of the writer who composed the previous 
 portions. Some have supposed that we have here the per- 
 
 sonal narrative of Timothy or of Silas; hut this supposition 
 would compel us to believe that tho writer of tho Acts was 
 so careless as to tack documents together without remem- 
 bering to aner thtir form. Such a procedure on tho part 
 of tL j skilful writer of the Acts is unlikely in the highest 
 degree The "we" is introduced intentionally, and can 
 be accounted for only in two ways: either by supposing 
 that the writer was an eye-witness, 'or that ho wislled to 
 be thought an eyewitness, and borrowed the narrative of 
 an eye-witnes3 to facilitate the deception. Zellcr has 
 adopted this latter alternative; and this latter alternative 
 is the only possible one for those who assign a very late 
 date to the Acts. 
 
 We may test the writer's claim to be regarded as a com- 
 panion of St Paul by comparing his statements with those 
 of tho other books of the New Testament. As might be 
 expected, the great facts recorded in the Gospels are repro- 
 duced accurately in the Acts. There is only one marked 
 difference. St Matthew says (xxvii. £>, 7) that Judas cast 
 the traitor's money into the temple, and the priests bought 
 with it a field for the burial of strangers. St Peter ill Acts 
 (i. 18) says, that Judas himself purchased a field with the 
 reward of his iniquity. St Matthew says that he went and 
 hanged himself, St Peter that he fell headlong and burst in 
 the middle. St Matthew says, or rather seems to say, that 
 the field was called the field of blood, because it was pur- 
 chased with blood-money; St Peter seems to attribute the 
 name to the circumstance that Judas died in it. 
 
 The Acts is divided into t-r-o distinct parts. The first 
 deals with the church in Jerusalem, and especially narrates 
 the actions of St Peter. We have no external means of 
 testing this portion of the narrativo The Acts is the only 
 work from which information i3 got in regard to these 
 events. The second part pursues the history of tho apostle 
 Paul; and here we can compare the statements made in the 
 Acts with those made in the Epistles. Now here again we 
 have a general harmony. . St Paul travels in the regions 
 where lm Epistles show that he founded churches. The 
 friends of St Paul mentioned in the Acts are also the 
 friends acknowledged in the Epistles. And there aro 
 many minute coincidences. At the same time, we learn 
 from thi3 comparison that St Luko is not anxious to give 
 minute details. Timothy probably visited Athens while 
 St Paul was there. This wo learn from 1 Thess. iii 1, but 
 no mention is made of this visit in the Acts. Again, we 
 gather from the Epistles to the Corinthians that St Paul 
 paid a visit to Corinth, which is not recorded in the Acts. 
 Moreover, no mention ifl made of Titus in the Acts. These, 
 however, are slight matters; and it must be allowed that 
 there is a general agreement. But attention has been 
 drawn to two remarkable exception These are the ac- 
 count given by St Paul of his visits to Jerusalem in the 
 Epistle to the Galatians and that given by St Luke; and 
 the character and mission of the apostle Paul, as they 
 appear in his letters and as they appear in the Acta. 
 
 In regard to the first point, St Paul himself says in the 
 Epistle to the Galatians, that after his conversion straight- 
 way he held no counsel with flesh and blood, nor did he 
 go up to Jerusalem to the apostles who were before him ; 
 but he went away to Arabia and returned to Damascus; that 
 then after three years he went up to Jerusalem to seek for 
 Cephas, and he remained with him fourteen days. He at 
 that time saw only two apostles, — Peter, and James the 
 brother of the Lord. He then went away to Syria and 
 Cilicia, and was unknown by face to the churches of Judea. 
 He says that fourteen years after this he went up to Jeru- 
 salem with Barnabas, taking Titus with him. On this 
 occasion he went up by revelation. St Paul introduces 
 these facts for a purpose, and this purpose is that he 
 might prove his independence as an apostle. He bad acted
 
 /ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 
 
 125 
 
 solely on the revelation given to himself. He had neither 
 required nor obtained sanction from the other apostles. - 
 He was an apostle, not sent forth from men nor through 
 men, but through Jesus and God. When we turn to the 
 Acts, we find that no mention is made of the journey to 
 Arabia. He stays some days at Damascus, and then 
 begins to preach the gospel. He continues at this work a 
 considerable time; and then, in consequence of the plots 
 sf the Jews, he secretly withdraws from Damascus and 
 proceeds to Jerusalem. The brethren there are suspicious 
 in regard to him, and their fears are not quieted until 
 Barnabas takes him to the apostles; and after this intro- 
 duction he goes in and out amongst them, and holds dis- 
 cussions with the Hellenists. Finally, when the Hellenists 
 ittempt to kill him, the brethren send him to Tarsus. In the 
 Epistle to the Galatians St Paul does everything for him- 
 self, instigated by his inward feelings. In the Acts he is 
 forced out of Antioch, and sent by the brethren to Tarsus. In 
 the Galatians St Paul stays only a fortnight, and sees only 
 St Peter and St James of the apostles, and was unknown by 
 face to the churches of Judea. In the Acts Barnabas takes 
 (urn to the apostles, and he continues evidently for a period 
 much longer than a fortnight, going in ana out amongst 
 them. Then in chap. xi. 30, he goes up a second time to 
 Jerusalem, — a visit which seems inconsistent with the narra- 
 tive in the Epistle to the Galatians. And finally, when he 
 goes up to Jerusalem, the Acts does not represent him 
 going up by an independent revelation, but as being sent 
 up; and it says nothing of his taking an independent part, 
 but represents him as submitting to the apostles. 
 
 This, however, leads us to the treatment of the character 
 of St Paul by the writer of the Acts. Some of the 
 Tubingen critics assert that the writer shows ill-will to St 
 Paul, but they are evidently wrong. On the contrary, the 
 character of the apostle as given in the Acts is full of grand 
 and noble traits. Yet still there are some singular pheno- 
 mena in the Acts.. St Paul claimed to be an apostle by the 
 will of God. He had as good a right to be an apostle as 
 St Peter or St James. Yet the writer of the Acts never 
 palls him an apostle in the strict sense of the term. He 
 is twice called an apostle, namely, in Acts xiv. 4 and 
 14. On both occasions his fellow-apostle is Barnabas; 
 but' Barnabas was not one of the twelve, and not an 
 apostle in the strict sense of the term. And even . in 
 these verses the reading is doubtful The Codex Bezce 
 omits the word apostle in the 14th verse, and makes 
 the 4th liable to suspicion by inserting an addition to it. 
 St Luke ako brings prominently forward as the proper mark 
 pf an apostle, that he should have companied with the Lord 
 frum his baptism to his ascension, and describes the filling 
 np of the number of the twelve by the election of Matthias. 
 And if St Luke's narrative of St Paul's conversion be 
 minutely examined, it will be perceived that not only does he 
 uot mention that St Paul saw Jesus, but the circumstances 
 is related scarcely permitted St Paul to see Jesus. He 
 was at once dazzled by the light, and fell to the ground. 
 [n this prostrate condition, with his eyes shut, he heard the 
 voice; but at first he did not know whose it was. And 
 when he opened his eyes, he found that he was blind. The 
 words of Ananias imply that St Paul really did see Jesus, 
 %ut St Luke abstains from any such statement. And St 
 Paul is not treated by the Jewish Christians in the Acts as 
 in independent apostle. He is evidently under submission 
 to the anostles at Jerusalem. 
 
 Furthermore, the point on which St Paul specially insists 
 in the Epistle to the Galatians is, that he was appointed the 
 ipostle to the Gentiles as St Peter was to the circumcision, 
 ind that circumcision and the observance of the Jewish law 
 were of no importance to the Christian. St Paul's words on 
 Vhis point in all his letters are strong and decided. But in 
 
 the Acts it is St Peter that opens up the way for the Gentiles. 
 In St Peter's mouth occurs the strongest language in regard 
 to the intolerable nature of the law. Not a word is said of 
 the quarrel between St Peter and St Paul The brethren in 
 Antioch send St Paul and Barnabas up to Jerusalem to ask 
 the opinion of the apostles and elders. St Paul awaits the 
 decision of the apostles, and St Paul and Barnabas carry- 
 back the decision to Antioch. And throughout the whole 
 of the Acts St Paul never stands forth as the champion 
 of the Gentiles. He seems continually anxious to reconcile 
 the Jewish Christians to himself, by observing the law of 
 Moses. He circumcises Timothy, and he performs his 
 vows in the temple. And he is particularly careful in his 
 speeches to show how deep his respect for the law of 
 Moses is In this regard the letters of St Paul are very 
 different from his speeches as given in the Acts. In the 
 Epistle to the Galatians he claims perfect freedom for him- 
 self and the Gentiles from the observance of the law; and 
 neither in it nor in the Epistle to the Corinthians does 
 he take any notice of the decision to which the apostles 
 are said to have come in their meeting at Jerusalem. And 
 yet the narrative of St Luke implies a different state of 
 affairs from that which it actually states in words; for why 
 should the Jews hate St Paul so much more than the other 
 apostles if there was nothing special in his attitude to- 
 wards them t 
 
 We may add to this, that while St Luke gives a rather 
 minute account of the sufferings of St Peter and the church 
 in Jerusalem, he has not brought prominently forward the 
 perils of St Paul St Paul enumerates some of his suffer- 
 ings in the second Epistle to the Corinthians (chap, xi 
 23-28). St Luke has omitted a great number of these. 
 Thus, for instance, St Paul mentions that Le was thrice 
 shipwrecked. St Luke does not notice one of these ship- 
 wrecks, that recorded in the Acts having taken place aftei 
 the Epistles to the Corinthians were written. Some also 
 think that St Luke details several occurrences which are 
 scarcely in harmony with the character of St Paul They 
 say that the dismissal of John Mark, as recorded in the 
 Acts, is a harsh act. St Paul's remark, " I wist not that 
 he is the high priest" (xxiii 5), they regard as doubtful in 
 point of honesty. And the way by which he gained the 
 Pharisees to his side, in opposition to the Sadducees, thev 
 describe as an expedient unworthy the character of this 
 fearless apostle (xxiiL 6). 
 
 St Luke occasionally alludes, in the Acts, to events which 
 took place outside of the church. We can test his accu- 
 racy in recording these events by comparing his narrative 
 with the narratives of historians who treat of the same 
 period. These historians are Josephus, Tacitus, and 
 Suetonius. Now, here again we find that the accounts in 
 the Acts generally agree. Indeed, Holtzmann has noticed 
 that all the external events mentioned in the Acts are also 
 to be found in Josephus. We may therefore omit Tacitus 
 and Suetoniug, and confine ourselves to Josephus. Three 
 narratives deserve minute examination. The first is the 
 death of Herod Agrippa. Josephus says (Ant. xix. 8, 2) 
 that Herod was at Csesarea celebrating a festival in honour 
 of the Caesar. On the second day of the spectacle, the 
 king put on a robe made entirely of silver, and entered the 
 theatre early in the day. The sun's rays fell upon the 
 silver, and a strong impression was produced on the people, 
 so that his flatterers called out that he was a god. He 
 did not check their impiety, but soon, on looking up he 
 saw an owl perched above his hes.J ,on a rope. He at 
 once recognised, in the bird the harbinger of evil Imme- 
 diately he was attacked by violent pains in the bowels, and 
 after five days' illness died. The Acts says that Herod 
 was addressing a deputation of Tyrians and Sidonians in 
 Caesarea, seated on the tribunal and arrayed in a royal
 
 126 
 
 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 
 
 robe. The people called out, " The voice of a god, and not 
 of a man." " Immediately an angel of the Lord struck him 
 because he gavo not God tho glory, and becoming worm- 
 eaten, he died" (xii. ^1-23). Both accounts agrco in 
 representing Herod as suddenly struck with disease be- 
 cause ha did not check the impiety of his flatterers, but 
 they agree in almost nothing else; and it is difficult to 
 ive that the one writer knew the account of the other. 
 Which account is most to be trusted, depends upon the 
 answer given to the question which is the more credible his- 
 torian. 
 
 The second case relates to the Egyptian mentioned in 
 the question of the tribune to St Paul, in Acts xxi 38, 
 " \ ou are not then the Egyptian who, some time ago, made 
 a disturbance, and led into the wilderness the four thousand 
 of the sicarii?" Josephus mentions this Egyptian, both in 
 his Antiquities (xx. 8, 6) and in the Jewish War (ii 13, 5). 
 In the Jewish War (ii. 13, 3), Josephus describes the sicarii, 
 and then passes on, after a short section, to the Egyptian. 
 He states that he collected thirty thousand people, led them 
 out of tho wilderness " to the mount called tho Mount of 
 Olives, which," he says.(4»i xx. 8, 6) in words similar to 
 those in Acts L 12, "lies opposite to the city five furlongs 
 distant." On this Felix attacked him, killed some, cap- 
 tured others, and scattered the band. The Egyptian, 
 however, escaped with some followers. Hence the question 
 in the Acts. There are some striking resemblances between 
 the words used by both writers. The numbers differ; but 
 St Luke gives the numbers of tho sicarii, Josephus the 
 numbers of the entire multitude led astray. 
 
 The third case is the one which has attracted most 
 attention. In the speech which Gamaliel delivers, in Acts 
 v. 35-39, it is said, " Some time before this, Theudas rose 
 ap, saying that he was some one, to whom a number of 
 about four hundred men attached themselves, who was cut 
 off, and all who followed him were broken up and came to 
 nought. After him rose up Judas the Galilean, in the days 
 of the registration, and he took away people after him; 
 and he also perished, and all that followed him were scat- 
 tered." On turning to Josephus we find that both Theudas 
 and Judas the Galilean are mentioned. The circumstances 
 related of both are the same as in the Acts, but the 
 dates are different. According to Josephus, Theudas 
 gave himself out as a prophet, in the reign of Claudius, 
 more than ten years after the speech of Gamaliel had been 
 delivered, while Judas appeared at the period of the 
 registration, and therefore a considerable time before 
 Theudas. To explain this difficulty, some have supposed 
 that there may have been another Theudas not men- 
 tioned by Josephus, or that Josephus is wrong in his 
 chronology. Others suppose that St Luke made a mis- 
 take in regard to Theudas, and is right in regard to 
 Judas. K im maintains that St Luke has made the mis- 
 take, and suggests that possibly it may be based upon the 
 passage of Josephus; and Holtzmann has gone more 
 minutely into this argument. Holtzmann draws attention 
 to the nature of the sections of Josephus which contain the 
 references to Theudas and Judas (Ant. xx. 5, 1, 2). He 
 says that nearly all the principal statements made in these 
 short sections emerge somewhere in the Acts : the census 
 of Quirinus, the great famine, Alexander as a member of a 
 noble Jewish family, and Ananias as high priest. More- 
 over, St Luke has preserved the order of Josephus in men- 
 tioning Theudas and Judas; but Josephus says " the sons 
 of Judas," whereas St Luke says " Judas." " Is it not 
 likely," Holtzmann argues, " that St Luke had before his 
 mind this passage of Josephus, but forgot that it was the 
 sons of Judas that were after Theudas, and not the father?" 
 He adds also, that in tho short passage in the Acts thpre 
 are five peculiar expressions, identical or nearly identical 
 
 with the expressions used by Josephus, and comes to the 
 conclusion that St Luke knew the works of Josepnus. He 
 finds further traces of this knowledge in tho circumstance 
 that, in Acts xiii. 20-21, St Luke agrees in his statements 
 with Josephus where both differ from the 0;d Testament 
 Ho also adduces certain Greek words which he supposes 
 St Luke derived from bis reading of Josephus. Max 
 Krenkel, in making an addition to this argument, tries to 
 show, from a comparison of passages, that St Luke had 
 Josephus before liis mind in the narrative of tho childhood 
 of Christ; and he supposes that the expedient attributed 
 to tho apostle Paul, -of setting tho Pharisees against tho 
 Sadducees (Acts xxiii. 6), is based upon a s imil ar narrative 
 given in Josephus (Bell. Jud. ii. 21, 3, and Vita, 20 ff.). 
 The importance of this investigation is great; for if Holtz- 
 mann and Exenkel were to prove their point, a likelihood 
 would be established that the Acts of the Apostles, or at 
 least a portion of it, was written after 93 A.D., the year 
 in which the Antiquities of Josephus was pubhshed, accord- 
 ing to a passago occurring in the work itself. Meanwhile, 
 the fact that important portions of the narrative must have 
 been written by an eye-witness of tho events recorded, 
 combined with tho unity of style and purpose in the book, 
 are cogent arguments on the other side. 
 
 The speeches in the Acts deserve special notice. Tho 
 question occurs here, Did St Luke follow the plan adopted 
 by all historians of his age, or is he a singular exception! 
 The historians of his age claimed the liberty of working 
 up, in their own language, the speeches recorded by them. 
 They did not dream of verbal accuracy , oven when they 
 had the exact words of the speakers before them, they 
 preferred to mould the thoughts of the speakers into their 
 own methods of presentation. Besides this, historians do 
 not hesitate to give to the characters of their history speeches 
 which they never uttered. The method of direct speech is 
 useful in producing a vivid idea of what was supposed to 
 pass through the mind of the speaker, and therefore is 
 used continually to make the narrative lively. Now it is 
 generally believed that St Luke has followed the practice 
 of his contemporaries. There are some of his speeches 
 that are evidently the summaries of thoughts that passed 
 through the minds of individuals or of multitudes. Others 
 unquestionably claim to be reports of speeches really 
 delivered. But all these speeches have, to a large extent, 
 the same style as that of the narrative. They have passed 
 to a large extent through the writer's mind, and are given 
 in his words. They are, moreover, all of them the merest 
 abstracts. The speech of St Paul at Athens,' as given by 
 St Luke, would not occupy more than a minute and a half 
 in delivery. The longest speech in the Acts, that of the 
 martyr Stephen, would not take more than ten minutes to 
 deliver. It is not likely that either speech lasted so short 
 a time. But this circumstance, while destroying their 
 verbal accuracy, docs not destroy their authenticity; and 
 it must strike all that, in most of the speeches, there is a 
 singular appropriateness, there is an exact fitting-in of 
 the thoughts to the character, and there are occasionally 
 allusions of an obscure nature, which point very clearly to 
 their authenticity. The one strong objection urged against 
 this inference, is that the speeches of St Peter and St 
 Paul show no doctrinal differences, such as are said to 
 appear in the Epistles; but the argument has no force, 
 unless it be proved that St Paul's doctrine of justification 
 is different from the creed of St Peter or St James. 
 
 Not the least important of the questions which influence 
 critics in determining the authorship of the Acts is that of 
 miracles. Most of those who think that miracles are im- 
 possible, come to the conclusion that the narratives con- 
 y them arc legendary, and accordingly they maintain 
 that the first portion of the Acts, relating to the early
 
 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 
 
 127 
 
 church in Jerusalem and to tit Feler, is in the highest 
 degree untrustworthy. The writer, it is maintained, had 
 no personal knowledge of those early days, and received 
 the stories after they had gone through a long process of 
 transmutation. They appeal, for instance, to the account 
 of the Pentecost, where the miracle of speaking with tongues 
 is described. They say that it is plain, on a comparison of 
 the Epistle to the Corinthians with the Acts, that St Paul 
 meant one thing by the gift of tongues, and the writer of 
 the Acts another. And the inference is at hand that, if 
 'the writer had known St Paul, he would have known what 
 the gift of tongues was; and the possibility of such a 
 mistake, it is said, implies a considerable distance from the 
 time of the apostles and the primitive church. They 
 point also to the curious parallelism between the miracles 
 of St Peter and those of St Paul St Peter begins his 
 series of miracles by healing a lame man (iii. 2); so does St 
 Paul (xiv. 8). St Peter exorcises evil spirits (v. • 1 6 ; viii. 7) ; 
 so does St Paul (xix. 15; xvi. 18). If St Peter deals with 
 the magician Simon, St Paul encounters Elymas. If St 
 Peter punishes with death (v. Iff.), St Paul punishes with 
 blindness (xiii. 6ff.). If St Peter works miracles by his 
 shadow (v. 15), not less powerful are the aprons and nap- 
 kins of St Paid (xix. 12). And, finally, if St Peter can 
 raise Tabitha from the dead (ix. 36), St Paul is equally 
 successful in the case of Eutychus (xx. 9). It is easy to 
 see, also, that since there is no contemporary history with 
 which to compare the statements in the Acts, and since 
 many of the statements are of a summary nature, and very 
 few dates are given, a critic who believes the narratives 
 legendary will have no difficulty in finding many elements 
 in the narratives confirmatory of his belief. But to those 
 who believe in miracles the rest of the narrative seems 
 plain and unvarnished. The parallelism between the 
 miracles of St Peter and St Paul is accounted for by the 
 fact that they acted in similar circumstances, and that 
 actual events were at hand on which to base the paral- 
 lelism. At the same time, some who believe in the possi- 
 bility of miracles think that the Acts presents peculiar 
 difficulties in thi3 matter. They say that the healing by 
 means of shadows and aprons is of a magical nature; that 
 the death of Ananias and Sapphira, and the other destruc^ 
 tive miracles, are out of harmony with the rest of the 
 miracles of the New Testament; and that the earthquakes 
 that release St Peter and St Paul seem purposeless. The 
 difficulties on this head, though real, are not however of 
 great importance, nor do they tell very seriously against 
 the received opinion that St Luke is the author of the work. 
 We haTe thus given a general summary of the questions 
 which come up in investigating the authorship of the Acts, 
 and of the arguments used in settling this point. The 
 conclusions based upon this evidence are very different. 
 Some join the traditional opinion of the ch xch to the 
 modern idea of Inspiration, and maintain th it St Luke 
 was the author of the work, that every d screpancy is 
 merely apparent, and that every speech cont ins the real 
 and genuine words of the speaker. Others .jaintain that 
 St Luke is the writer, and that the book is justly placed 
 in the canon; that the narrative is, on the whole, thoroughly 
 trustworthy, and that neither its canonicity nor credibility 
 is affected by the existence of real discrepancies in the 
 narrative. Others hold that St Luke is the author, but 
 that we have got in the book an ordinary narrative, with 
 portions credible and portions incredible; that for the 
 early portions of the work he had -to trust mainly to his 
 memory, dulled by distance from the scene of action ard 
 by lapse of time, and that he has given what he knew 
 with the uncritical indifference to minute accuracy in time, 
 circumstance, and word, which characterises all his con-, 
 temporaries. Others maintain that St Luke is the author, | 
 
 but that, being a credulous and unscientific Christian, he 
 recorded indeed in honesty all that he knew, but that he 
 was deluded in his belief of miracles, and is offen inaccu- 
 rate in his statement of facts. Others tliink that St Luko 
 was not the author of the work. He may have been the 
 original author of the diary of the Apostle Paul's travels 
 in which the " we " occurs; but the author of the Acts 
 did not write the diary, but inserted it into his narrative 
 after altering it for a special purpose, and the narrative 
 was written long after St Paul and St Luke were dead. 
 Others think that in the Acts we have the work of Timothy 
 or of Silas, or of some one else. A conc'derable number 
 imagine that St Luke had different written documents 
 before him while composing, and a very few think that the 
 work is the work of more than one writer. But as we 
 have intimated, the weight of testimony is in favour of ,St 
 Luke's authorship. 
 
 Purpose. — \Te have seen that the Acts of the Apostles 
 is the work of one author possessed of no inconsiderable 
 skill This author evidently omits many things that he 
 knew; he gives a short account of others of which he 
 could have supplied accurate details, and, as in the case of 
 St Paul, he has brought forward one side of the character 
 prominently, and thrown the other into the shade. 'What 
 motive could have led him to act thus? What object had 
 he in inserting what he has inserted, and omitting what he 
 has omitted? Most of the answers given to these questions 
 have no important bearing on the question of the author- 
 ship of the Acts. But the case is different with the answer 
 of the Tubingen school. The Tubingen school maintains 
 that St Paul taught that the law was of no avail to Jew 
 and Gentile, and that, therefore, the observance of it was 
 unnecessary ; that St Peter and the other apostles taught 
 that the observance of the law was necessary, and that 
 they separated from St Paul on this point ; and that the 
 early Christians were divided into two great classes — those 
 who held with St Paul, or the Gentile Christians, and 
 those who held with St Peter, or the Jewish Christians. 
 They further maintain that there prevailed a violent con- 
 troversy between these two parties in the church, until a 
 fusion took place towards the middle of the second half of 
 the second century, and the Catholic Church arose. At what 
 stage of this controversy was the Acts written ? is the ques- 
 tion they put. St Peter, we have seen, is represented in 
 the Acts as opening the church to the Gentiles. St Peter 
 and the rest of the apostles at Jerusalem admit the 
 Gentiles on certain gentle conditions of refraining from 
 things offered to idols, from animals suffocated, from blood, 
 and from fornication. What could be the object of x such 
 statements but to convince the Jewish Christians that 
 they were wrong in pertinaciously adhering to their entire 
 exclusion of the Gentiles, or insisting on their observance 
 of the entire law ? But St Paul is represented as observ- 
 ing the law, as sent forth by St Peter and the other 
 apostles, as going continually to the Jews first, and as 
 appearing in the temple and coming up with collections 
 for the Jerusalem church. Was not this also intended to 
 reconcile the Jewish Christians to St Paul? Then the 
 great doctrines of St Paul all but vanish — free grace, justi- 
 fication by faith alone, redemption through the blood of 
 Christ, — all that is characteristic of St Paul disappears, except 
 his universalism, and that is modified by the decree of the 
 apostles, the cireumcision of Timothy, and St Paul's observ- 
 ance of the law. The object of all this, they affirm, must be 
 to reconcile the Jewish party by concessions. But there is 
 said to be also another object, of minor importance indeed, 
 but still quite evident and falling in with the other. 
 Throughout the Acts St Paul is often accused of turning 
 the world upside down and causing disturbances. The 
 Jewish Christians may have thought that St Paul was to
 
 128 
 
 ACT-ACT 
 
 Mame in this matter, and that St Paul's opinions were 
 peculiarly calculated to stir up persecution against the 
 Christians. The stories in the Acts were devised to con- 
 vince them that they were mistaken in this supposition. 
 On every occasion in which St Paul is accused before 
 magistrates, and especially Roman magistrates, he is ac- 
 quitted. Gallio, the town-clerk of Ephesus, Lysias, Felix, 
 and Festus, all declare that St Paul has done nothing con- 
 trary to the law. And while the Romans thus free him 
 from all blame, it is the Jews who are always accusing him. 
 
 We have here reproduced the argument of Zeller, who 
 has given the most thorough exposition of an opinion held 
 also by Baur, Schwegler, and others. The argument fails 
 to have effect if the assumption that St Paul and St Peter 
 differed radically is rejected. It also suffers from the cir- 
 cumstance, that there is no historical authentication of the 
 church being in such a state in the first half of the second 
 century, that this attempt at reconciliation could take 
 place within it. Moreover, the writing of a fictitious 
 production seems an extraordinary means for any one to 
 employ in order to effect reconciliation, especially if, as 
 Zeller imagines, the church in Rome was specially con- 
 templated. The church in Rome and the other Christian 
 churches had St Paul's Epistles to the Romans, Corinthians, 
 and Galatians before them They could be in no doubt as 
 to what were hi3 sentiments. They must also have had 
 some history of his career ; and no object could be effected 
 by attempting to palm upon them a decree of apostles 
 which never existed, or a history of St Peter and St Paul 
 contradicted by what they knew of both. 
 
 Overbeck, finding this solution of Zeller unsatisfactory, 
 thinks that the object of the Acts is to help the Gentile- 
 Christian Church of the first half of the second century, now 
 far removed from Paulinism and strongly influenced by 
 Judaism, to form a clear idea of its own past, especially of 
 its own origin and of its founder St PauL It is thus, he 
 maintains, an historical novel, somewhat like the Clemen- 
 tinea, devised to realise the state of the church at an earlier 
 period. 
 
 It would be tedious to enumerate all the other objects 
 which have been set forth as the special aim of the Acts. 
 Some think that it was a work written for the private use of 
 Theophilus, and aimed, therefore, at giving him.the special 
 information which he required. Others think that it is 
 intended to describe the spread of the gospel from 
 Jerusalem to Rome. Others believe that tho writer wished 
 to defend the character of the Apostle PauL Some of the 
 more recent members of the Tubingen school think that 
 it was intended to distort the character of St Paul, and 
 that the image of him given in the Acts is an intermediate 
 stage between the' real Paul and the caricature supposed 
 by them to be made of him under the name of Simon in 
 the Clementines. 
 
 Date. — There are no sure data for determining the date. 
 Appeal used to be made to Acts viii 26, " Unto the way 
 which goeth down from Jerusalem to Gaza, which is 
 desert." But most probably it is the way which is here 
 said to be desert or lonely. But even if the word " desert " 
 or " lonely " be applied to Gaza, we get nothing out of it. 
 Accordingly, in the absence of data very various dates 
 have been assigned. Some think that it was written at 
 the time mentioned in the last chapter of Acts, when St 
 Paul had been two years in Rome. Some think that it 
 must have been written after the fall of Jerusalem, as they 
 believe that the gospel was written after that event. 
 Tremens though*- that it was written after the death of St 
 Peter and St Paul (H. iii. 1). Others think that St Luke 
 must have written it at a late period of his life, about the 
 year 80 a.d. The Tubingen Bchool think that it was writ- 
 ten some time in the second century, most of them agree- 
 
 ing on the second or third decade of that century, about 
 1 25 A.D. They argue that a late date is proved by the 
 nature of tho purpose which occasioned the work, by the 
 representation which it gives of the relation of the Christians 
 to the Roman state, and by the traces of Gnosticism (xx. 
 29), and of a 'hierarchical constitution of the church 
 (L 17, 20; viii 14, ff.; xv. 28 ; xx. 17, 28) to be fouDd 
 in the Acts. 
 
 Place. — There is no satisfactory evidence by which to 
 settle the place of composition. Later fatheis of the 
 church and the subscriptions of late MSS. mention Achaia, 
 Attica, Alexandria, Macedonia, and Rome. And these 
 places have all had their supporters in modern times. 
 Some have also tried to show that it was written, in Asia, 
 Minor, probably at Ephesus. The most likely supposition 
 is that it wa3 written at Rome; Zeller has argued with 
 great plausibility for this conclusion. 
 
 There is a largo literature on the subject of this article, 
 but the most important treatises are those of Schwanbeck, 
 Schneckenburger, Lekebusch, Zeller, Trip, Klostermann, 
 and (ErteL Zeller's work deserves special praise for its 
 thoroughness. Various other writers have discussed the sub- 
 ject in works dealing with this among others ; as Baur in his 
 Paulus; Schwegler in his NachaposlolischesZeitalter ; Ewa)d 
 in his History of Israel ; Renan in his Apostles; Hausrath 
 in his New Testament History; and, in a more conservative 
 manner, Nftsmder, Baumgarten, Lechler, Thiersch, and 
 Lange. Of commentaries, the best on the Tubingen side 
 is -that of De Wette, remodelled by Overbeck, and that of 
 the more conservative. Meyer is especially good. In English 
 we have an able treatment of the subject in Dr Davidson's 
 Introduction to the Study of the New Testament; we have com- 
 mentaries by Biscoe, Humphry, Hackett, Cook, Words- 
 worth, Alford, and Gloag ; and dissertations by Paley, 
 Birks, Lewin, Conybeare, and Howson. 
 
 There are various other treatises claiming to be Acts 
 of Apostles. One or two of these must have existed at an 
 early date, though, no doubt, they have since received 
 large interpolations. But most of them belong to C late 
 period, and all of them are acknowledged to be apocryphal 
 They are edited by Tischendorf in his Acta Apostolorum 
 Apocrypha (Lipsia?, 1851), and have been translated, with 
 an introduction giving information as to their origin and 
 dates, by Mr Walker, in vol. xvi. of the Ante-Nicene 
 Library. (j. D.) 
 
 ACTA CONSISTORIL the edicts of the consistory or 
 council of state of the Roman emperors. These edicts were 
 generally expressed in such terms, as these : " The august 
 emperors, Diocletian and Maximian, in council declare, That 
 the children of decurions shall not be exposed to wild beasts 
 in the amphitheatre." — The senate and soldiers often swore, 
 either through flattery or on compulsion, upon the edicts 
 of the emperor. The name of a senator was erased by 
 Nero out oi the register, because he refused to swear upon 
 the edicts o< Augustus. 
 
 ACTA DJ URNA, called also Ada Populi, Acta Publico, 
 and simply i :ta or Diurna, was a sort of Roman gazette, 
 containing an authorised narrative of the transactions worthy 
 of notice which happened at Rome — as assemblies, edicta 
 of the magistrates, trials, executions, buildings, births, 
 marriages, deaths, accidents, prodigies, <fcc. Petronius has 
 given us an imitation specimen of the Acta Diurna, one or 
 two extracts from which may be made to show their style 
 and contents. The book-keeper of Trimalchio pretends to 
 read from the Acta Urbis: — "On the 30th of July, on the 
 Cuman farm, belonging to Trimalchio, wero born 30 boys 
 and 40 girls ; there were brought into the bam from 
 the threshing-floor 125,000 bushels of wheat; 600 oxen 
 were broken in. — On the same day the slave Mithridates 
 was crucified for having slandered the tutelar deity of onr
 
 A C T — A C T 
 
 129 
 
 friend Gaius. — On the same day 100,000 sesterces, that 
 could not. be invested, were put into the inoney-box. — On 
 the same day a tire broke out in the gardens of Ponipey, 
 which arose in the steward's house," &c. The Acta differed 
 from the Annals (which were discontinued in n.c. 133) in 
 ihis respect, among others, that only the greater and "more 
 important matters were given in the latter, while in the 
 former things of less note also were recorded. The origin of 
 the Acta is attributed to Julius Cresar. who first ordered the 
 keeping and publishing of the acts of the people by public 
 officers. Some trace them back as far as Servius Tullius, 
 who it was- believed ordered that the next of kin, on occa- 
 sion of a birth, should register the event in the temple o'f 
 Venus, and on occasion of a death, should register it in 
 the temple of Libitina. The Acta were drawn up from day 
 to day, and exposed in a public place to be read or copied 
 by all who chose to do so. After remaining there for a 
 reasonable time they were taken down and preserved with 
 other public documents. 
 
 ACTA SENATUS, among the' Komans, were minutes 
 of the discussions and decisions of the senate. These were 
 also called Commentarii Senatus, and, by a Greek name, 
 uTro/xvy'ifiaTa. Before the consulship of Julius Caesar, 
 minutes of the proceedings of the senate were written and 
 occasionally published, but unofficially. Caesar first 
 ordered the minutes to be recorded and published autho- 
 ritatively. The keeping of them was continued by 
 Augustus, but the publication was forbidden. Some pro- 
 minent senator was usually chosen to draw up these Acta. 
 ACT/EON, in Eabulous History, son of Aristasus and 
 Autonoe, a famous hunter. He was torn to. pieces' by his 
 own dog's. Various accounts are given of this occurrence; 
 but the best known story is that told by Ovid, who re- 
 presents him as' accidentally seeing Diana as she was 
 bathing, when she changed him into a stag, and he was 
 pursued and killed by his dogs. 
 
 ACTIAN GAMES, in Roman Antiquity, solemn games 
 instituted by Augustus, in memory of bis victory over 
 Antony at Actium. See Actium. 
 
 ACTINIA, a genus of coelenterate animals, of which the 
 sea-anemone is the type. See Actinozoa 
 
 ACTINISM (from ixrU, a ray), that property of the 
 solar rays whereby they produce chemical effects, as in 
 photography. The actinic force is greatest in the blue and 
 violet rays of the spectrum. 
 
 ACTINOMETER (measurer of, solar rays), a thermo- 
 meter with a large bulb, filled with a dark-blue fluid, and 
 enclosed in a box, the. sides of which are blackened, and 
 the whole covered with a thick plate of glass. It was the 
 invention of the late Sir John' Herschel, and was first 
 described in the Edinburgh Journal of Science for 1825. 
 It is used for measuring the heating power of the sun's 
 rays, the amount of which is ascertained by exposing the 
 bulb for equal intervals of time in sunshine and shade 
 alternately. 
 
 ACTINOZOA, a group of animals, of which the most 
 familiar examples are the sea-anemones and " coral insects" 
 of the older writers. The term was first employed by 
 de Blainville, to denote a division of the Animal Kingdom 
 having somewhat different limits from that to which its 
 application is restricted in the present article'; in which it 
 is applied to one of the two great divisions of the Cielen- 
 terata, the other being the Hydrozoa. 
 
 The Actinozoa agree with the Hydrozoa in the primitive 
 and fundamental constitution of the body of two membranes, 
 an ectoderm and an endoderm, — between which a middle 
 layer or mesoderm may subsequently arise,— in the absence 
 of a -completely differentiated alimentary canal, and in 
 possessing thread 'cells, or nematocysts ; but they present a 
 somewhat greater complexity of structure. 
 
 1-6 
 
 I 'J his is manifest, in the first place, in their visceral tube, 
 i or '• stomach,'' ax it is often called, which is continued from 
 the margins of the mouth, for a certain distance, into the 
 interior cavity of the body, but which is always open ut its 
 fundus into that cavity. And. secondly, in the position of 
 the reproductive elements, which, in the Hydrozoa, are 
 always developed in parts of the body wall which are in 
 immediate relation with tho external surface, and generally 
 form outward projections: while, in the Actinozoa, they are 
 as constantly situated in the lateral walls of the chambers 
 into which the body cavity is divided. In consequence of 
 this arrangement, the ova, or sexually generated embryos, 
 of the Actinozoa are detached into the interior of the body, 
 and usually escape from it by the oral aperture; while thoso 
 of the Hydrozoa are at once set free on the exterior surface 
 of that part of the body in which they are formed. 
 
 The Actinozoa comprise two .groups, which are very 
 different in general appearance and habit, though really 
 similar in fundamental structure. These are — ■ 
 
 1. The Coralligcna or sea-anemones, coral animals, and 
 sea-pens; and 2. The Ctenophora. 
 
 (1.) The Coralligcna. — A common sea-anemone presents 
 a subeylindrical body, terminated at each end by a disk. 
 The one of these discoidal ends serves to attach tho 
 ordinarily sedentary animal ; the other exhibits in the 
 centre a mouth, which is usually elongated in one direction, 
 and, at each end, presents folds extending down into the 
 gastric cavity. This circumstance greatly diminishes the 
 otherwise' generally radial symmetry of the disk, and of tho 
 series of flexible conical tentacles which start from it; 
 and, taken together with some other circumstances, raises 
 a doubt whether even these animals are not rather bilater- 
 ally, than radially, symmetrical Each tentacle is hollow, 
 and its base communicates with one of the chambers 
 into which the cavity of the body is divided, by thin 
 membranous lamellae, the so-called mesenteries, which 
 radiate from the oral disk and the lateral walls of the 
 body to the parietes of the visceral tube. The inferior 
 edges of the mesenteries are free, and- arcuated in such 
 a manner as to leave a central common chamber, into 
 the circumference of which all the intermesenteric spaces 
 open, while above, it communicates with the- visceral 
 tube. The tentacles may be perforated at their extremi- 
 ties, and, in some cases, the body wall itself exhibits aper- 
 tures leading into the intermesenteric spaces. The free edges 
 of the mesenteries present thickenings, like the hem of a 
 piece of linen, each cf which is much longer than the distance 
 between the gastric and the parietal attachment of the 
 mesentery, and hence is much folded on itself. It is full 
 of thread cells. The mesoderm, or middle layer of the 
 body, which lies between the ectoderm and the endoderm, 
 consists of a fibrillated connective tissue, containing fusi- 
 form or stellate nucleated cells, and possesses longitudinal and 
 circular muscular fibres. These are prolonged into the mesen- 
 teries, and attain a great development in the disk of attach- 
 ment, which serves as a sort of foot like that of a limpet. 
 
 The question whether the Coralligcna possess a nervous 
 system and organs of- s"ense, hardly admits of a definite 
 answer at present. It is only in the Actinidae that the 
 existence of such organs has been asserted; and the nervous 
 circlet of Actinia, described by Spix, has been seen by no 
 later investigator, and may be safely assumed to be non- 
 existent. But Professor P. M. Duncan, F.R.S., in a paper 
 " On the Nervous System of Actinia," recently communi- 
 cated to the Royal Society, has affirmed the existence of a 
 nervous apparatus, consisting of fusiform ganglionic cells, 
 united by nerve fibres, which resemble the sympathetic 
 nerve fibrils of tho Vcrtcbrata, and form a plexus, which 
 appears to extend throughout the pedal disk, and very 
 probably into other parts of the body. ' In some of
 
 130 
 
 ACTINOZOA 
 
 the ActinidcB {e.g., Adinia mesemhryanthemum), brightly 
 coloured bead-like bodies are situated on the oral disk out- 
 side the tentacles. The structure of these "chromato- 
 phorcj," or " bourses calicinales." has been carefully investi- 
 gated by Schneider and Rbttekem, and by Professor 
 Duncan. They are diverticula of the body wall, the sur- 
 face of which is composed of close-set "bacilli," beneath 
 which lies a layer of strongly-refracting spherules, followed 
 by another layer of no less strongly refracting cones. Sub- 
 jacent to these Professor Duncan finds ganglion cells and 
 cerve plexuses. It would seem, therefore, that these bodies 
 are rudimentary eyes. 
 
 At the breeding season the ova or spermatozoa are 
 evolved in the thickness of the mesenteries, and are dis- 
 charged into tho intermesenteric spaces, the ova undergo- 
 ing their development within tho body of tho parent. The 
 yelk, usually, if not always, enclosed in a vitelline membrane, 
 undergoes complete division, and tho outer wall of the 
 ciliated blastodermic mass which results becomes invagi- 
 nated, the embryo being thereby converted into a double 
 walled sac — the external aperture of which is tho future 
 mouth, while the contained cavity represents the body cavity. 
 In this stage the larval Actinia represents the Oastrula con- 
 dition of sponges and Hydrozoa. The edges of the oral 
 aperture grow inwards, giving rise to a circular fold, which 
 i's the rudiment of the visceral tube. This is at first con- 
 nected with the body wall by only two mesenteries, which are 
 seated at opposite ends of one of the transverse diameters of 
 the body. As the mesenteries increase in number, the ten- 
 tacles grow out as diverticula of the intermesenteric spaces. 
 
 In all the Coralligena, the development of which has 
 been observed, the embryo is converted into a simple 
 actinozoon in a similar manner; but from this point they 
 diverge in two directions. In one great group, the mesen- 
 teries, and the tentacles which arise from the intermesen- 
 teric chambers, increase in number to six ; and then, in the 
 great majority of cases, the intermesenteric spaces undergo 
 subdivision by the development of new mesenteries, accord- 
 ing to curious and somewhat cpmplicated numerical laws, 
 until their number is increased to some multiple of five 
 or six. In these Uexacoralla (as they have been termed 
 by Haeckel) the tentacles also usually remain rounded and 
 conical. In the other group, tho Octocoralla, the mesen- 
 teries and the tentacles increase to eight, but do not sur- 
 pass that number; and the tentacles become flattened and 
 serrated at the edges, or take on a more or less pennatifid 
 character. 
 
 There are no Octocoralla which retain the simple indivi- 
 duality of the young actinozoon throughout life : but all in- 
 crease by gemmation, and give rise to compound organisms, 
 which may be arborescent, and fixed bv the root end of the 
 common stem, as in the Alcyonidce and Qoraonidoy: or may 
 possess a central stem which is not fixed, and gives off 
 lateral branches which undergo comparatively little sub- 
 division, as in the Pennatulidoe. 
 
 The body cavities of the eob'ids of these compound 
 Octocoralla are in free communication with a set of canals 
 which ramify through the ccenosarc. or common fabric of 
 the stem and branches by which they are borne, and which 
 play the part of a vascular system. 
 
 Except in the case of Tubipora, the zobids and the super- 
 ficial ccenosarc give rise to no continuous skeleton : but the 
 deep or inner substance of the coenosaro may be converted 
 into a solid rod-like or branching stem. 
 
 In the Uexacoralla. on the other hand, one large 
 group, that of the Aclinidce. consists entirely of simple 
 organisms, — organisms that is. in which the primitive 
 actinozoon attains its adult condition without budding or 
 fission; or if it bud or divide, the products of the operation 
 separate from one another No true skeleton is formed. 
 
 all are to some extent locomotive, and some (Minyas) <W> 
 freely by tho help of their contractile pedal regipn. The 
 most remarkable form of this group is the genus Cereanthxu, 
 which has two circlets, each composed of numerous tentacles, 
 one immediately around the oral aperture, the other at 
 the margin of the disk. The foot is elongated, subcorneal, 
 and generally presents a pore at its apex. Of the diametral 
 folds of the oral aperture, one pair is much longer than the 
 other, and is produced as far as the pedal pore. > The larva 
 is curiously like a young hydrozoon with free tentacles, 
 and at first possesses four mesenteries, wheuce it may be 
 doubted whether Cereanthut does not rather belong to t_._ 
 Octocoralla. 
 
 The Zoanthidm differ from tho Actinidce in little more 
 than their multiplication by buds, which remain adherent, 
 either by -a common connecting mass or ccenosarc or by 
 stolons; and in the possession of a rudimentary, spiculai 
 skeleton. 
 
 On the other hand, the proper stone-corals (as contra- 
 distinguished from the red coral) are essentially Actinice, 
 which become converted into compound organisms by 
 gemmaticn or fission, and develope a continuous skeleton. 
 
 The skeletal parts 1 of the Aclinozoa, to which reference 
 has been made, consist, cither of a substance of a homy 
 character; or of an organic basis impregnated with earthy 
 salts (chiefly of lime and magnesia), but which can be 
 isolated by the action of dilute acids; or finally, of cal- 
 careous salts in an almost crystalline state, forming rods 
 or corpuscles, which,- when treated with acids, leave only 
 an inappreciable and structureless film of organic matter. 
 The hard parts of all the Aporosa, Perforata, and Tabu- 
 late of Milne Edwards are in the last-mentioned condition; 
 while, in the Octocoralla (except Tubipora) the Antipathido), 
 and Zoantlridtx, the skeleton is either horny, or consists, at 
 any rate, to begin with, of definitely formed spicula, which 
 contain an organic basis, and frequently present a laminated 
 structure. In the organ coral [Tubipora), however, the 
 skeleton has the character of that of the ordinary stonc- 
 corals, except that it is perforated by numerous minute 
 canals. 
 
 The skeleton appears, in all cases, to be deposited within 
 the mesoderm, and in the intercellular substance of that 
 layer of the body. Even the definitely shaped spicula of 
 the Octocoralla are not the result of the metamorphosis 
 of cells. In the simple aporose .corals the calcification 
 of the base and side walls of the body gives rise to 
 the cup 01' theca; from this the calcification radiates in- 
 wards, in correspondence with the mesenteries, and gives 
 rise to as many vertical septa, the spaces between which 
 are termed loculi; while, in the centre, either by union of 
 the septa or independently, a pillar, the columella, grows 
 up. From the sides of adjacent septa scattered processes 
 of calcified substance, or synapticulce, may grow out 
 toward one another, as" in the Fungidce; or the interrup- 
 tion of the cavities of the loculi may be more complete by 
 the formation of shelves stretching from septum to 
 septum, but lying at different heights in adjacent loculi. 
 These are interseptal dissepiments. Finally, in the Tabutata, 
 horizontal plates, which stretch completely across the cavity 
 of the theca, are formed one above the other and constitute 
 tabular dissepiments. 
 
 In the Aporosa the theca and septa are almost invariably 
 imperforate; but in the Perforata they present apertures, 
 and in some madrepores the whole skeleton is reduced 
 to a mere network of dense calcareous substance. When 
 the Uexacoralla multiply by gemmation or fission, and 
 thus give rise to compound massive or aborescent aggre- 
 gations, each newly-formed coral polype developes a skeleton 
 
 • See KoUiker's hona Histoloaitx. 1866k
 
 AOTINOZOA 
 
 131 
 
 of its own, which is either confluent with that of the 
 others, or is united with them by calcification of the con- 
 necting substance of the common body. This intermediate 
 skeletal layer is then termed ccenenehyma. 
 
 The Octocoralla (excepting Tubipora) give rise to no thecce 
 and their dependencies, the skeleton of each polype, and 
 of the superficial portion of the polyparium, being always 
 composed of loose and independent spicula. But in many, 
 as the Gorgonidae, Pennatulidce (and in the Antipalhidce 
 among the Hexacoralla), the central part of the common 
 stem of the compound organism becomes hardened, either 
 by conversion into a mere horny axis (which may be more 
 or less impregnated with calcareous salts) without spicula; 
 or the cornification may be accompanied by a massive 
 development of spicula, either continuously or at intervals; 
 or the main feature of the skeleton may, from the first, be 
 the development of spicula, which become soldered together 
 by a subcrystalline intermediate deposit, as in the red 
 coral of commerce (Corallium rubrum). 
 
 It has seemed advisable to say thus much concerning the 
 hard parts of the Actinozoa in this place, but the details 
 of tho structure and development of the skeleton of the 
 Coralligena will be discussed under Corals and Coeax 
 Reefs. 
 
 The Tabulata, or Millepores, and the Rugosa, an extinct 
 and almost exclusively Palaeozoic group of stone-.coral form- 
 ing animals, are usually referred to the Coralligena. Judg- 
 ing by the figures given by Agassiz 1 of living Millepores, the 
 polypes which cover its surface are undoubtedly much more 
 similar to coryinform Hydrozoa than they a're to any 
 Actinozoon. But it is to be observed, firstly, that we have 
 no sufficient knowledge of the intimate structure of the 
 polypes thus figured; and, secondly, that the figures show 
 not the least indication of the external reproductive organs 
 which are so conspicuous in the Hydrozoa, and which 
 surely must have been present in some one or other of the 
 Millepores examined, were they really Hydrozoa. As re- 
 gards the Rugosa, the presence of septa is a strong 
 argument against their belonging to any group but the 
 Actinozoa, though it is not to be forgotten that a tendency 
 to the development of septiform prominei.ee is visible in 
 the walls of the gastric passages of certain calcareous 
 sponges. 
 
 Phenomena analogous to the "alternation of generations," 
 which is so common among the Hydrozoa, are unknown 
 (\mong the great majority of the Actinozoa. But Semper 2 
 has recently described a process of sexual multiplication 
 in two species of Fungiw, which he ranks under this head. 
 The Fungice bud out from a branched stem, and then 
 become detached and free, as is the habit of the genus. 
 To make the parallel with the production of a Medusa 
 from a Scyphistoina complete, however, the stem should be 
 nourished by an asexual polype of a different charactor from 
 the forms of Fungiaz which are produced by gemmation. 
 And this does not appear to be the case. 
 
 Dimorphism has been observed by KSlliker to occur 
 extensively among the Pennatulidw. Each polypary pre- 
 sents at least two different sets of zooids, some being 
 fully developed, and provided with sexual organs, while 
 the others have neither tentacles nor generative organs, and 
 exhibit some other peculiarities. 3 These abortive zooids 
 •are either scattered irregularly among the others {e.g., 
 Sarcophyton, Veretillum), or may occupy a definite position 
 (e.g., Virgularia). 
 
 (2.) The Ctenophora. — These are all freely swimming, 
 
 1 Contributions to the Natural History of the United States, j Vc). 
 lii. Plate xv. * ■ 
 
 * Ueber Generations-Wechsel bei Steinkorallm. Leipzig, 1872. 
 ' Abbandlungen der Senkenberyisr-hen Naturforschenden Oesell- 
 'viaft, >>d. vu. viii. 
 
 actively locomotive, marine animals, whicn do not multiply 
 by gemmation, nor form compound organisms such as 
 the polyparies of the Coralligena. Like the latter they 
 are composed of a cellular ectoderm and endoderm, between 
 which a mesoderm, containing stellate connective tissue 
 corpuscles and muscular fibres, i3 interposed. But, in most 
 parts of the organism, the mesoderm acquires a great thick- 
 ness and a gelatinous consistency; so that the body of one 
 of these animals diffeis in this respect from that of an 
 Actinia in the same way as the body of a Cyancea differs 
 from that of a Hydra. The bilateral symmetry, which 
 is obscure in most of the Coralligena, becomes obvious in 
 the (Stenopliora, in which the parts are disposed symmetri- 
 cally on each side of a vertical plane passing through 
 the longitudinal axis of the body. The oral aperture 
 is situated at one end of this axis (or its oral pole), while 
 at the opposite extremity (or aboral pole) there is very 
 generally situated a sac containing solid mineral particles — 
 the lithocyst. 
 
 The oral aperture leads into a visceral tube, which 
 undoubtedly performs the functions of a stomach. Never- 
 theless, as in the Coralligena, it is open at its aboral end, 
 and its cavity is thus placed in direct communication with 
 a chamber, whence canals are given off which penetrate the 
 gelatinous mesoderm. Of these canals, one continues the 
 direction of the axis of the body, and usually ends by two 
 apertures at the aboral pole. The others take a direction 
 in a plane more or less at right angles with the axis ; and 
 after branching out, terminate in longitudinal canals, 
 which lie beneath the series of locomotive paddles, or 
 come into relation with the tentacles when such organs 
 are developed. In addition to these, two canals frequently 
 extend along the sides of the stomach towards the oral pole. 
 The paddle-like locomotive plates are disposed in eight longi- 
 tudinal series (ctenophores) on the outer surface of the body. 
 They are thick at the base; thin and, as it were, frayed out 
 into separate filaments, at their free edges; and each plate 
 is set transversely to the long axis of the series of which it 
 forms a part. The ovaria and testes are developed in the 
 side walls of the longitudinal canals. It is clear, therefore, 
 that these canals answer to the intermesenteric spaces of 
 an Actinia; that the common cavity into which they and 
 the stomach open answers to the common cavity of the 
 body of the Actinia; that the apertures at the aboral pole 
 answer to the terminal aperture of Cereanthus; and that 
 the wide interspaces between the longitudinal canals repre- 
 sent the mesoderm of the Actinian mesenteries immensely 
 thickened. 
 
 In their development the Ctenophora resemble the 
 Coralligena in all essential respects, though they differ 
 from them in some details. Thus the process of yelk 
 division goes on at a different rate in the two moieties of 
 the egg, so that the vitellus becomes divided into one set 
 of small and another set of large cells, whereof the latter 
 become overlaid by the former, and give rise to a large- 
 celled hypoblast, enclosed within a small-celUd epiblast. 
 But in the manner in which the body cavity is formed, and 
 the visceral tube (which becomes the stomach) is developed, 
 the Ctenophora resemble the Aclinice. The paddles make 
 their appearance at four points of the circumference of the 
 body, in the form of elevations beset with short cilia; but 
 each of these divides into two, and thus the eight defini- 
 tive series are constituted. 
 
 There is a general agreement among anatomists respect- 
 ing the structure of the Ctenophora thus far; but the 
 question whether they possess a nervous system and sensory 
 organs or not, is, as in the case of the Coralligena, one 
 upon which there exists great diversity of opinion. Grant 
 originally described s> nervous ganglionated ring, whence 
 longitudinal cords proceed in Cydippe (Pleurobrachia)}
 
 132 
 
 ACT-AC T 
 
 but his observation lias not been verified by subsequent 
 investigations. According to Milne Edwards, followed by 
 others (among whom I must include myself), the nervous 
 system consists of a ganglion, situated at the aboral pole 
 of the body, whence nerves radiate, the most conspicuous 
 of which are eight cords which run down the correspond- 
 ing series of paddles; and a sensory organ, having the 
 characters of an otolithic sac, is seated upon the ganglion. 
 Agassiz and Kolliker, on the other hand, have denied that 
 the appearances described (though they really exist) are 
 justly interpreted. And again, though the body, described 
 as an otolithic sac, undoubtedly exists in the position indi- 
 cated in all, or most, of the Ctenophora, the question has 
 been raised whether it is an auditory or a visual organ. 
 
 These problems have been recently reinvestigated 
 with great care, and by the aid of the refined methods 
 of modorn histology, by Dr Eimer, 1 who describes a ner- 
 vous system, consisting of extremely delicate varicose ulti- 
 mate nerve fibrils, which traverse the mesoderm in all 
 directions, and are connected here and there with gan- 
 glionic corpuscles. These nerves are only discernible with 
 high magnifying powers, as they are for the most part 
 isolated, and are collected into bundles only beneath the 
 longitudinal canals. The mass which lies beneath the 
 •ithocyst is composed of cells, but these have none of the 
 special characters of nerve cells. Eimer states that he has 
 traced the filaments, which he considers to bo nerves, into 
 direct continuity with muscular fibres; and, around the 
 mouth, into subepidermal bodies, which he regards as 
 rudimentary forms of tactile corpuscles. Tho lithocyst is 
 recognised as an auditory organ, and, in addition, eye-spots 
 are described. 
 
 With a fundamental similarity of organisation, the form 
 of the body varies extraordinarily in tho Ctenophora. One 
 of the genera which is commonest on our coasts — Cydippe 
 (Pletobrachia) — is spheroidal; others (Beroe) are more ovate; 
 others are provided with large lobular processes (Eitcharis), 
 while an extreme modification, in which tho body is 
 ribbon shaped, is seen in Cesium. 
 
 Tho Ctenopkora are divisible into two very unequal groups :* 
 I. Eurystomala, in which the large oral aperture occupies the trun- 
 cated extremity of the oval body. 
 
 1. Bcroicke. 
 
 IL Slcnoatomala, in which the oral aperture and the gastric sac are 
 small relatively to the size of the body. 
 
 2. Saccatcc 
 8. Lobatce, 
 4. Tamiatae. 
 
 1. Beroidce. 
 
 The body is ovate, truncated at tho oral pole, the aboral being 
 more or less acuminate and mobile. The diges'.ive cavity occupies 
 a large portion of the body. The oral margin u simple in Beroe and 
 Idijia; but in Rangiaihc interradial spaces an. notched, and in each 
 a short process projects. The radial canals are connected by a 
 circumoral canal. No tentacles are present. The ctenophores of 
 Paiidora do not extend over more than half the body, as in the 
 embryos of Cydippe. The development, of the Beroidce is unac- 
 companied by metamorphosis. 
 
 2. Saccatae. 
 
 The circumoral canal is absent. The oral aperture is laterally 
 compressed, its long axis being at right angles to the plane of the 
 tentacles, which aro present in all the genera, and which are either 
 simple (Cydippe), or furnished with lamellar and filamentous 
 appendages illormiphora). The ctenophores arc equal in length, or 
 the lateral ones are fully developed, while the intermediate are shorter. 
 
 3. Lobata. 
 
 The oral and aboral pole, tfr the oral only, bear lobato appendages. 
 Bolir-d has a pair of oral lappets, into which the radial canals are pro- 
 longed. The ctenophores corresponding to these lobes are the longest, 
 while the middle ones are much shorter, and are prolonged on to an 
 anriele or finger-like lobe. The tentacles are represented by a tuft 
 of short processes on cither side of the mouth. The young Bolind 
 has the form of Cydippe, and like it bears a pair of long-fringed 
 
 1 Zoolo^itche Slitdien a\if Capri. 1873. 
 • I'..v»^kcl, " Qeiuiclle Morphologic," ii. lx 
 
 tentacles. The aboral region, bearing tho lateral ctenophon*, g/ftfi 
 more rapidly than the oral, so as ultimately to project, in two 
 ■principal lobes, by which the similar outgrowth of the mediaD 
 alioral regions with its ctenophores is aiTested, tho auricljs bMne the 
 dwarfed representatives of these regions. Those auricles in Euaiarit 
 are longer, so that tho ctenophores are all of equal length. ']'].• 
 tentacles ot this genus are placed at the oral pole ; thu oral lobes are 
 equivalent to the median ctenophores of Cydippe. Eurkamphaa 
 has tho oral lobes small, the body elongated, terminated by two 
 conical projections, on which tho median ctenophores are prolonged. 
 
 4. Tccniatce. 
 
 The body of Ccsttim is laterally compressed and elongated in a 
 direction which corresponds to one of the transverse diameters ol 
 Cydippe, the ribbon-like band thus formed being sometimes three 
 or even four feet long. The tentacles are near the oral pole ; the 
 canals aro ten in number; tho medio-lateral canals terminate in 
 trunks which follow tho oral margin of the ribbon, and thus 
 correspond to the circular canal of Bcrol. 
 
 Many Actinozoa (Pcnnalulido?, Ctenophora) are. phos- 
 phorescent; but the conditions which determine the evolu- 
 tion of light have not been determined. 
 
 All Actinozoa are marine animals, and the distribution 
 of many of the families (Actinida;, Turbinolidm, Pennatu- 
 lidaj, Beroidce) is extremely wide, and bears no ascertain- 
 able relation to climate. (t. h. H.) 
 
 ACTION, in Law, is the process by which redress is 
 sought in a court of justice for the violatio.n of a legal 
 right Tho word is used by jurists in three different senses. 
 Sometimes it is spoken of as a right — tho right, namely, 
 of instituting the legal process; sometimes, and more pro- 
 perly, it means the legal process itself ; and sometimes the 
 particular form which it assumes. The most universally 
 recognised division of actions is the division established 
 by the Roman lawyers into actions in rem and in personam. 
 An action in rem asserts a right to a particular thing as 
 against all the world ; an action in personam, asserts a right 
 only as against a particular person. For the sake of con- 
 venience, the law relating to actions ought to form s 
 separate section by itself in a properly constructed code. 
 
 In Roman law the action passed through three historical 
 stages — 
 
 In the first period, which was brought to an end by the Lex jEbiilia, 
 about 673 A.u.c, the system of legis actioncs prevailed. These 
 were five in number, — the actio sacramenti, per judicw poshila- 
 tionem, per condictionem, per vxanus injectiortem, per pignoris cap- 
 lioncm. The first was tho primitive and characteristic action of the 
 Roman law, and Hie others were littlo more than modes of applying 
 it to cases not contemplated in the original fonn, or of carrying the 
 result of it into execution when the action had been decided. 
 
 Action, in English Law, means the form of civil pro- 
 cess hitherto observed in the Courts of Common Law. The 
 procedure in the Court of Chancery is totally distinct, but 
 some account of the former may be desirable in order to 
 explain the new form of action introduced for all the civil 
 courts by the Judicature Act of 1873: — 
 
 Actions at law aro divided by Dlackstone into three classes, 
 according to the relief which they are respectively intended tc 
 obtain. Heal actions are those "whereby the plaintiff claims title 
 to have any lands or tenements, rents, commons, or other heredita- 
 ments." lnpersonal actions tho claim is "for debt or personal duty, 
 or damages in lieu thereof," or for "satisfaction in damages foi 
 some injury done to person or property." Mixed actions were sup- 
 posed to partake of the nature of both of *hese ; that is to say, there 
 was a demand both for real property and for personal damages, as in 
 the case of an action for waste. The distinction has long ceased to be 
 of any value. Blackstone speaks of real actions as being in his time 
 pretty generally laid aside, and successive enactments have oblite- 
 rated the distinctions altogether. The statute 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 27, 
 abolished all the real and mixed actions, except three real actions, 
 and ejectment, which was a mixed action. The Common Law Pro- 
 cedure Act of 1860 has assimilated the procedure in the former to 
 an ordinary action, and the Common Law Procedure Act of 1852 
 now .regulates the proceedings in ejectment. In these .\nd other 
 respects the three Common Law Procedure Acts of 1812, 1854, and 
 1860, very greatly simplified the proceedings in an action at law. 
 The first of these rendered it unnecessary any longer to select a 
 form of action in prosecuting n claim, and abolished many of the 
 teclunicalities which had accompanied tho older forms. The divi.
 
 A C T— A D A 
 
 133 
 
 lions now observed may be regarded as indicating, not so much 
 <orms of action in the old sense, as the character oi the injury sus- 
 tained and the relief sought. 
 
 Action (under the Supreme Court of Judicature Act, 
 1873). By this Act, which establishes one supreme court 
 ii place of the Superior Courts of Common Law and tne 
 High Court of Chancery, action is the name given to 
 t le proceeding in the High Court of Justice, which takes 
 the place of the old actions at common law, suits insti- 
 tuted by bill or information in the Court of Chancery, 
 causes in rem in the Court of Admiralty, or by citation in 
 the Court of Probate. For these various modes of obtain- 
 ing redress the Act substitutes one uniform proceeding, 
 tvhich retains most of the essential features of the common 
 law action. The form of action established by the Act is in 
 some measure a compromise between the old action at law 
 and Chancery suit. It may be described as putting an end 
 to the unintelligible and even misleading formulas of the 
 one and reducing the prolixity and redundance of the 
 other. (e. r.) 
 
 ACTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory in the 
 north of Acarnania, at the mouth of the Sinus Ambracius, 
 opposite the town of Nicopolis, built by Augustus on the 
 north side of the strait. Eastwards from the promontory 
 the strait widens out and forms a safe harbour. On the 
 promontory was an ancient temple of Apollo (who is hence 
 called by Virgil Actius), which was enlarged by Augustus. 
 Actium became famous on account of Augustus's victory 
 over Antony and Cleopatra (b.c. 31), and for the quin- 
 quennial games he instituted there, called Actio, or Ludi 
 Actiaci. Actiaca j£ra was a computation of time from the 
 battle of Actium. There was on the promontory a small 
 town, or rather village, also called Actium. 
 
 ACTON, a large village in Middlesex, about eight miles 
 west of St Paul's. It was once much frequented because 
 of its saline springs, but these have long lost their repute. 
 Acton being neat the metropolis .and easily accessible by 
 the Great Western Railway, and the price of building land 
 being low, numerous villas have been erected in the neigh- 
 bourhood. The population of the parish increased from 
 3151 in 1861 to 8306 in 1871. 
 
 ACTON, Sir John Francis Edward, son of Edward 
 Acton, who practised as a physician at Besaneon, was born 
 therein 1736, and succeeded to the title and estates in 1791, 
 on the death of his cousin in the third degree, Sir Richard- 
 Acton. He served in the navy of France, and afterwards 
 in that of Tuscany, and commanded a frigate in the joint 
 expedition of Spain and Tuscany against Algiers in 1774. 
 His gallantry in rescuing three or four thousand Spanish 
 soldiers from slavery led to his advancement. Entering 
 the Neapolitan service, he gained the favour of Queen Mary 
 Caroline, became commander-in-chief of the land and sea 
 forces, then minister of finance, and ultimately prime 
 minister. His policy was devised in concert with the 
 English ambassador Hamilton, and, of course, was hostile 
 to' France and to the French party in Italy. He has been 
 Leld responsible for the arbitrary and despotic measures- 
 which, in 1798-99, filled the prisons of Naples with poli- 
 tical prisoners, and even brought some of them to the 
 scaffold. In 1803 Acton was for a short time deprived of 
 the reins of government at the demand of France ; but he 
 was speedily restored to his former position, which he held 
 till, in Feb. 1806, on the entry of the French into Naples, 
 he had to flee with the royal family into Sicily. - He died 
 at Palermo on the '12th Aug 1811, leaving by his wife 
 (eldest daughter of his brothpr, General Joseph Edward 
 Acton, whom he had married by papal dispensation) three 
 children, of whom the second, Charles Januarius Edward, 
 was made Cardinal Santa Maria d^lla Pace in 1842. It 
 may be well -to state that Sir John has very frequenJj 
 
 been confounded with his above-mentioned brother, born 
 in 1737, who was also employed in the Neapolitan service. 
 ACTUARY, in ancient Rome, was the name given to the 
 clerks who recorded the Acta Publico, of the Senate, and also 
 to the officers who kept the military accounts and enforced 
 the due fulfilment of contracts for military supplies. In its 
 Englioh usage the word has undergone a gradual limitation 
 of meaning. At first it seems to have denoted any clerk 
 or registrar; then more particularly the secretary and 
 adviser of any joint-stock company, but especially of an 
 insurance company; and it is now applied specifically to 
 one who makes those calculations as to the probabilities of 
 human life, on which the practice of life assurance and the 
 valuation of reversionary interests, deferred annuities, <fec, 
 are based. The first mention of the word in law is in the 
 Friendly Societies Act of 1819, where it is used in the vagus 
 sense, " actuaries, or persons skilled in calculation." The 
 word has been used with precision since the establishment 
 of the " Institute of Actuaries of Great Britain and Ire- 
 land" in 1848. The "Faculty of Actuaries in Scotland" 
 "was formed at Edinburgh in 1856, and incorporated by 
 royal charter in 1868. The registrar in the Lower House 
 of Convocation is also called the actuary. 
 
 ACUNA, Christoval d', a Spanish Jesuit, born at 
 Burgos in 1597. He was admitted into the society in 1612, 
 and, after some years spent in study, was sent as a mis- 
 sionary to Chili and Peru, where he became rector of the 
 College of Cuenja. In 1639 he was appointed by the 
 Jesuits to accompany Pedro Texeira in his second explora- 
 tion of the Amazon, in order to take scientific observations, 
 and draw up a report that might be sent to Spain. The 
 journey lasted for ten months; and, on their arrival at 
 Peru, no ship being ready to convey the explorer to Spain, 
 Acuna employed himself in the preparation of a narrative 
 of his journey. This was published at Madrid in 1641, 
 under the title Nuevo Descubrimicnto del Gran Bio de las 
 Amazonas, &c. The King of Spain received Acuna coldly, 
 and, it is said, even tried to suppress his book, fearing 
 that the Portuguese, who had revolted from Spain, would 
 avail themselves of the information which it contained. 
 A translation into French was published by Gomberville in 
 1682; and a translation from the French into English 
 appeared in 1698. Aiter occupying the positions of procu- 
 rator of the Jesuits at Rome, and calificador (censor) of the 
 Inquisition at M»drid, Acuiia returned to South America, 
 where he died, probably soon after the year 1675. 
 
 ACUPRESSURE, in Surgery (acus, a needle, premo, I 
 press), a method of restraining haemorrhage, introduced in 
 1869 by the late Sir J. Y. Simpson. The closure of the 
 vessel near the bleeding point is attained by the direct 
 pressure of a metallic needle, either alone or assisted by a 
 loop of wire. The advantages claimed by the originator of 
 this method over the old silk ligature were, that the needles 
 can be removed within forty-eight hours after introduction, 
 allowing the wound to heal rapidly; and that, being metallic 
 and non-porous, they do not cause irritation and suppura- 
 tion like the silk ligature. The catgut ligature, which is 
 rapidly absorbed, is gradually superseding both the silk 
 ligature and the acupressure needle. A volume entitled 
 Acupressure, by Sir J. Y. Simpson, was published in 1864. 
 ACUPUNCTURE, the name of a surgical operation 
 among the Chinese and Japanese, which is performed by 
 pricking the part affected with a silver needle. They 
 employ this-operation in headaches, lethargies, convulsions, 
 colics, (fee; and -it has more lately been introduced into 
 British practice for the cure of some forms of neuralgia. 
 
 ADAFUDIA, a large town of Western Africa, in the 
 country of the Felattahs, in 13° 6' N. lat.,-1" 3' E. long., 
 about 400 miles S.E of Timbuctoo. It is surrounded by 
 a mud wall The neighbouring country is rich and
 
 134 
 
 ADA-ADA 
 
 fertile. - The trade in native merchandise is said to oe 
 ria great as that of Abomey, the capital of Dahomey ; and 
 thero is also a considerable traffic iu elavos. Population, 
 about 24,000. 
 
 ADAL, a region in Eastern Africa, with a coast line 
 ding, between 11° 30' and 15? 40' N. lat., from the 
 Culf of Tajurrah to the neighbourhood of Massowah. For 
 about 300 miles it borders on the Red Sea, the coast of 
 ^vhich is composed of coral rock. It stretches inland to 
 the mountain terraces, to the west of which lie the Abys- 
 sinian table-lands of Shoa and Tigre, with a breadth near 
 Massowah of only a few miles, but widening towards the 
 south to 200 or 300 miles. The northern portion of this 
 region, known as the Afar country, is traversed by two 
 routes to Abyssinia — the one from Zulla near Massowah, 
 and the other from Amphilla Bay. The former of these 
 ■was selected for the British Abyssinian expedition of 1868, 
 Annesley Bay being the place of debarkation and base of 
 operations. There is a third route to Abyssinia through 
 Adal, that from Tajurrah to Ankobar, the capital of Shoa, 
 6aid to be preferred for trading purposes, as being less 
 steep than the others. The river Hawash flows through 
 the southern district of Adal in a N.E. direction, but is 
 lost in Lakes Abbebad and Aussa. Near this river is 
 Aussa, the chief town of the country. Volcanic rocks 
 occur in various parts of this district; and two mountains, 
 4000 feet high, are mentioned, which have sent down 
 streams of lava on all sides to the distance of 30 miles. 
 The country contains two great 6alt plains or basins, — that 
 of Asali iu its northern portion, and Aussa in the south. 
 The remarkable salt lake of Bahr Assal, near Tajurrah, is 
 570 feet below the level of the sea. The country 
 as a whole is barren and uncultivated. A little barley 
 is reared on the higher terraces, and some districts 
 afford pasturage for domestic animals, large quantities of 
 butter being annually sent to Massowah. In some parts 
 of Adal the elephant is not uncommon. The salt of Asali 
 and Aussa is a valuable article of commerce. There is no 
 fixed government, the country being inhabited by various 
 independent tribes, all speaking the Afar language and 
 professing the Mahometan religion, and most of them of 
 nomadic habits. 
 
 ADALBERT, Saixt, one of the founders of Christianity 
 in Germany, known as the Apostle of the Prussians, was 
 bom of a noble family in Slavonia, about 955 ; was educated 
 at the monastery of Magdeburg; and, in 983, was chosen 
 Bishop of Prague. The restraints which he tried to impose 
 on the newly-converted Bohemians' by prohibiting poly- 
 gamy, clerical incontinency, and similar sins, raised against 
 him so strong a feeling of hatred, that he was forced, in 
 988, to retire to Rome, where he resided at the monasteries 
 of Monte' Basino' and St Alexis. In 993 hi returned to 
 his flock, in obedience to the command of the Pope. Find- 
 ing little amendment, however, in their course of living, he 
 soon afterwards went again to Rome, and obtained permis- 
 sion from the Pope to devote himself to missionary labours, 
 which he carried on chiefly in North Germany and Poland. 
 While preaching in Pomerania (997), he was thrust through 
 the heart by a heathen priest. 
 
 ADALBERT, Archbishop of Bremen and Hamburg, 
 born of the noble Saxon family of the Counts of Wettin, 
 was one of the most remarkable ecclesiastics of the 11th 
 century. Through the friendship of the emperor Henry 
 HI. he was elevated in 1043, when only about thirty 
 years old, to the see of Bremen and Hamburg, which 
 included the whole of Scandinavia, and he accompanied 
 the monarch in his journey to Rome (1046)." 'Here it is 
 said that he was offered and that he refused the papal 
 throne. The refusal certainly cannot have arisen from 
 lack of ambition; for on his return in 1050, with a com- 
 
 mission as legate to the nortuern courts irora Pope Leo 
 IX., he immediately set about carrying out the emperor's 
 wishes by establishing himself in an independent patri- 
 archate of the north. For this purpose he sought by every 
 means to augment liis already great influence, he adorned 
 hi3 two cathedrals, and enlarged and fortified the town of 
 Bremen bo that it might rival Rome. There was much in 
 hia favour, and ho might even have succeeded in entirely 
 separating the church of the north from the see of Rome, 
 had it not been for the death of Henry IIL, and the oppo- 
 sition of Cardinal Hildebrand. Henry IV. being a minor 
 at the time of his father's death, Adalbert was associated 
 with Archbishop Hanno of Cologne as guardian and regent; 
 and during the absence of the latter on a mission to Rome, 
 he sought, by granting every indulgence, to gain the 
 favour of the young prince, and so. to be able to exercme 
 an absolute power in the state (1062-65). The Archbishops 
 of Mayence and Cologne secured his bauishment from 
 cuurt after the government had been assumed by Henry in 
 person (1066); and about the same time bL> dioceso was 
 invaded by the "natural enemies" of Bremen, the Saxou 
 nobles. In 1069. however, he was recalled, and reinstated 
 in his former position. He died at Goslar in 1072, having 
 done much during his last years to inflame the Saxons' hatred 
 of Henry, which resulted soon afterwards in their revolt. 
 
 AD Ail, o-k, an appellative noun, meaning the first man. 
 In Genesis ii. 7, 25, iii. 8, 20, iv. 1, ic, it assumes the nature 
 of a proper name, and has the article, the Hunt, the <>idy 
 one of his kind ; yet it is appellative, correctly sptaking. 
 In Genesis i 26, 27, v. 2, it is simply appellative, being 
 applied to both progenitors of the human race ; not to 
 the first man alone as iu the second, third, aud fourth 
 chapters. The etymology of the word is uncertain, but 
 it is probably connected with a root signifying red, so that 
 the idea is one red or ruddy. 
 
 The early part of Genesis contains two accounts ol 
 man's creation. These narratives need not be examined 
 at present farther than man's origin is concerned. In 
 Genesis i. 26, 27, we read, "And God said, Let us make 
 man in our image; after our likeness ; and let them have 
 dominion over the fish of the sea, aud over the fowl of 
 the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, aud 
 over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. 
 So God created man in his own image ; in the image of 
 God created he him ; male aud female created be them," 
 At the end of the sixth day of creation man appears, the 
 noblest of earth's inhabitants. In Genesis ii 7, 8, we also 
 read, " And the Lord formed man of the dust of the 
 ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life ; 
 and man became a living soul. And the Lord God 
 planted a garden eastward in Eden : and there he put the 
 man he had formed." The woman's creation is thus 
 narrated in subsequent verses of the same chapter — 20, 21, 
 22,-23, "And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the 
 fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field : but for 
 Adam there was not found an help meet for him. And 
 the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, 
 and he slept : and he took oue of his ribs, and closed up 
 the flesh instead thereof. And the rib, which the Lord 
 God had taken from man, made he a woman, and brought 
 her unto the man. And Adam said, This is now bone of 
 my bones, and flesh of my flesh: she shall be called 
 Woman, because she was taken out of man." Between 
 these accounts some discrepancy exists. The first repre- 
 sents the man and woman to have been created together, 
 after the various creatures which the earth sustains on its 
 surface; the second makes Adam to have been created 
 first, then the various animals, with the woman last of all. 
 The creation of animals separates the origin of the man 
 and the woman. The first narrator states that man was
 
 ADAM 
 
 135 
 
 made in the image and form of God, without explaining 
 his meaning more particularly. Hence interpreters differ 
 in attempting to define it. The language need not be 
 restricted either to man's spirit or to his body, but may 
 refer to his united whole, including spiritual qualities and 
 bodily form. The ancient Hebrew did not thank of God 
 without a certain form, but transferred the human one to 
 him, divesting it of grossness, and giving it an ethereal 
 luminuusuess of surpassing glory. The image of God, 
 therefore, in which Adam is said to have been created, 
 includes the whole man, with special reference to the 
 spiritual nature within him. We cannot tell whether the 
 writer thought of immortality as involved in the God- 
 Jikoness. He may have done so. But the second account 
 teaches that man was only mortal at first, because he is 
 sent out of Paradise lest he should become immortal by 
 eating of the tree of life. 
 
 The narrative in the first chapter is arranged according 
 to a definite plan. Six days are allotted to the creation of 
 the heavens and earth, with all their furniture animate 
 and inanimate. After due preparation had been made 
 by the formation of light, atmosphere, and land separated 
 from water, life is called into ^existence, first vegetable, 
 then animal, terminating in man the lord of this lower 
 world. The narrative in chapters ii.-iv. does not present 
 such orderly progress. In it man is the central figure, 
 to whom all is subordinated. He is created first. For 
 him plants and trees are made to spring up. He is placed 
 in a delightful garden. The Lord God perceiving his 
 solitary condition creates the beasts of the field and the 
 fowls of the air ; but when brought to the protoplast, 
 they were insufficient to supply his mental void, so that 
 woman was made, in whom he found a suitable partner. 
 A number of questions connected with the first pair, not 
 necessarily entering into the writer's main purpose in 
 describing man's origin, but complementary and new, 
 are, the means by which the ground yielded vegetable pro- 
 ductions, the materials from which the man anil the woman 
 •were formed, the cause of their intimate union, the place 
 of their abode, the simplicity of their condition, and the 
 tvay in which animals first received their names. By these 
 traits preparation is made for the history of what befell 
 the protoplasts in their primitive abode. 
 
 According to the second narrative, Jehovah planted a 
 garden in Eden, eastward, and put the first man there. 
 A spring or stream rising in Eden, and flowing through 
 the garden, supplied it with water. In issuing from the 
 garden it divided itself into four rivers, each having its 
 own course. The writer gives their names, and the 
 countries washed by three of them. This garden, usually 
 termed Paradise after the Septuagint and Vulgate, has 
 been eagerly sought for; but it has baffled curiosity. 
 Though two of the rivers, the Euphrates and Tigris, are 
 well known, the other two, Pison and Gihon, can only be 
 identified with difficulty. They seem to be rivers of 
 Northern India. The Tigris and Euphrates took their 
 rise in the high land of Northern Armenia ; the Pison, i.e., 
 Indus, rises iu the Himalayas; and the Gihon, i.e., Oxus, 
 is conuected v.ith Ethiopia or Cnsh. The writer appears 
 to have considered them all as having their source in the 
 northern highlands of Asia, and flowing south, and there- 
 fore he placed Eden somewhere in the north of Asia. 
 The names of two rivers belonging to a foreign tradition, 
 and little known to the Hebrews because intercourse with 
 India was then remote, were associated with those of two 
 known ones incorporated in the national tradition. If the 
 interpreter had to do with pure history, it might not be 
 amiss to sea.ch for Eden in some definite locality; but, as 
 tho case stands, the examination would probably be fruitless. 
 The garden his two remarkable productions — the tree 
 
 of life, and the tiee of knowledge of good and evil. The 
 former derives its name from the virtue of its fruit to 
 impart perpetual life or immortality. The fruit of the 
 latter communicates the knowledge of good and evil. It 
 awakens moral consciousness. The one had to do with 
 physical, the other with spiritual life. Such were the 
 miraculous powers of the two trees in the midst of t'x 
 garden. 
 
 The third chapter gives an account of the first pair failing 
 away from the state in which they were created. What 
 that state was may be clearly gathered from the words. It 
 was one of innocent simplicity. The protoplasts had a child- 
 like unconsciousness of evil ; no knowledge of right and 
 wrong, virtue and vice. They were in the happy condition 
 of infancy. Their moral existence had not begun. Perfec- 
 tion, uprightness, righteousness, could not be predicated 
 of them. But the world presents vice and its concomitant 
 misery in strong colours. Misery and evil abound. The 
 eyes of an Oriental especially must have been vividly 
 struck with the phenomena of toilsome woik, the pains of 
 child-bearing, the slavery of woman, and the inevitable 
 necessity of death. The Hebrews, accordingly, meditated 
 on the cause. The writer seeks to connect with the problem 
 incidental phenomena, as the love of man and wife, the 
 form of the serpent different from that of other animals, 
 the mutual hatred of man and serpents, ic. It is an old 
 question, the introduction of evil into the world. As all 
 the posterity of the first pair participate in sin and suffer- 
 ing, the cause must be looked for in connection with 
 these. Yet it must not proceed from themselves. God 
 had made them innocent and happy. The origin of evd 
 must come from without. A serpent becomes the instru- 
 ment of their temptation. That cunning and mischievous 
 animal seduces them. The writer thought of nothing but 
 the creature itself. Those who suppose that the devil 
 employed the serpent as his instrument, or that the devil 
 alone is spoken of, are confronted by the fact that tho idea 
 of Satan was of later introduction among the Hebrews 
 than the age of the writer. The curse pronounced on the 
 tempter sufficiently shows that npne but the agent expressly 
 named was thought of. 
 
 Are these narratives of the creation, primal abode, and 
 fall of man, literal history ? So some have always believed, 
 with Augustine and the Reformers. The difficulties in 
 the way of this interpretation are great. As it cannot 
 be carried out consistently, its advocates resort to various 
 expedients. They forsake the literal for the figurative 
 wherever necessity demands. Thus they put a figurative 
 construction on the language of the curse, because they 
 allege that a literal one would be frigid, utterly unworthy 
 of the solemn occasion, highly inconsistent with the 
 dignity of the speaker and the condition of the parties 
 addressed. Sometimes they even incline to regard the 
 narrative as a sort of poem, or give it a poetical character. 
 The atmosphere in which the accounts move is different 
 from the literal one. Instead of assuming that God 
 created the world and all it contains in a moment of 
 time, and in harmonious arrangement, the ' first writer 
 attributes creation to six successive 'days, represents the 
 Almighty as addressing the newly-formed existences, look- 
 ing upon them with satisfaction, pronouncing them good, 
 and resting on the seventh day. >He naturally chose 
 the six days of the Hebrew week, with which he was 
 familiar, for successive gradations of the creative power. 
 In the second account we find a speaking serpent, God 
 walking in a human way in the cool of the day through 
 the garden, his jealousy of the aspiring Adam who had 
 attained a higher knowledge, his cursing the serpent, and 
 cherubim with a flaming sword. To explain all this as 
 . literal history, were to attribute other perfections to the
 
 136 
 
 A D A M 
 
 Deity than infinite power, spirituality, and wisdom. Hence 
 the Church of England, according to Horaley, does not 
 demand the literal understanding of the document con- 
 tained in the second and third chapters, as a point of 
 faith. 
 
 Are the narratives allegorical? So Phflo 1 interprets 
 them, followed by the Greek fathers of Alexandria, 
 Clement and Origen, 2 as well as by Ambrose. In modern 
 times Coleridge read the whole as an allegory. 3 So did 
 Donaldson in his. Jashar. There is no indication, how- 
 ever, that allegories were intended. Had this been the 
 case, the truths meant to be conveyed would have been easily 
 discovered. The embarrassment and capriciousness of the 
 allegorical interpreters prove that they have followed a 
 wrong method. The outward fonn is set aside, and an 
 idea discovered beneath it with which the envelope has 
 no necessary connection. Both should be retained ; the 
 shell suggesting the kernel, and the kernel showing itself 
 to be the necessary evolution of central ideas. 
 
 According to another interpretation, mure commonly ac- 
 oepted among scholars at the present day, both accounts are 
 supposed to be, like the early records of other nations, tradi- 
 tional and mythical. This does not imply that they are fables 
 or fictions; far from it. It is true that the oldest traditions 
 of peoples are mainly subjective, the result of the national 
 mind ; but they are nevertheless real. Variable, developed 
 in different forms, influenced by the characteristics of the 
 people and by their intercourse with others, they are all that 
 constitutes the earliest history of nations, the shapings of 
 oral tradition before written records appeared. A mythologi- 
 n\ ige stands at the head of all national histories ; and that 
 of tho Hebrews seems to be no exception. The two narra- 
 tives present philosophical mythi in a historical form. They 
 represent the best ideas of the Hebrews at a certain stage 
 of their history in explanation of the creation of man, his 
 primeval abode and state, and the cause of his degeneracy. 
 The first account is plain and simple. It assigns a high 
 dignity to man, and traces all human beings to a single 
 pair, in harmony with the best evidence of modern 
 science that points to unity of origin, rather than to dif- 
 ferent centres of creation. There is a naturalness in the 
 narrative that cannot.be mistaken, while the writer adheres 
 to generalities. (Sec Gabler's Einleilunff to Eichhorn's 
 Urgeschickte, vol. i. p. 11, &c. ; and ' Gesenius's article 
 " Adam," in Ersch und Gruber's Encyklopoedie, vol. i.) 
 
 On the other hand, the narrator in the second, third, and 
 fourth chapters manifests a more reflective -spirit, seeking to 
 explain causes, and to trace connections.* Supplying particu- 
 lars wanting in the older narrative, and correcting others, he 
 enters into details, and though more anthropomorphic, has 
 a finer perception of circumstances associated with the 
 protoplasts. Tholuck himself admits his narrative to be a 
 mrthus. It is usual to designate the first "writer the 
 Elohist ; the second, the Jchovist ; because the one com- 
 monly uses Elohim as the name of God ; the other 
 Jehovah, or Jehovah Elohim in the second and third 
 chapters. 
 
 The Adam in the second and third chapters, according to 
 this view, is the progenitor and representative of humanity, 
 who brought misery into the world by self- will. He is ideal 
 man, becoming historical in every individual who, as 
 soon as his moral nature is awakened, feels the power and 
 possibility of rising higher through reason and per- 
 ception. Adam's procedure repeats itself in each indivi- 
 dual, who has his paradise, eats of the tree of knowledge; 
 -r<i feela within him the roots of apostasy from God. On I 
 
 1 De mundi Opificio, p. 37, vol. i. ed. Mangey. 
 
 8 Philocalia, cap. 1, and contra Cel». 
 
 8 Aids to Reflation, p. 241, note (Burlington edition of 1840;. 
 
 the other hand, his restoration and happiness are supposed 
 to be in his own power. His salvation is practicable through 
 •the victory of reason over instinct, of faith over sense. 4 
 
 The traditions of ancient nations preseut analogies to the 
 creation of man given in the first chapter of Genesis. The 
 Etrurian cutnes nearest to the Hebrew. There creation 
 takes place in six periods of a. thousand years each, and 
 men appear in the last, after the earth, sun, moon, and stars, 
 with all living things on the surface of the globe, had been 
 brought into existence by God. 5 The Persian mythology, 
 in like manner, makes Ormuzd, the god of light, create by 
 his word Hotiover the visible world in six periods of a 
 thousand years each, and man is formed last. The name of 
 the first man is Kaiomorts. 4 The Chaldee myth, given by 
 Berosus, presents little resemblance to the Hebrew narra- 
 tive. Bel, the highest god, divided the darkness, and cut 
 the woman, who ruled over the monstrous creatures found at 
 first in theall, into two halves, out of which heaven and earth 
 were formed. After that he cut off his own head. The blood 
 trickling down was taken by other gods and mixed with 
 earth, from which men were formed, who are therefore wise, 
 and partakers of the divine intelligence. 7 The Pheniciau 
 myth is still more unlike the Hebrew account. 8 But Ovid's 
 teaching is that man was made in the imago of the gods, 
 and was intended to be ruler of the earth. 9 The Egyptian 
 theology has no' point of contact with the Hebrew. 10 The 
 Indian accounts are very numerous, but often discrepant. 
 Their likeness to the Hebrew narrative is remote; for the 
 play of imagination appears in them to excess and absur- 
 dity. Among those myths in which the formation of men 
 is described without allusion to any primordial distinction 
 of castes, we may quote two. Prajapati, i.e., tho universe 
 which was soul and only one, formed animals from his 
 breaths, a man from his soul. The soul is the first of the 
 breaths. Since he formed a man from hid soul, therefore 
 they say. "man is the first of the animals, and the strongest." 
 The soul is all the breaths : for all the breaths depend upon 
 the soul. Since he formed man from his soul, therefore 
 they say, " man is all the animals;" for all these arc man's. 11 
 Manu's account of the creation is that men of the four 
 castes proceeded separately from different parts of Brahma's 
 body prior to the division of that body into two parts. The 
 doctrine of emanation appears in the Indian cosmogonies, as 
 also that of absorption. Thus Brahma is reabsorbed into 
 the supreme spirit, according to Manu. 12 According to the 
 Bamians in India, God having made the world and tho 
 creatures belonging to it, created man, who came forth from 
 the earth at the divine voice, his head appearing first, then 
 his whole body, into whom life was conveyed. God gave 
 him for companion a woman, and the two lived together as 
 man and wife, feeding on the fruits of the ground. Tbey 
 had four sons of different temperaments, for whom God 
 made four women, and the four quarters bf the earth were 
 peopled by their progeny. 13 
 
 The paradisiacal state of the first pair, and their loss of 
 it as described in tho second and third chapters of Genesis, 
 have their parallels in the myths of ancient nations. Ac- 
 cording to the Persian traditions, Meschia and Meschiane, 
 the progenitors of mankind, were created for happiness in 
 
 4 Pee Tuch's Kommcntar ueber die Genesis, p. 50. 
 
 * Suidns, 8. v. Titffntlm, vol. ii. pp. 1248-9, ed. Bernhardy. 
 
 * Kleuker, I 19, 20; iii. 59, Ac 
 
 7 Eusebiug's Chron. Bipariitum, vol. i. p. 24, ed. Aucher. 
 
 8 See Sanchoniatfto, translated by Cory, in the Phenvc, p. 185, Ac, 
 ed. New York 
 
 * Mstamorphos. L 76, 4c. ; Opera ed. Burmann, torn. ii. p. 20 
 
 10 Roeth's Gachichte der Philos. L p. 131, Ac. 
 
 11 Muir'j Sanskrit Texts, voL i. p. 24, 2d ed. 
 M Ibid. p. 53, Ac. 
 
 u See Lord'g Display of two Foreign Sects in the East Indies, chap 
 ter L p. 1, Ac
 
 ADAM 
 
 137 
 
 this world and (he next, on condition that they were good, 
 and did not worship Dews. At first they acted according to 
 their original nature, acknowledging that all beings were 
 derived from Ormuzd. But they were seduced by an evil 
 spirit, and clothed themselves in black for thirty days. 
 After that they went out to hunt, and found a white goat, 
 of whose milk they drank. In this they sinned against 
 their body, and were punished. The evil spirit or Dew 
 presented himself to them again, giving them fruits to eat, 
 by which they forfeited a hundred enjoyments. At first 
 they covered themselves with the skins of dogs, and ate 
 the flesh of these animals. They hunted and made them- 
 selves clothing of the skins of deer. 1 
 
 Abriman is represented as a poisonous serpent, and 
 springs in this form from heaven to earth. 2 Dews often 
 take the same form. 3 
 
 The tree Horn, among them is similar to the tree of life. 
 It imparts immortality, and is called the king of trees.* 
 
 The holy mountain or paradise of Persian tradition is 
 Albordj, the abode of Oxmuzd and the good spirits, which 
 sends forth great rivers. 5 This means the Hindu K'oosh 
 mountains where was Airjana veedjo, the first seat of the 
 Aryan race. Here we have mention of a district Heden; 
 and Zoroaster is said to have been born in Ifedenesch, but 
 elsewhere in Airjana veedjo. 6 
 
 According to the religion of Lama or the Calmucks, men 
 lived in the first age of the world 80,000 years. They 
 were holy and happy. But their happiness came to an end. 
 A plant, sweet as honey, sprang out of the earth, of which a 
 greedy man tasted, and made others acquainted with it. A 
 sense of shame was awakened, and therefore they began to 
 make themselves coverings of the leaves of trees. Their 
 age and siz9 decreased. Virtue fled, and all manner of vice 
 prevailed. 7 The paradisiacal state of Thibetan mythology 
 is one of perfection and spirituality. But the desire to eat 
 of a sweet herb, schima, put an end to that condition. 
 Shame sprang up within the fallen; the need of clothing 
 was felt. They were driven to agriculture by necessity. 
 Virtue fled, murder, adultery, and all other vices suc- 
 ceeded. 8 
 
 Among the Indians, the holy mountain of the north, the 
 seat of the gods, and the source of the great rivers, was 
 Aferu. 9 The tree Parijata, brought from heaven to earth 
 by Krishna, with its heavenly flower and fruit, scares away 
 hunger, thirst, disease, old age, <fcc. 10 
 
 The Greek myths are remotely parallel. Hesiod describes 
 the primitive state as one free from toil, sickness, and all 
 kinds of evil Mortals were contented with easily obtained, 
 though poor, sustenance. But cunning Prometheus de- 
 ceived Zeus, and stole fire from heaven. The latter, by 
 way of punishment, sent a beautiful woman, Pandora, whom 
 Epimetheus accepted as a gift. Having with her a vessel 
 into which all sorts of misery had been put, she opened it 
 out of curiosity, and evils flew forth in abundance, filling 
 the earth. Hope alone remained at the bottom. 11 
 
 The story is supplemented and modified in the Theogony. 
 There Prometheus is twice punished, and woman becomes 
 the source of man's evils, merely as the original mother of 
 the race. There is also a reconciliation between Zeus and 
 Prometheus. 13 
 
 In jEschylus mankind are presented in the ignorance of 
 
 1 Kleuker's Zend-Avesta, part iii. pp. 84, 85. 
 
 » Ibid. iii. 62. » Ibid. ii. 192. 
 
 « Ibid. iii. p. 105. 
 
 « Ibid. iii. 70, 91. « Ibid. ii. 277, 299; iii 118. 
 
 7 Staudlin in Archiv. fur Kirchengeschichte, i. 3, p. 14: 
 
 ' See Staudlin's Archiv. i. 3, p. 15. 
 
 • Von Bohlen's Das alte Indien, i. 12 ; ii. 210. 
 10 Wilson's Vishnu Purana, pp. 586, 613: and Langlois's' translation 
 ef the Harivansa, tome ii. p. 3. 
 " Opera et Lies. 40-105. u Ibid. 506-616. 
 
 1— !5" 
 
 infancy till Prometheus implanted in tliem the power of 
 intellect, and the capability of knowledge. The fire from 
 heaven is not the cause of the evils that broke in upon 
 them; rather is it the teacher of every art, and the opener 
 up of infinite resources; but Prometheus himself must 
 endure fearful punishment for his self-will, in paying too 
 much regard to mortals. Still there is an intimation of 
 future reconciliation between the opposing powers, Zeus 
 and Prometheus. 
 
 The points of similarity between the Old Testament and 
 this Greek representative of man's fall are tolerably plain. 
 In both there is an original state marked by freedom from 
 sorrow, by complete earthly enjoyment and undisturbed 
 peace with God. Both attach the origin of evil to the act 
 of a free being putting himself in opposition to God — 
 evil being the punishment of that act, arising by means of 
 a woman. As the Old Testament narrative implies that 
 the step taken by man was not a mere degeneracy, so 
 ^Eschylus's description admits that it was for humanity 
 the beginning of a richer and higher life, since man's 
 proper destiny could not be- worked out in a condition of 
 childlike incapacity. Pandora reminds us of Ei e ; Epi- 
 metheus of Adam. Prometheus and the serpent both wish 
 to make men like God in knowledge and happiness. 13 The 
 tragic poet seems to regard Prometheus as the archetype of 
 man, so that his fate is theirs. Like every strong-willed 
 mortal, Prometheus flounders on the rock of presumption. 
 He persists in acting contrary to the commands of Deity, 
 and endures torture till he submits to a higher will, accept- 
 ing the symbols of repentance and restraint within certain 
 l im its. Thus, like Adam, he is the representative of 
 humanity. 
 
 The fundamental difference between the Hebrew and 
 Greek narratives is, that the distinction between God and 
 the world, spirit and nature, maintained with 'all sharpness 
 in the one, is not carried out in the other. On the con- 
 trary, the Greek myth mixes the two spheres, so that the 
 world appears as the original, independent element, of 
 which spirit and deity are mere products. In the Hebrew 
 narrative the spiritual features are presented clearly and 
 simply; in the Greek they are indistinct, because transferred 
 to the sensuous world and covered with a luxuriant growth 
 of outer nature. 14 
 
 Ovid paints the golden age in the manner of Hesiod, but 
 with more details. It was pervaded by innocent simplicity, 
 and the successive ages became still worse, till moral corrup- 
 tion reached such a height in the last or iron age that 
 Jupiter sent a flood to destroy all mankind. 15 
 
 Plato in his 'Symposium ls explains the serual and ama- 
 tory inclination of the man and the woman by the fact 
 that there were at first androgynous beings, whom Zcua 
 separated into men and women. The two sexes were 
 originally united. 
 
 In Corrodi's Beitrage (xviii. p. 14), the Indian Ezoui 
 Vedam is quoted, in which the first man is called Aditno, 
 from whose body came Brahma, Vishnu, and Schiva. This 
 statement is repeated by Knobel and others. But the 
 Ezour Vedam (a corrupt pronunciation of Yajur Veda) is a 
 spurious Veda from the pen of some Jesuit missionary. 17 
 Though it mentions Adimo (which simply means the first) 
 in vol. i. p. 195, &c, and vol. ii. 205, genuine Indian 
 mythology recognises no such name of the first man. 
 
 The second narrative, in some of its ideas, seems de> 
 
 13 See Buttmann's Mythologies, Band i. p. 48, &c. 
 
 14 See G. Baur in the Studien. und Kritiken for 1848, p. 320, elsecf, 
 
 16 Metamorphos. i. 89, &c. ; vol. ii. p. 14, kc, ed. Bunnann. 
 " Cap. xv. ed. StaUbaum, 1827. 
 
 17 The Ezour Vedam was print? d at Paris in 1778. See Mr Ellis, in 
 the Asiatick Researches, vol. xiv. p. 2, &c, and Dr Muir in th»; 
 Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xxiii. part 2, p. 
 255, ka.
 
 138 
 
 A D A -A D A 
 
 rived from Eastern Asia. Several features disclose this ; 
 auch as the covering of fig leaves, the springing of four 
 rivers from a common source, and the names of two of 
 them which point to India. The tree of life and the 
 seducing spirit have their place in the Persian and T ndian 
 religions. But its essence is adapted to the Hebrew 
 theology, and contains genuine Hebrew traits ; though it 
 stands tolerably isolated in the circle of ideas which the 
 Old Testament presents. Not till the Book of Wisdom 
 do we rind express reference to it (chap. ii. 23, 24), 
 though the tree of life is spoken of in the Proverbs. Yet 
 there ia diversity amid similarity. As elaborated by the 
 Hebrew mind, the narrative is a profound theory, with noble 
 features worthy of the subject. Its verisimilitude is 
 apparent. It shows a thoughtful contemplation of human 
 nature, a fine sense of its capacities and weakness, of its 
 aspirations and needs. Its lines aro drawn with great dis- 
 cernment. The problem need expect no better solution in 
 this life ; for its depths cannot be fathomed by the sound- 
 ing-line of a finite understanding. Here is the one philo- 
 sophy of the subject that has taken the' deepest hold of the 
 human mind, engrafting itself on the religious systems of 
 very different races, and enlisting the sympathies of the 
 most civilised nations. Originating in the East, it has been 
 transferred to the West, where it lives in pristine vigour. 
 It is the essence of the best ideas and traditions of 
 Eastern Asia, improved and enlarged by the Hebrew mind 
 at a certain period. The more the narrative is examined, 
 the more clearly will it appear the result of enlightened 
 reason. It embodies national traditions of Hebrew reflec- 
 tiveness. Free from the pantheism and dualism, inherent 
 in the mythologies of other peoples, the monotheism which 
 distinguished the Hebrews as the depositaries of a divine 
 truth pervades it. The tradition has two sides. It repre- 
 sents the transition of man to freedom and humanity, as 
 Schiller describes it ; bis elevation by the av/akening 
 exercise of reason ; his advance from nature's cradling- 
 season to a consciousness of the divine within him ; but it 
 represents at the same time the inclination to follow his 
 own will, to aspire to the forbidden contrary to his better 
 conviction, to push reason beyond the limits within which 
 alone it can be legitimately used ; in short, to break away 
 from the will of Ood in self-sufficient independence. While 
 the fact was one of the most fortunate in man's history, it 
 was also one of the saddest. When moral good was made 
 possible, moral evil was introduced. A knowledge of the 
 one brings that of the other. 1 
 
 After Adam fell, God drove him from paradise, whose 
 gates were guarded by cherubim to prevent access to the 
 tree of life. The protoplasts had first three sons — Cain, 
 Abel, Seth ; then other sons and daughters. Adam died 
 at the age of 930. Accor.iing to the Elohist, the later 
 race of men descended from Seth, the first born (Gene?:n v. } ; 
 according to the Jehovist from Cain, who was the first born 
 (Genesis iv.) A Jewish tradition represents him as buried 
 in Hebron with the patriarchs ; a Christian one makes 
 Golgotha las' resting-place. 
 
 A number of absurd fables, the fancies of Jewish writers, 
 have gathered round the simple narratives of the Old 
 Testament, and are incorporated in the Talmud. In these 
 Adam is said to have been made as a man-woman out of 
 dust collected from every part of the earth; his head 
 reached to heaven, and the splendour of his face surpassed 
 the sun. The very angels feared him, and all creatures 
 hastened to pay him devotion. The Lord, in order to 
 display his power before the angels, caused a sleep to fall 
 upon him, took away something from all his members, and 
 
 ' See8chellings Uuijislerdisserlution in .vol. i. of his SUmmtliche 
 Werke, p. 3, &c 
 
 when he awoke commanded the parts that had been re 
 ■moved to bo dispersed over the globe, that the whole earth 
 might be inhabited by his seed. Thus Adam lost his size, 
 but not his completeness. His first wife was Lilith, 
 mother of the demons. But she flew away through the 
 air; and then the Lord created Eve from his rib, brought 
 her to Adam in the most beautiful dress, and angels descend- 
 ing from heaven played on heavenly instruments; sun, moon, 
 and stars dancing. He blessed the pair, and gave them a 
 feast upon a table of precious stonei Angols prepared the 
 most costly viands. But Adam's glory was envied by the 
 angels; and the seraph Sammael succeeded in seducing 
 him. The pair were driven out of paradise into the place 
 of darkness, and wandered through the earth. 2 
 
 According to the Koran, God created man of dried claj 
 like an earthen vessel, animating the figure,- and enduing 
 it with an intelligent soul. When he had placed him 
 in paradise, he formed Eve out of bis left side. All 
 the angels worshipped the new man except Eblis, who 
 refused and became an unbeliever. Satan caused them to 
 forfeit paradise, and turned them out of their state of 
 happiness. On Adam's repentance, God pitied him, and 
 had him taught the divine commandments by the arch 
 angel Gabriel ; whereupon he was conducted to Arafat, s 
 mountain near Mecca, and found Eve after a leparation of 
 200 years. He was buried on Mount Abukais, near Mecca.* 
 Many other fables of the later Jews respecting Adam are 
 collected by Eisenmenger, and those of the Mahometans 
 by Herbelot. 
 
 In the emanation systems of tho Christian Gnostics and 
 Manichseans, as well as in the gnosis of the Mandseans, 
 Adam is represented as one of the first and holiest aeons. 
 Both catholic and heretical literature indulged in fictions 
 respecting Adam. A Life of Adam was translated from the 
 Ethiopic into German by Dillmann, in Ewald's Jahrbuch, 
 y. The Testament of Adam, current in Syriac and Arabic, 
 was published by Renan in the Journal Asialique, se'rie v. 
 torn. 2. Both these seem to be derived from the Spelunca 
 T/iesaurorum, which exists in MS. in the Syriac tongue. 
 The Sethi tes, a Gnostic sect, had Apocalypses of Adam; 
 other Gnostics had a Gospel of Eve. A Book of the Repent- 
 ance of Adam and A Book concerning the Daughters of 
 Adam, are condemned in the decree of Gelasius. George 
 Synccllus cites 'a Greek Life of Adam ; and a fragment 
 from T/ie Greek Book of Adam, in a Florentine MS., is 
 given in the Literaturblalt des Orients for 1850. Thus 
 the Adam-literature is copious. 4 The Book of Adam, pub- 
 lished by Norberg in 1816, is improperly so termed. It 
 is a Mandaean or Sabian work, Sidra Rabba, which is now 
 better known, since Pctermann's critical edition of 1867, 
 and Noldeke's researches into the language. (s. d.) 
 
 ADAM of Bremen, ecclesiastical historian, was born in 
 Upper Saxony, and in 1067, probably on the invitation of 
 Archbishop Adalbert, came to Bremen, where he was 
 appointed canon and magister scholarum. He died in 
 1076. His GestA Ilammaburgensis Ecclesim Pontificum, 
 containing a history of the diocese of Hamburg and 
 Bremen from 788 till the death of Adalbert in 1072, is of 
 great importance as the chief source of information in 
 regard to the state of the northern kingdoms during the- 
 period of which it treats. It is supposed to have been com- 
 piled partly from written documents and partly from the 
 oral communications of the Danish king, Svend Estrithson. 
 Its statements are generally trustworthy, though the chrono- 
 logy is sometimes confused, and the geographical informa- 
 
 * Elscnmenger's Entdeklts Judent/ium, Amsterdam. 1700, Ho. 
 
 * D'Herbelot's BiblioUuipie Oricntalr. s. v. " Adam," p. 6"i. fee., 
 cd. 1G97, Paris. 
 
 * tiee iHUmann in Uerzog's EncyklojwJic, xu. p. SI 9.
 
 A D A — A D A 
 
 139 
 
 tion dftcn erroneous. The style is clear and interesting, 
 though somewhat prolix. It was first published from MSS. 
 at Copenhagen in 1079. The best edition is that of 
 Lappenberg in Pertz's Jlfonnmenta Germaniie. A supple- 
 ment to the Gesla, a geographical work of considerable 
 ralue, entitled De Situ Daniie et Reliquarum qiice trans 
 Daiiiam sunt Regionum Natura, was published at Stock- 
 holm in 1615, and at Leyden in 1629. 
 
 ADAM, Alexander, Rector of the High School, Edin- 
 burgh, was born on the 24th of June 1741, near Forres, in 
 Morayshire. From his earliest years ho showed uncommon 
 diligence and perseverence in classical studies, notwith- 
 standing many difficulties and privations. In 1757 he 
 went to Edinburgh, where -he studied at the Umversity 
 with such success that in eighteen months he was appointed 
 head-master of Watson's Hospital, being at the time oidy 
 nineteen. He was confirmed in the office of Rector of the 
 High School on the 8th of June 1768, on the retirement of 
 \Ir Matheson, whose substitute he had been for some time 
 oefore. From this period he devoted himself entirely to 
 '.he duties of his office, and to the preparation of the 
 numerous works he published in classical literature. His 
 popularity and success as a teacher are strikingly illustrated 
 in the facts that his class increased more than fourfpld dur- 
 ing his incumbency, and that an unusually large proportion 
 'jf his pupils attained to eminence, among them being Sir 
 Walter Scott, Lord Brougham, and Jeffrey. He succeeded 
 m introducing the study of Greek into the curriculum of 
 die school, notwithstanding the opposition of the University 
 •leaded by Principal Robertson. In 1780 the University 
 ■jf Edinburgh conferred upon Mr Adam the honorary degree 
 >f Doctor of Laws. He died on the 18th December 1809, 
 •*fter an illness of five days, during which he occasionally 
 imagined himself still at work, his last words being, — 
 " But it grows dark ; you may go." Dr Adam's first pub- 
 lication was his Principles of Latin and English Grammar 
 (1772). This was followed by his Roman Antiquities (1791), 
 'lis Summary of Geography and History (1794), and his 
 Latin Didliuiiary' (]805). The MS. of a projected larger 
 L,atin dictionary, which he did not live to complete, lies in 
 -he library of the High School. 
 
 ADAM, Melchior, German divine and biographer, was 
 Sorn at Grottkaw in Silesia after 1550, and educated in 
 die college of Brieg, where he became a Protestant. He 
 *as enabled to pursue his studies there by the liberality of 
 ■» person of quality, who had Lft several exhibitions for 
 young students. In 1598 he went to Heidelberg, where, 
 niter holding various scholastic appointments, he became 
 jinrector of the gymnasium. In 1615 he published the 
 •irst volume of his Vita} Germanorum Philosojihorum, &c. 
 This volume was followed by three others; that which 
 treated of divines was printed in 1619; his lives of lawyers 
 and of physicians were pubL'shed in 1G20. All the learned 
 men whose history is contained in these four volumes lived 
 in the 16th or beginning of the 17th century, and are 
 either Germans or Flemings; but he published in 1618 the 
 lives of twenty divines of other countries in a separate 
 •olume, entitled Decades duce continentes Vitas Theologorum 
 Exterorum Principum. All his divines are Protestants. 
 His industry as a biographer is commended by Bayle, who 
 acknowledges his obligations to Adam's labours. Lutherans 
 and Catholics accuse him of unfairness, but the charge is 
 at least exaggerated. He died in 1622. 
 
 ADAM, Robert, architect, the second son of William 
 Adam of Maryburgh, in Fife, was born in 1728. He 
 Studied at the University of Edinburgh, and probably 
 received his first instruction in architecture from his father, 
 who, whether a professional architect or not, gave proofs of 
 his skill and taste in the designs of Hopetoun House and 
 the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary. In 1754 young Adam 
 
 visited the Continent, and spent fhrco years in Italy foi 
 the purpose of examining the ruins of Roman architecture. 
 The magnificence of the public baths erected at Rome in 
 the time of Diocletian having impressed him with the idea 
 that there had been a marked revival of architectural art 
 during that emperor's reign, he resolved to visit the ruins 
 of the private palace Diocletian had erected at Spalatro in 
 Dalmatia. In company with Clerisseau, a French architect, 
 he sailed from Venice in July 1754, and in a few weeks, 
 with the help of two experienced draughtsmen, had com- 
 pleted plans and views of the fragments, from which he 
 was afterwards able to execute a design of the entire build- 
 ing. The results were published in the Ruins of the Palace 
 of Diocletian, &C. (1764). After his return to England he 
 rose to the highest eminence in his profession, and was 
 appointed architect to the king in 1762. Six years later 
 he entered Parliament as representative of the county of 
 Kinross, but he still continued to devote himself to the 
 duties of his profession, resigning only his court appoint- 
 ment In 1773-78 he and his brother - James, also an 
 architect of considerable note, published from time to time 
 large folio engravings with letterpress description of their 
 designs, the most important being, — Lord Mansfield's 
 house at Caen wood; Luton House, Bedfordshire; the 
 Register House, Edinburgh, &c. Among their later works 
 may be mentioned the buildings erected in London by the 
 two brothers, and hence called the Adelphi (aSe\<poi), which 
 proved an unsuccessful speculation; Portland Place.Londnn; 
 and the Infirmary of Glasgow. The leading characteristics 
 of all these designs are lightness and elegance; and, though 
 grave faults may be found with his style, it cannot be denied 
 that English architecture, especially that of the streets of 
 London, owes very much to Robert Adam. He continued 
 actively engaged in his profession until his death in 1792. 
 James, his brother and associate in labour, died in 1794. 
 
 ADAM, Right Hon. William, nephew of the preced- 
 ing, eldest son of John Adam, Esq. of Blair-Adam, Kin- 
 ross-shire, was born on the 2d August 1751, studied at 
 the Universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, and passed at 
 the Scotch bar in 1773. Soon after he removed to England, 
 where he entered Parliament in 1774, and in 1782 was 
 called to the Common-law bar. He withdrew from Parlia- 
 ment in 1795, entered it again in 1806 as representative 
 of the united counties of Clackmannan and Kinross, and 
 continued a member, though with some interruptions, til] 
 1811. A popular though not an eloquent speaker, Mr 
 Adam soon took a prominent place in the House, making 
 himself of importance by his sound judgment and firm 
 general adherence to the Whig party. A duel in 1779 
 between him and Mr Fox, in which the latter was slightly 
 wounded, did not interrupt their close and steady friend- 
 ship. They both belonged to the small but noble band 
 that opposed the encroachments of the Government on the 
 Constitution during the period of the French Revolution. 
 One of Mr Adam's most valuable parliamentary efforts was 
 the agitation which he successfully raised, in March 1794, 
 against the severe punishment awarded in the Scotch 
 criminal court to certain persons who had been convicted 
 of sedition. At the English bar he was as successful as 
 any one can be who does not devote himself entirely to the 
 profession. Though known to be much engaged in Parlia- 
 ment, and with the management of the pecuniary affairs of 
 the Prince of Wales and the Duke of York, he obtained a 
 very considerable practice. He was successively Attorney 
 and Solicitor General to the Prince of Wales, one of the 
 managers of the impeachment of Warren Hastings, and 
 one of the counsel who defended the first Lord Melville 
 when impeached (as Mr Dundas). During his party's 
 brief tenure of office iu 1806 he was Chancellor of the 
 Duchy of Cornwall, and was afterwards a privy councilloi
 
 140 
 
 A D A — A D A 
 
 nnd lord-lieutenant of Kinross-shire. In 1814 he became 
 a baron of Exchequer in Scotland, and in the following 
 year was appointed chief commissioner of the newly- 
 established Jury-Court for the trial of civil causes, over 
 which he presided with much ability and acceptance till 
 1830, when it ceased to exist as a separate court, and 
 became merged in the permanent supreme tribunal. 
 Though little versed in the technicalities of law, he was in 
 all practical matters an able manager; he was a shrewd 
 observer of all that passed around him, and a most agree- 
 able companion. Ho died at Edinburgh on the 17th 
 February 1839. 
 
 ADAM'S BRIDGE, or Rama's Bridge, a chain of sand- 
 banks, extending from the island of Manaar, near the N. \'\ . 
 coast of Ceylon to the island of Rameseram, off the Indian 
 coast, and lying between the Gulf of Manaar on the S.W. 
 and Palk Strait on the N.E. It is more than 30 miles 
 long, and offers a serious impediment to navigation. Some 
 of the sandbanks arc dry; and no part of the shoal has a 
 greater depth than 3 or 4 feet at high water, except three 
 tortuous and intricate channels, a few feet deep, which in 
 calm weather permit the passage of boats and small vessels. 
 
 ADAMS PEAK, a lofty mountain in Ceylon, about 45 
 miles E. from Colombo, in N. lat. G° 55', E. long. 80° 30'. 
 It rises steeply to a height of 7240 feet, and commands a 
 magnificent prospect. Its conical summit terminates in an 
 oblong platform, 74 feet by 21, on which there is a hollow, 
 resembling the form of a human foot, 5 feet 4 inches by 2 
 feet G inches; and this has been consecrated as the foot- 
 print of Buddha. The margin of this supposed footprint 
 is ornamented with gems, and a wooden canopy protects it 
 from the weather. It is held in high veneration by the 
 Cingalese, and numerous pilgrims ascend to the sacred 
 spot, where a priest resides to receive their offerings, and 
 bless them on their departure. By the Mahometans the 
 impression is regarded as that of the foot of Adam, who 
 here, according to their tradition, fulfilled a penance of one 
 thousand years, while the Hindoos claim it as that of their 
 god Siva. 
 
 ADAMAWA, a country of Central Africa, lies between 
 7° and 11° N. lat., and 11° and 10° E. long., about mid- 
 way on the map between the Bight of Biafra and Lake 
 Chad. Its boundaries cannot be strictly defined; but it 
 stretches from S.W. to N.E. a distance of 200 miles, with 
 a width of from 70 to 80 miles. This region is watered 
 by the Benuwe and the Faro. The former, which ulti- 
 mately unites with the Niger, flows through Adamawa, 
 first in a northerly, then in a westerly direction; and is 
 joined by the Faro, which rises in the south, 22 miles from 
 Yolla, the capital of the country. Near their confluence 
 the Benuwe is 800 yards wide, with a depth of about 1 1 
 feet; the Faro has a breadth of 600 yards, but is generally 
 very shallow. Both rivers are subject to extraordinary 
 floods, beginning in the end of September, and lasting forty 
 days," during which the swamps of the adjacent country are 
 covered for a great distance on both sides, and the Benuwe 
 rises at least 30 feet. The most fertile parts of the country 
 are the plains near the Benuwe, about 800 feet above the 
 level of the sea. Further from that river the land rises to 
 an elevation of 1500 feet, and is diversified by numerous 
 hills and groups of mountains. Mount Alantika, about 25 
 miles S.S.E. of Yolla, is the loftiest mountain in Adamawa, 
 and rises from the plain, an isolated mass, to the height of 
 9000 feet. The country, which is exceedingly rich, and is 
 covered with luxuriant herbage, has many villages, and a 
 considerable population. The grain known as IIolcus 
 sorghum or durra, ground-nuts, yams, and cotton are the 
 principal products; and the palm and banana abound. 
 Elephants are very numerous, and ivory is largely ex- 
 ported. In the eastern part of the country the rhino- 
 
 ceros is met with, and the rivers swarm with crocodiles, 
 and with a curious mammal called the ayu, bearing some 
 resemblance to the seal. Yolla, the capital of Adamawa, 
 is situated, in N. lat. 9° 28', E. long. 12° 13', in the fertile 
 plain between the Benuwe and the Faro. The houses are 
 built of clay, and surrounded by court-yards, in which 
 grain is grown; so that the town, though containing only 
 about 12,000 inhabitants, is spread over a large extent of 
 ground, and is 3 miles long from east to west Turkedi 
 (a dark-coloured cotton cloth), beads, salt, and Calico are 
 the principal articles exposed in the markets. Here and 
 throughout Adamawa cotton is generally used as a medium 
 of barter. A very large proportion of the population are 
 slaves, many private individuals holding as many as 1000, 
 while the governor is said to receive annually about 5000 ill 
 tribute. The government of Adamawa is in the hands of a 
 Mahometan ruler, who owns a nominal allegiance to the 
 Sultan of Sokoto, but is in reality an independent sove- 
 reign. Formerly the country was called Fuiubina, and 
 was possessed by various African tribes, until it was over- 
 run by the Fulbe, a Mahometan people. It has not been 
 entirely subjected by them, but they have detached settle- 
 ments at various places; and numerous governors, as well 
 of the Fulbe as of outlying pagan tribes, are in subjection 
 to the ruler of Yolla. (See Barth's Travels in Central 
 Africa, vol. ii.) 
 
 ADAMITES, or Adamians, a sect of heretics that 
 flourished in North Africa in the 2d and 3d centuries. 
 Basing itself probably on a union of certain gnostic and 
 ascetic doctrines, this sect pretended that its members were 
 re-established in Adam's state of original innocency. They 
 accordingly rejected the form of marriage, which, they 
 said, would never have existed but for sin, and lived in 
 absolute lawlessness, holding that, whatever they did, theii 
 actions could be neither good nor bad. During the Middle 
 Ages the doctrines of this obscure sect, which did not at 
 first exist long, were revived in Europe by the Brethren 
 and Sisters of the Free Spirit, who in the 14th century 
 were better known throughout Germany as Beghards. This 
 name was originally borne by a religious party that was 
 formed in the Netherlands a century earlier. The two 
 sects came into contact on the Rhine frontier, associated 
 with .each other, gradually approximated in doctrine, and 
 were at last identified by the application to both of the one 
 name; though a distinct sect of Beghards, free from the 
 excesses of the brethren, continued to exist in the Nether- 
 lands. Picard is simply another form which Begliard 
 assumed in the harsh pronunciation of the Bohemians, and 
 the common method of accounting for it by supposing a 
 leader Picard has no sufficient warrant. The principal 
 seat of the Picards in Bohemia was a small island in the 
 river Luschnitz, where they lived in a state of nature, and 
 had wives in common. In 1421 they were almost exter- 
 minated by Ziska, the leader of the Hussites, who com- 
 mitted many of them to the flames. La 1849 it appeared 
 that the sect existed in a district of Austria, though small 
 in number, and not ostentatious of its peculiar practices. 
 (Rudinger de Eccl. Fiat, in Bo) 'em., &c; Bossuet's Varia- 
 tions of Protestant Churches.) 
 
 ADAMNAN or Adomnan, Saint, born in Ireland about 
 the year 624, was elected Abbot of Iona in 679, on the 
 death of Failbhe. While on a mission to the court of King 
 Aldfrid of Northumberland (700-1), he was led to adopt 
 the Roman rule in regard to the time for the observance of 
 Easter; and on his return to Iona he tried to enforce tin 
 change upon the monks, but without success. It is said 
 that the disappointment caused his de.-.th, which occurred 
 in 703 or 704. Adamnan wrote a Life of St C'Aumha, 
 which, though abounding in fabulous matter, is of great 
 interest and value. The best edition is that of Reeves
 
 ADA -A D A 
 
 I So 2, 
 
 141 
 
 published by tlie Irish Aiclijeological and Celtic Society in 
 1857. Adamnan's other well-known work, Be Situ Terrce 
 Sanctce, was based, according to Bede, on information 
 received from Arculf, a French bishop, who, on his return 
 from the Holy Land, was wrecked on the west coast of 
 Britain, and was entertained for a time at Iona. This was 
 first published by Gretser at Ingolstadt in 1619. {Kalen- 
 dars of the Scottish. Saints, by Bishop Forbes, 1872.) 
 
 ADAMS, Johx, a distinguished statesman of the United 
 States of North America. He was born on the 1 9th or (new 
 style) 30th of October 1735, in that part of the township of 
 Braintree, in Massachusetts, which on a subsequent division 
 was called Quincy. His parents were of that class, then 
 abounding in New England, who united the profession of 
 agriculture with that of some one of the mechanic arts. His 
 ancestor Henry had emigrated from Devonshire in the year 
 1632, and had established himself at Braintree with six 
 sons, all of whom married : from one descended the subject 
 of this memoir, and from another that Samuel Adams who, 
 with John Hancock, was by name proscribed by an Act of 
 the British Parliament, for the conspicuous part he acted in 
 the early stages of the opposition to the measures of the 
 mother country. When about fifteen years of age, his 
 father proposed to his son T ohn either to follow the family 
 pursuits, and to receive in due time, as his portion, a part 
 of the estate which they had cultivated, or to have the ex- 
 pense of a learned education bestowed upon him, with which, 
 instead of any fortune, he was to make his way in future 
 life. The son chose the latter alternative; and having 
 received some preparatory instruction, was admitted a 
 student at Harvard College in the year 1751. After 
 graduating in 1755, he removed to the town of Worcester, 
 where, according to the economical practice of that day in 
 New England, he became a tutor in a grammar school, and 
 at the same time was initiated into the practice of the law 
 in the office of Mr Putnam, then an attorney and a colonel 
 of militia, and subsequently a general of some celebrity in 
 the revolutionary war. A letter he wrote at the early age 
 of nineteen, shows a degree of foresight which, like many 
 >ther predictions, may have led to its own accomplishment. 
 It is dated 12th October 1754, and says — "Soon after the 
 Reformation, a few people came over to this New World for 
 conscience' sake. Perhaps this apparently trivial incident 
 may transfer the great seat of empire to America. It looks 
 likely to me; for if we can remove the turbulent Gallic 
 (the French in Canada), our people, according to the 
 exaetest computation, will in another century become more 
 numerous than England itself. Should this be the case, 
 since we have, I may say, all the naval stores of the nation 
 in our hands, it will be easy to obtain the mastery of the 
 seas, and then the united force of all Europe will not be 
 able to subdue us. The only way to keep us from setting 
 up for ourselves is to disunite us." 
 
 He was admitted to practice in the year 1758, and 
 gradually rose to the degree of eminence which a local court 
 can confer; and obtained distinction by some essays on the 
 subject of the canon and feudal law, which were directed 
 to point to the rising difference which commenced between 
 the mother country and the colonies, soon after the peace 
 of 1763 had delivered the latter from all disquietude re- 
 specting the establishments of France in the adjoining pro- 
 vince of Canada. His character rose, both as a lawyer and 
 a patriot, so as to induce Governor Barnard, who wished 
 to gain him over to the royal party, to offer him the office 
 of advocate-general in the Admiralty Court, which was 
 deemed a sure step to the highest honours of the bench. 
 Two years after, he was chosen one of the representatives 
 of his native town to the congress of the province. His 
 first prominent interference in political affairs was at a 
 meeting at Braintree in 1765, to oppose the Stamp Act 
 
 The resolutions he proposed were not only carried unani- 
 mously, but were afterwards adopted verbatim by morj 
 than forty other towns. In 1768 he found it necessary 
 to remove to Boston, owing to the increase of his. legal 
 practice. 
 
 His professional integrity was soon after exhibited in the 
 defence of Captain Preston and some soldiers, who were 
 tried before a Boston jury on a charge of murder, April 
 1770. In this case Adams was counsel for the defence; 
 and being considered by the people, then in an inflamed 
 state against the troops, as a determined friend of liberty, 
 his eloquence obtained a verdict of acquittal without lessen- 
 ing his popularity. 
 
 When it was determined, in 1774, to assemble a general 
 congress from the several colonies, Mr Adams was one of 
 those solicited for the purpose by the people of Massa- 
 chusetts. Before departing for Philadelphia to join the 
 congress, he parted with the friend of his youth, his fellow- 
 student and associate at the bar, Jonathan Sewall, who had 
 attained the rank of attorney-general, and was necessarily 
 opposed to his political views. Sewall made a powerful 
 effort to change his determination, and to deter him from 
 going to the congress. He urged, that Britain was deter- 
 mined on her system, and was irresistible, and would be 
 destructive to him and all those who should persevere in 
 opposition to her designs. To this Adams replied • " I 
 know that Great Britain has determined on her system, 
 and that very fact determines me on mine. You know I 
 have been constant and uniform in opposition to her mea- 
 sures; the die is now cast; I have passed the Rubicon; to 
 swim or sink, live or die, survive or perish with my country 
 is my unalterable determination." The conversation was 
 then terminated by Adams saying to his friend, " I see we 
 must part ; and with a bleeding heart, I say, I fear for ever. 
 But you may depend upon it, this adieu is the sharoest thorn 
 on which I ever set my foot." 
 
 When the continental congress was assembled Mr Adams 
 became one of its most active and energetic leaders. He 
 was a member of that committee which framed the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, and one of the most powerful advo- 
 cates for its adoption by the general body; and by his elo- 
 quence obtained the unanimous suffrages of that assembly. 
 Though he was appointed chief -justice in 1776, he decliued 
 the office, in order to dedicate his talents to the general 
 purpose of the defence of the country. 
 
 In 1777 he, with three other members, was appointed a 
 commissioner to France. He remained in Paris about a 
 year and a half, when, in consequence of disagreements 
 among themselves, in which Adams was not implicated, all 
 but Fra nklin were recalled. In the end of 1779 he was 
 charged with two commissions, — one as a plenipotentiary to 
 treat for peace, the other empowering him to form a commer- 
 cial treaty with Great Britain. When he arrived in Paris, 
 the French Government viewed with jealousy the purpose of 
 the second commission; and Count de Vergennes advised 
 him to keep it secret, with a view to prevail on the congress 
 to revoke it. Mr Adams refused to communicate to the 
 count his instructions on that subject; and an altercation 
 arose, from a claim made by France for a discrimination in 
 favour of French holders of American paper money in the 
 liquidation of it. The count complained to Congress, trans- 
 mitted copies of Mr Adams's letters, and instructed the 
 French minister at Philadelphia to demand his recall The 
 demand was rejected, but afterwards four others were joined 
 with him in the commission. Whilst these negotiations 
 were in progress he went to Holland, and there, in oppo- 
 sition to the influence and talents of the British minister, 
 Sir Joseph Yorke, succeeded both in negotiating a loan, and 
 in procuring the assistance of that country in the defence 
 against Great Britain. He formed a commercial treaty with
 
 142 
 
 A D A — A D A 
 
 that republic, and joined in the ephemeral association called 
 " the armed neutral i I 
 
 In 178"> Mr Adams -was appointed ambassador to the 
 court of his former sovereign, where his conduct was such 
 as to secure the approbation of his own country, and the 
 respect of that to which he was commissioned. Whilst in 
 London, he published his work entitled Defence of the 
 American Constitution, in which he combated ably the 
 opinions of Turg.it, Mably, and Price, in favour of a single 
 legislative assembly; and thus perhaps contributed to the 
 division of power and the checks on its exercise, which 
 became established in the United States. At the close of 
 1787 he returned, after ten years devoted to the public 
 service, to America. He received the thanks of Congress, 
 and was elected soon after, under the presidency of Wash- 
 ington, to the office of Vice-President. In 1790 Mr Adams 
 gave to the public his Discourses on-Davila, in which he 
 exposed the revolutionary doctrines propagated by France 
 and her emissaries in other countries. On the retirement 
 of Washington, the choice of President fell on Mr Adams, 
 who entered on that office in May 1797. At that time the 
 Government was entangled by the insolent pretensions of the 
 French demagogues, and by their partisans in many of the 
 states. Great differences of opinion arose between the 
 individuals at the head of affairs : one party, with Mr 
 Hamilton at their head, was disposed to resist the preten- 
 sions of France by open hostilities; whilst Mr Adams was 
 disinclined to war, so long as there was a possibility of 
 avoiding it with honour. Owing to this division of his 
 own friends, rather than to a want of public confidence, at 
 the conclusion of the four years for which the President is 
 chosen, Mr Adams was not re-elected. Perhaps this was 
 in some measure owing to the preponderance of the slave 
 states, in which Mr Jefferson, his rival, and a proprietor of 
 slaves, had a fellow-feeling among the chief of the people. 
 
 He retired with dignity, at 65 years of age, to his native 
 place, formed no political factions against those in power, 
 but publicly expressed his approbation of the measures 
 which were pursued by him who had been his rival, who 
 had become his successor in power, but had never ceased 
 to be his firmly-attached friend. 
 
 The last public occasion on which Mr Adams appeared, 
 was as a member of the convention for the revision of the 
 constitution of Massachusetts, in which some slight altera- 
 tions were requisite, id consequence of the province of 
 Maine being separated from it. 
 
 He seems to have enjoyed his mental faculties to the 
 close of his protracted life; and even on the last day of it, 
 two hours only before its final close, on the 4th July 1826, 
 the fiftieth anniversary of the Act of Independence, he 
 dictated to a friend, as a sentiment to be given at the 
 public dinner of the day, " Independence for ever." By a 
 very singular coincidence Jefferson, his rival and friend, 
 died a few hours earlier on the same day. 
 
 Mr Adams was considered a sound scholar, well versed 
 in the ancient languages, and in many branches of general 
 literature. His style in writing was forcible and perspicu- 
 ous, and, in the latter years of his life, remarkably elegant. 
 In person he was of middling stature; his manners spoke 
 the courtesy of the old school ; and his address, at least when 
 he was in England, was dignified and manly. 
 
 ADAMS, John Qui.vcy, eldest son of the preceding, 
 was born at Braintree on tie 1 1th July 1 7G7. The greater 
 part of hi3 education was received in Europe, which he 
 visited in company with his father in 1778, and again in 
 1780, when he attended for a time the university of Ley- 
 den. When only fifteen years old he went, as secretary, 
 with Francis Dana on his unsuccessful mission to St 
 Petersburg. Returning home after an interval spent in 
 Holland, London, and Paris, he graduated at Harvard in 
 
 1788; and, after spending three years in a lawyer's office, 
 was admitted to the bar in 1791. Three successive scries 
 of letters, on political subjects, contributed to a Boston 
 per, attracted much attention, and Washington 
 appointed him ambassador to the Hague in 1794. An 
 appointment to a similar post in Portugal, made just before 
 the expiry of Washington's presidency, was set aside by 
 his father, who sent him instead to Prussia, giving him the 
 promotion by the express advice of Washington. During 
 his residence as ambassador at Berlin, he succeeded in nego- 
 tiating a commercial treaty with Prussia. On Jefferson 
 becoming President (1801), Adams was recalled, and 
 resumed the practice of law in Boston. In 1802 Suffolk 
 county returned him a member of the' Massachusetts 
 Senate, and in the following year he was elected to Con- 
 gress. Indebted for his position to the Federal party, 
 Adams supported their views for four years, but separated 
 from them by voting for Jefferson's proposed embargo. 
 This course involved, him in much controversy, and cost 
 him his seat in the Senate. During his retirement he 
 added to the employment arising from his profession the 
 duties of the professorship of rhetoric and belles lettres 
 at Harvard University, which he held for three years 
 (1806-9). His lectures — the first ever read in an American 
 university — were published in 1810, and were much thought 
 of at the time, though now almost forgotten. In the 
 winter following the resignation of his professorship, he 
 visited Washington; and, in an interview with Jefferson, 
 brought a charge against some of the Federal leaders of a 
 design to dissolve the union, and form a separate confedera- 
 tion for the north. The charge was afterwards repeated 
 in the newspapers; and, though resting on slender grounds, 
 greatly affected the confidence of the other 6tates in the 
 New England representatives. In 1809 Madison, having 
 obtained after some delay the concurrence of the Senate, 
 entrusted Adams with the embassy to St Petersburg, — an 
 appointment which the latter accepted against the wish"-") 
 of his father, and continued to hold, though offered a seat 
 on the judicial bench of New England some time after 
 his arrival in Russia. When war broke out between 
 England and the United States, Adams induced the 
 Czar to make an offer of intervention, which, however, 
 the English Government declined to accept. Independent 
 negotiations were thereupon carried on for six months at 
 Ghent (the representatives of. America being Adams, 
 Russell, and Clay), and resulted in the treaty of peace 
 which was signed 24th December 1814. After serving for 
 two years (1815-17) as minister in London, he again 
 entered the arena of home politics as secretary of state 
 under Monroe. In this office he distinguished himself 
 specially by his arrangement of the treaty with Spain, which 
 defined the boundaries of the ceded territories of Florida 
 and Louisiana. An elaborate report on weights and mea- 
 sures gained for him also a name for scientific acquirements. 
 In 1825 the election of a President fell, according to the 
 constitution of the States, w> the House of Representatives, 
 since no one of the candidates had secured an absolute' 
 majority of the electors chosen by the States, and Adams, 
 who had stood second to Jackson in the electoral vote, was 
 chosen in preference to Jackson, Clay, and Crawford. The 
 administration of Adams was marked by the imposition of 
 a high tariff on foreign goods, with the view of promoting 
 internal industry, and by the unsuccessful attempt to pur- 
 chase Cuba from Spain. Notwithstanding the efforts of 
 Clay, and the special claim he himself made on the voters 
 of Virginia on account of his discovery of the so-called 
 New England "plot" twenty years before, Adams failed 
 to secure his re-election in 1829. De:eated by Jackson, 
 who had 178 votes to his 83, he retired v Quincy, where 
 his father's fortune, increased by his own efforts, afforded
 
 A D A — A D A 
 
 143 
 
 nim an ample competency."*' Two years later he was re- 
 turned to Congress by the. district in which he lived, and 
 which he continued to represent untd bis death. Having 
 been chosen merely on account of his determined resistance 
 to secret societies, his position was independent of party 
 politics, and correspondingly strong. He stood for the 
 office of governor, and then for that of senator, of Massa- 
 chusetts, but was on both occasions defeated by Davis. As 
 chairman of the committee ou manufactures, he strove to 
 <levise a middle policy in regard to tariffs, but his greatest 
 effort at this period — perhaps the greatest service of his 
 whole political life — was in connection with the abolition 
 of slavery. In every form which the question took, he 
 v.-a3 the bold and determined advocate of abolition, gradually 
 gathering an influential party around him, and so preparing 
 for the triumphs, most of which have been won since his 
 death. He himself witnessed, in 1815, the abolition of 
 the " gag-ride," restricting the right of petition to Congress 
 on the subject of slavery, which he had persistently opposed 
 during the nine years it was in force. He died of paralysis 
 on 23d February 1848, having been seized two days pre- 
 viously while attending the debates of Congress. Adams 
 wrote a trunber of works, which are now of little import- 
 ance. Tne style is fluent, but has none of the vigour and 
 •elegance of his father's. During his whole lifetime he 
 kept a very voluminous journal, some portions of which 
 have been published. 
 
 ADAMS, Richard, M.A., divine. 'Two contemporaries 
 of the same name are frequently confounded with each other. 
 The more -eminent was son of the Rev. Richard Adams, 
 rector of Worrall, in Cheshire. The family records seven 
 clergymen of the Church of England in succession. The 
 present worthy was born at Worrall, but the loss of the 
 registers leaves the date uncertain. It is usually, but erro- 
 neously, stated that he studied at Cambridge University. 
 lie was admitted a student of Brazenose College, Oxford, 
 March 24, 1646, and became a fellow, having proceeded 
 through the usual degrees. It was at Brazer.ose he formed 
 his life-long friendship with John Howe, who had a pro- 
 found veneration for Adams. In 1655 he was appointed 
 to the rectory of St Mildred's, Bread Street, London — John 
 Milton being a parishioner. From this he was ejected by 
 the Act of Uniformity of 1662. Thereupon he continued 
 Lis ministry as opportunity offered, and at length was 
 settled as pastor of a congregation in Southwark. This 
 Richard Adams is a typical example of the consistent and 
 meek labourers of the early and struggling period of Non- 
 conformity. His holy and beautiful life inspired Howe's 
 noblest eloquence in his funeral sermon. He died in a 
 ripe old age, on 7th Feb. 1698. His principal literary 
 work is his contribution of annotations on Philippjans and 
 Colossians to Pool's celebrated Annotations. Along with 
 Veal he edited the works of .Chamock. (a. b. g.) 
 
 ADAMS, Sajiuel, American statesman, born at Boston, 
 Sept. 27, 1722, was second cousin to John Adams. He 
 studied at Harvard, but, owing to his father's misfortunes 
 in business in connection with a banking speculation, — the 
 *' manufactory scheme," — he had to leave before complet- 
 ing his course, and to relinquish his intention of becoming 
 a Congregational clergyman. He received his degree, 
 however, and it is worthy of note, as showing ;he tendency 
 of bis political opinions, that his thesis was a defence of 
 the affirmative reply to the question, " Whether it be law- 
 ful to resist the supreme magistrate, if the commonwealth 
 cannot otherwise be preserved 1" The failure of the bank- 
 ing scheme above referred to, in consequence of the limita- 
 tions imposed by English law, made Adams still more 
 decided in his assertion of the rights of American citizens, 
 and in his opposition to Parliament. He gave up hi3 
 bvainess, in which he had little success, and became tax- 
 
 collector for the city of Boston, whence he was called by 
 his political opponents, " Samuel the publican." In all the 
 proceedings which issued at last in the declaration of 
 independence Adams was a conspicuous actor. He took 
 part in the numerous town meetings, drafted the protest 
 which was sent up by Boston agaiust'the taxation scheme 
 of Grenville (May 1764); and, being chosen next year a 
 member of the general court of Massachusetts, soon became 
 one of the leaders in debate. Upon his entry into 
 House he was appointed clerk, and had thus much influ- 
 ence in arranging the order of business and in drawing up 
 papers. Attempts were more than once made by the 
 English governor to win him over by the offer of a place, 
 but Adams proved inflexible. His uncompromising resist- 
 ance to the British Government continued; he was a 
 prominent member of the continental Congress at Phila- 
 delphia, and was one of '.jose who signed the Declaration 
 of Independence in 1776. He was a member of the con- 
 vention which settled the constitution of Massachusetts, 
 and became president of its Senate. From 1789 to 1704 
 he was lieutenant-governor of the State, and governor 
 from 1794 to 1797, retiring in the latter year partly on 
 account of age, but partly also because the Federalists were 
 then in the ascendant, and he himself was inclined to the 
 Jefferson or Republican party. He died on the 3d Oct. 
 1803. In an oration on American independence, delivered 
 in Philadelphia, 1st Aug. 1776, Adams characterises the 
 English as "a nation of shopkeepers." The oration was 
 translated into French, and published at Paris ; and it is 
 therefore not unlikely that Napoleon's use of this phrase 
 was not original 
 
 ADAMS, Thomas — " the prose Shakzpeare of Puritan 
 theologians," as Southey named him — has left as few personal 
 memorials behind him as the poet himself. The only facts 
 regarding the commonplaces of his biography are furnished 
 by epistles-dedicatory and epistles to the reader, and title- 
 pages. From these we learn that he was, in 1612, "a 
 preacher of the gospel at Willington," in Bedfordshire, 
 where he is found on to 1614, and whence issued his 
 Heaven and Earth Reconciled, The DeviCs Banquet, and 
 other works; that in 1614-15 he was at Wingrave, in 
 Buckinghamshire, probably as vicar, and whence a number 
 of his works went forth in quick succession; that in 1618 
 he held the preachership at St Gregory's, under St Paul's 
 Cathedral, and was "observant chaplain" to Sir Henrie 
 Montague, the Lord Chief-Justice of England j that during 
 these years his epistles show him to have been on the 
 most friendly terms with some of the foremost men in 
 state and church; and that he must have died before the 
 Restoration of 1660. His " occasionally" printed sermons, 
 in small quartos, when collected in 1630, placed him beyond 
 all comparison in the van of the preachers of England. 
 Jeremy Taylor does not surpass him in brilliance of fancies, 
 nor Thomas Fuller in wit. His numerous works display 
 great learning, classical and patristic, and are unique in 
 their abundance of stories, anecdotes, aphorisms, and puns. 
 He was a Puritan in the church, in distinction from the 
 Nonconformist Puritans, and is evangelically, not dry- 
 doctrinally, Calvinistic in his theology. His works have 
 been recently collected by Drs Joseph Angus and Thomas 
 Smith (3 vols. 8vo, 1862): (a. b. g.) 
 
 ADAMSON, Patrick, a Scottish prelate, Archbishop of 
 St Andrews, was born in the year 1543, in the town of 
 Perth, where he received the rudiments of his education. 
 He afterwards studied philosophy, and took his degree of 
 master of arts at the University of St Andrews. In 1564 
 he set out for Paris as tutor to the eldest son of Sir Wil- 
 liam MacgilL In the month of June of the same year, 
 Mary Queen of Scots being delivered of a son, afterwards 
 James VL of Scotland and L of England, Mr Adamson
 
 144 
 
 A D A — A D A 
 
 wrote a Latin poem, in which he gave the prince the title 
 of king of France and England. This proof of his loyalty 
 involved him in difficulties. The French court was offended, 
 and ordered him to be arrested; and he was confined for six 
 months. He was released only through the intercession of 
 Queen Mary and some of the principal nobility, who inte- 
 rested themselves in his behalf. As 6oon as he recovered 
 his liberty, he retired with his pupil to Bourges. He was in 
 this city during the massacre at Paris; and the same perse- 
 cuting spirit prevailing among the Catholics at Bourges as 
 at the metropolis, he lived concealed for seven months in a 
 public-house, the aged master of which, in reward for his 
 charity to heretics, was thrown from the roof, and had his 
 brains dashed out. Whilst Mr Adamson lay thus in his 
 sepulchre, as he called it, he wrote his Latin poetical version 
 of the book of Job, and his tragedy of Herod in the same 
 language. In the) r ear 1573 he .eturned to Scotland, and, 
 having entered into holy orders, became minister of Paisley. 
 In the year 1575 he was appointed one of the commis- 
 sioners, by the General Assembly, to settle the jurisdiction 
 and policy of the church; and the following year he was 
 named, with Mr David Lindsay, to report their proceedings 
 to the Earl of Morton, then regent. About this time the 
 earl appointed him one of his chaplains; and, on the death 
 of Archbishop Douglas, promoted liim to the archiepiscopal 
 see of St Andrews. This gave rise to a protracted con- 
 flict with the Presbyterian party in the Assembly. Soon 
 after his promotion, he published a catechism in Latin verse, 
 dedicated to the king, a work highly approved even by his 
 enemies, who nevertheless still continued to persecute him 
 with great vulence. In 1578 he submitted himself to the 
 General Assembly, which procured him peace but for a very 
 little time; for, the year following, fresh accusations wene 
 brought against him. A Provincial Synod was held at St 
 Andrews in April 1586; the archbishop was here accused 
 and excommunicated. He appealed to the king and the 
 states, but this availed him little. At the next General 
 Assembly, a paper being produced containing the arch- 
 bishop's, submission, he was absolved from the excommuni- 
 cation. In 1588 fresh accusations were brought against 
 liim. The year following he published the Lamentations 
 of the prophet Jeremiah in Latin verse, which he dedicated 
 to the king, complaining of his hard usage. Towards the 
 end of the same year he published a translation of the 
 Apocalypse in Latin verse, and a copy of Latin verses. 
 The king was unmoved by his application, and granted the 
 revenue of his see to the Duke of Lennox, so that the 
 prelate and his family were literally reduced to the want of 
 bread. During the remaining part of his unfortunate life 
 he was supported by charitable contributions, and died in 
 1592. He had previously made a written recantation of 
 his alleged errors in regard to Episcopacy, though the 
 genuineness of this is doubted by Spottiswoode. (See 
 Cunningham's Church History of Scotland, vol. i.) The 
 character of this prelate has been variously represented, 
 according to the sentiments of religion and politics which 
 prevailed. But there is little doubt that he encouraged 
 and supported, under the authority of the king, oppressive 
 and injurious measures. The panegyric of the editor of 
 his works, Mr Wilson, is extravagant and absurd. He 
 says that " he was a miracle of nature, and rather seemed 
 to be the immediate production of God Almighty than 
 born of a woman." 
 
 ADANA, a city of Asia Minor, the capital of the pro- 
 vince of the same name, on the right bank of the Sihtm, 
 about 30 miles from the sea, in N. lat. 37° 1', E. long. 
 35° 1 8'. It is built on the site of the ancient Antiockia 
 ad Sarum. Its position, commanding the passage of the 
 mountains to the north of Syria, rendered it important as 
 a military station in the contest between the Egyptians and 
 
 the Turk3 in 1832. After tho defeat of the Turkish army 
 at Konieh, it was taken possession of by Ibrahim Pacha, 
 and continued to be held by the Egyptians till the treaty 
 of July 1840 restored it to the Porte. In the streets of 
 the town there are numerous beautiful fountains, supplied 
 with water from the river, which is here spanned by a 
 stately bridge of fifteen arches, said to have been erected 
 by Justinian. In winter the climate is mild and healthy, 
 but in summer the heat is so great that the principal 
 inhabitants betake themselves to various cool retreats in 
 the neighbouring mountains. The adjoining plain of 
 Adana is rich and fertile. The chief productions of the 
 province are cotton, corn, sesame, and wool, which are 
 largely exported. The population of the town is 20,000 
 
 ADANSON, Michel, a celebrated French naturalist, 
 descended from a Scottish family which had at the Revolu 
 tion attached itself to the fortunes of the house of Stuart, 
 was born the 7th of April 1727, at Aix, in Provence, where 
 his father was in the service of M. de Vintimille, arch- 
 bishop of that province. On the translation of this prelate 
 to the archbishopric of Paris, about the year 1730, the 
 elder Adanson repaired thither with his five children, who 
 were all provided for by their father's patron. A small 
 canonry fell to the lot of Michel, the revenue of which 
 defrayed the expenses of his education at the college of 
 Plessis. While there he was distinguished for great quick- 
 ness of apprehension, strength of memory, and mental 
 ardour; but his genius took no particular bent, until he 
 received a microscope from the celebrated Tuberville Need- 
 ham, who was struck with admiration of the talents and 
 acquirements he displayed at a public examination. From 
 that time to the last hour of his life he persevered with a 
 zeal almost unexampled" in the observation and study of 
 nature. On leaving college, his youthful ardour was well 
 employed in the cabinets of Reaumur and Bernard de 
 Jussieu, as well as in the Jardin des Plantes. Such was 
 his zeal, that he repeated the instructions of the professors 
 to his less apt fellow-students; and before completing his 
 nineteenth year he had actually described (for his own 
 improvement) 4000 species of the three kingdoms of 
 nature. In this way he soon exhausted the rich stores of 
 accumulated knowledge in Europe; and having obtained a 
 small appointment in the colony of Senegal, he resigned 
 his canonry, and embarked on the 20th of December 1748 
 for Africa. Senegal, from the unhealthiness of its climate, 
 was a terra incognita to naturalists; and this determined 
 his choice of that country as a field for exploration. His 
 ardour remained unabated during the five years of his 
 residence in Africa. He collected and described, in greater 
 or less detail, an immense number of animals and plants; 
 collected specimens of every object of commerce; delineated 
 maps of the country; made systematic meteorological and 
 astronomical observations; and prepared grammars and 
 dictionaries of the languages spoken on the banks of the 
 Senegal. On his return to Paris in February 1754 he 
 found himself without resources, but fortunately secured 
 the patronage of M. de Bombarde, who encouraged him in 
 the publication of the scientific results of his travels. In 
 his Histoire Naturelle du Senegal (Paris, 1757) he made 
 use of a small portion of the materials at his disposal ; and 
 the work has a special interest from the essay on Shells, 
 printed at the end of it, where Adanson proposed his 
 ■universal method, a system of classification distinct from 
 those of Buffon and Linnaeus. He founded his classifica- 
 tion of all organised beings on the consideration of each 
 individual organ. As each organ gave birth to new rela- 
 tions, so he established a corresponding number of arbitrary 
 arrangements. Those beings possessing the greatest num- 
 ber of similar organs were referred to one great division, 
 and the relationship was considered more remote in pro-
 
 A U A — A D D 
 
 145 
 
 portion to the dissimilarity of organs. The chief defect of 
 this method consists in presupposing a knowledge of species 
 and their organisation altogether beyond the existing stage 
 of knowledge. It gives, however, distinct ideas of the 
 degree of affinity subsisting between organised beings, 
 independent of all physiological science. Until the appear- 
 ance of this work, the Testacea had scarcely been made the 
 subject of serious study. Adanson's methodical distribu- 
 tion, founded on not less than twenty of the partial classi- 
 fications already alluded to, is decidedly superior to that of 
 any of his predecessors. For the first time there was pre- 
 sented in this department of natural history a classification 
 of the animals themselves, and not merely of the shells 
 which contain them. Like every first attempt, however, it 
 had its imperfections, which arose chiefly from ignorance of 
 the anatomical structure of the animals. It was owing to 
 this that he omitted, in his arrangement of the Mollusca, all 
 molluscous animals without shells. He abandoned his 
 original plan of publishing his Senegal observations in eight 
 vclumes, and applied himself entirely to his Families des 
 Planter, which he published in 1763. Here he developed 
 the principle of arrangement .above mentioned, which, in 
 its adherence to natural botanical relations, was based on 
 the system of Tournefort, and had been anticipated to 
 some extent nearly a century before by Eay. The success 
 of this work was hindered by its innovations in the use of 
 terms, which were ridiculed by the defenders of the popular 
 sexual system of Linnaeus; but it did much to open the 
 way for the establishment, by means principally of Jussieu's 
 Genera Plantarum (1789), of the natural method of the 
 classification of plants. In 1774 Adanson submitted to the 
 consideration of the Academy of Sciences an immense work, 
 containing what may be called the universal application of 
 his universal meihod;'ioT it extended to all known beings 
 and substances. This work consisted of 27 large volumes 
 of manuscript, employed in displaying the general relations 
 of 'all these matters, and their distribution; 150 volumes 
 more, occupied with the alphabetical arrangement of 40,000 
 species; a vocabulary, containing 200,000 words, with 
 their explanations; and a number of detached memoirs, 
 40,000 figures, and 30,000 specimens of the three king- 
 doms- of nature. The committee to which the inspection 
 of this enormous mass was intrusted strongly recommended 
 Adanson to separate and publish all that was peculiarly his 
 own, leaving out what was merely compilation. He obsti- 
 nately rejected thi3 advice; and the huge work, at which 
 he continued to labour, was never published. He had been 
 elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1 759, and he 
 latterly subsisted on a small pension it had conferred on' him. 
 Of this he was deprived on the dissolution of the Academy 
 by the Constituent Assembly, and wa3 consequently reduced 
 to such a depth of poverty as to be unable to appear before 
 the French Institute when it invited him to take his place 
 among its members. Government afterwards conferred 
 upon him a pension sufficient to relieve the simple wants 
 of the great naturalist. He died, after months of severe 
 suffering, on the 3d of August 1806, requesting, as the only 
 decoration of his grave, a garland of flowers gathered from 
 the 58 f amili es he had differentiated — " a touching though 
 transitory image," says Cuvier, "of the more durable 
 monument which he has erected to hims elf in his works." 
 His zeal for science, his unwearied industry, and his talents 
 as a philosophical observer, are conspicuous in all his writ- 
 ings. The serenity of his temper, and the unaffected good- 
 ness of his heart, endeared him to the few who. knew him 
 intimately. On his return from Africa in 1754, he laid 
 before the French Indian Company a scheme, for the settle- 
 ment of a colony in Senegal, where articles of African 
 produce might be cultivated by free negroes. His proposi- 
 tions were "uheeded by his countrymen, and by a mis- 
 
 directed patriotism he refused to present them to the 
 Abolitionists of England. A similar feeling led him to 
 refuse to settle in Austria, Russia, o r Spain, on the invita- 
 tion of the sovereigns of those countries. His most im- 
 portant works are his Natural History of Senegal and his 
 Families of Plants. He contributed a number of papers to 
 the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, on the Ship-worm, 
 the Baobab tree (the largest tree known, to which, in hon- 
 our of Adanson, Linnaeus gave the name Adansonia digitata), 
 the origin of the varieties of cultivated plants, gum-producing 
 trees, and the Oecillatoria Adansonia, an animal regarded 
 by him as a spontaneously moving plant. TJcsides *hese 
 essays, he contributed several valuable articles in natural 
 history to the earlier part of the Supplement to the first 
 Encyclopedic ; and he is also the reputed author of an essay 
 on the Electricity of the Tourmxtline (Paris, 1757), which 
 bears the name of the Duke of Koya Caraffa. 
 
 ADAPTATION', in Biology, is the process by which an 
 organism or species of organisms becomes modified to suit 
 the conditions of its life. Every change in a living, organ- 
 ism involves adaptation; for in all cases life consists in a 
 continuous adjustment of internal to external relations. 
 The term is usually restricted, however, to imply such 
 modifications as arise during the life of an individual, when 
 an external change, directly generates some change of func- 
 tion and structure. Thus, sirjee the adjustments of organ- 
 isms arise partly in direct response to causes acting on the 
 individual, and partly in, response to causes acting not 
 directly on the individual but on the species as a whole, 
 adaptation is to be regarded as the complement of natural 
 selection. While natural selection acts primarily on the 
 species, adaptation acts only indirectly, through the in- 
 heritance of modifications directly generated in the- indi- 
 vidual. - All adaptation is limited, since an organ can only 
 vary to a certain limited extent from its congenital struc- 
 ture. Adaptations are sometimes distinguished as indirect 
 (for instance, byHaeckeL Generelle Morphologic, voL ii), 
 which are directly generated in an organism, but only 
 become apparent in its offspring. These form an im- 
 portant class, and seem to suggest that the phenomena 
 of adaptation, thoroughly understood, would go far to 
 explain all the difficult cases of so-called spontaneous 
 variation. 
 
 ADDA, the ancient Addua, a river of Northern Italy, 
 formed by the union of several small streams, near the town 
 of Bormio, in the Rhaetian Alp3, flows westward through 
 the Valtellina into the Lake of Como, near its northern 
 extremity. Issuing from the Lecco "arm of the lake, it 
 crosses the plain of Lombardy, and finally, after a course 
 of about 150 miles,' joins the Po, 8 miles above Cremona. 
 The Adda -was formerly the boundary between the terri- 
 tories of Venice and Milan; and on its banks several im- 
 portant battles have been fought, notably that of Lodi, 
 where Napoleon defeated the Austrians in 1796. 
 
 ADDER, the common viper ( Vipera communis). The 
 death adder (Acanthopis tortor) of Australia, and the puff 
 adder (Clotho arietani) of South Africa, are both highly 
 poisonous. 
 
 ADDLNGTON, Hejtet,- Viscount Sidmottth, prime 
 minister of England, eldest son of Dr Anthony Addington, 
 was born at Reading on the 30th May 1757. He -was 
 educated at Winchester and at Brazenose College, Oxford. 
 In 1784 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's. Inn, but 
 being elected about the same time member of Parliament 
 for Devizes, he did not enter on legal practice. He was 
 already on terms of intimacy with the younger Pitt, his 
 father having been Lord Chatham's medical adviser (a 
 circumstance that secured for young Addington the nick- 
 name in Parliament of "the Doctor"); and he attached 
 himself, as was natural, to the party of the great commoner.
 
 146 
 
 A D D — A D D 
 
 His fidelity to Pitt received a speedy and ample acknow- 
 ledgment when he was elected, in May. 1789, speaker of 
 the House, in succession to Gronville. For a period of 
 t -reive years he discharged the duties of the chair to the 
 general satisfaction of all parties, if with no very marked 
 ability. In 1801, when Pitt resigned on the question of 
 Catholic emancipation, Addington succeeded him in the 
 ■l dices of prime minister and chancellor of the exchequer. 
 Ho was '.head of the party that had come to be known as 
 •" the king's friends," and took office, it is said, on the 
 -urgent personal solicitation of his majesty. The most 
 memorable event of his brief administration was the nego- 
 tiation of the peace of Amiens, which was concluded on 
 terms that were considered very favourable. It proved, 
 however, but a short-lived truce, the ambition of the First 
 Consul necessitating a renewal of hostilities in May 1803. 
 From this period Pitt assumed a critical attitudo towards 
 the ministry, and at length he joined Fox and the opposi- 
 tion in demanding more vigorous measures for the defence 
 ■of the country. The result was that Addington was com- 
 pelled to resign, and Pitt was restored to power in May 
 1804. Addington abstained from all factious opposition, 
 and indeed gave a general support to the Gjvernment. 
 In January 1805 he joined the cabinet as president of the 
 •council, accepting at the same time the dignity of a peer- 
 age, which he had previously declined. He resigned office, 
 however, in July of tho same year, in consequence of the 
 share he took in the prosecution of Lord Melville having 
 estranged him from Pitt. After the death of the latter in 
 1806, he became lord privy seal, and subsequently lord 
 president in the cabinet of Fox and Grenville, but resigned 
 •office in 1807. He became a third time lord president 
 tinder Mr Perceval in 1812, and in June of the same year 
 received the seals of the Home Office under the adminis- 
 tration of Lord LiverpooL He held this position for ten 
 eventful years, during which he received his full share of 
 the hostile criticism to which home secretaries are pecu- 
 liarly exposed. His administration had the merit of being 
 -vigorous, fearless, and consistent; but it frequently occa- 
 sioned great irritation, and all but provoked rebellion. 
 The policy of repression which he pursued in regard to the 
 reform meeting at Manchester in 1819, was not justifiable 
 even according to the limited ideas of liberty prevalent at 
 that time. Lord Sidmouth resigned office in 1822, retain- 
 ing his seat in the cabinet, however, until 1824. He died 
 on tho loth Feb. 1844, at the advanced age of 87. (Life 
 and Correspondence of Lord Sidmouth, by Dean Pellew, 
 3 vols. 8vo, 1847; Life of William Pitt by Lord Stan- 
 hope, 4 vols. p. 8vo, 1867.) 
 
 ADDISON, Joseph, was the eldest son of Lancelot 
 Addison, Dean of Lichfield, and was bom at his father's 
 rectory of Milston in Wiltshire, on the 1st day of May 
 1672 Afcer having passed through several schools, the 
 last of which was the Charter-house, he went to Oxford 
 when he was about fifteen years old. He was first entered 
 of Queen's College, but after two years was elected a scholar 
 of Magdalen College, having, it is said, been recommended 
 by his skill in Latin versification. He took his master's 
 degree in 1693, and held a fellowship from 1609 till 1711. 
 The eleven years extending from 1693, or his twenty-first 
 year, to 1704, when he was in his thirty -second, may be 
 wn as the first stage of his life as a man of letters. 
 During this period, embracing no profession, and not as yet 
 entangled in official business, he was a student, an observer, 
 and an author; and though the literary works which he 
 then produced are not those on which his permanent cele- 
 brity rests, they gained for him in his own day a high 
 reputation. He had at first intended to become a clergy- 
 man ; but his talents having attracted the attention of 
 loading statesmen belonging to the Whig party, he was 
 
 speedily diverted from his earlier vievfs oy thj countenance 
 which these men bestowed on him.* His first patron (to 
 whom he seems to have been introduced by Congreve) was 
 Charles Montague, afterwards Earl of Halifax, who was 
 himself a dabbler in literature, and a protector of literary 
 men; and he became kuown afterwards to the accomplished 
 and excellent Somers. While both of them were quite able- 
 to estimate justly his literary merits, they had regard mainly 
 to the services which they believed him capable of render 
 ing to the .nation or the parly; and accordingly they 
 encouraged him to regulate his pursuits with a view to 
 public and official employment. For a considerable time, 
 however, he was left to his own resources; which cannot 
 have been otherwise than scanty. 
 
 His first literary efforts were poetical In 1693 a short 
 poem of his, addressed to Dryden, was inserted in the third 
 volume of that veteran writer's Miscellanies. The .next 
 volume of this collection contained his translation, in toler- 
 able heroic couplets, of " all Virgil's Fourth Georgic, except 
 the story of Aristaeus." Two and a half books of Ovid 
 were afterwards attempted; and to his years of early man- 
 hood belonged also his prose Essay on Virgil's Georgics, a 
 performance which hardly deserved, either for its style or 
 lor its critical excellence, the compliment paid it by Dryden, 
 in prefixing it to his own translation of the poem. The most 
 ambitious of those poetical assay-pieces is the Acwunt of 
 (lie Greatest English Poets, dated April 1694, and addressed 
 affectionately to Sacheverell, the poet's fellow-collegian, who 
 afterwards became so notorious in the party quarrels of tho 
 time. This piece, spirited both in language and in versi- 
 fication, is chiefly noticeable as showing that ignorance of 
 old English poetry which was then universal. Addison 
 next, in 1695, published one of those compositions, celebrat- 
 ing contemporary events, and lauding contemporary great 
 men, on which, during the half-century that succeeded the 
 Revolution, there was wasted so much of good writing and 
 of fair poetical -ability. His piece, not very meritorious even 
 in its own class, was addressed " To the King," and com- 
 memorates the campaign which was distinguished by Wil- 
 liam's taking of Naniur. Much better than the poem itself 
 are the introductory verses to Somers, then lord keeper. 
 This production, perhaps intended as a remembrancer to 
 the writer's patrons, did not at once produce any obvious 
 effect : and we are left in considerable uncertainty as to the 
 manner in which about this tune Addison contrived to 
 support himself. He corresponded with Tonson the book- 
 seller about projected works, one of these being a Trans- 
 lation of Herodotus. It was probably at some later time 
 that he purposed compiling a Dictionary of the English 
 Language. In 1699 a considerable collection of his Latin 
 verses was published at Oxford, in the Musm Avglicanw. 
 These appear to have interested some foreign scholars ; 
 and several of them show curious symptoms of his charac- 
 teristic humour. 
 
 In the same year, his patrons, either having still no office 
 to spare for him, or desiring him to gain peculiarly high 
 qualifications for diplomatic or other important business, 
 provided for him temporarily by a grant, which, though 
 bestowed on a man of great merit and promise, would not 
 pass unquestioned in the present century. He obtained, 
 on the recommendation of Lord Somers, a pension of £300 
 a year Addison himself afterwards said in a 
 
 memorial addressed to the crown) to enable him " to travel, 
 and qualify himself to serve His Majesty." In the summer 
 of 1699 he crossed into France, where, chiefly for the pur- 
 pose of learning the language, he remained till the end of 
 1700; and after this he spent a year in Italy. In Switz- 
 erland, on his way home, he Was stopj>ed by receiving 
 notice that he was to be appointed envoy to Prince Eugene, 
 then engaged in the war in Italy. Cut his "tVhig friends
 
 ADDISON 
 
 147 
 
 -were already tottering in their places; and, in March 1702, 
 the death of King William at once drove them from power 
 and put an end to the pension. Indeed Addison asserted 
 that he never received but one year's payment of it, and 
 that all the other expenses of his travels were defrayed by 
 himself. He was able, however, to visit a gTeat part of 
 Germany, and did not reach Holland, till the spring of 
 1703. His prospects were now sufficiently gloomy: he 
 entered into treaty, oftener than once, for an engagement 
 as a travelling tutor; and the correspondence in one of 
 these negotiations has been preserved. Tonson had recom- 
 mended him as the best person to attend in this character 
 the son of the Duke of Somerset, commonly called " The 
 Proud." The duke, a profuse man in matters of pomp, 
 wa3 economical in questions of education. He wished 
 Addison to' name the salary he expected; this being 
 declined, he announced, with great dignity, that he would 
 give a hundred guineas a year; Addison accepted the 
 munificent offer, saying, however, that he could not find 
 Ms account in it otherwise than by relying on his Grace's 
 future patronage; and his Grace immediately intimated 
 that he would look .out for some one else. Towards the 
 end of 1703 Addison returned to England. 
 
 Works which he composed during his residence ou the 
 Continent were the earliest that showed him to have attained 
 maturity of skill and genius. There is good reason for be- 
 lieving that his tragedy of Cato, whatever changes it may 
 afterwards have suffered, was in great part written while he 
 lived in France, that is, when he was about twenty-eight 
 years of age. In the winter of 1701, amidst the stoppages 
 and discomforts of a journey across the Mount Cenis, he 
 composed, wholly or partly, his Letter from Italy, which is 
 by far the best of his poems, if it is not rather the only one 
 among them that at all justifies his claim to the poetical 
 character. It contains some fine touches of description, 
 and is animated by a noble tone of classical enthusiasm. 
 While in Germany he wrote his Dialogues on Medals, which, 
 Jaowever, were not published till after his death. These 
 lave, much liveliness of style, and something ' of the gay 
 tumour which the author was afterwards to exhibit more 
 •strongly; but they show little either of antiquarian learning 
 or of critical ingenuity. In tracing out parallels between 
 passages of the Roman poets and figures or scenes which 
 ■appear in ancient sculptures, Addison opened the easy course 
 of inquiry which was afterwards prosecuted by Spence; and 
 this, with the apparatus of spirited metrical translations from 
 the classics, gave the work a likeness to his account of his 
 travels. This account, entitled Remarks on Several Parts 
 of Italy, &.C., he «ent home for publication before his own 
 return. It wants altogether the interest of personal narra- 
 tive: the author hardly ever appears. The task in which 
 he chiefly busies himself is that of exhibiting the illustra- 
 tions which the writings of the Latin poets, and the anti- 
 quities and scenery of Italy, mutually give and receive. 
 Many of the landscapes are sketched with great liveliness, 
 and there are not a few strokes of arch humour. The 
 statistical information is very meagre; nor are there many 
 observations on society; and politics are no further 
 meddled with than to show the moderate liberality of the 
 writer's own opinions. 
 
 With the year 1 704 begins a second era in Addison's life, 
 which extends to the summer of 1710, when his age was 
 thirty-eight. This was the first term of his official career; 
 and, though very barren of literary performance, it not only 
 raised him from indigence, but settled definitively his posi- 
 tion as a public man. His correspondence shows that, while 
 on the Continent, he had been admitted to confidential inti- 
 macy by diplomatists and men of rank ; immediately on his 
 return he was enrolled in the Kitcat Club, and brought thus 
 and otherwise into communication with the gentry of the 
 
 Whig party. Although all accounts agree in representing 
 him as a shy man, he was at least saved from all risk ol 
 making himself disagreeable in society, by his' unassuming 
 manners, his extreme caution, and that sedulous desire to 
 oblige, which his. satirist Pope exaggerated into a positive 
 fault. His knowledge and ability were esteemed so highly, 
 es to confirm the expectations formerly entertained of his 
 usefulness in public business ; and the literary fame he had 
 already acquired soon furnished an occasion for recommend- 
 ing him to public employment. Though the Whigs were 
 out of office, the administration which succeeded them was, 
 in all its earlier changes, of a complexion so mixed and un- 
 certain, that the influence of their leaders was not entirely 
 lost Not long after Marlborough's great victory at Blen- 
 heim, it is said that Godolphin, the lord treasurer, expressed 
 to Lord Halifax a desire to have the great duke's fame 
 extended by a poetical tribute. Halifax seized the oppor- 
 tunity of recommending Addison as the fittest man for the 
 duty; stipulating, we are told, that the service should not 
 be unrewarded, and douhtless satisfying the minister that 
 his protege" possessed other qualifications for office besides 
 dexterity in framing heroic verse. The Campaign, the 
 poem thus written to order, was received with extraordinary 
 applause; and it is probably as good as any that ever was 
 prompted by no more worthy inspiration. It has, indeed, 
 neither the fiery spirit which Dryden threw into occasional 
 pieces of the sort, nor the exquisite polish that would have 
 been given by Pope, if he had stooped to make such uses 
 of his genius; but many of the details are pleasing; and in 
 the famous passage of the Angel, as well as in several others, 
 there is even something of force and imagination. 
 
 The consideration covenanted for by the poet's friends 
 was faithfully paid. A vacancy occurred by the death of 
 another celebrated man, John Locke; and in November 
 1704, Addison was appointed one of the five commissioners 
 of appeal in Excise. The duties of the place must have been 
 as light for him as they had been for his predecessor; for he 
 continued to hold it with all the appointments he subse- 
 quently received from the same ministry. But there is no 
 reason for believing that he was more careless than other 
 public servants in his time ; and the charge of incompetency 
 as a man of business, which has been brought so positively 
 against him, cannot possibly be true as to this first period 
 of his official career. Indeed, the specific allegations refer 
 exclusively to the last years of his life; and, if he had not 
 really shown practical ability in the period now in question, 
 it is not easy to see how he, a man destitute alike of wealth, 
 of social or fashionable liveliness, and of family interest, 
 could have been promoted, for several years, from office to 
 office, as he was, till the fall of the administration to which 
 he was attached. In 1706 he became one of the under- 
 secretaries of state, serving first under Hedges, who belonged 
 to the Tory section of the Government, and afterwards under 
 Lord Sunderland' Marlborough's son-in-law, and a zealous 
 follower of Addison's early patron, Somers. The work of 
 this office, however, like that of the commvssionership, must 
 often have admitted of performance by. deputy. For in 
 1707, the Whigs having become stronger, Lord Halifax 
 was sent on a mission to the Elector of Hanover; and, 
 besides taking Vanbrugh the dramatist with him. as king- 
 at-arms, he selected Addison as his secretary. In 1708 he 
 entered Parliament, sitting at first for Lostwithiel, but 
 afterwards -for Malmesburj, which, being six times elected, 
 he represented from 1710 till his death. Here unquestion- 
 ably he did fail. What part he may have taken in the 
 details of business we are not informed; but he was always 
 a silent member, unless it be true that he once attempted 
 to speak and sat clown in confusion. In 1709 Lord 
 Wharton, the father of the notorious duke, having been 
 named lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Addison became his
 
 148 
 
 ADDISON 
 
 secretary, receiving also an appointment as keeper of records. 
 This event happened only about a year and a half before 
 the dismissal of the ministry; and the Irish secretary would 
 seem to have transacted the business of his office chiefly in 
 London. But there are letters showing him to have made 
 himself acceptable to some of the best and most distin- 
 guished persons in Dublin; and he escaped without having 
 any quarrel with Swift, his acquaintance with whom had 
 begun some time before. In the literary history of 
 Addison those seven years of official service are almost a 
 Slank, till we approach their close. He defended the 
 Tovernnient vc in anonymous pamphlet on The Present 
 State of the War; he united compliments to the all-powerful 
 Marlborough with indifferent attempts at lyrical poetry in 
 his opera of Rosamond; and, besides furnishing a prologue 
 to Steele's comedy of The Tender Husband, he perhaps 
 gave some assistance in the composition of the play. Irish 
 administration, however, allowed it would seem more 
 leisure than might have been expected. During the last 
 few months of his tenure of office Addison contributed 
 largely to the Taller. But his entrance on this new field 
 does nearly coincide with the beginning of a new section in 
 his history. 
 
 Even the coalition-ministry of Godolphin was too Whig- 
 gish for the taste of Queen Anne; and the Tories, the 
 favourites of the court, gained, both in parliamentary power 
 and in popularity out of doors, by a combination of lucky 
 accidents, dexterous maaagement, and divisions and double- 
 dealing among their adversaries. The real failure of the 
 prosecution of Addison's old friend .Sacheverell, completed 
 the ruin of the Whigs; and in August 1710 an entire 
 revolution in the ministry had been completed. The Tory 
 administration which succeeded kept its place till the 
 queen's death in 1714, and Addison was thus left to devote 
 four of the best years of his life, from his thirty-ninth year 
 to his forty-third, to occupations less lucrative than those in 
 which his time had recently been frittered away, but much 
 more conducive to the extension of his own fame, and to 
 the benefit of English literature. Although our information 
 as to his pecuniary affairs is very scanty, we are entitled to 
 believe that he was now independent of literary labour. He 
 speaks, in an extar.t paper, of having had (but lost) property 
 in the West Indies ; and he is understood to have inherited 
 several thousand pounds from a younger brother, who was 
 governor of Madras. In 1711 he purchased, for £10,000, 
 the estate of Bilton, near Rugby, — the place which after- 
 wards became the residence of Mr Apperley, better known 
 by his assumed name of " Nimrod." 
 
 During those four years- he produced a few political 
 writings. Soon after the fall of the ministry, he con- 
 tributed five numbers to the Whig Examiner, a paper set 
 up in opposition to the Tory periodical of the same name, 
 which was then conducted by the poet Prior, and after- 
 wards became the vehicle of Swift's most vehement invec- 
 tives against the party he had once belonged to. These are 
 certainly the most ill-natured of Addison's writings, but 
 they are neither lively nor vigorous. There is more spirit 
 in his allegorical pamphlet, the Trial and Conviction of 
 Count Tariff. 
 
 But from the autumn of 1710 till the end of 1714 his 
 principal employment was the composition of his celebrated 
 Periodical Essays. The honour of inventing the plan of 
 such compositions, as well as that of first carrying the idea 
 into execution, belongs to Richard Steele, who had been a 
 Rchool-fellow of Addison at the Charter-house, continued to 
 l)e on intimate terms with him afterwards, and attached 
 liimself with his characteristic ardour to the same political 
 party. When, in April 1709, Steele published the first 
 number of the Tatler, Addispn was in Dublin, and knew 
 nothing of the design. He is said to have detected his 
 
 friend's authorship only by recognising, in one of the early 
 papers, a critical remark which he remembered having him- 
 self communicated to Steele. Ho began to furnish essays 
 in a few weeks, assisted occasionally while he held office, 
 and afterwards wrote oftener than Steele himself. He thus 
 contributed in all, if his literary executor selected his con- 
 tributions correctly, more than 60 of the 271 essays which 
 the work contains. The Tatler exhibited, in more ways 
 than one, symptoms of being an experiment. The pro- 
 jector, imitating the news-sheets in form, thought it prudent 
 to give, in each number, news in addition to the essay; and 
 there' was a want, both of unity and of correct finishing, in 
 tho putting together of the literary materials. Addison's 
 contributions, in particular, are in many places as lively aa 
 anything he ever wrote; and his style, in its more familiar 
 moods at least, had been fully formed before he returned 
 from the Continent. But, as compared with his later pieces, 
 these are only what the painter's loose studies and sketches 
 are to the landscapes which he afterwards constructs out ol 
 them. In his invention of incidents and characters, one 
 thought after another is hastily used and hastily dismissed, 
 as if he were putting his own powers to the test, or trying 
 the effect of various kinds of objects on his readers ; his most 
 ambitious flights, in the shape of allegories and the like, are 
 stiff and inanimate; and his favourite field of literary criti 
 cism is touched so slightly, as to show that he still wanted 
 confidence in the taste and knowledge of the public. 
 
 The Tatler was dropped at the beginning of 1711, but 
 only to be followed by the Spectator, which was begun on 
 the 1st day of March, and appeared every week-day till the 
 6th day of December 1712. It had then completed the 
 555 numbers usually collected in its first seven volumes. 
 Addison, now in London and unemployed, co-operated with 
 Steele constantly from the very opening of the series; and 
 the two, contributing almost equally, seem together to have 
 written not very much less than five hundred of the papers. 
 Emboldened by the success of their former adventure, they 
 devoted their whole space to the essays. They relied, with 
 a confidence which the extraordinary popularity of the work 
 fully justified, on their power of exciting the interest of a 
 wide audience by pictures and reflections drawn from a 
 field which embraced the whole compass of ordinary life 
 and ordinary knowledge, no kind of practical themes being 
 positively excluded except such as were political, and all 
 literary topics being held admissible, for which it seemed 
 possible to command attention from persona of average 
 taste and information. A seeming unity was given to the 
 undertaking, and curiosity and interest awakened on behalf 
 of the conductors, by the happy invention of the Spectator's 
 Club, in which Steele is believed to have drawn all the 
 characters. The figure of Sir Roger de Coverley, however,- 
 the best even in the opening group, is the only one .that 
 was afterwards elaborately depicted; and Addison was the 
 author of all the papers in which his oddities and amia- 
 bilities are so admirably delineated. To hiin, also, the 
 Spectator owed a very large share of its highest excellences. 
 His were many, and these the most natural and elegant, if 
 not the most original, of its humorous sketches of human 
 character and social eccentricities, its good-humoured satires 
 on ridiculous features in manners, and on corrupt symptoms 
 in public taste; these topics, however, making up a depart- 
 ment in which Steele was fairly on a level with his more 
 famous coadjutor. But Steele had neither learning - , nor 
 taste, nor critical acuteness sufficient to qualify him for 
 enriching the series with such literary disquisitions as those 
 which Addison insinuated so often into the lighter matter 
 of his essays, and of which le gave an elaborate specimen 
 in his celebrated and agreeable criticism on Paradise Lost. 
 Still further beyond the powers of Steele were those specu- 
 lations on the theory of literature and of the processes of
 
 ADDISON 
 
 140 
 
 thouslit analogous to it, which, in the essays " On the Plea- 
 sures of the Imagination," Addison prosecuted, not, indeed, 
 with much of philosophical depth, but with a sagacity and 
 comprehensiveness which we shall undervalue much unless 
 we remember how little of philosophy was to be found in 
 any critical views previously propounded in England. To 
 Addison, further, belong those essays which (most fre- 
 quently introduced in regular alternation in the papers of 
 Saturday) rise into the region of moral and religious medi- 
 tation, and tread the elevated ground with a step so grace- 
 ful as to allure the reader irresistibly to follow ; sometimes, 
 as in the " Walk through Westminster Abbey," enlivening 
 solemn thought by gentle sportiveness ; sometimes flowing 
 on with an uninterrupted sedateness of didactic eloquence; 
 and sometimes shrouding sacred truths in the veil of in- 
 genious allegory, as in the majestic " Vision of Mirza." 
 While, in a word, the Spectator, if Addison had not taken 
 part in it, would probably have been as lively and humorous 
 as it was, and not less popular in its own day, it would have 
 wanted some of its strongest claims on the respect of pos- 
 terity, by being at once lower in its moral tone, far less 
 abundant in literary knowledge, and much less vigorous 
 and expanded in thinking. In point of style, again, the 
 two friends resemble each other so closely as to be hardly 
 distinguishable, when both are dealing with familiar objects, 
 and writing in a key not rising above that of conversation. 
 But in the higher tones of thought and composition, Addi- 
 son showed a mastery of language raising him very de- 
 cisively, not above Steele only, but above all his contem- 
 poraries. Indeed, it may safely be said, that no one, in 
 any age of our literature, has united, so strikingly as he did, 
 the colloquial grace and ease which mark the style of an 
 accomplished gentleman, with the power of soaring into a 
 strain of expression nobly and eloquently dignified. 
 
 On the cessation of the Spectator, Steele set on foot the 
 Guardian, which, started in March 1713, came to an end 
 in October, with its 175th number. To this series Addison 
 gave 53 papers, being a very frequent writer during the 
 latter half of its progress. None of his essays here aim 
 so high as the best of those in the Spectator; but he often 
 exhibits both his cheerful and well-balanced humour, and 
 nis earnest desire to inculcate sound principles of literary 
 judgment. In the last six months of the year 1714, the 
 Spectator received its eighth and last volume; for which 
 Steele appears not to have written at all, and Addison to 
 have contributed 24 of the 80 papers. Most of these form, 
 in the unbroken seriousness both of their topics and of 
 their manner, a contrast to the majority of his essays in 
 the earlier volumes; but several of them, both in this vein 
 and in one less lofty, are among the best known, if not the 
 finest, of all his essays. Such are the " Mountain of 
 Miseries;" the antediluvian novel of " Shallum and Hilpa;" 
 the " Reflections by Moonlight on the Divine Perfections." 
 In April 1713 Addison brought on the stage, very reluc- 
 tantly, as we are assured, and can easily believe, his tragedy 
 of Calo. Its success was dazzling; but this issue was 
 mainly owing to the concern which the politicians took in 
 the exhibition. The 'Whigs hailed it as a brilliant mani- 
 festo in favour of constitutional freedom. The Tories 
 echoed the applause, to show themselves enemies of despot- 
 ism, and professed to find in Julius Csesar a parallel to the 
 formidable Marlborough. Even with such extrinsic aid", 
 and the advantage derived from the established fame of the 
 author, Cato could never have been esteemed a good 
 dramatic work, unless in an age in which dramatic power 
 and insight were almost extinct. It is poor even in its 
 poetical elements, and is redeemed only by the finely 
 solemn tone of its moral reflections, and the singular refine- 
 ment and equable smoothness of its diction. 
 
 The literary career of Addison micbt almost be held as 
 
 closed soon after the death of Queen Anne, which occurred 
 in August 1714, when he had lately completed his 42d 
 year. His own life extended only five years longer; and 
 this closing portion of it offers bttle that i3 pleasing or 
 instructive. 'We see him attaining the summit of his 
 ambition, only to totter for a little and sink into an early 
 grave. We are reminded of his more vigorous days by 
 nothing but a few happy inventions interspersed in political 
 pamphlets, and the gay fancy of a trifling poem on Kneller's 
 portrait of George I. 
 
 The lord justices who, previously chosen secretly by the 
 Elector of Hanover, assumed the government on the Queen's 
 demise, were, as a matter of course, the leading Whiss. 
 They appointed Addison to act as their secretary. He 
 next held, for a very short time, his former office under 
 the Irish lord-lieutenant; and, early in 1715, he was 
 made one of the lords of trade. In the course of the 
 same year occurred the first of the only two quarrels with 
 friends, into which the prudent, good-tempered, and modest 
 Addison is said to have ever been betrayed. His adversary 
 on this occasion was Pope, who, only three years before, 
 had received, with an appearance of humble thankfulness, 
 Addison's friendly remarks on his Essay on Criticism; but 
 who, though still very young, was already very famous, 
 and beginning to show incessantly his literary jealousies, 
 and his personnl and party hatreds. Several little mis- 
 understandings had paved the way for a breach, when, at 
 the same time with the first volume of Pope's Iliad, there 
 appeared a translation of the first book of the poem, bear- 
 ing the name of Thomas Tickell. Tickell, in his preface, 
 disclaimed all rivalry with Pope, and declared that he wished 
 only to bespeak favourable attention for his contemplated 
 version of the Odyssey. But the simultaneous publication 
 was awkward; and Tickell, though not so good a versifier 
 as Pope, was a dangerous rival, as being a good Greek 
 scholar. Further, he was Addison's under-secretary and 
 confidential friend; and Addison, cautious though he was, 
 does appear to have said (quite truly) that Tickell's trans- 
 lation was more faithful than the other. Pope's anger 
 could not be restrained. He wrote those famous lines in 
 which he describes Addison under the name of Atticus; 
 and, as if to make reconciliation impossible, he not only 
 circulated these among his friends, but sent a copy to 
 Addison himself. Afterwards, he went so far as to profess 
 a belief that the rival translation was really Addison's own. 
 It is pleasant to observe that, after the insult had been 
 perpetrated, Addison was at the pains, in his Freeholder. 
 to express hearty approbation of the Iliad of Pope; who, 
 on the contrary, after Addison's death, deliberately printed 
 the striking but malignant bnes in the Epistle to Dr 
 Arbuthnot. In 1715 there was acted, with bttle success, 
 the comedy of The Drummer, or the Haunted House, which, 
 though it appeared under the name of Steele, was certainly 
 not his, and was probably written in whole or chiefly by 
 Addison. It contributes very little to his fame. From 
 September 1715 to June 1716, he defended the Hano- 
 verian succession, and the proceedings of the Government 
 in regard to the rebellion, in a paper called the Freeholder, 
 which he wrote entirely himself, dropping it with the fifty- 
 fifth number. It is much better tempered, not less spirited, 
 and much more able in thinking, than his Examiner. The 
 finical man of taste does indeed show himself to be some- 
 times weary of discussing constitutional questions; but he 
 aims many enlivening thrusts at weak points of social llfo 
 and manners; and the character of the Fox hunting Squire, 
 who is introduced as the representative of the Jacobites, is 
 drawn with so much humour and force that we regret not 
 being allowed to see more of him. 
 
 In August 1716, when he had completed his 44th year, 
 Addison married the Countess-Dowager of Warwick, a
 
 150 
 
 1DE-ADE 
 
 widow of fifteen years' standing. She seems to liavo i'ot- 
 feited her jointure by the marriage, and to nave brought 
 her husband nothing but the occupancy of Holland HouLe 
 at Kensington. We know hardly anything positively in 
 regard to the affair, or as to tho origin or duration of his 
 acquaintance with the lady or her family. But the current 
 assertion that the courtship was a long one is very probably 
 erroneous. There are better grounds for believing the 
 assertion, transmitted from Addison's own time, that the 
 marriage was unhappy. The countess is said to have been 
 proud as well as violent, and to have supposed that, in con- 
 tracting the alliance, sho conferred honour instead of receiv- 
 ing it. ° To the uneasiness caused by domestic discomfort, 
 the most friendly critics of Addison's character have attri- 
 buted those habits of intemperance, which are said to have 
 grown on him in his later years to such an extent as to have 
 broken his health and accelerated his death. His bio- 
 grapher, Miss Aikin, who disbelieves his alleged waut of 
 matrimonial quiet, has called in question, with much in- 
 genuity, the whole story of his sottishness; and it must at 
 any rate be allowed that all the assertions which tend to fix 
 such charges on him in the earlier parts of his life, rest on 
 no evidence that is worthy of credit, and are in themselves 
 highly improbable. Sobriety was not the virtue of the 
 day; and the constant frequenting of coffee-houses, which 
 figures so often in the Spectator and elsewhere, and which 
 was really practised among literary men as well as others, 
 cannot have had good effects. Addison, however, really 
 appears to have had no genuine relish for this mode of life ; 
 and there are curious notices, especially in Steele's corre- 
 epondence, of his having lodgings out of town, to which he 
 retired for study and composition. But, whatever the cause 
 may have been, his health was shattered before he took that 
 which was the last, and certainly the most unwise step, in 
 his ascent to political power. 
 
 For a considerable time dissensions had existed in the 
 ministry; and these came to a crisis in April 1717, when 
 those who had been the real chiefs passed into the ranks of 
 the opposition. Townshend was dismissed, and Walpole 
 anticipated dismissal by resignation. There was now 
 formed, under the leadership of General Stanhope and Lord 
 Sunderland, an administration which, as resting on court- 
 influence, was nicknamed tho " German ministry." Sun- 
 derland, Addison's former superior, became one of the two 
 principal secretaries of state; and Addison himself was 
 appointed as the other. His elevation to such a post had 
 been contemplated on the accession of George I, and pre- 
 vented, we are told, by his own refusal; and it is asserted, 
 on the authority of Pope, that his acceptance now was 
 owing only to the influence of his wife. Even if there is 
 no ground, as there probably is not, for the allegation of 
 Addison's inefficiency in tho details of business, his unfit- 
 ness for such an office in such circumstances was undeni- 
 able and glaring. It was impossible that a Government, 
 whose secretary of state could not open his lips in debate, 
 should long face an "opposition headed by Robert Walpole. 
 The decay of Addisbn'3 health, too, was going on rapidly, 
 being, we may readily conjecture, precipitated by anxiety, 
 if no worse causes were at work. HI health was the reason 
 assigned for retirement, in the letter of resignation which 
 he laid before the king in March 1718, eleven months 
 after his appointment He Teceived a pension of £1500 
 a year. 
 
 Not long afterwards tho divisions in the Whig party 
 alienated him from his oldest friend. The Peerage Bill, 
 introduced in February 1719, was attacked, on behalf of 
 the opposition, in a weekly paper, which was called the 
 Pleheian, and written by Steele. Addison answered it 
 temperately enough in tho Old Wliig; provocation from 
 the Plebeian brought forth angry retort from the Whig; 
 
 Steele charged Addison with being so old a Whig as to 
 have forgotten his principles; and Addison sneered at Grub 
 Street, and called his friend "Little Dicky." 1 How Addi- 
 son felt after this painful quarrel we are not told directly ; 
 but tho Old Whig was excluded from that posthumous 
 collection of his works for which his executor Tiekell had 
 received from him authority and directions. In that collec- 
 tion was inserted a treatise on the evidences of tho fidth,. 
 entitled Of the Christian, Religion. Its theological value ia 
 very small; but it is pleasant to regard it as tho last effort 
 of one who, amidst all weaknesses, was a man of real good« 
 ness as well as of eminent genius. 
 
 The disease under which Addison laboured appears t0> 
 have been asthma. It became more violent after his retire- 
 ment from office, and was now accompanied by dropsy. 
 His deathbed was placid and resigned, and comforted by 
 those religious hopes which he had so often suggested to> 
 others, and the value of which he is said, in an anecdote 
 of doubtful authority, to have now inculcated in a parting; 
 interview with his stepson. He died at Holland House ou. 
 the 17th day of June 1719, six weeks after having com- 
 pleted his '17th year. His body, after lying in state, wa» 
 interred in tho Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey. 
 
 The Biographia Brilannica gives an elaborate memoir 
 of him; particulars are well collected in the article under 
 his name in the Biographical Dictionary of tlie Society for 
 the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge; and a good many new- 
 materials, especially letters, will be found in The Life of 
 Joseph Addison, by Lucy Aikin, 1843. (w. S.) 
 
 An edition of Addison's works, in four volumes quarto, was pub- 
 lished by Baskerville at Birmingham in 1761. Dibdin characterises, 
 this as a "glorious performance. A complete edition in six volumes, 
 with note9, by Kichard Hurd, appeared in 1811. An American 
 edition (New York, 1854), in six volumes, with notes, by G. YV. 
 Greene, contains several pieces collected for the first time. An edi- 
 tion of the S^ctator, with valuable notes by Henry Morlcy, appeared. 
 in 1871. 
 
 ADEL or Somactli, an extensive tract of country, stretch- 
 ing eastward from the neighbourhood of Tajurrah to Cape 
 Guardafui, between 43° and 51° E. long., with a breadth 
 not accurately ascertained. Zeila and Berbera are the 
 chief port on the coast, and have some trade with the 
 opposite shores of Arabia, exporting spices, ivory, gold 
 dust, cattle, and horses, and receiving Indian commodities! 
 in exchange. The country, which is marshy and unhealthy, 
 is inhabited by the Somauli, -wjio are governed by an Iman, 
 and are Mahometans. . 
 
 ADELAAR, Cort Sivartsen, surnamed the Eagle, a 
 famous naval commander, was born at Brevig in Norway 
 in 1622. At the age of fifteen he became a cadet in the 
 Dutch fleet under Van Tromp, and after a few year* 
 entered the service of tho Venetian Republic, which was 
 engaged at the time in a war with Turkey. In 1G45 he- 
 had risen to the rank of captain; and after sharing in 
 various victories as commander of a squadron, he achieved 
 his most brilliant success at the Dardanelles, on the 13th 
 May 1654, when, with his own vessel alone, he broke 
 through a line of 37 Turkish ships, sank 15 of them, and 
 burned others, causing a loss to the enemy of 5000 men. 
 The following day he entered Tenedos, and compelled the 
 complete surrender of the Turks. On returning to Venice 
 he was crowned with honours, and became admird-lieu- 
 tenant in 1060. Numerous tempting offers were made tr> 
 him by other naval powers, and in 1661 he left Venice to- 
 return to the Netherlands. Next year he was induced, by 
 the offer of a title and an enormous salary, to accept the 
 command of the Danish fleet from Frederick III. Under 
 Christian V. he took the command of the combined Danish 
 fleets against Sweden, but died suddenly (5th November 
 
 1 On this point, however, see Macaulay's Essay on The Life and 
 Writings of Addison.
 
 A D E — A D E 
 
 151 
 
 1 G75) at Copenhagen, before the expedition set out. When 
 in the Venetian service, Adelaar wa3 known by the name 
 of Curzio Suffrido Adjlborst. 
 
 ADELAIDE, the capital of the British colony of South 
 Australia and of the county of the same name, situated or" 
 the Torrens, seven miles from Port Adelaide, with which it 
 is connected by railway. The river, which is spanned at 
 this point by several bridges, divides the city into two parts 
 — North Adelaide, the smaller of the two, but containing 
 the chief private houses, occupying a gentle slope on the 
 right bank; and South Adelaide, the commercial centre of 
 the town, lying on a very level plain on the left. The 
 streets of Adelaide are broad, and regularly laid out. 
 Among its public buildings are the Government offices and 
 the governor's house, the post office, the jail, five banks, 
 the railway station, and a theatre. It is the seat of a 
 Protestant Episcopal and also of a Roman Catholic bishop, 
 and contains places of worship belonging to these bodies, 
 as well as to the Presbyterians, the Methodists, the Uni- 
 tarians, the Baptists, and other denominations. Adelaide 
 possesses a botanical garden, and is surrounded by exten- 
 sive public grounds, known as the " Park Lands," contain- 
 ing over- 1900 acres. It is lighted with gas, and is sup- 
 plied with water from a reservoir some miles up the Torrens. 
 The corporation consists of a mayor and eight councillors, 
 two from each of the four wards; and there are also two 
 auditors, a town clerk, and other officials. The chief 
 manufactures are woollen, starch, soap, beer, flour, leather, 
 earthenware, and iron goods. There is a good retail trade in 
 European produce; and in the vicinity are iron and copper 
 mines. Adelaide was founded in 1S36, and incorporated 
 in 1842. It received its name in honour of Queen Adelaide. 
 Population, 27,208. Lat. 34° 55' S., long. 138° 38' E. 
 
 Port Adelaide is situated in a low marshy position, on 
 a small inlet of the Gulf of St Vincent. Its' harbour is 
 safe and commodious; but a bar at the mouth, where the 
 depth of water varies with the tide from 8 to 16 feet, pre- 
 vents large vessels from entering. It is a free port, and has 
 good wharfs and warehouse accommodation. In 1867, 
 364 vessels of 119,654 tons arrived at, and 376 of 125,559 
 tons departed from, Port Adelaide. The chief imports 
 were drapery, iron goods and machinery, beer, wine, spirits, 
 and paper; and the exports, grain, copper and lead ores, 
 wool, tallow, and other native products. Population, 2482. 
 
 ADELSBERG, a market town of Austria, in the pro- 
 vince of Carniola, 26 miles SW. of Laibach, and about the 
 same distance E. of Trieste. About a mile from the town 
 is the entrance to the famous stalactite cavern of Adelsberg, 
 the largest and most magnificent in Europe. The cavern 
 is divided into four grottoes, with two lateral ramifications 
 which reach to the distance of about a mile and a half 
 from the entrance. The river Poik enters the cavern 60 
 feet below its mouth, and is heard murmuring in its 
 recesses. In the Kaiser-Ferdinand grotto, the third of the 
 chain, a great ball is annually held on "Whitmonday, when 
 the chamber is brilliantly illuminated. The Franz-Joseph- 
 Elisabeth grotto, the largest of the four, and the farthest 
 from the entrance, is 665 feet in length, 640 feet in breadth, 
 and more than 100 feet high. Besides the imposing pro- 
 portions of its chambers, the cavern is remarkable for the 
 variegated beauty of its stalactite formations, some resem- 
 bling transparent drapery, others waterfalls, trees, animals, 
 or human beings, the more grotesque bein^ called by 
 various fanciful appellations. These subterranean wonders 
 were known in the Middle Ages, but the cavern remained 
 undiscovered in modern times until 1816, and it is only in 
 still more recent times 'that its vast extent has been fully 
 ascertained and explored. 
 
 ADELUNG, Friedeich von, a distinguished philo- 
 logist, nephew of John Christoph Adelung, was born at 
 
 Stettin on the 25th February 1768. After studying philo- 
 sophy and jurisprudence at Leipsic he accompanied a. 
 family to Italy, where he remained for several years. At 
 Rome he obtained access to the Vatican library, a privilege, 
 which he utilised by collating and editing some valuable 
 old German MSS. that had been taken from Heidelberg. 
 On his return he became private secretary to Count Pahlen, 
 whom he accompanied from Riga to St Petersburg. In 
 1803 he became instructor to the younger brothers of the 
 Czar, the arch-dukes Nicholas and Michael, and gave such 
 satisfaction to the empress-mother that" she entrusted him. 
 with the iare of her private library. In 1824 he became 
 director of the Oriental Institute in connection with the 
 foreign office, and. in the year following president of the 
 Academy of Sciences. He died on the 30th January 1843. 
 Adelung's chief literary works were — a Biography of Baron 
 Eerberstein (St Petersburg, 1817), a Biography of Baron 
 de Meyerberg (1827), a treatise on the Relations between the 
 Sanscrit and the Russian Languages (1815), and an Essay 
 on Sanscrit Literature (1830), a second edition of which 
 appeared in 1837, under the title Bibliotheca Sanscrita. 
 
 ADELUNG, Johann Christoph, a vory eminent Ger- 
 man grammarian, philologist, and general scholar, was bom 
 at Spantekow, in Pomerania, on the 8th August 1732, and. 
 educated at the public schools of Anclam and Closter- 
 bergen, and the university of Halle. In the year 1759 he 
 was appointed professor at the gymnasium of Erfurt, but 
 relinquished this situation two years after, and went t» 
 reside in a private capacity at Leipsic, where he continued 
 to devote himself for a long period to the cultivation of 
 letters, and particularly to those extensive and laborious 
 philological researches which proved so useful to the 
 language and literature of his native country. -In 1787 he 
 received the appointment of principal librarian to the 
 elector of Saxony at Dresden, with the honorary title of 
 Aulic Counsellor. Here he continued to reside during the 
 remainder of his life, discharging with diligence and in- 
 tegrity the duties of his situation, and prosecuting his 
 laborious studies to the last with indefatigable industry 
 and unabated zeal. Possessing -a naturally robust consti- 
 tution, he was able to devote, it has been said, fourteen 
 hours daily to literary toil, down even to the period of his 
 death. He died at Dresden on the 10th of September 
 1806. The life of a mere scholar is generally destitute of 
 interest ; and that of Adelung, which was spent entirely 
 in literary seclusion, presents no variety of incident to the 
 pen of the biographer. Of his private character and 
 habits few memorials have been preserved, but in these 
 few he is represented as the man of an amiable disposition. 
 He was a lover of good cheer, and spared neither pains 
 nor expense in procuring a variety of foreign wines, of 
 which his cellar, which he facetiously denominated his 
 Bibliotheca Selectissima,is said to have contained no less than, 
 forty different kinds. His manners were easy and affable, 
 and the habitual cheerfulness of his disposition rendered, 
 his society most acceptable to a numerous circle of friends. 
 The writings of Adelung are very voluminous, and there 
 is not one of them, perhaps, which does not exhibit some 
 proofs of the genius, industry, and erudition of the author. 
 But although his pen was usefully employed upon a 
 variety of subjects in different departments of literature 
 and science, it is to his philological labours that he is 
 principally indebted for bis great reputation ; and no man 
 ever devoted himself with more zeal and assiduity, or with 
 greater success, to the improvement of his native language. 
 In a country subdivided into so many distinct sovereign 
 states, possessing no common political centre, and •*>*■ 
 national institution whose authority could command d« 
 ference in matters of taste, — in a country whose indigenous 
 Literature was but of recent growth, and where the dialcA
 
 \b2 
 
 A D E — A D E 
 
 of the people was held in contempt at the several courts, 
 it was no easy task for a single writer to undertake to fix 
 the standard of a language which had branched out into a 
 variety of idioms, depending in a great measure upon prin- 
 ciples altogether arbitrary. Adelung effected as much in 
 this respect as could well be accomplished by the persever- 
 ing labours of an individual. By means of his excellent 
 grammars, dictionary, and various works on German style, 
 he contributed greatly towards rectifying 'the orthography, 
 refining the idiom, and fixing the standard of his native 
 tongue. 1 Of all the different dialects he gave a decided 
 preference to that of the margraviate of Misnia, in Upper 
 Saxony, and positively rejected everything that was con- 
 trary to the phraseology in use among the best society of 
 that province, and in the writings of those authors whom 
 it had produced. In adopting this narrow principle he is 
 generally thought to have been too fastidious. The dialect 
 of Misnia was undoubtedly the richest, as it was the 
 earliest cultivated of any in Germany; but Adelung pro- 
 bably went too far in restraining the language within the 
 limits of this single idiom, to the exclusion of others from 
 which it might have, and really has, acquired additional 
 richness, flexibility, and force. His German dictionary has 
 been generally regarded as superior to the English one of 
 Johnson, and certainly far surpasses it in etymology. In- 
 deed, the patient spirit of investigation which Adelung pos- 
 sessed in so remarkable a degree, together with his intimate 
 knowledge of the ancient history and progressive revolutions 
 of tie different dialects on which the modern German is 
 based, peculiarly qualified him for the duties of a lexico- 
 grapher. No man before Jacob Griiiim did so much for the 
 language of Germany. Shortly before his death he issued 
 the very learned work, at which he had been labouring 
 quietly for years, entitled Mithridates ; or, a General History 
 of Languages, with the Lord's Prayer, as a specimen, in 
 nearly Jive hundred languages and dialects. The hint of 
 this work appears to have been taken from a publication, 
 with a similar title, published by the celebrated Conrad 
 Gesner in 1555 ; but the plan of Adelung is much more 
 extensive. Unfortunately he did not live to finish what 
 he had undertaken. The first volume, which contains the 
 Asiatic languages, was published immediately after his 
 death ; the other three were issued under the superin- 
 tendence of Professor Vater (1809-17). Of the very 
 numerous works by Adelung, in addition to translations, 
 the following are of greatest importance : — 
 
 Geschithle der StreiligTceittn zicischen Ddntmarlc und dtn Htrzogtn 
 von Bolstein-Gottorp. Frankf., Leipsic, 1762, 4to. — Pragmaiische 
 Staatsgcschiclitc Etrropens von dem Ableben Kaiser Karls (Us 6'"* an. 
 Vols. i.-ix. Gotha, 1762-9, 4to. — Mineralogische Btlustigungtn. 
 Vols. i.-vi. Copenhagen and Leipsic, 1767-71, 8vo. — Glossarium 
 Manuale ad Scriptores media; et infimce LalinUatis, ex magnis Glos- 
 sariis Caroli du Frtsne Domini Ducange el Carpentaria, in com- 
 pendium rtdactum. Tomi vi. Halle, 1772-84. — Versuch tints 
 vollstandigen grammatisch-kritischen Worttrbuchs der Hoch Ttut- 
 schen Mundart. 1774-86, 6 vols. 4to. — Utber die Qcschichle der 
 Teutschen Sprache, iiber Teulsche Mundarten und Teutsche Sprath- 
 lehre. Leipsic, 1781, 8vo. — Utber den Ursprung der Sprache und 
 den Bau der Worter. Ibid. 1781, 8vo. — Teutsche Sprachlehre, sum 
 Otbrauch der Schulcn in den Konigl. Prcuss. Landtn. Berlin, 1781. 
 — Lehrgebdude der Teutschen Sprache. — Versuch einer Geschirhte 
 der Cultur des Mcnschlichen Gcschltchts. 1782, 8vo. — Beytrdge zur 
 Biirgerlichen Geschichie, zur Gesthichte der Cultur, zur Natur- 
 geschichle, Naiurlthre, und dem Fcldbaue. Leipsic, 1783, 8vo. — 
 Fortsetzung und Ergdnzungen zu Christ. Gottl. Jothers allgcmeinem 
 Gelehrten Lexico. Leipsic, 1784, 2 vols. 4to. — Ueber den Teutschen 
 Styl. Berlin, 1785, 3 vols. 8vo. — Vollstdndige Anwcisung zur 
 Teutschen Orthographic. Leipsic, 1786, 2 vols. — Auszug aus dem 
 Grammatisch-kritischen Worterbuch der Bohtn Teutschen Mundart. 
 Leipsic, 1793, 1 vol. ; 1795, 2 vols. 8vo.— Mithridates, oder Allge- 
 meine Sprachenkunde. 3 vols. Berlin, 1806-1812. 
 
 1 The period in which High German as a written language ap- 
 proached nearest perfection is, according to him, the short interval 
 between 1740 and 1760. 
 
 ADEN, a town and seaport of Yemen in Arabia, belong- 
 ing to Britain, situated on a peninsula of the same name, 
 100 miles east of the strait of Bab -el-Mandeb. The penin- 
 sula of Aden consists chiefly of a mass of barren and deso- 
 late volcanic rocks, extending five miles from east to west, 
 and three from its northern shore to Ras Sanailah or Cape 
 Aden, its most southerly point, it is connected with the 
 mainland by a neck of flat sandy ground only a few feet 
 high; and its greatest elevation is Jebel Shamshan, 1776 
 feet above the level of the sea. The town is built on the 
 eastern coast, in what is probably the crater of an extinct 
 volcano, and is surrounded by precipitous rocks that form 
 an admirable natural defence. There are two harbours, an 
 outer, facing the town, protected by the island of Sirah, 
 but now partially choked with mud; and an inner, called 
 Aden Back-bay, or, by the Arabs, Bander Tuway yi, on the 
 western side of the peninsula, which, at all periods of the 
 year, admits vessels drawing less than 20 feet. On the whole, 
 Aden is a healthy place, although it suffers considerably from 
 the want of good water, and the heat is often very intense. 
 From its admirable commercial and military position, 
 Aden early became the chief entrepot of the trade between 
 Europe and Asia. It was known to the Romans as Arabia 
 Felix and Attancv, nnd was captured by them, probably in 
 the year 24 B.c. At the commencement of the 16th. century 
 it fell into the hands of the Portuguese, who, however, were 
 expelled by the Turks in 1538. In the following century 
 the Turks themselves relinquished their conquests in Yemen, 
 and the Sultan of Senna established a supremacy over Aden, 
 which was maintained until the year 1730, when the Sheik 
 of Lahej, throwing off his allegiance, founded a line of 
 independent sultans. In 1837 a •Ship under British colours 
 was wrecked near Aden, and the crew and passengers 
 grievously maltreated by the Arabs. An explanation of 
 the outrage being demanded' by the Bombay Government, 
 the Sultan undertook to make compensation for the plunder 
 of the vessel, and also agreed to sell his town and port to 
 the English. Captain Haines of the Indian navy was sent 
 to complete these arrangements, but the Sultan's son, who 
 now exercised the powers of government, refused to i.Jfil 
 the promises that his father had made. A combined 
 naval and military force was thereupon despatched, and 
 the place was captured on the 16th January 1839. It 
 became an outlying portion of the Presidency of Bombay. 
 The withdrawal of the trade between Europe and the 
 East, caused by the discovery of the passage round the 
 Cape of Good Hope, and the misgovernment of the native 
 rulers, had gradually reduced Aden to a state of compara- 
 tive insignificance; but about the time of its capture by the 
 British, the Red Sea route to India was re-opened, and 
 commerce soon began to flow in its former channel. Aden 
 was made a free port, and was chosen as one of the coaling 
 stations of the Peninsular and Oriental Steamship Company; 
 and at present its most valuable import is coal for the use 
 of the steamers. It has, however, a considerable trade in 
 the products of Arabia — coffee, gum, feathers, dyes, pearls, 
 and ivory; and in return receives silk and cotton goods, 
 grain, and provisions. In 1871-72 the value of its im- 
 ports was £1,404,169; and of its exports, £885,919. In 
 the same year 535 steamers (643,982 tons), 94 sail in g 
 vessels (90,516 tons), and 898 native craft visited the port. 
 The town has been fortified aud garrisoned by the British; 
 and its magnificent water-tanks, which had been permitted 
 to fall into ruins, have been partially restored. It contains 
 nearly 30,000 inhabitants, as compared with less than 
 1000 in 1839. Lat 12° 46' N. ; long. 45° 10' E. 
 
 ADERNO, a city of Sicily, in the province of Catania, 
 near the foot of Mount Etna, 17 miles N.W. of Catania. 
 It is built on the site of the ancient Adranum, portions of 
 the massive walls of which are still \isibl<?, and numerous
 
 A D E — A D I 
 
 153 
 
 Roman sepulchres have been found in the vicinity. The 
 modern city has a clean appearance, but the situation is 
 unhealthy. It is remarkable for the number of its con- 
 vents and nunneries, and has several churches, the chief of 
 which is supported by beautiful pillars of polished lava. 
 On the river Simeto, near the town, there is a series of 
 beautiful cascades. Population, 12,999. 
 
 ADERSBACH ROCKS, a remarkable group of isolated 
 columnar rocks in a valley of the Riesengebirge, on the 
 frontier of Bohemia and Prussian Silesia, 9 miles W.N.W. of 
 Braunau. The mountain, for several miles, appears divided 
 into detached masses by perpendicular gaps, varying in 
 depth from 600 to 1200 feet. These masses are from a 
 few feet to several hundred yards in diameter. The part 
 called the labyrinth consists of smaller masses of columnar 
 form, oonfusedly piled on one another, and rising to heights 
 of from 100 to 200 feet. From their fantastic shapes the 
 rocks have received various fanciful appellations. Some 
 geologists have supposed that their remarkable structure is 
 the result of subterranean commotion; but the generally- 
 received opinion is, that the whole area had once been a 
 tabular mass of sandstone of unequal hardness, and that 
 the soft part3, which formed perpendicular seams, have 
 been worn away by water and atmospheric changes, leaving 
 the harder portions in their natural position. The recesses 
 of this wild region frequently afforded a place of refuge to 
 the distressed inhabitants of the district during the Thirty 
 Years' War. 
 
 ADHESION", a term used to denote the physical force 
 in virtue of which one body or substance remains attached 
 to the surface of another with which it has been brought 
 into contact. It is to be distinguished from cohesion, 
 which is the mutual attraction that the particles of the same 
 body exert on each other; and it differs from chemical 
 attraction or affinity, since the properties of the substances 
 it affects remain unchanged after it takes place. It is a 
 force that the molecules of the adhering bodies exert on 
 each other, and must not be confounded with a contact 
 which is due to mere mechanical pressure, such as that 
 which a piece of caoutchouc tubing exerts by its elasticity 
 on a body that distends it. A very familiar instance of 
 adhesion occurs in the wetting of solid bodies. It often, 
 indeed generally, happens that, when a solid and a liquid 
 touch each other, a film of the latter adheres to the 
 former, and neither falls nor can be shaken off. This 
 arises from the adhesion of the liquid to the solid being a 
 stronger force than the cohesion of the particles of the 
 liquid. It is also stronger than the force of gravitation ; 
 and the liquid can only be removed by being forcibly 
 rubbed off, or by the process of evaporation. The force of 
 adhesion may be determined by poising a plate of metal 
 on a balance, and afterwards ascertaining what additional 
 force will be required to detach it from the surface of a 
 liquid. But this can only be done in the few cases in 
 which the liquid does not wet the solid (otherwise the 
 measurement would be that of the cohesive force of the 
 liquid), and does not act on it chemically. The phenomena 
 of Capillary Attraction (q.v.) depend on adhesion. 
 Sometimes, when a solid and a liquid are brought into 
 contact, the adhesive force overcomes the cohesion of the 
 particles of the solid, so that it loses its solid form, and is 
 dissolved or held in solution. Solid bodies, too, as well as 
 liquids, adhere to solids. Smooth surfaces (of lead, for 
 instance, or of dissimilar metals) will adhere ; and if two 
 plates of polished glass be laid together, it will scarcely be 
 possible to separate them without breaking them. If the 
 solids are pressed together, the adhesive force is generally 
 greater; but it has been shown to be dependent to a very 
 slight extent only on the pressure of the atmosphere. To 
 a looser kind of adhesion, whereby one body is prevented 
 
 from moving smoothly on the surface of another, we give 
 the name of friction. The force of this increases with 
 pressure, which may be the effect of gravitation or the 
 result of mechanical appliances. If it be desired that 
 solids should adhere permanently, this is commonly eflected 
 by the intervention of other substances — the cements, 
 mortars, and solders — in a liquid or viscid state, nhich, 
 when they "set" or become solid, adhere closely to the 
 bodies united by means of them. The principle of the 
 processes of plating, gilding, &c, is similar to this. The 
 adhesive force of cements, <fec, is sometimes very great. The 
 common experiment of splitting a thin sheet of paper into 
 two is an illustration of it. The paper is pasted carefully 
 between two pieces of cloth, which are pulled asunder 
 after the paste has dried. The adhesion of the paste to 
 the paper and to the cloth is so strong that the paper is 
 thus separated into two sheets, which can easily be de- 
 tached from the cloth by wetting it. Again, air and other 
 gases adhere to solids. A dry needle, placed carefully on 
 the surface of still water, will float, resting on a cushion 
 of air; and when thermometer^ are filled with mercury, 
 the liquid has to be boiled in them to expel the air that 
 adheres to the glass. 
 
 ADIAPHORISTS (d8ia<£opos, indifferent), a name ap- 
 plied to Melancthon and his supporters in a controversy 
 which arose out of the so-called Leipsic Interim (1548;, 
 and raged until 1555. In 1547 Charles V. had drawn up 
 the Augsburg Interim, with a view to provide for the tem- 
 porary government of the Church until a general council 
 could be called. This gave great dissatisfaction both to 
 the more advanced and to the more moderate reformers; 
 and the object of Melancthon's Leipsic Interim was to 
 reconcile all parties, if possible, by declaring that certain 
 rites and observances of the Roman Catholic Church and 
 the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic bishops being 
 adiaphora (things indifferent), might be lawfully recognised. 
 On the other hand, the Catholics were required to accept 
 the Protestant formula of the doctrine of justification, 
 leaving out the words sola fide, which, it was said, might 
 belong to the adiaphora. In the controversy that fol- 
 lowed, Melancthon's chief opponent was his former col- 
 league, Matth. Flacius, on whose removal from Wittenburg 
 to Magdeburg the latter place became the head-quarters of 
 the extreme Lutherans. 
 
 ADIGE (German, Etsch), the ancient Athesis, a large 
 river of Italy, formed by several rivulets which rise in the 
 Rhsetian Alps, and unite near Glarus. After flowing 
 eastward to the neighbourhood of Botzen, it receives the 
 Eisach, and becomes navigable. It then turns to the 
 south, and leaving the Tyrol, enters Lombardy 1 3 miles S. 
 of Roveredo. After traversing Northern Italy in a coursi 
 first southerly, but then easterly, it falls into the Adriatic 
 at Porto-Fossone, a few miles N. of the Po. The most 
 considerable towns on its banks are Trent and Roveredo 
 in the Tyrol, and Verona and Legnago in Italy. It is 
 navigable from the heart of the Tyrol to the sea, and has in 
 Lombardy a breadth of 200 yards and a depth of from 10 
 to 16 feet, but the strength of the current renders its navi- 
 gation very difficult, and lessens its value as a means of 
 transit between Germany and Northern Italy. The Adige 
 has a course of about 220 miles. 
 
 ADIPOCERE (from adeps, fat, and cera, wax), a sub- 
 stance into which animal matter is sometimes converted, 
 deriving its name from the resemblance it bears to both fat 
 and wax. When the Cemetery of the Innocents at Paris 
 was removed in 1786-87, great masses of this substance 
 were found where the coffins containing the dead bodies 
 had been placed very closely together. At the bottom of 
 the coffin, in these cases, there appeared, loosely enveloped 
 in linen, a shapeless mass, of a dingv white colour, 
 
 L — =o
 
 154 
 
 A D I — A D M 
 
 flattened as though it had undergone great pressure. The 
 whole body had been converted into this fatty matter, 
 except the bones, which remained, but were extremely 
 brittle. Fourcroy, who had observed the substance 
 before, and had given it the name of adipocere, read a 
 paper on the subject before the Academy of Sciences in 
 1789. •Chemically, adipocere is found to consist principally 
 of margarate of ammonia. A similar substance, found in 
 peat, is known as bog-butter. 
 
 ADIPOSE (adept, fat), a term in Anatomy, signifying 
 fattv ; as adipose tissue, adipose cell, <tc. 
 
 ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS, a group of mountains 
 in the N. of the state of New York, North America, lying 
 between Lakes Champlain and Ontario. They rise from 
 an extensive plateau about 2000 feet above the level of the 
 sea, and are chiefly of granite formation. Mount Marcy, 
 the highest summit, has an altitude of 5337 feet, and 
 others of the group are from 4000 to 5000 feet high. The two 
 principal streams which take their rise in this region — the 
 Hud.-on flowing south, and the Richelieu flowing northwards 
 from Lake Champlain — afford abundant means of convey- 
 ing from the mountains the valuable timber, chiefly pine, 
 with which they are covered. Extensive deposits of mag- 
 netic iron ore, of great value, have been discovered; and a 
 village, called Adirondack, has recently sprung up, where 
 smelting is extensively prosecuted. Emerson, in his poem 
 Adirondack, has familiarised the literary world with the 
 scenery of these mountains. 
 
 ADIT (from adire, to go to), a passage or door. The 
 doors of porticoes in ancient theatres were called adits. In 
 mines the name is given to a gallery or passage, nearly hori- 
 zontal, by which water is carried off. Ores also are sometimes 
 removed by the adit. Some works of this kind are of 
 great magnitude. The great Cornish adit at Gwennap, 
 near Falmouth, extends, with its branches, to from 30 to 
 40 miles in length, and drains a tract of 5500 acres. 
 
 ADJUDICATION, in Scottish Law, the name of that 
 action by which a creditor attaches the heritable, i.e., ths 
 real, estate of his debtor, or his debtor's heir, in order to 
 appropriate it to himself either in payment or security of 
 bis debt. The term is also applied to a proceeding of ths 
 same nature by which the holder of an heritable right, 
 labouring under any defect in point of form, gets that 
 defect supplied by decree of a court. 
 
 Adjudication in Bankruptcy, in English Law, is equi- 
 valent to the Scotch award of sequestration. 
 
 ADJUSTMENT, in Commerce, the settlement of a loss 
 incurred at sea on insured goods. If the policy be what is, 
 called an open one, and the loss of the 'goods be total, the 
 insurer must pay for them at the value of prime cost, 
 which includes not only the invoice price of the goods, but 
 all duties paid, the premium of insurance, and all expenses 
 incurred on them when put on board. If the policy be a 
 valued one, and a total loss be incurred, then they are 
 settled for at the valuation fixed at the time of the insur- 
 ance, unless the insurers can prove that the insured had 
 not a real interest in the goods, or that they were over- 
 valued. In case of a partial loss, the value of the goods 
 must be proved. (See Arnould On Marine Insurance.) 
 
 ADJUTAGE, a short tube or nozzle, inserted in an 
 orifice, by means of which liquids flow from a vessel more 
 freely. 
 
 ADJUTANT, a military officer whose duty it is to assist 
 the commanding officer of a regiment or battalion. Every 
 Dattalion of infantry, regiment of cavalry, and brigade of 
 artillery, has an adjutant, who keeps the regimental books, 
 records, and correspondence; acts as the commanding 
 officer's representative in matters of regimental detail; 
 superintends the drill of recruits; keeps the roster (i.e., 
 register of order of service) for all duties; details the guards, 
 
 piquets, detachments, 4c, that are furnished by the regi- 
 ment; and is responsible for. the receipt of the daily divi- 
 sional or brigade order from the superior staff-officer, and 
 the preparation and issue of regimental orders. The Adju- 
 tant-General is the staff-officer specially charged with all 
 matters relating to the discipline and drill of the army. 
 
 ADJUTANT, the Ciconia Argala, or Leploptilos Argala, 
 a species of stork found in tropical India. It is of great 
 sue, sometimes six or even seven feet in height, the body and 
 legs bearing nearly the same proportion as in the common 
 stork. The bill is long and large; while the head, neck, 
 and pouch are bare, or covered only with a few scattered 
 hairs. At the back 
 of its neck there is 
 a second pouch-like 
 appendage, which 
 the hird inflates 
 during flight. The 
 general colour of tho 
 body is an ashen 
 gray above and white 
 below. The adjutant 
 is extremely vora- 
 cious, and, feeding 
 on offal, reptiles, and 
 other vermin, acts 
 the part of a scaven- 
 ger. It is often to 
 be seen in camps 
 and parade-grounds; 
 hence its name. A 
 similar bird, which, 
 however, has been 
 differentiated as 
 Ciconia Marabou, occurs in different parts of Africa— 
 Marabou being the native Senegal name. The brilliant 
 white marabou feathers of commerce are the under feathers 
 of the tail and wings of both species, but those of the C. 
 Argala are the most valuable. 
 
 ADJTGURH, a 'town and fort of India, in the presi- 
 dency of Bengal, 130 miles S.W. of Allahabad. The fort 
 is situated on a very steep hill, more than 800 feet above 
 the town; and contains the ruins of temples adorned with 
 elaborately-carved sculptures. It was captured by the 
 British in 1809. The town i3 a neatly-built place, but 
 subject to malaria. Population, 5000. 
 
 ADMINISTRATOR, in English Law, he to whom the 
 ordinary or judge of the ecclesiastical court, now the Court 
 of Probate, acting in the queen's name, commits the 
 administration of the goods of a person deceased, in default 
 of an executor. The origin of administrators is derived 
 from the civil law. Their establishment in England is 
 owing to a statute made in the 31st year of Edward HI. 
 Till then no office of this kind was known besides that of 
 executor; in default of whom, the ordinary had tho dis- 
 posal of goods of persons intestate, <tc. 
 
 Admimstrator, in Scottish Law, a person legally em- 
 powered to act for another whom the law presumes incap- 
 able of acting for himself, as a father for a pupil child. 
 
 ADMIRAL, a great officer or magistrate, who has the 
 government of a navy and the hearing of all maritime 
 causes. 
 
 There can be little doubt of the Asiatic origin of the 
 name given to this officer, which does not appear to have 
 been known in the languages of Europe before the time 
 of the Holy Wars. Amir, in Arabic, is a chief or com- 
 mander of forces ; it is the same word as the ameer of the 
 peninsula of India (as ameer al omrah, the chief of lords 
 or princes), and the emir of the Turks or Saracens, who 
 hr d and still have their emir or ameer'l dureea, commander
 
 ADMIRAi 
 
 155 
 
 of the sea, amir' I asker dureea, commander of the naval 
 armament The incorporation of the article with the noun 
 appears, we believe, for the first time in the Annals of 
 Euiychius, patriarch of Alexandria, in the- 10th century, 
 who calls the Caliph Omar Amirol munumim, ie., Im- 
 ■perator fiddium. Spelman says, "In regno Saracenorum 
 quatuor praetores statuit, qui admiralli vocabantur." The 
 d is evidently superfluous, and is omitted by the French, 
 who say Amiral. The Spanish write Almirante; the 
 Portuguese the same. Milton would seem to have been 
 aware of the origin of the word when he speaks of " the 
 .mast of some great ammiral." It is obvious, then, that 
 the supposed derivations of aX/ivpos from the Greek, aumer 
 from the French, and aen mereal from the Saxon, are 
 fanciful and unauthorised etymologies. 
 
 Anciently there were three or four admirals appointed 
 for the English seas, all of them holding the office durante 
 heneplacito, and each of them having particular limits 
 onder his charge and government, as admiral of the fleet 
 of ships from the mouth of the Thames, northward, south- 
 ward, or westward. Besides these, there were admirals 
 of the Cinque Ports. We sometimes find that one person 
 had been admiral of all the fleets — Sir John de Beau- 
 champ, 34 Edw. ILL, being the first who held the post; 
 but the title of Admiralis Anglice does not occur till the 
 reign of Henry TV., when the king's half-brother, Sir 
 Thomas Beaufort (created Earl of Dorset 5th July 1411), 
 a natural son of John of Gaunt, was made admiral of the 
 fleet for life, and admiral of England, Ireland, and Aqui- 
 taine for life. It may be observed that there was a title 
 above that of admiral of England, which was locum tenens 
 regis super mare, the king's lieutenant-general of the sea. 
 This title is first mentioned in the reign of Richard II. 
 Before the use of the word admiral was known, the title of 
 custos maris was made use of. 
 
 Of the rank of admiral there are three degrees — admiral, 
 ■vice-admiral, rear-admiral Each of these degrees formerly 
 comprised three grades, distinguished by red, white, and 
 blue, flags — the red being the highest degree in each rank 
 of admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admiral. 
 
 It may be remarked that for nearly a century there was 
 no admiral of the red squadron. According to a vulgar 
 «rror, that flag had been taken from us by the Dutch in one 
 of those arduous struggles for naval superiority which that 
 nation was once able to maintain against the naval power of 
 England. But the fact is, the red flag was laid aside on 
 the union of the two crowns of England and Scotland, when 
 the union Sag was adopted in its place, and wa3 usually 
 boisted by the admiral commanding in chief. The red flag 
 was revived on the occasion of the promotion of naval officers 
 in November 1805, in consequence of the memorable vic- 
 tory off Trafalgar. The three degrees of red, white, and 
 blue flag-officers were abolished by order in council ou 5th 
 August 1864, and the white ensign was thenceforward 
 adopted as the sole flag for the ships of the royal navy 
 proper. Captains are now promoted to be rear-admirals, 
 rear -admirals to be vice-admirais, and vice-admirals to be 
 admirals simpliciter — the numbers of each rank being 
 regulated by orders in council passed on and subsequently 
 to 22d February 1870. (See Navy.) For biographical 
 information, see Campbell's Lives of the British Admirals, 
 8 vols. 8vo, 1817; O'Byrne's Naval Biographical Dic- 
 tionary, 8vo, 1849. 
 
 Admiral of the Fleet is a mere honorary distinction, 
 which gives no command, but merely an increase of half -pay, 
 his being £3, 7s. a-day, and that of an admiral £2, 2s. The 
 title has been sometimes conferred on the senior admiral 
 on the List of naval officers, and was a short time held by 
 the Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV. In 1851 
 ■vere appointed, for the first time, two admirals of the fleet, 
 
 Sir Thomas Byam Martin, G.C.B., and Sir George Cock- 
 bum, G.C.B., the last having been appointed for his long 
 and highly-distinguished services. The number of admirals 
 of the fleet now (1874) authorised to be borne i3 three. If 
 the admiral of the fleet should happen to serve afloat, he is 
 authorised to carry the union flag at the main-top-gallant- 
 mast head, which was the case when the Duke of Clarence 
 escorted. Louis XVIII. across the Channel to take posses- 
 sion of the throne of France. 
 
 The comparative rank of flag-officers and officers in the 
 army has been settled as follows by his Majesty's order in 
 council, in the reign of George IV :- 
 
 The admiral and commander-in-chief of the fleet. has the 
 rank of a field-marshal in the army ; admirals with flags at 
 the main take rank with generals of horse and foot; vice- 
 adruirals with lieutenant-generals; rear-admirals with major- 
 generals; commodores of the first and second class with 
 broad pendants with brigadier-generals. 
 
 On the active List of admirals there were in 1873 three 
 admirals of the fleet, thirteen admirals, fifteen vice-admirals, 
 and twenty-five rear-admirals. 
 
 La addition to these, there were on the reserved list forty 
 admirals and thirty-four vice-admirals; on the retired list 
 forty-three admirals, fifty-five vice-admirals, and sixty-two 
 rear-admirals. As to the numbers to be borne permanently 
 on ' these lists, and the regulations according to which 
 admirals are retired and reserved, under Mr Childers' retire- 
 ment scheme, see Navy. 
 
 Admiral (the Lord High) op England, an ancient 
 officer of high rank in the state, who not only is vested 
 with the government of the navy, but who, long before any 
 regular navy existed in England, presided over a sovereign 
 court, with authority to hear and determine all causes 
 relating to the sea, and to take cognizance of all offences 
 committed thereon. 
 
 The period about which this officer first makes his appearance in 
 the governments of European nations corroborates the supposition 
 of the office having been adopted in imitation of the Mediterranean 
 powers at the return of the Christian heroes from the Holy Wars. 
 According to Moreri, Florent de Varenne, in the year 1270, was the 
 first admiral known in France ; but by the most approved writers 
 of that nation the title was unknown till, in 1 2 S 1, Enguerand de 
 Coussy was constituted admiral. The first admiral by name that 
 we know of in England was W. de Leyboume, who was jppointed 
 to that office by Edward I. in the year 12S6, under the title of 
 Admiral de la mer du Hoy cC Angleterre. Mariana, in his History 
 of Spain, says that Don Sancho, having resolved to make war on 
 the barbarians (Moors), piepared a great fleet ; and as the Genoese 
 were at that time very powerful by sea, and experienced and dex- 
 terous sailors,- he sent to Genoa to iDvite, with great offers, Benito 
 Zacharias into his service; that he accepted those offers, and brought 
 with him twelve ships; that the king named him his admiral 
 (almirante), and conferred on him the office for a limited time. 
 This happened in the year 12S4. Several Portuguese authors ob- 
 serve that their office of almirante was derived from the Genoese, 
 who had it from the Sicilians, and these from the SaraceDS ; and it 
 appears from Souza's Historia Gtncalogka da Caza Real, that in 
 1322 Micer Manuel Picagow was invited from Genoa into Portugal, 
 and appointed to the office of almirant'., with a salary of 3000 pounds 
 (livras) a year, and certain lands, &c, on condition that he should 
 furnish on his part twenty men of Genoa, all experienced in sea 
 affairs, and qualified to be alcaidis (captains) and arraiscs (masters) 
 of ships : all of which terms, almirante, alcaidi, and arrats, are 
 obviously of Arabic derivation. 
 
 Edward I., who be?an his reign in 1272, went to the Holy Land, 
 and visited Sicily on his return. He must therefore have had an 
 opportunity of informing himself concerning the military and naval 
 science of the various countries bordering on the Mediterranean— an 
 opportunity which so able and warlike a prince would not neglect, 
 but whether the title and office of admiral existed in England before 
 his time, as some are inclined to think, or whether W. de Ley- 
 bourne was first created to that office in 1286, as before mentioned, 
 we believe there is no authentic record to enable us to decide. Sup- 
 posing him, however, to be the first, Edward may either have 
 adopted the office and title from the Genoese, or the Sicilians, or 
 the Spaniards, cr the French ; or even had it directly from the 
 Saracens, against whom he had fought, and with whom he had 
 afterwards much amicable intercourse. It would seem. how. v e-
 
 156 
 
 ADMIRAL 
 
 that the office was in Edward s time to some extent honorary ; for 
 that monarch, in 1307, orders the lord mayor of London, at his 
 peril and without delay, to provide a good ship, well equipped, to 
 cany his pavilions and tents ; and in the same year another order 
 is addressed to the I'icccomes Kantios to provide for immediate 
 passage across the seas tot et tales pontes it cluias, as the constable 
 of Dover Castle should demand, without one word being mentioned 
 of the admiral. (Rymer, vol. iii. p. 32.) It is to be observed, how- 
 ever, that at this time the royal lleets were made up of royal and 
 private ships, and that the admiral would not be charged witli the 
 transport of such things as those mentioned unless the fleet was 
 intended to co-cperate with the land forces.- 
 
 From the 34th Edward II. we have a regular and uninterrupted 
 succession of admirals. In that year Edward Charles was appointed 
 admira' of the north, from the mouth of the river Thames north- 
 ward, ■ and Gervase Allard admiral of the west, from the mouth of 
 the Thames westward ; and these two admirals of the north and the 
 west were continu'd down to the 31th Edward III., when Sir John 
 de Beauchamp, 1< rd warden of the Cinque Ports, constable of the 
 Tower of London and of the Castle of Dover, was constituted High 
 Admiral of Eng. and. Nine years afterwards the office was again 
 divided into north and west, and so continued until the 10th Richard 
 II., when Richard, son of Alain, Earl of Arundel, was appointed 
 Admiral of England. Two years after this it was ajjain .in 
 before ; *nd in the 15th year of the same reign, Edward, Earl of 
 Eutland and Cork, afterwards Duke of Albemarle, was constituted 
 Sigh Admiral of the North and West; and after him the Marquis 
 of Dorset and Earl of Somerset, son of John of Gaunt, Duke of 
 Lancaster. Percy, Earl of Winchester" next succeeded to the same 
 title, which once more was dropped in the 2d of Henry IV., and 
 divided as before. Sir Thomas Beaufort was twice appointed by 
 Henry IV. admiral of England; and on the accession ot Henry V. 
 he was reappointed by letters patent dated 3d June 1413. In the 
 14th Henry VI., John Holland, Duke of Exeter, was created 
 admiral of England, Ireland, and Aquitaine, for life; and in the 
 third year ofEdward.VL, John Dudley, Earl of Warwick, was 
 constituted high admiral of England, Ireland, Wales, Calais, 
 Boulogne, the marches of the sair:, Normandy, Gascony, and 
 Aquitaine, also captain-general of the navy and seas of the king, 
 &c. In the 27th Elizabeth, Charles, Lord Howard, had all the 
 aforesaid titles, with the addition of captain-general of the navy 
 and seas of the said kingdoms. 
 
 On the 20th November 1632 the office of high admiral 
 was for the first time put in commission, all the great 
 officers of state being the commissioners. During the 
 Commonwealth a committee of Parliament managed the 
 affairs of the Admiralty. At the Restoration, in 1600, the 
 Duke of York was constituted Lord High Admiral of Eng- 
 land. The commission was revoked in 1673, and King 
 Charles II. held the Admiralty in his own hands, and managed 
 it by the great officers of his privy council till 1684, when 
 the Duke of York was re-instated. Charles took this occa- 
 sion of reserving for his own use all the droits and per- 
 quisites claimed by the lord high admiral. 
 
 Annexed is a list of lord high admirals and first 
 lords of the Admiralty from the time of Charles the 
 Second to the year 1874 : — 
 
 FIRST LORDS Of THE ADMIRALTY FROM 1660. 
 
 Date of Appointment 
 
 6, 16G0. 
 14, 1673. 
 
 9, 1673. 
 14, 1679. 
 1 I, 1880. 
 20, 1681. 
 17, 1684. 
 17, I'M. 
 
 s, i.;-;>. 
 
 Jan. 20, 1690. 
 
 James Duke of York,* June 
 
 Ring Charles the Second, June 
 
 Prince Rupert July 
 
 May 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Jan, 
 April 
 
 May 
 March 
 
 Sir Henry Capell, Kt., 
 
 Daniel Finch, Esq., 
 
 Daniel Lord Finch 
 
 Daniel Earl of Nottingham, 
 James Duke of York (and as James II.),r . 
 Arthur Herbert, Esq., .... 
 Thomas Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, 
 
 Charles Lord Comwallis March 10, 1692. 
 
 Anthony Viscount Falkland April 15, 1693. 
 
 Edward" Russell, Esq May 2, 1694. 
 
 Edward Earl of Orford June 5, 1697. 
 
 John Earl of Bridgewater May 31, 1699. 
 
 Thomas Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, . April 4,1701. 
 
 George Prince of Denmark,; .... May 20,1702. 
 
 Thomas Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery,! . Nov. 29,1708. 
 
 Edward Earl of Orford, Nov. 8,1709. 
 
 Sir John Leake, kt, Oct. 4,1710. 
 
 Thomas Earl of Strafford Sept 30,1712. 
 
 Edward Earl of Orford Oct 14 1714. 
 
 James Earl of Berkeley March 19, 1717. 
 
 Lord Viscount Torrington, ... . Aug. 2, 1 727. 
 
 Sir Charles Wager, Kt., .... 
 Daniel Earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, 
 
 John Duke of Bedford, 
 
 John Earl of Sandwich, • . . . . 
 
 George Lord Anson 
 
 Richard Earl Temple, 
 
 Daniel Earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, . 
 
 George Lord Anson, 
 
 George Dank Earl of Halifax .... 
 George Grenville, Esq., . . . . , 
 
 John Ear 1 "f Sandwich, 
 
 John Earl of Egmont, 
 
 Sir Charles Saunders, K.B 
 
 Sir E.i.vard Hawke, K.15 > 
 
 John Earl of Sandwich 
 
 Hon. Augustus Keppcl, ..... 
 
 Augustus Viscount Keppel 
 
 Richard Viscount Howe 
 
 Augustus Viscount Keppel, . . . . 
 
 Richard Viscount Howe, 
 
 John Earl of Chatham, .... 
 George John Earl Spencer, . . . . 
 
 John Earl of s; Vincent, K.B. 
 
 Hi nry Lord Viscount Melville, . . . 
 
 Charles Lord I'.niram, . . . . . 
 
 Charles Grey, Esq., 
 
 Thomas Grenville, Esq. 
 
 Henry Lord Mulgrave, . 
 
 Ilun. Charles Yorke, . . . . 
 Right Hon. Robert Viscount MelviBV, 
 H. R. H. William Henry Duke of Clarence,* 
 Right Hon. Robert Viscount Melville, K.T., 
 Right Hon. .Sir James R. G. Graham, Bart, 
 Right Honi George Baron Auckland, . . 
 Thomas Philip Earl de Grey, . 
 
 Right Hon. George Baron Auckland, . 
 
 Gilbert Earl of Minto, G.C.B. 
 
 Thomas Earl of Haddington 
 
 Hight Hon. Edward Earl of Ellenhorough, 
 Right Hon. George Earl of Auckland (died 1st 
 January 1S49), ...... 
 
 Right Hon. Sir Francis T Baring, Bart, . 
 Algernon Percy Duke of Northumberland, K.G., 
 Right Hon. Sir James R. G. Graham, Bart, 
 Right Hon. Sir Charles Wood, Bart., 
 Right Hon. Sir John Pakington, Bart, . . 
 Edward A. St Maur Duke of Somerset, K.G., 
 Right Hon. Sir J. S. Pakington, Bart, G.C.B., 
 Right Hon. Henry Thomas Lowry Corry, . 
 Right Hon. Hugh Culling Eardley Childers, . 
 Right Hon. George Joachim Goschen, . . 
 
 Dato of Appointment 
 June 21, 1738. 
 March 19, 1741. 
 Dec. 27, 1744. 
 
 16, 1748. 
 
 22, 1751. 
 
 17, 1756. 
 6, 1757. 
 2, 1757. 
 
 17, 1762. 
 13, 1762. 
 
 April 20, 1763. 
 Sept. 10, 1763. 
 
 15, 1766. 
 
 11, 1766. 
 
 12, 1771. 
 
 1, 1782. 
 
 18, 1782. 
 
 30, 1783. 
 10, 1783. 
 
 31, 1783. 
 
 16, 1788. 
 
 19, 1794. 
 19, 1801. 
 15, 1804. 
 
 2, 1805. 
 
 10, 1806. 
 29, 1806. 
 
 6, 1807. 
 
 24, 1809. 
 March 25, 1812. 
 May 2, 1827. 
 
 19, 1823. 
 
 25, 1830. 
 
 11, 1834. 
 
 23, 1834. 
 25, 1835. 
 19, 1835. 
 
 8, 1811. 
 
 13, 1846. 
 
 Feb. 
 June 
 
 Nov. 
 April 
 July 
 June 
 Oct. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Dec, 
 
 Jan. 
 April 
 
 July 
 
 Jan. 
 
 April 
 
 Dec. 
 
 July 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 April 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Sept 
 
 Nov. 
 June 
 Dec. 
 April 
 Si pt 
 
 Sept. 
 Jau. 
 
 July 24, 
 Jan. 18, 
 Feb. 28, 
 Jan. 5, 
 March 8, 
 March 9, 
 June 28, 
 July 13, 
 March 8, 
 Dec. 18, 
 March 13, 
 
 1846. 
 1849. 
 1852. 
 1853. 
 1855. 
 1858. 
 1868. 
 18*6. 
 1867. 
 1868. 
 1871. 
 
 * Lord High Admiral of England. 
 
 + Lord High Admiral and Lord General. 
 
 J Lord High Admirals of Great Britain. 
 
 Prince George of Denmark, when lord high admiral, 
 having surrendered, by a formal instrument, all the rights, 
 profits, perquisites, and advantages whatsoever, appertaining 
 to the office, for the benefit and use of the public, with the 
 exception of the sum of £2500 a-year, to be disposed of in 
 such manner and for such particular uses as her Majesty, 
 under her sign manual, should direct; and the salary of tho 
 lord high admiral, which had hitherto been no more than 
 300 marks, was now fixed, by warrant under privy seal, at 
 £7000 a-year. This sum, by 1st George II., was divided 
 equally among seven commissioners, an arrangement which 
 continued from that time, except that the pay of the com- 
 missioner who stood first in the patent was made up from 
 other funds to £3000 a-year, and in the year 1806 was 
 further increased to £5000 a-year. Since the surrender 
 above mentioned, all the droits of admiralty, as they are 
 called, with all the fees, emoluments, and perquisites what- 
 soever, have been taken from the admiral and applied to 
 public purposes. 
 
 These droits and perquisites are by no means inconsider- 
 able. As enumerated in the patent, they consist of flotsam, 
 jetsam, ligan, treasure, deodands, derelicts, found within the 
 admiral's jurisdiction; all goods picked up at sea; all fines, 
 forfeitures, ransoms, recognisances, and pecuniary punish- 
 ments; ail sturgeons, whales, porpoises, dolphins, and
 
 aDMIKAL 
 
 157 
 
 grampuses and all sucn large fishes; all ships and goods of 
 the enemy coming into any creek, road, or port, by stress of 
 weather, mistake, or ignorance of the war; all ships seized at 
 sea, salvage, &c, together with his shares of prizes; which 
 shares were afterwards called tenths, in imitation probably of 
 the French, who gave theiradmiral, forsupportingthe dignity 
 of his office, son droit de dixieme. All prizes are now wholly 
 given up by the crown to the captors, and such share of the 
 droits as from circumstances may be thought proper The 
 lord high admiral also claimed and enjoyed as his due the 
 cast ships; and the subordinate officers of the navy, as 
 their perquisites, all other decayed and unserviceable stores. 
 
 Though by Act of 2 William and Mary, stat. 2, c. 2 
 (extended by the 1 Geo. TV. c. 90, and 7 and 8 Geo. 
 TV. c. 65), the lords commissioners of the admiralty 
 are vested with all and singular authorities, jurisdictions, 
 and powers which have been and are vested, settled, and 
 placed in the lord high admiral of England for the time 
 being, to all intents and purposes as if the said commis- 
 sioners were lord high admiral of England, yet there is 
 this remarkable difference in the two patents by which 
 they are constituted, that the patent of the lord high 
 admiral mentions very little of the military part of his 
 office, but chiefly details his judicial duties as a magistrate; 
 whilst, on the contrary, the patent to the lords commis- 
 sioners of the admiralty is very particular in directing them 
 to govern the affairs of the navy, and is almost wholly 
 silent as to their judicial powers. 
 
 These powers, as set forth in the patent to the Earl of 
 Pembroke in 1701, are, the power to act by deputy; to take 
 cognisance of all causes, civil and maritime, within his juris- 
 diction ; to arrest goods and persons ; to preserve public 
 streams, ports, rivers, fresh waters, and creeks whatsoever 
 within his jurisdiction, as well for the preservation of the 
 ships as of the fishes; to reform too strait nets and 
 unlawful engines, and punish offenders; to arrest ships, 
 mariners, pilots, masters, gunners, bombardiers, and any 
 other persons whatsoever able an~d fit for the service of the 
 ships, as often as occasion shall require, and wheresoever 
 they shall be met with; to appoint vice-admirab, judges, 
 and other officers, durante beneplacito; to remove, suspend, 
 or expel them, and put others in their places, as he shall 
 see occasion ; to take cognisance of civil and maritime laws, 
 and of death, murder, and mayhem. 
 
 It was by no means necessary that the lord high admiral 
 should be a professional man. Henry VIII. made his 
 natural son, tie Duke of Richmond, lord high admiral of 
 England when he was but six years old. When the high 
 admiral, however, went to sea in person, he had usually a 
 commission under the great seal appointing him admiral 
 and captain-general of the fleet, sometimes with powers to 
 confer knighthood, and generally to punish with life and 
 limb. Such a commission was granted by Henry VIII. to 
 Sir Edward Howard, who executed indenture with the 
 king to furnish 3000 men, 18 captains, 1750 soldiers, 1232 
 mariners and gunners; his own pay to be 10s. and that of 
 a captain Is. 6d. a-day. The rest had 5s. per mensem as 
 wages, and 5s. for victuals each man, together with certain 
 dead shares. . 
 
 It appears, from Mr Pepys' Naval Collections, that the 
 lord high admiral did anciently wear, on solemn occasions, 
 a gold whistle, set with precious stones, hanging at the end 
 of a gold chain. 
 
 The salary of the first lord commissioner is £4500 a-year, 
 and of each of the naval lords £1500; in addition to the 
 half-pay of their rank, fhe civil lord gets £1000, and the 
 parliamentary secretary £2000 a-year. 
 
 The opening paragraph of the Black Booh of the Admiralty 
 has the following noteworthy instruction as regards the depu- 
 ties and officers to be chosen by the lord high admiral : — 
 
 " When one is made admirall, hee must first ordaine and substi- 
 tute for his lieutenants, deputies, and other officers under him, 
 some of the most loyall, wise, and discreete persons in the maritime 
 law and auncient customes of the seas which hee can any where 
 find, to the end that by the helpe of God and their good and just 
 government, the office may be executed to the honour and good of 
 the realme." 
 
 Had this precept been always acted on, there would 
 probably have been less occasion than has presented itself 
 for the many reorganisations which the administration of 
 the lord high admiral's administrative office has under- 
 gone. As it has been, the necessity for periodical changes 
 has been urgent and unavoidable. From the time of 
 which Macaulay wrote, that the king (James II.) was the 
 only honest man in his dockyards, down to the present 
 date, the need has been incumbent on successive first 
 lords and high admirals to lay the axe to the root of a 
 tree which, in some shape or other, has not ceased to bring 
 forth evil fruit. The soil favoured corruption, and no 
 efficient means were employed to prevent its growth. A 
 root and branch reformation was urgently needed, though 
 it was not applied except in particular instances. Till the 
 great French war of 1793-1815 led to the formation of 
 a navy board of commissioners to superintend the work 
 and management of the dockyards; of a victualling board, 
 to see to the provisioning of the fleet; and of sick and 
 hurt commissioners, to look after the sick and wounded 
 — the administrative departments of the navy were left 
 to nominees of the lord high admiral or first lord, the 
 said nominees deriving " no small advantage " from 
 the arrangement. Under the departmental boards things 
 certainly improved from - what they were in the time 
 of Charles II.; but they fell far short of what was 
 desirable, and, by the vagueness of their administra- 
 tive principle, opened a door for irresponsible wrong- 
 doing, which in the end made them exceedingly bad 
 instruments of government. These boards continued till 
 1832, when Sir James Graham, then first lord of the 
 admiralty, introduced sweeping changes. He abolished 
 the several intangible boards which administered under 
 the shelter of the board of admiralty, and appointed in 
 their stead five principal officers of the navy, who were 
 afterwards included in the admiralty patent. These officers 
 were — a surveyor or architect and constructor of the navy; 
 a storekeeper-general, charged with oversight and purchase 
 of the material for dockyards and ships; an accountant- 
 general, charged with the duty of seeing »that all wages 
 and cash paid were duly brought to account; a comp- 
 troller of victualling and transport services, charged with 
 the maintenance of the victualling establishments of the 
 navy, and of sufficient supplies of provisions and clothing 
 for the fleet, and with the oversight of the transport 
 arrangements for men and stores; and a physician of the 
 navy, afterwards called medical director-general, charged 
 with the oversight of all hospitals and of all sanitary 
 arrangements of the navy. Each of these officers adminis- 
 tered the department entrusted to him in every particular, 
 not only in respect of stock, but of replenishment and 
 account of stock. A lord of the admiralty was told off 
 to supervise the permanent head and to represent his 
 'department at the board. These alterations were in many 
 respects very beneficial Altered circumstances required 
 some modification of the original scheme of duties; and 
 the addition of three principal officers — the director of 
 works, the director of transports (who, after the Crimean 
 war, relieved the comptroller di victualling of his trans- 
 port duties), and the registrar of contracts. In 1860 the 
 office of surveyor of the navy was abolished, and that 
 of controller of the navy, with larger powers over' dock- 
 yard management, was revived. In 1869, Mr Childers, 
 first lord of the admiralty, made changes which tended
 
 158 
 
 A D M — A D M 
 
 to subordinate the members of the board of admiralty 
 more effectually to the first lord, constituting him in 
 effect minister of marine; and to render departmental 
 officers at once more individually responsible and more 
 intimate with the controlling members of the board. ' He 
 increased the power and functions of the controller of the 
 navy, giving him a seat at the board, and charging him 
 with the stock-keeping attributes of the storekeeper-gene- 
 ral, whoso purchasing functions were transferred to a new 
 officer — the superintendent of contracts, the head of the 
 contract and purchase department, and his accounting 
 functions to the accountant-general. The office of store- 
 keeper-general was abolished. The offico of comptroller 
 of victualling was also abolished — the storekeeping func- 
 tions being transferred to a new officer, the superin- 
 tendent of victualling — the purchasing function to the 
 head of the purchase department, the accounts to the 
 accountant-general. The other officers remained; but in 
 the case of each this modification of business ensued, viz., 
 that all stores whatever required by any of them were 
 to be obtained through the agency of one supply or 
 purchase department; that all accounts whatever were to 
 be rendered to the accountant-general. The departmental 
 officers of the admiralty at the present time (1874) are — 
 the controller of the navy, without a seat at the board 
 (who has on his staff a chief naval architect, a chief 
 engineer, a surveyor of dockyards, a superintendent of 
 naval stores, and a director of ordnance) — the director- 
 general of the medical department, the director of 
 works, the director of transports, the hydrographer, 
 the superintendent of contracts, the superintendent of 
 ■victualling. The department of the two permanent secre- 
 taries of the admiralty (one a naval officer, the other a 
 civilian) undertakes the conduct of all business relating 
 to the personnel of the navy and the ordering of the fleets. 
 
 To control the departmental officers, and to advise the 
 responsible first lord, there are the following members of 
 the board of admiralty, viz., the parliamentary or finan- 
 cial secretary, who has oversight of all business relating 
 to finance, estimates, expenditure, and accounts, and who 
 is the alter ego of the first lord in Parliament; the first 
 naval lord, who, assisted by two other naval "lords," 
 takes oversight of the personnel and of all executive func- 
 tions of the fleet; and a civilian lord, who assists the 
 financial secretary, and has particular oversight also of 
 naval civil .establishments and of the works department 
 
 A list of secretaries of the admiralty from 1684 to the 
 present time is given below : — 
 
 FIRST SECRETARIES TO THE ADMIRALTY. 
 
 Samuel Pepys, Esq., . . . 
 Phineas Bowles, Esq., . . . 
 
 James Sotherne, Esq 
 
 Josiah Barchctt, Esq 
 
 Thomas Corbet, Esq., . . . 
 John Cleveland, Esq., . , . 
 Philip Stevens, Esq. (then one j 
 
 of the Board), j 
 
 F.van Nepean, Esq., .... 
 William Marsden, Esq., . . 
 
 Hon. W. W. Pole 
 
 John Wilson Croker, Esq., 
 Captain the Hon. George Elliott, 
 Right Hon. George R. Dawson, 
 Charles Wood, Esq., M.P., . 
 R. More O'Ferrall, Esq., . . 
 John Parker, Esq., M.P., . . 
 Hon. Sidney Herbert, . 
 Ki = -ht Hon.'H. T. L. Cony, M.P., 
 Hen~y G. Ward, Esq., M.I'., 
 John Parker, Esq., M.P., . , 
 Aug l'tns Stafford, Esq., . , 
 Bernal Osborne, Esq., M.P., . 
 Bight Hon. H. T. L. Curry, JI.P., 
 
 From 
 Mav 1684 
 
 March 1689 
 Dec. 25, 1689 
 Sept 25, 1694 
 Oct 10, 1741 
 
 Feb. 
 Dec. 
 Sept. 
 Oct 
 
 To 
 
 1G89. 
 
 1689. 
 24. 1694. 
 10, 1741. 
 
 From 
 
 June 18, 1763 March 3, 1795. 
 
 March S, 1795 
 Jan. 21, 1804 
 24, 1807 
 9, 1809 
 29, 1830 
 24, 1834 
 27, 1835 
 4, 1839 
 9, 1841 
 10, 1841 
 1845 
 13, 1846 
 21, 1849 
 March 3, 1852 
 Jan. 6, 1853 
 March 9, 1858 
 
 June 
 
 Oct 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 April 
 
 Oct 
 
 June 
 
 Sept 
 
 Feb. 
 
 July 
 
 May 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Jui.e 
 
 Oct 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 April 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Jane 
 
 Sept 
 
 Feb. 
 
 July 
 
 May 
 
 March 
 
 21, 1804. 
 24, 1807. 
 
 8, 1809. 
 29, 1830. 
 24, 1834. 
 27, 1835. 
 
 4, 1839. 
 
 9, 1841. 
 10, 1841. 
 
 1845. 
 13, 1846. 
 1, 1849. 
 3, 185! 
 
 tfju^J? 1 *. c : G ' Paset : | June 80 > 1859 
 
 Rear 
 C. 
 Hon. Thomss G. Baring, M.P.,' April' 30, 1866 
 Lord Henry G. Lennox, M.P., July 16, 1866 
 W. E. Baxter, Esq., M. P., . Dec. 18,1808 
 
 T« 
 
 April 29, 1868. 
 
 July 15, 1868. 
 Dec 17, 1868. 
 March 16, 1871. 
 
 Jan. 6, 1853. 
 March 8, 1858. 
 June SO, 1859. 
 
 Geo. J. ShawLcfevre, Esq., M.P., March 17, 1871 
 
 As regards the navies of foreign countries, their govern- 
 ment is in the hands of ministers or departments variously 
 constituted. The Russian Admiralty is a highly-organised 
 bureau, divided into departments after the English manner, 
 and under the supreme control of a high admiral, usually 
 a Grand Duke of the Imperial House. The Germao. 
 Admiralty was, till 1872, a branch of the War Office, 
 though governed by a vice-admiral under a naval prince 
 of the reigning family. In 1872 it was severed from the 
 War Office, though remaining an appanage thereof, and a 
 general of the army was placed at its head. The French 
 minister of marine, assisted by a permanent staff, controls 
 the navy of France on a highly centralised system of 
 administration; but the departments are well organised, 
 and work well. The Italian fleet is governed on principle* 
 analogous to the French, but with a large admixture of 
 the English representative element. The American navy 
 is governed by a secretary of the navy, a cabinet minister, 
 to whom the departmental heads are responsible, and 
 under whose orders they work. (f. w. r.) 
 
 ADMIRALTY, High Court of. This is a court of law, 
 in which the authority of the lord high admiral is exercised 
 in his judicial capacity. Very little has been left on record 
 of the ancient prerogative of the admirals of England. For 
 some time after the first institution of the office they 
 judged all matters relating to merchants and mariners, 
 which happened on the main sea, in a summary way, 
 according to the laws of Oleron (so called because pro- 
 mulgated by Richard I. at that place). These laws, which 
 were little more than a transcript of the Rhodian laws, 
 became the universally-received customs of the western 
 part of the world. " All the seafaring nations," says Sir 
 Leoline Jonkins, " soon after their promulgation, received 
 and entertained these laws from the English, by way of 
 deference to the sovereignty of our kings in the British ocean, 
 and to the judgment of our countrymen in sea affairs." 
 
 In the patents granted to the early admirals between the latter 
 years of the reign of Henry III. and the close of that of Edward 
 1 1 1. 1 no mention is made of marine perquisites or of civil power, nor 
 does it appear that the admirals enjoyed either ; but after the death 
 of the latter, new and extraordinary powers were granted to them, 
 and it would appear that they usurped other9. The preamble to the 
 13 Richard II. stat. 1, c. 5, sets forth that "a great and common 
 clamour and complaint hath been oftentimes made before this 
 time, and yet is, for that the admirals and their deputies hold 
 their sessions within divers places of this realm, as well within 
 the franchise as without, accroaching to them greater authority 
 than belongeth to their office, in prejudice of our lord the king 
 and the common law of the realm, and in diminishing of divers 
 franchises, and in destruction and impoverishing of the common, 
 people;" and the statute therefore directs that the admirals and 
 their deputies shall not meddle from henceforth of any thing 
 done within the realm, but only of a thing done upon the sea. 
 Two years afterwards (15 Rich. II. c. 3), in consequence, as 
 stated in the preamble of the statute, ",of the great and grievous 
 complaint of all the commons," it was ordained that the admiral's 
 court should have no cognisance of any contracts, pleas, or quarrels, 
 or of any thing done or arising within the bodies of counties, 
 whether by land or by water, nor of wreck of the sea ; but that the 
 admiral should have cognisance of the death of a man, and ot 
 mayhem done in great ships being and hovering in the main stream 
 of great rivers, yet only beneath the bridges of the same rivers nigh 
 to the sea. He may also arrest ships in the great flotes for the great 
 voyages of the king and of the realm, saving always to the king nil 
 manner of forfeitures and profits thereof coming, and have jurisdic- 
 tion over the said flotes, but during the said voyages only. But if 
 the admiral or his lieutenant exceed that jurisdiction, then, by 2 
 Henry IV. c. 11, the statute and the common law may be holden 
 against them; and if a man pursues wrongfully in the admiralty 
 court, his adversary may recover double damages at common law,
 
 ADMIRALTY 
 
 r>y 
 
 und the pursuant, if attainted, shall incur the penalty 01 £10 to the 
 
 The place which, according to Spelman, is absolutely subject to 
 the jurisdiction of the admiral is the sea; which, however, compre- 
 hends public rivers, fresh waters, creeks, and all places whatsoever, 
 within the ebbing and flowing of the sea, at the highest water, the 
 shores or banks adjoining, from all the first bridges to the seaward ; 
 and in these, he observes, the admiralty hath full jurisdiction in all 
 causes, criminal and civil, except treasons and the right of wreck. 
 Lord Coke observes (5 Rep. 107), that between the high- water mark 
 and the low-water mark the admiral hath jurisdiction super aquam, 
 ad pleniludinem maris, and as long as it flows, though the land be 
 infra corpus comitalus at the refiow, so as of one place there is 
 divisum imperium interchangeably. 
 
 But though the statute restraineth the lord high admiral that he 
 shall not hold plea of a thing rising in the body of a county, he is 
 not restrained from making execution upon the land, but is em- 
 powered to take either body or goods upon the land ; otherwise his 
 t'urisdiction would often prove a dead letter. " He also can and does 
 lold his court in the body of a county. So, likewise, the civil 
 power may apprehend and try persons who may have been guilty of 
 offences cognisable at common law, though committed in the fleet, 
 in any port or harbour of Great Britain, or at sea, provided such 
 persons have not already been tried for such offences either by 
 court-martial or in the admiralty court ; and in all ports, harbours, 
 creeks, &c, lying in any county, the high admiral and the sheriff, 
 or coroner, as the case may be, have concurrent jurisdiction. 
 
 By the 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 53 the admiralty jurisdiction 
 is extended to Prince of Wales' Island, Singapore, and Malacca; 
 and under the 3 and 4 Vict. c. 65, the court has jurisdiction in 
 the following cases : — 
 
 Whenever a vessel is arrested by process issuing from the said 
 court, or the proceeds of any vessel are brought into the registry, to 
 take cognisance of all claims in respect of any mortgage of such vessel. 
 
 To decide all questions as to the title to, or ownership of, such 
 vessel, or the proceeds thereof remaining in the registry, arising in 
 any cause of possession, salvage, damage, wages, or bottomry, insti- 
 tuted in the said court. 
 
 To decide all claims and demands' whatsoever in the nature of 
 salvage, or in the nature of towage, or for necessaries supplied to 
 any foreign vessel, and enforce the payment of the same, whether 
 such vessel may have been in the body of the county or upon the 
 high seas at the time when the service was rendered, or damage 
 received,- or necessaries furnished, in respect of which claim is made. 
 
 To decide all matters and questions concerning booty of war en 
 shore, or the distribution thereof, which it shall please her Majesty, 
 by the advice of the privy council, to refer to the judgment of 
 the said court, who shall proceed therein as in cases of prize of 
 war. 
 
 And under § 40 of the 9 and 10 Vict. c. 99, to decide on all 
 claims and demands whatsoever in the nature of salvage for seryices 
 performed, whether on sea or land. 
 
 The high court of Admiralty has jurisdiction upon chs 
 high seas all over the ■world. It has an instance jurisdic- 
 tion which is civil, and a prize jurisdiction in time of war. 
 The latter jurisdiction does not extend to the admiralty 
 courts of Ireland or Scotland, -which never had prize com- 
 missions sent to them. It is of the highest importance in 
 war time, when questions of seizure or detention of neutral 
 ships arise, to have but one court of which to inquire 
 concerning all causes, so as to expedite the action of the 
 Foreign Office in dealing with representations from neutral 
 powers. The causes which arise in time of peace are causes 
 of collisions, of seamen's wages, bottomry, wearing unlawful 
 colours, salvage, and. causes of possession, where one part 
 owner or minor claims to have security from those other 
 owners who are going to send the ship on a foreign voyage 
 that the ship shall return again. Causes under the Slave 
 Act treaties are also cognisable here. The evidence is all 
 documentary. In 1803 there were 1125 prize cases before 
 the court; in 1804, 1144; in 1806, 2286; in 1807, 2789; 
 and so on, above 1000 eauses each year, down to the year 
 1811. 
 
 The criminal jurisdiction, which formerly comprehended 
 all crimes whatever committed at sea, from larceny to 
 homicide, which were triable at common law at the assizes 
 if committed on shore, was much modified upon the report 
 of the select committee on the high court of admiralty in 
 1833. Such offences are now triable at common law on 
 eurrender to the jurisdiction; but the judge of the admi- 
 
 ralty court may still sit with othfii' cocimiisiouers of oyer 
 and terminer. He has no longer any independent criminal 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 The instance jurisdiction is permanent; the prize juris- 
 diction is by virtue of a special commission, 'pro re natd. 
 Its issue is one of the first acts done on the outbreak of 
 war. Appeals formerly lay from the civil decisions to the 
 high court of delegates or specially-appointed commis- 
 sioners; from the prize decisions to the prize commissioners. 
 By the Aets 2 and 3 WilL IV. c. 92, and 3 and 4 Will IV". 
 c. 41, all appeals from admiralty court decisions of any 
 kind lie to the sovereign, who is authorised to refer them 
 to the judicial, committee of the privy council. 
 
 The lord high admiral was assisted in his judicial 
 functions by the following principal officers: — I. The vice- 
 admiral; 2. The judge; 3. The registrar; 4. The advocate- 
 general; 5. The counsel and judge-advocate; 6. The soli- 
 citor; 7. The procurator; 8. The marshal, — which officers 
 are continued. 
 
 1. The Yice-Admiral, This officer is the admiral's deputy 
 or lieutenant mentioned in the statutes of 13th and loth 
 Richard II., and was the person, most probably, who pre- 
 sided in the court. At present the office of vice-admiral of 
 England is a perfect sinecure, generally conferred on seme 
 naval officer of high rank and distinguished character in the 
 service. The salary of £434, Is. 9d. per annum; attached 
 to it in addition to half-pay, was abolished by order in 
 council, 22d February 1870. The salary and office of. 
 rear-admiral of England were abolished by the same order 
 in council The salary was £342, 9s. per annum. Each 
 county of England has its vice-admiral, which is little 
 more than an honorary distinction, though the . patent 
 gives to the holder all the powers vested in the admiral 
 himself. S imil ar powers were also granted to the judges 
 of the admiralty county courts; but this was found so 
 inconvenient and prejudicial to those who had suits to 
 commence or defend before them, that the Duke of York, 
 when lord high admiral, in 1663 caused instructions to 
 be drawn up in order to assign to each his province, 
 whereby the whole judicial power remained with the judge, 
 and the upholding of the rights of the admiral, and levy- 
 ing and receiving the perquisites, &c, appertained to the 
 vice-admiral 
 
 Each of the four provinces of Ireland has its vice-admiral. 
 There is one vice-admiral for all Scotland, and one for the 
 Shetland and Orkney Islands. The governor of most of 
 our colonies had a commission of vice-admiral granted to 
 him by the lord high admiral or lords commissioners of 
 the admiralty, and generally a commission from the king 
 under the great seal, grounded on the 11 and 12 William 
 III. c. 7, and further confirmed by 46 Geo. TTT. c. 54, 
 by which he was authorised to try all treasons, piracies, 
 felonies, robberies, murders, conspiracies, and other offences, 
 of what nature or kind soever, committed on the seas, where 
 the parties were taken into custody in places remote from 
 England. The court consisted of seven .persons at the least, 
 of whom the governor, the lieutenant-governor, the vice- 
 admiral, the flag-officer, or commander-in-chief of the squa- 
 dron, the members of the council, the chief-justice, judge 
 of the vice-admiralty court, captains of men-of-war, and 
 secretary of the colony, were specially named in the com- 
 mission; but any three of these, with four others selected 
 from known merchants, factors, or planters, captains, lieu- 
 tenants, or warrant officers of men-of-war, or captains, 
 masters, or mates of merchant shi~>s, constituted a legal 
 court of piracy. By the 12 and 13 Vict. c. 96, all per- 
 sons charged in any colony with offences committed on 
 the sea may be. dealt with in the same manner as if the 
 offences had been committed on waters within the local 
 jurisdiction of the courts of the colony.
 
 160 
 
 ADMIRALTY 
 
 The vice-admiralty courts in the colonies are of two de- 
 scriptions. The one has power to inquire into the causes 
 of detention of enemies or neutral vessels, to try and con- 
 demn tho same for the benefit of the captors, as well as to 
 take cognisance of all matters relating to the office of the 
 lord high admiraL The other has only power to institute 
 inquiries into misdemeanours committed in merchant ves- 
 sels, and to determine petty suits, (fee, and to guard the 
 privileges of the admiraL The former are usually known 
 by the name of prize courts, the latter by that of instance 
 courts. Appeals from vice-admiralty courts abroad lay 
 formerly to tho high court of admiralty in England, and 
 from that, if need were, to the high court of ■ delegates, or 
 in prize cases to the prize commissioners. By an Act of 
 her present Majesty, all such appeals lie direct to the 
 sovereign, who refers them to the judicial committee of the 
 privy council. 
 
 The following are the colonies and foreign possessions in 
 which vice-admiralty courts are now (1874) established. 
 Others are constituted as occasion may require, in case of 
 war : — 
 
 Aden. (Slave trade juris- 
 diction only. ) 
 
 Antigua, Montserrat, and 
 Barbuda. 
 
 Australia, South. 
 
 Australia, West. 
 
 Bahamas. 
 
 Barbadoes. 
 
 Bermuda. 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 British Columbia. 
 
 British Guiana. 
 
 Calcutta. 
 
 Canada. 
 
 Cape of GJood Hope. 
 
 Ceylon. 
 
 Dominica. 
 
 Falkland Islands. 
 
 Gambia. 
 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 Gold Coast 
 
 Grenada. 
 
 Halifax, Nova Scotia. 
 
 Honduras. 
 
 Hong Kong. 
 
 Jamaica. 
 
 Labuan. 
 
 Lagos. 
 
 Malta. 
 
 Mauritius. 
 
 Montserrat 
 
 Natal. 
 
 Nevis. 
 
 New Brunswick. 
 
 Newfoundland. 
 
 New South Wales. 
 
 New Zealand. 
 
 Prince Edward's Island. 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 Queensland. 
 
 St Christopher. 
 
 St Helena. 
 
 St Lucia. 
 
 St Vincent 
 
 Sierra Leone. 
 
 The Straits Settlements. 
 (Prince of Wales' Island, 
 Singapore, and Malacca.) 
 
 Tasmania. 
 
 Tobago. 
 
 Tortola and Virgin Islands. 
 
 Trinidad. 
 
 Vancouver's Island. 
 
 Victoria. 
 
 Zanzibar. (Limited slave 
 trade jurisdiction only.) 
 
 Madras. 
 
 By the provisions of the Vice-admiralty Courts Act of 1863, The 
 governor of a colony is ex officio vice-admiral, and the chief-justice 
 ex officio judge of the vice-admiralty court. 
 
 In none of the patents to the lord high admiral, vice- 
 admiral, or judge, is any mention made of prize jurisdiction. 
 Lord Mansfield had occasion to search into the records of 
 the court of admiralty in Doctors' Commons, to ascertain 
 on what foundation this jurisdiction was exercised by the 
 judge of the admiralty; but he could not discover any 
 prize-act book3 farther back than 1643; no sentences far- 
 ther back than 1648. The registrar could go no farther 
 back than 1690. "The prior records," says his lordship, 
 "are in confusion, illegible, and without index." The 
 prize jurisdiction may therefore be considered as of modern 
 authority, and distinct altogether from the ancient powers 
 given to the admiral. To constitute the authority for trying 
 prize causes, a commission under the great seal issues to 
 the lord high admiral at the commencement of every war, 
 to will and require the court of admiralty, and the lieu- 
 tenant and judge of the said court, his surrogate or surro- 
 gates, to proceed upoi. all manner of captures, seizures, and 
 reprisals, cf all ships and goods that are or shall be taken ; 
 and to hear and determine according to the course of the 
 admiralty, or the law of nations; and a warrant issues to 
 the judge of the admiralty accordingly. 
 
 The admiralty court being in this respect a court in 
 
 which foreigners of all nations may become suitors, an 
 appeal may be had from its decisions to a committee of 
 the lords of the privy council, who hear and determine 
 according to the established laws of nations. 
 
 At the breaking out of a war, the lord high admiral also 
 receives a special commission from the crown, under tho 
 great seal, to empower him to grant letters of marque and 
 reprisals against the enemy, he having no such power by 
 his patent. These letters are either general or special: 
 general, when granted to private men to fit out ships at 
 their own charge to annoy the enemy; special, when in ^e 
 case of any of our merchants being robbed of their estates 
 or property by foreigners, the king grants them letters of 
 reprisal against that nation, though we may be in amity 
 with it. Before the latter can be sued for, the complainant 
 must have gone through the prosecution of his suit in the 
 courts of the state whose subjects have wronged him; where, 
 if justice be denied, or vexatiously delayed, he must first 
 make proof of his loses and charges in the admiralty court 
 here; whereupon, if the Crown is satisfied he has pursued 
 all lawful means to obtain redress, and his own interceding 
 should produce no better effect, special letters of reprisal 
 are granted; not, however, as must be evident, until a very 
 strong case has been made out. This custom, which wo 
 may now consider as obsolete, seems to be a remnant of the 
 law of ancient Greece, called androlepsia, by which, if a 
 man was slain, the friends and relations of the deceased 
 might seize on any three citizens of the place where the 
 murderer took refuge, and make them slaves, unless he 
 was delivered up. Both Oliver Cromwell and King Charles 
 II. granted letters of reprisal. In 1 G38 the Due d'Epernon 
 seized on the ship " Amity" of London, for the service of 
 the French king against the Spaniards, promising full satis- 
 faction ; but none being made, the owners obtained letters of 
 reprisal from the Protector, and afterwards, in 1665, from 
 Charles II. In 1666 Captain Butler Barnes had letters of 
 reprisal against the Danes. The Dutch having burnt six 
 English merchant vessels in the Elbe, within the territories 
 of Hamburg, which city, instead of giving any assistance 
 or protection, hindered the English from defending them- 
 selves, letters of reprisal were granted to the sufferers 
 against that city. Lastly, one Justiniani, a noble Genoese, 
 being indebted in a large sum to Joseph Como, a merchant 
 in London, which he had several years solicited for with- 
 out obtaining satisfaction, Captain Scott, commander of 
 his Majesty's ship the "Dragon," stationed at that time in 
 the Mediterranean, received orders to make reprisals upon 
 the ships of that republic; upon which the debt was paid. 
 
 2. The Judge. — The patents to the judge of the admiralty 
 and vice-admiralty courts run pretty nearly in the same 
 manner as those of the lord high admiral, and point out tho 
 several matters of which he can take cognisance. The Par- 
 liament of 1640 established the office of judge of the admi- 
 ralty court in three persons, with a salary of £500 a-year 
 to each. At the Restoration there were two judges of the 
 high court of admiralty, which sometimes proved incon- 
 venient; for when they differed in opinion, no judgment 
 could be had. These judges, before the Revolution, held 
 their appointment only during pleasure. At that period, 
 and under the provisions of the Bill of Rights, Sir Charles 
 Hedges was constituted judge under the great seal of 
 England, quamdiu se bene gesserit, with a salary of £400 a- 
 year, and an additional £400 out of the proceeds of prizes 
 and perquisites of the admiralty; but in the year 1725 the 
 latter sum was diminished from the ordinary estimate by the 
 House of Commons. The salary of Sir James Marriott, 
 from 1778 to 1782, during the American war, was £800 
 a year, and £3700 added for fees. From 1794 to 1798, 
 the salary was £1 780, and £2500 for fees. During the six- 
 teen years that Sir William Scott (Lord Stowell) was judge,
 
 A D M I ft A L T Y 
 
 161 
 
 »tom 1793 to 1814, the salary was £2500, and the fees 
 averaged £2800 a-year. Under the 3 and 4 Vict. c. 66, 
 $ 1, the salary is fixed at £4000 per annum. All fees of 
 whatever kind, formerly payable to the judge, are now 
 paid to the consolidated fund. 
 
 The court of admiralty is at present (1S73), and pend- 
 ing the erection of the new law courts, held in Westminster. 
 la the time of Henry IV. it was held in Southwark, either 
 at a quay on the south side of the Thames, or in the ere- 
 while church of St Margaret-on-HiU, most likely the former. 
 Stow, in his Survey (a.d. 1598), says — "A part of this 
 parish church of St Margaret is now a court, wherein the 
 assizes and sessions be kept; and the court of admiralty is 
 also there kept." Pepys also, in his Diary (17th March 
 1663), describes the court as sitting there. But it is pro- 
 bable that the sittings in St Margaret's Church were com- 
 menced shortly before Stow's time; for in the Rolls of Par- 
 liament, 11 Hen. IV. No. 61, the Commons complain that 
 people are summoned by the officers of the admiral <i 
 Loundres a le Key de William Hortou, Suthwerke. Further, 
 it would appear from an appeal made to the king, Henry 
 IV., that the rule then was for the admiral's court to be 
 held upon some wharf or quay within the flux and reflux 
 of the tide. In the reign of Henry VIII., Horton's Quay, 
 near Loudon Bridge, is mentioned in the records of the 
 high court of admiralty (3d Nov. 1541) as its usual place 
 of sitting. 
 
 The judges of the vice-admiralty courts in certain of the 
 colouies, limited by 41 George III. c. 96, are allowed a 
 salary not exceeding to each the sum of £2000 a-year, to 
 be paid out of the consolidated fund of Great Britain; to- 
 gether with profits and emoluments not exceeding to each 
 the further sum of £2000 per annum, out of the fees to be 
 taken by the said judges, of which a table' is directed to be 
 hung up in some conspicuous place in the court; and no 
 judge is to take any fee beyond those specified, directly or 
 indirectly, on pain of forfeiture of his office, and being pro- 
 ceeded against for extortion; and on his retirement from 
 office after six years' service, or from some permanent infir- 
 mity, the Crown may, "by authority of the Act above men- 
 tioned, grant unto such judge an annuity for the term of his 
 life not exceeding £1000 per annum. This liberal provi- 
 sion puts the judges of the colonial courts of vice-admiralty 
 aboye all suspicion of their decisions being influenced by 
 unworthy motives — a suspicion they were not entirely free 
 from when their emoluments depended mainly on their fees. 
 
 During the war of 1793-1815 a session of oyer and ter- 
 miner to try admiralty causes was held at the Old Bailey, 
 now the central criminal court, twice a-year. The commis- 
 sion for this purpose was of the same nature with those which 
 are granted to the judges when they go on circuit; that is to 
 say, to determine and punish all crimes, offences, and mis- 
 demeanours, and abuses; the end of both being the same, 
 their limit* different; the one relating to things done upon 
 the land, the other to things done upon the water. The 
 lords commissioners of the admiralty, all the members of the 
 privy council, the chancellor and all the judges, the lords 
 of the treasury, the secretary of the admiralty, the treasurer 
 and commissioners of the navy, some of the aldermen of 
 London, and several doctors of the civil law, were the mem- 
 bers of this commission ; any four of whom made a court. 
 
 The proceedings of the court, now probably obsolete, 
 were continued de die in diem, or, as the style of the court 
 was, from tide to tide. 
 
 3. The Registrar of the Admiralty formerly held his 
 place by patent from the Crown. The patent was issued 
 under the great seal of the court of admiralty, and the 
 appointment was afterwards confirmed by patent under the 
 great seal of the United Kingdom The appointment was 
 for life, and was often granted in re\ ersion. The registrar 
 
 1-7 
 
 had no salary, the amount of his emoluments depending 
 on the captures, droits, &c, condemned by the court, 
 which during the war of 1793-1815 were so enormous that 
 in 1810 an Act was passed for regulating the offices of 
 registrars of admiralty and prize courts, by which it is 
 enacted "that no office of registrar of the high court of 
 admiralty, or of the high court of appeals for prizes, or high 
 court of delegates in Great Britain, shall, after the expira- 
 tion of the interest now vested in possession or reversion 
 therein, be granted for a longer term than during pleasure, 
 nor be executed by deputy; that an account be kept in the 
 said offices respectively of all the fees, dues, perquisites, 
 emoluments, and profits received by and on account of the 
 said registrars, out of which all the expenses of their offices 
 are to be paid ; that one-third of the surplus shall belong 
 to the registrar and to his assistant (if an assistant should 
 be necessary), and the remaining two-thirds to the consoli- 
 dated fund of Great Britain, to be paid quarterly into the 
 exchequer; the account of such surplus to be presented to 
 the court at least fourteen days before each quarter-day, 
 and verified on oath." Under the 3 and 4 Vict. c. 66, 
 § 2, a yearly salary of £1400 is substituted for " all fees, 
 dues, perquisites, emoluments, and profits," and which may 
 be increased in time of war to £2000. The duties of the 
 registrar are — 1. To keep a public registry, to give attend- 
 ance therein, and to preserve in a regular manner the 
 registers, acts, records, and documents belonging to the 
 office; 2. To attend all sittings of the court of admiralty, 
 and to attend the judge at chambers; 3. To draw and 
 sign all warrants, monitions, commissions, &c, issuing from 
 the court; to attend other courts with minutes, &c, of the 
 admiralty court when required : 4. To have the custody of 
 all moneys paid into court or paid ont of court. 
 
 4. The Advocate-General. — This officer is appointed by 
 warrant of the lords commissioners of the admiralty. His 
 duties are — to appear for the lord high admiral in his court 
 of admiralty, court of delegates, and other courts; to move 
 and debate in all causes wherein the rights of the admiral 
 are concerned; for which he had anciently a salary of 20 
 marks (£13, 6s. 8d.) a-year. In May 1803, Dr William 
 Battine, who was appointed in 1791, had an addition of 
 £200 to his salary, ''for his extraordinary trouble and 
 attendance during the present hostilities." His salary was 
 continued to him and his successor, Dr Arnold, till 1816; 
 since that time the allowance has been reduced to its 
 original amount of £13, 6s. 8d. Formerly the ad^miral's 
 advocate was always retained as leading counsel, but after 
 the droits were transferred to the crown, he was gradually 
 supplanted by the king's advocate, who was generally 
 retained in all cases, the admiralty advocate acting only as 
 junior counsel; and while the former during the war 
 made sometimes • from £15,000 to £20,000 a-year, the 
 latter rarely received from his professional duties more 
 than from £1500 to £2000 a-year. 
 
 5. The Counsel and Judge-Advocate for the affairs of the 
 Admiralty and Xavy is the law officer who is chiefly con- 
 sulted on matters connected with the military duties of the 
 lord high admiral. He advises also on all legal questions. 
 His salary is £100 a-year, besides his fees, which in time 
 of war may be reckoned to amount to from £1200 to 
 £1800 a-year. Till the present reign the offices of counsel 
 of the admiralty and judge-advocate of the fleet were sepa- 
 rate and distinct, the latter being a sinecure appointment, 
 with a salary of £182, 10s. attached to it The salary is 
 now abolished. The duties are very light, the veritable 
 work of the office being discharged by deputy judges- 
 advocate appointed on each occasion of a court-martial, 
 and by resident law agents at Portsmouth and Plymouth, 
 who receive salaries in lieu of all fees and charges. 
 
 6. The Solicitor to the Admiralty is also an officer ap
 
 162 
 
 A D M — A D O 
 
 pointed during pleasure by the lords of the admiralty. 
 He is the general legal adviser, in the first instance, of the 
 lords commissioners; and since 1869 there have been 
 added to his other functions those of registrar of public 
 securities and custodian of all public secur'ies and bonds 
 belonging to the admiralty. His salary is £1600 a-year 
 (n lieu of all fees, bills, and disbursements, with an allow- 
 ance of £1300 a-year for assistance of clerks. His office 
 is provided for him. 
 
 7. The Procurator. — The admiralty's proctor stands pre- 
 cisely in the same situation to the queen's proctor that his 
 advocate docs to that of the queen, though there is not quite 
 so great a difference in their emoluments. They act as the 
 attorneys or solicitors in all causes concerning the queen's 
 and the lord high admiral's affairs in the high court of 
 admiralty and other courts. All prize causes are conducted 
 by the queen's proctor. It is supposed that in some years 
 of war, in the ear-ly part of the century, the proctor did 
 not receive less than £20,000 a-year. 
 
 8. The Marshal. — This officer receives his appointment 
 from the lord high admiral or lords commissioners of the 
 admiralty. His appointment is under the seal of the high 
 court of admiralty during pleasure, and is confirmed by 
 letters patent from the Crown. His duties are to arrest 
 ships and persons; to execute all processes or orders issuing 
 from the court; to attend, in person or by deputy, the judge 
 with the silver oar (the ancient emblem of maritime jurisdic- 
 tion); and formerly also to attend executions. It is also 
 the duty of the marshal or his deputy to arrest, under 
 warrant from the admiralty, any officer not beneath the 
 rank of post captain who may be ordered for trial by court- 
 martial; and to see to the delivery of sentenced prisoners 
 to their place of punishment. His emoluments formerly de- 
 pended on the number of prizes brought into port for con- 
 demnation, and the number of ships embargoed, and might 
 probally'be reckoned in time of war, communibus annis, 
 from £1500 to £2000 a-ycar, out of which he had to pay 
 about £400 a-year to a deputy. He had no salary. The 
 office can, however, be no longer performed by deputy, 
 except in case of illness, § 9 of the 3 and 4 Vict c. 66. 
 The marshal is now paid by a salary of £500, in addition 
 to his travelling expenses. 
 
 (See Orders in Council since February 1870; Camp- 
 bell's Lives of the British Admirals; O'Byrne's Naval 
 Biographical Dictionary; Eymer's Foedera; Pepys' Naval 
 Collections, and Pepys' Diary; The Black Book of the 
 Admiralty (republished by the Master of the Rolls); 
 Stephen's Commentaries on the Law* of England; Stow's 
 Survey of London ; Rolls of Parliament; Report of Com- 
 mittee appointed by the Treasury in 1836 to inquire into 
 the fees and emoluments of public offices; Sir Harris 
 Nicolas'a History of Britiih Navy). (f. w. r.) 
 
 Admiralty, Ireland. — For all executive functions 
 Ireland is subject to the jurisdiction and orders of the lord 
 high admiral, or lords commissioners for executing the 
 office, of Great Britain. For judicial purposes, however, 
 an admiralty court sits in tho Four Courts, Dublin, having 
 a judge, a registrar, a marshal, and other officers. In peace 
 time and war time alike it exercises only an instance juris- 
 diction. No prize commission has ever issued to it. 
 
 Admiralty, Scotland. At the Union, while the 
 national functions of the lord high admiral were merged 
 in the English office, there remained a separate court of 
 admiralty, with subsidiary local courts, having civil and 
 criminal jurisdictions in maritime questions. The separate 
 courts were abolished in 1831, and their powers merged in 
 the courts of session and justiciary, and the local courts. 
 _ ADMIRALTV CHARTS These useful aids to naviga- 
 tion are constructed in the hydrographic department of the 
 British Admiralty, by specially-apoointed surveyors and 
 
 draughtsmen, and they are issued to the public by order of 
 the lords commissioners of the admiralty. They are divided 
 into various sections as follows : — 1. English and Irish 
 Channels and coasts of the United Kingdom; 2. North 
 Sea and adjacent coasts; 3. Baltic Sea; 4. North and west 
 coasts of Franco, Spain, and Portugal; 5. Mcditen i 
 Black Sea, and Sea of Azov; 6. Atlantic Ocean and Islands ; 
 7. Arctic Sea and north and east coasts of America ; 8. 
 West Indies,- Gulf of Mexico, <kc; 9.. South America, 
 east coast; 10. West coasts of South and North Ame- 
 rica; 11. Africa, Madagascar, Mauritius, Eed Sea, &c; 
 12. East Indies, Arabian coast, <5ic; 13. Indian Archi- 
 pelago, China Sea, Japan, &c ; 14. Australia, New Zealand, 
 <tc. ; 15. Pacific Ocean islands. Thfy are about 3000 in 
 number, of various sizes and scales, and the prices vary 
 from 6d. to 10s. Accompanying the charts there are 
 books of sailing directions, tables, and lists of lights. 
 Similar charts as those of the British Admiralty are issued 
 by the United States Coast Survey, as well as by the 
 Russian and French governments. The superintendent 
 of tho United States Coast Survey issues an annual report, 
 showing the progress of the survey, and containing much 
 valuable information. 
 
 ADMIRALTY ISLAND, an island belonging to the 
 United States, about 90 miles long from N. to S., and 25 
 miles broad, lying between King George III. Archipelago 
 and the mainland, in 58° N. lat, 134° W. long. Its 
 coasts, which are generally steep and rocky, are indented 
 with several accessible and commodious bays. The island 
 has abundance of good water, and is covered with pines, 
 which grow there to a very large size. 
 
 ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a group of about forty 
 islands lying to the N.E. of New Guinea, between 2° and 
 .3° S. lat, and 146° 18' and 147° 46' E. long. The largest 
 is about 50 miles in length ; the others are very small, and 
 all rise but little above the sea-leveL Their exuberant 
 vegetation, and in particular the groves of cocoa-nut trees, 
 give them a very beautiful appearance. The islands were 
 discovered by the Dutch in 1616, but have seldom been 
 visited, access being difficult on account of the surrounding 
 reefs. The natives are tall, and of a tawny colour. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, John, historian and barrister, was bom 
 in London on the 7th August 1768. He was educated 
 under the care of a grand-uncle, and after making a voyage 
 to the West Indies was enrolled as an attorney about the 
 year 1790. Called to the bar in 1807, he devoted him- 
 self to practice in criminal causes, and in a few, years 
 attained a leading position among Old Bailey counsel. His 
 masterly defence of Thistlewood and the Cato Street con- 
 spirators, for which he had been retained only a few hours 
 before the trial, did much to extend his reputation. He 
 was very skilful in the management of his cases, but his 
 hastiness of temper frequently led to unseemly altercations 
 with other counsel. He held a good position in society, 
 and was on terms of intimacy with the leading literary 
 men of the day. The History of England from tlie Acces- 
 sion of George HI. to 1783, which he published in 1802, 
 was favourably noticed in the Edinburgh Review for its 
 impartiality and accuracy. A new and enlarged edition 
 of thi3 work, in eight volumes, was in preparation, but 
 only seven volumes were completed when the author died, 
 16th July 1845. His other literary works were — Bio- 
 graphical Memoirs of the French Revolution (1799); The 
 British Cabinet (1799); History of Fiance from 1790 to 
 1802 (1803) ; Memoirs of John Bannister. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, John Leycester, son of the above, also 
 a distinguished barrister (died 1862), was the first to 
 pierce the mask of the author of Waverley, in a series of 
 critical letters addressed to Richard Heber, which he pub- 
 lished in 1821.
 
 A D O — A D 
 
 JG3 
 
 ADONIS, according to some authors, the son of Theias, 
 king of Assyria, and his daughter Smyrna [Myrrha], was 
 the favourite of Venus. He was fond of hunting; and 
 Venus often warned him not to attack the larger wild 
 beasts ; but neglecting the advice, he was killed by a 
 wild boar he had rashly wounded Venus wa3 incon- 
 solable, and turned him into a flower of a blood colour, 
 supposed by some to be an anemone. Adonis had to 
 spend half the year in the lower regions, but during the 
 other half he was permitted to revisit the upper world, 
 and pass the time with Venus. No grief was ever more 
 celebrated than that of Venus for Adonis, most nations 
 round the Mediterranean having perpetuated the memory 
 of it by anniversary ceremonies. " The tale of Adonis 
 (Keightley's Mythology) is evidently an eastern myth. 
 His own name and those of his parents refer to that part 
 of the world. He appears to be the same with the 
 Thammuz mentioned by the prophet Ezekiel (via. 14), and 
 to be a Phoenician personification of the sun, who during 
 part of the year is absent, or, as the legend expresses it, 
 with the goddess of the under world; during the remainder 
 with Astarte, the regent of heaven." Among the Egyptians, 
 Adonis is supposed to have been adored under the name 
 of Osiris, the husband of Isis ; but he was sometimes called 
 by the name of Ammuz or Thammuz, the concealed, to 
 denote probably his death or burial It has been thought 
 it is he the Hebrews call the dead (Ps. cvL 28, and 
 Lev. xix. 28), because his worshippers wept for him, and 
 represented him as one dead; and at other times they 
 call him the image of jealousy (Ezek. viiL 3, 5), because he 
 was an object of jealousy to other gods. The Syrians, 
 Phoenicians, and Cyprians worshipped Adonis; and Calmet 
 was of opinion that this worship may be identified with 
 that of the Moabitish Baal-peor. Modern critics plausibly 
 connect the divine honours paid to Adonis with the 
 mysterious rites of phallic worship, which, in some shape 
 or other, prevailed so extensively in the ancient world. 
 
 ADONIS, in Ancient Geography, a small river rising 
 in Mount Lebanon, and falling into the sea at Byblus. 
 When in flood its waters exhibit a deep red tinge; hence 
 the legend that connects it with the wound of Adonis. 
 
 "."While smooth Adonis from his native rock, 
 Ban purple to the sea, suppos'd with blood 
 Of Thammuz yearly wounded." — Milton. 
 
 ADONIS, a genus of ranunculaceous plants, known 
 commonly by the names of Pheasant's Eye and Flos 
 Adonis. There are ten or twelve species given by authors, 
 but they may be probably reduced to three or four. There 
 are two indigenous species, Adonis autumnalis and Adonis 
 aestivalis. They are commonly cultivated. An early flower- 
 ing species, Adonis vernalis, is well worthy of cultivation. 
 
 ADOPTIAN CONTROVERSY, a controversy relating 
 to the sonship of Christ, raised in Spain by Elipandus, 
 archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, bishop of Urgel, towards 
 the close of the 8th century. By a modification of the 
 doctrine of Nestorius they maintained that Christ was 
 really the Son of God in his divine nature alone, and that 
 in his human nature he was only the Son. of God by adop- 
 tion. It was hoped that this view would prove more 
 acceptable to the Mahometans than the orthodox doc- 
 trine, and Elipandus especially was very diligent i^ pro- 
 pagating it. Felix was instrumental in introducing it into 
 that part of Spain which belonged to the Franks, and 
 Charlemagne thought it necessary to assemble a synod at 
 Ratisbon (792), before which the bishop was summoned to 
 explain and justify the new doctrine. Instead of this he 
 renounced it, and confirmed his renunciation by a solemn 
 oath to Pope Adrian, to whom the synod sent him. The 
 recantation was probably insincere, for on returning to his 
 diocese he taught adoptianism as before. Another synod 
 
 was held at Frankfort in 794-, by which the new doctrine 
 was again formally condemned, though neither Felix nor 
 any of his followers appeared. A friendly letter from 
 Alcuin, and a controversial pamphlet, to which Felix re- 
 plied, were followed by the sending of several commissions 
 of clergy to Spain to endeavour to put do%vn the heresy. 
 Archbishop Leidrad of Lyons being on one of these com- 
 missions, persuaded Felix to appear before a synod at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle in 799. There, after six days' disputing 
 with Alcuin, he again recanted his heresy. The rest of his 
 life was spent under the supervision of the archbishop at 
 Lyons, where he died in 816. Elipandus, secure in his see 
 at Toledo, never swerved from the adoptian views, which, 
 however, were almost universally abandoned after the two 
 leaders died. The controversy was revived by solitary advo- 
 cates of the heretical opinions more than once during the 
 Middle Ages, and the questions on which it turns have, in 
 one form or another, been the subject of frequent discussion. 
 ADOPTION, the act by which the relations of paternity 
 and filiation are recognised as legally existing between 
 persons not so related by nature. Cases of adoption were 
 very frequent among the, -Greeks and Romans, and the 
 custom was accordingly very strictly regulated in their laws. 
 In Athens the power of adoption was allowed to all citizens 
 who were of sound mind, and who possessed no male off- 
 spring of their own, and it could be exercised either during 
 Lifetime or by testament. The person adopted, who re- 
 quired to be himself a citizen, was enrolled in the family 
 and demits of the adoptive father, whose name, however, he 
 did not necessarily assume. In the interest of the next of 
 kin, whose rights were affected by a case of adoption, it 
 was provided that the registration should be attended with 
 certain formalities, and that it should take place at a fixed 
 time — the festival of the Thargelia, The rights and duties 
 of adopted children were almost identical with those of 
 natural offspring, and could not be renounced except in the 
 case of one who had begotten children to take his place in 
 the family of his adoptive father. Adopted into another 
 family, children ceased to have any claim of kindred or 
 inheritance through their natural father, though any rights 
 they might have through their mother were not similarly 
 affected. Among the Romans the existence of the patria 
 potestas gave a peculiar significance to the custom of adop- 
 tion. The motive to the act was not so generally child- 
 lessness, or the gratification of affection, as the desire to 
 acquire those civil and agnate rights which were founded 
 on the patria potestas. It was necessary, however, that the 
 adopter should have no children of his own, and that ho 
 should be of such an age as to preclude reasonable expec- 
 tation of any being born to him. Another limitation us to 
 age was imposed by the maxim adoptio imitatur nataram, 
 which required the adoptive father to be at least eighteen 
 years older than the adopted children. According to the 
 same maxim eunuchs were not permitted to adopt, as being 
 impotent to beget children for themselves. Adoption was 
 of two kinds according to the state of the person adopted, 
 who might be either still under the patria potestas (alieni 
 juris), or his own master (sui juris). In the former case 
 the act was one of adoption proper, in the latter case it was 
 styled adrogation, though the term adoption was also used 
 in a general sense to describe both species. In adoption 
 proper the natural father publicly sold his .child to tho 
 adoptive father, and the sale being thrice repeated, tho 
 maxim of the Twelve Tables took effect,' Si pater JUium ter 
 venunduit, filius a palre liber esto. The process was rati- 
 fied and completed by a fictitious action of recovery brought 
 by the adoptive father against the natural parent, which the 
 latter did not defend, and which was therefore known 'as the 
 cessio in jure. Adrogation could be accomplished origin- 
 ally only by the authority of the people assembled in the.
 
 164 
 
 A D O — A D R 
 
 Comitia, but from the time of Diocletiau it was effected by 
 an imperial rescript. Females could not be adrogated, 
 and, as they did not possess the patria potestas, they could 
 not exercise the right of. adoption in either kind. The 
 whole Roman law on the subject of adoption will bo found 
 ill Justinian's Institutes, lib. i. tit. 1 1. In Hindoo law, 
 as in nearly every ancient system, wills are almost un- 
 known, and adoptions take their place. The strict law 
 of adoptiou in Iudia has been relaxed to the extent 
 that a Hindoo widow may adopt when her deceased 
 husband has not done so. Adoption is not recognised 
 in the laws of England and Scotland, though there 
 are legal means by which one may be enabled to assume 
 the name and arms and to inherit the property of a 
 stranger. In France and Germany, which may be said 
 to have embodied the Roman law in their jurispru- 
 dence, adoption is regulated according to the principles 
 of Justinian, though with several more or less important 
 modifications, rendered necessary by the usages of these 
 countries respectively. The part played by the legal 
 fiction of adoption in the constitution of primitive society 
 and the civilisation of the race is so important, that Sir 
 Henry S. Maine, in his valuable work on Ancient Law, 
 expresses the opinion that, had it never existed, the primi- 
 tive groups of mankind could not have coalesced except on 
 terms of absolute superiority on the one side, and absolute 
 subjection on the other. With the institution of adoption, 
 however, one people m\<$itfeign itself as descended from the 
 same stock as the people to whose'sacra yentilicia it was ad- 
 mitted; and amicable relations were thus established between 
 stocks which, but for this expedient, must have submitted 
 to the arbitrament of the sword with all its consequences. 
 
 Adoption, as a Biblical term, occurs only in the New 
 Testament. In Old Testament history the practice was 
 unknown, though cases approximating to it have been 
 pointed out. In the New Testament vloOfcria. occurs in 
 several passages, on which is founded one of the leading 
 doctrines of theology. 
 
 ADORATION(from os, oris, the mouth, or from uro, to 
 pray), an act of homage or worship which, among the 
 Romans, was performed by raising the hand to the mouth, 
 kissing it, and then waving it in the direction of the 
 adored object. The devotee had his head covered, and 
 after the act turned himself round from left to right. 
 Sometimes he kissed the feet or knees of the images of the 
 gods themselves, and Saturn and Hercules were adored 
 with the head bare. By a natural transition the homage 
 that was at first paid to divine beings alone came to be 
 paid to men in token of extraordinary respect. Those 
 who approached the Greek and Roman emperors adored by 
 bowing or kneeling, laying hold of the imperial robe, and 
 presently withdrawing the hand and pressing it to the lips. 
 In eastern countries adoration was performed in an attitude 
 still more lowly. The Persian method, introduced by 
 Cyras, was to bend the knee and fall on the face at the 
 prince's feet, striking the earth with the forehead, and 
 kissing the ground. Homage in this form was refused by 
 Conon to Artax£rxes, and by Callisthenes to Alexander the 
 Great In England the ceremony of kissing the king's or 
 queen's hand, and some other acts which are performed 
 kneeling, may be described as forms of adoration. Adora- 
 tion is applied in the court of Rome to the ceremony of 
 kissing the Pope's foot, a custom which is said to have 
 been introduced by the popes after the example of the 
 Emperor Diocletian. In the Romish Church a distinction 
 is made between Latria, a worship'due to God alone, and 
 Dulia or Bypevdtdia, the adoration paid to the Virgin, 
 saiate, martyrs, crucifixes, the host, d-c. 
 
 ADOUR, the ancient Aturus, a river of France which 
 rises near Barege, in the department of Upper Pyrenees, 
 
 and, flowing first northwards, then with a circuit to the 
 west, passes through the departments of Gers and Landes, 
 and falls into the Bay of Biscay 3 miles below Bayonne. 
 Its length is about 180 miles, and it is navigable for about 
 70 miles, as far as St S6ver. Bagneres-de-Bigorre, Tarbes, 
 and Dax are the other important towns on its banks. 
 
 ADOWA, the capital of Tigrd, in Abyssinia, is situated 
 in 14° 12' N. lat., 39° 3' E. long., on the left bank of 
 the River Hasam, 145 miles N.E of Goudar. It is built 
 on the eastern declivity of a hill overlooking a small plain, 
 and has regular streets, ornamented with trees and gardens. 
 The town derives its chief importance from its situation on 
 the route between Massowah and Goudar, which has caused 
 it to become the great entrepot of traffic between the ex- 
 tensive table-land of Tigre' and the coast Gold and ivory 
 are included in its transit trade, and hardware is manu- 
 factured, as well as the coarse cotton cloth which circulates 
 in Abyssinia as the medium of exchange in ulace of money. 
 Population about C000. 
 
 ADR A, the ancient Abdera, a seaport of Spain on the 
 Mediterranean, in the province of Alineria, 60 miles S.E. 
 of Grenada. Lead is extensively wrought in the neigh- 
 bourhood, and exported to Marseilles. The other exports 
 include wheat and sugar. Population, 7400. 
 
 ADRASTUS, in Legendary History, was the son oi 
 Talaus, king of Argos, and Lysianassa, daughter of Polybus, 
 king of Sicyon. Being driven from Argos by Ainphiaraus, 
 Adrastus repaired to Sicyon, where he became king on the 
 death of Polybus. After a time he was reconciled to 
 Amphiaraus, to whom he gave his sister in marriage, 
 returned to Argos, and occupied the throne. He acquired 
 great honour in the famous war against Thebes, which he 
 undertook for the restoration of his son-in-law Polynices, 
 who had been deprived of his rights by his brother Eteocles, 
 notwithstanding the agreement between them. Adrastus, 
 followed by Polynices and Lydeus, his two sons-in-law, 
 Amphiaraus, his brother-in-law, Capaneus, Hippomedon, 
 and Parthenopasus, marched against the city of Thebes, and 
 on his way is said to have founded the Nemean games. 
 This is the expedition of the Seven Worthies against Thebes 
 which the poets have made nearly as famous as the siege 
 of Troy. As Amphiaraus had foretold, they all lost their 
 lives in this war except Adrastus, who was saved by tho 
 speed of his horse Arion. Ten years after, at the insti- 
 gation of Adrastus, the war was renewed by the sons of 
 the chiefs that had fallen. This expedition was called 
 the War of the Epigoni, and ended in the taking and 
 destruction of Thebes. None of the followers of, Adrastus 
 perished in it except his son iEgialeus. The death of 
 this son affected Adrastus so much that he died of grief 
 at Megara, as he was leading back his victorious army. 
 
 ADRIA, a city of Italy, in the province of Rovigo, 
 between the rivers Po and Adige. It is a place of great 
 antiquity, and was at an early period a seaport of such 
 importance and celebrity as to give name to the sea on 
 which it stood. Originally an Etruscan colony, it enjoyed 
 for a time remarkable prosperity; but under the Romans 
 it appears never to have been of much importance, and 
 after the fall of the Western Empire it rapidly declined. 
 The dykes which protected the surrounding country from 
 inundation were neglected, the canals became choked, and 
 the mud and other deposits brought down by the waters oi 
 the Po and Adige caused a gradual extension of the land 
 into the Adriatic, so that Adria ceased to be a seaport, and 
 is now 16 miles from the sea, on whose shores it formerly 
 stood. By the draining of the neighbouring lands, the 
 modern town has been much improved. It has some trado 
 in grain, cattle, fish, wine, and earthenware, is the seat of 
 a bishopric, and has a museum of Greek and Roman anti- 
 quities. A little to the south, extensive remains of the
 
 A D R— A D R 
 
 165 
 
 ancient city have been discovered deeply imbedded in the 
 accumulated soiL The population of Adria is 10,000. 
 
 ADRIA (6 'A8/nas — Acts xxvii. 27) in St Paul's time 
 meant all that part of the Mediterrane.-.n between Crete 
 and Sicily. This fact is of importance, as it relieves us 
 from the necessity of finding the island of Melita, on -which 
 Paul was shipwrecked, in the present Adriatic Gulf. 
 
 ADRIAN, a town of the United States, capital of 
 Lenawee co., Michigan, situated on a branch of the Eaisin 
 river, and on the Michigan Southern Railway, 73 miles 
 W.S.W. of Detroit. Adrian is the centre of trade for the 
 surrounding district, which is chiefly grain-producing. Its 
 extensive water-power is employed in mills of various kinds. 
 It has several line churches and other public ' buildings. 
 Population in 1870. 8438. 
 
 ADRIAN, Publius jEuus, Roman emperor. See 
 Hadrian and Roman History. 
 
 ADRIAN (sometimes written Hadrian) was the name 
 of six popes : — 
 
 Adrian I., son of Theodore, a Roman nobleman, occupied 
 the pontifical chair from 772 to 795. Soon after his 
 accession ■ the territory that had been bestowed on the 
 popes by Pepin was invaded by Desiderius, king of the 
 Longobards, and Adrian found it necessary to invoke the 
 aid of --Charlemagne, who entered Italy with a large army, 
 and repelled the enemy. Th2 pope acknowledged the 
 obligation by conferring upon the emperor the title of 
 Patrician of Rome, and Charlemagne made a fresh grant of 
 the territories orginally bestowed by his father, with the 
 addition of Ancona and Benevento. The friendly relations 
 thu3 established between pope and emperor continued 
 unbroken, though a serious difference arose between them 
 on the question of the worship of images, to which Charle- 
 magne and the Gallican Church were strongly opposed, 
 while Adrian favoured the views of the Eastern Church, 
 and approved the decree of the Council of Nicsea (787), 
 confirming the practice and excommunicating - the icono- 
 clasts. It was in connection with this controversy that 
 Charlemagne wrote the so-called Libri Carolini; to which 
 Adrian replied by letter, anathematisiDg all who refused 
 to worship the images of Christ, or the Virgin, or saints. 
 Notwithstanding this, a synod, held at Frankfort* in 794, 
 anew condemned the practice, and the dispute remained 
 unsettled at Adrian's death. An epitaph written by 
 Charlemagne in verse, in which he styles Adrian " father," 
 proves that his friendship with the pontiff was not dis- 
 turbed by the controversy in which they were so long 
 engaged. 
 
 Adrian IX, born at Rome, became pope in 867, at the 
 age of seventy-six. He faithfully adhered to the ambi- 
 tious policy of his immediate predecessor, Nicholas I., and 
 used every means to extend his authority. His persistent 
 endeavours to induce Charles the Bald to resign the king- 
 dom of Lorraine to the emperor were unsuccessful. 
 Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, who. had crowned Charles, 
 denied the pope's right to interfere in the matter, and 
 maintained that the threatened excommunication of the 
 king's adherents would have no validity. Adrian was for 
 the time more successful in his contest with the patriarch 
 of Constantinople — the sentence of deposition he passed 
 upon Photius being confirmed by a council of the Eastern 
 Church held in 869-70. His arrogant measures were, 
 however, the immediate occasion of the schism between the 
 Greek and Latin churches. Adrian had himself been 
 married, but put away his wife on ascending the papal 
 throne, and a council called by him at Worms in 868 
 decreed the celibacy of the clergy. He died in 872. 
 
 Adrian HI., born at Rome, succeeded Martin II. in 
 884, and died in 885 on a journey to Worms. 
 
 Adrian IV. whose name Was Nicholas Breakspeare, 
 
 was born before 1100 A.D. atXangley, near St Albans, in 
 Hertfordshire, and is the only Englishman who has occupied 
 the papal chair. His request to be allowed to take the 
 habit of the monastery of St Albans having been refused 
 by Abbot Richard, he proceeded to Paris, where he studied 
 with diligence, and soon attained great proficiency, espe- 
 cially in theology. Being admitted, after a period of pro- 
 bation, a regular clerk in the monastery of St Rufus, in 
 Provence, he distinguished himself so much by his learning 
 and strict observance of the monastic discipline that he was 
 chosen abbot when the office fell vacant. Tfta merit became 
 known to Pope Eugenius III., who created him cardinal- 
 bishop of Alba in 1146, and scut him two years later as his 
 legate to Denmark and Norway. On this mission he con- 
 verted many of the inhabitants to Christianity, and erected 
 Upsal into an archiepiscopal see. Soon after his return to 
 Rome, Anastasius, successor of Eugenius, died, and Nicholas 
 was unanimously chosen pope, against his own inclination, 
 in Nov. 1154. On hearing of the election, Henry IL of 
 England sent the abbot of St Albans and three bishops to 
 Rome with his congratulations, which Adrian acknowledged 
 by granting considerable privileges to the monastery of St 
 Albans, including exemption from all episcopal juris- 
 diction except that of Rome. The bestowal by Adrian of 
 the sovereignty of Ireland upon the English monarch was 
 a practical assertion of the papal claim to dispose of king- 
 doms. The act, besides facilitating and hastening the 
 subjection of Ireland to England, was also the means of 
 inducing Henry to yield the long-contested point of lay 
 investiture to ecclesiastical offices. The beginning of 
 Adrian's pontificate was signalised by the energetic 
 attempts of the Roman people to recover their ancient 
 liberty under the consuls, ibut the pope took strong 
 measures to maintain his authority', compelling the magis- 
 trates to abdicate, laying the city under an interdict, and 
 procuring the execution of Arnold of Brescia (1155)., In 
 the same year he excommunicated William, king of Sicily, 
 who had ravaged the territories of the church, but the ban 
 was removed and the title of King of the Twe Sicilies 
 conferred on William in the following year, on the promise 
 of a yearly tribute to the Holy See. With Adrian com- 
 menced the long and bitter conflict between the papal 
 power and the house of Hohenstaufen which ended in the 
 humiliation of the latter. Frederick Barbarossa having 
 entered Italy at the head of a large army for the purpose 
 of obtaining the crown of Germany from the hands of the 
 pope, Adrian met him at Sutri. The demand that he should 
 hold the pope's stirrup as a mark of respeet was at first 
 refused by Frederick, whereupon the pope on his part with- 
 held from the emperor the osculum pacts, and the cardinals 
 ran away in terror. After two days 1 negotiation, Frederick 
 was induced to yield the desired homage, on the representa- 
 tion that the same thing had been done by his predecessors. 
 His holiness then conducted the emperor to Rome, where 
 the ceremony of coronation took place in the Church of St 
 Peter's. It was in these transactions that the quarrel 
 originated. A letter addressed by the pope to Frederick 
 and the German bishops in 1157 asserted", on the ground 
 of the ceremonies that had taken place, that the emperor 
 held his dominions as a beneficium. The expression, being 
 interpreted as denoting feudal tenure, stirred up the fiercest 
 indignation of Frederick and the Germans, and though 
 explanations were afterwards given with the view of show- 
 ing that the word had not been used in an offensive sense, 
 the breach could not be healed. Adrian was about to 
 pronounce the sentence of excommunication upon Frederick 
 when he died at Anagni on the 1st Sept. 1159. 
 
 Adrian V., a Genoese, whose name was Ottoboni Fiescl, 
 occupied the papal throne for only five weeks in 1276. 
 When congratulated on his accession he replied in the
 
 10(5 
 
 A D II — A 1) U 
 
 well-known words, "~I wish you had found me a healthy 
 cardinal rather than a dying pope." 
 
 Al-rian VI., bor:i of humble parentage at Utrecht in 
 1459, studied at the university of Louvain, of which he 
 became vice-chancellor. He was chosen by the Emperor 
 Maximilian to be tutor to his grandson, the Archduke 
 Or^rles, through whoso interest as Charles V. he was after- 
 wards raised to the papal throne. In 1517 he received the 
 cardinal's hat from Leo X., and in 1519 he was made 
 bishop of Tortosa. After the death of Ferdinand he was for 
 a time regent of Spain. He was chosen pope Jan. 9, 1522; 
 but the election was very displeasing to the people of Rome, 
 is the new pope, in contrast with his predecessor Leo, was 
 kDOwu to be very rigid in discipline and frugal in his mode 
 of living. On his accession, contrary to the usual custom, 
 lio did not change his name, and he showed his dislike to 
 ttstentation in many other ways. In regard to the great 
 Tact with which he had to deal — the Reformation — Adrian's 
 fonduct showed that he did not fully estimate the gravity 
 6f the crisis. Acknowledging the corruptions of the church, 
 jie did his utmost to reform certain external abuses; but 
 when his proposed measures failed to win back Luther and 
 the other reformers, he immediately sought to suppress 
 their doctrines by force. He died on the 14th September 
 1523. So little did the people care to conceal their joy at 
 the event that they wrote on the door of his physician's 
 house the words " the saviour of his country." 
 
 ADRIAN, Cardinal, was born at Cometo, in Tuscany, 
 and studied at Rome. He was sent by Innocent VIII. as 
 nuncio to Britain, to endeavour to reconcile James III. of 
 Scotland and his subjects. That king having died, Adrian 
 remained in England, where Henry VII. presented him to 
 the bishopric of Hereford, and afterwards to that of Bath 
 and Wells; but he never resided in either of these dioceses. 
 On his return to Rome he became secretary to Pope 
 Alexander VI., who employed him in various missions, and 
 subsequently invested him with the purple. It was Adrian 
 In particular that Alexander is said to have meant to poison 
 in order that he might seize on his great wealth, when, as 
 is generally reported, he fell a victim to his own wicked- 
 ness. Not long after the elevation of Leo X. to the papal 
 chair Jie was implicated in the conspiracy of Cardinal 
 Petrncci against that pontiff. He confessed his guilt; and 
 pardon being offered only on condition of his payment of 
 a fine of 25,000 ducats, he resolved to fly from Rome. It 
 is supposed that he was murdered by a domestic who 
 coveted his wealth. Adrian was one of the first who sought 
 to restore the Latin tongue from its mediaeval corruptions 
 to classical purity. He wrote De Vera Philosophic, a re- 
 ligious treatise, printed at Cologno in 1548; De Sermone 
 Latino, a learned work, published at Rome in 1515, and re 
 peatedly since; a treatise, De Venationtf; and some Latin 
 verses. 
 
 ADRIANI, Giovanni Battista, born of. n, patrician 
 family of Florence about 1511, was secretary to the republic 
 of Florence, and for thirty years professor of rhetoric at 
 the university. He wrote a history of his own times, from 
 1536 to 1574, in Italian, which is generally, but according 
 to Brunet erroneously, considered a continuation of Guic- 
 ciardini. De Thou acknowledges himself greatly indebted 
 to this history, praising it especially for its accuracy. Adriani 
 composed funeral orations on the Emperor Charles V. and 
 other noble personages, and was the author of a long letter 
 on ancient painters and sculptors prefixed to the third 
 ■volume of Vasari. He died at Florence in 1579. 
 
 ADRIANOPLE (called by the Turks Edbeneh), a city 
 o/ European Turkey, in the province of Rumeha, 137 
 'niles W.N.W. of Constantinople; 41° 41' N. lat., 20° 35' 
 E. long. It is pleasantly situated partly on a hill and 
 sartly on the banks of the Tundja, near its confluence 
 
 with the Maritza. Next to Constantinople, Adrianople is 
 the most important city of the empire. It is the seat of a 
 bishop .of the Greek Church The streets are narrow, 
 crooked, and filthy; its ancient citadel, and the walls which 
 formerly surrounded the town, are now in ruins. Of its 
 public buildings the most distinguished are the Fski-Serai, 
 the ancient palace of the sultans, now in a stato of decay; 
 the famous bazaar of Ali Pacha; and the mosque of the 
 Sultan Selim IL, a magnificent specimen of Turkish archi- 
 tecture, which ranks among the finest Mahometan temples. 
 The city has numerous baths, caravanseries, and bazaars; 
 and considerable manufactures of silk, leather, tapestry, 
 woollens, linen, and cotton, and an active general trade. 
 Besides fruits and agricultural produce, its exports include 
 raw silk, cotton, opium, rose-water, attar of roses, wax, and 
 the famous dyo known as Turkey red. The surrounding 
 country is extremely fertile, and its wines are the best pro- 
 duced in Turkey. The city is supplied with fresh water 
 by means of a noble aqueduct carried by arches over an 
 extensive valley. There is also a fine stone bridge here 
 over the Tundja. During winter and spring the Slaritza 
 is uavigable up to the town, but Enos, at the mouth of that 
 river, is properly its seaport. Adrianople was called 
 Uskadama previous to the timo of the Emperor Hadrian, 
 who improved and embellished the town, ind changed its 
 name to Hadrianopolis. In 1300 it was taken by the 
 Turks, who, from 136G till 1453, when they got possession 
 of Constantinople, made it the seat of their government. 
 In the campaign of 1829 Adrianople surrendered to the 
 Russians without making any resistance, but v. as restored 
 after the treaty of peace signed the same year. Population, 
 140,000. 
 
 ADRIATIC SEA, the Adriaticum Mare of the ancients, 
 is an arm of the Mediterranean which separates Italy from 
 Triest, Croatia, Dalmatia, and Albania. It extends from 
 40° to 45° 50' N. lat in a N.W. direction. Its extreme 
 north-west portion forms the Gulf of Venice, and on the east 
 side are the gulfs of Triest, Fiume, Cattaro, and Drino. It* 
 greatest length is 450 miles, its mean breadth 90 miles, 
 and its depth varies from 12 to 22 fathoms. The western 
 or Italian coasts are generally low and marshy; but the 
 eastern shores are steep and rocky, and the abounding 
 creeks and inlets, with the numerous islands, afford to 
 mariners many safe natural harbours. The ebbs and flows 
 of the tide in the Adriatic are inconsiderable, though more 
 observable than in the Mediterranean generally; and its 
 saltness is a little greater than that of the ocean. The 
 prevalence of sudden squalls from the N.E. and S.E. renders 
 its navigation hazardous, especially in winter. Except the 
 Po and Adige, no considerable rivers flow into the Adriatic. 
 Its chief emporia of trade are Venice, Triest, and Ancona. 
 The port of Brindisi, on the Italian roast, near the southern 
 extremity of the Adriatic, is rapidly rising in importance 
 as the point of arrival and departure of the Peninsular and 
 Oriental Company's steamers conveying the overland mails 
 between England and the East. The name Adriatic is 
 derived from Adria, between the mouths of the Po and the 
 Adige, and not from Adria in Picenum. (See Highland* and 
 Islands of t/ie Adriatic, by A A. Paton, 2 vols. 8vo, 1849; 
 Shores of the Adriatic, by Visconntess Strangford, 1804.) 
 
 ADULE or Adulis, a town on the Red Sea. See Zulla. 
 
 ADULLAM, in Scripture Geography, a city in the plain 
 country of the tribe of Judah. The cave Adullam, in 
 which David took refuge after escaping from Gath (1 Sam. 
 yirii , 1), was probably situated among the mountains to 
 the east of Judah, near the Dead Sea, From its being 
 described as the resort of " every one that was in distress," 
 or " in debt." or " discontented," it has often been humor- 
 ously alluded to, as by the Baron of Bradwardine in 
 Waverley, chap. 57.
 
 167 
 
 ADULTERATION 
 
 ADULTERATION, the act of debasing a pure or 
 genuine commodity for pecuniary profit, by adding 
 to it an inferior or spurious article, or by taking from it 
 one or more of its constituents. The term is derived from 
 the Latin adultero, which in its various inflections signifies 
 to defile, to debase, to corrupt, to sophisticate, to falsify, to 
 counterfeit, «fcc. The objects of adulteration are fourfold, 
 namely, to increase the bulk or weight of the article, to 
 improve its appearance, to give it a false strength, or to 
 rob it of its most valuable constituents. All these adul- 
 terations are manifestly of a designedly fraudulent character, 
 and are therefore properly the subjects of judicial inquiry; 
 but there may be accidental corruptions and adulterations- 
 of a commodity, arising i:om natural or unavoidable causes, 
 as when darnel or ergot become mixed with grain in the 
 fields of the slovenly farmer, or when an article becomes 
 changed and deteriorated from spontaneous decay, or when 
 mineral matters and other impurities are accidentally derived 
 from the machinery or vessels in which the thing is prepared 
 or kept. The recognition of such impurities, and the tracing 
 of them to their source, is of prime importance in pursuing a 
 charge of adulteration. Few articles of commerce, however, 
 are exempt from fraudulent adulteration, and the practice 
 of it has grown with the competition of trade, and the 
 removal of those wholesome restrictions which in former 
 times were so energetically opposed to all kinds of dishonest 
 dealing ; for the guilds and companies of all large cities 
 had their corporate regulations for supervising and govern- 
 ing every description of trade and manufacture. The excise, 
 too, including the customs, had until recently control over 
 the quality of all exciseable articles ; and although the 
 prime object of this was -to protect the revenue of the 
 country, yet it also served to prevent adi-lteration. . In 
 addition to this there were in ancient times ordinances of 
 assize for regulating the price and quality of the common 
 necessaries of life. As far back as the reign of John (1203) 
 there was a proclamation throughout the kingdom for 
 enforcing the legal obligations of assize as regards bread ; 
 and in the following reign the statute (51 Hen. III. stat. 6), 
 entitled the Pillory and Tumbrel, was framed for the 
 express purpose of protecting the public from the dishonest 
 dealings of bakers, vintners, brewers, butchers, and others. 
 This statute is deserving of notice as the first in which the 
 adulteration of human food is specially noticed and prohi- 
 bited ; and it seems to have been enforced with more or 
 less of rigour until the time of Anne, when it was repealed 
 (8 Anne, c. 19). According to Liber Albus, it was strictly 
 observed in the days of Edward I., for it states that "if 
 any default shall be found in the bread of a baker in the 
 city, the first time, let him be drawn upon a hurdle from 
 the Guildhall to his own house through the great street 
 where there be most people assembled, and through the 
 great streets which are most dirty, with the faulty loaf 
 hanging from his neck • if a second time he shall be found 
 committing the same offence, let him be drawn from the 
 Guildhall through the great street of Cheepe, in the manner 
 aforesaid, to the pillory, and let him be put upon the 
 pillory, and remain there at least one hour in the day ; and 
 the third time that such default shall be found, he shall be 
 drawn, and the oven shall be pulled down, and the baker 
 made to forswear the trade in the city for ever." Vintners, 
 spicers, grocers, butchers, regrators, and others, were subject 
 to the like punishment for dishonesty in their commercial 
 dealings — it being thought that the pillory, by appealing 
 to the sense of shame, was far more deterrent of such 
 
 crimes than fine or imprisonment. But all this has given 
 way to the force of free trade, and now -the practice of 
 adulteration has become an art, in which the knowledge oi 
 science and the ingenuity of trade are freely exercised. 
 Fifty years ago it attracted the attention of one of the most 
 expert chemists of the day, Mr Accum, who, in his Treatise 
 on Adulterations of Food, ancLCulinary Poisons, declared it 
 to be an "art and mystery." Subsequently to that, in 
 1851 and the three following years, articles on the adultera- 
 tion of food appeared in the Lancet, and the effect o. 
 those articles was to call for a Parliamentary inquiry, which 
 resulted in the Adulteration of Food Act of 1860. That 
 Act of Parliament gave power to certain local authorities 
 in England, Scotland, and Ireland to appoint analysts, 
 having competent medical, chemical, and microscopical 
 knowledge. The penalty for sellingan adulterated article, 
 knowing it to be so adulterated, wa3 five pounds, and th- 
 costs of the proceedings. But as the statute was permissive, 
 only a few analysts were appointed, and it soon became a 
 dead letter. Attempts were subsequently made to improve 
 the law, and to make it compulsory on local authorities to 
 appoint analysts. One of these was the Bill of 1869, and 
 another was that of 1871 — both of which were abandoned 
 by their promoters. In the year 1872, however, an Act was 
 passed, entitledAn Act to amend the Laws for the Prevention 
 of Adulteration of Food, Drink, ana Drugs. The main 
 features of this Act are the following : — Local authorities in 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland are bound to appoint analysts 
 with competent medical, chemical, and microscopical know- 
 ledge. They must also appoint officers or inspectors to 
 purchase articles of food, drink, and drugs within then- 
 respective districts, and take them to the analyst for 
 examination. Other purchasers of such articles are per 
 mitted, under proper restrictions, to have suspected articles 
 analysed. On receiving a certificate from the analyst, 
 stating that any article is adulterated, the inspector must take 
 the necessary legal proceedings for the purpose of bringing 
 the offender to justice. The penalty on conviction of 
 mixing anything whatever with a drug, with the view of 
 adulterating it, or of mixing any injurious or poisonous 
 ingredient with any article of food or drink, is a sum not 
 exceeding fifty pounds, together with the costs ; and for the 
 second offence he shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and be 
 imprisoned for a period not exceeding sis calendar months 
 with hard labour. The penalty for selling an adulterated 
 article with a guilty knowledge is a sum not exceeding 
 twenty pounds, together with the costs ; and for a second 
 offence, the justice may order the offender's name, place of 
 abode, and offence to be published in a newspaper, or in any 
 manner he thinks fit, at the expense of the offender. 
 Although the meaning of the term adulteration is not strictly 
 defined in the Act, yet it is declared that the admixture of 
 anything whatever with an article of food, drink, or drug, 
 for the purpose of fraudulently increasing its weight or 
 bulk; is an adulteration within the provisions of the Act 
 The adulteration of intoxicating liquors is provided for by 
 the Licensing Act 1872 (35 and 36 Vict. c. 9-1) ; and 
 in this Act there is a schedule of substances, called "Dele 
 terious Ingredients," which are considered to be adultera 
 tions : they are Cocculut indicus, chloride of sodium oi 
 common salt, copperas, opium, Indian hemp, strychnine, 
 tobacco, darnel seed, extract of logwood, salts of zinc oi 
 lead, alum, and any extract or compound of any of these. 
 The execution of this Act rests with the police authorities 
 and the Inland Revenue. Tha penalties for adulteration
 
 168 
 
 ADULTERATION 
 
 arc very severe, leaving it tc the magistrate either to inflict 
 a heavy fine or to send the offender to prison. In the year 
 1869 an Act was passed to prevent the adulteration of seeds, 
 in fraud of Her Majesty's subjects, and to the great 
 detriment of agriculture (32 and 33 Vict. c. 112), wherein 
 it is declared that the killing of seeds, the dying of them, 
 and the selling of such killed or dyed seeds, with intent to 
 defraud, is punishable with a penalty not- exceeding five 
 pounds for the first offence, nor exceeding fifty pounds for 
 a second or subsequent offence, together with the publication 
 of the offender's name, place of abode, and offence in any 
 manner that the justice thinks fit. 
 
 Adulteration in other countries is strictly prohibited 
 under penal obligations. The Prussian penal code provides 
 that any person selling adulterated or spoiled goods shall 
 be liable to a penalty up to fifty dollars, or imprisonment 
 for six weeks, with confiscation of goods ; and it is not 
 necessary to prove that the seller was aware of the adultera- 
 tion. In Holland, the Dutch law is very similar to the 
 code Napoleon, and inflicts a punishment of imprisonment 
 for from six days to two years, with a fine of from 16 to 
 600 francs. The adulteration of bread with copperas or 
 •nlphate of zinc is dealt with by imprisonment of from two 
 to five years, and a fine of from 200 to 500 florins. In 
 Paris, malpractices connected with the adulteration of food 
 are investigated by the Conseil de Salubrite and punished. 
 Much valuable information concerning the adulteration of 
 food, drink, and drugs in foreign countries has lately been 
 obtained from the various British legations and consulates 
 abroad, through a circular addressed to them from the 
 Foreign Office. These investigations were commenced by 
 the late Earl of Clarendon, and have been continued by 
 Earl Granville. The results have been published in the 
 Food Journal for 1870 and 1871 ; and they are epitomised 
 at page 193 of the journal of the last mentioned date. 
 
 Among the adulterations which are practised for the 
 purpose of fraudulently increasing the weight or bulk of an 
 article are the following : — 
 
 1. Adulterations of Milk. — This is commonly effected by 
 the addition of water — technically termed Simpson ; and it 
 is known by the appearance of the milk, the specific gravity 
 of it, the quantity of cream which rises, and the chemical 
 composition of the milk. Good milk has a rich appearance, 
 and a full pleasant taste. Its specific gravity ranges from 
 1029 (water being 1000) to 1032— the average being 1030. 
 If, therefore, the density of milk is above 1030, other 
 conditions corresponding, the inference is that the sample 
 ia unusually good. Between 1028 and 1030 it is most' 
 probably genuine. At from 1020 to 1028 it is of doubtful 
 quality, and below that, unless the amount of cream is 
 enormously large, the sample is not genuine. An instru- 
 ment, called a galactometer, has been constructed to show the 
 specific gravity of milk at a glance ; but it must always bo 
 remembered that while the addition of water tends to iower 
 the gravity of milk, so also does the presence of much 
 cream, and therefore a sample of skimmed milk may show 
 a high gravity even when diluted with water. The per- 
 centage quantity of cream is ascertained by means of an 
 instrument called a lactometer. It is a glass tube about 10 
 or 11 inches long and half an inch in diameter, graduated 
 into 100 parts. Having shaken a sample of milk so as to 
 diffuse the cream throughout its bulk, it is poured into the 
 lactometer to the topmost division ; and after standing for 
 12 hours, to allow the cream to rise, the proportion of it is 
 read off from the divisions on the tube. Good milk shows 
 a range of from 8 to 12 divisions. Conjoined with the 
 preceding test, this affords reliable indication of the quality 
 of the sample. After removing the cream, the gravity 
 should be again taken, and this should not be lower than 
 1030. The chemical composition of milk varies to some 
 
 extent with the breed of the cow, its age, the diet upon 
 which it is fed, the time of calving, and the time of milking ; 
 for afternoon milk is generally richer than morning, and 
 the last drawn than the first. But taking the results of a 
 large number of analyses by different chemists, it may be 
 said that the average percentage composition of milk is aa 
 follows : — Casein or cheese matter, 3"64 ; butter, 3'55 : 
 milk, sugar or lactose, 4-70; saline matter, 081; and 
 water, 87 - 30. IS, therefore. 1000 grains of milk bo treated 
 with a few drops of acetic acid, and then heated in a tlask 
 to about 120° Fahr., the casein of the milk will curdle, 
 and enclose within it all the butter. When it is quite cold, 
 it can easily be filtered, and when dry, the curd and butter 
 should weigh from 75 to 85 grains; and the serum or whey 
 should have a density of about 1029. The addition of 
 mineral matter, as common salt or carbonate of soda, to 
 milk is easily recognised by an examination of the ash or 
 saline constitutents. 1000 grains Of good milk evaporated 
 to dryness will produce from 120 to 130 grains of solid 
 matter, of which about 8 grains are mineral ; and these are 
 left in the platinum capsule, when the solid matter is 
 incinerated or burnt to an ash. Of this ash about half is 
 phosphate of lime, and 2 - 7 are alkaline chlorides, tho rest 
 being phosphates of magnesia and iron, with a little 
 carbonate of soda. Any notable increase, therefore, in the 
 proportion of ash, or any large diminution of it, will show 
 adulteration. Colouring matter, as anuatto, <fcc, is known 
 by the peculiar tint o'f the milk; and starchy matters 
 beilcd to an emulsion will give their characteristic reactions 
 with iodine, and will furnish a sediment which the micro- 
 'scope will reveal. Fatty emulsions, in imitation of milk, 
 were used during the siege of Paris, on the Recommendation 
 of M. Dubrunfaut, who claims to have made a very perfect 
 substitute by emulsifying fatty matter with an artificial 
 whey or serum. This he did by dissolving from 40 to 50 
 grammes of saccharine matter (lactose, glucose, or cane 
 sugar), and from 20 to 30 grammes of albumen (dried white 
 of egg), and from 1 to 2 grammes of the crystals of carbonate 
 of soda, in half a litre of water, and then emulsifying with 
 from 50 to 60 grammes of olive oil or other fatty substance. 
 This is best done at & temperature of ffom 120° to 140" 
 Fahr. ; and the liquid so prepared has the appearance of 
 cream, and requires to *Je mixed with twice its volume of 
 water to acquire the consistence of milk. Gelatine may 
 be used instead of albumen, the mixture being even more 
 nearly like rich cream than the former. M. Gaudin says 
 that any kind-of fat may be used for this purpose, provided 
 it is purified with superheated steam; and M. Fan states 
 that even horse grease may be so employed. M. Dumas, 
 however, is of opinion that none of these substitutes can 
 take the place of milk for any time as dietetical agents. 
 Milk from diseased animals, especially those affected with 
 pleuropneumonia, and the foot-and-mouth disease, is very 
 unwholesome, and ought not to be drunk. The diseased 
 product is recognised by the presence of abnormal inflam- 
 matory globules of the nature of pus, and by a large amount 
 of epithelium cells. Preserved condensed milk is now so 
 commonly used for food, that its properties when good 
 should be known. 100 parts of the specimens at present in 
 the market consist of from 14 to -18 parts of casein, from 
 12 to 14 of butter, from 44 to 52 of sugar, and from 2'4 to 
 2 7 of saline matter — making in all from 77 to 81 parts of 
 solid matter — the rest, namely, from 23 to 19 parts, being 
 water. It appears, therefore, that the concentration of the 
 milk has been carried to about one-third of its original bulk, 
 and that sugar has then been added, so that when diluted 
 with twice its volume of water, it makes a sweet-tasting 
 milk of ordinary strength. Good cream should contain 
 rom 25 to 34 parts of butter, about 5 of casein, 2 of sugar 
 2 of saline matter, and from 62 to 56 parts of water.
 
 ADULTERATION 
 
 169 
 
 2. Coffee nas from very early times been the subject 
 of sophistication. As far back as 1725, the Act 2 Geo. I. 
 c. 30, took cognizance of the practice, and rendered it 
 pcnaL In 1803 it was the object of very decisive 
 measures, for by 43 Geo. III. c. 129, the officers of excise 
 were empowered to search for, and to seize any burnt, 
 scorched, or roasted peas, beans, or other grains or 
 vegetable substance prepared in imitation of coffee ; and 
 any person manufacturing or selling the same was liable to 
 a penalty of £100; gradually, however, it was found that 
 use of torrefied vegetables in lieu of coffee, was becoming 
 general in spite of these restrictions, and, therefore, in 
 1822, the Legislature (3 Geo. IV. c. 53) thought it 
 expedient to allow the manufacture and sale of scorched or 
 roasted corn, peas, beans, or turnips, by persons who were 
 not dealers or sellers of coffee or cocoa, proyided the same 
 was sold under license in a whole or unground condition, 
 and in its proper name. The penalty for infraction of the 
 law was XI 00 in the case of a dealer in coffee or cocoa, and 
 £50 in that of a licensed dealer. At that time the use of 
 chicory was not generally known in England, although it 
 had long before been introduced into France as a substitute 
 for coffee ; and its use was encouraged by the first 
 Napoleon, who thought thus to strike a blow at English 
 commerce. It was also used in Belgium and the Nether- 
 lands, so that travellers who visited Paris, Brussels, or 
 Amsterdam, became acquainted with the substitute, and 
 gradually acquired a taste for it. About the year 1820 
 the first parcels of chicory were imported into this country, 
 and it would seem that the public demand for it gradually 
 incre,ised; for in 1832 there was a minute of the Treasury 
 nullifying the Acts of George III. and George IV., by 
 »Uowing grocers and other dealers in coffee and cocoa to 
 ?ell chicory, provided they did not mix it with coffee. At 
 a later period even this restriction was withdrawn ; for by 
 the Treasury minute of 1840, dealers in coffee were per- 
 mitted to sell a mixture of chicory and coffee, provided a 
 duty of 6d. per lb. was paid on all the chicory imported for 
 home consumption. The use of it being thus legalised, it 
 rapidly came into favour, and English farmers found it 
 profitable, to cultivate the root, and to send it into commerce 
 duty free. This roused the attention of the Government, 
 for the duties on chicory and coffee began seriously to fall " 
 off. Even the quality of the coffee imported underwent a 
 change; for instead of demanding the fine flavoured 
 varieties, orders were given for a' coarse and strong descrip- 
 tion of plantation coffee, which would stand a good deal of 
 chicory, as the grocers phrased it. All this was brought- to 
 the notice of the Lords of the Treasury, and in 1852 they 
 revoked the order of 1840. But so strong was the influence 
 of the trade upon Government, that in the following year 
 the offensive minute was withdrawn, and grocers were again 
 permitted to sell mixtures of coffee and chicory, provided 
 the packet was distinctly labelled " mixture of chicory and 
 coffee." The Treasury even went so far in 1858 as to 
 direct the Commissioners of Inland Revenue, not to object 
 to licensed dealers in coffee keeping and selling mangel- 
 wurzel or beet-root mixed with coffee, provided they 
 observed the same conditions is those laid down in the 
 Treasury minute of 1 85 3 as to chicory and coffee. Up to this 
 time the duty on chicory had been merely nominal ; but it 
 was gradually increased until, in 1863, it was equivalent to 
 that levied on coffee, and thus the revenue was protected, 
 while adulteration wa3 encouraged. The extent to which 
 this was practised may be gathered from the Annual 
 Reports of Mr Phillips, the principal chemist of the Inland 
 Revenue Laboratory. During the years 1856 to 1862 
 inclusive, when the dealers in coffee and chicory were 
 visited by the officers of Excise, the average number of 
 samples cf coffee annually examined was 3053, and of these 
 
 1-7* 
 
 90, or nearly 3 per cent, were adulterated — the range being 
 from 5-1 per cent, in 1856, to 1-8 per cent, in 1862; and 
 the quantity of chicory in the mixture averaged 24 per 
 cent. In 1860 it was 29 per cent. Now, in all these cases 
 the coffee was sold as pure coffee, with no label upon the 
 package ; but when the mixtures of chicory and coffee were 
 asked for, 7 - 3 per cent, were improperly labelled, and the 
 average proportions of chicory ranged from 3 9 '8 per cent, 
 in 1859, to 22-3 per cent, in 1862 — the average for the 
 seven years, before the duties were equalised, being 30 - 7 
 per cent. In some cases, however, it reached to nearly 
 90 per cent. — 40 to 50 per cent being common propor- 
 tions; and to neutralise the peculiar sweetness, and the 
 earthy flavours which such quantities of chicory induced, it 
 was, and still is the practice, to add more or less of the 
 bitter material called " finings," which is a preparation of 
 burnt sugar or caramel. Even chicory itself is now the 
 subject of adulteration with roasted corn, beans, lupin seeds, 
 acorns, horse-chesnuts, peas, pulse (called " Hambro' pow- 
 der "), mustard husks, coffee husks (called " flights "), and 
 even spent coffee, besides various roots, as carrots, parsnips, 
 mangel wurzeL beet-root, dandelion, &.C. It is even said 
 that spent tan and dried bullocks' livers have been employed 
 for the purpose. The tests for these adulterations are th( 
 appearances presented by the tissues of the various vegetable.' 
 when examined under the microscope, and by the fact 
 that infusion of chicory does not become discoloured when 
 it is treated with iodine, as it contains no starchy matters. 
 Ground coffee, also, is of such a greasy nature, from the 
 presence of volatile oil, that when it ia thrown upon water, 
 it floats, and does not readily discolour the water; whereas, 
 all the adulterating agents quickly sink in water, and give 
 it a brown porter-like appearance. It is not difficult indeed 
 to separate, in a rough way, the coffee from its adulterating 
 matters by merely stirring a given weight of the mixture 
 in a tumbler of cold water ; after a few minutes, the coffee 
 will be found upon the surface of the water, and the other 
 things at the bottom of it. Chemical analysis also re. VhTy 
 discovers the fraud. It might be thought that there was 
 safety in purchasing the coffee-berries entire, but a very 
 ingenious machine has been patented for the manufacture 
 of spurious berries out of common vegetable substances. 
 . 3. Tea. — Formerly, when the supply of tea to this 
 country was entirely under the control of the East India 
 Company, the adulteration of it in China was rarely 
 practised, as every shipment of it was carefully examined 
 by experienced officers at Canton, who rejected all teas of 
 spurious or doubtful character. At that time, therefore, the 
 adulteration of tea was carried on after it was imported into 
 this country, and there were many legislative enactments 
 prohibiting the ■ practice. By the Act 2 Geo. L c 3, 
 every tea dealer was subject to a penalty of £100, if he 
 was convicted of counterfeiting, altering, fabricating, or 
 manufacturing tea, or mixing' it with other leaves. Later 
 still, the statutes of 4 Geo. II. c. 14, and 17 Geo. IIL 
 c. 29, and 4 Geo. IV. c. 14, dealt more precisely with the 
 subject, and imposed other penalties. At that time the 
 adulterations of tea were effected in a wholesale manner ; 
 for according to Mr Phillips, of the Inland Revenue Office, 
 there were in London alone, in 1843, as many as eight 
 manufactories in which the exhausted leaves, obtained from 
 hotels, coffee-houses, and elsewhere, were redried, and faced 
 with rose-pink and blacklead, in imitation of genuine tea. 
 More recently, however, the adulteration of tea has been 
 practised by the Chinese, who find no difficulty in disposing 
 of any kind of spurious tea to English merchants at Canton 
 and Shanghai, who ship it to this country, and lodge it in 
 the bonded warehouses with all the formalities of an 
 honourable transaction, knowing that the difficulties of 
 convicting them under the Adulteration of Food Acts and
 
 170 
 
 ADULTERATION 
 
 Nuisances Removal Acts are almost insurmountable ; for, 
 in the first place, the local sanitary authorities have no 
 means of obtaining direct information of the existence of 
 unsound or spurious tea, or other article of food or drink 
 in bonded warehouses ; and secondly, if such information 
 reaches them indirectly, they have no legal right of entry 
 for the purpose of examining the tea and taking samples. 
 But supposing both of these difficulties have been sur- 
 mounted, and the tea has been found on analysis to be 
 spurious, there yet remain the difficulties of obtaining a 
 justice's order for its condemnation, an order from the 
 customs for its removal, and an order which will satisfy 
 the requirements of the wharfinger in whose custody it has 
 been placed. But besides these, there are the difficulties 
 of proving the ownership of the article, and the guilty 
 knowledge of the broker who sells it. In illustration of 
 this, we may refer to the proceedings of the sanitary 
 authorities of the city of London in their endeavour to 
 suppress the importation and sale of spurious tea. In the 
 month of March 1870, Dr Letheby, the food analyst fur the 
 city, reported that a large quantity of spurious tea had 
 arrived in London from China, and was lodged in the 
 bonded warehouses of the city. It was described as " Fine 
 Moning Congou" from Shanghai ; and it consisted of the 
 redried leaves of exhausted tea, much of which had 
 become putrid before drying. It appears to have been 
 called in China " Ma-loo mixture" — Maloo being the name 
 of the street where it was prepared, and along the sides of 
 which heaps of this trash might often be seen drying in the 
 sun, with dogs and pigs walking over it. Proceedings 
 were taken under the Nuisance Removal Amendment Act 
 (26 and 27 Vict.' c. 117), for the purpose of obtaining 
 an order for the condemnation and destruction of the tea ; 
 but it was argued for the defence — 1st, That "tea" was not 
 named in the A.ct of Parliament; 2d, That it was not 
 included- under the term "vegetable;" 3d, That it was 
 not " food ;" and 4th, That being in a bonded warehouse, 
 it was not " exposed for sale." The case, however, was so 
 glaring that, after two days' hearing, an order was given by 
 the justice for its destruction ; but as a case was granted 
 for the opinion of the Court of Queen's Bench, the order 
 wa3 suspended ; and as the application to the Court was 
 never _inad3, the order is still in abeyance. In another 
 case, where many chests of spurious "scented orange 
 Pekoe sif tings" were in bond, the order for its condemnation 
 was refuted on the ground that there was not sufficient 
 evidence of the so-called tea being unwholesome, notwith- 
 standing that it was not above one-sixth its proper strength ; 
 that it had little or none of the active principles of^ tea ; 
 that it had an unpleasant odour and an acrid taste ; that a 
 great portion of it was not tea at all,' and that the rest of 
 it was composed of 3xhausted tea leaves, with just enough 
 good tea to give it a flavour. A like failure of justice 
 occurred in the city in 1866, when measures were taken by 
 the sanitary authorities to prevent the sale of about 350,000 
 lbs. of rotten and charred tea which had been saved from a 
 fire at Beal's wharf. The adulterations practised by the 
 Chinese are numerous ; exhausted tea is redried and glazed 
 in a very deceptive manner. Millions of pounds of leaves 
 of different plants, other than tea, are gathered and mixed 
 with it. Mineral matter tec in the form of china clay, 
 fine sand, and iron filings, are ingeniously incorporated with 
 the leaf before curling, so that as much as from 20 to 40 
 per cent, of impurity is thus mixed with it. The tests, 
 however, for these adulterations are very simple. In the 
 first place, there is the usual .trade test of infusion : a 
 quantity of tea, amounting to the weight of a sixpence, is 
 put into a small covered cup, and infused with about four 
 ounces of boiling water for ten minutes. The infusion is 
 then poured off from tho leaves, and is examined for colour, 
 
 taste, and odour — all of which are characteristic The 
 leaves, too, are examined for soundness, for colour, for size, 
 and for special botanical properties. Impurities like iron 
 filings, sand, or dirt, are easily seen among the leaves, or at 
 the bottom of the cup ; and when these are placed upon a 
 coarse sieve and washed with water, the impurities pass 
 through, and may be collected for examination. The leaves, 
 too, betray by their coarseness and botanical characters, 
 the nature and quality of the tea; for although the leaves 
 of genuine tea differ much in size and form, yet their 
 venation and general structure are very distinctive. Very 
 young leaves are narrow, convoluted, and downy ; those 
 next in size and age have their edges delicately serrated, 
 and the venation is scarcely perceptible ; while those of 
 larger size have the venation well marked, there being a 
 series of loops along each side of the leaf extending from 
 the mid-rib to the edge : the serrations also are stronger 
 and deeper, beginning a short distance from the stem and 
 running up the side of the leaf to the apex. In addition 
 to this, the microscopic characters of the surface of the leaf 
 are very characteristic. Further investigations of a chemical 
 nature are sometimes needed to determine the question of 
 adulteration ; and thes? depend on the well-known com- 
 position of good tea. In different cases, according to the 
 age of the leaf and its mode of treatment, the proportions 
 of its chief constituents may vary ; but in a general way 
 it may be said that the average composition of tea is a» 
 follows: — Moisture from 6 to 10 per cent; astringent 
 matter (tannin), from 25 to 35; gum, from 6 to 7 ; 
 albuminous matters, from 2 to 3 ; thein, from 2 to 3 ; 
 mineral matters (ash), from 5 to 6 ; and ligneous or woody 
 tissue, from 50 to 60 per cent. Green tea, which is 
 generally made out of young leaves, contains the largest 
 quantity of soluble matters ; and these, when fully exhausted 
 from the leaves by successive boiling in water, amount to 
 from 25 to 35 per cent, of the weight of the tea. In 
 ordinary cases,' when the tea is merely infused in boiling 
 water, it does not yield above 25 j»er cent, of extractive. 
 Again, the ash of tea is very characteristic of its quality — 
 old and spurious leaves, as well as tea adulterated with 
 mineral matter, yielding more than 6 per cent, of ash. The 
 chief constituents of the ash of good tea are potash and 
 phosphoric acid, with a little lime, silica, and oxide of iron 
 — there being but a trace of chlorine and sulphuric acid ; 
 whereas the ash of old and exhausted leaves contains but 
 little potash and phosphoric acid, in proportion to the lime 
 and silica ; and in those cases where tea has been damaged 
 by sea water, the amount of chloride is considerable. Iron 
 filings in tea are easily discovered by means of a magnet, 
 there being in some cases as much as 20 or 30 per cent, of 
 this impurity. Even when incorporated with the leaf 
 before rolling., and glazing, the fraud is detected by the 
 attraction of the tea to the magnet. 
 
 4. Cocoa in its natural state contains so much fatty 
 matter (amounting to rather more than half its weight), 
 that it has long been the practice to reduce it by means of 
 sugar or farinaceous substances. The first of these pre- 
 parations is called chocolate, and the latter is known by 
 such names as granulated, flake, rock, soluble cocoa, <kc. In 
 some cases the mixture is adulterated with mineral matters, 
 as oxide of iron, to give colour; These adulterations are 
 recognised by the appearance and taste of the preparation, 
 by its microscopic characters, by the colour and reaction 
 of it3 solution, and by the proportions of fat and mineral 
 matters in it. 
 
 5. Bread. — Especial care, has been taken at all times to 
 protect the public from the dishonest dealing of bakers. 
 The assize of bread, for example, is a very ancient institu- 
 tion ; for it was the subject of a proclamation in 1 202, and 
 it was the chief matter referred to in the notable statute of
 
 ADULTERATION 
 
 171 
 
 the Pillory and Tumbrel (51 Henry III. stat. 16) already 
 mentioned. In the city of London, according to " Liber 
 Albus," the assize of bread was an important institution. 
 It was always made immediately after the feast of St 
 Michael in each year, and very specific instructions were 
 given for the guidance of the four discreet men who were 
 to perform it ; for their decision regulated the business of 
 the baker in respect of the price and quality of bread, &c., 
 for the current year; and woe to him if he disregarded it — 
 there being numerous instances in " Liber Albus" of the 
 pillory and the thew in cases where bread had been found 
 adulterated or of short weight. In the time of Anne, the 
 assize of bread was still further regulated (8 Anne, c. 19), 
 and in the year 1815 it was abolished by the statute 55 
 Geo. III. c. 99. Especial provision, however, was made 
 to guard against the frauds of adulteration, for several Acts 
 of Parliament, especially 31 Geo. II. c. 29 and 1 and 2 
 Geo. IV. c. 50, prohibited the use of alum and other 
 spurious articles in bread under severe penalties. At the 
 present time, the chief adulterations of bread are with alum 
 or sulphate of copper for the purpose of giving solidity to 
 the gluten of damaged or inferior flour, or with chalk or 
 carbonate of soda to correct the acidity of such flour, or 
 with boiled rice or potatoes to enable the bread to carry 
 more water, and thus to produce a large number of loaves 
 per sack of flour. In practice 100 lbs. of flour will make 
 from 133 to 137 lbs. of bread, a good average being 136 
 lbs. ; so that a sack of flour of 280 lbs. should yield 95 
 four-pound loaves. But the art of the baker is exercised to 
 increase the number, and this is accomplished by harden- 
 ing the gluten in the way already mentioned, or by means 
 of a gummy mess of boiled rice, three or four pounds 
 of which, when boiled for two or three hours in as 
 many gallons of water, will make a sack of flour yield at 
 least 100 four-pound loaves. Such bread, however, is 
 always dropsical, and gets soft and sodden at the base on 
 standing, and quickly becomes mouldy. A good loaf 
 should have kindness of structure, being neither chaffy, 
 nor flaky, nor crummy, nor sodden. It should also be 
 sweet and agreeable to the palate and the nose, being 
 neither sour nor mouldy. It should keep well, and be 
 easily restored to freshness by heating it in a closed vessel. 
 And a slice of it, subjected to a temperature of from 260° 
 to 280° Fahr. should hardly be discoloured, and should not 
 lose more than 37 or 38 per cent, of its weight. When 
 steeped in water, it should -give a milky . sweet solution, 
 and not a ropy acid liquid. The recognition of alum and 
 sulphate of copper in bread requires practice and skilful 
 manipulation, it being surrounded with difficulties. The 
 most easily applied process is that described by Mr Horsley. 
 He makes a tincture of logwood, by digesting a quarter of an 
 ounce of the freshly cut chips in five ounces of methylated 
 spirit for eight hours, and filters. A teaspoonful of this 
 tincture is put with a like quantity of a saturated solution 
 if carbonate of ammonia into a wine-glassful of water ; and 
 the mixed solutions, which are of a pink colour, are then 
 poured into a white-ware plate or dish. A slice of the 
 suspected bread is allowed to soak in it for five minutes, 
 after which it is placed upon a clear plate to drain, and, if 
 alum be present, it will, in the course of an hour or two, 
 acquire a blue colour ; if the tint be greenish, it is a sign 
 of sulphate of copper ; whereas pure bread gradually loses 
 its pink colour, but never becomes blue or green. The 
 ash of bread will also furnish evidences of the presence of 
 mineral impurities. 
 
 6. Flour and other Farinaceous Matters. — The tests for 
 good flour are its sweetness and freedom from acidity and 
 musty flavour. A given weight of the flour, say 500 
 grains, made int» a stiff dough with water, and then 
 carefully kneaded under a small stream of water, will yield 
 
 a tough elastic gluten, which, when baked in an oven, 
 expands into a clean-looking ball of a rich brown colour, 
 that weighs, when perfectly dry, not less than 50 grains. 
 Bad flour makes a ropy-looking gluten, which is very 
 difficult of manipulation, and is of a dirty brown colour 
 when baked. The ash of flour should not exceed' 2 per 
 cent. Other farinaceous matters are recognised under the 
 microscope by the peculiar form, and size, and marking of 
 the individual granules. In this way, the adulterations of 
 oat-meal with barley-meal, and of arrow-root with inferior 
 starches, may be easily detected. 
 
 7. Fatty Matters and Oils are the subjects of frequent 
 adulteration. Butter and lard, for example, are mixed 
 with inferior fats, and with water, salt, and farina. Most 
 of these impurities are seen when the sample of but+«- pr 
 lard is melted in a glass, and allowed to stand in a warm 
 place for a few hours, when the pure fat will float as a 
 transparent oil, while the water, salt, farina, <fcc,will subside 
 to the bottom of the glass. Fresh butter generally contains 
 a notable quantity of water, as from 12 to 13 per cent, 
 and sometimes a little salt, and a trace of curd ; but these 
 should never exceed two per cent, in the aggregate. Foreign 
 fats are recognised by the granular look of the butter, by 
 its gritty feel, by its taste, and by its odour when warmei 
 Other tests for these impurities are the melting-point of the 
 sample, and its solubility in a fixed quantity of ether at a 
 temperature of 65° Fahr. 20 grains of the sample, treated 
 with a fluid drachm of ether, in a closed test tube, will 
 look slighty flocculent,and bealmost entirely dissolved in the 
 case of good butter ; but it will be mealy and liniment-like 
 with lard, granular with dripping, and almost solid with 
 mutton fat. The melting point of different fats is as 
 follows: — Horse grease, 140°; calf fat, 136°; mutton fat, 
 130°; beef fat, 99°; hog'slard, 81°; and butter, 80°. 
 
 Oils are adulterated with inferior kinds, and the fraud is 
 detected by means of the specific gravity of the oil, and its 
 chemical reactions when tested upon a white plate with a 
 drop of concentrated sulphuric acid — the colour and its 
 time of development being the indications of the quality 
 of the oil. The specific gravity of the animcJ oils are a Q 
 follows : — Neat's-foot oil, 880 ; tallow oil, 900 ; dolphin oil, 
 918; cod-liver oil, 921 to 926; whale oil, 927; seal oil, 
 934; porpoise oil, 937. Among the vegetable 0O3 the 
 following are the most important : — Rape or colza oil, 913 
 to 910; olive oil, 918; filbert oil, 916; beech-nut, 922; 
 walnut, 923; cotton-seed, 923 to 928; poppy, 924; sweet 
 almond, 918 to 922; hazel-nut and hemp-seed, 926; 
 and linseed, 634 to 936. 
 
 8. Isinglass is often adulterated with gelatine, the fraud 
 being ingeniously contrived so as to retain to a large extent 
 the well-known characters of genuine isinglass ; but it may 
 be recognised in the following way: immersed in cold water, 
 the shreds of genuine isinglass become white and opaque 
 like. cotton threads, and they swell equally in all directions, 
 whereas those of gelatine become transparent and ribbon- 
 like. Isinglass dissolves completely in boiling water, and 
 makes a slightly turbid solution, which has a faint fishy 
 smell, and is without action on litmus paper; whereas 
 gelatine leaves a quantity of insoluble matter, and the 
 solution smells of glue, and has an acid reaction. Strong 
 acetic acid swells up the shreds of isinglass, and renders 
 them soft and gelatinous ; but it hardens gelatine. And, 
 lastly, the ash of genuine isinglass is very small in quantity, 
 and has a reddish colour ; whereas that of gelatine is bulky 
 (weighing from 2 to 3 per cent), and has a perfectly white 
 appearance from the presence of calcareous salts. Genuine 
 isinglass is produced from the swimming-bladder or sound 
 of the sturgeon, but gelatine is a sort of clarified ^lue 
 obtained from bones, clippings of hides, ic. Boussingault 
 states that the Bouxwil'.er glue, which is prepared from the
 
 172 
 
 ADULTKKATIOjN 
 
 bones of horses slaughtered at that establishment, is trans- 
 parent, and nearly colourless, and is on that account much 
 sought after by restaurateurs for making jellies. It enters 
 largely, too, into the composition of French gelatine. 
 
 9. Sugar. — During the last ten or twelve years the 
 manufacture of sugar from starch has been an important 
 branch of industry. The product is sent into commerce 
 under the names of glucose, saccharum, and British sugar ; 
 and although it is chiefly used for brewing purposes, it is 
 also employed for adulterating brown sugar, and for making 
 confectionary, jams, marmalades, and fruit jellies. In the 
 year 1870, as much as 25,737 cwt, of this sugar was 
 manufactured for home consumption, and since then the 
 quantity has been increasing. It is produced from rice or 
 other starch, by submitting it to the action of very dilute 
 sulphuric acid at a boiling temperature — the acid being 
 afterwards neutralised with lime, and the solution evapo- 
 rated to the setting point. The crystals of grape sugar are 
 very small, and are entirely without that sparkling character 
 which distinguishes cane sugar. They are less soluble in 
 water, but more so in alcohol, than cane sugar, and they 
 have only about one-third the sweetening power. Boiled 
 with a solution of caustic potash, they quickly produce a 
 deep brown liquid, and they have the power of reducing 
 the hydrated oxide of copper, when heated therewith in an 
 alkaline solution. These characters are distinctive of it, 
 and will serve to recognise it in the brown sugars of 
 commerce. 
 
 10. Mustard is generally so acrid and powerful in its 
 flavour that it is commonly diluted with flour, or other 
 farinaceous matter, turmeric being added to improve its 
 appearance. The mixture is recognised by means of the 
 microscope, when the granules of starch and the colouring 
 matters of turmeric are easily seen. Genuine mustard does 
 not contain starch, and therefore does not become blue 
 when it is treated with a solution of iodine. 
 
 11. Spices, as pepper, cinnamon, curry powder, ginger, 
 cayenne, <fcc, are more or less the subjects of fraudulent 
 adulteration, which can readily be detected by the micro- 
 scope, and by an examination of the mineral constituents. 
 Formerly, pepper was ground by the retail dealer, and then 
 there was no excuse for the presence of adulterating agents ; 
 but in 1856, the wholesale dealer undertook the business 
 of grinding, and from that time adulteration has been on 
 the increase. In some cases, the article does not contain 
 a trace of pepper, but is made up of gypsum, mustard 
 husk, and a little starch. In the Ninth Report of the 
 Commissioners of Inland .Revenue, there is a statement 
 by Mr Phillips, the chief chemist of the Excise, that he 
 found a sample of so-called pepper containing 25 per cent. 
 gypsum, the rest being mustard husks and a little cereal 
 starch, without a trace of pepper. Another sample con- 
 sisted of -16 per cent, gypsum, 44 mustard husks, a little 
 cereal starch, and the rest pepper. Four other samples, 
 closely resembling pepper, so as to deceive an inexperienced 
 eye, were found to contain about 22 per cent, of gypsum, 
 with sand, starch, and mustard husk. Linseed meal and 
 powdered capsicums are likewise used for adulterating 
 pepper. The chief sophistications of ginger powder are 
 sago-meal, ground rice, and turmeric ; while the colouring 
 agents of Curry powders and cayenne are ferruginous 
 earths, brick .dust, and even vermilion and red-lead. 
 Spices, too, are sometimes exhausted of their active pro- 
 perties before they are ground and sold" to the public. 
 
 .12. Beer, Ale, and Porter. — The assize of ale is con- 
 temporaneous with that of bread, being described as the 
 "Assisos Panis et Cervesio:," in old documents. In the 
 statute 51 Henry III. c. 16 (1266), they are spoken of 
 as ancient and well-known institutions, the object of them 
 being to regulate the quality and price of these articles. 
 
 The officers appointed to deteninire the goodness oi ais 
 were called ''ale conners," or- "ale tasters" (nustatorrt 
 cervisioz), and were elected annually in the court-leet of 
 each manor, and in the city of London at the 'ward-mote, 
 according to the advice and assent of the alderman and 
 other reputable men of the ward. Very specific instructions 
 are Liven in Liber Alius of the business of the brewer, and 
 of the pemilties fur any default thereof — it being ordained 
 that no ale should be sold without having been tasted and 
 approved by the ale conners of the district. Even now 
 these officers are elected in the city of London with the old 
 formalities, but the real duty of examining the quality of 
 ale, beer, and porter has for many years been in the hands 
 of the Excise. As far back as the time of Anne there was 
 a law prohibiting the use of Cocculus indicus or any 
 unwholesome ingredient in the brewing of beer, under 
 severe penalties, the brewer being restricted to the use of 
 malt and hops alone; but gradually, as the taste for porter 
 came into fashion (since 1730), and during the French war, 
 when the price of malt was very high, certain colouring 
 matters prepared from burnt sugar were allowed to be 
 used, and this at last became so necessary to the trade, 
 that it was legalised by the Act 51 Geo. ILL c. 51. 
 Five years after, however, it was prohibited by the statute 
 56 Geo. III. c. 58, which declared that after the 5th of 
 July 1817, no brewer, or dealer, or retailer of beer, shall 
 receive, or use, or have in his possession or custody, any 
 liquor, extract," or other material or preparation, for the 
 purpose of darkening the colour of worts or beer, other 
 than brown malt. He was also prohibited from using 
 molasses, honey, liquorice, vitriol, quassia, Cocculus indieus i 
 grains of paradise, guinea pepper, or opium, or any extract 
 or preparation of the same, or any substitute for malt or 
 hops, under a penalty of £200 ; and no chemist or vendor 
 of drugs was permitted to sell,- send, or deliver any such 
 things to a brewer or retailer of beer under a penalty of 
 £500. Later still, in 1830, the Act for permitting the 
 general sale of beer and cider by retail in England (1 
 Will. IV. c. 64), declares that if any person so licensed 
 shall knowingly sell any beer, ale, or porter, made otherwise 
 than from malt and hops, or shall mix, or cause to be 
 admixed, any drugs or other pernicious ingredients with 
 any beer sold in his house or premises, or shall fraudulently 
 dilute or in any way adulterate any such beer, ic, shall for 
 the first offence forfeit and pay a sum of from £10 to £20, 
 and for the second offence shall be adjudged disqualified 
 from selling beer, ale, or porter for two years, or forfeit 
 a sum of from £20 to £50 ; and the same regulations 
 applied to cider and perry. The execution of these acts 
 rested with the Excise, and it would seem that three cldssea 
 of adulterations were practised, namely, 1st, Those Mhich 
 gave fictitious strength to the beer, as Cocculus injuiis, 
 tobacco, opium, &c; 2d, Those which improved the flavour 
 and body of the beer, as grains of paradise, capsicum pods, 
 ground ginger, coriander seeds, caraway seeds, sweet flag, 
 liquorice, molasses, and salt ; and, 3d, Those which gave 
 bitterness, as quassia, chiretta, horehound, gentian, (to. In 
 London the publicans were not in the habit of practising the 
 first kind of adulteration, but confined themselves to the 
 second and third. In the country, however, according to 
 Mr Phillips, it was quite otherwise, especially with brewers 
 who retailed their own beer ; for he found that they fre- 
 quently used tobacco and Cocculus indicus. He even 
 thinks that the cases of brutal and purposeless violence 
 which were so often recorded were referable to the madden- 
 ing influence of these ingredients. By the Act 24 and 25 
 Vict. c. 22 (1863), when the duty on hops was relieved, 
 these bitters and substitutes were permitted, and so also 
 was sugar, provided the full duty of 12s. 8d. per cwt. was 
 paid upon it. Later still, by the Licensing Act 1872 (35
 
 ADULTERATION 
 
 173 
 
 and 36 Vict. c. 94), provision is made to protect the 
 public from the adulteration of beer ; for it prohibits the 
 possession, sale, or use of beer adulterated with Cocculus 
 indicus, chloride of sodium (otherwise common salt), cop- 
 peras, opium, Indian hemp, strychnine, tobacco, darnel- 
 seed, extract of logwood, salts of zinc or lead, alum, and 
 any extract or compound thereof, under a penalty of £20 
 for the first .offence, and £100 for the second offence, 
 tcether with disqualification of both the dealer and the 
 house for a certain period. The police and the officers of 
 Inland Revenue are empowered to search for and obtain 
 samples of such beer, and the analyst is a person appointed 
 by the Excise. The tests for the adulteration of beer, ale, 
 and porter, are not easily applied except by a skilled 
 chemist ; but it may be said that the chief qualities of 
 good beer are its density, sweetness, spirituosity, piquancy, 
 llavour, and frothiness. The density of ale and beer ranges 
 from 1008 to 1020 (water being 1000) — the average 
 being 1015 ; and in ihe case of porter it ranges from 1015 to 
 1020. The amount of alcohol in these beverages ranges 
 from 5 to 9 per cent, the average being about 7. The 
 solid extract is from 4 to 6 per cent., and the ash or mineral 
 matter is from - 2 to - 3 per cent, very little of which 
 should be common salt. 
 
 1 3. Malt. — The Excise do not permit malt to be adul- 
 terated with ungerminated grain ; but it is very difficult to 
 determine whether the presence of these grains is accidental 
 or otherwise, as in some wet seasons when barley is badly 
 stacked it will heat or become mouldy, and the grains -will 
 lose their vitality. Even if the grain is dried artificially 
 at a temperature of from 140° to 150° Fahr., the vitality of 
 the seed will be destroyed. In some seasons as much as from 
 34 to 70 per cent, of the grain will be killed. Roasted 
 unmalted grain, instead of the malted,, is prohibited by 19 
 and 20 Vict. c. 34, but there is no doubt that the 
 substitution is largely practised. 
 
 14. Wine and Spirits. — The denunciations in the Scripture 
 against the useof mixed winehavereference.inallprobability, 
 to wines which were fortified or adulterated with stimulating- 
 and intoxicating herbs. In this country, measures were 
 taken at a very early period to prevent the eale of unsound 
 and unwholesome wine. The Vintners' Company, for 
 example, which was incorporated in the reign of Edward 
 the Third, under the name of the " Wine Tonners," had 
 control over the price and purity of the article, there being 
 chosen every year "persons of the_inost sufficient, most 
 true, and most cunning of the craft (that hold no taverns)," 
 who were to see to the condition of all wines sold by retail, 
 and who were to govern the taverners in all their proceedings. 
 Bad or adulterated wine was thrown into the gutters, and 
 the possessors thereof were set in -the pillory. It would 
 seem that the wine which was most adulterated was that 
 called Gascoign ; for in the tenth year of the reign of Henry 
 the Sixth (1432), there was a petition to the king on the 
 subject, praying him to amend the same. Stowe, in. fact, ] 
 says "that in the 6th of Henry VL, the Lombardes 
 currupting their sweete wines, when the knowledge thereof 
 came to John Ranwell, maior of London, he, in divers 
 places of the citie, commanded the heades of the buts and. 
 other vessels in the open streetes to be broken, to the 
 number of fifty, so that the liquor running forth passed 
 through the citie like a stream of raine water, in the sight 
 of all the people, from whence there issued a most loathsome 
 savour." In modern times the art of adulterating wine 
 has been brought to great perfection ; for it consists not 
 merely in the blending of wines of different countries and 
 vintages, but in the use of materials which are entirely 
 foreign to the grape. Port wine, for example, is manufactured 
 from Beni Carlos, Figueras, and red Cape, with a touch 
 of Mountain to soften the mixture and give it richness — 
 
 the body and flavour being produced by gum-dragon, and 
 the colour by " berry-dye," which is a preparation of German 
 bdberries. To this is added the washings of brandy casks 
 (" brandy cowe") and a little salt of tartar to form a crust. 
 Sherry of the brown kind and of low price is mingled with 
 Cape and cheap brandy, and is flavoured with " brandy- 
 cowe," sugar-candy, and bitter almonds. If the colour be 
 too high it is lowered by means of blood, and softness is 
 imparted to it by gum-benzoin. Pale sherries are produced 
 by means of plaster of Paris or gypsum, by a process called 
 " plastering," and the effect of it is to remove the natural 
 acids (tartaric and malic), as well as the colour of the w?ue. 
 In this way a pale, dry, bitter, and sub-acid Wine is 
 produced, charged with the sulphates of lime and potash. 
 Large quantities of what are called clarets are manufactured 
 in this country from inferior French wine and rough cider, 
 the colour being imparted to it by tumsol or cochineal. 
 Madeira is produced from Vidonia with a little MountaLi 
 and Cape, to which are added' bitter almonds and sugar. 
 Even Vidonia and Cape are adulterated with cider and rum 
 — carbonate of soda being used to correct the acidity. 
 Common Sicilian wine is transformed into Tokay, Malaga, 
 and Lachryma Christi. Champagne is produced from 
 rhubarb stalks, gooseberries, and sugar, the product being 
 largely consumed at balls, races, masquerades, and public 
 dinners. Of late, too, since the investigations of Petiot, 
 Thenard, Gall, Hussman, and others, the manufacture of 
 wine from sugar and the refuse husk or mark of the grape 
 has been largely practised, insomuch that a great part of 
 the wine of France and Germany Las ceased to be the juice 
 of the grape at alL In point of fact, the processes of 
 blending, softening, fortifying, sweetening, plastering, <fcc, 
 &c, are carried on to such an extent that it is hardly 
 possible to obtain a sample of genuine wine, even at first 
 hand; and books are written on the subject," in which the 
 plainest directions are given for the fabrication of every 
 kind of wine, there being druggists called "brewers' 
 druggists," who supply the agents of adulteration. These 
 are as follow.: — Elderberry, logwood, brazil-wood, red 
 saunders-wood, cudbear, red beet-root, ifcc., for colour ; 
 litharge, lime or carbonate of lime, carbonate of soda, and 
 carbonate of potash, to correct acidity ; catechu, logwood, 
 sloe-leaves, and oak-bark, for astringency; sulphate of lime, 
 gypsum, or Spanish earth, and alum for removing colour ; 
 cane sugar for giving sweetness and body ; glucose or starch 
 sugar for artificial wine ; alcohol for fortifying ; and ether, 
 especially acetic ether, for giving bouquet and flavour. The 
 tests for these agents are not readily applied, except by the 
 professional chemist ; but they are promptly recognised 
 by the stomach and the brain, for good wine, though it 
 may intoxicate, rarely leaves a disagreeable impression.- In 
 a general way, it may be said that the specific gravity of 
 genuine wine ranges from 991 to 997.;. and the amount 
 of alcohol in it never exceeds 20 per cent, by volume. The 
 solid residue in it, when evaporated to perfect dryness, 
 amounts to from 1"33 to 2'15 per cent in Rhine wines, 
 and in. the light wines. of France; to from 2-85'to 373 per 
 cent in. Teneriffe and Cape; to from 3"49 to 4-54 per cc: I 
 in sheny and Madeira; and to from 3'75 to 5 - 24 in port. 
 Sweet wines, as Lachryma Christi, Muscat, Malaga, Tokay, 
 Bergerac .champagne, and the wines of the Palatinate, 
 contain a much larger percentage of solid matter in them. 
 The ash, or mvoiatile constituents of wine, should rango 
 between 0"19 and 0-5 per cent. It should be strongly 
 alkaline, and should consist of carbonate, sulphate, aud 
 phosphate of potash, chloride of sodium, carbonate of lime, 
 and a little alumina. As a distinctiTe mark of genuine 
 vine, the ash is of the greatest value. Aga i n , pure wite 
 gives but slight precipitates with oxalate of ammonia, with 
 acid nitrate of silver, and acid nitrate of bwyta. Th*
 
 174 
 
 ADULTERATION 
 
 colouring matters of wine may be separated and analysed 
 by the process of Mulder, which is too elaborate for 
 description in this place, and so also are the tests for 
 recognising spurious colours, as the test of Vogel, Jacob, 
 and others (solutions of acetate of lead), that of Pelouze 
 anj Frcnny (basic acetate of lead) ; of Ness von Esenbcck 
 (solutions of alum and of carbonate of potash) ; of Batilliat 
 (ammonia}; of Filhol (ammonia and sulphide of ammonium); 
 and others. At present, the spectroscope has not furnished, 
 as was expected, any very reliable indications of the nature 
 of the colouring matters of wine. In - fact, the whole subject 
 requires fuller investigation. The adulteration of spirits 
 consists mostly in the addition of water and in the use of 
 inferior spirit, recipes being given in the Publican's Guide, 
 and other such books, for what is called making up spirits 
 for sale. The recognition of these frauds rests with the 
 Excise, under the Act 35 and 3G Vict, c. 94. 
 
 15. Tobacco and Snnff. — The adulteration of thess 
 articles is prohibited and otherwise provided for by the 
 statutes 5 and 6 Vict c. 93, and 25 and 26 Vict, c. 7, 
 and 30 and 31 Vict. c. 90. manufacturers of tobacco and 
 snuff being prohibited from using or having in their 
 possession sugar, honey, molasses, treacle, leaves, herbs, or 
 plants, powdered wood, moss, weeds, sea-weeds, or any 
 ground or ungruund roasted grain, chicory, lime, sand, 
 umbre, ochre, or other earths, nor anything capable of 
 being used to increase the weight of tobacco or snuff", under 
 a penalty of £200 — water alone being allowed in the 
 manufacture of tobacco ; and water, salt, and alkaline salts, 
 as well as lime in the manufacture of snuffs, under a 
 penalty of £300. But it appears from the reports of the 
 Commissioners of Inland Revenue, that the adulteration of 
 tobacco and snuff is still largely practised. Tobacco is 
 adulterated with molasses, sugar, aloes, liquorice, gum, 
 catechu, oil and lamp-black, alum, tannic acid and iron, log- 
 wood, and such leaves as rhubarb, chicory, cabbage, bur- 
 dock, colts-foot, and excess of salt and water. In the year 
 1862 it was discovered that certain Irish manufacturers were 
 adulterating their Cavendish and roll-tobacco with liquorice, 
 in imitation of the sweetened Cavendish of North America, 
 and therefore in 1863 the practice was legalised in the case 
 of Cavendish and negro-head by the Manufactured Tobacco 
 Act, 1863. Snuffs are adulterated with excess of alkaline 
 salts, lime, sand, ferruginous earths, fustic, torreiied oat 
 meal, peat-moss, ground velonia cups, bichromate of potash, 
 and chromate of lead. Mr Phillips states, in the Fourth 
 Report of the Commissioners of Inland Revenue, that up 
 to 1856 the pfaoticeof adulterating snuff was very prevalent, 
 particularly in Ireland — 52 per cent, of the samples analysed 
 being found to be illicit; in 1858 and subsequently, 
 however, the proportion has been much less. These 
 adulterations are recognised by drying the sample, and 
 noting the loss of weight, and by the amount and nature 
 of the ash left on incineration. Foreign leaves, <fcc, are 
 discovered by the aid of the microscope. 
 
 16. Among the adulterations which are practised for the 
 purpose of improving the appearance of the article, and. 
 giving it a false strength, are the following : — The addition 
 of alum or sulphate of copper to bread ; the facing of black 
 tea with black lead, and of green with a mixture of 
 
 or Prussian blue with turmeric and china clay ; the treat- 
 ment of pickles and preserved fruits with a salt of copper, 
 which ha3 the property of mordanting and brightening the 
 green colouring matter of vegetables. In some cases the 
 quantity of copper has been so large as to give a coppery 
 appearance to a steel knife or fork kept in the pickle ; but 
 at all time.s the metal may be discovered by the pink colour 
 of the ash, and by its becoming blue when treated with a 
 little strong ammonia, Ferruginous earths are added to 
 Auces. anchovies, potted meats, and the preparations of 
 
 cocoa. This also is recognised by the amount and colour 
 of the ash. Mineral pigments, as yellow and orange chromate 
 of lead, green arsenite of copper, Ac, arc frequently used 
 in colouring confectionery, and have produced serious 
 results t > those who have eaten it. Lastly, with a view of 
 giving false strength to the article, sulphuric acid has been 
 added to vinegar and lime-juice ; blackjack or burnt sugar 
 to coffee and chicory ; catechu or terra jti/mniea to exhausted 
 tea; Cocculns indicus to beer and porter; cayenne anJ 
 mustard husks to pepper, ic. 
 
 17. Adulterations are also practised for the purpose 
 of debasing the article, as when the cream is taken from 
 milk by the process of skimming ; or when the active 
 principles of spices, <tc., have been removed by distillation. 
 
 18. Accidental adulterations may occur from the admix- 
 ture of darnel or ergot with flour : siliceous and earthy 
 matters with substances that are ground in a mill ; mould 
 or acari with flour, sugar, cheese. >.c. ; and copper, zinc, 
 or lead may be accidentally derived from the vessels in 
 which any acid substance or liquid has been prepared or 
 kept. In this manner cider and wine have become tainted 
 with lead; sour milk with zinc; and jellies, jams, and 
 preserves with copper. 
 
 19. Adulteration of Cattle Foods. — In a recent trial, 
 where the question of adulteration was raised, a liuscej. 
 cake maker stated in evidence that his ordinary oil-cake 
 consisted of 50 parts ground sesame cake, 20 parts of bran, 
 and 30 of linseed and linseed siftings. To prevent thi 
 detection of this fraud by an examination of the cake with 
 the naked eye, it is customary to powder the materials 
 very fine by means of a machine called a " Buffcin machine," 
 after which they are thoroughly mixed together and pressed 
 into a cake. It would seem, indeed, that pure linseed cake 
 is not saleable, except in a few localities, as in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Gainsborough, and in the agricultural centres 
 of Lincolnshire and Norfolk, where the genuine cake is 
 appreciated. Elsewhere the adulterated article commands 
 a ready sale, on account of its low price ; and thus 
 encouragement is given to the use of all sorts of adulterating 
 agents, as earth-nut, cotton, beech, and sesame bran, rice- 
 husks, oat-dust, and other such worthless matter. Very 
 recently this important subject has been treated by Dr 
 Voelcker in a paper " On the Characters of Pure and Mixed 
 Linseed Cakes," which was published in the Journal of 
 the. Royal Agricultural Society of England (vol ix. part 
 1 ). Some of the impurities of linseed cake may be due to 
 the accidental presence of the seeds of various weeds and 
 wild plants, which the careless farmer has allowed to grow 
 upon his land. Most of these, however, are easily removed 
 by one or two siftings, as in the case with clean linseed ; 
 but the siftings are not thrown away ; they are used for 
 adulterating other samples of linseed — making the second, 
 third, and even fourth qualities of Riga and St Petersburg 
 seed. Occasionally the siftings are sent out to sea in 
 barges to meet the vessels coming from the north with 
 linseed on board ; there the mixture is made ; and when 
 the vessels reach the port for which they are destined, the 
 cargo is sold for genuine linseed "as imported." But 
 besides these impurities, the linseed cake of> commerce 
 contains a large proportion of other cakes, as rape, earth- 
 nut, decorticated and undecorticated cotton seed, beech-nut, 
 hemp-seed, cocoa-nut, cocoa, palm-nut, palm-kernels, niger 
 seed, sesame^ or teal seed, poppy, castor oil, bassia, curcas, 
 indigo seed, olive, <tc, besides bran, acorns, careb-beans, and 
 the husks or shades of earth-nut, oats, barley, rice, and other 
 refuse. Some of these things are actually poisonous to 
 cattle, as In the case of castor-oil cake, curcas bean, 
 purging flax, wild mustard, wild radish, &.c. ; others are of 
 doubtful quality, as corn cockle, darnel, indigo seed, 
 earth-nut, &c. ; and many are disagreeable to the taste, on
 
 ADULTEEATION 
 
 175 
 
 account of rancidity and other properties, as cocoa-nut cake, 
 palm-nut cake, bassia cake, <fcc. ; while many are so charged 
 with woody matters as to be indigestible and irritating in 
 their action, as cotton, olive, palra-nut, husks of rice, 
 cocoa-nut fibre, 8aw-dust, &c. These impurities are some- 
 times easily recognised by the naked eye, or by a lens of 
 low power. At other times the colour of the cake is an 
 indication of its impurity. The taste of it also is frequently 
 characteristic ; for while linseed has a sweet mucilaginous 
 taste, rape seed is turnipy, mustard acrid, dodder like garlic, 
 bassia bitter, &c. Then, again, the action of a little warm 
 water will develope the flavour of impurities — rape giving 
 off a strong odour of turnip, mustard its well-known acrid 
 flavour, wild radish and other impurities their characteristic 
 smells. When examined chemically it is found that 
 adulterated and dirty cakes show a deficiency of oil and 
 albuminous matter, and a large excess of woody fibre and 
 mineral substance. In good cake the moisture ranges from 
 10 to 14 per cent., the oil from 10 to 15, the albuminous 
 matter from 25 to 35, the mucilage, -sugar, and digestible 
 fibre to from 20 to 30 per cent., the woody fibre to from 9 
 to 14, and the mineral matter or ash to from 6 to 8 per 
 cent. Cake that has been shipped too fresh is apt to heat 
 and become mouldy ; in which case it will lose its fine 
 aroma-, and be of inferior quality: it may even.be injurious 
 to animals feeding on it. 
 
 20. The Adulteration of Seeds, in fraud of her Majesty's 
 subjects, and to the great detriment of agriculture, has 
 been provided for by the Act 32 and 33 Vict. c. 112, 
 wherein it is prohibited to kill, dye, or to sulphur seeds, or 
 any way to give them a false appearance, under a penalty 
 of £5 for the first offence, and £50 for the second. 
 But for all this extensive frauds are practised : turnip seed 
 is adulterated with rape, wild mustard or charlock, the 
 vitality of which has been destroyed by kiln-drying at a 
 high temperature ; old turnip seed (kiln-dried) is also used 
 for diluting fresh seed ; and it is notorious that such seed 
 can be obtained in commerce by the ton. Again, clover 
 seed is often killed and dyed — one of the commonest 
 frauds being to dye trefoil, and to sell it for red clover ; 
 the pinkish or yellowish-brown tint and metallic look being 
 given with a weak solution of logwood and alum, or with 
 a strong solution of logwood alone, and then it is shaken 
 up with a little black lead. Another trick is to dye white 
 clover seed with a weak solution of indigo, and thus to 
 make it look like hybrid clover which has a bluish-green 
 colour. When trefoil and white clover seed have become 
 changed by age and have lost their yellowish colour, they 
 are dyed with infusion of turmeric, and then toned down 
 with the fumes of burning sulphur; in fact, these fumes 
 are used to brighten up all sorts of seeds that have become 
 brown by keeping,but they destroy the vitality of the seed. 
 
 21. Adulteration, of Drugs. — This at all times has been 
 considered a serious offence. In the city of London, the 
 president and censors of the College of Physicians have 
 power to search for apothecaries' wares, drugs, and stuffs, 
 and on finding them defective, corrupted, and not meet nor 
 convenient to be ministered in any medicines for the health 
 of man's body, they are to destroy them, and are to correct 
 and punish the offenders by committing them to prison, 
 and amercing them in a penalty not exceeding .£20. 
 These wholesome powers were granted to the college by 
 the Acts 14 and 15 Hen. VUI. c. 5, and 32 Hen. VIE 
 c 40, and 2 Mary, c. 9 ; but although they are still 
 in force, and might be advantageously exercised, yet 
 they have long since fallen into disuse ; and if it had 
 not been for the laudable efforts of the Pharmaceutical 
 Society of Great Britain, there would have been no 
 practical remedy for the adulteration of drugs. The 
 Society was founded in 1841, for the purpose of advancing 
 
 the status and education of those who were engaged in the 
 preparation and sale of medicines, and it was incorporated 
 by Royal Charter in 1843. A few years after, in 1852, 
 the qualifications of pharmaceutical chemists were regu- 
 lated by Act of Parliament (15 and 1G Vict. c. 56), and 
 in 1868 it was further provided, by the 31 and 32 Vict 
 c. 121, that no person should be permitted to engage in 
 the sale or dispensing of medicines, or to use the title of 
 chemist and druggist, or dispensingchemist, or pharmaceutist, 
 without being duly qualified, and registered as a pharma- 
 ceutical chemist. The adulteration of medicine was also 
 prohibited by the incorporation of the Adulteration of Food 
 and Drink Act 1860 (23 and 24 Vict. c. 84), it being 
 declared that such adulteration shoidd be deemed an ad- 
 mixture injurious to health. More recently, in 1872, the 
 Act 35 and 36 Vict. c. 74, renders it penal for any one 
 to adulterate a drug for sale, or to sell such drug. In the 
 first case the penalty is a sum not exceeding £50, to- 
 gether with the costs of the conviction ; and for a second 
 offence he shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and be im- 
 prisoned for a period not exceeding six calendar months, 
 with hard labour. In the second case, the seller of an 
 adulterated drug is subject to a penalty not exceeding 
 £20, together with costs ; and for a second offence he 
 shall have his name, place of abode, and offence pub- 
 lished in any manner that the justice thinks fit. The 
 chief adulterations and debasing of drugs are the follow- 
 ing : — In the case of vegetable substances, as jalap, opium, 
 rhubarb, cinchona bark, (Sec, foreign substances are added 
 to make up for the lo»» of weight in drying and powdering, 
 there being in many cases a trade allowance of only four 
 per cent, for such loss, whereas in almost all cases it ex 
 ceeds this. Roots, seeds, and barks, for example, lose from 
 6 to 9 per cent., scammony 7 per cent., aloes 9, sarsaparilla 
 10, squills 12, and opium from 15 to 25 per cent. At other 
 times foreign substances are added to assist the grinding, 
 or to improve the appearance of the article. Occasionally 
 the active principles are removed, or the medicine has 
 become worthless from keeping or from faulty preparation. 
 In the case of the alkaloids, inert substances, as sugar. 
 starch, gum, &c, are mixed with them to increase their 
 weight and bulk. Lastly, the activity of a vegetable drug 
 may greatly depend on its mode aud place of culture. 
 With respect to mineral preparations, there is even a still 
 larger field for adulteration, insomuch that the purity of 
 the article is entirely regulated by the wholesale price of 
 it. Again, directly after the Act of 1S56 (18 and 19 
 Vict, c. 38), which permitted the sale of methylated 
 spirit — that is, inferior spirit mixed with wood-naphtha, 
 duty free for manufacturing purposes — advantage was 
 taken of it by many chemists and druggists, and the 
 cheap spirit was used for making tinctures and other 
 medicinal preparations. This, however, came at last to be 
 so serious and dangerous a practice, and was withal so 
 great a fraud on the revenue, that means were taken to 
 suppress it by the Act 29 and 30 Vict. c. 64, wherein 
 it is provided that such spirit shall not be used in any 
 medicinal preparation, except in the manufacture of chloro- 
 form, ether, and the vegetable alkaloids, or in the preparation 
 of other things whereby the spirit was afterwards entirely 
 dissipated. But Mr PhiEips remarks, in the Ninth Report 
 of tfte Commissioners of Inland Revenue, that a few- 
 instances have been discovered of the sale of drinks under 
 the names of " Indianna brandee," " medicated whiskee," 
 " pure Islay mountain," "Indian tincture," ic, the exciting 
 principle of aU of which was found to be hyponitrous ether 
 prepared from methylated spirit. In the case of a drink 
 called " Hollands whiskee," it was produced by distEling the 
 methylated spirit with a little nitric acid, and then sweeten- 
 ing with treacle, and flavouring with rhubarb, chloroform,
 
 176 
 
 ADULTERATION 
 
 foenugrcek, <kc, so as to conceal its real character; and 
 notwithstanding its disagreeable flavour, it got into public 
 favour in some districts, especially in Ireland, and was 
 largely sold as a cheap means of producing intoxication. 
 
 22. The A Julteration of Textile Fabrics. — Woollen goods 
 have for years past been largely adulterated with refuse 
 fibres called "shoddy' 1 or "mingo." The practice was 
 denounced by Latimer in one of his sermons at Paul's 
 Cross, preached before king Edward in 1635, wherein 
 he spoke of it as the devil's artifice, saying that they were 
 wont to make beds of flock, but now they had turned it 
 into dust, which he aptly called "Devil's dust," and that 
 tho cloth worker did so incorporated to the cloth that it was 
 
 iful to see. The practice is still in rogue, for there 
 is hardly a piece of cheap cloth without it. Shoddy as 
 originally used was merely the fluff or waste from the looms, 
 but now it consists of any kind of woollen rubbish, as old 
 blankets, stockings, &c, pulled to pieces in a machine called 
 the " Devil." Mingo is even a shorter description of fibre, 
 and is made in the same way from old rags. No less than 
 forty millions of pounds of these are made annually in 
 Yorkshire, at an estimated value of eight millions sterling, 
 and all of it is used for adulterating woollen cloth. There 
 is even another kind of refuse called " extract," which is 
 employed for the same purpose. It consists of the wool 
 obtained from the rags of mixed goods ; that is, goods 
 which have a cotton or linen warp blended with wool. The 
 cotton is destroyed by chemical agency, chiefly by means 
 of dilute sulphuric acid, and the wool is left intact. 
 
 The cotton fabrics and gray goods of Lancashire and 
 Yorkshire are largely adulterated with size and china clay, 
 the object being to give them increased weight and sub- 
 stance. Up to about twenty years ago the sizing of cotton 
 goods wa3 effected with a mixture of fermented flour, 
 paste, and tallow, by which means the tenacity of the warp 
 was increased and the friction of weaving was lessened 
 To effect this about 20 per cent, of size was used ; but in 
 1854, when tallow became dear in consequence of the 
 Russian war, a substitute w-as found in china clay. Later 
 still in 1S62J when the cotton famine began to be felt, and 
 the long-fibred American cotton grew scarce, it was found 
 necessary to give tenacity to the twist made from shorter 
 fibre by using more size. In this manner as much as from 
 50 to 90 per cent, of size has got to be used, the greater 
 part of it being china clay, with a certain proportion of 
 hygroscopic matter, such as chloride of magnesium, to keep 
 the material damp and supple. The impurity is easily 
 detected by washing the cloth, and ascertaining the loss of 
 weight before and after the operation. Cheap calicoes are 
 also largely impregnated with lime, which has been used 
 in the process of bleaching, and left in them. A cloud of 
 dust flies out of such fabrics when they are torn. Silk 
 also is made heavier and stouter by the incorporation of 
 dye stuffs used expressly for the purpose. This is generally 
 the case with dark-coloured silks, black and brown, as 
 lighter shades will hardly admit of it; as much indeed as 
 half the weight of the silk may be thus incorporated 
 with it 
 
 23. Falsification of Coin and Precious Jfetals. — In Anglo- 
 Saxon times the debasing or counterfeiting of coin was 
 punished by the loss of the hand. In later times it has 
 been criminal in the highest degree. By the statute 24 and 
 25 Vict. c. 99, the counterfeiting of gold or silver coin is 
 felony, and in Scotland is a high crime and offence. Hardly 
 less severe is the punishment for debasing, diminishing, 
 lightening, or impairing the' value of the current coin of 
 the realm ; and very effectual means are taken to secure 
 their standard value when put into circulation. In the 
 first place, an officer is appointed by the Crown to super- 
 intend the coinage, and to be answerable for it? goodness. 
 
 (See Mint and Coinage.) In the second place, the com 
 is to it? weight and fineness, by persons skilled 
 in the goldsmith's craft. (See Assay.) But notwithstanding 
 this, the coins of the realm, as issued from the mint, have 
 often been debased to a considerable extent ; for, according 
 to Lord Liverpool, the total debasement of the silver money 
 of this country, from the time of the Conquest to tho reign 
 of Elizabeth, was not less than G5 per cent. It is notorious 
 that in Spain, Austria, and Turkey the degradation of the 
 silver coin, even at the present time, is-carricd to a serious 
 I By the Coinage Act 1870 (33 and 34 Vict. c. 
 10) tho composition and weight of all the coins of this 
 country are strictly provided for ; and in tho case of gold 
 coin, the limits or "remedy" of fineness and weight are 
 exceedingly narrow. The composition of the coin is fixed 
 at eleven-twelfths fine gold, and one-twelfth alloy (coppor) 
 so that in 1000 parts of our gold coin there are 916G0 ports 
 of fine gold. This is called its millesimal fineness, and 
 the allowance for error in composition is limited to 0'002 
 per 1000 parts. The weight of tho sovereign is fixed at 
 123 - 27447 grains, and the limit of error in weight is the 
 0"2 of a grain ; and in proportion with all other gold coins. 
 In the case of silver coins, the compositbn is thirty-seven 
 fortieths of fine silver, and three-fortieths of alloy (copper) 
 — the millesimal fineness being therefore 925 parts of 
 silver; tho remedy or allowance of fineness is just twice 
 that of gold — namely, 0'004 per 1000 parts. The weight 
 of the silver coin is at the rate of 87 '27272 grains per 
 shilling of value ; and the remedy or allowance of error i? 
 confined to 0'3G3G3 of a grain per shilling. Lastly, tin 
 bronze coinage of the country consists of 95 parts copper, 
 4 tin, and 1 zinc : the weight of a penny being 145'83333 
 grains; and the allowance for error is 2'91GG6 grains per 
 penny. The specific gravity of the several descriptions of 
 coin is 17'53 for gold, 10'35 for silver, and. 8'89 for 
 bronze. So accurate are the composition and weight of 
 the coins issued from the mint at the present time, that at 
 the last trial of the "Pyx" in July 1871, the jury reported 
 that every piece separately examined (representing many 
 millions sterling) was found to be accurately coined in 
 regard to weight and fineness. In the case of the gold coin, 
 the fineness ranged from 916'2 to 917 parts per 1000. 
 These, indeed, were the extremes of only 2 '66 per cent of 
 the coins examined, the great bulk of them, namely 72 65 
 per cent having a fineness of from 916'5 to 916'7 per 
 1000. Now, when it is considered that the composition 
 of an alloy of gold and copper can be ascertained to the 
 one-ten thousandth part, and that the delicacy of a balance 
 is to the thousandth part of a grain, it must be evident 
 that the accuracy and perfection of coining in this country 
 are remarkably precise. As, however, the weight of gold 
 and silver coin must become less by continual wear, the 
 Acts 22 and 25 Vict, c, 99, and 33 and 34 Vict c. 10 
 provide for it. It does not appear that the practice of 
 debasing coin is carried on to any great extent in this 
 country ; for in the second Annual Report of the Deputy- 
 Master of the Mint (1871), the chemist of the Mint (Mr W. 
 Chandler Roberts) says that only two sovereigns were 
 submitted to him, the weight of which had been fraudulently 
 reduced by means of a solvent, aided .by electricity. In 
 former times, however, the process of "sweating" was 
 very frequently employed. 
 
 The adulteration of precious metals was prohibited and 
 provided for by the rules and regulations of the various 
 guilds and corporations which took cognizance of the 
 goldsmiths' craft As early as the 26th of Henry II. 
 (1180) the Goldsmiths' Company of London was founded, 
 and in 1327, when it was incorporated, it was invested 
 with the privilege and power of inspecting, trying, and 
 regulating all gold and silver wares throughout the king-
 
 A D U — A D V 
 
 177 
 
 dom, and of punishing all offenders who were found guilty 
 of working adulterated gold or silver. The chief offenders 
 appear to have been the cutlers, who were charged with 
 covering base metal in such a manner that it could not 
 easily be detected. It was therefore provided that all 
 manner of vessels of gold and silver should be of " good 
 and true alloy ;" and power was given to the company to 
 " go from shop to shop to assay if the gold was good," and 
 finding that it was not of the right touch, it was to bo 
 seized and forfeited for the king. Subsequently, by the 
 statute of 2 Henry VL (1424), it was provided that none 
 should work gold unless it be as good as the alloy of the 
 "mystery," and that silver wares should be as good or better 
 than the king's coin. It was further provided, that when 
 the goods were finished they should be brought to the Hall 
 to be assayed; and when found of the right touch it 
 should be stamped with the owner's and assayer's marks, as 
 well as with the " Liberdshede crowned." These powers 
 have been confirmed in numerous Acts of Parliament, the 
 most important of which are the following: — 12 Geo. IX 
 c. 26 (1739), which provides that no goldsmith, silver 
 smith, or other trader shall work or make any vessel of 
 gold of les3 than 22-carat fineness (that is, 22 parts of 
 fine gold to 2 parts of alloy), nor any silver vessel or plate 
 of less than eleven ounces and two pennyweights of fine 
 silver, and 18 pennyweights of alloy, in a pound troy, 
 under a penalty of £10. But this does not extend to 
 jewelry, earrings, gold springs, lockets, &c. It also pro- 
 vides for the proper assaying and stamping of the same. 
 In 1784, the Act 24 Geo. III. c. 53, made provision for 
 imposing a duty on the article assayed and stamped, 
 
 and from that time the king's or queen's head has ap 
 peared as a mark. In 1798, the Act 38 Geo. ILL c. 69, 
 gave permission for a lower standard of gold, namely 
 18-carat gold (that is, 18 parts of fine gold to 6 of alloy); 
 and by the Act 7 and 8 Vict, c, 22 (1844), the penalty 
 for using false; stamps, &c, was ameliorated. Lastly, 
 by the Act 17 and 18 Vict. c. 96, three still lower 
 standards of gold were permitted, namely 15-carat gold, 
 12-carat gold, and 9-carat gold, each of which was to 
 be designated by the number and the decimal. At pre- 
 sent, therefore, all gold and silver plate, as well as wedding 
 and mourning rings, must be assayed and stamped before 
 their sale ; and other articles may be assayed and stamped 
 in like manner at the option of the maker or dealer. The 
 sta-aps or marks impressed on gold are the following, 
 namely, — 1st, The initials of the maker's name ; 2d, The 
 duty mark (a king's or queen's head); 3c?, The crown and 
 standard number, indicating the quality of the gold ; 4th, 
 The assayer's stamp (a leopard's head for Goldsmiths' Hall); 
 and 5th, The letter denoting the year of assay. In the 
 case of silver, the stamps are — 1st, The initial letters of the 
 maker; 2d, A lion;. 3c?, The assayer's stamp (in London, a 
 leopard's head) ; 4th, The letter indicating the year of assay; 
 and 5lh, The duty mark (a king's or queen's head). Silver 
 goods of higher value, that is, with a mixture of 1 1 ounces 
 and 10 pennyweights of fine silver, instead of 11 ounces 
 and 2 pennyweights, is called new sterling, and is, as for- 
 merly, marked with a figure of Britannia, and a lion's head 
 erased. As in olden times, the Goldsmiths' Company have 
 still power to break, cut, or otherwise destroy all gold and 
 silver plate which is below the legal standard. (h. l.) 
 
 ADULTERY (from the Latin adulterium) is the sexual 
 intercourse of a married person with another than the 
 offender's husband or wife. Among the Greeks, and in the 
 earlier period of Boman law, it was not adultery unless 
 a married woman was the offender. The foundation of the 
 later Boman law with regard to adultery was the lex Julia 
 de adulteriis coercendis passed by Augustus about B.C. 17. 
 (See Biff. 48, 5; Paull. Rec. Sent, ii 26; Brisson, Ad Leg. 
 Jul. de Adult.) In Britain it has been reckoned a spiritual 
 offence, that is, cognisable by the spiritual courts only. 
 The common law took no farther notice of it than to allow 
 the party aggrieved an action of damages. In England, 
 however, the action for " criminal conversation," as it was 
 called, is nominally abolished by 20 and 21 Vict. c. 85, 
 § 59; but by the 33d section of the same Act, the husband 
 may claim damages from one who has committed adultery 
 with his wife in a petition for dissolution of the marriage, 
 or for judicial separation, or in a special petition for the 
 purpose in the Divorce Court. In Scotland damages may 
 be recovered against an adulterer in an ordinary action of 
 damages in the civil court, and the latter may be found 
 liable for the expenses of an action of divorce if joined with 
 the guilty spouse as a co-defender. 
 
 Adultery is, both in England and Scotland, a ground 
 of divorce. In England, a complete divorce or dissolution 
 of the marriage could, until the creation of the Court of 
 Probate and Divorce by 20 and 21 Vict. c. 85, be obtained 
 only by an Act of Parliament. In Scotland a complete 
 divorce may be effected by proceedings in the Court of 
 Session, as succeeding to the old ecclesiastical jurisdiction 
 of the' commissioners. A person divorced for adultery is, 
 by the law of Scotland, prohibited from intermarrying with 
 the paramour. See Divorce. 
 
 ADVENT, the period of the approach of the nativity, 
 lasting, in the Greek Church, from St Martin's Day (Nov. 
 11), and, in other churches, from the Sunday nearest to St 
 
 Andrew's Day (Nov. 30) till Christmas. The observance 
 of it dates from the 4th century, and it has been recognised 
 since the 6th century as the commencement of the ecclesias- 
 tical year. With the view of directing the thoughts of 
 Christians to the coming of Christ as Saviour, and to his 
 second coming as Judge, special lessons are prescribed for 
 the four Sundays in Advent. At one time Advent was 
 observed almost as strictly as Lent, but the rule is now 
 relaxed, and in the Church of England fasting is confined 
 to the week in which Ember Day (13th Dec.) occurs. 
 The phrase second advent is commonly used to denote our 
 Lord's " appearing the second time, without sin, unto sal- 
 vation," which is so often spoken of in the New Testament 
 Various opinions have been held as to the time and manner 
 of this event. In the apostolic churches it was commonly 
 regarded as imminent, though this was not the opinion of 
 the apostle Paul, a3 may be gathered from 2 Thess. ii. 3, 
 4. The discussion in later times has centred itself chiefly 
 round the question whether the second advent is pre- 
 millennial or post-millennial. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT (from the French averlissernent, a 
 giving notice, or announcement) denotes in a general sense 
 any information publicly communicated through the press 
 or otherwise. It is the profit derived from advertisements 
 that supports the larger number of newspapers While 
 some of these drag out a sickly existence, others derive a 
 large revenue from this source. The duty upon advertise- 
 ments (which existed in' Britain 1 previous to 1853) was 
 not unjustly branded as a tax upon knowledge. It was 
 certainly very unequal and oppressive, being the same upon 
 the sale of an estate worth .1100,000 as on a servant's notice 
 wanting a place, upon an advertisement of a sixpenny 
 
 1 There is no duty on ivertisements in the United States, Germany, 
 or France. In France,! ywever, there is a duty of 10 per cent, on the 
 raw paper, and a furtuer duty of 20 per cent, on all newspapara. 
 printed.
 
 178 
 
 A D V — A D V 
 
 pamphlet and an expensive book. Previous to 1833 the 
 duty on each advertisement was 3s. Gd. in Great Britain, 
 and 2s. 6d. in Ireland; in that year it was reduced to 
 Is. 6d. in Great Britain, and Is. in Ireland. In 1832 (the 
 last year of the high duty) the total number of newspaper 
 advertisements in the U. K. was 921,943: viz., 787,6-19 in 
 England, 108,914 in Scotland, and 125,380 in Ireland; the 
 amount of duty paid in that year being £172,570. In 1841 
 the number of advertisements had increased to 1,778,957: 
 viz., 1,386,625 for England/ 188,189 for Scotland, and 
 204,143 for Ireland; and the total duty paid amounted to 
 £128,318. In 1851 the amount of duty rose to £175,094, 
 103. 8<L; being for England £142,365, 3s. 6cL; Scotland, 
 £19,940, lis.; Ireland, £12,788, 16s. 2d. Incompliance 
 •with the all but unanimous voice of the public, this duty 
 ■was abolished in 1853; since which time the system of 
 advertising has increased to an unprecedented extent, in 
 consequence of the low rate at which short advertisements 
 are now inserted. To advertise advantageously requires 
 both experience and judgment; without a knowledge of 
 the character and circulation of the public journals, much 
 expenditure may be wasted by advertising in papers that 
 have either a limited or inappropriate circulation. The sale 
 of some commodities (such as quack medicines) depends 
 almost wholly on advertising, of which it has been said 
 that if the vender has the courage to continue advertising 
 to the extent of £20,000, he will make his fortune by a 
 drug thoroughly worthless. Advertising often falls dispro- 
 portionately on books, as it is necessary that new' publica- 
 tions should be freely advertised. On small low-priced 
 books the expense is particularly heavy, an advertisement 
 of a one shilling book costing as much as one selling at 
 twenty shillings. From this, and their generally ephe- 
 meral character, it may be said that ninety-nine out of a 
 hundred pamphlets are published at a loss. 
 
 Interesting information on the subject of advertisements 
 will be found in an article in the Edinburgh Review for 
 1st Feb. 1843, "On the Advertising System," and in the 
 Quarterly Review for June 1855, " On the Rise and Pro- 
 gress of Advertisements, from the establishment of the 
 Newspaper Press of this Country till the Present Time." 
 In the latter article it is stated that the first advertisement 
 occurs in the Mereurius Politicus for Jan. 1652, the sub- 
 ject of the advertisement being a heroic poem of congratula- 
 tion on Cromwell's victories in Ireland. A writer in Notes 
 and Queries for July 6, 1872, has found two examples of 
 advertisements previous to that date, which occur in the 
 Mereurius Elencticus of Oct. 1648. See also The Neioa- 
 paper Press, by James Grant (2 vols., 1871), and the 
 article Newspapers. 
 
 ADVOCATE (from the Latin advocatus), a lawyer author- 
 bed to plead the causes of litigants in courts of law. The 
 word is used technically in Scotland in a sense virtuahy 
 equivalent to tho English term barrister; and a deriva- 
 v i v e from the same Latin source is so used in most of the 
 rountries of Europe where the civii law is in force. The advo- 
 xUus of the Romans meant, as the word implies, a person 
 whose assistance was called in or invoked. The word is 
 not often used among the earlier jurists, and appears not to 
 have had a strict meaning. It is not always associated 
 with legal proceedings, and might apparently be applied to 
 a supporter or coadjutor in the pursuit of any desired ob- 
 ject. When it came to be applied with a more specific 
 limitation to legal services, the position of the advocatus 
 was still uncertain. It was d fferent from, and evidently 
 inferior to, that of the juris-cvi sultus, who gave his opinion 
 and advice in questions of law, and j \ay be identified with 
 tho consulting Cvu.isci of the pres nt day. Nor is the 
 meiely professional advocate to be confounded with the 
 •nore distinguished orator, or patronus, who came forward 
 
 in the guise of the disinterested vindicator of justice. This 
 distinction, however, appears to have arisen in later times, 
 when the prof es3ion became mercenaiy. By the lex Cincia, 
 passed about two centuries before Christ, and subsequently 
 renewed, tho acceptance of remuneration for professional 
 assistance in lawsuits was prohibited. This law, like all 
 others of the kind, was evaded. The skilful debater was 
 propitiated with a present ; and though ho could not sue 
 for the value of his services, it was ruled that any honor- 
 arium so given could not be demanded back, even though 
 he died before the anticipated service was performed. The 
 traces of this evasion of a law may be found in the existing 
 practice of rewarding counsel by fees in anticipation of 
 services. In the Justinian collection we find that legal 
 provision had been made for the remuneration of advo- 
 cates. {Dig. lib. 50, tit. 12, § 10-13; Brissonius, De 
 Sig. Verb.; Heincccius ad Panel, lib. iii. tit. 1.) The 
 advocatus fisci, or fiscal advocate, was an officer whose 
 function, like that of a solicitor of taxes at the present day, 
 was connected with the collection of the revenue. (Sco 
 generally on this subject Forsyth's llortensius, London, 
 1849.) The term advocate is of frequent use in the chron- 
 icles, capitularies, chartularies, and other records of eccle- 
 siastical matters, during the Middle Ages. (See Du Cange, 
 s.v. Advocati Ecclesiarum, who affords a profuse supply of 
 references to authorities.) The term was applied in the 
 primitive church to those who defended the Christians 
 against malignants or persecutors. As the church waxed 
 rich and powerful, its temporal supporters assumed a more 
 important position. The advocate, defender, or patron, was 
 of a temporal rank, corresponding to the power of the ec- 
 clesiastical body who sought his advocacy. Princes sought 
 the distinction from Rome ; and it was aa a relic of tho 
 practice of propitiating temporal sovereigns by desiring their 
 protection that Henry VIII. received his title of " Defender 
 of the Faith." The office of advocate to any of the great 
 religious houses, possessed of vast wealth, was one of dig- 
 nity and emolument, generally held by some feudal lord of 
 power and influence. This kind of protection, however, was 
 sometimes oppressive. In the authorities quoted by Du 
 Cange we find that, so early as the 12th century, the advo- 
 cates were accused of rapine and extortion ; and by a capi- 
 tulary of the popedom of Innocent III. they are prohibited 
 from taking and usurping rewards and privileges beyond use 
 and wont. The office at length assumed a fixed character 
 in its powers and emoluments ; and it became the practice 
 for the founders of churches and other ecclesiastical endow- 
 ments to reserve the office of advocate to themselves and 
 their representatives. The term advocate was subsequently 
 superseded by the word patron ; but a relic of it still exists 
 in the term advowson, and the word advowee, which is tho 
 form in which the Latin advocatus found its way into the 
 technicalities of English law. Until lately, advocate was 
 the proper designation of legal practitioners in the Pro- 
 bate and Admiralty courts, and still is the name given to 
 those who practise in what remains of ecclesiastical rcurts 
 In France, corporations or faculties of avocats wera at- 
 tached to the parliaments and other tribunals. They formed, 
 before the revolution, a part of the extensive and powerful 
 body commonly called the nobility of the robe. It was not 
 necessary that the avocat should be born noble, and his 
 professional rank was little respected by the hereditary 
 aristocracy ; but as a middle rank, possessed of great powers 
 and privileges, which it jealously guarded, the profession 
 acquired gTeat influence. In the Encyclopidie Methodigue, 
 the avocat i3 called " the tutelary genius of the repose of 
 families, the friend of man, his guide and protector." Tho 
 avocats, as a body, were reorganised under the empire by 
 a decree of 15th December 1810. (See Camus, Lettres sur 
 la Profession d'Advocai ; A. Young, The French Ear.) In
 
 A D V — M A C 
 
 179 
 
 France there is a distinction 'between avocats and avouit. 
 The latter, whose number is limited, act as procurators or 
 agents, representing the parties before the tribunals, draft 
 and prepare for them all formal acts and writings, and 
 prepare their lawsuits for the oral debates. The office of 
 the avocat, on the other hand, consists in giving advice as 
 to the law, and conducting the causes of his clients by- 
 written and oral pleadings. The number of avocats is not 
 limited; every licentiate of law being entitled to apply to 
 the corporation of avocats attached to each court, and after 
 presentation to the court, taking the oath of office, and 
 passing three years in attendance on some older advocate, 
 to have himself recognised as an advocate. The Faculty 
 of Advocates is the collective term by which the members 
 of the bar are known in Scotland. They professionally 
 attend the supreme courts in Edinburgh ; but they are 
 privileged to plead in any cause before the inferior courts, 
 where counsel are not excluded by statute. They may act 
 in cases of appeal before the House of Lords ; and in some 
 of the British colonies, where the civil law is in force, it is 
 customary for those who practise as barristers to pas3 as 
 advocates in Scotland. This body has existed by imme- 
 morial custom. Its privileges' are constitutional, and are 
 founded on no statute or charter of incorporation. The 
 body formed itself gradually, from time to time, on the 
 model of the French corporations of avocats, appointing like 
 them a dean, or doyen, who is their principal officer. No 
 curriculum of study, residence, or professional training was, 
 until 1856, required on entering this profession; but the 
 faculty have always had the power, believed to be liable to 
 control by the Court of Session, of rejecting any candidate 
 for admission. The candidate undergoes two private ex- 
 aminations — the one in general scholarship, in lieu of 
 which, however, he may produce evidence of his having 
 graduated as master of arts in a Scottish university, or ob- 
 tained an equivalent degree in an English or foreign" univer- 
 sity ; and the other, at the interval of a year, in Roman, 
 private international, and Scots law. He must, before 
 the latter examination, produce evidence of attendance at 
 classes of Scots law and conveyancing in a Scottish univer- 
 sity, and at classes of civil law, public or international 
 law, constitutional law, and medical jurisprudence in a 
 Scottish or other approved university. He has then to 
 undergo the old academic form of the public impugnment 
 of a thesis on some title of the pandects ; but this cere- 
 mony, called the public examination, has degenerated into 
 a mere form. A large proportion of the candidate's entrance 
 fees (amounting to £339) is devoted to the magnificent 
 library belonging to the faculty, which literary investigators 
 in Edinburgh find so eminently nsefuL 
 
 Lord Advocate, or King's Advocate, is the principal 
 law-officer of the crown in Scotland. His business is to 
 act as a public prosecutor, and to plead in all causes that 
 concern the crown. He is at the head of the system of 
 public prosecutions by which criminal justice is administered 
 in Scotland, and thus his functions are of a far more ex- 
 tensive character than those of the English law-officers of 
 the crown. He is aided by a solicitor-general and subor- 
 dinate assistants called advocates-depute. The office of 
 king's advocate seems to have been established about the 
 beginning of the 16th century. Originally he had no power 
 to prosecute crimes without the concurrence of a private 
 party; but in the year 1597 he was empowered to prose- 
 cute crimes at his own instance. He has the privilege of 
 pleading in court with his hat on. 
 
 ADVOCATION, in Scottish Law, was a mode of appeal 
 from certain inferior courts to the supreme court. It was 
 abolished in 1818, a simple "appeal" being substituted. 
 
 ADVOWSON, or Advowzen (advocatio), in English 
 Common Lair, the right of presentation to a vacant eccle- 
 
 siastical benefice, is so called because the patron defends 
 or advocates the claims of the person whom he presents. 
 Originally all appointments within a diocese lay with the 
 bishop ; but when a landowner founded a church on his 
 estate and endowed it, his right to nominate the incumbent 
 was usually recognised. Where the right of presentation 
 remains attached to the manor, it is called an advowson 
 appendant, and passes with the estate by inheritance or 
 sale without any special conveyance. But where, as is 
 often the case, the right of presentation has been sold by 
 itself, and so separated from the manor, it is called an 
 advowson in gross. "Advowsons are further distinguished 
 into presentative, eollative, and donative. In a presentative 
 advowson, the patron presents a clergyman to the bishop, 
 with the petition that he be instituted into the vacant 
 living. The bishop is bound to induct if he find the 
 clergyman canonically qualified, and a refusal on his part 
 is subject to an appeal to an ecclesiastical court either by 
 patron or by presentee. In a eollative advowson the bishop 
 is himself the patron, either in his own right or in the right 
 of the proper patron, which has lapsed to him through not 
 being exercised within the statutory period of six months 
 after the vacancy occurred. No petition is necessary in 
 this case, and the bishop is said to collate to the benefice. 
 In a donative advowson, the sovereign, or .any subject by 
 Bpecial licence from the sovereign, confers a benefice by a 
 simple letter of gift, without any reference to the bishop, 
 and without presentation and institution. The incumbent 
 of such a living is to a great extent free from the jurisdic- 
 tion of the bishop, who can only reach him through the 
 action of an ecclesiastical court. When an ecclesiastical 
 body owned an advowson, it very frequently, by appropria- 
 tion, exercised the right in its own favour, the corporation 
 becoming the incumbent of the living, the actual duties of 
 which were discharged by a vicar or perpetual curate. An 
 advowson, being property, may be sold, or mortgaged, or 
 seized by the creditors on a bankrupt estate, under certain 
 restrictions intended to prevent simony. A sale is abso- 
 lutely prohibited during the mortal sickness of the incum- 
 bent, or during the existence of a vacancy. There are 
 upwards of 13,000 benefices in the Church of England, 
 the advowsons being distributed as shown in the following 
 list, which may be taken as approximately correct : — Under 
 the patronage of the crown there are 1144 livings; bishops, 
 2324; deans and chapters, 933; the universities, 770; 
 parochial clergy, 931 ; and private persons, 7000. 
 
 ADYTUM, the most retired and sacred place of ancient 
 temples, into which none but the officiating priests were 
 allowed to enter. The Most Holy Place of the temple of 
 Solomon was of the nature of the pagan adytum; none but 
 the high priest being admitted into it, and he but once a year. 
 
 JE,, or as, a diphthong, compounded of A and E, of fre- 
 quent occurrence in Latin and in Anglo-Saxon. In the best 
 .editions of the classics the form now preferred is ae. In 
 English words derived from Latin the diphthong is gene- 
 rally converted into the simple e, but it is not unfrequently 
 retained, as in jEolian, mediceval, &c. In some words it 
 represents the Greek at, to which the Latin ce corresponds, 
 as in aesthetics (alo-9rrriKa). 
 
 iEACUS, in Mythology, the son of Jupiter by ^Egina. 
 When the isle of jEgina wa3 depopulated by a plague, his 
 father, in compassion to his grief, changed all the ants 
 upon it into men and women, who were called 1 r yrmidones, 
 from /j.vpfj.rj£, an ant. The foundation of the fable is said 
 to t>e, that when the country had been depopulated by 
 pirates, who forced the few that remained to take shelter 
 in caves, ^Eacus encouraged them to come out, and by 
 commerce and industry to recover what they had lost His 
 character for justice and piety was such that, in a time of 
 universal drought, he was nominated by the Delphic oracle
 
 180 
 
 M D I — M G I 
 
 tc intercede for Greece and his prayer was answered. The 
 ancients also imagined that jEacus, on account of his im- 
 partial justice, was chosen by Pluto one of the three judges 
 of the dead, and that it was his province to judgo the 
 Europeans. 
 
 iEDILE (cedilis), in Roman Antiquity, a magistrate 
 whose chief business was to superintend buildings of all 
 kinds, but more especially public ones, as temples, aque- 
 ducts, bridges, itc To the sediles likewise belonged the 
 care of- the highways, public places, weights and measures, 
 &c. They also superintended the markets, fixed the prices 
 of -provisions, took cognisance of breaches of decency and 
 public order, and took charge of police matters generally. 
 The custody of the plebiscita, or decrees of the people, and 
 seriatus consulla, or decrees of the senate, was likewise 
 committed to them. They had- the inspection of theatres 
 and plays, and were obliged to exhibit magnificent games 
 to the people, usually at their own expense, whereby many 
 of them were ruined. They had the power, on ceitain oc- 
 casions, of issuing edicts, and by degrees they proc ired to 
 themselves a considerable jurisdiction. At first thei-e were 
 only two sediles, viz., the aediles of the people, osdiles plebeii, 
 or minores. They were first created in the same year as 
 the tribunes, B.C. 494 ; for the tribunes, finding themselves 
 oppressed with the multiplicity of affairs, demanded of the 
 senate to have. officers to whom they might entrust matters 
 of less importance; and accordingly two aediles were created; 
 and henceforward the aediles were elected every year at the 
 same assembly as the tribunes. But these plebeian aediles 
 having refused, on a signal occasion, to continue the great 
 games for four days instead of three, on account of the 
 expense, the patricians made an offer to do it, provided 
 they were admitted to the honours of the aedileship. Ac- 
 cordingly two new aediles were created, from the order of 
 the patricians, in the year of Eome 388. They were called 
 cediles curules, or majores, as having a right to sit on a 
 curule chair when they gave audience; whereas the plebeian 
 sediles only sat on benches. The curule aediles alone had 
 the right to issue edicts. Otherwise they shared all the 
 ordinary" functions of the plebeian aediles; they had to 
 procure the celebration of the grand Roman games, and 
 to exhibit comedies, shows of gladiators, <fec, to the people; 
 and they were also appointed judges in all cases relating to 
 '.he selling or exchanging of estates. To assist these first 
 iour aediles, Caesar (b.c. 45) created a new kind, called 
 cediles cereales, so named from their being deputed chiefly 
 to take care of the supply of corn, which was called donum 
 Cereris. These aediles cereales were also taken out of the 
 order of patricians. In the municipal cities and colonies 
 there were aediles having much the same authority as at 
 Rome. We also read of an cedilis alimentarius, expressed 
 in abbreviature by aedil. alim., whose business seems to 
 have been to provide diet for those who were maintained 
 at the public charge, though others assign him a different 
 Kffice. In an ancient inscription we also meet with aedile 
 of the camp, cedilis castrOrum. 
 
 jEGADES, or Agates, a group of islands off the west- 
 ern coast of Sicily, between Trapani and Marsala, consisting 
 of Maretimo, Levanzo, and Favignana. These islands are 
 'endered historically famous by the great naval victory 
 gained there by the Romans over the Carthaginians in b.c. 
 241, winch put an end to the first Punic war 
 
 jEGEAN SEA, a part of the Mediterranean, now-more 
 osually caLed the Archipelago or Grecian Archipelago, 
 bounded on the north by Thrace and Macedonia, on the 
 pest by Greece, and on the east by Asia Minor. The 
 mgin of the name is uncertain. Various derivations are 
 iriven by the ancient grammarians— one from the town of 
 dSgse; another from ^Egea, queen of the amazons, who 
 perished in this sea; and a third from ^geus, the father 
 
 of Theseus, who threw himself headlong into it. Seo 
 Archipelago. 
 
 iEGEUS, in Fabulous Ilisiory, the son of Fandion, was 
 king of Athens, and the father of Theseus.. He was ono 
 of the Athenian heroes, but is notable chiefly for the man- 
 ner of his death. The Athenians having killed Androgeus, 
 the son of Minns, king of Crete, for carrying away the 
 prize for wrestling from them, Minos made war upon 
 them ; and being victorious, imposed tliis severe condition 
 on yEgeus, that he should annually send into Crete seven. 
 of the noblest of the Athenian youths and as many 
 maidens, chosen by lot, to be devoured by the Minotaur, 
 On the fourth year of this tribute the choice fell "on 
 Theseus, or, as others say, he himself entreated to be sent. 
 The king at hi3 son's departure gave orders that, as the 
 ship sailed with black sails, it should return with the same 
 in case he perished; but if he came back victorious he 
 should change them for white. When Theseus returned 
 from Crete after killing the Minotaur, he forgot to change 
 the sails in token of his victory, according to the agree- 
 ment; and his lather, who sat on a rock watching the 
 return of the vessel, imagining from the black sails that his 
 son was dead, cast bin-iclf headlong into the sea, which 
 was supposed in consequence to have obtained the name of 
 the jEgean Sea. The Athenians decreed divine honours 
 to ^geus, and sacrificed to him as a marine deity and a.n 
 adopted son of Neptune. 
 
 iEGINA, in Fabulous History, the daughter of Asopus, 
 king of Boeotia, was beloved by Jupiter, who carried her 
 from Epidaurus to a desert island called (Enone or (Enopia, 
 which was afterwards called by her name. See ^acus. 
 
 iEGINA, or Egina, or Engia, an island in the Saronic 
 gulf, 20 miles distant from the Piraeus, formerly vying 
 with Athens in naval power, and at the sea-fight of Salamis 
 disputing the palm of victory with the Athenians. It was 
 the native country and kingdom of jE.icus, who called it 
 uEgina, from his mother's name. (Ovid.) The inhabitants 
 were called uEginetoe and jEjinenses. ./Egina is triangular 
 in shape, and is about 8 miles long from N.W. to S.E., and 
 about 6 broad, with an area of about 41 sq-aare miles. 
 Strabo states its circumference at 180 stadia, or about 22i 
 English miles. Its western side consists of stony but 
 fertile' plains, which are well cultivated, and produce 
 luxuriant crops of grain, with some cotton, vices, almonds, 
 and figs. The rest of the island is mountainous, and 
 rather barren. The southern end rises in the conical 
 Mount Oros, and the Panhellenian ridge stretches to the 
 north, from which fertile narrow valleys descend on either 
 hand. From the absence of marshes', and its insularity, 
 the climate is mild, and the most salubrious of Greece. The 
 mine of the ancient Mgisia extend along two small ports, 
 still protected by weUrbuilt ancient moles, and the shores 
 of an open bay, defended by on ancient breakwater, near 
 the N.W. cape of the island. On the land side the city 
 walls are still distinctly traceable, 10 feet in thickness, 
 strengthened by towers at unequal distances, and pierced 
 by three gates. They abutted on those of the ports, which 
 were thus included within the line of fortifications, as at 
 Athens and elsewhere in ancient Greece. Two elegant 
 IJoric columns and substructures are all that remain of 
 the buildings noticed by Pausanias within the precincts of 
 a city that was long the greatest and most opulent mari- 
 time power of Greece ; but the ruins of seventeen Christian 
 churches, still visible, prove that after the glories of the 
 proud city had passed away — after what it suffered from 
 the jealousy of its rival Athens, and from an earthquake 
 about the beginning of our era — a considerable modern 
 town had occupied its site. Some of these may perhaps 
 only date from the time that ./Egina remained under its 
 Venetian masters, as does a tower erected at the entrance
 
 M Q 1 — M G I 
 
 181 
 
 iff tue largest port. The Venetians resigned possession 
 of the island to the Turk3 in 1715, under whom it became 
 the prey of Main.ote and other pirates, until the emancipa- 
 tion of Greece made it, in 1828-29, the seat of the Greek 
 government. On a hill near the N.E. corner of the island 
 stands the modern little town of JEgXna. (as it is pronounced 
 by the modern Greeks). It is separated by a ravine from 
 the hill, on which rise in lonely majesty the ruins of a 
 noble temple, supposed to be that of Jupiter Panhellenius, 
 though the point has been disputed. The temple occupies 
 the rocky summit of a hill, in the midst of a forest of 
 pines, at the extremity of the Panhellenian ridge. It was 
 a ruin in the days of Cicero, as mentioned in one of his 
 letters, and seems to have been thrown down by an earth- 
 quake at an unknown epoch. This temple is conspicuous 
 from a distance, and was visited by Chandler in the last 
 century; but has been chiefly known to us by the success- 
 ful excavations of our countrymen Cockerell and Foster, 
 assisted by Baron Haller and M. Linckh of Stuttgard, in 
 1811. These gentlemen united in clearing away the rub- 
 bish which the lapse of 2000 years had accumulated on 
 the basement and floor of the cella; and after twenty days' 
 exertion they were rewarded by the discovery not only of 
 many interesting details relating to Grecian architecture, 
 but also of many statues, in wonderfully energetic atti- 
 tudes, that had once adorned the fallen pediments of this 
 celebrated temple. These consist of the. eleven figures of 
 the eastern and five statues of the western pediment, 
 al nost entire, besides fragments of the rest, and two 
 statuettes, and other ornaments of the' acroteria. These 
 sculptures supply an important link in the history of 
 ancient art, and connect the schools of early Greece with 
 that of Etruscan sculpture. The efforts of Messrs Cockerell 
 and Foster to secure those treasures to their country are 
 well known, as well as their failure through an unlucky 
 mistake of the agent sent out to purchase them for the 
 British Museum. They now form one of the most interest- 
 ing acquisitions of the magnificent Glyptothek of Munich. 
 The temple stands on a stylobate 'of 94 feet by 45 feet. 
 The original number of columns in the peristyle was thirty- 
 two, of which twelve were ranged on each side, and six in 
 each front, 37 feet 2 inches high, including the wide 
 iipreading ovolo of the capital, and a diameter of 3 feet 3 
 inches at the base. Two other columns, of 3 feef 2 inches 
 between autre, are in the pronaos^and two similar in the 
 opisthodomos or poslicum. The cella had a door at each 
 end; a double row of smaller columns, 2 feet 4 inches in 
 diameter, were within the cella to support its partial roof; 
 but the greatest portion of the cella was open, as this temple 
 was hypcethral. There still remain twenty -one columns of the 
 peristyle, with their architraves; six of the eastern front, 
 and-continuously with them are five columns of the north 
 side ; the four columns of the- pronaos and opisthodomos, 
 and the lower part of the shafts of five within the cella. 
 The tympana had been painted of a bright azure, to give 
 relief to the statues; and the drapery of Minerva, the 
 middle figure of each group, had been painted ted and 
 blue. The whole of the ornaments on the cornices and 
 upper mouldings of the pediment had been painted in 
 encaustic, not carved. The subject of the groups of statuary 
 appears to be the contest for the body of Patroclus, one of 
 the jEacidce (or royal progeny of jEgina of old), as described 
 by Horner. (Cockerell On the uEgina Marbles; Brand's 
 Journal.) This magnificent structure was erected most 
 probably in the 6th century B.C., but, at all events, un- 
 doubtedly belongs to the brilliant'' period of iEginetan 
 power, when its navy and its commerce were the pride of 
 Greece, and carried its citizens to the remotest shores of 
 the Mediterranean and the Euxin.e. Silver money is said 
 to have been struck at „Egina ioiig before it was coined 
 
 even at Athens. The victory of Salamis was in a great 
 measure owing to the thirty ships of JEgina, and the voice 
 of grateful Greece assigned to her warriors on that event- 
 ful day the prize of valour. Yet not long after, the rivalry 
 of Athens began to cloud the prosperity of the haughty 
 islanders, whose fleet she had before defeated; and JSgina 
 at length sunk under the enmity of a relentless commercial 
 rival, that banished her citizens and supplied their placa 
 with Attic colonists. After the close of the Peloponnesian 
 war Lysander restored the banished inhabitants, but 
 JSgina never recovered its ancient prosperity. 
 
 iEGINETA, Paultjs, a celebrated surgeon of the island 
 of ^Egma, whence he derived his name. According to 
 Le Clerc's calculation, he lived in the 4th century; but 
 Abulfaragius the Arabian places him with more probability 
 in the 7th. His knowledge in surgery was very great, 
 and his works are deservedly famous. The title of the 
 most important of them, as given by Suidas, is 'Emi-eyo?* 
 'larpiiajs Bi/JAi'a "Ejrra (Synopsis of Medicine in Seven 
 Books). The sixth book, which treats of surgery, is par- 
 ticularly interesting. The whole work in the original 
 Greek was published at Venice in 1528, and another 
 edition appeared at Basle in 1538. Several Latin trans- 
 lations have been published, and an excellent English 
 versioD, with commentary, by Dr F. Adams (1844—48). 
 ^Egineta is the first writer who takes notice of the cathartic 
 property of rhubarb, and, according to Dr Milward,is the 
 first in all antiquity who deserves the title of accoucheur. 
 iEGIS, in Classical Mythology, a name given to the shield 
 or buckler of Jupiter. The goat Amalthrea, which had 
 suckled that god, being dead, he is said to have covered 
 his buckler with the. skin, or used the skin as a buckler; 
 whence the appellation cegis, from at£, cuyos, goat. Jupiter 
 afterwards restored the animal to life, covered it with a new 
 skin, and placed it among the stars. A full description 
 of the aegis of Jupiter is given -by Homer, II. v. 738, sqq. 
 Apollo is also represented as bearing the cegis, and Minerva 
 still more frequently. After Perseus killed Medusa, Minerva 
 nailed her head in the middle Of the aegis, which thence- 
 forth had the faculty Medusa herself had during her life 
 of converting all who looked on it into stone. Later writers 
 regard the regis sometimes as a buckler, but oftener as a 
 cuirass or breastplate. The regis of Pallas, described by 
 Virgii (jEn. Lb. viii. v. 435), must have been a cuirass, 
 since the poet says expressly that Medusa's head was on the 
 breast of the goddess. But the regis of Jupiter, mentioned 
 a little before (v. 354), seems from the description to have 
 been a buckler. The aegis appears to have been really the 
 goat's skin used, as well as the skins of other animals, as a 
 belt to support the shield. When so used it would usually 
 be .fastened on the right shoulder, and would partially 
 envelope the chest as it passed obliquely round in front 
 and behind to be attached to the shield under the left arm. 
 Hence, by transference, it would be employed to denote at 
 times the shield which it supported, and at other times a 
 lorica or cuirass) the purpose of which it in part served. 
 Illustrations of the assumption of the regis by the Roman 
 emperors may be seen in ancient statues and cameos. 
 
 ^EGISTHUS, in Ancient History, was the son of Thy- 
 estes by his own daughter Pelopea, who to conceal her 
 shame exposed him in the woods. Some say he was taken 
 up by a shepherd and suckled by a goat ; whence he was 
 called jEgisthus. After he grew up he was recognised by 
 his father, and on the death of the latter he became king 
 of Mycenae. He did not join the expedition against Troy; 
 and after the departure of the expedition he seduced 
 Clytemnestra, the wife of Agamemnon, and lived with hei 
 during the siege of Troy. Afterwards, with her assistant 
 he slew her husband, and reigned seven years in Mycenaa 
 He was slain, together with Clytemnestra, by Orestes.
 
 182 
 
 M G O— /EOL 
 
 jEGOSPOTAMI, in Ancient Geography, a small river in 
 the Tbracian Chersonesus, running south-east, and falling 
 into the Hellespont to the north of Sestos, — with a town 
 of the samo name, and a station or road for ships, at its 
 mouth. Here the Athenians under Conon, through the 
 fault of his colleague Philocles, received a signal overthrow 
 from the Lacedemonians under Lysander (b.c. 405), which 
 involved the taking of Athens, and put an end to the 
 Peloponnesian war. The town does not appear to have 
 existed till after the date of the battle. 
 
 jELFRIC, "the Grammarian," as he has been called, is 
 one of the most voluminous of our old English writers 
 before the Conquest. He flourished at the latter end of 
 the 10th century and the beginning of the 11th. Of his 
 personal history little can be learned, and hi3 birth and 
 death are alike involved in obscurity. We know that he 
 was a pupil of Ethelwold, the friend of Dunstan, at Abing- 
 don. On Ethelwold'3 advancement to the see of "Win- 
 chester, jElfric accompanied him, and filled the office of 
 chief instructor in the diocese. For the use of his scholars 
 he wrote his Latin and English Grammar and Glossary and 
 his Colloquium. The last of these is in Latin, with an 
 old English interlinear translation, in which the Latin is 
 rendered word for word. It is interesting for its account 
 of ancient manners, and shows that /Elfric made use of the 
 conversational method in his teaching. The words in his 
 Glossary are not arranged alphabetically, but grouped 
 together into classes. jElfric afterwards removed to Cerne 
 Abbey, in Dorsetshire, where he composed his Homilies, 
 the work on which his fame as an author chiefly depends. 
 They are 80 in number, and were edited by Thorpe in 
 1844-46 for the iElfric Society. In composing them, 
 /Elfric drew largely from the fathers. Their style is very 
 Bimple and pleasing, and obscure words are carefully 
 avoided in order to adapt them to the capacity even of the 
 most ignorant. Subsequent writers made great use of 
 them, and not a few are to be found unabridged in the 
 transition (semi-Saxon) English of the succeeding centuries. 
 They excited great attention about the time of the Refor- 
 mation, and were appealed to — especially the " Paschal 
 Homily" — to prove that the doctrines of the English 
 Church before the Conquest were at variance with those 
 held by the Church of Rome. Among jEKric's other 
 works may be mentioned his Treatise on the Old and New 
 Testaments, and his Abridgment of the Pentateuch and the 
 Book of Job. Of the rest of his life we have little on 
 which we can rely. He attained to the dignity of abbot, 
 but he seems to be' a different person horn /Elfric, 
 archbishop of Canterbury (99^-1006), with whom he is 
 sometimes confounded. 
 
 jELIA CAPITOLINA, a name given to the city built by 
 the Emperor Hadrian, a.d. 134, near the spot where the 
 ancient Jerusalem stood, which he found in ruins when he 
 visited the eastern parts of the Roman empire. A Roman 
 colony was settled here, aud a temple was dedicated to 
 Jupiter Capitolinus. Hence the name Capitolina, to which 
 Hadrian prefixed that of his own family. 
 
 jELLANUS, Claudius, born at Praeneste, in Italy. He 
 taught rhetoric at Rome, under the Emperor Alexander 
 Severus, according to Perizonius, but more probably under 
 Hadrian. HewassurtiamedM<Ai'yXcocrcro9,"Honey-tongued," 
 on account of the ease and accuracy with which he spoke 
 and wrote Greek ; and he was also named " the Sophist," from 
 bis being a teacher of rhetoric. He loved retirement, and 
 devoted himself to study. He. greatly admired and studied 
 Plato, Aristotle, Isocrates, Plutarch, Homer, Anacreon, 
 Archilochus, &c. ; aud, though a Roman, gives preference 
 to the writers of the Greek nation, and employs the Greek 
 an image in his works. His curious and entertaining work 
 mtitlcd Varitl Hustoria has been frequently republished, as 
 
 well as his treatise De A'atura Animaliunu A very useful 
 edition of the latter was published by Schneider, at Leipsic, 
 in 1784, in 8vo; another at Jena, in 1832, by Fr. Jacobs: 
 The collected edition of his works, by Gesner, 1556, fol., 
 contains another work ascribed to him, named Epistolce 
 Ruslicce. 
 
 .K.UILIUS, Taulus, the name of a celebrated family 
 of the ^Emilia Gens. See Paulus. 
 
 jEMILIUS, Paulus, or Paolo Emilio, a celebrated histo- 
 rian, born at Verona, who obtained such reputation in Italy 
 that he was invited into France by the cardinal of Bourbon, 
 in the reign of Charles VIII., in order to write the history 
 of the kings of France in Latin, and was presented to a 
 canonry in Notre Dame. He enjoyed the patronage and 
 support of Louis XII. He died at Paris on the 5th of 
 May 1529. His work entitled De Rebus gestis Francontm 
 was translated into French by Renard in 1581, and haa 
 also been translated into Italian and German. 
 
 ^ENEAS, in Fabulous History, a Trojan prince, the son 
 of Venus and Anchises. He plays a conspicuous part in 
 the Iliad, and is represented, along with Hector, as tho 
 chief bulwark of the Trojans. Homer always speaks of 
 ./Eneas and his descendants as destined to reign at Troy 
 after the destruction of Priam and his house. Virgil has 
 chosen him as the hero of his great epic, and -the story of 
 the ^Eneid, though not only at variance with other tradi- 
 tions, but inconsistent with itself, can never lose its placa 
 as a biography of the mythical founder of the Latin power. 
 ^Eneas is described in the JZneid as escaping from .the 
 destruction of Troy, bearing his aged father on his 
 shoulders, carrying in one hand his household gods, while) 
 with the other he leads his little son Ascanius or lulus. 
 His wife Creiisa is separated from them and lost in tho 
 tumult. After a perilous voyage he lands in Africa, and is 
 kindly received by Dido, queen of Carthage; who, on his 
 forsaking her to seek a new home, destroys herself. Again 
 escaping the dangers of the sea, he arrives in Italy, where 
 he lands in Latium, and forms an alliance with Latham, 
 the king of the country, marries his daughter Lavinia, and 
 founds a city which he calls, after her, Lavinium. Turnus, 
 king of the Rutuli, a rejected suitor of Lavinia, makes war 
 on Latinos, and both are slain in battle. The story of 
 the JZneid ends with the death of Turnus. According to 
 Livy, on the death of Latinus, /Eneas assumes the sove- 
 reignty of Latium, and tho Trojan and Latin powers aro 
 united in one nation. After a reign of three years, jEneaa 
 falls in a battle with the Rutuli, assisted by Mezeutius, 
 king of Etruria, and is supposed to be carried up into 
 heaven, because his body cannot be found. After his death 
 or disappearance he receives divine honours. 
 
 jENEAS SYLVIUS, Pope. See Pius II. 
 
 jEOLLE LNSULjE, the modern Lipari Islands, a 
 group of islands between Italy and Sicily. They are so 
 called from ^Eolus, the god of the winds, who was supposed 
 to rule over them; but they are also frequently termed 
 Insula Vulcanice, or Hephxstia;, from their volcanic erup- 
 tions, and Imulx lApareorum, from Lipara (modern Lipari ), 
 the chief of the group. According to Pliny, the other 
 islands a.reHiera, now Vulcano; Strongyle, now Stromboli; 
 Didyme, now Salina ; Pho?nicusa,vow Fdicudi ; Euonymus, 
 probably Panama; and Ericusa,now Alicudi. Besides these 
 there are several small islets. Homer mentions only one 
 ./Eolian island (Od. x. 1). 
 
 jEOLIAN HARP, named from jEolus, gou of the wind, 
 a musical instrument consisting of cat-gut strings stretched 
 over a wooden sound-box. When exposed to a current of 
 air, the strings produce a variety of pleasing harmonic 
 sounds in strange succession and combination. 
 
 iEOLIS, or /Eolia, in Ancient Geography, a country of 
 Asia Minor, settled by colonies of yEolian Greeks. The
 
 M L — 2E R A 
 
 183 
 
 name in its limited sense was applied to the coast ex- 
 tending from the river Heno'13 to the promontory of 
 Lectum, on the north side cf the entrance to the Gulf of 
 Adraruyttium, and lying between Ionia to the S. and 
 Troas to the N. In its wider acceptation it comprehended 
 Troas and the coasts of the Hellespont to the Propontis, 
 where there were likewise several .Eolian colonies. 
 
 .iEOLUS, in Heathen Mythology, the god and father of 
 the winds, was variously represented as the son of Hip- 
 potes, or of Neptune by a daughter of Hippotes, or of 
 Jupiter. In the Odyssey he is mentioned as the king of 
 the ^Eolian isle to whom Jupiter had given the super- 
 intendence and distribution of the winds. Later poets 
 make turn the god and father of the winds, who dwelt in 
 one of the JEohun islands — according to some in Strom- 
 boli, according to others in Lipan, wnile others place his 
 residence at Rhegium in Italy. He is represented as 
 having authority over the winds, which he confined in a 
 vast cavern. Strabo and some other writers consider him 
 to have had a real existence; and derive the fable of his 
 power over the winds from his skill in meteorology and the 
 management of ships. 
 
 Hie vasto rex .Solus arirroy 
 Luctantes ventos tempestatesque sonoras 
 Imperio premit, ac vinclis et carcere frenat. 
 Illi indignantes magno cum murmure montis 
 Circum claustra fremunt ; celsa sedet iEolus arce 
 Sceptra tenens, mollitque animos, et temperat iras j 
 Ni faciat, maria ac terras ccelumque profundum 
 Quippe ferant rapidi sectun, vsnantque per auras. 
 
 u£ncid, lib. L 52. 
 
 Here .aEolus, in cavern vast, 
 
 "With bolt and barrier fetters fast 
 
 Rebellious storm and howling blast. 
 
 They with the rock's reverberant roar 
 
 Chafu blustering round their prison door. 
 
 He, throned on high, the sceptre sways, 
 
 Controls their moods, their wrath allays. 
 
 Break but that sceptre, sea and land, 
 And heaven's etherial deep, 
 
 Before them they would whirl like sand, 
 And through the void air sweep. 
 
 Conington's Translation. 
 
 Through Hippotes, ^Eolus is usually represented as de- 
 scended from iEolus, One of the sons of Hellen, and the 
 mythological ancestor of the iEolian tribes. 
 
 ^EON (alu>v), a space of time, was often used in Greek 
 to denote indefinite or infinite duration ; and hence, by 
 metonymy, for a being that exists for ever. In the latter 
 sense it was chiefly used by the 1 Gnostic sects to denote 
 uhose eternal beings or manifestations which emanated 
 from the one incomprehensible and ineffable God See 
 Gnosticism. 
 
 .iEPINUS, Franz Mjcria Ulrich Theodor, a distin- 
 guished German natural philosopher, was born at Rostock 
 in Saxony ; n 1724, and died at Dorpat in August 1802. 
 He was descended from John .Epinus (6. 1499 — d. 
 1553), the first to adopt the Greek form (ahravos) of the 
 family name, a leading theologian and controversialist 
 at the time of the Reformation. After studying medicine 
 Tor a time, Francis iEpinus devoted himself to the physical 
 and mathematical sciences, in which he soon gained such 
 distinction that he was admitted a member of the Berlin 
 Academy of Sciences. In 1757 he settled in St Peters- 
 burg as member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences and 
 professor of physics, labouring there and pursuing his 
 favourite studies with great success till his death. He 
 enjoyed the special favour of the Empress Catharine LL, 
 who appointed him tutor to her son Paul, and endeavoured, 
 without success, to establish normal schools throughout the 
 empire under his direction, Epinus is best known by his 
 'esearches, theoretical and experimental, in electricity and' 
 ffl'ignetism. His principal work, Teutamen Theories Elec- 
 
 tricitatis et Magnetimxi, published at St Petersburg in 
 1759, may be regarded as the first systematic and suc- 
 cessful attempt to apply mathematical reasoning to these 
 subjects. Adopting Franklin's theory of positive and 
 negative electricities, or electric forces, he investigated the 
 relations of these fully, and especially the conditions of 
 their equilibrium; and many of the conclusions he arrived 
 at do not depend for their value and importance on the 
 theory of Franklin, Epinus himself extended the theory, 
 holding that -the particles of the electric fluid repel each 
 other, attract the particles of all bodies, and are attracted 
 by them, with a force inversely proportional to the dis- 
 tance ; that the fluid resides in the pores of the surfaces of 
 bodies, moving readily through some, called conductors or 
 non-electrics, and with difficulty through others; and that 
 electric phenomena are produced either by the approach of 
 bodies unequally charged, or by the unequal distribution 
 of the fluid in the same body. He propounded a kindred 
 theory of magnetism, a magnetic fluid being supposed to 
 exist corresponding to the electric fluid, but .acting on, 
 and acted on by, the particles of iron only. It is to be 
 added that .Epinus was the first to perceive and define, 
 with any measure of clearness, the affinity between elec- 
 tricity and magnetism. There is a remarkable similarity 
 between portions of the work above named and a paper 
 by Cavendish — the result of independent investigations — • 
 given in the Philosophical Transactions for 1771. In 
 1787 the Abbe Haiiy published an exposition of ^Epinus's 
 theories. .Epinus did not confine himself to one or two 
 departments of natural science. He published a treatise, 
 in 1762, On tlie Distribution of Heat at the Surface of the 
 Earth; and he was also the author of valuable memoirs on 
 different subjects in astronomy, mechanics, optics, meteor- 
 ology, and pure mathematics, contained in the journals of 
 the learned societies of St Petersburg and Berlin. Hi3 
 discussion of the effects of pcrallax in the transit of a 
 planet over the sun's' disc excited great interest, having 
 appeared (in 1764) between the dates of the two transits 
 of Venus that took place during last century. 
 
 iEQUI, an ancient and warlike people of- Italy, inhabit- 
 ing the upper valley of the Anio, who, in confederacy with the 
 Volsci, carried on a long series of hostilities with the early 
 Romans, but were finally subdued in the year 302 B.C. 
 
 iERARIAN.S, a class in ancient Rome, composed of 
 citizens who had suffered the severest kind of^degradatii i 
 the censors could inflict, but concerning whose exact posi- 
 tion we have no precise information. Though heavily 
 taxed, they did not enjoy the rights of citizenship beyond 
 their liberty and the general protection of the state. They 
 could not vote in assemblies or serve in the army, and 
 were deprived of and excluded from all posts of honour 
 and profit. Romans of the higher classes, as well as tho 
 plebeians, were liable to become jErarians. The name may 
 be derived from ces, eerie, money, since they were mere 
 tax-payers ; or, which is more probable, it may refer to the 
 list of them which the censors gave in to the cerarium u r 
 public treasury. 
 
 jERARITJM, the public treasury at ancient Rome. It 
 contained the moneys and accounts of the state, and also 
 the standards of the legions, the public laws engraven on 
 brass, the decrees of the senate, and other papers and 
 registers of importance. The place where these public 
 treasures were deposited, from the time of the establish- 
 ment of the republic, was the temple of Saturn, or the 
 eastern slope of the Capitoline hill. In addition .to the 
 common treasury, supported by the general taxes and 
 charged with the ordinary expenditure, there was a reserve 
 treasury, also in tie temple of Saturn, the cerarium sanc- 
 tum (or sanctius), maintained chiefly by a tax of 5 per cent, 
 on the value of all manumitted slaves, which was not to
 
 184 
 
 A E R — A E K 
 
 be Lad recourse to 01 even entered, except in the extreme 
 necessity of the state. Under the emperors the senate 
 continued to have at least the nominal management of the 
 ctrarium, while the emperor had a separate exchequer, 
 called thefiscus. But after a time, as the power of the 
 emperors increased and their jurisdiction extended till tho 
 senate existed but in form and name, this distinction vir- 
 tually ceased. Besides creating the Jiscus, Augustus also 
 established a military treasury (oerarium militare), con- 
 taining all moneys raised for and appropriated to the main- 
 tenance of the army. The later emperors had a separate 
 ctrariitm privatum, containing the monies allotted for 
 their own use, distinct from the Jiscus, which they ad- 
 ministered in the interests of the empire. 
 
 AERATED WATERS. Waters impregnated with an 
 unusually large proportion of carbonic acid, or other gaseous 
 substances, occur abundantly in springs throughout the 
 world ; and, in addition to their gaseous constituents, 
 generally hold in solution a large percentage of different 
 salts. The manufacture of aerated waters arose out of the 
 attempt to imitate these by artificial means, but till about 
 the beginning of the present century such efforts did not 
 meet with great success. The earliest method of producing 
 acidulated water was that which still obtains in the pre- 
 paration of effervescing draughts, such as are made from 
 " Seidlitz " powders. These powders consist of separate 
 portions of sodium bicarbonate and tartaric acid, which, 
 on being dissolved together in water, form sodium tartrate 
 and liberate carbonic acid, which bubbles up through the 
 water. In recent years " granular " effervescent pre- 
 parations have been introduced, in which the acid and 
 salt are mixed in a dry state, and produce their reaction 
 on being dissolved. The popular preparation termed effer- 
 vescent citrate of magnesia, and several others under a 
 variety of names, consist essentially of sodium bicarbonate 
 and tartaric acid, to which a little citric acid is sometimes 
 added. A limit, however, is set to the use of waters so 
 aerated on account of the purgative action of the alkaline 
 earths they necessarily contain. 
 
 In the manufacture of common aerated waters the car- 
 bonic acid is prepared apart from tho pure water in which 
 it is to be dissolved. There are essentially only two 
 methods on which the manufacture is conducted, although 
 there is an endless variety in the apparatus used. In the 
 first process, which may be distinguished as the method of 
 chemical pressure, the carbonic acid gas saturates the water 
 by its own pressure, passing directly from the chamber in 
 which it is produced and purified into the cylinder or 
 cylinders containing the water to be aerated. The small 
 apparatus frequently used in private houses and hospitals 
 may be taken as an illustration of this method. The most 
 common form consists of two strong 
 glass globes A and B, protected by 
 netting in case of breakage. Into the 
 globe A are placed the materials for 
 generating carbonic acid, usually in 
 this case tartaric acid and sodium bi- 
 carbonate. When charged with these 
 materials, a metal tube C, accurately 
 fitted to the aperture in the globe, is 
 inserted. The globe B is inverted and 
 filled with water, and in this position 
 the globe A is screwed tightly up by 
 the joint D, the metal tube reaching to 
 near the top of globe B. On placing 
 the apparatus upright, a proportion of 
 water escapes through the metal tube 
 into globe A, acta on the charge it con- 
 tains, and evolves carbonic acid, which passes up the tube 
 and saturates the water in B. As the pressure of the gas 
 
 augments, the quantity absorbed increases, and when fully 
 saturated the aerated water may be drawn off by the cock 
 E. In manufacturing on a large scale, a combination of 
 globes or cylinders is used for producing continuous 
 action, and less expensive sources of carbonic acid than 
 sodium bicarbonato and tartaric acid are employed. The 
 second or mechanical pressure process is that generally 
 followed in the manufacture in this country. In this 
 process the gas is prepared in a lead chamber by the 
 action of sulphuric acid on chalk, and is washed by pass- 
 ing through water into the gas-holder in which it is col- 
 lected. By tho action of a force-pump, water, ''filtered 
 when necessary, and carbonic acid, are pressed, in due 
 proportions, into a very strong copper cylinder, tinned 
 internally, termed a receiver or saturator, in which, an 
 agitator is kept revolving. A pressure gauge is attached 
 to the receiver, and when the index indicates from 120 
 to 140 lb pressure per square inch, what is termed 
 aerated water, and very frequently does duty for soda- 
 water, is ready for drawing off at the bottling apparatus. 
 Real soda-water is best prepared by adding to the water 
 before aeration a proportion of sodium bicarbonate equal 
 to about 30 or 36 grains per pint of water. Potash-water, 
 Seltzer, lithia, Carrara, bromide of potassium, and a host 
 of other waters, are similarly prepared, the various salts 
 being used in different proportions, according to the taste 
 and experience of manufacturers. Lemonade, and other 
 aerated drinks flavoured with fruit syrups, have the pro- 
 portion of S3TUP placed in the bottle to which simple 
 aerated water taken from a receiver, indicating a pressure 
 of 80 to 100 B) per square inch, is added. ■ From a 
 syrup composed of 14 lb of sugar, 2^ oz. of tartaric acid, 
 3| oz. of citric acid, and 4J drachms of essence of lemon, 
 dissolved in 2i gallons of water, 30 dozen bottles of an 
 excellent quality of lemonade can be prepared. On ac- 
 count of the rapidity with which the gas escapes on the 
 removal of pressure, special arrangements are required for 
 the bottling and corking, processes, and the frequent ex- 
 plosion of bottles necessitates guards to protect the bottler. 
 A dexterous bottler will fill and cork 5000 bottles in ten 
 hours. The consumption of aerated waters, especially in 
 hot climates, is very great. 
 
 AEROE, or Akeoe, an island of Denmark, in the Little 
 Belt, lying 7£ miles S. of Funen, between Alsen and 
 Langeland. It is of an irregular triangular shape, about 
 15 miles long and 8 broad at the widest points, with a 
 hilly surface, but a fertile and well-cultivated soil. Popu- 
 lation, 10,200 ; chief town, Aeroeskjobing, on the east 
 coast. 
 
 AEROLITE (arjp, air, and Aitfos, a stone), a stony or 
 metallic body,' which, falling through the atmosphere, 
 reaches the earth's surface. These meteoric stones gene- 
 rally contain a cpnsiderable proportion of iron ; indeed, 
 the iron in some of these substances exceeds the siliceous 
 matter, and some have then given them the name of mete- 
 oric irons. A remarkable aerolite that fell at jEgospotami, 
 in 467 B.C., was, according to Pliny, to be seen in his day, 
 and was then as large as a waggon. In 1492 one fell at 
 Ensisheim, in Alsace, that weighed 270 ft. j and, not 
 to mention others, one of 12 ft weight is reported to 
 have fallen in California in August 1873, which penetrated 
 the earth to the depth of 8 feet, and when dug up was 
 so hot that it could not be handled. Aerolites often reach 
 the earth in groups or showers, as at L'Aigle, in Normandy, 
 in 1803; at New Concord, Ohio, in May 1860; and at 
 Dhurmsala, in the Punjaub, in July the same year. The 
 area on which a shower of aerolites falls is usually ellipti- 
 cal, the largest stones being near one end of the ellipse, 
 the major axis of which extends in some cases to a length 
 of eighteen or twenty miles. See Mbteob.
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 PLATE I, 
 
 VONTcnr.t/KH'S DALl.OUIT 
 
 T* \nCBARDi liAJJ.OOM 
 
 H-(Vr«T»r»« I* BI«nrhiUuU P*JJoto 
 
 A The &ali*m .n,i,y> *f Lu'rrcA 26Z+*. 
 
 tn *««^«"ai>*^W-„A« £-#« 
 B Th* CirtutpouJtJ by L>ni ,r^J>A al fo^, 
 
 nvm a* Sjob C 
 DUDPft/ Wtnpt mercJ Sy&uJ^-wtrl- £ 
 T AAnrrAut* *r C-Ur„'la u *-,** tfu fji-/+ 
 
 ,d Ti'bt f*tumru(va/if -»iA tA* truidt 
 irr'rfis Jiv/Lten 
 
 f.UUfKKlN's PARaCBVT* 
 
 GAKNKRIX'S PARACHUTE 
 
 tOSARDiS DAJ.LDOX 
 
 CRARJ.ES A ROBERTS DaXI.OOK 
 
 *> s » is «0 m m 
 
 r^cvrio^ou e^iTAnvfC* *hth t dttto* 
 
 r - *&x-l&r^z Sy-
 
 185 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 IN every stage of society men nave sought, by the combi- 
 nation of superior skill aDd ingenuity, to attain those 
 distinct and obvious advantages which nature has conferred 
 on the different tribes of animals, by endowing them with a 
 peculiar structure and a peculiar force of organs. The 
 rudest savage learns from his very infancy to imitate the 
 swimming of a fish, and plays on the surface of the water 
 
 jXnth. agility and perseverance. But an art so confined in 
 its exercise, and requiring such a degree of bodily exertion, 
 could not be considered of much avail. It must have been 
 soon perceived (even if the discoveries of the arts of nata- 
 tion and navigation were not absolutely simultaneous), that 
 the fatigue ol impulsion through the water could be greatly 
 diminished by the support and floating of some light sub- 
 Btance. The trunk of a tree would bear its rude proprietor 
 along the stream ; or, hollowed out into a canoe and fur- 
 nished with paddles, it might enable him even to traverse 
 a river. From this simple fabric the step was not great 
 to the construction of a boat or barge, impelled by the 
 force of oars. But it was a great advance to fix masts and 
 apply sails to the vessel, and thus substitute the power of 
 wind for that of human labour. The adventurous sailor, 
 instead of plying on the narrow sea3 or creeping timidly 
 along the shore, could now launch with confidence into the 
 wide ocean. Navigation, in its most cultivated form, may 
 be fairly regarded as one of the sublimest triumphs of 
 human genius, industry, courage, and perseverance. 
 
 Having by his skill achieved the conquest of the waters 
 that encompass the habitable globe, it was natural for man 
 to desire likewise the mastery of the air in which we 
 breathe. In ad ages, therefore, great ingenuity has been 
 expended in efforts at flying, all of which have as yet re- 
 sulted in failure. But the analogy between sailing on the 
 water and sailing in the air is not so close as many enthu-. 
 siasts have supposed it to be. There is a general resem- 
 blance, inasmuch as in both cases the propulsion must be 
 made by means of a fluid. But in the one case the fluid 
 is inelastic, in the other elastic ; and the physicist or mathe- 
 matician knows how vastly different are the properties of 
 liquids, even in fundamental points, from those of aeriform 
 or gaseous bodies. Again, in the one case the vessel floats 
 on the surface of the water, in the other it must float 
 totally immersed in the aerial fluid. A ship, while sailing, 
 is acted on by two fluids — the water supports it and the 
 air propels it ; but a ship sailing in the air would be only 
 under the action of the one fluid that surrounds it on all 
 sides. These few considerations — and many more might 
 be added — indicate the essential distinctions between the 
 two cases ; and a very little thought shows that it is not so 
 remarkable as it at first sight appears, that the invention 
 of the art of sailing on the water should be lost in prehis- 
 toric antiquity, while that of sailing in the air is not a 
 century old ; and that while navigation is one of the most 
 perfect of the arts, the power of directing a body floating 
 in the air still remains unattained. Many have argued, 
 
 I that because navigation is an accomplished fact, therefore 
 the navigation of the air must be possible ; and without 
 denying the truth of the conclusion, it is worth while at 
 the outset of this article to point out the fallacy of the 
 reasoning. It is true that there is no reason to despair of 
 the attainment of aerial navigation, as the history of inven- 
 tion and science records many victories as great and at one 
 time apparently as far off ; still, it is as well to notice how 
 little assistance the old discovery affords towards the solution 
 of the new : it may, indeed, even be that progress has been 
 retarded by the false analogy, for we may feel pretty certain 
 
 that if ever the air is navigated, it will be by ships pre- 
 senting little resemblance to those that traverse the ocean. 
 
 The subject of aerostation is scarcely ever alluded to by 
 the classical writers, and the fable of Daedalus and Icarus, 
 and the dove of Archytas, form almost all we have to re- 
 cord in relation to flying previous to the dark ages. Dae- 
 dalus, an Athenian, killed his nephew Talus through 
 jealousy of his talents, and fled with his son Icarus to Crete, 
 where he built the celebrated labyrinth for Mino3, the 
 king. But having offended Minos, so that he was im- 
 prisoned by him, he made wings of feathers, cemented with 
 wax, for himself and his son, so that they might escape by 
 flight. He gave his son directions to fly neither too low 
 nor too high, but to follow him. Icarus, however, be- 
 coming excited, forgot his father's advice, and rose so high 
 that the heat of the sun melted the wax of his wings, and 
 he fell into the sea near Samos, the island of Icaria and 
 the Icarian sea being named after him. Daedalus accom- 
 plished his flight in safety. (Ovid, Met. lib. viiL Fab. iii) 
 The explanation of the myth may be, as has been supposed, 
 that Daedalus used sails, which, till then, according to 
 Pausanius and Palaephatus, were unknown, and so was 
 enabled to escape from Minos' galleys, which were only 
 provided with oars ; and that Icarus was drowned near the 
 island Icaria. But the whole story of Daedalus is so fan- 
 ciful a romance, that it is scarcely worth while even to 
 speculate upon what the infinitesimal fragment of truth that 
 lay at the bottom of it may have been. 
 
 Archytas of Tarentum was a well-known geometer and 
 astronomer, and he is apostrophised by Horace (Ode 28, 
 Kb. i.) The account of his flying pigeon or dove we owe 
 to Auius Gellius (Nodes Attkas), who says " that it was the 
 model of a dove or a pigeon formed in wood, and so con- 
 trived as by a certain mechanical art and power to fly : so 
 nicely was it balanced by weights, and put in motion by 
 hidden and enclosed air." Gellius .gives as. his authorities 
 "many men of eminence among the Greeks," whom he 
 does not mention by name, and Favorinus the philosopher. 
 
 Archytas thus has been regarded as holding to aeronau- 
 tics much about the same position as Archimedes does to 
 the mechanical sciences ; but while the claim of the latter 
 rests on real discoveries and great contributions to know- 
 ledge, the former owes his position merely to an unsup- 
 ported and untrustworthy tradition.. When the fire-balloon 
 was invented, it was only natural that many should see in 
 the " hidden and enclosed air " of Archytas' dove a pre- 
 vious discovery of the hot-air balloon. It is quite possible 
 that Archytas may have rarefied the air in his dove by 
 heat, and so made it ascend; but in this case it certainly 
 could not have been made of wood. But if the dove ever 
 was made to appear to fly, it is much the more probable that 
 this effect was produced, as in the scenes at theatres, by 
 means of fine strings or wires invisible to the spectators. 
 
 The ancients seem to have been convinced of the im- 
 possibility of men being able to fly, and they appear to 
 have made no attempts in this direction at alL The power 
 of flying was attributed only to the most powerful of. the 
 divinities ; and it was regarded as only secondary to Jupi- 
 ter's prerogative of flashing the lightning and hurling the 
 thunderbolt 
 
 The history of aerostatics in the Middle Ages, like that of 
 every other subject relating even remotely to science or 
 knowledge of any kind, is little better than a record of the 
 falsehoods or chimeras circulated by impostors or eathu» 
 siasts. Truth was completely obscured by ignorance and 
 fanaticism, and every person of superior talents aud acquire.
 
 186 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 [rahly EXPBIUMENTS. 
 
 ments was beneved to deal in magic, and to perform his 
 feats of skill chiefly through the secret aid granted him by 
 the prince of darkness; and in a later and comparatively 
 recent period, those wretched creatures whom the unfeeling 
 credulity of our ancestors, particularly during the prevalence 
 of religious fanaticism, stigmatised and murdered under 
 the denomination of witches, were supposed to work all 
 their enchantments, to change their shapes at will, and to 
 transport themselves through the air with the swiftness of 
 thought, by a power derived from their infernal master, to 
 whom was thus assigned the privilege of conferring the gift 
 of aerial navigation upon his servants. 
 
 During the darkness of the Middle Ages every one at 
 all distinguished for his knowledge in physics was gene- 
 rally reputed to have obtained the power of flying in the 
 air. Friar Bacon did not scruple to claim the invention ; 
 and the credulity and indulgent admiration of some authors 
 have lent to these pretensions more credit than they really 
 deserved. Any one who take's the trouble to examine the 
 passages of Bacon's obscure and ponderous works will find 
 that the propositions advanced by him are seldom foi 
 on reality, but ought rather to be considered as the illu- 
 sions of a lively fancy. Albcrtus Magnus, who flourishod 
 in the first half of the 13th century, was reputed to have 
 discovered the art; and to give an idea of the state of the 
 physical sciences at that time, it is worth while to quote 
 the following recipes from his De Mirabilibus Naturae: — 
 " Tako one pound of sulphur, two pounds of willow-carbon, 
 six pounds of rock-salt ground very fine in a marble mortar; 
 place, when you please, in a covering made of flying papy- 
 rus to produce thunder. The covering, in order to ascend 
 and float away, should be long, graceful, well filled with 
 this fine powder; but to produce thunder, the covering 
 should be short, thick, and half full." (Quoted in Astra 
 Castra, p. 25.) Regiomontanus, the first real mathema- 
 tician after the partial revival of learning, is said, like 
 Archytas, to have formed an artificial dove, which flew 
 before the Emperor Charles V. at his public entry into 
 Nuremberg; but the date of Regiomontanus' death shows 
 this to have been impossible. 
 
 Attempts at flying have, as a rule, been made by a some- 
 what low class of projectors, who have generally united 
 some little share of ingenuity to a smattering of mechanics. 
 At the beginning of the 16th century an Italian alchemist 
 visited Scotland, and was collated by James IV. to' the 
 abbacy of Tnngland, in Gallcvay. Having constructed a 
 set of wings, composed of various plumage, he undertook 
 from the walls of Stirling Castle to fly through the air to 
 France. This feat he actually attempted, but he soon came 
 to the ground, and broke his thigh-bone by the violence of 
 the fall — an accident he explained by asserting that the 
 feathers of some fowls were employed in his wings, and 
 that these had an affinity for the dunghill, whereas, if 
 composed solely of eagles' feathers, they would have been 
 attracted to the air. This anecdote has furnished to 
 Dunbar, the Scottish poet, the subject of one of his rude 
 satires. In 1617, Fleyder, rector of the grammar school at 
 Tubingen, delivered a lecture on flying, which he published 
 eleven years afterwards. A poor monk, however, ambitious 
 to reduce the theory to practice, provided himself with 
 wings; but his machinery broke down, and falling to the 
 ground, he broke his legs and perished. Bishop Wilkins 
 (Mathematical Magick, 1648) says it was related that "a 
 certain English monk called Elmerus, about the Confessor's 
 time," flew by means of wings from a tower a distance 
 of more than a furlong; that another person flew from 
 St Mark's steeple at Venice; and another, at Nuremberg. 
 He also quotes Busbequius to the effect that a Turk also 
 attempted something of the kind at Constantinople. It 
 would probably not be very difficult to make a long list of 
 
 sucli narrations, in some or which the experimenter is 
 related to huve been successful, and in others to have failed; 
 but tho evidence is in no case very good, and we may feel 
 certain that all the traditions of attempts with a successful 
 issue are false. 
 
 In Borelli's posthumous work, De Motu Animalium, pub- 
 lished at Rome in 1680-81, he calculated the enormouo 
 strength of the pectoral muscles in birds; and hi* pronosition 
 cciv. (vol. L pp. 322-326) is entitled " Eat impossibile, ut 
 homines propriis viribus artificiose volare poe*int," in which 
 he clearly points out the impossibility of man being able by 
 his muscular strength to give motion to wings of sufficient 
 extent to keep him suspended in the air. But Borelli did 
 not, of course, as has sometimes been stated, demonstrate 
 the impossibility of man's flying otherwise than merely by 
 means of his own muscular power. 
 
 A very slight consideration* of the matter shows that, 
 although the muscles of man may not be of sufficient 
 strength to enable him to use wings, this objection does not 
 apply against the possibility of making a flying chariot in 
 which the motive power should be produced mechanically as 
 in a watch, or a boat to float in the atmosphere. Both these 
 projects have therefore always engaged tho attention of 
 abler men than has the art of flying, and it was only the 
 ignorance of the nature and force of the atmosphere, as 
 well as of the properties of all aeriform bodies, that caused 
 so long a time to elapse before the invention of the balloon. 
 
 Albert of Saxony, a monk of the order of St Augustine, 
 and a commentator on the physical works of Aristotle, 
 seems first to have comprehended (though in a very vague 
 and erroneous manner) the principles on which a body 
 might be made to float in the atmosphere. Adopting, of 
 course, Aristotelian views with regard to tho' nature of the 
 elements, he considered that, as fire is more attenuated, 
 and floats above our atmosphere, therefore a small portion 
 of this ethereal substance, enclosed in a light hollow globe, 
 would raise it to a certain height and keep it suspended 
 in the air; and that, if more air were introduced, the 
 globe would sink like a ship when water enters by a leak. 
 Long afterwards Francis Mendoza, a Portuguese Jesuit, 
 who died in 1626, at the age of forty-six, embraced this 
 theory, and he held that the combustible nature of fire was 
 no real obstacle, as its extreme levity and the extension of 
 the air would prevent it from supporting inflammation. 
 Casper Schott, also a Jesuit, adopted the same specula- 
 tion, only that he replaced tho fire by the thin ethereal 
 substance which he believed floated above our atmospl'. its , 
 but, of course, the difficulty of procuring any of this ether 
 was a sufficient obstacle. 
 
 Similar notions have been revived at different times. 
 They were likewise often blended with the alchemical tenets 
 so generally received in tho course of the 15th, 16th, and 
 part of the 17th centuries. Thus Schott quotes Lauretus 
 Lauras to the effect that if swans' eggs or leather balls be 
 filled with nitre, sulphur, or quicksilver, and bo exposed to 
 the sun, they will ascend. It was also believed that dew 
 was of celestial origin, being shed by the stars, and that it 
 was drawn up again in the course of the day to heaven by 
 the heat of the sun. Thus Lauras states that hens' eggs 
 filled with dew and exposed to the solar heat will rise. 
 He was so grossly ignorant, however, of the principles of 
 motion, that it is not worth while even to allude to his 
 other assertions. 
 
 Cyrano de Bergerac (born 1620) wrote a philosophical 
 romance entitled Histoire Comique des Estate et Empire de 
 la Lune, and Lea Estats et Empire du Soleil (from which 
 Swift is supposed to have derived the idea of writing 
 portions of Gulliver's Travels). To equip himself for per- 
 forming the journey to the moon, the French traveller 
 fastens round his body a multitude of very thin flasks 
 
 Borelli 
 
 shows 'th 
 impossi- 
 bility of 
 man Byh 
 by tho ai 
 of wings. 
 
 Sailing I 
 the ait 
 
 Albert i 
 Baxouy 
 
 Franc* 
 Jleailoa 
 
 Caspet 
 Schovt 
 
 AlrVrai 
 
 notions 
 
 Laurcru* 
 
 LftU»U!> 
 
 -v>mai>;« 
 or Cyran 
 de Ber- 
 gerac.
 
 EARLY EXPERIMENTS.] 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 187 
 
 filled with the morning's dew; the heat of tne sun, by its 
 attractive power on the dew, raised him up to the middle 
 region of the atmosphere, whence, some of the flasks being 
 broken, the adventurer sank again to the ground. Other 
 aeronautical ideas occur in the romance. 
 
 Cardan proposed that ascensional power might be applied 
 as in a rocket; and one Honoratus Fabry has described a 
 huge apparatus, consisting of long tin pipes, worked by air 
 compressed by the action of fire. 
 
 The most noted scheme for navigating the air promul- 
 gated previously to 
 the successful ex- 
 periments of the 
 Montgolfiers,is due 
 to a Jesuit, Francis 
 Lana, and was pro- 
 posed by him in a 
 work entitled Pro- 
 dromo dell' Arte 
 Maestra, Brescia, 
 1670. His idea, 
 though useless and 
 unpractical in so 
 far that it could 
 never be carried 
 out, is yet deserv- 
 ing of notice, as 
 the principles in- 
 volved are sound; 
 and this can be 
 said of no earlier 
 attempt. His pro- 
 ject was to procure 
 four copper balls Lana s Aeronautical Machine. 
 
 of very large dimensions, yet so extremely thin that 
 after the air was exhausted f:om them they would be 
 lighter than the air displaced, and so would ris*e; and to 
 those four balls he proposed to attach a boat, with sails, 
 &c, and which would carry up a man. He submitted the 
 whole matter to calculation, and proposed that the globes 
 should be about 25 feet in diameter and -j-Jsth of an inch 
 in thickness; this would give from all four balls a total 
 ascensional force of about 1 200 lb, which would be quite 
 enough to raise the boat, sails, passengers, &c. But the 
 obvious objection to the whole scheme is, that it would be 
 quite impossible to construct a globe of so large a size and 
 of such small thickness which would even support its own 
 weight without falling to pieces if placed on the ground, 
 much less bear the external atmospheric pressure when the 
 internal air was removed. Lana himself noticed the latter 
 objection, but he thought that the spherical form of the 
 copper shell would, notwithstanding its extreme thinness, 
 enable it, after the exhaustion was effected, to sustain the 
 enormous pressure, which, acting equally on every point of 
 the surface, would tend to consolidate rather than to break 
 the metal. Of course this assumed the ball to be absolutely 
 spherical, a state of affaire as impossible as indifferent equi- 
 librium actually is. He proposed to exhaust the air from 
 the globes by attaching each to a tube 30 feet long, fitted 
 with a stopcock, and so produce a Torricellian vacuum. He 
 was thus apparently ignorant of the invention of the air-, 
 pump by Otto Guericke about 1650; and though his pro- 
 ject is noteworthy as the hydrostatics of it is correct, still 
 Lana displays his ignorance of philosophical facts known 
 in his day, quite as much as his originality; and his pro- 
 position has, since Montgolfier's discovery, received a greater 
 share of notice than it deserves. 
 
 So late as 1755, and not long before the invention of 
 balloons, a very fanciful scheme was proposed by Joseph 
 Allien, a Dominican friar, and professor of philosophy and 
 
 theology in the papal university of Avignon. This vision- 
 ary proposed to collect the diffuse air of the upper regions, 
 and to enclose it in a huge vessel extending more than a 
 mile every way, and intended to carry fifty-four times as 
 much weight as did Noah's ark. It is unnecessary to 
 notice at greater length this absurd chimera, which is 
 merely mentioned hero at all because it is sometimes re- 
 ferred to, though only on account of the magnitude of the 
 fantastic scheme. 
 
 It is proper here to remark, that nearly all the early pro- 
 jectors imagined that the atmosphere was of no great 
 height, and that it covered the earth like a shallow ocean, 
 having a well-defined boundary; and the aerial vessels 
 Which they proposed were intended to float on the surface 
 of this ocean, exactly as ships do on the sea, with their 
 upper portions in the ether or diffuse air, or whatever the 
 fluid might be, that lay above. And these ideas were, of 
 course, not dispelled till after the invention of the barometer 
 and the discovery of the law of the decrease of atmospheric 
 pressure with elevation. 
 
 Some writers have stated that Francis Bacon first pub- 
 lished the true principles of aeronautics. This assertion we 
 cannot help noticing, because it has really no foundation 
 except in the propensity, fostered by indolence, which 
 would gladly refer all the discov««es ever made to a few 
 great names. They mistake, indeed, the character of 
 Bacon who seek to represent him as an inventor. His claim 
 to immortality rests chiefly on the profound and compre- 
 hensive views which he took of the bearings of the different 
 parts of human knowlege; for it would be difficult to point 
 out a single fact or observation with which he enriched 
 the store of physical science. On the contrary, being very 
 deficient in mathematical learning, he disregarded or 
 rejected some of the noblest discoveries made in his own 
 time. 
 
 AVe can find only two passages in Bacon's works which 
 can be considered as referring to aeronautics, and they 
 both occur in that collection of loose facts and inconclusive 
 reasonings which he has entitled Natural History. The first 
 is styled Experiment Solitary, touching Flyiny in the A ir, 
 and runs thus — " Certainly many birds of good wing (as 
 kites and the like) would bear up a good weight as they 
 fly; and spreading feathers thin and. close, and in great 
 breadth, will likewise bear up a great weight, being even 
 laid, without tilting up on the sides. Tlie farther ex- 
 tension of this experiment might be thought upon." The 
 second passage is more diffuse, but less intelligible; it is 
 styled Experiment Solitary, touching the Flying of unequal 
 Bodies in the Air: — "Let there be a body of unequal 
 weight (as of wool and lead or bone and lead) ; if you throw 
 it from you with the light end forward, it will turn, and 
 the weightier end will recover to be forwards, unless the 
 body be°over long. The cause is, for that the more dense 
 body hath a more violent pressure of the parts from the first 
 impulsion, which is the cause (though heretofore not found 
 out, as hath been often said) of all violent motions; and when 
 the hinder part movcth swifter (for that it less endureth 
 pressure of parts) than tho forward part can make way for 
 it, it must needs be that the body turn over; for (turned) 
 it can more easily draw forward the lighter part." The 
 fact here alluded to is tho resistance that bodies experience 
 in moving through the air, which, depending on the quan- 
 tity of surface merely, must exert a proportionally greater 
 effect on rare substances. The passage itself, however, 
 after making every allowance lor the period in which it 
 was written, must be deemed confused, obscure, and un- 
 philosophicaL 
 
 We now come to the discovery of the balloon, which 
 was due to Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier, sons of Pete? 
 Montgolfier, a larjuc and celebrated papermaker at Annonay, 
 
 False idea* 
 with iegarc 
 to th? at 
 mospbem 
 
 Confusec 
 ideas of 
 Bacon oc 
 aeronai- 1 
 
 Discover; 
 
 ufthe 
 
 balloon.
 
 188 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 [discovery of 
 
 Th« bro- a town about 40 miles from Lyons. The brothers hud 
 thenMor.t- observed the suspension of clouds in the atmosphere, and 
 golrier- it occurred to them that if they could enclose any vapour 
 of the nature of a cloud in a large and very light bag, it 
 might rise aud carry the bag with it into the air. They 
 accordingly made experiments, inflating bags with smoke 
 from a fire placed underneath, and found either that the 
 smoke or some vapour emitted from the firo did ascend 
 and carry tho bag with it. Being thus assured of the cor- 
 rectness of their views, they determined to have a public 
 ascent of a balloon on a large scale. They accordingly 
 invited the States of Vivarais, then assembled at Annonay, 
 to witness their aerostatic experiment; and on June 5, 
 1783, in the presence of a considerable concourse of spec- 
 tators, a linen globe of 105 feet in circumference was 
 inflated over a fire fed with small bundles of chopped 
 straw, and when released rapidly rose to a great height, 
 and descended, at the expiration of ten minutes, at 
 the .distance of about 1£ mile. This was the dis- 
 covery of the balloon. The brothers Montgolfier imagined 
 that tho bag rose because of the levity of the smoke or 
 other vapour given forth by tho burning straw; and it 
 was not till some time later that it was recognised that 
 the ascending power was due merely to tho lightness of 
 heated air compared to an equal volume of air at a lower 
 temperature. Air, liko all other fluids, expands by heat, 
 and thereby becomes rarefied, so that any volume of hot 
 air weighs less than the corresponding volume of air at a 
 lower temperature. If, then, the air inside tho balloon be 
 so heated that it, together with the balloon, weighs less than 
 the air displaced, the balloon will rise till it arrives at such 
 a height that it and the enclosed air are equal in weight to 
 that of the displaced air, when equilibrium will be ob- 
 tained. In Montgolfier's first balloon, no source of heat 
 was taken up with it, so that the air inside rapidly cooled, 
 and the balloon soon descended. 
 Ascent of The news of the experiment at Annonay rapidly spread 
 "** first over Europe, and at Paris attracted so much attention that 
 ..r-ballooD. M . Faujas de Saint-Fond, a naturalist, set on foot a sub- 
 scription for paying the expense of repeating the experi- 
 ment. The balloon was constructed by two brothers of the 
 name of Robert, under the superintendence of M. Charles, 
 professor of natural philosophy in Paris, and afterwards a 
 member of the Academy of Sciences. It had at first been 
 suggested to copy the process of Montgolfier, but Charles 
 proposed the application of hydrogen gas, which was 
 adopted. The filling of the balloon, which was made of thin 
 silk varnished with a solution of elastic gum, and, was about 
 13 feet in diameter, was commenced on August-23, 1783, 
 in the Place des Victoires. The hydrogen gas was obtained 
 by the action of dilute sulphuric acid upon iron filings, and 
 wa3 introduced through leaden pipes - ; but as the gas was 
 not passed through cold water, great difficulty was experi- 
 enced in filling the balloon completely; and altogether 
 about 500 tt> of sulphuric acid and twice that amount of 
 iron filings were used. Bulletins were issued daily of the 
 progress of the inflation; and the crowd was so great 
 that on the 26th the balloon was moved to the Champ 
 de Mars, a distance of 2 mile3. This was done secretly, 
 in the middle of the night, to avoid the crowd; and the 
 appearance of the balloon being thus removed, preceded 
 by lighted torches and escorted by a detachment of 
 soldiers, is described as having been very remarkable. On 
 the next day, August 27, an immense concourse of people 
 covered the Champ de Mars, and every spot from which 
 a view could be obtained was crowded. About five o'clock 
 a cannon was discharged as the signal for the ascent, 
 and the balloon when liberated rose to the height of 
 about 3000 feet with great rapidity. A shower of rain 
 which began to fall directly after the balloon had left the 
 
 earth in no way checked its progress ; and the excitement 
 was so great, that thousands of well-dressed spectators, 
 many of them ladies, stood exposed, watching it intently thtj 
 whole timo it was in sight, and wero drenched to the skin. 
 The balloon, after remaining in tho air for about three- 
 quarters of an hour, fell in a field near Goncsse, about 
 15 miles off, and terrified tho peasantry so much that 
 it was torn into shreds by them. Hydrogen gas was at 
 this time known by the namo of inflammable air; and 
 balloons inflated with gas have ever since been called by 
 tho people air-balloons, the kind invented by the Mont- 
 golfiers being designated fire-balloons. French writers luvc 
 also very frequently styled them after their inventors, 
 Charlibres and Montgolfibrei. 
 
 On the 19th of September 1783 Joseph Montgolfier Ascent 
 repeated tho Annonay experiment at Versailles, in the pre- sheep, i 
 sence of the king, the queen, the court, and an iuimeuso c ° c ^' 0I 
 number of spectators. Tho inflation was commenced at 
 one o'clock, and completed in eleven minutes, when the 
 balloon rose to the height of about 1500 feet, and descended 
 after eight minutes, at a distance of about two miles, in 
 the wood of Vaucresson. Suspended below the balloon, in 
 a -cage, had been placed a sheep, a cock, and a duck, which 
 were thus the first aerial travellers. They were quite un- 
 injured, except the cock, which had its right wing hurt in 
 consequence of a kick it had received from the sheep; but 
 this took place before the ascent. The balloon, which was 
 painted with ornaments in oil colours, had a very showy Sec Plnl 
 appearance. 
 
 The first human being who ascended in a balloon was Ascent 
 M. Ffanjois Pilatre de Rozier,. a young naturalist, 'who, Jl - Pil:1 
 two years afterwards, was killed in an attempt to cross l,c J"'"" 
 the English Channel in a balloon. On October 15, 1783, ji Brn „i 
 and following days, ho made several ascents (generally d'Arlmi 
 alone, but once with a companion, M. Girond do Villette), 
 in a captive balloon (i.e., one attached by ropes to the 
 ground), and demonstrated that there was no difficulty in 
 taking up fuel and feeding the fire, which was kindled in a 
 brazier suspended under the balloon, when in the air. Tho 
 way being thus prepared for aerial navigation, on November 
 21, 1783, M. Pilatre de Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandcs 
 first trusted themselves to a free fire-balloon. The experi- 
 ment was made from the Jardin du Chateau de la Muctte, 
 in the Bois de Boulogne. The machine employed, which 
 was a large fire-balloon, was inflated at about two o'clock, and 
 leaving the earth at this time, it rose to a height of abort 
 500 feet, and passing over tho Invalides and the Ecolo 
 Militaire, descended beyond the Boulevards, about OOOOyards 
 from the place of ascent, having been between twenty and 
 twenty-five minutes in tie air. The result was completely 
 successful; and it is scarcely necessary to add, the excite- 
 ment in Paris was very great. 
 
 Only ten days later, viz., on December 1, 1783, MM. 
 Charles and Robert ascended from Paris in a balloon in- 
 ftatcd with hydrogen gas. The balloon, as in the case of 
 the small one of the same kind previously launched from 
 the Champ de Mars, was constructed by the brothers 
 Robert. It was 27 feet in diameter, and the car was sus- 
 pended from a hoop surrounding tho middle of tho 
 balloon, and fastened to a net which covered the upper 
 hemisphere. The balloon ascended very gently from tlio 
 Tuileries at a quarter to two o'clock, and after remaining 
 for some time at an elevation of about 2000 feet, it de- 
 scended in about two hours at Nesle, &■ small town 
 about 27 miles from Paris, when M. Robert left tho car, 
 and M. Charles made a second ascent by himself. Ho 
 had intended to have roplaced the weight of his companion 
 by a nearly equivalent quantity of ballast; but not having 
 any suitable means of obtaining surh ready at the place of 
 descent, and it being just upon sunset, ho gavo the word
 
 TEE BALLOON.] 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 189 
 
 to let go, and the balloon being thus so greatly lightened, 
 ascended very rapidly to a height of about 2 miles. 
 After staying in the air about half-an-hour, he descended 
 3 miles from the place of ascent, although he believed 
 the distance traversed, owing to different currents, to have 
 been about 9 miles. In this second journey M. Charles 
 experienced a violent pain in his right ear and jaw, no 
 doubt produced by the rapidity of the ascent. He also 
 witnessed the phenomenon of a double sunset on the same 
 day; for when he ascended, the sun had set in the valleys, 
 and as he mounted he saw it rise again, and set a second 
 time as he descended. 
 
 All the features of the modern balloon as now used are 
 more or less due to Charles, who invented the valve at the 
 top, suspended the car from a hoop, which was itself at- 
 tached to the balloon by netting, &c. The M. Robert 
 who accompanied him in the ascent was one of the brothers 
 who had constructed it. 
 
 On January 19, 1784, the largest balloon on record 
 (if the contemporary accounts are correct) ascended from 
 Lyons. It was more than 100 feet in diameter, about 
 130 feet in height, and when distended had a capacity, 
 it is said, of over half-a-million cubic feet. It was called 
 the Flesselles (from the name of its proprietor or owner, 
 we believe), and after having been inflated from a straw 
 fire in seventeen minutes, it rose with seven persons 
 in the car, viz., Joseph Montgolfier, Pilatre de Rozier, 
 Count de Laurencin, Count de Dampierre, Prince Charles 
 de Ligne, Count de Laport d'Anglefort, and M. Fontaine, 
 the last gentleman having leaped into the car just as the 
 machine had started. The fire was fed with trusses of 
 straw, and the balloon rose majestically to the height of 
 about 3000 feet, but descended again after the lapse of 
 about a quarter of an hour from the time of starting, in 
 consequence of a rent in the upper part, 
 in It is proper here to state that researches on the use of 
 ic gas for inflating balloons seem to have been carried on at 
 eD ' Philadelphia nearly simultaneously with the experiments 
 of the Montgolfiers ; and when the news of the latter 
 reached America, Messrs Eittenhouse and Hopkins, mem- 
 bers of the Philosophical Academy of Philadelphia, con- 
 structed a machine consisting of forty-seven small hydrogen 
 gas-balloons attached to a car or cage. After several pre- 
 liminary experiments, in which animals were let up to a 
 certain height by a rope, a carpenter, one James Wilcox, 
 was induced to enter the car for a small sum of money ; 
 the ropes were cut, and he remained in the air about ten 
 minutes, and only then effected his descent by making in- 
 cisions in a number of the balloons, through fear of falling 
 into the river, which he was approaching, 
 i The improvements that have been made in the manage- 
 
 t ment and inflation of balloons in the last ninety years have 
 >on. only had reference to details, so that as far as essential 
 principles are concerned the subject is now in pretty much 
 the same state as it was in 1783. We have therefore ar- 
 rived at a point in the history of the balloon where it is 
 well to consider how much the Montgolfiers and Charles 
 owed to their predecessors ; and it is proper here to state 
 that, although we have assigned the invention to the two 
 brothers, Stephen and Joseph — as no doubt they both 
 conducted, the early experiments together — still there is 
 reason to believo that the Bhare of the latter was very 
 small. Stephen, however, although the originator of 
 balloons, does not appear ever to have ascended himself, 
 and Joseph did not repeat the ascent just mentioned in the 
 Flesselles. The Montgolfiers had studied Priestley's Ex- 
 periments relating to different kinds of Air, whence they 
 first conceived the possibilityx>f navigating the atmosphere ; 
 but their experiment was so simple as to require scarcely any 
 philosophical knowledge. They had seen smoke ascend. 
 
 and thought tha't If they could imprison it in a bag, the 
 bag might ascend too ; and the observation and reasoning 
 were both such as might occur to anybody. This does not 
 detract from their merit; it, on the contrary, adds to it. 
 The fact that millions of persons must have observed the 
 same thing, and had not derived anything practical there- 
 from, only enhances the glory of those who in such well- 
 worn tracts did make a discovery; but the simplicity of 
 the invention shows that it is needless to inquire whence 
 the brothers were led to make it, and how far any part of 
 the credit is due to their predecessors. It is scarcely pos- 
 sible to imagine anything more remarkable than that, the 
 fact that a light bag held over a fire would ascend into the air 
 was not discovered till 1783, notwithstanding that men in 
 all ages had seen smoke ascend from fire (though, of course, 
 the fire-balloon does not ascend for exactly the same reason 
 that smoke does). It might be supposed that the connec- 
 tion of the Montgolfiers with a paper manufactory gave 
 them facilities for constructing their experimental balloons 
 of thin paper; and perhaps such was the case, although 
 we can find no evidence of it. With regard to Charles's 
 substitution of hydrogen gas, there are anticipations that 
 must be noticed. As early as 1766 Cavendish showed 
 that this gas was at least seven times lighter than ordinary 
 air, and it immediately occurred to Dr Black, of Edinburgh, Dr Black'? 
 well known as the discoverer of latent heat, that a thin bag expert- 
 filled with hydrogen gas would rise to the ceiling of a room. njents 
 He provided, accordingly, the allantois of a calf, with the 
 view of showing at a public lecture such a curious experi- 
 ment; but for some reason it seems to have failed^ and 
 Black did not repeat it, thus allowing a great discovery, 
 almost within his reach, to escape him. Several years 
 afterwards a similar idea occurred to Tiberius Cavallo, Cavallo 
 who found that bladders, even when carefully scraped, are inflated 
 too heavy, and that China paper is permeable to the gas. ^j*^"!. 
 But in 17S2, the year before the invention of the Mont- j, j rogi-1 
 golfiers, he succeeded in elevating soap-bubbles by in- gas ui 
 fiating them with hydrogen gas. The discovery of 1782. 
 fire-balli>ons might have taken place almost at any time 
 in the world's history, but the substitution of hydrogen 
 gas for heated air could not have been made previously to 
 the latter half of the last century; and although all the 
 honour of an independent discovery belongs to the Mont- 
 golfiers, Charles, by his substitution of " inflammable air " 
 for heated air, merely showed himself acquainted with 
 the state of chemical science of his day. Charles never 
 again ascended after his double expedition on the 1st of 
 December 1783. 
 
 We now return to the history of aerial navigation, and 
 commence with an account of the first ascents of balloons 
 in this country. Although the news of the Annonay and 
 subsequent experiments in France rapidly spread all over 
 Europe, and formed a topic of general" discussion, still it 
 was not till five months after the Montgolfiers had first 
 publicly sent a balloon into the air that any aerostatic 
 experiment was made in England. In November 1783 
 Count Zambeccari, an Italian, who happened to be in 
 London, made a balloon of oil-silk, 10 feet in diameter, 
 and weighing lift. It was publicly shown for several 
 days, and on the 25th- it was three-quarters filled with 
 hydrogen gas, and launched from the Artillery ground at 
 one o'clock It descended after two hours and a half near 
 Petworth, in Sussex, 48 miles from London. This was 
 the first, balloon that ascended from English ground. On 
 February '22, 1784, a hydrogen gas balloon, 5 feet in 
 diameter, was let up from Sandwich, in Kent, and de- 
 scended at Warneton, in French Flanders, 75 miles 
 distance. This was the first balloon that crossed the 
 Channel The difficulties and dangers of aerial navi- 
 gation having been surmounted by the end of the year
 
 190 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 [REMARKABLE ASCENTK. 
 
 1783, the ascents of balloons were now multiplied in all 
 quarters. It will therefore be suflicient to notice very 
 briefly only the more remarkable of the succeeding ascents. 
 
 The Chevalier Paul Audreani. of Milan, constructed a fire- 
 balloon 68 feet in diameter, and on February 25, 1784, 
 ascended from Milan with two brothers of the name of 
 Gerli, and remained in the air for about twenty minutes. 
 This is usually regarded as the first ascent in Italy (but 
 Bee Monck Mason's Aeronautica, p. 247). Andreani 
 ascended again on March 13, with two other persons. 
 
 On the 2d of March M. Jean Pierre Blanchard, who had 
 been for some years before occupied with projects for 
 flying, made his first voyage from Paris in a balloon 27 
 feet in diameter, and descended at Billancourt, near 
 Sevres. Just as the balloon was about to ascend, a young 
 man jumped into the car, and, drawine his sword, de- 
 clared his determination to ascend with Blanchard. He 
 was ultimately removed by force. The episode is worth 
 noting, as it has sometimes been stated that the young 
 man was Napoleon Bonaparte, but this is untrue ; his 
 name was Dupont de Chumbon. Blanchard made sub- 
 sequently, it is said, more than thirty aerial voyages, and 
 he is one of the most celebrated of the earlier aeronauts. 
 He also crossed the English Channel, as noticed further on. 
 
 On July 15, 1784, the Due de Chartres and the two 
 brothers Robert ascended from St Cloud ; but the neck of 
 the balloon becoming choked up with an interior balloon 
 filled with common air, intended to regulate the ascending 
 and descending power, they were obliged to make a hole in 
 the balloon, in order to allow of the escape of the gas, but 
 they descended in safety. 
 
 The first person who rose into the air from British 
 ground appeare to have been Mr J. Tytler, 1 who ascended 
 from the Comely Gardens, Edinburgh, on August 27, 
 
 1784, in a fire balloon of his own construction. He 
 descended on the road to Restalrig, about half-a-mile from 
 the place where he rose. A brief account appeared in a 
 letter, under date August 27, in the London Chronicle, 
 and we have seen a picture of the balloon copied in some 
 journal from a " ticket in the British Museum." Mr Tytler's 
 claims were for a long time entirely overlooked, the honour 
 being invariably assigned to Lunardi, till attention was 
 called to them by Mr Monck Mason in 1838. After 
 Lunardi's successful ascents in 1785, Mr Tytler addressed 
 a set of verses to him (quoted in Astra CaUra, p. 108), in a 
 note, to which he gives a modest account of his own " mis- 
 fortunes," describing his two "leaps." This is, perhaps, 
 the most correct name for them, as his apparatus having 
 been damaged at different times, ho merely heated the air 
 in the balloon, and went up without any furnace, being 
 seated in an ordinary basket for carrying earthenware. He 
 reached a height of from 350 to 500 feet. 
 
 Although, by a few days Tytler has the precedence, still 
 his attempts and partial success were all but totally un- 
 known; whereas Lunardi's experiments excited an enormous 
 amount of enthusiasm in London, and it was he that 
 practicfelly introduced aerostation into this country in the 
 face of very great disadvantages. We have already referred 
 to the extraordinary apathy displayed in England with 
 regard to aerostatic experiments, one consequence of which 
 was that their introduction was duo to a foreigner. Vincent 
 Lunardi was secretary to Prince Caramanico, the Neapoli- 
 tan ambassador, and his published letters to his guardian, 
 the Chevalier Compagni, written while he was carrying 
 out his project, and detailing all the difficulties; <tc, he 
 met with as they occurred, are very interesting, and give a 
 vivid account of the whole matter. His balloon was 33 
 
 1 Mr Tytler contributed largely to, and, indeed, appears to have 
 lieen virtually editor of, the'second edition (1778-83) of the Encyclo- 
 uzu'ia liritannica. 
 
 feet in circumference, and was exposed to the public view 
 at the Lyceum in the Strand, where it was visited by 
 upwards of 20,000 people. It was his original inten- 
 tion to have ascended from Chelsea Hospital, but the con- 
 duct of a crowd at a garden at Chelsea, which destroyed 
 the fire-balloon of a Frenchman named De Morct, who 
 announced an ascent on August 11, but was unable to 
 keep his word, led to the withdrawal of the leave that 
 had been granted. Ultimately, after some difficulties had 
 been arranged, he was permitted to ascend from the Artil- 
 lery ground, and on September 15, 1784, the inflation 
 with hydrogen gas took place. It was intended that Mr 
 Biggin, an English gentleman, should accompany Lunardi; 
 but the crowd becoming impatient, the latter judged it 
 prudent to ascend with the balloon only partially full 
 rather than risk a longer delay, and accordingly Mr Biggin 
 was obliged to leave the car. Lunardi therefore ascended 
 alone, in presence of the Prince of Wales and an enormous 
 crowd of spectators. He took up with him a pigeon, a 
 dog, and a cat, and the balloon was provided with oars, 
 by means of which ho hoped to raise or lower it at 
 pleasure. Shortly after starting, the pigeon escaped, and 
 one of the oars became broken and fell to the ground. 
 In about an hour and a half ho descended at South 
 Mimms, in Hertfordshire, and landed the cat, which had 
 suffered from the cold: he then ascended again, and de- 
 scended, after the lapse of about three-quarters of an hour, 
 at Standon, near Ware, where he had great ditliculty in 
 inducing the peasants to come to his assistance; but at 
 length a young woman, taking hold of one of the cords, 
 urged the mt-n to follow her example, which they then 
 did. The excitement caused by this ascent was immense, 
 and Lunardi at once became the star of the hour. He 
 was presented to the king, and was courted and flattered 
 on all side3. To show the enthusiasm displayed by the 
 people during his ascent, he tells himself, in his sixth 
 letter, how a lady, mistaking the oar which fell for himself, 
 was so affected by his supposed destruction that she died 
 in a few days ; but, on the other hand, he says he was told 
 by the judges " that he had certainly saved the life of a 
 young man who might possibly be reformed, and be to the 
 public a compensation for the death of the lady;" for the 
 jury were deliberating on the fate of a criminal, whom 
 they must ultimately have condemned, when the balloon 
 appeared, and every one became inattentive, and to save 
 time they gave a verdict of acquittal, and the whole court 
 came out to view the balloon. The king also was in con- 
 ference with his ministers; but on hearing that the balloon 
 was passing, he broke up the discussion, remarking "that 
 they might resume their deliberations, but that perhaps 
 they might not see Lunardi again; upon which he, .Mr 
 Pitt, and the other ministers viewed the balloon through 
 telescopes. The balloon was afterwards exhibited in tho 
 Pantheon. In the latter part of the following year (1785) 
 Lunardi made several very successful ascents from Kelso, 
 Edinburgh, and Glasgow (in one of which he traversed a 
 distance of 110 miles): these he has described in a second 
 series of letters. He subsequently returned to Italy, where 
 we believe he still followed the practice of aerostation, 
 and made many ascents. He died on July 31, 180G, at 
 Lisbon, according to the Gentleman's Magazine, but a con- 
 temporary newspaper gives Genoa as the place, and adds 
 that he died in a state of very great indigence. 
 
 Lunardi's example was soon followed by others, and on i 
 October 16, 1784, Blanchard ascended from Little Cheisea agents 
 with Mr Sheldon, and having deposited the latter at Sun- ^'fi 1 *" 1 
 bury, rose again alone, and descended at Romney Marshes. 
 On November 12, Mr James Sadler, sen., ascended from- 
 Oxford, and there is every reason to believe that he made 
 a previous ascent from the same place on October 1 2, four
 
 REMARKABLE ASCENTS.] 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 191 
 
 clays previous to Blanchard's (see Monck Mason, p. 274, 
 where it is stated that he attempted to ascend in a fire- 
 balloon on September 12, but that the balloon was burnt). 
 On November 30, 1784-, Blauchard again ascended, accom- 
 panied this time by Dr J. Jeffries, an American physi- 
 cian. On January 4, 1785, Mr Harper ascended from 
 lard Birmingham ; and on January 7, Blanchard and Dr Jeffries 
 achieved the feat of crossing the Channel from Dover to 
 ' Calais. At seven minutes past one the balloon left Dover 
 ■ Castle, and in their passage they had a most magnificent view 
 of both shores. When about one-third across they found 
 themselves descending, and threw out every available thing 
 from the boat or car. When about three-quarters across 
 they were descending again, and had to throw out not only 
 the anchor and cords, but also to strip and throw away part 
 of their clothing, after which they found they were rising, 
 and their last resource, viz., to cut away the car, was 
 rendered unnecessary. As they approached the shore the 
 balloon rose, describing a magnificent arch high over the 
 land. They descended in the forest of Guinnes. 
 r On March 23, 1785, Count Zambeccari, who had, as we 
 
 ccari. have seen, launched the first balloon from English ground, 
 ascended for the first time with Admiral Vernon from 
 London. Shortly afterwards he returned to his own 
 country, and there applied himself assiduously to the prac- 
 tice of aerial navigation. He twice, in 1803 and 1804, 
 descended into the Adriatic, and both times only escaped 
 after undergoing much danger. Descending in a fire- 
 balloon on September 21, 1812, after a voyage from 
 Bologna, the shock of the grapnel catching in a tree caused 
 the balloon to catch fire; and to save themselves from 
 being burnt, Zambeccari and his companion, Signor Bonaga, 
 leaped from the car. The former was killed on the spot, 
 but the latter, though fearfully injured, escaped with 
 his life, 
 f On June 15, 17'85, Pilatre de Rozier made his last fatal 
 
 de voyage from Boulogne. It was his intention to have 
 repeated the exploit of Blanchard and Jeffries in the 
 reverse direction, and have crossed from Boulogne to Eng- 
 land. For this purpose he had contrived a double balloon, 
 which he expected would combine the advantages of both 
 kinds — a fire-balloon, 10 feet in diameter, being placed 
 underneath a gas-balloon of 37 feet in diameter, so that 
 by increasing or diminishing the fire in the former it might 
 be possible to ascend or descend without waste of gas. 
 Rozier was accompanied by M. P. A. Komain, and for 
 rather less than half-an-hour after the aerostat ascended all 
 seemed to v be going on well, when suddenly the whole 
 apparatus was seen in flames, and the unfortunate adven- 
 turers came to the ground from the supposed height of 
 more than .TOOO feet. Rozier was killed on the spot, and 
 Romain only survived about ten minutes. A monument 
 was erected on the place where they fell, which was near 
 the sea-shore, about four miles from the starting-point. 
 The Marquis de la Maisonfort had accompanied Rozier to 
 Boulogne, intending to ascend with him, but M. Romain 
 there insisted on a prior promise. Either the upper bal- 
 loon must have been reached by the flames, and the gas 
 taken fire, or the gas must have poured down into the 
 lower balloon, and so have caused the explosion. 
 
 We must not omit to mention that on June 4, 1784, 
 Madame Thible ascended from Lyons in a fire-balloon 
 with M. Fleurand, in the presence of King Gustavus of 
 Sweden, then travelling under the name of Count Haga. 
 Madame Thible is very likely the only woman who ever 
 ascended in a fire-balloon. The first Englishwoman who 
 ever ascended into the air was Mrs Sage, who accompanied 
 lat Mr Biggin in his voyage from London on June 29, 1785. 
 inti- Accounts are given nf an ascent at Constantinople, made 
 in the presence of the Sultan, by a Persian physician. 
 
 accompanied by two Bostangis, early in the year 178C>, 
 who, crossing the sea which divides Europe from Asia, 
 descended about 30 leagues from the coast. 
 
 \\ e have now given a brief account of all the noteworthy Most o! the 
 voyages that took place within the first two or three years subsequent 
 after the discovery of the balloon by Montgolfier. Ascents ^ c * n . ts 
 were multiplied from this time onwards, and it is impos- J^jerukei- 
 sible to give even a list of the many hundreds that have for ple.i- 
 taken place since: this omission is, however, of slight sure, and 
 importance, as henceforth the balloon became little better ot "° l wr- 
 than a toy, let up to amuse people at fetes or other public I " anent 
 occasions. When the first ascents were made in France, 
 the glow of national vanity was lighted up, and the most 
 brilliant expectations were felt with regard to aerostation, 
 and the glory to the nation that would accrue therefrom. 
 These anticipations have not been realised, and the balloan 
 at this moment has received no great improvement since 
 the time of Charles, except the substitution of ordinary 
 coal-gas for hydrogen, which has rendered the inflation of 
 a balloon at any gas-works a comparatively simple matter, 
 bearing in mind the elaborate contrivances required for the- 
 generation of hydrogen in sufficient quantities. But in 
 one respect the balloon has been of real service, viz., to 
 science, in rendering the attainment of observations in 
 the higher strata of the atmosphere not only possible but 
 practicable. In regard to such matters the balloon is 
 unique, as the atmosphere is the great laboratory of nature, 
 in which are produced all the phenomena of weather, the. 
 results of which we perceive on the earth; and no observa- 
 tions made on mountain-sides can take the place of those 
 made in the balloon, as what is required is the knowledge 
 of the state of the upper atmosphere itself, free from the 
 disturbing effects of the contiguity of the land. Although, 
 therefore, in what follows, we shall notice any particularly 
 remarkable ascents, we 3hall chiefly confine ourselves to the 
 few that have been undertaken for the sake of advancing 
 science, and which alone are of permanent value. It will 
 be necessary to make one exception to this rule, however, 
 in the case of the parachute, the experiments with which 
 require some notice, although they have been put to no 
 useful purpose. The balloon has also been used in warfare 
 as a means of observing the movements of the enemy; 
 and the applications of it to this purpose deserve notice, 
 although we think not so much use. has been made of the 
 balloon in this direction as might have been. 
 
 The substitution of coal-gas for hydrogen is due to Mr Suostitu- 
 Charles Green, the veteran aeronaut, who made several tion of coal- 
 hundred ascents, the first of which took place on July 19, J? 3 , {' 
 1821, the coronation day of George TV. In this ascent < j i r r Q° ee ^ 
 ordinary coal-gas was first used; and every balloon, with 
 very few exceptions, that has ascended since this date ha3 
 been so inflated. Pall Mall was first lighted by gas in 
 1807, and at the end of 1S14 the general lighting of 
 London by gas commenced; so that coal-gas could not 
 have been available for filling balloons long before it Tvas 
 actually used. 
 
 Leaving out of consideration the ascents undertaken for Subsequent 
 scientific objects (very many of which were remarkable for famous 
 the height attained or the distance traversed, and which * scents . 
 will be specially noticed further on), we proceed to men- ^g c \ 
 tion the most noteworthy ascents that have taken place 
 and that have not ended fatally (these latter will be re- 
 ferred to separately). Mr Crosbie, a gentleman who was 
 the first to ascend from Ireland (January 19, 1785), on the 
 19th July 1785 attempted to cross St George's Channel 
 to England, but fell into the sea; he was saved by some 
 vessels that came to his rescue. Lunardi also fell into the 
 sea, about a mile and a half from the shore, after an ascent 
 from Edinburgh in December 1785; he was rescued by a 
 fishing-boat. Richard Maguire was the second person
 
 192 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 [remarkable ascents. 
 
 who ascended from Ireland. Mr Crosbie had inflated his 
 balloon on May 12, 1785, but it was unable to take him 
 up, when Mr Maguire, a student at the university, who 
 was present, offered to ascend. His offer was accepted, 
 and he made the ascent. For this he was knighted by the 
 Lord-Lieutenant (Monck Mason, p. 266). On July 22, 
 17S5, Major Money ascended from Norwich. The balloon 
 was blown out to sea, and he was obliged to descend into 
 the water. After remaiD ; ng there seven hours he was rescued 
 by a revenue cutter which had been despatched to his 
 mce. Mr James Sadler attempted to cross St George's 
 nel on the 1st of October 1812, and had nearly suc- 
 ceeded, when, in consequence of a change in the wind, he 
 was forced to descend into the sea off Liverpool. After 
 remaining in the water some time, he was rescued by a 
 fishing-boat. But onJuly22, 1817, Mr Windham Sadler,his 
 second son, succeeded in crossing the Channel from Dublin 
 to Holyhead. On May 24, 1837, Mr Sneath ascended 
 from near Mansfield in a fire-balloon, and descended 
 safely. At half-past one o'clock on November 7, 1836, 
 Mr Robert Hollond, Mr Monck Mason, and Mr Charles 
 Green ascended from Vauxliall Gardens, and descended at 
 about two leagues from 'Weilburg, in the duchy of Nassau, 
 at half-past seven the next morning, having thus traversed 
 a distance of about 500 miles in 18 hours; Litfgo was 
 passed in the course of the night, and Coblentz in the early 
 morning. A full account of this trip is given by Mr Monck 
 Mason in his Aeronautica (1838). The balloon in which 
 the journey was performed (a very large one, containing 
 about 85,000 cubic feet of gas), was subsequently called 
 the Nassau Balloon, and under that namo became famous, 
 and ascended frequently. 
 
 Xquestvun 
 accents. 
 
 The Great Nassau Balloon. 
 
 We ought also, perhaps, to notice a curious ascent made 
 by Mr Green on July 29, 1828, from the Eagle Tavern, 
 City Road, on the back of a favourite pony. Underneath 
 the balloon was a platform (in place of a car) containing 
 places for the pony's feet, and some straps went loosely 
 under his body, to prevent his lying down or moving about. 
 
 Everything passed off satisfactorily, the balloon descending 
 safely at Beckenham ; the pony showed no alarm, but 
 quietly ate some beans with which its rider supplied it in 
 the air. Equestrian ascents have since been repeated. Id 
 1852, Madame Poitevin, who had made several such jour- 
 neys in Paris, ascended from Cremorne Gardens, London, 
 on horseback (as " Europa on a bull"); but after the first 
 journey its repetition- was stopped in England by applica- 
 tion to the police courts, as the exhibition outraged public 
 feeling. Lieutenant Gale was killed at Bordeaux on Sept 
 8, 1850, in descending after an equestrian ascent, through 
 mismanagement in landing of the horse. M. Poitevin, de- 
 scending in 1858, after an equestrian ascent from Paris, 
 was nearly drowned in the sea near Malaga. Among 
 remarkable balloon ascents must also be noticed that of 
 Mr Wise, from St Louis, on June 23, 1859, in which a 
 distance of 1120 miles was traversed. 
 
 In 1863, Nadar, a well-known photographer at Paris, Na,lar'» 
 constructed an enormous balloon, which he called " Le ballooi*- 
 Geant." It was the largest gas-balloon ever constructed, 
 containing over 200,000 cubic feet of gas. Underneath it 
 was placed a smaller balloon, called a compensator, the 
 object of which was to prevent loss of gas during the voyage. 
 The car had two stories, and was, in fact, a model of a 
 cottage in wicker-work, 8 feet in height by 13 feet in 
 length, containing a small printing-office, a photographic 
 department, a refreshment-room, a lavatory, &c. The first 
 ascent took place at five o'clock on Sunday, October 4, 
 1863, from the Champ de Mars. There were thirteen per- 
 sons in the car, including one lady, the Princess de la Tour 
 d'Auvergne, and the two aeronauts Louis and Jules Godard. 
 In spite of the elaborate preparations that had been made 
 and the stores of provisions that were taken up, the balloon 
 descended at nine o'clock, at Meaux, the early descent 
 being rendered necessary, it was said, by an accident to the 
 valve-line. A second ascent was made a fortnight later, 
 viz., on October 18; thero were nine passengers, including 
 Madame Nadar. The balloon descended at the expiration 
 of seventeen hours, near Nienburg in Hanover, a distance 
 of about 400 miles. A strong wind was blowing, and 
 the balloon was dragged over the ground a distance of 7 
 or 8 miles. All the passengers were bruised, and some 
 more seriously hurt. The balloon and car were then brought 
 to England, and exhibited for some time at the Crystal 
 Palace at the end of 1863 and beginning of 1864. The 
 two ascents of Nadar's balloon excited an extraordinary 
 amount of enthusiasm and interest, vastly out of pro- 
 portion to what they were entitled to. The balloon was 
 larger than any of the same kind that had previously 
 ascended ; but this was scarcely more than just appreci- 
 able to the eye, as the doubling the contents of a balloon 
 makes comparatively slight addition to its diameter. M. 
 Nadar's idea was to obtain sufficient money, by the ex- 
 hibition of his balloon, to carry out a plan of aerial 
 locomotion he had conceived possible by means of the 
 principle of the screw ; in fact, he spoke of " Le Geant" 
 as "the last balloon." He also started L'Aeronaule, a 
 newspaper devoted to aerostation, and published a small 
 book, which was translated into English under the title 
 Tlie Bight to Fly. Nadar's ascents had not the remotest 
 connection with science, although he claimed that they had ; 
 nor was his knowledge, as shown in his writings, sufficient 
 to have enabled him to advance it in any way. 
 
 Directly after Nadar's two balloon ascents, M. Eugene E-«e«- 
 Godard constructed what was perhaps the largest aerial Gu4arf" 
 machine that has ever been made. It was a Montgolfier or b "jj* 0Bi 
 fire-balloon, of nearly half-a-million cubic feet capacity 
 (more than double the capacity of Nadar's). The balloon 
 Flesselles, 1783, is said to have slightly exceeded this 
 size. The air was heated by. an 18 feet stove, weigh-
 
 CELEBRATED AERONAUTS ] 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 193 
 
 ing, with the chimney, 980 lb. This furnace was fed 
 by straw; and the "car" consisted of a gallery sur- 
 rounding it. Two ascents of this balloon were made 
 from Cremorne Gardens, on July 20 and July 28, 1864. 
 After the first journey the balloon descended at Greenwich, 
 and after the second at Walthamstow, whero it was in- 
 jured by being blown against a tree. Notwithstanding 
 the enormous size of the balloon, M. Godard asserted that 
 it could be inflated in half an hour, and the inflation 
 at Cremorne did not occupy more than an hour. The 
 ascent of the balloon was a very striking sight, the flames 
 roaring up the chimney of the furnace into the enormous 
 globe above. The trusses of straw were suspended by ropes 
 from the gallery below the car, and were drawn up and placed 
 in the furnace as required. This was the first fire-balloon 
 seen by the inhabitants of London, and it was the second 
 ascent of this kind that had been made in this country, Mr 
 Sneath's ascent at Mansfield having been the first, as Mr 
 Tytler's experiment at Edinburgh in 1784 was a leap, not 
 an ascent, as no source of .heat was taken up. In spite of 
 the rapidity with which the inflation was effected, few who 
 oaw the ascent could fail to receive an impression most 
 favourable to the gas-balloon in tho matter of safety, as a 
 rough descent, with a heated furnace as it were in the car, 
 could not be other than most dangerous, 
 cte* In the summer of 1873 the proprietors of the New York 
 >n Daily Graphic, an illustrated paper, determined to con- 
 ! e ' Btruct a very large balloon, and enable Mr Wise, the well- 
 V • , known American aeronaut, to realise his favourite scheme 
 of crossing the Atlantic Oceaa to Europe. It was believed 
 by many that a current from west to east existed con- 
 stantly at heights above 10,000 feet, but this seems very 
 uncertain. Mr Green having stated that he had met with 
 such a current, Mr Glaisher made a point of investigating 
 the directions of the wind at different heights in his ascents, 
 but found that they were as capricious as near the ground. 
 The same result was found by others, and a comparison of 
 the courses of the balloons sent up from Paris during the 
 siege will show that no constant current exists. The 
 American project came to nothing owing to the quality 
 of the material of which the balloon was made. The size 
 was said to be such as to contain 400,000 cubic feet, so 
 that it would lift a weight of 14,000 ft). On Septem- 
 ber 12, 1873, during its inflation, Mr Wise declared the 
 material of which it was made was so bad that he could 
 not ascend in it, though the other two persons who were to 
 accompany him agreed to go. When, however, 325,000 
 feet of gas had been put into the balloon, a rent was ob- 
 served, and the whole rapidly collapsed. Although this 
 accident was greatly regretted at the time, it seems pretty 
 certain, from what subsequently took place, that the 
 aeronauts would not have succeeded in their object, and 
 a serious mishap was probably avoided. On October 
 6, 1873, Mr Donaldson and two others ascended from New 
 York in the balloon after it had been'repaired, and effected 
 a perilous descent in Connecticut. During the autumn of 
 1873 a great amount of discussion took place both in Eng- 
 land and America about the existence of the westerly current 
 and the subject of aerostation. In September 1873 Mr 
 Barnum, the well known American showman, visited Eng- 
 land with the view of eliciting whether, in the opinion of 
 those best qualified, there was sufficient probability of a 
 successful result to induce him to undertake the construction 
 of a suitable balloon, 
 rated By aeronauts (omitting the pioneers Lunardi, Zamoec- 
 auts. car j ; an d others who have been already spoken of) we 
 mean persons who have followed ballooning as a business 
 or trade. Of these, perhaps the best known and most 
 successful have been Blanchard, Garnerin, tho Sadlera, 
 Mr Charles Green. Mr Wise, Mr Coxwell, and the brothers 
 
 1-8 
 
 Godara. - Blanchard made, it is said, thirty-six ascents, hia 
 first having taken place on March 2, 1784. His wife also 
 made many ascents; she was killed on July 7, 1819. 
 Garnerin is said to have ascended more than fifty 'mes; 
 he introduced night ascents with fireworks, (fee., the first of 
 which took place on August 4, 1807. We shall havo 
 occasion to refer to him again when we treat of parachutes. 
 Mr James Sadler made about sixty ascents, the first of 
 which took place on October 12, 1X84. His two sons, 
 John and Windham, both followed in their father's steps; 
 the latter was killed fn 1817. In the minds of most 
 Englishmen the practice of ballooning will, for a long time, 
 be associated with the name of Mr Charles Green, the most 
 celebrated of English aeronauts, who, having made his first 
 ascent on July 19, 1821, only died in the year 1870, at a 
 very advanced age. He is credited with 526 ascents by 
 Mr Turnor; and from advertisements, <tc, we see that in 
 1838 he had made 249. Mr Green may be said to have 
 reduced ballooning to routine, and he made more ascents 
 than any other person has ever accomplished. He 
 accompanied Mr Welsh in his scientific ascents, and to 
 him is also due the invention of the guide rope,' which he 
 used in many of his voyages with success. It merely con- 
 sisted of a rope not less than 1000 feet in length, 
 which was attached to the ring of the balloon (from which 
 the car is suspended), and hung down so that the end of 
 it was allowed to trad along the surface of the ground, the 
 object being to p»event the continual waste of gas and 
 ballast that takes place in an ordinary balloon journey, as 
 such an expenditure is otherwise always going on, owing to 
 the necessity of keeping the balloon from getting either too 
 high or too low. If a balloon provided with a guide rope 
 sinks so low that a good deal of the rope rests on the 
 earth, it is relieved of so much weight and rises again; if, 
 on the contrary, it rises so high that but a little is supported 
 by th'e earth, a greater weight is borne by the balloon, and 
 equilibrium is thus produced. Mr Green frequently used tho 
 guide rope, and found that its action was satisfactory, and 
 that it did not, as might be supposed, become entangled in 
 trees, &c. It was used in the Nassau journey, but mora 
 recent aeronauts have dispensed with it. Still, in crossing 
 the sea or making a very long journey, where the preser- 
 vation of the gas was of great importance, it could not 
 fail to be valuable. Mr Green had, in his time, more 
 experience in the management than has fallen to the lot of 
 any one else, and he brought to bear on the subject a groat 
 amount of skill and practical knowledge. There is also a 
 plain matter-of-fact stylo about bis accounts of his ascents 
 that contrasts very favourably with the writings of some 
 other aeronauts. Mr Coxwel), who has made several 
 hundred ascents, first ascended in 1844, under the name of 
 Wells. He it was who,as aeronaut, accompanied Mr Glaisher 
 in most of his scientific ascents, 1862-65. The Godard 
 family have made very many ascents in France, and are 
 well known in all countries in connection with aeronautics. 
 It was to two of the Godards that the management of the 
 military balloons in the Italian campaign was entrusted; 
 it was M. Jules Godard who succeeded in opening tlw valve 
 in the dangerous descent of Nadar's balloon La Hanover in 
 1863, and it was Eugene Godard who constructed perhaps 
 the largest Montgolfier ever made, an account of the ascen- 
 sions of which has been given above. M. Dupuis Delcourt 
 was also a well-known aeronaut; he -has written on the sub- 
 ject of aerostation, and his balloons were employed by MM. 
 Bixio and Barral in their scientific asteuts. In .America 
 Mr Wise is par excellence the aeronaut; he ha3 made 
 several hundred ascents, and many of them are distin- 
 guished for much skill and daring. He also appears to 
 have pursued his profession with more energy and capacity 
 than has anv other aeronaut in recent times, and his llitfuip
 
 194 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 [scientific. 
 
 of Aerostation shows him to possess much higher scientific, 
 attainments than balloonists usually have. In fact, Mr 
 Wise stands alone in this respect, as nearly all professional 
 aeronauts are destitute of scientific knowledge. 
 
 The number of fatal accidents that have occurred in tho 
 history of balloons is not- very great, and nearly all havo 
 resulted either from the use of tho fire-balloon, or from 
 want of knowledge, or carelessness on the part of the 
 aeronauts themselves. We have already referred to the 
 accidents that closed the careers of Pilatro do Rozier and 
 Zambeccavi. On November 25, 1802, Signor Olivari, at 
 Orleans, and on July 17, 1812, Here Bittorff, at Mannheim, 
 icd in consequence of the accidental combustion of 
 their Montgolfiires. On April 7, 1S0G, 11. Mosment 
 ascended from Lille tipon a platform, from which he acci- 
 dentally fell and was k<". \\. On July 7, 1819, Madame 
 Elanchard ascended irom Paris at night with fireworks 
 attached to the car, a spark from one of which ignited the 
 gas in the balloon, and sho was precipitated to the ground 
 and killed. Lieut. Harris a; cended from Loudon on May 
 25, 1824, but, through mismanagement of the valve-line, 
 he allowed all the gas to escape suddenly from the balloon, 
 which descended with terriblo velocity. He was killed by 
 the fall, but hi3 companion, Miss Stocks, escaped almost 
 uninjured. In an ascent from Blackburn on September 29, 
 1824, by Mr Windham Sadler, the balloon, in rising, struck 
 against a chimney, and the aeronaut fell over the side of 
 the car and was killed. On July 24, 1837, Mr Cocking 
 descended from a balloon in a parachute, which struck the 
 ground with such violence that he was killed on the spot. 
 In descending with a horse on September 8, 1850, Lieut 
 Gale was killed; and in 1863 Mr Chambers was killed at 
 Nottingham, his death arising from suffocation by the gas 
 that poured out at tho neck of the balloon, which was not 
 separated from the car by a sufficient interval. 
 TV mini- Tho number of accidents that have occurred bears but a 
 ber of per- very small proportion to the number of successful ascents 
 *ons who j uat jj ave k een ma j 0- ]k£ r Monck Mason, in his Aeronautica, 
 •scendcii gives a list of the names, with the dates and places of their 
 Jto balloons, ascent, of all persons who, as far as he could find, had 
 ascended previously to 1838. His list contains 471 names, 
 which are distributed among the inhabitants of the different 
 countries as follows: — England, 313; France, 104; Italy, 
 18; Germany and the German States, 17; Turkey, 5; 
 Prussia, 3; Russia, 2; Poland, 2; Hungary, 2, Denmark, 
 1; Switzerland, 1; and the United States, 3. 'Among 
 these are the names of 49 women, of whom 28 are English, 
 17 French, 3 German, and 1 Italian. Some of the persons 
 had ascended a great number of times; thus Mr Charles 
 Green's ascents alone amounted to more than 249; and 
 those of the members of the same family to 535. Mr 
 Mason calculated that the whole number of ascents executed 
 by Englishmen was 752. Of the 471 adventurers only nine 
 were killed, and of these six owed their fate to the dangers 
 attendant on the tise of the fire-balloon, and one to bravado. 
 The great number of our own countrymen that appear in 
 the above list is no doubt partially due to tha fact that it 
 was compiled by an Englishman, to whom English news- 
 papers and other records were more accessible; still there 
 is no reason to doubt that a much greater number of 
 Englishmen have ascended than inhabitants of any other 
 country, as balloons as an amusement at fetes, <kc, have 
 been more common here. The number of Englishmen who 
 have ascendedmight now be estimated at from 1 500 to 2000. 
 We oan call to mind but three fatal casualties that have 
 aken place since Mr Mason compiled his list, viz., Mr 
 Cooking's parachute accident, Mr Gale's death in 1850, 
 and Mr Chambers' death in 1863. 
 Scientific We come now to an account of the use to which the 
 uoente. balloon has been applied for the advancement of science. 
 
 The ascents that have been aiadf. uie by Sacharof, Biot 
 and Gay-Lussao in 1804, by Bixio and Bairal in 1850, by 
 Mr Welsh in 1852, by Mr Glaishcr in 1862- 66, and MM. 
 Flammarion and Do Fonviclle in 1867-68. We shall give 
 a brief account of these ascents, because, as has beer, 
 remarked, with a fow exceptions, they form the only useful 
 purposo to which the balloon has been applied. The gene- 
 ral description of tho phenomena, etc., met with in a high 
 ascent, and the general results found, are referred to in the 
 account of Mr Glaishcr's experiments, as not only arc his 
 accounts more detailed, but the number of ascents made by 
 him is much in excess of that of all the others put together. 
 
 The Academy of Sciences at St Petersburg, entertaining 
 tho opinion that the experiments made on mountain-sides 
 by Do Luo, De Saussure, Humboldt, and others must give 
 results different from those made in free air at the same 
 heights, resolved in 1803 that a balloon ascent should be 
 mado for thepurposeof making scif^lificresearchcs. Accor- 
 dingly, on January 30, 1804, M Sacharof, a member of tho 
 academy, ascended, vvith M. Robertson as aeronaut, in a 
 balloon belonging to the latter, which was inflated with 
 hydrogen gas. The asceat was nade at a quarter past seven, 
 and the. descent effected at a quarter to eleven. No great 
 height was reached, as the barometer never sank below 
 23 in., corresponding to less than 1 J mile. The experiments 
 were not very systematically made, and the chief results 
 were the filling and bringing down several flasks of 
 air collected at different elevations, and the supposed 
 observation that the magnetic dip was altered. A tele 
 soope was fixed in the bottom of the car pointing vertical!} 
 downwards, so that tho travellers might be able to ascer- 
 tain exactly the spot over which they were floating at any' 
 moment. M. Sacharof found that, on shouting downwards 
 through his speaking-trumpet, the echo from the earth was 
 quite distinct, and at his height was audible after an 
 interval of about ten seconds. M. Sacharof's account is 
 given in the Philosophical Magazine (Tilloch's), voL xxL 
 pp. 193-200 (1805). 
 
 At the commencement of 1804 Laplace proposed to the 
 members of the French Academy of Sciences that balloons 
 •should be employed for the purpose of solving certain 
 physical problems, adding that, as the government had 
 placed funds at their disposal for the prosecution of use- 
 ful experiments, he thought they might bo well applied 
 to this kind of research. The proposition was supported 
 by Chaptal the chemist, who was then minister of the 
 interior, and accordingly the necessary arrangements were 
 speedily effected, the charge of the experiments being given 
 to JIM. Gay-Lussac and Biot. 
 
 The principal object of this ascent was to determine if Ascent 
 the magnetic force experiences any appreciable diminution Gay-Lu 
 at heights above the earth's surface, De Saussure having l ac , 
 found that such was the case upon the Col du Geant. On August 
 August 24, 1804, MM. Gay-Lussac and Biot (the former 1804. 
 eminent as a chemist and the latter as a natural philo- 
 sopher) ascended from the Conservatoire des Arts at ten 
 o'clock in the morning. Their magnetic experiments were 
 incommoded by the rotation of the balloon, but they found 
 that, up to the height of 13,000 feet, the time of vibration 
 of a magnet was appreciably the same as on tho earth's 
 surface. They found also that the air became drier as they 
 ascended. The height reached was about 13,000 feet, 
 and the temperature declined from 63° Fahr. to 51°, The 
 descent was effected about half -past cne, at Meriville, IS 
 leagues from Paris. 
 
 In a second experiment, which was made on September Ascent 
 16, 1804, M. Gay-Lussac ascended alone. The balloon M. Gay 
 left the Conservatoire des Arts at 9.40 a.m., and descended J' ussac > 
 at 3.45 P.M. between Kouen and Dieppe. The chief result ig^gn 
 obtained was that the magnetic force, like gravitation, did '
 
 ASCENTS.] 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 195 
 
 u'ii experience any sensible variation at heights from 
 the earth's surface which we can attain to. Gay-Lussac 
 also brought down air collected at the height of nearly 
 23,090 feet, and on analysis it appeared that its constitu- 
 tion was the same as that of air collected at the earth's 
 surface. At the time of leaving the earth the thermometer 
 stood at 82° Fahr. , and at the highest point reached (23,000 
 feet) it was 14°-9 Fahr. Gay-Lussac remarked that at 
 his highest point there were still clouds above him. 
 
 From 180-4 to 1850 there is no record of any scientific 
 ascents in balloons having been undertaken. In the latter 
 year MM. Bixio and Barral made two ascents for this pur- 
 pose. They ascended from the Paris Observatory on June 
 29, 1850, at 10.27 a. M., the balloon being inflated with 
 hydrogen gas. The day was a rough one, and the ascent 
 took place suddenly, without any previous attempt having 
 been made to test the ascensional force of the balloon. 
 When liberated, it rose with great rapidity, and becoming 
 fully inflated it pressed upon the network, bulging out at 
 the top and bottom. As the ropes by which the car was 
 suspended were too short, the balloon soon covered the 
 travellers like an immense hood. In endeavouring to 
 secure the valve-rope, a rent was made iu the balloon, and 
 the gas escaped so close to the faces of the voyagers as 
 almost to suffocate them. Finding that they were descend- 
 ing then too rapidly, they threw overboard everything 
 available, including their coats, and only excepting the 
 instruments. The ground was reached at lOh. 45m., near 
 Lagny. Of course no observations were made. 
 Jnly MM. Bixio and Barral determined to ascend again with- 
 
 1850. ou ); delay, and accordingly, on July 27, 1850, they repeated 
 the experiment. The ascent was remarkable on account of 
 the extreme cold met with. At about 20,000 feet the 
 temperature was 15° Fahr., the balloon being enveloped in 
 cloud; but on emerging from the cloud, at 23,000 feet, the 
 temperature sank to - 38° Fahr., no less than 53° Fahr. 
 below that experienced by Gay-Lussac at the same eleva- 
 tion. The existence of these very cold clouds served to 
 explain certain meteorological phenomena that were ob- 
 served on the earth both the day before and the day after 
 the ascent. Some pigeons were taken up in this, as in 
 most other high ascents, and liberated ; they showed a re- 
 luctance to leave the car, and then fell heavily downwards. 
 Velsli's In July 1852 the committee of the Kew Observatory 
 a f- resolved to institute a series of balloon ascents, with the 
 J In view of investigating such meteorological and physical 
 phenomena as require th6 presence of an observer at a 
 great height in the atmosphere. Mr Welsh, of the Kew 
 Observatory, was the observer, and Mr Green's great Nassau 
 balloon was employed, Mr Green himself being the aeronaut. 
 Four ascents were made in 1852, viz., on August 17, 
 August 26, October 31, and November 10, when the 
 respective heights of 19,510, 19,100, 12,640, and 22,930 
 feet were attained. A siphon barometer, dry and wet 
 bulb thermometers, aspirated and free, and. a Regnault's 
 hygrometer were taken up. Some air collected at a con- 
 siderable height was found on analysis not to differ appre- 
 ciably in its composition from air collected neai the ground. 
 The original observations are printed in extenso in the Philo- 
 sophical Transactions for 1853, pp. 311-346. The lowest 
 temperatures met with in the four ascents were respectively 
 8°"7 Fahr. (19,380 feet); 12°-4 Fahr. (18,370); 16°4 
 Fahr. (12.640); - 10°-5 Fahr. (22.370); the decline of tem- 
 perature being very regular. 
 t*n As- At the meeting of the British Association for the Ad- 
 •tion vancement of Science held at Aberdeen in 1859, a com- 
 "^ mittee was appointed for the purpose of making observations 
 jnittet. * u t * le higher strata of the atmosphere by means of the 
 balloon. For the first two years nothing was effected, 
 owing to the want both of an observer and of a suitable 
 
 balloon. In 1861, at Manchester, the committee wis reap, 
 pointed, and it then consisted of Colonel Sykes (chairman/, 
 Mr Airy, Sir David Brewster, Mr Fairbairn. Admiral Fitzroy, 
 Mr Gassiot, Mr James Glaisher, Sir J. Herschel, Dr Lee, 
 Dr Lloyd, Dr W. A. Miller, Dr Eooiuson, and Dr TyndalL 
 Some unsuccessful experiments were made with a balloon of 
 Mr Green's, and also with one hired from the proprietors of 
 Cremorne Gardens, which turned out to be in a hopelessly 
 leaky condition ; the trained observers also, on whom the 
 committee had relied, failed to perform their duties. In 
 this state of affairs, Mr Coxwell, an aeronaut who kid 
 made a good many ascents, was communicated with, and 
 he agreed to construct a new balloon, of 90,000 cubic 
 feet capacity, on the condition that the committee would 
 undertake to use it, and pay £25 for each high ascent 
 made especially for the committee, the latter defraying alsc 
 the cost of gas, &c, bo that the expense of each high ascent 
 amounted to nearly £50. An observer being still wanted, 
 Mr Glaisher, a member of the committee, offered himself to 
 take the observations, and accordingly the first ascent was 
 made on July 17, 1862, from the gas-works at Wolverbamp 
 ton, this town being chosen on account of its central position 
 in the country. Altogether, Mr Glaisher made twenty-eigh t 
 ascents, the last having taken place on May 26, 1866. (. i 
 these only seven were specially high ascents, although six 
 others were undertaken for the objects of the committee 
 alone. On the other occasions Mr Glaisher availed himself 
 of public ascents from the Crystal Palace and other places 
 of entertainment, merely taking his place hie the other 
 passengers. Ia the last six ascents another aeronaut, Jlr 
 Orton, and a smaller balloon, were employed. The dates, 
 places of ascent, and greatest heights (in feet) attained in 
 the twenty-eight ascents were — 1862: July 17, Wolver- 
 hampton, 26,177; July 30, Crystal Palace, 6937; August 
 18, Wolverhampton, 23,377; August 20, Crystal Palace, 
 5900; August 21, Hendon, 14,355; September 1, Crystal 
 Palace, 4190; September 5, Wolverhampton, 37,000; 
 September 8, Crystal Palace, 5428. 1863: March 31, 
 Crystal Palace, 22,884; April 18, Crystal Palace, 24,163; 
 June 26, Wolverton, 23,200; July 11, Crystal Palace, 
 6623; July 21, Crystal Palace, 3298; August 31, New- 
 castle-upon-Tyne, 8033; September 29, Wolverhampton, 
 16,590; October 9, Crystal Palace, 7.310. 1864: January 
 
 12, Woolwich, 11,897; April 6, Woolwich, 11,075; June 
 
 13, Crystal Palace, 3543; June 20, Derby, 4280; June 
 27, Crystal Palace, 4898; August 29, Crystal Palace, 
 14,581; December 1, Woolwich, 5431; December 30, 
 Woolwich, 3735. 1865: February 27, Woolwich, 4S65; 
 October 2, Woolwich, 1949; December 2, Woolwich, 
 4628. 1866: May 26, Windsor, 6325. Of these, all the 
 ascents from Wolverhampton (four in number) and from 
 Woolwich (seven in number) were undertaken wholly for 
 the committee, and Mr Glaisher was merely accompanied 
 by the aeronaut, whose business it was to manage th< 
 balloon. The expense of the special high ascents (about 
 £50 for each, as stated above) rendered it desirable, when 
 possible, to take advantage of the desire felt by many to 
 accompany Mr Glaisher in his journey, and admit one or 
 two other travellers ; and of this kind were one or two of 
 the ascents from the Crystal Palace, though the majority, 
 in which the elevation attained frequently fell short of a 
 mile, were the ordinary public ascents advertised before- 
 hand. It is not possible here to give auy complete account 
 of the results obtained, and it would be superfluous, as the 
 observations, both as made and after reduction, are printed 
 iu the British Association Reports, 1862-66. It will be 
 enough, after explaining the objects of the experiments, 
 Ac, to describe briefly one or two of the most remarkable 
 ascents, and thon state the kind of conclusions that follow 
 from them as a whole.
 
 i<)G 
 
 A E R O N A U TICS 
 
 [scientific 
 
 The primary object 'was to determine the temperature of 
 the air, and its hygrometrical state at different elevations 
 to as great a height as could be reached ; and the secondary 
 objects were — (1) to determine the temperature of the dew- 
 point by Daniell's and Regnault's hygrometers, as well as 
 by the dry and wet bulb thermometers, and to compare the 
 results; (2) to compare the readings of an aneroid baro- 
 meter with those of a mercurial barometer, up to the height 
 of 5 miles; (3) to determine the electrical state of the air, 
 (4) the oxygenic condition of the atmosphere, and (5) the 
 time of vibration of a magnet; (6) to collect air at different 
 elevations; (7) to note the height and kind of clouds, their 
 density and thickness; (8) to determine the rate and direc- 
 tion of different currents in the atmosphere; and (9) to 
 make observations on sound. 
 
 The instruments used were mercurial and aneroid baro- 
 meters, dry and wet bulb thermometers, Daniell's dew- 
 point hygrometer, Regnault's condensing hygrometer, 
 maximum and minimum thermometers, a magnet for hori- 
 zontal vibration, hermetically sealed glass tubes exhausted 
 of air, and an electrometer. In one or two of the ascents 
 a camera was taken up. 
 
 One end of the car was occupied by the aeronaut; near 
 the other, in front of Mr Glaisher, was placed a board or 
 .able, the extremities of which rested on the sides of the 
 car; upon this board was placed suitable framework to 
 carry the- several thermometers, hygrometers, magnet, 
 aneroid barometer, <tc. ; a perforation through it admitted 
 the lower branch of the mercurial barometer to descend 
 below, leaving the upper branch at a convenient heTght for 
 observipg. A watch was placed directly opposite to Mr 
 Glaisher, the central space being occupied by his note- 
 book. The aspirator (for Regnault's hygrometer) was 
 fixed underneath the centre of the board, so as to be con- 
 veniently workable by either feet or hands. Holes were 
 cut in the board to admit the passage of the flexible tubes 
 required for Regnault's hygrometer and the dry and wet 
 bulb thermometers. 
 Mr The 'first ascent was made, as has been stated, from 
 
 Glaisher's Wolverhampton on July 17, 1862, and the journey was 
 ascent oc merarkable on account of a warm current that was met 
 1862 ™ith at a great elevation. The weather, previous to the 
 ascent, had been bad for a long time, and it had been 
 delayed in consequence. The wind was still blowing from 
 the west, and considerable difficulty was experienced in 
 the preliminary arrangements, so that no instrument was 
 fixed before starting. The balloon left at 9.43 A.M., and a 
 height of 3800 feet was reached before an observation 
 could be taken. At 4000 feet clouds were entered, and 
 left at 8000 feet. The temperature of the air at starting was 
 59° Fahr., at 4000 feet it was 45°, and it descended to 26° 
 at 10,000 feet, from which height to that of 13,000 feet 
 there was no diminution. While passing through this 
 space Mr Glaisher put on additional clothing, feeling 
 certain that a temperature below zero would be attained 
 before the height of 5 miles was reached; but at the 
 elevation of 15,500 feet the temperature was 31°, and at 
 each successive reading, up to 19,500, it increased, and 
 was there 42°. The temperature then decreased rapidly, 
 and was 16° at 26,000 feet. On descending it increased 
 regularly to 37°-8 at 10,000 feet. A very rough descent, 
 in which nearlyȣ50 worth of instruments were broken, 
 was effected near Oakham, in Rutlandshire, Mr Coxwell 
 having judged it prudent to descend on account of the 
 proximity, as he supposed, of the Wash. In coming down, 
 a cloud was entered at an elevation of 12,400 feet, and 
 proved to be more than 8000 feet in thickness. The rise of 
 temperature met with in this ascent was most remarkable. 
 The weather on the day (Aug. 18, 1862) of the third as- 
 cent was -favourable, and there was but little wind. All the 
 
 instruments were fixed before leaving the earth. A height Ascen 
 of more than 4 miles was attained, and the balloon remained from ' 
 in the air about two hours. When at its highest point Tcrn <" 
 there were no clouds between the balloon and the earth, jo \< 
 and the streets of Birmingham wire distinctly visible. 
 The descent was effected at Solihull, 7 miles from Bir- 
 mingham. On the earth the temperature of the air was 
 67°'8, and that of the dew-point 54°6; and they steadily 
 decreased to 39°-5 and 22°-2 respectively at 11,500 feet 
 The balloon was then made to descend to the height of 
 about 3000 feet, when both increased to 56°-0 and 47°5 
 respectively. On throwing out ballast the balloon rose 
 again, and the temperature declined pretty steadily to 
 24°0, and that of the dew-point to- 10 o, 0, at the height 
 of 23,000 feet. During this ascent Mr Glaisher's hands 
 became quite blue, and he experienced a qualmish sensa- 
 tion in the brain and stomach, resembling the approach of 
 sea-sickness; but no further inconvenience, besides such 
 as resulted from the cold and the difficulty of breathing, 
 was experienced. This feeling of sickness never occurred 
 again to Mr Glaisher in any subsequent ascent. 
 
 The ascent from the Crystal Palace on August 20, 1862, Ascei 
 was merely an ordinary one for the public amusement, in ' rom 
 which Mr Glaisher took a place in the car. In these low V 1 ' p 
 ascents from places of entertainment, in which other per- an u J { 
 sons also were passengers, the large board stretching right Heod 
 across tho car could not be used. A smaller frame A «gn 
 was therefore made, which could bo screwed on to the 18fi2, 
 edge of the car, to carry the watch, siphon barometer, 
 aneroid barometer, dry and wet bulb thermometers, grid- 
 iron thermometer, 1 and Daniell's arid Regnault's hygro- 
 meters, which comprised all the instruments usually taken 
 up in these low ascents. In the first low ascent, July 30, 
 this framework was fixed inside the car; but as it seemed 
 possible that the warmth proceeding from the voyagers 
 might influence the readings of the instruments, it was 
 always afterwards fixed outside, and projected beyond the 
 car, so that all the instruments were freely exposed to the 
 surrounding air. The ascent on August 20 was a low one, 
 and presented no remarkable feature except that the balloon 
 was nearly becalmed over London. The earth was left at 
 6.26 p.m., and the air was so quiet that at the height 
 of three-quarters of a mile the balloon was etill over the 
 Crystal Palace. At 7L 47m. it was over London, and 
 moving so slowly that it was thought desirable to ascend 
 above the clouds in hopes of meeting with a more rapid 
 current of air. At 8h. 5m. the voyagers were above the 
 clouds, and it became quite light again, darkness having 
 come on whilst hovering over London, at which time the 
 gradual illumination by the lights in the streets formed 
 a most wonderful sight, and one never to be forgotten. 
 The roar, or rather loud hum, proceeding from the great 
 city was also most remarkable. After having been above 
 the clouds some time, the lowing of cattle and other agri- 
 cultural sounds were heard. Accordingly, the valve-line 
 was pulled, and the balloon descended below the clouds, 
 when the light of London was seen in the distance as a misty 
 glare. The darkness increased as the balloon descended very 
 slowly, and it at length touched the ground so gently in the 
 middle of a field at Mill Hill, near Hendon, that those in the 
 car were scarcely aware of the contact. There were twelve 
 voyagers altogether, and when with some trouble sufficient 
 countrymen were collected to take their places and enable 
 
 1 This was a thermometer with a bulb shaped like a gridiron, so aa 
 to have a very great surface exposed to the air. It was thought that 
 the ordinary pea-sued bulb would not permit of the thermometer being 
 sufficiently delicate to register the rapid changes of temperature due 
 to the quick motion of the balloon, as it requires some littla tima foT 
 such a thermometer to take up the temperature of the surrounding 
 medium.
 
 ASCENTS.] 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 197 
 
 them to leave the car, it was resolved to anchor the balloon 
 for the night and to make an ascent in the early morning. 
 Accordingly, at 4.30 a.m., on August 21, the earth was 
 left, there being altogether five persons in the car. It was 
 a dull, warm, cloudy morning, with the sky overcast. In 
 about an hour the height of 3 miles was attained, and 
 the temperature had fallen to 23°, having been 58° on the 
 earth before leaving. The aspect of the clouds under for- 
 mation before and during the rising of the sun was mar- 
 vellous in the extreme, and baffled description. There 
 were seen shining masses of cloud in mountain chains, 
 rising perpendicularly from the plain, with summits of 
 dazzling whiteness, forming vast ravines, down which the 
 balloon appeared to glide, or pass through their sides, into 
 other valleys, until, as the balloon rose far above, all 
 appeared a mighty sea of white cloud. The descent was 
 effected about a quarter past seven, and the transition from 
 the magnificent scene above the clouds to the ugly prospect 
 of the dreary earth as seen early on a dull morning, with 
 a uniform leaden sky, was most depressing. The place of 
 descent was near Biggleswade. 
 
 The most noteworthy fact in connection with the ascent, 
 September 1, 1862, was, that from the balloon the clouds 
 were observed to be forming below, and seen to be follow- 
 ing the whole course of the Thames from the Nore to 
 Richmond. The clouds were above the river following all 
 its windings, and extending neither to the right nor to the 
 left. It was about the time of high water at London 
 Bridge, and the phenomenon was no doubt connected 
 with the warm water from the sea. 
 
 As in the ascent, September 5, 1862, the greatest 
 height ever reached was attained, it is desirable' to give 
 the account of it in some detail, and in Mr Glaisher's own 
 words. It is only necessary to premise .that it was intended 
 on this occasion to ascend as high as possible.' The fol- 
 lowing is an extract from Mr Glaisher's account (British 
 Association' Report, 1862, pp. 383-385): — 
 
 '• This ascent had been delayed owing to the unfavourable state of 
 
 the weather. The balloon left at lh. 8m. P.M. The temperature 
 of the air was 59°, and the dew-point 50°. At the height of 1 
 mile it was 41°, dew-point 38°; and shortly afterwards we entered 
 a cloud of about 1100 feet in thickness, in which the temperature 
 of the air fell' to 36 J°, the dew-point being the same, thus indicating 
 that the air was here saturated with moisture. On emerging from 
 the cloud at lh. 17m. we came upon a flood of strong sunlight, 
 with a beautiful blue sky, without a cloud above us, and a magni- 
 ficent sea of cloud below, its surface being varied with endless hills, 
 hillocks, mountain chains, and many snow-white masses rising from 
 it. I here tried to take a -view with the camera ; but we were rising 
 with too great rapidity, and going round and round too quickly, to 
 enable me to do so. The flood of light, however, was so great that 
 all I should -hav» needed .would have been a momentary exposure, 
 as Dr Hill N,orris had kindly furnished me with extremely sensitive 
 dry plates for the purpose. We reached 2 miles in height at lh. 
 21m. The temperature had fallen to the freezing-point, and the 
 dew-point to 26°. We were 3 miles high at lh. 28m., with a tem- 
 perature of 18°, and dew-point 13°. At lh. 39m. we'had reached 4 
 miles, and the temperature was 8°, and dew-point- 15° ; in ten 
 minutes more we had 'reached the fifth mile, and the temperature 
 had passed below zero, and then read- 2°, and at this point no 
 dew was observed on Kegnault's hygrometer when cooled down to 
 - 30° ; but a dew-point obtained from the readings of dry and wet 
 gave - 36°. Up to this time I had taken observations with comfort. 
 I had experienced no difficulty in breathing, whilst Mr Coxwell, in 
 consequence of the necessary exertions he had to make, had breathed 
 with difficulty for- some time. At lh. 51m. the barometer reading 
 was 11 '05 inches, but this requires a subtractive correction of 0'25 
 inch, as found by comparison with Lord Wrottesley's standard 
 barometer just before starting. I afterwards read the dry thermo- 
 meter as - 5° ; this must have been about lh. 52m. or later ; I could 
 not see the column of mercury in the wet bulb thermometer; nor 
 afterwards the hands of the watch, nor the fine divisions on any 
 instrument. I asked Mr Coxwell to help me to read the instru- 
 ments, as I experienced a difficulty in seeing. In consequence, 
 however, of tho rotatory motion of the balloon, which had continued 
 without ceasing since the earth had been left, the valve-line had 
 become twisted, and be had to leave the car and mount into the 
 
 ae 
 1 
 
 on 
 iber 
 2. 
 
 !o\- 
 
 P- 
 Sep- 
 
 5. 
 
 sat- 
 tht 
 
 ring above to adjust it. At this time I looked at the barometer, 
 and found it to be 10 inches, still decreasing fast ; its true reading 
 therefore was 9J inches, implying a height of 29,000 feet. Shortly 
 afterwards I laid my arm upon the table, possessed of its full vigour, 
 and on being desirous of using it, I found it powerless — it must 
 have lost its power momentarily. I tried to move the other arm, 
 and found it powerless also. I then tried to shake mvself, and 
 succeeded in shaking my body. 1 seemed to have no iimbs. I 
 then looked at the barometer, and whilst doing so my head fell on 
 my left shoulder. I struggled and shook my body again, but could 
 not move my arms. I got my head upright, but for an instant 
 only, when it fell on my right shoulder, and then I fell backwards, 
 my back resting against the Bide of the. car, and my head on its 
 edge ; in this position my eyes were directed towards Mr Coxwell 
 in the ring. When I shook my body I seemed to have full power 
 over the muscles of the back, and considerable power over those of 
 the neck, but none over either my arms or my legs ; in fact, I 
 seemed to have none. As in the case of the arms, all muscular 
 power was lost in an instant from my back and neck. I dimly saw 
 Mr Coxwell in the ring, and endeavoured to speak, but could not ; 
 when in an instant intense black darkness came : the optic nerve 
 finally lost power suddenly. I was stilt conscious, with as active a 
 brain as at the present moment whilst writing this. I thought 1 
 had been seized with asphyxia, and that I should experience no 
 more, as death would come unless we speedily descended : other 
 thoughts were actively entering my mind, when I suddenly became 
 unconscious as on going to sleep. I cannot tell anything of the 
 sense of hearing ; the perfect stillness and silence of the regions 6 
 miles from the earth (and at this time we were between 6 and 7 
 miles high) is such that no sound reaches the ear. 
 
 My last observation was made at lh. 54m. at 29,000 feet. I 
 suppose two or three minutes fully were occupied between my eyes 
 becoming insensible to seeing fine divisions and lh, 54m., and then 
 that two or three minutes more passed till I was insensible ; there- 
 fore I think this took place at about lh. 56m. or lh. 57m. Whilst 
 powerless I heard the words 'temperature' and 'observation,' and 
 I knew Mr Coxwell was in the car speaking to me, and endeavour- 
 ing to arouse me ; therefore consciousness and hearing had returned. 
 1 then heard him speak more emphatically, but I could not see, 
 speak, or move. I heard him again say, ' Do try — now do.' Then 
 I saw the instruments dimly, then Mr Coxwell, and very shortly 
 saw clearly. I rose in my seat and looked round, as though walk- 
 ing from sleep, though not refreshed by sleep, and said to Mr 
 Coxwell, ' I have been insensible.' He said, ' You have ; and I too, 
 very nearly.' I then drew up my legs, which had been extended 
 before me, and took a pencil in my hand to begin observations. 
 Mr Coxwell told me that he had lost the use of his hands, which 
 were black, and I poured brandy over them. 
 
 " I resumed my observations at 2h. 7m., recording the barometer 
 reading at 1 1 '53 inches and temperature - 2°. I suppose that three 
 or four minutes were occupied from the time of my hearing the 
 words 'temperature' and 'observation' till I began to observe. If 
 so, then returning consciousness cama at 2h. 4m., and this gives 
 seven minutes for total insensibility. I found the water in the 
 vessel supplying the wet bulb thermometer, which I had by fre- 
 quent disturbances kept from freezing, was one solid mass of ice ; 
 and it did not all melt until after we had been on the ground soma 
 •time. 
 
 " Mr Coxwell told me.that whilst in the ring he'felt it piercingly 
 cold ; that hoar-frost was all round the neck of the balloon ; on at- 
 tempting to leave the ring' he found his hands frozen, and he had 
 to place his arms on the ring and drop down ; that he thought for 
 a moment I had lain back to rest myself ; that he spoke to me 
 without eliciting a reply ; that he then noticed my legs projected 
 and my arms hung down by my side ; that my countenance was 
 serene and placid, without the earnestness and anxiety he had 
 noticed before going into the ring, and then it struck him I was 
 insensible. He wished to approach me, out could not, and he fell 
 insensibility coming over himself ; that he became anxious to open 
 the valve, but in consequence of his having lost the use of his 
 hands he could not, and ultimately did 60 by seizing the cord with 
 his teeth, and dipping his head two or three times, until the balloon 
 took a decided turn downwards. 
 
 "No inconvenience followed this insensibility, and when we 
 dropped it was in a country whew no conveyance of any kind could 
 be obtained, so that I had to walk between 7 and 8 miles. 
 
 "The descent was at first very rapid ; we passed downwards C 
 miles in nine minutes ; the balloon's career was then checked, and 
 it finally descended in the centre of a large grass, field at Cold Wes- 
 ton, "4 miles from Ludlow. 
 
 "In this ascent six pigeons were taken, up. One was thrown out 
 at the height of 8 miles, when it extended its wings and dropped 
 as a piece of paper ; a second, at i miles, flew vigorously round and 
 round, apparently taking a dip each time ; a third was thrown out 
 between. 4 and 5 miles, and it fell downwards as a stone ; a fourth 
 was thrown out at 4 miles on descending ; it flew in a circle, and 
 shortly alighted on the top of the balloon. The fcvo remaining
 
 198 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 [scientific 
 
 Ascent 
 from the 
 Crystal 
 Palace on 
 April 18, 
 1863. 
 
 Ascett 
 from Wol- 
 verton, 
 June 26, 
 1863. 
 
 Sigeons were brought down to the ground. One was found to bo 
 ead, and tho other, a carrier, was still living, but would not leave 
 the hand when I attempted to throw it off, till, after a quarter of 
 an hour, it began to peck a piece of ribbon which encircled its neck, 
 and was then jerked off tho .finger, and Hew with some vigour to- 
 wards Wolverhampton. One of the pigeons returned to Wolver- 
 hampton on Sunday, the 7th, and tids is the only ono that has 
 been heard of." 
 
 Mr Glaisher found from his observation-book that the 
 last observation was made at 29,000 feet, and that at this 
 time the balloon was ascending at the rate of 1000 feet per 
 minute ; and that when he resumed his observations, it was 
 descending at the rate of 2000 feet per minute, the interval 
 being thirteen minutes. This gives 36,000 or 37,000 feet 
 for the greatest height attained. Two other series of con- 
 siderations led to the latter height, and there can be no 
 doubt that the altitude of 37,000 feet, or 7 miles, was 
 attained on this occasion. 
 
 In the ascent, April 18, 1863, 24,000 feet of elevation 
 was reached. It was jcmarkable for the rapidity of the de- 
 scent. At 2h. 44m., the balloon being then at a height of 
 10,000 feet, Mr Coxwell suddenly caught sight of Beachy 
 Head, and Mr Glaisher, looking over the edge of the car, 
 saw the sea, apparently immediately underneath. There was 
 no time to be lost, and Mr Coxwell hung on to the valve- 
 line, telling Mr Glaisher to leave his instruments and do 
 the same. The earth was reached at 2h. 48m., the two 
 miles of descent having been effected in four minutes. The 
 balloon struck the ground near Newhaven with a terrible 
 crash, but, from the free use of tho valve-line, it was so 
 crippled that it did not move afterwards. All the instru- 
 ments, of the value of more than £25, including some that 
 were unreplaceable, were broken, and Mr Glaisher was 
 hurt. In the descent, after the first high ascent on July 
 17, 1862, the earth was struck with so much violence that 
 most of the instruments were broken, and Mr Glaisher 
 (who was closed in by his observing-board) was a good 
 deal hurt then. In subsequent ascents, therefore, boxes 
 were used filled with small mattresses, in which the instru- 
 ments could be ' hurriedly placed, and tho board was so 
 arranged that it could be turned over and hung outside 
 the car. These improvements had the effect of diminish- 
 ing the danger to himself and the chance of breakage of 
 the instruments, but in the Newhaven descent there was 
 not sufficient time to put them in practice. 
 
 The circumstances met with in the ascent, June 26, 
 18C3, were so remarkable that a short account cannot be 
 omitted. The morning was at first very bright and fine, 
 but between 11 and 12 o'clock a change took place; the sky 
 became covered with clouds, and the wind rose and blew 
 strongly, so that great difficulty was experienced in com- 
 pleting the inflation. At lh. 3m. the balloon left; in four 
 minutes, at 4000 feet high, cloud was entered. Mr Glaisher 
 expected soon to break through it, and enter into bright 
 sunshine as usual, but nothing of the sort took place, as, 
 on emergence, clouds were seen both above and below. 
 At 9000 feet the sighing and moaning of the wind were 
 heard, and Mr Glaisher satisfied himself that this wa3 due, 
 not to the cordage of the balloon, but to opposing currents. 
 At this time the sun was seen faintly, but instead of its 
 brilliance increasing, although the balloon was then two 
 miles high, a fog"was entered, and the sight of the sun lost 
 The balloon next passed through a dry fog, which was left 
 at 12,000 feet, and after the sun had been seen faintly for 
 a little time, a wetting fog was entered. 
 
 "At 15,000 feet," Mr Glaisher proceeds, "we were still in fog, 
 but it was not so wetting. At 16,000 feet we entered a dry fog ; 
 at 17.000 feet saw faint gleams of the sun, and heard a train. 
 We were now about 3 miles high ; at this time we were not in 
 cloud, but clouds were below us ; others were on onr level at a dis- 
 tance, and yet more above us. We looked with astonishment at 
 each other, and said as we were rising steadily we surely must soon 
 
 pass through thctn. At 17,500 feet wo were again enveloped in 
 log, which Decame.wctting at 18,500 feet ; we left this cloud below 
 at 19,600 feet. At '20,000 feet the sun was just visible. We were 
 now approaching 4 miles high ; dense clouds were still above us; 
 for a space of 2000 to 3000 feet we met with no fog, but oc passing 
 above 4 miles our attention was first attracted to a dark mass of 
 cloud, and then to another on our level ; both these clouds had 
 fringed edges — they were both nimbi. Without tho slightest doubt 
 both these clouds were regular rain-clouds. Whilst looking at therai 
 we again lost sight of everything, being enveloped in fog whilst' 
 passing upwards through 1000 feet. At 22,000 feet we again 
 emerged, and were above clouds on passing above 23,000 feet. At 
 six minutes to 2 o'clock we heard a railway train ; the temperature 
 here was 18°. I wished still to ascend to find the limits of this 
 vapour, but Mr Coxwell said, ' We are too short of sand ; 1 cannot 
 go higher; we must not even stop here.' I was therefore most 
 relnctantly compelled to abandon tne wish, and looked scarchingly 
 around. At this highest point, in close proximity to us, were 
 rain-clouds ; below u» dense fog. I was again reminded that v/e 
 must not stop. With a hasty glance everywhere, above, below, 
 around, I saw the sky nearly covered with dark clouds of a stratus 
 character, with cirri still higher, and small spaces of blue sky be-' 
 tween them. Tho blue was not the blue of 4 or 5 miles high as I 
 had always before seen it, but a faint blue, as seen from the earth 1 
 when the air is charged with moisture." 
 
 In the downward journey an even more remarkable series 
 of circumstances was met with ; for a fall of rain was passed 
 through, and then below it a snow-storm, the flakes being 
 entirely composed of spicules of ice and innumerable snow- 
 crystals. On reaching the ground near Ely the lower 
 atmosphere was found to be thick, misty, and murky. At 
 Wolverton the afternoon was cold, raw, and disagreeable 
 for a summer's day. Tho fact of rain-clouds extending 
 layer above layer to a height of 4 miles, was one never 
 hitherto regarded as possible ; and the occurrence of rain and 
 snow, and the latter underneath the former, and all happen- 
 ing on a day in the very middle of summer, formed a series 
 of most curious and unexpected phenomena 
 
 Mr Glaisher having, in one of his descents, which took 
 place near sunset, observed that the temperature was the 
 same through a very considerable height, it occurred to hiin 
 that after dark it was quite possible that, for some ele- 
 vation above the earth's surface, the temperature might 
 even increase with increase of height ; and to determine 
 this he arranged for some ascents to be made after sunset, 
 so that the temperature during the night might be observed. 
 For this purpose he procured a couple of Davy lamps, 
 which answered their object satisfactorily. Accordingly, 
 on October 2, 1865, an ascent was made from Wool- 
 wich Arsenal, the time of starting being about three- 
 quarters of an hour after the sun had set. The temperature 
 on the earth was 56°, and it steadily increased to 59°'6 
 at the height of 1900 feet. This was established con- 
 clusively by repeated ups and downs, the temperature 
 falling as the balloon descended. The view of London 
 lighted up, as seen from the balloon in this ascent, the 
 night being clear, was most wonderful. A second night 
 ascent was made from the same place on December 2; 
 1865, and the balloon left the earth 2| hours after sunset. 
 On this occasion the temperature did not rise, but the 
 decrease, though steady, wa3 small. In an ascent from 
 Windsor on May 29, 1866, the balloon was kept up till 
 half-past eight o'clock, aud the temperature was found to 
 decrease as the earth was approached during the last 900 
 feet. In this last ascent no paid aeronaut was employed, 
 as Mr Westcar, of the Royal Horse Guards, undertook the 
 management of the balloon. In the preceding five ascents 
 Mr Orton, of BlackwalL was employed as aeronaut 
 
 It has been found necessary in the present notice to 
 allude merely to the more striking points noticed in Mr 
 Glaisher's twenty-eight ascents. The number of observa- 
 tions made by him was of course great, and it is only neces- 
 sary here to repeat that they are to be found in the Report* 
 of the British Association for tlu Advancement of Science-
 
 ASCENTS.] 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 199 
 
 1862-6G. It appealed as one of th<» results of the ex- 
 periments that the rate of the decline of temperature with 
 elevation near the earth was very different when the sky- 
 was clear from what was the case when it was cloudy; 
 and the equality of temperature at sunset and increase 
 with height after sunset were very remarkable facts which 
 were not anticipated, and which have an important hearing 
 on the theory of refraction, as astronomical observations 
 are usually made at night. Even at the -height of 5 miles, 
 cirrus clouds were seen high in the air, apparently as far 
 above as they seem when viewed from the earth, and the 
 air must there be so exceedingly dry that it is hard to 
 believe that their presence can be due to moisture at alL 
 The results of the observations differed very much, and no 
 doubt the atmospheric conditions depended not only on 
 the time of day, but also on the season of the year, and 
 were such that a vast number of ascents would be requisite 
 to determine the true laws with anything approaching to 
 certainty and completeness. It is also clear that England 
 is a most unfit country for the pursuit of such investiga- 
 tions, as, from whatever place the balloon started, it was 
 never safe to be more than an hour above the clouds for 
 fear of reaching the sea. It appeared from the observations 
 that an aneroid barometer could be trusted to read as accu- 
 rately as a mercurial barometer to the heights reached. 
 The time of vibration of a horizontal magnet was taken in 
 very many of the ascents, and the results of ten different 
 sets of observations proved undoubtedly that the time of 
 vibration was lunger than on the earth. In almost all the 
 ascents the balloon was under the influence of currents of 
 air in different directions. The thickness of these currents 
 was found to vary greatly. The direction of the wind on 
 the earth was sometimes that of the whole mass of air up 
 to 20,000 feet, whilst at other times the direction changed 
 within 500 feet of the earth. Sometimes directly opposite 
 currents were met with at different heights in the same 
 ascent, and three or four streams of air were encountered 
 moving in different directions. Ignoring the different cur- 
 rents of air which caused the balloon to change its direction, 
 and at times to move in entirely opposite directions, and 
 simply taking into account the places of ascent and descent, 
 the distances so measured were always very much greater 
 than the horizontal mdvement of the air as measured by 
 anemometers. For example, on January 12, 18G2, the 
 balloon left Woolwich at 2h. 8m. p.m., and descended at 
 Lakenheath, 70 miles distant from the place of ascent, 
 at 4h. 19m. p.m. At the Greenwich Observatory, by 
 Robinson's anemometer, during this time the motion of the 
 air was 6 miles only. With regard to physiological ob- 
 servations, Mr Glaisher found that the number of pulsations 
 increased with elevation, as also the number of inspirations. 
 The number of his pulsations was generally 7G per minute 
 before starting, about 90 at 10,000 feet, 100 at 20,000 
 feet, and 110 at higher elevations. But a good deal 
 depended on the temperament of the individual. This was 
 also the case in respect to colour; at 10,000 feet the faces 
 of some woidd be a glowing purple, whilst others would be 
 scarcely affected; at 4 miles high Mr Glaisher found the 
 pulsations of his heart distinctly audible, and his breathing 
 was very much affected, so that panting was produced by 
 the very slightest exertion; at 29,000 feet he became in- 
 sensible. In reference to the propagation of sound, it was 
 at all times found that sounds from the earth were more 
 or less audible according to the amount of moisture in- the 
 air. When in clouds at 4 miles high, a railway train 
 was heard; but when clouds were far below, no sound ever 
 reached the ear at this elevation. The discharge of a gun 
 w.-is heard at 10,000 feet. The barking of a dog was heard 
 at the height of 2 miles, while the shouting of a multitude 
 of people was not audible at heights exceeding 4000 feet 
 
 The majority of Mr Glaisher's experiments were made 
 in the summer, partly because public ascents took place 
 , at this time of the year, and partly because the weather 
 was more settled. But some special ascents were made 
 in the winter; these were found to be very troublesome 
 and costly, owing to the time that was wasted before 
 a suitable day occurred, and to the boisterous weather, 
 which damaged the balloon. Altogether the number of 
 ascents bore but a small ratio to the number pf days 
 spent over them. Sometimes it was necessary to wait 
 at Wolverhampton a whole week after the day fixed 
 for the ascent, owing to the unfavourable state of the 
 weather and the necessity of keeping the light gas re- 
 quired for the balloon in a separate gasometer (as the 
 lightest gas is the worst in ilium mating power), added to 
 the cost' and difficulty. When balloons ascend as public 
 exhibitions from places of entertainment it is very rarely 
 that a height of a mile is reached, although, in the absence 
 of instruments, it is not unusual for the aeronaut to ex- 
 aggerate the elevation, as the passengers have no reason for 
 disputing what is told them. This must be borne in mind 
 when physiological or other phenomena are described by 
 voyagers unprovided with instruments. We have noticed 
 the observations made in Mr Glaisher's ascents at greater 
 length, because they are almost the only ones that have been 
 made in which the height and other matters are determined 
 with certainty. A quantity of air was collected in two large 
 bags at the height of 12,000 fett in the ascent on January 
 12, 1864, and submitted to Professor Tyndall, but he has 
 never made public the analysis of it. 
 
 In the years 18G7 and 18G8 M. Flammarion made eight Ascents o( 
 or nine ascents from Paris for scientific purposes. The M- Flani- 
 heights reached were not great, but the general result of '.'^Ji ^'. 
 the observations was to confirm those, made by Mr Glaisher. 
 See M. Flammarion in Voyages Aeriens, Paris, 1870, or 
 Travels in the Air, London, 1871. Observations were 
 also made in some balloon ascents by M. de Fouvielle, 
 which are noticed in the works just referred to. 
 
 The balloon had not been discovered very long before it Use of Inl- 
 received a military status, and soon after the commence- loons for 
 ment of the French revolutionary war an aeronautic school m " ,tar y 
 was founded at Meudon; Guyton de Morveau, the chemist, P ur P 0SI 
 and Colonel Coiitelle being the persons in charge. Four 
 balloons were constructed for the armies of the north, of 
 the Sambre and Meuse, of the Rhine and Moselle, and of 
 Egypt. In June 1794 Coutelle ascended with the adju- 
 tant and general to reconnoitre the hostile army just before Heconn.ns- 
 the battle of Fleurus, and two reconnaissances were made, "nces ht- 
 each occupying four hours. It is generally stated that it [°™ the 
 was to the information so gained that the French victory p?„ * ° 
 was due. Ine balloon corps was in constant requisition 
 during the campaign, but it does not appear that, with the 
 exception of the reconnaissances just mentioned, any great 
 advantages resulted, except in a moral point of view. But 
 even this was of importance, as the enemj' were much dis- 
 concerted at having their movements so completely watched, 
 while the French were correspondingly elated at the supe- 
 rior information it was believed they were gaining. An 
 attempt was made to revive the use of balloons in tho 
 African campaign of 1830, but no opportunity occurred in 
 which they could be employed. It is said that in 1849 a 
 reconnoitring balloon was sent up from before Venice, 
 and that the Russians used one at SebastopoL In the 
 French campaign against Italy in 1859 the French had 
 recourse to the use of balloons, but this time there was not 
 any aerostatic corps, and their management was entrusted 
 to the brothers Godard. Several reconnaissances were 
 made, and one of especial interest the day before the battle At SoS 
 of Solferino. No information of much importance seems, f ' rino - 
 however, to have been gained thereby. The Fleurus re-
 
 200 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 [pAUACnUTES. 
 
 fconnaissance .vas made m a balloon inflated with hydrogen 
 gas, while at Solferino a fire-balloon was employed. Each 
 system has its advantages and disadvantages; the gas- 
 balloon requires several hours for inflation, but then it can 
 remain in the eir any length of time; the fire-balloon can 
 be inflated rapidly, but it will not.. stay in the air more 
 than five or ten minutes unless a furnace is taken up, the 
 use of which is impracticable in even a moderate wind; 
 besides, the fire-balloon must be of very large dimensions, and 
 only one person could, as a rule,ascend ata time.and hewould 
 have to be occupied with the fire : the use of fire-balloons also 
 is always attended with some danger. M. Eugene Godard, 
 . who was engaged in the management of the balloons in the 
 Italian campaign, wrote to the Times, in August 1864, ex- 
 pressing his opinion of the superiority of fire-balloons for war 
 purposes, as they are so easily inflated and are not destroyed 
 or compelled to descend even if pierced by several balls; 
 and this was also, we believe, the opinion of the Austrians 
 who made experiments with war balloons. 
 
 In the late American war balloons were a good deal used 
 by the Federals. There was a regular balloon staff attached 
 to M'Clellan's army, with a captain, an assistant-captain, and 
 ibout 50 non-commissioned officers and privates. The appa- 
 ratus consisted of two generators, drawn by four horses Cach ; 
 two balloons, drawn by four horses eaph, and an acid-cart, 
 drawn by two horses. The two balloons used contained about 
 13,000 and 26,000 feet of gas, and the inflation usually 
 occupied about three hours. (See Captain Beaumont's 
 Account, voL xii. of the Royal Engineers' Papers.) We are 
 not aware of the value set by the officers in command on 
 the information obtained by this means; but as we believe 
 balloons were employed till the conclusion of the war, 
 it is clear that some importance was attached to their use. 
 In 1862 Or 1863 one or two experiments to test the use of 
 balloons in making reconnaissances were made at Alder- 
 shot, but nothing came of them. 
 
 When the.Montgolfiers first discovered the balloon, its 
 great use in military operations was at once prophe- 
 sied ; but these anticipations have not been realised. On 
 the other hand, however, there can be no doubt that the 
 balloon has never had a fair trial, being viewed coldly by 
 officers enamoured of routine, and when used, being often 
 'eft unsupplied with suitable appointments. It is probable 
 Jiat a future still remains for the balloon in this direction. 
 
 The paramount value of the balloon during the recent 
 siege of Paris must be fresh in the minds of all. It 
 was by it alone that communication was kept up 
 between tho besieged city and the external world, 
 as the balloons carried away from Paris the pigeons 
 which afterwards brought back to it the news of the 
 provinces. The total number of balloons that ascended 
 from Paris during the siege, conveying persons and de- 
 spatches, was sixty-four — the first having started on 
 September 23, 1870, and the last on January 28,1871. 
 Gambetta effected his escape from Paris, on October 7, 
 in the balloon Armand-Barbes, an event which doubtless 
 led to the prolongation of the war. Of the sixty-four 
 balloons only two were never heard of; they were blown 
 out to sea. One of the most remarkable voyages was that 
 of the Yille d 'Orleans, which, leaving Paris at eleven o'clock 
 on November 21, descended fifteen hours afterwards near 
 Christiania, having crossed the North Sea, Several of the 
 balloons on their descent were taken by the Prussians, and 
 a good many were fired at while in the air; but we do not 
 hear of any being injured from this cause. The average 
 size of the balloons was from 2000 to 2050 metres, or from 
 70,000 to 72,000 cubic feet The above facts we have 
 extracted from Les Ballons du Sibge de Paris, a sheet pub- 
 lished by Bulla <fc Sons, Paris; compiled by the brothers 
 Tissandier, well-known French aeronauts, and giving the 
 
 name, size, and times of nsceut and descent of evory balloon 
 that left Paris, with the names of tho aeronaut and gene- 
 rally also those of the passengers, the weight of despatches, 
 the number of pigeons, &c. Only those balloons, however, are 
 noticed, in which some person ascended. A similar list of 
 sixty-two balloons is given by Mr Glaisher in tho introduc- 
 tion to the second edition of Travels in (he Air (1871). It 
 was, however, published too soon after tho conclusion of 
 the siege to bo quite so complete as tho sheet of the MIL 
 Tissandier. 
 
 It is perhaps worth stating that the balloons were manu- 
 factured and despatched (generally from tho platforms of the 
 Orleans or the Northern Railway) under the direction of the 
 Post-Office. Tho aeronauts employed were mostly sailors, 
 who did their work very welL No use whatever was made 
 in the war of balloons for purposes of reconnaissance. The 
 exceedingly important part played by the balloon in the 
 siege of Paris would alone, if it had been of no other utility, 
 render it one of the most valuable inventions of tho last 
 century. 
 
 The principle of the parachute is so simple that the idea Para- 
 must have occurred to persons in all ages. Father Loubere, chutes, 
 in his History of Siam, published two centuries ago, tells of 
 a person who frequently diverted the court by the pro- 
 digious leaps he used to take, having two parachutes or 
 umbrellas fastened to his girdle. In 1783 a certain M. 
 le Normand practically demonstrated the efficiency of a 
 parachute by descending from a high house at Lyons; but 
 he merely regarded it as a useful means whereby to escape 
 from fire. To Blanchard is due the idea of using it as an Blaocha 
 adjunct to the balloon. As early as 1785 he had con- 
 structed a parachute, to which was attached a basket. In 
 this he placed a dog, which descended safely to the ground 
 when the parachute was released from, a balloon at a con- 
 siderable elevation. It is stated that he descended himself 
 from a balloon in a parachute in 1793; but, owing to somo 
 defect in its construction, he fell too rapidly, and brokehis leg. 
 
 Andre 1 Jaques Garncrin was the first person who success- Garnerl 
 fully descended from a balloon in a parachute, and he 
 repeated this experiment so often that he may be said to 
 have first demonstrated the practicability of using the 
 machine; and, in fact, that he invented it in a practical 
 and suitable form. In 1793 Garnerin had been taken 
 prisoner at Marchiennes, and he was confined for between 
 two and three years in the fortress of Bude, in Hungary! 
 While in captivity he elaborated in his mind the means of 
 descending from a balloon by means of a parachute ; and 
 on October 22, 1797, he made his first, public experi- 
 ment. He ascended from the park of Monceau at Paris, 
 and when at the height of about 1 \ mile he released the 
 parachute, which was attached to the balloon in place of a 
 car; the balloon, relieved suddenly of so great a weight, 
 rose very rapidly till it burst, while the parachute de- 
 scended very fast, making violent oscillations all the 
 way. Garnerin, however, reached the earth in safety upon 
 the plain of Monceau. In 1802 Garnerin came to England 
 and made a good many ascents in all parts of the country, 
 many of which excited much enthusiasm, as can be seen 
 from the contemporary accounts; and on September 21, 
 1802, he repeated his parachute experiment in Epgland. 
 
 The parachute was dome-shaped, and bore a resemblance' 
 to a large umbrella. The case or dome was made of white 
 canvas, and was 23 feet in diameter. At the top was a 
 truck or round piece of wood 10 inches in diameter, with a 
 hole in its centre, fastened to the canvas by 32 short pieces 
 of tape. The parachute, was suspended from a hoop at- 
 tached to the netting of the balloon, and below the para* 
 chute was placed a cylindrical basket, 4 feet high and 2^ feet 
 in diameter, which contained the aeronaut The ascent toob 
 place at about six o'clock from North Audley Street London:
 
 PARACHUTES.] 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 201 
 
 and, at a height of about (it is believed) 8000 feet, Garnerin 
 separated the parachute from the balloon. For a few 
 seconds his fate seemed certain, as the parachute retained 
 the collapsed state in which it had originally ascended, and 
 fell very rapidly. It suddenly, however, expanded, and the 
 rapidity of itrf"descent was at once checked, but the oscil- 
 lations were so violent that the car, which was suspended 
 20 feet below, was sometimes on a level with the rest 
 of the apparatus. Some accounts state that these oscilla- 
 tions increased, others that they decreased as the parachute 
 descended, and the latter seems most probable. It came 
 to the ground in a held at the back of St Pancras Church, 
 the descent having occupied rather more than ten minutes. 
 Garnerin was hurt a little by the violence with which the 
 basket containing him struck the earth ; but a few cuts and 
 a slight nausea represented all the ill effects of his fall. 
 He made, certainly, one other descent in a similar way (as 
 that just described is stated to Lave been his third), and 
 we believe several others on the Continent, but this was 
 the only one he effected in England. 
 
 Jordaki Kuparento, a Polish aeronaut, is the only person 
 who ever made any real use of a parachute. He ascended 
 from Warsaw on July 24, 1808, in a fire-balloon which, at a 
 considerable elevation, took fire; but being provided with a 
 parachute, he was enabled to effect his descent in safety. 
 ra- The next experiment made with a parachute was that 
 '■• which resulted in the unfortunate death of Mr Robert 
 Mr Cocking. So early as 1814 this gentleman had lectured 
 on the subject before the City Philosophical Society, and 
 also before the Society of Arts. He always retained an 
 interest in ballooning, and made two ascents — one with Mr 
 Sadler, and the other on September 27, 1836, with Mr 
 Green. The success of the balloon trip of Messrs Hollond, 
 Mason, and Green, seems to have incited Mr Cocking to 
 demonstrate practically the truth of his views. He accord- 
 ingly constructed a suitable parachute on his principles, and 
 having succeeded in obtaining the consent of Messrs Hughes 
 and Gye, the proprietors of Vauxhall Gardens, to permit 
 the ascent to be made there, he prevailed on Mr Green 
 to ascend in his great Nassau balloon with the parachute 
 attached. The great defect of Garnerin's umbrella-shaped 
 parachute was its violent oscillation during descent, and 
 Mr Cocking considered that if the parachute were 
 made of a conical form (vertex downwards), the whole 
 of this oscillation would be avoided ; and if it were 
 made of sufficient size, there would be resistance enough to 
 check too rapid a 
 descent. He there- 
 fore constructed a 
 parachute on this 
 principle, the radius 
 of which at its widest 
 part was about 17 
 feet It was stated 
 in the public an- 
 nouncements previ- 
 ous to the experi- 
 ment that the whole 
 weighed 223 lb; but 
 from the evidence 
 at the inquest it 
 appeared that the 
 weight must have Cocking's Parachute, 
 
 been over 400 lb. Mr Cocking's weight was 177 R, which 
 was so much additional On^July 24, 1837, the trial 
 took place; and the Nassau balloon, with Mr Green and 
 Mr Spencer, a solicitor, in the car, and having suspended 
 below it the parachute, in the car of which was Mr Cocking, 
 rose from the ground at twenty-five minutes to eight in 
 the evening. A good deal of difficulty was experienced in 
 
 1—9* 
 
 rising to a suitable height, partly in consequence of the re- 
 sistance to the air offered by the expanded parachute, 
 and partly owing to its weight. Mr Cocking wished the 
 height to be 8000 feet; but when the balloon reached the 
 height of 5000 feet.it being then nearly over Greenwich, Mr 
 Green called out to Mr Cocking that he should be unable" 
 to ascend to the requisite height if the parachute was to 
 descend in daylight. Mr Cocking accordingly let slip the 
 catch which was to liberate him from the balloon. The 
 parachute for a few seconds descended very rapidly but 
 still evenly, until suddenly the upper rim seemed to give 
 way, and the whole apparatus collapsed (taking a form 
 resembling an umbrella turned inside out, and nearly 
 closed), and the machir . descended with great rapidity, 
 oscillating very much. V, nen about two or three hundred 
 feet from the ground, the basket became disengaged from 
 the remnant of the parachute, and Mr Cocking was found 
 in a field at Lee, literally dashed to pieces. 
 
 Mr Green and Mr Spencer, who wep» in the car of the 
 balloon, had also a narrow escape. At the moment the 
 parachute was disengaged they crouched down in the car, 
 and Mr Green clung to the valve-line, to permit the escape 
 of the gas. The balloon shot- upwards, plunging and 
 rolling, and the gas pouring from both the upper and 
 lower valves, but chiefly from the latter, as the great 
 resistance of the air checked its egress from the former. 
 Mr Green and Mr Spencer applied their mouths to tubes 
 communicating with an air-bag with which they had had 
 the foresight to provide themselves, otherwise they would 
 certainly have been suffocated by the gas. Notwith- 
 standing this precaution, however, the gas almost totally 
 deprived them of sight for four or five minutes. When 
 they came to themselves they found they were at a height 
 of about four miles, and descending rapidly. They effected, 
 however, a safe descent near Maidstone. 
 
 Many objections were made, after the result, to the form 
 of Mr Cocking's parachute ; but there is little doubt that 
 had it been constructed of sufficient strength, and perhaps 
 of somewhat larger size, it would have answered its pur- 
 pose. As it was, the upper rim was made of tin, which 
 soon gave way. Mr Wise, the American aeronaut, made 
 some experiments on parachutes of both forms (Garnerin's 
 and Cocking's), an>d found that the latter always were 
 much more steady, descending generally in a spiral curve. 
 
 In 1839 Mr Hampton made three descents in a para- Mr Hamp- 
 
 chute, on Garnerin's ^~^ ton's pin. 
 
 pattern, from his bal- .^rtl ~~*~ > >v v d^Jnta. 
 
 loon, the "Albion." 
 He followed Gar- 
 nerin's example in 
 attaching the para- 
 chute to the netting 
 of the balloon, so 
 that when the con- 
 nection between the 
 two was severed the 
 latter was left to its 
 own devices. Mr 
 Hampton took mea- 
 sures, however, that Hampton's Parachute, 
 it should descend soon after the parachute, and it 'fcaa 
 generally found no great distance off, and returned to him. 
 All his parachute descents were safely performed, although 
 in one he was a good deal shaken. 
 
 We may remark that a descending balloon half-full of 
 gas either does rise, or can with a little management be 
 made to rise, to the top of the netting and take the form" of a 
 parachute, thus materially lessening the rapidity of descent 
 Mr Wise, in fact, having noticed this, once purposely 
 exploded his balloon when at a considerable altitude, and
 
 202 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 [flying machines. 
 
 the resistance offered to the air by the envelope of the 
 balloon was sufficient to enablo him to reach the ground 
 without injury. And a similar thing took place in one of 
 Mr (.■ ascents (April 18, 1863), 
 
 when, at a height of about 2 miles, the sea appeared 
 directly urn the gas was let out of the balloon 
 
 as quickly as possible, and the velocity of descent was so 
 great, that the 2 miles of vertical height were passed 
 through in four minutes. On the balloon reaching the 
 grout: rhaven, close to the shore, it was found to 
 
 be nearly empty. The balloon had, in fact, for the last 
 mile or more, merely acted as a parachute; the sho 
 a severe one, and all the instruments were broken, but 
 nothing serious resulted to the occupants of the car. 
 
 Numerous attempts have been made both to direct 
 balloons and contrive independent flying machines. After 
 the invention of the balloon by the brothers Montgolfier, 
 it was at once thought that no very great difficulty would 
 be found in devising a suitable steering apparatus ; in fact, 
 it was supposed that to rise into the air and remain there 
 was the chief difficulty, and that, this being accomplished, 
 the power of directing the aerostat would be a secondary 
 achievement that uiu>t follow before long. Accordingly, 
 in most of the early balloons the voyagers took up oars, 
 Bails, or paddles, which they diligently worked while in the 
 air; sometimes they thought an effect was produced, and 
 sometimes not. If we consider the number of different 
 currents in the atmosphere, it is no wonder that some 
 should have announced with confidence that their course 
 •was changed from that of the wind by means of the sails 
 or oars that they used , in fact, it is not very often that tho 
 whole atmosphere up to a considerable height is moving 
 en masse in the same direction, so that generally the courto 
 taken by tho balloon, as determined merely by joining the 
 places of ascent and descent, is not identical with the 
 direction of the wind, even when it is the same at both 
 places. Although there is no reason why balloons should 
 not be so guided by means of mechanical appliances 
 attached to them as to move in a direction making a small 
 angle with that of the wind, still it must have been evident 
 to any one who has observed a balloon during inflation on 
 a windy day, that any motion in which it would be exposed 
 to the action of a strong current of air must result in its 
 destruction. It has therefore gradually become recognised 
 that tho balloon is scarcely a step at all towards a system of 
 aerial navigation; and many have thought that the principles, 
 involved in the construction of a flying machine must be 
 very different from the simple statical equilibrium that 
 subsists when a balloon is floating in the air. " To navigate 
 the air the machine must be heavier than the air," has fre- 
 quently been regarded as an axiom; and there can be" no doubt 
 that an apparatus constructed of such light material as is 
 necessary for a balloon must either be destroyed or become 
 ungovernable in a high wind. Recently, however, - M. 
 Dupuy de Lome, an eminent French engineer, has con- 
 structed and made experiments with a balloon which he 
 considers satisfies some of the conditions. The balloon is 
 spindle-shaped, the longer axis being horizontal, and it 
 ins about 120,000 cubic feet. The car is suspended 
 below the middle of the balloon, and there are provided a 
 rudder and a' screw. The rudder consists of a triangular 
 sail placed beneath the balloon and near the rear, and is 
 kept in position by a horizontal yard, about 20 feet long, 
 turning round a pivot in its forward extremity ; the height 
 of the sail is 16 feet, and its surface 160 square feet. Two 
 ropes for working the rudder extend forward to the seat of 
 the'stcerer, who has before him a compass fixed to the car, 
 the central part of which will contain ijurteen men. The 
 screw is carried by the car, and' is driven by four or eight 
 men working at a capstan. A trial was made with the 
 
 machine on February 2, 1872, on a windy day, and M. de 
 Lome considered that ho had been enabled by bis screw 
 and rudder to alter his course about 12°. (See Report of t/ie 
 Aeronautical Society, 1 
 
 Whatever difficulties may present themselves in regu- 
 lating the horizontal movement of the balloon, there can 
 be no doubt that the vertical motion could be obtained by 
 means of a screw or other mechanical means; and the 
 power of being able to ascend or descend without loss of 
 ballast would be a considerable gain. In the opinion of 
 many, however, the balloon is not worth improvement ; 
 and as ballooning is now generally practised merely as a 
 spectacle by which the aeronaut or showman gains his 
 living, it is not likely that any advancement will be made. 
 
 Of flying machines, in which both buoyancy and motion 
 were proposed to be obtained by purely mechanical means, 
 the number has been very great. Most of the projects 
 have been chimerical, and were due to persons possessed 
 of an insufficient knowledge of the principles of natural 
 philosophy, both theoretically and practically. They serve, 
 however, to show how great a number of individuals must 
 have paid attention to the matter, and even at the present 
 time several patents are taken out annually on the subject 
 We do not propose here to give an account of any of these 
 projects, for but few have ever passed beyond projects, but 
 will merely refer to Mx Henson's aerial carriage, which in Hens 
 1843 attracted some attention. The apparatus was an ri,ria 
 elaborate one, and its principal feature was the great ™ a& * 
 expanse of the sustaining planes. The machine was to 
 advance with its front edge a little raised, the effect of which, 
 would be to present its under surface to the air over which 
 it was passing; the resistance of this air, acting on it like the 
 strong wind on the sails of a windmill, would, it was thought, 
 prevent the descent of the machine. Mr Henson invented a 
 steam-engine of great lightness, but he proposed that the 
 machine should be started down an inclined plane, so that 
 the steam-engine would only have to make up for the 
 velocity lost by the resistance of the air. The scheme 
 never came to anything. , 
 
 In the still air of a room it is, of course, not difficult to 
 attach an apparatus to a balloon so as. to direct its motion, 
 and even models of flying machines have been made which, 
 when tried in a room, seemed moderately successful Some 
 instruments which would very nearly support themselves 
 in the air were shown at the Aeronautical Society's exhi- 
 bition at the Crystal Palace. A good deal would bo 
 accomplished if an accurate knowledge of the exact motion 
 of a bird's wing could be obtained ; in fact, until this is 
 known, or until sufficient experiments on the resistance 
 experienced by different-shaped laminae with different 
 motions are made, there seems lit lie chance of the con- 
 struction of a satisfactory flying machine, unless means 
 can be found to make a steam-engine of much less weight 
 than is at present necessary. 
 
 In 1865 the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain was Aeroi 
 founded, the officers being — President, the Duke of Argyle ; cal s< 
 Treasurer, Mr J. Glaisher; and Secretary, Mr Brearey. It ° f G * 
 has published an annual report every year since [1 873], con- 
 taining selections from tho papers read to tho society, and 
 abstracts of the discussions that took place thereon at the 
 meetings. The numerous papers submitted to this society 
 bear witness to the great number of minds that are engaged 
 on the solution of the problem of aerial navigation. Of 
 course, not a few of the methods proposed are the fanciful 
 projects of ignorant men, but some show the careful thought 
 and elaborate experiment of trained engineers and other 
 qualified persons. In 1868 the society held an exhibition 
 of flying machines! <^ c -> a * the Crystal ■ Palace, which was 
 visited by many persons. A fire-balloon of a M. de la 
 Marne, which should hav« ascended during this exhibition
 
 MATHEMATICAL THEORY.] 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 203 
 
 caught fire and was burnt. In 1871 a series of experi- 
 ments was made at Perm's factory (Greenwich) on the 
 resistance of different shaped planes placed at different 
 angles, in a current of air produced by a 'rotary fan. In- 
 vestigations of this Kind not only form the first step 
 towards obtaining data for a true knowledge of the exact 
 nature of flying, but are also independently of high scientific 
 interest. The chief object of the society is to bring together 
 those persons who are interested in the subject of aero- 
 nautics (except balloonists by trade, who are ineligible), 
 and to encourage those who, possessing suitable acquire- 
 ments, are devoting their time to the investigation of the 
 question. 
 
 Aerostatic societies have also been founded in other 
 countries; but although they have been inaugurated with 
 considerable eclat, more than one have already terminated 
 a short-lived career. The Vienna society seems, however, 
 to have been unusually active during the recent exhibi-. 
 tion of 1873. 
 
 The principle in virtue of which a balloon ascends is 
 exactly the same as that which causes a piece of wood or 
 other material to float partially immersed in water, and 
 'may be stated as follows, viz., that if any body float in 
 equilibrium in a fluid, the weight of the body is equal to 
 the weight of the fluid displaced. By -the " fluid dis- 
 placed" is meant the fluid which would occupy the space 
 actually occupied in the fluid by the body if the body were 
 removed. When the fluid is inelastic and incompressible, 
 i.e., a liquid, as water, its density is the same throughout, 
 and bodies placed in it either rise to the surface and float 
 there partially immersed, or sink to the bottom. Thus, 
 suppose a body only one-third as heavy as water (in other 
 words, whose specific gravity is one-third) was floating on 
 the surface of water, then, as the weight of the body must 
 be equal to that of the water it displaces, it is clear that one- 
 third of the body must be immersed. In the case, however, 
 of an elastic or gaseous fluid, such as air, the density gradu- 
 ally decreases as we recede from the surface of the earth, 
 for each layer has to support the weight of all above it, and 
 as air is elastic or compressible, the layers near the eartlTaro 
 more pressed upon, and therefore denser than, those above. 
 Thus, if a body lighter than the air it displaces be set 
 free in the atmosphere, it rises to such a height that the 
 air there is so attenuated that the weight of it displaced 13 
 equal to that of the body, when equilibrium takes place, 
 and the body ascends no higher. In all cases, therefore, 
 a body floating in the air is- totally immersed, and it can 
 never get beyond the atmosphere, and float, as it were, 
 upon its surface. 
 
 To find, therefore, how high any body. (lighter than the 
 air it displaces), such as a balloon, of given capacity and 
 weight, will rise, it is only necessary to calculate at what 
 height the volume of a quantity of air equal to the given 
 capacity will be equal in weight to the given weight. 
 Leaving temperature out of the question, the law of the 
 decrease of density in the atmosphere is such that the 
 
 density at a height x is equal to e * * x the. density at the 
 earth's surface, g being the measure of gravity, and £ also 
 
 a constant ; the value of - is called the height of the homo- 
 
 9 
 geneous atmosphere, viz., it is equal to what would.be the 
 height of the atmosphere if it were homogeneous through- 
 out, and of the same density as at the earth's surface. . Its 
 value may be taken at about 26,000 feet. Thus, let V be 
 the volume of a balloon and its appurtenances, car, ropes, 
 &c. (viz., the number of cubic feet, or whatever the. unit 
 of solidity may be, that it displaces), and let W be its 
 weight (including that of the gas), then it will rise to a 
 height x such that 
 
 W = Vg x density of air, 
 
 g being the value of the force of gravity, and «r being the 
 density of the air at the surfaee of the earth. This equa- 
 tion is not quite accurate, fur several reasons — (1) because 
 the decrease of temperature that results from increase of 
 elevation has not been taken into account; (2) because g 
 has been taken to measure the force of gravirj on the 
 earth's surface, whereas it should represent thi- force at 
 a height x; this is easily corrected by replacing g by 7', 
 
 where g' =g-. 
 
 ; , a being the radius of the earth, but 
 
 (a+x) 2 ' 
 
 as a is about 4000 miles, and a; is never likely in any ordi- 
 nary question to exceed 10 miles, we can replace^' by g 
 without introducing sensible error, for the correction due to 
 this cause would be much less than other uncertainties 
 that must arise; and (3) because W and V could not both 
 remain constant. If the balloon be not fully inflated on 
 leaving, so that the gas contained in it can expand, then 
 V, the volume of air displaced, will increase ; while, if the 
 balloon be full at starting, the envelope must either be 
 strong enough to resist the increased pressure of the gas 
 inside, due to the removal of some of the pressure outside 
 (owing to the diminished density of the air), or some of the 
 gas must be allowed to escape. The former alternative 
 of the second case could not be complied with, as the balloon 
 would burst; some of the gas must therefore escape, and 
 so VV is diminished. The weight of gas of which the 
 balloon is thus eased cannot properly be omitted from the 
 calculation, if a; be considerable; but a good approximation 
 is obtained without it, as the weight of the gas that escapes 
 will generally bear a small proportion to the weight of 
 balloon, car, grapnel, passengers, &c. The true equation 
 (except as regards temperature) is therefore, for a balloon 
 full at starting — 
 
 * —t 
 
 ga\ P(! (l-e-i m ) </a 2 V> e ** 
 
 \V 
 
 {a+xf 
 
 {a + xf 
 
 v„ denoting the volume actually occupied by the gas, </ 
 
 denoting g " , viz., gravity at height x, and Pt> being 
 
 the density of the gas on the ground. It will generally be 
 sufficient, especially when temperature is omitted, to take 
 the formula in the approximate form written previously. 
 As the volume of air displaced by the car, ropes, passengers, 
 &c, is usually trifling compared to that displaced by the 
 balloon itself, no great error can arise from taking v„ = V . 
 As an example, let us find how high a balloon of 100,000 
 cubic feet capacity would rise if inflated with pure hydrogen 
 gas, carrying with it a weight of 3000 lb (this including 
 the weight of the balloon itself and appurtenances). A 
 cubic foot of air, at temperature 32° Fahr., and under a 
 pressure of 29-922 in., weighs -080728 lb, and a cubic 
 foot of hydrogen .weighs -005592 lb, so that (supposing 
 the barometer reading on the earth to be 29-922 in., and the 
 temperature of the air to be 32°) at the surface of the 
 earth the balloon, &c, weighs 3559 lb, and the weight of 
 the air displaced is 8073 &>. The balloon will therefore 
 approximately rise to such a height x that 100,000 cubic 
 feet of air shall there weigh 3559 lb; and x is given in feet 
 by the equation 
 
 . 3559 
 
 «""'""= 8075* 
 
 or x = 26,000 (log 8073 - log 3559), 
 
 the logarithms being hyperbolic; if common or Briggian 
 logarithms be used, the result must be multiplied by 
 2-30258 . . . (the reciprocal of the modulus). In the above
 
 204 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 [mathematical 
 
 Mathema- 
 tical theory 
 rfthe 
 motion of 
 a balloon ; 
 the last 
 problem 
 that en- 
 gaged the 
 attention 
 4f Euler. 
 
 case we find x = about 21,000 feet, and as at this height 
 rather moro than half the gas will have escaped (it having 
 been supposed that the balloon was full at starting). This 
 only reduces the value 3559 by about 300, and the result 
 of taking it into account is only to increase the height just 
 found by about 200 feet. If 2000 lb out of the 3000 
 were thrown away during the ascent, the balloon would 
 reach a height of about 10 miles; the weight of the gas 
 that escapes is here important, as, if it be not taken into 
 account, the height given by the formula is only about 
 9 miles. 
 
 In actual aerostation, as at present practised, ordinary 
 cqal gas is used, which is many times heavier than hydrogen, 
 being, in fact, usually not less than half the specific gravity 
 of air. Even when balloons are inflated with hydrogen, 
 generated by the action of sulphuric acid on zinc filings, 
 the gas is very far from pure, and its density is often 
 double that of pure hydrogen, and even greater. 
 
 The hydrostatic laws relating to the equilibrium of float- 
 ing bodies were known long previous to the invention of 
 the balloon in 1783, but it was only in the latter half of 
 the 18th century that the nature of gases was sufficiently 
 understood to enable these principles to have been acted 
 on. As we have seen, both Black and Cavallo did make 
 use of them on arsmall scale, and if they had thought 
 it possible to make a varnish impervious to the passage 
 of hydrogen gas they could have easily anticipated the 
 Montgolfiers. As it was, no sooner was the fire-balloon 
 invented, than diaries at once suggested and practically 
 carried out the idea of the hydrogen or inflammable air 
 ballooa 
 
 The mathematical theory of the rate of ascent of a 
 oalloon possesses remarkable historic interest, from the 
 fact that it wa3 the last problem that engaged the attention 
 of the greatest mathematician of the last century, Euler. 
 The news of the experiment of the Montgolfiers at Annonay 
 on June 5, 1783, reached the aged mathematician (he was 
 in his 77th year) at St Petersburg; and with an energy that 
 was characteristic of him he at once proceeded to investi- 
 gate the motion of a globe lighter than the air it displaced. 
 Eor many years he had been all but totally blind, and was 
 in the habit of performing his calculations with chalk apon 
 a black board. It was after his death, on September 7, 
 1783, that this board was found covered with the analytical 
 investigation of the motion of an aerostat. This investi- 
 gation is printed under the title, Calculi sur la Ballaru 
 Aerostatiqv.es faits par feu M. Leonard Euler, tels qu'on les 
 a trouvis svr son ardoise, apres sa mart arrivSe le 7 
 Septembre 1783, in the Memoirs of the French Academy 
 for 1781 (pp. 264-268). The explanation of the earlier 
 date is that the volume of memoirs for 1781 was not 
 published till 1784. The peculiarity of Eider's memoir is 
 that it deals with the motion of a closed globe filled with a 
 gas Ughter than air, whereas the experiments of the Mont- 
 golfiers were made with balloons inflated with heated air. 
 The explanation of this must be that either an imperfect 
 account reached Euler, and that he supplied the details 
 himself as seemed to him most probable, or that he, like 
 the Montgolfiers themselves, attributed the rising of the 
 balloon to the generation of a special gas given off by the 
 chopped straw with which the fire was fed. The treatment 
 of the question by Euler presents no particular point of 
 importance — indeed, it could not; but the fact of its having 
 given rise to the closing work of so long and distinguished 
 a life, and having occupied the last thoughts of so great a 
 mind, confers on the problem of the balloon's motion a 
 peculiar interest. 
 
 We now proceed to the investigation of the vertical 
 motion of a balloon inflated with gas, the horizontal motion, 
 of course, being always equal to that of tho current in 
 
 wnicn it is placed. In supposing, therefore, the balloon to 
 be ascending vertically into a perfectly calm atmosphere, 
 there is no loss of generality. There are two cases of the 
 problem, viz., when tho balloon is only partially filled with 
 gas at starting, and when it is quite, filled. The motion in 
 the former case we shall investigate first, as the balloon 
 will ascend till it becomes completely full, and then the 
 subsequent motion will belong to the second case. We may 
 remark that it is usual in investigations relating to the 
 motions of a balloon to regard it in the way that Euler did, 
 viz., as a closed inextensible bag, capable of bearing any 
 amount of pressure. In point of fact, the neck or lower 
 orifice of the balloon i3 invariably open while it is in the 
 air, so that the pressure inside and outside is practically 
 always the same, and when the balloon continues ascending 
 after it has become quite full, the gas pours out of the neck 
 or is allowed to escape by opening the upper valve. It ia 
 to be noticed that we have not thought it necessary to trans- 
 form the formulae obtained in such wise that they may be 
 readily adapted to numerical calculations as they stand, as 
 our object is rather to exhibit the nature of the motion, and 
 clearly express the conditions that are fulfilled in the case 
 of a balloon, than deduce a series of formulas for practical 
 use. We shall, however, indicate the simplifications allow- 
 able in practical applications. The effect of temperature, 
 though important, is neglected, as the connection between 
 it and height is still unknown. It was chiefly to determine 
 this relation that Mr Glaisher's ascents were undertaken, 
 and at the conclusion of the first eight he deduced an 
 empirical law which seemed to accord pretty well with the 
 observations ; the succeeding twenty ascents, however, failed 
 to confirm this law. In fact, it is evident, even without ob- 
 servation, that the rate ci the decline of temperature when 
 the sky is clear must differ from what it is when cloudy, 
 and that, being influenced to a great amount by radiation 
 of heat from the earth's surface, it will vary from hour to 
 hour. Under these circumstances, a3 our object is not to 
 deduce a series of practical rules for calculating heights, 
 4c, we have supposed the temperature to remain constant 
 throughout the atmosphere. The assumption of any law of 
 decrease would considerably complicate the equations. Per- 
 haps the simplest law, mathematically considered, would 
 be to assume the curve of. descent of temperature to be 
 y=e~". The curve Mr Glaisher deduced from his eight 
 ascents was a portion of a hyperbola, the constants being 
 determined empirically. 
 
 Let M = the mass of the balloon, car, netting, gas, pas 
 
 sengers, &c, on starting. 
 V, = the capacity of the envelope of the balloon when 
 
 full 
 n, = the volume of gas at the pressure of the air intro- 
 duced into the balloon before starting. 
 « = the volume (supposed less than V ) occupied by the 
 
 gas at the height x. 
 { = density of the gas in the balloon on the earth, 
 f = „ „ n at ^ height x. 
 
 e = density of the air on the earth. 
 * = „ „ at the height x. 
 
 v = the initial upward velocity of the balloon (which is 
 
 introduced for the sake of complete generality, 
 
 but is always zero). 
 ti = the velocity (vertically upwards, as all horizontal 
 
 motion is ignored'* at height x. 
 
 Then the equation of motion at any time previous to the 
 balloon becoming ccmpletelv filled is 
 
 Mu— = tvgf - Mo' - Au 2 e~* " , 
 dz 
 
 the last term being due to the resistance of the air, which 
 ia assumed to vary directly as the square of the velocity 
 and 03 the density of the air. In very slow motions the
 
 INVESTIGATIONS.] 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 205 
 
 resistance appears from experiments to vary pretty nearly 
 as the velocity; and when the motion is very swift, as in 
 the case of a rifle-bullet, as the cube of the velocity; but 
 when the motion is neither very rapid nor very slow, the 
 law of the square of the velocity probably represents the 
 truth very fairly. By g' is denoted the value of gravity 
 at the height x, so that 
 
 ,_ a» 
 9 ~ 9 {a+xf 
 
 a being, as above, the radius of the earth. In the exponen- 
 tial term, we shall replace g' by g, as no sensible error can 
 result therefrom. The value of crv is constant, as by 
 Boyle's and Marriotte's law it always = o-^ Writing, 
 therefore, for brevity — 
 
 <V» - M = c, 
 
 the equation of motion takes the form 
 
 dx (a+x)- 
 
 whence, following the usual rule for the integration of 
 linear differential equations of the first order, and writing 
 X for e~", for convenience of printing, 
 
 l a + x ~J a + x J 
 
 - ( a + x ~Ja+x y 1.2 ' 
 
 = &»'£- j^ + a{<"«Ei(-no-iia;) 
 -vu 2 "Ei(-2na-2nx) 
 + 1 -2« s "Ei(-3na-3ni)-...}^ +C. 
 Herein put z = 0, so that u = u , and we have 
 
 + a{e"Ei(-7w)-»n<: J "Ei(-2n3) 
 
 + ^~Ei(-3 na -)...}]+C; 
 
 whence, by subtraction, 
 
 «*<-" I -u < ?c—=0a* |~— - ^— +a{c-m(-na-nx) 
 v La a+x l > ' 
 
 -.7U! s *«Ei(- 2na- 2nx) + ... - «~Ei(- na) + wuj^EK - 2na) - ...} "I 
 
 therefore 
 
 «» = «««—" 
 
 |-_.<|_X) J 
 
 TP L« a+x 
 
 + «** {e**Ei( - na - nx) - e"Ei( - na) - nw>"Ei( -Inn- 2nx) 
 
 + t)K l "Ei(- 2«a) + r-— « s "Ei(- 3na- 3nx) 
 
 - 1 ^« 5 "Ei(-37«.) + ...}] 
 
 in which Ei x is use'd to denote the exponential integral of 
 -dx, according to a recognised notation. The 
 
 MM 
 
 values of the integral Ei x, which may be regarded as a 
 known function, have been tabulated (see Philosophical 
 Transactions for 1870, pp. 367-388). 
 
 We thus have, except for temperature, the complete 
 solution of the problem of the mouon of the balloon so far 
 as velocity and height are concerned; it would not be 
 possible to connect the time and the height except by the 
 
 performance of another integration, for. the practicability of 
 which it would be necessary to submit to some loss of 
 generality, viz., we should have to regard x as small as 
 compared to a, and take X as small, and so on. The equa- 
 tion last written gives the motion until the height (say h) 
 is attained at which the balloon becomes quite full, after 
 which the gas begins to escape, and we have the second 
 case of the problem. 
 
 Before proceeding, however, to the discussion of this 
 second case, it i3 worth while - to examine the solution more 
 carefully, leaving out of consideration quantities that make 
 no very great difference in the practical result, for the sake 
 of simplicity. Supposing, then, gravity to be constant At 
 all heights, and A. to be zero, the equation of motion takes 
 the simple form 
 
 d.v? , 
 
 whence u*—u lt i =px; 
 
 and we see, what is pretty evident from general reasoning, 
 that if a balloon, partially filled, rises at all, it will at least 
 rise to such a height that it will become completely fulL 
 
 The letters meaning the same as before, the equation of Motion a 
 motion of a balloon completely filled at starting is a ballooi 
 
 J M-Y (, -,) J ug =^^p{ V ,-M + V (, -,) J starting 
 
 or substituting for p and o- their value3 
 
 {li-V^l-.--) }„g = ^{v^ M 
 
 +V *,(l-e— •) 1 -Mifc— * . 
 
 The integral of this differential equation could be obtained 
 in series as before, only that the resulting equations 
 would be more complicated. As we do not propose to 
 discuss the formulae obtained, it will be sufficient for our 
 purpose to deduce an approximate solution by neglecting 
 V^l -e~**) compared to M, viz., neglecting the mass of 
 the gas that has escaped during the ascent compared to the 
 mass of the whole balloon and appurtenances. It must be 
 borne in mind, however, that when coal gas is used, and 
 the ascent is to a great height, the mass of gas that escape* 
 is by no means insensible. The equation thus becomes 
 
 or 
 
 +x ?{^<— U } 
 
 dx 
 
 + cu-"v? = 
 
 2(7 
 
 y being =-? . This is an equation which can be integrated 
 
 in exactly the same way as that previously considered, via., 
 by multiplying by a" factor e~" x , and integrating afr once; 
 thus, 
 
 -^{-a^+'f- 
 
 "} +c 
 
 a + x 
 
 a + x 
 
 - n {«•* Ei ( - na - nx) - jn« s "Ei ( - 2na - 2nz) + . . , I 
 + a (e'^Ei ( - 2na - 2nx) - nw'-EH - 3na - 3nx) + . . . } 1
 
 20G 
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 -nu>"Ei(-2Ha-2>u)+ ... \ |+C, 
 
 and C is determined as before by putting x =• , when wo 
 have u = v . 
 
 Id this case '«„ is not zero, except when the balloon 
 starts from the earth quite full. Tho general case .is, when 
 the balloon is only partially filled on leaving; the previous 
 equations then hold until a height h, at which it becomes 
 quite full, when the motion changes, and is as just investi- 
 gated. Then « becomes the velocity at the height //, and 
 everything is measured from this height as if from the sur- 
 face of the earth, a being then the radius of the earth + h, 
 p„ <r the densities at height h, and p, a at height x + h, 
 &c. We have therefore, except as regards time, completely 
 determined the motion of a balloon u ill gas in an 
 
 atmosphere of constant temperature. The introduction of 
 temperature wovdd modify the motion considerably, but in 
 the present state of science it cannot be taken into account. 
 
 The general principle of the equilibrium of a fire-balloon 
 is, of course, identical with that of a gas-balloon ; but tho 
 motion is different, as the degree of buoyancy at each 
 moment varies with the temperature of the air within the 
 balloon, and therefcre with the heat of the furnace by 
 which tho air is warmed. Dry air expands -yf 3d pari ol its 
 volume for every increase of temperature of 1° centigrade, 
 or i»T tn °f its volume for every increase of ternperatura 
 of 1° Fahr. If, therefore, the air in an envelope or bag 
 be heated 60° Fahr. more than the surrounding air, the 
 air within the bag will expand T Vr tn °f i* 8 volume, and 
 this air must therefore escape. The air within the bag 
 weighs less, therefore, than the air it displaces by the 
 /jYth part of the latter; and if the weight of this be 
 greater than tho weight of the bag and appurtenances, the 
 latter •will ascend. It is, therefore, always easy to calcu- 
 late approximately the ascensional power of a fire-balloon 
 if the temperature of the surrounding air be known, and 
 also the mean temperature of tho air within the balloon. 
 Thus, let the balloon contain V- cubic feet of hot air at the 
 temperature t' (Fahr.), and let the temperature of the 
 surrounding air be t (Fahr.) Also, suppose the weight of 
 tho balloon, car, <fcc., is W lb, and let the barometer reading 
 be h inches, then the ascensional power is equal to the 
 weight of the air displaced - weight of the heated air 
 - W lb, viz., 
 
 h f Vx -Q80728 '/x -080728 ) ». w 
 
 29-922 \ i-32 ~ " f-32 j E ~ W "' 
 
 1+ l9T 1 + "49T 
 
 •080728 tt> being the weight of a cubic foot of air at tem- 
 perature 32°, under the pressure of one atmosphere, viz., 
 when the reading of the barometer is 29-922 in. Of course, 
 the motion depends upon the temperature of the air in the 
 balloon a3 due to the furnace, if the latter is taken up with 
 the balloon ; but if the air in the balloon is merely warmed, 
 and the balloon then set free by itself, the problem is an 
 easy one, as the rate of cooling can be determined approxi- 
 mately; but it is destitute of interest. We have said that 
 dry air increases its volume by j-J-rth part for' every in- 
 crease of 1° (Fahr.), but the air is generally more or less 
 saturated with moisture. This second atmosphere, formed 
 of the vapour of water, is superposed over that of the air, 
 as it were, and, in a very careful consideration of the 
 question, should be taken into account. Even, however, 
 when the air is completely saturated with moisture but 
 little difference is produced ; so that for all practical pur- 
 poses the presence of the vapour of water in the air may 
 be ignored. Of course the amount of vapour depends on 
 
 the dew-point, and tables of the pressure of tho vapour ot 
 water a^ different temperatures are given in most modem 
 works on heat ; but, as has been stated, the matter, in an 
 aeronautical point of view, is of very little importance. 
 At first it was supposed that the cause of tho ascent of the 
 balloon of the Montgolfiers was traceable to the generation 
 of gas and 6moke from tho damp straw which was set light 
 to ; but the advance of science showed that the fire-balloon 
 owed its levity merely to tho rarefaction of the air produced 
 by the heat generated. 
 
 A formula giving the height, in terms of tho rcadingsof 
 the barometer and thermometer, on the surface of the 
 earth, and at the place the height of which is required, is 
 easily obtained from the principles of hydrostatics. The 
 formula given by Laplace, reduced to English units, is — 
 
 Z=W£) x G015o(l + '-±£^W- 002837 cos 2 L) 
 
 A + 52251\ 
 
 \ 20886900/ 
 
 Z being the height required in feet, h, h' the heights of the 
 barometer in inches at the lower and upper stations, t, t' the 
 temperatures (Fahr.) of the air at the lower and upper 
 stations, L tho latitude, z the approximate altitude, and 
 20,886,900 the earth's mean radius in feet. This was the 
 formula used by Mr Glaisher for the reduction of hi3 
 observations. It is open to the obvious defect that the 
 temperature is assumed uniform, and equal to the mean of 
 the temperatunis at the upper and lower stations ; but till 
 the law of decline of temperature is better determined, 
 perhaps this is as good an approximation to the truth as 
 we can have without introducing needless complication in 
 the formula. 
 
 A sphere is not a developable surface — i.e., it cannot be Shape of 
 divided in any manner so as to admit of its being spread g° re °t • 
 out flat upon a plane, so that no spherical balloon could bo baUooB - 
 made of stiff plane material. However, the silk or cotton 
 of which balloons are manufactured is sufficiently flexible 
 to prevent any deviation from the sphere being noticeable. 
 Balloons are made in gores, a gore being what, in spherical 
 trigonometry, is called a lune, viz., the surface enclosed 
 between two meridians. The approximate shape of these 
 gores is very easy to calculate. 
 Thus, let A B E C be a gore, 
 then the sides ABE, ACE, 
 are not arcs of circles, b t 
 curves of sines, viz., PQ bears 
 to D B the ratio th at sin A P 
 does to sin AD, or, which 
 comes to the same- thing, sup- 
 posing A D = 90°, and A P 
 = x", then P Q = B D sin x°. 
 It is thus easy, by means of a 
 table of natural sines, to form 
 a pattern gore, whatever the 
 required number of gores may 
 be. Thus, supposing there are 
 to be n gores, then B C must 
 
 be -th of the circumference — 
 n 
 2 
 viz., ths of AE; and BD 
 
 71 
 
 and A D being given, any num- 
 ber of points can be found 
 on the curve ABE in the 
 manner indicated above. A 
 slight knowledge of spherical 
 
 trigonometry shows the reason for the above rule. Bal- 
 loons, as usually constructed, are spherical, except for the 
 neck, which is made to slope down, so that the whole 
 
 Balloon Gore.
 
 AERONAUTICS 
 
 207 
 
 6hapu resembles rather that of a pear.. The pattern gore 
 should originally be made as if for a spherical balloon, and 
 afterwards the slight modification necessary for the forma- 
 tion of the neck should be appb'ed. 
 nio The gores are sewn together, and a small portion of the 
 )f a upper end of each is cut away, so as to leave an aperture at 
 Jn " the top of the balloon of from 1 to 3 feet in diameter. 
 This -pace is occupied by the valve, which is generally 
 made of strong wood, and consists of two semicircular 
 shutters hinged to a diameter of the circular frame, and 
 kept closed by a spring. The valve is opened by pulling a 
 string, technically called the valve-line, which passes down 
 through the balloon and out at the lower orifice in which 
 the neck terminates. The tet-work which, like the gores, 
 is attached to the circumferences of the valve, passes 
 over the surface of the balloon, and supports the ring or 
 hoop from which the car is suspended by half a dozen 
 strong ropes, of perhaps 1 or 5 feet in length. The net- 
 work is thus stretched between the valve and the ring. It 
 is very important that all the ropes by which the car hangs 
 from the ring should be so adjusted- that each may bear 
 pretty nearly the same weight, as otherwise the whole net- 
 ting and balloon will be strained, and perhaps to a serious 
 extent. The car is usually merely a large basket made of 
 wicker-work. The neck of the balloon sTiould be 7 or 8 
 feet above the car, so that the aeronaut can easily reach it 
 by mounting into the ring. The best material for the 
 envelope is silk ; but on account of the expense cotton or 
 alpaca is generally used : in all cases it must be varnished, 
 in order to render it more impervious to the gas. The 
 grapnel or anchor is a large five-pronged hook attached- 
 to the ring by a rope 100 or 120 feet long. The 
 first care of the aeronaut on leaving the earth is to 
 lower the grapnel gently to the full extent that the rope 
 will permit. Thus, when the balloon is in the air, the 
 grapnel hangs down below it, and when the descent is 
 being effected, is the first thing to touch the ground. If 
 the descent is well managed, and the balloon is moving 
 downwards slowly, the weight of which it is relieved when 
 the grapnel is supported by the earth checks any further 
 descent, and the wind carries the balloon along horizontally, 
 the grapnel trailing over the ground until it catches in 
 some obstruction and is held fast. The balloon is then in 
 much about the same position as a kite -held by a string, and 
 if the wind be strong, plunges about wildly, striking the 
 ground and rebounding, until the aeronaut, by continued use 
 of the valve-line, has allowed sufficient gas to escape to 
 deprive it of all buoyancy and prevent its rising again, 
 ice of The chief danger attending ballooning lies in the descent; 
 ta- for if a strong wind be blowing, the grapnel will some- 
 times trail for miles over the ground jit the rate, of ten or 
 twenty miles an hour, catching now and then in hedges, 
 ditches, roots of trees, &c; ; and, after giving the balloon a 
 terrible jerk, breaking .loose again, till at length some 
 obstruction, such as the wooded bank of a stream, affords 
 a firm hold. If the balloon has lost all its buoyant power 
 by ths escape of the gas, the car also drags over the ground. 
 But even a very rough descent is usually not productive of 
 any very serious consequences; as, although the occupants 
 of the cat generally receive many bruises, and are perhaps 
 cut by the ropes, it rarely happens that anj'thing worse 
 occurs. On a day when the wind is light (supposing that 
 there is no want of ballast) nothing can be easier than the 
 descent, and the aeronaut can decide several miles off on 
 the field in which he will alight It is very important to 
 have a good supply of ballast, so as to be able to check the 
 rapidity of the descent, as in passing downwards through 
 a wet cloud the weight of the balloon is enormously in- 
 creased by the water deposited on it; and it there is no 
 ballast to throw out to compensate this accession of mass, 
 
 the ve.ocity is sometimes very great. It is also convenient, 
 if the district upon which the balloon is descending appear 
 unsuitable for landing, to be able to rise again. The 
 ballast consists of fine baked sand, which becomes so scat- 
 tered as to be inappreciable before it has fallen far below 
 the balloon. It is taken up in bags containing about 
 J cwt. each. The balloon at starting is liberated by a 
 spring catch which the aeronaut releases, and the ballast 
 should be so adjusted that there is nearly equilibrium 
 before leaving, else the rapidity of ascent is too great, and 
 has to be checked by parting with gas. It is almost im- 
 possible to liberate the balloon in such a way as to avoid 
 giving it a rotary motion about a vertical axis, which con- 
 tinues during the whole time it is in the air. This rotation 
 makes it difficult lor those in the car to discover in what 
 direction they are moving; and it is only by looking down 
 along .the rope to which the grapnel is suspended that the 
 motion of the balloon over the country below can be traced. 
 We may mention that the upward and downward motion 
 at any instant is at once known by merely dropping over 
 the side of the car a small piece of paper: if the paper 
 ascends or remains on the same level or stationary, the 
 balloon is descending; while, if it descends, the balloon is 
 ascending. This test is so delicate that it sometimes 
 showed the motion at a particular instant with more .pre- 
 cision than did Mr Glaisher's yeiy delicate instruments 
 
 Contrivances are often proposed by which the valve 
 might be opened in less -crude ways than by merely pulling 
 a string attached to it; by which the jerks produced by the 
 catching of the grapnel might be diminished, &c. These im- 
 provements are not adopted, because simplicity is requisite 
 before everything. Any mechanical contrivance might be 
 broken and rendered useless by the first blow of the car on 
 the earth; whereas the primitive arrangements in use are 
 such that scarcely any rough treatment can impair their 
 efficiency. 
 
 The most important workn that have appeared on the 
 subject of aerostation, are — - 
 
 Vadalus, or Mechanhal Motions, by Bishop Wilkins, Lonaon, 
 1848 ; A Treatise on the Nature and Properties of Air and other 
 Permanently Elastic Fluids, by Tiberius Cavallo, London, 1781 ; 
 Account of Che First Acrid Voyage in, England, in a Series of 
 Letters to his Guardian, by Vincent Lunardi, London, 1784 ; 
 History and Practice of Aerostation, by Tiberius Cavallo, London, 
 1785 ; AnnaU of some .Remarkable Aerial and Alpine Voyage/, 
 including those of the author, by T. Forster, London, 1832; 
 Aeronautica, by Monck Mason, London, 1SSS ; A System of Aero- 
 nautics, comprehending Us Earliest Investigations, by Johi Wise, 
 Philadelphia, 1850 ; Astra Castra, Experiments and Adventures in 
 the Atmosphere, by Hatton Tumor, London, 1865 ; Voyages Airiens, 
 p ; ir J. Glaisher, C. Flammarion, \V. de Fonvielle, et G. Tis andier, 
 Paris, 1870 ; the same translated into English and published, 
 edited by James Glaisher, under the title, j'ravels in the Air, 
 London, 1871. 
 
 All the above books we have seen ourselves, and used 
 in the preparation of the present article. Astra Caslra 
 is a work of 530 pp. large quarto.; it consists chiefly of 
 extracts from other works and writings, and it is useful 
 as affording data for a history rather than as a history 
 itself. On pp. 463-465 is a list of books and papers on 
 aeronautics, which seems fairly complete up to the date 
 1864. In the list are also included memoirs and "papers 
 which we have not noted in the last paragraph, as the most 
 important of them are referred to under their special sub- 
 jects in the course of this article. We should advise 
 any one desirous of studying the history of aeronautics to 
 consult Mr Tumor's list in Astra Castro, which is the 
 most perfect we have met with. He has marked with an 
 asterisk those works that may be consulted by the public 
 in the library of the Patent Office, which contains, besides 
 books, a valuable collection of prints and broadsheets on 
 the subject of aerostation. (J- °0
 
 208 
 
 iERT-iES C 
 
 „ .ERTSZEN.Tieter, called "Long Peter" on account of 
 his height, an historical painter of great merit as regards 
 both drawing and colouring, was born at Amsterdam in 
 1520, and died in 1573. When a youth he distinguished 
 himself by painting homely scenes, in which he reproduced 
 articles of furniture, cooking utensils, <fcc, with marvellous 
 fidelity, but he afterwards cultivated historical painting. 
 Several of his best works — altar-pieces in various churches 
 — were destroyed in the religious wars of the Netherlands. 
 An excellent specimen of his style on a small scale, a 
 picture of the crucifixion, may be seen in the Antwerp 
 Museum. . jErtszen was a member of the Academy of 
 St Luke, in whose books he is entered as Langhe Peter, 
 tchilder. Three of his sons attained to some note as painters. 
 iES is commonly translated brass, but the xs of the 
 Romans, like the x^xo's of the Greeks, was used to signify 
 not only pure copper, but also a bronze, or alloy of copper 
 and tin. Brass, in the modern acceptation of an alloy of 
 copper and zinc, was unknown to the ancients. The cutting 
 instruments of the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians 
 were originally of bronze. The Romans borrowed their 
 arms, as well as their money, from the Etruscans. 
 Analysis of the bronzes of these nations shows that they 
 contained about 1 2 per cent, of tin, which gave them hard- 
 ness and the capability of receiving a good edge. As the 
 most ancient coined money of the Romans was of copper or 
 bronze, ces came to be used for money in general, even after 
 the introduction of silver and gold coinage; and cesalienum 
 was used to signify borrowed money, debt. jEs equestre, 
 jEs hordearium, jEs mililare, were terms for the pay of 
 Roman soldiers (previous to the introduction of the regular 
 stipendium), which was furnished, it would appear, not 
 from the public treasury, but by certain private persons as 
 decreed by the state. The first, which amounted to 10,000 
 asses, was the purchase-money of the horse of an egues. 
 The second, amounting to 2000 asses, was the pay of an 
 eques, and was furnished by unmarried women, widows, 
 and orphans, if possessed of a certain amount of property. 
 The as militare, reckoned by Niebuhr at 1000 asses a 
 year, was the pay of a foot soldier. 
 
 ^ESCHINES, an Athenian philosopher, said to have 
 been the son of a sausage-maker. He was continually 
 with Socrates; which occasioned that philosopher to say that 
 the sausage-maker's son was the only person who knew how 
 to pay a due regard to him. It is alleged that poverty 
 obliged him to go to Sicily to the court of Dionysius; and 
 that he met with great contempt from Plato, but was ex- 
 tremely well received by Aristippus, to whom he showed 
 some of his dialogues, receiving from him a handsome sum 
 of money. He did not venture to profess philosophy at 
 Athens, Plato and Aristippus being in such high esteem; 
 but he ppened a school, in which he taught philosophy to 
 maintain himself He afterwards wrote orations for the 
 forum. Phrynicus, in Photius, ranks him amongst the 
 best orators, and mentions his orations as the standard of 
 the pure Attic style. Hermogenes has also spoken very 
 highly of him. He wrote, besides, several dialogues: — 1. 
 Concerning virtue, whether it can be taught; 2. Eryxias, 
 or Erasistratus: concerning riches, whether they are good; 
 3. Axiochus : concerning death, whether it is to be feared, — 
 but those extant on the several subjects, are not genuine 
 remains. M. le Clerc has given a Latin translation of 
 them, with note3 and several dissertations, entitled Silvae. 
 Philologiue. 
 
 -/ESCH1NE3, a celebrated Grecian orator, wa3 born in 
 Attica 389 years before the Christian era. According to 
 his own account, he was of distinguished birth; according 
 to that of Demosthenes, he was the son of a courtesan, and 
 a humble performer in a company of comedians. But 
 whatever was the true hiAtory of hi3 birth and early life, 
 
 his services as a soldier, and his talents, which were con- 
 siderable, procured him great applause; and, as a public 
 speaker, he became a formidable rival to Demosthenes 
 himself. The two orators, inspired probably with mutual 
 jealousy and animosity, became at last the strenuous 
 leaders of opposing parties. jEschines had almost from the 
 first advocated peace with Philip of Macedon, and having 
 been sent on several embassies to negotiate with the king, 
 had been treated with much respect. He was, in conse- 
 quence, accused by Demosthenes of having received money 
 as a bribe when he was employed on one of these 
 embassies. He indirectly retaliated by bringing an accu- 
 sation against Ctesiphon, the friend of Demosthenes, for 
 having moved a decree, contrary to the laws, to confer on 
 Demosthenes a golden crown as a mark of public appro- 
 bation. A numerous assembly of judges and citizens met 
 to hear and decide the question. Each orator employed 
 all his powers of eloquence; but Demosthenes, with superior 
 talents, and with more justice on his side, was victorious; 
 whereupon ./Eschines went into exile. According to Plutarch, 
 the resentment of Demosthenes was now softened into 
 generous kindness; for when .Eschines was going into 
 banishment, he requested him to accept of a sum of money; 
 which made him exclaim, "How do I regret leaving a 
 country where I have found an enemy so generous, that I 
 must despair of ever meeting with a friend who shall be 
 like him!" But this story seems more than doubtful. 
 jEschines, after staying some years in Asia Minor, opened 
 a school of eloquence at Rhodes. He is said to have com- 
 menced his lectures by reading to hi3 audience the two 
 orations which had been the cause of his banishment. His 
 own oration received great praise, but that, of Demosthenes 
 was heard with boundless applause. In so trying a 
 moment, when vanity must be supposed to have been deeply 
 wounded, he is reported to have said, with a noble gene- 
 rosity of sentiment, "What would you have thought if you 
 had heard him thunder out the words himself!" jEschines 
 afterwards removed to Samos, where he died in the 75th 
 year of his age. Three only of his orations are extant. 
 His eloquence is of a very high order, and as an orator he 
 is second only to Demosthenes.. 
 
 iESCHYLUS, the father of the Greek tragic drama, was 
 born in the year 525 B.c, in the Attic demos of Eleusis. 
 The period of his youth and manhood coincides, therefore, 
 with that great uprising of the national spirit of the Greeks, 
 caused by the successive attempts of Darius, king of Persia, 
 and his son Xerxes, to enslave their European neighbours 
 on the north and west shores of the jEgean; and it was no 
 doubt as much for the advantage of his poetical faculty as 
 for the development of his manhood, that he took an active 
 part in those famous military achievements by which the 
 march of the insolent Asiatic hosts was repelled. The 
 father of Attic tragedy helped, in the year 490, to drive 
 the captains of Darius into the marshes of Marathon, and, 
 ten years later, encompassed with ruin the multitudinous" 
 armament of Xerxes within the narrow strait of Salamis. 
 The glories of this naval achievement, the bard who had 
 helped to win it with his sword afterwards lived to cele- 
 brate with the lyTe, and left to the world the play of the 
 Persians, as a great national record of combined poetry 
 and patriotism almost unique in history. Of his subse- 
 quent ocjeer at Athens only a few scanty notices remain, 
 and those chiefly connected with the representation of his 
 plays. We know that he composed seventy plays, and that 
 he gained the prize for dramatic excellence thirteen times; 
 further, that the Athenians esteemed his works bo highly 
 as to allow some of them.to be represented after his death, 
 — a privilege, in their dramatic practice, altogether anoma- 
 lous. w e know, also, that in the course of his life he paid 
 one drtwo'fisits to Sicily, to which country he was attracted.
 
 iESC-JIS [ 
 
 209 
 
 no doubt, by the same literary influence in the person of 
 its ruler Hiero, that drew thither Bacchylides, Simonides, 
 and other notable men of that rich epoch. There can, at 
 the same time, be little doubt that one cause of his visits 
 to that island may have been a want of sympathy as to 
 political matters between him and the Athenian public; 
 for while the Athenians, from the time of Cleisthenes (a.c. 
 510), had been advancing by rapid and decided steps to- 
 the full expansion of the democratic principle, it is evident, 
 from some passages in his plays, especially from the whole 
 tone and tendency of the Eumenides, that the political 
 leanings of the poet of the Prometheus were towards aris- 
 tocracy, and that, in the days of Pericles, he foresaw, with 
 a sorrowful fear, the ripeness of those democratic evils 
 which within so short a period led Xenophon to seek a new 
 fatherland in Sparta, and opened to the Macedonian a plain 
 path to the sovereignty of Greece. But whatever may 
 have have been his motives for retiring from the scene of 
 so many literary triumphs (and the gossipers of ancient 
 times have of course transmitted to us their pleasant in- 
 ventions on this point), it is certain that, in the year a.c. 
 456, two years after the representation of his great trilogy, 
 the Orestiad, he died at Gela, in Sicily, in the sixty-ninth 
 year of his age; and the people of Gela, rejoicing in his 
 bones, as Kavenna does in those of the banished Dante, 
 inscribed the following memorial on his tomb : — 
 
 " Here .lEschylus lies, from his Athenian home 
 Remote, 'neath Gela's wheat-producing loam ; 
 How brave in battle was Euphorion's son, 
 The long-haired Mede can tell who fell at Marathon." 
 
 And thus he lives among posterity, celebrated more as a 
 patriot than as a poet; as if to witness to all times that the 
 great world of books, with all its power, is but a small 
 thing unless it be the reflection of a greater world of action. 
 Of the seventy plays which an old biographer reports him 
 to have composed, only seven remain, with a few fragments 
 of little significance save to the keen eye of the professed 
 philologist. These fragments, however, are sufficient to 
 justify the high esteem in which he was held by the Athenian 
 public, and by that greatest of all the great wits of a, witty 
 age and a witty people, Aristophanes. In the grand trilogy 
 which exhibits, in three consecutive tragedies, the story of 
 the murder of Agamemnon, and its moral sequences, we have 
 a perfect specimen of what the Greek tragedy was to the 
 Greeks, as at once a complex artistic machinery for the 
 exhibition of national legend, and a grave pulpit for the 
 preaching of important moral truths; nor could a more 
 worthy founder than ^Eschylus of such a " sacred opera." 
 be imagined. Bis imagination dwells habitually in the 
 loftiest region of the stem old religious mythology of 
 primeval Greeoe; his moral tone is pure, his character 
 earnest and manly, and his strictly dramatic power (not- 
 withstanding the very imperfect form of the drama in his 
 day), as exhibited more especially in the Agamemnon, in 
 the Eumenides, and in some parts of the Prometheus, is 
 such as none of his famous successors, least of all Euripides, 
 could surpass. Of his other plays, the Seven against Thebes 
 is a drama, as Aristophanes expressed it, "full of war," 
 and breathes in every line the spirit of the age and of the 
 people that saved Europe from the grasp of oriental 
 despotism; the Persians, though weak in some parts, con- 
 tains some fine choral poetry, and a description of the battle 
 of Salamis, that will belong to the poetry of the world 
 so long as the world lasts; while the Suppliants presents 
 much in a tasteful translation that makes us lament the 
 loss of the missing piece of the trilogy to -which it belonged, 
 no less than the blundering of the thoughtless copyists of 
 the middle ages, by whose pen it has been so egregiously 
 defaced. . For in ancient times the flowing rhetorical 
 Euripides was found a more useful model for the schools 
 
 of eloquence than the lofty, stern, and sometimes harsh, 
 and occasionally it may be obscure, ^Eschylus: therefore 
 the text of the latter has been comparatively neglected, 
 and much work was left for the tasteful philologist 
 before many parts of his noblest choruses could be ren- 
 dered legible. Of the editions of .^Sschylus, the most 
 notable in the earlier time3 of modern scholarship is that 
 of Stanley; in more recent times, that of Schiitz, who 
 undertook the work of-restoration with much learning and 
 great boldness. The impulse given by this scholar was 
 moderated by Wellauer, who, in his edition, along with 
 some happy emendations, principally endeavoured to vin- 
 dicate the authority of the manuscript readings from the 
 large' license of conjectural critics; and now from the 
 remains of the grea_t Hermann has been published a text 
 that should present the just medium between the emidity 
 of Wellauer and the rashness of mere conjectural criticism, 
 though it is much to be feared that the learned German 
 has been not seldom led astray by the itch of emendation, 
 which is the old besetting sin of critical scholarship. Of 
 English poetical translations there are the old one by Potter, 
 and recent ones by Blackie, Plumptre, and Swan wick. There 
 is also a translation in literal prose by Buckley, (j. s. B.) 
 
 ^ESCULAPIUS, in the Heathen Mythology, the god of 
 medicine, was the son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis. 
 He was educated by the centaur Chiron, who taught him 
 the art of healing; and his skill enabled him to cure the 
 most desperate diseases. But Jupiter, enraged at his 
 restoring to life Hippolytus, who had been torn in pieces by 
 his own horses, killed him with a thunderbolt According 
 to Cicero, there were three deities of this name : the first, 
 the son of Apollo, worshipped in Arcadia, who invented 
 the probe and bandages for wounds; the second, the 
 brother of Mercury, who was killed i by lightning ; and 
 the third, the son of Arsippus and Arsinoe, who was the 
 first to teach tooth-drawing and purging. At Epidaurus, 
 ^Esculapius's statue was of gold and ivory, with a long 
 beard, the head surrounded with rays, a knotty stick in one 
 hand, and the other entwined with a serpent: the figure 
 was seated on a throne of the same materials as the statue, 
 and had a dog lying at its feet. The Romans crowned 
 him with laurel, to represent his descent from Apollo; and 
 the Phliasians represented him as beardless. The cock, the 
 raven, and the goat were sacred to this deity. His chief 
 temples were at Pergamos, Smyrna, Tricca, a city in Thes- 
 saly, and the isle of Coos ; in all which places votive tablets 
 were hung up, showing the names of those cured and the 
 diseases of which they were healed by his assistance. But 
 his most famous shrine was at Epidaurus, where, every five 
 years, games were celebrated in his honour, nine days after 
 the Isthmian games at Corinth. 
 
 iESIR (plural of As, or Ass, god), the gods of the 
 Northmen of Scandinavia and Iceland. There were twelve 
 chief gods or -<Esir besides Odin (the All-faiir, All- 
 father), viz., Thor, Baldur, Niord, Frey, Ty or T>>r, Bragi, 
 Heimdal, Hod, Vidar, Ull, Forsetti, Loki or Lopt. The 
 chief goddesses of Asgaud (q.v.), the Odinic Olympus, 
 were — Frigg, Freyia, Nanna, Sif, Saga, Hel, Gefion, Eir, 
 Hlin, Lofn, Vor, Snotra. The names of the iEsir, con- 
 sidered in the primary old northern significance o? the 
 words, convey in most instances an allusion to their char- 
 acteristics; but it is impossible to decide whether they 
 merely personify certain, physical powers in nature, and 
 abstract ideas of definite mental conditions, or whether 
 they were originally borne by individuals connected with 
 the pre-historic ages of the people. It is probable that 
 the ideas underlying the myths connected with the JEeii 
 have a mixed origin, and may be referred to a blending of 
 physical, material, and historical elements. Our know- 
 ledge of northern mythology has been derived principally
 
 210 
 
 M IS I R 
 
 from the fragmentary remains of ancient Scandinavian 
 Bongs, first collected in Iceland in the 11th century, and 
 embodied in the 13th century with numerous other prose 
 and poetic myths in a compilation now known to us as the 
 Eddat. From these highly interesting but frequently 
 obscure sources we are able to reproduce to a certain extent 
 the image and conception of each of the yEsir, as they 
 presented themselves to the imagination of their early 
 northern worshippers. 
 
 In Thor, who seems to have been a god of that earlier 
 Phoenician form of nature-worship which was superseded 
 in Scandinavia and Northern Germany by the faith of 
 Odin, we have the impersonation of the disturbing and 
 destructive agencies in the universe. He is the son of 
 heaven and earth — of Odin, the All-father, and of 
 or Fiorgvin, the vivifying — and is the strongest of the 
 iEsir. From his hammer flashed the lightning, and his 
 chariot wheels sent thunder rolling through the clouds 
 as ho went on his way, cleaving mountains, loosening 
 the pent-up streams and fires, and slaying all giants 
 and misshapen monsters. Ever busily engaged in these 
 labours, he seldom tarried in Asgard with the other ll-ir, 
 but dwelt in his mansion, Bilskirnir, in the densest gloom 
 of the clouds. With bis mallet he consecrated the newly- 
 wedded, and hence the sign of the mallet or hammer was 
 made by the Northmen when they took an oath and bound 
 themselves by vows, whether of marriage or any other 
 obligation. The early Christian missionaries of Norway, 
 finding the faith in Thor too strong to be suddenly up- 
 rooted, tried to transfer many of his characteristics to their 
 zealous royal convert, St Olaf, who was said to have re- 
 sembled the old northern god in his comeliness of person, 
 his bright red beard, hot, angry temper, and personal 
 strength ; while some of the monks of a later period en- 
 deavoured to persuade the Northmen that in Thor their 
 forefathers had worshipped the Christ, the strong and 
 mighty Saviour of the oppressed, and that his mallet was 
 the rude image of the cross. Slaves and all thralls killed 
 in battle were believed to be under the protection of Thor, 
 who, as god of the Finns before the spread of the As 
 religion, was honoured as their special gnardian against 
 the tyranny of their new masters. 
 
 In Baldur the Northmen honoured all that was beauti- 
 ful, eloquent, wise, and good, and he was the spirit of 
 activity, joy, and light; but his name signifies the strong 
 In mind, and the earliest conception of Baldur is that of 
 mental rath»r. than physical or material perfection. His 
 wife, Nanna, reflected these attributes in a less degree. 
 On iis life depended the activity and happiness of all the 
 iEsir, excepting only Loki, the earthly fire or incarnation 
 of evil, and hence this As, from envy of the beauty and 
 innocence of Baldur, brought about his death, and hindered 
 bis release from the power of Hel, the goddess of death. 
 
 According to the myth, the Msir, distressed at Baldur's presenti- 
 ment of his own approaching end, joined his mother, i 'rigg, in 
 exacting an oath f s, plants, and minerals, not to injure 
 
 him. The mistletoe alone among plants had been forgotten, and 
 when- this was discovered by Loki he pulled a wand of it, and 
 hastening to the assembly of the zEsir, where nil were engaged in 
 ort of shooting at Baldur, as he was supposed to be invulner- 
 he pave it to Ubd, the blind god of brute strength, and 
 1 him how to aim it The mistletoe pierced Baldur tlirough, 
 and 1 to the ground in the presence of the .<&.>: 
 
 he evil that would befall them, since light and purity 
 had been taken from them, gave way to sorrow and fear. When 
 all their efforts to release Baldur from Hel had been thwarted by 
 the machinations of Loki, they resolved to avenge themselves. 
 Having captured their foe, they confined him within a mountain- 
 cave, and hung above his head a venothous snake, to drop its poison 
 on his face; but his wife, Sigyn, stood by him, and caught the 
 drops in a cup, and it was only while she emptied the goblet that 
 the venom touched him, when he shrank aside, and caused the earth 
 to bo shaken as with an earthquake. There Loki will remain till 
 Raguarock, the twiiigh: of the world, wh<>n the .d-'-sir, the carln and 
 
 all dwellers therein, will be destroyed by ttie powers of evil, the 
 rescuers and companions of Loki. Only (Win, the All-father, will 
 survive, and gather around him on Id?, s plain, where Asgard had 
 once stood, tho Mail, regenerate and punned by Suit's black fire, 
 and then a new and better world will arise, in which Baldur will 
 ■me with his unconscious slayer, Hod. and all evil will 
 cease, and light and darkness will dwell together in unity. 
 
 Under one form of the myth of Baldur's death he is tho 
 bright god of day or summer, and Hod, the blind and the 
 strong, is dark night or fiercely-raging winter, his pre- 
 ordained foe and destroyer. After that final purification 
 by suffering or fire, and the regeneration to which the 
 Northmen looked as the means of the ultimate adjustment 
 of the disturbed balance between evil and good, and from 
 which they did not exempt their gods, the influence of 
 good was to prevail. Baldur would reappear, and Loki, 
 the consuming power of evil, be no more heard of. 
 
 Loki, in the beginning of time, under the name of 
 Lodthur, flame, and as the foster-brother of the All-father, 
 had united with him in imparting blessings to the universe, 
 and had given blood and a fair colour to Ask and Embla, 
 from which the first men were created. Afterwards he 
 left the council of tho /Esir, and like a fallen angel wan- 
 dered away into regions of space, desolating and consuming 
 all things that came in contact with his fierce flame. 
 Descending into the bowels of the earth, where his presence 
 is made manifest by" volcanic fires, he consorted with evil 
 giantesses, by whom he became the father of Hel, pallid 
 death ; of Augurboda, the announcer of sorrow ; and of the 
 wolf Fenrir, and the serpent of Midgard, which are ever 
 threatening the destruction of the world and the i .ace of 
 the iEsir. 
 
 Loki can assume all forms. As sensuality he courses through 
 the veins of men, and as heat and firo he pervades nature, causing 
 death and destruction. After the introduction of Christianity, the 
 
 i tea and mystic deeds of Loki were transferred to Satan by tho 
 people of Scandinavia, amongst whose descendants his name still 
 
 ; its evil reputation. In Iceland an ignis fuluus is known as 
 Loki's burning; and in Jutland, when there is a dazzlin" light 
 or a waving motion in the air which impedes the sight of distant 
 objects, the peasants say, "Loki is sowing his oats." 
 
 rd, supposed to be the Nerthus known to the Romans, 
 and his children Frey or Fricco and Freyia, appear to have 
 been honoured in the north beforo the time of Odin, and 
 to have been worshipped by peoples powerful enough to 
 have been admitted into friendly alliance with his followers. 
 Niord is said to have lived in Vanaheim, and to have ruled 
 over the Vanir, or light elves, long before he became one 
 of the JEsir. He. is god of the ocean, the ruler of winds 
 and stiller of waves, and to n im the seafarer and fisherman 
 raise altars and make prayers. His attributes and powers 
 seem to point to the existence of a superior knowledge of 
 navigation among those ancient races of Scandinavia who 
 have been idealised in the imagination of the Northmen as 
 good, bright, and agile elves and water-sprites — the Lids 
 Alfar — or Vanir of their mythology. Niord's sen Frey is 
 the god of rain, plenty, and fruitfulness; and his worship, 
 according to the early northern chronicler, Adam of 
 Bremen, was accompanied with phallic rites. His sister 
 and wife, Freyia, who holds a high place among the .ZEsir, 
 is the goddess of love; but her influence, unlike her hus- 
 band's, is not always beneficent, and varies with the form 
 which she assumes in operating- on the minds of men. 
 Her chariot is drawn by cats, as emblematic of fondness 
 and passion, and a hog attends upon her and upon Frey, 
 whose name, like her own, implies fructification or enjoy- 
 ment. 
 
 The Swedes paid espe-.ial honour to Frey, while the Norwegians 
 worshipped Thor (who was in all respects his opposite) as their chief 
 As. The latter must also have received divine nonours amongst the 
 Germans, no his name is included in the form of objurgation UBed by 
 the early Saxon missionaries ; bat thie fact and the German name of 
 the fifth day of 'ha week — Donners-lag, the Thuiideror'6 day -are
 
 iK SO-ZESO 
 
 211 
 
 Iha only evidences still extant of the early worship of Thor in 
 Germany. 
 
 By their alliance with Niord and his children the JEsiv secured 
 fertility to the earth and mankind, .and the intervention of mild 
 gentle agencies '« nature to counteract the destructive influence of 
 Thor's power. 
 
 In Ty or Tyr we have the Mars of the Northmen. It 
 is he who gives victory, and although he is as wise as he 
 is brave, it is he who stirs men to strife, and not to peace. 
 His name, which signifies honour, is found in the names 
 of the days of the week in O. Nor., Dan., A.-S., and in our 
 own "Tuesday;" and shows that, like Thor and Frey or 
 Freyia, whose memory is perpetuated in our Thursday and 
 Friday, the worship of this bravest of the JEsir was widely 
 spread among peoples of Northern origin. 
 
 In Bragi the Northmen honoured the originator of their 
 .Skaldic poetry, the god of eloquence and wise utterances. 
 At guilds and at grave-feasts the Bragi-cup was drunk;, and 
 at the funeral of kings or jarls the heir was not permitted 
 to take his father's seat till the " Bragarfull" was brought 
 in, when, rising to receive it, he drank the contents of the 
 •cup, and was led to the high seat of honour. At guild 
 feasts the Bragi-cup was signed with Thor's mallet, and 
 was drunk after the company had drained Odin's cup for 
 victory, and Niord's and Frey's cup for a bountiful year. 
 
 The peculiarity of Bragi's cup was that, on drinking it, a vow 
 — held to be inviolable — was made to perform some deed worthy 
 •of a skald's song. Bragi's wife, Idun, as the guardian of the casket 
 which contained apples that gave to thsse who ate them perpetual 
 Joubh, was specially cherished by the other SLsa. In her aoduction 
 by the giant Thiassi, and her removal to the nether world through 
 Loki's craft, her mute grief, and her release in the spring, we have 
 an analogy with the myth of Proserpine; and like her she presides 
 over fresh verdure. 
 
 Heimdal, whose attribute is the rainbow, is the god of 
 "watchfulness, the doorkeeper of the iEsir; while Vidar, the 
 strongest of the gods after Thor, is the impersonation of 
 silence and caution; Ull decides the issue of single com- 
 ■bats, and Forsetti settles all quarrels. 
 
 In the goddesses 'Lofn and Vor lovers find protectors; the 
 former unites the faithful, the latter punishes the faithless. 
 Gefwn, to whom the Danes owe the formation of the island 
 Seeland, watches over maidens, and knows the decrees of 
 fate. Illi/i guards those whom Frigg, the queen and 
 mother of heaven, is desirous of freeing from peril; Frigg 
 herself, as Odin's wife and the mother of the /Esir, knows 
 the destinies of men, but is silent, in regard to them. As 
 goddess of the earth, she is known as Frygga, the fertile 
 summer earth, and Binda the frost-hardened surface, and 
 is attended by Fulla, the full, Eir, the young goddess of 
 healing, and many other goddesses. 
 
 Saga, whose name is derived from Segja, to narrate, is 
 the goddess of history and narration. Odin and she pledge 
 each other daily in golden cups filled from the copious 
 ever-flowing streams of her abode, Sockquabek (from Sokk, 
 abyss, in allusion to the abundant streams of narrative). 
 Siiotra is the goddess of sagacity and elegance, from whom 
 ■ men and women seek good sense and refinement of manners. 
 The Norns and the Valkyriur, if not actually goddesses, 
 are closely connected with the iEsir. The three principal 
 Norns or Nornir are Urd, past time; Verdandi, present 
 time ; and Skulld, future time. They and the Valkyriur, 
 who are known under many names, twist and spin the 
 threads of destiny, and make known what has been decreed 
 from the beginning of time. 
 
 From this brief outline it may be seen that in their 
 JEsir the Northmen recognised the creators, sustainers, 
 and regulators of the world as it now is, from whom eman- 
 ated the thought and life that pervade and animate all 
 nature, and the efforts to subject it to the spiritual will. 
 With Odin and the JEsir the intellectual life of the 
 northern people began; and although they ascribed to th°m 
 
 human forms and acts, those were seldom without some- 
 thing higher and nobler than what pertains to mortals; 
 and while they recognised the existence of a state of chaoa 
 and darkness before this world began with the creation 
 of the jEsir, they anticipated the advent of another state, 
 in which gods, like men, would receive their award at the 
 hands of a supreme All -father. (e. c. a) 
 
 iESOP, the fabulist, is supposed to have been born about 
 the year 620 B.C., bnt the place of his birth is uncertain, 
 that honour being claimed alike by Samos, Sardis, Mesem- 
 bria in Thrace, and Cotiamm in Phrygia. He was brought, 
 while young, to Athens as a slave, and having served several 
 masters, was eventually enfranchised by Iadmon the Sam i an. 
 He thereupon visited Croesus, king of Lydia, at whose court 
 he is represented by Plutarch as reproving Solon for his 
 discourteous manner towards the king. During the usurpa- 
 tion of Pisistratus he is said to have visited Athens, and 
 composed the fable of Jupiter and the Frogs for the instruc- 
 tion of the citizens (Phaedrus, i. 2). As the ambassador 
 of Crcesus at Delphi he was charged with the payment of 
 the large sum of four minae to each of the citizens ; but in 
 consequence of some dispute, he declined to distribute the 
 money. The Delphians, incensed at his conduct, accused 
 him of sacrilege, and threw him headlong from a, precipice, 
 about 564 B.C. A pestilence which ensued being attri- 
 buted to this crime, the people declared their willingness 
 to make compensation for his death; which, in default of 
 a nearer connection, was claimed and received by Padmon, 
 the grandson of his old master (Plut. de sera Num. Yind., 
 p. 556, Herodot. ii. 13-1). None of .Esop's works are extant. 
 The popular stories regarding him are derived from a life 
 prefixed to a book of fables purporting to be his, collected 
 by Maximus Planudes, a monk of the 14th century, in 
 which he is represented as a monster of ugliness and de- 
 formity, a notion utterly without foundation, and doubtless 
 intended to heighten his wit by the contrast. That this 
 life, however, was in existence a century before Planudes's 
 time, appears by a manuscript of it found at Florence, and 
 published in 1809. In Plutarch's Convivium, where JEsoy 
 is a guest, though there are many jests on his original ser- 
 vile condition, there are none on his appearance; and it 
 would seem that the ancients were not usually restrained 
 by delicacy in this point, since the personal defects of 
 Socrates, and his resemblance to old Silenus, afford ample 
 'matter for merriment and raillery in the Symposium of 
 Plato. .We are told, besides, that the Athenians erected 
 in honour of jEsop a noble statue by the famous sculptor 
 Lysippus, a circumstance which alone would be sufficient 
 to confute the absurd fiction of his deformity; but more to 
 the point is the statement of Pliny (xxxvi. 12), that he 
 was the Contubernalis of Khodopis, his fellow-slave, whose 
 extraordinary beauty passed into a proverb: 
 
 "ATrapfl' Ujuoia, KdX 'Po5aiiris r) Ka\-ff 
 
 The obscurity in which the history of iEsop is involved 
 has induced some to deny his existence altogether; and 
 Giambattista Vico, in his Scienza Nuova, chooses rather 
 to consider' him as an abstraction, an excess of scepticism 
 which is quite unreasonable. Whether iEsop left any 
 written fables has been more justly disputed, and Bentley 
 inclines to the negative. Thus Aristophanes (Yespa?, 
 v. 1259) represents Philocleon as learning his fables in 
 conversation, and not from a book; and Socrates essayed 
 to versify such as he remembered (Plat. Phad. p. 61). 
 Others, again, are of opinion that a collection had been 
 made of Ihem before the time of Socrates (ifus. Crit. 
 i. 408). It is, however, certain that fables bearing .Esop's 
 name were popular at Athens during the most brilliant 
 period of its literary history; though the discrepancies of 
 authors in quoting the same fables seem in favour of 
 Bentle/s hypothesis. (Comnarc Aristot. De Part. A)'>™
 
 212 
 
 .KSO-^IST 
 
 iii. 2; and Lucian, A'igr. 32). The original labics were in 
 prose, and were turned into verse by sev. i d writers; the 
 
 , after the example of Socrates, being Demetrius 
 I'll ilereus. Next appeared an edition in elegiac 
 
 l cited by Suidas, but the author's name is unknown; 
 then Babrius, an excellent Greek poet, turned them into 
 choliambics (i.e. limping iambics); but of ten books, a few 
 fables only are preserved entire. Of the Latin writers of 
 /Ksopean fables, Phaedrus is the most celebrated. 
 
 pus auctor quam rnateriam refcrit, 
 Hanc ego polivi versibus senaiiis. 
 
 The fables now extant in prose under yEsop's name are en- 
 tirely spurious, as is proved by Bentley in bis Dissertation 
 on the Fables of JSsop, and have been assigned an oriental 
 origin. The identification of yEsop with the Arabian 
 philosopher and fabulist Lokman (who is made by some 
 traditions the contemporary' of the psalmist David) has 
 frequently been attempted; and the Persian accounts of 
 Lokman, which among other things describe him as an 
 ugly black slave, appear to . have been blended by the 
 author of the Life, published by Planudes, with the 
 classical' stories respecting /Esop. The similarity of the 
 fables ascribed to each renders it probable that they were 
 derived from the same Indo-Persian source, or from the 
 Chinese, who appear to have possessed such fables in very 
 remote antiquity. A complete collection erf the /Esopean 
 fables, 231 in number, was published at Breslau by J. G. 
 Schneider in 1810. 
 
 yESOP, a Greek historian, whose life of Alexander the 
 Great is preserved in a Latin translation by Julius Valerius. 
 It is a work of no credit, abounding in errors. 
 
 yESOP, Clodius, a celebrated actor, who flourished 
 about the 670th year of Rome. He and Roscius were con- 
 temporaries, and the best performers who ever appeared 
 upon the Roman stage; the former excelling in tragedy, 
 the latter in comedy. Cicero was on intimate terms with 
 both actors, and put himself under their direction to per- 
 fect his action. yEsop performed many friendly services to 
 Cicero, especially during the period of Lis banishment. He 
 appears to have spared no pains to improve himself in his 
 art, and to have always studied his part with tb.3 greatest 
 care. On the stage his declamation was emphatic and his 
 action vehement, and he became entirely absorbed in his 
 part. Plutarch mentions it as reported of him, that while 
 lie was representing Atreus deliberating how he should 
 revenge himself on Thyestcs, he forgot himself so far in 
 the heat of action that with his truncheon he struck and 
 killed one of the servants crossing the stage. His age and 
 the time of his death are uncertain; but he made h 
 appearance on the stage in B.C. 55, at the dedication of 
 Poinpey's theatre, on which occasion his voice failed him. 
 /Esop lived in a somewhat expensive ^manner; but he 
 nevertheless contrived to leave an ample fortune to his 
 spendthrift son. This is the son of yEsop mentioned by 
 Horace (Sat. iii. 3, 239) as taking a pearl from the ear- 
 drop of Caecilia Metella, and dissolving it in vinegar, that 
 he might have the satisfaction of swallowing eight thousand 
 pounds' worth at a draught. 
 
 ^ESTHETICS is the term now employed to designate 
 the theory of the Fine Arts — the science of the Beautiful, 
 with its allied conceptions and emotions. The province of 
 the science is not, however, very definitely fixed, and there 
 is still some ambiguity about the meaning of the term, arising 
 from its etymology and various use. The word .-esthetic, in 
 its original Greek form (aurBrrrwos), means anything that 
 has to do with perception by the senses, and this wider 
 connotation was retained by Kant, who, under the title 
 Transcendental /Esthetic, treats of the a priori principles 
 of ail sensuous knowledge. The limitation of the term to 
 
 the comparatively narrow class of sensations and percep- 
 tions occupied with the Beautiful and ita allied properties 
 is due to the Germans, and primarily to Baumgarten, who 
 1 from the supposition that, just as truth is the end 
 and perfection of pure knowledge or the understanding, 
 and good that of the will, so beauty must be the supreme 
 aim of all sensuous knowledge. Yet, Bpite of these sources 
 B in the subject and its name, some considerable 
 part of the theory can be looked upon as pretty clearly 
 defined, and it may be possible, by means of careful reflec- 
 tion on this ascertainable quantity, to indicate, roughly at 
 least, the extent and boundaries of a complete system of 
 aesthetic docl 
 
 A very brief survey of what has been written under 
 the name aesthetics is sufficient to show that it includes} 
 as its first ind foremost problem, the determination of the 
 nature and laws of Beauty, including along with the i 
 tifnl, in its narrower signification, its kindred subjects, tho 
 Sublime and tho Ludicrous. To discover what it is in 
 things which makes them beautiful or ugly, sublime or 
 ludicrous, is one constant factor in the aesthetic problem. 
 Intimately connected with this objective question is the 
 subjective and psychological inquiry into the nature of tho 
 feelings and ideas that have beauty for, their object 
 Further, it will be found that all attempts to construct a 
 complete aesthetic theory aim at determining the highest 
 ends of the Fine Arts (which obviously concern them- 
 selves largely, if not exclusively, with the Beautiful), and 
 at marking out the distinctions and tracing the depen- 
 dencies of natural and artistic beauty. All this part of 
 the field of aesthetic inquiry seems fairly agreed on, and 
 it is only when we approach other sides of the Fine Arts 
 that the precise scope of the science appears obscure. But 
 while there is this measure of agreement as to the proper 
 subject matter of .esthetics, we find two diametrically 
 opposed methods of approaching it, which distinctly colour 
 all parts of the doctrine arrived at, and impose different 
 limitations to the boundaries of the subject. The first 
 is the metaphysical or a priori method; the second the 
 scientific or empirical method. The one reasons deduc- 
 tively from ultra-scientjfic conceptions respecting the ulti- 
 mate nature of the universe and human intelligence, and 
 seeks to explain the phenomena of beauty and art by 
 help of these. The other proceeds inductively from the 
 consideration of these phenomena, as facts capable of 
 being compared, classified, and brought under certain uni- 
 formities. At the same time, it must not be supposed that 
 either method is customarily pursued in complete inde- 
 pendence of the other. The most subtle exponent of 
 transcendentalism in art appeals to generalisations drawn 
 from the facts of art; nor have the professedly scientific 
 critics often abstained from introducing conceptions and 
 hypotheses of a metaphysical character. 
 
 (A) Metaphysical Problems. 
 
 Metaphysical speculation in aesthetics centres about the 
 objective nature of beauty, and arises somewhat in the 
 following manner : — The appreciation of the Beautiful is a 
 mode of perception. In estimating a beautiful landscape oi 
 a beautiful statue, the mind perceives the beauty as a pro- 
 perty of the object. It is, moreover, a single property; tho 
 name beautiful always denoting the same essential thing, 
 whatever this may be. Now we find that it is not a simplo 
 property of matter known through one particular clas3 cf 
 sensations, as colour; and the question arises, what it really 
 is in itself, whether inherent in and inseparable from 
 matter, or something superior to it, and if so, how revealed 
 through it. The directions of this inquiry have been 
 almost as numerous as the systems of metaphysical thought 
 On the supposition of a real substance matter, independent
 
 ESTHETICS 
 
 213 
 
 of all intelligence, human or divine, writers ha\ e attempted 
 to discover the essential principle which beautifies it. It 
 lias been universally considered by metaphysicians that 
 matter in itself is devoid of beauty, if not positively ugly, 
 and the only question arises as to the extraneous principle 
 which imparts beauty to it. This has. been conceived 
 either as a simple force distinct from matjer, yet setting it 
 in motion, vivifying it, and reducing it to forms, as by 
 Leveque; or as a divine being, whose volition directly 
 invests material objects with all their beautiful aspects, as 
 by Eeid; or, lastly, as self -existent forms or ideas superin- 
 duced upon matter, which are in truth the beauty of objects, 
 aa by Plato and his modern followers. 
 
 In the prevailing German systems of aesthetics, which 
 are based on an ontological idealism, the independent 
 existence of matter has been denied. These writers con- 
 ceive an absolute Thought or Idea as the ultimate reality, 
 of which matter and consciousness are but the two sides. 
 Matter is conceived as the negative or limiting principle in 
 the action or self-movement of the Absolute. The problem 
 of objective beauty becomes on this hypothesis the deter- 
 mination of the particular mode in which the Beautiful is a 
 manifestation of the supreme thought; for the Good and 
 the True are equally revelations of the Unconditioned, and 
 it is necessary to mark off beauty from these. Various 
 definitions of the Beautiful, based on this mode of concep- 
 tion, may be found in the systems of Hegel, Weisse, and 
 the Hegelians. The second great problem in the meta- 
 physics of aesthetics is to co-ordinate the species of the 
 aesthetic genus, namely, the Beautiful (in its narrow sense), 
 the Ugly, the Sublime, and the Ridiculous. This has been 
 undertaken by the Hegelians, and their attempts to construct 
 what they call the dialectics of aesthetics are among the 
 most curious products of metaphysical thought. It being 
 assumed that there is some one ontological process running 
 through every manifestation of the aesthetic Idea, these 
 writers have sought to determine how each of the subaltern 
 notions is related to this process. The last problem in the 
 scheme of metaphysical aesthetics relates to the nature and 
 functions of Art, looked at on one side as a reproduction in 
 altered form of the beauty of Nature, and, on the other, as 
 the conscious product of aesthetic intuition in the human 
 mind. First of all, the arts are appreciated and classi- 
 fied according to the several modes in which they body 
 forth the Idea to our minds. Secondly, since the Absolute 
 may be spoken of as revealing itself to human intelligence, 
 so human intelligence may be looked on as groping through 
 long ages after the Absolute, and thus the historical evolu- 
 tion of art finds its place in a complete metaphysic of 
 aesthetics. In eoncluding this preliminary sketch of the 
 metaphysical systems, it should be added that they can be 
 adequately estimated and criticised only in connection with 
 the whole systems of thought of which they arc organic 
 parts. Within the scope of a purely scientific criticism 
 it is only possible to point out any inconsistencies in the 
 application of these ideas to beauty and art, and to show how 
 much or how little they effect, as hypothetical instruments, 
 in helping us more clearly to understand the phenomena. 
 
 (B.) Scientific Problems. 
 
 In the scientific discussion of aesthetic subjects, the anti- 
 thesis of subject and object in human cognition is accepted 
 as a phenomenal distinction, without any inquiry into 
 its ontological meaning. Inquirers no longer discuss the 
 essence of beauty, looked on as a transcendental conception 
 above all experience, but seek to determine in what the 
 Beautiful, as a series of phenomena, clearly and visibly 
 consists. ./Esthetic speculation becomes, accordingly, more 
 purely psychological First of all, the unity of beauty is 
 questioned. It is asked whether all objects which appear 
 
 beautiful are so because of some one ultimate property, ot 
 combination of properties, running through all examples of 
 beauty, or whether they are so called simply because they 
 produce some common pleasurable feeling in the mind. 
 This is a question of induction from facts and consequent 
 definition, lying at the very threshold of aesthetic science. 
 It has been most vigorously disputed by British writers on 
 the subject, and many x>f them have decided in favour of 
 the plurality and diversity of elements in beauty. Again, 
 it has been asked in which category of our experience, 
 objective or subjective, beauty originates. By some it has 
 been referred to an objective source, whether to sensation, 
 as a direct result of physiological action, as by Burke, or 
 to something distinctly perceived by means of sensation, aa 
 a certain relation of unity, symmetry, <fcc, among the 
 parts of an object, its coloure, forms, and so on, aa pro- 
 bably by Aristotle, Diderot, Hogarth, and most writers. 
 By others the source of beauty has been sought in the 
 inner life of the mind itself, in certain ideas and emotions 
 which have become reflected on external objects by asso- 
 ciation. This is the doctrine of Alison. A third class 
 recognise both of these sources, attributing the effects of 
 beauty partly tCvthe pleasurable effects of external stimu- 
 lation, partly to the activities of perception, and partly 
 to multitudinous associations of ideas and feelings from 
 past experience. This class includes Dugald Stewart, 
 Professor Bain, and Mr Herbert Spencer. A third question 
 in the general scientific theory of beauty which is closely 
 related to the last and largely determined by it, is the precise 
 nature of the mental faculty or activity concerned in the 
 perception and appreciation of the Beautiful. This, too, has 
 been widely discussed by English writers, — answers to the 
 other two questions frequently appearing as the necessary 
 implications of the solution of this one. By those who 
 affirm that beauty is a simple property or conjunction of 
 properties in external objects, the subjective perception of 
 this property has been regarded either as a unique faculty 
 (the internal sense), or as the. rational principle acting in a 
 certain way. By the school of Alison, who find the source 
 of beauty in a certain flow of ideas suggested by an object, 
 the perception of the same, as a property of the object, 
 would be explained as the result of inseparable association, 
 producing a kind of momentary delusion. And this same 
 effect of association, in producing an apparent intuition of 
 one simple property, would be made use of by those later 
 writers who resolve the nature of beauty into both objective 
 and subjective elements. It is noticeable, too, that while 
 some writers have treated the appreciation of beauty as 
 purely intellectual, others have confined themselves to the 
 emotional element of pleasure. With respect to the Ludi- 
 crous and the Sublime, as distinguished from the Beautiful, 
 there seems to have been a tacit agreement that both of 
 these are unique and single properties, whether originally 
 in the object of sense, or. reflected on it from the mind; 
 and various theories have been suggested in explanation of 
 the characteristic effects of these Drooerties on human 
 sensibility and thought. 
 
 What strikes one most, perhaps, in these discussions ia 
 the vagueness due to the great diversity of conception as 
 to the real extent of the Beautiful — the number of objecta 
 it may be supposed to denote. While one class of writers 
 appears to lirnit the term to the highest and most refined 
 examples of beauty in nature and art, others have looked 
 on it as properly including the lower and 1 more vulgarly 
 recognised instances. There is certainly a great want of 
 definiteness as to the legitimate scope of aesthetic theory. 
 It will be seen, too, how clos«ly this point bears on the 
 question of the relativity of aesthetic impressions, whether 
 there is any form of beauty which pleases universally arid 
 necessarily, as Kant affirms. The true method of resolving
 
 214 
 
 M STHETICS 
 
 this difficulty would appear to he to look on aesthetic 
 impressions more a.^ g, with the advance of 
 
 intellectual culture, from the crude e 
 
 to the more refined ami subtle delights of the cultivated 
 mind. The problem of 1 1 al and necessary would 
 
 then resoh tiry into a general tendency. 
 
 It would bo asked what kinds of objects, and what ele- 
 ments of.- nd emotion, tend to become con- 
 spicuous in esthetic pleasures, in proportion as tli 
 advances in general emotional and intellectual culture. 
 Another defect in nearly all the theories of the Beautiful 
 that have been proposed, refers to the precise relation of 
 the intellectual element in the aesthetic impression. In 
 irrow view, that the appreciation of beauty 
 is a purely intellectual act, a cold intuition of reason, 
 writers have fallen sometimes into another narrowness, in 
 resolving the whole of the effect into emotional elements, or 
 certain species of pleasure. Unless beauty is, as Hutcheson 
 affirmed, a simple property of objects like colour, the per- 
 ception of it as objective, which all must allow to be a 
 mental fact, can only be explained by means of certain intel- 
 lectual activities, by force of which the pleasurable effects 
 come to be referred to such a seemingly simple property. 
 The solution of this point would doubtless be found in 
 a more complete discussion of the perceptive or discrimi- 
 native and assimilative activities of the intellect which are 
 invariably called into play by complex objects, and which 
 correspond to the attributes of proportion, unity in variety, 
 ike, on which so much stress has been laid by the intui- 
 tivists. Not only so, but any theory of aesthetic operations 
 must be incomplete which does not give prominence to 
 those more subtle and exalted intellectual activities that 
 are involved in the imaginative side of aasthetic apprecia- 
 tion, as in detecting the curious half-hidden implications- 
 which make up the essence of a refined humour, in con- 
 structing those vague yet impressive ideas which enter into 
 our intuition of sublimity an , and even in appreciat- 
 ing such seemingly simple qualities as purity of colour and 
 tone, or the, perfectly graduated blending of two adjacent 
 colours. Such activities of the mind constitute, among 
 other things, the symbolic aspect of the Beautiful, and 
 give, as Mr Mill suggests, a basis of truth to such seem- 
 ingly fanciful notions respecting the meaning of beautiful 
 qualities as one finds in the works of Mr Ruskin. 
 
 But comparatively little has been done in a purely 
 scientific manner to determine the nature and functions 
 of Art so as to fix the relations of the different arts 
 to simple or natural beauty. Aristotle supplied a few 
 valuable doctrines, which have been rendered still more 
 precise by Lessing and others. Yet there seems even now 
 no consensus of opinion as to the precise aims of art, how 
 far it has simply to reproduce and constructively vary the 
 beauties of nature, or how far to seek modes of pleasurable 
 effect wider than those supplied by natural objects. A theory 
 of art at all comparable in scientific precision to existing 
 theories of morals has yet to be constructed. The few 
 attempts to establish a basis for art of a non-metaphysical 
 kind are characterised by great one-sidedness. Thus, for 
 example, the theory that the function of art is to imitate 
 nature, has been broached again and again with scarcely any 
 reference to music, merely, as it seems, out of an impatience 
 for some one defining property. Without attempting to 
 sketch a complete doctrine of art, a suggestion may be offered 
 as to the right direction of inquiry. First of all, then, the 
 widest possible generalisations on the various ' emotional 
 susceptibilities to which art can appeal must be collected, 
 from a study both of mental phenomena as a whole, and 
 of all varieties of pleasurable feeling actually ministered by 
 the several forms of art. This would fix the end of the 
 fine arts in the widest sense, marking it off from the ends 
 
 of utility and morality. Secondly, the highest aims of art, 
 or the ideal of art, would have to be determined by a con- 
 sideration of the laws of compatibility and incompatibility 
 among these various orders of gratification, the requirements 
 of quantity, variety, and harmony, in any lofty aesthetic 
 impression, and the relative value of the sensational, 
 intellectual, and emotional elements in aesthetic effect. 
 This part of the subject would include the discussion of 
 the value and universal necessity of the real and the ideal 
 in art, truth to nature and imaginative transformation. 
 These conclusions would require verification by means of 
 the -widest and most accurate study of the development of 
 the arts, in which could be traced the gradual tentative 
 progress of the artistic mind towards the highest achieve- 
 ments of art, as well as the permanent superiority of all 
 those forms of art which most clearly embody this tendency. 
 This part of the theory of art would clearly connect itself 
 with the problem of the general law or tendency in aesthetic 
 development already referred to. The proper determina- 
 tion of these two ideas, the whole range of possible aesthetic 
 delight, and the direction of the highest, purest, and most 
 permanent delight of cultivated minds, would at once dis- 
 pose of many narrow conceptions of art, by recognising the 
 need of the widest possible diversity and grades of artistic 
 value, if only as experiments requisite to the discovery of 
 its highest function. At the same time the meaning 
 and limits of the universal and necessary iu art would be 
 defined, and the unsuggestive and dreary conflicts between 
 an unbending absolutism and a lawless individualism 
 shown to be irrelevant. The validity of canons of art, and 
 their limitations, would in this manner be fixed, and the 
 impatient exaltation of certain schools and directions of 
 taste reduced to a modest assertion of a purely relative 
 truth. The aims of art as a whole being thus determined, 
 the next thing would be to define and classify the individual 
 arts of painting, music, poetry, <fcc., according to their 
 respective powers of embodying these aims. This would 
 require a careful consideration of the material or medium 
 of expression employed by each art, and the limitations im- 
 posed by it as to the mode of representation. The deter- 
 mination of this part of aesthetic theory, which Lessing com- 
 menced, would require not only technical but considerable 
 psychological knowledge. Similarly, any conclusion arrived 
 at on this subject would need to be verified by a reference 
 to the history of the arts, as exemplifying both the successes 
 of a right conception of the scope and possibilities of the 
 particular art, and the failures resulting from a mistaken 
 conception. Many other points, such as the nature of 
 genius, the function and bounds of criticism, the relation 
 of aesthetic culture to intellectual, moral, and social pro- 
 gress, would be included in a complete scheme of art 
 doctrine. 
 
 (C.) History of Systems. 
 
 In the following brief account of the most important 
 contributions to aesthetic doctrine, only such writings will 
 be recognised as aim at some general conception of Art 
 and the Beautiful. Much that passes in current literature 
 for aesthetic speculation, nimely, a certain thoughtful way 
 of criticising special works of art, is simply the application 
 of recognised principles to new cases. Sometimes, how- 
 ever, in the hands of a philosophic critic the mere appre- 
 ciation of a single poem or the works of a particular artist 
 may become a luminous discussion of some general prin~ 
 cipie, and this method of constructing aesthetic theory from 
 the criticism of a single work or series of works was ren- 
 dered very productive by Lessing. 
 
 I. Greek Speculations. — Ancient Greece supplies us with 
 the first speculations on the Beautiful and the aims of 
 the fine arts. Nor is it surprising that among a people
 
 .ESTHETICS 
 
 215 
 
 eo productive of noble artistic creations, and at the same 
 time so speculative, numerous attempts to theorise on these 
 Bubjects should have been made. We have in classic 
 writings many allusions to works of an aesthetic character 
 now lost, such as a series on poetry, hanncny, and even 
 painting, by Democritus. It is to be gathered, too, from 
 Plato's Dialogues that the Sophists made the principles of 
 beauty a special department in their teaching. The first 
 Greek thinker, however, whose views on these subjects are 
 at all known is Socrates. Accepting Xenophon's account 
 ' of his views in the Memorabilia and the Symposion, we 
 find that he regarded the Beautiful as coincident with the 
 Good, and both of them as resolvable into the Useful Every 
 beautiful object is so called because it serves some rational 
 end, whether the security or gratification of man. It looks 
 as though Socrates rather disparaged the immediate grati- 
 fication which a beautiful object affords to perception and 
 contemplation, and emphasised rather its power of further- 
 ing the more necessary ends of life. Thus he said that 
 pictures and other purposeless works of art, when used to 
 adorn a house, hindered rather than furthered enjoyment, 
 because of the space they took from useful objects. This 
 mode of estimating the value of beauty is, however, no 
 necessary consequence of the theory that the whole nature 
 of beauty is to minister pleasure. It arises from undue 
 attention to mere material comfort as a condition of happi- 
 ness. The really valuable point which Socrates distinctly 
 brought to light is the relativity of beauty. Unlike his 
 illustrious disciple, he recognised no self-beauty (avro to 
 koXov) existing absolutely and out of all relation to a per- 
 cipient mind. 
 
 Of the precise views 'of Plato on this subject, even if 
 •they were really formed, it is very difficult to gain a just 
 conception from the Dialogues. In some of these, called 
 by ~Ste Grote the Dialogues of Research, as the Hippias 
 Major, he ventures on no dogmatic theory of Beauty, and 
 Beveral definitions of the Beautiful proposed are rejected 
 as inadequate by the Platonic Socrates. At the same time 
 we may conclude that Plato's mind leaned decidedly to a 
 theory of an absolute Beauty, this, indeed, being but one side 
 of his remarkable scheme of Ideas or self-existing Forms. 
 In the Symposion he describee how love (Eros) produces 
 aspiration towards the pure idea of beauty. It is only 
 this absolute beauty, h; tells us, which deserves the name 
 of beauty; and this is beautiful in every manner; and the 
 ground of beauty in all things. It is nothing discoverable 
 as an attribute in another thing, whether living being, 
 earth, or heaven ; for these are only beautiful things, not 
 the Beautiful itself. It is the eternal and perfect existence 
 contrasted with the oscillations between existence and non- 
 existence in the phenomenal world, In the Pkcedrus, again, 
 he treats the soul's intuition of the self-beautiful as a 
 reminiscence of its prse-natal existence, undefiled by union 
 with the body. With respect to the precise forms in 
 which the idea of beauty reveals itself, Plato is very un- 
 decided. Of course his theory of an absolute Beauty is 
 incompatible with the notion of its ministering simply a 
 variety of sensuous pleasure, to which he appears to lean in 
 the Gorgias and even the Hippias Major. Farther, his 
 peculiar system of ideas naturally led him to confuse the 
 seif-beautiful with other general conceptions of the true and 
 the good, and so arose the Platonic formula KaXoKayaOia, 
 expressive of the intimate union of the two principles. 
 So far as his writings embody t«e notion of any dis- 
 tinguishing element in beautiful objects, it is proportion, 
 harmony, or unity among the •parts of an object. The 
 superior beauty of proportion is taught in the Pkihbus, and 
 in the Pha>don it is applied to virtue. As a closely-related 
 view, we see him emphasising unity in its simplest aspect 
 of evenness and purity, the need of variety beinjj over- 
 
 looked. Thus in the Philebus he states his preference for 
 regular and mathematical forms, as the straight line and 
 the circle. So he selected ationg colours pure white, 
 among tones the pure and equal, and among impressiona 
 of touch the smooth. At the same time the Dialogues 
 evince many other tentative distinctions in the Beautiful, 
 as, for example, the recognition in the Politics of two 
 opposed classes of beautiful things, those characterised by 
 force and velocity, and those by a certain slowness and 
 softness ; which points to a contrast between the stimula- 
 tive and the restful in sensation, since enlarged upon by 
 h psychologists. Elsewhere he descants on the 
 beauty of the mind, and seems to think, in the Republic, 
 that the highest beauty of proportion is seen in the union 
 of a beautiful mind with a beautiful body. In spite of 
 his lofty theory of the origin and nature of beauty, 
 Plato seems to have imperfectly appreciated the worth 
 of art as an independent end in human 1 .'.'•we. 
 
 He found the end of art in imitation (/itj"?o-« I, but esti- 
 mated the creative activity of art as a clever knack, little 
 higher in intellectual value than the tricks of a juggler. 
 He tended to regard the effects of art as devoid of all serious 
 value, and as promoting indolence and the supremacy of 
 the sensual elements of human nature. (See the Sophislet, 
 Gorgias, and Republic.) Accordingly, in his scheme for 
 an ideal republic, he provided for the most inexorable 
 censorship on poets, <tc, so as to make art as far as possible 
 a mere instrument of moral and political training. As T o 
 particular arts, Plato appears to have allowed a certain 
 ethical value to music, in combination with dance and song, 
 if of a certain character, as expressing either the worthy 
 and manly, or the quiet and orderly. With respect to 
 poetry, his views, as expressed in the Republic and else- 
 where, were very uncertain. Thus at times, he condemns 
 tragedy and comedy in toto ; at other times he admits the 
 claims of a lofty dramatic poetry. He seems not to have 
 fully considered the - aims and influences of painting and 
 sculpture, which he constantly disparages. 
 
 A loftier conception of the aims of poetry was afforded Aristotle 
 by the strictures of Aristophanes in the Frogs and else- 
 where. But the one Greek who, as far as we know, fully 
 appreciated and clearly set forth the ends of the fine arts, 
 considered, independently of ethical and political aires, as 
 the vehicles to the mind of the ideas and delights of 
 -. was Aristotle. Unlike Plato, he proceeded less 
 metaphysically and more scientifically to investigate the 
 phenomena of beauty by a careful analysis of the principles 
 of art. In his treatises on poetry and rhetoric, he gives 
 as, along with a theory of these arts, certain principles of 
 beauty in general ; and scattered among his other writings we 
 find many valuable suggestions on the same subject. First of 
 all, Aristotle ignores all conceptions of an absolute Beauty, 
 and at the same tune seeks to distinguish the Beautiful from 
 the Good. Thus, although in the more popular exposition, 
 the Rhetoric, he somewhat incorrectly makes praiseworthi- 
 ness a distinguishing mark of the Beautiful, regarded as a 
 species of the Agreeable or Desirable, he seeks in the Meta- 
 physics to distinguish the Good and the Beautiful thus : the 
 Good is always ir. action (ei- T-paf ei) ; the Beautiful, however, 
 may exist in ^.cdonless things as well (tv fjavrjroK). Else- 
 where he distinctly teaches that the Good and the Beautiful 
 are different (ercpor), although the Good, under certain con- 
 ditions, can be called beautiful. He thus looked on the 
 two spheres as co-ordinate species, having a certain area in 
 common. It should be noticed that the habit of the Greek 
 mind, in estimating the value of moral nobleness and eleva- 
 tion of character by their power of gratifying and impress- 
 ing a spectator, srave rise to a certain ambiguity in the 
 meaning of to *aAor, which accounts for the prominence 
 the Greek thinkers gave to the connection between the
 
 216 
 
 ESTHETICS 
 
 Beautiful aad the Good or morally Worthy. Ar 
 further distinguished the Beautiful from the Fit, and in a 
 passage of the Politics set Beauty above the Useful and 
 Necessary. Another characteristic of the Beautiful fixed 
 by this thinker in the Rhetoric is the absence of all lust 
 or desire in the pleasure it bestows. This is an important 
 point, as suggesting the disinterested and uniu 
 side of aesthetic pleasure. The universal elements of 
 beauty, again, Aristotle finds in the Metaphysics to be order 
 (to^h), symmetry, and definiteness or determinateness (to 
 wpur/icroe). Iu the Poetics he adds another essential, namely, 
 a certain magnitude, it being desirable, for a synoptic and 
 single view of the parts, that the object, whether a natural 
 body or a work of art, should not be too large, while clear- 
 ness of perception requires that it should not be too small. 
 At the same time he seems to think that, provided the 
 whole be visible as such, the greater magnitude of an 
 object is itself an element of beauty. This is probably to 
 be understood by help of a passage in the Politics, which 
 lays down the need of a number of beautiful parts or 
 aspects in a highly beautiful object, as the human body. 
 With respect to art, Aristotle's views are an immense 
 advance on those of Plato. He distinctly recognised, in the 
 Politics and elsewhere, that its aim is simply to give imme- 
 diate pleasure, and so it does not need to seek the useful 
 like the mechanical arts. The essence of art, considered 
 as an activity, Aristotle found in imitation, which, unlike 
 Piato, he considers not as an unworthy trick, but as in- 
 cluding knowledge and discovery. The celebrated passage 
 in the Poetics where he declares poetry to be more philo- 
 sophic and serious a matter (o-irovb'a.ioTepov) than philo- 
 sophy, best shows the contrast between Plato and Aristotle 
 in their estimates of the dignity of artistic labour. In the 
 Poetics he tells us that the objects to be imitated by the 
 poet are of three kinds — (1.) Those things or events which 
 have been or still are; (2.) The things which are said to be 
 aad seem probable; (3.) The things which necessarily are 
 (eTrat. Sd). The last points, as Schasler supposes, to the 
 ideal character of imitation as opposed to mere copying of 
 individual objects or events, and accounts for the lofty 
 value assigned to it by Aristotle. More particularly the 
 objects of imitation iu poetry and music, if not in" all art, 
 are dispositions (qOr}), passions, and actions. Aristotle 
 gives us- some interes'„i.g speculations on the nature of 
 the artist's mind, and distinguishes two varieties of the 
 poetic imagination — the easy and versatile conceptive 
 power of a man of natural genius (cV#u?js), and the more 
 emotional and lively temperament of an inspired man 
 (fj.aviKO's). He gives us no complete classification of the 
 fine arts, and it is doubtful how far his principles are- to 
 be taken as applicable to other than the poetic art. He 
 seems, however, to distinguish poetry, music, and dancing — 
 all of which are supposed to imitate some element of human 
 nature, some feeling or action — by the means they employ, 
 namely, rhythm, harmony, melody, and vocal sound. Paint- 
 ing and sculpture are spoken of as imitative arts, but their 
 special aims are not defined. Architecture seems ignored 
 by Aristotle as non-imitative. Hia peculiar theory of 
 poetry can only be just glanced at here. Its aim, he says, 
 is to imitate dispositions and actions. Metrical form is 
 hardly looked on as an essential Poetic imitation, as in- 
 cluding the selection of the universal in human nature and 
 history, is ably treated; and from this part of Aristotle's 
 theory all modern ideas of poetic truth are more or less deriv- 
 able. He distinguishes, somewhat superficially, the epic 
 poem, the drama, and a third variety not named, but appa- 
 rently lyric poetry, by the manner in which the poet speaks 
 in each variety, whether in his own person, or in that of 
 another, or in both alternately. The epic and the dramatic 
 poerr- require unity of action, a certain magnitude, with 
 
 beginning, middle, and end, and also those changes of for- 
 tune and recognitions that make up the thrilling character 
 of plot. The end uf tragedy Aristotle defines as the effecting 
 by means <>i ' a purification of these passions; 
 
 and this is perhaps the point of greatest interest for 
 aesthetics in the whole of his theory of poetry. Whether he 
 is refi i Loral influence of tragedy on the emo- 
 
 tions, bringing both fear and pity in the spectator's mind to 
 their proper ethical mean, as Lessing and others conceive'; 
 whether he simply means the elimination of all ; 
 ingredients in these feelings, either by the recognition of 
 the imaginary nature of the evil represented, of by the simul- 
 taneous satisfaction of other and deeper feelings as moral 
 approval or wide human sympathy; or, finally, whether by 
 " purification " we are to understand the grateful relief by 
 artificial means of a recurring emotion needing periodic vent, 
 as Ueberweg argues, — this subtle point may be left to the 
 student to decide. It would be interesting to know how 
 far Aristotle attributed something analogous to this xdOapo-is 
 to the other arts. In the Politics he certainly speaks of a 
 purifying effect in certain kinds of music in quieting the 
 wilder forms of excitement. Finally, it might perhaps 
 be conjectured from his definition of the Ludicrous, as 
 something faulty and disgraceful, yet free from pain, and 
 not destructive, that he would find in the laughter of 
 comedy something analogous to this purification, namely, 
 the gradual resolution of the more painful feelings of con- 
 tempt or disgust into the genial moods of pure hdarity. 
 
 Omitting to notice the few valuable remarks on aes- 
 thetic subjects of the later Greeks and their. Roman 
 contemporaries, one may briefly refer to the views of the 
 Alexandrian mystic and Neo-Platonist Ploiinus, not only 
 because of their intrinsic interest, but on account of their 
 resemblance to certain modern systems. His theory is to 
 be found in an essay on the Beautiful in the series of dis- 
 courses called Enneades. His philosophy differs from the 
 Platonic in the recognition of an objective vovs, the direct 
 emanation from the absolute Good, in which the ideas or 
 notions (Xdyoi), which are the prototypes of real things, are 
 immanent. This Reason, as self-moving, becomes the for- 
 mative influence reducing matter, which in itself is dead, 
 to form. Matter thus formed becomes a notion (Adyos), 
 and this form is beauty. Objects are ugly so far as they 
 are unacted upon by Reason, and so remain formless. The 
 creative vovs is absolute Beauty, and is called the more 
 than beautiful (to hiripKoXKov). There are three degrees 
 or stages of the Beautiful in manifestation, namely, the 
 beauty of subjective voCs, or human reason, which is the 
 highest; that of the human soul, which is less perfect 
 through the connection of the soul with a material body; 
 and that of real objects, which is the lowest manifestation 
 of all. As to the characteristic form of beauty, he sup- 
 posed, in opposition to Aristotle, that a single thing not 
 divisible into parts might be beautiful through its unity 
 and 'simplicity. He attached special worth to the beauty 
 of colours in which material darkness is overpowered by 
 light and warmth. In reference to artistic beauty, he said 
 that when the artist has Aoyot as models for his creations, 
 these may become more beautiful than natural objects. 
 This is a very curious divergence of opinion from the 
 Platonic 
 
 After Plotinus there is little speculation on aesthetic 
 subjects till we come to modem writers. St Augustine 
 wrote a treatise on the Beautiful, now lost, in which he 
 appears to have reproduced Platonic ideas under a Christian 
 guise. He taught that unity is the form of all beauty 
 (" omnis porro pulchritudinis forma unitas est"). Infinite 
 goodness, truth, and beauty are the attributes of the Deity, 
 and communicated by him to things. But passing from 
 these fragmentary utterances, we may consider more fully
 
 ESTHETICS 
 
 217 
 
 the modern theones, beginning with the German systems, 
 as being the most metaphysical, and having most affinity 
 with ancient speculation. In German literature the two 
 divisions of metaphysical deduction and critical construc- 
 tion of K3thetic principles are very sharply contrasted, 
 and nearly every writer on the subject is easily referred to 
 one or other of th6 classes. On the one hand, we have 
 the laborious systematic philosophers, as Kant and Hegel ; 
 and on the other, men who entered upon esthetic specula- 
 tion either as connoisseurs of some special department, as 
 Winckelmann and Lessing, or even as productive artists — 
 for example, Schiller and Goethe. 
 
 IL German Writers. — The first of the Germans who 
 attempted to fit a theory of the Beautiful and of Art 
 into a complete system of philosophy was Baumgarten. 
 Adopting the Wolffian principles of knowledge, as modi- 
 fied by Leibnitz, \c thought he was completing that 
 system by setting over against logical knowledge, whose 
 object is truth, aesthetic knowledge, which has to do 
 with beauty. The former is conceptive knowledge (6e- 
 grei/endes Erkennen), the act of the understanding, and 
 its result as the science of clear conceptions is embodied 
 in logic. ^Esthetic has to do, not with clear, but con- 
 fused conceptions {verworrene Vorstellungen), namely, sen- 
 suous knowledge. The beautiful is defined by Baumgarten 
 as the perfection of sensuous knowledge, and the ugly is 
 that which struggles against this perfection; and, con- 
 sistently with this view, he first employed the term 
 aesthetic (oestheiica) to denote a theory of the" Beautiful. 
 He held that perfection, as harmony of object with its con- 
 ception or notion (Begriff), presents itself under three as- 
 pects : — (1.) As truth for pure knowledge; (2.) As beautyfor 
 obscure perception; (3.) As goodness for the capacities of 
 desire or will. It will be seen at once by the thoughtful 
 student that this mode of dealing with impressions of 
 beauty, &c, simply as intellectual elements (confused con- 
 ceptions), must fail to account for their emotional aspects — 
 feeling, which is the very soul of the aesthetic impression, 
 being radically distinct from conception and knowledge. 
 Still Baumgarten did service in separating so sharply the 
 provinces of logic, ethics, and aesthetics, and in connecting 
 the latter with the impressions of the senses. The details 
 of his aesthetics are mostly unimportant. From Leibnitz's 
 theory of a pre-established harmony, and its consequence 
 that the world is the best possible, Baumgarten concluded 
 that nature is the highest embodiment of beauty, and that art 
 must seek as its highest function the strictest possible imita- 
 tion of nature. Baumgarten had several disciples in this con- 
 ception of aesthetics, as Sulzer and Moses Mendelssohn. 
 
 The next original philosophical scheme of aesthetics 
 is that of Kant. His system of knowledge falls into 
 three branches — the critique of pure reason, which has to 
 determine what are the a priori elements in the know- 
 ledge of objects; the critique of practical reason, which 
 inquires into the a priori determinations of the will; and 
 the critique of judgment, which he regards as a connecting 
 link between the other two, and which has to do with any 
 a priori principles of emotion (pleasure and pain), as 
 the middle term between cognition and volition. This 
 judgment Kant divides into the aesthetic, when pleasure 
 or pain is felt immediately on presentation of an object; 
 and the teleological, which implies a pre-existing notion, 
 to which the object is expected to conform. He attempts, 
 in a somewhat strained manner, to define the Beautiful by 
 help of his four categories. In quality beauty is that 
 which pleases without interest or pleasure in the existence 
 of the object This distinguishes it from the simply Agree- 
 able and the Good, the former stimulating desire, and the 
 latter giving motive to the wilL In quantity it is a uni- 
 versal pleasure. Under the aspect of relation, the Beautiful 
 
 is the form of adaptation (Zweckmdssigkeit) without any 
 end being conceived. Finally, in modality it is a necessary 
 satisfaction, ' pleasing not by a universal rule, this being 
 unassignable, but by a tenuis communis, or agreement of 
 taste. Kant is ndt very consistent in carrying out these 
 distinctions. Thus, for example, he recognises in fitness a 
 particular species of beauty, namely, " adhering " as dis- 
 tinguished from "free" or intrinsic beauty, without re- 
 cognising that this implies the presence of a notion. So, 
 in discussing the objective validity of our aesthetic im- 
 pressions, he decides that the highest meaning of beauty 
 is to symbolise moral good and, in even a more fanciful 
 manner than that of Mr Ruskin, he attaches moral ideas, 
 as modesty, frankness, courage, &c, to the seven primary 
 colours of the Newtonian system. Yet he does not admit 
 that the perception of this symbolic function involves any 
 notion. Once more, he attributes beauty to a single colour 
 or tone by reason of its purity. But such a definition of 
 the form of the Beautiful clearly involves some notion in 
 the percipient mind. Kant further applies his four cate- 
 gories, with still less of fruitful suggestion, to the Sublime. 
 The satisfaction of the Sublime is a kind of negative plea- 
 sure created through the feeling of a momentary restraint 
 (Hemmung) of vital force, and of a subsequent outpouring 
 of the same in greater intensity. The feeling of the in- 
 adequacy of the imagination is succeeded by a consciousness 
 of the superiority of reason to imagination. The sentiment 
 is thus a kind of wonder or awe. Sublimity is either mathe- 
 matical, that of magnitude, or dynamical, that of nature's 
 might. He allows no sublimity to passions, as rage or 
 revenge. Kant has, too, a theory of the Ridiculous, the 
 effect of which he lays, oddly enough in respect to thi rest 
 of his doctrine, in a grateful action of the body, the muscles 
 of the diaphragm, &c, giving a sense of health. This 
 action take3 place on the sudden relaxation of the under- 
 standing when kept in a state of tension by expectation. 
 The cause of laughter, or the Ridiculous, may hence be 
 defined as " the sudden transformation of a tense expecta- 
 tion into nothing." He placed the beauty of nature 
 above that of art, which can be of value only mediately, 
 not as an end in itself. He classifies the arts according as 
 they express the aesthetic idea — whatever this may mean 
 after his exclusion of all definite conception from the per- 
 ception -of beauty. Just as expression in speech consists 
 of articulation, gesticulation, and modulation, answering 
 to thought, intuition (AnscJtuuung), and feeling, so we have 
 three kinds of art — (1.) Those proceeding orally (redende), 
 oratory and poetry; (2.) Those of visible image (bildende), 
 plastic art and painting; and (3.) "the art of the play of 
 feeb'ngs," namely, music and " colour art," which last is 
 not defined. Kant's system is very defective, and some 
 of its inconsistencies were pointed out by Herder in his 
 Kalligone, who lacked, however, philosophic acciracy. 
 Herder denied Kant's distinctions between the Beautiful, 
 the Good, and the Agreeable, saying that the first must be 
 desired as well as satisfying, and the second be loved as well 
 as prized. Yet herein Kant is decidedly superior to his 
 critic. Herder held, in opposition to Kant, that all beauty 
 includes significance (Bedeutsamieit), and cannot affect 
 us apart from a notion of perfection. But here, too, Kant 
 is to be preferred, since his theory does not assume all 
 beautiful objects to contain some one element or form 
 capable of being detected. Kant's real additions to 
 aesthetic theory consist in the better separation of the 
 Beautiful from the Good aud Agreeable, in the prominence 
 given to the emotional side of aesthetic impressions, and 
 in the partial recognition of the relativity of aesthetic 
 judgment, more especially in the case of the Sublime. 
 
 After Kant the next philosopher to discuss the meta- 
 physics of th« Beautiful and art is Schelling. He nought
 
 218 
 
 AESTHETICS 
 
 Hegel. 
 
 to engraft art upon his curious system of transcendental 
 idealism in a manner which can only be faintly indicated 
 here. In Schel ral system the relation of 
 
 subject and object is conceived as identity. Each exists, 
 yet not independently of the other, but identified in a 
 higher, the absolute. They may be conceived as two poles 
 ig different directions, but yet inseparably joined. 
 All knowledge rests on this agreement. Either nature, the 
 object, may be conceived as the prius, and the subject con- 
 structed out of it; or the subject maybe taken as the prius, 
 and the object constructed from it. These are the two 
 poles of knowledge, and constitute the philosophy of nature 
 and the transcendental philosophy. The latter, like Kant's 
 philosophy of mind, is based on a threefold conception of 
 the powers of human nature. It consists of — ( 1 . ) Theoretic 
 philosophy, dealing with perception; (2.) Practical philo- 
 sophy, discussing the will and freedom; and (3.) The philo- 
 sophy of art. The aim of the last is thus expressed: The 
 ego must succeed in actually perceiving the concord of sub- 
 ject and object, which is half disguised in perception and 
 volition. This concord is seen within the limits of the ego 
 in artistic perception only. Just as the product of nature 
 is an unconscious product like a conscious one, in its de- 
 eignfulness, so the product of art is a conscious product 
 like an unconscious one. Only in the work of art does 
 intelligence reach a perfect perception of its reel self. 
 This is accompanied by a feeling of infinite satisfaction, all 
 mystery being solved. Through the creative activity of 
 the artist the absolute reveals itself in the perfect identity 
 of subject and object. Art is therefore higher than philo- 
 sophy. Schelling thus sets the beauty of art far above that 
 of nature. As to the form of the beautiful he is very vague, 
 leaning now to a -conception of harmony in the totality of 
 the world (Weltall), and now to a Platonic conception of 
 primitive forms | ) of perfection. He has a very 
 
 intricate classification of the arts, based on his antithesis 
 of object and subject, reality' and ideality. A curious 
 feature of Schellirig's theory is his application of his one 
 fundamental idea to tragedy. The essence of tragedy is, 
 he thinks, an actual conflict of liberty in the subject with 
 objective necessity, in, which both being conquered and 
 conquering, appear at once in the perfect indifference. 
 Antique tragedy he holds, accordingly, to be the most per- 
 fect composition of all arts. 
 
 ing over Solger, whose aesthetic doctrine is little 
 more than a revival of Platonism, we come to Hegel. His 
 system of philosophy falls into three parts, all based on 
 the self-movement of the idea or absolute: — (1.) The 
 logic discussing the pure universal notions which are the 
 logical evolution of the absolute, a3 pure thought; (2.) 
 Philosophy of nature — the disruption of thought, the idea, 
 into the particular and external; (3.) Philosophy of the 
 spirit — the return of thought or the absolute from this 
 self-alienation to itself in self-cognisant thought. Just 
 as the absolute, so has spirit a series of three grades to 
 rse — (a.) Subjective spirit or intelligence, relating 
 i to the rational object a3 something given; (6.) Ob- 
 
 jective spirit or will, which converts the subject 
 theoretical matter (truth) into objectivity; (c.) Absolute 
 spirit, which is the return of the spirit from objectivity to 
 the ideality of cognition, to the perception of the absolute 
 idex in has three stages — (1.) Art, in which th<! 
 
 absolute is imm present to sensuous perce] 
 
 (2.) Religion, which embodies certainty of the idea as 
 above all immediate reality; and (3.) Philosophy, the unity 
 of these. According to this conception, the beautiful is 
 defined as the shining of the idea through a sensuous 
 medium (as colour or tone). It is said to have its life in 
 shining or appearance (Schein), and so differs from the true, 
 which is not real sensuous existence, but the universal 
 
 contained in it for thought. He defines the lorm ot the 
 Beautiful as unity of the manifold. The notion (Begriff) 
 gives necessity in mutual dependence of parts (unity), 
 while i y demands the appearance or semblance 
 
 (Schein) of liberty in the parts. He discusses very fully 
 the beauty of nature as immediate unity of notion and 
 y, and lays great einpha is on the beauty of organic 
 life. ' But it is in art that, like .Schelling, he finds the 
 highest revelation of the Beautiful. Art makes up the 
 deficiencies of natural beauty by bringing the idea into 
 clearer light, by showing the external in its life and spirit 
 ual animation. The various forms of art depend on the 
 various combinations of matter and form. In Oriental 
 or symbolical art matter is predominant, and the thought 
 is struggling through with pain so as to reveal the ideal. 
 In tho classical form the ideal has attained an adequate 
 existence, form and matter being absolutely commensurate. 
 Lastly, in tho romantic form, the mattor is reduced to a 
 mere show, and the ideal is supremo. Hegel classifies the 
 individual arts according to this Bame principle of the rela- 
 tive supremacy of form and matter — (1.) The beginning of 
 art is architecture, in which as a symbolic art the sensuous 
 material is in excess. (2.) Sculpture is less subjected to 
 matter, and, as representing the living body, is a step to- 
 wards a higher ideality. (3.) Painting, which is the romantic 
 art /tar' i{oxrjv, expresses the full life of the soul. By the 
 elimination of the third dimension of space, and the 
 employment of a coloured plane, painting rids itself of the 
 coarse material substrate of sculpture, and produces only 
 a semblance of materiality. (4.) In music, which employs 
 pure tone, all the elements of space are suppressed, and 
 hence its content is the inner emotional nature (Gemiith). 
 Music is the most subjective of the arts. (5.) Poetry has the 
 privilege of universal expression. It contains all the other 
 arts in itself, namely, the plastic art in the epos, music in 
 the ode, and the unity of both in the drama. 
 
 Several systems of aesthetics, more or less Hegelian in 
 character, can only be referred to in passing. Weisse 
 defined aesthetics as the science of the idea of beauty, aud 
 explained the Beautiful as the entrance of the universal or of 
 the essence into the limited and finite, that is, the cancelling 
 or annulling of truth (die aufgehobene Wahrkeit). By thus 
 recognising an internal contradiction in all beauty, he sought 
 to develope, by a curious dialectical process, the ideas of the 
 Ugly, the Sublime, and the Ludicrous. He treats each of 
 these three in immediate contrast to beauty. Ugliness is the 
 immed 'ice of beauty. It appears as the negative 
 
 moment in the Sublime, and in the Ludicrous this negativity 
 in cancelled and resolved into afh'nnation so as to con- 
 stitute a return to the Beautiful . A like attempt to deter- 
 mine the relations of the Ugly, Comic, <tc, as moments of 
 the self-revealing idea was made by several Hegelians. 
 Thus Huge, in his Abhandiung iiber das Komische, teaches 
 that sublimity is the aesthetic idea striving to find itself, 
 together with the satisfaction of this striving. If, how- 
 I he idea lose itself, sinking away in a kind of swoon, 
 7e the Ugly. Finally, when the idea recovers from 
 the swoon, its new birth is attended with a feeling of 
 amusement (Erlicilerung), and then we have the effect of 
 the Ludicrous. Rosenkranz, in his JSsthetik des Bass- 
 lichen, conceives the Ugly as the "negation of the Beautiful. 
 or as the middle between the Beautiful and the Ludicrous, 
 and seeks to trace out its various manifestations in form- 
 lessness in nature, incorrectness in artistic representation, 
 and deformity or the disorganisation of the Beautiful in 
 caricature. Schasler, again, seems to hold that the Ugly is 
 co-ordinate with the Beautiful, being the motor principle 
 that drives the Beautiful from the unconditioned rest of 
 the Platonic idea, from the sphere of empty abstractness 
 to actuality. This fundamental contradiction reveals itself
 
 ESTHETICS 
 
 219 
 
 i3 the contrast of matter and spirit, rigid motioulessness 
 and motion, and appears in art as the antithesis of the 
 sublime and graceful (dzs Anmuthige), the latter containing 
 the Naif, the Pretty, and the Ridiculous. Finally, Theodor 
 Vischer seeks to settle these subtle relationships in this 
 manner: He supposes the Sublime to be the sundering of 
 the aesthetic idea and its sensuous image (Gebild) from the 
 state of unity constituting the Beautiful, the idea reaching 
 as the infinite over against the finite of the image. The 
 image now resists the sudden rupture, and in asserting 
 itself as a totality in defiance of the idea becomes the Ugly. 
 The Comic, again, is the result of some partial and appa- 
 rently involuntary recognition of the rights of the idea by 
 the rebellious image. Schasler says, in criticising the 
 views of Vischer, that it is difficult not to be satirical in 
 ■describing the dialectic artifices to which the idea is here 
 compelled, little suspecting how easily any similar attempt 
 to adjust relations between these ideas, looked at objectively 
 as movements of the supreme idea, may appear equally naif 
 and funny to a mind not already oppressed with the resist- 
 ing burden of its own abstractions. 
 
 Theodor Vischer, the last of the Hegelians named here, 
 has produced the largest and most laborious system of 
 metaphysical aesthetics, and a brief account of its scope 
 must be given to complete our history of the German 
 systems. He defines aesthetics as the science of the Beau- 
 tiful. His system falls into three parts: (1.) Metaphysic 
 of the Beautiful; (2.) The Beautiful as one-sided existence 
 — beauty of nature and the human imagination; (3.) The 
 subjective-objective actuality of the Beautiful — Art. The 
 metaphysic again falls into two parts — the theory of simple 
 beauty, and that of the Beautiful in the resistance of its 
 moments (the Sublime and Ridiculous). He defines the 
 Beautiful as "the idea in the form of limited appearance." 
 His discussions of the various beauties of nature, the 
 organic and inorganic world, are very full and suggestive, 
 and his elaboration of the principles of art (excepting those 
 of music, which he left another to elucidate), is marked 
 by a wide and accurate knowledge. He divides the arts 
 into— (1.) The objective, or eye arts (architecture, sculpture, 
 and painting); (2.) Subjective, or ear arts (music); (3.) 
 Subjective-objective arts, or those of sensuous conception 
 ^poetry). He subdivides the first into those of measuring 
 sight (architecture), touching sight (sculpture), and sight 
 proper (painting). Vischer's style is very laboured. His 
 propositions fall into the form of mathematical theorems, 
 and are made exceedingly incomprehensible by the ex- 
 cessive subtleties of his metaphysical nomenclature. 
 
 There are several other systems - of aesthetics which 
 deserve mention here, but space does not allow of a full 
 account of them. Of these the mosi important are the 
 theories of Herbart, Schopenhauer, and von Kirchmann; 
 Herbart's views are based on bis curious psychological 
 conceptions. He ignores any function in the Beautiful as 
 expressive of the idea, and seeks simply to determine the 
 simplest forms or the elementary judgments of 1 
 Schopenhauer's discussions, connecting beauty with his 
 peculiar conception of the universe as volition, are a curious 
 contribution to the subject. As a specimen of his specula- 
 tions, one may give his definition cf tragedy as the repre- 
 sentation of the horrible side of life, the scornful dominion 
 of accident, and the inevitable fall of the just and inno- 
 cent, this containing a significant glimpse into the nature 
 of the world and existence. Von Kirchmann has written 
 a two-volume work on aesthetics, which is interesting as a 
 reaction against the Hegelian method. It professes to be 
 an attempt to base the science on a realistic foundation, 
 and to apply the principles of observation and induction 
 long acted upon in natural science. 
 
 The German aesthetic speculations not elaborated into 
 
 complete systems are too numerous to be fully represented' 
 here. Only a few of the most valuable contributions to the 
 theory will be alluded to. Winckelmann's services to the 
 development of plastic art do not directly concern us. 
 Of his theory of plastic beauty, based exclusively on the 
 principles of Greek sculpture, little requires to be said. 
 He first pointed to the real sources of superiority in antique 
 creations, by emphasising the distinction between natural 
 and ideal beauty, the aesthetic value of contour a3 an 
 ideal element, the beauty of expression as the manifestation 
 of an elevated soul, and consisting of a noble simplicity 
 and a quiet grandeur. But by too exclusive an attention 
 to Greek art, and indeed to sculpture, his theory, as an 
 attempt to generalise on art, lacks completeness, making 
 little room for the many-sidedness of art, and narrowing it 
 down to one, though an exalted, ideal. 
 
 Lessing's services to the scientific theory of art are far ■ 
 greater than those of Winckelmann. He is the first modern 
 who has sought to deduce the special function of an art 
 from a consideration of the means at its disposal. In his 
 Laokoon he defines the boundaries of poetry and painting 
 in a manner which has scarcely been improved on since. 
 In slight divergence from Winckelmann, who had said that 
 the representation of crying was excluded from sculpture 
 by the ancients as unworthy of a great soul, Lessing sought 
 to prove that it was prohibited by reason of its incom- 
 patibility with the conditions of plastic "beauty. He 
 reasoned from the example of the celebrated group, the 
 Laokoon. Visible beauty was, he said, the first law of 
 ancient sculpture and painting. These arts, as employing 
 the co-existent and permanent in space, are much more 
 limited than poetry, which employs the transitory and suc- 
 cessive impressions of sound. Hence, expression is to 
 poetry what corporeal beauty is to the arts of visible form 
 and colour. The former has to do with actions, the latter 
 with bodies, — that is, objects whose parts co-exist. Poetry 
 can only suggest material objects and visible scenery by 
 means of actions ; as for example, when Homer pictures 
 Juno's chariot, by a description of its formation piece by 
 piece. Painting and sculpture, again, can only suggest 
 actions by means of bodies. From this it follows that the 
 range of expression in poetry is far greater than in visibla 
 art. Just as corporeal beauty loses much of its charm, so 
 the visible Ugly loses much of its repulsiveness by the suc- 
 cessive and transient character of the poetic medium. 
 Hence poetry may introduce it, while painting is forbidden 
 to represent it. Even the Disgusting rrtiy be skilfully 
 employed in poetry to strengthen the impression of the 
 Horrible or Ridiculous; while painting can only attempt this 
 at its peril, as in Pordenone's Interment of Christ, in which 
 a figure is represented as holding its nose. Visible imita- 
 tion being immediate and permanent, the painful element 
 cannot be softened and disguised by other and pleasing 
 ingredients (the Laughable, &c), as in poetry. As Schasler 
 says, Lessing's theory hardly^ makes room for the effects of 
 individuality of character as one aim of pictorial as well as 
 of poetic art. Yet as a broad distinction between the two 
 heterogeneous arts, limiting, on the one hand, pictorial de- 
 scription in poetry, and the representation of the painful, 
 low, and revolting in the arts of vision, it is unassailable, 
 and constitutes a real discovery in aesthetics. Lessing's 
 principles of the drama, as scattered through the critiques 
 of the Hamburg' Dramaturgy, are for the most part a fur- 
 ther elucidation of Aristotelian principles, of great value to 
 the progress of art, but adding comparatively little to the 
 theory Its conspicuous points are the determination of 
 poetic truth as shadowed forth by Aristotle, and the dif- 
 ference between tragedy and comedy in respect to liberty 
 of invention both of fable and of character ; secondly, the. 
 rcasscrtion that both fear and pity, and not simply one of
 
 220 
 
 AESTHETICS 
 
 these, are the effects of every tragedy, and that it is false 
 dramatic art to attempt to represent cither the sufferings 
 of a perfect martyr, or the actions of some monstrous 
 horror of wickedness, as Comeille and the French school 
 had urged ; lastly, the interpretation of Aristotle's purifica- 
 tion of the passiir.s as referring to this very fear and pity, 
 nnd pointing to a certain desirable mean between excessive 
 sensibility and excessive callousness. Schasler says that 
 if Lessing had had an Aristotle to lean on in the J.'tokoon as 
 in tho Dramaturgy, it would have been more valuable. 
 Others might be disposed to say that if he had been as 
 free from the traditions of authority in tho Dramdnrgy 
 as he was in the Laohoon, the former might have contained 
 as much in the way of real discovery as the latter. 
 
 The partial contributions to aesthetics after Lessing 
 need not long detain us. Goethe wrote several tracts on 
 aesthetic topics, as well as many aphorisms. Ho attempts 
 to mediate between the claims of idea) beauty, as taught 
 bv Winckelmann. and the aims of inelividualisation. 
 bcuiller discusses, in a number of disconnected essays and 
 letters, some of the principal questions in the philosophy 
 of art. He looks at art as a side of culture and the forces 
 of human nature, and finds in an aesthetically cultivated 
 soul the reconciliation of the sensual and rational. His 
 letters on aesthetic education (Ueber die aslketische Erzie- 
 hung des Menschen) are very valuable, and bring out the 
 connection between aesthetic activity and the universal im- 
 pulse to play (Spieltrieb). This impulse is formed from 
 the union of two other impulses — the material {Stoftrieb) 
 and the formal (Formtrieb) — the former of which seeks to 
 make real the inner thought, the latter to form or fashion 
 this reality. Schiller's thoughts on this topic are cast in 
 a highly metaphysical mould, and ho makes no attempt to 
 trace the gradual development of the first crude play of 
 children into the aesthetic pleasures of a cultivated matu- 
 rity. He fixes as the two conditions of aesthetic growth, 
 moral freedom of the individual and sociability. Tho 
 philosophic basis of Schiller's speculation is the system of 
 Kant. Another example of this kind of reflective discus- 
 sion of art by literary men is afforded us in the Vorsckule 
 der JEsthetik of Jean Paul Richter. This is a rather am- 
 bitious discussion of the Sublime and the Ludicrous, and 
 contains much valuable matter on the nature of humour in 
 romantic poetry. Jean Paul is by no means exact or 
 systematic, and his language is highly poetic. His defini- 
 tions strike one as hasty and inadequate : for example, 
 that the Sublime is the applied Infinite, or that tho Ludi- 
 crous is the infinitely Small. Other writers of this class, 
 as Wilhelra von Humboldt, the two Schlegcls. Gervinus, 
 though they have helped to form juster views of the 
 several kinds of poetry, itc, have contributed little to the 
 general theory of art. F. Schlegel's determination of the 
 principle of romantic poetry as the Interesting, in opposi- 
 tion tc the objectivity of antique poetry, may be cited as 
 a good example of this groijp of speculations. 
 
 No account of German aesthetics can be complete with- 
 out some reference to the attempts recently made by one 
 or two naturalists to determine experimentally the physical 
 conditions and the net sensational element of artistic im- 
 pression. Of these, the most imposing is the development 
 by Helmholtz of a large part of the laws of musical com- 
 position, harmony, lone, modulation, &c., from a simple 
 physical hypothesis as to the complex character of what 
 appear to us as elementary tones. Another interesting 
 experimental inquiry has been instituted by Fechner into 
 the alleged superiority of "the golden section " as a visible 
 proportion. Zeising, the author of this theory, asserts 
 that the most pleasing division of a line, say in a cross, is 
 the golden section, where the smaller d'vision i3 to the 
 larger as the latter to the sum. Fechner describes in his 
 
 contribution Znr rrperimenlolm ^Est/ietik a series of 
 experiments on a large number of different persons, in 
 which he supposes ho eliminated all effects of individual 
 association, and decides in favour of the hypothesis. He, 
 however, assumes that this visible form must please pri- 
 marily, and does not recognise that any constant association 
 growing up in all minds alike would give precisely the 
 same results. Finally, allusion may be made to some 
 ingenious but very forced attempts of Unger and others 
 to discover harmonic and melodious relations among the 
 elementary colours. 
 
 III. French writers on JZslhetics. — In passing from German 
 to French writers on nosthetical topics we find, as might be ex- 
 pected, much less of metaphysical assumption and a clearer 
 perception of the scientific character of the problem. At tho 
 same time, the authors are but few, and their works mostly 
 of a fragmentary character. Passing by the Jesuit Andre, 
 who sought to rehabilitate Augustin's theory of the Beauti- 
 ful, we first light on the name of Balteux. In his Court Battel 
 Je Belles 7.ettrcs(\705) be seeks to determine the aims of art 
 by elucidating the meaning and value of the imitation of 
 nature. He classifies the arts according to the forms of 
 space and time, those of either division being capable of 
 combining among themselves, but not with those of the 
 other. Thus architecture, sculpture, and painting may 
 co-operate in one visible effect; also music, poetry, and the 
 dance. Diderot, again, in the Encyclopedic, sought to Diden 
 define beauty by making it to consist in the perception of 
 relations. In his Essais sur la Peinlure he follows Bat- 
 teux in extolling naturalness, or fidelity to nature. Another 
 very inadequate theory of beauty was propounded by Pere 
 Buffier. Ho said it is the type of a species which gives Euffiei 
 the measure of beauty. A beautiful face, though rare, is 
 nevertheless the model after which the largest number is 
 formed. Not unlike this theory is a doctrine propounded 
 by H. Taine. In his work, De I' Ideal dans I' Art, he pro- Taine 
 ceeds in the manner of a botanist to determine a scale of 
 characters in the physical and moral man, according to the 
 embodiment of which a work of art becomes ideal. The 
 degree of universality or importance, and the degree of 
 beneficence or adaptation to the ends of life in a character, 
 give it its measure of aesthetic value, and render the work 
 of art, which seeks to represent it in its purity, an ideal 
 work. 
 
 The only elaborated systems of aesthetics in French The ej 
 literature are thoso constructed by the spiritual istes, that ten f c 
 is, the philosophic followers of Reid and D. Stewart on fP intv 
 the one hand, and the German idealists on the other, who 
 constituted a reaction against the crude sensationalism of 
 the 18th century. They aim at elucidating what they call 
 the higher and spiritual element in aesthetic impressions, 
 and wholly ignore any capability in material substance € or 
 external sensation of affording the peculiar delights of 
 beauty. The lectures of Cousin, entitled Du Vrai, du Beau, 
 ct du Bien, the Cours d' Esthetique of Jouffroy, and the 
 systematic treatise of Leveque, La Science du Beau, are 
 the principal works of this school. The last, as the most 
 elaborate, will afford the student the best insight into this 
 mode of speculation. The system of Leveque falls into 
 four parts— -(1.) TIip psychological observation and classifi- 
 cation of the effects of the Beautiful on human intelligence 
 and sensibility; (2.) The metaphysic of beauty, which 
 determines whether it has a real objective existence, and 
 if so, what is the internal principle or substance of this 
 objective entity; and further seeks to adjust the relations 
 of the Beautiful, the Sublime, the Ugly, and the Ridiculous 
 in relation to this principle; (3.) The application of these 
 psychological and metaphysical principles to the beauty of 
 nature, animate and inanimate, and to that of the Deity; 
 (i. 'I Their application to the arts. The influence of the
 
 ESTHETICS 
 
 221 
 
 Hermans in this mode of systematising is apparent. All 
 the characters of beauty in external objects, as a flower, 
 of which the principal are size, nnity and variety of parts, 
 intensity df colour, grace or flexibility, and correspondence 
 to environment, may be summed up as the ideal grandeur 
 and order of the species. These are perceived by reason 
 to be the manifestations of an invisible vital force. Simi- 
 larly the beauties of inorganic nature are translatable as 
 the grand and orderly displays of an immaterial physical 
 force. Thus all beauty is in its objective essence either 
 spirit or unconscious force acting with fulness and in 
 order. It is curious that Le'veque in this way modifies 
 the strictly spiritual theory of beauty by the admission of 
 an unconscious physical force, equally with spirit or mkid, 
 as an objective substratum of the Beautiful. He seeks, 
 however, to assimilate this as nearly as possible to con- 
 scious energy, as immaterial and indivisible. The aim of 
 art is to reproduce this beauty of nature in a 'beautiful 
 manner, and the individual arts may be classified according 
 to the degree of beautiful force or spirit expressed, and the 
 degree of power with which this is interpreted. Accord- 
 ingly, they are arranged by Leveque in the same order as 
 by Hegel. 
 
 TV. Italian and Dutch Writer*. — There pre a few 
 writers on aesthetic subjects to be found in Italian and 
 Dutch literature, but they have little of original speculation. 
 The Italian, as Pagano and Muratori, follow French and 
 English writers. One Dutch writer, Franz Hemsterhuis 
 (18th century), is worth naming. His philosophic views 
 are an attempt at reconciliation between the sensational 
 und the intuitive systems of knowledge. The only faculty 
 of true knowledge is an internal sense, nevertheless all true 
 knowledge comes through the senses. The soul, desiring 
 immediate and complete knowledge, and being limited by 
 its union with the senses, which are incapable of perfectly 
 simultaneous action, strives to gain the greatest number 
 of the elements of cognition or ideas in the shortest pos- 
 sible time. In proportion as this effort is successful, the 
 knowledge is attended with enjoyment. The highest 
 measure of this delight is given by beauty, wherefore it may 
 be defined as that which affords the largest number of ideas 
 in the shortest time. 
 
 V. English Writers. — In the aesthetic speculations of 
 English writers, we find still less of metaphysical construc- 
 tion and systematisation than in those of French thinkers. 
 Indeed, it may be said that there is nothing answering to 
 the German conception of aesthetic in our literature.' The 
 inquiries of English and Scotch thinkers have been directed 
 for the most part to very definite and strictly scientific pro- 
 blems, such as the psychological processes in the perception of 
 the Beautif uL The more moderate metaphysical impulses of 
 our countrymen have never reached beyond the-bare asser- 
 tion of an objective and independent beauty. Hence we find 
 that the German historians regard these special and limited 
 discussions as so many empirical reflections, wholly devoid 
 of the rational element in true philosophy. Schasler speaks 
 of these essays as " empiristic aesthetics," tending in one 
 direction to raw materialism, in the other, by want of 
 method, never lifting itself above the plane of " an aesthe- 
 ticising dilettanteism." English writers arc easily divisible 
 into two groups — (1.) Those who lean to the conception 
 of a primitive objective beauty, not resolvable into any 
 simpler ingredients of sensation or simple emotion, which 
 is perceived intuitively either by reason or by some special 
 faculty, an internal sense; (2.) Those who, tracing the 
 genesis of beauty to the union of simple impressions, have 
 beerr chiefly concerned with a psychological discussion- of 
 the origin and growth of our aesthetic perceptions and 
 emotions. 
 
 Lord Shaftesbury is the first of the intuitive writers on 
 
 bsauty. Efi3 views are highly metaphysical and Platonic The i» 
 in character. The Beautiful and the Good are combined in tivi^ta. 
 one ideal conception, much as with Plato. Matter in itself Shafta* 
 is ugly. The order of the world, wherein all beauty really ury ' 
 resides, is a spiritual principle, all motion and life being 
 the product of spirit The principle of beauty is perceived 
 not with the outer .senses, but with an internal — that is, 
 the moral — sense (which perceives the Good as well). This 
 perception affords the Only true delight, namely, spiritual 
 enjoyment. Shaftesbury distinguishes three grades of the 
 Beautiful, namely, (1.) Inanimate objects, including works 
 of art; (2.) Living forms, which reveal the spiritual forma- 
 tive force;" and (3.) The source from which these forms 
 spring, God. 
 
 In his Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty 
 and Virtue, Hutcheson follows many of Shaftesburyjs ideas. 
 Yet he distinctly disclaims any independent self-existing 
 beauty in objects apart from percipient minds. "AU 
 beauty," he says, " is relative to the sense of some mind 
 perceiving it." The cause of beauty is not any simple 
 sensation from an object, as colour, tone, but a certain 
 order among the parts, or "uniformity amidst variety." 
 The faculty by which this-principle is known is an internal 
 sense which is defined as " a passive power of receiving 
 ideas of beauty from all objects in which there is uniformity 
 in variety." Thus Hutcheson seems to have supposed that 
 beauty, though always residing in uniformity in variety as 
 its form, was still something distinct from this, and so 
 in need of a peculiar sense distinct from reason for the 
 appreciation of it. But his meaning on this point is not 
 clear. This faculty is called a sense, because it resembles 
 the external senses in the immediateness of the pleasure it 
 experiences. The perception of beauty, and the delight 
 attending it, are quite as independent of consideration* of 
 principles, causes, or usefulness in the object, as the plea- 
 surable sensation of a sweet taste. Further, the effect of a 
 beautiful object is like the impression of our senses in its 
 necessity; a beautiful thing being always, whether we will 
 or no, beautiful In the second place, this sense is called 
 internal, because the appreciation of beauty is clearly dis- 
 tinct from tho ordinary sensibility of the eye and ear, 
 whether emotional or intellectual and discriminative, many 
 persons who possess the latter intact being totally destitute 
 of the former. Another reason is, that in some affairs 
 which have little to do with the external senses, beauty is 
 perceived, as in theorems, universal truths, and general 
 causes. Hutcheson discusses two kinds of beauty — abso- 
 lute or original, and relative or comparative. The former 
 is independent of all comparison of the beautiful object 
 with another object of which it may be an imitation. The 
 latter is perceived in an object considered as an imitation or 
 resemblance of something else. He distinctly states that "an 
 exact imitation may still be beautiful' though the original 
 were entirely devoid of it/' but, curiously enough, will not 
 allow that this proves his previous definition of beauty as 
 " uniformity amidst variety" to be too narrow. He seems 
 to conceive that the original sense of beauty may be 
 " varied and overbalanced" with the secondary and subor- 
 dinate kind. Hutcheson spends a good deal of time in 
 proving the universality of this sense of beauty, by show- 
 ing that all men, in proportion to the enlargement of their 
 intellectual capacity, are more delighted with uniformity 
 than the contrary. ' He argues against the supposition that 
 custom and education are sources of our perception of 
 beauty, though he admits that they may enlarge- the capa-; 
 city of our minds to retain and compare, and so may add tol 
 the delight of beauty. 
 
 ■ The next writer of consequence on the intuitive side is 
 Reid. In the eighth of. his Essays on the Intellectual 
 Powers he discusses the^tfaculty of taste. He held, on the
 
 222 
 
 ESTHETICS 
 
 ground of common sense, that beauty must exist in objects 
 independently of our minds. As to the nature of the 
 Beautiful, he taught that all beauty resides primarily in the 
 faculties of the mind, intellectual and moral. The beauty 
 which is spread over' the face of visible nature is an emana- 
 tion from this spiritual beauty, and is beautiful because it 
 symbolises and expresses it. Thus the beauty of a plant 
 l in its perfection for its end, as an expression of the 
 wisdom of its Creator. Eeid's theory of beauty is thus 
 purely spiritual. 
 
 The celebrated Lectures un Metaphysics of SirAV. Hamilton 
 do not, unfortunately, contain more than a slight prelimin- 
 ary sketch of the writer's theory of the emotional activities. 
 He defines pleasure, following very closely the theory of 
 Aristotle, as " a reflex of the spontaneous and unimpeded 
 exertion of a power of whose energy" we are conscious" 
 (vol. ii. p. 440). And, in perfect agreement with this con- 
 ception, he divides the various feelings according to the 
 faculties or powers, bodily or mental, of which they are the 
 concomitants. In the scheme thus faintly shadowed forth, 
 the sentiments of Taste are regarded as subserving both 
 the subsidiary and the elaborative faculties in cognition, in 
 other words, the Imagination and the Understanding. The 
 activity of the former corresponds to the element of variety- 
 ill the beautiful object, while that of the latter is concerned 
 with its unity.' A beautiful thing is accordingly defined 
 " as one whose form occupies the Imagination and Under- 
 standing in a free and full, and, consequently, in an agree- 
 able activity" (p. 512). In this way, the writer conceives, 
 he comprehends all pre-existing definitions of beauty. He 
 explicitly excludes all other varieties of pleasure, such as 
 the sensuous, from the proper gratification of beauty. The 
 aesthetic sentiment is thus regarded as unique and not- 
 resolvable into simpler feelings. Similarly, he denies any 
 proper attribute of be'auty to fitness. The essence of the 
 sentiment of sublimity he finds, much in the same way as 
 Kant, in a mingled pleasure and pain; "of pleasure in the 
 consciousness of the strong energy, of pain in the conscious- 
 ness that this energy is vain." He recognises three forms 
 of Sublimity : those of Extension or space, of Protension 
 or time, and of Intension or power. Finally, he thinks 
 that the Picturesque differs from the Beautiful in appealing 
 simply to the imagination.- A picturesque objecj is oue 
 whose parts are so palpably unconnected that the under- 
 standing is not stimulated to the perception of unity. 
 
 A very like interpretation of beauty, as spiritual and 
 typical of divine attributes, has been given by Mr Ruskin 
 in the second volume of his Modern Painters. This part of 
 his work, bearing the title " Of Ideas of Beauty," has a very 
 systematic appearance, but is in fact a singularly desultory 
 series of aesthetic ideas put into a very charming language, 
 and coloured by strong emotion. Mr Ruskin distinguishes 
 between the theoretic faculty concerned in the moral per- 
 ception acd appreciation of ideas of beauty and the 
 imaginative or artistic faculty, which is employed in re- 
 garding in a certain way and combining the ideas received 
 from external nature. The former, he thinks, is wrongly 
 named the aesthetic faculty, as though it were a mere 
 operation of sense. The object of the faculty is beauty, 
 which Mr Ruskin divides into typical and vital beauty. 
 The former is the external quality of bodies that typifies 
 somedivine attribute. The latter consists in "the appearance 
 of felicitous fulfilment of function in living things." The 
 forms of typical beauty are— (1.) Infinity, the type of the 
 divine incomprehensibility; (2.) Unity, the type of the 
 divine 'comprehensiveness; (3.) Repose, the type of the 
 divine permanence; (4.) Symmetry, the type of the divine 
 justice; (5.). Purity, the type of the divine energy; and 
 (6.) Moderation, the type of government by law. Vital 
 beauty, again is regarded as relative when the degree of 
 
 exaltation of the function is estimated, or generic if only 
 the degree of conformity of an individual to the appointed 
 functions of the species is taken into account Mr Ruskin's 
 wide knowledge and fine {esthetic perception* make his 
 works replete with valuable suggestions, though he appears 
 wanting in scientific accuracy, and lacks, as Mr Mill has 
 pointed out, all appreciation of the explanatory power of 
 association' with respect to the ideal elements of typical 
 beauty. 
 
 Of tho more analytic writers on the effects of the Beautiful, 
 a deserves a passing mention, less, however, for the 
 scientific precision of his definitions, than for- the charm 
 of his style. His Essays on the Imagination, contri- 
 buted to the Spectator, are admirable specimens of popular 
 {esthetic reflection. Addison means by the pleasures of im- 
 agination those which arise originally from sight, and ho 
 divides them into two classes — (1.) Primary pleasures, which 
 entirely proceed from objects before our eyes; and (2.) 
 Secondary pleasures, flowing from ideas of visible objects. 
 The original sources of pleasure in visible objects are great- 
 ness, novelty, and beauty. This, it may be said, is a valu- 
 able distinction, as pointing to the plurality of sources in 
 the {esthetic impression, but the threefold division is only a 
 very rough tentative, and destitute of all logical value, 
 novelty of impression being always a condition of beauty. 
 The secondary pleasures, he rightly remarks, are rendered 
 far more extended than the original by the addition of tho 
 proper enjoyment of resemblance, which is at the basis of 
 all mimicry and wit. Addison recognises, too, the effect* 
 of association in the suggestion of whole scenes, and their 
 accompaniments by some single circumstance. He has 
 some curious hints as to the physiological seat of these 
 mental processes, and seeks, somewhat naively, to connect 
 these pleasures with teieological considerations. 
 
 In the Elements of Criticism of Lord Kaimes, another Lord 
 attempt is made to affiliate aesthetic phenomena to simpler Kaim 
 pleasures of experience. Beauty and ugliness are simply 
 the pleasant and the unpleasant in the higher senses of 
 sight and hearing. By "higher" he means more intel- 
 lectual, and he- conceives these two senses to be placed 
 midway between the lower senses and the understanding. 
 He appears to admit no more general feature in beautiful 
 objects than this pleasurable quality. Like Hutcheson, he 
 divides beauty into intrinsic and relative, but understand? 
 by the latter ideas of fitness and utility, which were 
 excluded from the Beautiful by Hutcheson. He illustrates 
 the English tendency to counect mental processes with 
 physiological conditions, by referring the main elements of 
 the feeling of sublimity to the effect of. height in objects in 
 compelling the spectator to stand on tiptoe, by which the 
 chest is expanded and muscular movements produced which 
 give rise to the peculiar emotion. 
 
 Passing by the name of Sir Joshua Reynolds, whose H-gsi 
 theory of beauty closely resembles that of Pere Buffier, we 
 come to the speculations of another artist and painter, 
 Hogarth. He discusses in his Analysis of Beauty all the 
 elements of visible beauty, both form and colour, often 
 manifesting great speculative skill, and always showing a 
 wide and accurate knowledge of art. He finds altogether 
 six elements in beauty, namely — (I.) Fitness of the parts 
 to some design, as of the limbs for support and movement ; 
 (2.) Variety in as many ways as possible, thus, in form, 
 length, and direction of line, shap», and magnitude of 
 figure, <te.; (3.) Uniformity, regularity, or symmetry, which 
 is only beautiful when it helps to preserve the ohjracter 
 of fitness; (4.) Simplicity or distinctness, which gives 
 pleasure not in itself, but through its enabling the eye to. 
 enjoy variety with ease; (5.) Intrieacy, which provide* 
 employment for our active energies, ever eager for pursuit, 
 and leads the eye " a wanton kind of cnase " ; to.) Quantit*
 
 AESTHETICS 
 
 223 
 
 or magnitude, which draws our attention, and produces 
 admiration and awe. TLj beauty of proportion he very 
 acutely resolves into the needs of titness. Hogarth applies 
 these principles to the determination of degrees of beauty 
 in lines, and figures, and compositions of forms. Among 
 lines he singles out for special honour the serpentine 
 (formed by drawing a line once round from the base to the 
 apex of a long slender cone) as the line of grace or beauty 
 par excellence. Its superiority he places in its many 
 varieties of direction or curvature, though he adds that 
 more suddenly curving lines "displease by their grossness, 
 while straighten lines appear lean and poor. In this last 
 remark Hogarth tacitly allows another principle in graceful 
 line, namely, gentleness, as opposed to suddenness, of 
 change in direction, though he does not give it distinct 
 recognition in his theory, as Burke did. Hogarth's opinions 
 are of great value as a set off against the extreme views of 
 Alison and the association school, since he distinctly attri- 
 butes a great part of the effects of beauty in form, as in 
 colour, to the satisfaction of primitive susceptibilities of 
 the mind, though he had not the requisite psychological 
 knowledge to reduce them to their simplest expression. In 
 his remarks on intricacy he shows clearly enough that he 
 understood the pleasures of movement to be involved in all 
 visual perception of form. 
 
 Burke's speculations on the Beautiful, in his Philosophical 
 Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and 
 Beautiful, are curious as introducing physiological con- 
 siderations into the explanation of the feelings of beauty. 
 They illustrate, moreover, the tendency of English writers 
 to treat the problem as a psychological one. He finds the 
 elements of beauty to be — (1.) Smallness of size; (2.) 
 Smoothness of surface; (3.) Gradual variation of direction 
 of outline, by which he means gentle curves; (4.) Delicacy, 
 or the appearance of fragility; (5.) Brightness, purity, and 
 softness of colour. The Sublime he resolves, not very 
 carefully, into astonishment, which he thinks always con- 
 tains an element of terror. Thus " infinity has a ten- 
 dency to fill the mind with a delightful horror." Burke 
 seeks what he calls " efficient causes " for these phenomena 
 in certain affections of the nerves of sight, which he com- 
 pares with the operations of taste, smell, and touch. 
 Terror produces " an unnatural tension and certain violent 
 emotions of the nerves," hence any objects of sight which pro- 
 duce this tension awaken the feeling of the Sublime, which 
 is a kind of terror. Beautiful objects affect the nerves of 
 sight just as smooth surfaces the nerve3 of touch, sweet 
 tastes and odours the corresponding nerve fibres, namely, 
 by relaxing them, and so producing a soothing effect on 
 the mind. The arbitrariness and narrowness of tHis theory, 
 looked at as a complete explanation of beauty, cannot well 
 escape the reader's attention. 
 
 Alison, in his well-known Essays on the Nature and 
 Principles of Taste, proceeds on an • exactly opposite 
 method to that of Hogarth and Burke. He considers 
 and seeks to analyse the mental process which goes' on 
 when we experience the emotion of beauty or sublimity. 
 He finds that this consists in a peculiar operation of the 
 imagination, namely, the flow of a train of ideas through 
 the mind, which ideas are not arbitrarily determined, but 
 always correspond to some simple affection or emotion (as 
 cheerfulness, sadness, awe), awakened by the object. He 
 thus makes association the sole source of the Beautiful, and 
 denies any such attribute to the simple impressions of the 
 senses. His exposition, which is very extensive, contains 
 many ingenious and valuable contributions to the ideal or 
 association side of aesthetic effects, both of nature and of art; 
 but his total exclusion of delight (by which name he dis- 
 tinguishes aesthetic pleasure) from the immediate effects of 
 •olour, visible form, and tone, makes his theory appear very 
 
 incomplete. This is especially applicable to music, where 
 the delight of mere sensation is perhaps most conspicuous. 
 He fails, too, to see that in the emotional harmony of the 
 ideas, which, according to his view, make up an impression 
 of beauty, there is a distinct source of pleasure over and 
 above that supplied by the simple feeling and by the ideas 
 themselves. 
 
 Jeffrey's Essay on Beauty is little more than a modifica- 
 tion of Alison's views. He defines the sense of beauty as 
 consisting in the suggestion of agreeable and interesting 
 sensations previously experienced by means of our various 
 pleasurable sensibilities. He thus retains the necessity of 
 ideal suggestion, but at the same time discards the sup- 
 posed requirement of a train of ideas. Jeffrey dislinctly 
 saw that this theory excludes the hypothesis of an inde- 
 pendent beauty inherent in objects. He fails as completely 
 as Alison to disprove the existence of a sensuous or organic 
 beautiful, and, like him, is avowedly concerned to show 
 the presence of some one, and only one, determining prin- 
 ciple in all forms of the BeautiiuL 
 
 D. Stewart's chief merit in the aesthetic discussions, con- Dugald 
 tained in his Philosophical Essays, consists in pointing out Stewart 
 this unwarranted assumption of some single quality (other 
 than that of producing a certain refined pleasure) running 
 through all beautiful objects, and constituting the essence 
 of beauty. He shows very ingeniously how the successive 
 transitions and generalisations in the meaning of the term 
 beauty may have arisen. He thinks it must originally have 
 connoted the pleasure of colour, which he recognises as 
 primitive. His criticisms on the one-sided schemes of 
 other writers, as Burke and Alison, are very able, though 
 he himself hardly attempts any complete theory of beauty. 
 His conception of the Sublime, suggested by the etymology 
 of the word, renders prominent the element of height id 
 objects, which he conceives as an upward direction of 
 motion, and which operates on the mind as an exhibition 
 of power, namely, triumph over gravity. 
 
 Of the association psychologists James Hill did little Profcssat 
 more towards the analysis of the sentiments of beauty than Baia. 
 re-state Alison's doctrine. On the other hand, Professor 
 Bain, in his treatise The Emotions and the Will, carries 
 this examination considerably further. He asserts with 
 Stewart that no one generalisation will comprehend all 
 varieties of beautiful objects. He thinks, however, that 
 the aesthetic emotions, those involved in the fine arts, may 
 be roughly circumscribed and marked off from other modes 
 of enjoyment by means of three characteristics — (1.) Their 
 not serving to keep up existence, but being gratifications 
 sought for themselves only; (2.) Their purity from all 
 repulsive ingredients; (3.) Their eminently sympathetic 
 or sharable nature in contrast to the exclusive pleasures 
 of the individual in eating, <L'C The pleasures of art are 
 divided, according to Mr Bain's general plan of the mind, 
 into (1.) The elements of sensation — sights and sounds; (2.) 
 The extension of these by intellectual revival — ideal sug- 
 gestions of muscular impression, touch, odour, and other 
 pleasurable sensations; (3.) The revival, in ideal form also, 
 of pleasurable emotions, as tenderness and power, and in 
 a softened measure of emotions painful in reality, as fear; 
 (i.) The immediate gratification, that is in actual form, of 
 certain wide emotional susceptibilities reaching beyond art, 
 namely, the elating effect- of all change of impression under 
 the forms of artistic contrast and variety; and, secondly, 
 the peculiar delight springing from harmony among im- 
 pressions and feelings, under its several aesthetic aspects, 
 musical harmony and melody, proportion, &c. The details 
 in Mr Bain's exposition are rich and varied in relation 
 to the psychology of the subject He finds the effect of 
 sublimity in the manifestation of superior power in its 
 highest degrees, which manifestation excites a sympathetic
 
 224 
 
 A E T. — A E T 
 
 elation in the beholder. The Ludicrous, again, is denned 
 by Mr Bain, improving on Aristotle and Hobbes, as the 
 degradation of something possessing dignity in circum- 
 stances that excite no other strong emotion. The pleasure 
 accompanying the impression may be referred either to the 
 elation of a sense of power or superiority ideally or sym- 
 pathetically excited, or to a sense of freedom from restraint, 
 both of which have in common the element of a joyous 
 rebound from pressure. Thus it will be seen that Professor 
 Bain recognises no new mental principle in aesthetic effects, 
 but regards them as peculiar combinations and transforma- 
 tions, according to known psychological laws, of other and 
 simpler feelings. 
 
 An interesting turn has been given to the psychology of 
 itesthetics by Mr Herbert Spencer. In some of his essays, 
 as the one entitled "Tha Origin and Function of Music," 
 and more fully in the concluding chapter of his Psychology 
 {seoond edition), on the ^Esthetic Sentiments, he offers a 
 new theory of the genesis of the pleasures of beauty and 
 art, based on his doctrine of evolution. He takes up 
 Schiller's idea of the connection between aesthetic activity 
 and play, only he deals with this latter not as an ideal 
 tendency, but as a phenomenal reality, seeking to make it 
 the actual starting-point in the order of evolution of 
 aesthetic action. Play or sport is defined as the superfluous 
 and useless exercise of faculties that have been quiescent 
 for a time, and have in this way become, so ready to dis- 
 charge as to relieve themselves by simulated actions. 
 ./Esthetic activities yield to the higher powers -of percep- 
 tion and emotion the substituted exercise which play 
 yields to the lower impulses, agreeing with play in not 
 directly subserving" any processes conducive to life, but 
 being gratifications sought for themselves only. This 
 point of affinity between the two classes of pleasures is a 
 valuable addition to aesthetic theory, and helps one to 
 understand how the artistic impulse first arose. At the 
 same time it is doubtful how far all present aesthetic 
 pleasures, as the passive enjoyments of colour and tone, can 
 be interpreted as substituted activities in Mr Spencer's 
 sense. They seem rather to be original and instinctive 
 modes of gratification not dependent on any previous exer- 
 cises of life-function, except so far as the structure and 
 functions of the senses as a whole may be viewed as the 
 product of multitudinous life-processes in animal evolu- 
 tion. Mr Spencer, moreover, forms a hierarchy of aesthetic 
 pleasures, the standard of height being either the number 
 of powers duly exercised, or what comes to the, same 
 thing, the degree of complexity of the emotional faculty 
 thus exercised. The first, and lowest class of pleasures, 
 are those of simple sensation, as tone and colour, .which 
 are partly organic and partly the results of association. 
 The second class are the pleasures of perception, as em- 
 ployed upon the combination of colours, &c. The highest 
 order of pleasures are those of the aesthetic sentiments 
 proper, consisting of the multitudinous emotions ideally 
 excited by aesthetic objects, natural and artistic. Among 
 these vaguely and partially revived emotions -Mr Spencer 
 reckons not only those of the individual, but also many of 
 the constant feelings of the race. Thus he would attri- 
 bute the vagueness and apparent depth of musical emotion 
 to associations with vocal tones, built up during the course 
 of vast ages. This graduated scheme is evidently dictated 
 by the assumption that the higher the stage of evolution, 
 the higher the pleasure. Yet Mr Spencer admits that this 
 measure of aesthetic value will not suffice alone, and he 
 adds, that the most perfect form of aesthetic gratification 
 is realised -when sensation, perception, and emotion, are 
 present in fullest and most pleasurable action. Mr Spen- 
 cer's supposition, that much of the pleasure of aesthetic 
 emjtion is refcrrible to transmitted experience, offers a 
 
 very ingenious, even if not very definite, mode of explain, 
 ing many of the mysterious effects of tone, and even of 
 colour. 
 
 Among works on the history of aesthetic doctrines, the 
 student may be referred to the following : — 
 
 In German literature, which contains the most complete histories. 
 Max Scl : .ing the first 
 
 two volumes of an esthetic system, is the fullest Mill he hardly 
 does justice to English writers, there being no mention of Alisou 
 and recent thinkers. His stand-point is only definable as a new 
 modification of Hegelianism. Zimmermann's Gcschichle der ^f'sthelik 
 is also to be recommended. Lotzu'sGeschicht in iMittvh- 
 
 land is a highly critical re'sumf of German systems, characterised by 
 a good deal of caution, and a desire to mediate between opposing 
 views, and if not very definite in its result, very appreciative and 
 ve of the many-sidedness of the subject. In French, 
 Leveque's work, La Science du Beau, contains a very fair account of 
 the most conspicuous systems, ancient and modern. In our own 
 literature, numerous references to other systems are to be found in 
 the essays of Alison ; and Jeffrey attempts a brief historical survey 
 of the doctrines of beauty in his article on the subject. Dugald 
 Stewart's essays mostly fall into critical examination of the chief 
 theories of beauty. Finally. Professor Bain, in his Compendium of 
 Mental and Moral Science, supplies a brief but careful account of 
 most of the known theories of the Beautiful. (J. s.) 
 
 AETIOX, a painter, whose famous picture of the mar- 
 riage of Pioxana and Alexander was exhibited at the 
 Olympic games, and gained Aetion so much reputation 
 that the president of the games gave him his daughter in 
 marriage. The picture is minutely aescribed by Lucian. 
 Aetion appears from that author to have flourished in the 
 times of Hadrian and the Antonines. 
 
 AETIUS, a Roman general of the closing period of the 
 western empire, born at Dorostolus in Mcesia, late in the 
 4th century. While detained for some time as a hostage 
 in the camp of Bhuas, king of the Huns, he acquired an 
 influence with the barbarians that was afterwards of much 
 advantage to himself, though the same cannot be said of it 
 as regards the empire. He led into Italy an army of 
 60,000 Huns, which he employed first to support the usurp- 
 ing Emperor John, and, on the death of the latter, to enforce 
 his claim to the supreme command of the army in Gaul 
 upon Placidia, the empress-mother and regent forValen- 
 tinian III. Afterwards, when he incurred the disfavour 
 of Placidia for the death of his rival Boniface, he again 
 employed an army of Huns to compel her to reinstate him 
 in his former position. In Gaul he won his military repu- 
 tation, upholding for nearly twenty years, by combined 
 policy and daring, the falling fortunes of the western 
 empire. His greatest victory was that of Chalons-sur-Marne 
 (20th Sept. 451), in which he utterly routed Attila and the 
 Huns — the number slain on both sides being, according to 
 one computation, 300,000, though this is obviously an 
 exaggeration. This was the last triumph of the empire. 
 Three years later (454) Aetius presented himself at court 
 to claim the emperor's daughter in marriage for his son 
 Gaudcntius; but Valentinian, suspecting him of designs 
 upon the crown, slew him with his own hand.- 
 
 AETIUS, surnamed " the Atheist," founder of an ex- 
 treme sect of the Arians, was a native of Ccele-Syria. 
 After working for some time as a coppersmith, he became 
 a travelling doctor, and displayed great skill in disputations 
 on medical subjects; but his controversial power soon 
 found a wider field for its exercise in the great theological 
 question of the time. He studied successively under the 
 Arians, Paulinus, bishop of Antioch, Athanasius, bishop of 
 Anazarbus, and the presbyter Antonius of Tarsus. In 350 
 he was ordained a deacon by Leontius of Antioch, but was 
 shortly afterwards forced by the orthodox party to leave 
 that town. At the first synod of Sirmium, he wron a 
 dialectic victory over the homoiousian bishops Basilius and 
 Eustathius, who sought in consequence to stir up against 
 him the enmity of Caesar Gallus. In 356 he went to.
 
 AET-AFE 
 
 225 
 
 Alexandria with Euuomius in order to advocate Arianism, 
 but he was banished by Constantius. Julian the apostate 
 recalled him from exile, bestowed upon him an estate in 
 Lesbos, and retained him for a time at his court in Con- 
 stantinople. Being consecrated a bishop, he used his office 
 in the interests of Arianism by creating other bishops of 
 that party. At the accession of Valens (364) he retired to 
 his estate at Lesbos, but soon returned to Constantinople, 
 where he died in 367. The Anomcean sect of the Arians, 
 of whom he was the leader, are sometimes called after him 
 Aetians. His work Be Fide has been preserved in connec- 
 tion with a refutation written by Epiphanius. 
 
 AETIUS, a Greek physician, born at Amida in Meso- 
 potamia, who lived at the end of the 5th or the beginning 
 of the 6th century. Of his personal history little is known, 
 except that he studied at Alexandria, and was physician to 
 the court at Constantinople with the title comes obsequii. 
 He wrote a work entitled BiflXia 'Iarpixa 'EkkguScko, which 
 is mainly a compilation from the works of previous authors. 
 Eight books of this were issued from the Aldine press at 
 Venice in 1534; various other parts have been frequently 
 published ; and a Latin translation of the whole, by Cor- 
 uarius, appeared at Basle in 1542. 
 
 jETNA. See Etna. 
 
 iETOLIA, a country of ancient Greece, bounded on the 
 N. by Epirus and Thessaly, on the E. by the provinces of 
 Doris and Locris, on the S. by the Gulf of Corinth, and 
 separated on the W. from Acarnania by the river Achelous. 
 The part which lay westward of the river Evenus, and 
 south of a line joining Thermum and Stratus in Acar- 
 nania, was called old jEtolia, the rest of the country new 
 or acquired iEtolia. The country is in general mountainous 
 and woody, but along the coast from the Achelous to the 
 Evenus, and northward to Mount Aracynthus, is a plain 
 of great fertility; while another extensive and fertile plain 
 stretches north from this mountain along the east bank of 
 the Achelous as far as the northern limi t, of old iEtolia. 
 The jEtolians were a restless and turbulent people, 
 strangers to friendship or principles of honour, and they 
 were consequently regarded by the other states of Greece 
 as outlaws and public robbers. On the other hand, they 
 were bold and enterprising in war, undaunted in the 
 greatest dangers, and jealous defenders of their liberties. 
 They distinguished themselves above all the other nations 
 of Greece in opposing the ambitious designs of the Mace- 
 donian princes, who, after having reduced most of the 
 other states, were forced to grant them a peace upon very 
 honourable terms. The constitution of the jEtolian league 
 was copied from that of the Acha;ans, and with a view 
 to form, as it were, a counter alliance. The Cleomenic 
 war, and that of the allies, called the Social War, were 
 kindled by the .(Etolians with the express purpose of 
 humbling the Achasans. In the latter they held out, with 
 the assistance only of the Eleans and Lacedemonians, for 
 the space of three years, against the united forces of 
 Achaia and Macedon, but were obliged at last to purchase 
 a peace by yielding up to Philip all Acarnania. In order 
 to regain this province they entered into an alliance with 
 Borne against Philip, and proved of great service to the 
 Bomans in their war with him; but being dissatisfied with 
 the terms of peace granted by Flaminius, they made war 
 upon the Bomans themselves. ; They were speedily over- 
 come, and only obtained peace on very humiliating terms. 
 After the conquest of Macedon by jEmilius Paulina the 
 jEtolians were reduced to a much worse condition; for not 
 only those among them who had openly declared for 
 Perseus, but those who were only suspected to have secretly 
 favoured him, were sent to Borne to clear themselves 
 before the senate. There they were detained, and never 
 afterwards permitted to return to their native country. 
 
 Five hundred and fifty of the chief men were barbarously 
 assassinated by the partisans of Bome solely on the sus- 
 picion of favouring the designs of Perseus. The ^Etolians 
 appeared before ^Emilius Paullus in mourning habits, and 
 made loud complaints of such inhuman treatment, but 
 could obtain no redress; on the contrary, ten commis- 
 sioners, who had been sent by the senate to settle the 
 affairs of Greece, enacted a decree, declaring that those who 
 were killed had suffered justly, since it appeared to them 
 that they had favoured the Macedonian party. From this 
 time those only were raised to the chief honours and 
 employments in the zEtolian republic who were known to 
 prefer the interest of Borne to that of their country, and 
 thus all the magistrates of iEtolia became the creatures 
 and mere tools of the Boman senate. In this state of 
 servile subjection they continued till the destruction of 
 Corinth and the dissolution of the Achamn league, when 
 iEtolia, with the other free states of Greece, was reduced 
 to a Boman province, commonly called the province of 
 Achaia. In this state, with little alteration, .^Etolia con- 
 tinued under the emperors till the reign of Constantine the 
 Great, who, in his new partition of the provinces of the 
 empire, divided the western parts of Greece from the rest, 
 calling them New Epirus, and subjecting the whole country 
 to the prmfectus prcelorio for Hlyricum. Under the succes- 
 sors of Constantine Greece was parcelled out into several 
 principalities, especially after the taking of Constantinople 
 by the western princes. About the beginning of the 13th 
 century Theodoras Angelus, a noble Grecian of the im- 
 perial family, seized on jEtolia and Epirus. The former 
 he left to Michael his son, who maintained it against 
 Michael Palasologus, the first emperor of the Greeks, after 
 the expulsion of the Latins. Charles, the last prince of 
 this family, dying in 1430 without lawful issue, bequeathed 
 VEtolia to his brother's son, named also Charles; and 
 Acarnania to his natural sons Memnon, Turnus, and Her- 
 cules. But great disputes arising about this division, 
 Amurath LL, after the reduction of Thessalonica, laid hold 
 of so favourable an opportunity, and expelled all the con- 
 tending heirs in 1432. The Mahometans were after- 
 wards dispossessed of this country by the famous prince of 
 Epirus, George Castriot, commonly called Scanderbeg, who 
 with a small army opposed the whole power of the Ottoman 
 empire, and was victorious in twenty-two pitched battles. 
 That hero at his death left great part of iEtolia to the 
 Venetians; but they not being able to make head against 
 such a mighty power, the whole country was soon reduced by 
 Mahommed II. It is now included in the kingdom of Greece. 
 
 AFANASLEF, Axeksandb Nikolaevich, a Bussian 
 scholar, distinguished for his researches in Slavonic litera- 
 ture and archsology, was born about 1825. He contri- 
 buted many valuable articles to the serial literature of 
 his country, but his reputation rests chiefly on two works 
 of more permanent interest. The first was an extensive 
 collection, in eight parts, of Russian Popular Stories; 
 the other a treatise, in three volumes, on the Poetical 
 Views of the Old Slavonians about Nature, completed 
 just before the author's death, which occurred in the 
 autumn of 1871. 
 
 AFEB, DoinTius, orator, born at Nisme3, flourished 
 under Tiberius and the three succeeding emperors. Quin- 
 tilian makes frequent mention Of him, and commends his 
 pleadings. But he disgraced his talents by acting as public- 
 accuser in behalf of the emperors against some of the most 
 distinguished personages in Bome. Quintilian, in his 
 youth, assiduously cultivated the friendship of Domitius. 
 He tells ns that his pleadings were superior in point of 
 eloquence to any he had ever heard, and that there were 
 public collections of his witty sayings (dicta), some of 
 which he quotes. He also mentions two books of his, On 
 
 1—9
 
 220 
 
 A F F — A F F 
 
 Witnrsstis. Dwnitius erected a statue in honour of Cali- 
 gula, on which there was an inscription to the effect that 
 this prince was a second time consul at tho ago of 27. 
 This he intended as an encomium; but Caligula regarding 
 it as a sarcasm upon his youth and his infringement of the 
 Laws, raised a process against him, and pleaded himself in 
 person. Domitius, instead of making a defence, repeated 
 part of the emperor's speech with the highest marks of 
 admiration; after which he fell upon his knees, begged 
 pardon, and declared that he dreaded Caligula's eloquence 
 mora than his imperial power. This piece of flattery 
 succeeded so well, that the emperor not only pardoned 
 him. but raised him to the consulshiu. Afer died in the 
 reign of Nero. a.d. 60. 
 
 AFFIDAVIT means a solemn assurance of a matter of 
 fact known to the person who states it, and attested as his 
 statement by some person in authority. Evidence is chiefly 
 taken by means of affidavits in the practice of the Court 
 of Chancery in England. By 3 and 4 Will IV. c. 42, 
 
 b. 42, provision is made for appointing commissioners in 
 Scotland and Ireland to take affidavits. The term is 
 generally applied to a statement cei tified by a justice of 
 peace or other magistrate. Affidavits are sometimes neces- 
 sary as certificates that certain formalities have been duly 
 and legally performed. They are extensively used in the 
 practice of bankruptcy, and in the administration of the 
 revenue. At one time they were invariably taken on oath, 
 but this practice has been much narrowed. Quakers, Mora- 
 vians, and Separatists have long been privileged in all cases 
 to make a solemn declaration or affirmation; and now, if any 
 persons called as witnesses, or required or desiring to make 
 an affidavit or deposition, shall refuse or be unwilling from 
 alleged conscientious motives to be sworn, the court or 
 justice may, on being satisfied of the sincerity of such 
 objection, allow such person to make a solemn affirmation 
 or declaration — by 17 and 18 Vict. c. 125, s. 20, extended 
 to all counties in England, Ireland, and Scotland by sub- 
 sequent statutes. An Act of 1835 (5 and 6 Will. IV. 
 
 c. 62) substituted declarations for oaths in certain cases; 
 and this statute is extensively observed. The same Act 
 prohibited justices of peace from administering oaths in any 
 matter in which they had not jurisdiction as judges, except 
 when an oath was specially authorised by statute, as in the 
 bankrupt law, and excepting criminal inquiries. Parliamen- 
 tary proceedings, and instances where oaths are required to 
 give validity to documents abroad. But justices are per- 
 mitted to take affidavits in any matter by declaration, and 
 a person making a false affidavit in this way is liable to 
 punishment. Affidavits may be made abroad before any 
 British ambassador, envoy, minister, cJiargi d'affaires, secre- 
 tary of embassy or legation, consul, or consular agent (18 
 and 19 Vict. c. 42, s. 1) 
 
 AFFINITY, in Law, as distinguished from consan- 
 guinity, is applied to the relation which each party to a 
 marriage, the husband and the wife, bears to the kindred 
 of the other. The marriage having made them one person, 
 the blood relations of each are held as related by affinity in 
 the same degree to tho one spouse as by consanguinity to 
 the other. But the relation is only with the married parties 
 themselves, and does not bring those in affinity with them 
 in affinity with each other; so a wife's sister has no affinity 
 t« her husband's brother. The subject is chiefly important 
 bom the matrimonial prohibitions by which the canon law 
 lias restricted relations by affinity. Taking the table of 
 degrees within which marriage is prohibited on account of 
 •onsanguinity, the ride has been thus extended to affinity, so 
 that wherever relationship to a man himself would be a bar 
 to marriage, relationship to his deceased wife will be the 
 mine bar, and vice versa on the husband's decease. This 
 rule has been founded chiefly on interpretations of the 
 
 eighteenth chapter of Leviticus. Formerly by law in Eng- 
 land, marriages within tho degrees of affinity were not 
 absolutely null, but they were. liable to be annulled by 
 ecclesiastical process during the lives of both parties; in 
 other words, the incapacity was only a canonical, not a civil, 
 disability. By an Act passed in 1835 (5 and 6 Will. 
 IV. c. 51), all marriages of this kind not disputed before 
 the passing of the Act are declared absolutely valid, while 
 all subsequent to it are declared null. This renders null 
 in England, and not merely voidable, a marriage with a 
 deceased wife's sister or niece. The Act does not extend 
 to Scotland; but it was made quite clear by a leading 
 decision in 1861 (Fenton v. Livingston) that, as "the 
 degrees forbidden in consanguinity are also forbidden in 
 affinity," tho marriage of a sister-in-law with a brother-in- 
 law is absolutely null in that country. Nor can a man 
 contract a marriage with his wife's sister so as to bo valid 
 in Great Britain, by celebrating his marriage with her in a 
 country where such marriages are lawful (Brook v. Brook, 
 9 H. L. Cases, 193). 
 
 AFFINITY, Chemical, the property or relation in virtue 
 of which dissimilar substances are capable of entering into 
 chemical combination with each other. Substances that 
 are so related combine always in fixed and definite propor- 
 tions; the resulting compound differs from its components 
 in its physical properties, with the exception that its weight 
 is exactly tho sum of their weights; and the combination 
 is always accompanied with the evolution of heat. In these 
 respects it differs from a mere mechanical mixture; in the 
 latter there is contact without combination, and its pro- 
 perties are a mean or average of those of the substances 
 that compose it. That effect .may bo given to chemical 
 affinity, the substances must be placed in contact; but 
 mere contact is often insufficient, and combination only 
 takes place on the application of heat, light, electric agency, 
 <fec, or through the interposition of some foreign substance. 
 Generally speaking, the affinity is less between substances 
 that closely resemble each other than between those whose 
 properties are altogether dissimilar. The term elective 
 . affinity, now generally disused, has been employed to indi- 
 cate the greater affinity which a substance, when brought 
 into contact with other substances, often has for one in 
 preference to another. Advantage is frequently taken of 
 this greater affinity to decompose compound substances. 
 For a full treatment of chemical affinity and combination, 
 see Chemistry. 
 
 AFFIRMATION. See Affidavit. 
 
 AFFRE, Denis Auguste, Archbishop of Pans, was 
 born at St Kome, in the department of Tarn, on the 27th 
 Sept. 1793. When fourteen years of age, having ex- 
 pressed his desire to enter the church, he became a student 
 at the seminary of St Sulpice, of which his maternal uncle, 
 Denis Boyer, was director. His studies being completed 
 before he had reached the age necessary for ordination, he 
 was occupied for some time as professor of philosophy in 
 the seminary at Nantes. He was ordained a priest in 1818, 
 and held his first charge in connection with the church of 
 St Sidpice. After filling a number of ecclesiastical offices, 
 he was elevated to the Archbishopric of Paris in 1840. 
 His tenure of this office, though it was marked by great 
 zeal and faithfulness, will be chiefly remembered by its 
 tragic close. During the insurrection of 1848 the. arch- 
 bishop was led to behove that by his personal interference 
 peace might be restored between the soldiery and the 
 insurgents. He accordingly applied to General Cavaignac, 
 who warned him of the risk ho incurred. " My life," the 
 archbishop answered, "is of little importance." Soon 
 afterwards, the firing having ceased at his request, he 
 appeared on the barricade at the entrance to the Faubourg St 
 Antoine, accompanied by M. Albert, of the national guard.
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 2'27 
 
 bearing a green branch as a sign of peace, and by Sellier, 
 an attached servant. His reception was not very favour- 
 able, and lie had spoken only a few words, when the insur- 
 gents, hearing some shots, and fancying they were betrayed, 
 opened fire upon the national guard, and the archbishop 
 fell He was removed to his palace, where he died on the 
 
 27th June 1848. Next day the National Assembly issued 
 a decree expressing their great sorrow on account of his 
 death; and the public funeral on the 7th July was one of 
 the most striking spectacles of its kind. The archbishop 
 wrote sever.il treatises of considerable value, including one 
 on Egyptian hieroglyphics. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 THIS is the name applied, originally in Persian, to 
 that mountainous region between N.W. India and 
 Eastern Persia, of which the Afghans are the most nume- 
 rous and the predominant inhabitants. Afghans, under 
 that and other names, have played no small part in Asiatic 
 history. But the present extensive application of the 
 name Afghanistan is scarcely older than the shortlived 
 empire founded by Ahmed Khan in the middle of last 
 century. The Afghans themselves are not in the habit of 
 using the term. 
 
 In treating of this country we include a part of the 
 Hazara mountain region, but not that part of the Oxus 
 basin which is now under Afghan rule, for which see 
 Afghan Turkestan. 
 
 Afghanistan generally may be regarded as a great quad- 
 rilateral plateau, — using that term in the technical sense of 
 a region whose lowest tracts even are considerably elevated 
 above the sea-level, — extending from about 62° to 70° E. 
 long., and from 30° to 35° N. lat. This territory cor- 
 responds fairly to the aggregate of the ancient provinces of 
 Aria (Herat), Drangiana (Seistan), the region of the 
 Paropamisadce- (Kabul), and Arachosia (Kandahar), with 
 Gandarilis (Peshawar and Yuzufzai). Though the last 
 territory belongs ethnically to Afghanistan, an important 
 part of it now forms the British district of Peshawar, 
 whilst the remainder acknowledges no master. 
 
 The boundaries of Afghanistan can be stated here only 
 roughly; and, from the area thus broadly defined, many 
 portions will have to be deducted as occupied by indepen- 
 dent or semi-independent tribes. But, so understood, they 
 may be thus stated: — 
 
 On the north : beginning from east, the great range of 
 Hindu Kush, a western offshoot of the Himalya, parting 
 the Oxus basin from the Afghan basins of the Kabul river 
 and Helmand. From long. 68°'- this boundary continues 
 westward in the prolongation of Hindu Kush called Koh-i- 
 Bibl This breaks into several almost parallel branches, 
 enclosing the valleys of the river of Herat and the Murghab 
 or river of Merv. The half-independent Hazara tribes 
 stretch across these branches and down into the Oxus 
 basin, so that it is difficult here to assign a boundary. We 
 assume it to continue along the range called Safed Koh or 
 "White Mountain," which parts the Herat river valley 
 from the Murghab. 1 
 
 On the east : the eastern base of the spurs of the Suli- 
 mani and other mountains which limit the plains on the 
 west bank of" Indus, and the lower valleys opening into 
 these, which plains (the "Derajat") and lower valleys 
 belong to British India. ' North of Peshawar district the 
 boundary will be, for a space, the Indus, and then the limit, 
 lying in unknown country, between the Afghan and Dard 
 tribes. 
 
 On the south : the eastern part of the boundary, occu- 
 pied by practically independent tribes, Afghan and Biluch, 
 is hard to define, having no marked natural indication. 
 But from the Shal territory (long. 67°), belonging to the 
 Biluch state of Kelat, westward, the southern limits of 
 
 1 Not to be confounded with the more easterly Safed Koh of the 
 Kabul basio, 
 
 the valleys of the Lora river, and then of the Helmand, as 
 far as the Lake of Seistan in lat. 30°, will complete the 
 southern boundary. Thus the whole breadth of Biluchistan, 
 the ancient Gedrosia, a dry region occupying 5° of lati- 
 tude, intervenes between Afghanistan and the sea. 
 
 The western boundary runs from the intersection of the 
 Lake of Seistan with lat. 30°, bending eastward, so as to 
 exclude a part of the plain of Seistan on the eastern bank 
 of the lake, and then crosses the lake to near the meridian 
 of 61°. Thence it runs nearly due north, near this meri- 
 dian, to a point on the Hari-Rud, or river of Herat, abouf, 
 70 miles below that city, where it encounters the spurs of the 
 Safed Koh, which has been given as the northern boundary. 
 
 But if we take the limits of the entire Afghan dominion*, 
 as they at present exist, the western boundary will con- 
 tinue north along the Hari-Rud to lat. 36°, and the northern 
 boundary will r un from this point along the borders of the 
 Turkman desert, so as to include Andkhoi, to Khoja Saleb 
 ferry on the Oxus. The Oxus, to its source in Great Pamir, 
 forms the rest of the northern boundary. These enlarged 
 limits would embrace the remainder of the Hazara mountain 
 tracts, and the whole of what is now called Afghan 
 Turkestan, as well as Badakhshan with its dependencies, 
 now tributary to the Afghan Amir. 
 
 The extreme dimensions of Afghanistan, as at first 
 defined, will be about 600 miles from east to west, and 
 450 miles from north to south; and, if we take the whcle 
 Afghan dominion, the extent from north to south will 
 be increased to 600 miles. Within both the areas so 
 defined, however, we have included some territory over 
 which the Afghan government ha3 no control whatever, 
 and much over which its authority is respected only when 
 backed by a special exertion of force. Under the former 
 head come the valleys of the Yusufzai clan north cf 
 Peshawar, the Momands, Afridis, Yaziris, &c, adjoining 
 that district on the west and south-west, the high-lying 
 valleys of Chitral or Kashkar, and of the independent 
 Pagans or Kafirs, among the loftier spurs of Hindu Kush. 
 Under the latter head come the eastern districts of Khost 
 and (partially) of Kurram, the Kakar country in the 
 extreme south-east, much of the country of the tribes called 
 Eimakand Hazara in the north-west, and probably Badakh- 
 shan with its' dependencies. 
 
 If we suppose the sea to rise 4000 feet above its existing 
 level, no part of the quadrilateral plateau that we have 
 defined would be covered, except portions of the lower 
 valley of the Kabul river, small tracts towards the Indus, 
 and a triangle, of which the apex should be at the Lake of 
 Seistan in the extreme south-west, and the base should 
 just include Herat and Kandahar, passing beyond those 
 cities to intersect the western, and southern boundaries 
 respectively. Isolated points and ridges within this tri- 
 angle would emerge. 
 
 Further, let us suppose the sea to rise 7000 feet above 
 its existing leveL We should still have a tract emerging 
 so large that a straight line of 200. miles could be drawn^ 
 from the KushSn Pass of Hindu Kush, passing about 35 
 miles west of Kabul, to Eangak on the road between Ghazni 
 and Kandahar, which nowhere should touch the submerged 
 portion. And we believe it is certain that a line under
 
 228 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 NATURAL DIVISIONS. 
 
 like conditions, but 250 miles in length, could be drawn at 
 right angles to the former, passing about 25 miles south of 
 Qhazni. The greater part of this latter line, however, 
 would lie in the Hazara country, in which we have no 
 observations. 
 
 In the triangular tract that would bo submerged accord- 
 ing to our first supposition, the lowest level is the Lake of 
 Seistan, 1280 feet above the sea. Herat is 2650: Kan- 
 dahar, 3490. 
 
 The Afghans themselves make a broad distinction between 
 Kabul, meaning thereby the whole basin of the Kabul river, 
 and the rest of their country, excluding the former from the 
 large and vague term Khorasan, under which they con- 
 sider the rest to be comprehended. There is reason for 
 such a distinction in history as well as nature. For the 
 Kabul basin was in old times much more intimately con- 
 nected with India, and to the beginning of the 11th cen- 
 tury was regarded as Indian territory. 
 
 Natural Divisions. — Of these, this rvabul basin (1) 
 forms the first. As others we may discriminate — (2.) The 
 lofty central part of the table-land on which stand Ghazni 
 and Kala't-i-Ghilzai, embracing the upper valleys of ancient 
 Arachosia ; (3.) The upper Helmand basin ; (4.) The lower 
 Helmand basin, embracing Girishk, Kandahar, and the 
 Afghan portion of Seistan; (5.) The basin of the Herat 
 river; and (6.) The eastern part of the table-land, draining 
 by streams, chiefly occasional torrents, towards the Indus. 
 
 Kabul Basin. — Its northern limit is the range of Hindu 
 Kush, a name which properly applies to the lofty, snow- 
 clad crest due north of Kabul, and perhaps especially to 
 one pass and peak. But it has been conveniently extended 
 to the whole lino of alpine watershed, stretching west- 
 ward from the southern end of Pamir, and represents the 
 Caucasus of Alexander's historians. Its peaks throughout 
 probably rise to the region of perpetual snow, and even on 
 most of the passes beds of snow occur at all seasons, and, 
 on some, glaciers. We find no precise height stated for 
 any of its peaks, but the highest probably attain to at least 
 20,000 or 21,000 feet. The height of the Kushan Pass is 
 estimated by Lord at 15,000 feet. 
 
 The Kabul river (the ancient Kophes) is the most im- 
 portant river of Afghanistan. It may be considered as fully 
 formed about 30 miles east of Kabul, by the junction there- 
 abouts (the confluence does not seem to have been fixed by 
 any traveller) of the following streams : — (a.) The Kabul 
 stream, rising in the Unai pass towards the Helmand, which, 
 after passing through the city, has been joined by the Logar 
 fiver flowing north from the skirts of the Ghilzai plateau ; 
 (b.) A river bringing down from the valleys Ghorband, 
 Parw&n, and Panjshtr, a large part of the drainage of 
 Hindu Kush, and watering the fruitful plain of Daman-i- 
 Koh (the " Hill-skirt "), intersected by innumerable brooks, 
 and studded with vineyards, gardens, and fortalices. This 
 river was formerly called Bdr&n, a name apparently obsolete, 
 but desirable to maintain ; (c.) The river of Tagao, coming 
 down from the-spuraof. Hinr 1 il k Kush on the Kafir borders. 
 
 Some 30 miles further. east, the Alishang enters on the 
 left bank, from Laghman, above which this river and its 
 ronfluents drain western Kafiristan. Twenty miles fur- 
 ther, and not far beyond Jalalabad, the Kabul river receives 
 from the same side a confluent entitled, as regards length, 
 to count as main stream. In some older maps this bears 
 the namo of Kama, from a place near the confluence, and 
 in more recent ones Kiiner, from a district on its lower 
 course. Higher it is called the river of Kashkar, and the 
 Beilam. It seems to be the Choaspes, and perhaps the 
 Malamantus of the ancients. It rises in a small lake near 
 the borders of Pamir, and flows in a south-west direction 
 through the length of Kashkar or Chitral, an independent 
 valley-state, whose soil lies at a height of G000 to 11,000 
 
 feet The whole length of the river to its confluence with 
 the Kabul river cannot bo less than 250 miles, i.e., about 
 80 miles longer than that regarded as the main stream, 
 measured to its most remote source. 
 
 The basin of the Kabul river is enclosed at the head by 
 the Paghman range, an offshoot of Hindu Kush, which 
 divides the Kabul valleys from the Helmand. Up the 
 head-waters of the stream that passes Kabul, leads the 
 chief road to Turkestan, crossing for a brief space into the 
 Hehnand basin by the easy pass of Unai (1 1,320 feet), and 
 then over the Koh-i-Baba, or western extension of Hindu 
 Kush, by the Hajjigak passes (12,190 and 12,480 feet), to 
 Bamiin. 
 
 The most conspicuous southern limit of tho Kabul basin 
 is the Safed Koh, Spin-gar of the Afghans (" White Moun- 
 tain," not to be confounded with the western Safed Koh 
 already named), an alpine chain, reaching, in its highest 
 summit, Sita Ram, to a height of 15,622 feet, and the 
 eastern ramifications of which extend to tho Indus at and 
 below Attok. Among the spurs of this range are those 
 formidable passes between Kabul and Jalalabad, in which 
 the disasters of 1841-42 culminated, as well as the famous 
 Khybar passes between Jalalabad and Peshawar. This 
 southern watershed formed by the Safed Koh is so much 
 nearer the Kabul river than that on the north, that the 
 tributaries from this side, though numerous, are indi- 
 vidually insignificant. 
 
 After flowing 60 miles (in direct measurement) eastward 
 from the Kuner confluence, the Kabul river issues from 
 the mountains which have hemmed it in, and enters the 
 plain of Peshawar, receiving, soon after, the combined 
 rivers of Swat {Soastus) and Panjkora (Gur&us), two of 
 the great valleys of the Yusufzai. This combined river is 
 called by the Afghans Landai Sin or Little river, in dis- 
 tinction from the Abba Sin or Indus, and the name seems 
 often to adhere to the lower course of the Kabul river. 
 Both rivers on entering the plain ramify, in delta fashion, 
 into many natural channels, increased in number by arti- 
 ficial cuts for irrigation. Finally the river enters the 
 Indus immediately above the gorge at Attok. 
 
 The lowest ford on the Kabul river is a bad one, near 
 Jalalabad, only passable in tho dry season. Below the 
 Kuner confluence the river is deep and copious, crossed by 
 ferries only, except at Naoshera, below Peshawar, where 
 there is usually a bridge of beats. The rapid curren* is 
 unfavourable to navigation, but from Jalalabad downwards 
 the river can float boats of 50 tons, and is often descended 
 by rafts on blown skins. The whole course of the river, 
 measured by a five-mile opening of the compasses, is as 
 follows : — From source of Kabul stream in Unai pass to 
 Attok, 250 miles ; from source either of Logar or of Panj- 
 shir to the same, 290 miles; from source of Kashkar river 
 to the same, 370 miles. 
 
 A marked natural division of the Kabul basin occurs 
 near Gandamak, above Jalalabad, where a sudden descent 
 takes effect from a minimum elevation of 5000 feet to one 
 of only 2000. The Emperor Baber says of this :^-" The 
 moment you descend, you see quite another world. The 
 timber is different ; its grains are of another sort ; its 
 animals are of a different species ; and the manners and 
 customs of its inhabitants are of a different kind." Burnes, 
 on his first journey, left the wheat harvest in progress at 
 Jalalabad, and found the crop at Gandamak, only 25 mile3 
 distant, but 3 inches above ground. Here, in truth, 
 nature has planted the gates, of India. The valleys of the 
 upper basin, though still in the height of summer affected 
 by a sun of fierce power, recall the climate and products of 
 the finest part of temperate Europe ; the region below is a 
 chain of narrow, low, and hot plains, with climate and 
 vegetation of an Indian character.
 
 RIVERS.] 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 229 
 
 Accounts of Kabul strike us by apparent contradiction. 
 Some give scarcely any impression but that of extreme 
 ruggedness and desolation, awful defiles, and bare black 
 crags ; others dwell on the abounding orchards, green 
 sward, charming dells, and purling streams. But both 
 aspects are characteristic. The higher spurs, both of Hindu 
 Kush and Safed Koh, are often clad with grand forests of 
 pine, oak, and other alpine trees, and resemble the wooded 
 ranges of Himalya. But the lower hills generally are 
 utterly woodless, and <almo3t entirely naked. In the bot- 
 toms, often watered by clear and copious streams, 'we have 
 those beauties of verdure and fertility on which some 
 writers dwell, and which derive new charms from contrast 
 with the excessive sterility of the hills that frame them. 
 
 We cannot speak at equal length of the other natural 
 divisions of Afghanistan, but some chief points will be 
 noticed with the rivers. In general the remainder of the 
 country, regarded by the Afghans as included in Khorasan, 
 exhibits neither the savage sublimity of the defiles of the 
 Kabul region, the alpine forests of its higher ranges, nor 
 its nests of rich vegetation in the valleys, save in the 
 north-east part adjoining Safed Koh, where these characters 
 still adhere, and in some exceptional localities, such as the 
 valley of Herat, which is matchless in richness of cultiva- 
 tion. Generally the characteristics of this country are 
 elevated plateaux of sandy or gravelly surface, broken by 
 ■binges of rocky hills, and often expanding in wide spaces 
 of arid waste, which terminate to the south-west in a vjgular 
 desert of shifting sand. Even in cultivated parts there is 
 * singular absence of trees, and when the crops are not 
 •risible this imparts an aspect of great desolation and 
 emptiness to the landscape. Natural wood, however, is 
 found in some parts of West Afghanistan, as in the almost 
 tropical delta of the Helmand, in the Ghur territory, and 
 on the Herat river below .Herat. Generally, indeed, in 
 such cases the trees appear to be mimosas, tamarisks, and 
 the like, with little body of foliage. 
 
 Rivers." — Next to the Kabul river in importance, and 
 probably much exceeding it in volume as it certainly does 
 in length, is the Helmand {Etymander), the only considerable 
 river in its latitude from the Tigris to the Indus. The 
 Helmand has its highest sources in the Koh-i-Baba and 
 Paghman hills, between Kabul and Bamian. Its succeed- 
 ing course is through the least known tract of Afghanistan, 
 chiefly occupied by Hazaras ; indeed, for a length of nearly 
 300 miles no European has seen the river. This unvisited 
 space terminates at Girishk, where' the river is crossed by 
 the principal route from Herat to Kandahar. Till about 
 40 mile3 above Girishk the character of the Helmand is 
 said to be that of a mountain river, flowing between 
 scarped rocks, and obstructed by enormous boulders. At 
 that point it enters on a flat country, and extends over a 
 gravelly bed. Here, also, it begins to be used in irrigation. 
 Forty-five miles below Girishk the Helmand receives its 
 greatest tributary, the Arghand-ab, coming past Kandahar 
 from the high Ghilzai country. It here becomes a very 
 considerable river, said to have a width of 300 or 400 
 yards, and a depth of 9 to 12 feet. But this cannot be at 
 all seasons, as there are fords at long intervals as far down 
 as Pdlalik, 100 miles from the mouth. The desert draws 
 near the left bank in the lower course, and for the last 
 150 miles the moving sands approach within \\ mile. 
 The vegetation on the banks is here of luxuriant tropical 
 eharacter. The whole of the lower valley seems to have 
 been once the seat of a prosperous population, and there is 
 still a good deal of cultivation for 100 miles below Girishk. 
 Even this, however, is much fallen off, and lower down 
 still more so, owing to disorders and excessive insecurity. 
 
 The course of the river is more or less south-west from 
 its source till in Seistan it approaches meridian G2°, when 
 
 it turns nearly north, and so flows on for 70 or 80 miles, 
 till it falls into the lake of Seistan by various mouths. The 
 whole length of the river, measured as before, is about C 1 5 
 miles. Ferrier considers that it has water enough for navi- 
 gation at all seasons, from Girishk downwards. At present 
 boats are rarely seen, and those in use are most clumsy ; 
 rafts are employed for crossing. 
 
 4rg!iand-&b. — Of this tributary of the Helmand little is known 
 except in its lower course. It rises in the Hazara country, N. W. ol 
 Ghazni. It is said to be shallow, and to run nearly dry in height 
 of summer; but when its depth exceeds 3 feet its great rapidity 
 makes it a serious obstacle to travellers. In its lower course it is 
 much used for irrigation, and the valley is cultivated and populous; 
 yet the water is said to be somewhat brackish. Its course may be 
 -eckoned about 235 miles. 
 
 It is doubtful whether the ancient Arac7wtus is to be identified 
 with the Arghand-ab or with its chief confluent the Tarnak, which 
 joins it on the left about 30 miles S.W. of Kandahar. The two 
 rivers run nearly parallel, inclosing the backbone of the GhiLmi 
 plateau. The Tarnak is much the shorter (length about 197 miles) 
 and less copious. The ruins at Ulan Kobat, supposed to represent 
 the city Arachvsia, are in its basin ; and the lake known as Ab-i- 
 Jstdda, the most probable representative of Lake Aracliotus, is near 
 the head of the Tarnak, though not communicating with it. The 
 Tarnak is dammed for irrigation at intervals, and in the hot season 
 almost exhausted. There is a good deal of cultivation along the 
 river, but few villages. The high road from Kabul to Kandahar 
 passes this way (another reason for supposing the Tarnak to be 
 Aracholiis), and the people live off the load to eschew the onerous 
 duties of hospitality. 
 
 The Lora is the most southerly river of Afghanistan, and may be 
 regarded as belonging to the Helmand basin, though it is not known 
 that its waters ever reach that river. It rises near the Kaud and 
 Joba peaks in a branch of the Sulimani, and Hows nearly east, pass- 
 ing through the large valley of Pislitn, but lying too dee]) foi 
 irrigation. The river- has a course of nearly 200 miles, and con- 
 siderable breadth, but is never for a week together unfoidablc. In 
 the Shorawak district (long. 65°-G6°) a good deal of irrigation is 
 drawn from it. The river is said to terminate in a lake, oirthe verge 
 of the sandy desert 
 
 Rivers belonging to the basin of Seistan and the Lower Helmand 
 are the Khash-Rud, the Farrah-Rud, and the Ilarut, 
 
 The Khdsh-rtid rises in oi near the southern slopes of Siah-Kob 
 (Black Mountain), which forms the southern wall of the valley or 
 Herat, and flows south, in Hood reaching the Lake of Seistan, but 
 generally exhausted in irrigation. It is named from Khash, a vil- 
 lage in the Seistan plaiu. In the dry season it is everywhere 
 fordable, but in floods caravans may be detained by it several days. 
 
 The Farrah river flows from the same quarter, and has the same 
 character in floods. It is a larger stream, and at Farrah is said to 
 have a width of 150 yards, -with 2 feet of water, and a clear, swift 
 stream. In flood, Khamkoff was struck with the resemblance of 
 this river, rolling its yellow wavesviolently between steep banks of 
 clay, to the Cyrus at Tillis. 
 
 The Hartlt rises in the mountains S.E. of Herat, and has a course 
 of about 245 miles to the Lake of Seistan. Canals from it supply 
 abundant Irrigation to the plains of Sabzvar and Anardarah. The 
 river forms a true delta with fifteen branches, giving rise to marsh 
 and much vegetation, especially tamarisk, willow, and poplar. The 
 Harut receives in the plain a considerable affluent, the Khushkck 
 river. 
 
 It Is possible that confusion of the name of this river with the 
 Hari-Rud, or river of Herat, led to the long prevalent mistake that 
 the latter river flowed south into the Seistan Lake — a mistake as 
 old as Ptolemy, if his Aria Lacus be (as it seems) that of Seistan. 
 
 The Hart-rid is formed by two chief confluents iu the lofty 
 Hazara country, not far from the sources of the river of lialkh. 
 Its early course is, for more than 100 miles and as far bs the village 
 of Jaor, westward, at a height of many thousand feet above the sea. 
 It then descends rapidly (it is said with cataracts), but continues in 
 the same direction, receiving numerous streams,- to Obcb, -where much 
 water begins to be drawn off. Sixty-five miles further it flows past 
 Heat, 3milestothesouthofthecity. Hereabouts the Kandahar road 
 crosses the river by a masonry bridge of 26 arches. Near this fifteen 
 deep canals are drawn off. A few miles below Herat the river 
 begins to turn N.W. ; and after passing for many miles through 
 a woody tract, abounding iu game, in which are the preserves of 
 the Herat princes, at the ancient and now nearly deserted town of 
 Kassan, 70 miles from Herat, it turns due north. Though the 
 drainage brought down by this river must be large, so much is 
 drawn off that, below Herat, reaches of it are at times quite dry. 
 Below Kassan it receives fresh supplies, and eventually the Mesbed 
 stream. It flows on towards Sarakhs, and dwindles away; but 
 accurate information regarding it is still wanting. The channel is 
 shown, in a map lately published, as passing Sarakhs for some 260
 
 230 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 [towns. 
 
 miles, and ending in a swamp adjoining the Damon-i-Koh, on the 
 border of the Turkman desert. 
 
 Of the rivers that ran towards tho Indus, south of tho Kabul 
 river, the chief are tho Kurram and the Gomal. 
 
 The Kurram drains the southern flanks of Safed Koh. The 
 middle valley of Kurram, forming tho district so called, is highly 
 
 J, well peopled, and crowded with small fortified «i 
 orchards, and groves, to which a fino background is afforded 1 v thi 
 dark pine forests, and alpiuo snows of Safed Koh. The beauty and 
 climate of the valley attracted some of tho Mogul emperors of Delhi, 
 and the n mains exist of a garden of Shall Jahan's. The river passes 
 the British frontier, and enters tho plain country a few miles above 
 llann, spreading into a wide bed of sand and boulders, till it joins 
 the Indus near Isa-Khel, after a course of more than 200 miles. By 
 the Kurraru valley is one of the best routes from India into Afgha- 
 nistan. It was travelled by Major Lumsden's party in 1857-58. 
 
 The Gomal, rising in tho Sulimani mountains, though in length 
 equal to tho Kurram, and draining, with its tributaries, a much 
 larger area, is little more than a winter torrent, diminishing to a 
 mere rivulet, till December, when it begins to swell. At its 
 exit into the plain of the Derajat a local chief threw a dam across its 
 channel ; and it is now only in very wet seasons that its waters reach 
 the Indus, near Dcra Isniael Khan. Kot long before leaving the 
 hills it receives from the S. W. a tributary, the Zlidb, of nearly equal 
 length and she, coming from the vicinity of the Kand and Joha 
 peaks, in long. 66°. 
 
 Lakes. — As wo know nothing of the lake in which the 
 Lora is said to end, and the greater part of tho lake of 
 Seistan (see that article) is excluded from Afghanistan, 
 there remains only the A b-i-Tstada, on the Ghilzai plateau. 
 This is about 65 miles S.S.W. of Ghazni, and stands at a 
 height of about 7000 feet, in a site of most 'barren and 
 dreary aspect, -with no tree or blade of grass, and hardly a 
 habitation in sight It is about 44 miles in circuit, and 
 very shallow; not more than 12 feet deep in the middle. 
 The chief feeder is the Ghazni river. The Afghans speak 
 of a stream draining the lake, but this seems to be un- 
 founded, and the saltness and bitterness of the lake is 
 against it. Fish entering the salt water from tho Ghazni 
 river sicken and die. 
 
 Provinces and Towns. — The chief political divisions 
 of Afghanistan in recent times are stated to bo Kabul, 
 Jalalabad, Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat, and Afghan Tur- 
 t^TAN (q.v.), to which arc sometimes added the command 
 ol the Ghilzais and of the Hazaras. This list seems to omit 
 the unruly districts of the eastern table-land, such as 
 Kurram, Khost, &c. But we must not look for the pre- 
 cision of European administration in such a case. 
 
 In addition to Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat, 
 described under those articles, there are not many places 
 in Afghanistan to be called towns. We notice the follow- 
 ing:— 
 
 Jal&ldb&d lies, at a height of i946 feet, in a plain on 
 the south of the Kabul river. It is by road 100 miles from 
 Kabul, and 91 from Peshawar. Between it and Peshawar 
 interveno the Khybar and other adjoining passes; between 
 it and Kabul the passes of Jagdalak, Khurd-Kabul, kc. 
 Tho place has been visited by no known European since 
 Sir G. Pollock's expedition in 1842. As it then existed, 
 the town, though its walls had an extent of 2100 yards, 
 contained only 300 houses, and a permanent population of 
 2000. The walls formed an irregular quadrilateral in a 
 ruinous state, surrounded on all sides by buildings, gardens, 
 the remains of the ancient walls, <fco, affording cover to an 
 assailant. The town walls were destroyed by Pollock, but 
 have probably been restored. 
 
 The highly-cultivated plain is, according to Wood, 25 
 miles in length by 3 or 4 miles in breadth; the central part 
 covered with villages, castles, and gardens. It is abund- 
 antly watered 
 
 The province under Jalalabad is about 80 miles in length 
 by 35 in width, and includes the large district of Laghman, 
 north of the Kabul river, as well as that on the south, 
 which is called Nangnihar. • The former name, properly 
 Lamghan, the seat of tho ancient Lampagce, is absurdly 
 
 derived by the Mahominedans from tue patriarch Lamech, 
 whose tomb they profess to show; the latter nauio is inter- 
 preted (in mixed Pushtu and Arabic) to mean " nine rivers," 
 an etymology supported by tho numerous streams. Tho 
 word is, however, really a distortion of tho ancient Indian 
 name Xagarah&ra, borne by a city in this plain long beforo 
 Islam, and believed to have been the Nagara or Dionyso- 
 polU of Ptolemy. Many topes and other Buddhist traces 
 exist in the valley, but there are no unruined buildings of 
 any moment Baber laid out fino gardens here; and hia- 
 grandson (Jalaluddin) Akbar built Jalalabad. Hindus 
 form a considerable part of the town population, and havo 
 a large temple. The most notable point in tho history of 
 Jalalabad is tho stout and famous defence made there, from 
 November 1841 till April 1842, by Sir Robert Sale. 
 
 Istalif is a -town in the Koh Daman, 20 miles N.N.W. 
 of Kabul, which was stormed and destroyed, 29th Sep- 
 tember 1842, by a force under General M'Caskill, to punish 
 the towns-people for the massacre of the garrison at Charikar, 
 and for harbouring the murderers of Burncs. The place is 
 singularly picturesque and beautiful. The rude houses riso 
 in terrace over terrace on the mountain-side, forming a 
 pyramid, crowned by a shrine embosomed in a fine clump 
 of planes. The dell below, traversed by a clear rapid stream, 
 both sides of which are clothed with vineyards and orchards, 
 opens out to the great plain of the Daman-i-Koh, rich with 
 trees and cultivation, and dotted with turretcd castles; 
 beyond these are rocky ridges, and over all the eternal 
 snows of Hindu Kush. Nearly every householder has his 
 garden with a tower, to which the families repair in tho 
 fruit season, closing their houses in the town. The town 
 is estimated, with seven villages depending on it, to contain 
 about 18,000 souls. 
 
 Charik&r (population 5000) lies about 20 miles north 
 of Istalif, at the north end of Kgh Daman, and watered by 
 a canal from the Ghorband branch of the Baran river. 
 Hereabouts must have been the Triodon, or meeting of ths 
 three roads from Bactria, spoken of by Strabo and Pliny. 
 It is still the seat of the customs levied on trade with 
 Turkestan, and also of the governor of the Kohistin or 
 hill country of Kabul, and is a place of considerable trado 
 with the regions to the north. During the British occupa- 
 tion a political agent (Major Eldred Pottingcr, famous in 
 the defence of Herat) was posted hers with a Gurkha 
 corps under Captain Codrington and Lieutenant Haughton. 
 In the revolt of 1841, after severe fighting, they attempted 
 to make their way to Kabul, and a great part was cut off. 
 Pottinger, Haughton (with the loss of an arm), and one 
 sepoy only, reached the city then; though many were after- 
 wards recovered. 
 
 Kala'tri-Ghilzai has no town, but is a fortress of some 
 importance on the right bank of the Tarnak, on the road 
 between Ghazni and Kandahar, 89 miles from the latter, and 
 at a height of 5773 feet. The repulse of tho Afghans in 
 1842 by a sepoy garrison under Captain Craigie, was one 
 of the most brilliant feats of that war. 
 
 Girishk is also a fort rather than a town, the latter being 
 insignificant. It is important for its position on the high 
 road between Kandahar and Herat, commanding the ordin- 
 ary passage and summer ford of the Helmand. It was held 
 by the British from 1839 till August 1842, but during the 
 latter nine months, amid great difficulties, by a native 
 garrison only, under a gallant Indian soldier, Balwant Singh. 
 
 Farrah belongs to the Seistan basin, and stands on the 
 river that bears its name, and on one of the main routes from 
 Herat to Kandahar, 164 miles from the former, 236 miles 
 from the latter. The place is enclosed by a huge earthen 
 rampart, crowned with towers, and surrounded by a wide 
 and deep ditch, which can be flooded, and with a covered 
 way. It has the form of a parallelogram, running north
 
 CLIMATE.] 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 231 
 
 and south, and only two gates. As a military position it 
 is of great importance, but it is excessively unhealthy. 
 Though the place would easily contain 4500 houses, there 
 were but 60 habitable when Ferrier was there in 1845, nor 
 was there much change for the better when Colonel Pelly 
 passed in 1858. Farrah is a place of great antiquity; 
 certainly, it would seem, the Pkra of Isidore of Charax (1st 
 century), and possibly Prophthasia, though this is more 
 probably to be sought in the great ruins of Peshawaran, 
 farther south, near Lash. According to Ferrier, who 
 alludes to " ancient chronicles and traditions," the city on 
 the present site within the great rampart was sacked by 
 the armies of Chinghiz, and the survivors transported to 
 another position, one hour further north, where there are 
 now many ruins and bricks of immense size (a yard square), 
 with cuneiform letters, showing that site again to be vastly 
 older than Chinghiz. The population came back to the 
 southern site after the destruction of the mediaeval city by 
 Shah Abbas, and the city prospered again till its bloody 
 siege by Nadir Shah. Since then, under constant attacks, 
 it has declined, and in 1837" the remaining population, 
 amounting to 6000, was carried off to Kandahar. Such 
 are the vicissitudes of a city on this unhappy frontier. 
 
 Sabzvdr, the name of which is a corruption of old Persian, 
 Ispkizar, " horse-pastures," is another important strategic 
 point, 93 miles from Herat and 71 miles north of Farrah, 
 in similar decay to the latter. The present fort, which in 
 1845 contained a small bazar and 100 houses, must once 
 have been the citadel of a large city, now represented by 
 extensive suburbs, partly in ruins. Water is conducted from 
 the Harut by numerous canals, which also protect the 
 approaches. 
 
 Zafni is a town in the famous but little known country 
 of Ghur, to the east of Herat, the cradle of a monarchy (the 
 Ghurid dynasty) which supplanted the Ghaznevides, and 
 ruled over an extensive dominion, including all Afghanistan, 
 for several generations. Zarni, according to Ferrier. was 
 the old capital of Ghur. Ruins abound; the town itself is 
 small, and enclosed by a wall in decay. It lies in a pleasant 
 valley, through which fine streams wind, said to abound with 
 trout. The hills around are covered with trees, luxuriantly 
 festooned with vines. The population in 1845 was about 
 1200, among whom Ferrier noticed (a remarkable circum- 
 stance) some Gheber families. The bulk of the people are Suris 
 and Taimunis, apparently both very old Persian tribes. 
 
 Climate. — The variety of climate is immense, as might 
 be expected. At Kabul, and over all the northern part of 
 the country to the descent at Gandamak, winter is rigorous, 
 but especially so on the high Arachosian plateau. In 
 Kabul the snow lies for two or'three months; the people 
 seldom leave their houses, and sleep close to stoves. At 
 Ghazni the snow has been known to lie long beyond the 
 vernal equinox; the thermometer sinks to 10° and 15° be- 
 low zero (Fahr.) ; and tradition relates the entire destruction 
 of the population of Ghazni by snow-storms more than once. 
 
 At Jalalabad the winter and the climate generally 
 iKSume an Indian character, and the hot weather sometimes 
 brings the fatal simum. The summer heat is great every- 
 where in Afghanistan, but most of all in the districts 
 bordering on the Indus, especially Sewi, on the lower 
 Helmand, and in Seistan. All over Kandahar province 
 the summer heat is intense, and the simum is not unknown. 
 The hot season throughout the "Khorasan" part of the 
 country is rendered more trying by frequent dust-storms and 
 fiery winds; whilst the bare rocky ridges that traverse the 
 country, absorbing heat by day and radiating it bj night, 
 render the summer nights most oppressive. At Girishk, 
 Ferrier records' the thermometer in August to have reached 
 11 8° to 120° (Fahr.) in the shade. At Kabul the summer sun 
 has much of its Indian power, though the heat is tempered 
 
 occasionally by breezes from Hindu Kush, and the nights 
 are usually cooL I3aber says that, even in summer, ond 
 could not sleep at Kabul without a sheepskin, but this 
 seems exaggerated. . At Kandahar snow seldom falls od 
 the plains or lower hills; when it dues, it melts at once. 
 
 At Herat, though 800 feet lower thun Kiimiuhiir, th« 
 summer climate appears to be more temperate; and. ill fact, 
 the climate altogether is one of the most agreeable in Asia 
 In July, Ferrier says he found the heat never to pass 
 98°, and rarely 91° to 93° (Fahr.) These are not low! 
 figures, but must be compared with his register at Girishk, 
 just given. From May to September the wind blows from 
 the N.W. with great violence, and this extends across the 
 country to Kandahar. The winter is tolerably mild ; snow 
 melts as it falls, and even on the mountains does not lie 
 long. Three years out of four at Herat it does not freeze 
 hard enough for the people to store ice; yet it was not 
 very far from Herat, and could not have been at a greatly 
 higher level (at Kafir Kala', near Kassan) that, in 1750, 
 Ahmed Shah's army, retreating from Persia, is said to have 
 lost 18,000 men from cold in a single night. 
 
 The summer rains that accompany the S.W. monsoon in 
 India, beating along the southern slopes of the Himalya, 
 travel up the Kabul valley, at least to Laghman, though 
 they are more clearly felt in Bajaur and Panjkora, under 
 the high spurs of the Hindu Kush, and in the eastern 
 branches of Safed Koh. Bain also falls at this season at 
 the head of Kurram valley. . South of this the Sulimaui 
 mountains may be taken as the western limit of the 
 monsoon's action. It is quite unfelt in the rest of Afghan- 
 istan, in which, as in all the west of Asia, the winter rains 
 are the most considerable. The spring rain, though less 
 copious, is more important to agriculture than the winter 
 rain, unless where the latter falls in the form of snow. 
 Speaking generally, the Afghanistan climate is a dry one. 
 The sun shines with splendour for three-fourths of the year, 
 and the nights are even more beautiful than the days. 
 Marked characteristics are the great differences of summer 
 and winter temperature and of day and night temperature, 
 as well as the extent to which change of climate can be 
 attained by slight change of place. As Baber again says 
 of Kabul, at one day's journey from it you may find a place 
 where snow never falls, and at two hours' journey, a plac 
 where snow almost never melts! 
 
 The Afghans vaunt the salubrity and charm of some 
 local climates, as of the Tobah hills above the Kakar country, 
 and of some of the high valleys of the Safed Koh. 
 
 The people have by no means that immunity from disease 
 which the bright dry character of the climate and the fine 
 physical aspect of a large proportion of them might lead us 
 to expect. ' Intermittent and remittent fevers are very 
 prevalent: bowel complaints are common, and often fatal 
 in the autumn. The universal custom of sleeping on the 
 house-top in summer promotes rheumatic and neuralgic 
 affections; and in the Koh Daman of Kabul, which the 
 natives regard as having the finest of climates, the mortality 
 from fever and bowel complaint, between July and October, 
 is great; the immoderate use of fruit predisposing to such 
 ailments. Stone is frequent; eye disease is very common, as 
 are haemorrhoidal affections and syphilitic diseases in repul- 
 sive forms. A peculiar skin disease of syphilitic origin 
 prevails at Kandahar, and native physicians there are said 
 by Bellew to admit that hardly one person in twenty is free 
 from the taint in some form. 
 
 Natural Productions — Minerals. — Afghanistan is 
 believed to be rich in minerals, but few are wrought Some 
 small quantity of gold is taken from the streams in Lagh- 
 man and the adjoining districts. Famous silver mines 
 were formerly wrought near the head of the Panjshir 
 valley, in Hindu Kush. Iron of excellent quality is pro-
 
 232 
 
 A I'GHANISTAN 
 
 [botany. 
 
 duccd iu the (independent) territory of Bajaur, north-west 
 of Peshawar, from magnetic iron sand, and is exported. 
 Kabul is chiefly supplied from the Fermuli (or Farmuli) 
 district, between the Upper Ktirram and Gonial, where it 
 is said to be abundant. Iron ore is most abundant near 
 the passes leading to Baniian, and in other parts of Hindu 
 Kush. Copper ore from various parts of Afghanistan has 
 been seen, but it is uowh re worked. 
 
 und, e.g., in Upper Bangash (Kurram district), 
 and in the Shinwari country (also among the branches of 
 Safed Koh), and in the Kakar couutry. There are reported 
 to be rich lead mines near Herat scarcely worked. Lead, 
 with antimony, is found near the Arghand-ab, 32 miles 
 north-west of Kala't-i-Ghilzai ; in the Wardak hills, 24 
 miles north of Ghazni; in the Ghorband valley, north of 
 Kabul ; and in the Afridi country, near our frontier. 
 Most of the lead used, however, conies from the Hazara 
 country, where the ore is described as being gathered on 
 the surface. An ancient mine of great extent and elabo- 
 rate character exists at Feringal, in the Ghorband valley. 
 Antimony is obtained in considerable quantities at Shah- 
 Maksu.l, abcut 30 miles north of Kandahar. 
 
 Silicate of zinc in nodular fragments comes from the 
 Zhob district of the Kakar country. It is chiefly used by 
 cutlers for polishing. 
 
 Sulphur is said to be found at Herat, dug from the soil 
 in small fragments, but the chief supply comes from the 
 Hazara country, and from Pirkisri, on the confines of 
 Seistan, where there would seem to be a crater, or fuma- 
 role. Sal-ammoniac is brought from the game place. 
 Gypsum is found in large quantities in the plain of Kan- 
 dahar, being dug out in fragile coralline masses from near 
 the surface. 
 
 Coal (perhaps lignite) is said to be found In Zurmat 
 (between the Upper Kurram and the Gonial) and near 
 Ghazni. 
 
 Nitre abounds in the soil over all the south-west of 
 Afghanistan, and often affects the water of the hares, or 
 subterranean canals. 
 
 Vegetable Kingdom. 1 — The characteristic distribution 
 of vegetation on the mountains of Afghanistan is worthy 
 of attention. The great mass of it is confined to the main 
 ranges and their immediate offshoots, whilst on the more 
 distant and terminal prolongations it is almost entirely 
 absent ; in fact, these are naked rock and stone. 
 
 Take, for example, the Safed Koh. On the alpine range itself 
 and its immediate branches, at a height of 6000 to 10,000 feet, we 
 have abundant growth of iarge forest trees, among which conifers 
 are the most noole and prominent, such as Cedrus Deodara, Abies 
 excelsa, Pinus lingifolia, P. Pinaster, P. Pinca (the edible pine), 
 and the larch. w e have also the yew, the hazel, juniper, walnut, 
 wild peach, and almond. Growing under the shade of these are 
 several varieties of rose, honeysuckle, currant, gooseberry, haw- 
 thorn, rhododendron, and a luxuriant herbage, among which the 
 ranunculus family is important for frequency and number of genera. 
 The lemon and wild vine are also here met- with, but are more 
 common on the northern mountains. The walnut and oak (ever- 
 green, holly-leaved, and kermes) descend to the secondary heights, 
 where they become mixed with alder, ash, khinjak, Arbor-vilce, 
 juniper, with species of Astragalus, kc. Here also are Indigo/era 
 and dwarf laburnum. 
 
 Lower again, and down to 3000 feet, we have wild olive, species 
 of rock-rose, wild privet, acacias and mimosas, barberry, and Zizy- 
 phus; and in the eastern ramifications of tho chain, Ckamarops 
 humilis (which is applied to a variety of useful purposes), Bignonia 
 or trumpet flower, sissu, Salvadora versica verbena, uuanthus, 
 varieties of Gtsverce. 
 
 The lowest terminal ridges, especially towards the west, are, as 
 has been said,- naked in aspect. Their scanty vegetation is almost 
 wholly herbal ; shrubs are only occasional ; trees almost non- 
 existent. Labiate, composite, and umbelliferous plants are most 
 common. Ferns and mosses are almost confined to the higher 
 ranges. 
 
 1 Chiefly from Eellew. 
 
 In the low brushwood scattered over portions of the dreary plains 
 of the " Khorasan" table-lands, we find leguminous thorny planU 
 of the papilionaceous sub-order, such as camel-thorn (Hedysarum 
 Alhagi), Astragalus in several varieties, spiny rest-harrow (Ononis 
 spinosa), the fibrous roots of which often serve as a tooth-brush ; 
 plants of the sub-order Mimosea:, as the sensitive mimosa ; a plant ol 
 the Rue family, called by tin- Datives lipid; the common worm- 
 wood ; also certain orchids, and several specie! of Salsola. Tho 
 rue and wormwood are in general use as domestic medicines — the 
 former for rheumatism and neuralgia; the latter in fever, debility, 
 and dyspepsia, as well as for a vermifuge. The lipad, owing to its 
 heavy nauseous odour, is believed to keep off evil spirits. In soma 
 places, occupying the sides and hollows of ravines, are found the 
 rose bay (.Xcrium Oleander), called in Persian kluxr-zarah, or ass- 
 bane, the wild laburnum, and various Indigofercc. 
 
 In cultivated districts tho chief trees seen are mulberry, willow, 
 poplar, ash, and occasionally the plane ; but these are due to man's 
 pluming. 
 
 Uncultivated Products of Value. — One of the most important of 
 these is the gum-resin of Karthex assafatida, which grows abun- 
 dantly in the high and diy plains of Western Afghanistan, espe- 
 cially between Kandahar and Herat. The depot for it is Kandahar, 
 whence it finds its way to India, where it is much used as a condi- 
 ment. It is not so used in Afghanistan, but the Seistan people 
 eat the green stalks of the plant preserved in brine. The collection 
 of the gum-resin is almost entirely in the hands of the Kakar clan 
 of Afghans. 
 
 In the highlands of Kabul edible rhubarb is an important local 
 luxury. The plants grow wild in the mountains. The bleached 
 rhubarb, which lias a very delicate flavour, is altered by covering 
 the young leaves, as they sprout from the soil, with loose stones or 
 an empty jar. The leaf-stalks are gathered by the neighbouring 
 hill people, and carried down for sale. Bleached and unbleached 
 rhubarb are both largely consumed, both raw and cooked. 
 
 The walnut and edible pine-nut ore both wild growths, which are 
 exported. 
 
 The sanjit (Elceagnus orienlalis), common on the banks of water- 
 courses, furnishes an edible fruit. An orchis found in the moun- 
 tains yields the dried tuber which affords the nutritious mucilage 
 called salep; a good deal of this goes to India. 
 
 Pistacia khinjak affords a mastic. The fruit, mixed with its 
 resin, is used for food by the Achakzais in Southern Afghanistan. 
 The true pistachio is found only on the northern frontier ; the nuts 
 are imported from Badakhshan and Kunduz. 
 
 Mushrooms and other fungi are largely used as food, especially 
 by the Hindus of the towns, to whom they supply a substitute for 
 meat. 
 
 Manna, of at least two kinds, is sold in the bazaars. One, called 
 luranjb'm, appears to exude, in small round tears, from the camel- 
 thorn, and also from the dwarf tamarisk ; the other, sir-kasht, in 
 large grains and irregular masses, or cakes, with bits of twig im- 
 bedded, is obtained from a tree which the natives call siah chob 
 (black wood), thought by Bellew to be a Fraxinus or Ornus. 
 
 Agrictjltuee. — In most parts of the country there are 
 two harvests, as generally in India. One of these, called 
 by the Afghans bahdrak, or the spring crop, is sown in the 
 end of autumn, and reaped in summer. It consists of 
 wheat, barley, and a variety of lantils. The other, called 
 pdizah or tirmdi, the autumnal, 'is sown in the end of 
 spring, and reaped in autumn. It consists of rice, varieties 
 of millet and sorghum, of maize, Phaseolus Mungo, tobacco, 
 beet, turnips, &c. The loftier regions have but one har- 
 vest. 
 
 Wheat is the staple food over the greater part of the 
 country. Rice is largely distributed, but is most abundant 
 in Swat (independent), and best in Peshawar (British). It 
 ia also the chief crop in Kurram. In much of the eastern 
 mountainous country bdjra (Holcus tpicatus) is the chief 
 grain. Most English and Indian garden-stuffs are qulti- 
 vated; turnips in some places very largely, as cattle food. 
 
 The growth of melons, -water-melons, and other cucurbi- 
 taceous plants is reckoned very important, especially near 
 towns ; and this crop counts for a distinct harvest. 
 
 Sugar-cane is grown only in the rich plains; and tnough 
 cotton is grown in the warmer tracts, most of the cotton 
 cloth is imported. 
 
 Madder is an important item of tho spring crop in 
 Ghazni and Kandahar districts, and generally over the 
 west, and supplies the Indian demand. It is said to be 
 very profitable, though it takes three years to mature.
 
 ZOOLOGY.] 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 233 
 
 Saffron is grown and exported. The castor-oil plant h 
 everywhere common, and furnishes most of the oil of the 
 country. Tobacco is grown very generally ; that of Kan- 
 dahar has much repute, and is exported to India and 
 Bokhara. Two crops of leaves are taken. 
 
 Lucerne and a trefoil called shaftal form important 
 fodder crops in the western parts of the country, and, 
 when irrigated, are said to afford ten or eleven cuttings in 
 the season. The komal (Prangos pabularia) is abundant in 
 the hill country of Ghazni, and is said to extend through 
 the Hazara country to Herat. It is stored for winter 
 use, and forms an excellent fodder. Others are derived 
 from the IIolcus sorghum, and from two kinds of panick. 
 It is common to cut down the green wheat and barley 
 before the ear forms, for fodder, and the repetition of this, 
 with barley at least, is said not to injure the grain crop ; 
 Bellow gives the following statement of the manner in which 
 the soil is sometimes worked in the Kandahar district : — 
 Barley is sown in November; in March and April it is 
 twice cut for fodder; in June the grain is reaped, the 
 ground is ploughed and manured, and sown with tobacco, 
 which yields two cuttings. The ground is then prepared 
 for carrots and turnips, which are gathered in November 
 or December. 
 
 Of gTeat moment are the fruit crops. All European 
 fruits are produced profusely, in many varieties, and of 
 excellent quality. Fresh or preserved, they form a prin- 
 cipal food of a large class of the people, and the dry fruit 
 is largely exported. In the valleys of Kabul, mulberries 
 are dried, and packed in skins for winter use. This mul- 
 berry cake is often reduced to flour, and used as such, 
 forming in some valleys the main food of the people. 
 
 Grapes are grown very extensively, and the varieties 
 are very numerous. The vines are sometimes trained on 
 trellises, but most frequently over ridges of earth 8 or 10 
 feet high. The principal part of the garden lands in vil- 
 lages round Kandahar is vineyard, and the produce must 
 bo enormous. 
 
 Open canals are usual in the Kabul valley, and in 
 eastern Afghanistan generally; but over all the western 
 parts of the country much use is made of the karez, which 
 is a subterranean aqueduct uniting the waters of several 
 springs, and conducting their combined volume to the 
 surface at a lower level. Elphinstone Had heard of such 
 conduits 36 miles in length. 
 
 Animal Kingdom. — As regards vertebrate zoology, 
 Afghanistan lies on the frontier of three regions, viz., the 
 Eurasian, the Ethiopian (to which region Biluchestan 
 seems to belong), and the Indo-Malayan. Hence it natu- 
 rally partakes somewhat of the forms of each, but is in 
 the main Eurasian. 
 
 Mammals. — Monkeys are stated by Mr Bellew to exist in Yusuf- 
 zai, and perhaps extend to some other districts north of the Kabul 
 river ; but no species has teen named. 
 
 Felidm. — F. catus, F. chaus (both Eurasian); F. caracal (Eur., 
 Ind., Ethiop.), about Kandahar; a small leopard, stated to be 
 found almost all over the country, perhaps rather the cheeta (F. 
 jubalus, Ind. and Eth.) ; F. pardus, the common leopard (Eth. 
 and Ind.) The tiger is said to exist in the north-eastern hill 
 country, which is quasi-Indian. 
 
 Canidw. — The jackal (C. aureus, Euras., Ind., Eth.) abounds on 
 the Helmand and Argand-ab, and probably elsewhere. Wolves ((?. 
 Bengalensis) are formidable in the wilder tracts, and assemble in 
 troop on the snow, destroying cattle, and sometimes attacking 
 single horsemen. The hyama (R. striata, Africa to India) is com- 
 mon. These do not hunt in packs, but will sometimes singly 
 attack a bullock : they and the wolves make havoc among sheep. 
 A favourite feat of the boldest of the young men of southern 
 Afghanistan is to enter the hyama's den, single-handed, muffle and 
 tie him.. There are wild "dogs, according to Elphinstone and 
 Conolly. The small Indian fox (Vulpes Bengalensis) is found; 
 also V. flavescens, common to India and Persia, the skin of which 
 is much used as a fur. 
 
 itustclidas. — Species of Mungoose (Ecrpcstcs), species of otter, 
 
 Muslela crminea, and two ferrets, one of them with-tortoise-shcll 
 marks, tamed by the Afghans to keep down vermin ; a marten (it. 
 flavigula, Indian). 
 
 Bears are two : a black one, probably L'rsus torqualus; and one 
 of a dirty yellow, U. Isalellinus, botn Himalyan species. 
 
 Ruminants. — Capra cegagrus and C. megaceros; a wild sheep 
 (Oris cycloceros or Vignc ; ) ; Gazella subgutturosa — these are often 
 netted in batches when they descend to drink at a stream; G. 
 dorcas, perhaps; Ccrvus IVallichii, the Indian barasingha, and 
 probably some other Indian deer, in the north-eastern mountairs. 
 
 The wild hog (Sus scro/a) is found on the Lower Helmand. The 
 wild ass, Gorkhar of Persia (Equus onager), is frequent on the sandy 
 tracts in the south-west. Neither elephant nor rhinoceros now 
 exists within many hundred miles of Afghanistan ; but there is 
 ample evidence that the latter was hunted in the Peshawar plain 
 down to the middle of the 16th century. 
 
 Talpidoz. — A mole, probably T. Europcca; Sorcx Indicus; 
 Erinaceus collaris (Indian), and Er. auritus (Eurasian). 
 
 Bats, believed to be Phyllorhinus cincraccus (Panjab species), 
 Scotophilia Bellii (W. India), Vcsp. auritus and V. barbastcllus, 
 both found from England to India. 
 
 Rodcntia. — A squirrel (Sciurus Syriacusf) ; Mus Indicus and it. 
 Gcrbcllinus ; a gerboa (Dipus telum I) ; Alactaga Bactriava ; GerbiU 
 lus Indicus, and G. erythrinus (Persian and Indian) ; Lagomys Nepal- 
 ensis, a central Asian species. A hare, probably L. ruficaudatus. 
 
 Birds. — The largest list of Afghan birds that we know of is given 
 by Captain Huttonin the J. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xvi. p. 775, seqq.; 
 but it is confessedly far from complete. Of 124 species in that list, 
 95 are pronounced to be Eurasian, 17 Indian, 10 both Eurasian and 
 Indian, 1 (Turtur risorius) Eur., Ind., and Eth.; and 1 only, 
 Carpodacus (Bueanetcs) crassirostris, peculiar to the country. 
 Afghanistan appears to be, during the breeding season, the retreat 
 of a variety of Indian and some African (desert) forms, whilst in 
 winter the avifauna becomes overwhelmingly Eurasian. 
 
 Reptiles. — The following particulars are from Gray: — Lizards — 
 Fscudopus gracilis (Eur.), Argyrophis Eorsfieldii, Salor. Eorsfieldii, 
 Calotcs Maria, C. versicolor, C. minor, C. Emma, Phrynoccphalxis 
 Tickclii — all Indian forms. A tortoise (T. Eorsfieldii) ajjpears to be 
 peculiar to Kabul. Theie are apparently no salamanders or tailed 
 Amphibia. The frogs are partly Eurasian, partly Indian. And the 
 same-may be said of the fish ; but they are as vet most imperfectly 
 known. 
 
 Domestic Animals. — The camel is of a more robust 
 and compact breed than the tall beast used in India, and 
 is more carefully tended. The two-humoed Bactrian camel 
 is sometimes seen, but is not a native. 
 
 Horses form a staple export to India. The best of these, 
 however, are brought from Maimana and other places on 
 the Khorasan and Turkman frontier. The indigenous 
 horse is the yabu, a stout, heavy-shouldered animal, of 
 about 14 hands high, used chiefly for burden, but also for 
 riding. It gets over incredible distances at an ambling 
 shuffle; but is unfit for fast work, and cannot stand exces- 
 sive heat. The breed of horses was improving much under 
 the Am ir Dost Mahommed, who took much interest in it 
 Generally, colts are sold and worked too young. 
 
 The cows of Kandahar and Seistan give very large quan- 
 tities of milk. They seem to be of the humped variety, but 
 with the hump evanescent. ' Dairy produce is important 
 'in Afghan diet, especially the pressed and dried curd 
 called krut (an article and name perhaps introduced bv the 
 Mongols). 
 
 There are two varieties of sheep, both having the fat tail 
 One bears a white fleece, the other a russet or black one. 
 Much of the white wool is exported to Persia, and now 
 largely to Europe by Bombay. Flocks of sheep are the 
 main wealth of the nomad population, and mutton is the 
 chief animal food of the nation. In autumn large numbers 
 are slaughtered, their carcases cut up, rubbed with salt, 
 and dried in' the sun. The same is done with beef and 
 camel's flesh. 
 
 The goats, generally black or parti-coloured, seem to bo 
 a degenerate variety of the shawl-goat 
 
 The climate is found to be favourable to dog-breeding. 
 Pointers are 'bred in the Kohistan of Kabul and above 
 Jalalabad — large, heavy, slow-hunting, but fine-nosed 
 and staunch ; very like the old double-nosed Spanish 
 pointer. There are greyhounds also, butinferior in speed
 
 234 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 [trade. 
 
 to second-rate English dogs. The khandi is another 
 ^porting dog, most useful, but of complex breed. He is 
 often used for turning up quail and partridge to the 
 hawk. 
 
 Industrial Pboducts. — These are not important. Silk 
 is produced in Kabul, Jalalabad, Kandahar, and Herat, and 
 chiefly consumed in domestic manufactures, though the 
 best qualities are carried to the Panjab and Bombay. 
 
 Excellent carpets — soft, brilliant, and durable in colour — 
 are made at Herat. They are usually sold in India as 
 Persian. Excellent felts and a variety of woven goods 
 are made from the wool of the sheep, goat, and Bac- 
 trian cameL A manufacture, of which there is now a con- 
 siderable export to the Panjab for the winter clothing of 
 our irregular troops, besides a large domestic use, is that 
 of the postin, or sheepskin pelisse. The long wool remains 
 on, and the skin is tanned yellow, with admirable softness 
 and suppleness. Pomegranate rind is a chief material in 
 the preparation. 
 
 Rosaries are extensively made at Kandahar from a soft 
 crystallised silicate of magnesia (chrysolite). The best are 
 of a semi-transparent straw colour, like amber. They are 
 largely exported, especially to Mecca. 
 
 Trade. — Practically, there are no navigable rivers in 
 Afghanistan, nor does there exist any wheeled carriage. 
 Hence goods are earned on beasts of burden, chiefly camels, 
 along roads which often lie through close and craggy 
 defiles, and narrow stony valleys among bare mountains, 
 or over waste plains. Though from time immemorial the 
 larger part of the products of India destined for western 
 Asia and Europe has been exported by sea, yet at one time 
 valuable caravans of these products, with the same destina- 
 tion, used to traverse these rugged Afghan roads. 
 
 The great trade routes are the following : — 
 
 1. From Persia by Mesh'bed to Herat. 
 
 2. Fn»m Bokhara by Merv to Herat. 
 
 3. From the same quarter by Karshi, Balkh. and Khulm. Vo 
 Kabul. 
 
 i. From the Panjab by Peshawar and the Tatara or Abkhanab 
 Passes to KaBul. 
 
 5. From the Panjab oy the Ghawalari Pass towards Ghazni. 
 
 6. From Sind by the Bolan Pass to Kandahar. 
 
 There is also a route from eastern Turkistnn by Chitral to Jala- 
 labad, or to Peshawar by Dir : but it is doubtful how far there is 
 any present traffic by it. 
 
 Towards Siud the chief exports from or through 
 Afghanistan are wool, horses, silk, fruit, madder, and assa- 
 fcetida. The staple of local production exported from 
 Kandahar is dried fruit. The horse trade in this direction 
 ia chiefly carried on by the Syads of Pishin, Kakars, Bakh- 
 tiyaris, and Biluchis. The Syads also do, or did, dabble 
 largely in slave-dealing. The Hazaras furnished the largest 
 part of the victims. 
 
 Burnes's early anticipation of a large traffic in wool from 
 the regions west of the Indus has been amply verified, for 
 the trade has for many years been of growing importance; 
 and in 1871-72 2,000,000 lb were shipped from Karachi 
 The importation to Sind is chiefly in the hands of Shikar- 
 pur merchants. Indeed, yearly all the trade from southern 
 Afghanistan is managed bj Hindus. That between Mesh'hed, 
 Herat, and Kandahar is carried on by Persians, who bring 
 down silk, arms, turquoises, horses, carpets, &c, and take 
 back wool, skins, and woollen fabrics. 
 
 The chief imports by Peshawar from India into Afghanis- 
 tan are cotton, woollen, and silk goods; from England, 
 coarse country cloths, sugar and indigo, Benares brocades, 
 gold thread and lace, scarves, leather, groceries, and drugs. 
 The exports are raw silk and silk fabrics of Bokhara, gold 
 and silver wire (Russian), horses, almonds and raisins, and 
 fruits generally, fure (including dressed for skins and I 
 •heep skins), and bullion, ' 
 
 The trade with India was thus estimated in 1862: 
 
 Exports to India. 
 
 Import* fiom 
 India. 
 
 By Peshawar JE156.513 £120,^43 £277,156 
 
 By Ghawalari Pass 130,000 104,000 294,000 
 
 By Bolaa Pass.. 31,870 18,892 50,'?62 
 
 £318,3S3 
 
 £303,535 
 
 £C21,918 
 
 But this omits some passes, and the Bolan exports do not in- 
 clude the large item of wool which enters Sind further south. 
 A relic of the old times of Asiatic trade has come down 
 to our day in the habits of the class of Lohani Afghan 
 traders, commonly called Povindahs, who spend their lives 
 in carrying on traffic between India, Khorasan, and Bok- 
 hara, by means of their strings of camels nnd ponies, 
 banded in large armed caravans, in order to restrict those 
 recurring exactions that would render trade impossible. 
 Bullying, fighting, evading, or bribing, they battle their way 
 twice a year between Bokhara and the Indus. Their sum- 
 mer pastures are in the highlands of Ghazni and Kala't-i- 
 Ghilzai In the autumn they descend the Sulunani passes. 
 At the Indus, in these days, they have to deposit all 
 weapons ; but once across that, they are in security. They 
 leave their families and their camels in the Panjab plains, 
 and take their goods by rail to all the Gangetic cities, or 
 by boat and steamer to Karachi and Bombay. Even in 
 Asam or in distant Rangoon the Povindah is to be seen, 
 pre-eminent by stature and by lofty air, not less than by 
 rough locks and filthy clothes. Iu March they rejuin 
 their families, and move up again to the Ghilzai highlands, 
 sending on caravans anew to Kabul, Bokhara, Kandahar, 
 and Heiat, the whole returning in time to accompany the 
 tribe down the passes in the autumn. The Povindah trar^e 
 by all the passes is now estimated to reach £1,500,000 in 
 value annually. 
 
 Inhabitants of Afghanistan. — These may first be 
 divided into Afghan and non-Afghan, of whom the Afghan 
 people are predominant in numbers, power, and character. 
 The Afghans themselves do not recognise as entitled to 
 that name all to whom we give it. According to Bellew 
 they exclude certain large tribes, who seem, nevertheless, . 
 to be essentially of the same stock, speaking the same 
 language, observing the same customs, and possessing the 
 same moral and physical characteristics. These are recog- 
 nised as Pathdns, but not as Afghans, and are all located 
 in the vicinity of the Sulimani mountains and their off- 
 shoots towards the east. We do not attempt to name 
 them, because the information on the subject seems con- 
 tradictory. There are tribes of somewhat similar character 
 ■elsewhere, such as the Wardaks, to the south of Kabul; 
 and there are again some tribes, in contact with these and 
 with Afghan tribes, who speak the Afghan language, and 
 have many Afghan customs, but are different in aspect, 
 and seem not to be regarded as Pathan at alL Such are 
 the Turis and Jajis of Kurram. 
 
 Of the Afghans proper there are about a dozen gTeat 
 clans, with numerous subdivisions. Of the great clans 
 the following are the most important : — 
 
 The Durr&nis, originally called Abdalis, received the 
 former name from a famous clansman, Ahmed Shah. Their 
 country may be regarded as the whole of the south and 
 south-west 'of the Afghan plateau. 
 
 The Ghilzais are the strongest of the Afghan clans, and 
 perhaps the bravest They were supreme in Afghanistan 
 in the beginning of last century, and for a time possessed 
 the throne of Ispahan. They occupy the high plateau 
 north of Kandahar, and extend, roughly speaking, east- 
 ward to the Sulimani mountains, and north to the Kabul 
 river (though in places passing these limits), and they 
 extend down the Kabul river to Jalalabad On the British
 
 INHABITANTS.] 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 235 
 
 invasion the Ghilzais showed a rooted hostility to the 
 foreigner, and great fidelity to Dost Mahommed, though 
 of a rival clan. It is remarkable that the old Arab geo- 
 graphers of the 10th and 11th centuries place in the 
 Gbiliai'country a people called Khi/ijis, whom they call a 
 tribe of Turks, to which belonged a famous family of 
 Dehli kings. The probability of the identity of Khilijis 
 and Ghilzais is obvious, and the question touches others 
 regarding the origin of the Afghans, but it does not seem 
 to have been gone into. 
 
 The Yvmfzais occupy an extensive tract of hills and 
 valleys north of Peshawar, including part of the Peshawar 
 plain. Except those within our Peshawar district, they 
 are independent; they are noted even among Afghans for 
 their turbulence. 
 
 The Kakars, still retaining in great measure their inde- 
 pendence, occupy a wide extent of elevated country in 
 the south-east of Afghanistan, among the spurs of the 
 Toba and Sulimani mountains, bordering on the Biluch 
 tribes. But the region is still very imperfectly known. 
 
 Of the non-Afghan population associated with the Af- 
 ghans, the Tajiks come first in importance and numbers. 
 They are intermingled with the Afghans over the countiy, 
 though their chief localities are in the west. They are 
 regarded as descendants of the original occupants of that 
 part of the country, of the old Iranian race; they call 
 themselves Parsiwan, and speak a dialect of Persian. 
 They are a fine athletic people, generally fair in com- 
 plexion, and assimilate in aspect, in dress, and much in 
 manners to the Afghans. But they are never nomadic. 
 They are mostly agriculturists, whilst those in towns follow 
 mechanical trades and the like, a thing which the Afghan 
 never does. They are generally devoid of the turbulence 
 of the Afghani, whom they are content to regard as masters 
 or superiors, and lead a frugal, industrious life, without 
 aspiring to a share in the government of the country. 
 Many, however, become soldiers in the Amir's army, and 
 many enlist in our local Panjab regiments. They are zealous 
 Sunnis. The Tajiks of the Daman-i-Koh of Kabul are 
 said to be exceptional in turbulent and vindictive character. 
 
 The KizilL'ishes may be regarded as modern Persians, 
 but more strictly they are Persiauised Turks, like the 
 present royal race and predominant class in Persia. They 
 speak pure Persiau. Their immigration dates only from 
 the time of Nadir Shah (1737). They Jre chiefly to be 
 found in towns as merchants, physicians, scribes, petty 
 traders, (fee., and are justly looked on as the more educated 
 and superior class of the population. At Kabul they con- 
 stitute the bulk of the Amir's cavalry and artillery. Many 
 serve in our Indian regiments of irregular cavalry, and 
 bear a character for smartness and intelligence, as well as 
 good riding. They are Shiahs, and heretics in Afghan eyes. 
 
 It is to the industry of the Parsiwans and Kizilbashes 
 that the country is indebted for whatever wealth it pos- 
 sesses, but few of them ever attain a position which is not 
 in some degree subservient to the Afghan. 
 
 The Hazaras have their stronghold and proper home 
 in the wild mountainous country on the north-west of 
 Afghanistan proper, including those western extensions of 
 Hindu Kusb, to which modern geographers have often 
 applied the ancient name of Paropamisas. In these their 
 habitations range generally from a height of 5000 feet to 
 ] 0,000 feet above the sea. 
 
 The Hazaras generally have features of Mongol type, 
 often to a degree that we might call exaggerated^ and 
 there can be no doubt that they are mainly descended 
 from fragments of Mongol tribes who came from the east 
 with the armies of Chinghiz Khan and his family, though 
 other racs may be represented among the tribes called 
 I'.uiras. The Hazards generally are said by Majer Leech 
 
 to be called Moghals by the Ghilzais; and one tribe, 6tiH 
 bearing the specific name of Mongol, and speaking a 
 Mongol dialect, is found near the head waters of the 
 Murghab, and also further south on the skirts of the Ghur 
 mountains. But it is remarkable that the Hazaras generally 
 speak a purely Persian dialect. The Mongols of the host 
 of Chinghiz were divided into tomans (ten thousands) and 
 hazaras (thousands), and it is probably in this use of tho 
 word that the origin of its present application is to be 
 sought. The oldest occurrence of this application that M. 
 de Khanikoff has met with is in a rescript of Ghazan 
 Khan of Persia, regarding the security of roads in Khorasan, 
 dated A.H. 694 (a.d. 1294-95). 
 
 Though the Hazaras pay tribute to the Afghan chiefs, 
 they never do so unless payment is enforced by amis. The 
 country which they occupy is very extensive, embracing 
 the upper valleys of the Arghand-ab and the Helmand, 
 both sides of the main range of Hindu Kush, nearly as far 
 east as the longitude of Andarab, the hill country of 
 Bamian, and that at the head waters of the Balkh river, 
 the Murghab, and the Hari-Kud; altogether an area of 
 something like 30,000 square miles. The Hazaras are 
 accused of very loose domestic morals, like the ancient 
 Massogetw, and the charge seems to be credited, at least 
 of certain tribes. They make good powder, are good 
 shots, and, in spite of the nature of their country, sue good 
 riders, riding at speed down very steep declivities. They 
 are said to have a yodel like the Swiss. They are often 
 sold as slaves, and as such are prized. During the winter 
 many spread over Afghanistan, and even into the Panjab, 
 in search of work. Excepting near Ghazni, where they 
 hold some lands and villages; the position of the .Hazaras 
 found in the proper Afghan country is a menial one. They 
 are Shiahs in religion, with the exception of one fine tribe 
 called the Zeidna.t Hazaras, occupying the old territory of 
 Badghis, north of Herat. 
 
 Eimdk is a term for a sept or section of a tribe. It Las 
 come to be applied, much as hazara, to certain nomadic 
 or semi-nomadic tribes west of the Hazaras of whom we 
 have been speaking, and immediately north of Herat. 
 These tribes, it is said, were originally termed " the four 
 Eimaks. " It is difficult in the present state of information 
 regarding them, sometimes contradiclory, to discern what is 
 the broad distinction between the Eimaks and the Hazaras, 
 unless it be that the Eimaks arc predominantly of Iranian or 
 quasi-Iranian blood, the Hazaras Turanian. The Eimaks 
 are also Sunnis. Part of them are subject to Persia. 
 
 llindkis. — This is the name given to people of Hindu 
 descent scattered over Afghanistan. They are said to be 
 of the Kshalri or military caste. They are occupied in 
 trade ; they are found in most of the large villages, and in 
 the towns form an important part of the population, doing 
 all the banking business of the country, and holding its 
 chief trade in their hands. They pay a high poll-tax, and 
 are denied many privileges, but thrive notwithstanding. 
 The Jats of Afghanistan doubtless belong to the same 
 vast race as the Jats and Jats who form so large a part of 
 the population of the territories now governed from Lahore 
 and Karachi, and whose origin is so obscure. They are a 
 fine athletic, dark, handsome race, considerable in numbers, 
 but poor, and usually gaining a livelihood as farm-ser- 
 vants, barbers, sweepers, musicians, &c 
 
 Biluchis. — Many of these squat ampng the abandoned 
 tracts on the lower Helmand; a fierce* and savage people, 
 professing Islam, but not observing its precepts, and hold- 
 ing the grossest superstitions; vendetta their most stringent 
 law; insensible to privation, and singularly tolerant of 
 heat; camel-like in capacity to do without drink; superior 
 to the Afghans in daring and address, which arc displayed 
 in robber raids ccrried into the very heart of Persia.
 
 236 A F G H A 
 
 Tnere remain a variety of tribes in the hill country 
 aorth of the Kabul river, speaking various languages, 
 seemingly of Prakritic character, and known as Kohistanis, 
 Laghmanis, Pashais, ifcc. ; apparently converted remnants 
 of the aboriginal tribes of the Kabul basin, and more or 
 less kindred to the still unconverted tribes of Kafiristan, to 
 the Chitral people, and perhaps to the Dard tribes who he 
 to the north of the Afghan country on the Indus. 
 
 An able officer of the staff in India (CoL Macgregor) has 
 lately made a diligent attempt ,to estimate the population 
 of Afghanistan, which he bring' to 4,901,000 souls. This 
 includes the estimated population of Afghan Turkestan, the 
 people of" Chitral, the Kafirs, and the independent Yusufzais. 
 We shall deduct the three first: — 
 
 4,901,006 
 
 A fall.™ Turkestan 012,000 
 
 Chitialis and Kafirs 150,000 
 
 792,000 
 
 4,109,000 
 which may be thus roughly divided — ■ 
 
 Eimaks and Hazaras 400,000 
 
 Tajiks 500,000 
 
 Kizilbaslies 150,000 
 
 llindkis and Jats 600,000 
 
 Kohistanis, &c 200,000 
 
 Afghans and Pathans, including 400,000 in- j „ „,„ „.. 
 
 dependent Yusufzais, &c J ' * 
 
 Total 4,109,000 
 
 The Afghans, in government and general manners, have 
 a likeness to other Mahommedan nations; but they have 
 also many peculiarities. 
 
 Besides their division into clans and tribes, the whole 
 Afghan people may be divided into dwellers in tents and 
 dwellers in houses; and this division is apparently not 
 Coincident with tribal divisions, for of several of the great 
 elans, at least a part is nomad and a part settled. Such, 
 »,g., is the case with the Durrani and with the Ghilzai. 
 
 Nomad Afghans exist in the Kabul basin, but their 
 proper field is that part of their territory which the Afghans 
 include in Khorasan, with its wide plains. These people 
 subsist on the produce of their flocks, and rarely cultivate. 
 They may, perhaps, pay something to the Kabul govern- 
 ment through their chief, and they contribute soldiers to 
 the regular army, besides forming the bulk of the militia; 
 but they have little relation to the government, and seldom 
 enter towns unless to sell their produce. They are under 
 tome indefinite control by their chiefs, to whom serious 
 disputes are referred. Petty matters are settled by the 
 "greybeards" of the community, guided by the Afghan 
 traditional code. Many of the nomad tribes are professed 
 and incorrigible' thieves. Among certain tribes the cere- 
 mony of naming a male child is accompanied by the sym- 
 bolical act of passing him through a hole made in the wall 
 of a house, whilst a volley of musketry is fired overhead. 1 
 
 The settled Afghans form the village communities, and 
 in part the population of the few towns. Their chief 
 occupation is with the soil. They form the core of the 
 nation and the main part of the army. Nearly all own 
 the land on which they live, and which they cultivate with 
 their own hands or by hired labour. Roundly speaking, 
 agriculture and soldiering are their sole occupations. No 
 Afghan will pursue a handicraft or keep a shop, though, 
 as we have seen, certain pastoral tribes engage largely in 
 travelling trade and transport of goods. 
 
 As a race, the Afghans are very handsome and athletic, 
 often with fair complexion and flowing beard, generally 
 black or brown, sometimes, though rarely, fed; the features 
 
 1 Of one tribe, at least, of which this is told, the Afghan blood is 
 doubtful. 
 
 N I S T A N 
 
 [inhabitants, 
 
 highly aquiline. The hair is shaved off from the forchca.l 
 to the top of the head, the remainder at tho sides being 
 allowed to fall in large curls over tho shoulders. Their 
 step is full of resolution; their bearing proud and apt to 
 be rough. 
 
 The women have hardsome features of Jewish cast (the 
 last trait often true also of tho men); fair complexions, 
 sometimes rosy, though usually a pale sallow; hair braided 
 and plaited behind in two longtresse3 terminating in silken 
 tassels. They are rigidly secluded, but intrigue is frequent 
 In some parts of the country the engaged lover is admitted 
 to visits of courtship, analogous to old Welsh customs. 
 
 The Afghans, inured to bloodshed from childhood, aro 
 familiar with death, and are audacious in attack, but easily 
 discouraged by failure; excessively turbulent and unsub- 
 , missive to law or discipline; apparently frank and affable 
 in manner, especially when they hope to gain somo object, 
 but capable of the grossest brutality when that hope ceases. 
 They are 'unscrupulous in perjury, treacherous, vain, and in- 
 satiable, passionate in vindictiveness, which they will satisfy 
 at the cost of their own lives and in the most cruel manner. 
 Nowhere is crime committed on such trifling grounds, or 
 with such general impunity, though when it is punished the 
 punishment is atrocious. Among themselves the Afghans 
 are quarrelsome, intriguing, and distrustful; estrangements 
 and affrays are of constant occurrence; the traveller con- 
 ceals and misrepresents tho time and direction of his 
 journey. The Afghan is by breed and nature a bird of 
 prey. If from habit and tradition he respects a stranger 
 within his threshold, he yet considers it legitimate to warn 
 a neighbour of the prey that is afoot, or even to overtake 
 and plunder his guest after he has quitted his roof. Tho 
 repression of crime and the demand of taxation he regards 
 alike as tyranny. The Afghans are eternally boasting of 
 thoir lineage, their independence, and their prowess. They 
 look on the Afghans as the first of nations, and each man 
 looks on himself as the equal of any Afghan, if not as tho 
 superior of all others. Yet when they hear of some atro- 
 cious deed they will exclaim — "An Afghan job that!" They 
 are capable of enduring great privation, but when abund- 
 ance conies their powers of eating astonish an European. 
 Still, sobriety and hardiness characterise the bulk of tho 
 people, though the higher classes arc too often stained with 
 deep and degrading debauchery. 
 
 The first impression made by the Afghans :<s favourable. 
 The European, especially if he come from India, is charmed 
 by their apparently frank, open-hearted, hospitable, and 
 manly manners; but the charm is not of long duration, and 
 he finds that under this frank demeanour there is craft as 
 inveterate, if not as accomplished, as in any Hindu. 
 
 Such is the character of the Afghans as drawn by Forrier 
 and other recent writers, and undoubtedly founded on their 
 experience, though perhaps the dark colour is laid on too 
 universally. Tho impression is very different from that 
 left by the accounts of Elphinstone and Burnes. Yet most 
 of the individual features can be traced in Elphinstone, 
 though drawn certainly under less temptation to look on 
 the darker side, owing to the favourable circumstances of 
 his intercourse with the Afghans, and touched with a more 
 delicate and friendly hand, perhaps lightened by wider 
 sympathies. Sir H. Edwardes, who had intimate dealings 
 with the Afghans for many years, takes special exception 
 to Elphinstone's high estimate of their character, and 
 appeals to the experience of every officer who had served 
 in the country. " Nothing," he sums up, " is finer than 
 their physique, or worse than their morale." 
 
 Many things in Afghan character point to a nation in 
 decadence — the frank manners and joyous temper, the 
 liospitable traditions, the martial and independent spirit, 
 the love of field sports, the nobility of aspect, suggest 8
 
 INSTIIUTIONS.] 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 237 
 
 time when these were more than superficial and deceptive 
 indications of character, and were not marred by greed and 
 treacherous cruelty 
 
 Political Institutions. — The political institutions of 
 the Afghans present tte rude and disjointed materials of a 
 free constitution. . The nation is theoretically divided into 
 four great stocks," supposed to spring from four brothers. 
 But these four divisions are practically obsolete, and only 
 rome up in genealogies. Each tribe has split into several 
 branches, and in the more numerous and scattered tribes 
 these branches have separated, and each has its own chief. 
 They retain, however, the common name, and an idea of 
 community in blood and interests. 
 
 The type of the Afghan institutions is perhaps best seen 
 in some of the independent tribes near the British frontier. 
 These cling most closely to the democratic" traditions. 
 Their rude state of society is held together by a code as 
 rude, which is acknowledged, however, and understood by 
 every one, and enforced by the community, every member 
 of which considers its infringement as an act committed 
 against his own privileges. The Maliks or chiefs are the 
 representatives of the tribe, division, or family to which 
 they each belong, but they possess no independent power 
 of action, and before they can speak in council, they must 
 have collected the wishes of the bodies which they represent. 
 The men of the section (kandi) of a village, having come 
 to a decision, send their representative to a council of the 
 whole village, and these again to that of the sept (Mail), 
 and the appointed chiefs of the septs finally assemble as 
 the council of the ulus or tribe. These meetings, in all their 
 stages, are apt to be stormy. If persuasion and argument 
 fail to produce unanimity, no further steps can be taken, 
 unless one party be much the weaker, when sometimes the 
 stronger side will forcibly extort assent. When' once a 
 council has decided, implicit compliance is incumbent on 
 the tribe under heavy penalties, and the maliks have the 
 power of enforcing these. 
 
 Justice is administered in the towns, more or less defect- 
 ively, according to Mahommedan law, by a kazi and muftis. 
 But the unwritten code by which Afghan communities in 
 their typical state are guided, and the maxims of which 
 penetrate the whole nation, is the Pukhtunwali, or usage 
 of the Pathans, a rude system of customary law, founded 
 on principles such as one might suppose to have prevailed 
 before the institution of civil government. 1 
 
 A prominent law in this code is that called Nanawatai, 
 or " entering in." By this law the Pathan is bound to 
 grant any boon claimed by the person who passes his 
 threshold and invokes its sanctions, even at the sacrifice of 
 Ids own life and property. So also the Pathan is bound 
 to feed and shelter any traveller claiming hospitality. Re- 
 taliation must be exacted by the Pathan for every injury 
 or insult, and for the life of a kinsman. If immediate 
 opportunity fail, a man will dodge L : s foe for years, with 
 the cruel purpose ever uppermost, using every treacherous 
 artifice to entrap him. To omit such obligations, above all 
 the vendetta, exposes the Pathan to scorn. The injuries of 
 one generation may be avenged in the next, or even by 
 remoter posterity. The relatives of a murdered man may, 
 however, before the tribal council, accept a blood-price. 
 
 Crimes punished by the Pathan code are such as murder 
 without cause, refusal to go to battle, contravention of the 
 decision of a tribal councu, adultery. 
 
 The Afghans are Mahommedans of the Sunni or ortho- 
 dox body, with the exception of a few tribes, perhaps not 
 truly Pathan, who are Shiahs. They are much under the 
 influence of their Mullahs, especially for evil; and have a 
 stronger feeling against the Shiah heretic than against the 
 
 1 ElpUinstone. 
 
 unbeliever; their aversion to the Persians being aggravated 
 thereby. But to those of another faith they are more 
 tolerant thau most. Mahommedans, unless when creed be- 
 comes a war-cry. They are very superstitious in regard to 
 charms, omens, astrology, " and so forth; and greatly ad- 
 dicted to the worship of local saints, whose shrines (ziydr'at) 
 are found on every hill-top. The shrine, a domed tomb, 01 
 mayhap a heap of stones within a wall, sometimes marks 
 the saint's grave, but is often a cenotaph. The saint may 
 have been' unknown in life for his virtues, but becomes 
 after death an object of veneration, for reasons often hard 
 to discern. In the immediate environs of Ghazni there are 
 no less than 197 of these shrines. 
 
 A very marked feature in Afghan character is the pas- 
 sionate love of field sports, especially hawking, .beer- 
 stalking in the open plains, the driving of game to well- 
 known points by a host of beaters, and wild-fowl shooting 
 with decoys, are others of their sports. They are capital 
 horsemen, and unerring marksmen with the native rifle 
 (jezail). 
 
 Among themselves the people are convivial and humorous. 
 Festive gatherings are frequent, where they come together, 
 not to buy or sell, or even to quarrel, but to make a noise 
 and be happy. Tilting, shooting, racing, and wild music 
 vary the amusements. 
 
 They have a wild dance called the atari, in which the 
 men work themselves into great excitement. Among some 
 Kakar tribes it is said the atan is°sometimes danced by 
 both sexes together. 
 
 Government. — Afghanistan ia now, and has been be- 
 fore, under one prince, but it is hardly a monarchy as we 
 are used to understand the term. It is rather the govern- 
 ment of a dictator for life over a military aristocracy, and 
 within this a congeries of small democracies. Elphinstone 
 compares it with Scotland in the middle ages; some 
 things suggest a comparison with Poland, in spite of differ- 
 ence of physical geography; but in neither was there the 
 democratic constitution of the Afghan ulus. The sirdars 
 govern in their respective districts, each after his own 
 fashion; jealous, ambitious, turbulent, the sovereign can 
 restrain them only by their divisions. There is no unity 
 nor permanence; everything depends on the pleasure of a 
 number of chiefs bound by no law, always at variance, 
 and always ready to revolt when they have the sb'ghtest 
 interest in doing so— almost always ready to plunge into 
 strife with a wild delight in it for its own sake. In war, 
 as in peace, chiefs and soldiers are ready to pass from one 
 service to another without scruple. It is a matter of 
 speculation, and no disgrace. 
 
 The spirit of Afghan character and institutions was 
 tersely expressed by an old man to Elphinstone, who had 
 urged the advantages of quiet and security under a strong 
 king: " We are content with discord, we are content with 
 alarms, we are content with blood; but we will never be 
 content with a master." 
 
 Bevenues. — The revenues of Dost Mahommed Khan 
 were estimated in 1857 at 4,000,000 rupees, or about 
 £400 000. This included Afghan Turkestan* but not 
 Herat, which he did not hold. The Herat revenue was 
 estimated some years before (probably too low) at £80 000. 
 In the later years of Dost Mahommed the net revenue is 
 stated to have amounted to £710,000, of which the army 
 cost £430,000.! Information on this subject is very im- 
 perfect, and not alwavs consistent. There seems to be a 
 tax on 'the produce of the soil, both in kind and in money, 
 and a special tax on garden ground. A house-tax of 
 about 5 rupees is paid by all who are not Pathans. The 
 latter pay a much lighter tax under another name; and 
 
 » See Edin. Review, July 1873, p. 273.
 
 238 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 (he Hindus pay the separate poll-tax (ja:eya). Taxes are 
 |<aid on horses, <tc, kept, and on the sale of animals in 
 the public market. 
 
 The aggregate of taxation is not great, but the smallest 
 exactioD seems a tyrannical violence to an Afghan. Nor 
 does payment guarantee the cultivator from further squeez- 
 ing. In many puts of the country collections are only 
 made spasmodically by military force. The people are let 
 done for years, till need and opportunity arise, when a 
 force is marched in, and arrears extorted. 
 
 Customs dues at Kabul and Kandahar are only 2\ per 
 cent, nominally, but this is increased a good de.al by 
 exactions. There is a considerable tax on horses ex- 
 ported for sale, and a toll on beasts of burden exporting 
 merchandise, from 6 rupees .on a loaded camel to 1 rupee 
 on a donkey. 
 
 Military Fokce. — According to the old system the 
 Afghan forces were entirely composed of the ulus, or 
 tribesmen of the chiefs, who were supposed to hold their 
 lauds on a condition of service, but who, as frequently as 
 not, went over to the enemy in the day of need. As a 
 counterpoise, the late Amir Dost Mahommed began to 
 form a regular army. In 1858 this contained 16 infantry 
 regiments of (nominally) 800 men,- 3 of cavalry of 300 
 men, and about 80 field-pieces, besides a few heavy guns. 
 The pay was bad, and extremely irregular, and punish- 
 ments were severe. The men were fine, but recruited in 
 the worst manner, viz., the arbitrary and forcible seizure 
 of able-bodied men. There were also Jezailchi (riflemen), 
 irregulars, some in the Amir's pay, others levies of the local 
 chiefs ; and a considerable number of irregular cavalry. W'c 
 have failed to obtain recent data on this subject. 
 
 Language and Literature. — Persian is the vernacular 
 of a large part of the non-Afghan population, and is fami- 
 liar to all educated Afghans. But the proper language of 
 the Afghans is Pushtu, or Pukldu (these are dialectic 
 variations). Currency has been given to the notion that 
 'Jiis language has a Semitic character, but this appears to 
 be quite erroneous, and is entirely rejected by competent 
 authorities, the majority of whom class Pushtu positively 
 as an Aryan or Indo-Persian language. The Pushtu 
 vocabulary preserves a number of ancient forms and con- 
 nections with words that remain isolated in other Aryan 
 languages. Interesting illustrations of this and other 
 points connected with Pushtu will be found in a paper by 
 tsidor Lowenthal in the J. of the As. Soc. of Bengal, vol 
 
 irviv 
 
 Pushtu does not seem to be spoken ; n Herat, or (roughly 
 speaking) west of the Helmand. 
 
 There is a respectable amount of Afghan literature. 
 He oldest work in Pushtu as yet mentioned is a history 
 of the conquest of Swat by Shaikh Mali, a chief of th[e 
 Yusufzais, and leader in the conquest (a.D. 1413-24). 
 In 1494 .Kaju Khan became chief of the same clan; 
 during his rule Buner and Panjkora were completely con- 
 quered, and he wrote a history of the events. But these 
 works have not been met with. In the reign of Akbar, 
 Bayazid Ansari, called Pir-i-Roshan, " The Eaint of Light," 
 the founder of an heretical sect, wrote in Pushtu ; as did 
 his chief antagonist a famous Afehan saint called Akhund 
 Darweza. 
 
 The literature is richest in poetry. Abdarrahman (17th 
 century) is the best known poet. Another very popular 
 poet is Khushal Khan, the warlike chief of the Khattaks 
 in the time of Aurangzib. Many other members of his 
 family were poets also. - Ahmed Shah, the founder cf the 
 monarchy, likewise wrote poetry. Ballads are numerous. 
 
 History. — The Afghan chroniclers call their people 
 Bani-Jrrail (Arab, for Children of Israel), and claim descent 
 trom King Saul (whom they call by the Mahommedan cor- 
 
 [ HISTORY. 
 
 ruption Tulut) through a son whom they ascribe to him, 
 called Jeremiah, who again had a son called Afghana. 
 The numerous stock of Afghana were removed by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, and found their way to the mountains of Ghur 
 and Feroza (east and north of Herat).' Only nino years 
 after Mahommed's announcement of his mission they heard 
 of the new prophet, and sent to Medina a deputation 
 headed by a wise and holy man called Kais, to make 
 inquiry. The deputation became zealous converts, and on 
 their return converted their countrymen. From Kais and 
 his three sons the whole of the genuine Afghans claim 
 descent. 
 
 This story is repeated in gTcat and varying detail in 
 sundry books by Afghans, the oldest of which appears to 
 be of the lGth century ; nor do we know that any trace of 
 the legend is found of older date. In the version given 
 by Major Kaverty (Introd. to Afghan Grammar), Afghanah 
 is settled by King Solomon himself in the Sulimani moun- 
 tains; there is nothing about Nebuchadnezzar or Ghur. 
 The historian Firishta says he had read that the Afghans 
 were descended from Copts of the race of Pharaoh. And 
 one of the Afghan histories, quoted by Mr Bellew, relates 
 " a cunent tradition " that previous to the time of Kais, 
 Bilo the father of the Biluchis, Uzbak (evidently the father 
 of the Uzbegs), and Afgliana were considered as brethren. 
 As Mahomincd Uzbeg Khan, the eponymus of the medley 
 of Tartar tribes called Uzbegs, reigned in the 14th century 
 A.D., this gives some possible light <*n the value of these 
 so-called traditions. 
 
 We have analogous stories in the literature of almost all 
 nations that derive their religion or their civilisation from 
 a foreign source. To say nothing of the farce of the Book 
 of Mormon, there is in our own age and in our own country 
 a considerable number of persons who seriously hold and 
 propagate the doctrine that the English people are descended 
 from the tribes of Israel, and the literature of this whimsi- 
 cal theory would fill a much larger shelf than the Afghan 
 histories. But the Hebrew ancestry of the Afghans is more 
 worthy at least of consideration, for a respectable number 
 of intelligent officers, well acquainted with the Afghans, 
 have been strong in their belief of it ; and though the 
 customs alleged in proof will not bear the stress laid on 
 them, undoubtedly a prevailing type of the Afghan physi- 
 ognomy has a character strongly Jewish. This characteristic 
 is certainly a remarkable one ; but it is shared, to a 
 considerable extent, by the Kashmiris (a circumstance 
 which led Beniier to speculate on the Kashmiris represent- 
 ing the lost tribes of Israel), and, we believe, by the Tajik 
 people of Badakhshan. 
 
 In the time of Darius Hystaspes (B.C. 600) we find the region 
 now called Afghanistan embraced in the Achaenicnian satrapies, 
 and various parts of it occupied by Sarangiaus (in Scistan), Ariaru 
 (in Herat), Saltagydians (supposed in highlands of upper Helmand 
 and the plateau of .Gliazni), Dadtcoe (suggested to be Tajiks), 
 AparyUz (mountaineers, perhaps of Safcd Koh, where lay the 
 Parycttz of Ptolemy), Gandarii (in Lower Kabul basin), and Pak- 
 tycs, on or near the Indus. In the last name it has been plausibly 
 suggested that we have the Pukhlun, as the eastern Afghans pro- 
 nounce their name. Indeed, Pusht, Pasht, or Pakht, would seem 
 to be the oldest name of the country of the Afghans in their tradi- 
 tions. 
 
 Alexander's inarch led him to Artacoana (Herat ?), the capital of 
 Aria, and thence to the country of the Zarangtz (Seistan), to that 
 of the Euergctce, upon the Elymander (Helmand river), to Arachosia, 
 thence to the Indians dwelling among snows in a barren country, 
 probably the highlands between Ghazni and Kabul. Thence he 
 marched to the foot of Caucasus, and spent the winter among the 
 Paropamisada, founding a city, Alexandria, supposed to be 
 Hupian, near Charikax. On his return from Bactria he prosecuted 
 his march to India by the north side of the Kabul river. 
 
 The Ariana of Strabo corresponds generally with the existing 
 dominions of KaluL but overpasses their limits on the west and 
 south. 
 
 About 310 B.C. Selencns is said ' Strabo to have given to the 
 Indian Sandroeottus (Chandragupta;, jx consequence of a marriage-
 
 HISTORY.] 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 239 
 
 contract, some part of the country west of the Indus, occupied by 
 an Indian population, and no doubt embracing a part of the Kabul 
 basin. Some 60 years later occurred the establishment of an inde- 
 pendent Greek dynasty in Bactiia. Of the details of their history 
 and extent of their dominion in different reigns we know almost 
 nothing, and conjecture is often dependent on such vague data as 
 are afforded by the collation of the localities in which the coins of 
 independent princes have been found. But their power extended 
 certainly over the Kabul basin, and probably, at times, over the 
 whole of Afghanistan. The ancient architecture of Kashmir, the 
 tope of Mauikyala in the Panjab, and many sculptures found in 
 the Peshawar valley, show unmistakable Greek influence. Deme- 
 trius (circa E.o. 190) is supposed to have reigned in Arachosia after 
 being expelled from Bactiia, much as, at a later date, Baber reigned 
 in Kabul after his expulsion from Samarkand. Eucratides (181 
 B.C.) is alleged by Justin to have warred in India. "With his coins, 
 found abundantly in the Kabul basin, commences the use of an 
 Arianian inscription, in addition to the Greek, supposed to imply 
 the transfer of rule to the south of the mountains, over a people 
 whom the Greek dynasty sought to conciliate. Under Heliocles 
 (147 B.C. ?), the Partisans, who had already encroached on Ariana, 
 
 Pressed their conquests into India. Menander (126 B.C.) invaded 
 ndia at least to the Jumna, and perhaps also to the Indus delta. 
 The coinage of a succeeding king, Hermseus, indicates a barbaric 
 irruption. There is a general correspondence between classical and 
 Chinese accounts of the time when Bacrria was overrun by Scythian 
 invaders. The chief nation among these, called by the Chinese 
 Yitcchi, about 126 B.C. established themselves in Sogdiana and 
 on the Oxus in five hordes. Near the Christian era the chief of one 
 of these, which was called Kushan, subdued the rest, and extended 
 liis conquests over the countries south of Hindu Kush, including 
 Sind as well as Afghanistan, thus establishing a great dominion, 
 of which we hear from Greek writers as Indo-Scythia. 
 
 Buddhism had already acquired influence over the people of the 
 Kabul basin, and some of the barbaric invaders adopted that system. 
 Its traces are extensive, especially in the plains of Jalalabad and 
 Peshawar, but also in the vicinity of Kabul. 
 
 Various barbaric dynasties succeeded each other, among which a 
 notable monarch was Kanishka or Kanerkes, who reigned and con- 
 quered apparently about the time of Our Lord, and whose power 
 extended over the upper Oxus basin, Kabul, Peshawar. Kashmir, 
 and probably far into India. His name and legends still filled the 
 land, or at least the Buddhist portion of it, 600 years later, when 
 the Chinese pilgrim Hwen Thsang travelled in India ; they had 
 even reached the great Mahommedan philosopher, traveller, and 
 geographer, Abu Rihan Al-Biruni, in the 11th century ; and they 
 are still celebrated in the Mongol versions of Buddhist ecclesiastical 
 story. 
 
 In the time of Hwen Thsang (630-45 A.D.) there were both Indian 
 and Turk princes in the Kabul valley, and in the succeeding cen- 
 turies both these races seem to have predominated in succession. 
 The first Mahommedan attempts at the conquest of Kabul were un- 
 successful, though Seistan and Arachosia were permanently held 
 from an early date. It was not till the end of the 10th century 
 that a Hindu prince ceased to reign in Kabul, and it fell into the 
 han4s of. the Turk Sabaktegin, who had established his capital at 
 Ghazni. There, too, reigned his famous son Mahmud, and a series 
 of descendants, till the middle of the 12th century, rendering the 
 city one of the most splendid in Asia. We then have a powerful 
 dynasty, commonly believed to have been of Afghan race ; and if so, 
 the first. But the historians give them a legendary descent from 
 Zohak, which is no Afghan genealogy. The founder of the dynasty 
 was Alauddin, chief of Ghur, whose vengeance for the cruel death 
 of his brother at the hands of Bahram the Ghaznevide was wreaked 
 in devastating the great city. His nephew Shahabuddin Mahommed 
 repeatedly invaded India, conquering as far as Benares. His empire 
 in India indeed — ruled by his freednien who after his death became 
 independent — may be regarded as the origin of that great Mahom- 
 medan monarchy which endured nominally till 1857. For a brief 
 period the Afghan countries were subject to the king of Kharizm, 
 and it was here chiefly that 'occurred the gallant attempts of Jala- 
 luddin of Kharizm to withstand the progress of Chinghiz Khan. 
 
 A passage in Firishta seems to imply that the Afghans in the 
 S n1iTTn i.ni mountains were already known by that name in the first 
 century of the Hegira, but it is uncertain how far this may be built 
 on. The name Afghans ia very distinctly mentioned in 'Utbi's 
 History of Sultan Mahmud, written about A.D. 1030, conpled with 
 that of the Khiljis. It also appears frecfuently in connection with 
 the history of India in the 13th and 14th centuries. The successive 
 dynasties of Dehli are generally called Patlian, but were really so only 
 in part. Of the Eliiljis (12S3-1321) we have already spoken. The 
 Tughlaks (1321-1421) were originally Tartars of the Karauna tribe. 
 The Lodis (1450-1526) were pure Pathans. Fora century and more 
 after the Mongol invasion the whole of the Afghan countries were 
 under Mongol rule ; but in the middle of the 14th century a native 
 dynasty sprang up in western Afghanistan, that of the Kurfs, 
 which extended its rul6 over Ghur, Herat, and Kandahar. The 
 
 history of the Afghan countries under the Mongols is obscure ; but 
 that regime must have left its mark upon the country if we judge 
 from the occurrence of frequent Mongol names of places, and even 
 of Mongol expressions adopted into familiar language. 
 
 All these countries were included in Timur's conquests, 
 and 'Kabul at least had remained in the possession of one of 
 his descendants till 1501, only three years before it fell intd 
 the hands of another and more illustrious one, Sultan Baber, 
 It was not till 1522 that Baber succeeded in permanently 
 wresting Kandahar from the Arghuns, a family of Mongol 
 descent, who had long held it. From the time of his 
 conquest of Hindustan (victor)' at Panipat, April 21, 1526), 
 Kabul and Kandahar may be regarded as part of the empire 
 of Dehli under the (so-called) Moghul dynasty which Baber 
 founded. Kabul so continued till the invasion of Nadir 
 (1738). Kandahar often changed hands between the 
 Moghuls and the rising Safavis (or Sofis) of Persia, 
 Under >the latter it had remained from 1642 till 1708, 
 when in the reign of Husain, the last of them, the Ghilzais, 
 provoked by the oppressive Persian governor Shahnawaz 
 Khan (a Georgian prince of the Bagratid house) revolted 
 under Mir Wais, and expelled the Persians. Mir Wais 
 was acknowledged sovereign of Kandahar, and eventually 
 defeated the Persian armies sent against him, but did not 
 long survive (d. 1715). 
 
 Mahmud, Ihe son of Mir Wais, a man of great courage 
 and energy, carried out a project of his father's, the con- 
 quest of Persia itself. After a long siege, Shah Husain 
 came forth from Ispahan with all his court, and surrendered 
 the sword and diadem of the Sofis into the hands of the 
 Ghilzai (Oct. 1722). Two years later Mahmud died mad, 
 and a few years saw the.end of Ghilzai rule in Persia. 
 
 Nadir Shah (1737-38) both recovered Kandahar and 
 took Kabul. But he gained the goodwill of the Afghans, 
 and enrolled many in his army. I Among these was a noble 
 young soldier, Ahmed Khan, of the Saddozai family of the 
 Abdali clan, who after the assassination of Nadir (1747) 
 was chosen by the Afghan chiefs at Kandahar to be their 
 leader, and assumed kingly authority over the eastern part 
 of Nadir's empire, with the style of Dur-i-Dundn, " Pearl 
 of the Age," bestowing that of Durrani upon his clan, the 
 Abdalis. With Ahme^d Shah, Afghanistan, as such, first 
 took a place among the kingdoms of tie earth. During 
 the twenty-six years of his reign he carried bis warlike 
 expeditions far and wide. Westward they extended nearly 
 to the shores of the Caspian; eastward he repeatedly entered 
 India as a conqueror. At his great battle of Panipat 
 (Jan. 6, 1761), with vastly inferior numbers, he gave the 
 Mahrattas, then at the zenith of power, a tremendous 
 defeat, almost annihilating their vast army; but the suc- 
 cess had for him no important result. Having long suf- 
 fered from a terrible disease, he died in 1773, bequeathing 
 to his son Timur a dominion which' embraced not only 
 Afghanistan to its utmost limits, but the Panjab, Kashmir, 
 and Turkestan to the Oxus, with Sind, Biluchistan, and 
 Khorasan as tributary governments. 
 
 Timur transferred his residence frorn^ Kandahar to 
 Kabul, and continued during a reign of twenty years to 
 stave off the anarchy which followed, close on his death, 
 He left twenty-three sons, of whom tha fifth, Zaman Mirza, 
 by help of Payindah Khan, head of the Barakzai family 
 of the Abdalis, succeeded in grasping the royal power, 
 For many years barbarous wars raged between the brothers, 
 during which Zam&n Shah, Shuja-ul-Mulk, and Mahmud, 
 successively held the throne. The last owed success t< 
 Fatteh Khan, son of Payindah, a man of masterly ability 
 in war and politics, the eldest of twenty-one brothers, a 
 family of notable intelligence and force of character, and 
 many of these he placed over the provinces. The malig- 
 nity of Kamrfin, the worthless son of Mahmud, succeeded
 
 240 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 [hisxoky. 
 
 in making the king jealous of his minister; and with match- 
 less treachery, ingratitude, and cruelty, the latter was first 
 blinded, and afterwards murdered with prolonged torture, 
 the brutal Kamrari striking the first blow. 
 
 The Baraluai brothers united to avenge Fatteh Khan. 
 The Saddozais were driven from Kabul, Ghazni, and Kan- 
 dahar, and with difficulty reached Herat (1818). Herat 
 remained thus till Kamran's death (1842), and after that 
 was held by his able and wicked minister Yar Mahom- 
 med. The rest of tho country was divided among the 
 Barakzais — Dost Mahommed, the ablest, getting Kabul. 
 Peshawar and the right bank of the Indus fell to the Sikhs 
 after their victory at Naoshera in 1823. The last Afghan 
 hold of the Panjabhad been lost long before — Kashmir in 
 1819; Sind had cast off all allegiance since 1808; the 
 Turkestan provinces had been practically independent since 
 the death of Timur Shah. 
 
 In 1800, in consequence of the intrigues of Napoleon 
 in Persia, the Hon. Mountstewart Elphinstone , had been 
 Bent as envoy to Shah Shuja, then in power, and had been 
 well received by him at Peshawar. This was the first time 
 the Afghans made any acquaintance with Englishmen. 
 Lieut. Alex. Burnes visited Kabul on his way to Bokhara 
 in 1832. In 1837 the Persian siege of Herat and the 
 proceedings of Russia created uneasiness, and Burnes was 
 sent by the Governor-General as resident to the Amir's 
 court at Kabul. But the terms which the Dost sought 
 were not conceded by the government, and the rash reso- 
 lution was taken of re-establishing Shah Shuja, long a 
 refugee in British territory. Kanjit Singh, king of the 
 Panjab, bound himself to co-operate, but eventually 
 declined to let the expedition cross his territories. The 
 " Army of the Indus," amounting to 21,000 men, therefore 
 js'sembled in Upper Sind (March 1838), and advanced 
 through the Bolan Pass under the command of Sir John 
 Keane. There was hardship, but scarcely any opposition. 
 Kohandil Khan of Kandahar fled to Persia. That city 
 was occupied in April 1839, and Shah Shuja was crowned 
 In his grandfather's mosque. Ghazni was reached 21st 
 July; a gate of the city was blown open by the engineers 
 (the match was fired by Lieut, afterwards Sir Henry 
 Durand); and the place was taken by storm. Dost 
 Mahommed, finding his troops deserting, passed the Hindu 
 Kush, and Shah Shuja entered the capital (7th August). 
 The war was thought at an end, and Sir John Keane 
 (made a peer) returned to India with a considerable part 
 of the force, leaving behind 8000 men, besides the Shah's 
 force, with Sir W. Macnaghten as envoy, and Sir A. 
 Bumes as his colleague. 
 
 During the two following years Shah Shuja and his 
 allies remained in possession of Kabul and Kandahar. 
 The British outposts extended to Saighan, in the Oxus 
 basin, and to Mullah Khan, in the plain of Seistan. Dost 
 Mahommed surrendered (Nov. 3, 1840), and was sent to 
 tndia, where he was honourably treated. From the begin- 
 ning, insurrection against the new government had been 
 rife. The political authorities were over-confident, and 
 aeglectcd warnings. On the 2d November 1841 the 
 revolt broke out violently at Kabul, with the massacre of 
 Burnes and other officers. The position of the British 
 :amp, its communications with the citadel, and the location 
 of the stores were the worst possible; and the general 
 'Elphinstone) was shattered in constitution. Disaster after 
 lisaster occurred, not without misconduct At a confer- 
 snee (23d December) with the Dost's son, Akbar Khan, 
 who had taken the lead of the Afghans, SirW. Macnaghten 
 was murdered by that chief's own hand. On 6th January 
 1842, after a convention to evacuate the country had been 
 •igned, the British garrison, still numbering 4500 soldiers 
 'of whom 690 were Europeans), with some 12,000 followers, 
 
 marched out of the camp. The winter was severe, the 
 troops demoralised, tho march a mass of confusion and 
 massacre ; for there was hardly a pretence of keeping the 
 terms. On the 13th the last survivors mustered at Gan- 
 damak only twenty muskets. Of those who left Kabul, 
 Dr Brydono only reached Jalalabad, wounded and half 
 dead. Ninety-five prisoners were afterwards recovered. 
 The garrison of Ghazni had already been forced to sur- 
 render (10th December). But General Nott held Kau- 
 dahar with a stern hand, and General Sale, who had 
 reached Jalalabad from Kabul at the beginning of the out- 
 break, maintained that important point gallantly. 
 
 To avenge these disasters and recover the prisoners 
 preparations were made in India on a fitting scale; but 
 it was the 16th April 1842 before General Pollock could 
 relieve Jalalabad, after forcing the Khybar Pass. After a 
 long halt there, he advanced (20th August), and gaining 
 rapid successes, occupied Kabul (15th September), where 
 Nott, after retaking and dismantling Ghazni, joined him 
 two days later. The prisoners were happily recovered from 
 Bamian. The citadel and central bazaar of Kabul were 
 destroyed, and the army finally evacuated Afghanistan 
 December 1842. 
 
 Shah Shuja had been assassinated soon after the depar 
 ture of the ill-fated garrison. Dost Mahommed, rele 
 was able to resume his position at Kabul, which, he retained 
 till his death in 1863. Akbar Khan was made vazir. but 
 died in 1848. 
 
 The most notable facts in later history must be briefly 
 stated. In 1848, when the Sikh revolt broke out, Dost 
 •Mahommed, stimulated by popular outcry and by the Sikh 
 offer to restoro Peshawar, crossed the frontier and took 
 Attok. A cavalry force of Afghans was sent to join Sher 
 Singh against the British, and was present at the battlo of 
 Gujerat (21st Feb. 1849). The pursuit of the Afghans by 
 Sir Walter Baleigh Gilbert, right up to the passes, was so 
 hot that the Dost owed his escape to a fleet horse. 
 
 In 1850 the Afghans re-conquered Balkh. 
 
 In January 1855, friendly intercourse, which had been 
 renewed between the Dost and the British government, 
 led to the conclusion of a treaty at Peshawar. 
 
 In November 1855, after tho death of his half-brother, 
 Kohandil Khan of Kandahar, the Dost made himself master 
 of that province. In 1856 came the new Persian advance 
 to Herat, ending in its capture, and the English expedition 
 to the Persian Gulf. In January 1857 the Dost had an 
 interview at Peshawar with Sir J. Lawrence, at which tho 
 former was promised arms and a subsidy for protection 
 against Persia. In consequence of this treaty a British 
 mission under Major Lumsden proceeded to Kandahar. 
 The Indian mutiny followed, and the Afghan excitement 
 6trongly tried the Dost's fidelity, but he maintained it. 
 Lumsden's party held their ground, and returned in May 
 1858. 
 
 In 1863, Dost Mahommed, after a ten months' siege, 
 captured Herat; but he died there thirteen days later 
 (9th June), and was succeeded by his son Sher Ali Khan. 
 
 Since then the latter has passed through many vicissi- 
 tudes in rivalry with his brothers and nephews, and at 
 one time (1867) his fortunes were so low that he held only 
 Balkh and Herat. By the autumn of 1868, however, he 
 was again established on the throne of Kabul, and his 
 competitors were beaten and dispersed. In April 1869 
 Sher Ali Khan was honourably and splendidly received at 
 Amballa by the Earl of Mayo, who had shortly before 
 replaced Sir J. Lawrence. Friendly relations were con- 
 firmed, though the Amir's expectations were not fulfilled. 
 He received the balance of a donation of £120,000 which 
 had been promised and partly paid by Sir John Lawrence. 
 A considerable present of artillery and arms was made to
 
 ANTIQUITIES.] 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 241 
 
 him; since then some small additional aid in money and 
 arms has been sent, but no periodical subsidy. 
 
 Sher Ali Khan now reigns over all Afghanistan and 
 Afghan Turkestan, whilst Badakhshan is tributary to him. 
 In the latter part of 1872 a correspondence which had 
 gone on between the Governments of Russia and England 
 resulted in a declaration by the former that Afghanistan 
 was beyond the field of Russian influence; whilst the 
 Oxus, from its source in Lake Sirikol to the western 
 limit of Balkh, was recognised as the frontier of Afghan 
 dominion. 
 
 Antiquities. — We can afford space for only the briefest 
 indication on this subject. The basin of the Kabul river 
 especially abounds in remains of the period when Buddhism 
 flourished, beginning with the Inscribed Rock of Shah- 
 bazgarhi, or Kapur-di-giri, in the Peshawar plain, which 
 bears one of the repliche of the famous edicts of Asoka 
 (not later than B.C. 250). In the Koh-Daman, north of 
 Kabul, are the sites of several ancient cities, the greatest of 
 which, called Beghram, has furnished coins in scores of 
 thousands, and has been supposed to represent Alexander's 
 JViccea. Nearer Kabul, and especially on the hills some 
 miles south of the city, are numerous topes. In the valley 
 of Jalalabad are many remains of the same character. In 
 the Peshawar plain and on the adjoining heights are 
 numerous ancient cities and walled villages, in many cases 
 presenting ruins of much interest, besides the remains of 
 topes, monasteries, cave temples, <fec. ; and frequently sculp- 
 tures have been found on those sites, exhibiting evident 
 traces of the influence of Greek art. The Mahabah moun- 
 
 tain, near the Indus, which has been plausibly identified 
 ■with the Aornos of the Greeks, and the hills more imme- 
 diately compassing the Peshawar valley, abound in the ruins 
 of very ancient fortresses. At Talash, on the Panjkora 
 river, are extensive ruins of massive fortifications; and in 
 Swat there are said to be remains of several ancient cities. 
 
 In the valley of the Tarnak are the ruins of a great city 
 (Ulan Robat), supposed to be ancient Arachosia. About 
 Girishk, on the Helmand, are extensive mounds and other 
 traces of buildings; and the remains of several great cities 
 exist in the .plain of Seistan, as at Pulki, Peshawaran, and 
 Lakh, relics of ancient Drangiana, as yet unexamined. A n 
 ancient stone vessel, preserved in a mosque at Kandahar, 
 is almost certainly the same that was treasured at Peshawar 
 in the 5th century as the begging-pot of Sakya-Muni. 
 Of the city of Ghazni, the vast capital of Mahmud and his 
 race, no substantial relics • survive, except the tomb of 
 Mahmud and two remarkable brick minarets. 
 
 To the vast and fruitful harvest of coins that has been 
 gathered in Afghanistan and the adjoining regions, we can 
 here but make an allusion. 
 
 (Elphinstone's Caubool; various papers in J. As. Soc. 
 Bengal; Terrier's Journeys, and Hist, of the Afghans; 
 Bellew's Journal, Report on the Yusvfiais, and Notes on 
 Flora of Afgh.; James's Report on Peshawar District; 
 Raverty's Afghan Grammar ; Panjab Trade Report ; 
 Saber's Memoirs; Kaye's History; papers by Major Lums- 
 den, and by Lieut. -CoL C. M. Macgregor, &c. The para- 
 graph on the Animal Kingdom has been revised by Prof 
 Henry Giglioli of Florence.) (h. Y.) 
 
 AFGHAN TURKESTAN is a convenient name applied 
 of late years to those provinces in the basin of the Oxus 
 which are subject to the Amir of KabuL Badakhshan 
 and its dependencies, now tributary to the Amir, are some- 
 times included under the name, but will not be so included 
 here. The whole of the Afghan dominions consist of 
 Afghanistan as defined under that heading, Afghan 
 Turkestan, and Badakhshan with its dependencies. 
 
 The territories included here will be, beginning from 
 the east, the khanates or principalities of Kunduz, Khulm, 
 Balkh with Akcha; and the western khanates of Sir-i-pul, 
 Shibrghan, Andkhui, and Maimana, sometimes classed 
 together as the C'hihdr Vildyat, or " Four Domains ;" and 
 besides these, such part of the Hazara tribes as lie north 
 of the Hindu Kush and its prolongation, defined in the 
 article Afghanistan. The tract thus includes the whole 
 southern moiety of the Oxus basin, from the frontier of 
 Badakhshan on the east to the upper Murghab river on 
 the west. The Oxus itself forms the northern boundary, 
 from the confluence of the Kokcha or river of Badakhshan, 
 in 69|° E. long., to Khoja Salih ferry, in 65° E. long, 
 nearly. Here the boundary quits the river and skirts the 
 Turkman desert to the point where the Murghab issues 
 upon it. Along the whole southern boundary we have a 
 tract of lofty mountain country. Thus, in the east, above 
 Kunduz, we have the Hin du Kush rising ■ far into the 
 region of perpetual snow, and with passes ranging from 
 12,000 to 13,000 feet and upwards. Above Khulm and 
 Balkh is the prolongation of Hindu Kush, called Koh-i-baba, 
 in which the elevation of the cols or passes seems to be nearly 
 as high, though the general height of the crest is lower. 
 The mountains then fork in three branches westward, viz., 
 KohrirSidh, " The Black Mountain," to the south of the 
 Herat river; Koh-i-Safed, " The White Mountain," between 
 the Herat river and the Murghab, and a third ridge north of 
 the latter river. The second branch (Safed-Koh) has been 
 assumed in the article Afghanistan as the boundary of 
 
 that region. We know almost nothing of these mountains, 
 except from the journey of Ferrier, who crossed all three 
 watersheds in four days of July 1845. He describes the 
 middle range as very lofty, with a good deal of snow on 
 the pass; the southern range not so high, the northern 
 one not nearly so high. 
 
 Rivers. — We shall first df scribe the rivers of this 
 region in succession. 
 
 For the Oxus itself, see that article. 
 
 Beginning from the eastward, its first tributary within our limits ie 
 the river of Kunduz, known also as the river of Aksarai, the Surkhab, 
 and what not. As the principal source of this river we may regaixl 
 the stream of Bamian, fed close under the Koh-i-Baba by a variety 
 of torrents which join from the pass of Akrobat and other gorges ol 
 the Hazara country, adjoining that famous site (8196 feet above 
 sea level). The names of some of these seem to preserve a tradition 
 of the ancient population ; such are the "Cutlers' Vale," "the 
 Smiths' Vale," the " Valley of Eye-paint." At the eastern end of 
 the valley the Bamian stream receives another of nearly equal bulk, 
 descending from the pass of Hajjigak, the most important crossing 
 of the mountains between Kabul and the Oxus, and from which the 
 road descends upon Bamian, and thence by Saighan, Khurram, and 
 Haibak, to Khulm, in the Oxu9 valley. On the volcanic rock which 
 parts the streams stand extensive ruins, the name of which, Zohak, 
 connects them with the most ancient legends of Persian history. 
 
 From this the river turns nearly north, passing the country of 
 the Sheikh 'Alis, one of the most famous Hazara clans, and 
 closely skirting the great range of Hindu Kush. About 40 miles 
 N.N.E. of Zohak it receives from the left two confluents, of size 
 probably almost equal to its own — the rivers of Saighan and of 
 Kamard, both rising to the westward of Bamian, and crossing tho 
 highway from Bamian to Khulm. Hereabouts the river seems ti, 
 take the name of Surkhab. The first considerable confluent on the 
 right is the Andarab river, draining the valley of that name, and 
 joining at Doshi, about 85 miles in a direct line N.E. of Zohak. 
 About Ghori, still a place of some note, the valley widens out 
 greatly, and becomes in places swampy, with expanses of tall grass, 
 a character which it thenceforth retains. The river is, or has been, 
 bridged at Thomri, a few miles beyond Ghori, a woik ascribed to 
 Aurangzib. It then receives from the right the Baghl&n river, 
 coming from Narin and the hills of Khost, The only remaining 
 confluent is the important one which joins immediately below the 
 town of Kunduz, sometimes called the Khanabad river, sometimes 
 by the names of its ch-.ci jon tributaries, the F:\rokhar andBaDjri,
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 [akchan. 
 
 The rarokhar, or river Ol TaiiKan, is tho most easterly, coming out of- 
 Badakhshan, the boundary of which runs along the watershed on 
 its left bank. The Bangi flows through Khost from the highlands 
 of Badakhshan, east of Andarab. A third tributary, the Shor-lb, 
 salt, as its name implies, drains the high range called Esk-raushk, 
 above Narin. 
 
 The Surkliab or Kunduz river enters the Oxus at a point approxi- 
 mately (no traveller has visited the confluence) 32 miles N.W. of 
 Kunduz, its whole length, exclusive of minor windings, being about 
 220 miles. 
 
 From Ghori downwards, the hills which bound the valley on either 
 side appear to be of no great elevation, and to be tolerably clothed 
 with grass, and occasionally with fir trees ; the aspect of the country 
 gradually approximating to that of Badakhshan, in contrast to the 
 more sterile offshoots of Koh-i-Baba to the westward. 
 
 Kunduz itself lies very low, scarcely BOO feet above sea level, 
 and the roads approaching the town have to pass over piles amid 
 the swampy vegetation. The adjacent plain is in the main richly 
 cultivated and thickly peopled, but it is interspersed with extensive 
 tracts of jungly grass, and is extremely and proverbially unhealthy. 
 The plains, which extend, though not unbroken, from Kunduz to 
 the Oxus, are free from tho bare and repulsive character of those 
 further west, and are described as covered in part with rich cultiva- 
 tion, thick with groves and hamlets, and in part with splendid 
 pasture. 
 
 Proceeding westward, the next tributary to the Oxus basin is the 
 Khulm river. The traveller from Bamian northward first touches 
 the Khulm river, on descending from the Kara-Kotal, at a spot 
 called Doab Shahpasand, probably 5000 feet above the sea, where 
 its two maiu sources join, and the main road to Turkestan keeps on 
 or near the river till its exit on the Oxus plain. The character of 
 the mass of mountains which extends from the Koh-i-Baba to 
 Khulm is utter rocky aridity, but broken sometimes in the sudden 
 trench-like valleys by an exuberant vigour of vegetation. Along a 
 chain of these trench-like gorges, walled by stupendous cliffs seem- 
 ing sometimes almost to close overhead, the traveller descends to- 
 wards Khulm. At Haibak the valley opens out, but closes in again 
 before Khulm is reached. Here he emerges from a narrow gorge upon 
 the plain of the Oxus, some 20 miles from the great river, and leaves 
 the rnountains suddenly, as one leaves the mite of a fortress, still 
 rising behind in a bold rampart to the height of 2500 feet. The 
 river is believed to be spent in irrigation before reaching the Oxus. 
 
 As far north at least as Khurram, half-way from Bamian to Khulm, 
 the offshoots of Koh-i-Baba, wost of the Khulm defile, must reach a 
 height of 11,000 or 12,000 feet ; for here Ferrier found bitter cold 
 ana snow on the top on the 7th of July (latitude nearly 36°). 
 
 The next river westward is the Balkh river, sometimes called 
 Dehas. It rises not far from some of the tributaries of the Surkhab, 
 nor from the s'ources of the Herat river, at a remarkable spot which, 
 under the name of the Band-i-Barbar, or Barbardam, is the subject 
 of various legends, though we have no distinct account of it. The 
 valley of Yekilang, on the upper waters of this river, at a height of 
 7000 feet above the sea, was visited by A. Conolly, and is described 
 by him as fertile, well-watered, and populous, about 15 miles in 
 length by 1 to J mile in width. Ferrier is the only traveller who 
 has crossed the mature stream, and he merely mentions that he 
 forded it, and that it was rather rapid. We thus know almost 
 nothing ef the river. In length it cannot come far short of the 
 Surkhab. Beyond the loftr mountains recently spoken of, some of 
 the hills towards the Balkh-ab have a thin clothing of wood, and 
 the valleys opening on the river are wide and not unfertile The 
 main valley expands into level tracts of pasture, covered by long 
 grass, and intersected by artificial water-course's ; but (as with the 
 Khulm river) tho gorge from which the stream issues on the Oxus 
 plain is narrow, and walled in by very high hills on either side. 
 The ruins and gardens of ancient Balkh stand about 6 miles from 
 the hills, but no part of the river appears to reach the site in its 
 natural bed, nor does any part of its waters reach the Oxus in a 
 running stream. 
 
 The plains that sldpe from the gardens of Balkh to the Oxus are 
 naturally white hard steppes, destitute of spontaneous verdure save 
 sparse brush of tamarisk and other meagre growths ; but the soil 
 responds richly to irrigation whenever this is bestowed. 
 
 The next stream that we meet with, and the last that can be con- 
 sidered even as an indirect tributary of the Oxus, is that which fer- 
 tilises the small khanates of Shibrghan and Andkhui, on the verge 
 of the Turkman desert ; whilst the two confluents that contribute 
 to form it have previously watered the territories of Siripul and 
 Maimana. The river, or whatever survives of its water after irri- 
 gating Andkhui, is lost in the desert. The taste of the water is 
 abominable, and, though the inhabitants are accustomed to it, 
 strangers suffer from its use. 
 
 The last river that we have to notice is the Murghab, which rises 
 lietwecn the two northern branches of the Koh-i-Baba or Paro- 
 pamisus. Ferrier is the only traveller who has been on the upper 
 waters of the Murghah. He takes no notice of the river itself, but 
 dtMciibes a remarkable plain or basin, about 120 milea in circuit, 
 
 entirely surrounded by mountains, well-watered, and rich in vege- 
 tation. Tho people are Mongol Hazaras, and, according to Ferrier, 
 idolaters. Their country is a part of the old territory of Garjistin. 
 At Shah Masliad, about half-way between this and the plains, the 
 river was crossed by Major Eldrcd Pottinger, but we have no access 
 to his report. Further down, as the river approaches the foot of 
 Murghah Bala, on the road from Maimana to Herat, it runs with 
 great violence, and the valley narrows to a defile. At I'anjdch, 
 35 to 40 miles below Murghab, it begins to flow through a valley of 
 clay soil, bounded by sandy heights, and gradually opening iuto the 
 plain of Mcrv. Hereabouts, too, it quits the Afghan territory, but 
 the boundary does not' seem as yet to have been precisely fixed. 
 About 100 miles from Panjdeh the river reaches Merv, where for- 
 merly there was a great dam, securing the fertility of that oasis, 
 the nucleus of ancient Margiana. This was destroyed by the Amir 
 Maasuni (otherwise Shah Murad) of Bokhara, about 1785, when he 
 carried off the whole population into slavery, Beyond Merv the 
 river is lost in the desert. 
 
 Provinces and Places of Note. — We do not know 
 the precise divisions maintained under the Afghans, but 
 they coincide generally with the old principalities or 
 khanates, the hereditary rulers of which, in several cases, 
 continue in authority under the Afghan governor of Turke- 
 stan. Bamian, Saighan, and the higher valleys belong, it ia 
 understood, to a special command over the Hazara tribes. 
 
 L Kunduz. — Beginning again from the east, the first 
 province'is Kunduz, having on the east Badakhshan, on 
 the west Khulm, on the north the Oxus, and on the south 
 Hindu Kush. The districts of Kunduz are approximately 
 as follows: — (1.) Kunduz, with the chief town of the pro- 
 vince, a wretched place, as described by Wood, of some 
 500 or 600 mud huts, intermingled with straw sheds' 
 Uzbek tents, gardens, and corn-fields, and overlooked by a 
 mud fort on an extensive mound. (2.) Hazrat Imam, on the 
 irrigated and fertile Oxus plain. The town, known in the 
 Middle Ages as Arhang, is described as about the same 
 size as Kunduz, with a better fort, protected by a wet 
 ditch. (3.) Baghlan, and (4.) Ghori, in the swampy valley 
 of the Surkhab. (5.) Doshi, further up the same valley, at 
 the confluence of the Andarab stream. (6.) Killagai and 
 Khinj&n, near the lower part of the Andarab stream. 
 (7.) Andarab, at the foot of the Tul and Khawak passes 
 over Hindu Kush, often supposed to be the Adrapsa of 
 Alexander's historians. This secluded town was a favourite 
 minting place of the Samanid sovereigns of Persia and 
 Turkestan, in the 10th century, probably owing to the 
 vicinity of silver mines at Paryan. (8.) Khost lies between 
 Andarab and Kunduz. The name often occurs in the 
 history of Baber and his successors. (9.) Narin and Ish- 
 kimish lie to the east of Baghlan, at the sources of the 
 Baghlan stream and of the Shorab branch of the Kunduz 
 river. The second name appears to be the same as Eshk- 
 mushk, which Wood applies to a high mountain in this 
 quarter. (10.) Farhang and Chdl lie on the borders of, 
 Badakhshan, and are utterly unknown. (11.) Tdlikdn also 
 lies on the borders of Badakhshan, but is pretty well known, 
 being on the main road between Kunduz and Faizabad, 
 the capital of Badakhshan. It is now a poor place, but is 
 ancient, and was once famous. A fortress here stood a 
 long siege from Chinghiz Khan, and the place is mentioned 
 by Marco Polo as Taican. During the rule of Murad 
 Beg of Kunduz this was the seat of a government that 
 included Badakhshan. (12.) Khanabad, on the river of 
 that name, pleasantly elevated above the swampy level of 
 Kunduz, is, or was, the usual summer residence of the chiefs 
 of that territory. 
 
 II. Khulm was the next of the khanates, lying between 
 Kunduz and Balkh. The districts, as far as we know 
 them, are the following: — (1.) Tdshkurghdn.' The old 
 town of Khulm stood in the Oxus plain, surrounded by 
 watered orchards of famous productiveness; but it lay so 
 exposed to the raids of the Kunduz Uzbeks that the chief, 
 Killich Ali. in tho beginning of this century, transferred
 
 TUBKESTAN.l 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 243 
 
 his residence to Tashkurghan, 4 miles further south, 
 and just at the mouth of the defile — a cheerless group of 
 villages, consisting of mud houses with domed roofs, con- 
 nected by gardens and "enclosed by a mud wall; it is sup- 
 posed to .contain at least 15,000 souls, and is a place of 
 considerable trade. (2.) Haibak. The town presents 
 rather an imposing aspect, clustering round a castle of 
 some strength on an isolated eminence; the domed houses, 
 however, are compared to large brown bee-hives. The 
 Khulm river valley here opens out, and is very fertile ; the 
 banks are shaded by luxuriant fruit trees. The site is 
 a very ancient one, and, under the name of Samangdn, was 
 famous in Persian legend. One traveller describes there a 
 remarkable relic of antiquity called the Takht or Throne 
 of Rustam. This, from the account, would seem to have 
 been a Buddhist dagoba. 1 (3.) Khurram Sarbdgh, so 
 called from two villages in the upper denies of the Khulm 
 river. 
 
 III. Balkh. Balkh proper is the populous and well- 
 watered territory upon the eighteen canals which draw off 
 the waters of the Balkh-ab, and on which there are said to 
 be 360 villages. 
 
 No trace has been recovered of tne ancient splendours of 
 Badra, nor do the best judges appear to accept Ferrier's 
 belief that he saw cuneiform inscriptions upon bricks dug 
 up there. A late Indian report by an intelligent Mahom- 
 medan speaks of a stone throne in the citadel, to which 
 traditional antiquity is ascribed, but of this we know no 
 more. The remains that exist are scattered over some 20 
 miles of circuit, but they consist mainly of mosques and 
 tombs of sun-dried brick, and show nothing even of early 
 Mahommedan date. The inner city, surrounded by a 
 ruined wall of 4 or 5 miles in compass, is now entirely 
 deserted; a scanty population still occupies a part of the 
 outer city. In 1858 Mahommed Afzal Khan, ruling the 
 districts of Turkestan on behalf of his father, Dost 
 Mahommed, transferred the seat of the Afghan govern- 
 ment and the bulk of the population to Takhtapul, a 
 position which he fortified, some 8 miles east of the old 
 city; and ttus remains the capital of the Afghan territories 
 on the Oxus. 
 
 The only other place of note in the district is Maz&r-i- 
 Sharif, or the "Noble Shrine," on the road to Khulm, 
 where a whimsical fiction has located the body of 'Ali, the 
 son-in-law of Mahommed. It is the object of pilgrimages, 
 and the scene of a great annual fair. Vambe'ry speaks of 
 the roses, matchless for colour and fragrance, that grow on 
 the pretended tomb. 
 
 Of the districts lying on the' Balkh river within the -hills 
 we know nothing. 
 
 Akcha, some 40 to 45 miles westward from Balkh, was 
 an Uzbek khanate before the last Afghan conquest. It is 
 Bmall, but well-watered and populous. The town is forti- 
 fied, and has a citadeL Accounts differ as to the popula- 
 tion ; one writer calls them Uzbeks, another Sarak Turk- 
 mans. 
 
 TV. The provinces known as the Four Domains are : — 
 (1.) Shibrghan, some 20 miles west of Akcha. This was 
 another small Uzbek khanate. The town, which contains 
 about 12,000 Uzbeks and Parsiwans, has a citadel, but is 
 not otherwise fortified. It is surrounded by good gardens, 
 and excellent cultivation, but its water supply is dependent 
 upon Siripul, and, in the frequent case of hostility between 
 the two, is liable to be cut off. Ferrier speaks highly of 
 the climate and the repute of the inhabitants for valour. 
 Shibrghan (Sapurgan) and its fine melons are mentioned 
 by Marco Polo. (2.) Andkhui, about 20 miles north-west 
 ef Shibrghan, forms an oasis in the desert, watered by the 
 
 1 Bursleru, A Pujt into Turkestan, p. 125. 
 
 united streams from Siripul and from Maimana. It was 
 once a flourishing city, and the oasis was reckoned to con- 
 tain 50,000 inhabitants, but the place has scarcely recovered 
 from the destruction it endured at the hands of Yar 
 Mahommed of Herat in 1840. It was at Andkhui that 
 Moorcroft died in 1825 ; but his grave is at Balkh. Tre- 
 beck, the last survivor of his party, died and wa3 buried at 
 Mazar. (3.) Maimana, 105 miles from Balkh, and some 50 
 south-west of Andkhui, contains some ten or twelve villages 
 or townships, besides the capital, and a population estimated 
 at 100,000 souls. It is a district of considerable produc- 
 tiveness, industry, and trade, and the Uzbek inhabitants 
 have a high reputation as soldiers. The chief was formerly 
 a notorious slave-dealer. (4.) Siripul. This khanate lying 
 within the limits of the undulating country south-west oi 
 Balkh and east of Maimana, is of about the same calibre 
 as the latter, but somewhat lower in estimated population. 
 Two-thirds of the people are Uzbeks, the rest Hazaras. 
 From the last a tribute of slaves is, or used to be, exacted; 
 and Hazara widows, it is said, were claimed as govern- 
 ment property, and sold by auction. The town of Siripul 
 is an irregular mass of houses clustered on the slope of a 
 hill crowned by a fort. Many tents gather round it also, 
 and Ferrier estimates the population of town and tents as 
 high as 18,000. The valley below is abundantly watered, 
 and the breadth of orchards and tillage is considerable. 
 
 Population". — In the estimate of population cited under 
 Afghanistan, that of Afghan Turkestan is reckoned at 
 642,000. This includes 55,000 for Badakhshan (no doubt 
 too low an estimate) ; and the remainder, for the provinces 
 included under our present article, excluding Hazaras, will 
 be 587,000. Anything but a round number is entirely 
 inappropriate to such an estimate ; but we shall probably 
 not be far wrong if we reckon the population at 600,000. 
 
 The Tajiks, or people of J anian blood, are probably the 
 representatives of the olde-jt surviving race of this region. 
 They are found in some districts of Balkh and valleys of 
 Kunduz. Khost, for instance, is said to be chiefly occu- 
 pied by them. Uzbeks seem to be the most numerous 
 race : and there are some other Turk tribes not classed as 
 Uzbeks. 2 There seem to be a good many families claiming 
 Arab descent; Afghans, especially about Balkh and Khulm; 
 and in the towns some Hindus and Jews. 
 
 Products and Industey. — We have no means of giv- 
 ing any systematic account of the products of these pro- 
 vinces, either in natural history or industry. Bock-salt is 
 worked at Chal, near the Badakhshan frontier, as well as 
 beyond that frontier. Pistachic nuts are grown largely in 
 the hill country of Kunduz, as well as the adjoining districts 
 of Badakhshan, and the whole supply of India, Central 
 Asia, and Russia is said to be derived from this region. 
 Fruit is abundant and excellent, especially in Khulm and 
 Balkh. Andkhui, before its decay, was famous for the 
 black sheepskins and lambskins which we call astrakhan ; 
 and also for a breed of camels in great demand. Kunduz 
 produces a breed of horses, highly valued in the Kabul 
 market under the name of Kataghem. Maimana also 
 is famous for horses, which are often exported to India ; 
 and is a mart for carpets and textures of wool and camels' 
 hair, the work oi lurkman and Jamshidi women. Slave- 
 dealing and man-stealing have long been the curse of this 
 region, but late changes have tended to restrict these, and 
 the Russian conquest of Khiva will probably have a most 
 beneficial effect in this respect at least. 
 
 History. — Ancient Balkh, or Badra, was probably one 
 of the oldest capitals in Central Asia. There Persian tra- 
 dition places the teaching of Zoroaster. Bactriana wa3 a 
 
 ' The Uzbeks were, however, a confederation of mary Turk and 
 Tartar tribes, not one race.
 
 244 
 
 AF1-AFR 
 
 province of the Acbaemenian empire, and probably waa 
 occupied in great measure by a race of Iranian blood. 
 About B.c. 250, Theodotus, governor of 'Bactria under the 
 Seleucidie, declared his independence, and commenced the 
 history, so dark to us, of the Greco-Bactrian dym 
 whose dominions at one time or another — though pp 
 never simultaneously — touched the Jaxartes and the Gulf 
 of Cutch. Parthian rivalry first, and then a series of 
 nomad movements from inner Asia, overwhelmed the 
 isolated dominion of the Greeks (circa B.C. 120). Powers 
 rose on the Oxus, known to the Chinese as Yuechi, Kweish- 
 . Yetha, Tukharas, and what not ; dimly to western 
 Asia and Europe as Kushans, Haiuthala, /.'/,/d/talita; or 
 White Iluns, and Tochari. Buddhism, with its monas- 
 teries, colossi, and gilded pagodas, spread over the valley 
 of the Oxus. We do not know what further traces of that 
 time may yet be revealed ; but we see some in the gi 
 sculptures of Bamian. The old Arab historians of the 
 Mahommedan conquest celebrate a heathen temple at 
 Balkh, which they call Naobihdr, which Sir H. Kawlinson 
 has pointed out to have been certainly a Buddhist monas- 
 tery (Nava-Vih&ra), The name Naobihar still attaches to 
 a village on one of the Balkh canals, thus preserving, 
 through so many centuries, the memory of the ancient 
 Indian religion. The memoirs of the Chinese pilgrim 
 Hwen Thsang, in the first part of the 7th century, give 
 many particulars of the prevalence of his religion in the 
 numerous principalities into which the empire of the 
 Tukharas had broken up; and' it is remarkable how many 
 of these states and their names are identical with those 
 which still exist This is not confined to what were great 
 cities like Balkh and Bamian ; it applies to Khulm, Khost, 
 Baghlan, Andarab, and many more. 
 
 As Huiathalah, or Tokhdristan, the country long con- 
 tinued to be known to Mahon. -nedans ; its political destiny 
 generally followed that of Khorusan. It bore the brunt of 
 all the fury of Chinghiz, and the region seems never to 
 have effectually recovered from the devastations and mas- 
 
 sacres which ho began, and which were repeated in degree 
 in succeeding generations. For about a century these 
 Oxus provinces were attached to ,the empire of the Dehli 
 Moguls, and then fell into Uzbek hands. In the lust 
 century they formed a part of the dominion of Ahmed 
 Khan Durrani (see Afghanistan), and so remained under 
 his son Timur. But during the fratricidal wars of Timur's 
 sons they fell back under the independent rule of various 
 Uzbek chiefs. Among these, the Kataghans of Kunduz 
 were Long predominant j and their chief, Murad Beg (1815 
 to about 1842), for some time ruled Kulab beyond the 
 Oxus, and all south of it from near Balkh to Pamir, 
 
 In 1850 the Afghans recovered Balkh and Khulm; by 
 1855 they had also gained Akcha and the four western 
 khanates ; Kunduz in 1859. They were proceeding to 
 extend their conquests to Badakhshan, when the Amir of 
 that country agreed to pay homage and tribute. 
 
 We bavi i 'id, in the conclusion of the article Afchan- 
 . the correspondence which recently took place (1872- 
 ith Russia the recognition of the Oxus as 
 
 the boundary of Afghan Turkestan. 
 
 Akti'jiuties. — These are known but very imperfectly. 
 The best known, and probably the most remarkable, are 
 iuous colossi at Bamian, with the adjoining innumer- 
 able caves. La the same locality are the ruins of the 
 mediaeval city destroyed by Chinghiz, the great fort called 
 Sayadabad, and the ruins of Zohak. At Haibak are 
 numerous caves like those of Bamian. Balkh seems to 
 have little or nothing to show, though probably excavation 
 would be rewarded. The little known or unknown valleys 
 of Badakhshan probably contain remains of interest, but 
 our only notices of them are so highly spiced with imagina- 
 tion as to be worthless. General Ferrier saw remarkable 
 rock sculptures in a defile in the Hazara country, south of 
 Siripul, and curious rock excavations a little further south. 
 
 (Wood's Journey, 2d ed., 1873, with Introductory Essay; 
 Ferrier's Caravan Journeys; Burnes's Travels; Indian 
 official documents; Vainbcry's Travels; &c, etc.) (n. v.) 
 
 AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR, a city of Asiatic Turkey, in 
 the pashalic of Anatolia, nearly 200 miles E. of Smyrna, 
 and 50 miles S.S.E. of Kutaiah. It stands partly on 
 level ground, partly on a- declivity, and above it rises a 
 precipitous trachytio rock 400 feet in height, on the sum- 
 mit cf, which are the ruins of an ancient castle. From its 
 situation on the route of the caravans between Smyrna and 
 western Asia on the one hand, and Armenia, Georgia, &c.° 
 on the other, the city is a place of extensive trade, and its 
 bazaars are well stocked with the merchandise both of 
 Europe and the East Opium in large quantifies is pro- 
 duced in its vicinity, and forms the staple article of its 
 commerce; and there are, besides, manufactures of black 
 felts, carpets, arms, and saddlery. Afium contains several 
 mosques (one of them a very handsome building), and it 
 is the seat of an Armenian bishop. The population is 
 estimated at about 60,000." 
 
 AFRAGOLA, a town of Italy, in the province of Napoli, 
 6 miles N.N.E. of Naples. It has extensive manufac- 
 tures of straw bonnets. Population of commune (1865), 
 
 AFRANIUS, Lucius, a Latin poet who lived about a 
 century before Christ. He wrote comedies in imitation of 
 Monander, and -was commended by Cicero and Quintilian 
 for his acute genius and fluent style. .The fragments of 
 his works which are extant have been collected by Bothe 
 in his Poeta Scenici Latini, and by Neukirch in his De 
 Fa},ula Toqata Somanorvm. 
 
 AFRANIUS, Lucius, whose early history is unknown, 
 was a devoted friend and adherent of Pompey, whom he 
 served with distinction as one of his lieutenants in the 
 Sertorian and Mithridatic wars. In the year 60 B.c, and 
 chiefly by Pompey's support, he was raised to the consul- 
 ship, but in performing the duties of that office he showed, 
 like many other soldiers both before and since, an utter 
 incapacity to manage civil affairs. In the following year, 
 while governor of Cisalpine Gaul, he had the good fortune 
 to obtain the honour of a triumph, and on the allotment 
 of Spain to Pompey, 55 B.C., Afranius and Petreius were 
 sent to take charge of the government of that country. 
 On the rupture between Cocsar and Pompey, they were 
 compelled, after a. short campaign in which they were at 
 first successful, to surrender to Csesar at Ilerda v 49 B.C.. 
 and were dismissed on promising not to serve again in th( 
 war. Afranius, regardless of his promise, joined Pompey 
 at Dyrrhachium, and at the battle of Pharsalia, 48 B.C., ho 
 had charge of Pompey's camp. On the complete defeat of 
 Pompey, Afranius, despairing of pardon from Ccesar, re- 
 paired to Africa, and was present at the battle of Thapsus, 
 46 B.C., which ruined the hopes of the Pompeians in that 
 part of the world. Escaping from the field with a strong 
 body of cavalry, he was afterwards taken prisoner, along 
 with Faust us Sulla, by the troops of Sittius, and handed 
 over to Caesar, whose veterans, disappointed at their not 
 being led to immediate execution, rose in tumult and put 
 them to death
 
 
 ^1 
 
 c
 
 245 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 THIS vast continent, thougn associated from tne dawn 
 of civilisation with traditions and mysteries of the 
 most stimulating kind, has remained until recently one of 
 the least known, and, both commercially and politically, 
 one of the least important of the great divisions of the 
 globe. The knowledge of Africa possessed by the ancients 
 was very limited, owing principally to its physical construc- 
 tion. The great desert, which in a broad belt stretches 
 quite across the continent, forbade every attempt to pass 
 it until the introduction of the camel by the Arabs. The 
 want of any known great river, except the Nile, that might 
 conduct into the interior, contributed to confine the Greek 
 and Koman colonists ito the habitable belt along the north- 
 ern coast. The Phoenicians are known to have formed 
 establishments on the northern coast of Africa at a very 
 early period of history, probably not less than 3000 years 
 ago ; and the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses dates as far 
 back as the year B.C. 525. We may consider, therefore, 
 the coasts of Egypt, of the Eed Sea, and of the Mediter- 
 ranean, to have been settled and well known to the ancient 
 Asiatics, who were constantly passing the narrow isthmus 
 which divided their country from Africa and led them im- 
 mediately from parched deserts into a fertile valley, watered 
 by a magnificent river. But whether they were much or 
 little acquainted with the western coast, which bounds the 
 Atlantic, and the eastern coast, washed by the Indian Ocean, 
 is a question that has exercised the research and ingenuity 
 of the ablest scholars and geographers, and has not yet 
 been satisfactorily answered." 
 
 This question being one of curiosity rather than utility, 
 we shall only state the case, and the results of the several 
 inquiries, without entering into the merits of the arguments 
 advanced by the different parties. We are told by Hero- 
 dotus, that Necho, king of Egypt, sent out an expedition 
 under the command of certain Phoenician seamen, for the 
 purpose of circumnavigating Africa ; and that, on their re- 
 turn, they asserted that they had accomplished this under- 
 taking, few of the ancient writers give credit to the story; 
 but, among the moderns, the Abb6 Paris and Montesquieu 
 have contended that this voyage was actually performed. 
 Isaac Vossius ind DAnville have strong doubts ; and Dr 
 Vincent and M. Gosselin maintain that such an expedition, 
 at such a period, exceeds all the means and resources of 
 navigation, then in its infancy. Last of all comes Major 
 Eennel, who, in his elucidation of the geography of Hero- 
 dotus, has done more than all the rest in clearing away the 
 doubts of history ; and fie argues the possibility of such a 
 voyage, from the construction of their ships, with fiat bot- 
 toms and low masts, enabling them to keep close, to the 
 land, and to discover and enter into all the creeks and har- 
 bours which any part of the coast might present. At all 
 events, one thing is evident : if such an expedition ever 
 circumnavigated the African continent, the fruits of it have 
 nearly, if not entirely, perished. 
 
 About half a century after this supposed expedition, the 
 account of another voyage, down the western coast, is con- 
 tained in the Periplus of Hanno, which has also called forth 
 many learned and elaborate discussions among modern geo- 
 graphers, some of whom would carry Hanno to the Bight 
 of Benin, others only to Sherbro Sound or the river Nun 
 in lat. 28° N. 
 
 The extent to which ancient discovery proceeded along 
 the eastern coast of Africa, has divided the opinion of the 
 learned nearly as much as its progress on the western coast. 
 Delisle, Huet, and Bochart, made the discovery of the coast 
 to extend as far south as Mozambique and Madagascar. 
 
 DAnville could trace such discovery no farther than to 
 Cape Delgado ; and M. Gosselin contends that the ancients 
 never proceeded down the coast beyond Brava. But Dr 
 Vincent, who has entered more profoundly into the subject 
 than any of his predecessors, and brought a great fund of 
 learning to bear on the question, in his Periplus of the 
 Erytkrean Sea, has with great plausibility extended these 
 boundaries to Mozambique and to the island of Madagascar. 
 
 Sketch Map of Africa. 
 
 Egypt, under the Ptolemies, the great patrons of science 
 and promoters of discovery, possessing the advantage 1 of 
 the only great river which falls from the African continent 
 into the Mediterranean, made no progress beyond its an- 
 cient boundaries ; and though the Romans, who subse- 
 quently possessed Egypt, penetrated beyond the limits of 
 their own dependencies, they extended their discoveries no 
 further tha> Fezzan in jone direction, and, at a later period, 
 beyond Nubia as far as Abyssinia, and the regions of the 
 Upper Nile. We know nothing of the progress made by 
 the Carthaginians in the discovery of Interior Africa ; but The C»r- 
 although it has been asserted that their merchants had thagini»a% 
 reached the banks of the interior river, which we call the 
 Kawara or Niger, they have left nothing on record that 
 will warrant such a supposition. The story told by Hero- 
 dotus,^ some Nasamonians crossing the desert, and arriv- 
 ing at a'large river, can only be applicable to some western, 
 arm of the Nile. The people from whom we derive the 
 first information concerning the interior of Northern Africa 
 are the Arabs, who, by means of the camel, were able to 
 penetrate across the great desert to the very centre of the 
 continent, and along the two coasts as far as the Senegal and 
 the Gambia on the west, and to Sofala on the east. On this 
 latter coast they not only explored to an extent far beyond 
 any supposed limits of ancient discovery, but plantedcolonies 
 at Sofala, Mombas, Melinda, and at various other places. 
 
 The 15 th century produced a new era in maritime dis- 
 covery. The voyages of the Portuguese were the first to 
 give anything like an accurate outline of the two coasts.
 
 246 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 [PUOGRESSIVE 
 
 jnd to complete the circumnavigation of Africa. The dis- 
 covery of America and the West India islands gave rise to 
 that horrid traffic iu African negroes, which has since been 
 suppressed; but this traffic has been the means of acquiring 
 a more extended and accurate knowledge of that part of 
 the coast which lies between the rivers Senegal and the 
 Cameroons, as well as of the manners and character of the 
 people who inhabit this extended line of ccast. With the 
 English and French settlements in Africa began a systematic 
 sur.ey of the coast, and portions of the interior. 
 
 The uncertainty and confusion that prevailed in the geo- 
 graphy of the interior of Africa induced a few learned aud 
 scientific individuals to form themselves into an association 
 for promoting the exploration of Inner Africa. This society 
 was formed ia London in 1788, and under its auspices im- 
 portant additions were made to the geography of Africa 
 by Houghton, Mungo Park, Hornemann, and Burckhardt. 
 Repeated failures, however, at length discouraged the asso- 
 ciation from engaging other missionaries, and it subse- 
 quently merged ia the Royal Geographical Society in 1831. 
 
 During the last sixty years more has been done to make 
 os acquainted with the geography of Africa than during 
 the whole of the 1700 previous years, since Ptolemy, taken 
 together. With Mungo Park, strictly speaking, commences 
 the era of unceasing endeavours to explore the interior. 
 
 Mungo Park proceeded in 1795 from the river Gambia 
 on the west coast, to the Joliba (commonly called Niger), 
 traced this river as far as the town of Silla, explored the 
 intervening countries, determined the southern confines of 
 the Sahara, and returned in 1797. In 1805 this adven- 
 turous traveller embarked on a second journey in the same 
 regions, for the purpose of descending down the river Joliba 
 to its mouth. This journey added little to the discoveries, 
 already made, and cost the traveller his life., He is ascer- 
 tained to have passed Timbuktu, and to have reached Boussa, 
 where he wa? killed by the natives. In 1798 Dr Lacerda, 
 a scientific Portuguese traveller, who had already acquired 
 fame through his journeys in Brazil, made the first great 
 journey in South-Eastern Africa, inland from Mozambique, 
 and reached the capital of the African king, known as the 
 Cazembe, in whose country he died. 
 
 Hornemann, in 1796-98, penetrated from Cairo to Mur- 
 zuk, and transmitted from that place valuable information 
 respecting the countries to the south, especially Bornu. 
 He then proceeded in that direction, but it is supposed 
 that he soon afterwards perished, as no accounts of his fur- 
 ther progress have ever reached Europe. The first actual 
 crossing of the continent that has been recorded was ac- 
 complished between the years 1802 and 1800, by two.Pom- 
 beiros or mercantile traders in the employment of the Por- 
 tuguese, who passed from Angola eastward through the 
 territories of the Muata Hianvo and the Cazembe, to the 
 possessions on the Zambeze. In 1816 an expedition was 
 sent out by the English Government, under the command 
 of Captain Tuckey, to the river Congo, which was at that 
 time believed to be the lower course of the Joliba. This 
 was a disastrous undertaking, and the geographical addi- 
 tions were but slight, the river having been ascended a 
 distance of only 280 miles 
 
 In 1819 Lyon and Ritchie penetrated from Tripoli to 
 Murzuk, and a little distance beyond that place. 
 
 In 1822 Denham, Clapperton, and Oudney set forth 
 from Tripoli in the same direction, crossed the Great De- 
 sert, and reached, on the 4th February 1823, the great lake 
 Tsad or Chad. The surrounding countries were explored as 
 far as Sakatu in the west, and Mandara in the south. This 
 journey was altogether one of the most successful and im- 
 portant into the interior. Oudney died in Bornu, but Clap- 
 perton undertook a second journey from the coast of Guinea, 
 crossed the Kawara, and arrived at Sakatu, at which place he 
 
 also died. His servant, Richard Lauder, returned to Eng- 
 land, after having explored a part of the adjoining regions. 
 
 Major Laing succeeded in reaching Timbuktu from Tri- 
 poli, but was murdered on his return in the desert. 
 
 In 1827 and 1828 Caillio set out from the Rio Nunez 
 on the western coast, reached Timbuktu, and returned from 
 that place through the Great Desert to Marocco. A second 
 Portuguese journey was undertaken in 1830 from Mozam- 
 bique to the Cazembe's dominions, and Major Monteiro, 
 the leader of the expedition, more fortunate than Ins pre- 
 decessor Dr Lacerda, was enabled to complete a map of the 
 country traversed, and to bring back a complete account 
 of this portion of the interior. 
 
 The termination of the Joliba, Kawara, or Niger, remained 
 in obscurity till 1830, when it was ascertained by Lander 
 and his brother, who succeeded in tracing the river from 
 Yaouri down to its mouth. They embarked on a second 
 expedition, which sailed in 1832, for the purpose of ascend- 
 ing the Kawara as far as Timbuktu. But only Rabba was 
 reached, and the general results of the expedition wero 
 most disastrous. 
 
 The great Niger expedition, similar to the foregoing, Niger ev 
 consisted of three steam-vessels, and was despatched by the peditioa. 
 Government in 1841, under Captain Trotter. It proved a 
 failure, and resulted in a melancholy loss of life. 
 
 In the region between the Kawara and the coast, Mr 
 Duncan, one of the survivors of the Niger expedition, 
 made some additions to our geographical knowledge by 
 his journey to Adafoodia, in 1845-46. This enterprising 
 traveller met with an untimely death in a second attempt 
 in the same region for the purpose of reaching Timbuktu. 
 
 The preceding journeys were confined chiefly to the 
 northern and western portions of the continent. A much 
 greater number of travellers explored the regions drained 
 by the Nile, the salubrity of which, particularly of 
 Abyssinia, is so infinitely greater than that of Western 
 Africa, that among the many explorers of the former, a 
 very small proportion have died as compared with the im- 
 mense loss of life in Western Africa. Among the most 
 distinguished of the earlier East African travellers are 
 Bruce (1768-73), Browne (1793), who reached Darfur, 
 Burckhardt (1814), Cailliaud (1819), and more recently 
 Ruppel (1824-25), Russegger (1837), DAbbadie (1838- 
 44), Beke (1840-44), D'Arnaud and Werne on the White 
 Nile (1840-42), and Brun Rollet (1845). 
 
 Though the Dutch settlement in South Africa was South- 
 founded as early as 1650, not much information of the African 
 interior of that portion of the continent was gained till the lave e " 
 end of the 18th century, when a series of journeys was com- 
 menced by Sparrmann, and followed up by Vaillant, Barrow, 
 Trotter, Somerville, Lichtenstein, Burchell (1812), Camp- 
 bell, Thomson, Smith, Alexander (1836-37), and Harris. 
 
 A station of the Church Missionary Society was cstab- Morabw 
 lished near Mombas, in about 4° S. lat. on the east coast mission 
 of Africa, in 1845, and the zealous missionaries in charge 
 of it began to make exploring journeys into 'the interior. 
 Thus, early in 1849, the Rev. Mr Rebmann discovered the 
 great snow-clad mountain of Kilima-njaro, rising on the 
 edge of the inland plateau ; and his companion, Dr Krapf, 
 taking a more northerly route, came in sight of a second 
 huge mountain named Kcnia, also snow-clad, though directly 
 beneath the iquator. • Frequent reports reached these mis- 
 sionaries of vast lakes in the interior beyond the mountains 
 they had discovered, and their information awakened a 
 great interest in this region at home. 
 
 About this time an embassy, for the purpose of conclud- 
 ing commercial treaties with the chiefs of Northern Africa, 
 as far as Lake Chad, by which the legitimate trade of these 
 countries should be extended and the system of slavery 
 abolished, was originated by Mr James Richardson, who
 
 DISCOVERIES.] 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 247 
 
 Bartb- 
 
 Ltving- 
 itone (the 
 Zambeze). 
 
 ultun. 
 
 3Uva Porto. 
 
 tiring. 
 tone 
 Victoria 
 Wis). 
 
 left England for this purpose in 1849, accompanied by Drs 
 Barth and Overweg. The expedition had already almost 
 reached the scene of its labours when Richardson died; 
 Overweg also fell a victim to his exertions, but Dr Barth 
 continued his explorations till 1856. During this time he 
 traversed in many directions almost the whole of the 
 northern Soudan, completing a series of journeys which 
 must always remain most conspicuous in North African 
 travel, and upon which we are still dependent for the greater 
 part of our knowledge of the central negro states. 
 
 In the summer of 1849, Dr Livingstone, who, as an 
 agent of the London Missionary Society, had laboured and 
 travelled in the countries immediately north of the Cape 
 Colony since 1840, began those remarkable journeys in the 
 interior of Southern Africa, which have continued until the 
 present time, and have given to him the first place among 
 African discoverers. The finding of Lake Ngami, the 
 central point of the continental drainage of South Africa, 
 was the great discovery of the first year. 
 
 Two journeys from the west coast now claim attention. 
 In 1846 a Portuguese trader named Graca succeeded in 
 again reaching the country of the South African potentate, 
 named the Muata Yanvo, from Angola ; he was followed 
 by a Hungarian named Ladislaus Magyar, who explored 
 the central country in various directions from 1847 to 1851. 
 Between 1851 and 1853 Livingstone made two journeys 
 northward from his station in the land of the Bechuanas, 
 and was the first European to embark upon the upper 
 course of the Zambeze. From the Makololo country, in 
 the central part of the river basin, he now led a party of 
 natives westwards up-stream to the water-parting of the 
 continent at the little Lake Dilolo, and thence to the western 
 slope, reaching the Portuguese coast at Loanda in 1854. 
 
 During 1851 Galton explored a part of the south-western 
 country inhabited by the Damaras and Ovampo, from Wal- 
 fisch Bay to a point in lat. 17° 58' S., and long. 21° E., 
 determining accurately a number of positions in this region. 
 On the south-east, also, Gassiot made an interesting journey 
 from Port Natal north-westward through the mountains to 
 the river Limpopo. 
 
 Two most remarkable journeys across the whole continent 
 now follow in order ; the one, made by Silva Porto, a Por- 
 tuguese trader, who leaving Benguela in 1853, took an 
 eastward route, parallel to but considerably northward of 
 the Zambeze, over perfectly unknown country. He then 
 rounded the southern end of the Lake Nyassa (afterwards 
 explored by Livingstone), and made his way across the east 
 coast-land to the mouth of the Kovuma river, having spent 
 a year and two months in his tedious march. The other 
 was executed by Livingstone, who in returning (1855-56) 
 ay a somewhat more northerly route than that travelled over 
 n going westward to Loanda, descended the Zambeze to its 
 nouth at Quilimane, discovering the wonderful Victoria 
 Falls of the river on his way. 
 
 In 1856 an important addition was made to the more 
 ;xact geography of Africa, in a survey of the greater part 
 Df the course of the Orange river, by Mr Moffat, a son of 
 the veteran South African missionary. 
 
 The following year was one of great activity in African 
 exploration. Damara Land, in the south-west, wa3 tra- 
 versed by Messrs Hahn and Rath as far as the southern 
 limit of the Portuguese territory at the Cunene river ; Dr 
 Bastian was exploring the interior of Congo and Angola, 
 *and Du Chaillu had begun his first journey in the forest 
 'country of the Fan tribes on the equatorial west coast. 
 Under the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society, 
 Captains Burton and Speke, already distinguished by their 
 perilous journey to Harar, a trading centre in the Somali 
 and Galla country of the east African promontory, set out 
 (mm Zanzibar, to ascertain the truth about the great inland 
 
 lakes which had been reported by the Mombas missionaries 
 Their most successful journey (1857-59) resulted in th< 
 discovery of Lake Tanganyika, in a deep basin, betweer 
 3° and 8° S. lat., and of the southern portion of a perhap; 
 greater lake northward, supposed by Speke, its discoverer 
 to be the head reservoir of the Nile. 
 
 In a new journey in the Zambeze region in 1859, Di 
 Livingstone, accompanied by Dr Kirk, traced the Shir* 
 river, a northern tributary of the Zambeze, to its outflow 
 from the Nyassa, the, most southerly of the great Africai 
 chain of fresh lakes. 
 
 About this time also several travellers (Petherick (1858), 
 Lejean, Miani, the Poncets, Antinori, Debono, Peney) 
 were adding much to the existing knowledge of the Upper 
 White Nile from the Egyptian side; and in the north the 
 Algerian Sahara was being explored by the French scien- 
 tific traveller Duveyrier. 
 
 In 1860 Captain Speke, anxious to extend knowledge 
 of the great inland reservoirs which had been discovered in 
 his former journey, and to connect them witil the known 
 countries to northward, accompanied by Captain Grant, 
 again left Zanzibar. Reaching a point on the north-western 
 shores of the great lake which he had previously made 
 known, and which he now named the Victoria Nyanza, the 
 traveller thence traced the outflowing river to the White. 
 Nile at Gondokoro, thus completing a great link in tha 
 chain of African discoveries, which binds the country known 
 from *he east coast to that explored from the side of Egypt 
 
 Meanwhile Dr Livingstone had endeavoured to find a 
 way to his newly-discovered Lake Nyassa from the mouth hiring- 
 of the Rovuma, a large river which flows to the Indian ^ one (*"■ 
 Ocean near Cape Delgado, and which was also reported to L ^ &ss *>- 
 take its rise in this lake, but the river proved to be tin- 
 navigable beyond a point not far from the sea. He 
 returned then (in 1861) to the Shire river; and, carrying 
 a boat past its rapids, launched out to explore the whole- 
 length of Lake Nyassa. 
 
 A series of important journeys by Gerhard Rohlfs had Rohus 
 now (1861) begun in Marocco and in the Maroccan Sahara; (Morocco 
 and on the equatorial east coast region, Baron von der Von 
 Decken had extended Rebmann's information in the region Decken. 
 of the snowy mountain, Kilima-njaro. 
 
 In the south the artist Baines had crossed the Kalahari Baines. 
 Desert from Damara Land to the falls of the Zambeze. 
 In 1862 Petherick made an important journey of explora- 
 tion in the Nile region west of Gondokoro. 
 
 The year 1864 was marked by the discovery of a second 
 great reservoir lake of the Nile, near the latitude of the 
 Victoria Nyanza, by Baker, pushing southward from Gon- Biker 
 dokoro. This lake the discoverer named the Albert Nyanza. J A } be . rt 
 During this year also, Rohlfs extended his travels from e ^ 
 Marocco to the oasis of Tuat, thence making his way to 
 Ghadames and Tripoli; in Western Africa, the officers of 
 the French marine stationed at the Gaboon explored the 
 delta region of the great Ogowai river; and Du Chaillu, Da CbiUla 
 in a second journey (1864-65), entered the gorilla country 
 of Ashango, south of this river; whilst, on the east coast, 
 Baron von der Decken attempted the navigation of the 
 Juba, but was destined to fall a martyr to the jealousies of 
 the Galla and Somali tribes, whose territories the rivei 
 divides. 
 
 After a short stay at Tripoli, the traveller Rohlfs again 
 turned southward, and in a journey which lasted from 
 1865 to 1867, crossed the whole northern continent — first 
 reaching Lake Chad by almost the same route as that for- 
 merly taken by Barth, and thence striking south-westwarc 
 by a new path to the Bight of Benin. 
 
 In 1866 some progress was made in discovery in th( 
 west, by the navigation of the Ogowai river by Walker, fo: 
 200 miles from its mouth. Hahn and Rath also extendec
 
 248 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 IPKOURKSSIVI 
 
 Living- 
 rtoue. 
 
 their exploration of Damara Laud. On the eastern side 
 Messrs Wakefield and New, the successors of Krapf and 
 Rehmanu in the Mombas Mission, made numerous short 
 journeys in the Galla country, and the former collected 
 very valuable native information respecting the countries 
 lying between this coact-land and the great lakes of the 
 Nile basin. In this year al.=o Dr Livingstone had again 
 entered the Eovuma river, beginning that greatest of all 
 lis journeys from which he has not yet (1873) returned, 
 and the outline of which we shall notice further on. 
 
 Still farther south, in 186C-67, the discovery of gold in 
 the mountains between the Zambeze and Limpopo rivers, 
 by the pioneer Mauch, gave great impetus to exploration 
 in this part of the continent The years 1867-68 brought 
 the memorable Abyssinian campaign, and the accurate re- 
 cords kept of the line of march on the high land from 
 iwah to Magdala formed a most valuable contribution 
 to African geography. 
 
 Most important in the following years (1869-71) were 
 the researches of the botanist, Dr Schweinfurth, in the 
 region of the complicated network of tributaries received 
 by the White Nil# west of Gondokoro, during which he 
 passed the water-parting of the Nile basin in this direction, 
 and came into a new area of drainage, possibly belonging 
 to the system of Lake Chad ;' and the outsetting of a great 
 Egyptian military expedition (1869) by Sir Samuel Baker, 
 for the purpose of exploration of the Upper Nile and of the 
 extermination of slave traffic on the river, and to plant 
 Egyptian military posts in the regions visited. 
 
 The letters received from time to time in this country 
 from Dr Livingstone enable us to trace roughly his move- 
 ments from 1866 to the present time as follows : — Arriving 
 from Bombay, on the East African coast, near the mouth 
 of the Eovuma, he passed up the course of this river to the 
 confluence of its main tributary branches, one coming from 
 the north-west, the other from south-west. Following the 
 latter. arm, the traveller appears to have gone round the 
 southern end of the Lake Nyassa, and, marching then in a 
 north-westerly direction, he crossed the head waters of 
 the Aruangoa tributary of the Zambeze, near the track 
 of Lacerda, in the previous century ; ascending a high 
 land, he came upon a portion of the Chambeze river, 
 belonging to a different basin, and- continuing in a north- 
 (Lake westerly direction, discovered Lake Liemba, a southern 
 LirmUai. extension of Lake Tanganyika, in April 1867. Thence he 
 turned to the Cazembe's town, and in journeys northward 
 and southward from this point, made known the two great 
 (lakes lakes, Moero (Sept. 1867), and Bangweolo or Bemba (July 
 Moero am jggg^ ^^^ f orm p ar t f a new system, connected by the 
 Chambeze (also named the Luapula and Lualaba) river in a 
 basin south and west of that of the Tanganyika, In 1869 
 Livingstone had made his way to Ujiji, Burton's halting- 
 «uice, on the eastern shore of the Tanganyika. Hence, 
 crossing the lake, he penetrated the dense tropical forests 
 (Msnyue- jind swamps of Manyuema country, in the heart of the 
 ■»)■ southern portion of the continent, and during 1870-71 
 
 traced the vast river (Lualaba) flowing out of the Lake 
 Moero, in its north and westerly course, to a second, and 
 then a third great expansion — Lake Kamalondo the one, 
 and the other a still unvisited body of water lying in about 
 3° S. lat., and 25° or 26° E. long; also learning, by native 
 report, that the Lualaba (which is in all probability the 
 upper course of the mighty Congo river) received a great 
 tributary from south-westward. This south-western arm 
 also expands into a vast lake which Livingstone has named, 
 in anticipation, Lake Lincoln. 
 
 Though the untruth of a report of Livingstone's death, 
 near the Nyassa, had been proved by an expedition sent 
 out on his track by the Geographical Society of London in 
 18C7, yet, at the time of his Manyuema journey, the pro- 
 
 bable fate of the great traveller, from whom no news had 
 come out of Africa for more than two years, became a mat- 
 ter of the greatest anxiety among all classes m Europe and 
 America. This led to a special mission for Dr Livingstone's 
 aid, generously fitted out at the cost cf the proprietor of an 
 American newspaper. Stanley, the leader of this expedi- 
 tion, made a bold march from Zanzibar to Ujiji, on Lake 
 nyika, and was fortunate in meeting the great travel- 
 ler there, returning from Manyuema, broken down by the 
 severity of the task which he had accomplished, and in 
 need of everything. A boat voyage round the northern 
 end of Tanganyika, undertaken in the latter part of 1871 
 by Livingstone and Stanley together, proved that this great 
 lake has no apparent outlet in a northerly direction, and 
 leaves the question of its drainage in considerable doubt. 
 
 Recruited in health, and supplied with stores and fol« 
 lowers, Livingstone is believed to have started afresh from 
 Unyanyembe, a point midway in the route from Zanzibar to 
 Ujiji, where he parted with Stanley, in autumn of 1872, to 
 carry out a projected journey, in which he will clear up 
 all doubts respecting the ultimate direction of the great 
 Lualaba river. 
 
 Of the expeditions which have been progressing in Africa 
 contemporaneously with these later journeys of Dr Living- 
 stone, that of Sir Samuel Baker is perhaps the most im- 
 portant, though its story has until now been one of almost 
 continuous hardship and disaster. Up to the middle of the 
 year 1870, at which time the expedition, consisting of up- 
 wards of 1500 men, with numerous vessels, had safely 
 reached a point on the Nile in 9° 26' N. lat., all appears to 
 have gone well ; but beyond this the passages of tho river 
 had become choked with overgrowth of vegetation, and 
 each yard of advance had to be cut through thLs living bar- 
 rier ; disease broke out among the troops, and the expedi- 
 tion was reduced to the greatest straits. In the end, how- 
 ever, it appears to have been completely successful, and 
 before Sir Samuel Baker's return to Egypt in 1873, the 
 whole country, as far south as the equator, had been taken 
 possession of in the name of Egypt, and several garrison* 
 had been planted to maintain the held. 
 
 Knowledge of the rich country between the Transvaal 
 Republic and the Zambeze has extended with wonderful 
 rapidity, through the exertions of the pioneers Mauch, Mohr, 
 Baines, Elton, and St Vincent Erskine, so that this region 
 has now almost passed out of the category of lands in which 
 geographical discoveries can be made. A point of great 
 interest in the progress of the exploration of this country 
 was the discovery by Mauch, m 1871, of the nuns of an 
 ancient city or fortress, named Zimbaoe, certainly not ol 
 African construction, about 200 miles due west from 
 Sofala, in lat 20° 15' S., long. 30° 45' E., through which it 
 has been sought to identify this region with the Ophir of 
 Scripture. The finding, in 1869, of rich diamond fields in 
 the upper valley of the Orange river, and in that of its 
 tributary the Vaal, caused a rush of emigration to these 
 districts, and tended still further to develop this portion of 
 Africa. 
 
 North African exploration is also vigorously progressing. 
 In the west, during 1869, Winwood Reade made a journey 
 from Sierra Leone to the head of the Niger, and from 1867 
 onwards M. Munzinger, consul at Massowa, has greatly 
 extended our knowledge of Northern Abyssinia. A notable 
 journey of exploration in the Sahara remains to be men- 
 tioned. In 1869 Dr Nachtigal was appointed to carry 
 presents from the King of Prussia to the Sultan of Bomu, 
 on Lake Chad, in acknowledgment of that potentate's aid 
 to former travellers. Besides accomplishing this mission, 
 this explorer hasadded very considerably to our knowledge of 
 the Eastern Sahara by investigating the central mountainous 
 country of Tibesti, hitherto only known by report; and in
 
 D1SC0VEEIF.S.] 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 249 
 
 more recent journeys, still being continued, he has proved 
 the existence of an outflowing river from Lake Chad, which 
 has hitherto been believed to be a terminal lake, the fresh- 
 ness of its waters having on this account appeared an 
 anomaly in physical geography. 
 
 With the double purpose of affording support to Dr 
 Livingstone, and of adding to the geography of Equatorial 
 Africa, two expeditions were fitted out by the Royal Geo- 
 graphical Society in 1872. One of these, led by Lieut. 
 Cameron, was planned to follow the footsteps of Living- 
 stone in his present journey from the eastern side, entering 
 the country by the ordinary trade route from Zanzibar to- 
 w^'ds the Tanganyika. This expedition started from Zan- 
 zibar early in 1873, under the auspices of Sir Bartle Frere's 
 mission, and has now made considerable progress towards 
 the interior. The other, named the " Livingstone Congo 
 Expedition," under Lieuts. Grandy, is to pass from the 
 west coast to the interior, by following the river Congo, 
 which is almost without doubt the lower course of the great 
 Lualaba river, about to be further explored by Dr Living- 
 stone coming to it from the eastern side. The latest 
 accounts from this expedition are also in the highest 
 degree favourable, and an advance of upwards of 150 miles 
 has already been made from Loanda, A new expedition, 
 under the leadership of the indefatigable traveller Rohlfs, is 
 now in preparation, and is destined to explore the unknown 
 portions of the Libyan desert. 
 
 Thu3 the exploration of the great continent is slowly 
 advancing year by year, but with earnest and unceasing 
 progress. As yet the only-portions of Africa of which we 
 possess any approach to an accurate topographical know- 
 ledge are, the Cape Colony and Natal under British rule 
 in the south, the French colony of Algeria, the Portuguese 
 possession of Angola, and Egypt and Tunis, dependent on 
 the Turkish Empire, in the north. 
 
 Throughout the rest of the continent, a network of routes 
 accomplished by travellers gives in most parts the great out- 
 line of its features ; where these lines interlace more closely, 
 as in the South African Republics, and in Abyssinia, the 
 general aspect of the land is now so well knowa as to pre- 
 clude the possibility of any important geographical dis- 
 covery there ; elsewhere, however, the gaps between the 
 tracks are wider. In the vast inhospitable region of the 
 Sahara there are great areas still unknown to civilised man, 
 and the equatorial region of dense forests in Central Africa 
 is still one of the greatest terrce incognita of the globe. 
 
 The origin and meaning of the name of this great con- 
 tinent has been a fertile subject for conjecture among 
 philologists and antiquaries. By the Greeks it was called 
 Libya, Aif3vrj, and by the Romans Africa. Vano believed 
 he had found the etymology of the former in Libs, the 
 Greek name of the south wind ; and Servius, the scholiast 
 on Virgil, proposed to derive the other from the Latin word 
 aprica (sunny), or the Greek word a-phrike (without cold). 
 It is more probable that the name Libya was derived by 
 the Greeks from the name of the people whom they found 
 in possession of the country to the westward of Egypt, and 
 who are believed to have been those that are called in the 
 Hebrew Scriptures Lehabim or Lubim. With respect to 
 the word Africa, Suidas tells us that it was the proper 
 name of that great city which the Romans called Carthago, 
 and the Greeks, Karchedon. It is certain, at least, that it 
 was apphed originally to the country in the immediate 
 neighbourhood of Carthage, that part of the continent first 
 known to the Romaus, and that it was subsequently ex- 
 tended with their increasing knowledge, till it came at last 
 to include the whole continent. Of the meaning of the 
 name, the language of Carthage itself supplies a simple 
 and natural - explanation ; the word Afrygah, signifying a 
 separate establishment, or in other words a colony, as 
 
 Carthage was of Tyre. So that the Phoenicians of old, 
 at home, may have spoken of their Afrygah, just as we 
 speak of our colonies. Be that as it may, the Arabs of 
 the present day still give the name of Afrygah or Afrikiyah 
 to the territory of Tunis. It may also be remarked, that 
 the name seems not to have been used by the Romans 
 till after the time of the first Punic war, when they became 
 first acquainted with what they afterwards called Africa 
 Propria. 
 
 Africa lies between the latitudes of 38° N. and 35° S., 
 and is of all the continents the most truly tropical It is, 
 strictly speaking, an enormous peninsula attached to Asia 
 by the isthmus of Suez. The most northern point is the 
 Cape, situated a little to the west of Cabo Blanco, and 
 opposite Sicily, which lies in lat. 37° 20' 40* N., long. 9° 
 41' E. Its southernmost point is Cabo d'Agulhas, in 34° 
 49' 15" S. ; the distance between these two points being 
 4330 geographical, or about 5000 English miles. The 
 westernmost point is Cabo Verde, in long. 17° 33' W., its 
 easternmost Cape Jerdaffun, in long. 51° 21' E., lat. 10° 25' 
 N., the distance between the two points being about the 
 same as its length. The western coasts are washed by the 
 Atlantic, the northern by the Mediterranean, and the 
 eastern by the Indian Ocean. 
 
 The form has been likened to a triangle, or to an oval, Form 
 but such a comparison is scarcely warranted, it being of an 
 irregular shape, the northern half rounding off, the southern 
 one contracting and terminating in a point. 
 
 The superficial extent of Africa has never been accurately Superficial 
 determined, but may be taken at 9,858,000 geographical ertent 
 square miles, exclusive of the islands. It is larger than 
 either Europe or Australia, but smaller than Asia and the 
 New World. 
 
 The coast line of Africa is very regular and unbroken, Coast Um 
 presenting few bays and peninsulas. The chief indentation and ""Jen- 
 is formed by the Gulf of Guinea, with its two secondary ons ' 
 divisions, the Bight of Benin and the Bight of Biafra. On 
 the northern coast, the Gulf of Sidra and the Gulf of Kabes 
 must be mentioned, and on the eastern coast the Gulf of 
 Arabia. 
 
 The physical configuration may be considered under two Physical 
 heads, the great lower-lands and plains of Northern Africa, configure 
 and the great table-lands, with their mountain ranges and " on * 
 groups, of Central and Southern Africa. The great northern 
 lower-land comprises the Sahara, the Lake Chad region, 
 and the valley of the Lower Nile. The Sahara is by no 
 means a plain throughout, but for the greater part it rises 
 into table-lands, interspersed with mountain groups of 
 6000 feet elevation, and probably more, and the term 
 lower-lands can only be applied to it in a general way, to 
 distinguish it from the more elevated region to the south. 
 
 The Sahara has often been pictured as a monotonous 
 and immense expanse of sand ; but nothing could be more 
 erroneous, as the greatest variety exists in the physical 
 configuration of its surface, as well a3 in its geological 
 features. Our knowledge is as yet too scanty to enable us 
 to trace its features in every part. On the north, this great 
 desert is fringed with extensive table-lands, which in some 
 places rise abruptly from the Mediterranean, as the great 
 plateau of Barbary, extending through Marocco, Algeria, 
 and Tunis, and the table-land of Barca, elevated 1500 feet, 
 and gradually descending towards the Delta of the Nils, 
 This elevated ground is succeeded to the south by a 
 depressed region, which extends from the Great Syrtis or 
 Gulf of Sidra, in a general direction as far as Middle 
 Egypt, and comprises'the oases of Augila and Siwah. So 
 greatly depressed is this region, that the level of the uasis 
 of Siwah is 100 feet, and in one place (Bahrein) even 167 
 feet below the level of the sea. The western portions of this 
 country, between the oases of Augila and Siwah^explored in
 
 250 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Iphysicai, 
 
 18G9 by the traveller Rohlfs, were found to be everywhere 
 from 100 to 150 feet beneath the level of the Mediterranean ; 
 and M. de Lesseps, in conducting a survey from the 
 Egyptian side, found the eastern part to be much beneath 
 the level of the Nile. Here then must be one of the 
 greatest areas of depression in the land of the globe, com- 
 parable with that which surrounds the Caspian Sea. This 
 depressed region is again followed by a table-land of con- 
 siderable extent and width, extending from the Gulf of 
 Kabes in a southerly direction, along the Tripoline shores, 
 and probably traversing, in the same direction, the Libyan 
 Desert, and reaching as far as the Nile, near the first 
 cataract. Its north-western part, as far as Sokna, consists 
 of the Hamadah, a stony, dreary, and extensive table-land, 
 of from 1500 to 2000 feet high, " which seems to be like 
 c broad belt intercepting the progress of commerce, civili- 
 sation, and conquest, from the shores of the Mediterranean 
 to Central Africa." Near Sokna this plateau breaks up 
 and forms what are called the Jebel-es-Soda, or Black 
 Mountains, a most picturesque group of cliffs ; and again, 
 on the route from Murzuk to Egypt, it also breaks into 
 huge cliffs, and bears the name of El-Harouj. The whole 
 of the central portion of the Northern Sahara, as far south 
 as the plateau of Air or Asben, is occupied by similar bare 
 table-land3, with lower^areas of sand dunes between. 
 Numerous wadys, the only inhabited parts of the country, 
 intersoct the slopes of these plateaux. The country of 
 Ahaggar, between 23° and 29° N. lat., and 5° E. long., 
 appears to form the central elevation from which the greater 
 of these dry water-courses radiate ; from it a series of long 
 wadys — one of them, the wady Rharis or Igharghar, being 
 about 600 miles in length — run northward towards a 
 depressed country which lies inland from the Gulf of 
 Cabes, and contains several salt lagoons, covered" with a 
 few feet of water in winter, but dried up in summer, and 
 lying considerably below the Mediterranean level. Other 
 wadys radiate west and south-west from Ahaggar to the 
 unknown region of the Sahara, which lies between this and 
 the northern bend of the Niger. The most truly desert 
 region of the Sahara is an irregular belt of shifting sand 
 dunes, the " Erg " or " Areg," which stretches from the 
 lagoons above referred to near the Mediterranean coast 
 south-westward to near the river Senegal and the Atlantic, 
 in an unbroken chain for upwards of 2000 miles, and hav- 
 ing an average width of perhaps 200 miles. In this sand 
 T)elt the wadys of the inward slope of the plateau of Barbary 
 terminate, excepting the Wady Saura, which crosses' the 
 Erg to the important oasis of Tuat, near the centre of its 
 southern border, and the Wady Draa, which turns to the 
 Atlantic coast. From Wady Draa a great plain extends 
 along the western shore as far as the river Senegal, and 
 probably continues as such to the east towards Timbuktu, 
 and thence to Lake Chad. Thus it appears that the 
 western half of the Sahara is surrounded by a broad belt 
 of plains and depressions, the central parts being formed 
 by extensive table-lands, with occasional mountain knots, 
 such as that which forms the fertile kingdom of Air and 
 Asben, the culminating points of which are from 4000 tor 
 6000 feet high. 
 
 The eastern portion of the Sahara appears to have nearly 
 the same general elevation as the western half, and near 
 its centre several fertile mountain regions, comparable with 
 that of Asben, are known. Such is the mountainous country 
 of Borgu, north-east of the kingdoms which surround Lake 
 Chad, and Tibesti, north of it, in the centre of the Tibbu 
 district, recently explored by Dr Nachtigal, who found rich 
 vegetation and abundant animal life in the valleys of this 
 mountain group. 
 
 To the south and east of the region just described 
 Africa may be considered as one connected mass of elevated 
 
 land, comprising the most extensive tablelands, as well as 
 high mountain groups and chains. 
 
 The great mass of the African plateau land is to south- 
 ward of the 10th parallel of N. latitude, but it is pro- 
 longed on the eastern side almost to the north coast 
 of , the continent by the wedge-shaped table-land of Abys- 
 sinia, the highest surface in Africa, and by the moun- 
 tains which extend from it between the lower course of the 
 Nile and the Bed Sea. The terminal point of the high 
 land in this direction may be said to be Jebel Attaka, 
 which rises immediately west of Suez to a height of 2640 
 feet. From this point to the southern extremity of the 
 continent the eastern, and generally higher edge, of the 
 great plateau runs in an almost unbroken line. Fassing 
 southwards along its margin, the most prominent heights 
 before the table-land of Abyssinia is reached are Mounts 
 Elba, 6900, and Soturba, 6000 feet in elevation, near the 
 middle of the African coast of the Bed Sea. There may, 
 however, be greater heights in the little known region of 
 Nubia, which lies between these mountains and the Nile. 
 
 The eastern slope of the Abyssinian plateau begins im- 
 mediately south of the port of Massowah, and is a uni- 
 form line of steep descent, unbroken by any river, falling 
 abruptly from an average height of 7000 feet to the 
 depressed plain which here skirts the coast of the Bed 
 Sea. This edge, which extends southward for at least 
 800 miles, forms the water-parting of the rivers which have 
 furrowed deeply into the opposite slopes of the plateau, 
 and appears to be higher than the general surface of the 
 country; yet several lofty groups of mountains rising from 
 the level of the high land attain a much greater elevation, 
 and Mount Abba Jared, the highest known point, is esti- 
 mated at 15,000 feet above the sea. Between the most 
 southern part of Abyssinia which is known and the 
 equator, where the edge of the plateau has again been 
 partly explored, a long space of unknown country inter- 
 venes; but there is every reason to believe that the slope 
 is continuous. Mount Kenia, 18,000 feet, and Kilima- 
 njaro, 18,715 feet, the highest points in all Africa, mark 
 the eastern edge under the equator; further south on the 
 inland route from Zanzibar to the Tanganyika, the edge is 
 known as the Bubeho Mountains, with a height of 5700 
 feet at the pass by which they are crossed on the caravan 
 route. Still further, the edge is again known where it 
 forms a rampart, callecHheNjesa, walling in the Nyassa Lake. 
 From this point Mount Zomba, 7000 feet high, near Lake 
 Shirwa, Mount Milanje, 8000 feet, and Mount Clarendon, 
 6000 feet, carry it south to where the Zambeze river makes 
 the first break in its uniform line. The narrows and rapids 
 of Lupata, below the town of Tete, mark the point at which 
 the" river breaks through the plateau land to the coast slope 
 beneath it. Passing the river, the eastern edge is again 
 followed in the Mashona and Matoppo Mountains (7200 
 feet) of Mosilikatse'a kingdom, from which heights the 
 chief tributaries of the Limpopo river flow. At the head- 
 waters of that river the plateau edge forms the Hooge Veldt 
 of the Transvaal Republic which joins with the Kathlauiba 
 or Drakenberg. The portion of the edge which bears this 
 name is specially prominent: it runs southward in a huge 
 wall of rocky crags which support the table-land behind 
 for 500 miles, almost parallel with the coast, and at a dis- 
 tance of 150 miles from it, having Zulu Land, Natal, and 
 Caffraria on the slopes of the spurs which it throws down 
 to the coast. In the Transvaal Bepublic, where the 
 Drakenberg joins the Hooge Veldt, the edge attains a 
 height of 8725 feet in the summit named after the explorer 
 Mauch, but it is highest where it forms the interior limit 
 of Natal, and where CathMn Peak rises to 10,357 feet 
 above the sea. 
 
 As in Abyssinia, so here, this part of the eastern pkteap
 
 ^BATCHES.] 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 251 
 
 iJateau 
 
 edge is the great water-parting of the continent, and 
 
 the streams which form the Orange river flow down its 
 
 inward slope. There is no break in the continuance of the 
 
 edge where it passes round from the Drakenberg to form 
 
 the inmost and highest of the alternate ridges and terraces 
 
 of the Cape Colony. It is now named in successive parts 
 
 Southern from east to west the Storm Berge, the Zuur Berg, Schnee 
 
 edge of the Beige, Nieuwe-veld, and Kogge-veld, the last-named por- 
 
 r.ateao, jj on f -^he f ,jg e turning northward with the bend of the 
 
 western coast. Its greatest height within the Cape 
 
 Colony is in Compass Berg, the summit of the Schnee 
 
 Berge, 8500 feet above the sea. 
 
 The outer terraces of the Cape Colony, in which two 
 chief ridges may be traced, lie close;' together, and much 
 nearer the coast; between these and the inmost or chief 
 edge is the dry elevated region known as the Great Karroo. 
 Their elevation is also very considerable, though they are 
 broken through by lines of drainage sloping from the chief 
 edge ; the part of the middle ridge, which is named the Little 
 Zwarte Berge, attains 7628 feet, and several points in both 
 are upwards of 6000 feet above the sea. Table Mountain, 
 a well-known and flat-topped mass of granite overhanging 
 Cape Town, 3550 feet high, is the nucleus of the peninsula 
 which extends south to form the Cape of Good Hope, but is 
 altogether separated from the mountain ridges of the colony. 
 Wetter, The western edge of the great African plateau is generally 
 
 e-tge of the lower than the eastern, since the whole slope of the continent 
 is more or less from the great heights on its eastern side, 
 towards the west, but it is also clearly traceable, and of great 
 height throughout. Bounding the western side of the Cape 
 Colouy, the three ridges above -noticed run together, and 
 decrease somewhat in elevation as the mouth of the Orange 
 river is approached. Their elevation at the point of union 
 in Little Namaqua Land is still very considerable; and here 
 Mount Welcuine attains 5130 feet, and Vogelklip, to north 
 of it, 4343 feet above the sea. Beyond the Orange river in 
 Namaqua and Damara Lands, the western edge continues in 
 one or more terraces parallel to the coast. Mount Omatako, 
 in the latter country, rises to 8S00 feet. Northward, 
 through Benguela and Angola, a more broken series of ridges 
 and terraces mark the descent from the interior plateau, and 
 the great Congo river breaks through to the coast-land at 
 the place where it forms the cataracts of the narrow gorge 
 of Yellala. Sierra Complida is the name given by the 
 Portuguese to that part of the western edge which runs 
 between the Congo and the rapids of the lower Ogowai 
 river on the equator. On the plateau edge at the southern 
 Bide of this river, Du Chaillu has made known a mountain 
 of 12,000 feet in elevation; and the furthest point which 
 has been reached on the Ogowai was in the vicinity of high 
 mountains. Passing the Ogowai, and following the coast 
 of the Bight of Biafra, the edge is now known as the Sierra 
 do Crystal. The Camaroon mountains, at the head of the 
 gulf, form a high peninsula of volcanic mountains, rising 
 to 13,700 feet; but are isolated from the plateau lands, 
 and belong ratherto the remarkable line of volcanic heights 
 which shows itself in the islands of Fernando Po, Prince's 
 Island, St Thomas, and Annobon, stretching away into the 
 ocean in the direction of St Helena. From the Sierra do 
 Crystal the plateau edge inclines towards the lower course 
 of the river Niger to a point above its delta, and below the 
 confluence of the Benue. and then turns abruptly to the east. 
 The heights which skirt the northern coast-land of the 
 Gulf of Guinea, and which stretch as far as the head-waters 
 of the Senegal and Gambia, and in the inner slope of which 
 the Niger also has its sources, may be considered as an 
 extension from the great plateau. But they are of smaller 
 general elevation; and that best known part of the ridge, 
 which has the name of the Kong Mountains, is apparently 
 not higher than from 2000 to 3000 feet 
 
 The nurthern edge of the great African plateau is almost 
 unknown; but there are evidences that it runs eastward 
 between the 4th and 8th parallels of N. latitude, to a point 
 at which it is well known, and where the Nile falls over its 
 slope, forming the succession of rapids above Gondokora 
 The character of the upper Benue river is that of a mountain- 
 born river; and Mounts Alantika, 10,000 feet high, and 
 Mindif, 6000 feet, which rise to southward of Lake Chad, 
 seem to be the outliers of the plateau edge in which the 
 Benue has its sources. Beyond the Nile the margin of the 
 plateau curves northward, to form the inner slope of the 
 Abyssinian table-land. 
 
 The general elevation of the surface of the great African 
 plateau, the limits of which have now been traced, may 
 be taken at from 3000 to 4000 feet above the sea; but 
 its surface presents very great undulations, from the 
 depressions which are occupied by some of the great lakes, 
 to the high mountains which rise above its average level. 
 The most prominent of these interior masses yet known 
 are the Blue Mountains, discovered by Baker, rising from 
 the western shore of the Albert Lake to a height of per- 
 haps 10,000 feet, and which are believed to extend south- 
 ward to unite with the Balegga Mountains, made known 
 by Livingstone in his journey of 1871, north-west of Lake 
 Tanganyika; these again are believed to join with the 
 mountains which rise midway between the Victoria, the 
 Albert Nyanza, and the Tanganyika, dividing the drainage 
 to these vast lakes, and rising here in Mount M'fumbiro to 
 upwards of 10,000 feet. Another great central line of 
 heights which also had an important part in directing the 
 water-shed of the interior of South Africa, runs from the 
 north of the Nyassa Lake, where it is named the Lobisa 
 plateau, through the Muchinga Mountains, which separate 
 the drainage of the Lualaba and its lakes from that of the 
 Zambeze basin, westward to the heights in the far interior 
 of Angola, known as the Mossamba Mountains, and from 
 which rivers flow in all directions. 
 
 The plateau of Barbary, in the north of the continent, Plateau ti 
 beyond the lower land of the Sahara, is a distinct and Barbary. 
 separate high land, stretching from Cape Bon, on the Medi- 
 terranean coast opposite Sicily, in a south-westerly direction 
 to the Atlantic coast, through Tunis, Algeria, and Marocco. 
 The eastern portion of it in Algeria and Tunis rises in a 
 broad plateau from 2000 to 3000 feet in general height, 
 with outer heights, enclosing an elevated steppe, at a 
 distance of about 100 miles apart. On the west, where it 
 enters Marocco, these outer ridges draw together and form 
 the high ranges of the Atlas Mountains, rising to a much 
 greater elevation, and attaining 11,400 feet in the summit 
 named Mount Miltsin. 
 
 The African continent, as far as it has yet been explored, 
 seems to be the portion of the globe least disturbed by 
 volcanic action. The known active volcanoes in the con- 
 tinent are those of the Camaroon Mountains, en the coast 
 of the Gulf of Guinea in the west, and the A rtali volcano 
 in the depressed region of the salt desert which lies be- 
 tween the Abyssinian plateau and the Bed Sea, This 
 latter volcano is probably a part of the system with which 
 the volcanic island of Jebel Tur, in the Bed Sea, near the 
 same latitude, is connected. One other active volcano only 
 is known by report, — the Njemsi volcano, in the country 
 between Mount Kenia and the Victoria Lake. Shocks 
 of earthquake appear to be almost unknown in any part 
 of the continent. It has been pointed out by the late 
 Sir Roderick Murchison that the older rocks which are 
 known to circle round the continent, unquestionably in- 
 cluded an interior marshy or lacustrine country, and that 
 the present centre zone of waters, whether lakes, rivers, 
 or marshes, extending from Lake Chad to Lake Ngami, 
 a;-e but the great modern residual phenomena of those.
 
 252 
 
 A F K 1 U A 
 
 [physical 
 
 of a mesozoic age. The surface of llie South African 
 continent has not been diversified in recent times by the 
 outpouring of lava streams, or broken up by the efforts 
 of subterranean heat to escape. Nor has it been sub- 
 jected to those great oscillations by which the surfaces 
 of many other countries have. been so placed under the 
 waters of the ocean as to have been strewed over with 
 erratic blocks and marine exuviae. The interior of South 
 Africa may therefore be viewed as a country of very 
 ancient conservative terrestrial character. Knowledge of 
 the special geology of Africa is yet confined to the few 
 parts of the continent in which Europeans have perma- 
 nently settled. In this respect the southern region of the 
 Cape Colony and Natal have advanced furthest, and their 
 geological features have been mapped out with some 
 accuracy. Elsewhere in the continent, excepting in Algeria 
 and Angola, light has only been thrown along the line 
 followed by the few explorers who have given attention to 
 this subject. 
 
 Ajnong the minerals of Africa, salt is widely distributed, 
 tnough in some districts wholly wanting. Thus in the 
 Abyssinian high land the salt, which is brought up in small 
 blocks from the depressed salt plain on the Red Sea coast 
 beneath, is so valued as to be used as a money currency ; 
 and in the native kingdoms of South Central Africa, the 
 salt districts aro royal possessions strictly guarded. Metals 
 seem nowhere very abundant. Gold is perhaps the most 
 generally distributed. The gold-fields of the Transvaal 
 Republic and of the country which extends thence to the ■ 
 Zambeze, are numerous; but no yield has as yet been dis- 
 covered of sufficient quantity to overcome the difficulties 
 of working, and of transport to the distant sea-ports, to 
 which no navigable rivers lead from this region. Copper is 
 known to exist in large quantities in the mountains of 
 native kingdoms of the centre of South Africa ; and one of 
 the objects of Dr Livingstone's present journey is to visit 
 the famed copper country of- Katanga south-west of the 
 Tanganyika Lake. The diamond-fields in the districts of 
 the Vaal and Orange rivers north of the Ca.pe Colony are 
 now steadily worked, and give good returns. 
 aenerai Africa is the only one of the continents of the globe 
 
 nature of which lies equally to north and south of the equator, 
 fhe surface an( j tne p 0r ti ns of it which extend beyond the tropics do 
 not advance. far into the temperate zones. From this it 
 results that Africa, besides being the warmest of all the 
 continents, has also the most equal distribution of the 
 sun's heat during the seasons over the parts which lie north 
 and south of the central line. Winds and rain, depending on 
 the distribution of heat, are also correspondingly developed 
 in these two great divisions of the continent, and the broad 
 landscape zones, passing from humid forest to arid sandy 
 desert, also agree exactly with one another north and south 
 of Equatorial Africa. 
 Equatorial Between 10° N. and 10° S. of the equator, but especially 
 arrets in that portion of it the outskirts of which have only as 
 yet been reached by travellers, Africa appears to be a land 
 of dense tropical forest. Wherever it has been penetrated, 
 'travellers speak of an excessively rank vegetation ; passage 
 has to be forced through thick underwood and creeping 
 plants, between giant trees, whose foliage shuts out the 
 Bun's rays; and the land teems with animal and insect life 
 of every form and colour. Describing the forests of 
 Manyuema country, west of the Tanganyika Lake, Living- 
 stone says — " Into these [primaeval forests] the sun, though 
 vertical, cannot penetrate, excepting by sending down at 
 midday thin pencils of rays into the gloom. The rain 
 water stands for months in stagnant pools made by the 
 feet of elephants. The climbing plants, from the size of a 
 whipcord to that of a man-of-war's hawser, are so numerous, 
 that the ttucient path is the only passage. When one 
 
 of the giant trees falls across the road, it forms a wall 
 breast high to be climbed over, and the mass of tangled 
 ropes brought down makes cutting a path round) it a work 
 of time which travellers never undertake."- Here there is 
 adouble rainy season, and the rainfall is excessive. To 
 north and south of this central belt, where the rainfall 
 diminishes, and a dry and wet season divides the year, the 
 forests gradually open into a park-like country, and then 
 merge into pastoral grass-lands. In North Africa thij 
 pastoral belt is occupied by tho native states of th< 
 Soudan, from Abyssinia >westward, in the parallel of Lakfl 
 Chad, to the Gambia on tho Atlantic coast; and corre- 
 sponding to this in tho south, are the grass-lands stretching 
 across the continent from the Zambeze to southern Angola 
 and Benguela. The pastoral belts again gradually pass 
 into the dry, almost rainless desert zones of the Sahara in Ueserte 
 the north, and tho Kalahari desert in. tho south, which 
 present many features of similarity. 
 
 The extremities of the continent, to which moisturo is 
 carried from the neighbouring oceans, again pass into a 
 second- belt of pastoral or agricultural land, in the north- 
 ward slopes of the plateaus of Barbary, Marocco, Algeria, 
 and Tunis, corresponding with tho seaward terraces of 
 cultivated land in the Cape Colony in the south. 
 
 Taking a broad view of the hydrography of Africa, there ' 
 are two great areas of continental drainage, one in the 
 north, the other in the south, from which no water escapes 
 directly to the ocean. These correspond almost exactly 
 with the two desert belts of the Sahara and the Kalahari 
 above described. The whole of tho remaining portions of 
 the continent, its forests and pastoral districts, in which 
 the greater rainfall gives greater power to the rivers, are 
 drained by streams which find their way to the ocean on 
 one side or other, generally forcing a passage through soms 
 natural or watei worn gorge in the higher circle of mountains 
 which run round the outer edges of the great plateau. 
 
 By far the larger portion of the oceanic drainage of the 
 continent is to the Atlantic and its branch the Mediter- 
 ranean, to which the Nile, Niger, Ogowai, Congo, and 
 Orange rivers flow. The great rivers which drain on 
 the opposite side, to the Indian Ocean, are the Juba, 
 Zambeze, and Limpopo ; whilst the northern continental 
 basin, by far more extensive than the southern, has only 
 one great river, the Shari, which supplies Lake Chad. 
 
 It must be noticed that the capabilities of the African 
 rivers, as highways of approach to the interior of the con- 
 tinent, are exceedingly small in comparison with those of 
 the other great continents of the globe, most of them being 
 either barred at their mouths, or by rapids at no. great 
 distance from the coast. It is owing to this physical cause 
 mainly that the African continent has remained for so 
 many centuries a sealed book to the civilised world. On 
 the other hand, it must be observed, that when these outer 
 barriers have been passed, the great interior of the land, 
 in its most productive regions, possesses a network of vast 
 rivers and lakes, unsurpassed in extent by those of any 
 country of the world, by means of which the resources of 
 Central Africa may in future be thoroughly developed. 
 
 The Nile is the oldest of historical rivers, and afforded 
 the only means of subsistence to the earliest civilised 
 people on earth, and yet theorigin of this river remained 
 an enigma almost to the present day. Though it drains 
 a larger area than any other river of Africa, upwards of 
 1,000,000 square miles, and in this respect is one of the 
 largest rivers of the globe, the Nile, passing for a great 
 portion of its lower course through the desert belt of North 
 Africa, and receiving no tributaries there, loses much of 
 its volume by evaporation, and. is far surpassed in the 
 quantity of water conveyed to the ocean by the Congo, 
 in the moist equatorial zone. The great labours of Dr
 
 PEATUKBS.l 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 253 
 
 Livingstone, in the late region of Central Africa, have so 
 narrowed the space within which the sources of the Nile 
 can exist, that, though no traveller has yet reached the 
 ultimate feeders of the great river, their position can now 
 be predicated almost with certainty. The limit of the 
 Nile basin on the south is formed by the high mountains 
 which rise to westward of the Albert Lake, and which divide 
 between this great reservoir and' the Tanganyika, extend- 
 ing eastward to the plateau of Unyamuezi, on the northern 
 tide of which the Victoria Nyanza lies. The ultimate 
 sources must then be the feeders of these great equatorial 
 lakes, the Victoria and Albert. The river issuing from 
 the former lake, at the Ripon Falls, 3300 feet above the 
 sea, to join the northern end of the Albert Nyanza, may 
 be considered as the first appearance of the Nile as a river. 
 At the Ripon Falls the overflow is from 400 to 500 feet in 
 breadth, and the descent of 12- feet is broken in three 
 places by rocks. Further down, where the river turns 
 westward to join the Albert Lake, it forms the Karuma 
 and Murchison Falls, the latter being 120 feet in height. 
 From the Albert Lake, the Nile, called the Kir in this 
 part, begins its almost due northward course to the 
 Mediterranean, and has no further lake expansion. Be- 
 tween the Albert and Gondokoro, in 5° N. lat, which lies 
 at 2000 feet above the sea, the Nile descends at least 500 
 feet in a series of rapids and cataracts. Beyond Gondokoro, 
 np to which point it is navigable, it enters the northern 
 lower land of Africa, which is here a region of swamps 
 and forests, and several tributaries join it from the west. 
 The largest of these, named the Bahr-el-Ghazal, unites 
 with the main stream below the 10th parallel; and, not 
 much further on, a main tributary, the Sobat river, joins 
 the Nile from the unknown region which lies to the south- 
 east. Hence, onward, the Nile is known as the Bahr-el- 
 Abiad or White River. The two remaining great tribu- 
 tary rivers descend from the high land of Abyssinia on the 
 east. The first of these, the Bahr-el-Azrek or Blue River, 
 its waters being pure in comparison with those of the Nile, 
 has its source near Lake Dembea or Tzana, through which 
 it flows, in the western side of the Abyssinian plateau, 
 6000 feet above the sea ; forming a semicircular curve in 
 the plateau, the Blue Nile runs north-westward to the 
 confluence at Khartum, 1345 feet above the sea. Between 
 this point and the union of the next tributary, the Nile 
 forms the cataract yhich is known as the sixth from its 
 mouth. In about 18° N. it is joined by the Atbara or 
 Black River, the head stream of which is the Takkazze, 
 flowing in a deep cut valley of the high land. This tribu- 
 tary is named from the dark mud which it carries from the 
 high land, brought down to it by streams which swell into 
 rushing torrents in the rainy season. It is to these rivers 
 that the fertility of Lower Egypt is mainly due, for each 
 year a vast quantity of Abyssinian mud is borne down to be 
 spread over the delta. Hence the Nile pursues its way 
 in a single line through the dry belt of desert to the 
 Mediterranean without a single tributary, descending by 
 five cataracts, at considerable distances apart. The delta 
 of the Nile, in which the river divides into two main 
 branches, from which a multitude of canals are drawn off, 
 is a wide low plain, occupying an area of about 9000 square 
 miles. The most remarkable circumstance connected with 
 the delta is the annual rise and overflow of the river, which 
 takes place with the greatest regularity in time and equality 
 in amount, beginning at the end of Jtcne, and subsiding 
 completely before the end of November, leaving over the 
 whole delta a layer of rich fertilising slime. 
 
 The Sheliff in Algeria, and the Muluya in Eastern 
 Marocco, are the chief streams flowing to the Mediterranean 
 from the high land of Barbary. 
 
 Passing round to the Atlantic system, the Sebu, the 
 
 Ummer Rebia, and the Tensift, from the Atlas radge, ar« 
 permanent rivers flowing across the fertile plain of Western 
 Marocco, which they serve to irrigate. Next is the Wady 
 Draa, a water-course which has its rise on the innef slope of 
 the high land in Marocco, and which bends round through 
 the Maroccan Sahara to the Atlantic, near the 28th parallel. 
 Its channel, of not less than 500 miles in length, forms a long 
 oasis in the partly desert country through which it flows, 
 and water remains in its bed nearly throughout the year. 
 
 A stretch of .1100 miles of waterless coast, where the 
 desert belt touches on the Atlantic, intervenes between 
 the Draa and the Senegal river, at the beginning of the 
 pastoral belt in lat. 15° N. 
 
 The Senegal rises in the northern portion of the belt of 
 mountains which skirt the Guinea coast, and has a north- 
 westerly course to the sea. During the rainy season it is 
 navigable for 500 miles, from its mouth to the cataract of 
 Feloo, for vessels drawing 12 feet of water, but at other 
 times it is not passable for more than a third part of this 
 distance. The Gambia has its sources near those of the 
 Senegal, and flows westward in a tortuous bed over the 
 plain country, giving a navigable channel of 400 miles, up 
 to the Falls of Barra Kunda. The Rio Grande, fi im the 
 same heights, is also a considerable river. 
 
 The Niger is the third African river in point of area 
 of drainage and volume; it is formed by the union of 
 two great tributaries, the Quorra and Benue, — the former 
 from the west, the latter from the country in the ea3t of 
 the river basin. The Quorra, called the Joliba in its upper 
 course, has its springs in the inner slope of the mountains 
 which give rise to the Senegal and Gambia, not far from 
 the Atlantic coast. At first its course is north-eastward to 
 as far as the city of Timbuctu, on the border of the desert 
 zone ; then it turns due east, and afterwards south-east to 
 its confluence with the Benue, at a point 200 miles north 
 from the coast of the Gulf f Guinea. The chief tributary 
 of the Quorra is the Sokoto river, coming from the elevated 
 country which forms the water-parting between the Niger 
 basin and that of Lake Chad. on the east, and its confluence 
 is near the middle of the portion of the channel of the 
 Quorra which bends to south-east. 
 
 At a distance of about 100 miles from its sources, the 
 traveller Park, the first European who reached the Joliba, 
 found it flowing in a wide iertile valley, and navigated by 
 canoes which kept up a constant traffic. Above Timbuc. 
 tu' the commerce of the river is busily carried on in bargei 
 of 60 to 80 tons burden; further on, where the rivet 
 touches upon the desert belt in the most northerly portion 
 of its course, its fertile banks form the most marked con 
 trast to the arid desert lands beyond. From the confluence 
 of the Sokoto to the union with the Benue, the river course 
 is only navigable after the rainy season, since at other 
 times rocks and shoals interrupt the passage. The sources 
 of the Benue are unknown as yet, but it is believed to 
 have its rise in the northern edge of the great plateau «1 
 Southern Africa, almost due south of Lake Chad; its known 
 course is westward, and at the furthest point to which it was 
 easily navigated by the traveller Baikie, nearly 400 miles 
 from its confluence with the Kawara or Quorra, it was stilJ 
 half a mile in width and about 10 feet in average depth, flow- 
 ing through rich plains. From the confluence of the Quorra 
 and Benue the Niger has a due south course to its delta, 
 and the united river has an average width of about a mile. 
 At a distance of 100 miles from the 6ea, minor branches 
 which enclose the delta separate from the main stream on 
 each side. The delta is much more extensive than that of 
 the Nile, and measures about 14.000 square miles of low 
 alluvial plain, covered with forest and jungle, and com- 
 pletely intersected by branches from the main river, the 
 outmost of which reach the see not less than 200 miles
 
 254 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 [ PHYSICAL 
 
 opart. Unlike the Nile, the Niger possesses one main 
 channel through the centre of the delta, called at its mouth 
 tho Nun river. 
 
 Old Calabar river, the Caraaroon river, and the Gaboon, 
 are the best known of a number of wide inlets or estuaries 
 of the sea, wliiek occur on the west coast immediately 
 north of tho equator; but these are merely the receptacles 
 of a number of minor streams, not the mouths of great 
 rivers, as at one time supposed. 
 
 The Ogowai (pron. Ogowee) river, the delta of which 
 forms C'<ipe Lopez, immedaitely S. of the equator, is a great 
 stream which is believed to drain a large area of the forest 
 zone between the Niger and the Congo ; as yet, its lower 
 coast is only known to a distance of 200 miles from the 
 sea. Above the delta the main stream of the river, named 
 the Okanda, breaks through the edge of the plateau, and 
 is joined by tho Onango, a tributary from the coast range 
 of the Sierra Complida. Below this confluence tho river 
 is a mile and a half in average width, its depth varying from 
 15 to 50 feet. The delta is formed by the two main branches 
 into which the Ogowai divides at about 30 miles from tho 
 coast, aud is a swampy flat, covered with mangroves. 
 Sengo. Tho Congo or Zaire must be considered the second river 
 
 of Africa in point of area of drainage, and it is the first in 
 respect of the volume of water which it discharges to tho 
 ocean. There remains but little doubt that the head streams 
 of this vast river are those which supply the great lacustrine 
 system discovered by Dr Livingstone in his recent journeys 
 south and west of Like Tanganyika. Through these lakes 
 the river, which rises in the upland north of Lake Nyassa, 
 named in din'erent parts of its course the Chambeze, Lua- 
 pula, or Lualaba, flows in great bends to west and north- 
 ward, to where it passes into the unknown country still to 
 be explored in the heart of the continent. The Lualaba 
 has a great tributary named the Lufiia, from the south; 
 and it is almost certain that the Kassabi river, which 
 springs n, the Mossamba Mountains, in the interior borders 
 of Angola, is also one of the feeders of this great river. 
 The Quango river, rising in the same mountains, nearer 
 Angola, must also join the Congo lower down in its valley. 
 At the furthest point on the Lualaba reached by Living- 
 stone, in about lat. C° S. and long. 25° E., the great 
 river had a breadth of from 2000 to 0000 yards, and could 
 not be folded at any season of the year. Every circum- 
 stance connected with this river — its direction, the time of 
 its annual rising, and the volume of its water which could 
 be discharged by the Congo mouth alone — point to its 
 identity with this river. The explorer Tuckey, who, in 
 1816, followed up the Congo from its mouth on the west 
 coast further than any one, found it, above the cataracts 
 which it forms in breaking through the coast range, to 
 have a width of from 2 to 4 English miles, and with a 
 current of from 2 to 3 miles an hour; and his statement 
 that at the lowest .>tage of its waters it discharges 2,000,000 
 of cubic feet of water per second, has been confirmed by 
 more recent surveys. Forty miles out from its mouth 
 its waters are only partially mingled with that of the sea, 
 and some nine miles from the coast they are still perfectly 
 fresh. The Congo is the only one of the large African 
 rivers which ha.i any approach to an estuary, contrasting in 
 this respect with those which have delta mouths. 
 
 The Coanza, the most important river of Angola, in 
 respect of its affording a navigable channel for 140 miles 
 fruni its mouth, rises in a broad valley formed by the 
 Mossamba Mountains in the interior of Benguela, and 
 curves north-westward to the ocean. Its upper course is 
 rapid, and its navigation only begins after the last of its 
 cataracts has been passed ; the mouth is closed by a bar. 
 The Cunene river has its rise in the opposite watershed of 
 the mountains, its springs being close to those of the 
 
 Coanza, and its courso is south-westward, forming the 
 southern limit of tho territory of Mossaincdes. It is the 
 most southerly river of the central fertile zones of Africa on 
 this side of the continent, and appears to bo suitable for 
 n;n igation throughout the greater part of its length — rising 
 from 15 to 20 feet at times of flood, but having such a depth, 
 at its lowest stage, as to be only passable by canoes. 
 
 From the Cunene, in lat. 17° S., to the Orange river 
 in 29° S., tho dry belt of tho South African desert zone 
 intervenes, and there aro no permanent rivers on the land 
 sloping to the sea. The coast lands from tho edge of the 
 plateau are, however, furrowed by numerous water-courses, 
 which are filled only after the occasional rainfalls. 
 
 The Orange river also belongs for the greater part of its 
 lower course to the water-courses of the arid belt, but it 
 receives such a constant supply from its head streams, 
 which descend from the high lands near the east coast of 
 the continent, as to be able to maintain a perennial flow in 
 its channel, which, however, is so shallow as to be of no 
 value for navigation. Its main head streams are theVaal 
 and Na Gariep or Orange, which rise on the opposite slopes 
 of one of the summits of the Drakenberg range, called the 
 Mont aux Sources. After encircling the Orange River 
 Free State, these rivers unite near the centre of this part 
 of the continent to form the Orange, which continues west- 
 ward to the Atlantic, but without receiving any permanent 
 tributary. The chief water channels which periodically 
 carry supplies to it from the south are Brak and the Great 
 Hartebeeste; from the Kalahari region in the north' come 
 the Molopo and Nosob channels. Midway between tho 
 union of the head streams and the ocean the river forms 
 a great fall of 150 feet in height. 
 
 The rivers which flow down from the terraces of the Drain|gt 
 Cape Colony are numerous, but have little permanent depth to the 
 of water, shrinking almost to dryness excepting after rains, ' Ddian 
 when they become impetuous torrents; some have cut deep 
 channels, much beneath the level of the country, and the 
 banks of these canons are choked with dense vegetation. 
 Passing round to Natal and Zulu Land, the coast country is 
 well watered by frequent streams which descend from the 
 base of the clifl'-wall of the Drakenberg ; these have gene- 
 rally the character of mountain torrents, with rapid flow 
 between high banks and changing volume, and are almost 
 without exception closed at their mouths by sand bars, winch 
 in most instances shut in considerable lagoons. One of these, 
 the lake of Santa Lucia, is more than 40 miles in length. 
 
 The first large river of the Indian Ocean system is the Lirapoja 
 Limpopo or Crocodile river, so named from the great num- 
 ber of these animals found in its bed. Its basin lies 
 centrally in the southern tropic, also in the desert belt, 
 and on this account it barely maintains a shallow flow of 
 water throughout the year. Its sources are in that part of 
 the plateau edge in the Transvaal Republic which is known 
 as the Hooge Veldt and Magalies Berg ; from this it forms 
 a wide semicircular sweep to north-east and south, reaching 
 the ocean not far north of Delagoa Bay, in 25° S. Its 
 chief tributaiy, the Olifant or Lepalule, has its rise in a 
 part of the Hooge Veldt which is nearer the coast. Many 
 of its minor tributaries in its lower course are periodical 
 streams known as sand rivers, only filled after heavy rains. 
 
 The Zambeze is the great river of the pastoral belt of 
 South Africa, and the fourth in point of size in the con- 
 tinent, draining nearly G00.000 square miles. As far as 
 its basin has yet been explored, the Zambeze has three 
 head streams from the great water-parting ridge which 
 extends from the Mossamba Mountains of inner Angola 
 to the high lands north of Nyassa Lake, about the 12th 
 parallel of S. latitude. There are the Lungebungo river 
 from the Mossamba Mountains, the Leeba river from 
 Lake Dilolo. on tho water-parting which separates be:
 
 FEATURES.] 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 255 
 
 fcween the Zambeze and the Kassabi river, and' the Lae- 
 ambye or Jambaji, probably the main-source stream, 
 coming from the unknown lands south-west of the Cazembe's 
 territory. From the union of these streams the general 
 course of the Zambeze is in two wide curves eastward, 
 through the plateau' and over its edge to the Indian 
 Ocean, in about 19° S. lat. From the north its main 
 tributaries are the Kafue and Loangwa or Aruangoa risers, 
 and the Shire river, flowing out of Lake Nyassa. Above 
 this point, on its middle course, where it forms the great 
 Victoria Falls, the Zambeze receives the Chobe from the 
 north-west; and from southward numerous minor tribu- 
 taries join its lower channel. The Zambeze forms a delta 
 with many mouths, the outmost of which are nearly 100 
 miles apart, and their entrances are generally barred by sand 
 banks ; but if these be passed, the main river is continuously 
 'navigable for 320 miles to the town of Tete;, and its tribu- 
 tary the Shire may also be followed up for nearly 150 
 miles, to where its cataracts stop navigation. At the 
 • Victoria Falls the great river contracts from its general 
 ■width of nearly a mile, to 60 or 80 feet, and plunges over 
 a height of 100 feet, into a remarkable zig-zag gorge rent 
 in the hard basalt rocks. 
 
 The Eovuma, which has its chief tributaries from the 
 plateau edge on the eastern side of Lake Nyassa, is the 
 next great river of the drainage to the Indian Ocean. It 
 has been navigated by Livingstone for 150 miles from the 
 coast, and formed part of his route in entering the con- 
 tinent on the journey from % which he has not yet returned, 
 but its basin has not yet been explored. 
 
 Still farther north the mouths of a great river named 
 the Rufiji are known, on the coast opposite the island of 
 Monfia, south of Zanzibar; but no part of its course has 
 yet been traced by any European. 
 
 The Kingani and the Wami are two streams from the 
 plateau edge, in the country of Usagara, and reach the sea 
 in the channel formed by Zanzibar island. The Pangani 
 river, further north, rises in the snowy mountain Kilima- 
 fljaro. The Sabaki and Dana, which enibouch on the 
 opposite side of Formosa Bay, in 3° S., flow over the same 
 coast plains, having their head springs in the spurs of 
 Mount Kenia. The latter river might be navigated during 
 ♦he rainy season for 100 miles from the coast. 
 
 The Juba river is the most considerable on the eastern 
 side north of the equator. It is believed to have its rise 
 tin the high lands immediately south of Abyssinia, and its 
 general direction is south-eastward to the Indian Ocean ; 
 but nothing is known of its higher course except by report. 
 The ill-fated expedition under Baron von der Decken 
 explored this river for about 180 miles upwards from its 
 mouth, but as yet no traffic is carried on by its means. 
 The Webbe or Haines river flows down from the high 
 lands in a direction nearly parallel to the Juba, a little 
 farther north, but its outlet on the coast is completely 
 barred by sand dunes of from 400 to 500 feet in height, 
 behind which it forms a lagoon of varying extent. The 
 desert zone is now again reached, and the water supply 
 fails. No permanent rivers reach the Red Sea from the 
 ^Abyssinian highlands or from the heights of Nubia which 
 continue these northward; the largest water-course is that 
 of the Barca, which is periodically filled by its tributaries' 
 .in the northern part of the Abyssinian plateau. 
 
 Turning now to the great areas of continental drainage, 
 it is observed that in North Africa there is a vast space of 
 upwards of four millions of square miles, extending from 
 the Nile valley westward to the Atlantic coast, and from 
 the plateau of Barbary in the north to the ext-emities of 
 the basin of Lake Chad in the south, from whica no single 
 river finds its way to the sea. The whole of this space, 
 however, appears to be furrowed by water channels in the 
 
 most varied directions. From the inner slopes of tha 
 plateau of Barbary numerous wadys take a direction to- 
 wards the great sand-belt of the Erg, in which they ter- 
 minate; a great series of channels appears to radiate from 
 the higher portion of the Sahara, which lies immediately 
 north of the tropic of Cancer and in about 5° E. of Green- 
 wich ; another cluster radiates from the Mountains of 
 Tibesti, in the eastern Sahara. 
 
 Lake Chad, on the margin of the pastoral belt, is sup- 
 plied by a large river named the Shari, coming from the 
 moist forest country which lies nearer the eq'-iator; and the 
 lake, which till recently was believed to have no outlet, 
 overflows to north-eastward, fertilising a great wady, in 
 which the waters become lost by evaporation as they are 
 led towards the more arid country of the Sahara. 
 
 The southern area of continental drainage is of much 
 smaller extent, and occupies the space of the desert zone 
 which lies between the middle of the Zambeze basin and 
 Damara Land. It centres in Lake Ngami, to which the 
 Tioge river flows from the pastoral belt on the north- 
 west. Several water-courses from the high Damara Land 
 also take a direction toward this lake. The river Zuga 
 carries off the overflow of Lake Ngami towards a series of 
 salt lagoons v. Inch He eastward near tha edgB of the 
 plateau; but it becomes narrower and less in volume as it 
 approaches these, and in some seasons scarcely reaches 
 their bed. 
 
 Smaller spaces of continental drainage exist at various 
 points near the eastern side of the continent. One of 
 these occupies the depressed area between the base of the 
 Abyssinian highland and the Red Sea, and is properly a 
 continuation of the Sahara desert belt beyond the inter- 
 vening plateau. In this space the Hawash river, descend- 
 ing from the plateau, terminates before reaching- the sea. 
 Another interior basin lies in the plateau between the 
 edge on which mountains Kenia and Kilima-njaro rise and 
 the country east of the Victoria Lake, and includes several 
 salt lakes. It is probable that the great TanganyikaLake 
 is the centre of a third basin of no outflow on thi3 side of 
 the great plateau; and Lake Shirwa, south-east of the 
 Nyassa, constitutes a fourth. 
 
 The great lakes, which form such a prominent feature in Lake& 
 African hydrography, are found chiefly in the southern and 
 eastern regions of the continent, but they are distributed 
 over all the systems of drainage. The Victoria and Albert 
 Lakes of the Nile basin are great Seas of fresh water ; and 
 if their extent should ultimately prove to be nearly that 
 which is at present believed, they rival the great Ame- 
 rican lake3 for the place of the greatest expanse of fresh Nile lake, 
 wafer on the globe. The former, the Victoria Lake, is at 
 an elevation of about 3300 feet above the sea; and its 
 outline, as at present sketched on our maps, occupies an 
 area of not less than 30,000 square miles. The Albert 
 Lake, 2500 feet above the sea, is believed to have an 
 extent not far short of this. Lake Baringo, north-east of 
 the Victoria, is reported to be a great fresh lake, discharg- 
 ing towards the Nile by a river which is possibly the 
 Sobat tributary. Lake Tzana or Dembea, 60 miles in length, 
 at a level of 6000 feet above the sea, on the Abyssinian 
 plateau, is the only remaining great lake of the Nile basin. 
 
 The great expansions of the Chambeze-Lualaba river, 
 presumably belonging to the river Congo, are the only 
 other considerable lakes of the Atlantic drainage. The 
 highest of them, Lake Bangweolo or Bemba, is described 
 as leing 150 miles in length from east to west, and at aD 
 elevation of 4000 feet; Lake Moero, the next, extend.' 
 through 60 miles ; Lakes Kamalondo or TJlenge, and the 
 yet unvisited lakes of the same drainage, ore described as 
 of vast extent, and he at an elevation of about 2000 feet 
 above the sea.
 
 256 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 [physical 
 
 Belonging to the drainage system of the Indian Ocean 
 are, Lake Nyassa, 1500 feet above the sea, and stretching 
 nicridionally over an area of nearly 9000 square miles in 
 the basin of the Zambeze ; and Lake Samburu, a reported 
 lake of great extent, lying in the plateau edge north of 
 Mount Kenia, and probably belonging to the basin of the 
 Juba river. The great Lake Tanganyika, upwards of 10,000 
 square miles in area, and united by a broad channel with 
 Lake Liemba in the south, occupies a deep longitudinal 
 basin, girt with mountains ; it is 2800 feet above the sea 
 level As yet no outlet has been discovered for this vast 
 lake, and the question whether it has or has not an over- 
 flowing river, is still undecided; but its waters are not 
 perfectly fresh, the drainage to it is small, and the proba- 
 bility is that the Tanganyika is a_ continental lake. Lake 
 Shirwa, enclosed by mountains on the plateau edge south- 
 east of Lake Nyassa, and 2000 feet above the sea, has 
 brackish water, and no outlet. 
 
 Lake Chad, the greatest lake of the continental system 
 of North Africa, is a shallow lagoon of very variable 
 extent, with numerous islands : it lies at about 1100 feet 
 above the sea; its waters are fresh and clear, and its over- 
 flow is carried off to north-eastward by the wady named 
 Bahr-el-GhazaL 
 
 Lake Ngami, the corresponding lake in the southern 
 continental system, at an elevation of about 2900 feet, 
 is also a shallow reedy lagoon, varying in extent according 
 to the season. The Zuga river carries off its surplus water to 
 sal t lakes. ' eastward. Salt lakes are of frequent occurrence in the areas 
 of continental drainage; perhaps the most remarkable of 
 these is the Assal lake, which lies in a depression east of 
 Abyssinia comparable with that of the Dead Sea, 600 feet 
 beneath the level of the Red Sea; the Sebka-el-Faroon 
 or Schott Kebir, south of Tunis, is a great salt lagoon, 100 
 miles in length, dried up in summer, when its bed is found 
 to be thickly encrusted with salt, and in winter covered 
 with water to a depth of two or three feet. It lies several 
 feet beneath the level of the Mediterranean. 
 CUniaie. Africa lies almost entirely in the torrid zone, and is the 
 
 hottest continent of all. The greatest heat, however, is not 
 found under the equator, since the whole of the central belt 
 of the continent is protected by a dense covering of forest 
 vegetation, supported by the heavy rainfall, and has in 
 consequen«e a more equable climate, but in the dry, bare 
 exposed desert belts, which lie on the margins of the 
 tropics, the Sahara in the north and the Kalahari in the 
 south, where the climate is extreme. The highest tempera- 
 ture is found throughout the Sahara, particularly in its 
 eastern portions towards the Red Sea. In Upper Egypt 
 and Nubia eggs may be baked in the hot sands ; and the 
 saying of the Arabs is, "in Nubia the soil is like fire 
 and the wind like a flame." The regions along the 
 Me .lilcrranean and Atlantic coasts are rendered more tem- 
 perate by the influence of the sea. To the south of the 
 Great Desert the temperature decreases, chiefly on account 
 of the increasing moisture and protection of the land sur- 
 face from extreme heating by its tree growth, but also 
 because of the greater elevation of the land as the great 
 southern plateau is approached. Both on account of its 
 elevation ami its narrower form, which gives greater access 
 to the equalising influence of the surrounding ocean, the 
 southern half of the African continent has a less high 
 temperature than the northern, though the same gradations 
 of climate ontward from the centre belt are clearly marked 
 in each division. Regular snowfall does not occur even 
 in the most southern or northern regions; and this pheno- 
 menon is only known in the most elevated points of the 
 rout incut. •* in the Atlas Mountains in the north, the 
 summits of which retain patches of snow even in summer, 
 :u rhe Abyssinian peaks, iu the highest point3 of the 
 
 mountains of the Capo Colony, ana most remarkably in 
 the lofty summits of Mounts Kenia and Kilima-njaro, 
 which rise on the plateau directly beneath the equator. The 
 intensity of radiation and its influence upon the tempera- 
 ture are very great in Northern Africa; while in the day 
 time the soil of the Sahara rapidly absorbs the solar rays, 
 during the night it cools so rapidly that the formation of 
 ice has often been known to occur. 
 
 The observed average temperatures of the extreme 
 months of the year at various points of Africa, from N. to 
 S., are given in the following table : — 
 
 Las I'ul mas, Can- 
 ary Islands, . 
 Santa Cruz, Tcnc- 
 
 riffe, . . . ; 
 Funchal, Madeira, 
 Casa Blanco, Ma. 
 
 rocco, . . 
 La Calle, Algeria, 
 ,, 
 (37° N.) 
 Oran, 
 
 Constantine, „ 
 L'Aghouat, ,, 
 
 Tunis 
 
 Alexandria, Egypt 
 Cairo, ,, 
 
 (30° N.) ' 
 
 Kennel), ,, 
 
 Freetown, Sierra 
 
 Leone, . . . 
 
 Kuka, Bornu 
 
 (13° K), . . 
 
 61-9 
 
 637 
 
 63 5 
 
 574 
 
 546 
 
 558 
 
 56 2 
 446 
 54-2 
 57-2 
 574 
 
 558 
 
 624 
 
 820 
 
 75 6 
 
 July. ' 
 
 736 
 
 772 
 
 725 
 
 77-9 
 
 73-4 
 
 76-3 
 
 76 9 
 81-0 
 98-9 
 772 
 78-5 
 
 86-0 
 
 94 3 
 
 77-S 
 
 83-8 
 
 KobW, Darfiir, . 
 Ankotcr, Abyssinia, 
 Elmina, Gold Coast, 
 Christiansborg, ,, 
 Niger Mouth (5° | 
 
 9' N.), . . . { 
 Gondokoro (5° N.), 
 Zanzibar, . . . 
 Ascension I. (7° 
 
 30' S.), . . . 
 St Helena, . . 
 Tete, on the Zam- ) 
 
 beze(16°S.), . 
 Port Louis, Mau- j 
 
 ritius, . . . j 
 St Denis, Bourbon, 
 Durban, Natal, . 
 Pietermaritzburg 
 
 (30° S.), . . 
 Cape Town (34°S.) 
 Stellenbosch, . 
 Sweliendam, . . 
 
 Jan. 
 
 67-1 
 52 
 797 
 81-0 
 
 86-0 
 
 89-3 
 833 
 
 77-0 
 
 73-6 
 
 82-9- 
 
 81-7 
 
 79-7 
 
 74-2 
 
 714 
 
 743 
 77 
 
 72-7 
 
 July. 
 
 87-8 
 58-1 
 76-7 
 765 
 
 80-2 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 Africa is not much under the influence of the regular 
 winds, except the monsoons of the Indian Ocean, the great 
 movement of the atmosphere depending chiefly on the 
 oscillation of the continent beneath the sun during the sea- 
 sons, as will be afterwards explained. The wind currents 
 over the whole continent have a prevailing direction from 
 the east. There are the trade winds, modified by inter- 
 ruptions of changing heat and elevation of the land sur- 
 face. In the northern part of the Indian Ocean the year 
 is divided between the south-west monsoon, blowing from 
 March till September, away from Africa, towards the then 
 heated continent of Asia; and the north-east monsoon, or 
 rather the normal trade wind, blowing towards the African 
 coasts, from October till February. It will be seen in the 
 next paragraph, that the monsoons, although they extend 
 only to about a third portion of the East African shores, 
 have an extremely important bearing upon the physical 
 economy of the whole African continent. From hurricanes 
 Africa is nearly exempt, except in its south-eastern extremity, 
 to which at times the Mauritius hurricanes. extend. At 
 rare intervals these have visited the east coast as far as 
 Zanzibar. Northern Africa is much exposed to the hot 
 winds and storms from the Sahara, which are called in 
 Egypt Khamsin, in the Mediterranean Scirocco, Shume 
 or Asshume in Marocco, and Harmattan on the west coasts 
 of the Sahara and in the countries bordering on the Gulf 
 of Guinea. These always blow directly across the coast 
 from the interior, and seem to move round the compass 
 during the year, beginning in Egypt in April, in Algeria 
 in July, in Marocco in August, in Senegambia in November. 
 Similar dry electrical winds are experienced in the Kalahari 
 desert in the south. Whirlwinds, frequently carrying sand 
 up into the atmosphere, are of frequent occurrence in 
 these deserts, and are also known in the dry region of 
 Unyamu zi, between Zanzibar and the Tanganyika, and in 
 the Limpopo basin farther south. Extreme heat and dry- 
 ness are the characteristics of these winds, which, raising 
 the sand, filling the air with dust, and prodigiously favour-"
 
 S-EATTRES.] 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 257 
 
 ing the powers of evaporation, aro oftan fata] to the rage- 
 table and animal creation in the regions visited by them. 
 
 In Africa the dependence of the winds and rains upon 
 the movement of the land beneath the sun is more clearly 
 marked than in any other intertropical region of the globe. 
 The high temperature caused by the vertical heat of the 
 sun over a particular area induces an indraught of air to 
 that place, an ascending current is produced which carries 
 up with it the warm and moist air; condensed in the 
 higher regions of the atmosphere, the moisture falls as 
 rain, and the condensation makes way for a further in- 
 draught. It is thus that in Africa the winds and rains 
 follow as a rule the pendulating movement of the continent 
 beneath the sun, and the rainy season of any space begins 
 almost immediately after the sun has reached its zenith. 
 Between the tropics and the equator the sun comes twice 
 to the zenith of each belt during the year, at the tropical 
 lines the sun is only once in the zenith ; thus it follows 
 that a double rainy season is observed in all places lying 
 in the central belt of the tropics, and a single rainy season 
 in those which are nearer the skirts of the zone. These 
 wet and dry seasons correspond to the cooler and hotter 
 periods of the year, and take the place of the summer and 
 winter of the temperate regions. Various circumstances' 
 tend to interfere with and modify the working of this 
 general rule of the rotation of seasons. In Southern 
 Africa that rainy season which follows the apparent move- 
 ment of the sun northward, is greater than that which 
 ensues after his passage south, since in the former case the 
 winds are drawn inwards from the ocean and carry greater 
 quantities of moisture, whereas in the latter the winds are 
 drawn from the land north of the equator, and their mois- 
 ture is already in great part spent. In the northern and 
 eastern regions of Africa the winds and rains are governed 
 as much by the heating and cooling of the Asiatic con- 
 tinent as by that of Africa itself, but in the central and 
 western portions of the continent the rule is well exem- 
 plified. Thus in Damara Land, bordering on the southern 
 tropic, there is one short rainy season from February till 
 April, beginning only with the northing sun; at Loanda 
 in Angola the greater rain3 last from February till May, 
 the lesser rainy season, when the sun has passed this place 
 going south, occurs in November only. At Annobon 
 island, surrounded by wide sea, April and May are the 
 rainy months of the northing sun, October and November 
 of the southing. The Guinea coast, facing the sea to 
 southward, has its greater rainy season from March to 
 June, when the northing sun draws the ocean winds on to 
 the coast; and its lesser rains occur in October and 
 November, when the sun has passed southward from the 
 Kind. Nearing the northern tropical line, the coast-land 
 from Sierra Leone to the Senegal river has a simple wet 
 and dry season during the year. 
 
 On the eastern coast-land the rains are more dependant on 
 the direction of the monsoon winds ; about the mouths of the 
 Zambeze and on the Mozambique coast the rains begin in 
 November, after the north-east monsoon wind has set in over 
 the northern part of the Indian Ocean, bringing with it the 
 vapours drawn from the sea to condense on the coast slopes. 
 The rains continue here till March, when the south-west 
 monsoon begins to blow away from the land towards the 
 then heated surface of Asia. At Zanzibar there is a double 
 rainy season, a stronger in the months of March, April, 
 and May, with the northing sun, beginning immediately 
 after the south-west monsoon has set in, and a weaker in 
 September and October with the southing sun. Under 
 the equator on the east coast the rains begin in April with 
 the south-west monsoon, continuing till June, and during 
 this period the sky is obscured by heavy clouds. The 
 iiucund raiuy season here is only marked by a few showers 
 
 1-10 
 
 in September end October. WIiDs fhe north-east mon- 
 soon i3 blowing the sky remains of a cloudless blue. In 
 the interior of the continent, between these tropical coasts, 
 the rainy seasons appear rather to precede thar. iollow tho 
 advancing sun. In the region of the central Zambeze the 
 greater rains last through February, March, and April, 
 the lesser occurring in October and November. The worst 
 droughts are experienced in December and January. 
 Nearer the centre of the continent the two rainy seasons 
 become so lengthened as almost to merge into one period 
 of rains, extending over about eight months of the year. 
 In the newly-explored country south-westof the Tanganyika, 
 Dr Livingstone found that the rains began in October, and 
 that the last showers fell in May; but there is probably a 
 drier period between these limits. At the Tanganyika Laka 
 the rainy season begins in September, lasting till May, and 
 the same rainy reason has been observed in the interior 
 country of the west coast immediately north of the 
 equator. Between these points, in Manuyema country, 
 Dr Livingstone found that the rains continued till July, 
 or almost through the year. Northward in the interior the 
 rainy seasons are again clearly divided into a greater and 
 lesser, and in the regions west of the Upper Nile between. 
 5° and 10° N. lat, the stronger rains occur from August 
 till October, the weaker come with the northing sun in 
 April and May. The plateau of Abyssinia, rising high 
 above the general level of the north of Africa, and inter- 
 cepting and condensing the moist winds, has also a double 
 rainy season, — a greater from June to September, when tho 
 sun is passing southward; a lesser in February and April, 
 with the northing sun. The rainy seasons in Central Africa 
 are ushered in and accompanied by violent thunderstorms 
 and by occasional falls of hail The quantity of the rain- 
 fall, which is excessive in the regions near the equator, 
 diminish ea rapidly to north and south of this belt as tho 
 dry regions on the borders of the tropics are approached. 
 
 The Sahara, and also the Kalahari of Southern Africa, are 
 almost rainless regions, but wherever a sufficient elevation 
 occurs to intercept a cooler stratum of the atmosphere, rail* 
 i3 not wanting, even in the midst of the Great Desert. A 
 striking instance of this is related by Mr Richardson. That 
 traveller relates that when on the borders of the mountain 
 knot of " Air, in about latitude 19° N., on the 30th Seps. 
 1850, there jwas a cry in the encampment, 'The wady ia 
 coming.' Going out to look, I saw a broad white sheet of 
 foam advancing from the south between the trees of the 
 valley. In ten minutes after a river of water came pouring 
 along, and spread all around us,- converting the place of our 
 encampment into an isle of the valley. The current in' ita 
 deepest part was very powerful, capable of carrying away 
 sheep and cattle, and of uprooting trees. This is one of 
 the most interesting phenomena I have witnessed during 
 my present tour in Africa. The scene, indeed, was per- 
 fectly African. Rain had been observed falling in the 
 south ; black clouds and darkness covered that zone of the 
 heavens, and an hour afterwards came pouring down this 
 river of water into the dry parchedMip valley." 
 
 The causes of want of rainfall in the vast region of the 
 Sahara appear to .be mainly these — that the winds ad vane-' 
 ing towards it come from a cooler and moister to a warmer 
 and drier region, indeed to the hottest and driest of all, 
 and so are constantly losing in moisture and gaining in 
 temperature as they approach; the high plateau of 
 Abyssinia forms an effective screen from the winds of the 
 Indian Ocean, wringing out their moisture before the 
 Sahara is reached, and on the Atlantic side the north-east 
 trade wind constantly blows away from the land ; a 
 barrier of mountains also deprives the Sahara of rain from 
 the south-west. ■ Another cause of dryness is the low level 
 of great areas of the Sahara. We have seen that wherever
 
 258 
 
 A F K I C A 
 
 [bOi; 
 
 there is a considerable elevation, even in its midst there is 
 a periodical rainfall The Kalahari region is almost rain- 
 iess, on account of the great heat to which it is subjected; 
 but specially because the winds coming towards it from 
 the eastward, the prevailing winds, expend their moisture 
 on the high slopes of the plateau which face the Indian 
 Ocean. Heavy dews, consequent on the rapid changes of 
 day and night temperature in these bare regions, partly 
 compensate tho deficiency of rain. 
 
 Tho portions of the continent which lie beyond the 
 tropics north and south, the outer slopes of the plateau of 
 Earbary and of the Cape Colony, have no marked rainy 
 season, and the times of the occurrence of rain are altered, 
 the summers of both being drier, the showers more frequent 
 in winter. In Natal, and on the slopes of the plateau in 
 its neighbourhood, rain may be expected in any mouth; 
 but the greatest falls occur from October to March. The 
 absolute quantity of rain which falls in Africa has as yet 
 been measured at so few points, that no definite conclusions 
 can be arrived at respecting it 
 
 Although Africa belongs almost entirely to the torrid 
 and warm zones, its vegetable productions are essentially 
 different in different parts. Thus, in the extreme north, 
 groves of oranges and olives, plains covered with wheat 
 and barley, thick woods of evergreen oaks, cork-trees, and 
 sea-pines, intermixed with cypresses, myrtles, arbutus, and 
 fragrant tree-heaths, form the principal features of the 
 landscape. On this northern coast the date-palm is first 
 fonnd ; but its fruit does not arrive at perfection, and it is 
 chiefly valued as an ornamental object in gardens. Various 
 kinds Of grain are cultivated. Beyond this region of the 
 coast and the Atlas chain, with the borders of the Sahara, 
 commences a new scene. It is in this region, extending to 
 the borders of Soudan, that the .tee-tree forms the charac- 
 teristic feature. Being peculiarly adapted to excessive dry- 
 ness and high temperature, it flourishes where few other 
 plants can maintain an existence. Were it not for the fruit 
 of the invaluable date-tree, the inhabitants of the desert 
 would almost entirely depend on the products of other regions 
 for their subsistence. With the southern boundary of the 
 Sahara, the date-tree disappears, the baobab or monkey 
 bread-tree takes its place, and, under tho influence of the 
 tropical rains, a new, rich, and highly-developed flora pre- 
 sents itself. These trees, together with huge cotton-trees, 
 oil-palms, sago-palms, and others of tho same majestic tribe, 
 determine the aspect of the landscape. The laburrhim ex- 
 pands its branches of golden flower, and replaces the senna 
 of the northern regions, and the swaiupa are often covered 
 
 with immense quantities of the papyrus plant Instead of 
 waving fields of corn, the cassava, yam, pigeon-pea, and tho 
 ground-nut, form the farinaceous plants. The papaw, the 
 tamarind, the Senegal custard apple, and others, replace 
 the vine and tho fig. In Southern Africa, again, the tro- 
 pical forms disappear, and in the inland desert-like plains, 
 the fleshy, leafless, contorted, singular tribes of kapsias, of 
 mesembiyanthemums, euphorbias, crassulas, aloes, and other 
 succulent plants, make their appearance. Endless species of 
 heaths are there found in great beauty, and the hills and rocks 
 are scattered over with a remarkable tribe of plants called 
 Cycadacece. Plants of the protea tribe also add to the extra- 
 ordinary variety in the vegetable physiognomy of that region. 
 
 Of tho characteristic African plants, the date-tree is one 
 of the most important, as it is likewise among the nearly 
 one thousand different species of palms. It furnishes, as it 
 were, the bread of the desert, beyond which it occurs only 
 in Western Asia, wherever a similar dry and hot climate 
 prevails. This tree requires a sandy soil, and springs must 
 not be absent The dates furnish food not oidy for man, 
 but for the camel and the horse. For the latter purpose 
 the stones are used in many parts, and are said to be more 
 nourishing than the fruit itself. The Arabs make a great 
 variety of dishes of which dates form the chief part Of 
 the sap of the tree palm-wine is prepared, and the young 
 leaves are eaten like cabbage. 
 
 In Southern Africa are the extensive miniature woods of Heath 
 heaths, as characteristic as the groves of date-palms in the 
 north. No less than five hundred species have already been 
 discovered. These plants, of which some reach the height 
 of 12 to 15 feet (Erica urceolaris), are covered throughout 
 the greater part of the year with innumerable flowers 'of 
 beautiful colours, the. red being prevalent 
 
 The papyrus is an aquatic plant, having a stem from 3 rapyra* 
 to 6 feet high. It inhabits both stagnant waters and run- 
 ning streams, and is common in the countries of the Nile, 
 particularly Egypt and Abyssinia. Its soft, smooth flower- 
 stem afforded the most ancient material from which papei 
 was prepared, and for this reason it is one of the noticeable 
 African plants. It has, however, also been used for othei 
 purposes; its flowering stems and leaves are twisted into 
 ropes ; and the roots, which are sweet, are used as food. 1 
 
 The following table, compiled from the " synonymic lists 
 of species of mammals" given by Mr Andrew Murray, 3 
 affords a general view of the distribution of terrestrial 
 mammals in the different parts of Africa, — the figures denot- 
 ing the number of species found in each of the divisions, those 
 in the last column being the number peculiar to Africa ; — 
 
 OaDE&s, 
 
 Quadramana, 
 Camivora, . 
 Ungnlata, 
 
 UDgnlata, . . • . 
 
 Wnltnngulats, ■ . . 
 
 Edentata, . • . . 
 
 Insectivora, . , , , 
 
 Rodentia, . . . . 
 
 Marsnpialiaand Monotre- 
 
 mata, . . . . . 
 
 total, 
 
 Distri- 
 buted over 
 Africa. 
 
 11 
 
 N. Africa, 
 Marocco, 
 Egypt, 
 am] the 
 Sahara. 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 9 
 
 22 
 86 
 
 86 
 
 Abyssinia 
 and the 
 
 Upper Nile 
 District. 
 
 10 
 23 
 19 
 1 
 2 
 16 
 18 
 
 89 
 
 Seneca re 
 
 bla to 
 
 Lake Chad 
 
 District. 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 63 
 
 East Africa, 
 Somali Land, 
 
 Zanzibar, 
 
 Mozambique, 
 
 and 
 
 Zambczta. 
 
 10 
 18 
 20 
 6 
 2 
 26 
 20 
 
 101 
 
 Madagas- 
 car. 
 
 S2 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 53 
 
 & Africa, 
 
 Natal 
 to Damsra 
 Land and 
 C. Colony. 
 
 8 
 SO 
 82 
 4 
 2 
 29 
 46 
 
 151 
 
 W. Africa, 
 
 Benguela 
 
 to 
 
 Guinea. 
 
 41 
 20 
 12 
 5 
 2 
 10 
 16 
 
 106 
 
 Total 
 
 Species In 
 
 Africa. 
 
 97 
 
 91 
 
 84 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 104 
 
 132 
 
 Species 
 
 peculiar to 
 
 Africa. 
 
 P4 
 7B 
 74 
 
 92 
 121 
 
 523 
 
 472 
 
 The order Quadrumana is well represented, more particu- 
 larlywithin the tropics, whence theydecrease northwards and 
 southwards. The most important members of this family 
 are the anthropoid monkeys, the chimpanzee and gorilla, in 
 Tropical and Western Africa. Baboons and mandrils, with 
 few exceptions, are peculiar to Africa. Only a few species 
 
 of the gcnu3 Macacos, which is East Indian, are found in 
 Africa. The only short-tailed species (Macacos Jnnuus) 
 
 1 See Florm of Tropical Africa, by Daniel Oliver, F.R.S., F.I..S. 
 London, 1868. 
 
 2 The Geographical Distribution of Mammals, by Andrew Murrey, 
 London, 1666.
 
 ZOOLOGY.J 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 259 
 
 is North African, and is also found wild on the opposite 
 coast at the Rock of Gibraltar. In Madagascar the place 
 of the true monkeys is supplied by the peculiar tribe of the 
 true Lemurs or makis. - Many species have close affinities 
 with those of Asia;- thus the orang-outang of Borneo is 
 represented in Africaby the chimpanzee. The gibbons are 
 entirely wanting. 
 CarnivOTa, Of the larger Carnivora the bear is almost entirely wanting, 
 and occurs. only sparely in the Atlas Mountains in Barbary. 
 The true martens are unknown, but otters occur. Of the 
 Cania family the jackal is characteristic, and roams over 
 the whole of Africa; it differs from the Asiatic species in 
 its paler skin, which approaches the colour of the prevailing 
 deserts. * The wolf and fox do .not extend beyond the 
 northern margin of Africa. Hyasnas are true African 
 tenants; the striped hyama extending from Asia over North 
 Africa, the spotted hy'aana over the remainder of the con- 
 tinent; in the southmost part of the continent the brown 
 hyaena is also found, and with it the aardwolf, or earth 
 wolf of the Cape colonists, allied to this genus. Africa is 
 the chief home of the lion, which there remains undisturbed 
 as king over the lower animal creation, though it has been 
 driven inwards from the more settled portions of the coast- 
 land; while in the extreme south-western parts of Asia, to 
 which it is now confined, its power is divided with that of 
 the tiger. The leopard, serval, caracal, chaus, and civet 
 cat (the locality of the true civet being North Africa), are 
 the other principal representatives of the cat tribe. The 
 herpestes or ichneumons have the same distribution as 
 the civets; the species which destroys the eggs of the 
 crocodile is found in Egypt and the North of Africa. 
 Ongulata. Of wild horses the asinine group is characteristic of 
 (Hoofed Asia, and the hippotigrine of Africa. The quagga, exclu- 
 ■ annua ia, s j vs ]y African, inhabits the most southern parts of the 
 tia and continent, and is scarcely found north of the Orange river, 
 Pachyd-j- but occurs in great herds, associated with the white-tailed 
 inata). gnu; the zebra (Equtts Burcliellii), or zebra of the plains, 
 is widely distributed over Africa, from the limit of the 
 quagga to Abyssinia and the west coast; the' zebra of the 
 mountains (Equus lebra), more completely striped than the 
 Test, is only known in South Africa. The true onager or 
 aboriginal wild ass is indigenous to North-East Africa and 
 the island of Socotra. A species inhabiting the high land 
 of Abyssinia is distinct from these. The horse, domesti- 
 cated in other parts of Africa, excepting the region of forests, 
 is not found in the eastern intertropical region; and, for 
 gome cause not yet clearly ascertained, it appears to be 
 impossible to acclimatise,^ there. The single humped 
 camel or dromedary is used over the whole of Nortli 
 1 Africa, as far south and west as the river Niger and 
 Lake Chad. The Indian buffalo has spread by introduc- 
 tion to North Africa; the Cape buffalo, a species peculiar 
 to Africa, reaches as far north as a line from Guinea 
 to Abyssinia; the Bos Brachycerus is a species peculiar 
 to West Africa, from Senegal to the Gaboon. Of sheep, 
 the Ovis Tragelnphus is peculiar to North Africa; the 
 Ibex goat extends into Abyssinia. The family of the 
 nntelopes is essentially African, five-sixths of the species 
 ^ composing it being natives of that country, end chiefly of 
 s,the portion lying south of the Sahara, occurring in dense 
 herds. Lastly, the giraffe, one of the most celebrated 
 and characteristic of African quadrupeds, ranges from 
 the limits of the Cape Colony as far as the Sahara and 
 Nubia. 
 
 Of Edentata the seven species known to occur in Africa 
 ire also peculiar to it. The aardwark ( Orycteropus capensis) 
 is essentially burrowing in its habits; and the burrows 
 formed by these animals are the source of frequent danger 
 to the waggons and horses of the Capo colonists. 
 
 A .genus of moles is met with in South Africa, but is 
 
 not found in the tropical regions. The Cape or gilded mole, 
 chryso-chlore, is so called from its iridescent glossy fur; 
 two or three species of hedgehog occur in the continent, 
 and Madagascar has a peculiar family resembling these in 
 appearance, but without the power of rolling up into a ball 
 for defence. Bats are numerous in Africa, but few are 
 peculiar to it 
 
 Of Rodents the burrowing kinds prevail The Africau 
 species of porcupine are known m the northern and western 
 coast-lands and in South-Eastern Africa. The hyrax ex- 
 tends over Eastern Africa and a portion of the west coast. 
 Hares are only known in the countries north of the Sahara 
 and in the Cape colony. Among squirrels, those with 
 bristles or spines in their fur are peculiar to the southern 
 regions of the continent. 
 
 The ornithology of Africa presents a close analogy iri 
 many of its species to those of Europe and South Asia. 1 
 Thus, on its northern coasts, there is scarcely a single 
 species to be found which does not also occur in the other 
 countries bordering on the Mediterranean. The ornitho- 
 logy^of the region of the Nile and the northern coasts is 
 identified with that of Arabia, Persia, and Spain. The 
 deserts are inhabited by species adapted to its solitudes; 
 while Southern Africa presents different species. 
 
 The ostrich, the hugest of birds, which has been described 
 as the feathered camel, or the giraffe among birds, is found 
 in almost every part of Africa. But its chief home is the 
 desert and the open plains; mountainous districts it avoids, 
 unless pressed by hunger. The beautiful white feathers, 
 so highly prized by the ladies of Europe, are found in the 
 wings of the undo bird. The chase is not without its 
 difficulties, and it requires the greatest care to get within 
 musket-shot of the bird, owing to its constant vigilance 
 and the great distance to which it can see. The fleetest 
 horse, too, will not overtake it unless stratagem be adopted 
 to tire it out. • If followed up too eagerly, the chase of the 
 ostrich is not destitute of danger: for the huntsman has 
 sometimes had his thigh-bone broken by a single stroke 
 from the leg of a wounded bird. 
 
 The large messenger or secretary-bird, which preys upon 
 serpents and other reptiles, is one of the most remarkable 
 African birds. It is common near the Cape, and is not 
 seldom domesticated. Of gallinaceous fowls, adapted to the 
 poultry-yard, Africa possesses but a single genus, the guinea- 
 tens, which, however, are found in no other part of the 
 world. These birds, of which there are three or four dis- 
 tinct species, go in large flocks of 400 or 500, and are most 
 frequently found among underwood in the vicinity of ponds 
 and rivers. There are, besides, many species of partridges 
 and quails in different parts of Africa. Water fowl of 
 various species are also abundant on the lakes, and rivers, 
 as are likewise various species of owls, falcons, and vul- 
 tures, the latter of which are highly useful in consuming 
 the offal and carrion, which might otherwise taint the air 
 and produce disease. 
 
 Among the smaller birds of Africa are many species re- 
 markable for the gaudiness and brilliancy of their plumage, 
 or the singularity of their manners and economy. Of the 
 former kind may be mentioned the sunbirds, the lanrpro- 
 tornis, the bee-caters, tho rollers, the plantain-caters, the 
 parrots, the halcyons, and numerous smaller birds that 
 swarm in the forests. Of the latter kind it will be suffi- 
 cient to mention the honey-cuckoo {Cucidus indicator). • 
 
 Though Africa is not exempt from the scourge of veuo-' 
 mous or dangerous reptiles, still it has comparatively fewer 
 than other tropical countries, owing to the dryness of the, 
 climate, i The reptiles haiboured by the desert regiona 
 consist chiefly of harmlc-; lizards and serpents of a small 
 
 size, though often venomous The frog and tortoise tribes 
 
 are represented in but few i^ecics and numbers.
 
 26U 
 
 A F It I C A 
 
 [ktiinology. 
 
 The most important among the reptiles is the crocodile, 
 which inhabits nearly all the large rivers and lakes within 
 the tropics, and is still abundant in the Nile below the first 
 cataract. 
 
 The chameleon is common in Africa. Among the veno- 
 mous species of snakes are the purple naja. the cerastes or 
 homed viper, the ringed naja, and the darting viper. 
 
 Edible fish are found almost everywhere in great variety 
 and quantity. The fresh waters of Egypt produce the 
 gigantic bishir, the coffres. and numerous species of the 
 pimelodes. Many varieties of fish exist in the great inte- 
 rior lakes; five large species found in the Tanganyika are 
 described by Burton. The greater number of the fish of 
 the Red Sea resemble the saxatiles of the warm seas of 
 Asia. On the west coasts are found the fish belonging to 
 equatorial latitudes, while the shores of the Mediterranean 
 produce those of Frauce and Spain. The seas of the 
 southern extremity possess the species common to the 
 latitudes of the antarctic, south of the three great capes. 
 The fish of the east coast are the same as those of the 
 Indian Sea. 
 
 Of the insect tribes Africa also contains many thousand 
 different kinds. The locust has been, from time imme- 
 morial, the proverbial scourge of the whole continent ; scor- 
 pions, scarcely less to be (treaded than noxious serpents, 
 are everywhere abundant; and the zebub, or fly, one cf 
 the instruments employed by the Almighty to punish the 
 Egyptians of old, is still the plague of the low and cultivated 
 districts. In the interior of Africa a venomous fly occurs 
 in certain regions of the south and east, which is fatal to 
 nearly all domestic animals. It is called tsetse (Glossijia 
 morsitans), and its size is almost that of the common blue 
 fly which settles on meat; but the wings are larger. On 
 the absence of this insect greatly depended the success of 
 recent explorers in that quarter, as, where it appeared, their 
 cattle infallibly fell victims to its bite. There are large 
 tribes which cannot keep either cattle or sheep, because the 
 tsetse abounds in their country. Its bite is not, however, 
 dangerous to man; wild animals likewise are undisturbed by 
 it. The termites or white ants are likewise a scourge to 
 the country where they occur in great numbers. This 
 destructive creature devours everything in the shape of 
 wood, leather, cloth, <fcc, that falls in its way; and they 
 march together in such swarms, that the devastation they 
 commit is almost incredible. 
 
 Of the class of zoophytes, the brilliant polypi of every 
 variety, and madrepores, abound on the coasts of Africa 
 The shores of the Mediterranean produce the finest coral, 
 and those of the Red Sea bristle with extensive reefs of the 
 same mollusca 
 
 From the shores of the Mediterranean to about the lati- 
 tude of 20° N., the population of Africa consists largely 
 of tribes not originally native to the soil, but of Arabs and 
 Turks, planted by conquest, with a considerable number of 
 Jews, the children of dispersion; and the more recently 
 introduced French. The Berbers of the Atlas 1 <:gion, the 
 Tuaricks and Tibbus of the Sahara, and the Copts of 
 Egypt, may be viewed as the descendants of tba primitive 
 stock, while those to whom the general name of Moors is 
 applied, are perhaps of mixed descent, native and foreign. 
 From the latitude stated to the Cape Colony, tribes com- 
 monly classed together under the title of the Ethiopic or 
 Negro famity are found, though many depart very widely 
 from the peculiar physiognomy of the NegrD, which is 
 most apparent in the natives of the Guinea coast In the 
 Cape Colony, and on its borders, the Hottentots form a 
 distinct variety in the population of Africa, most closely 
 resembling the Mongolian races of A.'i.i. 
 
 The Copts, or as they are correctly pronounced, either 
 Ckoobt or Ckibt, are considered to be the descendants of 
 
 the ancient Egyptians. They do not now compose wore 
 than one sixteenth part of the population of Egypt, their 
 number not exceeding 145,000, about 10,000 of whom 
 it Cairo. Conversions to the Mohammedan faith, and 
 intermarriages with the Moslems, have occasioned this 
 decrease in tlioir numbers ; to which may be added the 
 persecutions which they endured from their Arabic invaders 
 and subsequent rulers. They were forced to adopt distinc- 
 tions of dress, and they still wear a curban of a black or 
 blue, or a grayish or Ught brown colour, in contradistinction 
 to the red or white turban. In some parts of Upper Egypt 
 there are villages exclusively inhabited by the Copts. 
 Their complexion is somewhat darker than that of the Arabs, 
 their foreheads flat, and their hair of a soft and woolly 
 character; their noses short, but not flat; mouths wide, and 
 lips thick; the eyes large, aud bent upwards in an angle 
 like those of the -Mongols; their cheek-bones high, and their 
 beards tliin. They are not an unmixed race, their ancestors 
 in the earlier ages of Christianity having intermarried with 
 Greeks, Nubians, and Abyssinians. With the exception of 
 a small proportion, the Copts are Christians of the sect called 
 Jacobites, Eutychians, Monophysites, and Monothclitcs, 
 whose creed was condemned by the Council of Chalccdon, 
 a.d. 451. They are extremely bigoted, and bear a bitter 
 hatred to all other Christians; they are of a sullen temper, 
 extremely avaricious, great dissemblers, ignorant, and faith- 
 less. They frequently indulge in excessive drinking; but in 
 their meals, their mode of eating, and the manner in which 
 they pass their hours of leisure, which is chiefly in smoking 
 their pipes and drinking coffee, they resemble the other in- 
 habitants of the country. Most of the Copts in Cairo are 
 employed as secretaries and accountants, or tradesmen; they 
 are chiefly engaged in the government offices ; and as 
 merchants, goldsmiths, silversmiths, jewellers, architects, 
 builders, and carpenters, they are generally considered 
 more skilful than the Moslems. The Coptic language is 
 now understood by few persons, and the Arabic being 
 employed in its stead, it may be considered as a dead 
 language. 
 
 The countries above Egypt are inhabited by two trioes \ 
 of people resembling each other in physical characters, but 
 of distinct language and origin. One is, perhaps, the 
 aboriginal or native, the other a foreign tribe. Dr Prichard 
 terms them Eastern Nubians, or Nubians of the Red Sea, 
 and Nubians of the Nile, or Berberines. All these tribes 
 are people of a red-brown complexion, their colour in some 
 instances approaching to black, but still different from the 
 ebony hue of the Eastern negroes. Their hair is often 
 frizzled and thick, and is described as even woolly; yet 
 it is not precisely similar to the hair of the negroes of 
 Guinea. The Eastern Nubians are tribes of roving people 
 who inhabit the country between the Nile and the Red 
 Sea ; the northern division of this race are the Ababdeh, 
 who reach northward in the eastern desert as far as Kosseir, 
 and, towards the parallel of Deir, border on the Bishari. 
 The Bishari reach thence towards the confines of Abyssinia. 
 The latter are extremely savage and inhospitable ; they are 
 said to drink the warm blood of living animals ; they are 
 for the most part nomadic, and live on flesh and milk. 
 They are described as a handsome people, with beautiful 
 features, fine expressive eyes, of slender and elegant forms ; 
 their complexion is said to be a dark brown, or a dark 
 chocolate colour. The Barabra or Berberines are a people 
 well known in Egypt, whither they resort as labourers 
 from the higher country of the Nile. They inhabit the 
 valley of that name from the southern limit of Egypt to 
 Sennaar. They are a people distinct from the Arabs and 
 all the surrounding nations. They live on the banks of 
 the Nile ; and wherever there is any soil, they plant date- 
 trees, set. up wheels lor irrigation, and sow durra and soma
 
 ETHXOLOGY.J 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 261 
 
 leguminous plants. At Cairo, whither many of this race 
 resort, they are esteemed for their honesty. They profess 
 Islam. The Barabra are divided into three sections by 
 their dialects, which are those of the Nuba, the Kenous, 
 and the Dongolawi According to Dr Prichard, it is pro- 
 bable that the Berberines may be an offset from the original 
 stock which first peopled Egypt and Nubia. 
 
 The country of the Nubians is limited on the west by 
 that of the Tibbus, who are spread over the eastern por- 
 tions of the Sahara, as far as Fezzan and Lake Chad. Dr 
 Latham considers it probable that their language belongs 
 to the Nubian class. They inhabit the locality of the 
 ancient Libyans or Libyes. Their colour is not uniform. 
 In some it is quite black, but many have copper-coloured 
 faces. They are slim and well made, have high cheek- 
 bones, the nose sometimes flat like that of the negro, and 
 sometimes aquiline. Their mouth is in general large, but 
 their teeth fine. Their lips are frequently formed like 
 those of Europeans ; their eyes are expressive, and their 
 hair, though curled, not woolly. The females are especially 
 distinguished by a light and elegant form, and in then- 
 walk and erect manner of carrying themselves are very 
 striking. Their feet and ankles are delicately formed, and 
 not loaded with a mass of brass or iron, as is the practice 
 in other countries of Northern Africa, but have merely a 
 light anklet of polished silver or copper, sufficient to show 
 their jetty skin to more advantage ; and they also wear 
 neat red slippers. The Tibbus are chiefly a pastoral people. 
 They keep horses, cattle, sheep, and goats, but camels 
 constitute their principal riches. The villages of the 
 Tibbus are very regularly built in a square, with a space 
 left on the north and south faces of the quadrangle for the 
 use of the cattle. The huts are entirely of mats, which 
 exclude the sun, yet admit both the light and the air. The 
 interior of these habitations is singularly neat : clean 
 wooden bowls for the preservation of milk, each with a 
 cover of basket-work, are hung against their walls. They 
 are gTeatly exposed to predatory incursions into their 
 country by the enemies who surround them. The Tibbus 
 of Tibesti are described by Dr Nachtigal as of medium 
 Etature, well made, of elegant though muscular frame ; in 
 colour they vary between a clear bronze and black.: the 
 greater number are dark bronze-coloured, yet without the 
 slightest trace of what is generally recognised as the negro 
 physiognomy. They carry on a considerable traffic in 
 slaves between Sudan, Fezzan, and Tripoli. 
 
 " All that is not Arabic in the kingdom of Marocco," 
 eays Dr Latham, " all that is not Arabic in the French 
 provinces of Algeria, and all that is not Arabic in Tunis, 
 Tripoli, and Fezzan, is Berber. The language, also, of the 
 ancient Cyrenaica, indeed the whole country bordering the 
 Mediterranean, between Tripoli and Egypt, is Berber. The 
 extinct language of the Canary Isles was Berber ; and, 
 finally, the language of the Sahara is Berber. The Berber 
 languages, in their .present geographical localities, are essen- 
 tially inland languages. As a general rule, the Arabic -is 
 the language for the whole of the sea-coast from the Delta 
 of the Nile to the Straits of Gibraltar, and from the Straits 
 of Gibraltar to the mouth of the Senegal" The Berber 
 nation is one of great antiquity, and from the times of 
 the earliest history has been spread over the same exxent 
 of country as at present ; the ancient Numidian and 
 Matuitanian names of Sallust, and other writers, have a 
 meaning in the modern Berber. It has affinities with the 
 Semitic languages. In the northern parts of Atlas these 
 people are called Berbers ; in the southern tracts they are 
 the Shuluh or Shelhas. In the hilly country belonging 
 to Tunis, the Kabyles; in Mount Auress, the Showiah; and 
 in the Desert, the Tuarick, — all belong to the same group. 
 The mountains of Atlas are said to be inhabited by more 
 
 located 
 at Ghat 
 
 than twenty different tribes, carrying on perpetual warfare 
 against each other. They are very poor, and make plun- 
 dering excursions in quest of the means of supporting life. 
 They are described as an athletic, strong-featured people, 
 accustomed to hardships and fatigue. Their only covering 
 is a woollen garment without sleeves, fastened round the 
 waist by a belt.' 
 
 The Shuluh, who are the mountaineers of the Northern 
 Atlas, live in villages of houses made of stone and mud, 
 with slate roofs, occasionally in tents, and even in caves. 
 They are chiefly huntsmen, but cultivate the ground and 
 rear bees. They are described as lively, intelligent, well- 
 formed, athletic men, not tall, without marked features, 
 and with light complexions. The. Kabyles, or Kabaily, of 
 the Algerian and Tunisian territories, are the most indus- 
 trious inhabitants of the Barbary States, and, besides till- 
 age, work the mines contained in their mountains, and 
 obtain lead, iron, and copper. They live in huts made of 
 the branches of trees and covered with clay, which resemble 
 the magalia of the old Numidians, spread in little groups 
 over the sides of the mountains, and preserve the grain, 
 the legumes, and other fruits, which are the produce of 
 their husbandry, in mattoures, or conical excavations in the 
 ground. They are of middle stature ; their complexion is 
 brown, and sometimes nearly black. 
 
 The Tuarick are a people spread in various tribes through 
 the greater portion of the Sahara. The expedition under 
 Richardson, Barth, and Overweg, who traversed and ex- 
 plored a great portion of the Tuarick territories, has greatly 
 added to our knowledge of these people. The following 
 are the names and localities of the principal tribes : — 
 
 1. Tanelkum, located in Fezzan. 
 
 I Ouraghen, family of Shafou, 
 
 2. Azghers, < Emanghasatan, „ of Hateetahj 
 
 ( Amana, „ of Jabour, 
 
 3. Aheethanaran, the tribe of Janet. 
 
 4. Hagar (Ahagar), pure Ilagars and Maghatah. They 
 occupy the tract between Ghat, Tuat, and Timbuktu. 
 
 5. Sagamaram, located on'the route from Aisou to Tuat 
 
 6. Kailouees, including, the Kailouees proper, the 
 Kaltadak, and the Kalfadai. 
 
 7. Kilgris, including the Kilgris proper, the Iteesan, and 
 the Ashraf. These and the tribes under the preceding 
 head inhabit the kingdom of Ahir. 
 
 8. Oulimad, tribes surrounding Timbuktu in great num- 
 bers. This, probably identical with the Sorghou, is the 
 largest and most powerful tribe, while the Tanelkums are 
 the smallest and weakest. 
 
 The various tribes are very different in their characters, 
 but they are all fine men, tall, straight, and handsome. 
 They exact a tribute from all the caravans traversing their 
 country, -which chiefly furnishes them with the means of 
 subsistence. They are most abstemious, their food consist- 
 ing principally of coarse brown bread, dates, olives, and 
 water. Even on the heated desert, where the thermometer 
 generally is from 90° to 120°, they are clothed from head 
 to foot, and cover the face up to the eyes with a black or 
 coloured handkerchief. 
 
 The Moors who inhabit large portions of the empire of 
 Marocco, and are spread all along the Mediterranean coast, 
 are a mixed race, grafted upon, the ancient Mauritanian 
 stock; whence their name. After the conquest of Africa 
 by the Arabs they became mixed with Arabs ; end having 
 conquered Spain in their turn, they intermarried with the 
 natives of that country, whence, after a possession of seveD 
 centuries, they were driven back to Mauritania. They 
 are a handsome race, having much more resemblance to 
 Europeans and western Asiatics than to Arabs or Berbers, 
 although their language is Arabic, that is, the Mogrebin 
 dialect, which differs considerably from the Arabic in 
 
 U ' 1 
 
 tah;V
 
 262 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 [ethnology. 
 
 Arabia,~and even in Egypt. They are an intellectual 
 people, and not altogether unlettered; but they are cruel, 
 revengeful, and . blood-thirsty, exhibiting but very few 
 traces of that nobility of mind and delicacy of feeling and 
 taste which graced their ancestors in Spain. The history 
 of the throne of Marocco, of the dynastic revolutions at 
 Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, is written with blood ; and 
 tuneng the pirates who infested the Mediterranean they 
 were tho worst. Their religion is the Mohammedan, Thej 
 to in their diet and simple in their dress, except 
 the richer classes in tho principal towns, where the ladies 
 i lly cover themselves with silk, gold, and jewels, while 
 tho men indulge to excess their love of fine horses and 
 splendid arms. They generally lead a settled life as mer- 
 chants, mechanics, or agriculturists, but there fire also many 
 wandering tribes. They exhibit considerable skill and taste 
 in dyeing, and in the manufacture of swords, saddlery, 
 li athernware, gold and silver ornaments. At the Great 
 Exhibition in London in 1851, the .Moorish department 
 iied several articles which were greatly admired. The 
 Moors along the coast of Marocco still carry on piracy by 
 means of armed boats. 
 
 At two different periods, separated from each other by 
 perhaps a thousand years, Africa was invaded by Arabic 
 tribes, which took a lasting possession of the districts they 
 conquered, and whose descendants form no inconsiderable 
 portion of the population of North and Central Africa, 
 while their language has superseded all others as that of 
 civilisation and religion. Of the first invasion more has 
 been 'said under the head "Abyssinians." The second was 
 that effected by the first successors of Mahomet, who con- 
 quered Egypt, and subsequently the whole north of Africa 
 as far as the shores of the Atlantic, in the course of tho 
 first century of the Hegira, or the seventh of the Christian 
 era. As regards languago, Egypt is now an entirely Arabic 
 country, although in many other respects the Fellahs are 
 totally different from the peasants in Arabia. But there 
 are also several tribes of true Arabic descent scattered 
 about from the high lands of Abyssinia down over Nubia 
 and Egypt, and westward over the central provinces of 
 Kordofan, Darfur, Waday, and Bornu. Others wander in 
 the Libyan deserts and the Great Sahara, as well as in the 
 of Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers, leading a similar lite 
 with the Kabyles, but constituting a totally distinct race. 
 Others, again, dwell in the empire of Marocco, among whom 
 thcae along the shores of the Atlantic are notorious for 
 their predatory habits and ferocious character. In many 
 places Arabic adventurers have succeeded in subduing 
 native tribes of every nationality, over which they rule as 
 sovereign lords ; and on the coast of Zanzibar resides an 
 Arabic royal dynasty. Many of the smaller islands to the 
 north of Madagascar are inhabited by Arabs, and traces 
 of them have been discovered in Madagascar itself. Tho 
 African Arabs are not all alike in features and colour of 
 skin, the differences being attributable to some of them 
 having intermarried with natives, while others preserved 
 the purity of their blood. 
 
 The early settlements of the Jews in Egypt are facts 
 universally known. Under the Ptolemies, large numbers 
 of them settled at Alexandria and in Cyrenaica, and after 
 iction of Jerusalem they rapidly spread over the 
 whole of the Roman possessions in Africa; many also took 
 refuge in Abyssinia. King Philip II. having driven them 
 out of Spain, many thousands of families took refuge on 
 the opposite coast of Africa. They are now numerous in 
 all the larger towns in the north, where they carry on tho 
 occupation of merchants, brokers, &c, the trade with 
 Europe being mostly in their hands. ^They live in a state 
 of great degradation, except in Algiers, where the French 
 restored >h(->n to freedom and independence. They have 
 
 acquired much wealth, and although compelled to hide 
 their riches from the cupidity of their rulers, they lose no 
 opportunity of showing them whenever they can do so 
 without risk of being plundered, fear and vanity being 
 characteristic features of their character. The Jewesses in 
 Marocco and Algiers are of remarkable beauty. 
 
 Ever since the conquest of Egypt by Sultan Selim, and Turku 
 the establishment of Turkish paahalics in Tripoli, Tunis, 
 and Algiers, Turks have settled in the north of Africa; and 
 as they were the rulers of the country, whose numbers were 
 on the increase on account of the incessant arrivals 
 of Turkish soldiers'and officials, the Turkish bccame.and still 
 is, the languageof thediffcrent governments. Properly speak- 
 ing, however, they are not settled, but only encamped in 
 Africa, and hardly deservea place among the African nations. 
 
 Not all the inhabitants of the country called Abyssinia 
 are Abyssinians; nor are the real Abyssinians all of the 
 same origin, being a mixed race, to the formation of which 
 several distinct nations have contributed. The primitive 
 stock is of Ethiopian origin, but, as their language clearly 
 shows, was at an early period mixed with a tribe of tho 
 llimyarites from the opposite coast of Arabia, who, in 
 their turn,* were ethnologically much more closely con- 
 nected with the Hebrews than with the Joctanides, or the 
 Arabs properly speaking. In tho ago of the Egyptian 
 Ptolemies, and after tho destruction of Jerusalem, Jews 
 settled in Abyssinia in such numbers, that not only their 
 religion spread among the inhabitants, but the Hebrew 
 language became mixed with the Abyssinian- as it then 
 was. Hence the surprising analogy between the principal 
 Abyssinian languages, viz., tho Gheez in Tigre, and the 
 Ainharic in Amhara, with the Hebrew. The uninterrupted 
 intercourse with Arabia, and the immigration of several 
 Arabic tribes, also contributed towards the apparently 
 Semitic aspect of the present Abyssinian language. A 
 large portion of Abyssinia having been occupied by Galht 
 and other tribes, we shall here only dwell on the original 
 Abyssinians. They inhabit a large tract, extending from 
 the upper course of tho Blue River, north as far as the Red 
 Sea, and some isolated districts in the south and south-east. 
 To the west of them aro tho Agau Abyssinians, a different 
 tribe, whose idiom, however, is the common language of 
 the lower classes in Tigre and Amhara also. Abyssinia 
 was once a large and powerful kingdom, but the Galla 
 having conquered the whole south of it, it gradually declined 
 until tho king or emperor became a mere shadow, in whoso 
 name several vassal princes exercise an unlimited power 
 each in his own territory. Owing to their jealousy and 
 mutual fears, war seldom ceases among the inhabitants. 
 The Christian religion was introduced into Abyssinia in 
 the first centuries after Christ ; but whatever its condition 
 might have been in former times, it now presents a de- 
 graded mixture of Christian dojmas and rites, Jewish 
 observances, and heathenish superstition. Yet of Judaism, 
 which was once so powerful, but fceblo traces are extant, 
 while the Mohammedan religion is visibly tin th6 increase. 
 European missionaries have been, and still are very active 
 among them, but their efforts have been crowned only 
 with partial success. The Abyssinians, the Gallas being 
 excluded from that denomination, are a fine strong race, 
 of a copper hue, more or less dark, and altogether dif- 
 ferent from the Negroes, with'whom, however, they have 
 frequently been confounded, because they were called a 
 black people. Their noses aro nearly straight, their eyes 
 beautifully clear, yet languishing, and their hair is black 
 and crisp, but not woolly.^ They are on the whole a bar- 
 barous people, addicted to the grossest, sensual pleasures ; 
 and their priests, among whom marriage is customary, are 
 little better than the common herd of the people. They 
 live in huts, a large assemblage ot winch forms a so-called
 
 ETHNOLOGY.] 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 2U3 
 
 town; and although they possess some solid constructions 
 of stone, such as churches and bridges, it appears that these 
 were built by the Portuguese, the ruins at Axum and other 
 places belonging to a much earlier period, when the country 
 undoubtedly enjoyed a higher civilisation than at present. 
 Owing to the influence exercised upon them during the last 
 thirty years by European missionaries and travellers, their 
 conduct towards strangers is less rude than it used to be 
 at the time of Bruce. It is a remarkable fact that, not- 
 withstanding the low state of their religion, the Christians in 
 Abyssinia are not allowed to keep slaves, although they may 
 purchase them for the puqiose of selling them again. 
 
 This extensive race comprehends by fax the greater num- 
 ber of African nations, extending over the whole of Middle 
 and South Africa, except its southernmost projection to : 
 
 wards the Cape of Good Hope. A line drawn from the 
 mouth of the Senegal in the west to Cape Jerdaffun in the 
 «ast, forms its northern limits almost with geometrical 
 accuracy, few Ethiopic tribes being found to the north of 
 it All the members of this race, however, are not Negroes. 
 The latter are only one of its numerous offshoots; but 
 between the receding forehead, the projecting cheek-bones, 
 the thick lips of the Negro of Guinea, and the more straight 
 configuration of the head of a Galla in Abyssinia, there are 
 
 till many striking analogies ; and modern philology hav- 
 
 ng traced still greater analogies, denoting a common origin, 
 among the only apparently disconnected languages of so 
 many thousands of tribes, whose colour presents all the 
 hues between the deepest black and the yellow brown, it is 
 no longer doubtful that the Negro, the Galla, the Somali, 
 and the Kaffre, all belong to the same ethnological stock. 
 
 The principal Negro nations, as. we know them, are the 
 Mandingoes, who are numerous, powerful, and not uncivi- 
 lised, in Senegambia, and farther inland, around the head 
 waters of the Quorra, where they have established a great 
 number of kingdoms and smaller sovereignties. The inland 
 trade is chiefly in their hands. They are black, with a mix- 
 ture of yellow, and their hair is completely. woolly. The 
 
 Wolofs or. Yolofs, whose language is totally different from 
 those of their neighbours, are the handsomest and blackest 
 of all Negroes, although they live at a greater distance from 
 the equator than most of the other black tribes, their prin- 
 cipal dwelling-places being between the Senegal and the 
 Gambia, along the coast of the Atlantic. They are a mild 
 and social people. The Foulahs or FellaUilts occupy the 
 central parts of Soudan, situated in the crescent formed by 
 the course of the Quorra, and also large tracts to the south- 
 east, as far as the equator west to the Senegal, and east till 
 beyond Lake Chad. Their colour, as a rule, is black, inter- 
 mixed, however, with a striking copper hue, some of them 
 being hardly more dark than gipsies. They are one of the 
 most remarkable nations in Africa, very industrious, live in 
 commodious and clean habitations, and are mostly Moham- 
 medans. A distinction was formerly made between the 
 Foulahs of Senegambia and the Fellatahs of Central Africa, 
 but it has since been ascertained that they belong to the same 
 stock, and speak the same language. The hair of the Foulahs 
 is much less woolly than that of other Negroes. Of the prin- 
 cipal nations in Guinea, among whom the true Negro type is 
 particularly distinct, especially around the Bight of Benin, 
 are the Feloops, near the Casamanja, very black, yet hand- 
 some; and the Ashanti, of the Amina race, who surpass 
 all their neighbours in civilisation, and the cast of whose 
 features differs so much from the Negro type that they are 
 said to be more bike Indians than Africans ; although this is 
 perhaps only true of the higher orders. They are still in 
 possession of a powerful kingdom. The country behind the 
 Slave Coast is occupied by tribes akin to the Dahomeh on 
 the coast. In South Guinea we meet three principal races, 
 namely, the Congo, the Abunda, and the Benguela Ne- 
 
 groes, who are divided into a variety of smaller tribes, witll 
 whom we are much less acquainted than with the northern 
 Negroes, although the Portuguese have occupied this coast 
 for upwards of three centuries. The Wamasai and Wak- 
 wavi, possibly of Abyssinian stock, are a remarkable race 
 of wild nomad hunters, who occupy the high plateau which 
 ris^s between the coastland and the Victoria Nyanza, extend- 
 ing from the equator southward to the route which leads 
 from Zanzibar to the Tanganyika Lake. They are the terroi 
 of the more settled inhabitants of the surrounding countries, 
 and occasionally make raids down even to the coastland 
 behind Mombas. The next great branch of the Ethiopic 
 race comprehends the Galla, who occupy an immense tract 
 in Eastern Africa, from Abyssinia as far as the fourth degree 
 of S. latitude, on the coast inward from Mombas. Out 
 knowledge of them is chiefly confined to those Gallas who 
 conquered Abyssinia. AVith regard to their physical con- 
 formation, they stand between the Negro of Guinea and the 
 Arab and Berber. Their countenances are rounder than 
 those of the Arabs, their noses are almost straight, and their 
 hair, though strongly frizzled, is not so woolly as that of the 
 Negro, nor are their lips quite so thick. Their eyes are small 
 (in which they again differ from the Abyssinians), deeply 
 set, but very lively. They are a strong, large, almost bulky 
 people, whose colour varies between black and brownish, 
 some of their women being remarkably fair, considering 
 the race they belong to. An interesting tribe of them has SouiaJi. 
 lately been brought to the knowledge of Europeans, the 
 Somali, originally Arabs, who have advanced from the 
 southern shores of the Gulf of Aden since the 15th century, 
 and now occupy the greater portion of the East African pro- 
 montory wedging into the Galla region, and almost dividing 
 that country into two distinct portions. For the most 
 part they pursue a wandering and pastoral life. 
 
 In the central regions of the continent the negroid Negroid 
 tribes, which are classed under the general name of tnbes - 
 Wanyamwezi, occupying the plateau south of the Vic- 
 toria and east of the Tanganyika Lakes, have been made 
 known by Burton and subsequent travellers ; round the 
 west and north of the Victoria are several distinct king- 
 doms, the chief being those of Karague and Uganda, 
 traversed by Speke and Grant ; in the region west of the 
 Upper Nile the countries of the Jur, Dor, and Bongo 
 tribes have been explored by Dr Schweinfurth, and he has 
 passed beyond the watershed of the Nile into a new basin, 
 where he found the Niamniam and Monbuttu tribes. 
 Dr Livingstone, in his latest journey, has entered the 
 country of the Manyuema tribes, west of Tanganyika, in 
 the heart of the continent; these he describes as a fine, tall 
 handsome race, superior alike to the slaves seen at Zanzibar 
 and the typical negro of the west coast; exceedingly 
 numerous, and living in a primitive condition, utterly igno- 
 rant of the outer world. The Balunda race of Negroes 
 occupy a great area of South Central Africa, and have twe 
 ancient and powerful kingdoms of Muropua and Lunda, the 
 former ruled over by the hereditary " Muata " or chief 
 Hianvo, who has his capital near the Cassabi tributary of the 
 Congo, and the latter by the Hianvo's vassal, the Cazembe, 
 whose palace is near the Luapula river, south-west of Lake 
 Tanganyika. Kibakoe or Quiboque and Lobal, south-west of 
 the kingdom of Hianvo, are the chief states on the borders 
 of Angola and Benguela; towards the Nyassalake, south- 
 east from the Cazembe's dominions, the Maravi tribe is per 
 haps the most powerful, and beyond the Nyassa that of the 
 Wahiao is the chief. The Makololo tribe, occupying the cen- 
 tral portion of the Zambeze basin, is of southern origin, and 
 forms an intermediate stage between the NegKi and Kaffre. 
 
 The Kaffres, who, together with the tribes most akin to. 
 them, occupy the greater portion of South Africa, especially 
 the eastern portions, have some analogy with Europeans in
 
 2G4 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 [ethnology. 
 
 their features ;'but they are woolly haired, and while some 
 are almost black, others are comparatively fair, although 
 Borne of their tribe3 might have been mixed with the East- 
 ern Negroes. They have been very wrongly classed with 
 the Negroes. They are a strong, muscular, active people, 
 addicted to plunder and warfare. The Eastern Kaffres, 
 among whom the Amakosah and Amazulah are best knovnn 
 to us, on account of their frequent invasions of the Cape 
 Colony, are much more savage than the western and north- 
 ern, or the Bechuana and Sichuana tribes. All Kaffres are 
 pastoral, keeping lar e herds of cattle ; but the last-named 
 tribes inhabit large towns, well-built houses, cultivato the 
 ground carefully, and exhibit every appearance of being 
 capable of entire civilisation. Tho word Kaffre, or Kafir, 
 as it ought to be written, is Arabic, and was first applied 
 by the Europeans to tho inhabitants of the coast of Mozam- 
 bique, because they wero so called by the Mohammedans, 
 in whose eyes they were Kafirs, that is infidels. 
 
 We conclude this sketch with the Hottentot race, which 
 is entirely different from all the other races of Africa. 
 Where they originally came from, and how they happened 
 to be hemmed in and confined entirely to this remote corner 
 of the earth, is a problem not likely to be ever satisfactorily 
 6olved. The only people to whom the Hottentot has been 
 thought to bear a resemblance, are the Chinese or Malays, 
 or their original stock tho Mongols. Like these people 
 they have the broad forehead, the high cheek-bones, the 
 oblique eye, the thin beard, and the dull yellow tint of 
 complexion, resembling tho colour of a dried tobacco leaf ; 
 but there is a difference with regard to the hair, which 
 grows in small tufts, harsh, and rather wiry, covering tho 
 acalp somewhat like the hard pellets of a shoe-brush. The 
 women, too, have a peculiarity in their physical conforma- 
 tion, which, though occasionally to bo met with in other 
 nations, is not universal, as among the Hottentots. Their 
 constitutional "bustles" sometimes grow to three times the 
 size of those artificial stuffings with which our fashionable 
 ladies have disfigured themselves. Even the females of the 
 diminutive Bosjesmen Hottentots, who frequently perish of 
 hunger in the barren mountains, and are reduced to skele- 
 tons, have the same protuberances as the Hottentots of the 
 plains. It is - not known even whence the name of Hotter- 
 tot proceeds, as it is none of their own. It has been con- 
 jectured that hot and tot frequently occurring in their singu- 
 lar language, in which the monosyllables are enunciated 
 with a palatic clacking with the tongue, like that of a hen, 
 may have given rise to the name, and that the early Dutch 
 settlers named them hot-en-tot. Tin y call themselves qui- 
 qua:, pronounced with a clack. They are a lively, cheerful, 
 good-humoured people, and by no means wanting in intel- 
 lect; but they have met with nothing but harsh treatment 
 since their first connection with Europeans. Neither Bar- 
 tholomew Diaz, who first discovered, d 11 Vasco de Gama, 
 who first doubled, the Cape of Good Hope, nor any of the 
 subsequent Portuguese navigators, down to 1509, had much 
 communication with the natives of this southern angle of 
 Africa; but in the year above mentioned, Francisco d'Al- 
 meyda, viceroy of India, having landed on his return at 
 Saldanha (row Table) Bay, was killed, with about twenty 
 of his people, in a scuffle with the natives. To avenge his 
 death, a Portuguese captain, about three years afterwards, 
 is said to have landed a piece of ordnance loaded with grape 
 Bhot, as a pretended present to the Hottentots. Two ropes 
 were attached to this fatal engine ; the Hottentots poured 
 down in swarms. Men, women, and children flocked round 
 the deadly machine, as the Trojans did round the wooden 
 horse, " funemque manu contingsre gaudertt." The brutal 
 Portuguese fired off the piece, and viewed with savage 
 delight the mangled carcasses of the deluded people. The 
 Dutch effected their ruin by gratifying their propensity for 
 
 brandy and tobacco, at the expense of their herds of cattle, 
 on which they subsisted. Under the British sway they have 
 received protection, and shown themselves not unworthy of it 
 They now possess property, and enjoy it in security. One of 
 the most beautiful villages, and the neatest and best-cultivated 
 gardens, belong to a large community of Hottentots, under 
 the instruction and guidance of a few Moravian missionaries. 
 
 These forlorn people are of Hottentot origin. Of them 
 also several tribes have been discovered much farther north, 
 and intelligence has lately reached Europe, that between 
 the Portuguese possessions, in the very centre of South Africa, 
 there is a nation of dwarfish appearance who possess large 
 herds, and who seem to belong to the original Bushmen stock. 
 
 The island of Madagascar is inhabited by a race of Malay 
 origin, exhibiting traces of Negro and Arabic mixture. 
 
 The area and population of Africa and its divisions are 
 thus estimated : — 1 
 
 North Africa, . . . 
 
 Morocco 
 
 Algeria, 
 
 Tunis, 
 
 Tripoli, with Barca and 
 
 Fezzan 
 
 Egyptian territory, . 
 Sahara, 
 
 The Mohammedan States ) 
 of Central Soudan, . ( 
 
 Western Soudan, from \ 
 the Senegal to the Lower ( 
 Niger, including Upper i 
 Guinea, and . . . . ) 
 
 French Senegamliia, . . 
 
 Liberia, 
 
 Dahomeh, 
 
 British possessions, . . 
 
 Portuguese possessions, . 
 
 East Africa, 
 
 A ii. 
 
 SOUTH Africa, .... 
 
 Portuguese j F.ast coast, 
 
 territory, ( West coast, 
 
 Cape Colony 
 
 Natal 
 
 Orange K. Free State, . 
 Transv i .1 Republic, . . 
 
 Equatorial Regions, . . 
 
 Islands in the Atlantic 
 
 Ocean, 
 
 C. Verd Islands, . . . 
 St Thomas and Principe, 
 Fernando l'u & Aiiuobou, 
 
 'Ascension 
 
 St Helena 
 
 Tristan da Cunha, • . 
 
 Islands in the I ndi an Ocean, 
 
 Socotra, 
 
 Abd-el-Kuri, .... 
 
 Zanzibar, 
 
 Madagascar 
 
 Comoro Islands (with 1 
 
 Mayotta), ... J 
 The Arco Islands, &C, . 
 
 Reunion, 
 
 Mauritius and its de- 1 
 
 pendencies, ... J 
 
 Desert of Kalahari and 
 the Great Inland 
 Lakes 
 
 A* RICA, . . 
 
 Area In Encllsb 
 6quurc links. 
 
 4, 003, GOO 
 
 259,600 
 
 253,300 
 
 45,700 
 
 344,400 
 
 659,100 
 2,436,500 
 
 631,000 
 
 818,000 
 
 96,530 
 
 9,580 
 
 3,880 
 
 17,100 
 
 35,880 
 
 1,595,000 
 168, 400 
 
 1,966,000 
 382,000 
 312,500 
 221,310 
 17,800 
 42,500 
 114,360 
 
 1,522,200 
 
 2,720 
 
 1,850 
 
 454 
 
 488 
 
 38 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 233,870 
 
 1,700 
 
 64 
 
 616 
 
 228,575 
 
 1,062 
 
 150 
 970 
 
 708 
 
 783,600 
 
 Population. 
 
 20,420,000 
 2,750,000 
 2,921,146 
 2,000,000 
 
 750,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 4,000,000 
 
 38,800,000 
 
 38,500,000 
 
 209,162 
 718,100 
 180,000 
 577,313 
 8,500 
 
 29,700,000 
 3,000,000 
 
 16,000,000 
 300,000 
 9,000,000 
 682,600 
 269,302 
 87,000 
 120,000 
 
 43,000,000 
 99,145 
 
 Average 
 Dcnsliy. 
 No. to a 
 sq. mUe. 
 
 67,347 
 
 42 
 
 19,295 
 
 42 
 
 6,590 
 
 11 
 
 400 
 
 10 
 
 6,860 
 
 145 
 
 53 
 
 1 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 25 
 
 3,000 
 
 2 
 
 100 
 
 2 
 
 380,000 
 
 616 
 
 6,C00,000 
 
 2? 
 
 64,600 
 
 Oi 
 
 209,737 
 
 216 
 
 322,924 
 
 450 
 
 11,556,600 192,520,000 16 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 11 
 43 
 
 12 
 1 -to- 
 
 ol 
 
 47 
 
 ■ 2 
 72 
 
 47 
 34 
 2 
 
 18 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 29 
 
 3 
 15 
 
 0-8 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 37 
 
 1 Compiled from the Tables in Behm and Waguer's JJevulktruTiij dm 
 Erdt. Ootlia, 1872.
 
 STATES.] 
 
 A FR1CA 
 
 2B5 
 
 In the central forest regions of Africa, wherever com- 
 munications with the coast-land have been opened up, 
 hunting the elephant for its tuska to barter with the traders 
 appears to be the characteristic occupation, if any, beyond 
 that of mere attention to the daily wants of life, is engaged 
 in; and here the population may be considered as a settled 
 one, living in villages in the more open spaces of the woods. 
 A rudely agricultural state seems to mark the outer belt of 
 negro land on each side of the equatorial zone, where the 
 population is also more or less stationary. The arid regions 
 of the Sahara and the Kalahari beyond have, on the other 
 hand, a thinly scattered nomadic population, though here 
 also the fertile wadys form lines of more permanent habita- 
 tion, and contain permanent towns and villages. Except- 
 ing in the immediate neighbourhood of the Mediterranean 
 in Abyssinia, on a narrow margin of the coasts of the 
 Atlantic and the Indian Ocean, and in those parts which 
 have been colonised by Europeans, or which came directly 
 under their influence, society has remained in a barbarian 
 state, and there remain great areas the inhabitants of which 
 have as yet no knowledge of the outer world. 
 
 Agriculture is conducted with little art. The natural 
 fertility of the soil in the well-watered districts supersedes 
 the need of skill, while the production of the simplest 
 manufactures is alone requisite, where the range of personal 
 •wants embraces few objects, and those of the humblest class. 
 
 Wars, cruel and incessant, waged not for the sake of 
 territory, but for the capture of slaves, form one of the 
 most marked and deplorable features in the social condition 
 of the African races. This practice, though not of foreign 
 introduction, has been largely promoted by the cupidity of 
 the Europeans and Transatlantic nations; and, unhappily, 
 the efforts of private philanthropy, and the political 
 arrangements of various governments, have not yet availed 
 to terminate the hideous traffic in mankind, or abate the 
 suffering entailed upon its victims. 
 
 In Religion, Christianity is professed in Abyssinia, and 
 in Egypt by the Copts, but its doctrines and precepts are 
 little understood and obeyed. Mohammedanism prevails in 
 all Northern Africa, excepting Abyssinia, as far as a line 
 passing through the Soudan, from the Gambia on the west 
 to the confluence of the Quorra and Benue, and thence 
 eastward, generally following the 10th parallel of N. lat. 
 to the Nile below the junction of the Ghazal; thence south- 
 east, leaving the coast-land in the Mohammedan region, to 
 Cape Delgado. In Marocco, Algeria, and Egypt, there 
 is an admixture of Jews. Heathen Negroes aud Caffre 
 tribes extend southward over the continent from the line 
 described above to the colonies in the southern extremity 
 of the continent; and over this vast area the native mind 
 is surrendered to superstitions of infinite number and 
 character. In the Cape Colony Protestantism again pre- 
 vails, but with a strong intermixture of heathenism. The 
 labours of Christian missionaries have, however, done much, 
 especially in South Africa, towards turning the benighted 
 Africans from idols to the living God. 
 
 In describing the political divisions of Africa, we shall 
 proceed from north to south. 
 
 The country included under the general name of Barbary 
 extends from the borders of Egypt on the east to the 
 Atlantic on the we3t, and is .bounded by the Mediterranean 
 on the north, and by the Sahara on the south. It com- 
 prises the states of Marocco, Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli 
 
 Marocco, the most westerly state of Barbary, is thus 
 named by the Europeans, but by the Arabs themselves 
 Mogr'-eb-el-Aksa, or "the extreme west." The eastern 
 boundary was determined in the treaty with the French of 
 18th March 1845, by a line which, in the south, com- 
 mences east of the oasis Figueg, intersecting the desert of 
 Angad, and reaching the Mediterranean at a point about 
 
 1—10* 
 
 30 miles west of the French pqrt Nemours. In the south 
 Marocco embraces the oasis of Tuat and the Wady Draa. 
 The power of the government of Marocco, which is despotic 
 and cruel, as well as the population of the country, appear 
 to have diminished greatly. Two-thirds of the country aro 
 independent of the Sultan's authority, and are held by 
 mountain chiefs who defy his power. The trade of the coast 
 is maintained by European merchants. See Marocco. 
 
 Algeria extends from Marocco in the west, to Tunis in 
 the east, and closely answers in its limits to the ancieDt 
 kingdom of Numidia. The southern boundaries are not 
 very definite, falling, as they do, within the boundless 
 plains of the desert. See Algiers. 
 
 Tunis is the smallest of the Barbary states. The con- 
 figuration of the surface is similar to that of Algeria, in 
 three divisions, the " Tell," or fertile, coast slopes, the 
 steppes on the high lands, and the low-lying Sahara beyond. 
 The highest peaks range between 4000 and 5000 feet. 
 The southern plains comprise the land of dates (Belad- 
 el-Jerid), and several extensive salt lakes. Tunis possesses 
 but few rivers and streams, and springs are plentiful only 
 in the mountainous regions. 
 
 The climate is, upon the whole, salubrious, and is not of 
 the same excessive character as that of Algeria; regular 
 sea-breezes exercise an ameliorating influence both in sum- 
 mer and winter; frost is almost unknown, and snow never 
 falls. During summer occasional winds from the south 
 render the atmosphere exceedingly dry and hot. 
 
 The natural productions of the countiy are somewhat 
 similar to those of the other Barbary states, but dates of 
 the finest quality are more largely produced. The horses 
 and dromedaries are of excellent breed, and the former are 
 eagerly sought for the French army in Algeria, Bees are 
 reared in great quantity, and coral fisheries are carried on. 
 Of minerals lead, salt, and saltpetre are the most noticeable. 
 
 The population consists chiefly of Mohammedan Moors 
 and Arabs'; the number of Jews is estimated at 45,000, 
 and of Roman Catholics 25,000. The former have attained 
 a higher degree of industry and civilisation than their 
 brethren elsewhere; those of the latter who inhabit the 
 central mountainous t ons are nearly independent. 
 
 The government L vested in a hereditary bey, and has 
 been, conducted in peace and security for a number of 
 years. From the year 1575 onwards, Tunis has been under 
 the rule of Turkey; but by a firman of October 1871 the 
 Sultan renounced the ancient tribute. The bey, who is 
 styled "Possessor of the kingdom of Tunis," is confirmed 
 in his position at Constantinople, and may neither enter 
 into a war, nor conclude a treaty of peace, nor cede any part 
 of his territory without the sanction of the Sultan. The 
 Tunisian coinage bears the name of the Sultan, and the 
 troops (3900 infantry and artillery, and 100 cavalry, form 
 the regular army) are at the disposal of the Sublime Porte 
 in time of war. In the interior of the country the bey has 
 absolute power. The slave trade was abolished in 1842. 
 
 The commerce of Tunis is considerable, but agriculture 
 is in a backward state. The exports consist chiefly of 
 wool, olive-oil, wax, honey, hides, dates, grain, coral, <tc. 
 
 The principal town is Tunis, situated on a shallow lake 
 on the north coast. It is the 'most important commercial 
 place on the southern shores of the Mediterranean after 
 Alexandria, and has a population of about 125,000. The 
 site of the ancient Carthage is 13 miles from Tunis in the 
 direction of Cape Bon. 
 
 Tripoli, a regency of the Turkish empire, extends rrom 
 Tunis along the shores of the Mediterranean to the table, 
 land of Barca, which forms a separate province. Politically, 
 it includes the pashalic of Fezzan, a count™ which, in » 
 physical point of view, belongs to the Sahara. 
 
 Tripoli is the least favoured by nature of the Barbary
 
 260 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 [9TATF*. 
 
 states, possessing a groat extent of sterile surface. Mr 
 Richardson graphically describes the physiognomy of the 
 country between the towns of Tripoli and Mumik in eight 
 zone*: — L The plain along the sea-shore, with the date- 
 palm plantations and the sandhills; 2. The Gharian moun- 
 tains, with their olive and fig plantations, more favoured 
 with rains than the other regions; 3. The limestone hills 
 and broad valleys between the town of Kalnbah and 
 Ghareeah, gradually assuming the aridity of the Sahara as 
 yo proceed southward ; 4. The Hamadah, an immense desert 
 plateau, separating Tripoli from Fezzan; 5. The sandy 
 valleys and limestone rocks between El-Hessi and Es-Shaty, 
 where herbage and trees are found; G. The sand be 
 Shiaty and El-Wady, piled in masses or heaps, and extend- 
 ing in undulating plains; 7. The sandy valleys of El-Wady, 
 covered with forests of date-palms; 8. The plateau of 
 Murzuk, consisting of shallow valleys, ridges of low sand- 
 stone hills, and naked plains. These zones extend parallel 
 with the Mediterranean shores through the greater portion 
 of the ountry. A summit of the Jebel-es-Soda, or Black 
 Mountains, midway between Tripoli and Murzuk, almost 
 2800 feet high, is supposed to be the culminating point of 
 the regency. Rivers exist only periodically, and springs 
 are exceedingly scarce. 
 
 Tho climate is somewhat more subject to extremes than 
 that of Tunis, especially in the interior, where burning heat 
 is followed by excessive cold. As far south as Sokna 
 snow occasionally falls. The climate of Murzuk is very 
 unhealthy, and frequently fatal to Europeans. 
 
 The natural products are very much like those of Tunis. 
 Oxen and horses are small, but of good quality; the mules 
 are of excellent breed. Locusts and scorpions are among 
 the most noxious animals. Salt and sulphur are the chief 
 minerals. 
 
 The population is very thin. Arabs are the prominent 
 race, besides which are Turks, Berbers, Jews, Tibbus, and 
 Negroes. The country is governed by a pasha, subject to 
 the Ottoman empire. The military force by which the 
 Turks hold possession of this vast but thinly-peopled terri- 
 tory amounts to 4500 men. 
 
 The commerce is not inconsiderable, and the inhabitants 
 of Tripoli trade with almost every part of the Sahara, as 
 well as the Soudan. At Murzuk there is a large annual 
 market, which lasts from October to January. The ex- 
 ports of Tripoli are wheat, wax, ivory, ostrich feathers, 
 madder, esparto grass, cattle, salt, and dates. 
 
 Tripoli is the capital of the regency, and the largest 
 town; it lies on the Mediterranean, surrounded by a fertile 
 plain ; the number of inhabitants is about 30,000. Murzuk, 
 the capital of Fezzan, has a mixed population of about 
 11,000 souls. The town of Ghadamis has about 7000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 In 1809 the maritime plateau of Barca and the depressed 
 region inland from it, which contains the oases of Aujila 
 and Jalo, was formed into a separate government, depend- 
 ent directly upon Constantinople. This country is the 
 seat of the ancient Greek Pentapolu, of Bernice, Arsince, 
 Barc3, Apollonia, and Gyrene. Bengazi, the only place of 
 importance, occupies the site of the first of these on the 
 Mediterranean, and has from 6000 to 7000 inhabitants. 
 
 Egypt occupies the north-eastern corner of Africa, and 
 is remarkable for its ancient and sacred associations, and 
 its wonderful monuments of human art. 
 
 Egypt is a vast desert, the fertile portions susceptible of 
 cultivation being confined to the Delta of the Nile and its 
 narrow valley, a region celebrated in the most ancient historic 
 documents for its singular fertility, and still pouring an 
 annual surplus of grain into the markets of Europe. By the 
 annual inundation of the Nile this region is laid under water, 
 and upon its retirement the grain crop3 are sown in the layer 
 
 of mud left behind it Barren ranges of hills and elevated 
 tracts occupy the land on both sides of the Nile, which i* 
 the only river of the country. The amount of its rise is a 
 matter of extreme solicitude to the people, for should it pass 
 its customary bounds a few feet, cattle are drowned, houses 
 are swept away, and immense injury ensues; a falling short 
 of the ordinary height, on the other hand, causes dearth 
 and famine, according to its extent. The water of tho 
 Nile is renowned for ira agreeable teste and wholesome 
 quality. In connection with tho Nile is tho Birket-el- 
 Kcrun, a salt lake. 
 
 1 lie climate is very hot and dry. Rain fails but seldom 
 along the coasts, but tho dews are very copious. The hot 
 and oppressive winds, called khamsin and simooms, are a, 
 frequent scourge to the country; but the climate is, upon 
 the whole, more salubrious than that of many other tropical 
 countries. 
 
 The natural products are not of great variety. Tho wild 
 plants are but few and scanty, while those cultivated include 
 all the more important kinds adapted to tropical countries; 
 rice, wheat, sugar, cotton, indigo, are cultivated for export; 
 dates, figs, pomegranates, lemons, and olives, are likewise 
 grown. The doum-palm, which appears in Upper Egypt, 
 is characteristic, as also tho papyrus. The fauna is cha- 
 racterised by an immense number of waterfowl, flamingoes, 
 pelicans, &c. The hippopotamus and crocodile, the two 
 primeval inhal litauts of the Nile, seem to be banished from 
 the Delta, the latter being still seen in Upper Egypt. The 
 cattle are of excellent breed Large beasts of prey are 
 wanting; but the ichneumon of tho ancients still exists. 
 Bees, silkworms, and corals are noticeable. Minerals are 
 scarce, natron, salt, and sulphur being the principal. 
 
 The native Egyptians of Arab descent compose tho great 
 bulk of the people, the peasant and labouring class, and 
 are teemed Fellahs. -Next in number, though compara- 
 tively few (145,000), are the Copts, descended from the 
 old inhabitants of the country, the ancient Egyptians, but 
 far from being an unmixed race. The Arabic Bedouin 
 tribes, Negroes, European Christians (Greeks, Italians, 
 French, Austrian, English), the Jews, and the dominant 
 Turks, compose the remainder of the population. 
 
 Egypt is formally a Turkish pashalic, but the hereditary 
 pasha, by whom the government is conducted, and whose 
 authority is absolute, is practically an independent prince. 
 The government of Nubia and Kordofan is also conducted 
 by the Pasha of Egypt, and recently the whole of the Nile 
 valley, as far south as the equator, has been annexed by 
 the Egyptian government. An army of about 14,000 men 
 is maintained 
 
 The agriculture of Egypt has always been considerable, 
 there being three harvests in the year. The industry is 
 limited: one peculiar branch is the artificial hatching of 
 eggs in ovens heated to the requisite temperature, a pro- 
 cess which has been handed down from antiquity, and is 
 now chiefly carried on by the Copts. Floating bee-hives 
 are also peculiar to the Nile. The commerce is extensive 
 and important: tho exports to Europe consist chiefly of 
 cotton, flax, indigo, gum-arabic, ostrich feathers, ivory, 
 senna, and gold. The country forms part of the great 
 highway of traffic between Europe and Southern Asia. 
 Railways, from the ports of Alexandria and Damictta in 
 the Mediterranean, and from Suez on the Red Sea, unite 
 at Cairo; and a railway now extends thence up the bank 
 of the Nile to near the first cataract of the river at Assouan, 
 in lab 24° N. 
 
 The Suez canal, uniting the Red Sea and the Medi- 
 terranean, was begun in April 1859, and was opened for 
 traffic ten years later, in November 1869. The cutting; 
 runs from the artificial harbour of Port Said on the Medi- 
 terranean, through the shallow lagoon of Menzaleh, and
 
 STATES.] 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 267 
 
 through two 6maller lakes with low sandhills between; 
 nearer Suez a depressed area, in which several salt lake3 
 formerly existed, has been filled up by water let in by 
 the canal, and now forms a wide expanse of water. In 
 length the canal is nearly 100 miles, and has a depth 
 throughout of 26 feet, with a general width of 200 to 300 
 feet at the top of the banks and 72 feet at the bottom. 
 Vessels are able to steam or be towed through the canal in 
 sixteen hours from sea to sea. Extensive harbours and 
 docks have been constructed both on the Mediterranean side 
 and at Suez. The number of vessels which entered Port 
 Said in 1871 was 1215, of 928,000 tons, exclusive of 
 87 war-ships. 
 
 Egypt proper is divided into three sub-pashalics — Bahari 
 orLower Egypt, Vostani or Middle Egypt, and Said or Upper 
 Egypt. Cairo, on the east bank of the Kile, is the capital 
 of Egypt, and is the largest town of Africa, containing 
 354,000 inhabitants : it has 400 mosques, and upwards of 
 130 minarets, some of them of rich and graceful architec- 
 ture, presenting at a distance an appearance singularly 
 imposing. Alexandria, on the coast, is the emporium of 
 the commerce with Europe, and has 220,000 inhabitants, 
 among whom are 54,000 Europeans. Damietta has a 
 population of 37,100; Rosetta of 18,300. Suez, on the 
 northern extremity of the Bed Sea, is a small, ill-built 
 town, but has assumed importance as a good port since 
 the establishment of the overland route to India and the 
 completion of the maritime canaL It has now nearly 
 1 4,000 inhabitants, of whom about 2500 are Europeans. 
 Port Said has 8800 inhabitants, of whom one-half are 
 foreigners. 
 
 Is ubia extends along the Red Sea, from Egypt to Abys- 
 sinia, comprising the middle course of the Nile. 
 
 The natural features of the country are varied; the 
 northern portion consisting of a burning sterile wilderness, 
 while the southern, lying within the range of the tropical 
 rains, and watered by the Abyssinian affluents of the Nile, 
 exhibits vegetation in its tropical glory, forests of arborescent 
 grasses, timber-trees, and parasitical plants largely clothing 
 the country. This latter territory, which may be called 
 Upper Nubia, includes the region of ancient Merc;, situated 
 in the peninsula formed by the Nile proper, the Blue Biver, 
 and the Atbara, and comprises, further south, the recently 
 extinguished modern kingdom of Sennaar. 
 
 Nubia forms the link between the plain of Egypt and 
 the high table-lands of Abyssinia; its general physical 
 character is that of a slightly ascending region. The 
 lowest parts in Upper Nubia scarcely exceed an altitude of 
 1300 feet; Khartum, at the confluence of the Blue and 
 White Bivers, being 1345 feet above the level of the sea. 
 A chain of mountains and elevated land rises abruptly 
 along the shores of the Bed Sea, gradually sloping down 
 to the valley of the Nile; the intermediate region being 
 intersected by smaller ranges, groups of hills, and numerous 
 wadys filled with sand. The spurs of the Abyssinian 
 table-land, extending within the southern confines of 
 Nubia, reach a height of 3000 feet. Besides the Nile, the 
 country is watered by two other large rivers, its tributaries, 
 the Bhar-el-Azrek or Blue River, and the Atbara or 
 Takkazze, both being much alike in magnitude, and having 
 their head-streams in the Abyssinian table-land. 
 
 The climate of Nubia is tropical throughout, and the 
 heat in the deserts of its central portions is not exceeded 
 by that of any other part of the globe. The southern half 
 of the country is within the influence of the tropical rains, 
 the northern partakes the character of the almost rainless 
 Sahara ; and while the latter is generally very salubrious, 
 the f onner is a land of dangerous fevers, particularly in the 
 plains subject to inundations. Such is the Kolla, a marshy 
 and swampy region of great extent, situated along the foot 
 
 of the Abyssinian Mountains, between the Blue River and 
 the Takkazze. 
 
 The northern region is poor in natural productions, but 
 in the south the vegetation is most luxuriant ; palms form 
 a prominent feature, and the monkey bread-tree attains its 
 most colossal dimensions. The date- tree, dourra, cotton, 
 and indigo are cultivated. The date-palm does xot ex- 
 tend beyond the south of Abou-Egli, in lat 18° 36'. 
 
 The elephant occasionally wanders as far as Sennaar; 
 the rhinoceros, lion, giraffe, and buffalo are more common. 
 The waters are inhabited by crocodiles more ferocipus thaa 
 those of Egypt, and by huge hippopotami. The young 
 hippopotamus brought to the Zoological Gardens* of London 
 in 1850, was captured in Nubia, in an island of the Nile, 
 about 1800 miles above Cairo: no living specimen had 
 been seen in Europe since the period when they were 
 exhibited by the third Gordian in the Colosseum at Borne. 
 Monkeys and antelopes are found in great numbers. The 
 camel does not extend beyond the twelfth degree of latitude 
 to the south. Ostriches roam over the deserts ; and among 
 the reptiles, besides the crocodile, are large serpents of the 
 python species, and tortoises. Of the numerous insects 
 the most remarkable is the scarabaeus of the ancient Egyp- 
 tians, still found in Sennaar. Of minorala Nubia possesses 
 gold, silver, copper, iron, salt 
 
 In the inhabitants two principal varieties are recognised, 
 the pure original population, and their descendants, mixed 
 with other nations. The Berberines inhabit the northern 
 part, and the Bisharis the desert regions-, the latter are the 
 genuine Nubians, finely moulded and dark complexioued, 
 supposed by some to agree more closely with the ancient 
 Egyptians than the Copts, usually deemed their represen- 
 tatives. In the south-eastern part the true Negro element 
 appears. 
 
 Nubia, now a province under the pashalic of Egypt, con- 
 sisted formerly of a number of small and independent king- 
 doms. The Turkish conquest lasted from 1813 to 1822; 
 in the latter years it was invaded and mercilessly ravaged 
 by the army of Mahomet Ali, under his second son Ismayl, 
 whose dreadful atrocities entailed a fearful fate upon him- 
 self, having been surprised when attending a nocturnal 
 banquet, at some distance from his camp, and burned to 
 death. 
 
 The country is favourable for agriculture, which, how- 
 ever, is only carried on to a limited extent, by the women. 
 Cattle are abundant, and the camels of the Bisharin and 
 Ababde are famous for their enduring powers. Salt is 
 largely exported from the shores of the Bed Sea to India, 
 and ivory, with other products of tropical Africa, forms a 
 principal article of trade. 
 
 Khartum, the capital of Nubia, the headquarters of the 
 Egyptian government, and the chief seat of commerce, con- 
 tains a population variously estimated at from 20,000 to 
 50,000. It is a modern town, having been founded in 1821,' 
 and lies in a dry, flat, and unhealthy country, near the 
 confluence of the two main branches of the Nile. It is in 
 telegraphic communication with Cairo. 
 
 Kordofan, on the western side of Nubia, lies between the 
 parallels of 12° and 16°, and between the meridians 29° 
 and 32°, containing about 30,000 square miles. It is a flat 
 country, interspersed with a few hills, presenting in the dry 
 season a desert with little appearance of vegetation, and in 
 the rainy season a prairie, covered with luxuriant grass and 
 other plants. The general elevation of the country is 2000 
 feet, and some of the hills attain a height of 3000. Tha 
 altitude of El Obeid is 2150 feet. There are no permanent 
 rivers in the country, and the natural products are similar 
 to those of the adjoining regions of Nubia. 
 
 The population consists of Negroes. This country was, 
 simultaneously with Nubia, made tributary to Egypt The
 
 268 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 (.STATUS. 
 
 commerce consists of gum-arabic, ivory, and gold, and is not 
 inconsiderable. El Obeid, the chief town, is composed of 
 several villages of mud-built houses, thatched with straw, 
 containing about 12,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The boundaries of Abyssinia are somewhat uncertain ; 
 but confining it to the provinces actually under the govern- 
 ment of Christian or Mohammedan prinoes, it may be dc- 
 icribed as extending from about 9° to 16° N. lat., and from 
 35° to 40° E. long. See Abyssinia. 
 
 Tire Saharan countries extend from tho Atlantic in the 
 west, to the Nilotic countries in the east, from the Barbary 
 States in the north, to the basins of the Rivers Senegal and 
 Kawara, and Lake Chad in the south. The area of this 
 large space amounts to at least 2,000,000 square miles, or 
 upwards of one-half of that of the whole of Europe. It is 
 very scantily populated, but from our present defective 
 knowledge of that region, the number of its inhabitants 
 can be but roughly estimated. 
 
 The physical configuration of the Sahara has already been 
 indicated. Notwithstanding the proverbial heat, which is 
 almost insupportable by day, there is often great cold at 
 night, owing to the excessive radiation, promoted by the 
 clearness of the sky. Rain is nearly, though not eutirely 
 absent, in this desolate region. It appears that when nature 
 has poured her bounty over the adjoining regions in tho 
 south, and has little more left to bestow, she sends a few 
 smart showers of rain to the desert, parched by the long 
 prevalence of the perpendicular rays of the sun. The prevail- 
 ing winds blow during three months from the west, and 
 nine months from the east When the wind increases, into 
 a storm, it frequently raises the loose sand in such quantities 
 that a layer of nearly equal portions of sand and air, and ris- 
 ing about 20 feet above the surface of the ground, divides 
 the purer atmosphere from the solid earth. This sand, when 
 agitated by whirlwinds, sometimes overwhelms caravans 
 ■with destruction, and, even when not iatal, involves them 
 in the greatest confusion and danger. 
 
 The natural products correspond with the physical fea- 
 tures of the country. Vegetation and animal life exist 
 only sparingly in the oases or valleys where springs occur, 
 and where the soil is not utterly unfit to nourish certain 
 plants. Amongst the few trees tho most important is the 
 date-palm, which is peculiarly suited to the dryness of the 
 climate. This useful tree flourishes best in the eastern 
 part of the desert, inhabited by the Tibbus. The' °doum- 
 palm is likewise a native of the same part, and seems 
 entirely absent in the western Sahara; its northernmost 
 limit is on the southern borders of Fezzan and Tegerry, in 
 lat. 24° N. Acacias are found in the extreme west towards 
 Senegambia, furnishing the so-called gum-arabic. In many 
 parts of the desert a thorny evergreen plant occurs, about 
 18 inches high. It is eagerly eaten by the camels, and is 
 almost the only plant which supplies them with food while 
 thus traversing the desert. Tho cultivation of grains to a 
 small extent is limited to the western oases of Tuat and 
 others, a little barley, rice, and beans, being there grown. 
 In the kingdom of Air there are some fields of maize 
 and other grains ; but upon the whole, the population 
 depend for these products on Soudan and other regions. 
 There are but a few specimens of wild animals in these 
 wildernesses ; lions and panthers are found only on its bor- 
 ders. Gazelles and antelopes are abundant, hares and foxes 
 but scarce. Ostriches are very numerous, and vultures and 
 ravens are also met with. In approaching Soudan, animal 
 and vegetable life becomes more varied and abundant Of 
 reptiles, only the smaller kinds are found, mostly harmless 
 lizards and a few species of snakes. Of domestic animals, 
 the most important is the camel, but horses and goats are 
 not wanting, and in the country of tho Tuaricks an excel- 
 lent breed of sheep is found, while in that of the Tibbus a 
 
 large and fine variety of the ass is valuable to the inhabitants. 
 Of minerals, salt is the chief production, which occurs chiefly 
 near Bilma. 
 
 The habitable portions of the Sahara are possessed by 
 three different nations. In the extreme western portion 
 are Moors and Arabs. They live in tents, which they re- 
 move from one place to another ; and their residences con- 
 sist of similar encampments, formed of from twenty to a 
 hundred of such tents, where they are governed by a sheik 
 of their own body; each encampment constituting, as it 
 were, a particular tribe. They are a daring set of people, 
 and not restrained by any scruple in plundering, ill-treating, 
 and even killing persons who are not of their own faith ; 
 but to such as are, thoy are hospitable and benevolent. 
 The boldest of these children of tho desert are the Tuaricks, 
 who occupy the middle of the wilderness, where it is widest 
 The form of their bodies, and their language, prove that 
 they belong to tho aboriginal inhabitants of Northern Africa, 
 who are known by the name of Berbers. They are a fin« 
 race of men, tall, straight, and handsome, with an air ol 
 independence which is very imposing. They live chiefly 
 upon the tribute they exact from all caravans traversing 
 their country. They render themselves formidable to all 
 their neighbours, with whom they are nearly always in a 
 state of enmity, making predatory incursions into the 
 neighbouring countries. The third division of Saharan 
 people are the Tibbus, who inhabit the eastern portion, 
 comprising one of the best parts of the desert. In some 
 of their features they resemble the Negroes. They are an 
 agricultural and pastoral nation, live mostly in fixed abodes, 
 and are in this respect greatly different from their western 
 neighbours. Their country is as yet little explored by 
 Europeans. The Tibbus are in part Pagans, while the 
 other inhabitants of the Sahara are Mohammedans. 
 
 The commerce of the Sahara consists chiefly of gold, 
 ostrich feathers, slaves, ivory, iron, and salt, exchanged for 
 manufactured goods, and transported across tho desert by 
 great caravans, which follow line3 uniting the greater cities 
 and oases of the southern and northern borders. 
 
 Western Africa comprehends the west coast of Africa, 
 from the borders of the Sahara, in about lat. 17° N. to 
 Nourso River, in about the same latitude south, with a con- 
 siderable space of inland territory, varying in its extent 
 from the shores, and, in fact, completely undefined in its 
 interior limits. 
 
 Senegambia, the country of the Senegal and Gambia, 
 extends from the Sahara in the north to lat 10° in the 
 south, and may be considered as" extending inland to the 
 sources of the waters which flow through it to the Atlantic. 
 
 The western portion is very flat, and its contiguity to the 
 great desert is frequently evidenced by dry hot winds, an 
 atmosphere loaded with fine sand, and clouds of locusts. 
 The eastern portion is occupied with hills and elevated 
 land. Under the 10th parallel the bills approach quitf 
 close to the coast. The country possesses a great numbel 
 of rivers, among which the Senegal, Gambia, and Rio Grand*, 
 are the most important. Senegambia ranges, in point ol 
 heat, with the Sahara and Nubia. The atmosphere is most 
 oppressive in tho rainy season, which lasts from June to 
 November, when an enormous amount of rain drenches the 
 country. The prevailing winds in that period are south-west, 
 whereas in the dry season they are from the east The 
 climate is, upon the whole, most unhealthy, and too gene- 
 rally proves fatal to Europeans. 
 
 The vegetation is most luxuriant and vigorous. The 
 baobab (monkey bread-tree), the most enormous tree on the 
 face of the globe, is eminently characteristic of Senegambia. 
 It attains to no great height, but the circumference of tho 
 trunk is frequently 60 to 75 feet, and has been found to 
 measure 112 feet; its fruit, the monkey bread, is a piinci-
 
 BTATES.] 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 268 
 
 pal article of food with the natives. Bombaceae ^cotton- 
 trees) are likewise numerous, and they are among the loftiest 
 in the world. Acacias, which furnish the gum-arabic, are 
 most abundant, while the shore's are lined with mangrove 
 trees. The flora and fauna are similar to those of Nubia. 
 Gold and iron are the chief metals. 
 
 The inhabitants consist of various Negro nations, the 
 chief of which are the Wolof. 
 
 The gum trade is the most important traffic on the Sene- 
 gal ; bees-wax, ivory, bark, and hides, forming the chief 
 exports from the Gambia. 
 
 Of European settlements are : The French possessions 
 on the Senegal ; the capital of which is St Louis, built 
 about the year 1626, on an island at the mouth of the 
 river. The total population of the settlement amounts to 
 about 210,000. 
 
 The British settlement on the Gambia has about 7000 
 inhabitants. Bathurst is the chief town. 
 
 The Portuguese settlement consists of small factories 
 .outh of the Gambia, at the Bissagos Islands, Bissao, 
 Cacheo, and some other points. 
 
 The west coast of Africa, from Senegambia to the Nourse 
 River, is commonly comprised by the general denomination 
 Guinea Coast, a term of Portuguese origin. 
 
 The coast is generally so very low, as to be visible to navi- 
 gators only within a very short distance, the trees being 
 their only sailing marks. North of the equator, in the 
 Bight of Benin, the coast forms an exception, being high 
 and bold, with the Cameroon Mountains behind ; as also 
 at Sierra Leone, which has received its name (Lion Moun- 
 tain) in consequence. The coast presents a dead level often 
 for thirty to fifty miles inland. It has numerous rivers, 
 some of which extend to the furthest recesses of Inner 
 Africa. 
 
 The climate, notoriously fatal to European life, is ren- 
 dered pestilential by the muddy creeks and inlets, the 
 putrid swamps, and the mangrove jungles that cover the 
 banks of the rivers. There are two seasons in the year, 
 the rainy and the dry season. The former commences in 
 the southern portion in March, but at Sierra Leone and 
 other northern parts, a month later. 
 
 Vegetation is exceedingly luxuriant and varied. One of 
 the most important trees is the Elais guineenns, a species 
 of palm, from the covering of whose seed or nut is ex- 
 tracted the palm-oil, so well known to English commerce 
 and manufacture ; several thousand tons are annually 
 brought into the ports of Liverpool, London, and Bristol. 
 The palm-oil tree is indigenous and abundant from the river 
 Gambia to the Congo; but the oil is manufactured in large 
 quantities chiefly in the country of the Gold and Slave 
 Coasts. The former comprises nearly all the more remark- 
 able of African animals: particularly abundant are elephants, 
 hippopotami, monkeys, lions, leopards, crocodiles, serpents, 
 parrots. The domestic animals are mostly of an inferior 
 quality. The principal minerals are gold' and iron. The 
 population consists, besides a few European colonists, of a 
 vast variety of Negro nations, similar in their physical 
 qualities and prevailing customs, but differing considerably 
 in their dispositions and morals. 
 
 The chief articles of commerce are palm-oil, ivory, gold, 
 wax, various kinds of timber, spices, gums, and rice. 
 
 The divisions of Northern or Upper Guinea are mostly 
 founded on the productions characteristic of the different 
 parts, and are still popularly retained. 
 _ The British colony of Sierra Leone extends from Eokelle 
 river in the north, to Kater river in the south, and about 
 twenty miles inland. The chief portion of the settlement 
 is a rugged peninsula of mountains with a barren soil, but 
 surrounded by a belt of rich coast-land, with a moist and 
 pestilential climate. The colony was founded in 1787, 
 
 and has been maintained with a view to the suppression of 
 the West African slave trade. The population, consisting 
 chiefly of liberated slaves, amounted, in 1869, to 55,374, 
 of which number 129 were white men. Freetown, the 
 capital is, after St Loui3, the most considerable European 
 town on the western coast of Africa. 
 
 The Malaghetta or Grain Coast extends from Sierra 
 Leone to Cape Palmas. Malaghetta is a species of pepper 
 yielded by a parasitical plant of this region. It is some- 
 times styled the Windy or Windward Coast, from the fre- 
 quency of short but furious tornadoes throughout the year. 
 The republic of Liberia, a settlement of the American 
 Colonisation Society, founded in 1822, for the purpose of 
 removing free people of colour from the United- States, 
 occupies a considerable extent of the coast, and has for its 
 capital Monrovia, a town named after the president, Mr 
 Monro. 
 
 The Ivory Coast extends from Cape Palmas 3° W. long., 
 and obtained its name from the quantity of the article 
 supplied by its numerous elephants. The French settle- 
 ments of Grand Bassam, Assinie, and Dabou were aban- 
 doned in 1871. 
 
 The Gold Coast stretches from west of Cape Three Points 
 to the river Volta, and has long been frequented for gold- 
 dust and other products. By a treaty of February 1871, 
 the whole of the Dutch possessions on the Gold Coast were 
 made over to Britain, and the Danish settlements of Chris- 
 tiansburg and Friedensburg were ceded to the English in 
 1849; so that the British coast now extends from the 
 mouth of the Tenda river, in long 2° 40' W., to that of the 
 Ewe, in long. 1° 10' E. of Greenwich. The protected 
 territory extends inland from this coast strip to an average 
 distance of 50 miles. Cape Coast Castle and Fort James, 
 founded by the British, and Elmina (population about 
 10,000) the most important of the former Dutch stations, 
 with Accra, are the chief settlements. 
 
 The Slave Coast tends from the river Volta to the 
 Calabar river, and is, as its name implies, the chief scene 
 of the most disgraceful traffic that biota the history of man- 
 kind. Eko or Lagos, one of the chief towns of the coast, 
 was destroyed by the British in 1852, and was proclaimed 
 a British possession in 1861. Palma and Badagry are 
 also British settlements. 
 
 The kingdoms of Ashantee, Dahomey, Voruba, and others, 
 occupy the interior country of the Guinea coast. Ashantee 
 the most powerful ' Negro state of Upper Guinea, is at 
 exceedingly fertile and productive country. Its inhabitants, 
 though skilled in some manufactures and of a higher Intel- 
 ligence than is usually found in this region, are of an 
 exceedingly sanguinary disposition, and have frequently 
 been involved in war with the British. The capital city, 
 Kumassi, is believed to have a population of about 100,000. 
 
 The coast from the Old Calabar river to the Portuguese 
 possessions is inhabited by various tribes. Duke Town, 
 on the former river, is a town of 4000 inhabitants, with 
 considerable trade in palm-oil, ivory, and timber. 
 
 On the Gaboon river, close to the equator, are a French 
 settlement (in 1871 the French retained only a coaling 
 station), and American missionary stations. At the equa- 
 tor Southern or Lower Guinea begins, where the only 
 European settlements are those of the Portuguese. 
 
 Loango is reckoned from the equator to the Zaire or 
 Congo river. Its chief town is Boally, called Loango by 
 the Europeans. 
 
 Congo extends south of the Zaire, comprising a very 
 fertile region, with veins of copper and iron. Banza Congo 
 or St Salvador is the capital. 
 
 Angola comprises the districts of Angola proper, Ben- 
 guela, and Mossamedes. In these regions the Portuguese 
 settlements esi>-"i»uiriher inland than the two preceding
 
 270 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 [states. 
 
 districts, namely, about 200 mi leg. The capital, St Paulo de 
 Loaudo, contains 12,300 inhabitants, and has a fine har- 
 bonr. .St Felipe de Benguela is situated in a picturesque 
 but very marshy and most unhealthy spot. 
 
 The coast from Benguela to the Cape Colony may, in a 
 general arrangement like this, be included either 'within 
 South Africa. The whole coast is little 
 visited or known, being of a most barren and desolate 
 description, ano ig few harbours. Ichabo island 
 
 and Angra Peguena Bay are visited for their guano deposits, 
 and are claimed as British possessions. 
 
 Under South Africa the Cape Colony only is generally 
 comprised. It takes its name from the Cape of Good Hope, 
 and extends from thence to the Orange river in the north, 
 and to the Kai river in the east. A large proportion of 
 the territory included within these limits, especially in the 
 north, is either unoccupi"' I. cr, excepting missionary stations, 
 eutirely in the hands of the aborigines. 
 
 Apart from the shores, the country consists of high lands, 
 forming parallel mountainous ridges, with elevated plains 
 or terraces of varying extent between. The loftiest range, 
 styled in different parts of its course Sneuw-bergen, Winter- 
 bergen, Nieuveld-bergen, and Roggcnveld-bergen, names 
 originated by the Dutch, is the third and last encountered 
 on proceeding into the interior from the south coast This 
 and the other chains are deeply cut by the transverse valleys 
 called kloofs, which serve as passes across them, and appear 
 as if produced by some sudden convulsion of nature, subse- 
 quently -widened by the action of the atmosphere and run- 
 ning water. 
 
 The hign plains or terraces are remarkable for their 
 extraordinary change of aspect in the succession of the 
 seasons. During the summer heats they are perfect deserts, 
 answering to the term applied to them, karroos, signifying, 
 in the Hottentot language, "dry" or "arid." But the 
 Bandy soil being pervaded with the roots and fibres of 
 various plants, is spontaneously clothed with the richest 
 verdure after the rains, and becomes transformed for a time 
 into a vast garden of gorgeous flowers, yielding the most 
 fragrant odours. Adapted thus to the support of gramini- 
 vorous animals, the karroos are the resort of antelopes, 
 zebras, quaggas, and gnus in countless herds, and of the 
 carnivorous beasts that prey upon them, the lion, hyaena, 
 leopard, and panther. These quadrupeds, however, with 
 the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, giraffe, buffalo, and 
 ostrich, have been largely banished from their old hauuts 
 by the advancing footsteps of civilised man, and are only 
 found in the more secluded parts of the interior. The 
 country has a singular and superb flora, but it comprises 
 few native plants useful to man : many such have been now 
 introduced. Heaths of varied species and great beauty 
 abound; and geraniums are treated as common weeds. 
 Many highly productive districts occur; corn, wines, and 
 fmit being the chief objects of cultivation in the neighbour- 
 hood of the Cape, while the more inland settlements are 
 grazing farms. Some fine natural forests clothe the sides 
 of the mountains; but in general the colony is deficient in 
 timber trees, as well as in navigable streams, perennial 
 springs, and regular rain. A great deposit of rich copper 
 ore occurs near the mouth of the Orange; and salt is ob- 
 tained for consumption and sale from salt lakes. 
 
 The climate is exceedingly fine and salubrious. There 
 are two seasons, characterised by the prevalence of certain 
 winds. During the summer, which lasts from September to 
 April, the winds blow from south-east, cold and dry ; during 
 the winter, namely from May to September, north-west winds 
 prevail. In the most elevated regions the winters are occa- 
 sionally severe, aud snow and ice occur. 
 
 The chief native tribes within the British territory are 
 the Hottentots, Bechuauas, and Kaffres. >'o manufacture 
 
 is conducted at the Cape except the making of wine, of 
 which from 10,000 to 40,000 gallons are annually exported 
 to England. Various articles of provision are supplied to 
 ships tailing between Europe and the East Indies. 
 
 Town is the capital of the colony, and contains 
 28,460 inhabitants, of whom 15,120 are Europeans. Its 
 commerce is considerable, and the port is frequented by 
 500 to 600 vessels every year. 
 
 The Orange river sovereignty, added to the British terri- 
 tories in 1S48, but subsequently given up and constituted 
 a free republic, extends north of the Orange river as far as 
 the Ky Gflriep or Vaal river. In consequence of the dis- 
 covery of rich diamond fields on the lower Vaal river and 
 in the neighbouring territory of the Griqua chief 'Water- 
 boer, who also petitioned to have his lands subjected to 
 British rule, a wide country surrounding the diamond- 
 fields was incoqiorated with the Capo Colony in October 
 1 S7 1 , under the name of Griqua Land West, dnided into GriquA. 
 the districts of Pneil, Griqna Town, and Klipdrift. The Land v 
 population of thus new territory was estimated at 50,000 
 in 1872, concentrated in camps round the chief diamond- 
 fields. In 1869, Bassuto Land, a mountainous territory at Bassutv 
 the head waters of the Nu Gariep branch of the Orange river, La" 1 * 
 and on the inward slope of the Drakenberg range, was 
 incorporated as a British possession. 
 
 Natal or Victoria, a district on the east coast, and sepa- Nat»' 
 rated from the Cape Colony by Katfrana, i3 a recently 
 formed British settlement, which was created into a colony 
 in 1856. It is highly favoured in those respects in which 
 the Cape is most deficient, having abundance of wood and 
 water, with coal and various metallic ores, a fine alluvial 
 soil, and a climate adapted to the cultivation of the products 
 for which the home demand is large and constant^cotton, 
 silk, and indigo. Pietermaritzburg, the capital of the settle- 
 ment, lies 50 miles from the coast. Port Natal, now D'Urban, 
 seated on a fine lake-like bay, is the only harbour. 
 
 The Transvaal Republic is an iuland state, between the 
 Vaal on the south and the Limpopo river on the north, 
 having the Drakenberg edge on the east, and the Bechuana 
 tribes, which occupy the region bordering on the Kalahira 
 desert, on the west, founded by the Dutch boe~s emigrating 
 from the Cape Colony. Its surface is an elevated plateau, 
 thinly wooded in some parts, but generally affording excel- 
 lent pasture. The chief town is Potchefstroom, on a tribu- 
 tary of the Vaal ; but the seat of government is at Pretoria, 
 in the region of the head streams of the Limpopo. 
 
 East Africa extends from Natal northwards to the Red 
 Sea, comprising Sofala, Mozambique, Zanzibar, and the Sofala 
 Somali country. But little is known of that region beyond 
 the shores. The Sofala Coast, extending from Delagoa 
 Bay to the Zambeze river, is flat, sandy, and marshy, 
 gradually ascending towards the interior. It abounds with 
 rivers, which are the source of yearly inundations. The soil 
 is very fertile, and produces chiefly rice. In the interior, 
 gold and other metals, as well as precious stones, are found. 
 The Portuguese have settlements at Sofala v in an unhealthy 
 spot, abounding with salt marshes; it consists of only 
 huts, a church, and a fort in ruins. Inhambane, near the 
 tropic of Capricorn, has an excellent harbour. 
 
 Mozambique extends from the Zambeze to CapeDelgado, 
 and is similar, in its natural features, to the Sofala Coast 
 The greatest river i3 the Zambeze. The principal settle- 
 ment of the Portuguese is at Qnillimane, which is situated 
 in a very unhealthy position on the northern arm of the 
 delta of the Zambeze, surrounded with mangrove trees. 
 
 The Zanzibar or Sawahili Coast extends from Cape Del- Zanzib* 
 gado to the river Jub, near the equator. The coast is 
 generally low, and has but few bays or harbours : its northern 
 portion is rendered dangerous by a line of coral reefs ex- 
 tending along it. The region possesses a great number of
 
 STATES.J 
 
 A F K I C A 
 
 271 
 
 livers, but none of them attain a first-rate magnitude. The 
 principal are the Rovuma, the Lufiji, Ruvu, Pangani, and 
 Dana; the two latter rising in the snowy mountains of 
 Kilima-njaro and Kenia. The climate is similar to that of 
 other tropical coasts of Africa, hot and unhealthy in gene- 
 ral : in some portions, however, the elevated ground, and 
 with it a more temperate and healthy climate, approaches 
 •the shores to within a short distance. The vegetation is 
 luxuriant, and cocoa-nut, palms, maize, rice, and olives are 
 the chief articles of cultivation. The fauna comprises all 
 the more characteristic African species. 
 
 The chief inhabitants are the Sawahili, of mixed Arab 
 and Negro descent, but the coasts are under the Arab do- 
 minion of the Imaum of Muscat, by whose efforts commerce 
 with the nations of the interior has greatly increased. 
 
 The island of Zanzibar (Unguja of the Sawahili) is the 
 residence of a Sultan, tributary to the Imaum of Muscat, 
 and the seat of extensive commerce. Mombas, on a small 
 island close to the main shore, possesses the finest harbour 
 on that coast, and has recently become famous as the seat 
 of an important missionary station. 
 
 The Somali country comprises the eastern horn of Africa, 
 from the- equator northward to the Bay of Tadjurra, near 
 the entrance into the Red Sea. The coast is generally bold 
 and rocky, in some places covered with sand ; and the ex- 
 tensive region it encloses presents a slightly ascending plain, 
 traversed by large valleys of great fertility, among which 
 the Wady Nogal is prominent. This country is not so well 
 watered as the region to the south, and some of its rivers 
 are periodical. 
 
 The Somali country is famous for its aromatic produc- 
 tions and gums of various kinds ; and it is supposed that 
 the spice 1 ; and incense consumed in such large quantities 
 by the ancient peoples of Egypt, Greece, Syria, and Rome, 
 were derived from this part of Africa, and not from Arabia. 
 
 Zeila and Berbera, on the northern coast, are the chief 
 trading ports : the permanent population of the former is 
 about 3000, while the latter may be said to exist only dur- 
 ing the winter, when no less than 20,000 strangers, at an 
 average, arrive to pitch their tents, and thus create a great 
 market-place. Harrar, in the Galla country, is the chief 
 place in the interior, with 8000 inhabitants, who are 
 Mohammedans. One-third of the population is Somali, 
 one-third Arab. 
 
 Central Africa comprises the regions which extend from 
 the southern borders of the Sahara in the north to Cape 
 Colony in the south, and from Senegambia in the west to 
 the territory of the Egyptian pashalic on tho east. It com- 
 prehends the central basins of the great lakes from Lake 
 Chad to the Nyassa, and the greater part of the basins of 
 the Niger, Congo, Nile, and Zambeze. Even the Sahara 
 may well be included in this general denomination. So 
 little is yet known of this vast region that tho general fea- 
 tures of some portions only can be indicated. The greater 
 portion seems to be densely peopled with numerous tribes, 
 and to possess inexhaustible natural resources. The portion 
 north of the equator, under the name Soudan or Nigritia, 
 comprises a great number of states, among which the prin- 
 cipal are Bambarra, Timbuktu, and Houssa, in the west ; 
 Bornu, Baghermi, and Waday, around Lake Chad ; Darfur 
 in the east ; and Adamaua in the south. The inhabitants 
 are of Negro race, with many Arabs, Moors, and Berbers. 
 
 Bambarra occupies part of the basin of the Joliba, or upper 
 •source of the Quorra. The dominant inhabitants are the 
 Mandiugoes and Foulahs, who have embraced Islamism, 
 and are much more advanced in civilisation than the other 
 Negro tribes. The country comprises extensive and excel- 
 lent pastures, with abundance of domestic animals, as horned 
 rattle, sheep, goats, and horses of a fine breed. Among the 
 vegetable products the most remarkable is the butter-tree, 
 
 which furnishes an important article of agricultural industry 
 and trade. 
 
 Sego, the capital, is situated on the Joliba, and contains 
 30,000 inhabitants. It was here that Mungo Park first 
 caught sight of the long-sought river. 
 
 Timbuktu, or Jennie, comprises the basin of the Joliba 
 below Bambarra, and lies partly within the Great Sahara. 
 Timbuktu, a few miles from the banks of the Joliba, and 
 situated amid sands and deserts, is a celebrated centre of 
 the North African caravan trade. It contains from 12,000 
 to 15,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Houssa is an extensive country extending to the Sahara 
 in the north, to the Joliba or Kawara on the west, to Bornu, 
 on the east, and to about 10° N. lat. on the south. Tho 
 dominant race are the Foulahs, but the mass of the popu- 
 lation are Negroes. It is a 'very fertile and beautiful coun- 
 try, but the climate is insalubrious, and in many parts fatal 
 to Europeans. The inhabitants are engaged in pastoral, as 
 well as in agricultural and commercial pursuits. 
 
 The capital, Sakatu, is one of the largest cities in Negro- 
 land; it is situated in a fertile but marshy plain. Kano, 
 another large town, containing 30,000 to 40,000 inhabitants, 
 is the great emporium of trade in Houssa; there the English 
 merchandise coming from the north through the Sahara, 
 meets with American goods coming from the Bight of Benin. 
 The manufactures of Kano consist chiefly of cloth, for the 
 dyeing of which that town is famed all over Central Africa. 
 
 Bornu is one of the most powerful states of NegrolandjBornn. 
 extending on the west to the 10th degree of long., on the 
 east to Lake Chad and the kingdom of Baghermi, and on 
 the south as far as Mandara and Adamaua, in about 11°N. 
 lat. Kanem, on the northern side of Lake ChacLhas recently 
 been conquered and brought under Bornuese sovereignty. 
 
 The general character of Bornu is that of a plain, subject 
 to inundations, particularly near Lake Chad. It is very 
 fertile, and cotton and indigo attain a high degree of excel- 
 lence. The original Bornuese are an agricultural people. 
 
 Kuka, the capital and residence of the Sheik of Bornu, 
 had in 1866 about 60,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Baghermi, another powerful kingdom, is situated east of Baghermi. 
 Bornu. The boundaries, according to Dr Barth, who first 
 visited this country and penetrated as far as Masefia, the 
 capital, are on the west the river Loggeme, a tributary of 
 the Shary or Asu, by which it is divided from Bornu and 
 Adamaua; on the north its limits are in about 12J° N. lat., 
 and on the east 19i° E. long., both lines dividing it from 
 Waday; the southern boundary is in about 8J° N. lat. 
 Baghermi is an extensive plain or valley formed by the 
 river Shary or Asu and its tributaries. The inhabitants are 
 very warlike, and frequently engage in slave marauding 
 expeditions into the neighbouring states to the south. 
 
 Masefia, the capital, hes in 11° 40' N. lat, and 17° 20' 
 E. long. 
 
 Waday, or Dar Saley, lies east of Baghermi, and reaches Waday. 
 as far as Darfur. It comprises an extensive region, stretching 
 as far as the basin of the Nile. Lake Fittri, situated in the 
 western portion, forms a basin, unconnected with that of Lake 
 Chad, and by which the country as far as Darfur is drained. 
 It has never been explored by Europeans. The population 
 comprises a great variety of tribes and different lan- 
 guages. 
 
 Wara, the capital, is placed by Dr Barth in 14° N. lat., 
 and 22° E. long. 
 
 Darfur, east of Waday, extends as far as Kordofan. The 
 country rises towards the west into a range of hills called 
 Jebel Marrah. It is drained into the Nile. A great portion 
 of the country is Saharan in its character, while other parts 
 are fertile and diversified. Browne, in 1703, estimated the 
 whole population at 200,000. It has an extensive trade with 
 Egypt.
 
 272 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Cobbeih, the capital, is a merchant town, and contains 
 about 6000 inhabitants. 
 
 Fumbina or Adamaua is an extensive country south of 
 Houssa and Bornu, under Foulah dominion. It consists 
 of a large, fertile, and highly-cultivated valley, formed by 
 the River Benue. Near Yola, the capital, the Benue 
 receives the Faro, a large tributary coming from the 
 south west. This country was first visited by Dr Barth 
 in 1851. 
 
 Yola, the capital, lies in 8° 50' N. lat., and 13° 30' E. 
 longitude. 
 
 South of the belt of Negro states cf the Soudan lies the 
 great unknown region of Central Africa. On the east 
 the unexplored area is bounded by the numerous states 
 of the lake region made known by Burton, Speke, and 
 Livingstone. Of these the chief are Unyamwesi, occupying 
 the plateau south of the Victoria Lake, and east of Lake 
 Tanganyika, with the capital town of Kaseh or Tabora, 
 frequented by Arab traders from Zanzibar ; Karague on 
 the western side of the Victoria Nyanza ; and Uganda, 
 stretching round its north-western shores. In the interior, 
 beyond Lake Tanganyika, Livingstone has recently made 
 known the peoples of Manyuema land, where " there is no 
 political cohesion ; not one king or kingdom. Each man is 
 independent of every other." To the south of the unknown 
 region are the powerful Negro kingdoms of the Muata 
 Yanvo and of the Cazembe, occupying the whole of the 
 interior betweeji 6° and 1 2° S. lat. Kabebe, the capital of 
 the former state, is believed to be in about lat 8° S., long. 
 23' 30' E. of Greenwich; and Lunda, the chief town of 
 the latter potentate, is in the Luapula valley, south-west of 
 the Tanganyika Lake, and Was visited by Livingstone in 
 1867-68. The Makololo kingdom, occupying the central 
 basin of the Zambeze river, with the chief town of Linyanti, 
 west of the Victoria Falls ; and that of Mosilikatse in the 
 south-east, between the Zambeze and the Limpopo rivers, 
 are the great remaining divisions of Central Africa. Besides 
 these, however, innumerable petty kingdoms, chiefships, 
 and tribes subdivide the vast populations of Negroland. 
 
 To Africa belong a considerable number of islands. The 
 Madeiras, belonging to Portugal, lie off the north-.west coast 
 of Africa, at a distance of about 360 miles. Madeira, the 
 chief island, is about 100 miles in circuit, and has long 
 been famed for its picturesque beauty, rich fruits, and fine 
 climate, which renders it a favourite resort of invalids. 
 Wine is the staple produce. Funchal, the chief town, with 
 18,000 inhabitants, is a regular station for the 'West India 
 mail steam-packets from Southampton, and the Brazilian 
 sailing-packets from Falmouth. 
 
 The Canaries, belonging to Spain, the supposed Fortunate 
 Islands of the ancients, are situated about 300 miles south 
 of Madeira. They are 13 in number, all of volcanic origin, 
 Teneriffe being the largest. The latter is remarkable for 
 its peak, which rises as a vast pyramidal mass to the height 
 of 12,173 feet. 
 
 The Cape Verde Islands, subject to Portugal, are a 
 numerous group about 80 miles from Cape Verde. They 
 obtained their name from the profusion of sea-weed found 
 by the discoverers in the neighbouring ocean, giving it the 
 appearance of a green meadow. They are also of volcanic 
 origin. 
 
 Fernando. Pb, a very mountainous forest-covered island, 
 is in the Bight of Biafra. The British settlement of 
 Clarence Town was established in 1827, but afterwards 
 abandoned. The island now belongs to Spain. 
 
 St Thomas, immediately under the equator, is a Portu- 
 guese settlement; as is also Prince's Island, in 2' N. lat 
 
 Annobon in 2° S. lat, belongs to the Spaniards. 
 
 Ascension, a small, arid, volcanic isUt, was made a. 
 British port on the arrival of Napoleon Bonaparte at St 
 Helena, and since retained as a station, at which ships may 
 touch for stores. Green Hill, the summit of the island, 
 rises to the height of 2840 feet 
 
 St Helena is a huge dark mass of rocs, rising abruptly 
 from the ocean to the height of 2692 feet James' Town 
 is the only town and port. 
 
 Madagascar, the largest island of Africa, and one of the 
 largest in the world, is separated from the Mozambique 
 coast by a channel of that name, about 250 miles, wide. 
 The area exceeds that of France. 
 
 The high interior of the island is generally very fertile, 
 with magnificent forests and fine pastures watered by 
 numerous rivers, but a belt of hot swamo land with a 
 deadly climate surrounds the coast. 
 
 The inhabitants are diverse races of Negro, Arab, and 
 Malay origin. The Ovahs, a people of the central provinces, 
 are now. dominant. The principal town, Antananarivo, 
 has about 80,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The French possess the islands of Sante Mario and Nos- 
 sibe on the coast of Madagascar, and Mayotta island in the 
 Comoro group. 
 
 The Comoro isles, four in number, are in the north part of 
 the Mozambique Channel, and inhabited by Arab tribes. 
 
 Reunion or Bourbon, 400 miles east of Madagascar, is a 
 colony of France, producing for export, coffee, sugar, cocoa, 
 spices, and timber. 
 
 Mauritius, ceded to the British by the French in 1814, 
 is 90 miles north-east of Bourbon. The sugar-cane is 
 chiefly cultivated. Port Louis, the capital, beautifully 
 situated, has 75,000 inhabitants. Within the jurisdiction 
 of the Governor of the Mauritius' are the islands of Rodri- 
 guez, the Seychelles, and the Amarante islands. 
 
 Socotra, a large island, east of Cape Jerdaffun, with an 
 Arab and Negro population, has been known from early 
 times; it belongs to the Imaum of Muscat. This island 
 was long celebrated as producing the finest aloetic drug ; it 
 is found still to produce a fine kind of aloe, though much 
 of what passed as Socbtrine aloes really came from India. 
 Gums, tobacco, and dates are also exported. (k. J.) 
 
 Note. — The above article was completed before it was 
 known with certainty that the saddest event in the history 
 of African exploration had occurred. Dr Livingstone, to 
 whom the article justly assigns " the first place among 
 African discoverers," died of dysentery near Lake Bang- 
 weolo on the 4th of May 1873. The story of his latest 
 discoveries, and of the rare devotion with which his native 
 attendants carried his remains with them during an eight 
 months' march to the coast, belongs to a bjographical 
 notice. It is more fitting in this place to note, as some 
 consolation for an almost irreparable loss, tha^ Living- 
 stone's death seems to have given a powerful stimulus to 
 the prosecution of the task he had so nearly completed. 
 The expedition of Lieutenant Cameron, above referred to. 
 is being carried out with a vigour and intelligence that 
 give ample promise of a further limitation of the region of 
 the unknown, if not of the complete solution of all out- 
 standingproblems. In the springof 1874 he had commenced 
 a thorough exploration of Lake Tanganyika, which, from 
 his professional experience as a hydrographical surveyor, is 
 expected to lead to very valuable results. And the complete 
 success of Stanley's first memorable mission in search of 
 Livingstone warrants confident hopes in regard to a second 
 expedition,, also admirably organised and equipped, which 
 has started under his direction.
 
 A F R — A G A 
 
 273 
 
 ATFJCANUS, Julius, called also Sextus by Suidas, 
 a Christian historian of the 3d century, born, according 
 to some, in Africa, and, according to others, in Palestine, 
 of African parents. Little is known of his personal his- 
 tory, except that he lived at Emmaus, and that he went 
 on an embassy to the emperor Heliogabalus to ask the 
 restoration of that town, which had fallen into ruins. His 
 mission succeeded, and Emmaus was henceforward known 
 as Nicopolis. It is by no means certain that he was a 
 bishop or even a priest, though the latter is probable. He 
 wrote a history of the world (IIoTa/?[/?Aiov XpovoXoyiKov) 
 from the creation to the year 221 A.D., a period, according 
 to his computation, of 5723 years. He calculated the 
 period between the creation and the birth of Christ as 5499 
 years, and antedated the latter event by three years. This 
 method of reckoning became known as the Alexandrian 
 era, and was adopted by almost all the eastern churches. 
 The history is no longer extant, but copious extracts from 
 it are to be found in the Chronicon of Eusebius, besides 
 fragments in Syncellus, Cedrenus, and the Paschale Chroni- 
 con. Eusebius has also given some extracts from his letter 
 to Aristides, reconciling the apparent discrepancy between 
 St Matthew and St Luke in the genealogy of Christ by a 
 reference to the Jewish law, which compelled a man to 
 marry the widow of his deceased brother, if the latter 
 died without issue. His letter to Origen, impugning the 
 authority of the apocryphal book of Susanna, and Origen's 
 answer, are both extant, the former having been printed 
 at Basle, 1674. The ascription to Africanus of a work 
 entitled Kcoroi', treating of agriculture, natural history, 
 military science, &c, has been disputed on account of the 
 inconsistency between it and the author's other writings. 
 Neander suggests that it was probably written by Afri- 
 canus before he had devoted himself to religious subjects. 
 
 AEZELIUS, Adam, an eminent Swedish naturalist, 
 born at Larf, West Gothland, in 1750. Having studied 
 at Upsala under Linnaeus, he became teacher of oriental 
 literature in that university in 1777, and demonstrator of 
 botany in 1785. Eor two years (1792-94) he resided on 
 the west coast of Africa as botanist to the Sierra Leone 
 Company. After acting for some time as secretary to the 
 Swedish embassy in London, he 'returned home, became 
 again a teacher in the university of Upsala, and was ap- 
 pointed professor of materia medica in 1812 He edited 
 the autobiography of Linnaeus (Upsala, 1823), a German 
 translation of which appeared at Berlin in 1826. His 
 literary work included also a la^e number of botanical 
 papers contributed to the Linnaean Society of London and 
 the Royal Academy of Stockholm, as well as treatises on 
 certain plants of Guinea and Sweden. He died at Upsala 
 in 1836, having bequeathed his botanical collection to the 
 university. Several species of plants, known as Afzelia, 
 are named after this distinguished botanist. 
 
 AFZELIUS, Arwid August, the Swedish historian, 
 poet, and comparative mythologist, was born at Fjell&ker 
 in 1785. For a while he' was a schoolmaster in Stock- 
 holm, but afterwards entered the church, and became 
 parish priest of Enkoping, where he worked for just half-a- 
 century, till his death in 1871. His poetical career began 
 in 1811 and closed in t?!8, when he wrote his Farewell to 
 the Swedish Harp. One great work of his life was to col- 
 lect and publish, in conjunction with the eminent Geijer, 
 three volumes of Swedish Folk-songs ; but he will be best 
 remembered by his History of the Swedish People, which 
 has won him a European reputation. He did not live to 
 bring this history lower down than 1709. (e. w. g.) 
 
 AGA, or Agha, a word, said to be of Tatar origin, 
 signifying a dignitary or lord. Among the Turks it is ap- 
 plied to the chief of the janissaries, to the commanders of 
 the artillery, cavalry, and infantry, and to the eunuchs in 
 
 charge of the seraglio. It is also employed generally as a 
 term of respect in addressing wealthy men of leisure, land- 
 owners, ic. The word is found with a somewhat similar 
 usage in Tartary, Persia, and Algiers. 
 
 AGADES, the capital of the kingdom of Air, or Asben, 
 in Central Africa, situated in 17° 2' N. lat., 8° 5' E. long. 
 The town is built on the edge of a plateau, 2500 feet above 
 the level of the sea, and is supposed to have been founded 
 by the Berbers to serve as a secure magazine for their ex- 
 tensive trade with the Songhay empire. The language of 
 the people is a dialect of Songhay. In former times 
 Agades was a place of great traffic, and had a population 
 of about 50,000. Its importance may be estimated by the 
 fact that the king of Agades paid a tribute of 150,000 
 ducats to the king of Songhay. Since the beginning of 
 the 16th century the prosperity of the place has gradually 
 declined. Extensive quarters of the town; which has a 
 circuit of 3i miles, are deserted and ruinous. The occu- 
 pied houses number only 600 or 700, and the population 
 does not exceed 7000. The houses, which arc built of 
 clay, are low and flat-roofed ; and the only building of im- 
 portance is the chief mosque, which is surmounted by a 
 tower 95 feet high. There is little traffic in the markets; 
 no money is used, and the usual medium of exchange is 
 millet. The chief trade is in grain. Agades derives its 
 main importance from its situation on the direct route 
 from the countries to the north-east to Sokoto and other 
 important towns in the Hansa states. The great salt 
 caravans pass through it, as well as pilgrims on their way 
 to Mecca. From its healthy climate and advantageous posi- 
 tion, the place might prove to be a good station for a Euro- 
 pean agent. (See Barth's Travels in. Central Africa, voL i.) 
 
 AGAMEMNON. The stern obligations of a king and 
 the majesty of his office, as compared with his humane 
 desires and occasional frailty, give the keynote to the 
 character of Agamemnon. But the kingly office, like the 
 sceptre which was the symbol of it, had come to him 
 from Pelops {Iliad, ii. 100) through the stained hands 
 of Atreus and Thyestes, and had brought with it a certain 
 fatality, by which his misfortunes, and especially the catas- 
 trophe at the close of his life, were explained. As his title 
 of Atrides implies, Agamemnon was a son of Atreus, his 
 mother being Aerope. In a later account he is a son of 
 Pleisthenes. But, apart from this difference, it is agreed 
 that he succeeded to the sovereignty of Atreus over Argolis, 
 Corinth, Achaia, and many islands, his seat being at Mycenae, 
 not, as iEschylus for political reasons asserts, at Argos. The 
 succession had been usurped by Thyestes and ^Egisthus. 
 During the usurpation Agamemnon and his brother Mene- 
 laus visited Tyndareus, the king of Sparta, and obtained 
 in marriage his two daughters — the former Clytaemnestra, 
 the latter Helena: with his help Agamemnon was re- 
 instated in his rights. 'Menelaus succeeded Tyndareus. 
 The children born by Clytsmnestra were Chrysothemis, 
 Iphigenia, Electra, and one son, Orestes. Elsewhere are 
 mentioned also Iphianassa andLaodice; but the latter was 
 the original name of Electra, it appears, and it has been 
 suggested that Iphianassa stood in the same relation to 
 Iphigenia. Agamemnon was then the most powerful prince 
 in Greece; and to him of right, as well as naturally, his 
 brother Menelaus turned for aid to compel the Trojans 
 to give up his wife Helena, whom Paris had carried off. 
 The various princes of Greece having been brought to 
 unite in an expedition for this purpose, Agamemnon was 
 chosen leader, he himself furnishing 100 ships and lending 
 also 60 more to the Arcadians. It was not perhaps his fault 
 that the Greeks landed by mistake on the coast of Mysia, 
 from which, after plundering it, they took ship and were 
 scattered in a storm ; but it was owing to him (and this is 
 I the beginning of his ill-fate) that after again assembling in
 
 274 
 
 A G A — A G A 
 
 Aulis, whence they had act oat, the fleet wns storm-bound. 
 He had slain a deer sacred to Artemis, ami boasted liimself 
 a better hunter than the This, as Caleb as the 
 
 seer read the divine will, could only be atoned for by his 
 offering up his daughter Iphigenia in sacrifice. Compelled 
 by his duty to the expedition, lie allowed her to be sent 
 far, the pretext given to Clytauiiuestra being that she was 
 to bj married to Achillea But when the moment of sacri- 
 fice came, the goddess substituted a stag, carried her off to 
 the Tauri, and made her immortal. Tie Beet dor 
 and except the quarrel between him and Achilles at T 
 
 iinus, there was no incident in which Agamemnon 
 figured particularly, until, in one cf the raids on the towns 
 round Troy, Brisels and Chryseis wero brought captives, 
 and assigned, the former to Achilles, the latter to Aga- 
 -/.cr.-.-'on. — who, having to yield up his captive to 0] 
 Apollo, clu-uied and took the other. Upon this Achilles 
 withdrew fror^ the war, and Agamer.-.non endeavoured at 
 first to maintain it without him. In the face of disaster 
 he repented, and offered reparation — sending costly presents 
 by the hands of Phoenix, Ajax, and Ulysses. His offer 
 rejected, he took the field himself, and did marvels of 
 bravery, but was wounded and defeated. When Troy was 
 finally taken and the captives distributed, he obtainod 
 Cassandra, and with her returned home; but before sailing 
 the shade of Achilles appeared to him, foretold what would 
 happen, and sought to restrain him. In his absence 
 Clytannnestra had yielded to the temptations of yEgkthus, 
 and, to cover her shame, planned with him the death of 
 her husband. The approach of Agamemnon being an- 
 aounced by a spy, a feast and an affected welcome were 
 prepared for him and .his followers. At the feast they 
 were fallen upon by hired murderers, assisted by ^gisthus 
 and Clytoamnestra, the latter herself slaying Cassandra 
 {Odyssey, iv. 51"-537; xi. 385-461). According to 
 ./Eschylus, Agamemnon was slain in his bath, his wife first 
 throwing a piece of cloth over him to prevent resistance. 
 For his death vengeance was taken by his son Orestes. 
 In the legends of the Peloponnesus, Agamemnon was re- 
 garded as the highest type of a powerful monarch, and in 
 Sparta he was worshipped under the title of Zeus Agamem- 
 non. His tomb was pointed out among the ruins of 
 Mycenae (Pausanias ii. 16. 5). (a. s. m.) 
 
 AGAPE, plur. Agap.e, the love-feast, or feast of charity, 
 which among the primitive Christians usually accompanied 
 the Eucharist. The word [ayasrq, love) is first employed 
 in this sense in the Epistle of Jude, verse 12. The sug- 
 gestion of a connection between Christian love-feasts and 
 the ipavoi and Iraipuu of Greece and Rome is both im- 
 probable and unnecessary. The feelings of love and 
 brotherhood fostered by the new faith, strengthened as 
 these must liave been T)y the complete isolation of the 
 little Christian community, are quite sufficient to account 
 for the existence of the Agapse, without referring them to 
 other more or less similar institutions. According to 
 Chrysostom, the Agape was a, common feast, symbolising 
 the community of goods when .it no longer really existed, 
 to which the rich brought provisions, and the poor, who 
 brought nothing, were invited. At first it was observed 
 probably every evening in immediate connection with the 
 celebration of the Lord's Supper, though whether before 
 or after is a point that has been much disputed. It closed 
 with the holy kiss (<£iAi)/Aa 5.yi.ov, <pi\-n/j.a aya7njs). The 
 
 Corinthian church was the first to pecyext the Agape by 
 destroying the community between rich and poor (1 Cor. 
 xL 21). Partly perhaps on account of such irregularities 
 extending, and partly to escape the notice of persecutors, 
 it became usual about tie middle of the 2d century to 
 separate the Lord's Supper from the Agape by celebrating 
 the former at the close of morning service on Sunday, 
 
 and the latter by itself after a considerable interval. 
 Abuses becoming more frequent, love-feasts were gradually 
 put under greater restrictions. The rich began habitually 
 to absent themselves from the Agapae, which came thus to 
 be regarded as a provision for the poor alone; and the 
 Council of Gangra (300), to correct the abuse, pronounced 
 an anathema upon any who should despise the Agapae. A 
 number of synods and councils in succession condemned 
 the holding of these feasts in churches, as well as the par- 
 ticipation of the clergy in them, and at length the observ- 
 ance altogether died out. In modem times it has been 
 revived in one form or other by the Moravian Brethren, 
 the Wesleyan Methodists, and, in Scotland, by the followers 
 of Robert Sandeman; 
 
 AGAPETUS, deacon of the St Sophia Church at Con- 
 stantinople, presented to the Emperor Justinian a work 
 entitled ' ' irta l'tgia, composed in 527, which con- 
 tained advice on the duties of a Christian prince. It is 
 highly valued, and has been several times reprinted. The 
 best edition is that contained in Bandauri's Imjvrium. 
 Orientate (Paris, 1711). There is an English translation 
 by Thomas I'aynell (1550); and a French translation, 
 executed from a Latin version by Louis XIIL, with the 
 assistance of his tutor, David Rivault. 
 
 AGARDE, Arthur, a learned English antiquary, born 
 at Foston, in Derbyshire, about 1540. He was trained a 
 lawyer; but entering the exchequer as a clerk, he became 
 deputy-chamberlain in 1570. This office, which he held 
 for forty-five years, gave him unrivalled opportunities for 
 carrying on his favourite study. Along with his intimate 
 friends, Sir Robert Cotton and Camden, ho was one of the 
 original members of the Society of Antiqntaries: He made 
 a special study of the Domesday Book, and prepared an 
 explanation of its more obscure terms, which is of little 
 worth. Hearne, in his Collection of Curious Discourses 
 toritten by Eminent Antiquaries (Oxford, 1720), includes 
 six by Agarde on such subjects as the origin of parliament, 
 the antiquity of shires, the authority and privileges of 
 heralds, <tc. Agarde died in 1615, and was buried in the 
 cloister of Westminster Abbey. He bequeathed to the 
 exchequer all his papers relating to that court, and to his 
 friend Sir Robert Cotton his other manuscripts, amounting 
 to twenty volumes. 
 
 AGASIAS, son of Dositheus, a famous sculptor of 
 Ephesus, who is supposed to have lived about the 4th 
 century. His celebrated work, known erroneously as the 
 Borghese Gladiator, was discovered at the commencement 
 of the 13th century in the ruins of an imperial palace at 
 Antium, where the Apollo Belvidtre was also found. It 
 represents a figure in action, with the head uplifted as if 
 to meet the attack of a horseman. According to Winckel- 
 mann, the representation of the figure is' intensely real, 
 without a touch of imagination. The statue forms part of 
 the. Louvre collection." 
 
 AGASSIZ, Louis John Rudolph, was the son of a 
 Swiss Protestant clergyman. His father was the pastor of 
 the parish of Motiers, a smalltown situated near the north- 
 eastern angle of the Little Murtensee, and not far from the 
 eastern extremity of the Lake of Neuchatel. Agassiz was 
 born at this retired place on May 28, 1 807. Educated first 
 at home, then spending four years at the gymnasium of 
 Bienne, he completed his elementary studies at the academy 
 of Lausanne. Whilst at this latter place he already be- 
 came conspicuous amongst his fellow-students, not only foi 
 his love of the natural sciences, but for the manifest talent 
 he displayed in pursuing them. The close alliance between 
 these subjects and the science of medicine led him to adopt 
 the latter as his profession, for which he studied successively 
 at the universities of Zurich, Heidelberg, and Munich; at 
 the same time availing himself of the advantages afforde-d
 
 A G ASiSl Z 
 
 275 
 
 by these universities for extending hi°3 knowledge of natural 
 history, especially of botany. Having completed his academi- 
 cal course, he took hisdegree of doctorof medicine at Munich. 
 Up to this time he had no particular inclination for the 
 study of ichthyology, which soon afterwards became the 
 great occupation of his life. Agassiz always declared that 
 lie was led into ichthyological pursuits through the follow- 
 ing circumstances : — In 1819-20, Spix and Martius were 
 engaged in their celebrated Brazilian tour, and on their 
 return to Europe, amongst other collections of natural 
 objects, they brought home an important one of the'fresh- 
 water fishes of Brazil, and" especially of the Amazon river. 
 Unfortunately Spix did not live long .enough to work out 
 the history of these fishes ; hence it became necessary that 
 some other naturalist should undertake the task of describ- 
 ing them. It is no insignificant proof of the reputation 
 which Agassiz had already won, that, though little more 
 than a youth just liberated from his academic studies, he 
 ■was selected for this purpose. His attention being thus 
 directed to the special subject of ichthyology, he at once 
 threw himself into the work with that earnestness of spirit 
 which characterised him to the end of his busy life. Thus, 
 in 1828 we find him, after describing a new species of 
 Oynocephalus, publishing a description of a new cyprinoid 
 fish. This was followed by a yet more elaborate research 
 into the history of the cyprinoid and other fishes found in 
 the lake of NeuchateL Rapidly enlarging his plans, the 
 publication of the last-named work was succeeded by the 
 issue, in 1830, of a prospectus of a Ilislory of the Fresh- 
 water Fishes of Central Europe. It was only in 1839, 
 however, that the first part of this important publication 
 appeared. The task of describing and figuring the Brazilian 
 fishes of Spix and Martius • was completed and the work 
 published in 1829. 
 
 Acquiring fresh confidence through these labours, he 
 now contemplated a yet greater task. Having become a pro- 
 fessed ichthyologist, it was impossible that the fossil fishes 
 •with; which the stratified rocks of his native mountains 
 abound should fail to attract his attention. The rich 
 stores furnished by the slates of Glarus and the limestones 
 of Monte Bolca were already well known ; but very little had 
 been accomplished in the way of the scientific study of them. 
 Agassiz at once threw himself into this new field of labour 
 with his wonted enthusiasm, and began the publication of 
 the work which, more than any other, made him known to 
 foreign naturalists, and laid the foundation of his world- 
 wide fame. Five volumes of his Eecherches sur les Poissons 
 Fossiles appeared at intervals between the years 1833 and 
 1844. They were magnificently illustrated, chiefly through 
 the labours of Dinkel, an' artist of remarkable power in 
 delineating natural objects. 
 
 Agassiz soon found that his palaeontological labours 
 rendered a new basis of ichthyological classification ab- 
 solutely necessary. The fossils rarely exhibited any traces 
 of the soft tissues of fishes. They chiefly consisted of the 
 teeth, scales, and fins, even the bones being perfectly 
 preserved in but comparatively 'few instances. Hence 
 the classifications of Cuvier and other naturalists were of 
 little use to him in determining the mutual relations of 
 the fossil forms. He therefore adopted his well-known 
 •classification, which divided fishes into four groups — viz., 
 Canoids, Placoids, Cycloids, and Ctenoids. The first of 
 these groups was chiefly represented amongst living fishes 
 by the Lepidosteus or bony pike of the great American 
 rivers; by the Polypterus or Bischir of the Nile; and by 
 the sturgeon. The last fish has a wide geographical 
 Tange; but the other two, •which best display the characters 
 on which Agassiz based his Ganoid class, are limited to the 
 fresh-water rivers of local geographical areas. But in the 
 Palaeozoic and Mesozoic ages it was strikingly otherwise. 
 
 The Ganoids were the most remarkable as trull as the most 
 widely diffused of primeval fishes; we find them equally 
 in the fresh-water deposits of the weald, in the marine 
 deposits of the oolites, the chalk, and the magnesian lime- 
 stone, and in the more mixed and dubious deposits of the 
 coal measures. Agassiz, therefore, ' was fully justified in 
 attaching very great importance to this hitherto unrecog- 
 nised class. Indeed, later ichthyologists — e.g., J. Miiller 
 and Professor Owen — have found it necessary to retain the 
 class in their recent classifications, though in a modified 
 form. The remaining portions of Agassiz' Bysteiu have 
 not been adopted by them ; but though ihey do not accept 
 the terms Placoids, Cycloids, and Ctenoids as representing 
 classes, all zoologists employ them as new and convenient 
 adjectives, of the utmost value to students of systematic 
 ichthyology. One reason for the rejection of Agassiz* 
 system by modern ichthyologists is the obvious one that 
 he draws the characteristics of his classes from a single 
 organ — the skin — and that not the most important. At 
 the same ^lime, it must be admitted that the Placoids, liko 
 the Ganoids, also constituted a natural group closely corre- 
 sponding with the Pisces cartilaginei of Cuvier and others. 
 The distinction between Cycloids and Ctenoids was a much 
 more trivial one, and needlessly separated closely-allied 
 forms. It is only those who are familial- with the 
 magnitude and difficulties of the task thus undertaken 
 that can appreciate the daring courage of the youth who 
 grappled with it. Under twenty-five years of age, and, 
 as already observed, with limited "financial resources, he 
 nevertheless seems to have known no fear. He soon 
 announced to geologists several important generalisations, 
 the correctness of which has been confirmed by all sub- 
 sequent research. In particular, he pointed out that no 
 examples of Cycloids and Ctenoids, comprehending the bulk 
 of the fishes now seen in our markets, were to be found in 
 rocks of older date than the cretaceous age. 
 
 As the work proceeded it became obvious that it would 
 over-tax the resources of the intrepid young zoologist, un- 
 less some additional assistance could be afforded to him. 
 The British Association for the Advancement of Science 
 wisely came to his aid, and the late Earl of Ellesmere — 
 better known in his youth as Lord Francis Egcrton — gave 
 him yet more efficient help. The original drawings made 
 for the work, chiefly by Dinkel, amounted to 1290 in 
 number. These were purchased by the eari; but, with 
 princely liberality, he left all that -were necessary for the 
 further prosecution of his labours in the hands of Agassiz. 
 It was whilst he was thus engaged that Agassiz paid hi? 
 first visit to England, for the purpose of studying the rich 
 stores of fossil fishes with which this country abounds. 
 He was then in his youthful prime — a model of manly 
 vigour and scientific enthusiasm ; but amongst his many 
 qualities none were more remarkable than the quickness 
 with which he detected the peculiarities of any new fossil, 
 and the retentiveness of his memory, which enabled him 
 to make ready use of his newly-acquired knowledge. The 
 consciousness that ne possessed these powers led him occa- 
 sionally — though, it must be allowed, but rarely— to trust 
 unduly to them, and made him sometimes hasty and oil- 
 hand in his conclusions. 
 
 But fossil ichthyology, though a very large subject, was 
 insufficient to occupy his energetic mind. In 1837 we 
 find him issuing the "Prodrome" of a monograph on the 
 recent and fossil Echinodermata, the first part of which 
 appeared in 1838; and in 1839-40 he published, in addi- 
 tion, two quarto volumes on the fossd Echinodernis of 
 Switzerland. This division of the invertebrate animal? 
 was evidently a favourite one with him, since we find 
 it the subject of numerous memoirs which appeared from 
 time to time during his later life.
 
 276 
 
 AGASSIZ 
 
 It was by these great undertakings that he chiefly won 
 his distinguished position as one of the greatest leaders in 
 scientific research; but his observant faculties were by no 
 means concentrated upon them exclusively. His intellec- 
 tual tentacula expanded in every direction. The history of 
 the Beleinnites, the muscular system of recent and fossil 
 shells, the principles of classification of the animal king- 
 dom, the embryology of the salmon, and critical studies 
 of special genera of fossil Mollusca — all engaged his 
 attention. During his travels in England in 1834 he was 
 ever on the alert for new specimens for the museum of, 
 Neuchatel. One characteristic incident of this kind may bo 
 referred to here. A fine porpoise had been caught by the 
 Scarborough fishermen. Agassiz was weary with travel, 
 and had but a few hours to remain in the town, but the 
 chance could not be allowed to escape ; the creature was 
 purchased, and midnight saw Agassiz and the writer of 
 this sketch working by the dim light of two tallow candles 
 dissecting the animal, and shipping off its half-cleaned 
 bones to Neuchatel. before he ventured to take the much- 
 needed rest. 
 
 Subsequently to his first visit to England the labours 
 of Hugh Miller, Dr Malcolinson, and other geologists 
 brought to light the marvellous ichthyal fauna of the 
 Devonian beds of the north-east of Scotland. Murchison 
 and Sedgwick had some time previously directed attention 
 to the existence of fishes of this geological age, especially 
 amongst the bituminous shales of Caithness; but the more 
 recent discoveries were of far greater interest than the 
 earlier ones, because of the strange forms of the Pterich- 
 thys, the Coccosteus, and other species then made known 
 to geologists for the first time. The supposition of Hugh 
 Miller, that some of these fishes had vertical instead of 
 horizontal mouths, suggestive of a transition from the 
 crustacean to the ichthyal type, added fresh interest to 
 the subject in the eyes of a philosophic inquirer like 
 Agassiz. Theso fossils were reported upon by him more 
 than once, and were finally made the subjects of a special 
 monograph, which was published in 1844. Miller's inter- 
 pretation of the structure of the mouth Agassiz soon 
 demonstrated to be erroneous. 
 
 The year 1840 witnessed the inauguration of a new 
 movement, which has proved to be of the utmost import- 
 ance to geological science. Previously to this date De 
 Saussure, Venetz, Charpentier, and others had made the 
 glaciers of the Alps the subjects of special study, and 
 Charpentier had even arrived at the important conclusion 
 that the well-known erratic blocks of alpine rocks scattered 
 so abundantly over the slopes and summits- of the Jura 
 mountains, had been conveyed thither by glaciers. The 
 question having attracted the attention of Agassiz, he at 
 once grappled with it in his wontedly enthusiastic manner. 
 He not only made successive journej's to the alpine glaciers 
 in company with Charpentier, but he had a rude hut con- 
 structed upon one of the Aar glaciers, which for a time he 
 made his comfortless home, in order that he might the 
 more thoroughly investigate the structure and movements 
 of the ice. These labours resulted in the publication of 
 his magnificent illustrated folio entitled Eludes sur les- 
 Glaciers, In this important work the movements of the 
 glaciers, their moraines, their influence in grooving and 
 rounding off the rocks over which they travelled, producing 
 the striations and roclies montonnis with which we are now 
 so familiar, were treated with a comprehensiveness which 
 threw into the shade all the writings of previous labourers 
 in this field. He not only accepted Charpentier's idea that 
 some of the alpine glaciers had extended across the wide 
 plains and valleys drained by the Aar and the Rhone, and 
 thud landed parts of their remains upon the uplands of the 
 Jura, but he went still further in the same direction. He 
 
 concluded that, at a period geologically recent, Switzerland 
 had been another Greenland; that instead of a few glaciers 
 stretching their restricted lines across the areas referred to, 
 one vast sheet of ice, originating in the higher Alps, had 
 extended over the entire valley of north-western Switzer- 
 land until it reached the southern slopes of the Jura, which, 
 though they checked and deflected its further extension, did 
 not prevent the ice from reaching in many places the 
 summit of the range. At a later period we shall find him 
 holding a similar view in the case of the vast plains spread 
 out between the Andes and the eastern coast of South 
 America. The publication of this work gave afresh impetus 
 to the study of glacial phenomena in all parts of the world. 
 In 1841 Agassiz spent many weeks in his hut on tho 
 Lower Aar glacier, where he received as his guest the lato 
 Professor James Forbes, who was also engaged upon tho 
 study of glacial phenomena. The latter philosopher, in 
 his work on Norway and its Glaciers, recognised in tho 
 fullest manner his indebtedness to Agassiz for much ucw 
 light respecting the details of glacial action. 
 
 Thus familiarised with the phenomena attendant on the 
 movements of recent glaciers, Agassiz was preparod for a 
 new and most unexpected discovery which he made in 
 1846, in conjunction with the late Professor Ruckland. 
 These two savants visited the mountains of Scotland 
 together, and found in six different localities clear evi- 
 dence of some ancient glacial action. The discovery was 
 announced to the Geological Society of London in a joint 
 communication from the two distinguished observers. 
 Similar discoveries were subsequently made by Buckland, 
 Lyell, Ramsay, and others in various parts of Scotland, 
 Westmoreland, Cumberland, and North Wales. The for- 
 mer existence of glaciers in each of these mountainous 
 districts is a fact that no one now presumes to doubt any 
 more than that these glaciers, either directly, or indirectly 
 in the shape of icebergs, have at least contributed largely to 
 the accumulation of those wide-spread deposits with which 
 geologists are familiar under the name of drift and boulder 
 formations. 
 
 But we must now follow Agassiz to a new sphere of 
 labour. In 1S38 he was.appointed to the professorship of 
 natural history at Neuchatel, with a very limited income. 
 In the autumn of 1846 he crossed the Atlantic, with the 
 two-fold design of investigating the natural history am 
 geology of the -United States, and delivering a course of 
 lectures on zoology at the Lowell Institute; and the 
 tempting advantages, pecuniary and scientific, presented 
 to him in tho New World, induced him to settle in the 
 United States, where he remained to the end of his life. 
 He was appointed professor of zoology and geology in the 
 university of Cambridge, U.S., in 1847. He left that post 
 in 1851 for a medical professorship of comparative anatomy 
 at Charlestown, but returned in 1853 to Cambridge. 
 
 This transfer to a new field, and the association with 
 fresh objects of high interest to him, gave his energies a 
 new stimulus. Volume after volume now proceeded 
 from his pen : some of his writings were popular, and ad- 
 dressed to the multitude, but most of them dealt with tho 
 higher departments of scientific research. His work on 
 Lake Superior, and his four volumes of Contributions to 
 the Natural History of t/ie United Slates, were of this latter 
 character. But whilst thus working earnestly at American 
 zoology, he still kept in view more generalised inquiries, 
 the fruits of which appeared in 1854, with the title of 
 Zcolor/ie Generate et L'squisses Generates de Zoologie con- 
 tenant la Structure, le Developpement, la Classification, Ac, 
 de tous les Types d'Animaux vivants et delruits. Before 
 leaving these literary labours, we must not overlook the 
 valuable service he rendered to science by tho formation, 
 for his own use, of a catalogue of scientific memoirs — an
 
 A G A- 
 
 extraordinary work for a man whose hands were already so 
 fulL This catalogue, edited and materially enlarged by 
 the late Hugh Strickland, was published by the Ray 
 Society under the title of Bibliographia Zoologies et Geo- 
 logies. Nor must we forget that he was building up 
 another magnificent monument of his industry in the 
 Museum of Natural History, which rose under his foster- 
 ing care, at Cambridge. But at length the great strain 
 on his physical powers began to tell. He then sought 
 to restore his'waning health by a southern voyage. His 
 early labours among the fishes of Brazil had often caused 
 him to cast a longing glance towards that country; and he 
 now resolved to combine the pursuit of health with the 
 gratification of his long-cherished desires. In April 1805 
 he started for Brazil, along with his admirable wife and an 
 excellent class of assistants. Even on shipboard he could 
 not be idle. In his outward voyage he delivered a course 
 of lectures, open to all his fellow-passengers, but especially 
 addressed to his assistants, and intended to instruct 
 them in the nature and bearings of the great problems 
 upon which they might hope to throw light during their 
 stay in Brazil. An interesting account of this journey, to 
 the success of which the emperor of Brazil contributed in 
 every possible way, was published by Mrs Agassiz when 
 they returned home, laden with the natural treasures of the 
 Brazilian rivers. 
 
 In 1871 he made, a second excursion, visiting the 
 southern shores of the North American continent, both on 
 its Atlantic and its Pacific seaboards. He had for many 
 years yearned after the establishment of some permanent 
 school where zoological science could be studied, not in 
 class-rooms or museums of dead specimens, but amidst the 
 living haunts of the subjects of study. Like all truly 
 great teachers, he had little faith in any school but that of 
 nature. The last, and possibly the most permanently in- 
 fluential, of the labours of his long and successful Life was 
 the establishment of such an institution, which he was 
 enabled to effect through the hberality of Mr John Anderson, 
 a citizen of New York. That gentleman not only handed 
 over to Agassiz the island of Penikese, on the east coast, 
 but also presented him. with $50,000 'wherewith per- 
 manently to endow it as a practical school of natural 
 science, especially devoted to the study of marine zoology. 
 Another American friend gave him a fine yacht, of 80 tons 
 burden, to be employed in marine dredging in the sur- 
 rounding seas. Had Agassiz lived long enough to bring 
 all this machinery into working order, it is difficult to ex- 
 aggerate the practical advantages which American science 
 would have reaped from it when guided by such experi- 
 enced hands. ■ But it was otherwise ordained. The disease 
 with which he had struggled for some years proved fatal 
 on Dec. 14, 1873. 
 
 A letter to his old friend, Sir Philip M. de Grey Eger- 
 ton, Bart., written but a few days before his death, and 
 doubtless one of the last that he penned, showed that his 
 spirit was still as indomitable and his designs as large as 
 ever; and one of his latest expressed wishes was that he 
 might be spared for four more years in order that the wbrk 
 he had contemplated might be completed. 
 
 Our available space will not allow us to give a de- 
 tailed sketch of the opinions of this remarkable man on 
 even the more important of the great subjects which he 
 studied so long. From first to last he steadily rejected 
 the doctrine of evolution, and affirmed his belief in inde- 
 pendent creations. In like manner he retained his confi- 
 dence in the former existence and agency of vast continental 
 ice-sheets, rather than in the combined action of more 
 limited glaciers and icebergs, which nearly all modern 
 geologists recognise as the producers of the drifts and 
 boulder-clavs. When studying the superficial deposits of 
 
 - A G A 27? 
 
 the Brazilian plains in 1805, his vivid imagination covered 
 even that wide tropical area, as it had covered Switzerland 
 before, with one vast glacier, extending from the Andes to 
 the sea. His daring conceptions were only equalled by th» 
 unwearied industry and genuine enthusiasm with which he 
 worked them out; and if in details his labours were some- 
 what defective, it was only because he had the courage to 
 attempt what was too much for any one man to accom- 
 plish, (w. o. w.) 
 
 AGATE (from Acliates, a river in Sicily, on the banks of 
 which it is said to have been found), a name applied by 
 mineralogists to a stone of the quartz family, generally 
 occurring in rounded nodules or in veins in trap rocks. 
 The number of agate balks in the rock often give it tha 
 character of amygdaloid; and when such a rock is decom- 
 posed by the elements, the agates drop out, and are found 
 in the beds of streams that descend from it; or they may 
 be obtained in quarrying. Great quantities are obtained 
 from Oberstein and Idar, in Germany, where there are larg< 
 manufactories for colouring and polishing the stones ; and 
 many are brought from India and Brazil. Agate occurs 
 in considerable quantity in Scotland, whence the stone is 
 familiarly known to lapidaries as Scotch pebble; and very 
 large masses of calcedony, a variety of it, are brought from 
 Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and Brazil. Agate chiefly con« 
 sists of calcedony, with mixtures of common quartz and 
 occasional patches of jasper and opal. The colour markings 
 are often in concentric rings of varying forms and inten- 
 sity, or in straight parallel layers or bands. The colours 
 are chiefly gray, white, yellow, or brownish-red. The com- 
 position of agate is not uniform; but it usually contains 
 from 70 to 90 per cent, of silica, with varying proportions 
 of alumina, coloured by oxide of iron or manganese. The 
 principal varieties are — 
 
 1. Calcedony. In this the colours are in parallel bands. 
 The porosity of this stone, and the presence of iron in it, 
 have given rise to a beautiful artificial process for height- 
 ening its natural colours, which has been long practised at 
 Oberstein, and probably long known in India. The stones 
 best suited for this purpose are such as when recently frac- 
 tured imbibe moisture most readily. The stones are first 
 dried without heat, then immersed in a mixture of honey 
 and water, and afterwards placed in a heated oven, where 
 they remain for two or three weeks, constantly covered with 
 the liquid. They are then washed, dried, and put into an 
 earthenware vessel containing sufficient sulphuric acid to 
 cover them ; this vessel is closed and placed in the oven for 
 a space varying from one to twelve hours, according to the 
 hardness of the stone. The agates are now removed, washed, 
 and thoroughly dried; and after being kept in oil for twenty* 
 four hours, are cleaned, cut; and polished. In the best 
 specimens the gray streaks are increased in intensity; some 
 exhibit brown streaks approaching to black, while white 
 impenetrable parts assume a brighter hue by the contrast. 
 This is the process employed to convert the veined calce- 
 dony or agate into onyx, especially for the production of 
 cameos and intaglios, in imitation of the antique sculptured 
 gems, of which admirable specimens are found in the cabinets 
 of the curious, and especially in the Florentine Museum. In 
 those minute but exquisite works the ancient Greeks espe- 
 cially excelled; and remarkable specimens of the art have 
 been found in the tombs of Egypt, Assyria, and Etruria. In 
 such works the figures, whether in relief or intaglio, appear 
 of a different colour from the ground. 
 
 2. Carnelian, or red calcedony, when found, is almost 
 always brownish or muddy. The following process is 
 employed at Oberstein to convert both this sort and the 
 yellowish-brown varieties into a rich red, so as to rival 
 the Indian carnelian, -which probably also has its colour 
 heightened artificially : — After being thoroughly dried, the
 
 278 
 
 AGA-AC E 
 
 ston :s are dipped m siilplmric acid, and immediately exposed 
 in a covered earthenware crucible to a red heat : the whole 
 is allowed to coul slowly, and when cold the stones are 
 removed and washed. 
 
 3. Mocha stones, originally brought from the East, are 
 clear grayish calcedonies, with clouds and dashes of rich 
 brown of various shades. They probably owe their colour 
 chiefly to art. 
 
 4. M ' s are such as contain arborisations or den- 
 drites of oxide of iron, some of which seem to be petrifac- 
 tions of rial vegetable forms. 
 
 5. Bloodstone is a dark-green agate containing bright 
 red spots like blood-drops. 
 
 6. Plasma, a grass-green stone, found engraved in ruins 
 at Home, on the Schwartzwald, and on Mount Olympus, 
 appears to be calcedony coloured by chlorite. 
 
 7. Chrysoprase, found in Silesia, is an agate coloured 
 apple-green by oxide of nickel. 
 
 The agate can be cut or sawed easily, and is used for 
 making cups, rings, seals, handles for knives and fork?, 
 sword-hilts, rosary beads, and a great variety of trinkets. 
 Many stones of this kind are marked with representations 
 of men, animals, or inanimate natural objects; but there 
 can be no question that a very large proportion of these are 
 to be regarded as productions of art. 
 
 AGATHAIiCHIDES, a celebrated Greek grammarian 
 and geographer who flourished about 140 years B.C., was 
 born at C'nidos. His works are lost, except those passages 
 quoted by Diodorus Siculus and other authors, in which 
 he describes the gold mines of Upper Egypt, and gives the 
 first philosophical explanation of the inundations of the 
 Nile, which he ascribed to the rains on the mountains of 
 Ethiopia. (Hudson's Greek Geographers.) 
 
 AGATHARCHUS, a Greek painter, commemorated by 
 Vitruvius for having first applied the laws of perspective to 
 architectural painting, which he used successfully in prepar- 
 ing scenery for the plays of jEschylus. He flourished about 
 480 years B.C. 
 
 AGaTHIAS, a Greek historian and poet, born at Myrina 
 in Asia Manor, about 536 a.d. He was educated at Alex- 
 andria, and in 554 went to Constantinople, where, after 
 studying Roman law for some years, he practised as an advo- 
 cate. The title " Scholasticus," generally given to Agathias, 
 was that by which advocates were known in Constanti- 
 nople. Of the poetry by Agathias but little remains ; his 
 Daphniaca (Aa.<j>via.KcL), a collection of erotic poems, being 
 entirely lost, and only the introduction to his Kv'kXos, or 
 anthology from earlier and contemporary writers, being 
 extant. A number of his epigrams may be found in the 
 Anthologia Grcsci His principal work is his history, 
 which begins, where Procopius ends, with the 2Gth year of 
 the reign of Justinian (553), and carries on the narrative 
 of event3 until 558. It is valuable as a chronicle, but the 
 style is turgid, and great ignorance is shown of the history 
 and geography of western Europe. It was printed in 
 Greek, with a Latin translation by Bonaventura Vnlcanius, 
 at Ley den in 1594. The best edition is that of Niebuhr 
 (Bonn, 1828). A French translation is included in the 
 second volume of Louis Cousin's II istory of Constantinople. 
 
 AGATHO, an Athenian tragic poet, the disciple of Pro- 
 dicus and Socrates, celebrated by Plato in his Protagoras 
 for his virtue and his beauty. A tragedy of his obtained 
 the prize in the fourth year of the 90th Olympiad, and 
 he was crowned, in the presence of upwards of 30,000 
 persons, when a little over thirty years of age. There are no 
 remains of his works, except a few quotations in Aristotle, 
 Athenseus, and others. 
 
 AGATHOCLES, a famous tyrant of Sicily, was the 
 son of a potter at Rhegium. By his singular vigour and 
 abilities he raised himself through various gradations of 
 
 rank till lie finally made himself tyrant of Syracuse, and 
 then of nearly all Sicily. t He defeated the armies of the 
 ims .several times, both in Sicily and Africa; 
 but at length he met with a reverse, and his soldiers' pay 
 being in arrears, they mutinied, forced him to fly his 
 camp, and murdered his sons. Recovering hiiy.sclf, he 
 relieved Corcyra, which was besieged by Cassander; burnt 
 the Macedonian fleet; and revenged the death of liis chil- 
 dren by putting the murderers, with their wives and fami- 
 lies, to the sword. After ravaging the sea-coast of Italy 
 he took the city of Hipponium. The last years of his life 
 were greatly harassed with ill-health and the turbulence of 
 his grandson Archagathus. He died in the seventy-second, 
 year of his age, B.C. 290, after a reign of twenty-eight 
 year. 
 
 AGDE, a town of France, in the department of Hcrault, 
 on the left bank of the river of that name, 30 miles S.W. 
 of Montpellier. It is a place of great antiquity, and is said 
 to have been founded, under the name of Agalhe, by the 
 Greeks. In the neighbourhood there is an extinct volcano, 
 and the town is built of black volcanic basalt, which gives 
 it a grim and forbidding aspect. It has a fine old Gothic 
 cathedral, a college, and a school of navigation. The 
 Canal du Muli, or Languedoc canal, uniting the Garonne 
 with the Mediterranean Sea, passes under the walls of the 
 town, and the mouth of the Herault forms a convenient 
 harbour, which is protected by a fort. Thus advantageously- 
 situated, the place commands an extensive coasting trade, 
 more than 400 vessels annually entering the port. Soap 
 and verdigris are manufactured, and the staple productions 
 of southern France are largely exported. Population, 
 9747. 
 
 AGE, a term denoting- generally any fixed period of 
 time, is used more definitely in a variety of senses. Classi- 
 cal mythology divided the whole history of the earth into 
 a number of periods. Hesiod, for example, in his poem 
 Work* and Days, describes minutely five successive ages, 
 during each of which the earth was peopled by an entirely 
 distinct race. The first or golden race lived in perfect 
 happiness on the fruits of the unfilled earth, sufTcred frorr 
 no bodily infirmity, passed away in a gentle sleep, and 
 became after death guardian daemons of this world. The 
 second or silver race was degenerate, and refusing tc 
 worship the immortal gods, was buried by Jove in the 
 earth. The third or brazen race, still more degraded, wa.<, 
 warlike and cruel, and perished at last by internal violence. 
 The fourth or heroic race was a marked advance upon the 
 preceding, its members being the heroes or demi-gods who 
 fought at Troy and Thebes, and who were rewarded after 
 death by being permitted to reap thrice a-year the free 
 produce of the earth. The fifth or iron race, to which the 
 poet supposes himself to belong, is the most degenerate of 
 all, sunk so low in every vice that any new change must be 
 for the better. Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, follows Hesiod 
 exactly as to nomenclature and very closely as to substance. 
 He makes the degeneracy continuous, however, by omitting 
 the heroic race or age, which, as Grote points out, was 
 .probably introduced hj Hesiod, not as part of his didactic 
 plan, but from a desire to conciliate popular feeling by 
 including in his poem the chief myths that were already 
 current among the Greeks. 
 
 A definite period in history distinguished by some 
 special characteristic, such as great literary activity, is 
 generally styled, with some appropriate epithet, an age. 
 It is usual, for example, to speak of the age of Pericles, the 
 Augustan age, the Elizabethan age; of the age of the 
 crusades, the dark ages, the middle ages, the age of steam. 
 Such isolated periods, with no continuity or necessary con- 
 nection of any kind, are obviously quite distinct from the 
 ages or organically-related periods into wliich certain
 
 A G E — A G E 
 
 £79 
 
 eminent modern philosophers hare divided the whole 
 course of human history. According to Fichte's scheme 
 there are five ages, distinguished by the relative predomi- 
 nance which instinct, external authority, and reason have 
 in them respectively, instinct being supreme in the first 
 and reason in the last. Comte's scheme distinguishes 
 three ages according to the state of knowledge in each, and 
 he supposes that we are now entering upon the third of 
 these. In the first age of his scheme knowledge is super- 
 natural or fictitious; in the second it is metaphysical or 
 abstract; in the third it is positive or scientific. Schemes 
 somewhat similar have been proposed by other philosophers, 
 chiefly of France and Germany, and seem to be regarded 
 by them as essential to any complete science of history. 
 
 In relation to individual as well as to social life, age is 
 used with a considerable variety of application. It frequently 
 denotes the total duration of life in man, animals, or plants, 
 and in this sense belongs to the subject of Longevity (q.v.) 
 It also denotes in man the various periods into which his life 
 may be divided, either from a physiological or from a legal 
 point of view. In the former aspect perhaps the most 
 common division is into the four ages of infancy, youth, 
 manhood, and old age. These again have been increased 
 to six or seven by some physiologists — infancy, childhood, 
 boyhood or girlhood, adolescence, manhood or womanhood, 
 age, and old age or second childhood. While both schemes 
 have a sufficient basis of scientific accuracy, they have also 
 each attracted the fancy of the poet. Ovid in his Metamor- 
 phoses (xv. 198-213) makes a beautiful comparison between 
 the four ages of a man's life and the four seasons of the 
 year, in a passage which has been frequently imitated; and 
 the sevenfold division has been exquisitely cast into poetic 
 form by Shakespeare in As You Like It, act .'\ scene 7. 
 The division of human life into periods for legal purposes 
 is naturally more sharp and definite than the foregoing. It 
 would be unscientific in the physiologist to name any pre- 
 cise year for the transition from one of his stages to another, 
 inasmuch as that differs very considerably among different 
 nations, and even to some extent among different indi- 
 viduals of the same nation. But the law must necessarily 
 be fixed and uniform, and even where it professes to pro- 
 ceed according to nature, must be more precise than nature. 
 The Boman law divided human life for its purposes into 
 four chief periods, which had their subdivisions — (1.) 
 Infantia, lasting till the close of the seventh year; (2.) 
 The period between infantia and puberias, males becoming 
 puberes at fourteen and females at twelve; (3.) Adolescentia, 
 the period between pubertyand majority; and(4.)The period 
 after the twenty-fifth year, when males become majores. The 
 first period was one of total legal incapacity; in the second 
 period a person could lawfully do certain specified acts, but 
 only with the sanction of his tutor or guardian; in the 
 third the restrictions were fewer, males being permitted to 
 manage their own property, contract marriage, and make a 
 will; but majority was not reached until the age of twenty- 
 five. By English law there are two great periods into 
 which life is divided — infancy, which lasts in both sexes 
 until the twenty-first year, and manhood or womanhood. 
 The period of infancy, again, is divided into several stages, 
 marked by the growing development both of rights and 
 obligations. Thus at twelve years of age a male may take 
 the oath of allegiance; at fourteen both sexes are held to 
 have arrived at years of discretion, and may therefore 
 choose guardians, give evidence, and consent or disagree to 
 a marriage. A female has the last privilege from the 
 twelfth year, but the marriage cannot be celebrated until 
 the majority of the parties without the consent of parents 
 or guardians. At fourteen, too, both sexes are fully re- 
 sponsible to the criminal law. Between seven and fourteen 
 there is responsibility only if the accused be proved doli 
 
 capax, capable of discerning between right and wrong, the 
 principle in that case being that malitia suppLet oztatem. 
 At twenty-one both males and females obtain their full 
 legal rights, and become liable to all legal obligations. A 
 seat in the British Parliament may be taken at twenty-one. 
 Certain professions, however, demand as a qualification in 
 entrants a more advanced age than that of legal manhood. 
 In the church a candidate for deacon's orders must be 
 twenty-three, and for priest's orders twenty-four years of 
 age; and no clergyman is eligible for a bishopric under 
 thirty. In Scotland infancy is not a legal term. The 
 time previous to majority, which, as in England, is reached 
 by both sexes at twenty-one, is divided into two stages : 
 pupilage lasts until the attainment of puberty, which the 
 law fixes at fourteen in males and twelve in females; 
 minority lasts from these ages respectively until twenty-one. 
 Minority obviously corresponds in some degree to the 
 English years of discretion, but a Scotch minor has more 
 personal rights than an English infant in the last stage of 
 his infancy, e.g., he may dispose by will of moveable 
 property, make contracts, carry on trade, and, as a neces- 
 sary consequence, is liable to be declared a bankrupt. 
 Among foreign nations the law on this matter is somewhat 
 varied. La France the year of majority is twenty-one, and 
 the nubile age, according to the Code Napoleon, eighteen 
 for males and fifteen for females, -with a restriction as to 
 the consent of guardians. In Germany majority is usually 
 reached at twenty-four, though in some states (Bavaria, 
 Saxony, Wurtemburg, and Baden) the age is twenty-one. 
 In the United States the age qualification for a president 
 is thirty-five, for a senator thirty, and for a representative 
 twenty-five. 
 
 AGELADAS, an eminent statuary of Argos, and the 
 instructor of the three gTeat sculptors, Phidias, Myron, 
 and Polycletus. There is considerable difference in the state- 
 ments of the date when he flourished. Thiersch meets the 
 difficulty by supposing that there was another artist of the 
 same name. 
 
 AGELXOTH, ^Ethelnoth, or Ethelnoth, known 
 also as Achelnotus, son of Egelmaer the Earl, Archbishop 
 of Canterbury in the reign of Canute, was trained in 
 the monastery at Glastonbury, for which he afterwards 
 obtained new privileges from the king. According to 
 William of Malmesbury, he exercised a great and salutary 
 influence over Canute in the way both of encouragement 
 and restraint He was appointed dean of Canterbury and 
 chaplain to the king, and was raised to the archbishopric 
 on the death of Living in 1020. He wisely counselled 
 Canute to that course of policy which ultimately led to 
 the fusion of Danes and Saxons, and their united resistance 
 to the invasion of the Normans; and similar pacific counsels 
 in the church brought about a temporary cessation of the 
 mutual persecution on the part of the Benedictine and 
 secular clergy. It being necessary that the archbishop 
 should visit Borne in person to receive the pall, he repaired 
 thither in 1022, and was received by -Pope Benedictine 
 VIIL with every mark of honour. At Pavia, on his way 
 home, he purchased a relic, which was said to be the right 
 arm of St Augustine of Hippo, at the cost of 100 talents* 
 of silver and 1 of gold. This he sent as a present ti> 
 Leofric, the young Earl of Mercia. With his own wealth 
 and liberal grants from Canute he restored and adorned 
 his cathedral. When Canute died, he made the archbishop 
 promise to be faithful to his sons by Emma, and the pro- 
 mise was so truly kept that Harold, the usurper, remained 
 unconsecrated until after the death of Agelnoth (103S). 
 
 AGEN, the chief town of the department of Lot-et- 
 Garonne in France, is situated on the right bank of the 
 Garonne, 73 miles S.E of Bordeaux. Through its ex- 
 cellent water communication it affords an outlet for the
 
 280 
 
 A G E — A G E 
 
 agricultural produce of the district, and forms an entrepot 
 of trade between Bordeaux and Toulouse. Its chief manu- 
 factures are sail-cloth, cotton, linen, leather, and starch. 
 It has a college and several literary institutions, and is 
 the seat of a bishop and a high court of justice. There is 
 a fine bridge of eleven arches over the Garonne. In 1872 
 the population was 18,887. 
 
 AGENT, in Diplomacy, Commerce, and Jurisprudence, 
 is a name applied generally to any person who acts for 
 another. It has probably been adopted from France, as 
 its function in modern civil law was otherwise expressed 
 in Roman jurisprudence. Ducange (s.v. Agenles) tells us 
 'hat in the later Roman empire the officers who collected 
 the grain in the provinces for the troops and the household, 
 and afterwards extended their functions so as to include 
 those of government postmasters or spies, came to be called 
 agenles in rebus, their earlier name having been frumentarii. 
 In Diplomacy, a class of semi-ambassadors termed agents 
 have been employed generally between states of unequal 
 power. The small community might send an agent to 
 propitiate some powerful government, and secure its protec- 
 tion. A great power would, on the other hand, distribute 
 its agents among the petty states which it kept in clientage, 
 to see that no counteracting influence was at work among 
 them. In this shape our Indian government keep agencies 
 in the protected and other neighbouring states. Similarly, 
 though this class does not fall within the scope of public 
 international law, the self-governing British colonies now 
 employ agents to attend to their interests and represent 
 them in the mother country. The status of diplomatic 
 agents, not of the classes of ambassadors, envoys, ministers, 
 or charges d'affaires, is extremely ill-defined and uncer- 
 tain. | Phillimore's International Law, ii 246; Heffter 
 Europdisckes Volkerrecht, § , 222.) See Ambassador; 
 Diplomacy. 
 
 The law of Principal and Agent has its origin in the 
 law of mandate among the Romans, and fortunately even 
 in England the spirit of that system of jurisprudence 
 pervades this branch of the law. The law of agency is 
 thus almost alike throughout the whole British empire, 
 and a branch of the British commercial code, in which it 
 is of great importance that different nations should under- 
 stand each other's system, differs only slightly from the 
 law of the rest of Europe. 
 
 In a general view of the law of agency it is necessary 
 to have regard to the rights and duties of the principal, 
 the agent, and the public. The agent should not do what 
 he has no authority for; yet if he be seen to have authority, 
 those with whom he deals should not be injured by secret 
 and unusual conditions. The employer is bound by what 
 his agent does in his name, but the public are not entitled 
 to take advantage of obligations which are known to 
 b? unauthorised and unusuaL The agent is entitled to 
 demand performance by the principal of the obligations 
 undertaken by him within the bounds of his commission, 
 but he is not entitled to pledge him with a recklessness 
 which he would certainly avoid in the management of his 
 own affairs. It is in the regulation of these powers and 
 corresponding checks in such a manner that the legal 
 principle shall apply to daily practice, that the niceties of 
 this branch of the law consist. 
 
 Agents are of different kinds, according to their stipu 
 lated r consuetudinary powers. The main restraint in the 
 possible powers of an agent is in the old maxim, delegatus 
 rum potest delegare, designed to check the complexity that 
 might be created by inquiries into repeatedly-deputed 
 responsibility. The agent, cannot delegate his commission 
 or put another in his place ; but in practice this principle 
 is sometimes modified, for it so may arise from the nature 
 ot bos office that he is to employ other persons for the 
 
 accomplishment of certain objects. Thus, there is nothing 
 to prevent a commercial agent from sending a portion of 
 the goods entrusted by him to his own agent for disposal. 
 In the general case agency is constituted by the 
 acceptance of the mandate or authority to act for the 
 principal, and the" evidence of this may be either verbal 
 or in writing. The English statute of frauds requires an 
 agent to have authority in writing for the purposes of its 
 1st, 2d, and 3d clauses relating to leases. "And it is 
 a general rule, that an agent who has to execute a deed, 
 or to take or give livery or seisin, must be appointed by 
 deed for that purpose. Moreover, as a corporation aggre- 
 gate can in general act only by deed, its agent must be 
 so appointed, though it would seem that some trifling 
 agencies, even for corporations, may be appointed without 
 one." (Smith'3 Mercantile Law, B. I. chap, iv.) It is a 
 general rule that those obligations which can only be 
 uiuU-rtaken by solemn formalities cannot be entered on by 
 a delegate who has not received his authority in writing. 
 But it is often constituted, at the same time that its extent 
 is defined, by mere appointment to some known and recog- 
 nised function — as where one is appointed agent for a 
 banking establishment, factor for a merchant, broker, 
 supercargo, traveller, or attorney. In these cases, usage 
 defina3 the powers granted to the agent; and the employer 
 will not readily be subjected to obligations going beyond 
 the usual functions of the office ; nor will the public dealing 
 with the agent be bound by private instructions inconsist- 
 ent with its usual character. While, however, the public, 
 ignorant of such secret limitations, are not bound to respect 
 them, tho agent himself is liable for the consequences of 
 transgressing them. Agency may also be either created 
 or enlarged by implication. What the agent has done with 
 his principal's consent the public are justified in believing 
 him authorised to continue doing. Thus, as a familiar 
 instance, the servant who has continued to purchase goods 
 for his master at a particular shop on credit is presumed 
 to retain authority and trust, and pledges his master's 
 credit in farther purchase's, though he should, without the 
 knowledge of. the shopkeeper, apply the articles to his 
 own uses. The law is ever jealous in admitting as acces- 
 sories of a general appointment to any particular agency 
 the power to borrow money in the principal's name, to 
 give his name to bill transactions, and to pledge him 
 to guaranties ; but all these acts may be authorised by 
 implication, or by being the continuation of a series of 
 transactions, of the same kind and in the same line of 
 business, to which the principal has given his sanction. 
 Thus an employer may, by the previous sanction of such 
 operations, bo liable for the bills or notes drawn, indorsed, 
 and accepted by his clerk or other mandatary; nay, may 
 be responsible for the obligations thus incurred after the 
 mandatary's dismissal, if the party dealing with him knew 
 that he was countenanced in such transactions, and had 
 no reason to suppose that he was dismissed In ques- 
 tions of this kind the distinction between a general and 
 a special agent is important. A general agent is employed 
 to transact all his principal's business of a particular kind, 
 at a certain place, — as a factor to buy and sell ; a broker 
 to negotiate contracts of a particular kind; an attorney to 
 transact his legal business; a shipmaster to do all things 
 relating to the employment of a ship. Such an agent's 
 power to do everything usual in the line of business in 
 which he is employed is not limited by any private restric- 
 tion or order unknown to the party with whom he is deal- 
 ing. On the contrary, it is incumbent on the party dealing 
 with a particular agent, i.e., one specially employed in 
 a single transaction, to ascertain the extent of his autho- 
 rity. The law applicable to a mercantile agent's power to 
 pledge or otherwise dispose of the goods entrusted to him
 
 A G U — A G E 
 
 281 
 
 being in an unsatisfactory state, a statutory remedy was 
 applied to it by an Act of 1825 (6 Geo. IV. c. 94), which 
 required amendment in 1842 (5 and 6 Vict. c. 39). 
 
 The general object of these measures, which appear 
 to extend to Scotland, is to make transactions with an 
 agent in possession of goods as safe as dealing with the 
 owner, to all who treat with him, as purchasers or other- 
 wise, in good faith, and in ignorance of his want of owner- 
 ship. Thus, when an agent ships goods in his own name, 
 the consignee is entitled to a lien on them for any advances 
 to the agent, or liabilities on bills or notes, if he has not 
 notice by the bill of lading or otherwise at or before the 
 time of the advance or receipt that such person is not the 
 actual and bond fide owner. The presumption in such 
 cases is ownership; and the burden of disproving it, as 
 well as of showing that the consignee was aware of the 
 mere agency, falls on the person questioning the validity. 
 By the statutes, the person entrusted with and in possession 
 of a bill of lading, dock warrant, warehouse-keeper's certi- 
 ficate, wharfinger's certificate, or other delivery warrant, is 
 held the owner of the goods it represents, so as to render 
 valid any transaction for their sale or disposition of the 
 goods, or the deposit or pledge thereof, or of any part 
 thereof, to parties ignorant of the limited' ownership. Be- 
 sides their effect in rendering valid, in this more compre- 
 hensive manner, operations conducted under the appearance 
 and supposition of absolute ownership, the acts have 
 separate provisions for the security of those who deal 
 with agents, knowing them to be such. The acts, how- 
 ever, must be studied in their very words, which are not 
 remarkable for clearness. The following brief descrip- 
 tion of their general effect, taken from Chitty's Collec- 
 tion of Statutes, may be useful : — " First, where goods or 
 documents for the delivery of goods are pledged as a 
 security for present or future advances, with the knowledge 
 that they are not the property of the factor, but without 
 notice that he is acting without authority, in such a case 
 the pledgee acquires an absolute lien. Secondly, where 
 goods are pledged by a factor without notice to the pledgee 
 that they are the property of another, as a security for 
 a pre-existing debt., in that case the pledgee acquires the 
 same right as the factor had. Thirdly, where a contract 
 to pledge is made in consideration of the delivery of other 
 goods or documents of title, upon which the person deliver- 
 ing them up had a lien for a previous advance (which is 
 deemed to be a contract for a present advance), in that 
 case the pledgee acquires an absolute lien to the extent 
 of the value of the goods given up." The statutes are 
 applicable only to proper mercantile transactions, and not, 
 for example, to advances upon the security of furniture in 
 a furnished house to the apparent owner. (See Smith's 
 Leading Cases, vol. i. p. 759 sqq., 6th ed.) 
 
 The obligations of the principal are — to pay the agent's 
 remuneration, or, as it is often called, commission, the 
 amount of which is fixed by contract or the usage of 
 trade ; to pay all advances made by the agent in the 
 regular course of his employment ; and to honour the 
 obligations lawfully undertaken for him. The agent is 
 responsible for the possession of the proper skill and' means 
 for cat rying out the functions which he undertakes. He 
 must devote to the interests of his employer such care and 
 attention as a man of ordinary prudence bestows on his 
 own — a duty capable of no more certain definition, .the 
 application of it as a fixed rule being the function of a 
 jury. He is bound to observe the strictest good faith; and 
 in some instances the law interposes to remove him from 
 temptation to sacrifice his employer's interests to his own : 
 thus, when he is employed to buy, he must not be the seller; 
 and when employed to sell, he must not be the purchaser. 
 He ought only to deal with persons in good credit, but he 
 
 is not responsible for their absolute solvency unless he 
 guarantee them. A mercantile agent guaranteeing the pay- 
 ments he treats for is said to hold a del credere commission. 
 
 In Scotland the procurators or solicitors who act in 
 the preparation of cases in the various law-courts, and all 
 who take out the attorney licence, are called agent3. See 
 Attorney. 
 
 In France, the Agents de Change were formerly the class 
 generally licensed for conducting all negotiations, as they 
 were termed, whether in commerce or the money market. 
 Of late the term has been practically limited to those who 
 conduct, like our stockbrokers, transactions in public stock ; 
 and it i3 understood that it is rather as speculators than aa 
 agents that the majority of them, adopt the profession. 
 The laws and regulations as to courtiers, or those whoso 
 functions were more distinctly confined to transactions iu 
 merchandise, have been mixed up with those applicable to 
 agents de change. Down to the year 1572 both functions 
 were free; but at that period, partly for financial reasons, 
 a system of licensing was adopted at the suggestion of 
 the Chancellor l'Hopital. Among the other revolutionary 
 measures of the year 1791, the professions of agent and 
 courtier were again opened to the public. Many of the 
 financial convulsions of the ensuing years, which were due 
 to more serious causes, were attributed to this indiscrimi- 
 nate removal of restrictions, and they were reimposed in 
 1801. From that period regulations have been made 
 from time to time as to the qualifications of agents, the 
 security to be found by them, and the like. They are now- 
 regarded as public officers, appointed, with certain privileges 
 and duties, by the government, to act as intermediaries 
 in negotiating transfers of public funds and commercial 
 stocks, and for dealing in metallic currency. 
 
 AGESILAUS, king of the Lacedaemonians, the second 
 of the name, son of Archidamus EL, was, through the 
 influence of Lysander, raised to the throne in 398 B.C., 
 in opposition to the superior claim of his nephew Leoty- 
 chides. Immediately on his accession he advised the 
 Lacedaemonians to anticipate the king of Persia, who was 
 making great preparations for war, and attack him in his 
 own dominions. He was himself chosen for this expedit 
 and gained so many advantages over the enemy that, if 
 the league which the Athenians and the Thebans formed 
 against the Lacedaemonians had not obliged him to return 
 home, it seems probable that he would have carried his 
 victorious arms into the very heart of the Persian empire. 
 But he readily gave up all these triumphs to come to the 
 succour of his country, which he happily relieved by his 
 victory over the allies at Chaeronea, in Boeotia, 394 EC. 
 He obtained another near Corinth ; but, to his great mor- 
 tification, the Thebans afterwards gained several victories 
 over the Lacedaemonians. This at first raised a clamour 
 against him. He had been ill when the course of victory 
 turned in favour of the enemy; but as soon as he was able 
 to act in person his valour and prudence prevented the 
 Thebans from reaping the advantages of their successes ; 
 so that it was generally believed that, had he been in 
 health at the beginning, the Lacedaemonians would have 
 sustained no losses, and that without him all would have 
 been lost It cannot bo denied, however, that his fond- 
 ness for war occasioned many losses to his countrymen, 
 and led them into enterprises which in the end con- 
 tributed much to weaken their power. He died in the 
 third year of the 103d Olympiad, being the 84th year of 
 his age and 38th of his reign, and was succeeded by his 
 son Archidamus. Agesilaus, though a vigorous ruler and 
 great general, was of small stature, and lame from his 
 hirth. His accession to the throne was, indeed, opposed 
 on this ground, an oracle having foretold evils to Sparta 
 under a lame sovereignty. As we have seen, the oracle wa#
 
 L'*2 
 
 A G G — A G I 
 
 so far fuelled that many troubles befell the state during 
 his reigu. Few of these, however, are traceable to the 
 policy of the king, whose public life was illustrated by a 
 series of brilliant victories over the enemies of his country. 
 In character, Agesilaus seems to have possessed the Spartan 
 virtues of courage, temperance, and fortitude, without the 
 Spartan vices of hardness, cupidity, and injustice. His 
 life and merits have been commemorated by Xenophon, 
 Plutarch, Diodorus Siculus, and Cornehus Nepos. 
 
 AGGREGATION, States of, the three states— solid, 
 liquid, and gaseous — in which matter occurs, depending on 
 the degree of cohesion that subsists between the molecules 
 or atoms of material bodies. In the solid state, the mole- 
 cules cohere so firmly that their relative positions cannot 
 be changed without the application of force, and the body 
 retains a definite form ; in the liquid state, they move 
 freely and readily on each other, the cohesion that exists 
 being so slight that the body has itself no form ; in the 
 gaseous state, they are affected by an elastic force that 
 amounts to repulsion, tending to separate them, and so 
 diffuse them through an increased space. The metals, 
 glass, wood, &c, are solids ; water and atmospheric air are 
 the most familiar types of liquid and gaseous bodies. The 
 name fluid is sometimes used to denote both gases and 
 liquids, which are designated elastic and non-elastic fluids 
 respectively. These states of aggregation are not in every 
 case — many now believe they are not in any case — per- 
 manent and unchangeable. Metals can be melted and 
 vaporised ; the liquid water is convertible into ice and into 
 steam; and a number of what were formerly reckoned fixed 
 or permanent gases have been liquified and solidified. Solids 
 are reduced to liquid, and liquids to gaseous forms, princi- 
 pally by heat ; pressure effects changes of the opposite kind. 
 
 AGHRIM, or Auchkim, a small village in Galway, 4 
 miles W. of Ballinasloe, is rendered memorable by the de- 
 cisive victory gained there, on 12th July 1691, by the 
 forces of William III., under General Gink ell, over those 
 of James H, under the French general St Ruth. The Irish, 
 numbering 25,000, and strongly posted behind marshy 
 ground, at first maintained a vigorous resistance ; but 
 Ginkell, having penetrated their line of defence, and their 
 general being struck down by a cannon-ball at this critical 
 moment, they were at length overcome and routed with ter- 
 rible slaughter. The loss of the English did not exceed 700 
 killed and 1 000 wounded ; while the Irish, in their disastrous 
 flight, lost about 7000 men, besides the whole material of 
 the army. This defeat rendered the adherents of James in 
 Ireland incapable of farther efforts, and was speedily fol- 
 lowed by the complete submission of the country. 
 
 AGLNCOURT, or Azincottrt, a French village, in the 
 department of Pas de Calais, situated in 50° 35' N. lat., 
 2° 10' E. long., famous on account of the victory obtained 
 there by Henry V. of England over the French. Follow- 
 ing the example of several of hi3 predecessors, the young 
 king crossed over to France in the third year of his reign' 
 on a military expedition. Having landed at the mouth of 
 the Seine, he took and sacked Harfieur after a siege of 
 thirty-six days, but the army was so much reduced in 
 strength, especially by disease, that some of Henry's ad- 
 visers counselled a return home without following up the 
 advantage. The proud spirit of the young king, however, 
 would not submit to this, and he resolved on a march 
 through the country to what was then the English forti- 
 fied town of Calais, though he knew that a force vastly 
 superior to his own was in the field to oppose him. On 
 the morning of Friday, the 25th of October, 1415 A.D., 
 Of. Crispin's day, the English and French armies were 
 ranged in order of battle, each in three lines, with bodies 
 of cavalry on both wings. The Constable d'Albert, who 
 commanded the French army, fell into the snare that was 
 
 laid for him, by drawing up his army in a narrow plain 
 between two woods. This deprived him in a great mea- 
 sure of tho advantage he should have derived from the 
 prodigious superiority of his numbers, by obliging him to 
 make his lines unnecessarily deep, and to crowd his troops, 
 particularly his cavalry, so close together that they could 
 hardly move or use their arms. The numbers of the 
 French are differently estimated at from 50,000 to 150,000 
 men, but the latter number is a gross exaggeration. The 
 first line was commanded by the Constable d'Albert, the 
 dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and many other nobles ; 
 the dukes of Alencon, Brabant, and Barre conducted the 
 second line ; and the earls of Marie, Damartine, Faucon- 
 berg, &C., were at the head of the third line. The king of 
 England placed 200 of his best archers in ambush in a 
 low meadow on the flank of the first line of tho French. 
 His own first line consisted wholly of archers, each of 
 whom, besides his bow and arrows, had a battle-axe, a 
 sword, and a stake pointed with iron at both ends, which he 
 fixed before him in the ground, the point inclining outwards, 
 to protect him from cavalry. This was a new invention, 
 and had a happy effect. That he might not bo encum- 
 bered, Henry dismissed all his prisoners on their word 
 of honour to surrender themselves at Calais if he obtained 
 the victory, and lodged all his baggage near the village of 
 Maisoncelles, in his rear, under a slender guard. The 
 main body of the English army, consisting of men-at-arms, 
 was commanded by Henry in person ; the vanguard, com- 
 mitted to Edward Duke of York at his particular request, 
 was posted as a wing to the right ; and the rearguard, 
 commanded by Lord Camois, as a wing on the left. The 
 archers were placed between the wings, in the form of a 
 wedge. The lines being formed, the king, in shining 
 armour, mounted on a fine white horse, rode along them, 
 and addressed each corps with a cheerful countenance and 
 in encouraging language. To inflame their resentment 
 against their enemies, he spoke of the cruelty practised by 
 the French against their prisoners; and to rouse their love 
 of honour, he declared that every soldier in the army who 
 behaved well should thenceforth be deemed a gentleman, and 
 entitled to bear coat armour. The two armies, drawn up 
 in this manner, stood a considerable time gazing at ono 
 another in silence. But the English king, dreading that 
 the French would discover the danger of their situation 
 and decline a battle, commanded the charge to be sounded, 
 about ten o'clock in the forenoon. At that instant the 
 first line of the English kneeled down and kissed the 
 ground ; and then starting up, discharged a flight of 
 arrows, which did great execution among the crowded 
 ranks of tha French. Immediately after, upon a signal 
 being given, the archers in ambush arose, and, discharg- 
 ing their arrows on the flank of the French line, threw it 
 into some disorder. The battle now became general, and 
 raged with great fury. The English archers, having 
 expended all their arrows, threw away their bows, and 
 rushing forward, made dreadful havoc with their swords 
 and battle-axes. The first line of the enemy was by these 
 means defeated, its leaders being either killed or. taken 
 prisoners. The second line, commanded by the Duke 
 d' Alencon (who had made a vow either to kill or take the 
 king of England, or to perish in the attempt), now ad- 
 vanced, and was met by the second line of the English, 
 led by the king. The duke forced his way to the king, 
 and assaulted him with great fury; but Henry brought him 
 to the ground, where he was instantly despatched by the 
 surrounding soldiers, receiving innumerable wounds. Dis- 
 couraged by this disaster, the second line made no more 
 resistance, and the third fled without striking a blow; 
 yielding a complete and glorious victory to the English, 
 after a violent struggle of three hours' duration. In tin*
 
 A G I — A G N 
 
 283 
 
 circumstances, the victory could not be followed up. Henry 
 and his army returned at once by Calais to England, and 
 entered London with a pageant of unprecedented splendour. 
 The number slain in the battle is variously stated. The 
 loss to the conquerors is generally reckoned at 1 GOO men, 
 and the French are said to have left 10,000 slain on the 
 field, including the constable, three dukes, five counts, and 
 ninety barons. (See the Histories of Britain ; and Battle 
 of Agincourt, by Sir Harris Nicolas.) 
 
 AGIO (Ital. aggio, exchange, discount), a term used in 
 commerce to denote the difference between the real and 
 the nominal value of money. In some states the coinage 
 is so debased, owing to the wear of circulation, that the 
 real is greatly reduced below the nominal value. Where 
 this reduction amounts, e.g., to 5 per cent., if 100 sove- 
 reigns were offered as payment of a debt in England while 
 such sovereigns were current there at their nominal value, 
 they would be received as just payment ; but if they were 
 offered as payment of the same amount of debt in a foreign 
 state, they would be received only at their intrinsic value 
 of JE95, the additional £5 constituting the agio. Where 
 the state keeps its coinage up to a standard value, no agio 
 is required. The same principle is applied to the paper 
 currency of a country when reduced below the bullion 
 value which it professes to represent. According as there 
 is more demand for gold or for paper money for the pur- 
 poses of commerce, it often becomes necessary, in order to 
 procure the one of the higher current value, to pay a 
 premium for it, which is called the agio. In countries 
 •where silver coinage is the legal tender, agio is sometimes 
 allowed for payment in the more convenient form of gold. 
 
 AGIS. Four kings of this name reigned at different 
 periods in Sparta. The first of the name was the son of 
 Eurysthenes, and is supposed to have reigned about 1032 
 B.C. The designation of Helots is said to have had its rise 
 in his time, from the unsuccessful revolt of the inhabitants 
 of Helos, and their final enthralment by the Spartans. 
 
 Agis H. succeeded his father Archidamus, and reigned 
 from 427 to 399 B.C. He distinguished himself during 
 the Peloponnesian war as an able and successful general, 
 and headed the Spartans at the great and decisive battle 
 of Mantinea. 
 
 Agis IIL succeeded his father Archidamus III., 338 B.C. 
 He took an active part in the league of the Grecian states 
 against Alexander the Great, and at the head of their forces 
 defeated a Macedonian army under Corragus. He was 
 slain, about 331 B.C., in a battle with Antipater, under the 
 •walls of Megalopolis. 
 
 Agis IY., son of Eudamidas FT., and lineally descended 
 from Agesilaus H., succeeded his father 244 B.C., and 
 reigned four years. He was more distinguished for the 
 social reforms he attempted to introduce at Sparta than 
 for his success as a general. The degenerate state of the 
 Spartan commonwealth led him to attempt a reformation 
 oy restoring the institutions of Lycurgus, and, in the spirit 
 of a true reformer, he set the example in his own person 
 and household. His excellent intentions were seconded 
 by all the younger and poorer portion of the community ; 
 "but the rich and luxurious were vehemently opposed to 
 Aieasurcs which threatened to interfere so seriously with 
 their influence and pleasures. His colleague, Leonidas, 
 headed the opposition, and busily propagated the suspicion 
 •'Jiat Agis aspired to tyranny, by obliterating; the distinc- 
 tions of society and increasing the power of the multi- 
 tude. Agis was supported by the influence of his uncle 
 Agesilaus, who, being deeply in debt, was highly favour- 
 able to the proposed changes. Lysandcr and Mandroc- 
 lides, two of the ephori, were also strenuous promoters of 
 the reform. When the time came for Agis to propose in 
 the senate a general discharge of debts and a new division 
 
 of lands, the measure was lost by a minority of one. The 
 triumph of Leonidas, however, was short. Being accused 
 by Lysander of having violated the laws, he took refuge in 
 the temple of Minerva, and refusing to appear in his own 
 defence, was degraded from his dignity and banished to 
 Tegsea. His son-in-law, Cleombrotus, was elected in his 
 stead. The next election of ephori proved unfavourable to 
 the party of Agis. Lysander and Mandroclides were tried 
 for innovation, but succeeded in persuading the two kings 
 to eject the new magistrates from office, which was effected 
 in the midst of much tumult The reformation might 
 now have been established but for the intrigues of Agesi- 
 laus, whose selfish schemes counteracted the good inten- 
 tions of the two kings. At this time the Achaeans seut 
 to Sparta for assistance in the war with the iEtolians, 
 which was granted. Agis received the command of the 
 troops, and though he gained no advantage over the cau- 
 tious Aratus, the Achaean general, he conducted the 
 campaign with considerable credit from the good discipline 
 he maintained in his army. On his return he found that 
 the misconduct of Argesilaus had resulted in a revolution 
 and the reqall of Leonidas. He took refuge in the temple 
 of Minerva, Cleombrotus in that of Neptune. Leonidas 
 contented himself with banishing his son-in-law, but re- 
 solved on the ruin of Agis. The unfortunate king was 
 accordingly seized and cast into prison, where, after a 
 mock trial, he was sentenced to be strangled. His mother 
 and grandmother in vain entreated to gain him a public 
 hearing : they were insidiously permitted to visit him in 
 prison, where they shared his fate. 
 
 AGISTMENT (from the old French ghir or gi>; to lie ; 
 see Edin. Rev., vol. exxviii. p. 79), the profit arising from 
 taking in cattle to lie and pasture in one's lands, applied 
 more particularly, in the first instance, to the proceeds of 
 pasturage in the king's forests. The tithe of agistment, 
 or "tithe of cattle and other produce of grass lands," was 
 formally abolished by the Act of Union, on a motion sub- 
 mitted with a view to defeat that measure. (See Edin. 
 Rev., vol. xxxiv. p. 73.) 
 
 AGNANO, Lago d', a small circular lake near Naples, 
 about two miles in circumference, and evidently situated 
 in the crater of an extinct volcano. On its banks are the 
 stufe, or natural vapour-baths of San Germano, beneficial 
 in cases of rheumatic disease; and on its opposite shore is 
 the famous Grotta del Cane, from the floor of which car- 
 bonic acid is continually evolved, rising to a height of 
 about 18 inches, in such quantity as to kill dogs that 
 enter it, while a man, on account of his erect posture, 
 wholly escapes tho effects of the gas. (See Spallanzani's 
 Travels.) The grotto is a small artificial excavation, 12 
 feet long by 4 or 5 wide and 6 feet high, seemingly made 
 for obtaining puzzolano, or earthy volcanic tufa. 
 
 AGNATES (Agnati), in Roman Law, arc persons related 
 through males only, as opposed to cognates. Relationship 
 by agnation was founded on the idea of the family held 
 together by the patria poteslas; cognalio involves simply 
 the modern idea of kindred. 
 
 AGXESI, Maria Gaetana, an Italian lady pre- 
 eminently distinguished for her scientific attainments, was 
 born at Milan on the ICth of May 1718, her father being 
 professor of mathematics in the university of Bologna. 
 When only nine years old, she had such command of 
 Latin as to be able to publish an elaborate address in that 
 language, maintaining that the pursuit of liberal studies 
 was not improper for her sex. By her thirteenth year 
 she had acquired Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, Ger- 
 man, and other languages. She was in consequence gene- 
 rally known as " the Walking Polyglot." Two years later 
 her father began to assemble in his house at stated in- 
 tervals a circle of the most learned men in Bologna, before
 
 284 
 
 AGN-AGO 
 
 ivliom she read and maintained a series of theses on the 
 most abstruse philosophical questions. President De 
 Brosses has given an interesting account of one of those 
 meetings, at which he was present, in his Lettres sur 
 Vltalie (torn. i. p. 243); and a permanent record of 
 Agnesi's share in them has been preserved in the Froposi- 
 \iones Philosopkicae, which her father caused to be published 
 in 1738. These displays, being probably not altogether 
 congenial to Maria, who was of a retiring disposition, 
 ceased in her twentieth year, and it is even said that 
 she had at that age a strong desire to enter a convent. 
 Though the wish was not gratified, she lived from that time 
 in a retirement almost conventual, avoiding all society, and 
 devoting herself entirely to the study of mathematics. 
 The most valuable result of her labours was the I itsliluzioni 
 Analitiche ad Uso della Gioventu Italiana, which was pub- 
 lished at Milan in 1748. The first volume treats of the 
 analysis of fiui*<: quantities, and the second of the analysis 
 of infinitesimals. A French translation of the second 
 rolume, by D'Anteln.y, with additions by Bossut, appeared 
 it Paris in 1775; and an English translation of the whole 
 work by Colson, the Lucasian professor of mathematics at 
 Cambridge, was published after his death at the expense 
 of Baron Maseres. The great merit of the work was 
 universally recognised at the time of its publication ; and 
 though in the long interval that elapsed before the English 
 translation appeared the methods of analysis had been 
 greatly improved, it was recognised by a writer in the 
 Edinburgh Review (1803) as still the best introduction to 
 the works of Euler and other mathematicians of the con- 
 tinent. Madame Agnesi also wrote a commentary on the 
 Conic Sections of the Marquis de l'Hopital, which, though 
 highly praised by those who saw it in manuscript, was 
 never published. In 1750, on the illness of her father, 
 she was appointed by Pope Benedict XIV. to occupy the 
 :hair of mathematics and natural philosophy at Bologna. 
 Alter the death of her father, in 1752, she carried out a 
 long-cherished purpose by giving herself to the study of 
 theology, and especially of the fathers. Another purpose, 
 which seems also to have been long cherished, was now 
 ilso fulfilled. After holding for some years the office of 
 directress of the Hospice Trivulzio for Blue Nuns at Milan, 
 she herself joined the sisterhood, and in this austere order 
 ended her days (1799). 
 
 AGNESI, Maria Teresa, sister of the above (died 
 1780), was well known as a musician, having composed a 
 number of cantatas, besides three operas — Sophovisbe, Ciro 
 in Armenia, and Nitocri. 
 
 AQNOETjE (from ayvoim, to be ignorant of), in Church 
 llislory, a sect of ancient heretics who maintained that 
 Christ's human nature did not become omniscient by its 
 union with His divinity. Its founder was Themistius, a 
 deacon of the Monophysites in Alexandria in the 6th cen- 
 tury. The sect was anathematised by Gregory the Great. 
 
 AGNOLO, Baccio d', wood-carver, sculptor, and archi- 
 tect, was born at Florence in 14G0. The first was his 
 original calling, and he Attained considerable distinction in 
 it before he turned his attention to architecture, which he 
 went to Rome to study in 1530. He still carried on 
 wood-carving, and his studio was the resort of the most 
 celebrated artists of the day — Michael Angelo, Sansovius, 
 the brothers Sangallo, and others. On his return to 
 Florence he devoted himself chiefly to architecture, and 
 planned many of the finest palaces and villas of that city, 
 such as the Villa Borghese and the Palais Bartolini. The 
 latter was the first dwelling-house which had what had 
 previously been confined to churches — frontispieces of 
 columns to the doors and windows. For introducing this 
 fashion Agnolo incurred the ridicule of the Florentines; 
 but it nevertheless established itself firmly. Another 
 
 much-admired work of this architect is the campanile 
 or bell-tower of the church Di Santo Spirito in Florence. 
 He was also engaged to complete the drum of the cupola 
 in the metropolitan church Di Santa Maria delFiore; but 
 Michael Angelo found fault with his plans, and the work 
 remains unexecuted to this day. He died in 1543, leaving 
 three sons, archite ts. one of whom, Giuliano, completed 
 his father's unfinished works. 
 
 AGNONE, a town of South Italy, at the foot of Monte 
 Capraro, 20 miles N.W. of Campobasso. It has 10,230 in- 
 habitants, chiefly employed in the manufacture of copper 
 wares, for the excellence of which it is celebrated. 
 
 AGNUS DEI, the figure of a lamb bearing a cross, 
 symbolical of the Saviour as the "Lamb of God." The 
 device occurs in mediaeval sculptures, but the name is 
 especially given in the. Church of Rome to a small cake 
 made of the wax of the Easter candles, and impressed 
 with this figure. Since the 9th century it has been custo- 
 mary for the popes to bless these cakes, and distribute 
 them, on the Sunday after Easter, among the faithful, by 
 whom they are highly prized as having the power to avert 
 evil. In modern times the distribution has been limited 
 to persons of distinction, and is made by the pope on his 
 accession, and every seven years thereafter. 
 
 Agnus Dei is also the popular name for the anthem 
 beginning with these words, which is said to have been 
 introduced into the missal by Pope Sergius I. (687-701). 
 Based upon John i. 29, the Latin form is Agnus Dei, qui 
 tollis peccata mnndi, miserere nobis. In the celebration of 
 the mass it is repeated three times before the communion, 
 and it is also appended to many of the litanies. 
 
 AGOBARD, a Frank, born in 779, became coadjutor to 
 Leidrad, archbishop of Lyons, in 813, and on the death of 
 the latter succeeded him in the. see (816). He was one of 
 the chief supporters of Lothaire and Pepin in their con- 
 spiracy against their father, Louis le Debonnaire, and was 
 in consequence deposed by the council of Thionville (835). 
 On making an ap61ogy for his conduct, and becoming 
 reconciled to the emperor, he was reinstated in 837. 
 Agobard's works, which were edited by Baluze in 1665 
 (2 vols. 8vo), show him to have been a man of clear 
 intellect, strongly opposed to the superstitious notions of 
 the time. He wrote against image-worship, the belief in 
 witchcraft, the ascription of tempests to the influence of 
 sorcerers, and trial by the ordeal of fire and water. In 
 the adoptionist controversy Agobard took a prominent part 
 on the orthodox side. He died at Saintonge in 840. 
 
 AGONALIA, in Roman Antiquity, festivals celebrated 
 on the 9th January, 21st May, and 11th December in each 
 year, in honour of Janus, whom the Romans invoked before 
 undertaking any affair of importance. _ Ovid, in his Fasti, 
 i, 319-332, mentions various etymologies of the word. 
 
 AGONIC LINES (from d privative, and ymvia, an 
 angle), the imaginary lines on the earth's surface where 
 the magnetic needle indicates no declination or deviation 
 from the terrestrial meridian — that is, points to the true 
 north and south. There are two great primary agonic 
 lines, varying from time to time, the courses of which for 
 the epochs 1787 (from Hansteen's Magnetismus der Frde) 
 and 1840 (by General Sir E. Sabine) -are firoired in Keith 
 Johnston's Physical Atlas. 
 
 AGONOTHETA, or Agonothetes (i.ywv and ti%u), 
 in Grecian Antiquity, was the president or superintendent 
 of the sacred games. At first the person who instituted 
 the games and defrayed the expenses was the Agonothetes; 
 but in the great public games, such as the Olympic, Pythian, 
 ic, these presidents were the representatives of different 
 states, or were chosen from the people in whose country 
 the games were celebrated. They received the several 
 titles of ala-vfJi'TJTai, fipafieural, ayuivap^ai, aywohUax,
 
 AUO-AGll 
 
 i0Xo8(Tat. They were also called pafiSovxot, or pa.f38ov6fi.oi, 
 from the rod or sceptre emblematic of their authority. 
 
 AGORA (aycLpta, to congregate), the place used among 
 the ancient Greeks as a public market, and corresponding in 
 general with the Roman foTum. From its convenience as 
 a meeting-place, it became in most of the cities of Greece 
 the general resort for social and political purposes. In 
 Thessaly, however, the market-place was kept apart from 
 "the field of freedom," where the commons met; and at 
 Sparta a similar provision was made by the institutions of 
 Lycurgus, that nothing might distract the attention of the 
 auditors. At Athens, with the increase of commerce and 
 political interest, it was found advisable to call public 
 meetings at the Pnyx or the temple of Bacchus; but the 
 important assemblies there, such as meetings for ostracism, 
 were held in the agora. In the best days of Greece the 
 agora was the place where nearly all public traffic was con- 
 ducted. To frequent it, therefore, was equivalent to being 
 actively engaged in business; and "he has forsaken the 
 agora," indicated that a man was a suspicious character. 
 The agora was most frequented in the forenoon, and then 
 only by men. Slaves did the greater part of the purchasing, 
 though even the noblest citizens of Athens did not scruple 
 to buy and sell there. The name dyopd was also given 
 (and this is perhaps the primary use of the word) to the 
 assemblies of the people in the Grecian states. These 
 assemblies '•vere convened by proclamation by order of the 
 sovereign power, a herald inviting aii concerned to the agora. 
 The right of speech and of vote in these assemblies appears 
 to have been restricted to the nobles, all that was allowed 
 to the populace being the indication of their sentiments 
 on the topics brought before them by signs of applause or 
 disapproval. At Athens the old agora lay to the west of 
 the citadel. It was adorned with trees planted by Gimon 
 the conqueror of the Persians; and around it numerous 
 public buildings were erected, such as the senate hall and 
 the law courts. The new agora lay to the north of the 
 Acropolis, in the Eretrian quarter. Pausanias is the great 
 architectural authority on the agora? of Megalopolis, Corinth, 
 Elia, Messina, Sparta, &c. Palladius and Vitruvius also 
 give details. The remains of different agorae are described 
 in the works of Texier, Newton, Barth, and other travellers. 
 AGORANOMOI, magistrates in the republics of Greece, 
 whose position and duties were similar to those of the 
 tediles of Rome. In Athens there were ten, chosen annu- 
 ally by lot, five of whom took charge of the city, and five 
 of the harbour. The former saw to the maintenance of 
 order and decency in the markets, took cognisance of the 
 purity of the articles exposed for sale and of all weights 
 &nd measures, and collected the dues; the latter received 
 \he harbour dues and enforced the shipping regulations. 
 
 AGORDO, a town in North Italy, 12 miles N.W. of 
 Belluno. The valley of Imperina, in its vicinity, contains 
 the richest copper mines in Italy. Population, 3000. 
 
 AGOSTA, or Augusta, a city of Sicily, 14 miles N. of 
 Syracuse, and in the province of that name. It is built on 
 a peninsula, and is united to the mainland by a narrow 
 causeway. By some writers it is supposed to occupy the 
 site of ancient Megara Hyblcea. The modern city, which 
 was founded by the emperor Frederick II. in 1229-33, suf- 
 fered severely during the wars of succeeding centuries, and 
 was several times sacked. It had, however, attained consider- 
 able opulence when, in 1693, it was overthrown by an earth- 
 quake, the effects of which were aggravated by the explosion 
 of the powder magazine of the citadel. One-third of the 
 inhabitants perished in this disaster. When the city was 
 rebuilt, the streets were laid out in parallel lines, and the 
 houses were constructed with low roofs, so as to mitigate the 
 results of any recurrence of the calamity. Agosta is forti- 
 fied towards both sea and land; and the harbour, though 
 
 ,2& 
 
 rather difficult of access, is commodious and well sheltered. 
 The chief trade of the town is in salt; and the other exports 
 include wine, cheese, oil, honey, and sardines. Near Agosta 
 the Dutch were defeated by the French in a naval engage- 
 ment in 1676, and their famous admiral, DeRuyter was 
 mortally wounded. Population (1865), 9735. 
 
 AGOSTINI, Leonardo, an eminent antiquary of the 
 17th century, born at Siena. After being employed for 
 some time by Cardinal Barberini to collect works of art for 
 the Barbenm palace, he was appointed by Pope Alexander 
 VII. superintendent of antiquities in the Roman states 
 He issued a new edition of Paruta's Sicilian Medals, with 
 engravings of 400 additional specimens; but a promised 
 volume of letterpress explanation never appeared. In con- 
 junction with Bellori he also published a work on antique 
 sculptured gems, which was translated into Latin by Gro- 
 novius (Amsterdam, 1685). 
 
 AGOSTINO and AGNOLO (or Ancelo) DA SIEXA, 
 two brothers, architects and sculptors, who flourished in the 
 first half of the 14th century. Delia Valle and other com- 
 mentators deny that they were brothers. They certainly 
 studied together under Giovanni Pisano, and in 1317 were 
 jointly appointed architects of their native town, for which 
 they designed the Porta Romana, the church and convent 
 of St Francis, and other buildings. On the recommenda- 
 tion of the celebrated Giotto, who styled them the best 
 sculptors of the time, they were chosen to execute the tomb 
 of Guido, bishop of Arezzo, which that artist had designed. 
 It was esteemed one of the finest artistic works of the 14th 
 century, but unfortunately was destroyed by the French 
 under the Duke of Anjou. 
 
 AGOSTINO, Paolo, an eminent Italian musician, born 
 at Valerano in 1593. He studied under Nanini, and suc- 
 ceeded Ugolini as conductor of the Pope's orchestra in St 
 Peter's. His musical compositions are numerous and of 
 great merit, an Agnus Dei for eight voices being specially 
 admired. He died in 1629. 
 
 AGOUTI, a genus of mammals (the Dasyprocta) found 
 in South America and- in some of the West Indian islands, 
 belonging to the same family as the guinea-pig, viz., that 
 of Cavidce in the order Rodentia. The largest and com- 
 monest species is the D. Aguti, somewhat resembling a 
 rabbit, but about the size of a hare, whence it is sometimes 
 called the rabbit or hare of South America. The feet have 
 large and strong claws, but the animal does not burrow; 
 the hind legs are very long, and when eating it squats on 
 them, feeding itself with its fore-paws; and the tail is, 
 except in one species, a very short naked stump. The 
 agoutis are gregarious, live chiefly in woods, and feed on 
 vegetables exclusively, especially on roots and nuts. They 
 commit great havoc in sugar plantations by gnawing the 
 roots of the canes, and in sugar-growing localities are there- 
 fore destroyed as vermin. The flesh, which is tender and 
 well-flavoured, is a common article of diet in Guiana and 
 Brazil. When the Antilles and Bahamas were discovered 
 they are said to have been overrun with these animals, 
 which were the largest quadrupeds then found in the klands. 
 AGRA, a division, district, and city of British India, 
 under the jurisdiction of the lieutenant-governor of the 
 North- Western Provinces. The Agra Division comprises 
 the six districts of Agra, Etawah, Mainpurf, Farrakhabdd, 
 Etah, and Mathura. It is bounded on the N. by the 
 Alfgarh district; on the W. by the Bhartpur, Dholpur, 
 and Gwalior states ; on the S. by the Jalaun and Cawn- 
 pur districts; and on the E. by the Ganges. Agra division 
 contains, according to the census of 1872, a population of 
 5,038,136 souls; of whom 4,607,946 are Hindus, 427,834 
 Mahometans, and 2356 Christians and others. 
 
 Agra District lies between 26° 43' 45" and 27° 24' 
 15" N. laV and between 77° 28' and 78 u 5? E. long.
 
 2?G 
 
 A G K A 
 
 It is bounded on tho N. by tho district of Mathura; on 
 theE. by tho Mainpurf and Etawah districts; on the S. by 
 the Gwalior territory and the Dholpur state ; and on the "W. 
 by the Bhartpur territory. Its area in 1872 was returned 
 at 1873 square miles, and its population at 1,094,184 
 souls. The general appearance of the district is that com- 
 mon to the Doab, a level plain intersected by watercourses 
 (nalAs) and ravines. The only hills are the sandstone eleva- 
 tions in the west and south-west of the district. The prin- 
 cipal rivers are the Jamna, Chambal, Uttangan, and Kharl. 
 The Jamna intersects the district, cutting off the sub- 
 divisions of Itmadpur and Firozabad ; and a branch of the 
 Allgarh division of the Ganges Canal passes through its 
 northern parts. The general elevation of the district is 
 estimated at from 650 to 700 feet above the level of the 
 8ea.' • The soil is sandy; many of the wells are brackish, 
 and the local water supply is scanty. The failure of the 
 periodical rains during the monsoon suffices to produce 
 great scarcity, sometimes reaching the famine point. Only 
 rive towns are returned by the census as containing up- 
 wards of 5000 inhabitants, viz., Agra city .(the capital of 
 the district), population 149,008; Fathipur Sikrf, the site 
 of Akbar*s famous mosque and palace, 6878; Firozabad, 
 14,255; Pinahat, 6571; and Saimra, 5.704. There are 
 three municipalities, viz., Agra city, Firozabad, and Fathi- 
 pur SikrL These muncipalities derive their local revenue 
 from octroi and from property within the municipal limits. 
 The total municipal income and its incidence per head of 
 the population are as follows: — Agra city, municipal income, 
 £15,441, incidence per head, 2s. 0|d.; Firozabad. £724 — 
 Is. per head; Fathipur Sikrf, £366 — Is. .per head. The 
 land revenue of tho whole district was. stated in 1871 at 
 £162,882, and the gross revenue at £660,526. A scheme 
 of rural instruction by means of indigenous schools was 
 introduced in 1848. In 1871-72 there were 431 schools 
 in the district, attended by 10,823 pupils, of whom 8820 
 were Hindus, 1293 Mahometans, and 710 of other deno- 
 minations. The educational establishments within the city 
 will be described below. The police force consisted of 
 1358 regular police in 1871, equal to one man to every 
 1-37 square miles of area, or one to every 805 inhabitants; 
 and a village watch or rural constabulary of 1921 men, 
 being one man to every 97 square miles of area, or one 
 to every 570 inhabitants. The chief crimes of the district, 
 in common with the rest of the Doab, are burglary and theft. 
 Agra City, situated on the banks of the Jamna river, 
 in 27° 10' N. lat., and ' f V E. long., is the head-quarters 
 of the division and capital of the district. Formerly it was 
 the provincial capital also, but since the mutiny the seat 
 of government has been removed from Agra to Allahdbad. 
 fhe city, which is about 4 miles in length by 3 in breadth, 
 sweeps along the banks of the river in a semicircle. The 
 principal thoroughfares are a fine broad Btreet intersecting 
 the town from north to 6onth; and the Strand, which runs 
 along the banks of the river for a distance of 2 miles. 
 This road measures 80 feet in width, and is said to have 
 been constructed by the destitute poor during the famine 
 of 1838. In 1846 the population of the city was esti- 
 mated at 66,000; in 1872 it was ascertained to be 149,000. 
 The .conservancy and improvement of the town are in the 
 hands of a municipal committee, which derives its funds 
 principally from octroi duties. In 1871-72, the municipal 
 income was returned as follows: — Octroi duties, £13,587; 
 miscellaneous receipts, such a3 rent from land belonging to 
 the municipality, &c., £1854— total, £15,441. The details 
 of municipal expenditure were as follow: — Establishment 
 and cost of collection, £1667, 12s.; police, £4041, 12s.; 
 conservancy, £1749, 12a.; lighting, £672, 14s.; watering, 
 £255,10s. k , original works, £35 6 1,16s.; repairs, £1429, 2s.; 
 education £120; Vaccination, £86, 6s.; dispensary, £360; 
 
 charities, £240; grants to cantonments, museum, &c. 
 £1465, 2s. — total, £15,599, 6s. The principal educational 
 establishment in Agra is the Government College, a hand- 
 some building, situated in tho civil lines a short distance 
 from the town. It was established in 1820; in 1872 it 
 contained 385 pupils. The other chief schools are the St 
 John's College, established by the Church Missionary 
 Societyin 1854; the Victoria College, established in 1862; 
 and St Peter's Catholic College. These three colleges in 
 1872 had 643 pupils on their rolls. There is also a medical 
 college, founded in 1853. The total number of student? 
 admitted into it during the sixteen years from 1855 to 
 1870 inclusive, was 1168, of whom 235 passed the pre- 
 scribed examination and received appointments in the 
 government medical service. The Agra fort has a veiy 
 imposing appearance, but is of no great strength. It occu- 
 pies a large space of ground on the banks of the river, 
 enclosed by high walls and towers of red stone. Tho fortress 
 was constructed by the Emperor Akbar in the latter part 
 of the 16th century, and exceeds a mile in circuit. In 
 1803 the place was held by the Marhattas; but being 
 invested by Lord Lake's army, it surrendered after a day's- 
 bombardment. During the mutiny of 1857 it formed a 
 place of refuge for the European and Christian community 
 of Agra, and was threatened by the insurgent sepoys. The 
 buildings of most note within the walls of the fort are the 
 palace and hall of audience of Shah Jahan, and the Motf. 
 Masjid, or " Pearl Mosque." 
 
 " In the centre of the palace," says Mr Fergusson in his History 
 of Architecture, vol. ii., pp. 699-700, " is a great court 600 feet by 
 370, surrounded by arcades, and approached at the opposite ends 
 through a succession of beautiful courts opening into one another 
 by gateways of great magnificence. On one side of this court is 
 the great hall of the palace, the Dfwani-Khas, 208 feet by 76, 
 supported by three ranges of arcades of exquisite beauty. It is open 
 on tflree sides, and with a niche for the throne at the back. This 
 hall is flow used as an arsenal. 'Behind it are two smaller courts, 
 tho one containing the Diwani-Am or hall of private audience, 
 the other the harem. The hall in the former is one of the most 
 elegant of Shah Jahan's buildings, being wholly of white marble- 
 inlaid with precious stones, and the design of the whole being in. 
 the best style of his reign." 
 
 The Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque is the most elegant 
 masque of Indian-Mahometan architecture. A Mr Fergus- 
 son describes it as follows : — 
 
 " Its dimensions are considerable, being externally 235 feet east 
 and west, by 100 feet north and south, and the courtyard 155 feet 
 square. The mass is also considerable, as the whole is raised on a 
 terrace of artificial construction, by the aid of which it stands well 
 oat from the surrounding buildings of the fort. Its chief beauty 
 consists in its courtyard, which is wholly of white marble from the 
 pavement to the. summit of its domes. In design it somewhat 
 resembles the great DeMi mosque, except that the minarets are> 
 omitted, and the side gateways are only recesses. The western part, 
 or mosque properly so called-, is of white marble inside and out ; 
 and, except an inscription from the Kuran inlaid with black marble 
 as a frieze, has no ornament whatever beyond the lines of its own 
 graceful architecture." 
 
 Agra, however, is even more famous for the Taj-Mahal, 
 a splendid mausoleum built by the Emperor Shah Jahan 
 for the remains of his favourite wife, Mumtaza Mahal, and 
 where he himself is also buried. The building is of white 
 marble, with four tall minarets of the same material, one 
 at each corner. The whole rises from an elevated marble 
 terrace. The following account is extracted from Mr 
 Fergusson's Ilutory of Architecture, pp. 692-694: — 
 
 The enclosure, including the gardens and outer court, is a 
 parallelogram of 1860 feet by more than 1000 feet. The outer court, 
 surrounded by arcades and adorned by fonr gateways, forms an 
 oblong occupying in length the whole breadth of tho inclosure, by 
 about 450 feet in depth. The principal gateway, measuring 110 
 feet by 140, leads from the court to the gardens, which, with their 
 marble canals and fountains and cypress trees, are almost as beauti. 
 ful as the tomb itself. The tomb stands on a, raised platform 13 
 feet high, faced with whito marhle.and.ta exactly 818 feet squaie
 
 AGR-AGR 
 
 287 
 
 At each corner of this terrace stands a minaret 133 feet in height, 
 and of the most exquisite proportions — more beautiful, perhaps, 
 than any other in India. In the centre of the marble platform 
 stands the mausoleum, a square of 186 feet, with the corners cut off 
 to the extent of 33 feet 9 inches. The centre of this is occupied by 
 the principal dome, 53 feet in diameter and 80 feet in height, under 
 which is an inclosure formed by a screen of trellis-work of white 
 marble, a cfa:f-d'ceuvre of elegance in Indian art. Within this stand 
 the two tombs. These, however, as is usual in Indian sepulchres, 
 are not the true tombs ; the bodies rest in a vault level with the 
 surface of the ground, beneath plainer tombstones placed exactly 
 underneath those in the hall above. In each angle of the building 
 is a smaller dome of two storeys in height, 26 feet 8 inches in 
 diameter, and connected by various passages and halls. The light 
 to the central apartment is admitted only through double screens of 
 white marble trellis-work of the most exquisite design, one on the 
 outer and one on the inner face of tbe walls. In our climate this 
 would produce nearly complete darkness; but in India, and in a 
 building wholly composed of white marble, this was required to 
 temper the glare, which otherwise would have been intolerable. As 
 it is, no words can express the chastened beauty of that central 
 chamber, seen in the soft gloom of the subdued light whicb reaches 
 it through the distant and half-closed openings that surround it. 
 When used as a pleasure palace, it must nave been the coolest and 
 the loveliest of garden retreats ; and now that it is sacred to the 
 dead, it is the most graceful and most impressive of the sepulchres 
 of the world. This building is an early example of that system of 
 inlaying with precious stones which became the great characteristic 
 of the style of the Mughuls after the death of Akbar. All the span- 
 drils of the Taj, all the angles and more important architectural 
 details, are heightened by being inlaid with precious stones, such 
 as agates, bloodstones, jaspers, and the like. These are combined 
 in wreaths, scrolls, and frets, as exquisite in design as they are 
 beautiful in colour; and, relieved by the pure white marble in 
 which they are inlaid, they form the most beautiful and precious style 
 of ornament ever adopted in architecture. It is lavishly bestowed on 
 the tombs themselves and the screens that surround them, but more 
 sparingly introduced on the mosque that forms one wing of the Taj, 
 and on the fountains and surrounding buildings. The judgment, in- 
 deed, with which this style of ornament is apportioned to the various 
 parts is almost as remarkable as the ornament itself, ind conveys a 
 high idea of the taste and skill of the Indian architects of this age." 
 
 Ta vernier, in his Travels (voL iii., p. 94), mentions that 
 20,000 workmen were incessantly employed on this work 
 during a period of twenty-two years. The tomb of the 
 Emperor Akbar i3 contained in a splendid mausoleum at 
 Sikandra, a suburb of Agra city. 
 
 AGRAM, or Zagrab, the capital of the Austrian pro- 
 vince of Croatia, is finely situated on a hill near the banks 
 of the Save, in 45° 49' N. lat. and 16° 1' E. long., 160 
 miles south of Vienna. It is the seat of the governor of 
 Slavonia and Croatia, of a bishop, of the courts of justice, 
 and of the meetings of the provincial diet. Agram is 
 divided into three parts, called the upper and lower towns, 
 and the town of the bishop. It has a lyceum, library, 
 museum, gymnasium, an ancient cathedral, and a large 
 library. Some silk and porcelain are manufactured, and a 
 brisk trade is carried on in grain, potash, tobacco, and 
 honey. Population in 1869, 19,857. 
 
 AGRARIAN" LAWS (Leges Agrarioe), when used in the 
 most extended signification of the term, are laws for the 
 distribution and regulation of property in land, The his- 
 tory of these enactments is not only important as explana- 
 tory of the constitution of the ancient republics, but is 
 rendered highly interesting by the conflicting opinions which 
 have been entertained respecting their object and operation. 
 It seems to have been a notion generally entertained in the 
 ancient world that every citizen of a country should be a 
 landholder; and that the territory of a state, so far as it 
 was not left uninclosed or reserved for public purposes, 
 should be divided in equal portions among the citizens. 
 Such a distribution of public land seems to have been acted 
 upon as a recognised principle from the earliest period to 
 which existing historical records extend. Hence we find 
 the A l m ighty giving express instructions to Moses as to the 
 manner in which the land of Canaan wacr to be portioned 
 out among the Hebrews (Num. xxxiii. 54), and naming the 
 persons to whom the division was to be entrusted (Num. 
 
 xxxiv. 16-18). A division of the land was accordingly 
 made, and the portion assigned to each man became hr. 
 inalienable property, and descended in perpetuity to -hi' 
 heirs and successors. By the law of Jubilee, all lands wer 
 restored free of encumbrances on the recurrence of th 
 "year of release;" so that, though a man's estate might, ir 
 the interval, have been repeatedly sold or alienated, yet on 
 the return of the fiftieth year it reverted to the heirs of thr 
 original possessor (Lent. xxv. 10). In the republics oi 
 ancient Greece, and also in the Grecian colonies, a similar 
 principle of division of land prevailed (Thuc. v. 4, Herod, 
 iv. 159). Lycurgus is represented by Plutarch (Lycur.) 
 as redividing the whole territory of Laconia into 39,000 
 parcels, of which 9000 were assigned in equal lots to aq 
 many Spartan families, and 30,000, also in equal lots, to 
 their free subjects; and although this statement is not borne 
 out by any of the early Greek historians, and is even incon- 
 sistent with the assertion of Aristotle (Polit. ii. 4), yet it is 
 valuable as recognising the principle of the division of the 
 public lands. (See ThirlwaU's Hist, of Greece, chap, viii, 
 and Grote's Hist, of Greece, part ii chap, vi., with the 
 authorities there quoted.) 
 
 It was long a prevalent and undisputed opinion that the 
 territories of the Hebrews, and of the republics of ancient 
 Greece, were divided into equal portions, and that the 
 object of such a distribution was to maintain a state of 
 equality among all the members of the community. This, 
 however, does not appear to be consistent with the dis- 
 tinctions of rank whicb we find admitted in Scripture (Josh, 
 ix. 15; Txii 14; 1 Sam. ix. 21, <tc, <tc); and from a 
 remark of Thucydides (i. 6), taken in connection with tho 
 statement of Aristotle (Polit. ii 9), it may be legitimately 
 inferred that property did not continue to be equally dis- 
 tributed at Lacedaemon. Distinctions of rank are clearly 
 recognised in the legislation of Solon. Aristotle, in the 
 Second Book of his Politics (chap, vi,, <fcc), explains the 
 constitutions of several of the ancient republics, and endea- 
 vours to show how the population is to be accommodated 
 to this equal division of land ; but it would be foreign to 
 our object to review his arguments. It may be sufficient 
 to remark that such an attempt to arrest the progress of 
 enterprise is altogether inconsistent with the spirit of liberty 
 which gave life and energy to the ancient republics; and 
 that, though it might have been carried into effect under 
 the despotism of Persia or the predominant rule of the 
 kings of Macedonia, it was entirely at variance with the 
 freedom of opinion which prevailed in Greece, and the 
 stubborn resistance to control which animated the Romans 
 after the expulsion of the kings. But granting that such 
 a policy had been practicable, it would have been highly 
 inexpedient. The ignorant Hindu might remain satisfied 
 with the caste which nature had transmitted to him through 
 successive generations, because his progenitors had been 
 prevented from emerging from their obscurity; but the 
 citizens of Greece and Italy, being themselves constituent 
 members of the body politic, and not ignorant of the power 
 thereby conferred on them, could not have been kept in 
 check by the same principle of fear. Such an attempt, 
 moreover, to prevent the acquisition of property would 
 have obstructed the advancement of the arts of civilised 
 life, would have extinguished those feelings of patriotism 
 which led the Greeks so often to hazard their lives in 
 defence of their country, and, by engendering discontent 
 and exciting internal commotions, would have made them 
 an easy prey to their enemies. 
 
 The expression Agrarian Laws, however, is more com- 
 monly applied to the enactments among the Romans for 
 the management of the public domains (agerpublicus); and 
 to an account of these the remainder of our space must be 
 devoted. It is a singular fact that, while almost evsry other
 
 288 
 
 AGRARIAN LAWS 
 
 subject connected with the Roman constitution had been 
 successfully investigated and explained,- the object and in- 
 tention of the agrarian law3 were entirely misunderstood 
 by scholars for many centuries after the revival of letters. 
 They were invariably represented as intended to prohibit 
 Roman citizens from holding property in land above a 
 certain fixed amount; and as authorising the division 
 among the poorer citizens of the estates of private indi- 
 viduals when these exceeded the prescribed limit; thus 
 legalising a system of plunder which would have been, 
 subversive of all social order. No such doctrine had, 
 indeed, been admitted in any well-regulated state, ancient 
 or modern ; nor did anything analogous to it appear in the 
 principles or practice of the Roman constitution ; yet the 
 expressions used by the ancient authors in reference to these 
 enactments, and the disturbances to which they invariably 
 gave rise, seemed to justify an unfavourable interpretation ; 
 and the opinion, when once propounded, was uncondition- 
 ally received by successive generations of learned men, 
 notwithstanding the many embarrassments and contradic- 
 tions to which it led. 
 
 Romulus is represented as dividing his small territory 
 among the members of his infant community at the rate of 
 two jugera (each extending to two-thirds of an English 
 acre) a-piece, as inheritable property. The whole district, 
 however, was not thus assigned; one portion was set apart 
 for the service of the gods and for the royal domains; and 
 another was reserved as common land for pasture. The 
 stock kept on the common land serve'd to eke out a main- 
 tenance which two jugera could not otherwise have furnished 
 to a family, and an agistment was paid to the common- 
 wealth for the pasturage: It is probable that the same 
 principle prevailed under the regal government, and that 
 successive adjustments trf the territory were made. Such 
 a law existed among those of Servius Tullius. The equality 
 of property thus established seems to have been considered 
 as a fundamental principle of the Roman constitution ; and 
 the agrarian laws were regarded as the necessary means of 
 wresting from the large proprietors the possessions which 
 they had illegally acquired. Machiavelli and Montesquieu 
 both participate in this mistake, and are far from condemn- 
 ing the agrarian laws, even when taken in the-- common 
 meaning. The former alleges that the interest of every 
 republic requires that the state should be rich and the 
 citizens poor, and thus justifies the assumed spoliation; 
 while Montesquieu receives it as an historical fact that 
 Romulus adopted the principle of equality in hi3 original 
 distribution of the territory of Rome as the future ground 
 of her strength, and that the tribunitian contests were but 
 attempts to restore the original constitution. Adam Smith 
 ( Wealth of Nations, b. iv. chap. vii. part i.) assents to the 
 same interpretation, without, however, any expression of 
 approval. 
 
 The correct interpretation of the agrarian laws must thus 
 be considered as of modern date. Amidst the violence of 
 the French Revolution a scheme for the equal division of 
 the national property was advocated, with great popular 
 favour, by some of the frantic leaders, who sought a sanc- 
 tion for their extravagances in precedents drawn from the 
 ancient republics, and particularly from the agrarian laws 
 of the Romans. The subject was thus invested with a new 
 interest, and engaged the attention of Professor Heyne of 
 Gottingen, who in 1793 (Opus. Acad. iv. 350-373) ad- 
 dressed to the members' Of his university a paper in which 
 he successfully combated the opinions which, up till that 
 lime, had been entertained respecting them, and showed 
 that their object had been entirely misunderstood. Other 
 irriters, as Heeren and Hegewisch, embraced and illustrated 
 his views ; but it was reserved for the acuteness and learn- 
 ing of Niebuhr fully to develop the theory which had been 
 
 suggested, and to demonstrate the fact " that the agrariati 
 laws of the Romans were in no case intended to interfere 
 with or affect private property in land, but related exclu- 
 sively to the public domain." The theory of Niebuhr was 
 too startling to meet with universal approval. It his 
 accordingly been assailed by Rudorff, Dureau de la Malle 
 (Econ. Folit. des Romaines), Puchta, and others, who have 
 ingeniously and plausibly supported the opinions formerly 
 maintained ; but their arguments fail to produce conviction. 
 (Class. Mas., voL ii.)' The language of Livy passim, when 
 referring to the agrarian laws, is inexplicable unless the 
 interpretation of Niebuhr be adopted: — 
 
 "If," says Dr Arnold, "amongst Niebuhr's countless services to 
 Roman history, any single one may claim our gratitude beyond the 
 rest, it is his explanation of the true nature and character of the 
 agrarian laws. Twenty-four years have not yet elapsed since he firs* 
 published it, but it has already overthrown the deeply-rooted falsi) 
 impressions which prevailed universally on the subject; and its 
 truth, like Newton's discoveries in natural science, is not now (o be 
 proved, but to Be taken as the very corner-stone of all our re- 
 searches into the internal state of the Roman people " (Hist, of 
 Some, vol. ii.) 
 
 In almopt all countries the legal property of the land has 
 been originally vested in the sovereign, whether we are to 
 understand under that name a single chief, a particular 
 portion of the nation, or the people at large. In the same 
 manner, the property of all the land in a conquered country 
 was held to be transferred to the sovereign power in the 
 conquering state, and was assumed with more or less rigour 
 as circumstances seemed to require. From the earliest times 
 a portion of the Roman territory was thus regarded as the 
 property of the state, and the profits arising from it were 
 applied to the public service. The public domain (ager 
 publicus) was at first small, but was gradually extended by 
 the right of conquest till it embraced a large portion of the 
 whole peninsula. In this process of extension the sub- 
 jugated communities were frequently mulcted of a propor- 
 tion of their lands, varying according to the alleged offence 
 or the resistance which they had offered to the arms of the 
 conquerors. Thus the Boii were deprived of one-half of 
 their territory; the Hernici forfeited two-thirds; and the 
 whole of the ager Campanus, the richest district in Italy, 
 was taken from the inhabitants of Capua on the capture of 
 their city after its revolt to HannibaL 
 
 The lands thus acquired were disposed of in various ways. 
 A portion of them was frequently sold by auction to meet 
 the immediate necessities of the state, and was thus con- 
 veyed in perpetuity to the purchasers. The disposal of the 
 remainder depended on the nature and condition of the 
 land, and its position in reference to the bulk of the com- 
 munity- If in good condition and at no great distance 
 from the city, it was frequently assigned, in small allot- 
 ments of seven jugera (between 4 and 5 acres), to those of 
 the poorer citizens, whose services in war gave them a claim 
 upon the state; while in hostile districts and on exposed 
 frontiers military colonies were planted, each colonist 
 receiving a fixed quantity of land. In both these cases 
 the land so assigned ceased to form part of the public 
 domain, and became the property of the recipients. In 
 some cases the land, after having been assumed as public 
 property, was allowed to remain in the hands of the former 
 owners, who became the tenants of the state for a fixed 
 period, and paid a certain rent to the Roman exchequer. 
 
 The preceding remarks refer only to arable or meadow 
 land, vineyards, or olive-gardens, which could be turned to 
 immediate advantage. It is obvious,- however, that in a 
 country the greater part of which was acquired by conquest, 
 large districts must have been laid waste, the inhabitant* 
 with their houses destroyed, and neither cultivators nor 
 the means of cultivation left. Arrangements of a differ- 
 <n»t description were therefore necessary for land3 in thia
 
 AGE-AGR 
 
 289 
 
 position. Wide ranges of country, fit only for pasture, had 
 to be disposed of, and were available to those alone who were 
 able to stock them with flocks and herds, and to provide 
 slaves to attend to and protect their property. Hence it 
 was usual for the state to invite persons possessed of the 
 necessary means to enter upon the occupation of such lands 
 on advantageous terms; an invitation with which the 
 patricians, as being the wealthy class, could alone comply. 
 The ordinary conditions were, that after the land was again 
 brought into cultivation, the occupants should pay as rent 
 one-tenth of the produce of the corn-lands, and one-fifth of 
 the vines and fruit-trees, with a moderate rate per head for 
 sheep and cattle grazing on the public pastures. The lands 
 were not assigned for any definite period; the occupants 
 were mereiy tenants at will, liable to extrusion whenever 
 the state found it necessary to employ the land for any 
 other purpose. It was a fundamental principle of Roman 
 law that prescription could not be pleaded against the 
 state; and consequently, though the right of occupancy 
 might not only be transmitted from heir to heir, but might 
 also be sold, no length of time could alter the precarious 
 nature of the tenure by which the lands were held. The 
 state always reserved to itself the power of resuming pos- 
 session when it thought fit ; and though such resumption 
 might in many cases be attended by individual hardship, 
 ;t was nevertheless justified by the original contract. 
 
 Much of the obscurity connected with the Roman agrarian 
 laws has arisen from a misapprehension of the meaning of 
 the words possidere, possessor, and possessio. These terms, 
 'when used in a strictly legal sense, denote merely occupancy 
 by a tenant, and never imply an absolute right of property. 
 The act of occupancy was termed usus, and the benefit 
 derived by the state fructus. 
 
 "The ager publicus," says Professor Ramsay, "having been ac- 
 quired and occupied as explained above, numerous abuses arose in 
 process of time, especially among the tenants belonging to the 
 setpnd class. These being, as we have said, in the earlier ages, ex- 
 clusively patricians, who at the same time monopolised the admin- 
 istration of public affairs, they were in the habit of defrauding the 
 state, either by neglecting altogether to pay the stipulated propor- 
 tion of the produce, or by paying less than was due ; or, finally, 
 by claiming, what was in realty ager 'publicus, as their own private 
 property ; it being easy, of course, in the absence of all strict super- 
 intendence and of scientific surveys, to shift the land-marks which 
 separated public from private property. Meanwhile the deficiencies 
 in the - public treasury were made up by heavier taxes ; and the 
 plebeians complained that they were impoverished by new imposts, 
 .while the lands belonging to the community, which they had ac- 
 quired by their blood, if fairly managed, would yiejd a sufficient 
 return to meet all demands upon the exchequer ; or, if portioned 
 <>ut in allotments among themselves, afford them the means of sup- 
 porting the increased burdens. These complaints, unquestionably 
 founded in justice, were soon vehemently expressed^ and were 
 revived from time to time more or less loudly, and enforced more 
 or less earnestly, according to the state of public feeling and the 
 energy of the popular champions. It is true that the wealthier 
 plebeians soon became tenants of .the ager publicus as well as the 
 patricians ; but although this circumstance materially strengthened 
 the hands of the occupiers, it did not improve the condition of the 
 poor, or make them less keenly alive to the injustice of the system 
 against which they protested. (.Manual of Rom. Anliq. p. 228.) 
 
 Assuming, then, that the agrarian laws had for their 
 sole object the distribution and management of the public 
 lands {ager publicus), their effect must have been felt in 
 two ways:— (1.) In enforcing the regular payment of rent 
 from the occupants, preventing them from exceeding the 
 limits assigned to them, and compelling the surrender of 
 portions for division among the poorer citizens; and (2.) 
 In insisting upon the immediate application of newly- 
 acquired territories to the establishment of colonies, or its 
 assignment to individuals. It is obvious that the laws 
 first referred to, as involving long-established interests. 
 would necessarily lead to violent contests. 
 
 The first agrarian law, properly so called*, was proposed and 
 passed by Sp. Cassius Visceilinus, when consul, 486 B 0. (Liv. ii. 
 
 1-11 
 
 41, Dionys. viii. 76), but respecting the provisions of this we have no 
 precise information. Cassius was himself a patrician, and we may 
 therefore infer that the law did not encroach upon the just rights 
 of the dominant class to which he belonged. ' It is not the object ol 
 this article to trace in detail the various measures which were pro- 
 posed, and the agitations with which they were severally attended. 
 Three such are recorded during the 4th century B.C. (Liv. iv. 36, 
 47, 48) ^ but by far the most important measure of this class, ami 
 that which served as the model of nearly all subsequent agrariai 
 laws, was that carried by C. Licinius Stolo, when tribune of the 
 people, in 367 B.o. (Liv. vi. 42). The provisions of this law were : 
 (1.) That no one should occupy more than 500 jngera (about 33S 
 acres) of the public land ; (2.) That none should have more than 
 100 large and 500 small cattle grazing on the public pastures ; and 
 (3.) That every occupant of the public lands should employ a 
 certain proportion of free labourers in cultivating it. Niebuhr 
 (vol. iii. p. 11, &c. Eng. transl.) has endeavoured to supply the 
 other details ; but these can be received merely as ingenious, and 
 it may be successful, conjectures. For an able contioversy as to 
 this law see Class. Museum, vol. ii. 
 
 After the excitement occasioned by the passing of the Licinian 
 law had subsided, two centuries were allowed to pass with only a 
 single interference (Valer. Max. v. 4, 5 ; Polyb. ii. 21) with the 
 occupants of the public lands ; and during that time large additions 
 had been made to the possessions of the state by the confiscations 
 consequent upon the second Punic war. In the meantime the 
 wealthier families had extended their possessions greatly beyond the 
 limits prescribed by the Licinian law ; while the small proprietors 
 had disappeared, and the poor continued to increase. In 133 B.C., 
 Tiberius Gracchus proposed and carried a modification of the 
 Licinian law (Liv. Eptt. lvui. ; Appian. i. 9), which his premature 
 death prevented from being carried into effect ; and a Bimilar result 
 attended the enactment of his brother (Liv. Epit. lx.) Both were 
 set aside or eluded after the death of Caius. During the period 
 which preceded the subversion of the republic various other laws 
 were passed for the distribution of the public lands ; but these it is 
 not necessary to enumerate. It may be mentioned, in conclusion, 
 as a significant fact, that the prominent advocates of the agrarian 
 laws, Cassius, Licinius, and the Gracchi, all belonged to the class 
 which would have been injured by their operation nad they led to 
 an undue interference with private property. (g. f.) 
 
 AGREDA, a town of Spain, in the province of Old 
 Castile, 23 miles N.E. of Soria. It is the chief town of 
 the mountainous district of the same name, and is built 
 on the skirts of the Sierra Moncayo. At Agreda the river 
 Queiles is crossed by a fine stone bridge of one arch. 
 Population, 3120. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Cn^us Julius, was born at Forum Julii, 
 now Frejus, in Provence, 37 A.D., and was in Vespasian's 
 time made lieutenant to Vettius Bolanus in Britain. Upon 
 his return he was ranked by that emperor among the patri- 
 cians, and made governor of Aquitania. This post he 
 held for three years ; he then was recalled to Rome, and 
 chosen consul, Britain being assigned to him as his pro- 
 vince (78 a.d.) Here he reformed many abuses created 
 by his predecessors, put a stop to extortion, and caused 
 justice to be impartially administered. In the spring of 
 79 he marched towards the north, where he made new 
 conquests, and ordered forts to be built for the Romans to 
 winter in. He spent the following winter in concerting 
 schemes to bring the Britons to conform to the Roman 
 customs. He thought the best way of diverting them 
 from their warlike propensities was to soften their rough 
 manners by proposing to them new kinds of pleasure, and 
 inspiring them with a desire of imitating the Roman man- 
 ners. He encouraged the erection of magnificent temples, 
 porticoes, baths, and other fine buildings. The British 
 nobles at length had their sons educated ; and they who 
 before had the utmost aversion to the Roman language 
 now began to study it with great assiduity. They likewise 
 adopted the Roman dress ; and, as Tacitus observes, they 
 were brought to consider those things as marks of polite- 
 ness which were only so many badges of slavery. Agri- 
 cola, in his third campaign, advanced as far as the Solway ; 
 and in his fourth he subdued the nations betwixt the Sol; 
 way and the friths of Forth and .Clyde, into which the 
 rivers Bodotria and Glotta discharged themselves; and 
 here he built a chain of fortresses to check the nations ye*
 
 290 
 
 AGRICOLA 
 
 unconquered. In his fifth he fixed garrisons along the 
 western coasts, over against Ireland. In his sixth cam- 
 paign he passed the river Bodotria ; ordering hi3 fleet, the 
 first which the Romans ever had in those parts, to row 
 along the coasts and take a view of the northern parts. 
 The fleet sailed round by the northern and western coasts, 
 ind first proved Britain to be an island. In the following 
 spring, the Britons raised an army of 30,000 men, under 
 the command of Galgacus, to oppose the invaders. In the 
 engagement that ensued at the foot of the Grampians the 
 Romans gained the victory, and 10,000 of the Britons are 
 said to have been killed. This happened in the reign of 
 the emperor Domitian, who, growing jealous of the glory 
 of Agricola, recalled him, under pretence of making him 
 governor of Syria. Agricola was in Britain fully seven 
 years, from 78 to 85 a.d. ; and he died on the 23d August, 
 93 A.D., when he had attained the age of 55. Agricola 
 was a man of great integrity ; he possessed high military 
 talents, together with administrative abilities of the first 
 rank. The Life of Agricola, written by Ins son-in-law, 
 Jhe historian Tacitus, k a model of simple and dignified 
 biography. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Christoph Ludwig, landscape-painter, 
 was born at Regensburg on the 5th Nov. 1667, and died 
 it the same place in 1719. He spent a gre?t. part of his 
 life in travel, visiting England, Holland, and France, and 
 residing for a considerable period at Naples. His numer- 
 ous landscapes, chiefly cabinet pictures, are remarkable 
 for fidelity to nature, and especially for their skilful repre- 
 sentation of varied phases of climate. In composition 
 his style shows the influence of Caspar Poussin, while 
 in light and colour he imitates Claude Lorraine. His 
 pictures are to be found in Dresden, Brunswick, Vienna, 
 Florence, Naples, and many other towns of both Germany 
 ind Italy. 
 
 AGRICOLA (originally Landmann), Geoeo, a famous 
 mineralogist, born at Glauchau in Saxony, on the 24th 
 March 1494. After studying at Leipsic and in Italy, he 
 practised for some time as a physician at Joachimsthal in 
 Bohemia, In 1531 ho was enabled to gratify his natural 
 inclination towards the study of geology aud mineralogy 
 by removing to the mining district of Chemnitz in Saxony, 
 where he had been appointed professor of chemistry. The 
 results of his laborious investigations are chiefly to be found 
 in his great work De Be Metallica (Basle, 1546), which 
 describes minutely the various methods of mining, of rais- 
 ing and dressing the ore, and of smelting, and contains a 
 number of curious woodcuts. It has been several times 
 reprinted, and a German translation by Lehmann appeared 
 at Freyberg in 1806-10. He also wrote De Orlu et 
 Causis Subterraneorum, De Animantibus Subterraneorum, 
 De Natura Fossilium, besides other works. Agricola was 
 the first to raise mineralogy to the dignity of a science, 
 and he developed it to such an extent that no substantial 
 advance was made upon his results until the middle of 
 the 1 8th century. He died at Chemnitz on the 2 1 st Novem- 
 ber 1555. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Johajtn Friedrich, musician, was born 
 it Dobitschen in Saxe-Altenburg, on the 4th Jan. 1720, 
 »nd died in 1774. While a student of law at Leipsic he 
 jtudied music under John Sebastian Back In 1741 he 
 went to Berlin, where he placed himself under Quanz for 
 instruction in musical composition. He was soon gene- 
 rally recognised as one of the most skilful organists of his 
 lime. In 1759, on the death of Graun, he was appointed 
 tapellmeister to Frederick IL He composed several 
 operas of great merit, as well as instrumental pieces 
 Mid church music His reputation chiefly rests, how- 
 jver, on his theoretical and critical writings on musical 
 subjects. 
 
 AGRICOLA (originally ScnNirrER or ScHHKTDEa), 
 Johannes, one of the foremost of the German reformers, 
 was born on the 20th April 1492, at Eisleben, whence he 
 is sometimes called Magister Islebius. He studied st 
 Wittenberg, where he soon gained the friendship of Luther. 
 In 1519 he accompanied Luther to the great assembly of 
 German divines at Leipsic, and acted as recording secre- 
 tary. After teaching for some time in Wittenberg, he went 
 to Frankfort in 1525 to establish the worship according 
 to the reformed religion. He had resided there only a 
 month when he was induced to go to Eisleben, where he 
 remained till 1526 as teacher in the school of St Andrew, 
 and preacher in the Nicolai church, enjoying great popu- 
 larity in the latter capacity. In 1536 ho was recalled to 
 Wittenberg to fill a professorial chair, and was welcomed 
 by Luther. Almost immediately afterwards, however, a 
 controversy, which had been begun ten years before and 
 been temporarily silenced, broke out afresh with greater 
 violence. Agricola was the first to teach the views which 
 Luther was the first to stigmatise by the now well-known 
 name Antinomian. He held that while the unregenerate 
 were still under the law, Christians were entirely free from 
 it, being under the gospel alone. He denied that Chris- 
 tians owed subjection to any part of the law, even the 
 Decalogue, as a rule of life. Luther conducted the argu 
 ment with his usual vehemence, and there was in the heat 
 of controversy probably a good deal of misrepresentation 
 on both sides. In 1540 Agricola left Wittenberg secretly 
 for Berlin, where he published a letter addressed to the 
 elector of Saxony, which was generally interpreted as a re- 
 cantation of bis-obnoxious views. Luther, however, seems 
 not to have so accepted it, and Agricola remained at Ber- 
 lin. «r The elector Joachim IL of Brandenburg having 
 taken him into his favour, appointed him court preacher 
 and general superintendent. He held both offices untL' 
 his death in 1566, and his career in Brandenburg was one 
 of great activity and great influence. Along with the 
 Catholic bishops Von Pflng and Michael Halding he pre- 
 pared the Augsburg Interim of 1548. Agricola wrote a 
 number of theological works which are now of little in- 
 terest. He was the first to make a collection of German 
 proverbs, which he illustrated with an appropriate com- 
 mentary. The most complete edition is that published at 
 Wittenberg in 1592. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Rodolphus (originally Roelop Hoys- 
 Mann), a distinguished scholar, bom at Bafflo, near Gron- 
 ingen, in 1443. He was educated at Louvain, where he 
 graduated as master of arts. After residing for some time 
 in Paris, he went in 1476 to Ferrara in Italy, and attended 
 the lectures of the celebrated Theodore Gaza on the Greek 
 language. Having visited Pavia and Rome,, he returned 
 to iis native country about 1479, and was soon afterwards 
 appointed syndic of Groningen. 'In 1482, on the invita- 
 tion of Dalberg, bishop of Worms, whose friendship he 
 had gained in Italy, he accepted a professorship at Heidel- 
 berg, and for three years delivered lectures- in that univer- 
 sity and at Worms on the literature of Greece and Rome. 
 By his personal influence much more than by his writings 
 he did a great deal for the promotion of learning in Ger- 
 many. Hallam says that "no German wrote so pure a 
 style, or possessed so large a portion of classical learning ;" 
 and the praises of Erasmus and other critics of the genera- 
 tion immediately succeeding Agricola's are unstinted. In 
 his opposition to the scholastic philosophy he seems to have 
 in some degree anticipated the coming of that great revolu- 
 tion in which many of his pupils were conspicuous actors. 
 He died at Heidelberg in 1485. His principal work is 
 the De Inventions Dialectica, in which he attempts to change 
 the scholastic philosophy of the day. (See Vita et Merita 
 Rudolphi Agricolce, by T. F. Tresling, Groningen, 1830).
 
 291 
 
 AGKICULTUKE 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 r would be interesting to know how the nations of 
 antiquity tilled, and sowed, and reaped ; what crops 
 they cultivated, and by what methods they converted them 
 into food and raiment. But it is to be regretted, that the 
 records which have come down to us are all but silent upon 
 these homely topics. 
 
 In Mr Hoskyn's admirable treatise 1 we have an excellent 
 specimen of what may yet be done to recover and construct 
 an authentic history of the Agriculture of the ancients, 
 from the casual allusions and accidental notices of rural 
 affairs which lie thinly scattered through the body of 
 general literature ; and, more especially, from those myste- 
 rious records of the pfst, which are now being rescued 
 from their long burial under the ruins of some of the most 
 famous cities of antiquity. Although comparatively little 
 has been found in such records bearing directly upon the 
 subject, we must not despair of the learned industry and 
 masterly skill of an advancing, and searching criticism, 
 gathering together these gleams of light, and making them 
 happily converge upon the darkness which has hitherto 
 interposed between us and a circumstantial knowledge of 
 the methods and details of ancient husbandry. 
 
 Every reader of the Bible is familiar with its frequent 
 references to Egypt as a land so rich in corn, that it not 
 only produced abundance for its own dense population, 
 but yielded supplies for exportation to neighbouring coun- 
 tries. Profane history corroborates these statements. 
 Diodorus Siculus bears explicit testimony to the skill of 
 the farmers of ancient Egypt. He informs us that they 
 were acquainted with the benefits of a rotation of crops, 
 and were skilful in adapting these to the soil and to the 
 seasons. The ordinary annual supply of corn furnished to 
 Rome has been estimated at 20,000,000 bushels. From 
 tho same author we also learn that they fed their cattle 
 with hay during the annual inundation, and at other times 
 tethered them in the meadows on green clover. Their 
 flocks were shorn twice annually (a practice common in 
 several Asiatic countries), and their ewes yeaned twice 
 a year. For religious as well as economical reasons, they 
 were great rearers of poultry, a ad practised artificial 
 hatching, as at the present day. The abundance or scarcity 
 of the harvests in Egypt depended chiefly upon the height 
 of the annual inundation. If too low, much of the land 
 could not be sown, and scarcity or famine ensued. On 
 the other hand, great calamities befell the country when 
 the Nile rose much above the average leveL Cattle were 
 drowned, villages destroyed, and the crops necessarily 
 much diminished, as in, such cases many of the fields 
 were still under water at the proper seed time. In 
 1818 a calamity of this kind took place, when the 
 river rapidly attained a height of 3J feet above the proper 
 level. 
 
 It is from the palrtings and inscriptions with which the 
 ancient Egyptians decorated their tombs that we get the 
 fullest insight into the state of agriculture amongst this 
 remarkable people, Many of these paintings, after the 
 lapse of two or thr«e thousand years, retain the distinctness 
 of outline and brilliancy of colour of recent productions. 
 The acquaintance which these give us with their occupations, 
 attainments, and habits is truly marvellous, .and fills the 
 
 1 Shnri Inquiry Wo 0U History of Agriculture, by Cbjuidos Wren 
 UoaVrn. Esq. 
 
 reader of such works as Wilkinson's Egypt with perfect 
 amazement. Every fresh detail seems to give confirmation 
 to that ancient saying, "There is nothing new under the 
 sun." The pictures referring to rural affairs disclose a 
 state of advancement at that early date which may 
 well lead us to speak modestly of our own attainments 
 An Egyptian villa comprised all the conveniences of a 
 European one of the present day. Besides a mansion with 
 numerous apartments, there were gardens, orchards, fish- 
 ponds, and preserves for game. Attached to it was a 
 farm-yard, with sheds for cattle and stables for carriage 
 horses. A steward directed the tillage operations, super- 
 intended the labourers, and kept account of the produce 
 and expenditure. The grain was stored in vaulted chambers 
 furnished with'an opening at the top, reached by steps, 
 into which it was emptied from sacks, and with an aperture 
 below for removing it when required. Hand-querns, 
 similar to our own, were used for grinding corn ; but they 
 had also a larger kind worked by oxen. In one painting, 
 in which the sowing of the grain is represented, a plough 
 drawn by a pair of oxen goes first ; next comes the sower 
 scattering the seed from a basket; he is followed by another 
 plough; whilst a roller, drawn by two horses yoked abreast^ 
 completes the operation. The steward stands by super- 
 intending the whole. _ Nothing, however, conveys to us sc 
 full an impression of the advanced state of civilisation 
 amongst the ancient Egyptians as the value which they 
 attached to land, and the formalities which they observed 
 in the transfer of it. In the time of the Ptolemies, theii 
 written deeds of conveyance began with the mention of the 
 reign in ' which they were* executed, ■ the name of the 
 president of the covrt, and of the clerk who drew them. 
 The name of the seller, with a description of his personal 
 appearance, his parentage, profession, and residence, was 
 engrossed The nature of the land, its extent, situation, 
 and boundaries ; the name and Appearance of the purchaser 
 were also included. A clause of warrandice and an explicit 
 acceptance by the purchaser followed, and finally the deed 
 was attested by numerous witnesses (so many as sixteen 
 occur to a trifling, bargain), and by the president of the 
 court. 
 
 The nomades of the patriarchal ages, like the Tartar, 
 and perhaps some of the Moorish tribes of our own, whilst 
 mainly dependent upon their fl'ocks and herds, practised 
 also agriculture proper. The vast tracts over which they 
 roamed were in ordinary circumstances common to all 
 shepherds alike. During the summer thev frequented the 
 mountainous districts and retired to the valleys to winter. 
 Vast flocks of sheep and of goats constituted the chief 
 wealth of the nomades, although they also possessed 
 animals of the ox kind When these last were possessed 
 in abundance, it seems to be an indication that tillag e 
 was practised We learn that Job, besides immense 
 possessions in flocks and herds, had 500 yoke of oxen, 
 which he employed in ploughing, and a ''very great 
 husbandry." Isaac, too, conjoined tillage with pastoral 
 husbandry, and that with success, for we read that he 
 sowed in the land Gerar, and reaped an hundred-fold 
 — a return which, it would appear, in some favoured 
 regions, occasionally rewarded the labour of the husband- 
 man. In the parable of the sower, our Lord (grafting his 
 instructions upon the habits, scenery, and productions of 
 Palestine), mentions an increase of thirty, cixty and an
 
 292 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [historical 
 
 hundred fold. Such increase, although far aoove tiie average 
 rate, was sometimes even greatly exoeeded, if we take the 
 authority of Herodotus, Strabo, and Pliny. 
 
 -Mong with the Babylonians, Egyptians, and Romans, 
 'be Israelites are classed as one of the great agricultural 
 nations of antiquity. % The sojourn of the Israelites in 
 Egypt trained them for the more purely agricultural 
 life that awaited them on their return to take posses- 
 sion of Canaan. Nearly the whole population were 
 virtually husbandmen, and personally engaged in its pur- 
 suits. Upon their entrance into Canaan, they found 
 the country occupied by a dense population possessed of 
 walled cities and innumerable villages, masters of great 
 accumulated wealth, and subsisting on the produce of their 
 highly cultivated soil, which abounded with vineyards and 
 oliveyards. It was so rich in grain, that the invading 
 army, numbering 601,730 able-bodied men, with their wives 
 and children, and a mixed multitude of camp-followers, 
 found " old corn " in the land sufficient to maintain them 
 from the day that they passed the Jordan. The Mosaic 
 Institute contained an agrarian law, based upon an eqi>f*i 
 division of the soil amongst the adult males, a census of 
 whom was taken just before their entrance into Canaan. 
 Provision was thus made for C00,000 yeomen, assign- 
 ing (according to different calculations) from sixteen 
 to twenty-five acres of land to each. This land, held in 
 direct tenure from Jehovah, their sovereign, was strictly 
 inalienable. The accumulation of debt upon it was pre- 
 vented by the prohibition of interest, the release of debts 
 every seventh year, and the reversion of the land to the 
 proprietor, or his heirs, at each return of the year of jubilee. 
 The owners of these small farms cultivated them with much 
 .sire, and rendered them highly productive. They were 
 favoured with a soil extremely fertile, and one which their 
 skill and diligence kept in good condition. The stones were 
 carefully cleared from the fields, which were also watered 
 from canals and conduits, communicating with the brooks 
 and streams with which the country "was well watered 
 everywhere," and enriched by the application of manures. 
 The seventh year's fallow prevented the exhaustion of the 
 soil, which was further enriched by the burning of the 
 weeds and spontaneous growth of the Sabbatical year. 
 The crops chiefly cultivated were wheat, millet, barley, 
 beans, and lentiles ; to which it is supposed, on grounds 
 not improbable^-may be added rice and cotton. The ox 
 and the ass were used for labour. The word " oxen," 
 which occurs in our version of the Scriptures, as well as in 
 the Septuagint and Vulgate, denotes the species, rather 
 than the sex. As the Hebrews did not mutilate any of 
 their animals, bulls were in common use. The quantity 
 of land ploughed by a yoke of' oxen in one day was called 
 a yoke or acre. Towards the end of October, with which 
 month the rainy season begins, seedtime commenced, and 
 of course does so still. The seedtime, begun in October, 
 extends, for wheat and some other white crops, through 
 November and December ; and barley continues to be sown 
 until about the middle of February. The seed appears to 
 havo been sometimes ploughed in, and at other times to 
 have been covered by harrowing. The cold winds which 
 prevail in January and February frequently injured the 
 crops in the more exposed and higher districts. The rainy 
 season extends from October to April, during which time 
 refreshing showers fall, chiefly during the night, and gene- 
 rally at intervals of a few days. The harvest wan earlier 
 or later as the rains towards the end of the season were 
 more or less copious. It, however, generally commenced 
 in April, and continued through May for the different crops. 
 in succession. In the south, and in the plains, the harvest, 
 as might be expected, commenced some weeks earlier than 
 91 the northern and mountainous districts. The slopes of 
 
 tne hilis were carefully terraced and irrigated wherever 
 practicable, and on these slopes the vine and olive were 
 cultivated with great success. ' At the same time the hill 
 districts and neighbouring desert3 afforded pasturage for 
 numerous flocks and herds, and thus admitted of the 
 benefits of a mixed husbandry. With such political and 
 social arrangements, and under ihe peculiarly felicitous 
 climate of Judea, the country as a whole, and at the more 
 prosperous periods of the commonwealth, must have ex- 
 hibited such an example of high cultivation, rich and varied 
 produce, and wide-spread plenty and contentment, as the 
 world has never yet elsewhere produced on an equally 
 extensive scale. Not by a figure of speech but literally, 
 every Israelit3 sat under the shadow of his own vine and 
 fig-tree ; whilst the country as a whole is described (2 
 Kings xviii. 32) as " a land of corn and wine, a land of 
 bread and vineyards, a land of oil-olive and of honey." 
 An interesting illustration of the advanced state of agri- 
 culture in these ancient times is afforded by the fact, that, 
 making allowance for climatic differences, the numerous 
 allusions to it with which the Scriptures abound seem 
 natural and appropriate to the British farmer of the present 
 day. 
 
 The unrivalled literature of Greece affords us little infor- 
 mation regarding the practical details of her husbandry. 
 The people who by what remains to us of their poetry, 
 philosophy, history, and fine arts, 6till exert such an in- 
 fluence in guiding our intellectual efforts, in regulating 
 taste, and in moulding our institutions, were originally the 
 invaders and conquerors of the territory which they have 
 rendered so famous. Having reduced the aboriginal tribes 
 to bondage, they imposed upon them the labour of cultivat- 
 ing the soil, and hence both the occupation, and those 
 engaged in it, were regarded contemptuously by the domi- 
 nant race, who addicted themselves to what they regarded 
 as nobler pursuits. With the exception of certain districts, 
 such as Bceotia, the country was naturally unfavourable to 
 agriculture. When we find, however, that valleys were 
 freed from lakes and morasses by drainage, that rocky 
 surfaces were sometimes covered with transported soil, and 
 that they possessed excellent breeds of the domesticated 
 animals, which were reared in vast numbers, we infer that 
 agriculture was- better understood, and more carefully 
 practised, than the allusions to it in their literature would 
 seem to warrant. 
 
 Amongst the ancient Romans agriculture was highly 
 esteemed, and pursued with earnest love and devoted atten- 
 tion. "In all- their foreign enterprises, even in earliest 
 times," as Schlegel remarks," they were exceedingly covetous 
 of gain, or rather of land ; for it was in land, and in the 
 produce of the soil, that their principal and almost only 
 wealth consisted. They were a thoroughly agricultural 
 people, and it was only at a later period that commerce, 
 trades, and arts, were introduced among them, and even 
 then they occupied but a subordinate place." 1 Their 
 passion for agriculture survived very long ; and when at 
 length their boundless conquests introduced an unheard-of 
 luxury and corruption of morals, the noblest minds 
 amongst them were strongly attracted towards the ancient 
 virtue of the purer and simpler agricultural times. Several 
 facts in Roman history afford convincing proof, if it were 
 required, of the devotion of this ancient people to agricul- 
 ture, in their best and happiest times. Whilst their arts 
 and sciences, and general literature, were borrowed from 
 the Greeks, they created an original iiterature of their own) 
 of which rural affairs formed the substance and inspiration.* 
 Schlegel and Mr Hoskyn notice also the striking fact, that 
 
 1 The Philotophy of Hulory, by Frederick Von SchlegeL London, 
 1846, p. 253.
 
 SUMMARY.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 293 
 
 whilst among the Greeks the names of their illustrious 
 families are borrowed from the heroes and gods of their 
 mythology, the most famous houses amongst the ancient 
 Romans, such as the Pisones, Fabii, Lentuli, &c, have 
 taken their names from their favourite crops and vegetables. 
 Perhaps it is not too much to assert, that many of those 
 qualities which fitted them for conquering the world, and 
 perfecting their so celebrated jurisprudence, were acquired, 
 or at all events nourished and matured, by the skill, fore- 
 sight, and persevering industry, so needful for the intelligent 
 and successful cultivation of the soiL The words which 
 Cicero puts into the mouth of Cato give a fine picture of the 
 ancient Roman enthusiasm in agriculture. " I come now 
 to. the pleasures of husbandry, in which I vastly delight. 
 They are not interrupted by old age, and they seem to me 
 to be pursuits in which a wise man's life, should be spent. 
 The earth does not rebel against authority ; it never gives 
 back but with usury what it receives. The gains of hus- 
 bandry are not what exclusively commend it. I am charmed 
 with the nature and productive virtues of the soil. Can 
 those old men be called unhappy who delight in the culti- 
 vation of the soil 1 In my opinion there can be no happier 
 life, not only because the tillage of the earth is salutary to 
 all, but from the pleasure it yields. The whole establish- 
 ment of a good and assiduous husbandman is stored with 
 wealth ; it abounds in pigs, in kids, in lambs, in poultry, 
 in milk, in cheese, in honey. Nothing can be more 
 profitable, nothing more beautiful, than a well-cultivated 
 farm." 
 
 In ancient Rome each citizen received, at first, an allot- 
 ment of about two English acres. After the expulsion of 
 the kings this allotment was increased to about six acres. 
 These small inheritances must, of course, have been culti- 
 vated by hard labour. On the increase of the Roman 
 territory the allotment was increased to fifty, and afterwards 
 even to five hundred acres Many ghmpses into their 
 methods of cultivation are found in those works of Roman 
 authors which have survived the ravages of time. Cato 
 speaks of irrigation, frequent tillage, and manuring, as 
 means of fertilising the soiL Mr Hoskyn, from whose 
 valuable contribution to the History of Agriculture we have 
 drawn freely in this historic summary, quotes the following 
 interesting passage from Pliny, commenting on Virgil •} — 
 " Our poet is of opinion that alternate fallows should be 
 made, and that the land should rest entirely every second 
 year. And this is, indeed, both true and profitable, pro- 
 vided a man have land enough to give the soil this repose. 
 But how, if his extent be not sufficient 1 Let him, in that 
 case, help himself thus. Let him sow next year's wheat-crop 
 on the field where he has just gathered his beans, vetches, 
 or lupines, or such other crop as enriches the ground. For, 
 indeed, it is worth notice that some crops are sown for no 
 other purpose but as food for others, a poor practice in my 
 estimation." In another place he tells us, "Wheat, the 
 later it is reaped, the better it casts; but the sooner it is 
 reaped, the fairer the sample. The best rule is to cut it 
 down before the grain is got hard, when the ear begins to 
 have a reddish-brown appearance. 'Better two days too 
 soon than as many too late,' is a good old ma-rim , and might 
 pass for an oracle." The following quotation from the 
 same author is excellent: — "Cato would have this point 
 especially to be considered, that the soil of a farm be good 
 and fertile ; also, that near it there be plenty of labourers, 
 and that it be not far from a large town : moreover, that it 
 have sufficient means for transporting its produce, either by 
 water or land. Also, that the house be well built, and the 
 land about it as well managed. But I observe a great 
 
 1 Short Inquiry into the History <f Agriculture, pp. 49-61, by 
 Chandoa Wreo Hoskyn, Esq. 
 
 error and self-deception which many men commit, who hold 
 opinion that the negligence and ill-husbandry of the former 
 owner is good for his successor or after-purchaser. Now, 
 I say, there i3 nothing more dangerous and disadvantageous 
 to the buyer than land so left waste and out of heart ; and 
 therefore Cato counsels well to purchase land of one who 
 has managed it we'd, and not rashly and hand-over-head to 
 despise and make light of the skill and knowledge of 
 another. He says, too, that 33 well land as men, which 
 are of great charge and expense, how gainful soever they 
 may seem to be, yield little profit in the end, when all 
 reckonings are made • The same Cato being asked, what 
 was the most assured profit rising out of land ] made this 
 answer, — ' To feed stock well.' Being asked again, ' What 
 was the next V he answered, ' To feed with moderation.' 
 By which answer he would seem to conclude that the most 
 certain and sure revenue was a low cost of production. To 
 the same point is to be referred another speech of his, 
 ' That a good husbandman ought to be a seller rather than 
 a buyer ;' also, ' that a man should stock his ground early 
 and well, but take long time and leisure before he be a 
 builder ;' for it is the best thing in the world, according to 
 the proverb, ' to make use, and derive profit, 'from other 
 men's follies.' Still when there is a good and convenient 
 house on the farm, the master will be the closer occupier, 
 and take the more pleasure in it ; and truly it is a good 
 saying, that ' the master's eye is better than his heel.' " 
 
 " It is curious," says Mr Hoskyn, " to read such passages 
 as these, and to find the very same subjects still handled, 
 week after week, in fresh and eager controversy in the' 
 agricultural writings and periodicals of the present day, 
 eighteen centuries after those opinions were written." 
 
 In the later ages of the empire agriculture was neglected, 
 and those engaged in it regarded with contempt. Many 
 fiir regions once carefully cultivated, and highly productive, 
 were abandoned to nature, and became a scene of desolation, 
 the supplies of overgrown Rome being drawn from Egypt, 
 Sicily, and other provinces, which became notable as the 
 granaries of the empire. 
 
 Under the Goths, Vandals, and other barbarian con- 
 querors, agriculture in Europe, during the middle ages, 
 seems to have sunk into the lowest condition of neglect and 
 contempt. We owe its revival, like that of other arts and 
 sciences, to the Saracens of Spain, who devoted themselves 
 to the cultivation of that conquered territory, with heredi- 
 tary love for the occupation, and with the skilful application 
 of the experience which they had gathered in other lands 
 in which they had established their power. By them, and 
 their successors, the Moors, agriculture was carried in Spain 
 to a height which perhaps has not yet been surpassed in 
 Europe. It is said, that so early as the tenth century the 
 revenue of Saracenic Spain alone amounted to £6,000,000 
 sterling, — probably as much as that of all the rest of 
 Europe at that time. The ruins of their noble works for 
 the irrigation of the soil still attest their skill and industry, 
 and put to shame the. ignorance and indolence of their 
 successors. The same remark applies to the Spanish 
 dominions in South America. In the ancient empire of 
 Peru agriculture seems to have reached a high degree of 
 perfection. The ruins of basins and canals, frequently 
 carried through tunnels, prove their industry and skill iu 
 irrigation. One of their aqueducts is said by Mr Prescott* 
 to have been traced by its ruins for nearly 500 miles. 
 They cultivated the sides of mountains, by means of 
 terraces, which retained forced soil, and were skilled in the 
 application of manure. That on which they chiefly d& 
 pended was guano, and their Incas protected the penguins, 
 by which it was deposited, by strict laws, which made it 
 
 a History of the Conquest of Mexico.
 
 294 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [historical 
 
 highly penal to kill one of these birds, cr to set foot on the 
 islands at breeding time. The Spaniards thus obtained 
 possession of two £-;d patrimonies, and have wasted them 
 both. 
 
 The influence of the crusades upon the agriculture of 
 this period is not to be overlooked. The dreadful oppression 
 of the feudal system received at that time a shock most 
 favourable to the liberties of man, and, with increasing 
 liberty, more enlightened ideas began to be entertained, 
 and greater attention to be paid to the cultivation of the 
 soiL 
 
 But. during this long interval, the population of Europe 
 was divided into two great classes, of which by far the 
 larger one was composed of bondmen, without property, or 
 the power of acquiring it, and small tenants, very little 
 superior to bondmen ; and the other class, consisting chiefly 
 of the great barons and their retainers, was more frequently 
 employed in laying waste the fields of their rivals than in 
 improving their own. The superstition of the times, which 
 destined a large portion of the land to the support of 
 the church, and which, in some measure, secured it from 
 predatory incursions, was the principal source of what little 
 skill and industry were then displayed in the cultivation 
 of the soil. " If we consider the ancient state of Europe," 
 says Mr Hume, 1 " we shall find that the far greater part 
 of society were everywhere bereaved of their personal liberty, 
 and lived entirely at the will of their masters. Every one 
 that was not noble was a slave ; the peasants were not in 
 a better condition ; even the gentry themselves were sub- 
 jected to a long train of subordination under the greater 
 barons, or chief vassals of the crown, who, though seemingly 
 placed in a high state of splendour, yet, having but a 
 slender protection from law, were exposed to every tempest 
 of the state, and by the precarious condition on which they 
 lived, paid dearly for the power of oppressing and tyrannis- 
 ing over their inferiors." — "The villains were entirely 
 occupied in the cultivation of their master's land, and paid 
 their rents either in corn or cattle, and other produce of 
 the farm, or in servile offices, which they performed about 
 the baron's family, and upon farms which he retained in 
 his own possession. In proportion as agriculture improved 
 and money increased, it was found that these services, 
 though extremely burdensome to the villain, were of little 
 advantage to the master ; and that the produce of 'a large 
 estate could be much more conveniently disposed of by the 
 peasants themselves who raised it, than by the landlord or 
 his bailiff, who were formerly accustomed to receive it. A 
 commutation was therefore made of rents for services, and 
 of money-rents for those in kind , and as men in a subse- 
 quent age discovered that farms were better cultivated where 
 the fanner enjoyed security in his possession, the practice 
 of granting leases to the peasant began to prevail, which 
 entirely broke the bonds of servitude, already much relaxed 
 from the former practices. The latest laws which we find 
 in England for enforcing or regulating this species of 
 servitude were enacted in the reign of Henry VII. And 
 though the ancient statutes on this subject remain still 
 unrepealed by Parliament, it appears that before the end 
 of Elizabeth the distinction between villain and freeman 
 was totally, though insensibly, abolished, and that no 
 person remained in the Btate to whom the former laws 
 could be applied." 
 
 But long before the 15th century, it is certain that 
 there was a class of tenants holding on leases for lives, or 
 for a term of years, and paying a rent in land produce, in 
 services, or in money. Whether they gradually sprung tip 
 from the class of bondmen,' according to Lord Kames, 3 or 
 
 History of England, chap, xxiil. 
 Karnes's Law Tract*. 
 
 existed from the earliest period of the feudal constitution, 
 according to other writers, 3 theirnumber cannot be supposed 
 to have been considerable during the middle ages. The 
 stock which these tenants employed in cultivation com- 
 monly belonged to the proprietor, who received a proportion 
 of the produce as rent, — a system which still exists in 
 France and in other parts of the Continent, whe^e such 
 tenants are called metayers, and Borne vestiges of which 
 may yet be traced in the sleet-bow of the law of Scotland. 
 Leases of the 13th century still remain, 4 and both the 
 laws and chartularies 6 clearly prove the existence in 
 Scotland of a class of cultivators distinct from the serfs or 
 bondmen. Yet the condition of these tenants seems to 
 have been very different from that of the tenants of the 
 present day; and the lease approached nearer in its fovni 
 to a feu-charter than to the mutual agreement now in use. 
 It was of the nature of a beneficiary grant by the proprietor, 
 under certain conditions, and for a limited period ; the 
 consent of the tenant seems, never to have been doubted. 
 In the common expression "granting a lease," we have 
 retained an idea of the original character of the deed, even 
 to the present time. 
 
 The corn crops cultivated during this period seem to have 
 been of the same species, though all of them probably much 
 inferior in quality to what they are in the present day; 
 Wheat, the most valuable grain, must have borne a smal 
 proportion, at least in Britain, to that of other crops ; the 
 remarkable fluctuation of price, its extreme scarcity, indi 
 cated by the extravagant rate at which it was sometimes 
 sold, as well as the preparatory cultivation required, may 
 convince us that its consumption was confined to the higher 
 orders, and that its growth was by no means extensive. 
 Rye and oats furnished the bread and drink of the great 
 body of the people of Europe. Cultivated herbage and 
 roots were then unknown in the agriculture of Britain. It 
 was not till the end ot the reign of Henry VIIL that any 
 salads, carrots, or other ■ edible roots were produced is 
 England. The little of these vegetables that was used 
 was formerly imported from Holland and Flanders. Queen 
 Catherine, when she wanted a salad, was obliged to despatch 
 a messenger thither on purpose. 6 
 
 The ignorance and insecurity of those ages,_which neces- 
 sarily confined the cultivation of corn to a comparatively 
 small portion of country, left all the rest of it in a state of 
 nature, to be depastured by the inferior animals, : theri only 
 occasionally subjected to the care and control of man. 
 Cultivators were crowded together in miserable hamlets; 
 the ground contiguous was kept continually under tillage ; 
 and beyond this, wastes and woodlands of a much greater 
 extent were appropriated to the maintenance of their flocks 
 and herds, which pastured indiscriminately, with little 
 attention from their owners. 
 
 The low price of butcher-meat, though it was then the 
 food of the common people, when compared with the price 
 of corn has been justly noticed by several writers as a 
 decisive proof of the small progress of civilisation and 
 industry. 
 
 One of the earliest and greatest agricultural grievances 
 was the levying of Purveyance. This originally compre- 
 hended the necessary provisions, carriages, &c, which the 
 nearest farmers were obliged to furnish at the current 
 prices to the king's armies, houses, and castles, in time of 
 war. It was called the great purveyance, and the officers 
 who collected those necessaries were called purveyors. The 
 smaller purveyance included the necessary provisions for 
 the household of the king when travelling through the 
 
 * BeU'a Treatise on Leases. 
 
 ' Sir John Cullom's History and Antiquities of Uavsted (Suffolk). 
 
 * Chalmers' Caledonia, book iv. c. 6. 
 
 * Home's History of England, chap, xxiil.
 
 SUMMARY.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 295 
 
 kingdom, and these the tenants on the king's demesne lands 
 were obliged to furnish gratis, a practice that came to be 
 adopted by the barons and great men in every toiir which 
 they thought proper to make in the country. These 
 exactions were so grievous, and levied in so high-handed a 
 manner, that the farmers, when they heard of the court's 
 approach, often deserted their houses, as if the country 
 had been invaded by an enemy. "Purveyance," says 
 Dirom, 1 " was perhaps for many centuries the chief obstruc- 
 tion to the agriculture and improvement of Great Britain. 
 Many laws were made for the reformation and regulation of 
 purveyance, but without effect ; and the practice continued 
 down, to so late a period as the reign of James the First." 
 
 By statute 1449, the tenant was for the first time 
 seemed in possession, during the term of -his lease, against 
 a purchaser of the "land; and in 1469 he was protected 
 from having his property carried off for the landlord's 
 debts, beyond the amount of rent actually due ; an enact- 
 ment which proves his miserable condition before that time. 
 
 Soon after the beginning of the 16th century agriculture 
 partook of the general improvement which followed the 
 invention of printing, the revival of learning, and the more 
 settled authority of government ; and instead of the occa- 
 sional notices of historians, we can now refer to regular 
 treatises, written by men who engaged eagerly in this 
 neglected and hitherto degraded occupation. We shall 
 therefore give a short account of the principal works, as 
 ■well as of the laws and general policy of Britain, in regard 
 to agriculture, from the early part of the 16th century to 
 the Revolution in 1688, when a new era commenced in 
 the legislation of corn, and soon after in the practice of the 
 cultivator. 2 
 
 Early Works on Agriculture. 
 
 The first and by far the best of our early works is the 
 Book of Husbandry, printed in 1534, commonly ascribed 
 to Fitzherbert, a judge of the Common Pleas in the reign 
 of Henry VIII. This was followed, in 1539, by the Book 
 of Surveying and Improvements, by the same author. In 
 the former treatise we have a clear and minute description 
 of. the rural practices of that period, and from the latter 
 may be learned a good deal of the economy of the feudal 
 system in its "decline. The Book of Husbandry has scarcely 
 been excelled by any later production, in as far as concerns 
 the subjects of which it treats ; for at that time cultivated 
 herbage and edible roots were still unknown in England. 
 The author writes from his own experience of more than 
 forty years ; and, with the exception of passages denoting 
 his belief in the superstition of the Roman writers, there 
 is very little of this valuable work, in so far as regards the 
 culture of corn, that should be omitted, and not a great deal 
 that need be added, even in a manual of husbandry adapted 
 to the present time. Fitzherbert touches on almost every 
 department of the art, and in about a hundred octavo pages 
 has contrived to condense more practical information than 
 will be found scattered through as many volumes of later 
 times ; and yet he is minute even to the extreme on points 
 of real utihty. There is no reason to say, with Mr Harte, 
 that he had revived the husbandry of the Romans ; he 
 merely describes the practices of the age in which he lived ; 
 and from his commentary on the old statute extenta manerii, 
 in his Book of Surveying, in which he does not allude to 
 any recent improvements, it is probable that. the manage- 
 ment which he details had been long established. But it 
 may surprise some of the agriculturists of the present day 
 to be told, that, after the lapse of almost three centuries, 
 Fitzherbert's practice, in some material particulars, has not 
 
 1 Inquiry into the Corn Laws, 4c, p. 9. 
 
 ' The account of the Writers on Agriculture' taken from Mr Cleg- 
 Vein's Treatise in the former edition of the Encylopadia Eritanniai. 
 
 been improved upon ; and that in several districts abuses 
 until recently existed, which were as clearly pointed out by 
 him at that early period as by any writer of the present age. 
 The Book of Husbandry begins with the plough and 
 other instruments, which are concisely and yet minutely 
 described; and then about a third part of it is occupied 
 with the several operations as they succeed one another 
 throughout the year. Among other things in this part of 
 the work, the following deserve notice : — 
 
 ' ' Somme (ploughs) wyll tourn the sheld bredith at every landsende, 
 and plowe all one way ;" the same kind of plough that is now 
 found so usefnl on hilly grounds. Of wheel-ploughs he observes, 
 that " they be good on even grounds that lyetl lyghte ;" and or 
 such lands they are still most commonly employed. Cart-wheeli 
 were sometimes bound with iron, of which he greatly approves. 
 On the much agitated question about the employment of horses ci 
 oxen in labour, the most important arguments are distinctly stated. 
 "In some places," he says, "a horse plough is better, and in 
 others an oxen plough, to which, upon the whole, he gives the pre- 
 ference, and to this, considering the practices of that period, they 
 were probably entitled. Beans and peas seem to have been common 
 crops. He mentions the different kinds of wheat, barley, and oats ; 
 and after describing the method of harrowing "all maner ol 
 ! cornnes," we find the roller employed. "They used to role their 
 ! barley grounde after a showr of rayne, to make the grounde even t« 
 mowe.' Under the article "To falowe," he observes, "the greater 
 clottes (clods) the better wheate, for the clottes kepe the wheat 
 warme all wynter ; and at March they will melte ana breake and 
 fal in manye small peces, the whiche is a new dongynge and 
 refresh yage of the corne. " This is agreeable to the present practice, 
 founded on the very samo reasons. " In May, the shepe folde is te 
 be set out ;" but Fitzherbert does not much approve of folding, 
 and points out its disadvantages in a very judicious manner. " in 
 the fatter end of May and the begynnynge of June, is tyme to wed* 
 the corne ;" and then we have an accurate description of the 
 different weeds, and the' instruments and mode of weeding. Next 
 comes a second ploughing of the fallow ; and afterwards, in the 
 latter end of June, the mowing of the meadows begins. Of this 
 operation, and of the forks and rakf s, and the haymaking, there is 
 a very good account. The corn harvest naturally follows : rye and 
 wheat were usually shorn, and barley and oats cut with the scythe 
 This intelligent writer does not approve of the practice, which stiU 
 prevails in some places, of cutting wheat high, and then mowing 
 the stubbles. " In Somersetshire, ' he says, " they do shera theyr 
 wheat very lows ; and the wheate strawe that they purpose to make 
 thacke of, they do not threshe it, but cut off the ears, and bynd it in 
 sheves, and call it rede, and therewith they thacke theyr houses." 
 He recommends the practice of setting up corn in shocks, with two 
 sheaves to cover eight, instead of ten sheaves as at present; 
 probably owing to the straw being then shorter. The corn was 
 commonly housed ; but if there be a want of room, he advises that 
 the ricks be built on a scaffold, and not upon the ground. Corn- 
 stacks are now beginning to be built on pillars and frames. Tho 
 fallow received a third ploughing in September, and was sown 
 about Michaelmas. " Wheat is moost commonlye sowne under the 
 forowe, that is to say, cast it uppon the falowe, and then plowe it 
 under ;" and this branch of his subject is concluded with direction! 
 about threshing, winnowing, and other kinds of barn-work. 
 
 fitzherbert next proceeds to live stock. "An honsb«uide," he 
 says, " can not well thryue by his corne without he h -ve other 
 cattell, nor by his cattell without corne. And bycaufe that shepe, 
 in myne opynyon, is the mooste profytablest cattell that any man 
 can haue, therefore I pourpose to speake fyrst of shepe.' His 
 remarks on this subject are so accurate, that one might imagine 
 they came from a storemaster of the present day ; and the minutia 
 which he details are exactly what the writer of this article has seen 
 practised in the hilly parts of this country. In some places at 
 present, "they neuer seuer their lambes from their dammes" 
 "and the poore of the peeks (high) countreye, and such othar 
 places, where, as they vse to mylke theyr ewes, they vse to wayne 
 theyr lambes at 12 weekes olde, and to mylke their ewes fiue or 
 syxe weekes ;" but that, he observes, "is greats hurte to the ewes, 
 and wyll cause them that they wyll not take the ramme at the 
 tyme of the yere for pouertye, but goo barreyne." "In June is 
 tyme to shere shepe ; and ere they be shorno, they must be verve 
 well washen, the which shall bo to the owner greate profyte in the 
 sale of his wool, and also to the clothe-maker." It appears that 
 hand washing was then a common practice ; and yet in the west and 
 north of Scotland its introduction is of comparatively recent date. 
 His remarks on horses, cattle, &c, .are not less interesting; and 
 there is a very good account of the diseases of each species, and 
 some just observations on the advantage of mixing different kinds 
 on the same pasture. Swine and bees conclude this branch of the 
 work.
 
 296 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [hkstoricai, 
 
 The autnor then points out ths great advantages of inclosure ; 
 recommends "quyclsetl liynge, and hedgeyng ;" and 
 
 gives particular direction «, and the method of training 
 
 a hedge, as well as concerning the planting and management of 
 trees. We have then a short information "for a yonge gentylman 
 that intendeth to thryue," and "a prolongs for the wiues occu- 
 pation," in some in tiler too homely for tho present time. 
 Amoug other things, sho is to "make her husband and herself 
 somme clothes ;* and " she maye haue the lockes of the 6hepe eyther 
 to make blankcttcs and courlettcs, or bothe." This is not so much 
 amiss ; but what follows will bring the learned judge into disrepute 
 even with our most industrious housewives. ",lt is a wyues occu- 
 pation," he sa\., "to wynowe all manor of comes, to make malte, 
 to wusho and wrynge, to make hcye, shere come, and, in time of 
 node, to hclpo iicr husbands to fyll the mucko wayiia or dounge 
 carte, dryue the ploughe, to loode hcye, cornc, and sucho other ; 
 and to go or ride to tho market to sel butter, chese, mylke, egges, 
 chokyns, capons, hennes, pygges, gese, and all nianer of comes.'' 
 The rest of the book contains some useful advices about diu'gence 
 and economy ; and concludes, after the manner of the age, with 
 many pious exhortations. 
 
 Such is Fitzherbcrt's Boole of Husbandry, and such was 
 the state of agriculture in England in the early part of the 
 lGth century, and probably for a long time before; for he 
 Nowhere speaks of the practices which he describes or 
 recommends as of recent introduction. 
 
 The Book of Surveying add3 considerably to our knowledge 
 of the rural economy of that age. " Four maner of com- 
 lnens" are described ; several kinds of mills for corn and 
 other purposes, and also " quernes that goo with hand ;" 
 different orders of tenants, down to the " boundmen," who 
 " in some places coutynue as yet f " and many tymes, by 
 colour thereof, there be many freemen taken as boundmen, 
 and their lands and goods is taken from them." Lime and 
 marl are mentk ned as common manures; and the former 
 was sometimes spread on the surface to destroy heath. Both 
 draining and irrigation are noticed, though the latter but 
 slightly. And the work concludes with an inquiry " how to 
 make a township that is worth XX. marke a yere, worth 
 XX. li. a year;" from which we shall give a specimen of the 
 author's manner, as well as of the economy of the age. 
 
 "It is undoubted, that to every townshyppe that standeth in 
 tyllage in the playne countrey, there bo enable landes to plowe and 
 sowe, and leyse to rye or tedder theyr horses and mares upon, and 
 common pasture to kepe and pasture their catell, beestes, "and 
 shepe upon ; and also they have medowe grounde to get theyr hey 
 upon. Than to let it be known how many acres of enable lands 
 euery man ltath in tyllage, and of the same acres in euery felde to 
 chaungo with his ncygbbours, and to leys them toguyther, and to 
 make hyin ous seuorall close in euery felde for bis errabls lands ; 
 and his leyso in euery feldo to levo them togythcr in one felde, and 
 to make one seucrall close for them all. And also another seuerall 
 close for bis portion of bis common pasture, and also hisporcion of 
 his medowe in a 6eucra!l close by itselfe, and al kept in seuerall 
 both in wynter and soroer ; and euery cottage shall haue his 
 portion assigned hym accordynge to his rent, and than shall nat 
 ths rychs man oucrprcsso the pooro man with bis cattell ; and 
 euery man may cato his oun close at his pleasure. And vndoubtcd, 
 that bay and strawe that will find one beest in the house wyll finde 
 two beestes in the close, and better they shall lyke. For those 
 beestis in the bouse have short heare and thymic, and towards 
 Mirli they will pylle and bo bare; and therefore they may nat 
 abyde in tho fylde before the heerdmen in winter tyico for coldc.' 
 And those that lye in a close under a hedge haue longe hears and 
 thyek, and they will neuer pylle nor be bare ; and by this reason 
 the husbande inaye kepe twyse so many catell as he did before. 
 
 " This is the causo of tjis approwment. Kowe euery husbande 
 liath 61X6 seuerall closes, whereof ILL. be for come, the fourths for 
 bis leyse, tho fyfte for his common pastures, and the sixto for his 
 have ; and in wynter time there is but ons occupied with come, 
 and than hath the husbande other fyue to occupy tyll lente come, 
 and that be hath his falowe felde, his ley felde, and his pasture 
 felde al sommer. And when be hath mowen his medowe then he 
 hath his medowo grounde, soo that if he hath any weyke catell 
 that wold be amended, or dyvers maner of catell, he may put them 
 in*ny close he wyll, tho which is a great advantage ; and if all 
 shuldo lye commen, than wolds tho edychs of the come feldes and 
 the afWmath of all the medowes bo eaten in X or XII. dayes. 
 And the rych men that bath moche catell wold have the advantage, 
 and the poore man can have no helpe nor relefe in wynter when lie 
 hath musts nide ; and if an acre of lande be worthe &i.ie pcus, or it 
 
 bo enclosed, it will bo worth VIII. pens, when it is enclosed by 
 reason of tho compostying and dongyng of tho catell that shall 
 go and lye upon it both day and nighte ; and if any of his 
 thro closes that he hath for his come be woms or wars bars, 
 than lis may breko and plowo up hie close that he hadde for his 
 layso, or the close that ho hadde for his commen pasture, or bothe, 
 and sows them with come, and let the other lyo for a time, and so 
 shall ho have alway reist grounde, the which will bear moche come 
 with lytel dongo ; and also hs shall havs a great profyte of tho wod 
 in ths hedges whan it is growsn ; and not only these profytes and 
 advantages beforesaid, but he shall save mocho more than al 
 these, for by reason of these closes he shall save meate, drinke, 
 and wages of a shepherde, the wages of the heerdmen, and the 
 wages ol the swine herde, the which may fortune to be as chargeable 
 as all his holle rent ; and also his come shall be better saved from 
 eatinge or destroyeng with catel. For dout ye nat but hcerdemen 
 with their catell, shepeherdes with their shepe. and tieng of horses 
 and mares, destroyeth mocb. come, the which the hedges wold save. 
 Paradueuture some men would say, that this shuld be against the 
 common weale, bicause the shepeherdes, heerdmen, and swyne- 
 herdes, shuld than be put out of wages. To that it may be 
 answered, though these occupations be not used, there bo as many 
 newe occupations that were not ased before ; as getting of quicke- 
 settes, diching, hedging, and plashing, the which the same men 
 may use and occupye." 
 
 The next author who writes professedly on agriculture Tusse* 
 is Tusser. whose Five Hundred Points of Husbandry, ^^ 
 published in 15 G2, was formerly in such high repute as to 
 be recommended by Lord Molesworth to be taught in 
 schools. 1 The edition of 1604 isthe one we make use of here. 
 In it the book of husbandry consists of 118 pages, and 
 then follows the Points of Housewifrie, occupying 42 pages 
 more. It is written in verse. Amidst a vast heap of 
 rubbish, there are some useful notices concerning the state 
 of agriculture at the time in different parts of England. 
 Hops, which had been introduced in the early part of 
 the lGth century, and on the culture of which a treatise 
 was published in 1574 by Beynolde Scott, are mentioned 
 as a well-known crop. Buckwheat was sown after barley. 
 Hemp and flax are mentioned as common crops. Inclosures 
 must have been numerous in several counties ; and there 
 is a very good comparison between " champion (open fields) 
 country, and several," which Blythe afterwards transcribed 
 into his Improver Improved. Carrots, cabbages, turnips, 
 and rape, are mentioned among the herbs und roots for the 
 kitchen. There is nothing to be found in Tusser about 
 serfs or bondmen, as in Fitzherbert's works. This author's 
 division of the crop is rather curious, though probably quite 
 inaccurate, if he means that the whole rent might be paid 
 by a tenth of the corn. 
 
 " One part cast forth for rent due out of hand. 
 One other part for seed to sow thy laud. 
 Another part leave parson for his tith. 
 Another part for harvest, sickle and sith. _ 
 
 One part for ploughwrite, cartwrite, knacker, and smith. 
 One part to uphold thy teemes that draw therewith. 
 Another part for servant and workman's wages laie. 
 One part likewise for filbellie daie by daie. 
 One part thy wife for needful things doth crave. 
 Thyself and thy child ths last part would havs." 
 
 Tho next writer is Barnaby Googe, whose Wliole AH of 
 Husbandry was printed in 1678, and again by Markham 
 in 1G14. Tho first edition is merely a translation of a 
 German work j and very little is said of English husbandry 
 in the second, though Markham mado some trilling inter- 
 polations, in order, as it is alleged, to adapt tho German 
 husbandry to the English climate. It is for the most part 
 made up of "gleanings from the ancient writers of Greece 
 and Borne, whose errors are faithfully retained, with here 
 and there some description of the practices of the age, in 
 which there is little of novelty or importance. Googe 
 mentions a number of English writers who lived about the 
 time of Fitzherbert, whose works have not been preserved^ 
 
 1 Some Considerations for the promoting of Agriculture and emplop 
 ing the Poor. Dublin, 1723.
 
 SUMMARY.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 297 
 
 For more than fifty years after this, or till near the 
 middle of the 17th century, there are no systematic 
 works on husbandry, though several treatises on particular 
 departments of it. From these it is evident that all the 
 different operations of the fanner were performed with more 
 care and correctness than formerly ; that the fallows were 
 better worked, the fields kept freer from weeds, and much 
 more attention paid to manures of every kind. A few of 
 the writers of this period deserve to be shortly noticed. 
 
 Sir Hugh Plat, in his Jewel House of Art and Nature, 
 printed in 1594 (which Weston in his catalogue erroneously 
 ascribes to Gabriel Plattes), makes some useful observations 
 on manures, but chiefly collected from other writers. His 
 censure of the practice of leaving farm dung lying scattered 
 about is among the most valuable. 
 
 Sir John Norden's Surveyor's Dialogue, printed in 1607, 
 and reprinted with additions in 1618, is a work of con- 
 siderable merit. The first three books of it relate to the 
 rights of the lord of the manor and the various tenures by 
 ■which landed property was then held, with the obligations 
 which they imposed. Among others, we fiad the singular 
 custom, so humorously described in the Spectator, of the 
 incontinent widow riding upon a ram. In the fifth book 
 there are a good many judicious observations on the 
 " different natures of grounds, how they may be employed, 
 how they may be bettered, reformed, and amended." The 
 famous meadows near Salisbury are mentioned ; and when 
 cattle have fed their fill, hogs, it is pretended, " are made 
 fat with the remnant — namely, with the knots and sappe 
 of the grasse." " Clouer grasse, or the grasse honey suckle" 
 (white clover), is directed to be sown with other hay seeds. 
 " Carrot rootes" were then raised in several parts of England, 
 and sometimes by farmers. London street and stable dung 
 was carried to a distance by water, though it appears from 
 later writers to have been got for the trouble of removing. 
 And leases of 21 years are recommended for persons of 
 email capital, as better than employing it in purchasing 
 land, — an opinion that prevails very generally among our 
 present farmers. 
 
 Bees seem to have been great favourites with these early 
 writers ; and among others, there is a treatise by Butler, 
 a gentleman of Oxford, called the Feminine Monarchic, or 
 the History of Bees, printed in 1G09, full of all manner of 
 quaintness and pedantry. 
 
 We shall pass over Markham, Mascall, Gabriel Plattes, 
 and several other authors of this period, the best part of 
 their. writings being preserved by Blythe and Hartlib, of 
 whom we shall say a little immediately. In Sir Richard 
 Weston's Discourse on the Husbandry of Brabant and 
 Flanders, published by Haitlib in 1645, we may mark the 
 dawn of the vast improvements which have since been 
 effected in Britain. This gentleman was ambassador from 
 England to the elector palatine and king of Bohemia in 
 1619, and had the merit of being the first who introduced 
 the great clover, as it was then called, into English 
 agriculture, about 1645, and probably turnips also. His 
 directions for the cultivation of clover are better than was 
 to be expected. It thrives best, he says, when you sow it 
 on the worst and barrenest ground, such as our worst 
 heath ground is in England. The ground is to be pared 
 and burnt, and unslacked lime must be added to the ashes. 
 It is next to be well ploughed and harrowed ; and about 
 ten pounds of clover seed must be sown on an acre in 
 April or the end of March. If you intend to preserve seed, 
 then the second crop must be let stand till it come to a full 
 and dead ripeness, and you shall have at the least five 
 bushels per acre. Being once sown, it will last five years ; 
 and then being ploughed, it will yield, three or four years 
 together, rich crops of wheat, and after that a crop of oats, 
 with which clover seed is to be sown aeain. It is in itself 
 
 an excellent manure, Sir Richard adds; and so it should 
 be, to enable land to bear this treatment. In less than ten 
 years after its introduction, that is, before 1655, the cul- 
 ture of clover, exactly according to the present method, 
 seems to have been well known in England, and it had 
 also made its way to Ireland. 
 
 A great many works on agriculture appeared during the 
 time of the Commonwealth, of which Blythe's Improver 
 Improved and Hartlib's Legacy are the most valuable. 
 The first edition of the former was published in 1649, and 
 of the latter in 1650; and both of them were enlarged in 
 subsequent editions. In the first edition of the Improver 
 Improved, no mention is made of clover, nor in the second 
 of turnips, but in the third, published in 1662, clover is 
 treated of at some length, and turnips are recommended 
 as an excellent cattle crop, the culture of which should 
 be extended from the kitchen garden to the field Sir 
 Richard Weston must have cultivated turnips before this ; 
 for Blythe says, that Sir Richard affirmed to himself he 
 did feed his swine with them. They were first given boiled, 
 but afterwards the swine came to eat them raw, and would 
 run after the carts, and pull them forth as they gathered 
 them, — an expression which conveys an idea of their being 
 cultivated in the fields. 
 
 Blythe's book is tho first systematic work in which there 
 are some traces of the alternate husbandry so beneficially 
 established since, by interposing clover and turnip between 
 culmiferous crops. Ha is a great enemy to commons and 
 common fields, and to retaining land in old pasture, unless 
 it be of the best quality. His description of the different 
 kinds of ploughs is interesting ; and he justly recommends 
 such as were drawn by two horses (some even by one 
 horse), in preference to the weighty and clumsy machines 
 which required four or more horses or oxen. Almost all 
 the manures now used seem to have been then well 
 known, and he brought lime himself from a distance of 
 20 miles. He speaks of an instrument which ploughed, 
 sowed, and harrowed at the same time ; and the setting of 
 corn, was then a subject of much discussion. "It waa 
 not many years," says Blythe, " since the famous city of 
 London petitioned the Parliament of England against two 
 anusancies or offensive commodities, which were likely to 
 come into great use and esteem ; and that was K ewi astle 
 coal, in regard of their stench, <fec, and hops, in regard they 
 would spoyle the taste of drink, and endanger the people." 
 
 Hartlib's Legacy is a very heterogeneous performance, 
 containing, among some very judicious directions, a great 
 deal of rash speculation. Several of the deficiencies 
 which the writer complains of is English agriculture 
 must be placed to the account of our climate, and never 
 have been or can be supplied. Some of his recommen- 
 .dations are quite unsuitable to the state of the country, 
 and display more of general knowledge and good inten- 
 tion than of either the theory or practice of agriculture. 
 Among the subjects deserving notice may be mentioned 
 the practice of steeping and liming seed corn as a preven- 
 tive of smut ; changing every year the species of grain, and 
 bringing seed corn from a distance ; ploughing down green 
 crops as manure ; and feeding horses with broken oats and 
 chaff. This writer seems to differ a good deal from Blythe 
 about the advantage of interchanging tillage and pasture. 
 " It were no losse to tliia island," he says, " if that we 
 should not plough at all, if so be that we could certainly 
 have corn at a reasonable rate, and likewise vent for all our 
 manufactures of wool;" and one reason for this is, that 
 pasture employeth more hands than tillage, instead of de- 
 populating the country, as was commonly imagined. The 
 grout, which he mentions " as coming over to us in Hol- 
 land ships," about which he desires information, was pro- 
 bably the same with our present shelled barley ; and milla
 
 298 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [HISTORICAL 
 
 for manufact\iring it were introduced into Scotland from 
 Holland towards the beginning of the last century. 
 
 To the third edition, published in 1655, are subjoined 
 Dr Beatie's Annotations with the writer of the Legacy's 
 answers, both of them ingenious, and sometimes instruc- 
 tive. But thi3 cannot be said of Gabriel Plattes's Mercu- 
 rius Lcetificans, also added to this edition, which is a most 
 extravagant production. There are alsb several communi- 
 cations from Hartbb's different correspondents, of which 
 the most interesting are those on the early cultivation and 
 great value of clover. Hartlib himself doe3 not appear 
 much in this collection ; but he seems to have been a very 
 aseful person in editing the works of others, and as a 
 collector of miscellaneous information on rural subjects. 
 It is strange that neither Blythe nor Hartlib, nor any of 
 Hartlib's correspondents, seem ever to have heard of 
 Fitzherbert's works. 
 
 Among the other writers previous to the Revolution, we 
 shall only mention Ray tha botanist, and Evelyn, both men 
 of great talent and* research, whose works are still in 
 high estimation. A new edition of Evelyn's Silva and 
 Terra was published in 1777 by Dr Hunter, with largo 
 notes and elegant engravings, and reprinted in 1812. 
 
 The preceding review commences with a period of feudal 
 anarchy and despotism and comes down to the time when 
 the exertions of individual interest were protected and en- 
 couraged by the firm administration of equal laws; when the 
 prosperity ot Great Britain was no longer retarded by in- 
 ternal commotions, nor endangered by hostile invasion. 
 
 Laws. 
 
 The laws of this period, in so far as they relate to agri- 
 culture and rural economy, display a similar progress in 
 improvement. 
 
 From the beginning or the reign of Henry Vli. to the 
 end of Elizabeth's, a number of statutes were made for 
 the encouragement of tillage, though probably to little 
 purpose. The great grievance of those days was the 
 practice of laying arable land to pasture, and suffering the 
 fanu-houses to fall to ruin. "Where in some towns," says 
 the statute 4th Henry VII. (1488), "two hundred persons 
 were occupied and lived of their lawful labours, now there 
 are occupied two or three herdsmen, and the residue fall 
 into idleness ;" therefore it is ordained, that houses which 
 within threo years have been let for farms, with twenty 
 acres of land lying in tillage or husbandry, shall be upheld, 
 under the penalty of half the profits, to be forfeited to tho 
 king or the lord of the fee. Almost half a century after- 
 wards, the practice had become still more alarming ; and 
 in 1534 a now Act was tried, apparently with as little suc- 
 cess. "Some have 24,000 sheep, some 20,000 sheep, 
 some 10,000, some 6000, some 4000, and some more and 
 some less ;" and yet it is alleged the price of wool had 
 nearly doubled, "sheep being come to a few persons' 
 hands." A penalty was therefore imposed on all who 
 kept above 2000 sheep ; and r>o person was to take in 
 farm more than two tenements of husbandry. By the 
 39th Elizabeth (1597), arable Ian \ made pasture since the 
 1st Elizabeth shall be again converted into tillage, and 
 what is arable shall not be converted into pasture. 
 
 Many laws were enacted during this period against va- 
 gabonds, as they were called ; and persons who could not 
 find employment seem to have been sometimes confounded 
 with those who really preferred idleness and plunder. 
 The dissolution of the feudal system, and the suppression 
 of the monasteries, deprived a great pari; of the rural 
 population of the means of support. They could not bo 
 employed in cultivating the soil, for there was no middle 
 class of. farmers possessed of capital to be vested in 
 improvements ; and what little disposable capital was in tho 
 
 hands of great proprietors tould not, in those ruao tunes, 
 be so advantageously embarked in the expensive and pre- 
 carious labours of growing corn, as in pasturage, which 
 required much less skill and superintendence. Besides, 
 there was a constant demand for wool on Jthe Continent ; 
 whilo the corn market was not only confined by laws 
 against exportation, but fettered by restrictions on the 
 internal trade. The laws regarding the wages of labour and 
 the price of provisions are- a further proof of the ignorance 
 of the age in regard to the proper subject of legislation. 
 
 By the statute 1552 it is declared, that any person that 
 shall buy merchandise, victual, he, coming to market, 
 or make any bargain for buying the same; before they shall 
 bo in the market ready to be sold, or shall make any 
 motion for enhancing the price, or dissuade any person 
 from coming to market, or forbear to bring any of the 
 things to market, <fec, shall be deemed a forestaller. Any 
 person who buys and sells again in the same market, or 
 within four miles thereof, shall be reputed a regrater. Any 
 person buying corn growing in the fields, or any other 
 corn, with intent to sell again, shall be reputed an unlaw- 
 ful, ingrosser. It was also declared, that no person shall 
 sell cattle within five weeks after he had bought them. 
 Licenses, indeed, were to be granted in certain cases, and 
 particularly when the price of wheat was at or under 6s. 8d. 
 a quarter, and other kinds of grain in that proportion. 
 
 The laws regarding the exportation and importation of Corn tradt 
 corn during this period could have had little effect in 
 encouraging agriculture, though towards the latter part of 
 it they gradually approached that system which was finally 
 established at and soon after the Revolution. From the 
 time of the above-mentioned statute agaiust forestaOers, 
 which effectually prevented exportation, as well as the 
 freedom of the home trade, when corn was above the 
 price therein specified, down to 1688, there are at least 
 twelve statutes on this subject ; and some of them are so 
 nearly the same, that it is probable they were not very 
 carefully observed. The price at which wheat was allowed 
 td be exported was raised from 6s. 8d. a quarter, the nrice 
 fixed by the 1st and 2d of PhUip and Mary (1553), to'lOs. 
 in 1562; to 20s. in 1593; to 26s. 8d. in 1604; to 32s. ii? 
 1623; to 40s. in 1660; to 48s. in 1663; and at last, in 
 1670, exportation was virtually permitted without limita- 
 tion. Certain duties, however, were payable, which in 
 some cases seem to have amounted to a prohibition ; and 
 until 1660 importation was not restrained even in years 
 of plenty and cheapness. In permitting exportation, the 
 object appears to have been revenue rather than the 
 encouragement of production. 
 
 The first statute for levying tolls at turnpikes, to make Toll9,1661 
 or repair roads in England, passed in 1662. 
 
 Of the state of agriculture in Scotland in the 16th and Scotland, 
 the greater part of tho 17th century very little is known ; ^ th<lnd 
 no professed treatise on the subject appeared till after the J™ \™ D ' 
 Revolution. The south-eastern counties were the earliest 
 improved, and yet in 1660 their condition seems to have 
 been very wretched. Ray, who made a tour along the 
 eastern coast in that year, says, " We observed little or no 
 fallow ground in Scotland ; some ley ground we saw, whic> 
 they manured with sea wreck. The men seemed to be 
 very lazy, and may be frequently observed to plough in 
 their cloaks. It is tho fashion of them to wear cloaks 
 when they go abroad, but especially on Sundays. They 
 have neither good bread, cheese, nor drink. They_ cannot 
 make them, nor will they learn. Their butter is very 
 indifferent, and one would wonder how they could contrive 
 to make it so bad. They use much pottage made of coal- 
 wort, which they call kail, sometimes broth of decorticated 
 barley. The ordinary country-houses are pitiful cots, built 
 of stone and covered with turfs, having in them but one
 
 KTMMART.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 299 
 
 toom, many of them no chimneys, the windows very small 
 holes, and not glazed. The ground in the valleys and 
 plains bears very good corn, but especially bears barley or 
 bigge, and oats, but rarely wheat and rye." 1 
 
 It is probable that no great change had taken place in 
 Scotland from the end of the 15th century, except- that 
 tenants gradually became possessed of a little stock of 
 their own, instead of having their farm stocked by the 
 landlord. " The minority of James V., the reign of Mary 
 Stuart, the infancy of her son, and the civil wars of her 
 grandson Charles I., were all periods of lasting waste. 
 The very laws which were made during successive reigns 
 for protecting thg tillers of the soil from spoil, are the 
 best proofs of the deplorable state of the husbandman." 2 
 
 Yet in the 17th century were those laws made which 
 paved the way for the present improved system of agri- 
 culture in Scotland. By statute 1633, landholders were 
 enabled to have their tithes valued, and to buy them either 
 at nine or sis years' purchase, according to the nature of 
 the property." The statute 1685, Conferring on landlords 
 a power to entail their estates, was indeed of a very dif- 
 ferent tendency in regard to its effects on agriculture. 
 But the tw.o Acts in 1C95, for the division of commons, 
 and separation of intermixed properties, have facilitated 
 in an eminent degree the progress of improvement. 
 
 Progress op Agriculture from 1688 to 1760. 
 
 From the Revolution to the accession of George ITL the 
 progress of agriculture was by no means so considerable as 
 we should be led to imagine from the great exportation of 
 corn. It is the opinion of well-informed writers, 3 that 
 very little improvement had taken place, either in the 
 cultivation of the soil or in the management of live stock, 
 from the Restoration down to the middle of last century. 
 Even clover and turnips, the great support of the present 
 improved system of agriculture, were confined to a few 
 districts, and at the latter period were* scarcely cultivated 
 at all by common farmers in the northern part of the 
 island. Of the writers of this period, therefore, we shall 
 notice only such as describe some improvement in the 
 modes of culture, or some extension of the practices that 
 were formerly little known. 
 
 In Houghton's Collections on, Husbandry and Trade, a 
 periodical work begun in 1681, we have the first notice 
 of turnips being eaten by sheep: — "Some in Essex have 
 their fallow after turnips, which feed their sheep in winter, 
 by which means the turnips are scooped, and so made 
 capable to hold dews and rain water, which, by corrupting, 
 imbibes the nitre of the air, and when the shell breaks it 
 runs about and fertilises. By feeding the sheep, the land 
 is dunged as if it had been folded ; and those turnips, 
 though few or none be carried off for human use, are a 
 very excellent improvement, nay, some reckon it so though 
 they only plough the turnips in without feeding."* This 
 was written in February 1694 ; but ten years before, Wor- 
 lidge, one of his correspondents, observes, "Sheep fatten 
 very well on turnips, which prove an excellent nourish- 
 ment for them in hard winters when fodder is scarce ; for 
 they will not only eat the greens, but feed on the roots in 
 the ground, and scoop them hollow even to the very Bkinr 
 Ten acres (he adds) sown with clover, turnips, &c, will 
 feed as many sheep as one hundred acres thereof would 
 before have done." 6 
 
 1 Select Remains of John Ray* Lond. 1760. 
 
 * Chalmers's Caledonia, vol. ii. p. 732. 
 
 * Annals of Agriculture, No. 270. Harte's Essays. Comber on 
 National Subsistence, p. 161. 
 
 4 Houghton's Collections on Husbanary and Trad*. vol L p. 213, 
 edit. 1728. 
 
 » 'bid. vol. iv. pp. 142-144. 
 
 At this time potatoes were beginning to attract notice. 
 
 "The potato," says Houghton, "is a bocciferous herb, with 
 esculent roots, bearing winged leaves and a bell fiower. 
 
 "This, I have been informed, was brought first out of Virginia 
 by Sir Walter Raleigh ; and he Btopping at Ireland, some was 
 planted there, where it thrived very woU, and to good purpose ; 
 for hi their succeeding wars, when all the corn above the ground 
 was destroyed, this supported them ; for the soldiers, unless they 
 had dug up all the ground whero they grew, and almost sifted it, 
 could not extirpate them ; from whence they were brought to 
 Lancashire, where they are very numerous, and now they begin to 
 spread all the kingdom over. They are a pleasant food boiled or 
 roasted, and eaten with butter and sugar. There is a sort brought 
 from Spain, that are of a longer form, and are more luscious than 
 ours ; they are much set by, and sold for sixpence or eightpenco 
 the pound." 8 
 
 The next writer is Mortimer, whose Whole Art of Hus- 
 bandry was published in 1706, and has since run through 
 several editions. It is a regular, systematic work, of con- 
 siderable merit; and will even now repay perusal by the 
 practical agriculturist. From the third edition of Hartlib'a 
 Legacy, we learn that clover was cut green, and given to 
 cattle ; and it appears that this practice of soiling, as it is 
 now called, had become very common about the beginning 
 of last century, wherever clover was cultivated. Rye-grass 
 was now sown along with it. Turnips were hand-hoed, and 
 extensively employed in feeding sheep and cattle, in the same 
 manner as at present. 
 
 The first considerable improvement in the practice of that 
 period was introduced by Jethro Tull, a gentleman of Berk- 
 shire, who began to drill wheat and other crops about the year 
 1701, and whose Horse-hoeing Husbandry, published in 
 1731, exhibits the first decided stepin advance upon the prin- 
 ciples and practices of his predecessors. Not contented with 
 a careful attention to details, Tull set himself, with admirable 
 skill and perseverance, to investigate the growth of plants, 
 and thus to arrive at a knowledge of the principles by which 
 the cultivation of field-crops should be regulated. Having 
 arrived at the conclusion that the food of plants consists of 
 minute particles of earth taken up by their rootlets, it fol- 
 lowed, that the more thoroughly the soil in which they 
 grew was disintegrated, the more abundant would bo 
 the " pasture" (as he called it), to which their fibres would 
 have access. He was thus led to adopt that system of 
 sowing his crops in rows or drills, so wide apart as to 
 admit' of tillage of the intervals, both by ploughing and 
 hoeing, being continued until they had well-nigh arrived 
 at maturity. 
 
 As the distance between his rows appeared much greater 
 than was necessary for the range of the roots of the plants, 
 he begins by showing that these roots extend much far- 
 ther than is commonly believed, and then proceeds to inquire 
 into the nature of theirfood. After exa minin g several hypo- 
 theses, he decides this to be fine particles of earth. The 
 chief, and almost the only use of dung, he thinks, is to 
 divide the earth, to dissolvo " this terrestrial matter, which 
 affords nutriment to the mouths of vegetable roots;" and this 
 can be done more completely by tillage. It is therefore ne- 
 cessary not only to pulverise the soil by repeated ploughings 
 before it be seeded, but, as it becomes gradually more and 
 more compressed afterwards, recourse must be had to tillage 
 while the plants are growing ; and this is hoeing, which also 
 destroys the weeds that would deprive the plants of their 
 nourishment. 
 
 The leading features of Tull's husbandry are his practice 
 of laying the land into narrow ridges of five or six feet, and 
 upon the middle of these drilling one, two, or three rows, 
 distant from one another about seven inches when there 
 were three, and ten when only two. The distance of the 
 
 i • Houghton's Collections on Sttsbandry and Trade, vol. ii. p. 468.
 
 300 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [niSTOEICAV 
 
 plants on ono ridge from those on the contiguous one he 
 called an interval ; the distance between the rows on the 
 same ridge, a space or partition ; the former was stirred 
 repeatedly by the horse-hoe, the latter by the hand-hoe. 
 
 The extraordinary attention this ingenious person gave 
 to his modo of culture is perhaps without a parallel : — 
 
 " I formerly was nt much pains," ho says, "rtnd at sonio charge. 
 in improving my drills for planting tho rows at very near distances, 
 and had brought tlicm to such perfection, that ono horso would 
 draw a drill with cloven shares, making tho rows at throe inches 
 and a half distance from ono another ; and at tho sanio time sow in 
 them tlireo very different sorts of seeds, which did not mix ; and 
 those, too, at difforcnt depths. As the barley-rows were seven inches 
 asunder, tho barley lay four inches deep. A littlo moro than thrco 
 inches abovo that, in the same channels, was clover j betwixt every 
 two of tlieso rows was a row of St Foin, covered half an inch deep. 
 
 " 1 had a good crop of barloy the first year ; tho noxt year two 
 crops of broad clover, where that was sown ; and where hop-clover 
 was sown, a mixed crop of that and St Foin ; but I am since, by 
 experience, 80 fully convinced of the folly of these, or any other 
 mixed crops, and more especially of narrow spaces, that I have 
 demolished these instruments, in their full perfection, as a vain 
 curiosity, the drift and use of them being contrary to the true 
 principles and practice of horse-hoeing." 1 
 
 In the culture of wheat, he began with ridges six feet 
 broad, or eleven on a breadth of 66 feet ; but on this he 
 afterwards had fourteen ridges. After trying different num- 
 bers of rows on a ridge, he at last preferred two, with an 
 intervening Bpace of about 10 inches. He allowed only 
 three pecks of seed for an acre. The first hoeing was per- 
 formed by turning a furrow from the row, as soon as the 
 plant had put forth four or five leaves ; so that it was 
 done before or at the beginning of winter. The next hoeing 
 "wl: in spring, by which the earth was returned to the 
 plants. The subsequent operations depended upon the 
 circumstances and condition of the land and the state of 
 the weather. The next year's crop of wheat was sown 
 upon the intervals which had been unoccupied the former 
 year ; but this he does not seem to think was a matter of 
 much consequence. 
 
 "My field," he observes, "whoreon is now the thirteenth crop 
 of wheat, has shown that the rows may successfully stand upon 
 any part of the ground. The ridges of this field were, for the 
 twelfth crop, changed from six feet to four feet six inches. In 
 order for this alteration the ridges were ploughed down, and then 
 the next ridges were laid out the same way as the former, but one 
 foot six inches narrower, and the double rows drilled on their 
 tops ; whereby, of consequence, there must be some rows standing 
 on every part of the ground, both on tho former partitions and on 
 every part of the intervals. Notwithstanding this, there was no 
 manner of difference in the goodness of the rows ; and tho whole 
 field was in every part of it equal, and the best, 1 believe, that 
 ever grow on it. It is now the thirteenth crop, likely to be good, 
 though the land was not ploughed crossways.' a 
 
 It follows, from this singular management, that Tull 
 thought a succession of crops of different species altogether 
 ■unnecessary; and he labours hard to prove against Dr 
 Woodward, that the advantages of such a change under his 
 plan of tillage were quite chimerical, though he seems to 
 admit the benefit of a change of the seed itself. 
 
 In cultivating turnips he made the ridges of the same 
 breadth as for wheat, but only one row was drilled on each. 
 His management, while the crop was growing, differs very 
 little from the present practice. When drilled on the level, it 
 is impossible, he observes, to hoe-plough them so well as when 
 they are planted upon ridges. But the seed was deposited 
 at different depths, the half about four inches deep, and 
 the other half exactly over that, at the depth of half an inch. 
 
 "Thus planted, let the weather he never so dry, tho deepest 
 seed will come up, but if it raineth immediately after planting, 
 the shallow will come up first We also make it come up at four 
 times, by mixing our seed half new and half old, the new coming 
 up a day quicker than the old. These four comings up give it so 
 
 1 Jtorse-hoeing Husbandry, p. 62. Lond. 1762. ' * Hid. p. 424 
 
 many chances for escaping the fly ; it being often seen that the scod 
 sown over night will bo destroyed by tho Ily, when that sown tho 
 next morning will escape, and vice versa: or you may hoo-plough 
 them when the Ily is like to devour them ; this will bury, the groatost 
 part of theso enemies : or elso you may drill in another row without 
 new-ploughing the land." 
 
 Drilling and horse and hand hoeing seem to have been in 
 use before the publication of Tull's book. "Hoeing," he says, 
 " may be divided into deep, which is our horse-hoeing ; and 
 shallow, which is the English hand-hoeing ; and also tho 
 shallow horse-hoeing used in seme places betwixt rows, 
 where the intervals are very narrow, as 16 or 18 inches. 
 This is but an imitation of the hand-hoe, or a succedaneum 
 to it, and can neither supply the use of dung nor fallow, 
 and may be properly called scratch-hoeing." But in his 
 mode of forming ridges his practice seems to have been 
 original ; his implements display much ingenuity ; and his 
 claim to the title of father of the present horse-hoeing 
 husbandry of Great Britain seems indisputable. A trans- 
 lation of Tull's book was undertaken at one and the same 
 time in France, by three different persons of consideration, 
 without the privity of each other. Two of them afterwards 
 put their papers into the hands of the third, M. du Hamel 
 du Monceau, of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, 
 who published a treatise on husbandry, on the principles 
 of Mr Tull, a few years after. But Tull seems to have had 
 very few followers in England for more than thirty years. 
 The present method of drilling and horse-hocing turnips 
 was not introduced into Northumberland till about the 
 year 1780 ; 3 and it was then borrowed from Scotland, the 
 farmers of which had the merit of first adopting Tull's 
 management in the culture of this root about 1760. From 
 Scotland it made its way, but slowly, into the southern 
 parts of the island. 
 
 Tull's doctrines and practices being quite in advance of 
 his own times, were, as is usual in such cases, vehemently 
 opposed by his contemporaries. He was, in consequence, 
 involved in frcquerft controversy, in conducting which he 
 occasionally showed an asperity of temper which excites 
 our regret, but which is not to be wondered at, when we 
 consider the trials of patience which he encountered from 
 the unreasonable opposition of the agricultural community 
 to his improvements ; the thwarting of his experiments by 
 his own labourers, who, in their ignorant zeal against inno- 
 vations, wilfully broke his machines, and disregarded his 
 orders; and from acute and protracted bodily disease. 
 The soundness of his views and practice, as regards turnip 
 culture, came by-and-by to be acknowledged, and have 
 since ^een generally adopted. But it was only some 
 twenty-five years ago that his full merit began to be under 
 stood. The Rev. Mr Smith, in his Word in Season, about 
 t'nat time recalled attention to Tull's peculiar system of 
 ■wheat culture in a way that startled the whole community ; 
 while Professor Way, in a series of eloquent lectures 
 delivered before the Royal Agricultural Society, showed 
 that his science was true in the main, and even more strik- 
 ingly ahead of his times than his practice. 
 
 Among tho English writers of this period may be men- 
 tioned Bradley, Lawrence, Hales, Miller, Ellis, Smith, 
 Hill, Hitt, Lisle, and no'me. Most of their works went 
 through several editions in a few years, — at once a proof 
 of the estimation in -which they were held, and of the 
 direction of the public mind towards investigating tho 
 principles and practice of agriculture. 
 
 Of the progress of the art in Scotland, till towards the 
 end of the 17th century, we are almost entirely ignorant. 
 The first work, written by Donaldson, was printed in 1697, 
 under the title of Husbandry Anatomized; or, an Inquiry 
 into tks Present Manner of Telling and Manuring the 
 
 * iforOiumbcrland Survey, p. 100.
 
 SUMMARY.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 301 
 
 Ground in Scotland. It appears from this treatise, that 
 the state of the art was not more advanced at that time in 
 .North Britain than it had been in England in the time of 
 Fitzherbert. Farms were divided into infield and outfield ; 
 corn crops followed one another without the intervention 
 of fallow, cultivated herbage, or turnips, though something 
 is said about fallowing the outfield; inclosures "were very- 
 rare ; the tenantry had not begun to emerge from a state 
 of great poverty and depression ; and the wages of labour, 
 compared with the price of corn, were much lower than at 
 present ; though that price at least in ordinary years, must 
 appear extremely moderate in cur times. Leases for a term 
 of years, however, were not uncommon; but the want of 
 capital rendered it impossible for the tenantry to attempt 
 any spirited improvements. 
 , Donaldson first points out the common management of 
 that period, which he shows to have been very unproduc- 
 tive, and afterwards recommends what he thinks would 
 be a more profitable course. 
 
 "Of the dale ground," he says, "that is, such lands as are partly 
 hills and partly valleys, of which sorts may be comprehended the 
 greatest part of arable ground in this kingdom, I shall suppose a 
 Farmer to have a lease or tack of three score acres, at three hundred 
 merks of rent per annum <£\§, 13s. 4d. sterling). Perhaps some 
 who are not acquainted with rural affairs may think this cheap ; 
 but those who are the possessors thereof think otherwise, and find 
 difficulty enough to get the same paid, according to their present 
 way of manuring thereof. But that I may proceed to the comparison, 
 I shall show how commonly this farm-room is managed. It is com- 
 monly divided into two parts, viz., one-third croft, and two-thirds 
 outfield, as it is termed. The croft is usually divided into three 
 farts : to wit, one-third barley, which is always dunged that year 
 barley is sown thereon , another third oats , and the last third 
 peas. The outside field is divided into two parts, to wit, the one 
 half oats, and the other half grass, two years successively. The 
 product which may be supposed to be on each acre of croft, four 
 bolls (three Winchester quarters , and that of the cutfield, three (2\ 
 quarters); the quota is seven score bolls, which we shall also 
 reckon at five pounds (8s. 4d.) per boll, cheap year and dear year 
 one with another. This, in all, is worth £700 (£58, 6s. 8d. 
 Sterling). 
 
 "Then let us see what profit he can make of his cattle. Accord- 
 ing to the division of his lands there is 20 acres of grass, which 
 cannot be expected to be very good, because it gets not leave to 
 lie above two years, and therefore cannot be well swarded. How- 
 ever, usually, besides four horses, which are kept for ploughing 
 the said land, ten or twelve nolt are also kept upon a farm-room 
 of the above-mentioned bounds , but, in respect of the badness of 
 the grass, as said is, little profit is had of them. Perhaps two or 
 three stone of butter is the most that can be made of the milk of 
 his kine the whole summer, and not above two heffers brought up 
 each year. As to what profit may be made by bringing up young 
 horses, I shall say nothing, supposing he keeps his stock good, by 
 those of his own upbringing. The whole product, then, of his 
 cattle cannot be reckoned above fifty merks (£2, 15s. 6d.) For, in 
 respect his beasts are in a manner half-starved, they are generally 
 small ; so that scarce may a hetfer be sold at above twelve pounds 
 (£1 sterling^. The whole product of his farm-room, therefore, 
 exceeds not the value of £733 (£01, Is. 8d. sterling), or thereabout." 
 
 'The labourers employed on this farm were two men and 
 one woman, besides a herd in summer, and other servants 
 in harvest. 
 
 Donaldson then proceeds to point out a different mode 
 of management, which he calculates to be more profit- 
 able ; but no notice is taken of either clover or turnips 
 as crops to be raised in his new course, though the^y are 
 incidentally noticed in other parts of the work, 
 
 "I also recommend potatoes as a very profitable root for husband- 
 men and others that have numerous families. And because there 
 is a peculiar way of planting this root, not commonly-known in this 
 country, I shall here show what way it is ordinary planted or set. 
 The ground must be dry ; and so much the better it is if it have a 
 good soard of grass. The beds or riggs are made about eight foot 
 broad, good store' of dung being laid upon your ground ; horse or 
 sheep dung is the proper manure for them. Throw each potatoe or 
 sett ^for they were sometimes cut into setts) into a knot of dang, 
 and afterwards dig earth out of the furrows, and cover them all 
 over, about some three or four inches deep ; the furrows left between 
 your riggs must be about two foot broad, and little less will they 
 
 be in depth before your potatoes be covered, you need not plant 
 this root in your garden ; they are commonly set in the fields, and 
 wildest of ground, for enriching of it." As to their consumption, 
 they were sometimes "boiled and broken, and stirred with butter 
 and new milk ; also roasted, and eaten with butter ; yea, some make 
 bread of them, by mixing them with oat or barley meal ; others 
 parboil them and bake with them apples, after the manner of 
 tarts." 
 
 There is a good deal in this little treatise aoout sheep, 
 and other branches of husbandry ; and, if the writer was 
 well, informed, as in most instances he appears to have 
 been, his account of prices, of wages, and generally of the 
 practices of that period, is very interesting. 
 
 The next work on the husbandry of Scotland is, The 
 Countryman's Rudiments, or an • advice to the Farmers 
 in East Lothian, how to labour and ,improve their grounds, 
 said to have been written by Lord " Belhaven about the 
 time of the Union, and reprinted in 1723. In this we 
 have a deplorable picture of the state of agriculture in 
 what is now the most highly improved county in Scot- 
 land. His lordship begins with a very high encomium 
 on hi3 own performance. " I dare be bold to say, 
 there was never such a good easy method of husbandry 
 a3 this, so succinct, extensive, and methodical in all its 
 parts, published before." And he bespeaks the favour 
 of those to whom he addresses himself, by adding, "neither 
 shall I affright you with hedging, ditching, marling, 
 chalking, paring, and burning, draining, watering, and 
 such like, which are all very good improvements indeed, 
 and very agreeable with the soil and situation cf East 
 Lothian ; but I know ye cannot bear as yet a crowd of 
 improvements, this being only intended to initiate you in 
 the true method and principles of husbandry." The farm- 
 rooms in East Lothian, as in other districts, were divided 
 into infield and outfield. 
 
 "The infield (where wheat is sown) is generally divided by the 
 tenant into four divisions or breaks, as they call them, viz, one 
 of wheat, one of barley, one of pease, and one of oats, so that the 
 wheat is sowd after the pease, the barley after the wheat, and the 
 oats after the barley. The outfield land is ordinarily made use ot 
 promiscuously for feeding of their cows, horse, sheep, and oxen; 
 tis also dunged by their sheep who lay in earthen folds ; and some- 
 times, when they have much of it, they fauch or fallow a part of it 
 yearly." 
 
 Under this management the produce seems to have been 
 three times the seed ; and yet, says hi3 lordship, " if in 
 East Lothian they did not leave a higher stubble than in 
 other places of the kingdom, their grounds would be in a 
 much worse condition than at present they are, though bad 
 enough." — " A good crop of corn makes a good stubble, 
 and a good stubble is the equalest mucking that is." 
 Among the advantages of inclosures, he observes, "you 
 will gain much more labour from your servants, a great 
 part of whose time was taken up in gathering thistles and 
 other garbage for their horses to feed upon in their stables 
 and thereby the great trampling and pulling up, and othe t 
 destruction of the corns, while they are yet tender, will hi 
 prevented." Potatoes and turnips are recommended to be 
 sown in the yard (kitchen-garden). Clover does not seem 
 to have been in use. Rents were paid in corn ; and, for 
 the largest farm, which he thinks should employ no mors 
 than two ploughs; the rent was about six chalders of victual 
 " when the ground is very good, and four in that which is 
 not so good. But I am most fully convinced they should 
 take long leases or tacks, that they may not be straitened 
 with time in the improvement of their rooms ; and thia is 
 profitable both for master and tenant." 
 
 Such was the state of the husbandry of Scotland in the 
 early part of last century. The first attempts at improvement 
 cannot be traced farther back than 1723, when a number of 
 land-holders formed themselves into a society, under the title 
 of the Society of Improvers in the Knowledge of Agriculture
 
 302 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 I'RfcCETC 
 
 in Scotland. The Earl of Stair, one of their most active 
 members, is said to have been the first who cultivated 
 turnips in that country. The Select Transactions of this 
 society were collected and published in 1743 by Mr Maxwell, 
 ■who took a larg6 part in its proceedings. It is evident 
 from this book that the society had exerted itself in a very 
 laudable manner, and apparently with considerable success, 
 in introducing cultivated herbage and turnips, as well as 
 in improving the former methods of culture. But there is 
 reason to believe that the influence of the example of its 
 numerous members did not extend to the common tenantry, 
 who are always unwilling to adopt the practices of those 
 who are p iaced in a higher rank, and supposed to cultivate 
 land for pleasure rather than profit. Though this society, 
 the earliest probably in the United Kingdom, soon counted 
 upwards of 300 members, it existed little more than 20 
 years. Maxwell delivered lectures on agriculture for one 
 or two sessions at Edinburgh, which, from the specimen 
 he has left, ought to have been encouraged. 
 
 In the introductory paper in Maxwell's collection, we 
 are told, that — 
 
 " The practice of draining, inclosing, summer fallowing, sowing 
 flax, beuip, rape, turnip ana grass seeds, planting cabbages after, 
 and potatoes with, tho plough, in fields of great extent, is introduced ; 
 and that, according to the general opinion, more corn grows now 
 yearly where it was never known to grow before, these twenty years 
 last past, than perhaps a sixth of all that the kingdom was in use 
 to produce at any time bofore. " 
 
 In this work wo find the first notice of a threshing- 
 machine : it was invented by Mr Michael Menzies, advo- 
 cate, who obtained a patent for it. Upon a representatior. 
 made to the society that it was to be seen working in 
 Eeveral places, they appointed two of their number to in-, 
 spect it ; and in their report they say, that one man would 
 be sufficient to manage a machine which would do the work 
 of six. One of the machines was "moved by a great 
 water-wheel and triddles," and another " by a little wheel 
 of three feet diameter, moved by a small quantity of water." 
 This machine the society recommended to all gentlemen 
 and farmers. 
 
 The next work is by the same Mr Maxwell, printed in 
 1757, and entitled the Practical Husbandman; being a 
 collection of miscellaneous papers on Husbandry, <fcc ■ In 
 this book the greater part of the Select Transactions is re- 
 published, with a number of new papers, among which, an 
 Essay on the Husbandry of Scotland, with a proposal for 
 the improvement of it, is the most valuable. In this he 
 lays it down as a rule, that it is bad husbandry to take 
 two crops of grain successively, which marks a consider- 
 able progress in the knowledge of modern husbandry; 
 though he adds, that in Scotland tho best husbandmen 
 after a fallow {ake a crop of wheat ; after the wheat, peas'; 
 then barley, and then oats; and after that they fallow 
 again. The want of inclosure3 was still a matter of 
 complaint. The ground continued to be cropped so 
 long as it produced two seeds ; the best farmers were 
 contented with four seeds, which, was more than the 
 general produce. 
 
 The first Act of Parliament for collecting tolls on the 
 highway in Scotland was /passed in 1750, for repairing 
 the road from Dunglass bridge to Haddington. In ten 
 years after, several Acts followed for the counties of Edin- 
 burgh and Lanark, and for making the roads between 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow. The benefit which agriculture 
 has derived from good roads it would not be easy to esti- 
 mate. The want of them was one great cause of the slow 
 progress of the art in former times. 
 
 The Revolution in 1688 was the epoch of that system of 
 corn laws to which very great influence has been ascribed, 
 both on the practice of agriculture and the general pro- 
 
 sperity of the country. But for an account of these and 
 later statutes on the subject, we must refer to the article 
 Corn Laws. 
 . The exportation of wool was prohibited in 1647, in 
 1660, and in 1688; and the prohibition strictly enforced 
 by subsequent statutes. The effect of this on its price, 
 and the state of the wool trade, from the earliest period 
 to the middle of last century, are distinctly exhibited by 
 the learned and laborious author of Memoirs on Wool, 
 printed in 1747. 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 RECENT BRITISH AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Section 1. — Progress during the Eighteenth Century. 
 
 Before entering upon a description of the agriculture of 
 Great Britain at the present day, it may help to set matters 
 in a clearer light if we take just so much of a retrospect 
 as will serve as a back-ground to our picture. 
 
 At the beginning of the 18th century the agriculture 
 of our country was still of the rudest kind. With tho 
 exception of certain parts of England, the land was still 
 for the most part unenclosed, the live stock of each 
 township grazing together, and the arable land being 
 occupied in common field or run-rig. The practice of 
 fallowing annually a portion of the arable land, and of 
 interposing a crop of peas betwixt the cereal crops, was 
 becoming a common practice, and was a great improvement 
 upon the previous and yet common usage of growing 
 successive corps of white-corn until the land was utterly 
 exhausted, when it was left to recruit itself by resting in a 
 state of nature, while other portions were undergoing the 
 so me process. Clover and turnips had been introduced 
 before this date, and were coming gradually into cultivation 
 as field crops in the more advanced parts of England. 
 Potatoes were commonly grown in gardens, but had not 
 yet found their way to the fields. 
 
 The gradual advance in the price of farm produce soon 
 after the year 1760, occasioned by the increase of population 
 and of wealth derived from manufactures and commerce, 
 gave a powerful stimulus to rural industry, augmented 
 agricultural capital, and called forth a more- skilful and 
 enterprising race of farmers. The arable lands of the 
 country, which, under the operation of the feudal system, 
 had been split up into minute portions, cultivated by the 
 tenants and their families without hired labour, began now 
 to be consolidated into larger holdings, and let to those 
 tenants who possessed most energy and substance. This 
 enlargement of farms, and in Scotland the letting of them 
 under leases for a considerable term of years, continued to 
 be a marked feature in the agricultural progress cf the 
 country until the end of the century, and is to be regarded 
 both as a cause and a consequence of that progress. The 
 passing of more than 3000 inclosure bills during the reign 
 of Geo. HL, before which the whole number was but 244, 
 shows how rapidly the cultivation of new land now 
 proceeded. The disastrous American war for a time 
 interfered with the national prosperity; but with the rerun) 
 of peace in 1783, the cultivation of the country made more 
 rapid progress. The quarter of a century immediately 
 following 1760, is memorable in our agricultural annals for 
 the introduction of various important improvements. It 
 wa3 during this period that the genius of Bakewell produced 
 such an extraordinary change in the character of our more 
 important breeds of live stock; but especially by the 
 perfecting of a new race of sheep— the well-known Leicestere 
 — which have ever since proved such a boon to the country, 
 and have added so much to its wealth. BakewelJ'e fan>e 
 as a breeder was for a tune enhanced by the improvement 
 which he effected on the lon.o:-horne<i cattle, then tha
 
 ■PROGRESS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 303 
 
 prevailing breed of the midland counties of England. 
 These, however, were ere l° n g rivalled, and have now been 
 entirely superseded by the shorthorn or Durham breed, 
 which the brothers Colling obtained from the useful race 
 of cattle that had long existed in the valley of the Tees, by 
 applying to them the principle of breeding which Bakewell 
 had already established. A more rational system of 
 cropping now began very generally to supersede the thriftless 
 and barbarous practice just referred to of sowing successive 
 crops of corn until the land was utterly exhausted, and 
 then leaving it foul with weeds, to recover its power by 
 an indefinite period of rest. Green crops, such as turnips, 
 clover, and ryegrass, began to be alternated with grain 
 crops, and hence the name alternate husbandry, by which 
 this improved system is generally known. The land was 
 now also generally rendered clean and mellow by a summer 
 fallow before being sown with clover or grasses. 
 
 Hitherto the husbandry of England had been very 
 superior in every respect to that of Scotland. Improvements 
 now, however, made rapid progress in the latter. Mr 
 Dawson, at Frogden, in Roxburghshire, is believed to have 
 been the first who grew turnips as a field crop to ary 
 extent. This enterprising farmer having heard of the 
 success with which^this crop was cultivated in certain parts 
 of England, took the precaution of seeing for himself the 
 most approved mode of doing so before attempting to 
 introduce it on his own farm. He accordingly went to 
 Leicestershire, and presenting himself to the celebrated 
 Bakewell in the garb of a Scotch ploughman, hired himself 
 to him for six months in that capacity. Having in this 
 thoroughly practical way acquired the knowledge he was 
 in quest of, he ' told his employer (who would fain have 
 retained him longer) that it was full time for him to be 
 home to his own large farm. The season was too advanced 
 to admit of his doing more that year than sow a few 
 experimental drills, but the very jiext year he is said to 
 have sown 70 acres. We have been unable to ascertain 
 Jie exact date of thi3 occurrence, but it is on record that 
 as early as 1764 Mr Dawson had 100 acres of drilled 
 turnips on his farm in one year. 
 
 A few years after this the Messrs Culley — one of them 
 also a pupil of Bakewell — left their paternal property on 
 the banks of the 'Tees, and settled on the Northumbrian 
 side of .the Tweed, bringing with them the valuable breeds 
 of live stock and improved husbandry of their native 
 district The improvements introduced by these energetic 
 and skilful farmers spread rapidly, and exerted a most 
 beneficial influence upon the border counties. An Act 
 passed in 1770, which relaxed the rigour of strict entails, 
 and afforded power to landlords to grant leases and other- 
 wise improve their estates, had a beneficial effect on Scottish 
 agriculture. From 1784 to 1795 improvements advanced 
 with steady steps. This period was distinguished for the 
 general adoption andindustrious working out of ascertained 
 improvements. Small's swing plough, and Meikle's thrash- 
 ing-machine, although invented some years before this, 
 were now perfected and brought into general use, to the 
 great furtherance of agriculture. Two important additions 
 were about this time made to the field crops, viz., the 
 Swedish turnip and potato oat. The latter was accidentally 
 discovered in 1788, and both soon came into general 
 cultivation. In the saae year Merino sheep were intro- 
 duced by his Majesty, George IIL, who was a zealous 
 farmer. For a time this breed attracted much attention, 
 and sanguine expectations were entertained that it would 
 prove of national importance. Its unfitness for the pro- 
 duction of mutton, and increasing supplies of fine clothing 
 wool from other countries, goon led to its total rejection. 
 
 In Scotland, the opening up of the country by the 
 construction of practicable roads, and the enclosing and 
 
 subdividing of farms by hedge and ditch, was now in active 
 progress. The former admitted of the general use of 
 wheel-carriages, of the ready conveyance of produce to 
 markets, and in particular, of the extended use of lime, 
 the application of which was immediately followed by a 
 great increase of produce, fhe latter, besides its more 
 obvious advantages, speedily freed large tracts of country 
 from stagnant water, and their inhabitants from ague, 
 and prepared the way for the under-ground draining which 
 soon after began to be Dractisei 
 
 Section 2. — Remarkable progress from 1795 to 1815. 
 
 The agriculture of the country was thus steadily improv- 
 ing, when suddenly the whole of Europe became involved 
 in the wars of the French Revolution. In 1795, under 
 the joint operation of a deficient harvest, and the cutting 
 off of foreign supplies of grain by the policy of Napoleon, 
 the price of wheat, which, for the twenty preceding years, 
 had been under 50s. a quarter, suddenly rose to 81s. 6d, 
 and in the following year reached to 96s. In 1797 the 
 fear of foreign invasion led to a panic and run upon the 
 banks, in which emergency the Bank Restriction Act, 
 suspending cash payment, was passed, and ushered in a 
 system of unlimited credit transactions. Under the un 
 natural stimulus of these extraordinary events, every 
 branch of industry extended with unexampled rapidity. 
 But in nothing was this so apparent as in agriculture ; the 
 high prices of produce holding out a great inducement to 
 improve lands then arable, to reclaim others that had 
 previously lain waste, and to bring much pasture-land 
 under the plough. Nor did this increased tillage interfere 
 with the increase of live stock, as the green crops of the 
 alternate husbandry more than compensated for the dimi- 
 nished pasturage. This extraordinary ' state of matters 
 lasted from 1795 to 1814; the prices of produce even 
 increasing towards the close of that period. The average 
 price of wheat for the whole period was 89s. 7d per 
 quarter; but for the last five years it was 107s., and in 
 1812 it reached to 1263. 6d The agriculture of Great 
 Britain, as a whole, advanced with rapid strides during 
 this period ; but nowhere was the change so great as in 
 Scotland Indeed, its progress there, during these twenty 
 years, is probably without parallel in the history of any 
 other country. This is accounted for by a concurrence of 
 circumstances. Previous to this period, the husbandry of 
 Scotland was still in a backward state as compared with 
 the best districts of England, where many practices,, only 
 of recent introduction in the north, had been in general use 
 for generations. This disparity made the subsequent 
 contrast the more striking. The land in Scotland was 
 now, with trifling exceptions, let on leases for terms varying 
 from twenty to thirty years, and in farms of sufficient size 
 to employ at the least two or three ploughs. The unlimited 
 issues of Government paper, and the security afforded by 
 these leases, induced the Scotch banks to afford every 
 facility to landlords and tenants to embark capital in tin 
 improvement of the land The substantial education 
 supplied by the parish schools, of which nearly the whol I 
 population could then avail themselves, had diffused through 
 all ranks such a measure of intelligence as enabled them 
 promptly to discern, and skilfully and energetically to take 
 advantage of this spring-tide of prosperity, and to profit 
 by the agricultural information now plentifully furnished 
 by means of the Bath and West of England Society, 
 established in 1777, the Highland Society, instituted in 
 1784, and the National Board of Agriculture, in 1793 — 
 of whicJi, however^ more anon. As one proof of the 
 astonishing progress of Scottish husbandry during this 
 period, we may mention that the rental of land, which in 
 1795 amounted to £2.000.000. had in 1815 risen to
 
 304 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [recent 
 
 £5,278,685, or considerably more tb.au double in twenty 
 years. 
 
 But of the causes which nave influenced the agriculture 
 of the period under review, none have been so powerful as 
 the extraordiiniry increase of our population, which, in 
 round numbers, has twice doubled during the past seventy 
 years. Not only are there four times as many people 
 requiring to be fed and clad now as there were then, but 
 from the increased wealth aud altered habits of the people, 
 the individual rate of consumption is greater now than 
 formerly. This is particularlyapparcnt in the caseof butcher- 
 meat, the consumption of which has increased out of all 
 proportion to that of bread-corn. To meet this demand, 
 there behoved to be more green crops and more live stock ; 
 and from that has resulted more wool, more manure, aud 
 more corn. While this ever-growing demand for farm- 
 produce has stimulated agricultural improvement, it has 
 also operated in another way. The productiveness of the 
 soil has been greatly increased, and will no doubt be - still 
 more so in future ; but the area of the country cannot be 
 increased. Land — the raw material from which food is 
 produced — being thus limited in amount and in increasing 
 demand, has necessarily risen in price. So much is this 
 the case, that whereas the average price of wheat for the 
 five years preceding 1872 was £2, 15s. per quarter, or 
 £2, 7s. Gd. less than ' during the five years preceding 
 1815, the rent of land is much higher now than it was 
 then. The raw material of the food-grower having thus 
 risen in price, his only resource has been to fall upon plans 
 for- lowering the cost of producing his crops and for 
 increasing their amount. To such an extent has he 
 succeeded, that the produce market has been kept full, 
 and prices have decreased. The business of farming has 
 in the main been a less prosperous one than most other 
 branches of national industry, and yet agriculture, as an 
 art and as a science, has made steady progress. AYe 
 believe it is only in this way that the contemporaneous 
 existence of two things apparently so incompatible as a 
 steady rise in the rent of land, and a steady decrease in the 
 price of its produce, can be satisfactorily accounted for. 
 
 PROGRESS SINCE 1816. 
 
 Section 3. — Laws affecting Agriculture. 
 The abundant crop of 1813, and restored communication 
 with the continent of Europe in the same year, gave the 
 first check to these unnaturally exorbitant prices and rents. 
 The restoration of peace to Europe, and the re-enactment 
 of the Corn Laws in 1815, mark the commencement of 
 another era in the history of our national agriculture. It 
 was ushered in with a time of severe depression and 
 suffering to the agricultural community. The immense 
 fall in the price of farm-produce which then took place 
 was aggravated, first, by the unpropitious weather and 
 deficient harvest of the years 1816, 1817; and still more 
 by the passing in 1819 of the Bill restoring cash payments, 
 which, coming into operation in 1821, caused serious 
 embarrassment to all persons who had entered into engage- 
 ments at a depreciated currency, which had now to be met 
 with the lower prices of an enhanced one. The much- 
 debated Corn Laws, after undergoing various modifications, 
 and proving the fruitful source of business uncertainty, 
 social discontent, and angry partisanship, were finally 
 aboushed in 18-16, although the Act was not consummated 
 until three years later. Several other Acts of the Legis- 
 lature, passed during this period, have exerted an important 
 influence on agriculture. Of these, the first in date and 
 importance is the- Tithe Commutation Act of 1836. All 
 writers on agriculture had long concurred in pointing out 
 the injurious effects on agriculture of the tithe system as 
 it then stood. The results of the change have amply 
 
 verified the anticipations of those who wero instrumental 
 in procuring it. Since the removal of tlis formidable 
 hindrance, improvement has been stimulated by those Acts 
 under which the Government has been empowered to 
 advance money on certain conditions for the draining of 
 estates. An important feature in these advarces is, that 
 the 6J per cent, of interest charged upon them provides a 
 sinking fund by which the debt is extinguished in twenty- 
 two years. Additional facilities have also been granted 
 by the Act passed in 1848 for disentailing estates, and for 
 burdening such as are entailed with a share of the cost of 
 certain specified improvements. 
 
 Section 4. — Cattle Murrain and Potato Disease. 
 
 Another class of outward events, which has had an 
 important influence upon agriculture, requires our notice. 
 We refer to those mysterious diseases affecting both the 
 animal aud vegetable kingdoms, the causes and remedies 
 for ivhich have alike baffled discovery. The murrain, .or 
 " vesicular epizootic," appeared first in 1841, having been 
 introduced, as is supposed, by foreign cattle. It spread 
 rapidly over the country, affecting alt our domesticated 
 animals, except horses, and causing everywhere great alarm 
 and loss, although seldom attended by fatal results. It 
 has prevailed ever since, in a greater or less degree, and 
 has been mure widely diffused as well as more virulent in 
 1871 and 1872 than ever before. It was soon followed 
 by the more terrible lung-disease, or pleuro-pneumonia, 
 which continues to cause serious mortality among our 
 herds. In 1865 the rinderpest, or steppe murrain, origi- 
 nating amongst the vast herds of the Russian steppes, 
 where it would appear to be never altogether wanting, 
 had spread westward over Europe, until it was brought to 
 London by foreign cattle. Several weeks elapsed before 
 the true character of the disease was known, and in this 
 brief space it had already been carried by animals purchased 
 in Smithficld market to all parts of the country. After 
 causing the most frightful losses, it was at last stamped 
 out by the resolute slaughter of all affected animals and of 
 all that had been in contact with them. In the autumn 
 of 1872 this cattle plague was again detected in several 
 cargoes of foreign cattle brought to our ports. Happily the 
 stringent provisions of the Contagious Diseases (Animals) 
 Act had the effect of preventing its entrance, except in the 
 case of one cargo brought to Hull, from which the plague 
 was conveyed to several herds in the adjacent parts of 
 Yorkshire, and caused considerable losses before it was 
 again stamped out. Severe as have been the losses in our 
 flocks and herds from these imported diseases, they have 
 been as nothing in comparison with the effects of the 
 mysterious potato blight, which, first appearing in 1845, 
 has since pervaded the whole of Europe, and in Ireland 
 especially proved the sad precursor of famine and pesfilence. 
 This seemingly insignificant blight for a time well-nigh 
 withdrew from cultivation one of our most esteemed field 
 crops ; it influences the business of farming in a way that 
 baffles the shrewdest calculators, and is producing social 
 changes of which no man can predict the issue. 
 
 Section 5. — Leading Improvements. 
 
 We can here do little more than enumerate some of the 
 more prominent improvements in practical agriculture which 
 have taken place during the period under review. Before 
 the close of the past century, and during the first quarter 
 of the present one, a good deal had been done in the way 
 of draining the land, either by open ditches, or by Elking- 
 ton's system of deep covered drains. This system has now 
 been superseded by one altogether superior to it both in 
 principle and practice. In 1835, James Smith of Deanston 
 (honour to his memory !) promulgated his now well-known
 
 PEOCKESS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 301 
 
 system of thorough draining and deep ploughing. It 
 has been carried out already to such an extent as to 
 alter the very appearance and character of whole districts 
 of our country, and has prepared the way for all other 
 improvements. The words " Portable Manures" indicate 
 at once another prominent feature in the agriculture of the 
 times. Early in the present century, ground bones began 
 to be used as a manure for turnips in the eastern counties 
 of England, whence the practice spread, at first slowly, and 
 then very rapidly, over the whole country. It was about 
 1825 that bones began to be generally used in Scotland. In 
 1841 the still more potent guano was introduced into Great 
 Britain ; and about the same time, bones, under the new 
 form of superphosphate of lime. By means of these 
 invaluable fertilisers, a stimulus has been given to agri- 
 culture which can scarcely be over-rated. 
 
 The labour of agriculture has been greatly lightened, 
 and its cost curtailed, by means of improved implements 
 and machines. The steam-engine has taken the place of 
 the jaded horses as a thrashing power. This was first 
 done in East Lothian by Mr Aitchison of Drumore, who 
 about 1803 had his thrashing-machinery, at his distillery 
 and farm of Clement's Wells, attached to a steam-engine, 
 which was erected for him a few years previously by Bolton 
 and Watt, for the works of the distillery. About 1818-20 
 several steam-engines on ,the condensing principle were 
 erected in East Lothian, solely for the propelling of 
 thrashing-machinery. One of these, put up by Mr Keid 
 of Drem, at a cost of £600, is still doing its work there, 
 and, strange to say, after the lapse of fifty-five years, looks 
 as well and is as efficient as when first erected. It would 
 be tedious to particularise other instances in this department, 
 as it will be treated of fully in its proper place. It is 
 especially in this department that the influence of the ever- 
 memorable Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations in 
 1851 has told -upon agriculture. Reaping by machinery 
 may virtually be regarded as one of the fruita of that great 
 gathering. 
 
 The railways, by which the country i3 now intersected 
 in all directions, have proved of great service to farmers, 
 by conveying their bulky produce to distant markets 
 cheaply and quickly, and by making lime and other manures 
 available to the occupiers of many inland and remote 
 districts. In nothing has this benefit been more apparent 
 than in the case of fatted live stock, which is now invariably 
 transported by this means, with manifest economy to all 
 concerned. 
 
 During the whole of this period there has been going on 
 great improvement in all our breeds of domesticated animals. 
 This has been manifested not so much in the production of 
 individual specimens of high merit — in which respect the 
 Leicesters of Bakewell, or the short-horns of Colling, have 
 perhaps not yet been excelled — as in the diffusion of these 
 and other good breeds over the country, and in the improved 
 quality of our live stock as a whole. The fattening of 
 animals is now conducted on more scientific principles. 
 Increased attention has also been successfully bestowed on 
 the improvement of our field crops. Improved varieties, 
 obtained by cross-impregnation, either naturally or arti- i 
 ficially brought about, have been carefully propagated, and 
 generally adopted. Increased attention is now bestowed 
 on the cultivation of the natural grasses. The most 
 important additions to our list of field crops during this 
 period have been Italian rye-grass, winter beans, white 
 Belgian carrot, sugar beet, and alsike clover. 
 
 Section G. — Increase and Diffusion of Agricultural 
 Knowledge. 
 
 Let us look now at the means by which, during this 
 period, agricultural knowledge has at once been increased 
 
 and diffused. Notice has already been taken of thi 
 institution of the Highland Society and the National Boarc 
 of Agriculture. These patriotic societies we're the means o{ 
 collecting a vast amount of statistical and general informa 
 tion connected with agriculture, and by their publications 
 and premiums made known the practices of the best-farmed 
 districts of the country, and encouraged their adoption 
 elsewhere. These national associations were soon aided 
 in their important labours by numerous local societies 
 which sprang up in all parts of the kingdom. Aftei 
 a highly useful career, under the zealous presidency d 
 Sir John Sinclair, the Board of Agriculture was dissolved 
 but has left in its Statistical Account, county surveys, and 
 other documents, much interesting and valuable inf ormatioo 
 regarding the agriculture of that period. In 1800 tin 
 original Farmers' Magazine entered upon its useful career 
 under the editorship of Robert Brown of Markle, the 
 author of the well-known treatise on Rural Affairs. The 
 Highland Society having early extended its operations tu 
 the whole of Scotland, by-and-by made a corresponds " 
 addition to its title, and as the Highland and Agricultural 
 Society of Scotland continues to occupy its important 
 sphere with a steadily increasing membership, popularity, 
 and usefulness. As its revenue and experience increased, 
 it gradually extended its operations. In 1828, shortly 
 after the discontinuance of the Farmers' Magazine, its 
 Prize Essays and Transactions began to be issued statedly 
 in connection with the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, a 
 periodical which until recently occupied a prominent place 
 in our professional literature. This society early began to 
 hold a great annual show of live stock, inlplements, <ta, 
 the popularity of which continues unabated. In 1842, Mr 
 John Finnie at Swanstone, near Edinburgh, having sug- 
 gested to some of his neighbours the desirableness of 
 obtaining the aid of chemistry to guide farmers in many 
 departments of their business, the hint was promptly acted 
 upon, and these Mid-Lothian tenant-farmers had the merit 
 of originating an Agricultural Chemistry Association (the 
 first of its kind), by which funds were raised, and an 
 eminent chemist engaged, for the express purpose of con- 
 ducting such investigations as the title of the society implies. 
 After a successful trial of a few years this association was 
 dissolved, transferring its functions to the Highland and 
 Agricultural Society, which has ever since devoted much 
 of its attention to this subject The nature and impor- 
 tance of the services which labourers in this department 
 of science have rendered to agriculture may be gathered 
 from the society's Transactions, and numerous other pub- 
 lications of a similar kind. The Highland Society has of 
 late years established itself on a broader basis, and imparted 
 new energy to its operations by lowering its admission- 
 fee in behalf of tenant-farmers, who have in consequence 
 joined it in great numbers, and now take an important 
 part in the conduct of its business. The practice adopted 
 by it, about the same time, of holding periodical meetings 
 for the discussion of important practical questions, by means 
 of essays, prepared by carefully selected writers, did good 
 service, too, to the cause of agricultural progress. 
 
 The adoption by Government of a proposal made by 
 this society, to collect the agricultural statistics of Scotland, 
 showed at once how thoroughly it enjoyed the confidence 
 of the tenantry, and how easily, and by what simple and 
 inexpensive machinery, this most important and interesting 
 inquiry could be conducted. Through an unfortunate 
 misunderstanding between the Government and the society 
 on a mere technical point, this most useful inquiry, came 
 to an abrupt termination, after having been conducted for 
 five years. This brief experiment had, however, proved sa 
 conclusively the value of such statistics, and the ease with 
 which they could be collected, that the Government soon
 
 306 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [practice, 
 
 after look the matter in hand, and has ever since, through 
 the agency of the officers of Inland Revenue, obtained 
 annual returnsof cropping and live stock for the whole of 
 Great Britain. 
 
 The obvious success of this National Scottish Society has 
 icd to the formation of similar ones in England and in 
 Ialand. The former, instituted in 1838, and shortly 
 afterwards incorporated by royal charter, at once entered 
 upon a career of usefulness, tho extent of which cannot 
 well be over-rated. Its membership — comprising the most 
 influential persons in the kingdom — and its revenues are 
 now so large as to enable it to conduct its proceedings on 
 a scale befitting its position and objects. These are of a 
 varied character, but its efforts are concentrated upon its 
 journal and annual show. The former, published twice 
 8-year, is chiefly composed of the essays and reports to 
 which tho liberal prizes of the society have been awarded, 
 and undoubtedly stands at the head of our present agri- 
 cultural periodicals. At the annual shows of the society, 
 a prominent place isVassigned to implements and machines. 
 Such as admit of it, are subjected to comparative trials, 
 which are conducted with such skill and pains that the 
 awards command the entire confidence of exhibitors and 
 their customers. The extent and rapidity of the im- 
 provement in agricultural machinery which the society 
 has been mainly instrumental in effecting are altogether 
 extraordinary. 
 
 There are few market towns of any importance that have 
 not their organised club or occasional gathering of the 
 farmers in their neighbourhood, for the discussion of 
 professional topics. We havo now also a goodly list of 
 agricultural periodicals, both weekly and monthly, most of 
 them ably conducted, which are extensively read, and are 
 the means of collecting and diffusing much valuable know- 
 ledge, which, but for them, would often, as in former times, 
 perish with it3 authors, or be confined to corners. Tho 
 facilities now afforded by railways for cheap and expeditious 
 travelling, induce most farmers to take an occasional peep 
 at what is going on beyond their own- neighbourhood. 
 This, more than anything, deals death-blows to prejudices, 
 and extends good husbandry. 
 
 The literature of agriculture has been enriched by the 
 contributions of many able writers. Some deserve to be 
 particularly mentioned. Tho volumes of the late David 
 Low, Esq., on Practical Agriculture, Landed Property and 
 Economy of Landed Estates, and Domesticated Animals, 
 must ever be of standard authority on their respective 
 subjects. Mr Henry Stephens' Booh of the Farm, and Mr 
 J. C. Morton's Cyclopaedia of Agriculture, are invaluable 
 to the agricultural student for their fulness, and for the 
 minuteness of their details. Mr Caird's English Agriculture 
 supplies the means for a most interesting comparison with 
 the descriptions left to us by Arthur Young. Mr Hoskyn's 
 History of Agriculture and Chronicles of a Clay Farm are 
 the very gems of our professional literature. In a series 
 of essays on our Farm Crops by Professor John Wilson 
 of Edinburgh, the scientific and the practical are most 
 happily combined. Among the more, recent publications 
 of value may be mentioned Loudon's Encyclopaedia ; How 
 Crops Grow, by Mr Johnson; M'Combie's Cattle and 
 Cattle-Breeders; Mechi's How to Farm Profitably ; Ilozier's 
 Practical Remarks on Agricultural Drainage; Todd's 
 American )V/teal Culturist, ic. Johnston, Anderson, Way, 
 and Voelcker, have done admirable service in expound- 
 ing the chemistry of agriculture ; Youatt, Spooner, and 
 Vasey, its zoology ; and Smith, Parkes, Webster, Bailey, 
 Denton, Scott Burn, and Starforth, its engineering, 
 mechanics, and architecture. 
 
 In reviewing the history of our national agriculture for 
 the p.ist bixty years, it is pleasing to note the growing 
 
 intelligence displayed by our agriculturists in the prose 
 cution of their calling. It is curious, also, to observe the 
 analogy botween the order of that progress, and that which 
 is usually observed in individual minds. lor a long time 
 we see agricultural societies and writers occupying them- 
 selves chiefly about the practical details and statistics of 
 husbandry,and attaching much importance to empirical rules. 
 Gradually, however, we observe, along with a zealous 
 collecting of facts, 8 growing disposition to investigate 
 the causes of things, and desire to know the reason why ono 
 practice is preferable to another. When, therefore, tho 
 Royal Agricultural Socie'y adopted as its motto, "Practico 
 with Science," it expressed not more the objects to be aimed 
 at in its own proceedings, than the characteristic feature oi 
 our present stage of agricultural progress. 
 
 CHAPTER ITL 
 
 PRACTICE OF BRITISH AGRICULTURE. 
 
 We shall now endeavour to present a picture of British 
 agriculture in its present state. In doing this, we shall 
 take much the same course which we should pxirsue, if wo 
 were asked to conduct a visitor over our* own farm, and to 
 give him a detailed account of its cultivation and manage- 
 ment In the case supposed, we should, first of all, explain 
 to him that the farm comprises a great diversity of soils; 
 that its fields are very variously circumstanced as regards 
 climate, altitude, exposure, and distance from the home- 
 stead ; and that in its tillage, cropping, and general 
 management, regard must be had to these diversities, 
 whether natural or artificial We should then conduct 
 him through tho homestead, pointing out the position and 
 uses of the various farm buildings and of the machinery 
 and . implements contained in them. From thence we 7 
 should proceed to the fields to examine their fences and the 
 tillage operations. With some observations about the 
 succession of crops, and the manures applied to them, there 
 would follow an examination of the cultivated crops, pastures, 
 and meadows, of the live stock of tho farm, and of the 
 measures adopted in reclaiming certain waste lands belong- 
 ing to it This survey being completed, there would 
 naturally follow some discussion about the tenure of land, 
 the capital required for its profitable cultivation, the con- 
 dition of farm labourers, the necessity for devoting more 
 attention to the education of the agricultural community, 
 and the duty of the Legislature to remove certain obstruc- 
 tions to agricultural improvement 
 
 Section 1. — Soils. 
 The soil constituting the subject-matter on which the 
 husbandman operates, its character necessarily regulates' 
 to a large extent the nature of his proceedings. The soil 
 or surface covering of the earth in which plants are 
 produced is exceedingly varied in its qualities. Being 
 derived from the disintegration and decomposition of the 
 rocks which constitute the solid crust of the globe, with a 
 mixture of vegetable and animal remains, soils take their 
 character from that of the rocks from which they have 
 chiefly been derived. There is thus a generally prevailing 
 resemblance between the soils of a district and the rocks 
 over which they lie, so that a knowledge of the composition 
 of the one affords a key to the character of the other. 
 But this connection is modified by so many circumstances, 
 that it is altogether impossible by the mere study of 
 geology to acquire an easy and certain rulefor determining 
 the' agricultural character of the soil of any particular 
 district or field, as it has been the fashion with some writers 
 of late years to assort. " When, indeed, we regard a 
 considerable tract of land, we can for the most part trace 
 a connection between the subjacent deposits and the 
 subsoil, and consequently the soil. . Thus, in a country oi
 
 SOILS, ETC.] 
 
 iOElUULTUKJS 
 
 307 
 
 sandstone and arenaceous beds, we shall find the soil sandy; 
 in one of limestone, more or less calcareous ; m one of 
 schistose rocks, more or less clayey. But even in tracts of 
 the same geological formation, there exist great differences 
 in the upper stratum, arising from the prevalence of ono or 
 other member of the series, or lrom the greater or less 
 inclination of the strata, -by which the debris of the 
 different beds are more or less mixed together on the 
 surface. The action of water, too, in denuding the surface 
 at one part, and carrying the debris in greater or smaller 
 quantity to another, exercises everywhere an important 
 influence on the character of soils. Thus the fertility of a 
 soil on the higher ground, from which the earthy particles 
 are washed, is found to be very different from that of the 
 valley to which there particles are carried. It is seen 
 accordingly, that within the limi ts of the same geological, 
 formation, soils are greatly varied, and that the mere 
 knowledge of the formation will not enable us to predicate 
 the character of. the soil of any given tract, either with 
 respect to its texture, its composition, or its productiveness." 1 
 Even a very limited acquaintance with the geology of 
 Great Britain serves, however, to account for the exceed- 
 ingly diversified character of its soils. The popular defini- 
 tions of soils — and to these it is safest for practical farmers 
 to adhere— have respect to their most obvious qualities. 
 Thus they are designated from their composition, as clays, 
 loams, sands, gravels, chalks, or peats; or from their texture, 
 in which respect those in which clay predominates are 
 called heavy, stiff, or impervious; and the others light, 
 friable, or porous. From the tendency of the former to 
 retain moisture they are often spoken of as wet and cold, 
 and the latter, for the opposite reason, as dry and warm. 
 According to their measure of fertility, they are also 
 described as rich ot poor. The particular crops for the 
 production of which they are respectively considered to be 
 best adapted have also led to clays being spoken of as 
 wheat or bean soils, and the friable ones as barl.y and turnip 
 soils'. This latter mode of discriminating soils is, however, 
 becoming every day less appropriate; as those of the 
 lighter class, when sufficiently enriched by suitable 
 Manuring, are found the most suitable of all for the growth 
 of wheat ; while the efforts of agriculturists are now 
 successfully directed to the production of root crops on 
 soils so strong as heretofore to have been reckoned unfit 
 for the purpose. But still, such extreme diversities as we 
 everywhere meet with in our soils must necessarily 
 lead to a corresponding diversity in their agricultural 
 treatment, and hence the necessity for keeping this fact 
 prominently in view in every reference to British agriculture 
 as a whole. ' 
 
 Section 2. — Influence of Climate. 
 
 But if diversity of soil necessarily modifies the practice 
 of the husbandman, that of climate does so far more 
 powerfully. The soils of the different parts of the globe 
 do not very materially differ from each other, and yet their 
 vegetable products vary in the extreme. This is chiefly 
 gwing to difference of temperature, which decreases more 
 Or less regularly as we recede from the equator, or ascend 
 from the sea-leveL Places in the same latitude and at the 
 game elevation are found, however, to vary exceedingly in 
 temperature, according to their aspect, the prevailing winds 
 to- which they are exposed, their proximity to seas or 
 mountains, and the condition of their surface. The different 
 parts of Great Britain are accordingly found to possess very 
 different climates. In passing from south to north, its 
 mean temperature may be taken, to decrease one degree 
 Fahrenheit for every 80 miles of latitude, and the same 
 
 1 Low's Practical Agriculture, p. 42. 
 
 for every 300 feet of elevation. The temperature of the 
 west side of our island also differs materially from that 
 of the east, being more equal throughout the year. This 
 is owing to the prevalence of mild westerly winds charged 
 with moisture, which, while they equalise the temperature, 
 cause the average fall of rain on the west side of Britain 
 to be in many cases double, and in some nearly three 
 times that on the opposite side. In the central parts 
 of England cultivation is carried on at 1000 feet of 
 elevation, but 800 may be taken as tho ordinary limit. 
 In Scotland the various crops are usually from two to three 
 weeks later in coming to maturity than in England. In 
 both divisions of the island the western counties, owing to 
 their mild and humid climate, are chiefly devoted to 
 pasturage, and the eastern, or dry ones, to tillage. As 
 compared with the continent of Europe, our summers are 
 neither so hot, our winters so cold, nor our weather s* 
 steady. We want, therefore, many of it's rich products, 
 but, on the other hand, our milder winter and moister 
 climate are eminently favourable to the production of 
 pasturage and other cattle crops, and admit of agricultural 
 operations being carried on more regularly throughout the 
 year. Indeed, looking to the immense varieties of the 
 products of our soil, there is probably no other country so 
 favourably circumstanced for a varied and successful agri- 
 culture. 
 
 Section 3. — Influence of Population, &c\ 
 
 Besides those variations in the agricultural practice of 
 this country which arise from diversities of soil and climate, 
 there are others which are ' due to the distribution of tho 
 population. The proximity of cities and towns, or of 
 populous villages, inhabited by a manufacturing or mining 
 population, implies a demand for dairy produce and. vege- 
 tables, as well as for provender and litter, and at the same 
 time affords an ample supply of manure to aid in their 
 reproduction. Such commodities, from their bulk or perish- 
 able nature, do not admit of long carriage. The supplies 
 of these must therefore be drawn from comparatively 
 limited areas, and the character of the husbandry pursued 
 there is determined apart from those general influences 
 previously referred to. From these and other causes there 
 is a diversity in the practice of British agriculture which 
 increases the difficulty of describing it accurately. Indeed, 
 it is so well known that there are peculiarities if cha- 
 racter attaching to almost every individual field and 
 farm, and still more to every different district or 
 county, which demand corresponding modifications of 
 treatment in order to their successful cultivation, that 
 a prudent man, if required to take the management of 
 a farm in some district greatly inferior in its general 
 system of fanning to that which he may have left, will 
 yet be very cautious in innovating upon specific practices 
 of the natives. 
 
 To such peculiarities it is obviously impracticable to refer 
 in such a treatise as the present. They are referred to 
 now because they suggest an explanation of some of those 
 discrepancies in the practice and opinions of farmers, 
 equally successful in their respective localities, which we 
 constantly meet with ; and because, in proceeding to deli- 
 neate the practice of Berwickshire, where our personal 
 experience has been gained by upwards of forty years of 
 actual farming, we would deprecate the idea of claiming 
 for its modes a superiority over those of other districts. 
 Its geographical position! and the mixed husbandry pur- 
 sued in it, would justify, in some measure, its being 
 referred to as a fair sample of the national agriculture. 
 But it is on the specific ground that it is best to speak 
 from actual experience as far as that will serve, that we 
 vindicate this selection.
 
 303 
 
 A G It I C U L T U It E 
 
 [f.\r.\: 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FARM-BUILDINGS. 
 
 Section 1. — General Requisite*. 
 
 In pursuance of the plan already indicated, let us now 
 refer for a little to Farm- Buildings. We have spoken of the 
 soil as the raw material upon which the farmer operates : 
 his homestead may, in liio manner, be regarded as his 
 manufactory. That it may serve this purpose in any good 
 measure, it is indispensable that the accommodation 
 afforded by it be adequate to the extent of the farm, and 
 adapted to the kind of husbandry pursued upon it. It 
 should be placed upon a dry, sunny, sheltered site, have a 
 good supply of water, and be as near as possible to the 
 centre of the farm. The buildings should be so arranged 
 as to economise labour to the utmost. . It should be con- 
 structed of substantial materials, so as to be easily kept in 
 repair, and to diminish, to the utmost, risk from fire. 
 
 The most cursory examination of existing homesteads 
 will suffice to show that in their construction these obvious 
 conditions have been sadly neglected. For one farm 
 really well equipped in this respect, hundreds are to be 
 met with in all parts of the kingdom, and more especially 
 in England, most wretchedly deficient. Wherever this is 
 the case, it is impossible that the farmer, however skilful 
 or industrious, can make the most of his materials, or 
 compete on equal terms with his better furnished neigh- 
 bours. As the agricultural community becomes more 
 generally alive to the importance of economising labour 
 by a judicious arrangement of buildings, and of reducing 
 the cost of the production of beef (and adding to the 
 amount and fertilising power of the home-made manure) by 
 th? manner in' which the live stock is housed, we may 
 hope that improvement in this department will make rapid 
 progress. _ Tenants will refuse to embark their capital, and 
 waste their skill and labour, on farms unprovided with 
 suitable apparatus for cultivating them to the best advan- 
 tage. Landlords and their agents- will by-and-by find 
 that until this is done, they must put up with an inferior 
 tenantry, an antiquated husbandry, and with lower and 
 worse-paid rents. 
 
 Section 2. — Plans. 
 
 In erecting new homesteads, or in making considerable 
 additions to or alterations upon existing ones, it is of 
 much importance to call in the aid of an architect of ascer- 
 tained experience in this departD.ent of his art, and then 
 » have the work performed by contracts founded upon the 
 plans and specifications which he has furnished. A 
 reasonable sum thus expended will be amply returned in 
 the cost, trouble, and disappointment, which it usually 
 saves to both landlord and tenant. It is to be hoped that 
 in future a greater number of thoroughly qualified architects 
 will devote themselves to this department of their profession, 
 and that they will meet with adequate encouragement It 
 is not, therefore, with the view of superseding their 
 services, but simply to illustrate our references to existing 
 practices, that we subjoin a plan of farm-buildings. 
 
 While protesting against the utter rudeness and inade- 
 quacy of the great majority of homesteads, we must also 
 deprecate the hurtful expenditure sometimes lavished in 
 erecting buildings of an extent and style altogether 
 disproportionate to the size of the farm, and out of keep- 
 ing with its homely purposes. When royalty or nobility, 
 with equal benefit to themselves and their country, make 
 agriculture their recreation, it is altogether befitting that 
 in such cases the farm-yard should be of such a style as to 
 adorn the park in which it is situated. And even those 
 iutended for plain everyday farming need not be un- 
 sightly ; for ugliness is sometimes more costly than 
 
 elegance, xai utility, economy, and comfort, first be 
 secured, and, along with these, as much as possible of 
 that pleasing effect which arises from just proportions, 
 harmonious arrangement, and manifest adaptation to the 
 use the buildings are designed for. 
 
 Section 3. — Principles of Arrangement. 
 The barn, with its thrashing-machinery, and other 
 appurtenances, naturally forms tie nucleus of the home- 
 stead, and regulates the distribution of the other buildings. 
 The command of water-power will often determine the 
 exact site of the barn, and indeed of the whole buildings. 
 The cheapness and safety of this motive-power render it 
 well worth while to make considerable sacrifices to secure 
 it, when a really sufficient and regular supply of it can be 
 had. But the difficulty of securing this when the adjoining 
 lands are thoroughly drained, and the great efficiency and 
 facility of application of steam-power, are good reasons 
 why precarious supplies of water-power should now be 
 rated very differently than they were when a horse-wheel 
 or windmill were the only alternatives. A very usual and 
 suitable arrangement is to have the whole buildings, 
 forming a lengthened parallelogram, facing south or south- 
 east; the barn being placed in the centre of the north 
 range, with the engine-house behind it, and the straw 
 house at right angles in front, with doors on both sides foi 
 the ready conveyance of litter and fodder to the yards, 4c 
 It is always advantageous to have the barn of sufficient 
 height to afford ample accommodation to the thrashing and 
 winnowing machinery. When the disposition of the ground 
 admits, it is a great convenience to have the stackyard or 
 a level with the upper barn, so that the unthrashed corn 
 may be wheeled into it on barrows, or on a low-wheeled 
 truck drawn by a horse. Failing this, the sheaves arc 
 usually pitched in at a wide opening from a framed cart. 
 The space on which the cart stands while this is going on 
 is usually paved, that loose ears and scattered grain mar 
 be gathered up without being soiled ; and ' it is a further 
 improvement to have it covered by some simple roof, to 
 protect the sheaves from sudden rain. 
 
 It is a good arrangement to have the straw-barn fitted 
 up with a loft, on the level of the opening at which the 
 straw is discharged from the thrashing-mill, so as to admit 
 of fodder being stored above and litter below. A sparred 
 trap-door in front of the shaker retains the straw above, or 
 lets it fall to the ground as required. This upper floor of 
 the straw-barn is the most convenient place for fixing a 
 chaff-cutter to be driven by the thrashing-power. The 
 granary should communicate with the upper barn, that the 
 dressed grain may be raised to it by machinery. 
 
 A loft over the engine-room, communicating with the 
 upper barn and granary, forms a suitable place for fixing a 
 gnnding-mill, bruising rollers, and cake-breakers, as it affords 
 opportunity for having these machines easily connected with 
 the steam-power. . It 6uits < ell to have the house in which 
 cattle food is cooked attach< 1 to and under the same roof 
 a." the engine-house. One coal store and chimney thus 
 serves for both. Over this cooking-house, and communi- 
 cating with the grin ding-loft, may advantageously be placed 
 a kiln, to be heated by the waste steam from the engine. 
 An open shed outside the barn, for the accommodation of a 
 circular saw, is also a desideratum. By the aid of the latter 
 machine and a handy labourer, the timber required for ordi- 
 nary repairs on the farm may be cut out at trifling expense. 
 The cattle-housing, of whatever description, where there 
 are the largest and most frequent demands for straw, u 
 placed nearest to the straw-house, and in communication 
 with the turnip-stores, and the house (if any) in which food 
 is cooked or otherwise prepared. Where cattle are bred, 
 the cow-house and calf-house are kept together. A roomy
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 AGRICULTURE" 
 
 PLATE in. 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRI'ANNhCA. NIMH EDITION
 
 roL.i 
 
 AGRICULTUHE 
 
 PLATS IV, 
 
 PLAN Or HOMESTEAO FOR A FARM OF 500 ACRES BY CHARLES LYALL ESQ. 
 
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 Carpenters 
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 JeJl *-' /«*t 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRtTANNlCA. NINTH EDITION
 
 BUILDINGS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 309 
 
 working court is always a great convenience, and it suits 
 well to have the stable opening to it, and the cart-shed and 
 tool-house occupying another side. Costly machines, such 
 as corn-drills and reaping machines, require to be kept in a 
 locked place, to preserve them from the collisions, and the 
 loss or derangement of their minute parts, to which they 
 are exposed in an open cart-shed. 
 
 An abundant supply of good water is a most important 
 matter. The best source is from springs, at such an 
 elevation as to admit of its being brought in a pipe, with 
 a continuous flow. Failing this a well and pump is the 
 usual alternative, although it is sometimes necessary to 
 collect the rain-water from the roofs, and preserve it in a 
 capacious and carefully-made tank. In every case it is 
 desirable to have a regulating cistern, from which it is 
 distributed by pipe to every part of the homestead where 
 it is repaired. It is, in every case, of importance to have 
 the eaves of the whole buildings spouted, and the rain- 
 water carried where it can do no mischief. Where fattening 
 cattle are kept in open yards with sheds, by spouting the 
 eaves, and slightly hollowing the yards towards their 
 centres, the urine to a large extent is absorbed by the litter, 
 and retained in the manure. The effectual way, however, 
 is to have the whole of the yards roofed over. The waste 
 of food and litter, and the damage sustained alike by cattle 
 and manure, from the excessive rainfall of winter 1872-3, 
 has probably done more than any amount of argument 
 could do to convince farmers of this. If stall feeding is 
 practised, a pit is required, into which the solid dung is 
 wheeled and the liquid conveyed by drains. Liquid manure 
 tanks are at present in universal repute, but we shall 
 endeavour to show, when treating of manures, that they are 
 not such an indispensable appendage to a farm-yard as is 
 generally asserted. In Scotland it is customary to carry 
 the dung from the byres into a yard in which young cattle 
 are kept, where it is daily spread about and subjected to 
 further treading, along with such quantities of fresh litter 
 as are deemed necessary. That from the stables is carried 
 into the adjoining feeding-yard, and it is usually remarked 
 that the cattle occupying it make more rapid progress 
 than their neighbours. 
 
 An important part of the buildings of a farm are the 
 cottages for its labourers. It is in all cases expedient to 
 have the people required for the ordinary working of a farm 
 resident upon it; and it is always much better to have 
 families, each iu its own cottage, than a number of young 
 people boarded in the farm-kitchen, or with the farm- 
 overseer. These cottages are usually a little removed from 
 the other farm-buildings, and it is, on various accounts, 
 better to have them so. There is, however, an advantage 
 in having the cottages of the farm-steward and cattleman 
 either within the courtyard, or close to its entrance, that 
 these responsible functionaries may at all times be near 
 their charge, and especially that they may be at hand 
 when any of the live stock require night attendance. As 
 there are manifold advantages in having but one main 
 entrance to the homestead, and that closed by a gate which 
 can be locked at night, it will be obviously necessary 
 to have the keeper of the key close at hand to open the 
 gate by night if required. Much more attention than 
 formerly is now paid to the construction of cottages. The 
 apartments are better floored, higher in the roof, and so 
 arranged as to secure comfort and decency. Besides a 
 small garden, each cottage is usually provided with a pig- 
 sty and ash-pit, and in some cases with a coal-place and 
 privy besides. 
 
 The position and style of the farmer's dwelling also 
 claims a remark here. The approved mode used to be, to 
 place it either directly in front or rear of the farm-yard, on 
 the ground that the farmer would thus have his premises 
 
 and cattle under his eye even when in his parlour or bed- 
 room. As has been well remarked, " The advantages of 
 this parlour-farming are not very apparent, the attendant 
 evils glaringly so. If the condition of ready communication 
 be obtained, the farm-house should be placed where the 
 amenities of a country residence can be best enjoyed." 1 On 
 all hands we now hear it urged, that it is only by men 
 possessed of capital and intelligence that the business of 
 farming can be rendered remunerative. Those who desire 
 to have such men for tenants will be more likely to succeed 
 by providing a commodious and comfortable farmery, 
 pleasantly placed among trees and shrubs, than by setting 
 it down in the precincts of the dung-heap. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 FENCES. 
 
 Section 1. — Benefit of Fences. 
 The fences by which farms are generally enclosed and 
 subdivided form another part of what may be termed their 
 fixtures, and may therefore be suitably noticed here. 'When 
 lands are let to a tenant, the buildings and fences arc 
 usually put into sufficient repair, and he is taken bound to 
 keep and leave them so at the issue of his occupancy. 
 Although there are some persons who advocate the total 
 removal of subdivision fences, it is admitted on all hands 
 that the farm as a whole, and the sides of public thorough- 
 fares which may intersect it, should be guarded by sufficient 
 fences of some kind. The general belief has hitherto been, 
 that there i3 a farther advantage in having the land 
 subdivided by permanent fences into enclosures of moderate 
 size. The use of such partition fences is not only to confine 
 the live stock to particular fields, or restrain them from 
 trespassing on the other crops, but to afford shelter from 
 cutting winds. It is now frequently urged, that the heavier 
 cattle should never be turned to pasture at all, but kept on 
 roots and green forage the whole year round, and that sheep 
 can be managed satisfactorily by means of movable hurdles. 
 It is highly probable that the practice of soiling will 
 become more 'general, as it undoubtedly deserves to do. 
 Still, this does not necessarily call for the total removal of 
 subdivision fences, which we cannot but regard as an 
 imprudent proceeding. It is probable that those who have 
 adopted it have done so very much owing to the prevalence 
 of the opposite extreme. There are large portions of the 
 finest land in England so encumbered with hedges and 
 hedgerow trees, as to be utterly incapable of profitable 
 cultivation. In many cases the fields are so small and the 
 tree3 so large that their roots actually meet from the 
 opposite sides, and pervade the entire surface soil of the 
 area enclosed by them. When manure is applied to such 
 fields, it is monopolised by these freebooters from the hedges, 
 and the crops of grain or hay, such as they are, are so 
 screened from the sun and wind that there is great risk of 
 their being spoiled in the harvesting. If drains are made 
 in such fields, they are speedily filled up by the rootlets, 
 and thus rendered useless. It has been computed that not 
 less than one and a quarter million acres are occupied by 
 hedgerows in England and Wales, and that if the land 
 overshaded and plundered by roots be included, the amount 
 is three milli ons. In Devonshire one-fourth of the en- 
 closures in many parishes are under two acres ; more than 
 one-third under three acres ; and nearly two-thirds under 
 four acres. Two milli ons, at least, of these acres might be 
 redeemed, and what a margin is here available for increased 
 production 1 The land thus wasted would probably yield 
 a sum equal to county and poor rates, and perhaps malt-tax 
 
 1 For further information on Farm Buildings, see also Morton!' 
 Cyclopaedia of Agriculture, article " Farm Buildings," and The Book 
 of Farm Buildings, by Henry Stephens and B. Scott Burn. Edi» 
 burgh, 1861.
 
 310 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [fences. 
 
 too- 1 In such circumstances, it is no wonder that zealous 
 agricultural improvers should look upon hedgerows much 
 as American settlers do upon their forests, and, like them, 
 be sometimes indiscriminate in their clearings. We believe 
 that there is an advantage in having land, whether for 
 pasture or tillage, subdivided into parallel-sided fields of 
 from ten to forty acres each, according to the size of the 
 farm, by means of permanent fences of a kind adapted to 
 the locality 
 
 Section 2. — Varieties of Fences. 
 
 When the soil and climate are favourable to the growth 
 of the common white thorn, hedges formed of it combine 
 efficiency, economy, and ornament, in a greater degree than 
 any other fence. But to have a really efficient thorn 
 hedge, much attention must be paid to its planting, rearing, 
 and after management In proceeding to run a new line 
 of thorn hedge, care must be taken that the soil is clean 
 and in good heart, and that the subsoil is porous an$l dry. 
 When these conditions do not obtain, they must be secured 
 by fallowing, manuring, draining, and trenching. The 
 young quicks should be stout and well rooted ; not taken 
 indiscriminately as they stand in the nurserymen's beds; 
 but of uniform stoutness. Such selected plants are always 
 to be had for a small additional price, which will be found 
 to be well repaid in the superior progress of such plants, 
 when contrasted with that of others taken as they chance 
 to come to hand. The embryo fence must bo kept free 
 of weeds, and secured from the encroachments of cattle by 
 a line of rails on both sides. Some persons advise that the 
 young hedge should from the first be trimmed into line by 
 using the pruning-hook after each year's growth. It is 
 certainly better not to touch it with the knife, or, at least, 
 only to restrain an occasional shoot that unduly overtops 
 its neighbours, until the centre stems are at least a couple 
 of inches in diameter. If the plants are then headed over 
 fence-high, and the lateral shoots pruned to a straight line, 
 a close fence with a substantial backbone in it is secured; 
 whereas by pruning annually from the first, a fence i3 
 obtained that pleases the eye, but which, consisting only of 
 a mass of spray, presents no effectual barrier to cattle. 
 When a thorn hedge has reached the stage just referred to, 
 the protecting rails may be removed, and the hedge kept in 
 a neat and efficient state by annual pruning. On good, 
 deep soil, thorns will stand this constant removal of the 
 annual gTowth of spray for many years without injury, 
 especially if the pruning is delayed until the leaf has fallen. 
 In less favourable circumstances, it is found necessary from 
 time to time to withhold the pruning-knife for a few years 
 together. When the hedge has been reinvigorated by such 
 periods of unrestrained growth, it can again be cut back to 
 the centre stems, and subjected anew to a course of annual 
 pruning. To insure a close fence, the bottom of the hedge 
 must at all times be kept clear of tall weeds. The 
 constant use of the weeding-iron is, however, objectionable ; 
 for, besides being expensive, it injures the bark of the thorns 
 and thereby impairs their health. It is quite sufficient to 
 cut the weeds close to the surface twice a year by means 
 of a reaping-hook or short scythe. 
 
 In arable lands, by this plan of keeping hedges about 
 four feet high, and cutting down the weeds as required, 
 an efficient and ornamental fence is maintained at com- 
 paratively small cost, and with little injury to the ad- 
 joining crops from shading, or the harbouring of weeds 
 and vermin. 
 
 Although the white thorn forms a better hedge than any 
 shrub yet tried for the purpose in this country, there are 
 many upland situations where the beech and hornbeam grow 
 more freely, and are to be preferred either alone or in 
 
 1 See Furnur'i Magazine tor March 1862. p. 2/>8. 
 
 mixture with it. These plants, and also crab or sloe, aie 
 sometimes useful in filling a gap occasioned by the removal 
 of a hedgerow tree or the death of a portion of thorn hedge. 
 
 In exposed situations, where thorns do not thrive, St* 
 drystone walls are the most usual substitute. When 
 carefully constructed, of stones suitable for the purpose, 
 they last a long time, and form an excellent fence. Their 
 durability is much enhanced by having tho cope-stones set 
 in lime-mortar. A layer along the centre of the wall, and 
 an external painting, of lhne-mortar will also repay the 
 additional first cost thus incurred. A wall of this kind 
 four feet high, exclusive of the cope, while quite sufficient 
 to restrain cattle and the heavier kinds of sheep, is no 
 barrier to the mountain breeds, which can easily clear a 
 six-foot walL 
 
 A simple and very effective fence has, however, come Wu 
 much into use of late years. It is composed of n-m wire 
 (No. 8 being tho size most commonly used), which ia 
 attached by small staples to common stakes, such as are 
 used for wooden railings, driven firmly into the ground 
 about five feet apart. The wire is drawn out of the coil, 
 and tho ends of the various lengths or threads are neatly 
 joined by first heating them, and then twisting the one into 
 the other, until the quantity required for the stretch of fence 
 is run out It is then attached to every third or fourth 
 stake by a staple, which must not be driven home. The 
 other lines of wire are then treated in the same manner, 
 each being attached to the stakes at such width apart a* 
 has been determined upon, and marked upon the stakes. 
 A ready way of doing this is by stretching along the stakes 
 a common gardener's line which has been previously rubbed 
 with chalk, or a charred stick, and striking it against the 
 stakes at the required heights, in the way that sawyers mark 
 a plank When the requisite number of wires has thus been 
 loosely attached, they are pulled as tight as possible by the 
 hands of the workmen, after which a screw or lever is applied 
 to each in turn until it is made perfectly tight. As the 
 efficiency of this kind of fence is wholly dependent on perfect 
 tightness being obtained, a stout straining-post must be fixed 
 securely in tho ground at the end of each line of fence. 
 This serves tho double purpose of furnishing a fulcrum for 
 the stretching instrument, and a secure attachment for the 
 ends of the wires. When the straining is accomplished, 
 each wire is stapled to each stake. The gates are usually 
 hung upon these straining-posts. Although wooden strain- 
 ing-posts are commonly used, some persons prefer iron ones, 
 fixed into large blocks of stone. Five wires thus stretched, 
 at an average width of six inches, form an effectual fence 
 for tho wildest sheep. They could, indeed, easily clear it so 
 far as height is concerned, but they are afraid to leap at 
 an object which they cannot see until they are close upon it. 
 They may be seen at first walking along the line anxiously 
 looking for an opening, and if one more bold than the others 
 makes a run at it, he is sure to catch such a fall as effectually 
 deters him from repeating the attempt. With these cheap 
 and portable materials, which any labourer of ordinary in- 
 telligence can easily put together, a fence admirably adapted 
 for enclosing or subdividing mountain pastures is now quite 
 attainable by every sheep-farmer, and will well repay its cost 
 It is equally available for protecting young thorn hedges, 
 and generally for all purposes for which wooden railing is 
 used. As a fence for cattle or horses, it is advisable to add 
 a single rail of wood nailed flat along the top of the stakes, 
 which must be sawn off evenly for this purpose. As com- 
 pared with wooden railing, wire is much cheaper and more 
 durable, and more easily kept in repair. It is cheaper also 
 than stone walls, available in many situations where they 
 are not, and a more certain barrier to agile sheep ; but it ia 
 less durable, and affords no shelter. 
 
 The latter defett can in some situations be remedied bf
 
 MACHINES. J 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 311 
 
 raising a low mound of turf, running the wire-rance along 
 the top of this mound, and sowing on it the seeds of the 
 common whin. 
 
 We have already noticed that the fences of a farm are 
 usually erected by the landlord and kept in repair by the 
 tenant. The latter is at least usually taken bound in his 
 lease to keep and leave them in good order; but as this 
 obligation is often very indifferently performed, and much 
 damage and vexation occasioned^ consequence, it is always 
 expedient that a person should be appointed by the landlord 
 to attend to the fences, and the half of his wages charged 
 against the tenant. By such a course, dilapidation and dis- 
 putes are effectually guarded against, and the eyesore of 
 defective, ill-kept fences is wholly removed. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 MACHINES AND IMPLEMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 
 
 Section 1. — Recent Improvements. 
 
 That the cultivation of the soil may be carried on to the 
 best advantage, it is necessary that the farmer be provided 
 with a sufficient stock of machines and implements of 
 the best construction. Very' great improvement has 
 of late years taken place in this department of 
 mechanics. The great agricultural societies of the 
 kingdom have devoted much of their attention to it ; 
 and under their' auspices, and stimulated by their 
 premiums, exhibitions, and competitive trials, manu- 
 facturers of Bkill and capital nave embarked largely 
 in the business. In many instances the quality of 
 the article has been improved and its cost reduced. 
 There has hitherto been a tendency to produce imple- 
 ments needlessly cumbrous and elaborate, and to in- 
 troduce variations in form which are not improvements. 
 The inventors of several valuable implements, the exclusive 
 manufacture of which they have secured to themselves by 
 patent, appear to have retarded their sale, and marred their 
 own profits by the exorbitant prices which they have put 
 upon them. Some, however, have become alive to the advan- 
 tages "of looking rather to large sales with a moderate profit 
 on each article, and of lowering prices to secure this. A 
 most salutary practice has now become common of inventors 
 of implements of ascertained usefulness granting licence to 
 other parties to use their patent-right on reasonable terms, 
 and thus removing the temptation to evade it by introducing 
 some alteration which is trumpeted as an improvement, 
 although really the reverse. 
 
 The extended use of iron and steel in the construction 
 )f agricultural implements is materially adding to their 
 durability, and generally to their efficiency, and is thus a 
 source of considerable saving. While great improvement 
 has taken place in this department, it too commonly happens 
 that the village mechanics, by whom a large portion of this 
 class of implements is made and repaired, are exceedingly 
 unskilled, and lamentably ignorant of the principles of their 
 art. They usually furnish good materials and substantial 
 workmanship, but by their unconscious violation of mecha- 
 nical laws, enormous waste of motive power is continually 
 incurred, and poor results are attained. This can probably 
 be remedied only by the construction of th? more costly and 
 complex machines being carried on in extensive factories, 
 where, under the combined operation of scientific superin- 
 tendence, ample capital, and skilled labour, aided by steam- 
 power, the work can be so performed as to combine the 
 maximum of excellence with the minimum of cost 
 
 Section 2.- — Ploughs. 
 
 We begin our brief notice of the implements of the farm 
 with those used for the tillage of the soiL Of these the 
 first place is unquestionably due to the plough. A history 
 of this implement, tracing its gradual progress from the 
 
 ancient Sarcle to its most improved form at the present day, 
 is necessarily a history of agriculture. So much is this the 
 case that a tolerably correct estimate of the progress of the 
 art in any country, whether in ancient or modem times, 
 may be formed by ascertaining the structure of the plough. 
 Much attention has been paid to its construction in Britain 
 for the last hundred years, and never more than at the present 
 day. After all that has been done, it is still, however, an 
 unsettled point which is the best plough for different soils 
 and kinds of work ; and accordingly, many varying forms 
 of it are in use in those parts of the kingdom which have 
 the reputation of being mostskilfullycultivated. Eversince 
 the introduction of Small's improved swing-plovgk, the 
 universal belief in Scotland, and to a considerable extent in 
 England, has been that this is the best form of the imple- 
 ment. Wheel ploughs have accordingly been spoken of by 
 Scottish agriculturists in the most depreciatory terms, and 
 yet it turns out that this has been nothing better than an 
 unfounded prejudice ; for when subjected to careful com- 
 parative trial, as has been frequently done of late, ths 
 
 Howard's Champion Plough. 
 
 balance of excellence is undoubtedly in favour of the 
 plough with wheels. Its advantages are, that it is easier of 
 draught ; that the quality of its work is better and greatly 
 more uniform than can be produced by a swing plough ; 
 that in land rendered hard by drought, or other causes, it 
 will enter and turn over even furrows where its rival either 
 cannot work at all, or at best with great irregularity and 
 severe exertion to the ploughman; and, lastly, that its 
 efficiency is independent of skill in the ploughman. This 
 last quality has indeed been usually urged as an objection 
 to wheel-ploughs, as their tendency is said to be to produce 
 an inferior class of workmen. Those who know the diffi- 
 culty of getting a field ploughed uniformly, and especially of 
 getting the depth of furrow specified by the master adhered 
 to over a field, and by all the ploughmen, can best appreciate 
 the value of an implement that, when once properly adjusted, 
 will cut every furrow of an equal width and depth, and lay 
 them all over at exactly the same angle. The diversity in 
 the quality of the work at those ploughing competitions, to 
 which only the picked men of a neighbourhood are sent, 
 and where each may be supposed to do his very best, shows 
 conclusively how much greater it must be on individual 
 farms, even under the most vigilant superintendence. In 
 every other art the effect of improved machinery is to 
 supersede manual dexterity ; and it does seem absurd to 
 count that an, objection in agriculture which is an advantags 
 in everything else. There is more force in the objection 
 that wheel-ploughs are inferior to swing ones in ploughing 
 cloddy ground, or in crossing steep ridges, and that they 
 cannot be used for forming drills for turnip or other crops. 
 This objection vanishes when it is known that in the most 
 improved wheel-ploughs, the wheels can be laid aside at 
 pleasure, and that they ban then be used in all respects as 
 swing-ploughs. A mould-board, somewhat higher and 
 wider behind than that best adapted for ordinary work, is 
 required for forming turnip-drills. This, however, is easily 
 managed by having two distinct mould-boards for each 
 plough, or, better still, by using only the double mould h.iara
 
 312 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [machines and 
 
 nr bulking plough for drilling. An important feature in 
 the English ploughs is, that they are fitted with cast-iron 
 shares, which, being case-hardened on their under surface, 
 wear unequally, and so preserve a sharp edge. The necessity 
 for daily recourse to the smithy is thus removed, and along 
 with it that irregularity in the quality of the work and 
 draught of the plough, which so often arises from witting 
 or unwitting alterations being made in the set of the 
 share in the course of its unceasing journeys thither. These 
 cast-iron shares are slightly more brittle than those made 
 of malleable iron with steel points ; but it is of importance 
 in determining their comparative merits to bear in mind 
 that the prime cost of the former — lOd. to Is. each — is so 
 small as to render them at the year's end the least expensive 
 of the two. When it i3 desired to turn a very deep furrow, 
 a plough is used differing from the common one only in 
 being somewhat larger and stronger in all its parts, with 
 four horses to draw it. 
 
 Ploughs which break and stir the subsoil, without bringing 
 it to the surface, by following in the wake of the common 
 plough, are now much used. The first of the kind — the 
 invention of the late Mr Smith of Deanston — is a ponderous 
 implement, requiring at least four good horses to draw it. 
 It is well adapted for displacing and aiding in the removal 
 of earth-fast stones. The inventor has happily described 
 its operation by terming it a " horse pick." Read's subsoil- 
 plough is a much lighter implement, which can usually bo 
 drawn by two horses. Since the introduction of thorough 
 draining, it is found beneficial to loosen the soil to a much 
 greater depth- than was formerly practicable, and this class 
 of implements is well fitted for the work. It is always ad- 
 visable to use this implement, and to mark and dig cat the 
 large stones encountered by it, before introducing steam 
 cultivation. 
 
 Broadshare or paring-ploughs are much used in various 
 parts of England in the autumn cleaning of stubble. A 
 broad-cutting edge is made to penetrate the soil to the depth 
 of three or four inches, so as to cut up the root-weeds which 
 at that season lie for the most part near the surface. 
 These, as well as the stubble, being thus detached from the 
 firm soil, are removed by harrowing and raking ; after which 
 the land is worked by the common plough. An implement 
 of this kind is frequently used in carrying out the operation 
 of paring and burning. Bentall's Broadshare has the 
 reputation of being the best of its class ; but we can con- 
 fidently recommend the common plough, stripped of its 
 mould-board and fitted with a share twelve inches broad, 
 as not only the cheapest, but decidedly the most efficient 
 scarifier that has yet been used. 
 
 An ingenious Aberdeenshire mechanic, Mr Pirie of 
 Kinmundy, has recently invented a double-furrow plough, 
 on an entirely new principle, which has met with general 
 approval, and has already been adopted by all the great 
 plough makers. By carrying the plough on three wheels, 
 one on the land and two bevelled ones in the angle of the 
 furrow, Mr Pirie dispenses with both soles and side plates, 
 and thereby lessens the friction, and avoids that hurtful 
 glazing and hardening of the bottom of the furrow which 
 attends the use of other ploughs. So much is the 
 draught lessened by this improvement, that three horses 
 and one man with thi3 double-plough can perform as 
 much work in a day as four horses and two men with 
 two ordinary ploughs. For a 6eed-furrow or level field 
 of free soil, two horses are quite able to work the double- 
 plough. 
 
 Various implements of the plough type, so modified as 
 to adapt them for particular processes, have from time to 
 time been offered to public notice, but have failed to meet 
 with general favour. We limit our notice to those of 
 ascertained utility, and refer the reader who desires fuller 
 
 information to Ransome'i Implement* of Agriculture,* and 
 the more recent work by Messrs Stephens and Scott 
 Burn, where he will find descriptions of the most interest- 
 ing of them. 
 
 Section 3. — Grubbers, &c. 
 
 Next in importance to the plough is the class of imple- 
 ments variously called grubbers, cultivators, drags, or scari- 
 fiers. To prepare the soil for the crops of the husbandman, 
 it is necessary to pulverise it to a sufficient depth, and to 
 rid it of weeds. The appropriate function of the plough is 
 to penetrate, break up, and reverse the firm surface of the 
 field. This, however, is only the first step in the process, 
 and does but prepare for the more thorough disintegration 
 which has usually been accomplished by harrowing, rolling, 
 and repeated ploughings. Now, however excellent in its 
 own place, the plough is a cumbrous and tedious pul- 
 veriser, besides needlessly exposing a fresh surface at each 
 operation, and cutting the weeds into minute portions, 
 which renders their removal more difficult. These defects 
 were long felt, and suggested the desirableness of having 
 some implement of intermediate character betwixt the 
 plough and harrow, which should stir the soil deeply and 
 expeditiously without reversing it, and bring the weeds 
 unbroken to the surface. The whole tribe of grubbers, 
 <fcc, has arisen to meet this demand, and we shall now 
 consider the comparative merits of the more promineut of 
 the group. The first notice is due to Finlayson's harrow, 
 which, as improved by Scoular, was, until recently, tho 
 best implement of its kind. Its faults — and they attach 
 equally to Kirkwood's and Wilkie's — are, that it is severe 
 work for two horses, is liable to choke in turfy or foul 
 ground, and that it consolidates the bottom of the furrow, 
 while producing a fine tilth on the surface. Finlayson's 
 grubber, in its improved form, weighs about five cwt, 
 and costs as many pounds. 
 
 Another useful implement of this clas3 which enjoys a 
 large reputation in England is Biddle's scarifier. It u 
 
 Diddle':* Scantier, su xniuie by Kamume a ^o. 
 
 mounted on four wheels — two small ones in front and two 
 much larger behind. The frame and tines are of cast- 
 iron, and can be raised and depressed at pleasure by 
 means of two levers which regulate the depth to which the 
 tines shall penetrate. The tinea are prepared to receive 
 case-hardened cast-iron points of different widths, or steel 
 hoes of nine inches width, so that the implement can be 
 used for breaking up and paring the surface, or for 
 grubbing out weeds and pulverising the soil, as may be 
 required. An important feature in this scarifier is, that 
 it keeps its hold of a hard surface much better than a 
 plough It weighs half a ton,, is drawn by four or six 
 horses, and costs about j£18. 
 
 1 The Implements of Agriculture, by J. Allen Ransome, Lond. 
 1843. The Hook of Farm Implement} and Machines, by Henry 
 Stephens and R. Scott Burn, Edin.
 
 IMPLEMENTS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 313 
 
 The Dude or tHey cultivator has many features in 
 common with Biddle's, and although brought forward as 
 an improvement upon it, has not established its title to be 
 so regarded. The great weight, high price, and amount 
 of horse-power required to work them, are serious objec- 
 tions to all these~implement3. 
 
 Of more recent notoriety than these, and contrasting 
 with them favourably in these respects, 13 an implement 
 invented by the late Mr John Tennant, at Shields, near 
 Ayr, and now popularly known as Tennant's grubber. Its 
 construction, as the annexed cut will show, is simple in the 
 extreme. Its weight is about two cwi, its price £4, 10s., 
 
 Tennant's Grubber, as improved by T. Brown, Ellington. 
 
 and its draught easily overcome by two horses. The depth 
 at which it works is regulated by raising or lowering the 
 shank which supports its wheels in front. Its tines can be 
 easily moved on their supporting bars, and it may be 
 worked with five or seven as desired. By substituting a 
 shorter hind bar. and setting the tines more closely to- 
 gether, it makes a most efficient drill-grubber. We shall 
 have occasion to refer to this implement frequently in 
 
 treating of tillage operations. The improvement ''which 
 Mr T. Brown has made on Tennant's grubber consists 
 mainly in the mode of attaching the tines to the bars. This 
 attachment, which the cut explains, has the merit of being 
 at once very simple and very effectuaL The tines when 
 thus fixed are as rigid as if welded to the bars, and yst, by 
 merely slackening the screws and driving out the wedges, 
 they can with ease and rapidity be either adjusted at 
 varying widths apart, or detached for repair. 
 
 A, Tine ; B, Keeper; C, Wedge, j Actual Size. 
 
 Section i. — Steam-Power Tillage Implements. 
 
 Such are the most important of those implements ty 
 
 which the tilling of the soil has hitherto been accomplished, 
 
 and upon which the farmer must continue to rely so long as 
 
 he uses the muscular force of animals as his motive power. 
 
 Fowler's Locomotive Engine, with Clip Drum. 
 
 Hut the progress of invention has at last made the steam- 
 engine practically available for this purpose, and accordingly 
 we here introduce some notice of what has now been accom- 
 plished, in applying steam power to the cultivation of the 
 soiL 
 
 After many abortive attempts to do this by moving 
 the engine itself over the land to be operated upon, it is now 
 admitted on all hands that the only available method is to 
 
 communicate the power from the engine to the implements 
 by means of steel wire-ropes and windlasses. This is done 
 in a variety of ways, some of the most prominent of which, 
 we shall now describe. The systems actually in operation 
 fall under twj general classes, which are knTJwn severally as 
 the " Direct" and the " Roundabout." The fhjst of these is 
 the system introduced by Messrs John Fowler & Co. of 
 Cornhill, London, and now so well known in connection with,
 
 314 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [MACHINES AMD 
 
 their name. The late Mr John Fowler's first efforts were 
 directed to the production of a draining apparatus, and it 
 was after succeeding in this apparently more arduous effort 
 that he adapted his tackle to the hauling of tillage imple- 
 ments. After various tentative changes, Mr Fowler settled 
 on the form which is. still in extensive use. It consists of 
 a single locomotive engine, usually of 12 or 14 horse-power, 
 with a windlass attached to it under the boiler. Around 
 tfiis wiudlass an endless steel wire-rope passes with a single 
 turn in a groove, which, by means of hinged clips, lays hold 
 of nearly the entire circumference of the rope, and that with 
 a force proportioned to the strain upon the rope, which thus 
 obtains sufficient grip to convey the necessary hauling 
 power without risk of slipping upon the drum. This wire- 
 rope, which requires to be just twico as long as the field to 
 be tilled is wide, passes round a cheave upon a self-acting 
 anchor placed at the farther side of the field opposite to the 
 engine. This anchor is a prominent feature in Mr Fowler's 
 apparatus. It consists of a low truck on four wheels, with 
 sharp disc edges, which cut deeply into the soil, and thus 
 obtain a hold sufficient to resist the strain of the wire rope. 
 A box, loaded with stones, is fixed on the outer side of this 
 truck to hinder it from canting over. The sheave mounted 
 upon this truck, besides serving its primary use, gives motion 
 when required to a dram, which winds up a rope, the other 
 end of which is fixed well a-head in the direction in which 
 the track is required to move. Thus the apparatus warps 
 itself along the headland as the ploughing progresses, and is 
 kept always vis-& -vis to the engine, which moves itself forward 
 by its own locomotive power at every bout of the ploughs, 
 
 and keeps abreast of them. That the rope may not drag 
 upon the ground, friction rollers or rope- i orters, as they are 
 called, are placed at suitable intervals. These being mounted 
 on wheels and Strang upon the rope, are now iu a good 
 measure self-acting, as the tautness of the rope keeps them 
 in its own line. The ploughs are fixed to a balance frame 
 carried on two wheels, and are in duplicate, pointing to each 
 other, so th?.t when the set at one end of the frame is in 
 work, the opposite set is carried aloft in the air. The plough 
 frame is thus hauled to and fro across the field, between the 
 engine and movable anchor, ' y reversing the action of the 
 windlass; and it is adapted for taking from two to eight 
 furrows at once, according to tho power of the engine em 
 ployed, or the nature of the soil that is operated upon. 
 
 Messrs Fowler have made this form of their apparatus 
 more generally available by adapting it for attachment to 
 the ordinary 8-horse power thrashing-engine. 'Wlien thus 
 used the clip drum is mounted on a separate frame and 
 connected with the engine, which being stationed in a corner 
 of the field to bo ploughed, the ropo is carried to two self- 
 acting anchors, one at each side of the field, and thus encloses 
 a triangle. The plough is drawn to and fro betwixt these 
 anchors, and as it gradually approaches the engine at each 
 successive bout, the gearing on the plough-frame tightens op 
 the rope and accommodates it to the diminishing length 
 required. 
 
 To work Fowler's apparatus there is required one engine- 
 driver, one ploughman, a stout lad to attend to the anchor, 
 two boys to shift the rope-porters, and a horse and boy t« 
 supply the engine with water and fueL 
 
 Fowler's Steam-Plough as i.t work. 
 
 About 1865 Messrs Fowler made an important addition 
 to their apparatus by substituting a second engine for their 
 movable anchor. In this arrangement, now well known as 
 the " Double Engine system," a pair of locomotive engines, 
 each having a plain winding drum instead of the clip-drum, 
 are placed opposite to each other at the ends of the field to 
 be operated upon ; the rope of each of the engines is attached 
 to the plough, or other tillage implement, which is drawn 
 to and fro betwixt them by each working in turn. While 
 the engine in gear is coiling -in its rope and drawing the 
 plough towards itself, the rope of the other engine is paid 
 out with merely so much drag on it as to keep it from kinking 
 or getting ravelled on the drum. The advantages claimed 
 for this system are, economy of power from the direct pull 
 of the engines on the implement ; the facility and rapidity 
 
 with which the engines move themselves and the whole 
 apparatus from field to field, or farm to farm, and take up 
 their positions and get to work without the aid of horses ; 
 and the few hands required to work it. Its drawbacks are 
 the large first cost, and corresponding charge for wear and 
 tear, depreciation, and interest; itsunsuitableness for working 
 in small and irregularly shaped fields ; and the injury done 
 to headlands in wet weather. Its special adaptation is for 
 large farms, and for working for hire ; and for these it is 
 undoubtedly without a rival. 
 
 Mr William Smith of Woolston, Bedfordshire, may fairly 
 be regarded as the pioneer of cultivation by steam power. 
 At the meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of. England 
 at Carlisle in 1855, he witnessed the performance of the late 
 John Fowler's steam draining-plough, and then contracted
 
 IMPLEMENTS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 315 
 
 with him to Construct for t»'m a windlass and other tilling 
 apparatus, with which he got to work on his own farm in 
 the autumn of that year. These two leaders in steam- 
 cultivation did not long work together. They had decided 
 and diverse opinions as to the best road to success, and 
 accordingly each for the future took his own course. Mr 
 Smith's merit is not largely that of an original inventor of 
 machinery, but rather that of a zealous, persevering, and 
 successful applier of the inventions of others. But by his 
 own example and his vigorous writings, he has contributed 
 very largely indeed to the success of steam cultivation. He 
 makes use of the ordinary portable engine, such as is em- 
 ployed as a thrashing power, which gives motion to a 
 detached windlass with two drums, from which a wire-rope 
 is carried round the area to be operated upon, and hence 
 the name " Roundabout" applied to this system. This rope 
 being attached by a turning bow to a powerful grubber, the 
 implement is drawn to and fro across the field by reversing 
 as required the action of the windlass, the slack half of the 
 rope being uncoiled from the one drum as the part in work is 
 wound up upon the other. His mode of working is to break 
 up the ground by using a three-tined grubber, and then to 
 go over it again with a seven-tined one, working at right 
 angles to the first Mr Smith zealously advocates the supe- 
 
 riority of grubbing to ploughing, being of opinion that if 
 the soil is thoroughly broken up to a sufficient depth, it k. 
 better not to reverse the surface, as weeds are thu3 kept 
 on the top, and the removal of them thereby greatly 
 facilitated. 
 
 Mr Smith soon made an important addition to his system 
 of tillage by means of an implement, which he calls a Ridger 
 and Subsoiler. By means of it the soil, after being 
 thoroughly smashed up by tho 6team-grubber, is thrown 
 into 36-inch ridges, the tine at the same time penetrating 
 and loosening the subsoil in each furrow several inches 
 deeper. His clay soil treated thus immediately after harvest 
 is put into the best possible condition for benefiting by the 
 alternations of wintry weather, for allowing rain-water to. 
 pass readily and beneficially to the drains, and for yielding 
 a friable seed-bed in spring. It has enabled him altogether 
 to dispense with dead fallows ; to grow abundant crops of 
 wheat and beans alternately for a number of successive years, 
 at an average annual cost of 8s. 6d. per acre for tillage ; 
 and to keep his land perfectly clean under this constant 
 cropping. He has the high merit not only of being the 
 first man who successfully used steam power for the cultiva- 
 tion of a farm, but of demonstrating that this can be done 
 with manifest economy even by the occupiers of small farms, 
 
 Smith's Steam Cultivator as at work. 
 
 seeing that his own farm extends to but 180 acres of arable 
 land After the lapse of eighteen years there is probably 
 no one who yet practises steam cultivation with as great 
 success and economy. At the end of this period he reports 
 that his engine and tackle are in excellent condition. 
 
 Mr Smith's apparatus was for a time manufactured by 
 the well-known firm of J. <fe F. Howard of Bedford, and 
 more recently by Barford <fc Perkins of Peterborough. 
 Since 1860 the Messrs Howard have sent out a tackle of 
 their own, in which the main features of Smith's system 
 are retained, but to these they have themselves added 
 from time to time various improvements. By means of a 
 self-acting windlass and self-moving anchors, their tackle 
 can now be worked by ono engineman (who also ottends 
 to the windlass), one ploughman, and two porter-boys. 
 
 Although the earliest in date of invention, the most 
 recent in actual operation is the tackle of Messrs Fisken, 
 
 which has features peculiar to itself. A single traction 
 engine is stationed at any convenient point on the 
 margin of or near to tho field to be operated upon, the 
 preference always being given to a site where there in 
 water, whence it can supply itself either by pumping 
 or by the patent injector. The other parts of the apparatus 
 are two self-moving anchor windlasses, which are placed 
 opposite to each other on two sides of the field, occupying 
 the place and doing the work of the two engines in the 
 double-engine system. Theso windlasses are mounted on 
 four disc wheels, and have also a spud which cuts into the 
 soil to give the necessary resistance to the side pull 
 They each carry a winding-drum with tho necessary length 
 of wire-rope, and these windlass-drums, wind up and pay 
 out alternately in precisely the same way as in Fowler's 
 double engines. They also have each a winding-forward 
 drum with wire-rope and anchor fixed ahead, by means oi
 
 31G 
 
 which they warp themselves forward and keep abreast as 
 the- work progresses. Power is communicated from the 
 engine to these windlasses by means of a light hemp rope, 
 travelling at the speed of the fly-wheel, .which is carried all 
 round the field, and takes a double turn round a grooved 
 pulley on each windlass. A set of anchor pulbys on 
 wheels carry this rope round the corners of the field ; 
 another set of pulleys, on stakes driven into the ground at 
 suitable points, carry it off the ground; and a tension 
 anchor mounted on four wheels, and having, like the 
 windlasses, an apparatus by which it warps itself forward, 
 and keeps the hemp-rope taut as the length out varies with 
 the progress of the work The windlasses have each a 
 self-acting clutch, which stops the implement when any 
 obstruction is encountered, and . by which the attendants 
 stop it at the turnings, or when otherwise necessary, with- 
 out in any case requiring to stop the engine. By these 
 arrangements the engine-driver does not require to have 
 tho implement in sight, his duty being merely to drive his 
 engine at a uniform speed, as neither stopping nor revers- 
 ing are required. The advantages claimed for Fisken's 
 tackle are those which it has in common with the other 
 Roundabout systems, and, in addition, the use of a light 
 hemp rope to convey power from engine to implement with 
 less friction and cost than in other systems; great adapta- 
 bility to fields of any size, or shape, or inequality of surface ; 
 and a capacity in certain circumstances of being worked by 
 a fiied steam-engine or water power. 
 
 The Royal Agricultural Society of England ha3 from the 
 first devoted much attention and large funds to the promo- 
 tion of steam cultivation, by the prizes offered at its annual 
 shows, and by the reports published in its Journal from year 
 to year. In the prolonged trial of steam-ploughs which took 
 place at Leeds in July 1861 under its auspices, the competi- 
 tion was mainly betwixt Fowler's and the modification, by 
 Howard, of what is popularly known as Smith's system. 
 The award of the judges was as follows: — "The £100 
 prize offered for the most economical application of steam 
 power to the cultivation of the soil, was awarded to Mr 
 Fowler for his 12-horso power engine, moving anchor- 
 age, and plough; and of the £100 offered for the most 
 economical application of the ordinary thrashing-engine of 
 the farm to steam cultivation, £75 was given to Mr Fowler, 
 and £25 to Mr Howard. Besides these a silver medal is 
 given to Mr Hayes, for his clever windlass for the same 
 purpose ; and the same to Mr Roby for his combined engine 
 and windlass." 
 
 During the summer and autumn of 1861, Mr J. C. 
 Morton, editor of the Agricultural Gazette, personally in- 
 spected the farms of many of these parties, and published 
 from time to time in that paper detailed accounts of his 
 own observations and of the information supplied to him in 
 regard to each case. In his New Farmer's Almanac for 
 18°62, he condensed these reports, and from it we give the 
 following extracts : — 
 
 " Little Woodcoto Farm lies — a tract of open country 
 and light calcareous soil of various depth — upon the chalk, 
 about a mile from the Carshalton station on the London and 
 Epsom railway. Mr Arnot has had Fowler's 10-horse 
 power steam-engine and ploughing apparatus since ^the 
 harvest of 1859. His apparatus, rope.and enginecost£700. 
 He works a three-furrow plough. The work done each 
 year by the steam-plough on his 400 acre farm has thus 
 been 393 acres in 1859 60, and 389 acres in 1860-61. It 
 has been done at the rate of six or seven acres a day for 
 ordirary ploughing, and three acres a day (one acre per 
 furrow) when at the 10 and 12-inch deep work. It may 
 average on the whole five acres a day, including all stoppages 
 and removals, and has thus taken close upon eighty days 
 for its accomplishment. LWJea this, however, 15U acres 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [machines anl 
 
 have been ploughed during the time for neighbours at a 
 charge, including everything, of 12s. an aero. The engine 
 is also used for thrashing purposes, and 220 acres at home 
 and 250 acres elsewhere are thus thrashed out for hire. 
 
 " The cost of repairs has been uncommonly small — in- 
 cluding a new cog-wheel, repacking cylinders, and a thorough 
 overhaul and cleaning of the whole apparatus at the end of 
 two years — besides the replacement of shares and sharpening 
 of coulters for the plough, and the gradual wearing of the 
 rope-porters. In all it has not nearly reached £10 a year, 
 at which, nevertheless, wo put it. The tear and wear of 
 rope is reported as follows : — A new 400-yard rope, lately 
 bought, costing £35, has made the stock stronger and better 
 than it was at tho beginning. This charge may therefore 
 be put against more than two years' work, and is equal to 
 about £1 5 a year. • The weekly cost of labour when at work 
 is as follows : — Engineer, 18s. ; ploughman, 14s. ; anchor 
 lad, 9s. ; two porter lads, 6s. each ; horse and water cart, 
 about 24s. weekly — in all, £3, 17s. weekly, or as nearly as 
 possible 12s. a day. The cost for oil is Is. a day, and for 
 fuel, at nine or ten cwt. a day, it may be put at 10s. daily. 
 The charge for depreciation at 10 per cent is £70 a year, 
 and for interest of capital £35 a year. Tho whole animal 
 cost may -thus be estimated : — 
 
 Labour, 80 days .... MS 
 
 Fuel and oil ... . 44 
 
 Repairs and rope ... 25 
 
 Depreciation and interest of capital . 106 
 
 Total £222 
 
 "But 500 acres of thrashing, and 70 or 80 acres peranuum 
 of steam ploughing for hire, equal in all to at least forty 
 days' work per annum, are also done by this engine. And 
 the profits of this work should be deducted from this sum 
 before Mr Arnot's experience of his investment am be 
 accurately described. The sum of £222, at which, if there 
 had been no other use for engine and apparatus, his cost 
 must have been estimated, is equal to lis. per acre over the 
 work accomplished, much of which, however, was 12 inches 
 deep.- But if the proper share of the interest and depreciation 
 of capital bo charged upon its work elsewhere for hire, the 
 cost of steam ploughing will not exceed £190, or 10s. 6d. 
 an acre. But Mr Arnot would contend that the engino 
 is not £30 worse than when he purchased it two years ago ; 
 and one-half of this, with interest of capital, will amount to 
 £50, two-thirds only of which should be charged against the 
 plough-work ; and £150 would thus appear to be the annual 
 cost of ploughing 400 acres, or 7s. 6d. an acre. In fact, ho 
 might very well claim that this sum should be still further 
 reduced by all the profit of his hire elsewhere, which can 
 hardly be put at less than 20s. a day, and this on forty 
 days per annum will amount to £40 or more ; so that the 
 net cost to him of his machinery has not been more than 
 £1 10 a year, or 5s. 6d. an acre over his ploughing. 
 
 " What did it use to cost him when he worked thirteen 
 horses on his farml He now works six horses. His 
 horses get 2 J bushels of oats, and 2£ trusses of hay weekly 
 each, during seven months : — 
 
 30 weeks at lis. amount to . £ 16 10 
 
 22 weeks on clover, ic., at 5s. . 5 10 
 
 Tho annual food per house costs £22 
 " The annual charge for depreciation, farrier, blacksmith, 
 saddler, and implements, is at least £5 per horse, and for 
 interest of capital in horse and implements at least £2 
 more. This makes the annual cost of each horse £29. 
 The wages paid, in cash and cottage, to ploughmen is at 
 least £32 per pair, or £16 per horse, and the whole cost is 
 thus equal to £45 per horse per annum ; which over seven 
 horses amounts to £315 per annum — one-half more than 
 the expenditure, evei on the highest estimate, upon th«
 
 IMPLEMENTS.] 
 
 AGlilGULTU'BE 
 
 31V 
 
 engine which Las .displaced them, and nearly double what 
 Mr Aruot Las actually incurred when he deducts his 
 profits on its hire. 
 
 " A clay land farm near Bedford (the Woolston or Bed- 
 ford apparatus), the Tithe Farm of Stevingtou, ocpupied by 
 Mr 'William Pike, is a tract naturally of poor clay soil. 
 The extent farmed by Mr Pike has till lately been about 
 475 acres, of which 357 were arable ; and fifteen horses 
 were employed in five -3-huise teams upon this extent. 
 Now, about 600 acres are farmed, of which 420 acres are 
 arable ; and the whole is managed with ten horses and an 
 8-horso power ' engine, working grubbers on the Wool- 
 ston system. If the additional land requires the same 
 horse-power per 1 00 acres as was needed on the original 
 farm, then, in place of ten horses, seventeen or eighteen 
 must have been needed, and probably Mr Pike's mere 
 saving by the use of his 8 horse engine and cultivating 
 apparatus does not fall short of £300 a year. 
 
 "The present cropping of the land is as follows :— 125 
 acres are in wheat, of which 105 were partly after beans, 
 cross-grubbed by steam-power before sowing, and partly 
 after clover, having been cross-grubbed also by steam-power 
 more than once before the previous harvest time, and then 
 horse scarified and harrowed. The remainder was after 
 horse cultivation. There are 00 acres of beans after wheat, 
 its stubble having been dressed with farm-yard dung, and 
 then ploughed by horse power. There .are 60 acres of 
 grass and clover ; 20 acres now in vetches have been cross- 
 grubbed after a manuring; 25 acres in mangolds and 
 turnips have been cross-grubbed in autunyn, and again 
 steam-scarified ■ and crossed in spring ; 50 acres in barley, 
 and 25 acres in oats, make up the extent of the farm, and 
 were got in after steam cultivation. By ' cross-grubbing ' 
 it is meant that the operation was repeated. 
 
 "More horse cultivation than usual was d6ne in 1860. 
 Clay land was fit only on rare ocasions, and both horse 
 and steam power were then used to the utmost Mr Pike 
 has had Mr Smith's grubber worked 'by an ordinary 
 thrashing-engine since July 1858. Since that time 731 
 acres have been cross- grubbed, i.e., doubly -worked. In 
 addition to this Mr Pike informs me that he has also 
 cross-grubbed for hire 300 acres of land. For this he 
 charges 25s. an acre, the coals being supplied to the 
 employer. 
 
 "Excluding this item from our consideration in the 
 meantime, and assuming that 730 acres — double cultivated 
 between July 1858 and June 1861 — correspond to 250 
 acres annually, the average performance of the engine, in- 
 cluding all stoppages except removals, has been six acres 
 daily once cultivated. To do 250 acres twice would there- 
 fore occupy at least eighty-three days ; adding three days 
 for removals, there are eighty-six days' work of the steam- 
 engine to be charged upon the steara cultivation of the 
 farm. The following is the labour and its cost per 
 week: — 1 engineer, 16s.; 1 ploughman, lis.; 2 men shift- 
 ing anchors, 22s. ; 1 man at windlass,. 12s. ; 1 porter-boy, 
 6s. ; 1 boy and horse with water cart, 24s. : the whole 
 amounts to £3, 19s., or 13s. 2d. daily. In addition to 
 this we add the cost of coals, 10 cwts. at 19s. a ton on 
 the ground, or 9s. 6d. daily. The oil at 5s. a gallon costs 
 about Is. a day. 
 
 "The daily cost thus comes to 23s. 6<L, and this over 
 eighty-six days amounts to about £100. Against the 
 engine and apparatus, costing about £510, we must put 
 10 per cent., or £51, for depreciation, and 5 per cent., or 
 £25, 10s., for interest of capital The cost of repairs may 
 perhaps be satisfied by an annual charge of £15 ; and for 
 tear and wear of rope we have the following items : 1400 
 yards of iron wire-rope originally purchased, £50 ; steel 
 lopes, 1400 yards, since purchased, £60. Probably the 
 
 annual charge needed to maintain this may be made on 
 
 the theory that the rope will last three years, and £25 a 
 year may suffice for this particular. Adding up tLc.ie 
 items, we have a sum total of £216, 10s. to be charged 
 against the farm for steam cultivation. Putting £216 
 against 500 acres once grubbed in the course of the year, 
 we have a charge of about 8s. 7d. an acre for the grubbing. 
 Mr Pike informed me that, during the three years of his 
 steam cultivation, on several of the ten fields already 
 specified, he has not. used the plough at alL Even the 
 mixing of manure with the soil is done by the grubber. 
 No plough is used to bury it. It is laid upon the laud, 
 and grubbed to and fro, and thereby mixed sufficiently. 
 The cleanness of the land, too, is a fair testimony to the 
 quality of cultivation by implements which stir, but do 
 not overturn the soil 
 
 " Mr Pike has till lately used the grubber invented by 
 Mr Smith of Woolston, with the turnbow apparatus for 
 turning the tool at the laud's end. Latterly he has used 
 the cultivator of Messrs Howard, each tine of which is 
 double, pointing both fore and aft, so that no turning at 
 all is needed, the claw which follows in the wake of the 
 working tooth as it goes coming into operation in its turn 
 as it comes back again." 
 
 Mr Pike thus writes to Messrs Howard,, of date 
 December 2, 1861 :— 
 
 "Gfntlemen,— I have cultivated my farm by steam-power for 
 the last four years, and therefore feel myself in a position to speali 
 positively of the merits of the system. 
 
 " My farm, belonging to the fjuke of Bedford, consists principally 
 of poor, strong, hilly, clay land, which, before I entered upon it, 
 was laid up in three yard ridges, with water gutters drawn across 
 the ridges to take off the water. Since I have steam cultivated it, 
 I have done away with ridges, and furrows entirely ; my fields of 
 40 and 50 acres each, which are steep in places, are all la>d on tha 
 flat, and during the wettest season I have never seen any water 
 stand upon them. I am convinced if land is broken up a good 
 depth by the cultivator, and under drained, there is uo need of any 
 furrows, if it is ever so strong. 
 
 "I am enabled to manage my farm with about half the number of 
 horses. I do it with less trouble to myself. I am always more 
 forward with my work, and the horses I do keep cost much less per 
 head than formerly, as all the hard vjork is done by steam. 
 
 " The effect of deep stirring this soil is very apparent in the crops ; 
 my land is naturally very poor, so that very large yields are out of 
 the question ; but 1 am convinced I can grow much more corn by 
 steam than by horse cultivation, and I can also grow a larger 
 breadth of root crops. I also find that by constant deep tillage 
 my land moves easier every year, consequently it is less expense to 
 cultivate. 1 seldom use the plough, except my horses have got 
 nothing else to dc. 
 
 "I break up my clover lays before harvest, and make a bastard 
 fallow of them. I am convinced this is the surest way of getting a 
 good wheat crop on strong soil ; and, besides cleaning the land, i$ 
 has this advantage, it does not leave so much work to do at 
 Michaelmas. I also break up my tare land before harvest, so that 
 after harvest 1 have nothing to do tut cultivate my bear and 
 wheat stubbles. 
 
 " I put away my tackle as soon as possible after we have heavy 
 rains, the latter part of October or beginning of November, and do 
 not bring it out again until the turnip land is ready to break up 
 for barley. My object is to make the Dest use of the summer and 
 the early autumn. 
 
 " When I commenced cultivating by steam, I used to set down to 
 little pieces, but I found that too much trouble, therefore increased 
 the length of my ropes, as 1 found it made very little difference to 
 my 8-horse engine whether I had out a long or short length of rope. 
 I have now sufficient to dr a GO acre field, > without moving either 
 engine or windlass ; this L my largest field ; I dug a pond at one 
 end, and I do the whole without moving from the poni When 1 
 can, I set my engine and windlass in an adjoining field, so as to 
 finish headlands and all complete, without going into it. Water 
 carting is a great expense, and in a wet season a great nuisance. I 
 therefore have dug some ponds, and sometimes 1 dam up a ditch or 
 master drain to obtain a supply. 
 
 "I am particularly pleased with the new apparatus you made for 
 me last spring. The windlass is much easier moved about, and is 
 very simple to manage. The cultivator takes less time at land's 
 end, there is no danger of overturning, it docs not jump so much in 
 work, and the hind ahartia cause the land to lay looser. ^No matter
 
 318 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [MACmNESiASl 
 
 Bow hard the ground, It will break It up, and ou sidebillj it goes 
 much steadier and letter than my old one. 
 
 "The first steel rope 1 had did above 2000 acres, and I have a small 
 portionofitat work yet If peoplo mean to have their ropes last, they 
 most keep them off the ground, and attend Well to the coiling on 
 the windlass drums. I like your new rollers, which carry the rope 
 further from the ground. — I am, Gentlemen, yours very truly, 
 
 " Messrs J. & F. Howard, Bedford. William Pike." 
 
 It is duo to Messrs Howard to state that their numerous 
 other customers concur in testifying to the general efficiency 
 of their tackle, its little liability to breakage or derange- 
 ment, and to the readiness with which their ordinary farm 
 labourers have learned to work it efficiently. 
 
 By this time cultivation by steam-power had been 
 adopted by enterprising individuals in nearly every county 
 in England, and was making steady progress in the face of 
 many hindrances. In every instance the purchaser and 
 his servants had to learn the use of novel and somewhat 
 complicated machinery; much of which, as first sent out, 
 proved to be defective both in structure and in material. The 
 fields also, through lack of preparation, often presented 
 obstacles which, us experience was gained, were seen and 
 remedied. In a few instances, where the purchaser of 
 steam tackle was either unablo to give his personal super- 
 intendence, or lacked the needed energy and perseverance 
 to cope with the difficulties of a new enterprise, it proved 
 a failure. But with rare exceptions, easily accounted for, 
 it was everywhere demonstrated that by steam-powe» and 
 appropriate implements, the tillage of the soil can be per- 
 formed with a rapidity, efficiency, and economy far 
 excelling what is practicable by animal power and the old 
 implements. 
 
 In the autumn of 1866, by which date steam tillage had 
 greatly extended, the Royal Agricultural Society of England 
 sent out three sets of commissioners to inspect and report 
 on the position of steam cultivation at that time. The reports 
 obtained wero published in the Society's Journal for 1867, 
 and present a mass of most interesting and instructive in- 
 formation on the whole subject The commissioners visited 
 about 150 farms situated in nearly 40 different counties 
 of England, and a few in East Lothian, containing an 
 aggregate area of 66,000 acres, which they estimate to 
 be about a third of the whole area then under steam cultiva- 
 tion. They amply confirm what has already been stated 
 as to the success of this new system of tillage, and make it 
 plain that the changes thus brought about are of such im- 
 portance as really to amount to a revolution in modern 
 agriculture. 
 
 At its annual show in 1871, at Wolverhampton, the 
 English Society again provided for a careful competitive trial 
 of steam-tillage machinery, when the following awards were 
 made : — 
 
 Class I. — For the best combination of machinery for the cultiva- 
 tion of the soil by steam-power— 
 1st Prize, £100— Awarded to .Messrs J. Fowler & Co., Leeds. 
 2d Prize, £50— do. do. do. 
 
 Class II. — For the best combination of machinery for the cultiva- 
 tion of the soil by steam-power, the weight of the steam-engine 
 not to exceed 10 tons — 
 1st Prize, £50 — Awarded to Messrs Fowler, Leeds. 
 2d Prize, £25 — Awarded to the Ravenstliorpe Kugineering Co. 
 (Fiiken 6ystemi. 
 Class III. — For the best combination of machinery for the cultiva- 
 tion of the soil by an ordinary ag Cultural engine, whether 
 self-propelling or portable, 
 '.st Prize, £50— Awarded to Messrs Fowler, Leeds. 
 2d Prize, £25 — Awarded to Messrs Howard, Bedford. 
 1 Silver Cup, value £100, offered by tho Right Hon. L»jd Vernon, 
 president, for tho best combination of machinery for the culti- 
 vation of the soil by steam-power, tho cost of which shall not 
 exceed £700. The engine to be locomotive, and adapted for 
 threshing and other farm purposes. — Awarded to Messrs 
 Fowler & Co.,- Leeds. 
 Steam cultivation has now ceased to be a novelty, and is 
 
 making rapid progress in all parts of Great Britain and U 
 foreign countries. In March 1873, at an agricultural meet 
 ing, it was stated by Messrs Fowler Jk Co. of Leeds, that 
 they are turning out annually from their works about ICO 
 sets of their tackle for the home market, and from 50 to 60 
 for foreign countries. Of their home sales about half are 
 to private individuals, and half to persons who work them 
 for hire. In a district around Magdeburgh fifty sets of 
 their tackle are employed in cultivating tho soil for tho 
 growth of sugar-beet. The other leading makers are also 
 doing a large business, with tho certainty of its becoming 
 larger every year. • The expiry of several patents applicable 
 to steam cultivating tackle is giving an additional stimulus 
 to the. manufacture of such machines. Partly in this way, 
 and also by contrivances of their own, the Messrs Howard 
 of Bedford have recently (1873) made very considerable 
 changes and progress with their tackle. Their self-acting 
 anchors, and their turning cultivator, which is constructed 
 on au entirely new principle, arc said to bo respectively tho 
 best of their kind. 
 
 Section 5. — Harrows. 
 When a field has been broken up by the plough, it is 
 usually next operated upon by the harrow, whether the object 
 be to prepare it for and to cover in seeds, or to bring clods 
 and roots to the surface. This is virtually a rake dragged by 
 horses. In its most ordinary form, the framework is of 
 wood with iron tines, of which each harrow contains twenty. 
 Formerly each horse dragged a single harrow, although two 
 or more were worked abreast. Under this arrangement tho 
 harrows had too much independent motion, and were liable 
 to get foul of each other. This has been remedied, first, 
 partially, by coupling them loosely by riders, and then more 
 effectually by a hinge-like joining, which allows a separate- 
 vertical motion, but only a combined horizontal one. A 
 rhomboidal form is also given to this pair of harrows — 
 usually called brakes — so that when properly yoked, no two> 
 tines run in tho same track. This description of harrow 
 is now frequently made entirely of iron. 
 
 )Howard's patent harrows are a further improvement on 
 this implement. The zig-zag form given to each section en 
 
 Howard's Patent Harrow. 
 
 ables the whole so to fit in, that the working parts are 
 equally distributed over the spaco operated upon. The 
 number of times is 75, instead of 40, as in the form last 
 noticed, and yet, from the form of frame and manner of 
 coupling, the tines are well apart, and have each a separate 
 line of action. Practical farmers speak very highly of the 
 effective working of this implement. By an exceedingly 
 simple contrivance, the centre part when turned on its back 
 forms a sledge on which its fellows can be piled and drawn 
 along from one field to another. A light description of 
 harrows, with smaller and more numerous tines, is some- 
 times used for covering in grass-eeeds. H a harrow is to 
 be used at all for this purpose, Howard's is a very suitable
 
 IMPLEMKNTS.j 
 
 kind, but a much better implement is Cartwright's chain- 
 harrow, which abrades the surface over which it is drawn 
 to a degree that could not be anticipated from a mere 
 inspection of the implement. It is formed by attaching 
 to a draught-bar pairs of square-linked chains, each l\ 
 feet long, connecting them by cross links, and keeping 
 the whole expanded by two movable stretchers. The 
 old-fashioned ponderous break harrow is now entirely 
 discarded, and the more efficient cultivator used in its 
 stead. A form of the latter, from its close resemblance 
 to harrows, is noticed now rather than before. Tt is a 
 very strong iron harrow, with the tines made longer, 
 and very considerably curved forwards. An iron rod 
 with a loop handle is fixed to the hind bar, by means of 
 which the driver can easily hitch it up and get rid 01 
 weeds, <fec. Two such harrows are coupled together 
 and drawn by four horses. Its pulverising power is 
 very considerable. But when clods have been brought 
 to tho surface, they are most effectually reduced by various 
 l:inds of rollers. 
 
 Section 6. — Hollers, 
 Those formerly used were solid cylinders of timber or 
 stone attached to a frame and shafts, for which hollow ones 
 of cast-iron are now generally substituted. The simplest 
 form of these has a smooth surface, and is cast in sections 
 to admit of more easy turning. They are made of diverse 
 weights, so as to be adapted for the draught of one or two 
 horses as required. Those of the former description.weigh- 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 319 
 
 Cambridge's roller possesses several features in common 
 with Crosskill's, and is used for similar purposes. In the 
 
 Cambridge's Press-Wheel Roller. 
 
 I form in which it was first brought out it consisted of discs, 
 I fitting close to each other, with fluted instead of serrated 
 edges. In its recently improved form the discs are not 
 made of uniform diameter as formerly, but each nlterocte 
 one in the set is raised about two inches, and has the centre 
 hole, nof circular and close fitting to the axle, but triangular 
 and wide. The result is that while the discs press uniformly 
 on the surface over which they are rolled, the larger ones 
 rise above their fellows with a jerking motion, which gives 
 a most efficient self-cleaning power to the implement, and 
 thus admits of its being used when other rollers would be 
 clogged. The eccentric discs arc now made either with 
 serrated or smooth edges as customers prefer. After careful 
 trial we have come to the conclusion that it is the most 
 useful roller for general purposes which we yet possess. 
 
 Smooth Cast-Iron Field Roller. 
 
 dig in all 6 cwt., and costing as many pounds sterling, are 
 exceedingly useful for all purposes where expedition rather 
 than heavy pressure is wanted. From their greater dura- 
 bility, smoother surface, and less liability to clog, the readi- 
 ness with which they can be cast of any weight that is re- 
 quired, and their moderato price, it is probable that cast-irob 
 cylinders will speedily supersede all others. 
 
 Several important variations on the common smooth roller 
 have been introduced of late years. Of these the first notice 
 is due to Crosskill's clod-crusher, on the ground both of its 
 intrinsic merit and the date of its introduction. It consists 
 of cast-iron discs 2£Jeet in diameter, with serrated edge and 
 a series of side way -projecting teeth Twenty-three of these 
 discs are strung loosely upon a round axle, so as to revolve 
 independently of each other. Tho free motion thus given 
 to each disc, and which has latterly been increased by cast- 
 ing each alternate one of greater diameter in the eye, adds 
 at once to the pulverising and self-cleaning power of the 
 roller. Three horses yoked abreast are required to work 
 it The axle is prolonged at each end sufficiently to receive 
 travelling wheels, on which it is transported from place to 
 place. Although primarily designed and actually much used 
 for breaking clods, it is even more in request for consolidating 
 loose soils, checking tho ravages of wire-worm, and covering 
 in clover and grass seeds. For the latter purpose, its action 
 is perfected by attaching a few bushes to it, which fill up 
 the indentations, and leave a surface so beautifully even as 
 to rival the accuracy and neatness of a well-raked border. 
 It' ft now to be had on a smaller scale adapted to the draught 
 of two horses. 
 
 : of Cambridge's Roller, 
 
 Self cleaning Action. 
 
 Under this head may be noticed press drills, which, by 
 means of a series of narrow cylinders with conical edges, 
 form corresponding grooves in loose soiL Seeds sown br«ud 
 cast ove. a surface thus treated come up in rqws. The 
 
 Land-Presser. 
 
 land-prcsser is a modification of the press-roller. It k 
 made with two or three conical edged cylinders to fit into 
 the seams of as many pluujjh furrows, the other cud
 
 320 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [MACHINES AND 
 
 of the axle on which they are fixed being supported Dy a 
 plain carriage-wheeL It is drawn by one horse, and follows 
 in the wake of two or three ploughs, according to the number 
 of its cylinders. When wheat is sown after clover lea, this 
 implement is found exceedingly useful in closing the seams 
 and forming a uniform seed-bed. 
 
 The Norwegian, or, as it should rather be called, the 
 Swedish harrow is strictlya clod-crushing implement. From 
 its radiating spikes penetrating the surface over which it is 
 drawn, it has been called a harrow; but its revolving motion 
 entitles it rather to be classed with rollers. In its usual 
 form it consists of three rows of cast-iron rowels arranged 
 upon parallel axles fixed in an iron frame, which is supported 
 on three wheels, — one in front and two behind. The out- 
 line and arrangements are in fact the same as in Finlayson'o 
 grubber, only substituting parallel rows of rowels for tines. 
 There is also the same leverage for raising and depressing 
 the frame. But this implement ha3 recently been con- 
 structed on a much simpler and cheaper plan, in which the 
 wheels and lever apparatus are discarded altogether. It 
 thus consists of a simple wrought-iron frame with four rows 
 of rowels. A few boards are laid across the frame, forming 
 a platform over the rowels, on which the driver stands when 
 it is wished to increase the weight and efficiency of the im- 
 plement. On the upper side at either end is fixed a piece 
 of wheel-tire, on which the implement, when turned on its 
 back, can slide along, sledge-fashion, when it is wished to 
 move it from place to place. As thus constructed it can 
 be made for about £5. This is the best implement yet in- 
 troduced for breaking moist clods. 
 
 Section 7. — Breast-Plough and Trenching-Fork. 
 
 Before leaving the implements of tillage, it may be proper 
 to notice two, which have been a good deal brought under 
 notice of late years, viz., the breast-plough and trenching- 
 fork. The former i3 extensively used in carrying out the 
 process of paring and burning. It is the implement known 
 in Scotland as the flaughter (or thin turf) spade. In using 
 it the workman guards his thighs with a piece of board, 
 fastened on apron-wise, and with this presses against the 
 cross-head of the implement, and urges forward its cutting 
 edge. When a thin turf has thus been severed from the 
 surface, he turns it over by a jerk of his arms. The 
 fork is used in giving a deep autumn digging to land in 
 preparation for root crops. Both operations can ordinarily 
 be moro economically performed by using horse-power with 
 suitable implements. But for clearing out corners of fields, 
 hedge sides, and similar places, manual labour with these 
 tools can frequently be made to supplement the plough to 
 good purpose. 
 
 Section 8. — Implements for Sowing. 
 A large portion of the grain annually sown in Great 
 Britain i3 still distributed by band from the primitive 
 sowing-sheet. 
 
 " The sower stalks 
 "With measured step, and liberal throws the grain 
 Intc the faithful bosom of the ground." 
 
 In Scotland a decided preference is still given to broadcast 
 sowing, for which punose a machine is used that covers 
 from 15 to .18 feet, \ccording to the width of ridge 
 adopted. It consists of ■<. long seed-box, carried on a frame 
 mounted on two wheels. From these motion is com- 
 municated to a spindle which revolves in the seed-box, and 
 expels the seed by- means of cogs or brushes, through 
 openings which can be graduated to suit the required rate 
 of seeding. It is drawn by a single horse, is attended by 
 one man, and can get over 30 acres a day. It is peculiarly 
 adapted for the regular distribution of clover and grass 
 seeds. Now that reaping by machinery haa.become so 
 
 general, there is an obvious advantage in having the fields 
 as level and with as few open forms as possible, and hence 
 of having a marker attached to the sowing-machine. In 
 one made by Sheriff at West Barns, by an ingenious 
 apparatus on the principle of the odometer, the machine 
 itself is made to register the space which it travels over, 
 and thus to indicate the rate per acre at which it is 
 distributing the seed. Excellent results have been, and 
 still are, obtained from broadcast sowing. But as tillage 
 becomes more perfect, there arises a demand for greater 
 accuracy in the depth at which seeds are deposited in the 
 soil, for greater precision in the rate, and regularity of their 
 distribution, and for greater facilities for removing weeds 
 from amongst the growing crop. These considerations led, 
 at a comparatively early period, to the system of sowing 
 crops in rows or drills, and hence the demand for machines 
 to do this expeditiously and accurately. We accordingly find, 
 in our best cultivated districts, the sowing and after-culture 
 of the crops now conducted with a precision which reminds 
 the spectator of the processes of some well-arranged factory. 
 This is accomplished by means of a variety of drilling- 
 machines, the most prominent of which we shall now 
 notice. 
 
 The Suffolk drill is the kind in most general use. It is 
 a complicated and costly machine by which manure and 
 seeds can be simultaneously deposited. That called the 
 "general purpose drill" can sow ten rows of corn, with or 
 without manure, at any width between the rows from 4 J 
 to 10 inches, and at any rate per acre between two pecks 
 and six bushels. It can be arranged also to sow clover 
 and grass seeds, — the heavier seeds of clover being thrown 
 out by minute cups, — and the lighter grass seeds brushed 
 out from a separate compartment It is further fitted for 
 sowing beans and turnips — the latter either two drills at 
 a time on the ridge, or three on the flat. This drill, as 
 most recently improved by Messrs Hornsby of Grantham 
 and Garrett of Leiston, has an apparatus for preserving 
 the machine in a level position when working on sloping 
 ground. As a main object in drilling crops at all is to 
 admit of the use of the hoe, it becomes an important point 
 to accomplish the drilling with undeviating straightness, 
 and exact parallelism in each successive course of the drilL 
 This is now obtained by means of a fore-carriage, which an 
 assistant walking alongside so controls by a lever as easily 
 to keep the wheel in the same rut down which it had 
 previously passed. Messrs Hornsby have also introduced 
 India-rubber tubes for conducting the seed, in place of 
 the tin funnels hitherto used. These drills cost about 
 £42. 
 
 The Woburn drill of the Messrs Hensman is simpler in 
 its construction than those already noticed. " In all other 
 drills, the coulters, which distribute the manure or seed, 
 hang from the carriage. In this drill the carriage rests 
 upon the coulters, which are like the iron of skates; it may 
 be said, indeed, to run on four pairs of skates. Hence thi3 
 drill's power of penetrating hard ground,- and of giving a 
 firm bed to the wheat-seed in soft ground. Each drill 
 coulter, however, preserves its independence as when 
 suspended. This self-adjustment is required by the in- 
 equality of tilled ground, and is thus obtained : each pair 
 of coulters is fixed to the end of a balance beam, these 
 again to others, and they to a central one. Thus each 
 coulter, in well-poised rank, gives its independent share of 
 support It varies from the generality of drills, as it is 
 drawn from the centre by whipple-trees instead of shafts ; 
 and the drill-man behind can steer or direct the drill with 
 the greatest nicety. The corn-box of the drill is entirely 
 self-acting, and delivers the seed equally well going either 
 up or down hill. It is also capable of horse-hoeing, by 
 attaching hoes to the levers instead of. the coulter-shares
 
 IMPLEMENTS. ] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 321 
 
 It is drawn .by a pair of horses, and the pi ice from £18 
 to £20." l 
 
 Turnip drill. — In Scotland, and in the north and west 
 of England, turnips are usually sown on the ridge by a 
 machine which sows two rows at a time. In the south- 
 eastern parts of England, which are hotter and drier, it ia 
 found better to sow them on the flat, for which purpose 
 machines are constructed which sow four rows together, 
 depositing manure at the same time. Both kind3 are 
 adapted for sowing either turnips or mangold-wurzel seeds 
 as required With the view of economising seed and 
 manure, what are called drop-drills have recently been 
 introduced, which deposit both — not in continuous streams 
 — but in jets, at such intervals apart in the rows as the 
 farmer wishes the plants to stand. What promises to be a 
 more useful machine is a water-drill invented by a Wilt- 
 shire farmer — Mr Chandler of Market Lavington. " His 
 water-drill pours down each manure-coulter the requisite 
 amount of fluid, mixed with powdered manure, and thus 
 brings up the plant from a mere bed of dust. Having 
 used it largely during three years, I may testify to its 
 excellence. Only last July, when my bailiff had ceased 
 turnip sowing on account of the drought, by directing the 
 use of the water-drill, I obtained from this latter sowing 
 an earlier and a better show of young plants than from 
 the former one with the dust-drilL Nor is there any 
 increase of expense if water be within a moderate distance, 
 for we do not use powder-manures alone. They must be 
 mixed with ashes, that they may be diffused in' the soiL 
 Now, the expense and labour of supplying these ashes are 
 equal to the cost of fetching mere water; and apart from 
 any want of rain, it is found that this method of moist 
 diffusion, dissolving, instead of mingling only, the super- 
 phosphate, quickens its action even upon damp ground, 
 and makes a little of it go further."* 
 
 Section 9. — Manure-Distributors. 
 
 The practice of top-dressing wheat, vetches, clover, or 
 meadows, with guano and various light manures, has now 
 so much increased, and the inconvenience of scattering 
 them over the surface by hand is so great, that various 
 machines have recently been invented for distributing 
 them, which can also be used for sowing such manures 
 over turnip drills, covering three at once. Such machines 
 will probably be used in future for distributing lime, which 
 can thus be done much more regularly than by cart and 
 shovel, especially when it is wished to apply small quan- 
 tities for the destruction of slugs or for other purposes. 
 It seems quite practicable to have this or a similar machine 
 so constructed as that it could be readily hooked on to the 
 tail of a cart containing the lime or other substance which 
 it is desired to distribute by it. The top-dressing material 
 could by such an arrangement be drawn into the hopper of 
 the distributor as it and its tender move along, and the 
 cart when emptied be replaced by a full one with little 
 loss of time. 
 
 A cheap and effective machine, capable of being in a 
 similar manner attached to a dung-cart, which could 
 tear asunder fold-yard manure, and distribute it evenly in 
 the bottoms of turnip drills, would be a great boon to 
 farmers, and seems a fitting object to be aimed at by 
 those possessed of the inventive faculty. 
 
 Section 10. — Horse-Hoes. 
 It has already been remarked that the great inducement 
 to sow grain and green crops in rows is that hoeing may 
 be resorted to, for the double purpose of ridding them of 
 
 1 See Mr Pusey's Rcpoiton Implements, in the Journal of the Royal 
 Agricultural Society of England, vol. xii. p. 604. 
 » Itid., p. 007. 
 
 weeds and stimulating their growth by frequent stirring 
 of the soiL It is now upwards of a century since Jethro 
 Tull demonstrated, in his books and on his fields, tho 
 facility with which horse-power could be thus employed. 
 Hi3 system was early adopted in regard to turnips, and led, 
 as we have seen, to a complete revolution in the practico of 
 agriculture. The peculiar manner in which he applied his 
 system to grain crops, and tho principles on which ho 
 grounded his practice, have hitherto been for the most part 
 repudiated by agriculturists, who have thought it indispens- 
 able to drill their grain at intervals so narrow as to 
 admit, as was supposed, of the use of the Land-hoe only. 
 But the accuracy with which corn-drills perform their work 
 has been skilfully taken advantage of, and we now have 
 horse-hoes, covering the same breadth as the drill, which 
 can be worked with perfect safety in intervals of but 
 seven inches' width. By such a machine, and the labour 
 of a pair of horses, two men, and a boy, ten acres of corn 
 can be hoed in as many hours. Not only is tho work 
 done at a fifth of the expense of hand-hoeing, and far more 
 effectually, but it is practicable in localities and at seasons 
 in which hand-labour cannot be obtained 
 
 Garrett's horse-hoe is admitted to be the best implement 
 of its kind It can be used for hoeing either beans, tur- 
 nips, or com, as the hoes can be adapted to suit any width 
 betwixt rows, and the axle-tree being movable at both 
 ends, the wheels, too, can be shifted so as to be kept 
 between the rows of plants. The shafts can be attached 
 to any part of the frame to avoid injury to the crop by 
 the treading of the horses. Each hoe works on a lever 
 independent of the others, and can be loaded with different 
 weights, on the same principle as the coulters of the corn- 
 drill, to accommodate it to uneven surfaces and varying 
 degrees of hardness in the soiL 
 
 A great variety of implements, under the general names 
 of horse-hoes, scufflers, scrapers, or drill-grubbers, fitted 
 for the draught of one horse, and to operate on one drill 
 at a time, is in use in those parts of the country where 
 root crops are chiefly sown on ridgelet3 from 24 to 30 
 inches apart. With considerable diversity of form and 
 efficiency, they in general have these features in common, 
 viz., provision for being set so as to work at varying 
 widths and depths, and for being armed either with hoes 
 or tines, according as it is wished to pare the surface or 
 stir the soil more deeply. A miniature Norwegian harrow 
 is sometimes attached to drill-grubbers, by which weeds 
 are detached from the soil, and the surface levelled and 
 pulverised more thoroughly. Teunant's grubber, with its 
 tines set close together, and two horses yoked to it abreast 
 by a tree long enough to allow them to walk in the drills 
 on cither' side of that operated upon, is the most effective 
 implement for cultivating between the rows of beans, 
 potatoes, turnips, or mangolds, that wo have yet seen used 
 for this purpose. 
 
 Section 11. — Turnip-Thinners. 
 
 It sometimes happens, a3 when drought prevails while 
 the earlier sowings of turnips or mangold are made, and 
 this is followed by copious rains and forcing weather, that 
 the farmer 'finds it impracticable to get the thinning-out of 
 the seedlings overtaken as fast as is ncedfuL To aid him 
 in such emergencies, a class of machines has been brought 
 out, of which Huckvale's turnip-thinner may be named as 
 a type. . They are very favourably reported of by those 
 who have used them. Such machines, drawn by one horse, 
 and made to operate upon either one or two rows of younc 
 turnip plants, have first a paiing apparatus, which clean 
 off weeds from the sides of the rows, and along with this'a 
 set of revolving hoes by which gaps are cut in the rows o! 
 turnip plants, and tufts of them are left standing at anj 
 
 1-12
 
 *2'2 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 L-MACIllNh.S AND 
 
 required distance apart. This does not dispense with the 
 after use of tho hand-hoo or fingers to effect a perfect 
 singling of the plants ; but as a large space can bo gone 
 uver in a day at small cost, it enables the fanner to save 
 his crop from getting overgrown and choked until he can 
 overtake the more perfec* ' u; nning of it The next class 
 that claims attention is 
 
 Section 12. — Harvesting Implements. 
 
 These, till little more than twenty years ngo, comprised 
 onlyt' liook and scythe. An implement by means 
 
 of which horse-power could be made available for this 
 important operation has long been eagerly desired by farmers, 
 tedly during tho first half of the present cen'ury their 
 hopes had been excited, only to be disappointed, by the 
 announcement of successful inventions of this kind. These 
 hopes were revived, and raised to a higher pitch than 
 ever, by tho appearance, in the Great Exhibition of the 
 Industry of all Nations, of two reaping-machines, known 
 as M'Corniick's and Hussey's, from tho United States 
 of America, where for several years they had been used 
 extensively and successfully. These implements were 
 subjected to repeated trials in different parts of England, 
 on crop 1851, but never in circumstances which admitted 
 of their capabilities being tested in a thoroughly satisfac- 
 tory manner. 
 
 At. the first of these trials, maae under the auspices of 
 tho Royal Agricultural Society, tho preference was given 
 to M'Cormick's, to which the Exhibition Medal was in 
 consequoncc awarded. It turned out, however, that at this 
 trial Hussey's machine had not a fair chance, being 
 attended by a person who had never before seen it at work, 
 for, when a further trial took place before tho Cleveland 
 Agricultural Society, with Mr Hussey himself super- 
 intending his own machine, an all but unanimous decision 
 was given in his favour. Hussey's machine was in conse- 
 quence adopted by the leading implement makers, such as 
 Messrs Garrett, Crosskill, <tc. 
 
 Early in 1852, a very important communication from 
 the pen of the late Mr James Slight, curator of the 
 museum of the Highland and Agricultural Society, appeared 
 in the Transactions of the Society, by which the attention 
 of the public was recalled to a reaping-machine of home 
 production, viz., that invented by the Rev. Patrick Bell, 
 minister of the parish of Carmylie in Forfarshire, and for 
 which a premium of £50 had been awarded to him by 
 the Highland Society. This machine attracted much 
 attention at that time. Considerable numbers were made 
 and partially used, but from various causes the invention 
 was lost sight of, until, by the arrival of these American 
 machines, and the notoriety given to them by the Great 
 Exhibition, with concurring causes about to be noticed, 
 an intense interest was again excited regarding reaping by 
 machinery. From Mr Slight's report, the public learned 
 that the identical Bell's machine, to which the prize was 
 awarded, had for the previous fourteen years been statedly 
 omployed on the farm of Inch-Michael in the Caree of 
 Gowrie, occupied by Mr George Bell, a brother of the 
 inventor, who, during all that period, had succeeded in 
 reaping, on the average, four : fifths of his crop by means 
 of it every year. Mr Slight further stated, that at least 
 four specimens of it had been carried to America, and that 
 from the identity in principle between them and those now 
 brought thence, with other corroborating circumstances, 
 there is little doubt that the stvcalled American inventions 
 are after all but imitations of this Scottish machine. When 
 it became known that Bell's machine was to be exhibited, 
 and, if possible, subjected to public trial, at the meeting of 
 j-ne Highland and Agricultural Society at Perth, in August 
 4 852, the ovent was looked forward to by Scottish farmers 
 
 with eager interest. On that occasion it was according!} 
 again brought forward, with several important improve- 
 ments made upon it, by Mr George Bell, already referred 
 to, and was fully tested in competition with Hussey's, as 
 made by CrosskilL To the disappointment of many, Mr 
 M'Cormick did not think fit to enter the lists at this or wt 
 some subsequent opportunities. 
 
 The success of Bell's machine on this occasion, and at 
 some subsequent public trials, gave it a high place in public 
 estimation, and accordingly many of the implements manu- 
 factured by Mr Crosskill of Beverley, were sold to farmers 
 in all parts of Great Britain, and especially in Scotland. 
 After a hopeful start the success of this machine has not 
 been so decided as was at first anticipated. In common 
 with other reaping-machines, it had of course to contend 
 with the disadvantages of unprepared fields and unskilful 
 guides ; but in addition to this, it was found to be too heavy 
 in draught, too liable to derangement, and (in the first 
 issues of it) too easily broken in some of its parts to be 
 fitted for reneral use. These drawbacks were, to a greater 
 or less extent, obviated by subsequent improvements, and 
 the machine continued for a few years to receive a fair 
 measure of public patronage. By-and-by it was in a great 
 measure superseded by other self-delivery machines, such 
 as Burgess & Key's M'Cormick, with its Archimedean screw, 
 which, like Bell's, lays off the reaped grain in a continuous 
 swathe, and by others which, by means of revolving rakes, 
 lay it off in quantities suitable to form a sheaf. In crops 
 of moderate bulk aud standing erect, theso self-delivery 
 machines make rapid and satisfactory work, but when 
 tho crop is lodged and twisted they are nearly useless. The 
 consequence is that for several years, and especially in those 
 districts where reaping by machinery is most practised, the 
 preference is given to manual-delivery machines, on the 
 ground that they are lighter of draught, less liable to derange- 
 ment, less costly, more easily managed, and thus more to be 
 depended upon for the regular performance of a fair amount 
 of daily work, than their heavier rivals. And, accordingly, 
 light machines on Hussey's principle, but with endlesp 
 variations, are at present most in demand. 
 
 Before leaving this subject, a remark is due in connection 
 with the strange neglect of Bell's machine for twenty-five 
 years, and the enthusiasm with which it was hailed on its 
 reappearance. Tho first is so far accounted for by the fact 
 noticed by Mr George Bell, that such specimens of his 
 brother's machine as formerly got into the hands of farmers 
 were so imperfectly constructed that they did not work 
 satisfactorily, and thus brought discredit on his invention. 
 The true explanation seems to be. that at thpt date the country 
 was not ieady for such a machine. Not only was manual 
 labour then abundant and cheap, from the number of Irish 
 labourers, who annually, as harvest drew near, flocked into 
 the arable districts of Great Britain, but thorough draining 
 had made little progress, and the land was everywhere laid 
 into high ridges, presenting a surface peculiarly unfavourable 
 for the successful working of a reaping-machine. Now, 
 however, the conditions are reversed. Emigration to the 
 colonies, and the ever-growing demand for labourers in 
 connection with factories, mines, docks, and railways, have 
 to a very great extent withdrawn the class of people that 
 used to be available for harvest work, and have so largely 
 raised the rate of wages to those who still remain as to render 
 reaping-machines indispensable to the farmer. The pro- 
 gress of thorough draining has at the same time enabled him 
 to dispense with the old-fashioned ridges and furrows, and 
 to lay his corn lands in the level state so favourable for reap- 
 ing and other operations of husbandry. In these altered 
 conditions lies the true explanation' of the former apathy 
 and subsequent enthusiasm manifested by our fannera to- 
 wards this invention.
 
 IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 1 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 323 
 
 Section 1 3. — Mowing-Machines. 
 Another class of labour-saving machines, closely allied 
 to those we have just described, for which we are indebted 
 to our American cousins, is mowing-machines. Several 
 different forms of these were introduced and brought into 
 somewhat general use during the years 1858 and 1859. 
 Having used such machines for the past fourteen years we 
 can testify to their thorough efficiency, and to the very 
 great saving of labour, and still more of time, which can be 
 secured by means of them. In one instance 30 acres of 
 clover — a very full crop, and partially lodged — were mown 
 in 32 hours, and this under all the disadvantages of a first 
 start. This machine being of very light draught, a pair of 
 horses can work it at a smart pace without difficulty. By 
 employing two pairs of horse3, and working them by relay, 
 it can, in the long days of June and July, be kept going 
 sizteen hours a day, and will easily mow from 16 to 18 acres 
 of seeds or meadow in that time, making, moreover, better 
 work than can ordinarily be obtained by using the scythe. 
 These mowing-machines, which cost from £16 to £25 each, 
 have proved a most seasonable and truly important addition 
 to our list of agricultural implements. That they may be 
 used to advantage, it is absolutely necessary to have the land 
 well rolled and carefully freed from stone3. 
 
 Section 14. — Haymalcers. 
 
 Haymakers are valuable implements, and well deserving 
 of more general use. They do their work thoroughly, and 
 enable the farmer to git through a great amount of it in 
 snatches of favourable weather. Where manual labour is 
 scarce, or when, as in Scotland, haymaking and turnip- 
 thinning usually come on hand together, the mower and 
 haymaker render the horse-power of the farm available for 
 an important process which cannot be done well unless it is 
 done rapidly and in season. 
 
 Section 15. — Horse-Ralces. 
 
 Horse-rakes are in frequent use for gathering together the 
 stalks of corn which are scattered during the process of 
 reaping, for facilitating the process of haymaking, and 
 also for collecting weeds from fallows. By an ingenious 
 contrivance in the most improved form of this implement, 
 the teeth are disengaged from the material which they 
 have gathered without interrupting the progress of the 
 horse. 
 
 We seem to be verging on the time when, by means of 
 machines worked by horse-power, farmers will be enabled 
 to cut and carry their grass and grain with little more than 
 the ordinary forces of their farms. 
 
 Section 16. — Wheel-Carriages. 
 
 The cartage of crops, manure, &c, upon an arable farm, 
 is such an important part of the whole labour performed 
 upon it (equal, as shown by a recent estimate, to one-half), 1 
 that it k a matter cf the utmost consequence to have the 
 work performed by carriages of the most suitable kind. It 
 was for a long time keenly debated by agriculturists, whether 
 waggons or carts are most economical This question is now 
 undoubtedly settled Mr Pusey says, " It is proved beyond 
 question that the Scotch and Northumbrian farmers, by 
 using one-horse carts, save one-half of the horses which soult 
 country fanners still string on to their three-horse waggons 
 and three-horse dung-carts, or dung-pots, as they are called 
 The said three-horse waggons and dung-pots would also cost 
 nearly three times as much original outlay. Few, I suppose, 
 if any, farmers buy these expensive luxuries now, though 
 it is wonderful they should keep them; for last year at 
 Grantham, in a public trial, five horses with five carts were 
 matched against five waggons with ten horses, and the five 
 
 1 Sea Morton's Ci/dcpadia of Agriculture. Article " Carriages." 
 
 horses beat the ten by two loads." 2 The one-horse carts 
 here referred to are usually so constructed as to be easily 
 adapted to the different purposes for which wheel-carriages 
 are needed upon a farm. For each pair of wheels and axle 
 there is provided a close-bodied cart, and another with 
 sparred sides and broad shelving3, called a long-cart, or 
 harvest-cart, either of which can easily be attached to tho 
 wheels, according to the nature of the commodities to be 
 carried. Sometimes a simple movable frame is attached to 
 the close-body to fit it for carrying hay or straw ; but 
 although one or two such frames are useful for casual pur- 
 poses throughout the year, they are inferior for harvest 
 work to the regular sparred cart with its own shafts. Ic 
 some districts the whole of the close-bodied carts used on 
 the farm are made to tip. For many purposes this is & 
 great convenience ; but for the conveyance of grain to 
 market, and generally for all road work, a firm frame is 
 much easier for the horse, and less liable to decay and de- 
 rangement. The Berwickshire practice is to have one paii 
 ot tip-carts on each farm, and all the rest firm or dormant- 
 bodied, as they are sometimes called. 
 
 Many farms are now provided with a water or tank cart, 
 for conveying and distributing liquid manure. 
 
 Section 17. — Road-Engines. 
 
 Although manyattempts have been made to adapt the loco- 
 motive steam-engine for the conveyance both of passenger? 
 and goods on common roads, the results hitherto have not 
 been altogether satisfactory. Progress is, however, undoubt- 
 edly being made in this effort ; and in not a few instances 
 such engines are ac tually in use for the carriage of heavy goods 
 If beet-sugai factories should increase in Great Britain, the 
 carriage of the roots from the farms to the factories will 
 probably be performed by traction engines ; for the inex- 
 pediency of withdrawing the horse-power of the farm from 
 its other urgent work at the season most suitable for deliver- 
 ing these roots to the sugar-maker presents at present a 
 serious hindrance to the cultivation of this crop. 
 
 MACHINES FOE PREPARING CP.OP3 TOE MARKET. 
 (Sections 18, 10, 20.) 
 Section 18. — Steam-Engines. 
 The extent to which steam-power is now employed for ..L- 
 purposes of the farm is another marked feature in the recent 
 
 Portable Steam-Engine. (Clayiuu, Shuttlcworth, & Co.) 
 progress of agricultura We have already referred to the 
 value of water-power for propelling agricultural machinery 
 
 a Mr Posey's Report. In the Journal of the Royal AgricultuTV 
 Society of England voL xli. p. 617.
 
 324 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [machines and 
 
 wLen it can be had in sufficient and regular supply. As 
 it is only in exceptional cases that farms are thus favoured, 
 the steam-engine is the power that must generally be 
 leckoned upon, and accordingly its use is now so common 
 that a tall chimney has become, over extended districts, the 
 prominent feature of nearly every homestead. It has been 
 satisfactorily shown that grain can be thrashed and dressed 
 by well-constructed, steam-propelled machinery, at one- 
 fourth the cost of thrashing by horse-power and dressing 
 by hand-fanners. So great, indeed, is the improvement in 
 steam-engines, and ao readily can the amount of power be 
 accommodated to the work to be done, that we find them 
 everywhere superseding the one-horse gin, and even 
 manual labour, for pumping, churning, coffee-grinding, &c. 
 Wherever, then, a thrashing-mill is used at all, it may be 
 safely asserted that, next to water, steam is the cheapest 
 power by which it can be propelled. The portable engine 
 is the form which has hitherto found most favour in the 
 southern parts of the kingdom. Mr Fusey thus states the 
 reason for which he regards them as preferable to fixed 
 engines: — "If a farm be a large one, and especially if, as 
 is often the case, it be of an irregular shape, there is great 
 waste of labour for horses and men in bringing home all 
 the corn in the straw to one point, and in again carrying' out 
 the dung to a distance of perhaps two or three miles. It is 
 therefore common, and should be general, to have a second 
 outlying yard. This accommodation cannot be reconciled 
 with a fixed engine. 
 
 Portable Thrashing-Machine. (Clayton, Shuttleworth, & Co.) 
 
 " If the farm be of a moderate size, it will hardly — and 
 if small will certainly not — : bear the expense of a fixed 
 engine : there would be waste of capital in multiplying fixed 
 engines to be worked but a few days in the year. It is now 
 common, therefore, in some counties for a man to invest a 
 small capital in a movable engine, and earn his livelihood 
 by letting it out to the farmer. 
 
 " But there is a further advantage in these movable 
 engines, little, I believe, if at all known. Hitherto corn 
 has been thrashed under cover in barns : but with these 
 engines and the improved thrashing-machines we can thrash 
 the rick in the open air at once as it -stands. It will be eaid, 
 How can you thrash ou"t of doors on a wet day 1 The 
 answer is simple. Neither can you move your rick into 
 your barn on a wet day; and so rapid is the work of the 
 new thrashing-machines, that it takes no more time to thrash 
 the corn than to move it. Open-air thrashing is also far 
 pleosanter and healthier for the labourers, their lungs not 
 being choked with dust, as under cover they are ; and there 
 is, of course, a saving of labour to the tenant not inconsider- 
 able. But when these movable steam-engines have spread 
 generally, there will arise an equally important .saving to 
 thQ landlord in buildings. Instead of three or more barns 
 
 clustering round the homestead, one or other in constant 
 want of repair, a single building will suffice for dressing 
 corn and for chaff-cutting. The very barn-floors saved will be 
 no insignificant item. Now that buildings are required for 
 new purposes, we must, if we can, retrench those buildings 
 whose objects are obsolete. Open-air thrashing may appear 
 visionary, but it is quite commonVith the new machinery ; 
 nor would any one perform the tedious manoeuvre of setting 
 horses and men to pull down a rick, place it on carts, and 
 build it up again in the barn, who had once tried the simple 
 plan of pitching the sheaves at once into the thrashing- 
 machine." 1 
 
 To us these reasons are inconclusive.. A fixed engino 
 can be erected and kept in repair at greatly less cost thaD 
 a portable one of the same power. It is much easier to 
 keep the steam at working pressure in the common boiler 
 than in the tubular one, which, from its compactness, is 
 generally adopted in portable engines. It is, no doubt, 
 very convenient to draw up engine and machinery alongside 
 a rick and pitch the sheaves at once upon the feeding-board, 
 and very pleasant to do this in the sunshine and " caller air;" 
 but we should think it neither convenient nor pleasant - to 
 have engine and thrashing-gear to transport and refix every 
 time of thrashing, to have grain and chaff to cart to the barn, 
 the thrashed straw to convey to the respective places of 
 consumption, and all this in circumstances unfavptirable to 
 accurate and cleanly disposal of the products, and excessive 
 exposure to risk of weather. Sudden rain will no doubt 
 interrupt the carrying in of a rick in the one case as the 
 thrashing of it in the other ; but there is this vast difference 
 in favour of the former, that the partially carried rick is 
 easily re-covered; machinery, products of thrashing, and 
 work-people, are safely under cover; and the engine is ready 
 by a slight change of gearing forother work, such as bruising, 
 grinding, or chaff-cutting. 
 
 It is urged onbehalf of the portable engine, that in districts 
 where the farms are generally small, one may serve a good 
 many neighbours. Now, not to dwell on the expense and 
 inconvenience to small occupiers of frequently transporting 
 such heavy carriages, and of having as much of their crop 
 thrashed in a day (there being manifest economy in having 
 at least a day's work when it is employed) as will meet theii 
 demands for fodder and litter for weeks to come, we are 
 persuaded that on farms of even 80 or 1 00 acres, a compact 
 fixed engino of two or three horse-power will thrash, bruise 
 grain, cut chaff, work a churn, and cook cattle food, &c, 
 more economically than such work can be done in any other 
 way. It is very usual to find on such farms, especially in 
 dairy districts, an apparatus for cooking cattle food by steam, 
 or by boiling in a large copper, where as much fuel is used 
 every day, and as much steam generated, as would work 
 such an engine as we have referred to, and do the cooking 
 over and above. Even a small dairy implies a daily demand 
 for boiling water to scrub vessels and cook food for cows. 
 How manifestly economical, then, when the steam is up at 
 any rate, to employ this untiring, obedient agent, so willing 
 to turn the hand of anything, in performing the heavy work 
 of the homestead with a power equal, perhaps, to that of all 
 the men and horses employed upon the farm. 
 
 Whenever tillage by steam-power is fairly available, there 
 will undoubtedly be an inducement to use the portable 
 engine as a thrashing-power that has not hitherto existed, 
 as there will be a manifest economy in having both opera- 
 tions performed by the same engine. Even then, however, 
 there is a high probability of its being found impracticable 
 to withdraw the engine even once a week for the needful 
 thrashing during the six or eight weeks immediately after 
 
 1 Mr Pusey'e Report on Implements. — Journal of the Rcyil Agri- 
 cultural Society of England, vol. xii. p. 821.
 
 IMPLEMENTS.} 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 32;') 
 
 harvest, when it will be of such consequence to make 
 diligent use of every available hour for pushing on the 
 tillage. 
 
 The kind of fixed engine most approved for farm-work 
 in the north of England and south of Scotland is the over- 
 head crank engine, attached by direct action to the spur- 
 wheel, and sometimes even to the drum shaft of the 
 thrashing-machine. Their cheapness, simplicity of con- 
 struction, easy management, and non-liability to derange- 
 ment, fit these engines in an eminent degree for farm-work. 1 
 
 , Section 19. — Thrashing-Machines. 
 
 It is now sixty-five years since an ingenious Scotch 
 mechanist, Andrew Meikle, produced a thrashing-machine 
 so perfect that its essential features are retained unaltered 
 to the present day. Indeed, it is frequently asserted that, 
 after all the modifications and supposed improvements of 
 the thrashing-machine which have been introduced by 
 various parties, the mills made by Meikle himself have not 
 yet been surpassed, so far as thorough and rapid separation 
 ef the grain from the straw is concerned. The unthrashed 
 corn is fed evenly into a pair of slowly revolving fluted 
 rollers of cast-iron, by which it is presented to the action 
 of a rapidly revolving cylinder or drum armed with four 
 beaters, which are square spars of wood faced with iron, 
 fixed parallel to its axis, and projecting about four inches 
 from its circumference. The drum is, provided with a dome 
 or cover, and the corn being partly held by the fluted rollers 
 as it passes betwixt the drum and its cover, the rapid strokes 
 of the beaters detach the grain from the ears, and throw 
 the straw forward upon slowly revolving rakes, in passing 
 over which the loose grain is shaken out of the straw, and 
 falls through a grating into the hopper of a winnowing and 
 riddling machine, which rids it of dust and chaff, and 
 separates the grain from the- unthrashed ears and broken 
 straw, called rouglis or shorts. The grain and roughs are 
 discharged by separate spouts into the apartment below the 
 thrashing-loft, whence the corn is fed into the rollers, and 
 the thrashed straw falls from the rakes into the straw barn 
 beyond. Since Meikle's time further additions have been 
 made to the machinery. In the most improved machines 
 driven by steam or a sufficient water power, the grain is 
 raised by a series of buckets fixed on an endless web into 
 the hopper of a double winnowing-machine, by which it is 
 separated into,clean corn, light, whites or capes, and small 
 seeds and sand. The discharging spouts are sufficiently 
 elevated to admit of sacks being hooked on to receive the 
 different products as they falL When barley is thrashed, 
 it is first carried by a separato set of elevators, which can 
 be detached at pleasure, into a " hummeller," in which it 
 is freed from the awns, and then raised into the second 
 fanners in the same manner as other grain. The hummeller 
 is a hollow cylinder, in which a spindle fitted with transverse 
 blunt knives revolves rapidly. The rough grain is poured 
 in at the top, and, after being acted upon by the knives, is 
 emitted at the bottom through an opening which is enlarged 
 or diminished by a sliding shutter, according to the degree 
 of t rimm ing that is required. A large set of elevators is 
 usually employed to carry up the roughs to the feeding-board, 
 that they may again be subjected to the action of the drum. 
 The roughs are emptied, not directly on the feeding-board, 
 but into a riddle, from which the loose grain passes by a 
 canvas funnel direct to the winnower in the apartment 
 below, and only the unthrashed ears and short straw are 
 allowed to fall upon the board. 
 
 The alterations that have been made upon the thrashing- 
 
 1 See article on "Comparative Advantages of Fired and Portable 
 Steam Power for the Purposes of a Faim," by Robert Ritchie, Esq., 
 C.E , Edinburgh, in Transaction q/ Highland Society for March 1852, 
 B. 28L 
 
 machine since Meikle's time chiefly affect the drum. Meikla 
 himself tried to improve upon his beaters by fixing a project- 
 ing ledge of iron on their outer edges, so as to give them 
 a scutching action similar to that of flax-mills. This strips 
 off the grain from oats or barley very well when thinly fed 
 in ; but its tendency is to rub off the entire ears, especially 
 of wheat, and also to miss a portion of the ears, whenever 
 there is rapid feeding in. More recent trials of drums on 
 the scutching principle show them to be on the whole inferior 
 to the plain beater. 
 
 We have already referred to the general use of portable 
 thrashing-machines in the eastern counties of England. 
 These, for the most part, have drums with six beaters upon 
 a skeleton frame, which revolve with great rapidity (about 
 800 times per minute, hence often called high-speed drum), 
 within a concave or screen, which encloses the drum for 
 about one-third its circumference. This screen consists 
 alternately of iron ribs and open wire-work, and is so placed 
 that its inner surface can be brought into near contact with 
 the edges of the revolving beaters, and admits of this space 
 being increased or diminished by means of screws. No 
 feeding-rollers are used with this drum, the unthrashed corn 
 being introduced directly to it. 
 
 Another form of drum, acting on the same principle as 
 that just referred to, but cased with plate-iron, and having 
 for beaters eight strips of iron projecting about one-fourth 
 of an inch from its surface, and which works within a 
 concave which embraces it for three-fifths of its circum- 
 ference, is in use when it is desired to preserve the straw 
 as straight and unbroken as possible. These are made of 
 sufficient width to admit of the corn being fed in sideways, 
 and are called bolting machines, from the straw being 
 delivered in a fit state for being at once made up into bolts 
 or bundles for market. Although the term beaters is retained 
 in describing these drums, it is evident that the process by 
 which the grain is separated from the ears is rubbing rather 
 than beating. This necessarily requires that only a narrow 
 space intervene between drum and concave, and that the corn 
 be fed in somewhat thinly. Such machines thrash clean, 
 whether the ears are all at one end of the sheaf or not, and 
 deliver the straw straight and uninjured; but it is objected 
 to these by some that they are slower in their operation 
 than those with the beating drum, are liable to choke if the 
 straw is at all damp, that the grain is sometimes broken by 
 them, and that they require greater power to drive them. 
 
 A further and more recent modification is the peg-drum. 
 In this case the drum is fitted with parallel rows of iron 
 pegs, projecting about 2£ inches from its surface, which in 
 its revolutions pass within one-fourth of an inch of similar 
 pegs fixed in the concave in rows running at right angles 
 to the drum. Great things were at first anticipated from 
 this invention, which, however, it has failed to realise. But 
 iron pegs have more recently been added to the common 
 beater-drum with apparent success. The beaters in this 
 case are made one-half narrower than usual, and have stout 
 iron pegs, formed of square rods, driven jnto their faces, 
 angle foremost, and slightly reflected at the points. These 
 act by a combination of beating and rippling, and are said 
 to thrash clean and to be easily driven. 
 
 There is thus a great variety of thrashing-machines to be 
 found in different parts of the country, the comparative 
 merits of which are frequently and keenly discussed by 
 agriculturists. The extraordinary discrepancies in the 
 amount and quality of the work performed 'by different 
 machines, and in the power required to effect it, are due 
 quite as much to the varying degrees of skill with which 
 their parts are proportioned and put together, as to varying 
 merit in the respective plans of construction. 
 
 In the best examples of 6-horse power stationary steam- 
 engines and thrashing-machinery, as found in the Lothians,
 
 32H 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 .MACHINES AMI 
 
 fifty quarters of grain, taking the average cf wheat, barley, 
 •md oats, ore thrashed, dressed, and sacked up ready for 
 market, in a day of ten hours, with a consumption of 7 h 
 cwt of good coals, :md a gross, expenditure for wages, 
 value of horse labour fuel, and wear and tear of machinery, 
 of 9d. per quarter. 
 
 The exigencies of the labour market are giving a power- 
 ful stimulus to the use of labour-saving contrivances of all 
 kinds ; and hence the recent introduction of straw elevators, 
 to be worked either by horse-power or by the same steam- 
 engine thaVis driving the thrashing-machinery. The latter 
 plan finds most favour in England, where it has already 
 been adopted to a considerable extent 
 
 The lloyal Agricultural Society of England has done 
 much towards ascertaining the real merits of the various 
 thrashing-machines now in use, by the carefully conducted 
 comparative trials to which it has subjected those which 
 have been presented in competition for its liberal prizes. 
 The accuracy of these trials, and the value of the recorded 
 results, have been much enhanced by the use of an 
 ingenious apparatus invented by Mr C. E Amos, consulting 
 engineer to the Society, which is figured and described at 
 p. 479 of voL xi. of the Society's Journal. A pencil 
 connected with this apparatus traces a diagram upon a 
 sheet of paper, recording every variation of the power 
 employed during the experiment to work the machine under 
 trial. For reasons already stated, we regard it as unfor- 
 tunate that the patronage of this great Society has hitherto 
 been so exclusively bestowed upon portable machines. 
 
 Section 20. — TVinnovnng-Machines. 
 
 We have already referred to the fanners, which, except 
 in portable machines, are almost invariably found in com- 
 bination with thrashing-machinery, so us to deliver the 
 grain into the corn-chamber in a comparatively clean state ; 
 and we have also noticed the further contrivances by which, 
 when there is a sufficient motive power at command, the 
 complete dressing of the grain goes on simultaneously ./ith 
 the thrashing. The winnowers used in such cases do not 
 differ in construction from those worked by hand. -In- 
 deed, it is usual to have one at least that can be used 
 in either way at pleasure. In these machines the separa- 
 tion of the clean from the light grain, and of both from 
 dust, sand, and seeds of weeds, or other rubbish, is effected 
 by directing an artificial blast of wind upon a stream of 
 grain as it falls upon a riddle. There is thus a combination 
 9f fanning and sifting, which is used in different degrees 
 according to the views of the mechanist In some forms 
 of this machine the benefit of the artificial blast is in a 
 great measure lost through an injudicious application of it 
 
 Section 21. — Corn-Bruiser and Grinding-MUl. 
 
 The now frequent use of various kinds of grain in the 
 fattening of live stock creates a necessity for machines to 
 prepare it for this purpose, either by breaking, bruising, 
 or grinding. A profusion of these, to be worked by hand, 
 is everywhere to be met with. Such machines are always 
 most economically worked by steam or water power. 
 When that can be had, a set of rollers for bruising oats or 
 linseed, and millstones to grind the inferior grain of the 
 farm, form a most valuable addition to barn machinery. 
 
 Section 22. — Cake-Crushers. 
 
 Machines for breaking linseed-cake into large pieces for 
 cattle, or smaller ones for sheep, are now in general use. 
 The breaking is performed by passing the cakes between 
 serrated rollers, by which it is nipt into morsels. These 
 are usually driven by hand ; but it is always expedient to 
 have a pulley attached to them, and to take advantage of 
 mechanical power when available. 
 
 Section 2o.—Chaf-Cnt!ers. 
 The use of this class of machines has increased very 
 much of late years. Fodder when cut into bngths of from 
 half-an-inch to an inch is somewhat more easily masticated 
 than when given to animals in its natural state; but the 
 chief advantages of this practice are, that it prevents waste, 
 and admits of different qualities — as of hay and straw, 
 straw and green forage, or chaff and pulped roots — being 
 so mixed that animals cannot pick out the one from 
 amongst the other, but must eat the mixture as it is 
 presented to them. Such cut fodder also forms an 
 excellent vehicle in which to give meal or bruised grain, 
 either cooked or raw, to live stock. This applies parti- 
 cularly to sheep feeding on turnips, as they then require a 
 portion of dry food, but waste it grievously when it is not 
 thus prepared Chaff-cutters are constructed on a variety of 
 plans; but the principle most frequently adopted is that 
 of radial knives bolted to the arm of a fly-wheel, which 
 work across the end of a feeding-box fitted with rollers, 
 which draw forward the straw or hay and present it in a 
 compressed state to the action of the knives. A machine 
 on this principle, made by Comes of Barbridge, has gained 
 the first premium in it3 clas3 at recent meetings of the 
 Royal Agricultural Society of England. Gillets' guillotine 
 chaff-cutter i3 an exceedingly ingenious and efficient 
 machine, performing its work with great accuracy, and 
 without frequent sharpening of its one double-edged knife. 
 These machines are most economically worked by the power 
 used for thrashing. The most convenient site for them is 
 in the upper loft of the straw-barn, where the straw can be 
 supplied with little labour, and the chaff either shoved 
 aside, or allowed to fall as it is cut through an opening in 
 the floor into the apartment below, and at once conveyed 
 to other parts of the homestead. The practice on some 
 farms where there is a fixed steam-engine, is to thrash & 
 stack of oats in the forenoon, and to cut up the straw, 
 and bruise or grind the grain simultaneously, in the 
 afternoon. 
 
 Section 24. — Turnip-Cutters. 
 
 Cattle and sheep which have arrived at maturity are 
 able to scoop turnips rapidly with their sharp, gouge-lik6 
 front teeth, and so can be fattened on this kind of food 
 without an absolute necessity of slicing it for them. Even 
 for adult anim ala there is, however, ,an advantage in 
 reducing turnips to pieces which' they can easily take into 
 their mouths, and at once get between their grinders with- 
 out any preliminary scooping ; but for young stock, during 
 the period of dentition, it is indispensable to their *uart 
 subsistence. It is largely through the use of slicing 
 machines that certain breeds of sheep are fattened on 
 turnips, and got ready for the butcher at fourteen months 
 old. It seems to be admitted on all hands that Gardener's 
 patent turnip-cutter is the best that has yet been produced 
 for slicing roots for sheep. It is now made entirely of iron, 
 and is an exceedingly useful machine. 
 
 In cattle feeding it is not usually thought necessary to 
 divide the roots given to them so minutely as for sheep. 
 A simple machine, fashioned much on the principle of 
 nut-crackers, by which, at each depression of the lever 
 handle, one turnip is forced through a set of knivjs 
 which divide it into slices each an inch thick, is very 
 generally used in Berwickshire for this purpose. Many 
 persons, however, prefer to have the turnips put into the 
 cattle-troughs whole, and then to have them cut by a 
 simple cross-bladed hand-chopper, which at each blow 
 quarters the piece struck by it The mode of housing 
 fattening cattle largely determines whether roots can be 
 most conveniently sliced before or after being /jut into the 
 fecoing-tiought.
 
 iMi'i EMKNTS-] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 327 
 
 Section 25. — Turnip Pulpirs. 
 
 An opinion now obtains, and is on the increase, that it 
 is advantageous to rasp roots into minute fragments and 
 miT them wica chaff before giving them to cattle, as this 
 not only facilitates mastication, but in wintry weather 
 prevents the chilling effects of a bellyful of such watery food 
 as turnips are when eaten alona This system is peculiarly 
 appropriate when it is desired to give a few roots to store 
 cattle which are being fed mainly upon straw or coarse hay. 
 When a few turnips or mangolds are put down in their 
 natural state there is a scramble for the better food, in 
 which the stronger cattle get more than their share, and 
 the weaker are knocked about But by pulping the 
 roots and raising them with a full allowance of chaff, every 
 animal gets its fill, and there is nothing to quarrel about. 
 
 At the Carlisle meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society 
 a premium was offered for machines to perform this kind 
 cf work,, under the somewhat inappropriate designation 
 of " pulping-machines." The prize was awarded to Mr 
 Philips for bis machine, which reduces roots to minute 
 fragments by means, of a series of circular saws. We learn 
 from parties who have made trial of most of the machines 
 of this class yet brought out, that they give the preference 
 to that made by Bentail of Maldon in Sussex. 
 
 Section 26. — Steaming Apparatus for Cooking Cattle Food. 
 
 We have several times alluded to the cooking of food for 
 cattle. This is performed either by boiling in a common 
 pot, by steaming in a close vessel, or by infusion in boiling 
 water. Varieties of apparatus are in use for these purposes. 
 A convenient one is a close boiler, with a cistern over it, 
 from which it supplies itself with cold water by a self- 
 acting stop-cock. This is alike suitable for cooking either 
 by steaming or infusing. 
 
 Section 27. — Weighing-Machines. 
 
 It is of course indispensable for every fanrr to be 
 provided with beam and scales, or other apparatus, for 
 ascertaining the weight of grain, wool, and other com- 
 modities, in quantities varying from 1 lb. to 3 cwt But, 
 besides this, it is very desirable to have a machine by 
 which not only turnips, hay, manures, &c, can be weighed 
 in cart-loads, but by which also the live weight of pigs, 
 fineep, and bullocks can be ascertained. Such a machine, 
 conveniently placed in the homestead, enables the farmer 
 to check the weighing of purchased manure, linseed-cake, 
 coal, and similar commodities, with great facility. It 
 affords the means of conducting various experiments for 
 ascertaining the comparative productiveness of crops, the 
 quantities of food consumed by cattle, and their periodic 
 progress, with readiness and precision. To persons unable 
 to estimate the weight of cattle by the eye readily and 
 accurately, such a machine is invaluable. 
 
 Section 28. — Concluding Remarks on Implements. 
 
 We have thus enumerated, and briefly described, those 
 machines and implements of agriculture which may be held 
 to be indispensable, if the soil is to be cultivated to the 
 best advantage. The list does Dot profess to be complete ; 
 but enough is given to indicate the progress which has 
 recently taken place in this department We have already 
 referred to this department of the proceedings of the Royal 
 Agricultural Society of' England, and would earnestly 
 recommend to all engaged in agriculture the careful study 
 of the reports on implements contained in the ninth and 
 subsequent volumes of their Journal. The care with which 
 they have selected their judges, and the skilful manner in 
 which those entrusted with the difficult and responsible 
 office have discharged their duties, are truly admirable. 
 A few extracts from these reports will serve to show the 
 
 extent and value of this department of the Society's labours 
 In the report for 1849, Mr Thomson- of Moat-Hall says— 
 " The Society's early shows of implements must be viewed 
 chiefly in the light of bazaars or expositions. Neithei 
 stewards nor judges had yet acquired the experience 
 requisite for the adequate discharge of their office, so thai 
 such men as Messrs Garrett, Hornsby, Ransome, and a fe^ 
 others, would have laughed in their sleeves had they bed 
 told that they could learn anything in the Society's show 
 yard. In spite, however, of a creditable display on the 
 part of a few leading firms, the majority of the implements 
 exhibited at these early shows were of inferior construction 
 and workmanship, and the general appearance of the 
 exhibitions meagre and unsatisfactory. 
 
 " The attention of some if the leading members of the 
 Society (especially of the late lamented Mr Handley) was 
 earnestly directed to the improvement of this department, 
 and they soon perceived that little was gained by collecting 
 implements in a show-yard for people to gaze at, unless an 
 adequate trial could be made of their respective merits. 
 To attain this end great exertions were made, and ever) 
 improvement in the mode of trial was followed by sc 
 marked an increase in the number and merit of the imple 
 ments brought forward at subsequent shows, as to provi 
 the strongest incentive to further effort 
 
 " At the Cambridge and Liverpool meetings, when thesi 
 trials were in their infancy, their main attraction consistec 
 of ploughing-matches on a large seale, which gratified sight 
 seers, but gave no results that could be depended upon 
 and therefore disappointed all practical men. It- would 
 occupy time unnecessarily to trace the gradual changes 
 which have led to the discontinuance of these showy exhi 
 bitions, and the substitution in their place of quiet, 
 business-like trials, in the presence of stewards and judges 
 alone. Suffice it to say, that what they have lost in dis- 
 play, they have gained in efficiency, and consequently in 
 favour with those classes for whose benefit they were de- 
 signed. At the York meeting, the improved mode of trying 
 the thrashing-machines supplied a deficiency which, until 
 that time, had been much felt, viz., the absence of anj 
 means of ascertaining the amount of power expended ic 
 working the machines under trial; and it may now be 
 asserted, with some confidence, that, with the exception 
 of an occasional error or accident, the best implements are 
 uniformly selected for prizes. 
 
 " It now remains to answer the' question proposed for 
 
 consideration, viz., to what extent the great improvement 
 
 made of late in agricultural implements is due to the 
 
 exertions of this Society ; and with this view a tabular 
 
 statement is subjoined, which shows the relative extent and 
 
 importance of the Society's two first and two last shows of 
 
 implements : — 
 
 No. of Award!. 
 
 Exhibitora Moncj. Medal* 
 
 1839 Oxford 23 £5 4 
 
 1840 Cambridge . 36 
 
 1848 York . .146 230 21 
 
 1849 Norwich . . 145 364 13 
 
 " From this it will be seen that at Cambridge, where the 
 trial of implements was confined to one day, and was, in 
 other respects, so immature as to be of little practical value, 
 the number of exhibitors was only thirty-six, and the judges, 
 in whom a certain discretionary power was vested, awarded 
 no money and but seven medals, in consequence of the 
 scarcity of objects deserving of reward ; whilst at York, 
 eight years after, when trials lasted several days, and had 
 attained a considerable degree of perfection, the number of 
 exhibitors had increased four-fold. The additional amount 
 offered in prizes at the later meetings has undoubtedly 
 assisted in creating this great increase of competition, but 
 it cannot be considered the principal cause, since the imp)*
 
 328 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [drainino 
 
 ment-makers are unanimous in declaring that, even when 
 most successful, the prizes they receive do not reimburse 
 them for their expenses and loss of time. How, then, 
 are the increased exertions of the machine-makers to be ac- 
 counted for 1 Simply by the fact that the trials of imple- 
 ments have gradually won the confidence of the farmer, so 
 that, when selecting implements for purchase, he gives the 
 preference to those which have received the Society's mark 
 of approval. This inference is corroborated by the makers 
 themselves, who readily admit that the winner of a prize, 
 for any implement of general utility, is sure to receive an 
 ample amount of orders, and that the award of a medal is 
 worth on an average £50." 
 
 In reporting upon the agricultural implement department 
 of the Great Exhibition, Mr Pusey says — " The yearly shows 
 and trials of the Royal Agricultural Society have certainly 
 done more in England for agricultural machines within the 
 last ten years, than had been attempted anywhere in all 
 
 former time It seems proved that since annual 
 
 country shows were established by Lord Spencer, Mr 
 Handley, and others yet hiving, old implements have been 
 improved, and new ones devised, whose performances stand 
 the necessary inquiry as to the amount of saving they can 
 effect To ascertain that amount precisely is difficult ; but, 
 looking through the successive stages of management, and 
 seeing that the owner of a stock-farm is enabled, in the 
 preparation of his land, by using lighter ploughs, to cast off 
 one horse in three, and by adopting other simple tools to 
 dispense altogether with a great part of his ploughing, — 
 that in the culture of crops by the various drills, horse labour 
 can be partly reduced, the seed otherwise wanted partly 
 eaved, or the use of manures greatly economised, while the 
 horse-hoe replaces the hoe at one-half the expense, — that 
 in harvest the American reapers can effect thirty men's work, 
 whilst the Scotch cart replaces the old English waggon with 
 exactly half the number of horses, — that in preparing corn 
 for man's food, the steam thrashing-machine saves two-thirds 
 of our former expense, — and in preparing food for stock, 
 the turnip-cutter, at an outlay of Is., adds 8s. ahead in one 
 winter to the value of sheep ; lastly, that in the indispensable 
 but costly operation of draining, the materials have been 
 reduced from 80s. to 15s. — to one-fifth, namely, of their 
 former cost, — it seems to be proved that the efforts of agri- 
 cultural mechanists have been so far successful, as in all 
 these main branches of farming labour, taken together, to 
 effect a saving, on outgoings, of little less than one-half." 
 
 Since these reports were made, the demand for improved 
 agricultural implements and machinery has increased 
 enormously, so much so that the manufacture of them is 
 now a most important and a rapidly increasing branch of 
 our national industry, and we quite anticipate that in a short 
 time there will be such a general appreciation of the benefits 
 of cultivation by steam power, and such a demand for engines 
 and tackle to carry it out, as the makers and manufacturers 
 will find it difficult to satisfy. 
 
 Scottish agriculturists, in reading these reports, will pro- 
 bably note with self-gratulation, that some of the improve- 
 ments referred to as of recent introduction in England, viz., 
 two-horse ploughs and one-horse carts, have long been estab- 
 lished among themselves. Indeed, they will find graceful 
 acknowledgment of the fact in these reports. Unless alto- 
 gether blinded by prejudice, they will, however, see that our 
 brethren south of the Tweed have already outstripped us in 
 many particulars, and that unless our national Society, our 
 mechanists, and farmers, exert themselves with correspond- 
 ing judgment and zeal, we must henceforth be fain to follow, 
 where we at least fancy that we have hitherto been leading. 
 But we have more important motives and encouragements 
 to exertion than mere national emulation. The extent to 
 which the cost of production of farm produce has been 
 
 lessened by recent improvements in the implement* of 
 husbandry, and in the details of farm management, is greater 
 than many are aware of. It seems to. be in this direction 
 mainly that the farmer must look for a set-off against the 
 steadily increasing cost of land and labour. If by further 
 improvementsin his machinery and implements he is enabled 
 to keep fewer horses, to get his deep tillage performed by 
 steam power, and his mowing and reaping accomplished by 
 the ordinary forces which he requires throughout the year, 
 the reduction upon the prime cost of his produce will bo 
 really important. A hopeful element in this anticipated 
 progress ia that it tends directly to elevate the condition of 
 the rural labourer. Every addition to the steam power and 
 labour-saving machines used upon the farm implies an 
 increased demand for cultured minds to guide them, a 
 lessening of the drudgery heretofore imposed upon human 
 thews and sinews, an equalising of employment throughout 
 the year, and a better and steadier rate of wages. Believing, 
 as we do, that on every farm enormous waste of motive 
 power — mechanical, animal, and manual — is continuously 
 going on through the imperfection of the implements and 
 machines now in use, we would urge upon all concerned 
 to look well to this ; for, with all our improvements, there 
 is undoubtedly yet a large margin for retrenchment here. 
 
 Besides the bulky and costly implements now enumerated, 
 every farm must be provided with a considerable assortment 
 of hand-implements and tools, all of which it is of conse- 
 quence to have good of their kind. Although not individu- 
 ally costly, they absorb a considerable capital in the aggre- 
 gate. When not in use, they require to be kept under lock, 
 and at all times need to be well looked after. Without 
 waiting to describe these in detail, let us now see how the 
 work of the farm is conducted. 
 
 CHAPTER VH. 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE LAND FOR TILLAGE OPERATIONS. 
 
 Section 1. — When Required. 
 Before those simple tillage operations which are necessary 
 in every instance of committing seeds to the earth can be 
 gone about, there are more costly and elaborate processes of 
 preparation which must be encountered in certain circum- 
 stances, in order to fit the soil for bearing cultivated crops. 
 It is now only in exceptional cases that the British agri- 
 culturist has to reclaim land from a state of nature. The 
 low-country fanner does occasionally meet with a patch of 
 woodland, or a bank covered with gorse or brushwood, which, 
 he sets about converting into arable land. It is in the 
 higher districts that, from the facilities now afforded for 
 readily enriching poor soils by portable manures, the plough 
 still frequently invades new portions of muir and bog, and 
 transforms them into fields. The occupiers of land in these 
 upland districts are accordingly still familiar with the 
 processes of paring and burning, trenching, removing earth- 
 fast stones, and levelling inequalities of surface. In break- 
 ing up land that has been for a course of years under 
 pasturage, paring and burning are also frequently resorted 
 to in all parts of the country. The grand improvement of 
 all, thorough underground drainage, is common to every 
 district and class of soils. 
 
 Section 2. — Braining. 
 
 From the moist climate of Britain, drainingis undoubtedly 
 the all-important preliminary operation in setting about tho 
 improvement of the soiL 
 
 To drain land ia to rid it of its superfluous moisture. 
 The rivers of a country with their tributary brooks and rills 
 are the natural provision for removing the rain water which. 
 either flows directly from its surface, or which, after 
 percolating through porous strata to an indefinite depth, ia 
 again discharged at the surface by springs. The latter may
 
 OPERATIONS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 329 
 
 thus be regarded as the outlets of a natural underground 
 drainage. This provision for disposing of the water that 
 falls from the clouds is usually so irregular in its distribu- 
 tion, and so imperfect in its operation, that it leaves much 
 to be accomplished by human labour and ingenuity. The 
 art of the drainer accordingly consists — 
 
 1st, In improving the natural outfalls by deepening, 
 straightening, or embanking rivers; and by supplementing 
 these, when necessary, by artificial canals and ditches : 
 and, 
 
 2d, In freeing the soil and subsoil from stagnant water, 
 by means of artificial underground channels. 
 
 The first of these operations, called trunk drainage, is the 
 most needful ; for until it be accomplished there are exten- 
 sive tracts of land, and that usually of tho most valuable 
 kind, to which the secondary process either cannot be 
 applied at all, or only with the most partial and inefficient 
 results. Very mauy of our British rivers and streams flow 
 ■with a sluggish and tortuous course through valleys of flat 
 alluvial soil, which, as the coast is approached, expand into 
 ■extensive plains, but little elevated above the level of the 
 sea. Here the course of the river is obstructed by shifting 
 shoals arid sand-banks, and by the periodic influx of the 
 tides. The consequence is, that immense tracts of valuable 
 land are at all times in a water-logged and comparatively 
 •worthless state, and on every recurrence of a flood are laid 
 entirely under water. In a subsequent chapter on " Waste 
 Lands" some account shall be given of the extent of this 
 evil, and of the efforts that have been successfully devoted 
 to its remedy. Some of these fen-land and estuary drain- 
 age works have been accomplished in the face of natural 
 obstacles of the most formidable character, and constitute 
 trophies of engineering talent of which the country may well 
 be proud. Great as the natural difficulties are which have 
 to be encountered in such cases, there are others of a differ- 
 ent kind which have often proved more impracticable. It 
 ias been found easier to exclude the sea and restrain land- 
 floods, than to overcome the prejudices and reconcile the 
 conflicting interests of navigation companies, commissioners 
 of sewers, owners of mills, and landed proprietors. Although 
 all these classes suffer the most serious losses and incon- 
 veniences from the defective state of many of our rivers, 
 it is found extremely difficult to reconcile their conflict- 
 ing claims, and to allocate to each his proper share of the 
 cost of improvements by which all are to benefit. A most 
 interesting and instructive illustration of the urgent necessity 
 for improving the state of our rivers, of the difficulties to 
 rie encountered in doing so, and of the incalculable benefits 
 thus to be obtained, has been given in an essay on Trunk 
 Drainage, by John Algernon Clarke, Esq., published in 
 vol xv. (part first) of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural 
 ■Society of England. Mr Clarke, after some most important 
 observations on trunk drainage, describes in detail works 
 projected under powers granted in an Act of Parlia- 
 ment, passed in 1852, "constituting commissioners for 
 the improvement of the river Nene and the navigation 
 thereof." 
 
 There is not a district of the kingdom in which works 
 ■similar in kind are not absolutely indispensable, before 
 extensive tracts of valuable land can be rendered available 
 for profitable cultivation by means of underground drainage. 
 Itis interestingto know that the necessity for trunk drainage, 
 and the means of accomplishing it, were distinctly set before 
 the public 200 years ago by a practical draining engineer, 
 to whrise writings the attention of the agricultural com- 
 munity has been frequently directed of late by Mr 
 Parkes, Mr Gisborne, and others. From the third edition 
 (1652) of The Improver Improved, by Walter Blithe, the 
 author referred to, in which the true principles of land 
 drainage are stated as distinctly, and urged as earnestly, as 
 
 by any of our modern writers, we here quote the following 
 
 remarks : — 
 
 " A strait water-course, cut a considerable depth, in a thousand 
 parts of this nation, would be more advantageous than we are 
 aware of, or I will task myself here to dispute further. And though 
 many persons are interested therein, and some will agree, and others 
 will oppose ; oui creek lyeth on one side of the river, in one lord's 
 manor, and another lyeth on the other side, and divers men own the 
 same ; why may not one neighbour change with another, when both 
 are gainers ? If not, why vtay they not be compelled for their own 
 good, and the commonwealth's advantage! I daresay thousands of 
 acres of very rich land may hereby be gained, and possibly as many 
 more much amended, that are almost destroyed ; but a law is want- 
 ing herein for the present, which I hope will be supplied if it may 
 appear advancement to the public ; for to private interests it is not 
 possible to be the least prejudice, when every man hath benefit, and 
 each man may also have an ecjuall allowance if the least prejudiced. 
 
 " But a word or two more, and so shall conclude' this chapter — 
 and it is a little to further this improvement through a great 
 destruction (as some may say) ; it is the removing or the destroying 
 o'f all such mills, and none else, as drown and corrupt more lands 
 than themselves are worth to the commonwealth, and they are such 
 as are kept up or dammed so high as that they boggyfie all the 
 land3 that lye under their mill-head. Such mills as are of little 
 worth, or are by constant great charges maintained, 1 advise to b« 
 pulled down ; the advance of the land, when the water is let run 
 his course, and not impounded, will be of far greater value many 
 times. ' But in case the mills should be so necessary and profitable 
 too, and far more than the lands they spoil, I shall then advise, 
 that under thy inill-dam, so many yards wide from it as may prevent 
 breaking through, thou make a very deep trench all along so far as 
 thy lands are putrefied, and thereinto receive all the issuing, spew, 
 ing water, and thereby stop or cut oif the feeding of it upon thy 
 meadow, and carry it away back into thy back-water or false course, 
 by as deep a trench, cut through the most low and convenient part of 
 thy meads. But put case that thou shouldst have no convenie. i 
 fall on that side thy mill-dam, then thou must make some course, 
 or plant some trough under thy mill-dam, and ro carry it under 
 into some lower course that may preserve it from soaking thy 
 meadows or pastures under it ; and by this means thou maist in s 
 good measure reduco thy land to good soundness, and. probably 
 wholly cure it, and preserve thy mill also.'' 
 
 It is painful to reflect that after the lapse of two cen- 
 turies, we should still see, as Blithe did, much "gallant 
 land" ruined for want of those draining operations which, he 
 so happily describes. 
 
 A clear outfall of sufficient depth being secured, the way 
 is open for the application of underground draining. And 
 here it may be proper to state, that there is very little of 
 the land of Great Britain naturally so dry as not to be 
 susceptible of improvement by artificial draining ; for land 
 is not in a perfect condition with respect to drainage, unless 
 all the rain that falls upon it can sink down to the 
 minimum depth slurred for the healthy development of 
 the roots of cultivaced crops, and thence find vent, either 
 through a naturally porous subsoil or by artificial channels. 
 Much controversy has taken place as to what this minimum 
 depth is. Suffice it to say, that opinion is now decidedly 
 in favour of a greater depth than was considered necessary 
 even a few years ago, and that the best authorities concur 
 in stating it at from three to four feet There are persons 
 who doubt whether the roots of our ordinary grain or green 
 crops ever penetrate to such a depth as has now been 
 specified. A careful examination ■will satisfy any one who 
 makes it, that minute filamentary rootlets are sent down to 
 extraordinary depths, wherever they are not arrested by 
 stagnant water. It has also been questioned whether any 
 benefit accrues to crops from this deep descent of their 
 roots. Some persons have even asserted that it is only 
 when they do not find food near at hand that they thus 
 wander. But it must be borne in mind that plants obtain 
 moisture as well as nourishment by means of their roots, 
 and the fact is well known that plants growing in a deep 
 soil resting on a porous subsoil seldom or never suffer from 
 drought. It is instructive, too, on this point, to observe 
 the practice of the most skilful gardeners, and see the 
 importance which they attach to trenching, the great depth 
 
 1—V
 
 330 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 at which they often deposit manure, and the stress which 
 they lay upon thorough drainage. On the other^hand, it 
 is well known that soils which soonest become saturated, 
 and run from the surface in wet weather, are precisely 
 those which parch and get chapped the soonest in drought. 
 The effectual way to secure our crops at once from drown- 
 ing and parching, is to put the land in a right condition 
 with respect to drainage. 
 
 All soils possess more or less the power of absorbing 
 and retaining water. Pure clays have it in the greatest 
 degree, and gritty siliceous ones in the smallest. In dry 
 weather this power of attracting moisture is constantly 
 operating to supply from below the loss taking place by 
 evaporation at the surfaca In heavy rains, as soon as the 
 entire mass has drunk its fill, the excess begins to flow off 
 below ; and therefore a deep stratum, through which water 
 can percolate, but in which it can never stagnate — that is, 
 never exceed the point of saturation — is precisely that in 
 which plants are most secure from the extremes of drought 
 and drowning. 
 
 If a perfect condition of the soil with respect to drainage 
 is of importance for its influence in preserving it in a right 
 condition as respects moisture, it is still more so for its 
 effects upon its temperature. All who are conversant with 
 rural affairs are familiar with that popular classification of 
 soils in virtue of which such as are naturally dry are also 
 invariably spoken of as warm and early ; and conversely, 
 that wet soils are invariably described as being cold and 
 late. This classification is strictly accurate, and the explana- 
 tion of it is simple. An excess of water in soil keeps, down 
 its temperature in various ways. In passing into the state 
 of vapour it rapidly carries off the heat which the foil ha3 
 obtained from the sun's rays. "Water possesses also a high 
 radiating power ; so that, when present in the soil in excess, 
 and in a stagnant state, it is constantly carrying off heat by 
 evaporation and radiation. On the other hand, stagnant 
 water conveys no heat downwards ; for although tho surface 
 is warmed, the portion of water thus heated being lightest, 
 remains floating on the 'surface, and will give back its 
 heat • to the atmosphere, but conveys none downwards. 
 When the surface of stagnant water becomes colder than the 
 general mass, the very opposite effect immediately ensues ; 
 for as water cools its density increases, and thus causes an 
 instant sinking of the portion that has been cooled, and a 
 rising of a warm portion from below to take its place — this 
 movement continuing until the whole has been lowered to 
 40°, at which point water reaches its maximum density, 
 while, if the temperature be reduced a few degrees more, 
 water will begin to freeze. It is thus that 6oil surcharged 
 with water is kept at a lower temperature than similar soil 
 that has a sufficient natural or artificial drainage. 
 
 But while the presence of stagnant water in a soil has 
 this injurious power of lowering its temperature, a very 
 different effect ensues when rain water can sink freely into 
 it to a depth of several feet, and then find a ready exit by 
 drainage ; for in this case the rain water carries down with 
 it the heat which it has acquired from the atmosphere and 
 from the sun-heated surface, and imparts it to the subsoil 
 There is as yet a lack of published experiments to show the 
 ordinary increase of temperature at various depths and in 
 different soils, as the result of draining wet land. Those 
 conducted by Mr Parkes, in a Lancashire bog in June 1837, 
 showed, as the mean of thirty-five observations, that the 
 drained and cultivated soil at seven inches from the surface 
 was 10° warmer than the adjoining undrained bog in its 
 natural state at the fame depth. It is understood that 
 later experiments conducted by the same gentleman on an 
 extended scale fully establish the fact, that an increased 
 temperature of the soil is an unfailing accompaniment of 
 taorough draining. The importance of this result cannot 
 
 [DKAISIXO 
 
 well be over-rated. The temperature and other conditions 
 of the atmosphere, which we call climate, are placed beyond 
 human control ; but this power of raising the temperature 
 of all wet, and consequently cold soils, becomes tantamount 
 in some of its results to a power of improving the climate. 
 There are, accordingly, good grounds for stating that in 
 numerous cases grain crops have ripened sooner by ten or 
 twelve days than they would have done but for the draining 
 of the land on which they grew. 
 
 The points which we have thus briefly touched upon aie 
 so essential to an intelligent appreciation of the subject, 
 that we have felt constrained to notice them, however 
 meagrely. But our space forbids more than a mere enumera- 
 tion of some of the many evils inseparable from the presence 
 of stagnant water in the soil, and of the benefits that flow 
 from its removal. Wet land, if in grass, produces only the 
 coarser grasses, and many sub-aquatic plants and mosses, 
 which are of little or no value for pasturage ; its herbage 
 is late of coming in spring, and fails early in autumn ; the 
 animals grazed upon it are unduly liable to disease, and 
 sheep, especially, to the fatal rot When land is used as 
 arable, tillage operations are easily interrupted by rain, and 
 the period always much limited in which they can be 
 prosecuted at all ; the compactness and toughness of such 
 land renders each operation more arduous, and more of 
 them necessary, than in the case of dry land. The surfaco 
 must necessarily be thrown into ridges, and the furrows and 
 cross-cuts duly cleared out after each process of tillage, on 
 which surface expedients as much labour has probably been 
 expended in each thirty years as would now suffiee to make 
 drains enough to lay it permanently dry. With all theso 
 precautions the best seed-time i3 often missed, and this 
 usually proves the prelude to a scanty crop, or to a late and 
 disastrous harvest. The cultivation of the turnip and other 
 root crops, which require the soil to be wrought to a deep 
 and free tilth, either becomes altogether impracticable, and 
 must be abandoned for the safe but costly bare fallow, or 
 is carried out with great labour and hazard ; and the crop, 
 when grown, can neither be removed from the ground, nor 
 consumed upon it by sheep without damage by poachmj 
 The dung, lime, and other manure, that is applied to such 
 land is in a great measure wasted; and the breaking of 
 the subsoil and general deep tillage, so beneficial in other 
 circumstances, is here positively mischievous, as it does but 
 increase its power of retaining water. Taking into account 
 the excessive labour, cost, and risk, inseparable from the 
 cultivation of wet land, and the scanty and precarious 
 character of the crops so obtained, it would in many cases 
 be wiser to keep such lands in grass, than to prosecute 
 arable husbandry under such adverse circumstances. These 
 very serious evils can either be entirely removed, or, at the 
 least, very greatly lessened by thorough draining. It «f ten 
 happens that naturally porous soils are so soaked by springs, 
 or so water-logged by resting i;pon an impervious subsoil, 
 or, it may be, so drowned for want of an outfall in some 
 neighbouring river or stream, that draining at once effects 
 a perfect cure, and places them on a par with the best 
 naturally dry soils. In the case of clay soils, the improve- 
 ment effected by draining is in some respects greater than 
 in any other class, but still it cannot change the inherent 
 properties of clay. This has sometimes been overlooked 
 by sanguine improvers, who, hastily assuming that their 
 strong land, when drained, would henceforward be as friable 
 and sound as the more porous kinds, have proceeded to 
 treat it on this assumption, and have found td their cost 
 that clay, however well drained, will still get into mortar 
 and clods, if it is tilled or trodden on too soon after rain. 
 It is entirely owing to such rash and unskilful management 
 that an opinion has sometimes got abroad, that clay lands 
 are injured by draining. They merely retain the qualitieji
 
 OrilRATIOXS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 531 
 
 peculiar to clay, and when tney are treated judiciously, 
 show as good a comparative benefit from draining as other 
 soils. The only instances in which even temporary injury 
 arises from draining is in the case of some peaty and fen 
 lands, which are so loose that they suffer from drought in 
 protracted dry weather. As such lands are usually level 
 and have water-courses near them, this inconvenience admits 
 of an easy remedy by shutting up the main outlets, and then 
 admitting water into the ditches. The drains in this way 
 become ready channels for appi)'ing the needed moisture 
 by a kind of subterraneous irrigation. 
 
 The beneficial effects of thorough draining are of a very 
 decisive and striking kind. The removal of stagnant water 
 from a stratum of 4 feet in depth, and the establishing of 
 a free passage for rain water and air from the surface to 
 the level of the drains, speedily effects most important 
 changes in the condition of the soil and subsoil Plough- 
 ing and other tillage operations are performed more easily 
 than before in consequence of a more friable state of 
 the soiL Moderate rainswhich formerly would have sufficed 
 to airest these operations do so no longer, and heavy falls 
 of rain cause a much shorter interruption of these labours 
 than they did when the land was in its natural state. Deep 
 tillage, whether by the common or subsoil plough (which 
 formerly did harm), now aids the drainage, and is every way 
 beneficial. Ridges and surface furrows being no longer 
 needed the land can be kept flat, with great benefit to crops 
 and furtherance to field operations. An earlier seed-time 
 and harvest, better crops, a healthier live stock, and an 
 improved style of husbandry, are the usual and well known 
 sequents of judiciously conducted drainage operations. In 
 short, the most experienced and skilful agriculturists now 
 declare with one consent that good drainage is an indispens- 
 able preliminary to good cultivation. 
 
 Although it has been reserved to the present times to see 
 land draining reduced to a sj-stem based on scientific prin- 
 ciples, or very great improvement effected in its details, it 
 is by no means a modern discovery. The Romans were 
 careful to keep their arable lands dry by means of open 
 trenches, and there are even some grounds for surmising 
 that they used covered drains for the same purpose. In- 
 dubitable proof exists that they constructed underground 
 chancels by means of tubes of burned earthenware ; but 
 it seems more probable that these were designed to carry 
 water to their dwellings, &c, than that they were used 
 simply as drains. Recent inquiries and discoveries have 
 also shown that it is at least several centuries, since covered 
 channels of various kinds were in use by British husbandmen 
 for drying their land. It is, at all events, two centuries 
 since Captain Walter Blithe wrote as follows : — 
 
 " Superfluous and venomous water which lyeth in the 
 earth and much occasioneth bogginesse, mirinesse, rushes, 
 flags, and other filth, is indeed the chief cause of barrenesse 
 
 in any land of this nature Drayning is an excellent 
 
 and chief est means for their reducement ; and for the depth 
 of such draynes, I cannot possibly bound, because I have 
 not time and opportunity to take in all circumstances. . . . . 
 And for thy drayning trench, it must be made bo deepe 
 that it goe to the bottome of the cold.spewing moyst water, 
 that feeds the flagg and the rush ; for the widenesse of it, 
 use thine owne liberty, but be sure to make it so wide as 
 thou mayest goe to the bottome of it, which must be so 
 low as any moysture lyeth, which moysture usually lyeth 
 under the over and second swarth of the earth, in some 
 gravel or sand, or else, where some greater stones are mixt 
 with clay, under which thou must goe halfe one spades graft 
 deepe at least j yea, suppose this corruption that feeds and 
 nourisheth the rush or flagg should lie a yard or foure foot 
 deepe. to the bottome of it thou mast goe, if ever thou wilt 
 ;lrayne it to purpose And for the drayning trench 
 
 be sure thon indeavour to carry it as neare upon a straight 
 
 line a3 possible To the bottome where the spewing 
 
 spring lyeth thou must goe, and one spades depth or graft 
 beneath, how deep so ever it he, if thou wilt drayne thy 
 land to purpose. I am forced to use repetitions of some 
 things, because of the suitableness of the things to which 
 they are applyed ; as also because of the slownesse of peoples 
 apprehensions of them, as appears by the non-practice of 
 them, the which wherever you see drayning and trenching 
 you shall rarely find few or none of them wrought to the 
 
 bottome Go to the bottome of the bog, and there 
 
 make a trench in the sound ground, or else in some old 
 ditch, so low as thou verily conceivest thy selfe assuredly 
 under the level of the spring or spewing water, and then 
 carry up thy trench into thybogg straight through the middJa 
 of it, one foot under that spring ; . . . . but for these 
 common and many trenches, oft times crooked too, that 
 men usually make in their boggy grounds, some one foot, 
 some two, never having respect to the cause or matter that 
 maketh the bogg to take that way, I say away with them 
 
 as a great piece of folly, lost labour and spoyle 
 
 After thou has brought a trench to the bottom of the bog, 
 then cut a good substantial trench about thy bog; and 
 when thou hast so done make one work or two just over-, 
 thwart it, upwards and downwards, all under the matter of 
 the bog. Then thou must take gpod green faggots, willow, 
 alder, elme, or thorne, and lay in the bottome of thy works, 
 and then take thy turfe thou tookest up in the top of thy 
 trench, and plant upon them with the green sward down- 
 wards ; or take great pebbles, stones, or flint stones, and so 
 fill up the bottome of thy trench about fifteen inches high, 
 and take thy turfe and plant it as aforesaid, being cut very 
 fit for the trench, as it may join close as it is layd downe, 
 and then having cov.ered it all over with earth, and made 
 it even as thy other "ground, waite and expect a wonderfull 
 effect through the blessing of God." 
 
 These sagacious arguments and instructions were doubt- 
 less acted upon by some persons in his own times and since ; 
 but still they had never attained to general adoption, and 
 were ultimately forgotten. Towards the close of last 
 century, Mr Eliington, a Warwickshire farmer, discovered 
 and promulgated a plan of laying dry sloping land that is 
 drowned by the outbursting of springs. AVhen the higher 
 lying portion of such land is porous, rain falling upon it 
 sinks down until it is arrested by clay or other impervious 
 matter, which causes it again to issue at the surface and 
 wet the lower-lying ground. Elkington showed that by 
 cutting a deep drain through the clay, aided when necessary 
 by wells or augur holes, the subjacent bed of sand or gravel 
 in which a body of water is pent up by the clay, as in a 
 vessel, might be tapped, and the water conveyed harmlessly 
 in the covered drain to the nearest ditch or stream. In 
 the circumstances to which it is applicable, and in the hands 
 of skilful drainers, Elkington's plan, by bringing into play 
 the natural drainage furnished by porous strata, is often 
 eminently successful. His system was given to the public 
 in a quarto volume, edited by a Mr John Johnston of 
 Edinburgh, who does not seem to have shared the engineer- 
 ing talents of the man whose discoveries he professes to ex- 
 pound. During the thirty or forty years subsequent to 
 the publication of this volume, most of the draining that 
 took place was on this system, and an immense capital was 
 expended in such works with very varying results. Things 
 continued in this position until about the year 1823, when 
 the late James Smith of Deanston, having discovered anew 
 those principles of draining so long before indicated by 
 Blithe, proceeded to exemplify them in his own practice, 
 and to expound them to the public in a way that speedily 
 effected a complete revolution in the art of draining, and 
 marked an era in our agricultural progress. Instead of
 
 332 
 
 A G R I C F L T U K E 
 
 . DRAINING 
 
 persisting in fruitless attempts to dry extensive areas by 
 a few dexterous cuts, he insisted on the necessity of pro- 
 viding every field that needed draining at all with a complete 
 system of parallel underground channels, running in the 
 line of the greatest slope of tho ground, and so near to each 
 other that the whole rain falling at any time upon the 
 surface should sink down and be carried off by the drains. 
 The distances between drains he showed must be regulated 
 by the greater or less retentiveness of the ground operated 
 upon, and gave 10 feet as the minimum, and 40 feet as the 
 maximum of these distances. The depth which he pre- 
 scribed for his parallel drains was 30 inches, and these 
 were to be filled with 12 inches of stones small enough to 
 pass through a 3-inch ring — in short, a new edition of 
 Blithe's drain. A main receiving-drain was to be carried 
 along the lowest part of the ground, with sub-mains in every 
 subordinate hollow that the ground presented. These 
 receiving drains were directed to be formed with a culvert 
 of stone work, or of tileB, of waterway sufficient to contain 
 the greatest volume of water at any time requiring to be 
 passed from the area to which they respectively supplied 
 the outlet. The whole cultivated lands of Britain being 
 disposed in ridges which usually lie in the line of greatest 
 ascent, it became customary to form the drains in each 
 furrow, or in each alternate, or third, or fourth one, as the 
 case might require or views of economy dictate, and hence 
 the system soon came to be popularly called furrow 
 draining. From the number and arrangement of the drains, 
 the terms frequent and parallel were also applied to it. 
 Mr Smith himself more appropriately named it, from its 
 effects, thorough draining. The sound principles thus 
 promulgated by him were speedily adopted and extensively 
 carried into practice. The great labour and cost incurred 
 in procuring stones in adequate quantities, and the difficulty 
 of carting them in wet seasons, soon led to the substitution 
 of tiles and soles of burned earthenware. The limited 
 supply and high price of these tiles for a time impeded the 
 progress of the new system of draining ; but the invention 
 of tile-making machines by tho Marquis of Tweeddale and 
 others, removed this impediment, and gave a mighty 
 stimulus to this fundamental agricultural improvement 
 The substitution of cylindrical pipes for the original horse- 
 shoe tiles has still further lowered the cost and increased 
 the efficiency and permanency of drainage works. 
 
 The system introduced and so ably expounded by Smith 
 of Deanston has now been virtually adopted by all drainers. 
 ■Variations in matters of detail (having respect chiefly to the 
 depth and distance apart of the parallel drains) have indeed 
 been introduced ; but the distinctive features of his system 
 are now recognised and acted upon by all scientific drainers. 
 
 In setting about the draining of a field, or farm, or 
 estate, the first point is to secure, at whatever cost, a proper 
 outfall. The lines of the receiving drains must next be 
 determined, and then the direction of the parallel drains. 
 The former must occupy the lowest part of the natural 
 hollows, and the latter must run in the line of the 
 greatest .ascent of the ground. In the case of flat land, 
 where a fall is obtained chiefly by increasing the depth of 
 the drains at their lower ends, these lines may be disposed 
 in any direction that is found convenient ; but in undu- 
 lating ground a single field may require several distinct sets 
 of drains lying at different angles, so as to suit its several 
 slopes. When a field is ridged in the line of the greatest 
 ascent of the ground, there is an obvious convenience in 
 adopting the furrows as the site of the drains ; but wherever 
 this is not the case the drains must be laid of to suit the 
 contour of the ground, irrespective of the furrows altogether. 
 When parts of a field are flat, and other parts have a con- 
 siderable acclivity, it is expedient to cut a receiving drain 
 near to the bottom of the slopes, and to give the flat ground 
 
 an independent set of drains. In laying off receiving 
 drains it is essential to give hedge-rows and trees a good 
 offing, lest tho conduit should bo obstructed by roots. 
 When a drain must of necessity pass near to trees, we have 
 found it practicable to exclude their roots from it by tho 
 use of coal-tar. In our own practice, a drain carried 
 through the corner of a plantation has by this expedient 
 remained free from obstruction for now fourteen years. In 
 this instance the tar was applied in the following manner: — 
 Sawdust and coal-tar being mixed together to the consis- 
 tency of ordinary mortar, a layer of this was laid in the 
 bottom of the trench ; the drain-pipes were then laid, and 
 completelycoated overwiththe same mixture to thethickness 
 of an inch, and tho earth carefully replaced in the ordinary 
 way. When a main drain is so placed that parallel ones empty 
 into it from both sides, care should be taken that the inlets 
 of the latter are not made exactly opposite to each other. 
 Indeed, we have found it expedient in such cases to have 
 two receiving drains parallel to each other, each to receive 
 the subordinate drains from its own side only. As theso 
 receiving drains act also as ordinary drains to the land 
 through which they pass, no additional cost is incurred by 
 having two instead of one, provided they are as far apart 
 as tho other drains in the field. Much of the success of 
 draining depends on the skilful planning of these main 
 drains, and in making them large enough to discharge the 
 greatest flow of water to which they may be exposed. Very 
 long main drains are to be avoided. Numerous outlets are 
 also objectionable, from their liability to obstruction. An 
 outlet to an area of from ten to fifteen acres is agcod 
 arrangement. These outlets should be faced with mason- 
 work, and guarded by iron gratings. 
 
 The depths of the parallel drains must next be deter- 
 mined. In order to obtain proper data for doing so, the 
 subsoil must be carefully examined by digging test-holes 
 in various places, and also by taking advantage of any 
 quarries, deep ditches, or other cuttings in the proximity, 
 that afford a good section of the ground. We have already 
 expressed an opinion that the drains should not be less than 
 four feet deep ; but it is quite possible that the discovery 
 at a greater depth than four feet of a seam of gravel, or 
 other very porous material charged with water, underlying 
 considerable portions of -the ground, may render it 
 expedient to carry the drains so deep as to reach this seam. 
 Such a seam, when furnished with sufficient outlets, 
 supplies a natural drain to the whole area under which 
 it extends. When such exceptional cases are met with, 
 they are precisely those in which deep drains, at wide 
 intervals, can be trusted to dry the whole area. When the 
 subsoil consists of a tenacious clay of considerable depth, 
 it is considered by many persons that a greater depth than 
 three feet is unnecessary. The greater depth is, however, 
 always to be preferred ; for a drain of four feet, if it works 
 at all, not only does all that a shallower one can do, but 
 frees from stagnant water a body of subsoil on which the 
 other has no effect at all It has indeed been alleged that 
 such deep drains may get so closed over by the clay that 
 water will stand above them. If the surface of clay soil is 
 wrought into puddle by improper usage, water can undoubt- 
 edly be made to stand for a time over the shallowest drains 
 as easily as over the deepest. But the contraction which 
 takes place in summer in good alluvial clays gradually estab- 
 lishes fissures, by which water reaches the drains. In such 
 soils it is usually a few years before the full effect of draining 
 is attained. This is chiefly due to the contraction and con- 
 sequent cracking of clay soils in summer just referred to, and 
 partly, as Mr Parkes thinks, to the mining operations of the 
 common earth-worm. Both of these natural aids to drainage 
 operate with greater force with drains four feetdeep than when 
 they are shallower. The tardy percolation of water through
 
 OPERATIONS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 333 
 
 clay soils seems also a reason why in such cases it should get 
 the benefit of a greater fall, by making the drain deep. 
 
 Draining is always a costly operation, and it is therefore 
 peculiarly needful to have it executed in such a way that it 
 shall be effectual and permanent. We advocate a minimum 
 depth of four feet, because of our strong conviction that 
 such drains carefully made will be found to have both these 
 qualities. And this opinion is the result of dear-bought 
 experience, for we have found it necessary in our own case 
 to re-open a. very considerable extent of 30-inch drains in 
 consequence of their having totally failed to lay the land 
 dry, and to replace them by four feet ones, which' have 
 proved perfectly efficacious. In doing this we have seen a 
 30-inch drain opened up and found to be perfectly dry, and 
 yet when the same trench was deepened to four feet there 
 was quite a run of water from it. Now also that steam 
 power has become available for the tillage of the soil, and 
 is certain, at no distant day, to be in general requisition for 
 that purpose, it is peculiarly expedient to have the drains 
 laid at such a depth as to admit of that potent agency being 
 used for loosening the subsoil to depths hitherto unattain- 
 able, not only without hazard to the drains, but with the 
 certainty of greatly augmenting their efficiency. Therefore 
 we earr.sstly dissuade all parties who are about to undertake 
 drainage works from giving ear to representations about 
 the sufficiency and economy of shallow drains. These, 
 doubtless, cost somewhat less to begin with, but in thousands 
 of cases they fail to accomplish the desired end, and the 
 unfortunate owners, after all their outlay, are left to the 
 miserable alternative of seeing their land imperfectly drained, 
 or of executing the works anew, and thus losing the whole 
 cost of the first and inefficient ones. The extreme reluctance 
 with which the latter alternative is necessarily regarded will 
 undoubtedly operate for a long time in keeping much land 
 that has been hastily and imperfectly drained from partici- 
 pating in the benefits of thorough drainage. The distance 
 apart at which the drains should be cut must be determined 
 by the nature of the subsoil. In the most retentive clays 
 it need not be less than 18 feet. On the other hand, this 
 distance cannot safely be exceeded in the case of any sub- 
 soil in which clay predominates, although it should not be 
 of the most retentive kind. In all parts of the country 
 instances abound in which drains cut in such subsoils, from 
 24 to 30 feet apart, have totally failed to lay the land dry. 
 When ground is once pre-occupied by drains too far apart, 
 there is no remedy but to form a supplementary one betwixt 
 each pair of the first set ; and thus, by exceeding the proper 
 width at first, the space betwixt the drains is unavoidably 
 reduced to 12 or 15 feet, although 18 feet would originally 
 have sufficed. It is only with a decided porosity in the 
 subsod, and in proportion to the degree of that porosity, 
 that the space between drains can safely be increased to 24, 
 or 30, or 36 feet. In those exceptional cases in which 
 drains more than 36 feet apart prove effectual, their success 
 is due to the principle on which Elkington's system is 
 founded. A few years ago an opinion obtained currency, 
 that as the depth of drains was increased their width apart 
 might with safety be increased in a corresponding ratio. 
 And hence it came to be confidently asserted, that with a 
 depth of 5 or 6 feet a width of from 40 to 60 feet might 
 be adopted with a certainty of success, even in the case of 
 retentive soils. We believe that experience has already 
 demonstrated the unsoundness of this opinion. At all 
 events, in recommending a minimum depth of 4 feet, we do 
 so on the ground that (other things being equal) the whole 
 benefits of drainage are more fully and certainly secured by 
 drains of this depth than by those of 2i or 3 feet. In 
 ordinary case's an increase of depth does not compensate for 
 an increase of the width apart of the drains. Draining can 
 be carried on at all seasons, but is usually best dona in. 
 
 summer or autumn. The digging is usually paid for hr- 
 task work, and the setting of the pipes by day's wages. A 
 thoroughly trustworthy and experienced workman is selected 
 for the latter work, with instructions to set no pipes until 
 he is satisfied that the depth of the drains and level of the 
 bottoms are correct. When the soil is returned into the 
 drains all defects are of course buried, and it therefore be- 
 hoves the landlord, or his substitute, whether tenant or 
 bailiff, to exercise a vigilant oversight of draining operations. 
 Unless carefully executed they cannot be efficient; and with- 
 out efficient drainage all other agricultural operations must 
 be carried on under grievous disadvantages. The extent oi 
 land in Great Britain naturally so dry as not to need artificial 
 drainage is very much less than even practical fanners, who 
 have not studied the subject, are at all aware of. 
 
 Cylindrical pipes with collars are undoubtedly the best 
 draining material that has yet been discovered. The collars 
 referred to are simply short pieces of pipe, just so wide in 
 the bore as to admit of the smaller pipes which form the 
 drain passing freely through them. In use, one of these 
 collars is so placed as to encase the ends of each contiguous 
 pair of tubes, and thus forms a loose fillet around each 
 joining. The ends of these pipes being by this means 
 securely kept in contact, a continuous canal for the free 
 passage of water is infallibly insured, the joinings are 
 guarded against the entrance of mud or vermin, and yet 
 sufficient space is left for the admission of water. Pipes 
 of all diameters, from 1 inch to 1 6 inches, are now to be 
 had ; those from 1 to 2 inches in the bore are used for 
 subordinate drains ; the larger sizes for sub-main and main- 
 receiving drains. Collars are used with the smaller sizes only, 
 large pipes not being so liable to shift their position as small 
 ones. In constructing a drain, it is of much importance 
 that the bottom be cut out just wide enough to admit the 
 pipes and no more. Pipes, when thus accurately fitted in, 
 are much less liable to derangement than when laid in 
 the bottom of a trench several times their width, and 
 into which a mass of loose earth must necessarily be re- 
 turned. This accurate fitting is now quite practicable in 
 the case of soils tolerably free from stones, from the 
 excellence of the draining tools that have lately been 
 introduced. The following cut represents the most import- 
 ant of these tools. -~. - 
 
 c and e are long 
 tapering spade3 for 
 digging out the mid- ft=}-4= 
 
 dle and bottom spits. [ 
 a, d, and / recurved 
 scoops for clearing 
 out the debris, and 
 6 a pipe-layer, by 
 means of which a 
 workman standing 
 at the margin of a 
 drain hooks up a. 
 pipe and collar, and 
 deposits them easily I a I 'J 
 and accurately in the 
 deep narrow trench. 
 
 If a quicksand is encountered in constructing a drain, it 
 will be found expedient to put a layer of straw in the bottom 
 of the trench, and then, instead of the ordinary pipe and 
 collar, to use at such a place a double set of pipes — c; a 
 within the other — taking care that the joinings of the inner 
 set are covered by the centres of the outer ones. By such 
 precautions the water gets vent, and the running sand is 
 excluded from the drain. When a brook has been diverted 
 from its natural course for mill-power or irrigating purposes, 
 it often happens that portions of land are thereby deprived 
 of the outfall required to admit of their being drained to 
 
 ^ 
 
 \&* ' 4 
 
 Draining Tools.
 
 334 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [DRAINIXa 
 
 a proper depth. In such cases it is. frequently practicable 
 to obtain the needed outlet by carrying a main drain, through 
 below the water-course, by using at that point a few yards of 
 cast-iron 1 pipe, and carefully filling up the trench with clay 
 puddle, so that there maybe no leakage from the water-course 
 into the drain. While this is beingdone the water must either be 
 turned off or carried over the temporary gap in a wooden trough. 
 The cost of draining is so much influenced by the ever- 
 varying price of labour and materials, and by the still more 
 varying character of the land to be operated upon, that it is 
 impossible to give an estimate of the cost that will admit 
 of general application. The following tabular data, taken 
 chiefly from Mr Bailey Denton's valuablo treatise, are pre- 
 sented to aid those who wish to form such an estimate : — 
 
 Table I. — Showing the number of rods of drain per acre at givrn 
 distances apart, and the number of pipes of given lengths 
 required per acre. 
 
 Intervals 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 between 
 
 Rods per 
 
 12-Inch 
 
 13-Inch 
 
 14-Inch 
 
 15-Inch 
 
 tile drains 
 
 acie. 
 
 pipes. 
 
 ' pipes. 
 
 pipes. 
 
 pipes. 
 
 In feet. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 1461 
 
 2420 
 
 2234 
 
 2074 
 
 1936 
 
 21 
 
 125f 
 
 2074 
 
 1915 
 
 1778 
 
 1659 
 
 24 
 
 110 
 
 1815 
 
 1676 
 
 1555 
 
 1452 
 
 27 
 
 97J 
 
 1613 
 
 1489 
 
 1383 
 
 1290 
 
 30 
 
 83 
 
 1452 
 
 1340 
 
 1244 
 
 1161 
 
 Table II. — Showing the cost of draining per acre 
 intervals betvieen the drains. 
 
 at different 
 
 
 18 feet I 21 feet 
 apart, j apart. 
 
 24 feet 
 apart. 
 
 27 fe:t 
 
 apart 
 
 30 feet 
 
 apart. 
 
 Labour, cutting and filling 
 in at 6s. per rod 
 
 Material, pipes for minor 
 drains, 18s. per 1000 ,,, 
 
 Haulage, two miles, and de- 
 livery in fields at 2s. 6d. 
 per 1000 
 
 Pipe-laying and finishing, 
 Id. per rod 
 
 Superintendence, foreman.. 
 
 Iron-outlet pipes, and ma- 
 sonry, and extra labour... 
 
 Total 
 
 £ s. d.£ s. d. 
 3 13 43 2 10 
 
 1 
 2 6 91 19 2 
 
 6 4055 
 
 . 1 
 12 21010 6 
 5 CO 5 
 2 0020 
 
 1 6j0 1 6 
 
 £ s. d. 
 2 16 
 
 1 14 3 
 
 4 S 
 
 9 2 
 5 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 £ s. d. 
 2 811 
 
 110 6 
 
 4 3 
 
 8 2 
 5 
 2 
 
 1 6 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 2 4 
 
 1 7 5 
 
 3 9 
 
 7 4 
 5 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 7 6 1 
 1 2 10 
 
 6 6 5;5 11 8 
 19 7 17 1 
 
 5 4 
 15 3 
 
 4 11 
 13 8 
 
 8 8 11 
 
 7 6 0689 
 
 5 15 7 
 
 5 4 8 
 
 Various attempts have from time to time been made to 
 lower the cost of draining land by the direct application of 
 nniiual or steam power to the work of excavation. The 
 
 &£ 
 
 Steam Draining Plough. 
 
 A Engine. 
 a Large dram. 
 a 1 Small drum. 
 B B> Snatch block* 
 C Anchor 
 / Large rope 
 
 S Pulley attached to plough. 
 P Dralnlng-plougo. 
 G Small rope. 
 H Anchor and aheare for small rope* 
 
 most successful of these attempts is the steam-draining 
 apparatus invented by Mr John Fowler of Bristol, usually 
 
 called Fowler's draining plough.. A six-horse portable 
 steam-engine is anchored in one corner of the field to be 
 drained. It gives motion to two drums, to each of which 
 a rope 500 yards long is attached, the one uncoiling as the 
 other is wound up. These ropes pass round blocks which 
 are anchored at each end of the intended line of drain, and 
 are attached one to the front and the other to the hinder end 
 of the draining apparatus. This consists of a framework, 
 in which is fixed, at any required depth not exceeding 3J 
 feet, a strong coulter terminating in a short horizontal bar 
 of cylindrical iron, with a piece of rope attached to it, on 
 which a convenient number of drain pipes are strung. This 
 frame being pulled along by the engine, the coulter is forced 
 through the soil at a regulated depth, and deposits its string 
 of pipes with unerring accuracy, thus forming, as it proceeds, 
 a perfect drain. The supply of pipes is kept up by means 
 of holes previously dug in the line of the drain, at distances 
 corresponding to the length of the rope on which they are 
 strung. This machine was subjected to a very thorough 
 trial at the meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of 
 England at Lincoln in 1854, on which occasion a silver 
 medal and very high commendation were awarded to it. In 
 March 1 S55 it was publicly stated that five of these im- 
 plements are now at work in different parts of England, 
 and that already 10,000 acres of land have been drained by 
 means of them. At the Lincoln trial it was satisfactorily 
 proved that this implement could work at a depth of 3i 
 feet. As it moved along, the soil on each side, to the 
 width of 2 or 3 feet, seemed to be loosened. It is therefore 
 probable that this implement, or at least one propelled on 
 the same principle, may yet be used as a subsoil disin 
 tegrator. 
 
 A great stimulus has recently been given to the improve- 
 ment of land by the passing of a series of Acts of Parlia- 
 ment, which have removed certain obstacles that effectually 
 hindered the investment of capital in works of drainage 
 and kindred ameliorations. By the first of these Acts, 
 passed in 1846, a sum of £4,000,000 of the public money 
 was authorised to be advanced to landowners to be expended 
 in draining their lands. The Enclosure Commissioners 
 were charged with the allocation of this money and the 
 superintendence of its outlay. The most important pro- 
 visions of this Act are that it enables the possessors of 
 entailed estates (equally with others) to share in the benefits 
 of this fund ; that it provides, on terms very favourable to 
 the borrower, for the repayment of the money so advanced 
 by twenty-two annual instalments ; that before sanctioning 
 the expenditure of these funds on drainage works, the com- 
 missioners must have a report from a qualified inspector, 
 to the effect that they sre Likely to prove remunerative ; and, 
 finally, that the works must be performed according to 
 specifications prepared by the inspector, and approved by 
 the commissioners, who have seldom allowed of a less depth 
 of drain than 3J feet. By the end of the year 1854 the 
 whole of this money was allocated, and more than half of 
 it actually expended. Scottish landowners were so prompt 
 to discern, and so eager to avail themselves of this public 
 fund, that more than half of it fell to their share. The 
 great success of this measure, and the rapid absorption of 
 the fund provided by it, soon led to further legislative Acts, 
 by which private capital has been rendered available for 
 the improvement of land, by draining and otherwise, on 
 conditions similar to those just enumerated. These A.cta 
 are — 
 
 1st, The Private Moneys Drainage Act (12 and 13 Vict 
 c. 100), limited to draining. 
 
 2d, The West of England, or South-West Land Draining 
 Company's Act (11 and 12 Vict, c. 142), for the purpose 
 of draining, irrigation and warping, embanking, reclaiming 
 and enclosing, and road-making.
 
 OPERATIONS.] 
 
 AGRiGUL.;r"DKE 
 
 335 
 
 Zd, The General Land-Drainage and Improvement Com- 
 pany's Act (12 and 13 Vict c 91), for the purposes of 
 draining, irrigating and warping, embanking, reclaiming 
 and enclosing, road-making and erecting farm-buildings. 
 
 ith, The Lands Improvement Company's Act (16 and 
 17 Vict. c. 154), for the same purposes as the above, with 
 the addition of planting for shelter. This company's 
 powers extend to Scotland. 
 
 By these Acts ample provision is made for rendering the 
 dormant capital of the country available for the improvement 
 of its soil To the owners of entailed estates they are 
 peculiarly valuable, from the power which they give to them 
 of charging the cost of draining, <tc, upon the inheritance. 
 If such owners apply their own private funds in effecting 
 improvements of this kind, they are enabled, through the 
 medium of these companies, to take a rent-charge on their 
 estates for repayment of the money they so expend, over 
 which they retain personal control, so that they can be- 
 queath as they choose the rent-charge payable by their suc- 
 cessor. Besides their direct benefits, these Drainage Acts 
 have already produced some very important indirect fruits. 
 They have led to many improvements in the manner of 
 accomplishing the works to which they relate, to the wide 
 and rapid dissemination of improved modes of draining, 
 &.C, and, in particular, they have had the effect of creating, 
 or at least of greatly multiplying and accrediting, a staff of 
 skilful end experienced draining engineers, of whose services 
 all whu are*about to engage in draining and similar works 
 will do well to avail themselves. 
 
 Section, 3. — Removal of Earlhfast Stones. 
 
 Newly reclaimed lands, and even those that have long been 
 under tillage, are frequently, much encumbered with earth- 
 r'ast stones. This is particularly the case in many parts of 
 Scotland. Their removal is always desirable, though neces- 
 sarily accompanied with much trouble and expense. In 
 our personal practice we have proceeded in this way. In 
 giving the autumn furrow preparatory to a fallow crop, 
 each ploughman carries with him a few branches of fir or 
 beech, one of which he sticks in above each stone encoun- 
 tered by his plough. If the stones are numerous, particu- 
 larly at certain places, two labourers, provided with a pick, 
 i spade, and a long wooden lever shod with iron, attend 
 upon the ploughs, and remove as many of the stones as 
 :hey can, while yet partially uncovered by the recent furrow. 
 Those thus dug up are rolled aside upon the ploughed land. 
 When the land gets dry enough in spring, those not got 
 out at the time of ploughing are discovered by means of the 
 twigs, and are then dug up. Such as can be lifted by one 
 man are carted off as they are, but those of the larger class 
 must first be reduced by a sledge hammer. They yield to 
 the hammer more easily after a few days' exposure to drought 
 than when attacked as soon as dug up. Before attempting 
 to break very large boulders a brisk fire of dried gorse or 
 brushwood is kept up over them 'until they are heated, 
 after which a few smart blows from the hammer shiver them 
 completely. Portions of otherwise good land are sometimes 
 so full of these boulders, that to render it available, the 
 stones must be got rid of by trenching the whole to a con- 
 siderable depth. When ploughing by steam-power becomes 
 general, a preliminary trenching ot this kind will in many 
 cases bo requisite before tillage instruments thus propelled 
 can be used with safety. 
 
 Section 4. — Paring and Burning. 
 Paring and burning have, from an early period, been re- 
 sorted to for the more speedy subduing of a rough uncultured 
 ourface. This is still the most approved method of dealing 
 with such cases, as well as with any tough old sward which 
 is agaiu to be subjected to tillage. In setting about the 
 
 operation, which is usually done in March or April, a turf, 
 not exceeding an inch in thickness, is first peeled off in 
 successive stripes by a paring-plough drawn by two horses, 
 or by 'the breast-plough already described. Thesa turfs 
 are first set on edge and partially dried, after which they 
 are collected into heaps, and burned, or rather charred. The 
 ashes are immediately spread over the surface, and ploughed 
 in with a light furrow. By this process the matted roots 
 of the pasture plants, the seeds of weeds, and the eggs and 
 larva of innumerable insects, are at once got rid of, and a 
 highly stimulating top-dressing is supplied to the land. A 
 crop of turnips or rape is then drilled on the fiat, and fed 
 off by sheep, after which the land is usually in prime con- 
 dition for bearing a crop of grain. This practice is unsuit- 
 able for sandy soils, which it only renders more sterile ; but 
 when clay or peat prevails, its beneficial effects are indisput- 
 able. We Bhall, in the sequel, give an example of its recent 
 successful application. 
 
 Section 5. — Levelling. 
 
 Land, when subjected to the plough for the first time, 
 abounds not unfrequently with abrupt hollows and pro- 
 tuberances, which impede tillage operations. These can 
 be readily levelled by means of a box shaped like t 
 huge dust-pan, the front part being shod with iron, and 
 a pair of handles attached behind. This levelling-box is 
 drawn by a pair of horses. Being directed against a promi- 
 nent part, it scoops up its fill of soil, with which it slides 
 along 6ledge-fashion to the place where it is to discharge 
 its load, which it doe3 by canting over, on the ploughman 
 disengaging the handles. 
 
 In all parts of Great Britain, abundance of pasture land, 
 and often tillage land also, is to be met with lying in broad, 
 highly raised, serpentine ridges. These seem to have 
 originated when teams of six or eight bullocks were used in 
 ploughing ; and it has been suggested that this curvature 
 of <r»e ridges at first arose from its being easier to turn these 
 long teams at the end of each land by sweeping round in 
 a curve than by driving straight out. The very broad head- 
 lands found in connection with these curved ridges point to 
 the same fact. A theory still lingers among our peasantry, 
 that "water runs better in a crooked furrow than in a 
 straight one," and has probably been handed down since 
 the discovered awkwardness of curved ridges was first seen 
 to need some plausible apology. These immense, wave- 
 like ridges are certainly a great annoyance to the modern 
 cultivator ; but still the sudden levelling of them is accom- 
 panied with so much risk, that it is usually better to cut 
 drains in the intervening hollows, and plough aslant them 
 in straight lines, by which means a gradual approximation 
 to a level surface is made. A field in our own occupation, 
 which was levelled, by cleaving down the old crooked ridges, 
 fifty years ago, still shows, by alternate curving bands of 
 greater and less luxuriance, the exact site of tho crowns and 
 furrowa of the ancient ridges. 
 
 Section 6. — Trenching. 
 
 But for its tediousuess and costliness, trenching two or 
 three spits deep by spade or forkis certainly the most effectual 
 means for at once removing obstructions, leveliingthe' surface, 
 and perfecting the drainage by thoroughly loosening the 
 subsoiL For the reasons mentioned, it is seldom resorted 
 to on a large scala But it is becoming a common practice, 
 with careful farmers, to have those patches of ground in 
 the corners, and by the fences of fields, which are missed 
 in ploughing, gone over with the trenching-fork. The 
 additional crop thus obtained may fail to compensate for 
 this hand-tillage, but it is vindicated on the ground that 
 these corners and margins are the nurseries of weeds which 
 it is profitable to destroy.
 
 336 
 
 AGRICULTUKK 
 
 [tillage 
 
 CHAPTER VUL 
 
 TILLAGE OPERATIONS. 
 
 Section 1. — Ploughing. 
 When the raturaL green sward, or ground that has been 
 cleared of a cu '.tivated crop, is to be prepared for the sowing 
 or planting of further crops, the plough leads the way in 
 breaking up tLe compact surface, by cutting from it succes- 
 sive slices, averaging about ten inches in breadth by seven 
 in depth, which it turns half over upon each other to the 
 right-hand side. This turning of the slices or furrows to 
 one side only renders it necessary to square off the space 
 to be ploughed into parallelograms, half the slices of which 
 are laid the one way and the other half the other, by the 
 going and returning of the plough. These parallel -spaces 
 are variously termed ridges, stetches, lands, or feirings, which 
 in practice vary in width from a few furrows to 30 yards. 
 When very narrow spaces are used, a waste of labour ensues, 
 from the necessity of opening out and then reclosing an 
 extra number of index or guiding furrows ; while very wide 
 ones involve a similar waste from the distance which the 
 plough must go empty in traversing at the ends. The spaces 
 thus formed by equal numbers of furrow-slices turned from 
 opposite sides have necessarily a rounded outline, and are 
 separated by open channels. In a moist climate and im- 
 pervious soil, this ridging of the surface causes rain-water 
 to pass off more rapidly, and keeps the soil drier than would 
 be the case if it was kept flat. Hence the cultivated lands 
 of Great Britain almost invariably exhibit this ridged form 
 of surface. Until the art of under-ground draining was 
 discovered, this was indeed the only mode of keeping 
 cultivated ground tolerably dry.'. But it is at best a very 
 defective method, and attended by many disadvantages. 
 When land is naturally dry, or has been made so by thorough 
 drainage, the flatter its surface is kept the .better for the 
 crops grown upon it. We are not forgetful that there are, 
 in various parts of Great Britain, clays so impervious that 
 probably no amount of draining or disintegration of the 
 subsoil will render it safe to dispense with ridging. These, 
 however, are exceptional cases, and, as a rule, such a con- 
 dition of soil and subsoil should be aimed at as will admit 
 of this rude expedient of ridging being altogether dispensed 
 with. Unless land can absorb the whole rain which falls 
 upon it, its full range of fertility cannot be developed ; for 
 the same slfowers which aggravate the coldness and sterility 
 of impervious and already saturated soils ear^y down with 
 them, end impart to those that are pervious, ever fresh sup- 
 olies of genial influences. Instead, then, of this perennial 
 source of fertility being encouraged to run off by surface 
 :hannels, or to stagnate in the soil and become its bane, 
 let provision be made for its free percolation through an 
 Dpen stratum several feet in thickness, and then for its escape 
 by drains of such depth and frequency as each particular 
 case requires. When this is attained, a flat surface will 
 generally be preserved, as alike conducive to the welfare 
 of the crops and to the successful employment of machinery 
 for sowing, weeding, and reaping them. 
 
 In all treatises on British agriculture of a date anterior 
 to the first quarter of the present century, we find great 
 stress laid on the proper formation of the ridges, careful 
 cleaning out of the separating channels or water-furrows, 
 ■»nd drawing and spading out of cross-cuts in all hollows, so 
 .hat no water may stagnate on the surface of the field. As 
 chorough under-draining makes progress, such directions are 
 becoming obsolete. But whether ridging or flat work is 
 ised, the one-sided action of the plough renders it necessary, 
 in setting about the ploughing of a field, to mark it off into 
 parallel spaces by a series of equi-distant straight lines. 
 Supposing tf e line of fence, at the side at which he begins, 
 Vo bo stra'gl t, the ploughman takes this as his bo>e line; 
 
 and measuring from it, erects his three or more fciring poles 
 perfectly in line, at a distance from the fence equal to half 
 the width of tho ridges or spaces in which it is proposed 
 to plough the field. This operation — called in Scotland 
 feiring the land — is usually entrusted to the most skilful 
 ploughman on each farm, and is regarded as a post of honour. 
 Having drawn a furrow in the exact line of his poles, which 
 practice enables him to do with an accuracy truly admirable, 
 ho proceeds, using always the last furrow as a fresh base 
 from which to measure the next one, until the field is all 
 marked off. When this is done, it presents the appearance 
 of a neatly ruled sheet of paper. Besides the poles just 
 referred to, the ploughman is frequently furnished with a 
 cross staff, by means of which he first of all marks off two 
 or more lines perpendicular to the straight side at which 
 he commences, and along these he measures with his poles, 
 which are graduated for the purpose, in laying off his parallel 
 Lines. This feiring is only required when a process of 
 fallowing, in preparation for green crop, has obliterated the- 
 former ridges. In breaking up clover lea or older sward, 
 the ploughman begins at the open furrows, which afford 
 him a sufficient guide. 
 
 In ploughing for a seed-bed the furrow-slice is usually 
 cut about five inches deep. In the case of lea, it should 
 be turned over unbroken, of uniform thickness, and laid 
 quite close upon the preceding one, so as to hide all green 
 sward. The improved wheel-plough already referred to does 
 this work very beautifully, cutting out the slioe perfectly 
 square from the bottom of the furrow. The perfect uniform- 
 ity in the width and depth of the slices cut by it permits 
 the harrows to act equally upon the whole surface. When 
 the slice is cut unevenly, they draw the loosened soil from 
 tho prominences into tho hollows, so that one part is scraped 
 bare, and the other remains untouched and unbroken. This 
 must necessarily yield a poor seed-bed, and contrasts un- 
 favourably with the uniform tilth produced by harrowing 
 after such work as these wheel-ploughs invariably produce. 
 In the Lothians and west of Scotland, a form of plough is 
 much used for ploughing lea, which cuts out the slice with 
 an acute angle at the land side. This, when turned over, 
 stands up with a sharp ridge, which looks particularly well, 
 and offers a good subject for harrows to work upon. But 
 if a few of these furrow-slices are removed, the firm earth 
 below exhibits the same ribbed appearance as the newly 
 ploughed surface, instead of the clear level sole on which 
 the right-angled slice cut by the wheel-plough is laid Dvei 
 so as to rest upon its lower angle. This ribbing of the 
 unstirred subsoil is exceedingly objectionable in all kinds 
 of ploughing. 
 
 In the autumn ploughing of stubble-ground in preparation 
 for the root-crops of the following season, a much deepei 
 furrow is turned over than for a seed-furrow. In ordinary 
 cases it should not be less than nine inches, while in very 
 many, if ten or twelve can be attained, so much the better. 
 In all deep soils this bringing up and mixing with the sur- 
 face of fresh material from below is highly beneficial It 
 must not, however, be practised indiscriminately. Siliceous 
 and peaty soils need compactness, and to have the soil that 
 has been artificially enriched kept a-top. For such deep 
 work as we have noticed above, three or even four horses 
 are frequently yoked to the plough. When a field slopes 
 considerably one way, it i3 good practice to work the plough 
 down the slope only, and return without a furrow. A 
 pair of horses working in thi3 way will turn as deep a 
 furrow, and get over as much ground, as three will do taking 
 a furrow both ways, and with less fatigue to themselves 
 and to the ploughman.! After bringing a heavy furrow 
 downhill, they get recruited in stepping briskly back with 
 only the plough to draw. This mode of ploughing one 
 furrow dowi the slope tends less to gather the soil to-
 
 OPERATIONS.] 
 
 A G It I C U L T U 11 E 
 
 33; 
 
 *ard the bottom than oy using a turn-wrest plough across 
 the slope. It is while giving this deep autumn furrow 
 that the subsoil plough is used. It follows in the wake 
 of the common plough, and breaks and stirs the subsoil, 
 but without raising it to the surface. This is a laborious 
 operation, and engrosses too much of the horse-power of the 
 farm to admit of large breadths being overtaken in any one 
 season. In all indurated subsoils, however, it repays its 
 cost ; for when once thoroughly done, it diminishes the 
 labour of ordinary ploughings for several succeeding rota- 
 tions, aids the drainage, and adds to the fertility of the soil 
 It is in the performance of this deep autumn tillage and 
 breaking up of the subsoil, that the steam-engine, with 
 appropriate tackle, has begun to play an important part, 
 and for which it will probably one day supersede all other 
 means. 
 
 Section 2. — Harrowing, &c. 
 The harrow, cultivator, and roller, are all more simple in 
 their action and more easily managed than the plough. Har- 
 rowing is most effective when the horses step briskly along. 
 The tines are then not merely drawn through the soil, 
 but, in their combined swinging and forward movement, 
 itrike into it with considerable force. It is with reference 
 to this that a single application of this implement is called 
 a stroke of the harrows. Rollers are used to aid in pulveris- 
 ing and cleaning the soil, by bruising clods and lumps of 
 tangled roots and earth which the other implements have 
 brought a-top ; in smoothing the surface for the reception 
 of small seeds, or the better operation of the scythe and 
 other implements ; and for consolidating soil that is too 
 loose in its texture. Except for the latter purpose, light 
 rollers are much superior to heavy ones. When it is wanted, 
 for example, to bruise clots of quickens, that the after 
 harrowing may more thoroughly free the roots from the 
 adhering earth, a light cast-iron roller, say of 5 cwt., drawn 
 by one horse, effects this purpose as thoroughly as one double 
 the weight drawn by a pair, — and does it, moreover, in much 
 less time, at les3 than half the expense, and without in- 
 juriously consolidating the free soil. These light rollers 
 are conveniently worked in pairs, the ploughman driving 
 one horse and leading the other. With a pair of active 
 horses, and such rollers, a good deal more than double the 
 space can be rolled in a day, than by yoking them both to 
 one heavy one of the same length of cylinder. For mere 
 clod-crushing, provided the clods are moist, the Norwegian 
 harrow is superior to any roller ; and for compressing a 
 loose surface or checking wire-worm, serrated or smooth- 
 edged discs, such as Crosskill's or Cambridge's, are better 
 than smooth cylinders of the same weight, so that the 
 heavy smooth roller, requiring two or more horses to draw 
 it, is superseded by better implements for all purposes where 
 rollers are used at all, unless it be for the rolling of the 
 grass-lands. 
 
 As a general rule, none of these tillage operations can be 
 performed to advantage when the soil is wet. When rain 
 falls inopportunely there is a strong temptation to push 
 on the field operations, before the soil has recovered the 
 proper state of dryness. When this is done the farmer 
 almost invariably finds in the issue that the more haste he 
 makes the worse he speeds. Soils with a good deal of clay in 
 their composition are peculiarly susceptible of injury in this 
 way. Nice discrimination is needed to handle them aright. 
 They require, moreover, a full stock of well-conditioned 
 horses, that the work may be pushed rapidly through 
 in favourable weather, To manage such soils success- 
 fully, especially when root crops are grown, tries the skill 
 of the farmer to the utmost. So at least it has hitherto 
 been ; but with steam-power to aid him, there is now a 
 probability that the clay land farmer, by being able to 
 break up his soil without treading it, and to get through 
 
 with a large extent of tillage when his land is in trim for 
 it, may find it practicable to grow root crops on equal 
 terms with the occupier of freer soiL 
 
 Section 3. — Fallowing. 
 
 When, by such operations as have now been described., 
 land has been reclaimed from it3 natural state, and rendered 
 fit for the purposes of the husbandman, it is everywhere 
 so charged with the germs of weeds, most of which possess 
 in a remarkable degree the power of reproduction and 
 multiplication, that it is only by the most incessant and 
 vigorous efforts he can restrain them from encroaching upon 
 his cultivated crops, and regaining entire possession of the 
 soil He can do much towards this by ordinary tillage, 
 and by sowing his crops in rows, and hoeing in the inter- 
 vals during the early stages of their growth. But if his 
 efforts are restricted to such measures only, the battle will 
 soon go against him. Besides this, all arable soils in 
 which clay predominates, particularly when undraine'd, have 
 such a determined tendency to become compact and soured, 
 that under ordinary efforts they fail to yield a genial seed- 
 bed. There is a necessity, therefore, for having recourse, 
 from time to time, to that ameliorating process of lengthened 
 tillage called fallowing. This process begins in autumn, 
 immediately after the removal from the ground of the 
 cereal crop, which had been sown upon the land newly 
 broken up from clover lea or natural sward, and extends 
 either to the time for sowing turnips and analogous crops 
 in the following spring, or is continued during the entire 
 summer in preparation for autumn-sowh wheat. We shall 
 first describe that modification of the fallowing process by 
 which the soil is prepared for the sowing of drilled green 
 crops, and then the more prolonged form of it usually called 
 summer or naked fallow. 
 
 Green Crop Fallow. 
 
 The object aimed at being the thorough disintegration 
 and cleaning of the soil, the usual practice is to begin by 
 ploughing as deeply as is found practicable. This first or 
 autumn furrow is accordingly turned over to a depth of 6 
 or 9 inches; or by using a stronger plough drawn by 
 three or four horses, it is carried to 12 inches in depth ; and 
 in some cases, by following with a subsoil plough in the 
 wake of the common one, the soil is stirred to the depth 
 of 14 or 16 inches. All cultivators are agreed as to the 
 importance of thus deeply and effectually disintegrating all 
 soils that are naturally dry or thoroughly drained. In the 
 case of undrained lands, and even of very unctuous clays, 
 although well drained, such deep stirring of the soil in 
 autumn does but increase its capacity of retaining the rains 
 of winter, and of being thereby more effectually soured, 
 and is therefore to be avoided. Assuming, however, that 
 we have to do with soil thoroughly drained and moderately 
 friable, it is undoubtedly beneficial to loosen it deeply and 
 thoroughly at this stage. But before this deep ploughing 
 is set about, it will be worth while to consider well its 
 bearing upon the cleaning part of the process. On carefully 
 examining the fields at the time of reaping the grain-crops, 
 and from week to week thereafter, the roots of the couch 
 grass are found at first lying close to the surface ; but in- 
 stantly, on their getting the ground to themselves, they 
 begin to send out fresh fibres, and to push their shoot? 
 deeply into the soil In these circumstances, to proceed 
 at once, according to the customary practice, to plough 
 deeply, allows these weeds much time to increase, whila 
 this laborious and tedious operation is going on; and 
 although, when performed, it gives some present chec- 
 to their progress, by burying them under a mass of loosei.ed 
 soil, it not only increases the difficulty of their after removal, 
 but places them out of the reach of frost, and in the best
 
 338 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [tillaoe 
 
 possible position for pervading the entire soil, on the first 
 recurrence of mild weather. The consequence is, that 
 fallows so treated are invariably found in spring more fully 
 3tocked with quickens than they were at the time of the 
 autumn ploughing. The observation of this suggested 
 the practice, now very common in England, of cleaning 
 fallmcs in autumn before giving the. firft deep furrow. For 
 this purpose, such implements as Biddle's scarifier, the 
 broad-share paring-ploughs, or better still, the common 
 plough, divested of its mould-board and fitted with a share 
 a foot broad, are set to work as fast as the grain-crops are 
 reaped, and the whole surface is rapidly pared at a depth 
 of three or four inches. This completely loosens the yet 
 shiillnw-lying roots of tho couch-grass, which are then freed 
 from the adhering earth by the Norwegian and chain- 
 hnrmw. raked together and burned, or carted off. This 
 pulverising of the surface soil in early autumn is usually 
 followed by the springing up of an abundant crop of annual 
 weeds and of shaken grain, which are thus got rid of by 
 the subsequent ploughing. So great and manifold are tho 
 advantages of this modern practice, that in those districts 
 where it is most in use. other autumn work, even wheat- 
 sowing, is comparatively neglected until it is accomplished. 
 When the weeds have been got rid of in this summary and 
 inexpensive manner, deep ploughing is then resorted to 
 with unalloyed'^benefit. Whenever steam-power becomes 
 fully available for tillage operations, this autumn cleaning 
 and deep stirring of fallows will be accomplished rapidly 
 and effectually, and the teams will meanwhile be set at 
 liberty for root-storing, wheat-sowing, and other needful 
 work, which can be well done' only when accomplished 
 during the brief season of good weather, which usually 
 intervenes betwixt the close of harvest and beginning of 
 winter. 
 
 In the case of farms that have for a lengthened period 
 been carefully cultivated, the stubble may be found so 
 clean as not to require the whole area to be scarified in tho 
 manner now described. Instead of this, it may suffice to have 
 the ground carefully examined, and such patches or stray 
 plants of couch-grass, or other perennial weeds, as are met 
 with, forked out. By this means the fallows are kept clean 
 at little expense, and when spring arrives, those repeated 
 ploughings, and other tedious and costly operations, are 
 wholly avoided, in performing which the condition of the 
 soil is marred and the best seed-time often missed. When 
 fallows are thus cleaned in autumn, it is highly advantageous 
 to cart on to them at once, and cover in with a deep furrow, 
 all the farm-yard dung that is on hand up to the completion 
 of their first ploughing. From the length of time which 
 must elapse before the land can again bo touched, it is quite 
 safe, or rather it is highly advantageous, to apply all the 
 recently made dung, although in a .very rough state. In 
 doing this, it is necessary that a person precede each plough, 
 and trim the rank litter into the previous furrow, that it 
 may be properly covered up and regularly distributed. 
 Unless this precaution is observed, the ploughs are constantly 
 choked and impeded, the manure is drawn together into 
 unsightly hassocks, and the whole operation is imperfectly 
 performed. The recommendations to this practice are — 
 first, An important saving of labour; for the manure being 
 carted direct from the yards, 4c, on to tho land, and evenly 
 spread over it, there is no forming, covering up, and turning 
 of dunghills, or refilling and carting in spring. This heavy 
 work is accomplished at a season when time is less pressing 
 than in spring, and the sowing of the crop can be proceeded 
 with more rapidly when the time for it arrives, and while 
 weather favours. Second, There is a saving of manure by 
 burying it at once in its rough state, instead of first 
 fermenting it in Isrje heaps ; and a b.rge portion of the 
 fallow-break can Liius be uressed with home-made manure. 
 
 Third, Tho rough dungthus ploughed in decomposes slowly, 
 its virtues are absorbed and retained by the soil, with the 
 whole mass of which it is thoroughly incorporated by the 
 spring tillage, and which, in consequence, is found, after 
 such treatment, in a peculiarly mellow and favourable con- 
 dition for receiving the seed 
 
 The advantages of autumn cleaning and manuring of 
 land in preparation for green crops are so great that thc- 
 utmost exertions should be made to secure them. Over a 
 large portion of England tho harvest is usually so early as 
 to leave ample time for accomplishing the cleaning process 
 before being arrested by bad weather. From the later 
 harvest season and more humid climate of Scotland, it is 
 there more difficult to carry it out to the whole extent of 
 the fallow-break ; but still, with promptitude and energy, 
 much can be done. One of her shrewd and intelligent sons, 
 Mr Tennant, the inventor of the grubber which bears his 
 name, has, however, introduced a system of autumn tillage, 
 founded upon tho same principle, and accomplishing vir- 
 tually the same end, but less expensive and better adapted 
 to the climate of Scotland than that just described. So 
 soon as the grain crops are harvested, Mr Tennant sets his 
 light grubbers agoing, and by working them over the whole 
 field several times and in opposite directions, stirs the whole 
 surface soil to the depth of six or eight inches, tears up and 
 brings to the surface all root-weeds, where, after being 
 knocked about and freed from adhering soil by repeated 
 harrowings and a final grubbing, they are left for the 
 winter. In our own practice we have latterly improved, 
 as we imagine, on Mr Tennant's plan by broadsharmg the 
 land before using the grubbers, and also by employing the 
 Norwegian harrow instead of the common one. The 
 broadsharing ensures that the whole of the couch-grass 
 and other weeds are thoroughly loosened without being 
 buried, and the Norwegian harrow shakes out the roots from 
 the adhering earth better than the common harrow. When 
 it is intended to treat a field in this way, care should be 
 taken at harvest time to reap the crop as close to the ground 
 as possible, as rank stubble seriously encumbers the tillage 
 implements. In setting about the grubbing of a field it is 
 expedient also to begin with the headlands, and to work ther.i 
 thoroughly all round twice over, before they are trodden 
 down by the frequent turning of the horses upon them. 
 If this is omitted it will be found nearly impossible to have 
 the margins of the field as well cultivated as the rest of it. 
 A field thus treated presents for a time a singularly untidy 
 and unpromising appearance ; but the ultimate effects of the 
 practice, as well in the cleaning a3 the disintegrating of the 
 soil, are very remarkable. When roots of couch-grass, 4c, 
 are freed from the soil, and fully exposed to the vicissitudes 
 of the weather at a season when their vital force is at the 
 lowest point, they are unable to resist its effects, and gra- 
 dually die. If placed in similar circumstances in spring, 
 with their vital energy in full play, the merest point of a 
 root embedded in, or even in contact with, pulverised soil, 
 enables them to push down fresh fibres, to re-establish their 
 connection with the soil, and to grow as lustily as ever. 
 But so completely is the destruction of these pests secured 
 by this simple process of winter exposure, that on the return 
 of spring they may be ploughed in with impunity. Mr 
 Tennant assures us, that ever since he adopted this practice 
 he has been enabled to dispense with the removal of these 
 weeds. Having had an opportunity of inspecting his farm, 
 we are enabled to testify to its cleanness and high state of 
 fertility. On this plan, then, the cleaning of fallows is 
 accomplished by tillage operations alone, without any outlay 
 for raking or hand-picking, burning, or carting off. Nor is 
 this done at the expense of the pulverising part of the pro- 
 cegs. On the contrary, Mr Tennant asserts, and we have 
 so far verified his assertion by actual experiment, that by dis
 
 OPEEATIOXS.] 
 
 AGKICULTUKE 
 
 339 
 
 integrating the soil in autumn, as is done by this broadshar- 
 ing, grubbing, and harrowing, it receives far more benefit 
 from the alternation of frost and thaw, rain and drought, 
 than when merely ploughed and left lying during winter 
 in compact furrow-slices. This plan affords the same 
 facilities as the other for autumn manuring, if the weeds 
 are raked off at once from so much of the fallow-break 
 as it is wished to manure before winter. When the 
 remainder is ploughed in April following, more of it may 
 then have the farm-yard dung applied to it in the same 
 way. Agriculturists owe a large debt of gratitude to Air 
 Tennant for the invention of his beautifully simple and 
 efficient grubber, and for this scientific application of it to 
 the fallowing process. Those who have been pursuing this 
 system of tillage will be much interested in observing that 
 it has been adopted by Mr Smith of Woolston, who is 
 carrying it out to perfection by means of hy steam-drawn 
 implements. 
 
 The autumn tillage of the fallows having been accom- 
 plished in one or other of the ways described, the land is 
 left untouched till the return cf spring. If it is infested 
 by annual weeds, it is expedient, as soon as it is dry enough 
 to bear treading with impunity, to level and stir the surface 
 by a turn of .the harrows. This slight moving of the 
 mellowed surface-soil induces the seeds of weeds to germinate 
 more quickly than they would otherwise do, and thus a 
 crop of them is got rid of by the next tilling. This pre- 
 liminary harrowing is useful also in affording a level course 
 for the tillage implements. By the time that the labour 
 connected with the sowing of spring crops is over, the f aillows 
 are usually dry enough to be stirred with safety. This 
 point, must, however, be well seen to, as irreparable mischief 
 is often done by going upon them too soon. And now it 
 is, that, instead of rigidly following any customary routine 
 of so many ploughing?, harrowings, and rollings, the skilful 
 cultivator "will regulate his procedure by the actual circum- 
 stances of his soil, and the object which he has in view. 
 What is needed for the successful growth of drilled green 
 crops is to have the soil free from weeds, thoroughly disin- 
 tegrated to the depth of six or eight inches, and yet moist 
 enough to ensure the ready germination of seeds deposited 
 in it. Where such autumn cleaning and manuring as we 
 have described have been successfully carried out, all that 
 is needed, in order to obtain a proper tilth, is to go to work 
 with light grubbers, first in the line of the previous furrows 
 and then across them, and then to harrow, roll, and remove 
 any weeds that have been missed in autumn, after which 
 the soil will be in the best possible condition for drilling. 
 On friable soils, this method of performing the spring tillage 
 by means of tho grubber instead of the plough is perfectly 
 practicable, and has manifold advantages to recommend it. 
 The saving of labour is veiy great, as a man and pair of 
 horses will more easily grub four acres than plough one acre. 
 Weeds are more easily removed, as tho grubber pulls them 
 out unbroken, whereas the plough cuts them in pieces. The 
 soil that has been all winter subjected to the mellowing in- 
 fluences of the weather, and which, in consequence, is in 
 tho best possible condition to yield a genial seed-bed, is 
 retained a-top, whereas ploughing buries it and brings up 
 clods in its stead. And, lastly, the soil being merely stirred, 
 without having its surface reversed, its natural moisture 
 (or winter sap) is retained, whereby the germinating of seeds 
 sown in it becomes almost a certainty. The importance 
 of this last point in the cultivation of such crops as tho 
 turnip, whose seeds must usually be sown during hot ana 
 dry weather, can scarcely be overrated. This practice is 
 peculiarly appropriate for soils of loose texture, which arc 
 invariably injured by repeated ploughings. But it is also 
 resorted to successfully on soils of tho opposite extreme. 
 Many fitrniets in the Lotliiaus now grow abundant and ex- 
 
 tensive crops of turnips on strong clay soils by bpreaoing 
 liberal dressii.£ of dung on the stubble in autumn, ploughing 
 it in with a deep furrow, leaving the land untouched until 
 sowing-time has fully arrived, and then stirring the mellowed 
 surface soil by the grubbers, removing weeds, and drilling 
 and sowing at once without any ploughing. When this 
 system is adopted on tenacious wils, it is prudent to operate 
 upon portions of the field in detail, taking in only so much 
 at a time as can be grubbed and drilled the same day ; foi 
 if rain should intervene betwixt the grubbing and the 
 drilling, the soil would set liko mortar and the tide bo lost 
 When once tho ridgelets are made up in good condition, they 
 can withstand a fall of ram with comparative impunity ; 
 and hence the occurrence of a course of fino weather, when 
 the season is yet too early for sowing, is sometimes taken 
 advantage of by preparing the land and making it up into 
 ridgelets, although it should require to remain in this state 
 weeks, or even months, before sowing takes place. In such 
 a- case, immediately before sowing, the ridgelets are first 
 partially levelled by harrowing length-wise, in order to loosen 
 the soil and destroy annual weeds, and then again made 
 up by using a double-breasted plough. We must here, 
 however, insist upon the importance of having the grubbing 
 thoroughly performed, which it cannot be unless the tines 
 penetrate the soil as deeply as th3 plough has done at the 
 autumn ploughing. It is owing to the neglect of this that 
 the system has failed in the hands of many farmers, who 
 first mismanage the operation, and then throw the blame 
 upon- the grubbers. To ensure success, the implement must 
 be set so as to work at its full depth, sufficient motive power 
 being applied by yoking three horses, if necessary, to each 
 grubber at the first and also at the second going over, and 
 there must be vigilant superintendence exercised lest the 
 ploughman do the work slightly. It is sometimes objected 
 to this system of spring tillage, that it fails to rid the land 
 of thistles and other tap-rooted weeds ; but it is surely 
 easier to fork these out as they appear, than to plough a 
 whole field merely to destroy as many thistles as a man, it 
 may be, would dig up in a day. By taking advantage of 
 the tilth obtained by the action of the elements, instead of 
 first ploughing down the mellowed surface, and then 
 attempting laboriously to reduce tho obdurate furrows by 
 mechanical means, skilful and energetic farmers new succeed 
 in preparing even tenacious soils for drilled gTeen-crops, at 
 little expense, and with a good measure of certainty. 
 
 On these opposite classes of soils, then — the very loose, 
 and the tenacious — spring tillage, in preparation for root- 
 crops, is performed to better purpose by mean3 of the 
 grubber than the plough. Betwixt these extremes, however, 
 lic3 the most valuable class of soils — tho strong fertile loams 
 — on which the heaviest crops and best quality of Swedes 
 are grown. With these it is usually expedient to have 
 recourse to at least one spring ploughing, as soon, but only 
 as soon, as the soil is dry enough to crumble freely to the 
 very bottom of the furrow. As this usually occurs from 
 four to six weeks before the time of sowing the crop, it is 
 advisable to plough the entire field, and leave it so until 
 rain falls, when a modertrio use of the grubber, harrows, 
 and light roller, usually suffices to produce a good tilth for 
 ridging. When operations are not thus facilitated by a 
 seasonable fall of rain, it is necessary to proceed somewhat 
 differently. The field is lying as it was left by the plough, 
 with a rough dried surface. If harrowed while in this 
 state, an abundant crop of clods is brought to the surface, 
 which quickly harden when thus fully exposed to drought 
 To avoid this inconvenience, the field is jirst rolled with a 
 heavy roller, and then grubbed across tho direction in whieh 
 it was last ploughed. By this means the clods, being 
 partially crushed and pressed down amongst tho loose earth, 
 resist the grubber, and are crumbled bv it. instead of beiiw
 
 340 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [succession 
 
 merely raked out and left entire on the surface, as would 
 happen but for this preliminary rolling. The grubbers are 
 followed closely by harrows and a light roller, and these 
 again by the grubbers ; but this time with seven tines on 
 instead of five, after which a sufficient tilth is usually 
 obtained. All this is on the supposition that the land is 
 clean when these spring operations are commenced ; for 
 should it be otherwise, it is usually better to begin with 
 the grubber on the stale winter furrow, and to get rid of 
 the weeds, before using the plough. If it is found necessary 
 to plough near to the time of sowing, then the harrow and 
 roller must keep paco with the ploughs in order to retain 
 moisture and prevent the formation of clods. Tho Nor- 
 wegian harrow is the proper implement to use in such cases. 
 Let it ever be borne in mind that if the soil is cleaned and 
 sufficiently disintegrated, the less working it gets at this 
 stage the better. 
 
 It may be well indeed to remind tho reader that although 
 the fallowing process can most conveniently be gone about 
 during tho period which intervenes betwixt the removal of 
 a grain-crop from the ground and the sowing of the succeed- 
 ing root-crop, and on this account is often spoken of in a 
 loose way as being performed " in preparation for the root- 
 crop," it is a fallacy to regard this laborious and costly 
 process of tillage and cleaning as undertaken solely or 
 mainly for the benefit of the turnip or other root-crop, 
 then about to be sown. The other' crops of the rotation 
 benefit by it in a far greater degree, and it would be re- 
 quired on their account although turnips were not grown 
 at all, as may be seen in tho case of clay lands with their 
 periodic naked fallows. It is the overlooking of this fact 
 which has led people to charge the whole cost of this fallow- 
 ing process, and of all the manure then applied to the land, 
 against the turnip-crop, and then to represent this crop as 
 the most costly one which the farmer grows, — one which 
 often yields him less than it cost to produco it. Undoubt- 
 edly the cost of the fallow must be charged equally against 
 all the crops of the rotation. 
 
 Summer or XaJced Fallow. 
 Having thus described at length that modification of the 
 fallowing process by which the soil is prepared for the 
 sowing of green crops, we shall now, as proposed, speak 
 of that prolonged form of it called a summer or naked fallow. 
 From the facilities now afforded, by means of tile-draining 
 and portable manures, for an extended culture of green 
 crops, this laborious and costly process, which in its day 
 was justly regarded as the very key to good and profitable 
 farming, is now restricted to the more obdurate clay soils, 
 or to cases where draining and other modern improve- 
 ments are neglected. Tho manifold advantages of having 
 abundant crops of turnips, or mangel-wurzel, instead of 
 naked fallow, sometimes tempt tho occupiers of clay soils 
 to push the cultivation of these crops beyond due bounds. 
 We know of cases where, after large expenditure in draining, 
 the cultivation of turnips has been carried to such an extent, 
 and conducted so injudiciously, that the land has got foul 
 and soured, and its gross produce has been reduced below 
 what it was while the land was undrained, and under a 
 regular system of all but exclusive naked fallows. However 
 thoroughly drained, clay soils retain their ticklish temper, 
 and are so easily disconcerted by interference during un- 
 favourable weather, that the preparing of them for the 
 cultivation of root-crop3, and still more the removing of 
 these crops when grown, is at best a hazardous business, 
 and requires to be conducted with peculiar tact. Judicious 
 farmers, who know by experience tho difficulties that have 
 to be overcome in cultivating such soils, are of opinion that 
 all that can yet be ventured upon with safety is to prolong 
 the period of the naked fallow's recurrence, rather than 
 
 entirely to dispense with it. After a series of alternate 
 grain and cattle crops, it is accordingly still their practice 
 to wind up with a summer fallow, by which they rectify 
 unavoidable defects in the tillage of preceding years, and 
 put their land in good humour for entering again upon a 
 fresh course of cropping. 
 
 This process is begun by a deep ploughing in autumn, is 
 performing which the land is gathered into ridges, that it 
 may bo kept as dry as possible during winter. When the 
 more urgent labours of the following spring are so far dis- 
 posed of as to afford leisure for it, a second ploughing is 
 given to .tho fallow, usually by reversing the furrows of 
 autumn". This is followed at intervals by two cross-plough- 
 ings, whjclr'are made to reverse each other, in order to keep 
 tho land level k As it is the nature of these soils to break 
 into lumps, under the action of the plough, rather than to 
 crumble down, the clods thus produced get so thoroughly 
 parched in dry weather, that root-weeds enclosed in them 
 are killed by sheer desiccation. To further this cheap mode 
 of getting rid of them, the land is not rolled, but stirred by 
 the grubber and harrow as frequently as possible, so as to 
 expose the clods freely to tho drought. We know by ex- 
 perience that fallows can be cleaned effectually by thus 
 taking advantage of the tendency in clay soils to bake 
 excessively under exposure to the hot dry weather which 
 usually prevails in June and July. Should the season 
 happen to be a showery one, this lino of tactics must needs 
 be abandoned, and recourse had to the judicious use of the 
 grubber, Norwegian and common harrow, in order to free 
 the weeds from the soil, and then clear them off by raking 
 or hand-picking. This is more costly, and, as we believe, 
 less beneficial to the soil than the simple method first 
 noticed, which should therefore be attempted in the first 
 place. As in hay -making, much can here be done in a few 
 favourable days, by keeping grubbers and harrows at work, 
 and turning the clods frequently. When farm-yard dung 
 is to bo applied to such fallows, it is desirable that it should 
 bo carted on and ploughed in before July expires. In 
 applying it, two methods are followed. That usually 
 adopted is, after marking off the ridges, to put down the 
 dung in small heaps, at regular distances, and forthwith to 
 spread it and plough it in. In the other, the land is formed 
 into ridgelets, running diagonally across the intended lino 
 of the ridges, and the dung is enclosed in them in the 
 manner to be hereafter described in treating of turnip 
 culture. In cither way, after tho lapse of several weeks, 
 the surface is levelled by harrowing, and the land is gathered 
 into ridges by the last of this series of ploughings, hence 
 called the seed-furrow. When lime is to be applied to such 
 land, this is the stage of the rotation which is usually chosen 
 for doing so. It is spread evenly over the surface, imme- 
 diately before the last ploughing. In finishing off this 
 fallowing process, it is necessary, on undrained lands, to 
 be careful to clean out the ridge-furrows and cross-cuts, in 
 anticipation of winter rains. But if such land is worth 
 cultivating at all, it is surely worth draining, and this 
 operation once thoroughly performed, puts an end to all 
 further solicitude about furrows. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 SUCCESSION OP CRors. 
 Section 1. — Rotation necessary. 
 There are few agricultural facts more fullyascertained than 
 this, that the growth, year after year, on the same soil, of 
 one kind of plants, or family of plants, and the removal 
 from it, either of the eutiro produco, or at least of the 
 ripened seeds of such plants, rapidly impairs tho general 
 fertility of that soil, and, in particular cases, unfits it for 
 bearing further crops of the kind by .which it has been ex- 
 hausted. The explanation of the causes of this phenomenon-
 
 OF CROPS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 341 
 
 belongs to the agricultural chemist or vegetable physiologist, 
 to whom we willingly leave the task. What we have to do 
 with is the fact itself, and its important bearing on agri- 
 cultural practice. There is no natural tendency in the soil 
 to deterioration. If at any time, therefore, the earth fails 
 to yield its increase for 'the use of man, it is owing to his 
 own ignorance and cupidity, and not to any defect in the 
 beneficent arrangements of the Creator. The aim, then, 
 of the agriculturist, and the test of his skill, is to obtain 
 from his farm abundant crops at a remunerative cost, and 
 without impairing its future productiveness. In order to this, 
 two conditions are indispensable, — first, that the elements 
 of fertility abstracted from the soil by the crops removed 
 from it be duly and adequately restored ; and, second, that it 
 be kept free from weeds. The cereal grains, whose seeds 
 constitute the staple food of the human family, are neces- 
 sarily the most important and valuable of our ordinary 
 crops. The stated removal from a farm of the grain pro- 
 duced on it, and its consumption elsewhere, is too severe a 
 drain upon its productive powers to admit of these crops 
 being grown every year on the whole, or greater part of it, 
 without speedily impairing its fertility. Supposing, how- 
 ever, that this waste could be at once repaired by the annual 
 return to the soil of manure equivalent in constituent 
 elements to the produce removed, the length of time which 
 grain-crops occupy the soil, and their habit of growth, inter- 
 pose peculiar difficulties in the way of cleaning it thoroughly, 
 either before they are sown, or while they occupy the ground. 
 Again, although bread-corn is the most important product 
 of our soil, other commodities, such as butcher-meat, dairy 
 produce, vegetables, wool, and flax, are indispensably re- 
 quired. The economical culture of the soii demands the 
 employment of animal power, which, to be profitably used, 
 must be so distributed as to fill up the year. The mainten- 
 ance of the working cattie, and of other live stock, implies 
 the stated culture of a iarge amount of herbage and forage. 
 Now, these varied conditions are duly met by cultivating 
 grain and cattle crops alternately, and in about equai pro- 
 portions. In carrying out these general principles, much 
 discrimination is required in selecting the particular plants 
 best adapted to the soil, climate, and other circumstances, 
 of each farm, and in arranging them in the most profitable 
 sequences; for not only is it necessary duly to alternate 
 grain and green crops, but, in general, there is a necessity, 
 or at least a high expediency, in so varying the species or 
 varieties of the latter clas3 as to prolong, as' much is 
 possible, the periodic recurrence of any one of them on the 
 same field. In settling upon a scheme of cropping fox any 
 particular farm, regard must be had to its capabilities, to 
 the markets available for the disposal of its products, and 
 to the command of manure. When these things have been 
 maturely considered, it is always beneficial to conduct 
 the cropping of a farm upon a settled scheme. The number 
 of men and horses required to work it is regulated chiefly 
 by the extent of the fallow-break, which it is therefore 
 desirable to keep as near to an average annual breadth as 
 possible. When the lands of a farm vary much — as regards 
 fertility, fitness for particular crops, and proximity to the 
 homestead, — they must be so apportioned as to make the 
 divisions alloted to each clas3 of crops as equal as possible 
 in all respects, taking one year with another. Unless this 
 is done, those fluctuations in the gross produce of farms 
 which arise from varying seasons are needlessly, it may 
 happen ruinously, aggravated ; or such an accumulation of 
 labour is thrown on certain years which may prove un- 
 favourable ones as to weather, that the work is neither 
 done well nor in due season. 
 
 No better rotation has yet been devised for friable soils 
 of. fair quality than the well-known four-field or Norfolk 
 system. By this courso half the arable lands are in grain- 
 
 crops, and half in cattle-crops, annually. It is indeed true 
 that, in . the way in which this course has hitherto been 
 usually worked, both turnips and .clover have recurred so 
 frequently (every fourth year) on the same fields, that they 
 have become subject to disease, and their produce excessively 
 precarious. But the excellence of this course is, that its 
 main features can be retained, and yet endless variation be 
 introduced in its details. For example, instead of a rigid 
 one-fourth of the land being each year under turnips, barley, 
 clover, and wheat or oats, respectively, half only of the 
 barley division is frequently in practice now sown with 
 clover seeds, and the other half cropped in the following 
 year with beans, peas, potatoes, or vetches. On the same 
 set of fields, coming round again to the same point, the treat- 
 ment is reversed by the beans, &c, and clover, being made 
 to change places.- An interval of eight years is thus sub- 
 stituted for one of four, so far as these two crops are con- 
 cerned. Italian rye-grass, unmixed with any other plant, 
 is now frequently taken in lieu of clover on part of the 
 division usually allocated to it, and proves a grateful change 
 both to the land and to the animals which consume it. 
 In like manner, instead of sowing turnips unvaryingly every 
 fourth year on each field, a portion of the annual division 
 allotted to this crop can advantageously be cropped with 
 mangel-wurzel, carrots, or cabbages, care being taken to 
 change the site occupied by each when the same fields again 
 come in turn. The same end is even so far gained by 
 alternating Swedish with yellow or globe turnips. It is 
 also found expedient, either systematically or occasionally, 
 to sow a field with clover and pasture grasses immediately 
 after turnips, without a grain crop, and to allow it to remain 
 in pasture for four years. A corresponding extent* of the 
 other land is meanwhile kept in tillage, and two grain crops 
 in succession are taken on a requisite portion to equalise 
 the main divisions, both as respects amount of labour and 
 the different staple products. A closer cover of grasses and 
 a better pasture is obtained in this way than by first taking 
 the customary grain crop after turnips ; the land i3 rested 
 and invigorated for future tillage, the outlay on clover and 
 grass-seeds somewhat diminished, and the land better mar 
 naged for the interests of all concerned than by a ririd 
 adherence to the customary rotation. 
 
 Section 2. — Restrictive Clauses in Leases Hurtful. 
 It is common enough for landlords, or their agents, to 
 tie down the tenantry over large estates to the rigid observ- 
 ance of some pet rotation of their own. In an unimproved 
 state of agriculture, and for a tenantry deficient both in 
 capital and intelligence, such trammels, kindly enforced, 
 may be as beneficial to them as to their landlord. But 
 when the culture of the soil is undertaken by men of good 
 education, who bring to the business ample capital and 
 skill to use it to the best advantage, such restrictions are 
 much more likely to do harm than good to both parties. 
 It is to be observed in regard to those restrictive clauses 
 usually inserted in farm-leases, — such as, that two grain- 
 crops shall never be taken in immediate succession ; that 
 no hay, straw, or turnips, shall be sold from the farm ; that 
 only certain limited quantities of potatoes or flax shall be 
 grown ; that land shall be two or more years in grass, &c,—- 
 that they all proceed on the supposition that the farm is 
 to maintain its own fertility. They obviously do not con- 
 template the stated purchase of large quantities of guano, 
 bones, and similar extraneous manures, or the consumption 
 by live stock of linseed-cake, grain, or other auxiliaries to 
 the green crops produced on the farm. Now, not only are 
 such clauses incompatible with such a system of farming as 
 we have just now indicated, but their direct tendency, if 
 enforced-, is to hinder a tenant from adopting it even when 
 disposed to do so. We hear now-a-days of tenants who are
 
 J42 
 
 A G R I C U L T U K E 
 
 LM AZURES 
 
 annual purchasers of these extraneous fertilising substances 
 to the extent of 20s. to 30s. worth for ovory acre occupied 
 by them. To enforce the same restriction on such men as 
 on others who buy none at all is obviously neither just 
 nor politic ; aud we believe that uny practical farmer, if he 
 had his choice, would rather be the successor of a liberal 
 manurer, however he may have cropped, than of one who 
 has fanned by rulo on the starving system. We are quite 
 aware that, in regard to tho first-mentioned of these restric-- 
 tions (viz., that which forbids taking two grain-crops in 
 iinniediato succession), the contrary practice is still asserted 
 by agricultural authorities to be necessarily bad farming. 
 Now, we do not concur with this opinion, but believe, on 
 the contrary, that when land is kept clean, and is as highly 
 manured and well tilled as it must be to grow cattl' 
 in perfection, tho second successive crop of grain will usually 
 be better than the first, its production nowise injurious to 
 the laud, and the practice, in such circumstances, not only 
 not faulty, but an evidence of the skill and good manage- 
 ment of the farmer. A frequent encomium applied to a 
 particularly well-cultivated farm is, that " it is like a garden." 
 The practice of market-gardeners is also frequently referred 
 to as a model for farmers. Now, the point with them is 
 to have every inch of their ground under crop of some kind 
 at all seasons, and to carry everything to market. Under 
 such incessant cropping, the fertility of the soil is maintained 
 only by ample manuring and constant tillage. By these 
 means, however, it is maintained, and the practice is extolled 
 as the perfection of management Such a system must 
 therefore be as true in farming as in gardening, when the 
 like conditions are observed. Undoubtedly he is a good 
 farmer, who, while keeping his land clean and in good heart, 
 obtains the greatest produce from it at the least proportion- 
 ate outlay ; and it is no valid objection to his practice merely 
 to say that he is violating orthodox rotations. 
 
 Section 3. — Experiments at Eothamstead and Lois Weedon. 
 Some curious information has been obtained regarding 
 the effects of growing successive crops of one kind of 
 plant on the same field, from two examples of it that 
 attracted much attention. We refer to the experiments of 
 Mr Lawes at Rothamstead, and of the Rev. Mr Smith 
 at Lois Weedon. It is well linown that Mr Lawes 
 for a number of years devoted a considerable extent of land 
 to the prosecution of a series of interesting experiments, one 
 field being allotted to experiments with wheat, another to 
 turnips, and another to beans. One acre in the wheat-field 
 bore upwards of twenty successive crops of wheat without 
 any manure whatever. The land was annually scarified and 
 thoroughly cleaned as soon as the crop was removed; it 
 was then ploughed and again drilled with wheat, which was 
 duly hoed in spring. Now, with occasional variation, due 
 to the character of particular seasons, Mr Lawes found that 
 the average annual produce of this acre was 16 bushels 
 of grain and 16 cwt of straw, below which he failed to 
 reduce it by these successive crops. His soil was a strong 
 clay loam, resting at a depth of five or six feet upon chalk. 
 In the case of turnips, he found that, when treated in 
 the same way, they cease after a few years to grow larger 
 than radishes, nor could he, by the application of any 
 amount or variety of manure which he tried, obtain a second 
 successive crop equal to the first. With the wheat, on the 
 Dntrary, the addition of four cwt. of Feruviaa guano at once 
 aoubled the produce. Mr Smith's experiments, as is well 
 known, were a revival of Jethro Tull's system of growing 
 wheat continually on the same field, by a plan of alternate 
 strips of wheat and bare fallow, made to change places an- 
 nually. He improved in so far upon Tull's practice, inasmuch 
 as he thoroughly drained his land, and his fallow spaces 
 were deeply trenched every autumn, as well as ploughed 
 
 and hoed during tho growing season. The result was toat 
 his land thus treated yielded an average annual produce 
 of 34 bushels per acre for eleven or twelve successive crops. 
 Now, it is not our intention to offer auy opinion on this 
 as a system of wheat growing. We refer to it along with 
 Mr Lawes's, for the purpose of showing that, notwithstand- 
 ing the prevalent opinion that grain-crops exhaust the 
 fertility of soils more rapidly than green crops, this is true 
 only in a very restricted sense. Green crops judiciously 
 interposed do undoubtedly serve a most important purpose 
 in the means which they furnish for maintaining the fertility 
 of a farm ; but it is worthy of note, that whereas, by the 
 addition of suitable manure, thorough tillage, and diligent 
 removal of weeds, clay soil at least will stand an indefinite 
 succession of grain crops, the same means entirely fail to 
 yield the same results with our most? popular green crops. 
 Our personal experience quite accords with this ; for we 
 suppose it will be admitted that the corn crops of the country 
 p.re at the present day superior, both in quality and quantity, 
 to those of any preceding period ; whereas potatoes, turnips, 
 and clover, which we have so long regarded as our sheet 
 anchor, have become increasingly precarious, aud threaten 
 to fail us altogether. We offer these facts for the consider- 
 ation of those who out-and-out condemn the practice of 
 sowing two white crops in immediate succession. In stating 
 this opinion, we must, however, guard against misappre 
 hension. Unless the land is highly manured and kept 
 thoroughly clean, we are just as much opposed to the 
 practice as any one can be ; but when mischief is done by 
 it, we believe that it is due rather to the presence of weeds 
 than to the second grain-crop. Neither do we plead for the 
 absolute removal of restrictive clauses from farm leases. 
 Human nature being what it is, men who do not see it to 
 be for their own advantage to farm well, will, through 
 ignorance or greed, impoverish their land unless they an 
 restrained. Clauses as to cropping should, however, be pro- 
 hibitory rather than prescriptive — have reference rather to 
 what is removed from the farm than to what is grown upon 
 it — and they should be contingent upon the other practices 
 of the tenant. So long as he continues, by ample manuring 
 and careful tillage, to maintain the fertility and general 
 good condition of the farm rented by him, it c<;n be no ad- 
 vantage to his landlord to hinder him from cropping it at 
 his own discretion. It will be seen from these remarks, 
 that we attach more importance to those general principles 
 which should regulate the succession of crops, than to the 
 laying down of formulae to meet supposed cases. The man 
 who cultivates by mere routine is unprepared for emergencies, 
 and is sure to lag in the race of improvement ; while he 
 who studies principles is still guided by them, while altering 
 his practice to suit changing circumstances. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 MANTTKE3. 
 Section I. — Farm-yard Dung. 
 
 In our remarks on tillage operations and on the succession 
 of crops, we have seen how much the practice of the husband- 
 man is modified by the kinds and amount of manures at 
 his disposal. In describing the crops of the farm and their 
 culture, frequent reference will also necessarily be made to 
 the use of various fertilising substances ; and we shall, there- 
 fore, before proceeding to that department of our subject, 
 enumerate and bi. sfly remark on the most important of 
 them. In such an enumeration, the first notice is un- 
 questionably due to farm-yard dung. 
 
 This consists of the excrements of cattle, their litter, and 
 the refuse of their fodder ; usually first troddeu down in 
 successive layers, and partially fermented in the farm-yard, 
 and then removed to some convenient place and thrown 
 together in heaps, where, by further fermentation and decay,
 
 MANURES.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 343 
 
 it is reduced to a dark-coloured, moi9t, homogeneous mass, 
 in which state it is usuaUy applied to the land. It is thus 
 the residuum of the whole products of the farm, minus the 
 exported grain, and that portion of the other crops which, 
 beinf first assimilated in the bodies of the live stock, is sold 
 in the form of butcher-meat, dairy-produce, or wooL In 
 applying farm-yard dung to land there is thus a returning 
 to it of what it had previously produced, less the above 
 exceptions, and such waste as may occur during the process 
 of decay by gaseous exhalation or liquid drainage. It is 
 obvious that the value of such dung as a fertilising agent 
 must depeud much on two circumstances, viz., 1st, The 
 nature of the food consumed by the animals whose excre- 
 ments arc mingled with it; and, 2d, The success with which 
 waste from drainage and exhalation has been prevented. 
 When cattle used during the winter months to be barely 
 kept alive on straw and water, and were confined in an 
 open yard, which, in addition to its own share of rain, re- 
 ceived also the drip from the eaves of the surrounding build- 
 ings — which, after percolating the litter, flowed unchecked 
 into tho neighbouring ditch — it is needless to say that the 
 dung resulting from such a process was all but worthless. 
 It is much to be regretted that, from the faulty construction 
 of farm-buildings, farmers still find it impossible to guard 
 their dung-stores from injury and waste. When cattle- 
 yards are slightly hollowed towards their centre, and the 
 surrounding eaves are spouted, the litter absorbs the whole 
 of the urine and tho rain which falls upon the uncovered 
 area, while the treading of the cattle goes- far to prevent 
 undue fermentation and escape of gases. The same remark 
 applies still more strongly to covered boxes, the dung re- 
 sulting from this mode of housing fattening cattle being of 
 the best quality. In the case of byres and stables it is 
 certainly desirable to have a covered depot, into which the 
 litter and solid excrements may be wheeled daily, and to 
 have the urine conveyed by proper drains and distributed 
 over this mass of solid matter. As there is usually more 
 liquid than these can at once absorb, it is well to have a 
 tank at the lowest part of this depot in which to store the 
 surplus, that it may from timo to time be returned upon 
 the adjoining mass, or conveyed to heaps in the fields. 
 Advantage is usually taken of frosty weather to cart out to 
 the fallow division of the farm the dung that has accumulated 
 in yards and boxes. It is formed into large square heaps 
 about four feet deep, in situations most convenient for ready 
 application to the land when the season for sowing the crops 
 arrives. It is desirable to prepare a site for these heaps by 
 carting together and spreading down a quantity of earth 
 (or peat, when that can be got), for the purpose of absorbing 
 the ooze from the fermenting mass laid upon it. At the 
 beginning of winter, the loaded dung-carts are driven on to 
 the heaps, and their contents are spread evenly over it, 
 layer above layer, both to equalise the quality of the dung- 
 fa eap as a whole, and, by the compression thus applied, 
 to prevent a too rapid fermentation. When the heap has 
 attained the requisite bulk, a covering of earth or peat is 
 spread over it to keep it moist and to prevent the escape of 
 its ammonia. When this home-made manure was the only 
 kind statedly at the command of the farmer, it was con- 
 sidered necessary, and we believe truly, to have it in an 
 advanced state of decomposition before applying it to a turnip 
 crop. There was a waste of manure by this practice, but 
 unless it was in a state to supply instant nourishment and 
 stimulus to the young turnip plants, the crop was certain 
 to be a deficient one. The application, along with farm-yard 
 dung, of guano, superphosphate of lime, and other portable 
 manures, quite does away with the necessity of having the 
 former much rotted. These concentrated manures stimulate 
 the growth of the plants during their early stage, and put 
 them in the best condition for making gradual use of the 
 
 slowly dissolving aung. Excessive decomposition of farm- 
 yard dung is now therefore avoided, and pains rather be- 
 stowed to improve its quality by protecting it from the 
 weather, and retaining its ammonia and natural juice. The 
 cheapest, and perhaps also the best, way of doing this is to 
 cart the dung direct from the cattle-yard to the fields, and 
 at once to plough it in. 
 
 Section 2. — Liquid Manures. 
 
 We have spoken of the importance of carefully retaining 
 the urine of the housed live stock, by having it absorbed in 
 the solid matter of the dung-heap, and of collecting the 
 surplus into a suitable tank, where it may be available for 
 moistening the heap from time to time, and especially when 
 about to be applied to the land. A system has, however, 
 lately attracted much notice, by which pains are taken 
 not only to preserve every drop of urine and ooze from dung- 
 heaps, but, as far as practicable, to apply the whole manure 
 produced on the farm in a liquid form. It is in Ayrshire, 
 and especially on the farm of Myreinill, that this system 
 has been carried out most fully. Our reference will be best 
 explained by quoting at length from the Minutes of Infor- 
 mation issued by the General Board of Health regarding 
 sewage manure. 
 
 " The next farm visited was in the immediate vicinity of Glas- 
 gow, where the supply of liquid manure is derived from another 
 source, and distributed in a different manner. The supply is from 
 a dairy of 700 cows, attached to a large distillery ; the entire drain- 
 age from the former flows in a full continuous stream into a tank 
 containing 30,000 or 40,000 gallons, whence it is pumped up 
 immediately by a 12-horse power engine, and forced through 4-ind< 
 iron pipes, laid about 18 inches under ground, into large vats or 
 cisterns placed on the highest points of the land to be irrigated. 
 From these it descends by gravitation through another system of 
 pipes laid along the ridges of the hills, rinding an outlet through 
 stand-cocks placed at intervals, from which it is distributed through 
 movable iron pipes fitting into each other, and laid along tie surface 
 in whatever direction the supply is required. The land thus ungated 
 consists of three farms lyiDg at some distance apart, the farthest 
 point to which the liquid is conveyed being about two miles, and 
 the highest elevation 80 feet above the site of the tank and engine. 
 The principal use to which the irrigation has been applied has 
 been to preserve the fertility of the pastures, the general appearance 
 of which was at first rather disappointing, but this was explained 
 by the fact that they are fully stocked, and that the cows rush with 
 avidity to those parts that have been last irrigated, and eat them 
 down quite bare. As is the case in other instances, however, by 
 far the most profitable application has been found to be Italian rye- 
 grass, of which 15 (Scotch) acres were under cultivation, some with 
 seed supplied by Sir Dickinson, whose successful cultivation of it 
 by similar means near London has long been known. The first cut- 
 ting of this had yielded about ten tons the acre, the second nine, 
 ana the third, which was ready for cutting, was estimated at eight 
 or nine more. Some crops of turnips and cabbages were poiutvd 
 out to us in a state of vigorous growth, and with more than common 
 promise of abundance ; these were raised by a dressing of ashes and 
 refuse (of little fertilising value, having been purchased at 2s. 6d. a 
 ton), conjoined with four doses of liquid, one after the preceding 
 crop of oats had been carried, one prior to sowing, and two more at 
 different stages of growth. The enterprising gentleman who has 
 carried out these works at his own expense, and in spite of the dis- 
 couragement arising from partial failure in his earlier attempts, 
 theegh speaking cautiously, as was natural in a tenant on a nine- 
 teen years' lease, of the pecuniary results of this undertaking, 
 imparted some facts which leave little doubt that it must have been 
 largely remunerative. Besides maintaining, if not increasing, the 
 fertility of the pastures, to which the solid manure from the byres 
 was formerly devoted, at a heavy expense of cartage (the whole ol 
 which is now saved), he is enabled to sell all this manure, of which 
 we estimated the quantity at about 3000 ton3 a year, at 6s. a load. 
 For a good deal of the Italian rye-grass not required for his own con- 
 sumption, he obtained upwards of 13s. a ton, the profit on which, 
 taking into account the yield before stated, may easily be imagiued. 
 Thirteen carts, each containing six barrels of ten gallons each, are 
 used to convey the milk to market, where it is sold at 5d- the Scotch 
 pint, equal to six pints imperial measure. The income from milk 
 would, therefore, be not less than £-43, 6s. 8d. per day, or £15,810, 
 13s. 4d. per annum. 
 
 " The next place visited was the farm of Myremill, near Maybole, 
 in Ayrslure, the property of Mr Kennedy, who adopted and 
 improved on the method of distribution just described. On th>
 
 344 
 
 A G 11 I C U L T U li E 
 
 [manures, 
 
 farm, about 400 imperial acres of which arc laid down with pipes, 
 tome of the solid as well as the liquid manure has been applied by 
 these means, guano and superphosphate of lime having been thus 
 transmitted in solution, whereby their valuo is considerably 
 enchanced. This is especially the case with guano, the use of which 
 it thus rendered in great measure independent of the uncertainties 
 of climate, and it is made capable of being applied with equa' 
 advantage in dry as in wet weather. In some respects the farm 
 labours under peculiar disadvantages, as water for the purpose of 
 diluting the liquid has to be raised from a depth of 70 feet and 
 from a distance of more than 400 yards from the tanks where it is 
 mixed with the drainage from the byTes. These tanks arc tour in 
 number, of the following dimensions respectively : — 48 x 14 x 12 ; 
 48 x 14 x 15; 72 x 14 x 12; 72 x 1? x 12. They have each a 
 separate communication with the well from which their contents 
 are pumped up ; which are used in dilferent degrees of ' ripeness,' a 
 certain amount of fermentation induced by the addition of rape- 
 dust being considered desirable. The liquid is diluted, according to 
 circumstances, with three or four times its bulk of water, and 
 delivered at the rate of about 4000 gallons an hour, that being the 
 asual proportion to an acre. The quantity to be applied is 
 determined by a float-gauge in the tank, which warns the engineer, 
 whose business it is to watch it, when to cut off the supply, and 
 this is a signal to the man distributing it in the field to add another 
 length of hose, and to commence manuring a fresh portion of land. 
 The pumps are worked by a 12-horse power steam-engine, which 
 performs all the usual work on the farm, thrashing, cutting chatf 
 and turnips, crushing oil-cake, grinding, &c, and pumping. The 
 pipes are of iron ; mains, submains, and service pipes, five, three, 
 and two inches in diameter respectively, laid eighteen inches or two 
 feet below the surface. At certain points are hydrants to which 
 gutta-percha hose is attached in lengtns of twenty yards, at the end 
 of which is a sharp nozzle with an orifice ranging from one to ono 
 and a half inch, according to the pressure laid on, from which the 
 liquid makes its exit with a jet of from twelve to fifteen yards. All 
 the labour required is that of a man and a boy to adjust the hose 
 and direct the distribution of the manure, and eight or ten acres 
 may thus be watered in a day. There are now 70 acres of Italian rye- 
 grass and 130 of root crops on the farm. The quantity they would 
 deliver by a jet from a pump worked by a 12-horsepower steam- 
 engine would be 40, 000 gallons, or 178 tons, per diem, and the expense 
 per ton about 2d., but a double set of men would reduce the cost 
 ihe extreme length of pipe is three quarters of a mile, and with the 
 hose the total extent of delivery is about 1,900,000 yards, or 400 
 acres. To deliver the same quantity per diem by water-carts, to the 
 same extreme distance, would be impracticable. One field of rye- 
 grass; sown in April, had been cut once, fed off twice with sheep, 
 and was ready (August 20th) to be fed off again. In another, after 
 yielding four cuttings within the year, each estimated at 9 or 10 
 tons per acre, the value of the aftermath for the keep of sheep was 
 stafed at 25s. an acre. Of the turnips, one lot of swedes, dressed 
 with 10 tons of solid farm manure, and about 2000 gallons of the 
 liquid, having six bushels of dissolved bones along with it, was 
 ready for hoeing 10 or 12 days earlier than another lot dressed with 
 double the amount of solid manure without the liquid application, 
 and were fully equal to those in a neighbour's field which had 
 received 30 loads of farm-yard dung, together with 3 cwt guano 
 and 16 bushels bones per acre ; the yield was estimated at 40 tons 
 the Scotch aero, and tneir great luxuriance seemed to me to justify 
 the expectation. From one field of white globe turnips sown later, 
 and manured solely with liquid, from 40 to 50 tons to the Scotch 
 acre was expected. A field of carrots, treated in the same manner 
 as the swedes, to which a second application of liquid was given 
 just before thinning, promise from 20 to 25 tons the acre. Similarly 
 favourable results have been obtained with cabbages ; and that the 
 limit of fertility by these means has not yet been reached, was 
 clearly shown in one part of the Italian rye-grass which had acci- 
 dentally received more than its allowance of liquid, and which 
 showed a marked increase of luxuriance over that around it. The 
 exact increase of produce has not been accurately determined, but 
 the number of cattle on the farm has increased very largely, and by 
 means of the Italian rye-grass at least four times as many beasts as 
 before can be kept now on the same extent of land, the fertility of 
 the land being at the same time increased. This plant, of all others, 
 appears to receive its nourishment in this form with most gratitude, 
 and to make the most ample returns lor it ; and great as are the 
 results hitherto obtained, I believe that the maximum of productive- 
 ness is not yet reached, and that the present experiment must be 
 carried yet further before we know the full capabilities- of this 
 manure. Of one important fact connected with this crop, I am 
 assured, that notwithstanding the rank luxuriance of its growth, 
 animals fed utwu it not only are not scoured, but thrive more than 
 on any other kind of grass in cultivation. 
 
 "Taking into the irrigation account the whole cost of the engine, 
 and the whole of the fuel and wages— although half of these might 
 hive been deducted— the following apj«ars to be the capital account 
 and working expenses for fertilising Myrernill farm : — 
 
 £300 
 
 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 1000 
 
 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 
 
 
 
 J15S6 
 
 
 
 
 
 £118 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 104 
 
 
 
 
 
 £8 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 'T.'uks complete , . , 
 Btoam engine , , , 
 
 Pumps ...... 
 
 Iron pipes, laying, and hydrants , 
 Gutta-percha distributing pipes, 4c 
 
 "Annual interest on £1586, and wear and 
 
 tear, at 7J Tier cent. .... 
 
 Annual wages ..... 
 
 Fuel 
 
 £281 9 
 This amov.nt, divided by the number of acres, is equal to the annual 
 sum of 14a. per acre. 
 
 _ *■ I now come to the practical results of so cheap a mode of fer- 
 tilising land. 
 
 " Mr Young informed me that in one of the fields ho had him- 
 self measured the growth of Italian rye-grass, and had found it to 
 be two inches in twenty-four hours ; and that within seven months, 
 Mr Kennedy had cut from a field we were passing at the time 70 
 tons of grass per acre. Where the whole is cut, four or five heavy 
 crops are thus taken; but upon some of the land during the last 
 two years 20 sheep to the acre have been penned in hurdles, and 
 moved about the same field from time to time ; after each remove 
 the fluid has been applied, and immediately followed by an abun- 
 dant growth of food. There is not the slightest appearance ol 
 exhaustion in the land, — its fertility appears to increase I was 
 informed that, before the liquid manure was used, the land would 
 not keep more than a bullock or five sheep to the acre ; now it will 
 maintain, if the crops are cut and carried in, five bullocks or twenty 
 sheep to the acre. Some beans, bran, and oil-cako are bought for 
 the stock ; but, on the other hand, one-tlurd or more of the farm u 
 kept in grain, notwithstanding the great number of live stock. 
 
 " Canning Park. — Mr Telfcr's farm, near Ayr. This is a small 
 dairy farm of 40 acres, near the level of the sea, and about a milt 
 and a half west of the town of Ayr. The subsoil is beach gravel 
 with a slight admixture of clay. Water is too abundant. It lie» 
 dead within about 20 inches of the surface, and in winter nearei 
 than that. 
 
 " No bedding or litter is used here. The cows lie on cocoa-nut 
 mats. The ventilation is perfect ; and the air sweeter than in the 
 majority of the dwelling-houses of human beings. 
 
 " The following appears to be the cost of carrying out the system 
 of Mr Teller's farm ; — 
 
 "Tank £30 
 
 Engine 60 
 
 Iron pipes and hydrants . . . . 100 
 Distributing hose-pipe, &c ... 20 
 
 £210 
 
 ' Annual interest on £210, and wear and tear, 
 
 at 7J per cent 
 
 Wages and fuel 
 
 £15 15 
 11 
 
 £26 15 
 
 " In summer the cows have a quantity of oil-cake, as well at 
 grass ; and in winter they have turnips or mangel-wurzel, bean or 
 barley meal, and cut hay or grass ; the whole mess being steamed 
 together. Mis3 Bell, the cousin of Mr Telfer, manages the dairy, 
 and said that last year the hay bought would amount to from £3& 
 to £40, and she should think the grain to not less than £200. Id 
 general terms, the other food is proauced upon the farm. As to the 
 produce of grass, which is the chief article, the first cutting during 
 the present year was in the latter end of March about 18 inches 
 thick. The second was from 18 inches to 2 feet thick. The third 
 was from 3 feet to 4 feet 6 inches thick. The fourth nearly the 
 same. The fifth was 2 feet thick; and the sixth, in process ol 
 cutting at the ti.ne I was there, wo measured at 18 inches thick. 
 Taking the mean, where two dimensions are given for the same crop, 
 I find the aggregate depth of gross, grown and cut off this farm 
 within seven months, to be not less than 14 feet 3 inches. All this 
 is, however, eaten upon the premises, and the whole marketable 
 produce of the farm is represented by the milk and butter. 
 
 "As to the quantity and value of these, Miss Bell stated that 
 the previous week the butter was 114 lb and 120 Hi — together 231 
 lb, sold at Is. per pound. This, she stated, was about the average 
 quantity and price. The amount for butter would therefore lie 
 £11, 14s. per week, or per annum £008, 8s. She informed me far- 
 ther, that during about eight months in the year, the cold milk rea- 
 lises about the same amount as the butter. In the summer months, 
 during hot weather, the market value of the milk is only about 
 half that of the butter. From these data, the amount for milk sold 
 per annum is £507. 
 
 " The total receipts for the two articles of milk and butter amount 
 to £1115, 8s. per ann-j.-n.
 
 LIQUID.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 345 
 
 " I only need to add that, previously to the adoption of the present 
 tystcrn of farming, these 40 acres of land were barely sufficient to 
 tupport eight or nine cons, and would have been well let at a rental 
 of 30s. an acre." 
 
 The attention now so generally directed to this subject, 
 and the importance attached to it in many quarters, justify 
 this lengthened quotation, and call for some remarks upon 
 it. We have carefully examined two of the instances re- 
 ferred to in this report, viz., Port-Dundas and Myremill; 
 and some smaller experiments more cursorily. After doing 
 so we are sorry to say that we have arrived at a very 
 different estimate of this system of manuring from thai 
 expressed in the above quotations. We at once, and with 
 pleasure, acknowledge that in so far as concerns the storing 
 up and preparing of the liquid manure, its application to 
 the land, and the production, by means of it, of crops of 
 Italian rye-grass almost surpassing belief in their luxuriance 
 aud weight of. produce, Sir Kennedy's experiments have 
 been crowned with complete success. The excellence of 
 this grass as food for live stock, and their relish for it, is 
 also indisputable. Neither do we dispute the statements 
 of thoso who tell us that manure, when largely diluted with 
 
 beneficial to plants that! in any other way iu which it call 
 be presented to them. Admitting all this, the question 
 remains, Has it yet been shown that this system can be 
 economically applied to ordinary farms? Data are still 
 wanting from which to answer this question conclusively, 
 but we shall state some of the reasons which constrain us, 
 with our present information, to do so in the negative. 
 
 Supposing. an adequate motive power already to exist, 
 and to be partly employed for other purposes, the capita) 
 that must be invested in providing the tanks and other 
 apparatus necessary for carrying out this system amounts to 
 about £ 4 per acre over a farm of average extent. If the 
 system be a sound one, the great amount of this outlay can- 
 not fairly be urged as an objection to it. The addition of 
 a permanent rent charge of 53. per acre to an entire farm, 
 for a benefit which in any one year can be available to but 
 a limited portion of it, is however a serious matter. In 
 each case referred to in the Minutes of Information, the 
 whole annual charge, whether arising from interest on 
 capital, wear and tear of machinery, or working expenses, 
 is divided by the whole acreage of the farm. In the first 
 seven cases given in the tabular statement, this mode of 
 calculation is correct, as the whole areas do actually benefit 
 
 water, and properly applied in the liquid form, is more 
 
 Table III. — Showing Cost, <bc, of Ju Application of Sewerage Waters ami Liquid Manures. 
 
 Name of Plus. 
 
 Edinburgh. 
 Craigentinny Meadows. 
 
 High-level 
 Sea Meadows. 
 
 Old Meadows. 
 
 Nottinghamshire. 
 
 The Duke of Portland. 
 
 Clipstone Meadows. 
 
 Wiltshire. 
 Viley Meadows. 
 
 Devonshire. 
 The Duke of Bedford. 
 Tavistock Meadows. 
 
 Berkshire. 
 Pusey Meadows. 
 
 Glasgow. 
 Mr Harvey's farm. 
 
 A yrshire. 
 Myremill farm. 
 
 Canning Park farm. 
 
 Leg or Dunduff farm. 
 
 Staffordshire. 
 The Duke of Sutherland. 
 Hanchurch farm near ) 
 Trentham. 
 
 Lancashire. 
 Halewood farm. 
 
 Cheshire. 
 Lescard farm. 
 
 Glamorganshire. 
 Porth Kerry Farm. 
 
 No. 
 of 
 
 Eur- 
 'i£h 
 seres. 
 
 63 
 38 
 
 228 
 
 300 
 150 
 
 90 
 
 Mode of Application 
 
 f Steam-engine, pumps, and ) 
 ( open gutters and panes, / 
 
 {Gravitation, op«n gutters) 
 and panes, . . . j 
 
 Do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Cost of Works 
 and 
 
 Appaiatua 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 SCOO 
 
 700 
 
 . 2700 
 
 J Catchmeadow, gravitation, 1 , 
 \ and open gutters, . . } 
 fBeadwork of ridge and 
 J furrow, gravitation an 
 ( open gutters, 
 / Beadwork „ and catch- \ 
 < meadows, gravitation > 
 (, aud open gutters, . . J 
 
 nd ) 
 od \ 
 
 ioo ! 
 
 508 
 
 508 
 SO 
 50 
 
 83 
 
 120 
 
 150 
 50 
 
 Catchmeadow, gravitation, 
 
 and open gutters. . 
 Steam-engine, pumps, 
 
 underground Stun main 
 
 pipes and iron distribut- 
 
 •ing pipes, . 
 Steam-engine, pumps, 
 
 underground iron mains, 
 
 gutta-percha hose, and 
 
 jet pipe, 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 (Gravitation, underground \ 
 iron mains, gutta-percha V 
 hose, and jet pipe, . . ) 
 
 /Steam-engine, pumps, 
 underground irou mains, 
 gutta-percha hose, and 
 jet pipe, 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 {Gravitation, underground ] 
 iron mains, gutta-percha 
 hose and jet pipe . ., 
 
 
 
 3000 
 
 1163 
 
 Annual In- 
 
 terest, Ac, 
 
 at 71 per 
 
 Cent. 
 
 £ 3. 
 
 150 
 
 Annual 
 Working 
 Expenses. 
 
 d. £ s. 
 
 52 10 19 17 
 
 202 10 
 
 415 
 
 1450 
 
 1586 
 
 210 
 
 191 
 
 520 13 4 
 
 621 12 
 
 " 672 1 10 
 
 300 
 
 2700 
 225 
 
 88 14 
 
 33 7 
 
 108 15 
 
 118 19 
 15 15 
 14 6 
 
 39 1 
 39 2 
 
 50 8-0 
 
 22 10 
 
 117 12 
 
 Total 
 
 Annual 
 
 Charge per 
 
 English 
 
 acre. 
 
 d. £ s. d. 
 4 4 11 
 
 119 6 
 
 150 
 52 10 
 
 67 10 
 
 37 18 
 210 10 
 
 :62 10 
 11 0- 
 3 10 
 
 1 18 1 
 
 1 8 2} 
 
 9 10 
 
 1 17 
 
 1 14 S.J 
 
 14 3 
 
 13 9 
 
 11 1 
 
 10 8J 
 
 Obserratlnnv 
 
 I Average rental upwards of 
 
 ! £16 per Engbsh acre. 
 
 ' Worth about £20 per 
 
 English acre ; worthless 
 
 before. 
 Maximum rental, £25 per 
 
 English acre. 
 
 Worth upwards of £12 ; pre- 
 viously worth from 3s. to 
 5s. per acre per annum. 
 
 Four heavy crops of grass per 
 annum. 
 
 Land more than quadrupled 
 in value after only 4 years 
 irrigation. 
 
 ' Land not previously worth 
 more than 5a. per acre, 
 yielding six heavy crops 
 
 , of grass per annum. 
 
 10 feet thick of grass cut from 
 an acre m six months. 
 
 70 tons of grass cut from an 
 acre in six months. 
 
 1 14$ feet of grass cut in seven 
 months. 
 
 7 
 
 ]> | ISO stacks per annum; u 
 * 1 1 place of 12, as previously. 
 
 18 6 P 13 9} 
 
 19 15 2 
 
 17 11 
 
 lu 
 
 | Tanks constructed sufficient 
 I for 300 acres. 
 
 9 9j 
 
 9 84, 
 
 13 
 
 One dressing of liquid equal 
 to 25 or 30 tons of farm- 
 yard manure per acre. 
 ' A fourth crop of grass being 
 weighed, was found equal" 
 to 10 tons per acre. It wi* 
 the lightest crop cut oU the 
 same land. 
 i Tanks constructed sufficient 
 \ for 300 acres. Between !' 
 \ and 10 feet of grass cut. 
 
 each year by the irrigating process. But when we come 
 to those irrigated by machinery, we find that a half or two- 
 fifths only of the land receives the benefits of it in any one 
 
 year. If the annual charge in this latter class of cases is 
 divided by the acreage actually irrigated, it becomes evidout 
 that the expense is double that cf the Pusey meadows, and 
 
 L — 44
 
 346 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [manures. 
 
 equal to that of the old meadows near Edinburgh, instead 
 of being less, as it is made to appear. Again, in estimating 
 the profits an opposite course is followed. While the-charges 
 are made to appear less by spreading them over the whole 
 area of the farm, the enormous produce of grass from the 
 irrigated parts is put prominently forward, and little is said 
 about its produce as a whole. In tho dairy cases, too, -we 
 are told of enormous gross profits, without being pointedly 
 reminded that the larger portion of the keep of the cows, 
 such as distillery offal, bean-meal, hay, and even straw and 
 turnips, is actually purchased ; that in this way a quantity 
 of extraneous manure becomes available 1 for the associated 
 farm, sufficient (however applied) to maintain it in a state 
 of fertility.; and that there would be handsome profits from 
 the -dairy, irrespective of tho farm altogether. In fact, town I 
 dairies usually have no land attached to them. The cows j 
 are maintained solely by purchased food, and the salt, of 
 manure, liquid and solid, forms one of the stated items of f 
 income. In Mr Harvey's and similar cases, two separate 
 businesses are in fact miied up, and yet the whole is spoken 
 of in such a way as if the profit was mainly due to the use 
 of liquid manure. Indeed, the whole of these Minutes of 
 Information issued by the General Board of Health have 
 an air of special pleading about them, which to us seriously 
 detracts from their value. 
 
 The entire annual cost of applying manure in this manner 
 is stated to amount fo from 10s. to 14s. per. acre for the 
 whole extent of the farm. Now this would suffice to provide 
 annually, from 1 to 1J cwt of Peruvian guano (even at its 
 present high price) for every acre of the farm, or from 2 to 
 3 cwt per acre, if applied, as the liquid is, to the portion 
 under green crop only. The stated application of such a 
 dressing of guano, in-separate portions, and during showery 
 weather, will be found to yield results little inferior to those 
 obtained by the use of liquid manure. To do this requires 
 no costly apparatus or permanent sinking of capital, and 
 its application can.be desisted from at any time when found 
 unremunerative. The adoption of this plan of applying 
 the liquid manure of .the farm necessarily demands that the 
 whole system of management be accommodated to it. In 
 order to furnish this liquid manure, the whole green crops 
 must, summer and winter, be conveyed to the homestead, 
 and there consumed in such a manner as that the urine and 
 dung of the nnimnla fed upon it may be scoured into the 
 tanks. It is no such easy matter to replenish these tanks 
 as some persons seem to think. When cattle are housed in 
 boxes, or properly protected yards, the whole of the urine 
 is absorbed by the Utter, and goes to the field in the dung- 
 cart. This is certainly a' more expensive way of conveying 
 it to the fields than by pipes. But then,- as in the new 
 system, the urine, <fcc, is diluted with at least three times 
 its volume oi water, there are four tons of manure to con- 
 vey on the one plan for one on the other. Even where pipes 
 are used, all the litter, and a portion at least of the dung, 
 has still to be- carted out, so that no claim of a saving of 
 carriage can validly be put forward on behalf of this system ; 
 but its merits must bo grounded solely on the superior 
 efficacy of manure, when applied in a liquid instead of a. 
 solid form. 
 
 In the case of dry and loose soils, the consuming of the 
 turnip crop, by folding sheep upon it, has hitherto been 
 regarded as at once the cheapest way in -which it can be 
 converted into wool and mutton, and the land consolidated 
 and enriched, so as to fit it for producing grain and other 
 crops. On tenacious soils, and in a moist climate, which 
 ts quite the case at Myremill, it is c ertainly impracticable to 
 pursue this system in winter. It is perhaps also the case 
 that sheep are healthier, fatten more rapidly, and yield more 
 wool, when fed under cover, than when folded on the open 
 turnip field., Admitting all this, however, -ve are disposed 
 
 to think that these benefits are oetter secured by Mr Randel' 
 of Chadbury's plan .of littering (ho pens with bumi clay, 
 which keeps the sheep clean, and their feet in good order, 
 and, when mingled With trrcir urine and dung, forms a most 
 valuable manure for any kind of land. Were this carried 
 out by means of movable covered pens, which could be 
 erected and easily shifted from place to place in the turnip 
 field, the carriage of tho turnips and manure would be 
 greatly reduced, especially if accomplished by means of the 
 portable railway. 
 
 In the case of dairies near towns, where the cows are 
 largely fed on brewery or distillery offal andothor purchased 
 tood, ther circumstances are totally different from those of 
 ordinary farms, depending solely on their own resources. 
 The L'quid manure that .would otherwise run to waste; when 
 ihus applied, is so much clear gain, in so far as the value 
 cf tho increased produce exceeds the cost of application. 
 It may form a wholesome caution to some persons to men- 
 tion here that, notwithstanding all that has beeu written 
 about tho success of the spirited operations at Port-Dundas, 
 wo wero told by Mr Harvey, that so dubious is he still 
 about it, that if the thing were to do again, he would rather 
 keep his money in his pocket, and let the urine run into the 
 canal as formerly. If there is doubt even in such a case, 
 how much more, when the manure must 'virtually be 
 purchased. And this leads us to remark that wo have better 
 hopes of the ultimate success of this plan of manuring, when 
 it is restricted to the application of the surplus liquid manure 
 of tho homestead to some piece of meadow near at hand, 
 supplementing this supply, when necessary, by dissolving 
 guano in water, and sending it through the pipes. These 
 remarks apply even more strongly to the serfage from towns^ 
 Tho liquid, in this case, is highly charged with fertilising 
 ingredients of the most valuable land, seeing that it con- 
 sists largely of night-soil from a population consuming much 
 animal food. With few exceptions, this valuable liquid, 
 which flows in such quantities from all our towns/is not 
 only utterly lost, but is a grievous nuisance, by polluting 
 our streams and generating disease. In applying it as 
 manure, tho expense lies entirely in providing and working 
 the necessary apparatus. In such cases, then, with an un- 
 failing supply of highly fertilising liquid, costing nothing 
 to begin with, there is every inducement to put into opera- 
 tion any plan by which it can be economically applied to 
 field crops. The enhanced value of green forage in the 
 vicinity, of towns is an additional motive-for attempting this. 
 The profitable disposal of town sewage in a way neither 
 injurious to the health nor offensive to the senses of- the 
 community, is, however, a problem yet remaining" to be 
 solved. 
 
 The ingenuity and enterprise displayed by Mr Kennedy 
 and others,. in their endeavours to cheapen by this means 
 the cost of farm produce, and the frankness and untiring 
 patience with which they have shown and explained then- 
 proceedings to the unceasing stream of visitors, which the 
 novelty of the operations attracted from all parts of the 
 kingdom, and even from foreign countries.are altogether so 
 .admirable and praiseworthy that it requires no alight effort 
 to speak of them otherwise than approvingly. The con- 
 fidence with which various influential parties have proclaimed 
 the complete success of this scheme of irrigation, and recom- 
 mended it for general adoption, seems, however, to require 
 that those who have examined it, and arrived' at an 
 opposite conclusion, should publicly say so. 
 
 It is unreasonable to expect that private parties are to 
 divulge their whole b^isiness affairs ; and yet, without a full 
 Dr. and Cr. account for some ordinary arable farm treated on 
 thia 'system, it is impossible to arrive at a sound judgment 
 on its merits. Until this can be done, it would be better to 
 abstain from publishing partial statements; which tend only
 
 0DANO, BONES.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 347 
 
 to mislead the public mind. We offer these remarks in no 
 spirit of hostility to this new system of farming. We shall 
 rejoice unfeignedly to find that our opinion of it is erroneous, 
 and that it really warrants the sanguine expectations which 
 some parties entertain regarding it. We simply maintain 
 that as yet the case is " not proven," and our counsel to those 
 who are disposed to try it is, not to embark in it to an extent 
 that would embarrass them, if, as we fear, it should prove 
 a failure. 
 
 Section 3. — Guano. 
 
 Next to farm-yard manure, which must ever be looked to 
 as the chief means of maintaining the fertility of a farm, 
 guano claims our notice. This substance is the dung of 
 seafowl, and is found on rocky islets in parts of the world 
 where rain seldom falls. The droppings of the myriads of 
 birds by which such places are frequented have in many 
 cases been permitted to accumulate during untold ages, and 
 are now found in enormous deposits. The principal supply, 
 both for quantity and quality, has hitherto come from the 
 Chincha Islands, on the coast of Peru. The introduction 
 of this powerful and exceedingly portable manure gave a 
 prodigious impetus to agricultural improvement. It is 
 about thirty years since a few casks of this article were 
 brought to Liverpool from Peru, whore it has been known 
 and prized as a valuable manure frQm the remotest periods. 
 No sooner had its value been discovered by our British 
 agriculturists than the demand for it became so keen, that 
 the quantity imported rose from 2881 tons in 1841 to 
 233,300 tons in 1845. The price at which it was sold at 
 first was £20 per ton, from which, with increased suppties, 
 it fell to £1 1, when the discovery in 1844 of a considerable 
 deposit on the island of Ichaboe, on the coast of Africa, at 
 once reduced the price to £9. 
 
 Discoveries have from time to time been made of other 
 deposits on the African coast and in Australia. The 
 quality of both is much inferior to that from Peru. It is 
 in a more advanced state of decay, and contains more 
 moisture and sand. Great as was the deposit of this valu- 
 able fertiliser on the Chincha Islands, it rapidly diminished 
 under the excessive demand for it from Great Britain and 
 other countries. Gradually the quality became very in- 
 ferior, and in 1871 it was announced that this deposit was 
 entirely exhausted. Considerable supplies are still obtained 
 from other parts of the Peruvian coast ; but unfortunately 
 the quality is very inferior to that formerly obtained from 
 the Cbinchas. This circumstance would not be of much 
 consequence if the guano was offered for sale on fair terms ; 
 but as the agents of the Peruvian Government sell it only 
 it one uniform price per ton, although different cargoes, and 
 even different portions of any one cargo, vary excessively 
 in quality, it is now an unsafe article for farmers to purchase. 
 
 We give here, from the Board of Trade returns, a table 
 of the quantities of guano imported yearly, with the com- 
 puted real value, from 1854 to 1872. 
 
 Table shelving the Imports of Guano from 1854 to 1872. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1854 
 
 235,111 
 
 £2,530,272 
 
 1864 
 
 131,358 
 
 £1,457,088 
 
 1855 
 
 301,061 
 
 3,137,160 
 
 1865 
 
 237,393 
 
 2,675,995 
 
 1856 
 
 191,601 
 
 2,136,431 
 
 1866 
 
 135,697 
 
 1,439,679 
 
 1857 
 
 288,362 
 
 3,613,074 
 
 1867 
 
 192,308 
 
 2,109,506 
 
 1853 
 
 353,541 
 
 4,084,170 
 
 1863 
 
 182,343 
 
 2,039,478 
 
 1859 
 
 84,122 
 
 769,333 
 
 1869 
 
 210,010 
 
 2,640,983 
 
 1860 
 
 141,435 
 
 1,557,895 
 
 1870 
 
 280,311 
 
 8,476,680 
 
 1861 
 
 178,423 
 
 2,022,283 
 
 1871 
 
 173,678 
 
 1,994,145 
 
 1862 
 
 141,636 
 
 1,635,322 
 
 1872 
 
 118,704 
 
 1,201,042 
 
 1863 
 
 233,574 
 
 2,658,856 
 
 
 
 
 The dung of birds, from its including both liquid and 
 solid excrements, is superior as a manure to that of quadru- 
 
 peds. Tigeons' dung has long been in high repute as an 
 excellent fertiliser, and brought a high price in days when 
 portable manures were scarcely to be had. It is now little 
 heard of, guano, the excrement of fowls which feed upon 
 fish, being superior, weight for weight The dung of 
 domestic poultry is usually mixed with the general dung- 
 heap, but it could be turned to better account if kept by 
 itself. It has been recommended to strew the floors of poul- 
 try-houses daily with sawdust or sand, and to rake this with 
 the droppings into a heap to be keDt under cover and used 
 like guano. 
 
 Section 4. — Bones. 
 
 It is now about sixty years since ground bones began to 
 be used by farmers in the east side of England as a manure 
 for turnips. At first bones were roughly smashed by ham- 
 mers and applied in great quantities. By and by mills were 
 constructed for grinding them to a coarse powder, in which 
 state they continued to be used as a dressing for turnips, at 
 the rate of sixteen to twenty bushels per acre, in all parts 
 of the kingdom and to a very great extent, until the ad- 
 mirable discovery by Baron Liebig of the mode of preparing 
 superphosphate of lime by dissolving bones in sulphuric 
 acid. We shall not attempt to explain on chemical princi- 
 ples the wonderful superiority of *his substance over simple 
 bone-dust in promoting the growth of the turnip plant 
 What we should do indifferently, by borrowing from others, 
 wfJl be found well done by various accomplished chemists 
 who write specially on these subjects. We can, however, 
 testify from experience to the important fact, that one 
 bushel of bone-dust dissolved by a third of ite weight of 
 sulphuric acid is as a manure superior in value to four bushels 
 of simple bone-dust. It is not merely, or even chiefly, in 
 the lessened cost at which an acre of turnips can be manured 
 that tNs superiority lies, but especially in this, that from 
 the extraordinary stimulus given by superphosphate of lime 
 to newly germinated turnip plants, they usually arrive at 
 the stage when they are fit for thinning in from ten to 
 fifteen days earlier than when sown over farm-yard dung 
 or simple bone-dust, or both combined. This shortening of 
 the critical period during which the attacks of the insignifi- 
 cant but dreaded turnip-beetle so often baulk the hopes of 
 the husbandman is an advantage not easily estimated, and 
 one well fitted to inspire him with confidence in the science 
 to which he owes the discovery, and with grateful respect 
 for the eminent discoverer. This powerful effect in quicken- 
 ing the growth of the young turnip plants is possessed ir. 
 nearly as great a degree by Peruvian guano, when it is 
 supplied with sufficient moisture. In climates and seasons 
 which may be characterised as moist and cool, guano wili 
 show best results, whereas in those which are rather hot and 
 dry superphosphate has the advantage. Accordingly we 
 find guano the comparative favourite in Scotland, and its 
 rival in the drier counties of England. 
 
 Guano is believed to encourage a great expanse of foliage, 
 and to be more especially suited for early sowings; and 
 superphosphate to influence development of bulb, and to 
 deserve the preference for a later seed-time. The obvious 
 inference is that, for the turnip crop at least, these valu- 
 able fertilisers should be used in combination ; and actual 
 experiment has verified its soundness. The use of them 
 is universal and ever on the increase. They constitute also 
 the standard by which farmers estimate the cost and effects 
 of other purchased manures. The extent to which they art 
 used, their high price, and the facility with which they can 
 be adulterated with comparatively worthless ingredients, 
 have led to almost unparalleled frauds. The adulteration 
 of manures has, in fact, become a regular trade. Had 
 farmers only their bodily senses to aid them, the detection 
 of this fraud would be difficult — perhaps impossible. Here,
 
 34b 
 
 A O It 1 C UL T U 11 E 
 
 [manuals. 
 
 however, tliey can call tUe chennst to their aid, with the 
 certainty of- ascertaining the real character of the articles 
 which they are invited to purchase. If purchasers of ma- 
 nures would but insist in every instauc< uu getting from tho 
 seller an analysis by some coinpeteuv chemist, and along 
 with it a written warrandice that the stock is of the quality 
 therein indicated, detection and punishment of fraud would 
 be easy. In regard to superphosphate of lime, the farmer 
 can purchaso bone-dust and sulphuric acid and prepare it 
 himself. We conducted this proie s for several years in 
 the following way: — A trough was provided 7 feet x 3'4 x 
 2'10, made of 2 J-inch deal, strongly jointed, and secured at 
 the corners hy wooden pegs, as iron nails would be corroded 
 by the acid. This holds conveniently 48 bushels of bones. 
 Tho heap of bone-dust is then gone over with a Barley riddle, 
 and tho small dust which passes through this is laid aside to 
 be used as a drying material for the other portion, after it 
 is subjected to the acid We find that a third part of the 
 bone-dust passes through the riddle. Three bottles, or 
 carboys a3 they are called, of concentrated acid, averaging 
 180 lb. each, are then emptied into the trough and mixed 
 with cold water at the rate of 1 J of water, by measure, to 
 1 of acid. In practice, the water is poured in first and then 
 the acid. Into this mixture 48 bushels of bones, previously 
 measured and laid close to the trough, are rapidly shovelled 
 by two labourers, who will do well to be attired in clothes 
 nnd shoes past spoiling. So soon as the bones begin to be 
 thrown in, violent ebullition commences. By the time that 
 the whole of the bones are thrown in, there will be barely 
 Liquid enough to moisten the last of them. The labourers 
 therefore dig down at one end of the trough till they reach 
 the bottom, and then carefully turn back and mix the whole 
 quantity until they reach the other end. The surface is 
 then levelled and covered with a layer of the dry riddliugs 
 two inches thick. In this state it is allowed to remain for 
 two days, when the trough is emptied, and the same process 
 is repeated until the whole quantity is gone over. When 
 shovelled out of the trough the bones are found to have 
 become a dark-coloured paste, still very warm, and emitting 
 a sweetish smelL While one person throws it out, another 
 adds to it its proportion of dry riddlings, and mixes them 
 carefully. This mass is heaped up in the corner of a shed, 
 and augmented at each emptying of the trough, until the 
 requisite quantity is obtained. After this the mass is care- 
 fully turned over several times, at intervals of five or six 
 days, and is then dry enough for sowing either by hand or 
 machine. Some prefer moistening the bones with boiling 
 water, and then adding pure acid as they are shovelled into 
 the trough ; but by first mixing the acid and water there is 
 greater certainty of all the bones being equally acted upon. 
 There is also great convenience in using the finest portion 
 of the bone-dust for drying the other, as suitable material 
 for this purpose is sometimes difficult to procure. The 
 homely process now described is quite inferior to, and more 
 costly than, that pursued in factories, and should only be 
 resorted to when a genuine article cannot otherwise be 
 obtained. 
 
 We have referred to superphosphate of lime prepared 
 from bones. , A new source of supply has, however, been 
 discovered of late years, the extent and importance of which 
 is becoming more apparent as investigation proceeds. We 
 allude to those phosphoric deposits found in such abundance 
 in the crag, and upper and lower green-sand formations in 
 the south of England. The existence of these fossil animal 
 remains was first pointed out by Drs Mautel and Buckland, 
 though it is to Professor Henslow that we are indebted for 
 having called attention to their eminent agricultural value, 
 and described the localities whenco they may be most readily 
 obtained. These remains consist of the fractured and rolled 
 bones of sharks, gigantic sea-lizards, and whales, which at 
 
 one period of our earth's history must havo existed in 
 myriads in our oceans and seas. Mixed with these bones 
 are found many fish-teeth and shells of different species, 
 and likewise immense numbers of rolled, water-worn pebbles, 
 which at one period were imagined to be the fossilised ex- 
 crements of the animals themselves, and were on this account 
 called coproliles by Professor Henslow and others. Although 
 this has since been proved a mistake, tho namo has been 
 adopted, and will probably be continued. These fossil 
 bones, and so-called coprolites of the crag, are found in 
 enormous quantities on the coast of Suffolk, Norfolk, and 
 Essex, whence MrLawes of Rothamstead obtained nearly the 
 whole of the material which he employed in tlje preparation 
 of his well-known " coprolite manure," or " Lawes' super- 
 phosphate." Already, it is believed, several thousands of 
 tons of these fossils in one form or other are annually sold 
 for manure, with a rapidly increasing demand. Those found 
 in the crag formation are exceedingly hard, and require to 
 be ground by powerful machinery, and dissolved in sul- 
 phuric acid, to render the phosphate of lime available as 
 manure. Fossils, though less abundant in the green-sand, 
 can be reduced to the requisite fineness by simple machinery, 
 and are then fit for agricultural purposes without any chemi- 
 cal preparation. They are found plentifully in the parish 
 of Farnham, so long celebrated for the excelleuco and abun- 
 dance of its hops, which are now discovered to bo due to tho 
 presence in the soil of theso fossil remains. The discovery 
 of these mines of manure in various parts of our country 
 was made most seasonably, and has proved of imiueeso 
 national importance • When Liebig predicted that, " in the 
 remains of an extinct animal world England is to find the 
 means of increasing her wealth in agricultural produce, as 
 she has already found the great support of her manufactur 
 ing industry in fossil fuel," he was regarded by many as 
 merely indulging a fine philosophic fancy ; but enough has 
 already been realised to convince the most sceptical of tbr. 
 importance of the data on which he founded his opinion. 1 
 
 On mixing a quantity of bone-dust with its own bulk of 
 mould or sand, and wetting the whole with the liquid which 
 oozes from the dung-heap, violent fermentation immedi- 
 ately ensues, dissolving the bones, and making them mor? 
 readily available for the nourishment of the turnip crop. 
 Many farmers are so satisfied with this preparation, that 
 they dispense with the acid This is not judicious, as the 
 superphosphate of lime is a more valuable manure than 
 bones dissolved by simple fermentation. 
 
 Bones are sometimes applied as a top-dressing to grasa 
 land with singular success. " This Cheshire practice con- 
 sists in applying an extraordinary dose of bones to pasture- 
 land. ' For pasture, land, especially the poorer kind,' says 
 Mr Palin, ' there is nothing equal to bone manure, either 
 as regards tho permanency of its effects, or the production 
 of a sweet luxurious herbage, of which all cattle are fond 
 Many thousand acres of the poor clay soils have been 
 covered with this manuro during the last eight or ten years.' 
 The average quantity used is about a ton and a half to the 
 acre ; it is therefore a landlord's improvement, l on which 
 seven or eight per cent, is generally paid. Boiled bones act 
 as long as unboiled bones, retaining the phosphorus, though 
 not so quickly, having lost the animal matter. Boiled bones 
 (1845) cost £3, 10s. per ton ; the outlay then was five 
 guineas per acre, sometimes £7 or £8. ' I have known,' 
 says a correspondent, ' many instances where the annual 
 value of our poorest clay lands has been increased by an 
 outlay of from £7 to £8 an acre, at least 300 per cent. ; 
 or, in other words, that the land has been much cheaper 
 after this outlay at 30s., than in its native state at 10a. per 
 acre ; with the satisfaction of seeing a miserable covering 
 
 1 Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. Lj- 
 D. firt. ind voL lii. p. 91.
 
 RAPE, BLOOD, ETC. 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 349 
 
 of pink-grass, rushes, hen-gorse, and other noxious weeds, 
 exchanged for a most luxuriant herbage of wild clover, 
 trefoil, and other succulent grasses.' Though much of the 
 clover and trefoil m&y disappear in five or ten years (some 
 times they last fifteen years), an excellent herbage remains. 
 ' Draining,' the writer adds, ' may be carried too far where 
 boues are used, for boned lands suffer by a dry summer. 
 The land should be kept cooL' I have found the same 
 thing on water meadows. The freer the grass is growing, 
 the more it suffers from drought ; and this is natural, for 
 a larger supply of sap is required. This writer adds, ' I 
 have known many a poor, honest, but half-broken man, 
 raised from poverty to comparative independence, and many 
 a sinking family saved from inevitable ruin, by the help of 
 this wonderful manure.' Indeed, I believe, land after 
 boning will keep three cows where two fed before. As to 
 this practice, however, caution is necessary. It seems to 
 belong to cold clays for grass in Cheshire, though on such 
 soil it would hardly answer elsewhere, even for turnips. 
 A Cheshire landlord told me that he had tried it vainly for 
 grass in Suffolk. I know no case of its success out of Che- 
 shire, unless in the bordering counties, and have heard some 
 cases of its failure even in those. It will not do, therefore, 
 at all to adopt it hastily. We only know it to have 
 succeeded about Cheshire, which is on the red marls geo- 
 logically, and on the rainy side of the country, and must 
 remember that it is a costly proceeding, striking in its 
 success, but as yet circumscribed in its practice, and there- 
 fore in th; proof of its efficacy." 1 
 
 Section 5. — Rape-Cake, <te. 
 
 Rape-cake reduced to powder forms an excellent manure 
 for wheat and other crops. It is usually applied at the 
 rate of from tour to eight cwt. per acre. The cakes result- 
 ing after oil has been expressed from camelina, hemp, and 
 cotton seeds, and from pistachio and castor-oil nuts, from 
 lieech and other mast, all possess considerable value as 
 manure, and were at one time available for that purpose. 
 Most of them now command a price for cattle feeding that 
 ■'orbids their use as manure unless when in a damaged stato. 
 
 Section 6. — Blood, <tc. 
 
 All parts of the carcases of animals form valuable manure, 
 ind are now carefully used in that way whenever they are 
 anfit for more important uses. The blood and other refuse 
 'from shambles and from fish-curers' yards, when mixed with 
 nrth and decomposed, make a valuable manure, and are 
 tagerly sought after by farmers to whom such supplies are 
 Accessible. In London a company has been formed by 
 whom the blood from the shambles is purchased, and em- 
 ployed instead of water in preparing superphosphate of lime, 
 which, when thus manufactured, contains an amount of 
 immonia which adds considerably to its efficacy as a manure. 
 In Australia and South America it has long been the practice 
 to slaughter immense numbers of sheep and cattle for the 
 sake of their hides and tallow only, there being no market 
 for them as beef and mutton. To obtain the whole tallow, 
 the carcases are subjected to a process of boiling by steam 
 and afterwards to pressure, and are then thrown aside in 
 great piles. This dried residuum is afterwards used as 
 fuel in the furnaces of the steaming apparatus, and the 
 resulting ashes constitute the bone-ash of commerce, which 
 is now an important raw material in our manure factories. 
 
 After many abortive attempts to convey Australian beef 
 and mutton to -the British market, the difficulty has at last 
 been overcome by enclosing the meat in a par-boiled state 
 in tin cases, hermetically sealed. This ha3 already grown 
 
 1 Article by Mr Pn<ey. See Journal of Royal Society of England, 
 »ol. xi. p. 409. 1 
 
 to a large trade, with every likelihood of its increasing 
 rapidly. As the meat in these cases is sent, free from bone, 
 a plan has been found for rendering the bones also a pro- 
 fitable article of export. For this purpose they are crushed 
 into compact cakes 6 inches square by 3 inches thick, in 
 which form they can be stowed in comparatively small 
 space. 
 
 The refuse from glue-works ; the blubber and dregs from 
 fish-oil ; animal charcoal that has been used in the process 
 of sugar-refining ; the shavings and filings of horn and bones 
 frbm various manufactures, and woollen rags, are all made 
 available for manure. 
 
 Section 7. — Night-Soil. 
 
 Night-Soil is a powerful manure ; but* owing to its 
 offensive odour it has never been systematically used ij 
 Britain. Various plans are tried for obviating this objec- 
 tion, that most in repute at present being its mixture with 
 charred peat From the universal use of water closets in 
 private dwellings, the great mass of this valuable fertilising 
 matter now passes into sewers, and is carried on by streams 
 and rivers,, and is for the most part totally lost as 2 manure. 
 When sewage water is used for irrigation, as in the 
 neighbourhood of Edinburgh, it is to the night-soil dissolved 
 in it that its astonishing effects ia promoting the growth 
 of grass are chiefly due. We have already expressed our 
 views in regard to the use of it in this diluted form of 
 sewage water. That mode of applying it is necessarily 
 restricted to lands in the vicinity of towns. Hitherto the 
 numerous and costly attempts that have been made to 
 separate the fertilising matter from the water in which it 
 is contained have proved utter failures. The most feasible 
 plan for the utilisation of night-soil that we have hitherto 
 heard of is that brought forward by the Rev. Henry Moule, 
 Fordington Vicarage, Devon. In a tract addressed to cot- 
 tagers he says, — " Now, my discovery is this : The earth 
 of your garden, if dried — or dried and powdered clay — will 
 suck up the liquid part of the privy soil ; and, if applied 
 at once and carefully mixed, will destroy all bad smell and 
 all nasty appearance in the solid part, and will keep all the 
 value of the manure. Three half pints of earth, or even 
 one pint, will be enough for each time. And earth thus 
 mixed even once is very good manure. But if, after mixing, 
 you throw it into a shed and dry it, you may use it again 
 and again; and the oftener you use it the stronger the manure 
 will be. I have used some seven and even eight times ; 
 and yet, even after being so often mixed, there is no bad 
 smell with the substance ; and no one, if not told, would 
 know what it is." To adapt a privy for using dried earth 
 in this way, he says, — " Let the seat be made in the com- 
 mon way, only without any vault beneath. Under the seat 
 place a bucket or box, or, if you have nothing else, an old 
 washing-pan. A bucket is the best, because it is more 
 easily handled ; only let it have a good-sized bail or handle. 
 By the side of the seat have a box that will hold (say) a 
 bushel of dried earth, and a scoop or old basin that will . 
 take up a pint or a pint and a half, and let that quantity 
 of earth be thrown into the bucket or pan every time it is 
 used. The bucket may be put in or taken out from above 
 by having -the whole cover moved with hinges ; or else, 
 through a door in front or at the back" He has also in- 
 vented and patented an earth-closet, as a substitute for the 
 ordinary water-closet, which he describes thus : — "The back 
 contains dried and sifted earth, which enters the pan 
 through a hole at the back of it, and covers the bottom. 
 The bottom is moved by the handle and lever ; the side of 
 the pan acts as a scraper ; and all that is upon the bottom 
 is pushed off, falling into the bucket or shaft below. The 
 earth thus applied at once prevents fermentation, and almost 
 all exhalation and offensive smell The bottom returns tn
 
 350 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [.MAXtr.EJ 
 
 its place by means of a spring, and a fresh supply of the 
 eerth falls upon it from the box." 1 
 
 This scheme has now been tested for a sufficient length 
 of time, and on a wide enough scale, to show that in the 
 cose of private houses in rural districts, as well as in prisons, 
 asylums, hospitals, public schools, military camps, and fac- 
 tories, it is entirely successful as regards the sanitary results 
 of its use, and the value of the manure when applied to 
 gardens attached to the premises from which it is obtained. 
 But the cost and annoyance of moving so bulky a substance, 
 and the small percentage of fertilising matter contained in 
 it, forbid the expectation of its being adopted in towns. 
 
 Section S.Sea-Weed. 
 Along our sea-board large supplies of useful manure are 
 obtained in the shape of drifted sea-weed. This is either 
 applied as a top-dressing to grass and clover, ploughed in 
 with a light furrow, for various crops, or mixed in dung- 
 heaps. It requires to be used in large quantities per acre 
 — from 40 to 60 loads — and is evanescent in its effects. 
 Grain grown on land manured with sea-weed is generally 
 of fine quality, and is in repute as seed corn. 
 
 Section 9. — Manure Crops. 
 
 Crops of Buckwheat, Rape, Vetches, and Mustard are some- 
 times ploughed in, while in a green, succulent state, to 
 enrich the land. It is, however, more usual to fold sheep 
 on such crops, and so to get the benefit of them as forage, 
 as well as manure to the land. The leaves of turnips are 
 frequently ploughed in after removing the bulbs, and nave 
 a powerful fertilising effect. 
 
 Section 10. — Lime. 
 
 Besides manures of an animal and vegetable origin, vari- 
 ous mineral substances are used for this purpose. Tne 
 most important and extensively used of these is lime, m 
 the drier parts of England it i3 not held in much esteem, 
 whereas in the western and northern counties, and in Scot- 
 land, its use is considered indispensable to good farming. 
 Experienced farmers in Berwickshire consider it desirable 
 io lime the land every twelve years, at the rate of from 
 1 20 to 200 bushels of the unslacked lime per acre. It is 
 found especially beneficial iu the reclaiming of moory and 
 boggy lands, on which neither green nor grain crops thrive 
 unt2 it has been applied to them. Its use is found to 
 improve the quality of grain, and to cause it in some cases 
 to ripen earlier. It facilitates the cleaning of land, certain 
 weeds disappearing altogether for a time after a dressing 
 of lime. It is the only known specific for the disease in 
 turnips called " fingers-and-toes," on which account alone it 
 is frequently used in circumstances which would otherwise 
 render such an outlay unwarrantable. The practice, still 
 frequent, of tenants at the beginning of a nineteen years' 
 lease, liming their whole farm at a cost per acre of from 
 £3 to £5, proves conclusively the high estimation in which 
 this manure is held. The belief — in which we fully concur 
 — is however gaining ground, that moderate and frequent 
 applications are preferable to these heavy doses at length- 
 ened intervals. 
 
 When bare fallowing was in U3e, it was commonly to- 
 wards the close of that process that lime was applied. 
 Having been carted home and laid down in large heaps, it 
 was, when slaked, spread evenly upon the surface and 
 covered in by a light furrow. It is now frequently spread 
 upon the autumn furrow preparatory to root crops, and 
 worked in by harrowing or grubbing, and sometimes by 
 throwing the land into shallow ridgelets. Another method 
 
 1 Uanun for tKt Million, by Rev. Henry Honle, price Id. Mr 
 MouIb has aUo published a pamphlet na the same subject, entitled 
 Rational UtaUh and Wealth. 
 
 much used is to form it into compost with decayed quickenn, 
 parings from road-sides and margins of fields, &c, which, 
 after thorough intermixture by frequent turnings, is spread 
 evenly upon the land when in grass. A cheap and effectual 
 way of getting a dressing of such compost thoroughly com- 
 minuted and incorporated with the surface soil, is to fold 
 sheep upon it, and feed them there with turnips for a few 
 days. Tho value of such compost is much enhanced by 
 mixing common salt with the lime and earth, at the rate of 
 one part of salt by measure to two parts of lime. A mixture 
 of these two substances in these proportions prepared under 
 cover, and applied in a powdery state, is much approved as 
 a spring top-dressing for corn crops on light soils. In 
 whatever way lime is applied, it is important to remember 
 that the carbonic acid which has been expelled from it by 
 subjecting it in the kiln to a red heat, is quickly regained 
 from the atmosphere, to which therefore it should be as 
 little exposed as possible before applying it to the land. 
 A drenching from heavy rain after it is slaked is also 
 to its usefulness. Careful farmers therefore guard against 
 these evils by laying on lime as soon as it is slaked ; or 
 when delay is unavoidable, by coating these heaps with 
 earth, or thatching them with straw. In order to reap the 
 full benefit of a dressing of lime it must be so applied as. 
 while thoroughly incorporated with the soil, to be kept nea' 
 the surface. This is more particularly to be attended to in 
 laying down land to pasture. This fact is so well illustrated 
 by an example quoted in tho article " Agriculture" in the 
 7th edition of the present work that we here repeat it. 
 
 " A few years after 1754," says Mr Dawson, " having a consider- 
 able extent of outfield land in fallow, which I wished to lime previous 
 to its being laid down to pasture, and finding that I could not 
 obtain a sufficient quantity of lime for the whole in proper time, I 
 was induced, from observing the effects of fine loom upon the surface 
 of similar soil, even when covered with bent, to try a small quantity 
 of lime on the surface of this fallow, instead of a larger quantity 
 ploughed down in the usual manner. Accordingly, il '.he autumn, 
 about twenty acres of it were well harrowed in, and then about fifty- 
 six Winchester bushels only, of unslaked lime, were, after being 
 slaked, carefully spread upon each English acre, and immediately 
 well harrowed in. As many pieces of the lime, which had not been 
 fully slaked at first, were gradually reduced to powder by'the dews 
 and moisture of the eifth, — to mix these with the soil, the land was 
 again well harrowed in three or four days thereafter. This land was 
 sown in the spring with oats, with wliite and red clover and rye-grass 
 seeds, and well harrowed without being ploughed again. The crop 
 of cats was good, the plants of grass sufficiently numerous and 
 healthy ; and they formed a very fine pasture, which continued good 
 until ploughed some years after for corn. 
 
 " About twelve years afterwards I took a lease of the hilly farm 
 of Grubbet, many parts of which, though of an earthy mould toler- 
 ably deep, were too steep and elevated to be kept in tillage. As these 
 lands had been much exhausted by cropping, and were full of couch- 
 grass, to destroy that and procure a cover of fine grass, 1 fallowed 
 them, and laid on the same quantity of lime per acre, then harrowed 
 and sowed oats and grass-seeds in the spring, exactly as in the last- 
 mentioned experiment. The oats were a full crop, and the plants 
 of grass abundant. Several of these fields have been now above thirty 
 years in pasture, and are still producing white clover and other fine 
 grasses ; no bent or fog has yet appeared upon them. It deserves 
 particular notice, that more than treble the quantity of lime was laid 
 upon fields adjoining of a similar soil, but which being fitter for 
 occasional tillage, upon them the lime was ploughed in. These fields 
 were also sown with oats and grass seeds. The latter throve well, 
 and gave o fine pasture the first year; but afterwards the bent 
 spread so fast, that in three years there was more of it than of the 
 finer grasses." 
 
 The conclusions which Mr Dawson draws from his ex- 
 tensive practice in the use of lime and dung deserve the 
 attention of all cultivators of similar land : — 
 
 /' 1. That animal dang dropped upon coarse benty pasture pro- 
 duces little or no improvement upon them ; and that, even when 
 sheep or cattle are confined to a small space, as in the case of 
 folding, their dung ceases to produco any beneficial effects after • 
 few yean, whether the land is continued in pasture or brought 
 under the plough.
 
 M.UN'0RE3.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 351 
 
 " 2. That even when land of this description is well fallowed 
 and dunged, but not limed, though the dung augments the produce 
 of the subsequent crop of grain, and of grass also for two or three 
 years, its effects thereafter are no longer discernible either upon 
 the one or the other. 
 
 " 3. That when this land is limed, if the lime is kept upon ths 
 fiurface of tha soil, or well mixed with it, and then laid down to 
 pasture, the finer grasses continue in possession of the soil, even in 
 elevated and exposed situations, for a great many years, to the 
 exclusion of bent and fog. In the case of Grubbet-hills, it was 
 observed, that more than thirty years have now elapsed. Besides 
 this, the dung of the animals pastured upon such land adds every 
 year to the luxuriance, and improves the quality of the pasture, 
 and augments the productive powers of the soil when afterwards 
 ploughed for grain; thus producing upon a benty outfield soil 
 effects similar to what are experienced when rich infield lands have 
 been long in pasture, and which are thereby more and more 
 enriched. 
 
 " 4. That when a large quantity of lime is laid on such land, 
 end ploughed down deep, the same effects will not be produced, 
 whether in respect to the permanent fineness of the pasture, its 
 gradual amelioration by the dung of the animals depastured on it, 
 or its fertility when afterwards in tillage. On the contrary, unless 
 the surface is fully mixed with lime, the coarse grasses will in a 
 few years regain possession of the soil, and the dung thereafter 
 deposited by cattle will not enrich the land for subsequent tillage. 
 
 "Lastly, It also appears from what has been stated, that the 
 four-shift husbandry is only proper for very rich land, or in situa- 
 tions where there is a full command of dung ; that by far the 
 greatest part of the land of this country requires to be continued in 
 grass two, three, four, or more years, according to its natural 
 poverty; that the objection made to this, viz., that the coarse 
 grasses in a few years usurp possession of the soil, must be owing 
 to the surface soil not being sufficiently mixed with lime, the lime 
 having been covered too deep by the plough." — Farmers' Magazine, 
 vol xiii. p. 69. 
 
 Section 11. — Marl. 
 
 Our remarks hitherto have had reference to carbonate of 
 dme in that form of it to which the term lime is exclusively 
 ipplied by farmers. But there are other substances fre- 
 quently applied to land which owe their value chiefly to 
 the presence of this mineral. The most important of these 
 is marl, which is a mixture of carbonate of lime with clay, 
 or with clay and sand, and other compounds. When this 
 substance is found in the proximity of, or lying under, 
 sandy or peaty soils, its application in considerable doses is 
 attended with the very best effects. The fen lands of 
 England, the mosses of Lancashire, and sandy soils in 
 Norfolk and elsewhere, have been immensely improved in 
 this way. In Lancashire, marl is carried on the mosses by 
 means of portable railways at the rate of 150 tons, and at 
 a cost of about £3 per acre. In the fens long trenches are 
 dug, and the subjacent marl is thrown out and spread on 
 either side at an expense of 54s. per acre. By this process, 
 often repeated, of claying or marling, as it is variously 
 called, the appearance and character of the fen lands have 
 been totally changed, excellent wheat being now raised 
 where formerly only very inferior oats were produced. As 
 the composition both of peat and of clay marl varies exceed- 
 ingly, it is always prudent, either by limited experiment or 
 chemical analysis of both substances, to ascertain the effect 
 of their admixture. Lime is always present in those cases 
 which prove most successful ; but an overdose does harm. 
 
 Section 12.— Shell-Marl. 
 
 Under some mosses and fresh-water lakes extensive de- 
 posits of shell-marl are frequently found. It contains a 
 larger percentage of lime than clay marl, and must be 
 applied more sparingly. 
 
 Section 13.— Chalk 
 
 Throughout the extensive chalk districts of England, 
 the practice of spreading this substance over the surface of 
 the land has prevailed from the remotest times. In the 
 case of the Lincolnshire Wolds, once as celebrated for 
 .desolate barrenness as they now are for high culture and 
 
 smiling fertility, chalking was one important means of bring- 
 ing about this wonderful improvement, as it still is in 
 maintaining it. " The soil being but a few inches in depth, 
 and often containing a large proportion of flints, naturally 
 possesses very little fertility — often being a light sand, not 
 strong enough naturally to. grow turnips — so that the 
 farmers were at first obliged to make a soil, and must now 
 maintain its new-born productiveness. The three principal 
 means by which this is done are the processes of chalking, 
 and boning, and manuring with sheep. A dressing of 80 or 
 100 cubic yards per acre of chalk is spread upon the land, 
 and then a crop of barley is obtained if possible, being sown 
 with seeds for grazing. The fields are grazed with sheep 
 two years, the sheep being at the same time fed with oil- 
 cake ; and then the land will be capable of producing a fine 
 crop of oats. Bones are also used frequently for the barley 
 crop, and when they first came into use were thrown upon 
 the land in a chopped state, neither broken nor crushed, 
 and as much as 40 or even 50 bushels per acre. Tho 
 boning and sheep-feeding are in constant operation, but 
 chalking is required only at intervals of a few years. On 
 the western side of the Wold district, wherever the chalk 
 adjoins the white or blue marl, an extensive application of 
 it is made to the surface. Thus immense quantities of 
 earth and stone have been added by manual labour and 
 horse-carriage to the thin covering of original soil ; and, 
 besides this, the soil is being continually deepened by deep 
 ploughing, the chalk fragments thus brought to the surface 
 crumbling into mould." 1 
 
 In Dorsetshire "it is usual to chalk the land once in 
 twenty years, the sour description of soil being that to which 
 it is found most advantageous to apply it The chalk is 
 dug out of pits in the field to which it is applied, and it is 
 laid on sometimes with barrows, but chiefly with the aid 
 of donkeys. The first method costs 40s. an acre, the last 
 35s. when hire donkeys are used ; 20s. to 25s. where the 
 donkeys are the property of the fanner. The chalk is laid 
 on in large lumps, which soon break down by the action of 
 frost and exposure to the weather. Chalk is occasionally 
 burned and applied as lime, in which state it is preferred 
 by many farmers, notwithstanding the additional cost of 
 the burning." 3 
 
 Section 14. — Shell-Sand and Limestone Gravel. 
 
 On the western shores of Great Britain and Ireland arc 
 found great quantities of sand mixed with sea-shells in 
 minute fragments. This calcareous sand is carried inland 
 considerable distances, and applied to the land as lime is 
 elsewhere. Limestone gravel is also found in various places 
 and used in the same way. 
 
 Section 15. — Gypsum. 
 
 Sulphate of lime or gypsum is considered an excellent 
 top-dressing for clover and kindred plants. It is thought 
 by some that the failure of red clover is to be accounted 
 for by the repeated crops of that plant having exhausted 
 the gypsum in the soil' Its application has been followed 
 by favourable results in some cases, but has yet quite 
 failed in others. It is applied in a powdered state at the 
 rate of two or three cwt per acre when the plants are moist 
 with rain or dew. 
 
 Section 16. — Burnt Clay. 
 
 About fifty years ago burnt clay was brought much into 
 notice as a manure, and tried in various parts of the country, 
 but again fell into disuse. It is now, however, more exten- 
 sively and systematically practised than ever. Frequent 
 
 i "Farming of Lincolnshire," by John Algernon Clarke ; Jowma! 
 of Royal Ajricultural Society, xli. 331. 
 
 • See Caird's £rglish Agriculture 1SS0 and 1851, p. 61.
 
 3o2 
 
 A G R I C U C T J R E 
 
 [manured 
 
 reference to the practice is to be found in tlie volumes of 
 the Journd of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. 
 This burning of clay 13 accomplished in several ways. 
 Sometimes it is burned in large heaps or clamps containing 
 from 80 to 100 cart-loads. A fire being kindled with some 
 faggots or brushwood, which is covered up with the clay, 
 taking care not to let the fire break out at any point, more 
 fuel of the kind mentioned, or dross of coals, is ad<l 1 as 
 required, and more clay heaped on. A fierce fire must be 
 avoided, as that would make the clay into brickbats. A 
 low, smothered combustion is what i3 required ; and to 
 maintain this a good deal of skill and close watching on the 
 part of the workman i3 necessary. A rude kiln is sometimes 
 used for the same purpose. Either of these plana is suitable 
 where the ashes are wanted at a homestead for absorbing 
 liquid manure, ic; but for merely spreading over the land, 
 that called clod-burning is preferable, and is thus described 
 in volume viii. pago 78, of the Royal Agricultural Socu I y '1 
 Journal: — "Roll and harrow, in dry weather, till the 
 majority of clods are about the size of a large walnut ; no- 
 thing so good as the clod-crasher to forward this operation : 
 when perfectly dry, collect them into rows about six yards 
 apart, with iron-teethed rakes ; take a quarter of a whin 
 faggot, or less, according to size, previously cut into lengths 
 by a man with an axe ; place these pieces about four yards 
 apart in the rows, cover them with clods, putting the finest 
 mould upon the top of the heap, to prevent the fire too 
 quickly escaping ; observe the wind, and leave an opening 
 accordingly ; having set fire to a long branch of whin, run 
 from opening to opening tiH two or three rows are lighted, 
 secure these, and then put fire to others, keeping a man or 
 two behind to attend to the fires and earthing up till the 
 quantity desired may be burned, which -will generally take 
 four or five hours, say from 25 to 35 loads per acre of '30 
 bushels per load. 
 
 " This work is often put out to a gang of men at about 
 10s. per acre for labour, and the whins cost 4a. Gd. per acre, 
 not including the carting. 
 
 "When the heaps are cold, spread and plough in. The 
 great advantage of burning clods in these small heaps, in 
 preference to a large ono, is the saving of expense in collect- 
 ing and spreading ; there is much less red brick earth and 
 more black and charred ; no horses or carts moving on the 
 land whilst burning ; and a large field may be all burned 
 in a day or two, therefore less liable to be delayed by wet 
 weather. In the heavy land part of Suffolk, the farmers 
 purchase whins from the light land occupiers, and often cart 
 them a distanco of fourteen or sixteen miles, when there is 
 no work pressing on the farm. These are stacked up and 
 secured by thatching with straw, that they may be dry and 
 fit for use when required. Bean straw is the next best fuel 
 to whins or furze, and it is astonishing to see how small a 
 quantity will burn the clods if they are of the proper size 
 and dry. Observe, if the soil is at all inclined to sand, it 
 will not burn so welL I will here mention, that I often 
 sift and store up a few loads of the best blackened earth 
 to drill with my turnips, instead of buying artificial 
 manure, and find it answers remarkably well, and assists in 
 maintaining the position that a heavy land farm in Suffolk 
 can be farmed in the first-rate style without foreign 
 ingredients.* 
 
 Burnt clay is an admirable vehicle for absorbing liquid 
 saanure. A layer of it in the bottom of cattle-boxes does 
 good service, at once in economising manure, and in yielding 
 to the cattle a drier bed than they would otherwise have 
 until the litter has accumulated to some depth. Valuable 
 results have also been obtained by using it for strewing over 
 the floors of poultry-houses, and especially of pens in which 
 sheep are fed under cover. In the latter case it is mixed 
 •Mth the excrements of the sheep as they patter over it, and 
 
 forms a substance not unlike guano, nor much inferior to 
 it as a manure. As an application to sandy or chalky soils 
 it is invaluable. It is mainly by this use of burnt clay, in 
 combination with fattening of sheep under cover, that Mi 
 Rondel] of Chadbury has so astonishingly increased the 
 productiveness of his naturally poor clay soil. A Berwick- 
 shire proprietor, himself a practical farmer, who visited Mr 
 Randell's farm in the summer of 1852, thus writes: — "I 
 have visited most of the best managed farms in England, at 
 least those that have so much of late been brought undei 
 general notice; but without exception, I never saw land in 
 the splendid condition his is in. The beauty of the system 
 lies in the cheap method by which he has imparted to it 
 this fertility, and in the manner in which he keeps it up. 
 A large part of the farm consisted, fourteen years ago, of 
 poor clay, and was valued to him at his entry at 7s. 6d. per 
 acre. It is now bearing magnificent crops of all kinds, 
 the wheat being estimated to yield from 6 to 7 quarters 
 per acre. 
 
 " Mcchi has enriched Tiptree-heath, it is true ; out then 
 it is effected at a cost that will make it impossible for him 
 to be repaid. Mr Randell, on the other hand, has adopted 
 a course that is nearly self-supporting, his only cost being 
 the preparation of the clay. The great secret of his success 
 lies in his mode of using it ; and as I never heard of a 
 similar process, I will briefly explain to you how it is done : 
 — His heavy land not permitting him to consume the turnip 
 and mangold crops on the ground, he carts them home, and 
 feeds his sheep in large sheds. They do not stand on boards 
 or straw, but on the burnt clay, which affords them a 
 beautiful dry bed ; and whenever it gets the least damp or 
 dirty, a fresh coating is put under them. The mound rises 
 in height ; and in February, when the shearlings are sold 
 (for the sheep are only then twelve months old), the mass 
 is from 7 to 8 feet deep. He was shearing his lambs when 
 I was there, as he considers they thrive much better in the 
 sheds without their fleeces. They are half-bred Shropshire 
 downs ; and at the age I mention, attain the great weight 
 of 24 lbs. per quarter. 
 
 " I walked through the sheds, but 01 course tney were 
 then empty. I saw the enormous quantity of what he 
 called his ' home-made guano ; ' the smell from it strongly 
 indicated the ammonia it contained. He had sown his tur- 
 nd other green crops with it, and what remained he 
 us".d for the wheat in autumn. He assured me he had often 
 tes.'cd it with other manures, and always found 10 tons of 
 the compound quite outstrip 4 cwt. of guano, when they 
 were applied to an acre of land separately." 
 
 Section 17. — Charred Peat. 
 Charred peat has been excessively extolled for its valut 
 as a manure, both when applied alone, and still more in 
 combination with night-soil, sewage water, and similar 
 matters, which it dries and deodorises. So great were the 
 expectations of an enormous demand for it, and of the 
 benefits to result to Ireland by thus disposing of ier bogs, 
 that a royal charter was granted to a company by whom 
 its manufacture was commenced on an imposing scale. 
 This charcoal 13 doubtless a useful substance 5 but, as I)r 
 Anderson has proved, peat, merely dried, is a better 
 absorber and retainer of ammonia than after it is charred. 
 
 Section 18. — Soot. 
 
 Soot has long been in estimation as an exccUe nt top 
 dressing for cereal crops in the early stage of their growth, 
 and for grasses and forage plants. It is applied at the rate 
 of 15 to 30 bushels per acre. On light soils the additior 
 of 8 or 10 bushels of salt to the above quantity of soot 
 is said .to increase materially its good effect. This 
 mixture trenched, or deeply ploughed in, k also re-
 
 MANUEES.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 353 
 
 commended as one of the most powerful of all manures for 
 carrots. 
 
 In London Labour and the London Poor we find the 
 following statistics as to metroDolitan soot : — 
 
 Bush, of Soot 
 per annum. 
 " 53,840 houses, at a yearly rental above £50, producing 
 
 six bushels of soot each per annum . . . 323,040 
 90.002 houses, at a yearly rental above £30 and below 
 
 £50, producing five bushels of soot each per annum 450,010 
 163.88U houses, at a yearly rental below £30, producing 
 
 two bushels of soot each per annum . . . 327,760 
 
 Total number of bushels of soot annually pro- ) 
 duced throughout London . . . ) 
 
 i.ioo,?in 
 
 The price of soot per bushel is but 5d., and sometimes 4^d-, but 5d. 
 m»y be taken as an average. Now, 1,000,000 bushels of soot at fid. 
 will be found to yield £20,833, 6s. 8d. per annum." 1 
 
 Section 19. — Salt. 
 
 Common salt has often been commended as a valuable 
 manure, but has never been used in this way with such uni- 
 form success as to induce a general recourse to it. We 
 have already spoken of it as forming a useful compound with 
 lime and earth. It «a.n also be used beneficially for the 
 destruction of slugs, for which purpose it must be sown 
 over the surface, at the rate of four or five bushels per acre, 
 early in fhe morning, or on mild, moist days, when they are 
 seen to be abroad. It is used also to destroy grubs and 
 wireworm, for which purpose it is sown in considerable 
 quantity on grass land some time before it is ploughed up. 
 It can be used safely on light soils, but when clay pre- 
 dominates, it causes a hurtful wetness, and subsequent 
 incrustation of the surface. Its application in its unmixed 
 state as a manure is at best of doubtful benefit; but in 
 combination with lime, soot, nitrate of soda, and perhaps 
 also superphosphate of lime, it appears to exert a beneficial 
 influence. 
 
 Section 20. — Nitrate of Soda. 
 
 Cubic saltpetre, or nitrate of soda, has now become one 
 of our staple manures. The fertilising power of common 
 saltpetre or nitrate of potass has been known from the 
 earliest times, but its high price has hitherto hindered its 
 use as a manure, except in the form in which it is obtained 
 as refuse from the gunpowder mills. The cubic nitre i3 
 brought from Peru, where there are inexhaustible supplies 
 of it. The principal deposits of nitrate of soda are in the 
 plain of Tamarugal, at a distance of 18 miles from the coast 
 The beds are sometimes 7 or 8 feet in thickness, and 
 from these it is quarried with ease It is not found in a 
 perfectly pure state, but contains a mixture of several sub- 
 stances, chiefly common salt. To fit it for certain uses in 
 the arts, it is subjected to a process of purification by boiling 
 and evaporation. But for its use as a manure this is 
 altogether unnecessary, and the cost would be greatly 
 lessened if the nitrate were imported as quarried. As 
 cubic nitro and guano contain very nearly the same per- 
 centage of nitrogen (the element to which the fertilising 
 power of all manures is mainly due), it may seem sur- 
 prising that the former should ever be used in preference 
 to the latter. In practice, however, it is found that 
 when applied as a top-dressing in spring, the former 
 •frequently yields a better profit than the latter ; and hence 
 the importance to farmers of getting it at -a more reason- 
 able price. Nitrate of soda is used as a manure for grain 
 and forage crops. It is now extensively used as a top- 
 dressing for wheat. For this purpose it is applied at the 
 rate of 84 ft per acre, in combination with 2 cwt of 6alt 
 The nitre and salt are thoroughly mixed, and carefully sown, 
 
 1 Farmer^ Magazine for" Maxell 1852, p. -254. 
 
 by hand, in two or three equal portions, at intervals of 
 several weeks, beginning early in March, and fi ni shi n g by 
 the third week in April. If nitre alone is used, it has a 
 tendency to produce over-luxuriance, and to render the crop 
 liable to lodging and mildew. But the salt is found to 
 correct this over-luxuriance, and a profitable increase of 
 grain is thus obtained. Mr Pusey 2 informs us that an 
 application of 42 ft of nitrate of soda and-84 ft of salt per 
 acre, applied by him to ten acres of barley that had been 
 injured by frost, had such an effect upon the crop, that he 
 had seven bushels more grain per acre, and of better quality, 
 than on part that was left undressed for comparison. 
 These seven bushels per acre were attained by an outlay of 
 6s. 4d. only. This nitre is also applied with advantage to 
 forage crops. Mr Hope, Fenton Barns, East Lothian, states 
 that he finds the use of it as a top-dressing to clover, at the 
 rate of one cwt. of nitrate and two of guano per acre, profit- 
 able. Its beneficial effects are most apparent when it is 
 applied to light and sterile soils, or to such as have been 
 exhausted by excessive cropping. 
 
 Section 21. — Potash. 
 Crude potash, or kainite, has of recent years been largely 
 imported from Germany, and has been somewhat exten- 
 sively used in combination with other manures for potatoes 
 and other root crops — two cwt. per acre being a common 
 rate for the potash. 
 
 Section 22. — Artificial Manures. 
 
 Besides those substances, the most important of which we 
 have now enumerated, which are available as manure in 
 their natural state, there are various chemical products, 
 such as salts of ammonia, potash, and soda, copperas, sul- 
 phuric and muriatic acid, <i:c., which, in combination with 
 lim p, guano, night-soil, and other substances, are employed 
 in the preparation of manures, with a special view to the 
 requirements of particular crops. In some cases these pre- 
 parations have been eminently successful, in others but 
 doubtfully so. Many failures are probably due to the 
 spuriousness of the article made use of; as it is known that 
 enormous quantities of worthless rubbish have, of late 
 years, been sold to farmers, under high sounding names, 
 and at high prices, as special manures. We would recom- 
 mend those who desire information regarding the pre- 
 paration and use of such compounds to study the article on 
 Agricultural Chemistry, by Mr Lawes of Rothamstead, in 
 the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England 
 (voL viiL p. 226) ; the accounts of experiments with special 
 manures in the Transactions of the Highland and Agri- 
 cultural Society of Scotland ; and the articles relating to 
 Agricultural Chemistry in Morton's Cyclopaedia. Those 
 who purchase manures of this kind ought to be very care- 
 ful to insist in every instance upon the seller producing 
 an iJialysis by some chemist of established character, and 
 granting a written warranty that the article sold to them 
 is at least equal to the value indicated by the analysis. 
 Were all farmers to insist upon this mode of buying their 
 manures, they would at once put an end to that wholesale 
 system of fraud by which they have been so enormously 
 cheated of late years. 
 
 In applying these concentrated manures, those only of a 
 ■slowly operating character should be used in autumn or 
 winter, and at that season should invariably be mixed with 
 the soil Those in which ammonia abounds should in 
 spring also be mixed with the soil when crops to which 
 they are applied are sown. When used for top-dressing 
 growing crops they should be applied only in wet 
 weather. 
 
 .- Journal of Royal Agricultural Sonet;/, voL xiii. p. 349. 
 
 1-13
 
 35-1 
 
 AURICULTUltL 
 
 [grain crops. 
 
 CHATTER XL 
 
 CULTIVATED CROPS GRAIN CROPS. 
 
 Pursuing the plan announced at the outset, we have now 
 to speak of field crops, and shall begin with the cereal 
 grasses, of white-corn crops, as they are usually called by 
 fanners. 
 
 Section 1. — Wheat 
 
 It is unnecessary to dwell upon the value of this grain to 
 the farmer and' to the community. It constitutes emphati- 
 cally our bread-corn — our staff of life. While its increased 
 consumption is, on the one hand, air> indication of an 
 improved style of living among the general population, its 
 extended culture points, on the other, to an improving 
 agriculture, as it is only on 'soils naturally fertile, or that 
 have been made so by good farming, that it can be grown 
 with success. Wheat is sown both in autumn arid spring, 
 from which circumstance attempts have been made to 
 classify its varieties by ranging them under these two 
 general heads. This distinction can only serve to mislead ; 
 for while it is true that there are varieties best adapted for 
 autumn and for spring sowing respectively, it is also true 
 that a majority of the kinds most esteemed in Britain admit 
 of being sown at either season, and in practice are actually so 
 treated. It is not our intention to present a list of the 
 varieties of wheat cultivated in this country. These are 
 very numerous already/and are constantly being augmented 
 by the accidental discovery of new varieties, or by cross- 
 impregnation artificially brought about for this purpose. 
 The kinds at present in greatest repute in Scotland are the 
 hardier white wheats, among which Hunter's white still 
 retains the first place. There are many kinds which, in 
 favourable seasons, produce a finer sample ; but its hardi- 
 ness, productiveness, and excellent milling qualities, retider 
 it a general favourite both with fanners and millers. Its 
 most marked characteristic is, that in rubbing out a single 
 ear, part of the grains are found to be opaque and white, 
 and others flinty and reddish coloured, as if two kinds of 
 wheat had been mixed together. Selections from Hunter's 
 wheat have been made from time to time, and have obtained 
 a measure of celebrity under various local names. The 
 most esteemed of those is the Hopeton wheat. On very 
 rich soils both these varieties have the fault of producing 
 too much straw, and of being thereby liable to lodge. 
 Hence, several new kinds with stiffer straw, and consequent 
 lessened liability to this disaster, are now in request in 
 situations where this evil is apprehended. Fenton wheat, 
 possessing this quality in an eminent degree, and being at 
 the same time very productive, and of fair quality, is at 
 present extensively cultivated. It has the peculiarity of 
 producing stems 'of unequal height from the same root, 
 which gives a crop of it an unpromising appearance, but has 
 perhaps to do with its productiveness. The red-straw while 
 and Piper's thick-set have properties similar to the Fenton. 
 Piper's had the repute of being the shortest and stiffest 
 strawed wheat in cultivation, but after a brief popularity 
 is now never heard of. The red-chaff white is productive, 
 and yields grain of beautiful quality, but it requires 
 good seasons, as it sheds its seeds easily and sprouts 
 quickly in damp weather. The- Chiddam, Trump, white 
 Kent, and Talavera, have each their admirers, and are 
 all good sorts in favourable seasons ; but, in Scotland at 
 least, their culture is attended with greater risk than the 
 kinds previously named; they require frequent change of 
 seed from a sunnier climate, and are only adapted for dry 
 And fertile soils with a good exposure. A new -sort, called 
 iquare-hcad, has quite recently been introduced, and is 
 reported to be so exceedingly prolific as to yield from six to 
 eight bushels moTO per acre than any wheat previously in 
 cultivation. As red wheats usually sell at from 2a. to 4s. 
 
 less per quarter than white wheats of similar quality, they 
 are less grown than heretofore. But being more hardy and 
 less liable to mildew and sprouting than the finer white 
 wheats, a recurrence of unfavourable seasons always leads 
 to aa increased cultivation of them. _ Rome of these red 
 wheats are, however, so productive that they are prefened 
 in the best cultivated districts of England. Spalding's 
 prolific holds a first place among these, being truly prolific, 
 and producing grain of good quality. In Scotland it 
 shows a tendency to produce a rough quality of grain. 
 The Northumberland red and the golden creeping are there 
 in estimation ; the former being well adapted for spring 
 sowing, and the latter for poor soils and exposed situations. 
 Several new varieties of wheat have recently been intro- 
 duced by Mr Patrick Sheriff of Haddington, formerly of 
 Mungoswells. One is a. large-grained red wheat, another 
 somewhat resembles Hunter's in colour, and the third has 
 grain of a pearly whiteness. They haw all the peculiarity 
 of being bearded. They are all true autumn wheats ; but 
 they seem also well adapted for spring sowing, as they ripen 
 early. A red bearded variety, usually called April wheat, 
 from its prospering most when sown in that month, and 
 which indeed is a true summer wheat, is sometimes grown 
 with advantage after turnips, when the season is too 
 advanced for other sorts. But except ppon poorish clay 
 soils, it seems only doubtfully entitled to a preference over 
 barley in such circumstances. The list now given could 
 easily be extended ; but it comprises the best varieties at 
 present in use, and such as are suited to the most diversified 
 soils, seasons, and situations in which wheat can be grown 
 in this country. In regard to all of them it is reckoned 
 advantageous to have recourse to frequent change of seed, 
 and in doing this to give the preference to that which 
 comes from a soil and climate better and earlier than those 
 of the locality in which it is to be sown. Every fanner 
 will find it worth his while to be at pains to find out from 
 whence he can obtain a change' of seed that takes well with 
 his own farm, and having done so, to hold to that, and 
 even to induce his correspondent to grow such sorts as he 
 prefers, although he should have to pay him an extra price 
 for doing so. An experienced farmer once remarked to the 
 writer, that by changing his seed he got it for nothing ; 
 that is, his crop was more abundant by at least the quantity 
 sown, from the single circumstance of a suitable change of 
 seed. It is proper, however, to state, that this practice of 
 changing the Seed is founded more upon mere opinion than 
 upon well-ascertained facts, and that in those instances 
 where it has been followed by beneficial results nothing is 
 known of the causes to which such success is due. It is 
 much to be desired that our agricultural societies should 
 address themselves to the thorough investigation of a 
 question of such vital importance. In fixing upon the kind 
 of wheat which he is to sow, the farmer will do well to look 
 rather to productiveness than to fine quality. For however 
 it may gratify his ambition to show the heaviest and 
 prettiest sample in the market, and to obtain the highest 
 price of the day, no excellence of -quality can compensate 
 for a deficiency of even a few bushels per acre in the yield. 
 It is of importance, too, to have seed-corn free from the 
 seeds of weeds' and from other grains, and to see that it be 
 true of its kind. Farmers who are systematically careful 
 in these respects frequently obtain an extra price for their_ 
 produce, by selling it for seed-corn to others j and eveu 
 millers give a preference to such clean samples. 
 
 But there are seeds which no amount of care or accuracy 
 in dressing can remove from seed-corn — viz., those of 
 certain parasitical fungi, which must be got rid of by a 
 different process. The havoc caused to wheat crops by 
 bunt, blackball, or pepper-brand (Uredo caries or Tilletia 
 caries), before the discovery of the mode of preventing it
 
 OEAIN CEOP3.J 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 355 
 
 by steeping the seed-corn in some acrid or caustic bath, was 
 often ruinous. The plan at first most usually adopted was 
 to immerse the seed-wheat in stale chamber-lie, and 
 afterwards to dry it by mixture with quick-lime. This 
 pickle, 03 it is called, is usually efficacious ; but the lime 
 vexes the eyes and excoriates the hands and face of the 
 sower, or clogs the hopper of the sowing-machine, and has 
 therefore been superseded by other substances. Blue 
 vitriol (sulphate of copper) is as good as anything for this 
 purpose, and is used in the following manner. A solution 
 is prepared by dissolving powdered sulphate of copper in 
 water, at the rate of two ounces to a pint for each bushel 
 of wheat. The grain is emptied upon a floor ; a little of it 
 is shovelled to one side by one person, while another 
 sprinkles the solution over it, and thi3 process is continued 
 until the whole quantity is gone over. The heap is then 
 turned repeatedly by two persons working with shovels 
 opposite to each other. After lying for a few minutes, the 
 grain absorbs the moisture, and is ready for sowing either 
 by hand or machine. 
 
 The season for wheat-sowing extends from September to 
 April, but ordinarily that succeeds best which is committed 
 to the ground during October and November. When 
 summer-fallows exist the first sowings are usually made 
 on them. It is desirable that the land neither be wet nor 
 very dry when this takes place, so that the precise time of 
 sowing is determined by the weather; but it is well to 
 proceed as soon after 1st October, as the land is moist 
 enough to insure a regular germination of the seed. 
 
 Over a large portion of England wheat is the crop 
 usually sown after clover or one year's " seeds." In such 
 cases the land is ploughed in the end of September, imme- 
 diately harrowed, and wheat sown upon it by a drilling 
 machine. On loose soils the land-presser is frequently used 
 to consolidate the soil and to form a channel for the seed, 
 which in such cases comes up in rows, although sown broad- 
 cast It is more usual, however, first to level the pressed 
 furrDws by harrowing, and then to use the drill, by means 
 of which various portable manures are frequently deposited 
 along with, the seed-corn. The sowing of wheat after clover 
 or " seeds," as now described, is rarely practised in Scotland, 
 where it so invariably fails as to show that it is unsuited to 
 our northern climate. It is here not unusual, however, to 
 plough up such land in July or August, and to prepare it 
 for wheat-sowing by what is called rag-fallowing. After 
 the first ploughing the land i3 harrowed lengthwise, so as 
 to break and level the surface of the furrows and close the 
 interstices without tearing up or exposing any green sward. 
 It is then allowed to lie for ten or fourteen days to allow 
 the herbage to die, which it soon does at this season when 
 light is thus excluded from it. A cross ploughing is next 
 given, followed by repeated grubbings,- harrowing, and 
 rollings, after which it is treated in all respects as a summer- 
 fallow. 
 
 The fallow and clover leas being disposed of, the land 
 from which potatoes, beans, pease, or vetches have been 
 cleared off will next demand attention. When these crops 
 have been carefully horse and hand hoed, all that is 
 required is to clear off the haulm to plough and sow. If 
 tho land is not clean, recourse must be had to a 6hort 
 fallowing process before sowing wheat. For this purpose 
 the surface is loosened by the broadshare and grubber; the 
 weeds harrowed out and raked off, after which thf <and is 
 ploughed and sown. On soils well adapted for the growth 
 of beans and wheat, viz., those in which clay predominates, 
 any lengthened process of autumn cultivation is necessarily 
 attended with great hazard of being interrupted by rain, to 
 the loss of seed-time altogether. Every pains should there- 
 fore be taken to have the land so cleaned befor«'_and that 
 these unseasonable efforts may be dispensed with ; and to have 
 
 the sowing and harrowing to follow so closely upon tht 
 ploughing as to diminish to the utmost the risk of hindrana 
 from wet weather. As the crops of mangolds, carrots, m 
 turnips arrive at maturity, and are either removed to tht 
 store-heap or consumed by sheep where they grow, succee- 
 sive sowings of wheat can be made as the ploughing * 
 accomplished and as the weather permits. It is to hi 
 noted, however, that it is only on soils naturally dry, ot 
 made so by thorough draining, and which are also cleat 
 and in a high state of fertility, that wheat-sowing can be 
 continued with advantage during the months of December 
 and January. If the whole of these conditions do not 
 obtain, it is wiser to refrain until February or March. 
 When these late winter sowings are made, it is of especial 
 importance to sow close up to the ploughs daily, as a very 
 slight fall of rain will, at this season, unfit the land foi 
 bearing the harrows. This sowing and harrowing, in de- 
 tail, is the more easily managed, that in the circumstances 
 cross-harrowing is neither necessaiy nor expedient. Under 
 the most favourable conditions as to weather and drainage, 
 soils with even a slight admixture of clay in their compos* 
 tion will at this season plough up sumewhat clammy, so 
 that cross-harrowing pulls the furrows too much about, and 
 exposes the seed, instead of covering it more perfectly. 
 Two double turns of the harrows lengthwise is as much as 
 should be attempted at this season. 
 
 The sowing of spring-wheat is only expedient on dry and 
 fertile soils with a good exposure. Unless the whole con- 
 ditions are favourable, there is much risk of spring-sown 
 wheat being too late to be properly ripened or well har- 
 vested. On the dry and fertile soils in the valley of the 
 Tweed, where the entire fallow-break is sown with turnips, 
 and where consequently it is difficult to get a large breadth 
 cleared in time for mowing wheat in autumn, it is the 
 practice to sow it largely in February and March, and 
 frequently with good success. Many judicious farmers are, 
 however, of opinion that, taking the average of a twenty 
 years' lease, barley is a more remunerative crop than 
 spring-sown wheat, even under circumstances most favour- 
 able to the latter. When it is resolved to try it, a very full 
 allowance of seed should be given — not less than three 
 bushels per acre, and 3J will often be better. If the 
 plants have room they will tiller ; and thus the ripening of 
 the crop is retarded, the risk of mildew increased, and the 
 quality of the grain deteriorated. As much seed should 
 therefore be sown as will yield plants enough to occupy the 
 ground fully from the first, and thus remove the tendency 
 to tillering. By such full seeding a fortnight is frequently 
 gained in the ripening of the crop, and this frequently 
 makes all the difference between a remunerative crop and 
 a losing one. 
 
 Much controversy has taken place about the quantities 
 of seed-wheat which should be used per acre. The advo> 
 cates of thin seeding have been so unguarded and extra 
 vagant in their encomiums of their favourite method, — 
 some of them insisting that anything more than a few 
 quarts per acre does but waste seed and lessen the produce. 
 — that many^persons have been induced to depart from 
 their usual practice to their serious cost. It is true tha* 
 with land in a high state of fertility, and kept scrupulously 
 clean by frequent hoeings, a full crop of wheat may be 
 obtained from half a bushel of seed per acre, provided that 
 it is sown in September, and deposited regularly over the 
 surface. But what beyond a trifling saving of seed iE 
 gained by this practiciil And at what cost and hazard is 
 even this secured ! It is a mere fallacy to tell us, as the 
 advocates of excessively thin seeding so often do, that they 
 obtain an increase of so many hundred-fold, whereas thick 
 seedeib cannot exceed from twelve to twenty fold, when 
 after all the gross produce of the latter may exceed that of
 
 356 
 
 A G It I C (J L T Ultfi 
 
 the former by more than the quantity of seed saved, with 
 less expense in culture, less risk from accidents and disease, 
 an earlier harvest, and a better quality of grain. Such a 
 crowding of the ground with plant3 as prevents the proper 
 development of the ear is of course to be avoided ; but tho 
 most experienced growers of wheat are convinced of .the 
 benefit of having the ground fully occupied at the time 
 when active spring growth begins. This is secured by 
 using two bushels per acre for the sowing made early in 
 October, and by increasing this quantity at the rate of 
 half a peck per week until three bushels is reached, which 
 may bo held as the maximum. Less than this should not 
 be used from tho middlo of November to the end of the 
 season. These are tho quantities to be used in broad-cast 
 sowing ; when drilling or dibbling is resorted to, two-fifths 
 less seed will suffice. In Scotland, at least, often repeated 
 trials havo shown that larger crops are obtained by broad- 
 casting than by drilling. The latter mode is, however, to 
 be preferred wherever the land is infested by annual weeds, 
 which can then be got rid of by hoeing. When clover and 
 grass-seeds are sown with the grain crop, it is believed also 
 that they thrive better from the grain being sown in rows, 
 probably because in this case light and air are less excluded 
 from them. It is believed also that in highly-manured 
 soils of a loose texture, grain deposited somewhat deeply in 
 rows is less liable to lodge than when sown broad-cast and 
 shallower. When diilling and hoeing are resorted to, tho 
 latter is effected most cheaply and effectively by using 
 Garret's horse-hoe. The mero stirring of the soil is con- 
 sidered by many farmers to be so beneficial to the wheat 
 crop that they uso the horse-hoc irrespective of the presence 
 of weeds. Others are of opinion that, apart from the 
 destruction of weeds, hoeing is injurious to grain crops, 
 alleging that the cutting of their surface roots weakens tho 
 stems and increases their liability to fall over. Carefully 
 conducted experiments are required to settle this point. 
 Wo have no personal experience bearing upon it beyond 
 this, that we have repeatedly seen a wheat crop much 
 benefited by mere harrowing in spring. It is always use- 
 ful to roll wheat, and indeed all cereal crops, in order to 
 facilitate the reaping process, although no other benefit 
 should result from it. When the plants have been loosened 
 by severe frosts, or are suffering from tho attacks of the 
 wire-worm, the use of CrosskilTs roller is- usually of great 
 benefit to the crop. 
 
 A plan of growing wheat year after year on the same 
 field without the use of manure was practised for a number 
 of years by the late Rev. Mr Smith of Lois Weedon, North- 
 amptonshire, and detailed by him in the pages of the 
 Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, and in a pamphlet 
 which has passed through many editions and had a very 
 extensive circulation. His plan is to a certain extent a 
 revival of that of Jethro Tull, but with this important 
 difference, that whereas Tull occupied his ground with 
 alternate double rows of wheat a foot apart, and vacant 
 Bpaces, five feet wide, which were carefully cultivated by 
 ploughings and horse-hoeings repeated at intervals from the 
 springing of the wheat until midsummer, Mr Smith intro- 
 duced two important elements in addition, viz., thorough 
 draining, and trenching the vacant spaces in autumn, so as 
 to bring portions of subsoil to the surface. A field treated 
 on this system consists of alternate strips of wheat and 
 bare fallow, which are made to exchange places year by 
 year, so that each successive crop occupies a different site 
 from its immediate predecessor. It has also the benefit of 
 the fresh soil brought up by the previous autumn's double- 
 digging, which is subsequently mellowed and pulverised by 
 lengthened exposure to the atmosphere, and by frequent 
 Btiirings. The produce obtained by Mr Smith from his 
 acre thus treated was vr-ry nearly 34 bushels each 3'car for 
 
 [grain crops 
 
 the first five years ; but as his crops 6teadily improved, hi* 
 average at tho end of fourteen years was fully 36 bushels. 
 Writing in July 18G1, ho said, "The growing crop for 
 1861, notwithstanding tho frost, looks strong and well, 
 with scarcely a gap. Thus year after year gives growing 
 confidence in the scheme." On steam-power being intro- 
 duced, Mr Smith became convinced of the practicability of 
 carrying out his system with advantage on an entire farm. 
 At first he restricted himself to the employment of manual 
 labour, but he subsequently invented a set of implements 
 for sowing, covering in, rolling, and hoeing his crops by 
 horse labour. We give in his own words his directions 
 for carrying out this system, what he believed to be the 
 advantages of it, and the cost of thus cultivating an acre : — 
 
 " I suppose, at the outset, the land intended for wheat to be 
 wheat laud ; having besides a fair depth of staple, and a subsoil, as 
 will generally, though not universally' be the case, of the same 
 chemical composition with the surface. I suppose it dry, or drained 
 three feet deep at hast; well cleaned of weeds ; the lands cast ; iLd 
 the whole tolerably level. 
 
 " 1. First of all, then, plough the whole land, when dry, one 
 inch deeper than the used staple. If it turn up cloddy, bring the 
 clods down with the roller or the crusher. Let this bo done, if 
 possible, in August. Harrow deep, eo as to get five or six inches 
 of loose mould to admit the presscr. Before sowing wait for rain. 
 After the rain wait for a fine day or two to dry the surface. With 
 this early commencement a week or two is of no material import- 
 ance compared with that of ploughing dry and sowing wet. 
 
 "As early as possible, however, in September, get in your seed 
 with the prebser-drill, or with some implement which forms a firm- 
 bedded channel in which to deposit the seed, grain by grain, a few 
 inches apart. Cover over with the crusher or rough roller. 
 
 " 2. When the lines of wheat appear above ground, guard against 
 the rook, the lark, and the slug — a trite suggestion, but ever needful, 
 especially here. And now, and at spring, and all through summer, 
 watch for the weeds, and wage constant warfare against them. The 
 battle may last for a year or two, or in some foul cases even more ; 
 but, in the end, the mastery. and its fruits, without fail, will bo 
 yours. 
 
 " 3. The plant being now distinctly visible, dig the intervals two 
 spits deep, increasing the depth, year after year, till they come to 
 twenty or twenty-four inches, Bring up at first only four, or five, 
 or six inches, according to the nature of tho subsoil, whether tena- 
 cious, or loamy, or light. To bring up more at the outset would 
 be a wasteful and injurious expense. 
 
 " The digging is done thus : — Before proceeding with the work, a 
 few cuts arc made within three inches of the wheat, the back of tho 
 spado being towards the rows. A few double spits, first of all, at 
 the required depth, are then thrown out on the headland, and there 
 left for the present After this, as the digging proceeds, the stapls 
 is cast to the bottom, and the subsoil thrown gently on the top. 
 This process is carried on throughout the whole interval ; at the end 
 of which interval, just so much space is left vacant as was occupied 
 by the soil thrown out at the beginning of it In commencing tho 
 second interval at that finished end, the e..rth is thrown out as at first, 
 not on the headland, however, but into the vacant space of the first 
 interval. And so on all over tho acre. 
 
 " 4. Late in winter, and early in spring, watch your opportunity, 
 in dry weather, before the roots of the plant are laid bare, to press 
 them with the crusher. 
 
 " 5. In the spring and early summer stir the spaces between tho 
 rows as often as tho surface becomes crusted over; and move the 
 settled intervals four or five inches deep with the common scarifier, 
 sot first of all about twenty-eight inches wide, reducing the width 
 till it come by degrees to twenty-four and eighteen inches. Continue 
 the process, if possible, at the last-named width, up to tho time of 
 flowering in June. 
 
 " These operations are indispensable to full success, and happily 
 can bo carried on at little cost ; for, while the intervals of each acre 
 can be scarified in fifty minutes, the horse-hoe implement, covering 
 two lands at once, can stir between the rows in twenty-five. 
 
 " 6. Immediately the crop is carried, clean the intervals, and 
 move them with the scarifier in order to sow, without delay, the 
 shed grains. When these vegetate and come up into plant, move 
 the intervals again five or six inches deep, and so destroy them. 
 After that, levci with the harrow implement, and tho land is ready 
 for the drill. 
 
 "If anything occur to prevent tho sowing early in September, 
 and to drive you to the end of October, set tie drill for a thicker 
 crop. But, if possible, sow early — for this reason. Tillered wheat 
 has a bad name. But that has reference only to wheat which has 
 tillered late in the spring. And certainly, in that case, there is 
 the fear of danger to the crop, and danger to tho sample For
 
 GRAIN CROPS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 351 
 
 snpposing no mildew to full on it, even then the plant ripens 
 unevenly ; the early Btems being ready for the sickle, while the 
 late-grown shoots have scarcely lost their verdure. But if mildew 
 come when the stem is soft, and succulent, and porous, instead of 
 being, as it should be at that time, glazed and case-hardened against 
 its attacks, the enemy enters in and checks the circulating sap ; 
 and the end is, blackened straw, light ears, and shrivelled grain. 
 Therefore, sow early. Let the plant tiller before 'winter. Give 
 every stem an equal start at spring ; and then, with a strict 
 adherence to rule, there need be no alarm as to the result, subject 
 only to those visitations from which uo wheat, on any system, in 
 the same description of soil, and under the same climate, is 
 secure." — (See pamphlet, Word in Season, p. 36.) 
 
 "The advantages of the system of corn-growing which I have 
 described are principally these : — First, while one crop of wheat is 
 growing, the unsown intervals of the acre are being fallowed and 
 prepared for another. This the fanner well knows to be of infinite 
 moment, meeting, as it does, one of the greatest difficulties he has 
 to contend with. Next, upon this half-portion of the acre, tilled 
 as I describe, there is a yield equal to average crops on a whole 
 acre. Then, for half the portion of an acre, there is, of course, 
 only half the labour and half the expense of an entire acre required 
 for cultivation. And, lastly, the hand-labour required finds constant 
 employment for the poor."— (Ibid., p. 17.) 
 
 "After harrowing, and cleaning, and levelling the whole, I 
 marked out tho channels for the seed with my jrrcsser implement, 
 which is drawn with one horse, and presses two lands at once, lly 
 scheme of implements, to be-complete, embraced a drill, which was 
 to act immediately behind the prcsscr-wheels, and to drop seed by 
 seed into the hard channels. The spindle of the presser was to 
 turn the drill-wheels, and tho boxes were to be made removable, 
 lieing unable to accomplish this in time for this year's sowing, I 
 had the seed, as heretofore, dropped by hands, and covered over by 
 rollers. 
 
 " These rollers form the roller implement in the same frame, and 
 are managed thus : the three-wheeled prcssers are removed from 
 their sockets, and in their place two rough rollers, formed of several 
 wheels on the self-cleaning principle, are introduced, and cover 
 over two lands at once. 
 
 "The portion of the field thus seeded will lie in this firm but 
 rough state till spring time. Then, when the rollers have been 
 applied again to keep the roots of the plant well in their place, 
 they too will be removed from the frame, and light wheels and 
 hoes will be attached, forming the horse-hoe implement, for hoeing 
 and stirring between the wheat. 
 
 "There is yet one other use for the implement frame. The 
 intervals of the wheat having been trenched in autumn, and well 
 and frequently stirred by the common scarifier at spring, are shut 
 out by the wide-spreading wheat-plant in June from all further 
 processes till the crop is cut and carried. They are then to be 
 moved and levelled by the common one-horse scarifier for seed- 
 time. After this will follow the harrow. Tho hoes will be 
 removed from the frame, and two small, harrows will be attached, 
 to cover two lands at once ; and with this implement the horse will 
 walk on the stubble-land, between what before were the intervals * 
 and the cycle of operations is now complete. 
 
 "In all these operations (excepting in that of scarifying) the 
 sown lands, and lands about to be made ready for sowing, are 
 untouched by the foot of man or horse. 
 
 "The time occupied in scarifying the land is about an hour the 
 acre ; in heavily pressing the channels for the seed, half an hour ; 
 in the other operations about 20 or 25 minutes." — (Pp. 25, 26.) 
 
 "The presser-drill, spoken of in p. 25, is completed, and I now 
 sow the four acres in 90 minutes, timed by watch ; being at the 
 rate of 18 or 20 acres a day in a day of 8 hours, with a norse of 
 average power and speed. 
 
 "It has been thought advisable to keep the drill in its own 
 frame, — devoting another frame to the roller- wheels or crusher, the 
 hoes, tho scarifiers, and harrows, all of which are made removable, 
 and which, with the exception of the spndej the hand-hoe, and the 
 common scarifier for stirring the intervals, perform the whole cycle 
 of operations for cultivating the land for wheat." — (Pp. 33, 34.) 
 
 " I have only to show now, by my fresh balance-sheet, how with 
 suitable implements, on wheat-land, the whole scheme I propose is 
 economical, as well as easy and expeditious. 
 
 " One double digging in autumn . . . £1 10 
 
 Three stirrings with scarifier at spring (6d.) . 3 0' 
 
 One ditto with scarifier and harrow implement, 
 
 before sowing .... .010 
 
 Two pecks of seed <5s. the bushel) , .026 
 
 Pressing and drilling ... .010 
 
 Rough rolling .006 
 
 Four hoeings betweon wheat with horse-shoe im- 
 
 plement(6d.) * 2 
 
 Bird-keeping 2 
 
 Brought forward 
 All the operations from reaping to marketing 
 Rates, taxes, and interest . 
 
 Total amount of outlay 
 
 "The produce, supposing it equal to that of former years, in 
 round numbers, would be : — 
 
 "Four quarters and two bushels of wheat (at 40s.). £8 10 
 
 One ton and 12 cwt. of straw (at £2 the ton) . 3 4 
 
 £2 2 
 1 2 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £3 14 
 
 
 
 Deduct outlay 
 
 ill 14 
 3 14 
 
 Carried forward 
 
 £2 2 
 
 Total amount of profit . £S 0" 
 —(Ibid., p. 30.) 
 
 Particular attention was directed to this system of wheat 
 culture by a lecture on TuU's husbandry, delivered by 
 Professor Way, at a council meeting of the Royal Agri- 
 cultural Society of England, and by the animated discus- 
 sion which followed ; when several gentlemen who had 
 visited Mr Smith's farm bore testimony to the continued 
 excellence of his crops, and intimated that they and others 
 had begun to test the system upon their own farms. If 
 such a practice can indeed be pursued on the generality 
 of clay-soils, then thj puzzling problem of how to cultivato 
 them with a profit is solved at once. It is not to be 
 thought that practical farmers would regard otherwise 
 than with incredulity a system which so flatly contradicts 
 all existing theory and practice. The facts submitted to 
 them by Mr Smith being beyond challenge, they would 
 naturally imagine there must be some peculiarity in the 
 soil at Lois Wcedon which enabled it to sustain such heavy 
 and continued demands on its fertility; and that the issue, 
 there and elsewhere, must eventually be utter sterility. 
 For our own part, believing that we have exceeding much 
 to learn in every department of agriculture, we cannot 
 thus summarily dispose of these facts. We simply accept 
 them as true, and leave the exposition of them to experience, 
 whose verdict we await with much interest. 
 
 But Mr Smith is not the only person who has furnished 
 us with information regarding the continuous growth of 
 wheat for a series of years on the same soil. Mr Lawes, 
 at Kothamstead, in Herts, so well known by his interesting 
 papers on agricultural chemistry in the Royal Agricultural 
 Society's Journal, has furnished some facts in connection 
 with the culture of wheat on clay soils to which farmers 
 were little prepared to give credence. Mr Caird, who 
 visited Kothamstead early in 1851, thus refers to the sub- 
 ject in his valuable work:— 
 
 " On a soil of heavy loam, on which sheep cannot be fed on tur- 
 nips, 4, 5, and 6 feet above the chalk, and therefore uninfluenced 
 by it, except in so far as it is thereby naturally drained, ten crop3 
 of wheat have been taken in succession, one portion always without 
 any manure whatever, and the rest with a variety of manure, the 
 effects of which have been carofully observed. The seed is of tho 
 red cluster variety, drilled uniformly in rows at 8 inches apart, 
 and two bushels to the acre, hand-hoed twice in spring, and Kept 
 perfectly free from weeds. When the crop is removed the land is 
 scarified with Bentall's skimmer, all weeds are removed, it is ploughed 
 once, and the seed for the next crop is then drilled in. During the 
 ten years, the land, in a natural stato, without manure, has produced 
 a uniform average of 16 bushels of wheat an acre, with 1001b. of straw 
 per bushel of wheat, the actual quantity varying with the change of 
 seasons between 14 and 20 bushels. The repetition of the crop has 
 made no diminution or change in the uniformity of the average, and 
 the conclusion seems to be established, that if the land is kept clean, 
 and worked at proper seasons, it is impossible to exhaust this soil 
 below the power of producing 16 bushels of wheat every year. 
 
 " But this natural produce may be doubled by the application of 
 certain manures. Of these, Mr Lawes's experiments ted him to 
 conclude that ammonia is the essential requisite. His conclusions 
 are almost uniform, that no organic matter affects the produce of 
 wheat, except in so far as it yields ammonia ; and that the whole 
 of the organic matter of the corn crop is taken from the atmosphere 
 by the medium of ammonia. Thfra is a constant loss of ammonia 
 going on by expiration, so tbat a larger quantity must be supplied 
 than is contained in the crop. For practical purposes, 6 lb. of
 
 358 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [drain crops. 
 
 ammonia is found to produce a bushel of wheat, and the cheapest 
 form of ammonia at present being Peruvian guano, 1 cwt of that 
 substance may bo calculated to give 4 bushels of wheat. Tho 
 natural produce of 16 bushels an acre may therefore bo doubled by an 
 application of i cwt of Peruvian guano. To this, however, there 
 ta a limit — climate. Ammonia gives growth, but it depends on 
 olimate whether that produce is straw or corn. In a wet, oold 
 summer a heavy application of ammonia produces an undue de- 
 velopment of tho circulating condition of the phait, the crop is laid, 
 and tho farmer's hopes arc disappointed. Seven of corn to ten of 
 straw is usually tho most productive trop; five to ten seldom yields 
 will. The prudent farmer will therefore regulate his application of 
 i.minnnia with a referenco to the average character of the climate in 
 which his farm is situated. 
 
 "The practical conclusion at which we arrive is tins, that in tho 
 cultivation of a clay-land farm, of similar quality of soil to that of 
 Hr Lawcs, there is no other restriction necessary than to keep tho 
 land clean ; that whilo it is very possible to reduce the laud by 
 weeds, it is impossible to exhaust it (to a certain point it may bo 
 reduced) by cleanly cultivated corn corps ; that it is an ascertained 
 fact that wheat may be taken on soils of this description (provided 
 they are mauured) year after year, with no other limit than the neces- 
 sity for cleaning tho land, and that may best bo accomplished by 
 an occasional green crop — turnip or mangold, as best suits — at 
 great intervals, tho straw being brought to the most rotten state, 
 and applied in tho greatest possible quantity to insuro a good crop, 
 which will cleau tho laud well. If these conclusions aro satisfac- 
 torily proved, the present modo of cultivating heavy clays may be 
 greatly changed, and the owners and occupiers of such soils bo better 
 compensated in their cultivation than they have of late had reason 
 to anticipate." — (Caird's English Agriculture, in 1850 and 1851, pp. 
 «0-462.) > 
 
 It is certainly curious to observe, that the addition of 
 four cwt of guano brings up the produce of Mr Lawes's 
 acre from its average annual rate of sixteen bushels, under 
 its reduced normal state, to very nearly the same as Rev. 
 Mr Smith's acre under his system of alternate strips of corn 
 and summer fallow. 
 
 From information carefully gathered, Mr Caird gives it 
 as his opinion, that the average produce of wheat per acre 
 in 2G of the 32 counties of England visited by him is 26§ 
 bushels, or 14 per cent, higher than it was estimated at in 
 the same counties by Arthur Young 80 years before. Were 
 the country generally anything like as well cultivated as 
 particular farms that are to be met with in all parts of it, 
 we should have the present average increased by at least 
 eight bushels per acre. G3 lb per bushel is a weight indi- 
 cating a good quabty of grain. A good crop of wheat will 
 yield a ton of grain and about two tons of straw per acre. 
 
 Besides its uses on the farm, wheat straw, in certain 
 limited districts in the south of England, is an article of 
 some value, as the raw material of a not vtnimportant native 
 mamifacture, namely, Straw-Plait. The first straws used 
 for this purpose in this country were grown in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Luton in Bedfordshire. This town is still the 
 principal seat of the straw trade and .straw bonnot manufac- 
 ture, and the district around still produces the finest quality 
 of straws ; but straw-growing is now also' carried on in 
 parts of Hertfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire, and 
 Berkshire. Light, rich soils are best adapted for this pur- 
 pose. The kinds of wheat grown with this view are the 
 Red Lammas and the Chiddam. A bright, clean, tough 
 straw being required, it is necessary to begin reaping before 
 the flag of the straw falls. If the straw is exposed to rain, 
 it becomes rusted or spotted; if to very hot and dry 
 weather, it gets sunburnt and brittle. The utmost care and 
 energy must, therefore, be used to get the crop dried, 
 earned, and stacked as quickly as possible. In favourable 
 seasons an acre of wheat will yield (besides the grain) 
 from 15 cwt. to a ton of cut straws, of the value of £6 to 
 £3 per ton, clear of all expenses. The farmer sells hi3 
 Jta-aw to a class of men called straw-factors, who draw and 
 
 Mr Lawes continues these experiments of growing successive crops 
 af wheat year after year on the same site, with no material change in 
 fto results after a trial of thirty years. 
 
 cut tho straws in his barn. The drawing and cutting-off of 
 the c:irs being there performed, the factors remove the straw 
 to their own premises. There it undergoes a farther cutting, 
 is exposed to the fumes of sulphur, assorted into proper 
 lengths, and made up into marketable bunches of various 
 sizes and qualities. These bunches aro disposed of to the 
 plaiters at the various markets of tho district. About 
 50,000 females and boys are engaged in plaiting. No plait 
 is made in factories, the work being performed by the wives 
 and children of agricultural labourers in their own cottages, 
 where it is carried on all the year except in harvest The 
 straw trade, hi its various departments, is of considerable 
 importance and is steadily increasing. The gross returns 
 are supposed not to fall short of £1,250,000 per annum. 
 
 There is now also a small demand for wheat straw for 
 tho manufacture of paper. 
 
 Section 2. — Barley. 
 
 In Great Britain barley is the grain crop which rank* 
 next in importance to wheat, both in an agricultural and 
 commercial point of view. Its use as bread-corn is confined 
 to portions of the lowlands of Scotland, where unleavened 
 cakos, or "bannocks o' barley meal," still constitute the 
 daily bread of the peasantry. It is more largely used in 
 preparing the " barley broth" so much relished by all classes 
 in Scotland. To fit the grain for this purpose, it is pre- 
 pared by a peculiar kind of mill, originally introduced from 
 Holland by Fletcher of Saltoun, in which a thick cylinder 
 of gritty sandstone is made to revolve rapidly within a case 
 of perforated sheet-iron. The barley is introduced betwixt 
 the stone and its case, and there subjected to violent 
 rubbing, until first its husk and then its outer coatings are 
 removed. It is, however, in the production of malt bquor 
 and ardent spirits, and in the fattening of live stock, that 
 our barley crops are chiefly consumed. We have no doubt 
 that it would be better for the whole community if this 
 grain were more largely used in the form of butcher-meat 
 and greatly less in that of beer or whisky. It has been 
 customary for farmers to look upon distillation as beneficial 
 to them from the ready market which it affords for barley, 
 and more especially for tba lighter qualities of this and 
 other grain crops. But this is a very short-sighted view of 
 the matter ; for careful calculation shows that when the 
 labouring man spends a shilling in the dram-shop, not more 
 than a penny of it goes for the agricultural produce (barley) 
 from which the gin or whisky is made ; whereas, when he 
 spends the same sum with the butcher or baker, nearly the 
 whole amount goes for the raw material, and only a frac- 
 tion for the tradesman's profits. And not only so, but the 
 man who spends a part of his wages upon strong drink 
 diminishes, both directly and indirectly, his ability to 
 buy wholesome food and good clothing ; so that, apart 
 from the moral and social bearings of this question, it can 
 abundantly be shown that whisky or beer is the very worst 
 form for the farmer in which his grain can be consumed. 
 Were the £50,000,000 at present annually spent in Great 
 Britain upon ardent spirits (not to speak of beer), em- 
 ployed in purchasing bread, meat, dairy produce, vege- 
 tables, woollen and Lnen clothing, farmers would, on the 
 one hand, be relieved from oppressive rates, and, on the 
 other, have such an increased demand for their staple pro- 
 ducts as would far more than compensate for the closing of 
 what is at present the chief outlet for their barley. 
 
 There are many varieties of barley in cultivation, and 
 some of them are known by different names in different 
 districts. Those most esteemed at present in Berwickshire 
 and neighbouring counties are the Chevalier, the Annett, 
 and the common-early long-eared. The chevalier produces 
 the finest and heaviest grain, weighing usually from 54 E> 
 to 56 lb per bushel, and is in high estimation with maltsters.
 
 fJBAOT .CEOPS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 35Ji 
 
 It is also tall and stout in the straw, which is Jess liable to 
 lodgo than that of the common barley; and when this 
 accident does happen, it has the valuable property of not 
 producing af tershoots or greens. ' It requires about fourteen 
 days longer than the common-early to reach maturity, but 
 as it admits of being sown earlier than the latter sort, this 
 is in practice no drawback to it. The Annat barley 
 resembles the chevalier in its leading features, but is 
 yellower in its complexion, and not quite so round in the 
 grain. It ripens a few days earlier than the chevalier, and 
 in our own experience is more productive. The common- 
 early is more liable than those just noticed to suffer from 
 over-luxuriance. It is generally used for the latest sowings 
 on those portions of land from which the turnip crop has 
 been longest in being removed. 
 
 In the elevated or northern parts of the kingdom, four- 
 rowed barley, usually called here or higg, is cultivated, as 
 it is more hardy, and ripens earlier than the two-rowed 
 varieties. A new variety, called Victoria bere, is said to 
 be so productive, and to yield such a heavy sample, as to 
 be worthy of cultivation even in lowland districts. 
 
 Barley delight3 in a warm, friable soil, and thrives best 
 when the seed is deposited rather deeply in a tilthy bed. 
 Being the grain crop best adapted for succeeding turnips 
 that have been consumed by sheep-folding, advantage 
 must be taken of favouring weather to plough up the land 
 in successive portions as the sheerl-fold is shifted. So 
 much of it as is ploughed before 1st February will usually 
 get so mellowed by the weather as to be easily brought 
 into suitable condition for receiving the seed. In Scotland 
 the usual practice is to sow broadcast on this stale furrow, 
 and to cover the seed by simple harrowing. A better 
 way is first to level the surface by a stroke of the harrows, 
 and then to form it into rib3 twelve inches apart by such 
 an implement as has been described when speaking of 
 Tennant's grubber. Over this corrugated surface the seed 
 is sown broadcast, and covered by another turn of the 
 harrows. The ribbing loosens the soil, gives the seed a 
 uniform and sufficient covering, and deposits it in rows. 
 The only advantage of such ribbing over drilling is, that 
 the soil is better stirred, and the seed deposited more 
 deeply, and less crowded than is done by the ordinary 
 drills. It is certainly of great advantage to have the seed- 
 corn deposited in narrow lines, so far as the working of 
 the horse-hoe is concerned ; but we are convinced that 
 staffer stems, larger ears, a more abundant yield, and a 
 brighter sample,. are likely to be. obtained when the seed is 
 loosely scattered in a channel three or four inches wide 
 than when crowded into a narrow line. This grain is now 
 sown considerably earlier than heretofore. When the soil 
 is enriched by plentiful manuring, its temperature raised 
 by thorough draining, and the climate and exposure favour- 
 able, it should be sown as early in Ma-ch as possible, and 
 will often do remarkably well although sown in February. 
 This early sowing counteracts that tendency to over- 
 luxuriance by which the crop is so often ruined ■ in fertile 
 soils. It is chiefly owing to this early sowing (although 
 aided by the use of hummelling machinery) that the 
 average weight of barley is so much greater now than it 
 was thirty years ago. From 54 lb to 56 ft per bushel is 
 now about the average weight in well-cultivated districts ; 
 while 57 lb and 58 ft is by no means rare. The produce 
 per acre ranges from 30 to 60 bushels, 36 bushels being 
 about the average. The quantity of seed used per acre is 
 from 2i to 3 bushels for broadcast sowing, and about a third 
 leas when drilled. As already remarked in regard to wheat, 
 it is well, as the season advances, to avoid, by a fuller 
 allowance of seed, the temptation to excessive tillering, and 
 consequent unequal and later ripening. A good crop of 
 barley yields about I ton each per acre of grain and straw. 
 
 Section 3. — Oats. 
 
 Over a large portion of England oats are grown only aa 
 provender for horses, for whish purpose they are fully 
 ascertained to be superior to all other grains. Except, 
 therefore, on fen-lands and recently-reclaimed muiry soils, 
 the cultivation of oats in South Britain bears a small 
 proportion to the other cereals. It is in Scotland, "the 
 land o' cakes," that this grain is most esteemed and most 
 extensively cultivated. Considerably more than half of 
 the annual grain crops of Scotland consists, in fact, of oats. 
 The important item which oatmeal porridge forms in the diet 
 of her peasantry, and of the children of her other classes, 
 has something to do with this extensive culture of tlie ont ; 
 but it arises mainly from its peculiar adaptation to her 
 humid climate. As with the other cereals, there are very 
 numerous varieties of the oat in cultivation. In Messrs 
 Lawson's Synopsis of the Vegetable Products of Scotland, it 
 is said (Div. L p. 80), " Our collection comprises nearly 
 sixty varieties, about thirty of which are grown in Scotland; 
 but of these not more than twelve are in general cultivation. 
 These twelve varieties, enumerated in the order of their 
 general cultivation, are, the Potato, Hopetoun, Sandy, 
 Early-Angus, Late-Angus, Grey-Angus, Blainslie, Berlie, 
 Dun, Friesland, Black Tartarian, and Barbachlaw." The 
 first four kinds in this list are those chiefly cultivated on 
 the best class of soils. It is to the" produce of these that 
 the highest market prices usually have reference. The 
 weight per bushel of these sorts usually runs frcm 42 ft 
 to 46 ft. From 50 to 60 bushels per acre is a usual yield 
 of oats. The two last named kinds are chiefly esteemed 
 for their large produce, and adaptation to inferior soils; but 
 being of coarse quality, they are chiefly used for provender. 
 A variety which stands the winter is now frequently grown 
 in England, for the double purpose of first yielding a sea- 
 sonable supply of green food to ewes and lambs in early 
 spring, and afterwards producing a crop of grain. It has 
 already been stated that in Scotland wheat does not prosper 
 when sown after clover or pasture ; but with the oat it is 
 quite the reverse, as it never grows better than on land 
 newly broken up from grass. It is, accordingly, almost 
 invariably sown at this stage of the rotation. The land is 
 ploughed in December or January, beginning with the 
 strongest soil, or that which has lain longest in grass, that 
 it may have the longest exposure to the mellowing influences 
 of wintry weather. In March or April the oats are sown 
 broadcast on this first ploughing, and covered in by 
 repeated harrowings. These are given lengthwise until the 
 furrows are well broken down, for if the harrows are 
 worked across the ridges before this is effected, they eaten 
 hold of the edges of the slices, and, partially lifting them, 
 permit the seed-corn to fall to the bottom, where it is lost 
 altogether. As it is only when a free tilth is obtained 
 that the crop can be expected to prosper, care must be 
 taken to plough early and somewhat deeply, laying the 
 furrows over with a rectangular shoulder, to sow when the 
 land is in that state of dryness that admits of its crumbling 
 readily when trode upon, and then to use the harrows until 
 they move smoothly and freely in the loose soil, two oi 
 three inches deep. The Norwegian harrow is an important 
 auxiliary to the common one3 in obtaining this result. 
 When wild mustard and other annual weeds abound, it is 
 advisable to drill the crop and to use the horse-hoe. When 
 the land is clean, the general belief in Scotland is that the 
 largest crops are obtained by sowing broadcast. When 
 the latter plan of sowing is adopted, from 4 to 6 bushels 
 per acre is the quantity of seed used. The latter quantity 
 is required in the case of the Hopetoun and other large- 
 grained varieties. The condition of the soil as to richness 
 and friability must also be taken into account in deter
 
 300 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [leouminoui 
 
 owning the quantity of seed to be used. When it is in high 
 heart and likely to harrow kindly, a less quantity will 
 guffice than um'er opposite conditions. In breaking up a 
 tou^h old sward, even 6 bushels per aero may be too little 
 to sow. The following very interesting experiment bearing 
 on this point was made in the county of Fife : — " Mr 
 Gulland, Wemyas, offered a sweepstakes in 1850, that 4 
 bushels of oats, sown per Scotch acre, in poor land, would 
 yield a better produce than 8 bushels sown under similar 
 conditions. The late Mr Hill, maintaining the contrary, 
 accepted the sweepstakes, and a number of others took up 
 thi same. Experiments were made by Mr Dingwall, 
 Enmomie, and Mr Buist, HattonhilL .... : — 
 In Mr Buiat's experiments, 
 "4 bush, sown yielded 28 bush, per acre, 34 tb per bush. 
 8 bush, sown yielded 36 ,, „ 34J tt> ,> 
 
 " In Mr Dingwall's experiments, 
 " 4 bush, sown yielded 45 bush, per acre, 3SJ lb per bush. 
 ' 8 bush, sown yielded 49 ,, „ 39 lb „ 
 
 The advocates for thin seeding will of course regard even 
 the least of these quantities as foolishly redundant. It is 
 quite true, that if the land is in good heart, the crop will 
 ultimately stand close on the ground from a very small 
 seeding ; but it will take two or three weeks longer to do 
 this than if the land had been fully stocked with plants 
 from the first, by giving it seed enough. In our precarious 
 climate, where a late harvest and bad crops usually go 
 together, it is of the utmost importance to secure early, 
 uniform, and perfect ripening ; and as liberal seeding tends 
 directly to promote such a result, practical farmers will do 
 well to take care how they omit such a simple means of 
 attaining so important an end. We believe that it is on 
 the principle now indicated that the superior result, both 
 as respects quantity and quality of produce, in the double- 
 seeded lots in the experiments now cited, is to be explained. 
 As with wheat, the vigour and productiveness of the oat 
 is much enhanced by frequent change of seed. Our 
 agricultural authorities usually assert that the change 
 should, if possible, always be from an earlier climate and 
 better soil. This is undoubtedly true as regards high-lying 
 districts ; but with a good soil and climate we have always 
 seen the best results with seed from a later district. A 
 homely old couplet tersely expresses the experience of our 
 ancestors in this matter of the changing of seed-corn by 
 directing us to procure — 
 
 "Oats from the hills, lero from the sea, 
 Gude wheat and pease wherever they be.™ 
 On poor hard soils it is usually remunerative to apply a 
 cwt. of guano per acre to the oat crop, sowing it broad- 
 cast, and harrowing it in along with the seed. As much 
 additional produce is thus ordinarily obtained asimore than 
 pays for the manure, and the land is, in all respects, left in 
 better condition for the succeeding green crop. In the 
 case both of very light and strong clay soils, we have 
 obtained excellent results by applying a liberal dressing of 
 farm y?rd dung in autumn to grass-land about to be broken 
 up for oats. By using in this way the dung produced 
 during the summer months, we have obtained abundant 
 crops of oats from portions of land which, but for this, 
 would have yielded poorly j and, at the same time, by 
 applying the bulky manure at this stage of the rotation, 
 instead of directly for the succeeding green crop, an 
 important saving of time and labour has been effected, as 
 we shall have occasion to notice when treating of turnip- 
 culture. 
 
 When the young oat plants have pushed their second 
 leaf, it is always beneficial to use the roller, as it helps to 
 protect the crop from the evil effects of drought, and 
 
 1 AsricuitunU Qautlt, 20th November 1862. 
 
 facilitates the reaping of it. The oat frequently suffers 
 much from a disease called "segging" or "tulip root," 
 which appears to be caused by the presence cf a maggot in 
 the pith of tLv "'ems close to the ground. On laud which 
 is subject to this disease it is advisable not to sow early. 
 A dressing of lime is also believed to be serviceable as a 
 preventative. On muiry soils this crop is also not unfre- 
 quently lost by what is called " slaying." This seems to 
 result from the occurrence of frosty nights late in spring, 
 when the crop is in its young stage, which, when g*own 
 on such soils, it cannot withstand. The application of large 
 dressings of lime to light muiry soils greatly aggravates 
 this tendency to slaying in the oat crop. The only effectual 
 remedy is to improve the texture of the soil by a good coal- 
 ing of clay. Oats yield about 1 ton of grain and H ton cl 
 straw per acre. 
 
 Section 4. — Rye. 
 
 The extensive cultivation of this grain in any country 
 being alike indicative of a low state of agriculture, and cl 
 a poor style of living among its peasantry, it must be 
 regarded as a happy circumstance that it has become nearly 
 obsolete in Great Britain. It is still occasionally met with 
 in some of our poorest sandy soils, and patches are occa- 
 sionally grown elsewhere for the sake of the straw, which 
 is in estimation for thatching, for making bee-hives, and 
 for stuffing horse-collars. Its cultivation as a catch crop, 
 to furnish early food for sheep in spring, is on the increase. 
 
 Section 5. — Leguminous Crops — Beans. 
 
 The only members of this family statedly cultivated for 
 their grain are beans and pease. Before the introduction 
 of clover and turnips these legumes occupied a more 
 important place in the estimation of the husbandman than 
 they have done since. Indeed, in many districts naturally 
 well adapted for the culture of turnips, that of beans and 
 pease was for a time all but abandoned. Recently, however, 
 increasing precariousness in the growth of clover, and even 
 of turnips, where they have been sown on the same ground 
 every fourth year for a lengthened period, has compelled 
 farmers to return to the culture of beans and pease for the 
 mere purpose of prolonging the intervals in the periodic 
 recurrence of the former crops. But it is found, in regard 
 to the bean itself, in districts where it has long occupied a 
 stated place in rotations of six or seven years, that its 
 average produce gradually diminishes. We have thus an 
 additional illustration of the importance of introducing as 
 great a variety of crops as possible into our field culture. 
 It is on this principle that beans and pease are now again 
 extensively cultivated on dry friable soils. Winter beans, 
 or pease of some early variety, are generally preferred in 
 such cases. The grain of these legumes, though partially 
 used for human food, is chiefly consumed by horses and by 
 fattening cattle and sheep. Being highly nutritious, they 
 are well adapted for this purpose. By growing beans on a 
 Limited portion of the land assigned to cattle crops, a larger 
 weight of beef and mutton can be produced from a given 
 number of acres, than by occupying them wholly with roots, 
 forage, and pasturage. Several varieties of field beans are 
 cultivated in Great Britain, such as the common hone 
 bean, the tick, the Heligoland, and the winter bean. The 
 latter was introduced into England about the year 1825, 
 and there rises steadily in estimation. It has been tried in 
 many parts of Scotland, and proves quite hardy, but is 
 objected to from the exceeding shortness of its^traw. But 
 for this, it is a valuable acquisition, as it ripens so much 
 earlier than the spring-sown varieties. Beans should never 
 be sown on land that is fouL By diligent horse and band 
 hoeing, land that is clean to begin with can be kept so 
 under beans, and left in fine condition for carrying n white
 
 CROPS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 361 
 
 corn crop; but in opposite circumstances it is sure to get 
 into utter confusion. It is found advisable, therefore, to 
 take beans after the white crop that has succeeded roots or 
 a bare fallow. In Berwickshire, where a five-years' course, 
 consisting of turnips, wheat, or barley, two years' seeds, 
 and oats, has long prevailed, beans are now not unfre- 
 quently introduced by substituting them for the second 
 year's grass. A four-years' course with beans instead of a 
 portion of the seeds is certainly preferable. In cultivating 
 this crop the land is ploughed with a deep furrow in 
 autumn, a dressing of dung being first spread over the 
 surface and turned in by the plough. As early in March 
 as the state of the soil admits, it is stirred by the grubber 
 and harrowed. The seeds are then deposited either in 
 narrow rows 14 inches, or in wider rows 27 inches apart. 
 The latter width has long been preferred in Scotland, 
 because of it3 admitting of the free use of the plough and 
 the drill-grubber, in addition to the hoe, during the early 
 stages of the plant's growth, and also from a belief that 
 the free entrance of light and air, of which the wide rows 
 admits, increases the productiveness of the crop. We 
 shall describe both modes of culture, and then state the 
 grounds upon which, after long sharing in the opinion just 
 noted, and following that practice, we now give a decided 
 preference to sowing in narrow rows. In sowing at the 
 wider intervals, the soil, having been prepared as already 
 stated, is formed, by a single turn of the common plough, 
 into shallow drills 27 inches apart. Ten or twelve such 
 drills being formed to begin with, the seed is scattered 
 broadcast, at the rate of 3 bushels per acre, by a sower 
 who takes in six of these drills at a time, and gives them 
 a double cast, or by a drilling-machine, which sows three 
 rows at once. The beans either roll into the hollows as 
 they fall, or are turned in by the ploughs, which now 
 proceed to open each a fresh drill, in going down the one 
 side of the working interval, and to cover in a seeded one 
 in returning on the other side. If tares are cultivated on 
 the farm, it is usual to sow a small quantity (say a peck 
 per acre) amongst the beans, on which they are borne up, 
 and so ripen their seeds better, and yield more abundantly, 
 than when trailing on the ground. When the crop comes 
 to be thrashed the tares are easily separated from the 
 beans by sifting. Ten days or so after sowing, the drills 
 are partially levelled by a turn of the chain harrow ; and 
 if the land is cloddy, it is smoothed by a light roller. If 
 showers occur when the bean plants are appearing above 
 ground, or shortly after, the common harrows may be used 
 again with the best effect in pulverising the soil and 
 destroying newly-sprung weeds. A horse and hand hoeing 
 is then given, and is repeated if weeds again appear. 
 When the plants have got about 6 inches high it is 
 beneficial to stir the soil deeply betwixt the rows by using 
 Tennanf s grubber, drawn by a pair of horses. For this 
 purpose the tines are set so close together as to clear the 
 rows of beans, and the horses are yoked to it by a main 
 tree, long enough to allow the horse3 to work abreast in 
 the rows on either side of the one operated upon. The 
 soil is thus worked thoroughly to the depth of 6 or 8 
 inches, without reversing the surface and exposing it to 
 drought, or risk of throwing it upon the plants. Just 
 before the blooms appear some farmers pass a bulking- 
 plough betwixt the rows, working it very shallow, and so 
 as merely to move the surface soil towards the plants. 
 This may do good, but a deep earthing up is hurtful 
 When the blooms open all operations should cease, as 
 otherwise much mischief may be done. Such an amount 
 of culture as has now been described may be thought 
 needlessly costly and laborious, but unless a bean crop is 
 kept clean, it had better not be sown. And it is to be 
 remembered that the benefit of this careful tillage is not 
 
 confined to it, but will ba equally shared in by the wheat 
 crop that follows. The culture of winter beant differs 
 only in this, that they require to be sown as early in 
 autumn as the removal of the preceding grain crop admits 
 of. When it is determined to sow in 14-inch rows, the 
 seeds are deposited by any of the corn drilling-machines in 
 common use, set for the specified width of rows, or (which 
 we prefer) the soil is formed into narrow ribs or drills by 
 means of the one-horse plough, the seeds are scattered 
 broadcast by hand or machine over tins corrugated surface, 
 and they are covered by a double turn of the common 
 harrows, and rolled by a light roller. As soon as the bean 
 plants appear, care must be taken to keep down weeds by 
 diligent hoeing. Two good hoeings will usually suffice, 
 for by the time that the second is accomplished, the crop 
 will speedily so close in as to render any further hoeing 
 impracticable and unnecessary. After repeated trials of 
 these two modes of cultivation, made alongside of each 
 other, we have found that the produce from the narrow 
 rows has been at the rate of from 4 to 6 bushels more per 
 acre than that from the wide rows, and that the soil has 
 been left decidedly cleaner after the former than after the 
 latter mode. It is certainly somewhat startling to find 
 results so opposed as these are to preconceived opinion and 
 approved practice. And yet, when the matter is well 
 considered, it becomes obvious enough why it should be so. 
 The wide rows admit of a most effective process of tillage 
 and hoeing up to the time when the beans come into bloom, 
 when, however, it must wholly cease. But when farther 
 culture is precluded, the need for it by no means ceases, 
 seeing that the rows of bean plants usually remain suffi- 
 ciently apart to admit of the continued growth of weeds 
 during the long period which intervenes betwixt the 
 blooming and the ripening of the crop. And hence it 
 happens — especially if the spring prove cold and parching 
 — that although the wide-rowed beans have been kept 
 scrupulously clean up to the time of blooming, their 
 upright habit of growth renders it impossible that they can 
 so close in upon the wide space betwixt the rows, as to 
 preoccupy and overshadow the ground sufficiently to keep 
 it clean during the long period that the crop must neces- 
 sarily be left to its own resources. By sowing in narrow 
 rows the crop is soon in a condition to defend itself against 
 weeds and drought, and hence the saving of labour, the 
 more bulky crops, and the cleaner stubble, which result 
 from sowing beans at 14 rather than 27 inch intervals. 
 
 In Scotland the haulm of beans is esteemed an excellent 
 fodder for horses and other live stock, whereas in England 
 it is thought unfit for such a use. The reason of this 
 appears to be, that in the southern counties beans are 
 allowed to stand until the leaf is gone and the stems 
 blackened before reaping; whereas in Scotland they are 
 reaped so soon as the eye of the grain gets black. When 
 well got, the juices of the plant are thus, to some extent, 
 retained in the haulm, which in consequence is much 
 relished by live stock, and yields a wholesome and nutritious 
 fodder. A good crop of beans yields about 1 ton of grain 
 and 1£ ton of straw per acre. 
 
 Section 6. — Pease. 
 
 Pease are sown in circumstances similar to those just 
 detailed, but they are better adapted than beans to light 
 soils. They too are best cultivated in rows of such a width 
 as to admit of horse-hoeing. The early stage at which 
 they fall over, and forbid further culture, renders it even 
 moro needful than in the case of beans to sow them only 
 on land already clean. If annual weeds can be kept in 
 check until the pease once get a close cover, they then 
 occupy the ground so completely that nothing else can live 
 under them ; and the ground, after their removal, is found 
 
 1-13*
 
 362 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [harvesting or 
 
 In the choicest coudition. A thin crop of pease should 
 never be allowed to stand, as the land is sure to get 
 perfectly wild. The difficulty of getting this crop well 
 harvested renders it peculiarly advisable to sow only the 
 early varieties 
 
 Section 7. — Other Crops. 
 
 The cereals and legumes now enumerated constitute the 
 staple grain-crops of Great Britain. Others are grown 
 occasionally, but more for curiosity than profit. Zealous 
 attempts were made by the late William Cobbet to introduce 
 wiaize or Indian corn as one of our regular crops. It has 
 been conclusively proved that none of its varieties yet tried 
 can be ripened in the ordinary seasons of this country. It 
 has indeed been suggested that it might form a useful 
 addition to our garden vegetables, — using it, as it is done 
 in America, by cooking the unripe cobs, and also that we 
 might grow it beneficially as a forage crop. Lenliles have 
 recently been grown in different parts of the country ; but 
 both of these grains can be imported of better quality, and 
 at less cost, than they can be grown at home. 
 
 There is great inducement to agriculturists to endeavour 
 more earnestly to obtain improved varieties of grain by 
 cross-impregnation of existing ones. Something has already 
 been accomplished in this direction, but only enough to 
 show what encouragement there is to persevere. Whenever 
 the same skill and perseverance are directed to the improve- 
 ment of field crops that our gardeners are constantly 
 exerting, with such astonishing results, on fruits, flowers, 
 and vegetables, we may anticipate a great increase of 
 produce, not only from the discovery of more fruitful 
 varieties, but of such as possess a special adaptation to 
 every diversity in the soil and climate of our territory. 
 
 Section 8. — Harvesting of Grain Crops, and preparing tliem 
 for Market. 
 
 Several distinct modes of reaping grain are in use. The 
 most ancient, and still the most common, is by the sickle 
 or reaping-hook, which i3 used either with a smooth or 
 serrated edge. The latter was at one time preferred, as by 
 it the work was performed most accurately. The smooth- 
 edged instrument is, however, now the favourite, as it 
 requires less exertion to use it, and the reaper can, in 
 consequence, get through more work in a day; and also 
 because in using it the stalks are less compressed, and 
 conoequently dry fa-ter when made into sheaves. In some 
 parts of England the crops are reaped in a method called 
 fagging or bagging. The cutting instrument used is 
 heavier, straighter, and broader in the blade than the 
 common reaping-hook. The workman uses it with a 
 slashing stroke, and gathers the cut corn as he proceeds 
 by means of a hooked stick held in his left hand. It is a 
 similar process to the mode of reaping with the Hainault 
 scythe — an instrument which has been tried in this country, 
 but never adopted to "any extent. The common scythe, 
 especially with that form of handle known as the Aberdeen 
 handle or sned, is very extensively used for reaping grain 
 in all parts of the kingdom. Indeed, the practice of 
 mowing grain has been increasing of late years, and would 
 extend more rapidly but for the greater difficulty of finding 
 good mgwere than good reapers. A greater amount of 
 dexterity is required to cut grain well by the scythe than 
 by the. sickle. The difficulty lies not in making smooth 
 and clean stubble, but in so laying the swathe as to admit 
 of the corn being sheaved accurately. When the mower 
 lays his swathe at right angles to his line of progress, and 
 the gatherer is skilful and careful, corn may be handled as 
 neatly in reaping by the scythe as by the sickle. When 
 the crops are not much laid or twisted, mowing is somewhat 
 the cheapest of these modes of reaping. .Its chief recom- 
 
 mendation, however, is that mown sheaves dry most 
 quickly, and suffer least from a drenching rain. This 
 arises from the stalks being less handled, and so forming 
 an open sheaf, through which the wind penetrates freely. 
 Tightly bound sheaves are always difficult to dry. 
 
 In Berwickshire and adjoining counties the reaping of 
 the crops has hitherto been accomplished by employing, at 
 , day's wages, such a number of reapers as suffices to cut 
 down the crops on each farm in from twelve to twenty 
 days. The rate of wages paid to reapers for a number of 
 years has ranged from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. each per diein, 
 with victuals in addition, costing about eightpenu for each 
 person. In marshalling the band, two reapers are placed 
 on each ridge of 15 or 18 feet in breadth, with a binder to 
 each four reapers, and a steward, or the farmer in person, 
 to superintend the whole. When the crop is of average 
 bulk, and lies favourably for reaping, each bandwin, or set 
 of four reapers and a binder, clear two acres in a day of 
 ten hours, but \\ to 1£ acre only, if it is bulky and 
 lodged. The cost of reaping by this method is therefo ie 
 from 10s. to 15s: per acre. With a reaping-machine cutting 
 say six acres per diem, and requiring in all ten persons (five 
 men and five women or stout lads) to attend to and clear 
 up after it, at an average wage, including victuals, of 3s. 
 each, and allowing 3s. per diem to cover tear and wear, and 
 interest on- its prime cost, there seems a reasonable prospect 
 of a goodly portion of our future crops being reaped for 
 about 6s. per acre. The labour of the horses employed in 
 working the reaper is not included in this estimate, as at 
 this season they would otherwise bo idle, and yet eating 
 nearly as much food as when at work. There would thus 
 be a saving in actual outlay of about 5s. per acre. But 
 this is the least . important view of the matter. On a 
 Berwickshire farm producing 200 acres of crop, there are 
 usually at least six pairs of horses kept, with a resident 
 population sufficient to yield about thirty persons (including 
 women and youths) available for harvest labour. The 
 stated forces of such a farm will therefore suffice to man 
 three reaping-machines, which, if the weather is favourable, 
 and the crops standing erect or lying in one direction, will 
 cut down the crop in about ten days. When portions of 
 the crop are much lodged and twisted, it becomes necessary 
 to employ part of the labourers in clearing out such 
 portions by the scythe or sickle. It is often possible to 
 n inage these awkward-lying portions by setting one or 
 more men, each with a stout staff, to raise up the crop and 
 lay it towards the machine. When two or more machines 
 are used on the same farm, it is best to work them together 
 by cutting the whole length or width of the field in 
 whichever direction the general lay of the crop admits of 
 them working to most advantage. As each machine 
 completes its cut, it returns empty to the side from which 
 it started ; and they follow each other at such an interval 
 as gives time to the lifters and binders, who are placed 
 equidistant along the whole line, to keep the course clear. 
 In such cases a man is usually employed to sharpen the 
 spare knives, to assist in changing them from time to time, 
 and to attend to the oiling and trimming of the whole 
 machinery. It is good economy to have a spare machine 
 at hand ready to put in the place of one that may be 
 disabled by some breakage, and thus avoid interruption to 
 the urgent work of reaping while the damage is being 
 repaired. Great progress has been made in recent years in 
 working, these machines skilfully and systematically; they 
 are in general use in all well-cultivated districts, and the 
 time appears to be at hand when the whole grain crops of 
 the country will be reaped by means of them. 
 
 It is now agreed on all hands that grain should be reapea 
 before it becomes what is called dead ripe. In the case of 
 wheat and oats, when the grains have ceased to yield a
 
 «RAIN CROPS.! 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 363 
 
 milky fluid on being pressed under the thumb-nail, and 
 when the ears and a few inches of the stem immediately 
 under them have become yellow, the sooner they are reaped 
 the better. Barley requires to be somewhat more matured. 
 Unless the pink stripes on the husk have disappeared, and 
 the grain has acquired a firm substance, it will shrink in 
 drying, and be deficient both in weight and colour. When 
 allowed to stand till it gets curved in the neck, the straw 
 of barley becomes so brittle that many ears break short off 
 in the reaping, and it then suffers even more than other 
 grain crops under a shaking wind. 
 
 It is of great consequence to see that corn is dry when it 
 
 is tied up in sheaves, that these are not too tightly bound, 
 
 and that every sheaf is kept constantly on foot. From the 
 
 increased demand for harvest labourers, and the rapidity 
 
 with which operations must be carried forward, stooking is 
 
 not now performed with the same accuracy that it was wont 
 
 to be. There is therefore the greater need for employing 
 
 a person to review the stooks daily, and keep every sheaf 
 
 erect. It was formerly the practice in Scotland to set up 
 
 oats and barley in full stooks of twelve sheaves each, viz., 
 
 five pairs and two hood-sheaves. These hood-sheaves are 
 
 an excellent defence when wet weather sets in, but they 
 
 retard the drying of the corn in fine weather, and there are 
 
 new few binders who can set them up so as to stand 
 
 jecurely. It is better, therefore, to aim at rapid drying, 
 
 and for this purpose to have the sheaves small individually, 
 
 and to set but four or six of them together. Large sheaves 
 
 the worse to dry than small ones, not only from their 
 
 greater bulk, but from their being almost inevitably tighter 
 
 bound. The utmost vigilance is required on the part of 
 
 farmers to avoid this fault. Beans and pease are reaped 
 
 by the sickle. The former are usually not bound into 
 
 sheaves at once, but left prostrate in handfuls for a few 
 
 days until they have withered a little. But it is on the 
 
 whole safer to stook them as they are reaped. They are 
 
 then sheaved and bound with ties of twisted straw, which 
 
 must be provided beforehand. In stacking beans, the tops 
 
 of the sheaves are kept outwards, as by this means fewer 
 
 pods are exposed to the weather, or to the depredations of 
 
 fowls, <fec, than when the butts are to the outside. Pease 
 
 are rolled into wisps as they are reaped, and afterwards 
 
 turned daily until they are fit to carry. When stacked, 
 
 they must instantly be thatched, as they take in wet like a 
 
 sponge. It requires no little discrimination to know when 
 
 •heaves are dry enough to keep in a stack. The farmer 
 
 finds it for his profit to consult hi3 most intelligent and 
 
 experienced labourers on this point. On thrusting the 
 
 hand into a sheaf sufficiently dried, there is a lightness 
 
 and kindliness to the touch not easily mistaken when once 
 
 understood. Whenever this is ascertained, the crop is 
 
 carried with the utmost possible dispatch. This is best 
 
 accomplished by using one-horse carts, and by building the 
 
 sheaves into round stacks of ten or twelve loads each. 
 
 Very large stacks are for ostentation, not for profit. The 
 
 labour of pitching up the sheaves to them is needlessly 
 
 great ; corn i3 much sooner in a state to keep in small 
 
 stacks than in large ones, and sooner gets into condition 
 
 for market ; the crop is more accessible for thrashing in 
 
 ten load quantities than in huge ricks ; and the crop of 
 
 different fields and kinds of grain more easily kept separate. 
 
 While naming ten or twelve loads as a convenient quantity 
 
 to put together in each stack, let it be observed that this 
 
 assumes the sheaves to be in a thoroughly dry condition ; 
 
 for in wet seasons it frequently happens that the sheaves 
 
 have a sufficient degree of dryness to keep safely in stacks 
 
 of five or six loads each, although they will certainly heat 
 
 if double these quantities are put together. Judicious 
 
 farmers therefore accommodate the size of their stacks to 
 
 the condition of the sheaves, and are more concerned to 
 
 get their crops secured rapidly and safely than to have 
 their stacks of uniform size. For the same reasons, it is 
 often expedient to stack portions of the crop either in the 
 field where it grew or at some convenient site nearer than 
 the homestead, but on the way towards it, and where two 
 carts will suffice to keep each stacker in work. An 
 incidental benefit from having the stacks in detached groups 
 is, that it lessens the risk from fire. 
 
 It is always desirable to have the stacks built upon 
 frames or stools elevated 18 or 20 inches from the ground. 
 Besides the security from vermin thus attained, there is a 
 free admission of air to. every part, particularly when aided 
 by a triangle of rough timber in the centre, which speedily 
 insures thorough dryness in the whole stack. When stacks 
 are built upon the ground with a mere bedding of straw 
 under them, the grain from the basement tiers of sheaves 
 is often lighter by several pounds per bushel than that from 
 the rest of it. A farmer who has Ms rick-yard fully 
 furnished with these frames can often carry his crop withont 
 risk — when, if built on the ground, it would inevitably 
 heat — and have the grain in condition for market earlier 
 by months than in the latter case. As the stacks are built, 
 
 Young's Stack-Stool. 
 
 they are thatched without delay. For this purpose, carefni 
 farmers provide beforehand ample stores of thatch and 
 straw ropes. The thatch is not elaborately drawn, but 
 merely straightened a little as it falls from the thrashing- 
 mill, tied into large bundles, and built up into stacks, 
 where it gets compressed, and so lies more evenly than h 
 used direct from the milL A good coating of such thatch 
 secured by straw ropes, interlacing each other in chequers, 
 forms a secure and cheap covering, easily put. on by 
 ordinary farm labourers, and possesses, with all its rough- 
 ness, an air of unpretending rustic neatness which har- 
 monises well with surrounding objects, and which we 
 greatly prefer to the elaborate ricks of the southern counties 
 with their shaved sides, combed thatch, and weather-cock 
 a-peak. Apart from its cost, the shaving of stacks is 
 objectionable, as they then suffer more from a beating rain 
 or snowdrift than when the natural roughness is left 
 upon them, on the same principle that a coarse, shaggy 
 topcoat shoots off wet better than a smooth broadcloth. 
 A stout two-ply cord made of cocoa-nut fibre, or coir, is 
 coming into use as a substitute for straw ropes in the 
 thatching of stacks. 
 
 With proper machinery propelled by steam or water, the 
 thrashing and dressing of grain is a simple and inexpensive 
 process. As grain is now universally sold with a reference 
 to its weight per bushel, its relative value depends much 
 upon its dryness and thorough freedom from chaff, dust, 
 light grain, and seeds of weeds. Farmers who are syste- 
 matically careful in the cultivation, harvesting, thrashing, 
 and dressing of their crops, can always co mm a n d the best 
 prices of the day. In preparing a parcel of grain for 
 market, it is a good plan to measure a few sacks very 
 carefully, ascertain the average weight of these, and- then 
 fill every remaining sack to that weight exactly.
 
 364 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [boot okops. 
 
 CHAPTER XTL 
 
 COXTTVATED CHOPS — ROOT CROPS. 
 
 Section 1. — Potato. 
 
 The events of late years render it necessary to regard 
 'this root somewhat differently than was warranted by its 
 previous history. Its value as an article of food, relished 
 alike by prince and peasant, its easy culture, its adaptation 
 to a very wide diversity of soil and climate, and the 
 largeness of its produce, justly entitled it to the high 
 esteem in which it was universally held. Like many other 
 good gifts, it was, however, grossly abused, and diverted 
 from its legitimate use ; and advantage was taken of its 
 amazing productive powers to elevate it from the place of 
 an agreeable, wholesome addition to the daily food of the 
 community to that of " the staff of life." In Ireland and 
 the Highlands of Scotland, the people, already in a pain- 
 fully degraded condition, and contented with the potato 
 as their sole food all the year round, took occasion, from 
 its very productiveness, under the rudest culture, to sub- 
 divide their lands, and marry prematurely, with reckless 
 improvidence, and amid an ever-deepening degradation. 
 We know now, from the utter prostration and helplessness 
 into which this wretched population was at once thrown 
 by the memorable potato disease, the terrible penalty 
 which this abuse of "a good gift" has brought directly on 
 the miserable sufferers, and indirectly on the whole com- 
 munity. It will be well if the stern lesson, enforced by 
 famine and pestilence, have the effect of leading to a better 
 30cial condition. Viewed in this light, the potato disease 
 may yet prove a blessing to the nation. Its continued 
 prevalence, although in a mitigated form, cannot well be 
 regarded otherwise, when we remember the frantic eagerness 
 with which the Irish peasantry replanted their favourite 
 root on the first indication of its returning vigour, and the 
 desperate energy with which they cling to it under repeated 
 disappointments. Apart from this speciality, the precarious 
 health of this important esculent is much to be regretted. 
 It seems contrary to analogy to suppose- that it is likely 
 either to be entirely lost or to manifest a permanent liability 
 to disease. It soems more natural to suppose that by-and- 
 by the disease will disappear, or that some efficient remedy 
 For it will be discovered. Railways afford great facilities 
 for transporting this bulky commodity at little expense to 
 great distances, and thus render the market for it available 
 to a wider district. Apart from disease, this facility of 
 transport would naturally insure its more extended cultiva- 
 tion. This enlarged cultivation of a crop which, to bo 
 grown successfully, requires a soil rich in fertilising matters, 
 has moreover been rendered practicable by the facilities 
 which, the farmer now has of obtaining guano and other 
 portable manures. 
 
 The varieties of the potato, whether for garden or field 
 culture, are exceedingly numerous, and admit of endless 
 increase by propagating from seeds. It would serve no 
 useful purpose to enumerate here even a selection from the 
 sorts in use in different parts of the country. In Messrs 
 Lawson's Synopsis of the Vegetable Products of Scotland a 
 description of 175 kinds is given, to which the reader is 
 referred for particulars. When the crop is grown for cattle 
 food, bulk of produce will be the primary consideration; 
 but for sale or family use, flavour, keeping quality, and 
 handsome appearance, will be particularly attended to. 
 Exemption from disease is now a momentous consideration, 
 whatever the use for which it is grown. There is this 
 difficulty, however, connected with selections on the score 
 of healthiness, that while in each season since the disease 
 broke out certain varieties have escaped, it is observed 
 from year to year that the exempted list varies, certain 
 kinds that had been previously healthy becoming as 
 
 obnoxious to disease as any, and others in a great measure 
 escaping that had suffered much before. Indeed, certain 
 parties, from observing that diseased tubers left in the 
 ground have produced healthy plants in the following 
 season, have been induced purposely to plant diseased 
 potatoes, and with good results. This, however, is probably 
 due to the mere fact of their being kept in the earth. 
 
 In field culture the potato is frequently grown oh a 
 portion of the fallow break ; but its appropriate place in 
 the rotation is that usually assigned to beans, with which, 
 in an agricultural point of view, it has many features in 
 common, and in lieu of which it may with advantage' be 
 cultivated. As the potato requires to bo planted as early 
 in spring as the weather will admit of, thus leaving little 
 opportunity for cleaning the land, and as its mode of 
 growth forbids any effective removal of root-weeds by after 
 culture, it is peculiarly necessary to have the land devoted 
 to this crop cleaned in autumn. Winter dunging facilitates 
 the planting, and is, otherwise beneficial to the crop by 
 producing that loose and mellow condition of the soil in 
 which the potato delights. The quality of the crop is also 
 believed to be better when the dung is thoroughly incor- 
 porated with the soil, than when it is applied in the drill 
 at the time of planting. A liberal application of manure 
 is necessary if a full crop is expected. The rank growth 
 thus induced renders it, however, more obnoxious to the 
 blight, and hence at present it is more prudent to aim 
 rather at a sound crop than an abundant one, and for this 
 purpose to stint the manure. When it is applied at the 
 time of planting, the mode of procedure is the same as that 
 which -will presently be described in the section on turnip 
 culture. The potato sets are prepared a few days before 
 they are expected to be needed. Tubers about the size of 
 an egg do well to be .planted whole ; and it is a good plan 
 to select these when harvesting the crop, and to store them 
 by themselves, that they may be ready for use withor.t 
 further labour. The larger tubers are cut into pieces 
 having at least one sound ej e in each, although two are 
 better. It is of great consequence to have seed-potatoes 
 stored in a cool and dry pit, so that if possible they may 
 be prepared for planting before they have begun to shoot. 
 U there has been any heating in the pit, the potatoes are 
 found to be covered by a rank crop of shoots, which are 
 necessarily" rubbed off, and thus the most vigorous eyes 
 are lost, and much of the substance which should have 
 nourished the young plant is utterly wasted. A sufficient 
 number of dormant eyes are no doubt left, but from the 
 comparatively exhausted state of the tubers, these produce 
 stems of a weaker and more watery character, and more 
 liable to disease than those first protruded. To avoid 
 these evils, gardeners are at pains to invigorate their seed 
 potatoes and husband their whole powers for early and 
 vigorous growth by greening them in autumn, storing them 
 in a cool place with a current of air passing through it, 
 and then in early spring exposing them to kght on a floor, 
 whence they are carefully removed and planted with their 
 short green shoots unbroken. Neither the greening nor 
 the sprouting under cover and in the light can ordinarily 
 be practised on the scale on which the field culture of the 
 potato is conducted. But the important feature in it, viz., 
 so treating potatoes intended for seed that the crop shall be 
 produced from the first and most vigorous shoots, and that 
 these shall obtain the fuli benefit of the natural pabulum 
 stored up for their use in the parent tuber, should be care- 
 fully considered and imitated if possible in field culture. 
 
 The report of the meeting of the Edinburgh Botanical 
 Society, on 8th January 1852, bears that "Professor 
 Simpson communicated the results of some experiments 
 made by himself and Mr Stewart relative to the growth of 
 alpine plants after having been kept artificially covered
 
 HOOT CROPS.] 
 
 ■with snow in an ice-house for many months. Seeds and 
 plants when kept in this way during winter, and then 
 brought into the warm air of summer, germinate and grow 
 with great rapidity. Mr Stewart had also made experi- 
 ments with animals, and he found that the chrysalis so 
 treated produced a moth in eleven days after being brought 
 into the atmosphere, while another chrysalis of the same 
 moth did not do so for three or four months after. In 
 arctic regions the rapid growth of plants during the short 
 summer was well known. Professor Simpson alluded to 
 the importance of similar experiments being made on the 
 different kinds of grain. He referred to the rapidity of 
 harvest in Canada and other countries where the cold lasted 
 for many months, and he was disposed to think that if 
 grain was kept in ice-houses during the winter, and sown 
 in spring, there might be an acceleration of the harvest." 
 
 The suggestion for the treatment of seed corn is cer- 
 tainly deserving of trial; but the 'known difficulty of hinder- 
 ing the premature germination of potato sets in the ordi- 
 nary method of storing them seems to point to them as the 
 peculiarly appropriate subjects of such an experiment. 
 
 Potato drills should not be less than 30 inches wide, nor 
 the 8et3 less than 10 or 12 inches apart in the rows. The 
 usual practice is to take the sets to the field in sacks, which 
 are set down at convenient distances for replenishing the 
 baskets or aprons of the planters. When a large breadth 
 is to be planted, a better way is to have the sets in carts, 
 one of which is moved slowly along in front of the planters 
 A. person is seated in the cart, who has by him several spare 
 baskets which he keeps ready filled, and which are handed 
 to the planters in exchange for empty ones as often as 
 required. This greatly economises the time of the planters, 
 and admits of a greater amount of work being accomplished 
 by them in a day. Single-bout drills are quite sufficient, 
 so far as the success of the crop is concerned. So soon as 
 the young potato plants are fairly above ground, the drill- 
 grubber should be set to work and followed up without 
 delay by hand-hoeing. Mr Wallace, North Berwick Mains, 
 e most successful cultivator of potatoes, has for many years 
 taken off all the shoots, save one, from the potato sets as 
 they appear above ground, and the prunings are used in 
 filling up blanks; the result has been that the produce of 
 the solitary stem is both larger and of more equal size and 
 quality than when the shoots are all left. A turn of the 
 horse-hoe and another hand-hoeing after a short interval 
 are usually required, after which the common practice is 
 to earth up the rows by the double mould-board ploughs. 
 There is reason to believe that this latter practice usually 
 does harm rather than good. It no doubt prevents the 
 uppermost tubers from getting greened by exposure to the 
 light, but it is believed that the injury inflicted on the 
 roots which spread into the intervals betwixt the rows far 
 more than counterbalances any benefits that result, or have 
 been supposed to result, from this earthing up. After the 
 plants are a foot high, a slight stirring of the surface to 
 keep down weeds is all the culture that is admissible con- 
 sistently with the well-doing of the crop 
 
 When the crop is matured, which is known by the decay 
 of the tops and the firmness of the epidermis when the 
 tubers are forcibly rubbed by the thumb, advantage is 
 taken of every dry day in harvesting the crop. With small 
 plots, the fork is certainly the most efficient implement for 
 raising the tubers; but on the large scale, when expedition 
 is of great consequence, they are always unearthed by the 
 double mould-board plough. Alternate rows are split open 
 in the first instance, and then the intervening ones, as 
 the produce of the first is gathered. When a convenient 
 breadth has thus been cleared, a turn of the harrows is 
 given to uncover such tubers as have been hid from the 
 glfl&ners at the first going over. This work is now very 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 30.' 
 
 generally accomplished by means of a lmlking-plongh 
 divested of its wings, and having attached to its solo a 
 piece of iron terminating in radiating prongs. This being 
 worked directly under the row of potato plants, unearth- 
 the tubers, and spreads them on the surface by one opera- 
 tion. The potatoes are gathered into baskets, from which 
 they are emptied into carts and conveyed at once to soma 
 dry piece of ground, where they are piled up in long narrow 
 heaps and immediately thatched with straw. The base of 
 the heaps should not exceed a yard in width, and should be 
 raised above the surface level rather thau sunk below it, as 
 is very usually done. As the dangers to be guarded against 
 are heating and frost, measures must be taken with an eye 
 to both. The crop being put together in as dry and clean 
 a state as possible, a good covering of straw is put oh, and 
 coated over two or three inches thick with earth, care being 
 taken to leave a chimney every two yards along the ridge. 
 By thus keeping the heaps dry and secure from frost, it if 
 usually possible, even yet, to preserve potatoes in good 
 condition till spring. Such diseased one3 as have beer 
 picked out at the gathering of the crop can be used foi 
 feeding cattle or pigs. The fact that pigs fatten appa 
 rently as well on diseased potatoes when cooked bj 
 steaming or boiling, as on sound ones, is certainly a very 
 important mitigation of this dreaded calamity. There art 
 several varieties of the potato, such as " yams," " lumpers," 
 " mangel-wurzel potato," &c, which, although unfit for 
 human food, are much relished by cattle, and which, from 
 their abundant produce, healthiness, and great fattening 
 quality, are well deserving of being more generally cultivated 
 for the purpose of being used in combination with turnips 
 and other substances in the fattening of cattle. The turnip 
 crop of recent years has been nearly as much diseased as 
 the potato crop, and as one remedy against " fingers-and- 
 toes" in the former is to let longer intervals of time inter- 
 vene before their recurrence in the same field, and as it 
 has been ascertained that an acre each of beans, potatoes, 
 and turnips will produce more beef than three acres of 
 turnips alone, it is worthy the consideration of those con- 
 cerned whether it would not be prudent to substitute a 
 crop of these coarser potatoes for a portion of their turnip 
 crop on fields or parts of fields that have borne diseased 
 turnips in previous rotations. Eight tons per acre is a 
 good crop of potatoes. 
 
 Section 2.— Turnips. 
 
 The introduction of turnips as a field crop constitutes 
 one of the most marked epochs in British agriculture. To 
 the present day no better criterion exists by which to 
 estimate its state in any district, or the skill of individual 
 farmers, than the measure of success with which this or 
 other root crops are cultivated. We have already, in our 
 section upon fallowing, described in detail the process of 
 preparing the soil for drilled green crops. Referring the 
 reader to what is there said, wo now proceed with our 
 description of turnip culture. 
 
 Previous to the introduction of bone-dust and guano, 
 farm-yard dung formed, in the majority of cases, the only 
 available manure for the turnip crop. It was almost in- 
 variably formed into heaps in the field to which it was to 
 be applied, and repeatedly turned, as great stress was laid 
 on having it well rotted. The introduction of these invalu- 
 able portable manures has, however, not only immensely 
 extended the culture of the turnip, but has materially 
 modified the course of procedure. - On the first introduc- 
 tion of bone-dust the practice was to use the fold-yard 
 dung as far as it would go, and to apply bone-dust alone, 
 in quantities of from sixteen to twenty bushels per acre, 
 to the remainder of the crop. Guano, too, for c time was 
 used to some extent on the same principle; but now it is
 
 3G6 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [HOOT CE0P8. 
 
 most satisfactorily proved that whereas very good crops of 
 turnips can be obtained by manuring either with dung 
 alone, at the rate of from fifteen to twenty tons per acre, 
 or boues alone, at the rate of sixteen to twenty bushels, or 
 guano alone, at the rate of three or four cwt, much better 
 crops can be obtained by applying to each acre its propor- 
 tion of each of these kinds and quantities of manures. A 
 portion of the bones is now usually applied in the form of 
 superphosphate of lime; and as this substance, and also 
 guano, have a remarkable power of stimulating the growth 
 of the turnip in its earliest stage, forcing it to the state fit 
 for thinning from ten to fourteen days earlier than hereto- 
 fore, there is now no occasion for the dung being in the 
 advanced stato of decomposition that was formerly found 
 necessary. When farm-yard dung alone was used, it 
 behoved to be in a soluble state, ready to furnish nourish- 
 ment to the plant from the beginning. Eut in bringing it 
 to that state a considerable loss is sustained by fermentation, 
 and its bulk is so much reduced that it becomes difficult to 
 distribute evenly the allowance which would be available 
 for each acre, in order to give the whole crop a share of it. 
 This", however, it is most desirable to do, as good farm- 
 yard manure contains in itself the whole elements required 
 by the crop; and hence an additional reason for the plans 
 of applying farm-yard dung which have already been 
 noticed. If that made during the previous summer has 
 been applied in autumn to the lea before ploughing for 
 oats, as far as it will go, and another portion of the con- 
 templated turnip break dunged before the winter furrow, 
 with all that has been made up to that time, and the future 
 accumulations up to April formed into heaps, to be applied 
 in the drills for the latest sowings, the manures produced 
 on the farm may be made to go over nearly the whole 
 breadth under root crops. 
 
 In proceeding to sow those portions that were dunged 
 before the oat crop and on the stubble, all that is required 
 is to form the drills, and apply the guano or bones, or 
 mixture of both, by hand. In doing this, ten or twelve 
 drills are set out the evening before, that all may be ready 
 for a good start. The light manure is taken to the field 
 in carts, which are unyoked at convenient distances for 
 replenishing the aprons of the young persons (one for each 
 plough) or the machine by which it is distributed along 
 the drills. The sowers of the manure being started on the 
 outside drills, the ploughmen proceed to open fresh ones 
 inside in going, and to cover in the manure by reversing 
 the first formed ridgelets as they return. The seed machine, 
 sowing two rows at a time, follows close up to the ploughs, 
 and thus the work goes rapidly on, each plough getting 
 over from 2£ to 3 acres a-day. When farm-yard dung is 
 applied at the time of sowing, the process is the same, 
 except that the drills must be opened somewhat deeper, 
 and that the dung-carts, followed by an adequate number 
 of spreaders, precede the sowers of the light manures. In 
 filling the dung-carts, one able-bodied labourer is required 
 for each plough employed in drilling; and where these 
 amount to three, six spreaders are required to distribute 
 it evenly along the drills. In some districts the double- 
 breasted plough is used in forming the drills and covering 
 in the dung. In the hands of a skilful ploughman that 
 implement does certainly make neater work to look at; but 
 so far as the success of the crop is concerned, the common 
 swing-plough is preferable, for in covering in with it the 
 earth is made to run over the top of the ridgelet, by which 
 moans the clods fall into the hollow, and the finest of the 
 mould is left on the top, where the seed is to be deposited. 
 With the double mould-board this cannot so well be done, 
 and the consequence is, that a groove is formed on the top 
 of the ridgelet, in which the small dry clods, carried up by 
 the tail of the mould-board, are left, forming the jvorst 
 
 possible bed for the seed. In parching weather it is usual 
 to pass a light roller over the drills immediately after 
 sowing, o retain the moisture and insure germination. 
 The seed is deposited near the surface, haLf an inch of 
 mould being a sufficient covering. The quantity sown ia 
 2 D) per acre of globe or yellow turnip seeds, and 3 to 4 
 tb of swedes. Care must be taken that the seed is fresh, 
 so as to have a vigorous and thick plant Thick sowing 
 increases the difficulty of thinning out the plants, but it 
 hastens their growth, and diminishes the risk of failure 
 from the depredations of tho turnip beetle. The time of 
 sowing in the south of Scotland extends from the begin- 
 ning to the end of May for swedes, and thence to the 
 middle of June for yellows and globes. A partial sowing 
 of yellow or globe is, however, made by careful stock- 
 masters before sowing the swedes, to be ready for use by tho 
 end of August or beginning of September, when pasturage 
 fails. Sowings of early varieties, such as the stubble turnip 
 and certain yellow kinds, are also made after winter tares! 
 or other catch crops, until the middle of July; but in Scot* 
 land they cannot be sown later than this with advantage, 
 unless for the production of a crop of seed. The averagsj 
 weight per acre of swedes may be stated at 18 tons, and! 
 of turnips at 22 tons, but double these rates have) 
 occasionally been obtained. Recent experiments go to 
 show that with liberal manuring and early sowing, the 
 weight of the crop is considerably increased by thinninsj 
 out the plants at wider intervals than has hitherto been 
 customary. The usual practice in Scotland has been t«j 
 sow in ridgelets 27 inches apart, with 9 or 10 inches be^ 
 twixt the plants. Recent experiments establish the fact 
 that, with 1 5 inches from plant to plant, much larger bulbs 
 and a greater acreable produce are obtained. As it is 
 ascertained that in the case of swedes the largest bulbs 
 are also the best in quality, it is of the greater consequence 
 to allow them ample room. 
 
 The thinning is commenced as soon as the rough \e&f is 
 fairly developed. Previous to this operation the horse-hoe 
 is worked betwixt the row3 for the double purpose of 
 destroying weeds and facilitating the operation of thinning. 
 This operation is sometimes still farther facilitated by 
 using Huckvale's machine, which slaps out the rows so aa 
 to leave tufts of plants at regular distances apart. The 
 singling of the plants is performed by the hand-hoe. The 
 young persons by whom this work is usually performed 
 advance in echelon with their backs to the untouched work, 
 the steadiest and most expert worker leading the band. 
 This arrangement insures a uniform rate of progress, saves 
 the finia lip.fl work from being trodden upon, and keeps the 
 workers closely under the eye of the steward. This thin- 
 ning of tho rows, so as to leave single plants at regular 
 intervals of 12 to 15 inches apart, is accomplished by an 
 alternate thrusting and drawing motion of the hoe, which 
 a little practice enables the workers to perform with such 
 precision that very rarely do they either make a gap or 
 leave double plants, and still more rarely do they require 
 to stoop down to disentangle them with their fingers. 
 Three of these workers can usually thin an acre in a day. 
 With ordinary care on the part of the overseer, there is no 
 great difficulty in getting the plants left single at proper 
 intervals ; but it is very difficult to get the hoers trained 
 to select and leave only the stoutest plants. And yet so 
 important is this, that, all other things lAing equal, a 
 difference of two to three tons per acre in the rate of pro- 
 duce has been ascertained to result on comparing rows 
 that had been thinned by a person who took pains to 
 select and leave the best plants, with others on which they 
 had been left mdiscriminately. When the plants have 
 rallied after the thinning, and begun to grow rapidly, the 
 usual practice has been to turn a furrow from either side
 
 HOOT CKOPS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 367 
 
 of them into the middle of the interval by a one-horse 
 plough, and then to level this down by a turn of the horse- 
 hoe. A great improvement on thi3 practice i3 to use 
 Tennant's grubber instead, adjusted for drill work in the 
 manner already described. By thus using a strong imple- 
 ment drawn by two horses, the soil in the intervals betwixt 
 the rows can be stirred a foot deep if required, without 
 any risk of hurting .the young plants, and this, too, is 
 accomplished by a single operation. A second hand-hoeing 
 is then given, which usually completes the after culture. 
 
 The nature of the soil will generally determine the mode 
 of consuming the crop. On all loose, dry soils, feeding off 
 by sheep is the most profitable plan ; whereas on deep, 
 strong loams, it is advisable to withdraw the whole produce, 
 and have it eaten by cattle, as, unless in very favourable 
 weather, when even a fourth is fed off by sheep, the extra 
 manuring does not compensate to the after crops for the 
 injury which they usually sustain from the treading and 
 poaching. On the poorest class of light soils the whole 
 crop should, if possible, be consumed where it grows by 
 sheep; but on those of a better description, a third, a half, 
 or two-thirds rray be withdrawn for the feeding of cattle, 
 according to circumstances. Whatever the proportion left 
 on the ground, care is to be taken to regulate the intervals 
 so as to distribute the treading and droppings of the sheep 
 as equally aa possible over the field. 
 
 •The management of the turnip crop so as that it may 
 be supplied to the live stock in the best possible condition 
 during the entire season, is a point of the greatest import- 
 ance. The portion that is to be used as cattle food is 
 removed from the ground as soon as the crop is suffi- 
 ciently matured, and before the time when drenching 
 rains and severe frosts may ordinarily be looked for. The 
 best way of preserving turnips is by storing in broad flat 
 heaps, not exceeding 20 inches deep, on some dry and 
 sheltered situation, open to the sun, and covering them 
 with a good coating of straw. It takes less labour to put 
 them together in this way, and less straw to cover them; 
 and being less exposed to frost and parching winds, they 
 retain their juices much better than when stored in long 
 narrow heaps. The pulling of swedes preparatory to stor- 
 ing is much facilitated by passing under them a sharp 
 share, and so cutting across the tap-roots without displacing 
 the bulbs. The thatch of the corn-stacks that are thrashed 
 in autumn is usually reserved for covering turnip heaps. 
 After 1st November it is well to make diligent use of 
 every favourable hour in thus securing the turnip crop. 
 
 The portion to be fed off by sheep must necessarily be 
 treated in a different manner. What is to be used after 
 Christmas can be very readily defended against frost by 
 earthing up in the drills with the common plough. But 
 as what is to be consumed by the young sheep must be 
 pulled and trimmed at any rate, in order to be sliced, the 
 best way is to throw the turnips into heaps at regular 
 distances, and cover them with a thin coating of earth. By 
 this means the turnips are kept from running to stems, 
 and the sheep get them clean and fresh, whatever the state 
 of the weather. 1 The same end is secured by opening a 
 trench by a bout of the common plough, into which the 
 turnips from two drills on either side are laid in regular 
 order with their tops uppermost, and the earth turned 
 over upon them by reversing the course of -the plough. 
 When wanted for use they are again unearthed by means 
 of the plough. The feeding qualities of turnips are so 
 seriously impaired by exposure to frost, even when they 
 
 1 During the unusually wet winter of 1852-53 a large quantity of 
 turnips and swedes intended for cattle food was stored in this way. 
 The trimming and storing was carried on every dry day, and the 
 carting postponed until the occurrence of frost or drought admitted 
 of its being dnne without injnry to the land. 
 
 escape actual destruction, that the expense of securinf 
 them by one or other of these methods is always amph) 
 repaid. In very mild winters, again, storing is equallj 
 effective in preventing the virtues both of the turnips am 
 the soil from being wasted by the pushing of the seed sterna 
 
 The turnip is liable in the early stages of its growth to 
 the attacks of various insects. The most formidable oi 
 these enemies is the turnip beetle, which frequently settles 
 upon the plants as so-'tn as they appear above ground in 
 such numbers as totally to destroy the whole of them. Th« 
 best way of guarding against these nim ble adversaries is 
 to endeavour, by careful preparation of the soil, liberal 
 manuring, and thick seeding, to secure a thick plant and 
 rapid growth ; for whenever the rough leaf is expanded the 
 risk from this quarter is over. From time to time the 
 young turnip plants are assailed by the larvae of certain 
 butterflies and moths, which sometimes appear in such num- 
 bers as to cause serious alarm, but ordinarily their attacks 
 occasion but a slight check to the growth of the crop. 
 
 A far more formidable evil is the disease called " fingers 
 and toes," which, although long known, seems to be steadily 
 extending, and has been wider spread and more virulent 
 since 1851 than in previous years. This truly formidable 
 disease sometimes shows itself by the time that the plants 
 are ready for thinning, but more usually it i3 about th6 
 stage when the second hoeing is given that unmistakable 
 indications of its presence are observed. The crop appears 
 in high health, and is making rapid growth, when suddenly, 
 under hot sunshine, numbers of the plants are seen to droop 
 with flaccid leaves; and examination being made, it is found 
 that the disease has already made serious progress. In 
 some cases it is chiefly confined to the tap-root, which is 
 distorted with knobby excrescences. In others, the roots 
 present a thickened, palmated appearance, giving rise to the 
 popular name for the disease, " fingers and toes;" while in 
 others the lateral roots expand into glaDdular-looking tubers, 
 which frequently appear partially above ground at distances 
 of several inches from the central stem. For a time all 
 these forms of the excrescences present a smooth healthy 
 looking skin, yielding no trace of the presence of insects of 
 any kind, either externally or internally. By-and-by the 
 skin cracks over the excrescences, which speedily assume a 
 gangrenous appearance. Indeed, the whole symptoms pre- 
 sent a, striking analogy to cancer in the animal system. 
 By the time that the healthy plants are approaching near 
 to maturity, the most diseased ones have usually lost all 
 resemblance to turnips, and there remains on the land a 
 substance like rotten fungus. In very bad case3 whole 
 acres together are found in this state, with here and there 
 a sickly distorted turnip still showing a few green leaves. 
 At other times a few only of the plants are wholly destroyed; 
 the field, to a casual observer, looking not much amiss, 
 though a closer inspection proves that the general crop is 
 of stunted growth, with few plants entirely free from the 
 disease. Such partially diseased roots are not absolutely 
 rejected by sheep, but they are evidently unpalatable and 
 innutritious, while the crop as a whole is more speedily 
 consumed than its general appearance would lead one to 
 expect. When this disease appears on farms that have 
 previously been exempt from it, it is usually confined for 
 a year or two to small patches, which, however, in the 
 absence of remedial measures, steadily and rapidly extend, 
 not only on the recurrence of a turnip crop on the same 
 fields, but over the other parts of the farm. Indeed, there 
 are not wanting indications of its being propagated by 
 contagion; as, for instance, when tainted roots are carted 
 into pastures, and the disease shows itself roost in those 
 places where they have been consumed, when, in course of 
 rotation, the field comes afterwards to bear a turnip crop. 
 When they are consumed by cattle in fold-yards, the dung
 
 368 
 
 A G 11 I C U L T U 11 E 
 
 [kuot oboh. 
 
 may bo the medium of contamination, on the supposition 
 that this conjecture is well-founded Ploughing land in a 
 wet state evidently aggravates the disease. We know of 
 one instance where a strip down the middle of a field was 
 ploughed in autumn while soaked by rain, on which wet 
 ploughed portion the turnips were evidently more diseased 
 than over the rest of the field In another instanco which 
 came under our personal observation, a ditch running along 
 part of the top of a field of upwards of 50 acres, was 
 scoured in spring, and the mud spread back over the head- 
 land The whole field was, in the same season, sown with 
 turnips, which proved an excellent crop, entirely free from 
 " fingers and toes," with the exception of that portion of 
 headland on which the mud was spread, where every plant 
 was diseased. Although wholly in the dark as to the 
 nature and propagation of this disease, it is well to know 
 that the judicious application of lime is a certain remedy. 
 In order, however, to its efficacy, it must be applied in a 
 powdery state after the autumn.ploughing, and immediately 
 incorporated with the soil by harrowing; or else, as a com- 
 post with earth, spread on the lea before breaking up for oats. 
 We know from experience that a very moderate dose (say 
 four tons of unslaked shells to the acre) applied in this 
 way will suffice to prevent the disease. It is on light soils 
 that its ravages are most frequently experienced, and to 
 these heavy doses of lime are unsuitable. Indeed, whether 
 for promoting the general fertility of soils, or for warding 
 off the attacks of this disease, moderate applications of 
 lime every twelve years or so seem preferable to heavier 
 dressings at longer intervals. The name " fingers and 
 toes" is not unfrequently applied to a distinct disease 
 to which the turnip, in common with the cabbage and other 
 coleworts, is liable — namely anbury or club root. When 
 the knobby excrescence which is found on plants affected 
 by anbury is broken up, it is found to encase a white 
 maggot, whose presence is the obvious cause of the mis- 
 chief. We have seen young cabbages which had begun to 
 droop from clubbing, when pulled up, freed from the 
 parasite, and replanted, regain healthy growth and come to 
 prosperous maturity. In the case of the " finger and toe," 
 the most careful investigation, aided by the microscope, 
 has hitherto failed to detect any insect cause for this 
 disastrous malady. 
 
 Section 3. — Mangel-Wurzel. 
 
 This root has been steadily rising in estimation of late 
 years. It is peculiarly adapted for those southern parts of 
 England where the climate is too hot and dry for the suc- 
 cessful cultivation of the turnip. A competent authority 
 declares that it is there easier to obtain 30 tons of mangold 
 than 20 tons of swedes, and that it is not at all unusual 
 to find individual roots upwards of 20 lb in weight In 
 Scotland it is just the reverse, it being comparatively easy 
 to grow a good crop of swedes, but very difficult to obtain 
 20 tons of mangold This plant is very susceptible of 
 injury from frost, and hence in the short summer of Scot- 
 land it can neither be sown so early nor left in the ground 
 so late as would be requisite for its mature growth. These 
 difncultie3 < may possibly be got over either by the selection 
 of hardier varieties or by more skilful cultivation. Its 
 feeding quality is said to be nearly equal to that of the 
 swede; it is much relished by live stock — pigs especially 
 doing remarkably well upon it; and it has the very im- 
 portant property of keeping in good condition till mid- 
 summer if required Indeed, it is only after it has been 
 some months in the store heap that it becomes a palatable 
 and safe food for cattle. It is, moreover, exempt from the 
 attacks of the turnip beetle. On all these accounts, there- 
 fore, it is peculiarly valuable in those parts of Great Britain 
 where the summer is usually hot and dry — conditions of 
 
 climate which are favourable to the mangold and Deculiarly 
 unfavourable to the turnip. 
 
 I " j • to the act of depositing the seed, the processes of pre 
 paration for mangold are identical with those described foi 
 the turnip; winter dunging being even more appropriate for 
 the former than for the latter. The ridijelets being formed 
 28 inches apart, and charged with a liberal allowance of 
 dung and guano, the seeds aro deposited along the top, at 
 the rate of about 4 lb per acre. The common drilling 
 machines are easily fitted for sowing its large rough seeds, 
 which should be sown from the 10th to the 2*>tli April. 
 The after culture is also identical with that of the ttirnip. 
 The plants are thinned out at distances of not less than 1 f> 
 inches apart. Transplanting can be used for filling up of 
 gaps with more certainty of success than in the case iif« 
 swedes. But we find it much more economical to avoid 
 such gaps by sowing a little swede seed along with the 
 mangold Several varieties of the plant are cultivated — 
 those in best repute being the orange globe, the long yellow, 
 and the long red. This crop requires a heavier dressing of 
 manure than the turnip to grow it in perfection, and is 
 much benefited by having salt mixed with the manure at 
 the rate of 2 or 3 cwt. per acre. The crop requires to be 
 secured in store heaps as early in autumn as possible, as it 
 is easily injured by frost. The following graphic descrip- 
 tion of this' process is by Mr Morton of Whitfield : — 
 
 "The mode of harvesting our root crop which we ha7o adopted 
 for several years is this : We let the lifting, cutting oft* the leaves 
 and the roots, and putting the roots into the cart — at so much per 
 acre, according to the weight of the crop — to one man, who gets 
 other men to join with him in the work and share in the profits ; 
 and the arrangement I require to be adopted is, that the one-horse 
 carts, which I employ to haul the roots, shall be constantly 
 employed, and I require from 16 to 20 loads or tons of roots to bo 
 filled hourly. The number of carts required is according to tho 
 distance of the field from the store ; thus the distance from the 
 middle of the field to the 6tore being 15 chains, four carts aro 
 required ; 22 chains require five carts ; and 30 chains require seven 
 carts. 
 
 " The mode of lifting the roots. — Five men are employed to pull 
 up the roots ; each man pulls up two rows ; standing between the 
 rows, ho takes with his left hand a root from the row on his left 
 side, and with his right hand a root from tho row on his right side, 
 and pulling both up at the same time, places them side by side, 
 across the row where he pulled up the roots with his right hand, so 
 as to have the tops lying in the space between the two rows he has 
 pulled up ; the next man takes the two rows at the right hand of 
 the last two rows we have just described, and he, with each of his 
 hands, pulls up a row, and places them on the line of the row which 
 ho has pulled up with his left hand, with the root end lying towards 
 the root end of the first row, so that we have now four rows of roots 
 lying close together in two rows, side by side, with their leaves on 
 the outside of each of these rows, and the roots of each row nearly 
 touching each other ; and every four rows, when growing, are thus, 
 when pulled, laid in two rows, root to root, occupying not' more 
 than 27 inches. Now, as the next four rows are lifted in the same 
 way, and placed in like manner, we have a space unoccupied of 
 three times 27 inches, or 6 feet 9 inches between each double row of 
 roots, for the cart to go between them (viz., this double row of bulbs 
 after they have had the leaves and roots cut off), to carry off the 
 bulbs to the store. After the five men who are pulling the roots 
 there follow ten women or boys, with knives made of pieces of old 
 scythes, who, with repeated blows, cut off the leaves and roots 
 without over moving one of them with their hands ; this is constant 
 but not hard work, and it requires ten active women or boys to 
 keep up with the five men pulling. 
 
 " Immediately on the heels of the cutters follow the carts 
 between the two double rows of bulbs as they lie, having then 
 leaves and roots cut off ; and a man, one of the principals of the 
 gang, and nine young active boys and girls, throw up the bulbs as 
 fast as th»y can into the cart, the man Bpcaking to the horse to 
 move forward or stop as they clear the ground ; when one cart i» 
 full, an empty one has been brought by one of the boys who drive 
 the carts, and placed immediately behind the full one ; so that, as 
 he moves off with the full cart, the man calls the horse with the 
 empty cart to move forward, and they proceed to throw the roots 
 into the cart as fast as they did into the one that has just gone off 
 the field. .. 
 
 "The pulling of the roots and the filling of the carts being the 
 principal work, one of the leaders is in each of these departments at
 
 nooT crops.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 369 
 
 the work ; so that, by his example, he shows those with him how 
 he wishes them to work, and thus the work proceeds with the 
 utmost regularity and despatch ; 20 cart-load3 are hourly filled in 
 the fields and delivered in the store ; 180 to 182 loads of 22 cwt 
 and 23 cwt. each in a day of nine hours ; thu3 a cart-load i3 filled 
 every three minutes by 10 pairs of hands, which are pulled by five 
 pairs of hands, and the leaves and roots cut off by 10 pairs of hands 
 — in all 25 pairs of hands, men, women, and boys. This has been 
 repeatedly done in a day. 
 
 " The stores are made of post3 and rails, enclosing a space 9 feet 
 apart and 44 feet high, and of any length, if the space will admit, 
 and as near to where they are to be consumed as possible. The 
 posts are 5 feet apart, let into the ground 13 inches, and 4J feet 
 above, with five rails above, 4 or 5 inche3 wide, nailed to the inside 
 of the posts ; and each of these stores is 3 feet apart. I have 14 of 
 them, about 70 feet long each, which i3 sufficient to store from 1000 
 to 1200 tons of bulbs." 
 
 The heaps are carefully thatched, and the spaces betwixt 
 them filled with straw to keep out frost. 
 
 It is believed that in many cases crops of turnip and 
 mangold could be more cheaply stored by means of the 
 portable railway than by carts, and with less injury to the 
 land. This, is especially the case with clay soils and in 
 wet seasons. In using it, eight drills of roots are trimmed 
 and laid m two rows, as Mr Morton describes; the rails 
 are shifted between the pairs of rows in succession; and 
 the roots are pitched into light trucks, which a man 
 pushes before him to the headland, where the contents 
 are discharged by tipping. Being there heaped up and 
 thatched, the roots are carted'to the homestead as required. 
 
 Section 4. — Carrot. 
 
 This root, though so deservedly esteemed and univer- 
 dally grown in gardens, has not hitherto attained to general 
 cultivation as a field crop. This is owing chiefly to certain 
 practical difficulties attending its culture on a larger scale. 
 Its light feathery seeds cannot easily be sown so as to 
 secure their regular germination; the tardy growth of the 
 young plants, and the difficulty of oliscriminating between 
 them and weeds makes the t runnin g a troublesome affair; 
 the harvesting 'of the crop is comparatively expensive ; and 
 it is only on sandy and light loamy soils, or those of a 
 peaty character, that it can be grown successfully. The 
 increasing precariousness in the growth of potatoes, turnips, 
 and clover, and the consequent necessity for a greater 
 variety of green crop3, entitle the carrot to increased atten- 
 tion as a field crop. Its intrinsic qualities are, however, 
 very valuable, especially since the introduction of the white 
 Belgian variety. On light soils it is alleged that larger 
 crop3 of carrots can be obtained than of turnips, and with 
 less exhaustion of their fertility, which is explained a3 
 arising from the greater depth to which the carrots descend 
 for their nourishment. This root is eaten with avidity by 
 all kinds of farm stock. Horses, in particular, are very 
 fond of it, and can be kept in working condition with a 
 considerably smaller ration 'of oats when 20 lb of carrots 
 are given to them daily. It can also be readily kept to an 
 advanced period of spring when stored with ordinary care. 
 
 The mode of culture is very s imil ar' to that already de- 
 scribed for mangel-wurzeL A usual practice is to prepare 
 the seed for sowing by mixing it with moist sand, and 
 turning the mass repeatedly for several days until germina- 
 tion begins, when it is sown by hand at the rate of 6 lb 
 per acre of the dry seeds, in a seam opened by the coulters 
 of the corn or turnip drill, according as it is wished to have 
 it on the flat or on ridgelets. Some prefer merely to rub 
 the mixture of seeds and sand or mould betwixt the palms, 
 until the seeds are thoroughly separated from each other, 
 and so divested of their hairs as, when mixed with sand, to 
 run from a drilling machine. It is of the utmost importance 
 to secure seeds of the previous year's growth, as if older 
 their germination cannot be depended upon. Much care is 
 also needed in saving the seed only from selected roots, as 
 
 carrots have a decided tendency to degenerate. The white 
 Belgian variety is certainly the best for farm use, not only 
 from the weight of crop, but from its growing more rapidly 
 in its earliest stage than other approved sorts, and showing 
 a broader and deeper coloured leaf, which can more easily 
 be cliscriminated from weeds, and thus admitting of the 
 earlier use of the hoe. When the sowing and first hoeing 
 and th in ni n g of the crop are got over successfully, the after 
 culture of the crop is very simple; all that is needed being 
 the occasional use of the horse and hand hoe to keep down 
 weeds. The fork must be used in lifting the crop. The 
 greens are then cut off and given to young stock or cows, 
 and the roots storedin long narrow heaps, exactly as mangold. 
 Fifteen tons per acre is an average crop, although on suit- 
 able soils, with liberal manuring and skilful cultivation, 
 double the weight is sometimes obtained. Those who in- 
 tend to cultivate this crop statedly will do well to raise 
 their own seeds from carefully-selected roots. Unless 
 genuine and fresh seed is sown, failure and disappointment 
 can scarcely be avoided. 
 
 Section, 5. — Parsnip. 
 
 This plant bears so close a resemblance to the carrot, and 
 its culture and uses are so similar, that they need not be 
 repeated. It can, however, be cultivated successfully over 
 a much wider range of soils than the carrot, and, unlike 
 it, rather prefers those in which clay predominates. It is 
 grown extensively and with great success in the Channel 
 Islands. The cows there, fed on parsnips and hay, yield 
 butter little inferior, either in colour or flavour, to that 
 produced from pasture. About 10 lb of seed are required 
 per acre. It requires, like that of the carrot, to be steeped 
 before sowing, to hasten germination, and the same care is 
 needed to have it fresh and genuine. It should be sown 
 in April. The roots, when matured, are stored like carrots. 
 
 Section 6. — Jerusalem ArticJiohe. 
 
 .This root, although decidedly inferior to the potato in 
 flavour, is yet deserving of cultivation. It grows freely in 
 inferior soils, is easily propagated from the tubers, and 
 requires little attention in its cultivation. When once 
 established in the soil, it will produce abundant crops for 
 successive years on the same 3pot. It is sometimes planted 
 in woods to yield shelter for game, for which purpose it is 
 admirably fitted, as it grows freely under the shade of trees, 
 and yields both food and covert. In properly-fenced woods 
 it might yield abundant and suitable food for hogs, which 
 could there root it at their pleasure, without damage to 
 anything. Where they had mast along with these juicy 
 tubers, they would undoubtedly thrive apace. After they 
 had grubbed up what they could get, enough would be left 
 to reproduce a crop for successive seasons. Such a use of 
 this esculent seems well deserving of careful triaL 
 
 CEOPS ANALOGOUS TO DRILLED ROOT CROPS. . 
 
 {Sections 7, 8, 9.) 
 
 There are several crops which, under a strict classifica- 
 tion, should be noticed among forage crops rather than here, 
 but which, in an agricultural point of view, are so closely 
 analogous to drilled root crops that we regard this as the 
 suitable place in which to notice them. 
 
 Section 7. — Cabbage. 
 On strong rich soils large crops of very nutritious food 
 for sheep or cattle, and of a kind very acceptable to them, 
 are obtained from the field culture of the Drumhead cab- 
 bage. A seed-bed is prepared in a garden, orchard, or other 
 sheltered situation, about the second week in August, either 
 by sowing in rows 12 inches apart, and thinning the plants
 
 370 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 (.GRASSES. 
 
 •bout 3 inches in the rows, or broadcast in beds. As early 
 in spring as the land on which the crop is to be grown 
 is dry enough for being worked, let it be thoroughly 
 and deeply starre'd by one or more turns of the grubber. 
 Assuming that a liberal dressing of dung has been put into 
 it at the autumn ploughing, 3 or 4 cwt. of guano are now 
 scattered evenly over the surface and ploughed in by a deep 
 »quare furrow. A lot of plants being brought from the 
 seed-bed, a band of planters, each provided with a dibble 
 and a piece of rod 27 inches long, proceed to insert a 
 row of plants "the length of the rods apart in each third 
 plough-seam, the result of which is that the plants stand in 
 regular rows 27 inches apart every way, and can afterwards 
 be kept clean by horse and hand hoeing like any other 
 drilled green crop. Cabbages aro much in repute with 
 breeders of rams and prize sheep, which fatten rapidly on 
 this food. Cabbages are usually drawn off and given to 
 sheep on their pastures, or to cattle in byres and yards ; 
 but they are also- fed off, where they grow, by sheep, in the 
 same way as turnips. It i3 an exhausting crop when 
 wholly drawn off, and on this account is sometimes grown 
 with advantage on spots greatly enriched by irrigation with 
 sewage or otherwise, and where the succeeding grain crop 
 is expected to suffer from over-luxuriance, the cabbages 
 being grown, as the phrase goes, to " take the shine out of 
 it" In favourable circumstances, from 30 to 40 tons per 
 acre of this nutritious crop may be obtained. From what 
 has been said it is evidently not adapted for extensive field 
 culture ; but on most farms a few acres might be grown 
 annually with great advantage. It is a peculiarly suitable 
 food for either sheep or cattle during the autumnal tran- 
 sition from grass to turnips. 
 
 Section 8. — Rape. 
 This plant is peculiarly adapted for peaty soils, and is 
 accordingly a favourite crop in the fen lands of England, 
 and on recently reclaimed mosses and moors elsewhere. Its 
 growth is greatly stimulated by the ashes resulting from 
 the practice of paring and burning. In these cases it is 
 sown broadcast ; but when such soils are brought into a 
 regular course of tillage, it is drilled, and otherwise treated 
 in the same manner as turnips. As we shall consider its 
 culture under the head of " Oil-producing Plants " (chap, 
 xiv. sec. 5), we shall only say further here, that its highly 
 nutritious leaves and stems are usually consumed by folding 
 sheep upon it where it grows, and that there is no green 
 food upon which they fatten faster. Occasionally it is 
 carried to the homestead, and used with other forage in 
 carrying out the system of soiling cattle. 
 
 Section 9. — Kohl-Rabi. 
 
 This plant has been frequently recommended to the 
 notice of farmers of late years. Like mangold, it is better 
 adapted than the turnip for strong soils and dry and warm 
 climates. It may be either sown on drills in the same 
 manner as the turnip, or sown in a seed-bed and afterwards 
 transplanted. The latter plan i3 expensive, if it is desired 
 to cultivate the crops to any extent ; but is commendable 
 for providing a supply of plants to make good deficiencies 
 in the rows of other crops, or when a small quantity only 
 is wanted. By sowing a plot of ground in March in some 
 sheltered corner, and transplanting the crop early in May, 
 it is more likely to prosper than in any other way. Cattle 
 and sheep are fond of it, and it is said not to impart any 
 unpleasant flavour to milk. We have seen a few trials of 
 it in Scotland as a field crop ; but, from whatever cause, 
 the weight of food produced per acre was greatly less than 
 from the mangolds and swedes growing alongside of it. For 
 further information about this plant, the reader is referred 
 to the Book of the Farm, voL ii. p. 87 ; Hewlett Davis's 
 
 Farming Essays, p. 90 ; Lawson's Synopsis of tlie Vegetable 
 Products of Scotland, div. ii p. 109. Lawson says that 
 the pulp or flesh of kohl has the same taste as the leaves 
 of tho cabbage, and hence its adaptation as food for milch 
 cows. 
 
 CHAPTER XKL 
 
 CTJLTIVAIED CROPS. — HERBAGE AND FORAGE CROPS 
 
 Section 1. — Grasses, &c 
 
 Under this general heading we propose to include what 
 we have to say concerning the grasses, whether natural or 
 cultivated, and those other crops which are grown expressly 
 for the sako of the cattle food yielded by their leaves and 
 stems. This kind of fane produco is either consumed 
 where it grows by depasturing with live stock, or mown 
 and givon to them in a green state under cover, or dried 
 and stored for after use. It thus embraces tho cultivation 
 of these crops, and their disposal, whether by grazing, 
 soiling, or haymaking. Following this method, we shall 
 first of all briefly describe the cultivation of thoso pasture 
 and forage crops which are of best repute in British 
 husbandry. 
 
 Tillage lands are now everywhere cropped according 
 to some settled rotation, in which the well-recognised 
 principles of the alternate husbandry are carried out accord- 
 ing to the actual circumstances of each locality. With 
 rare exceptions, such lands at stated intervals bear a crop 
 of the clovers or cultivated grasses. As these are usually 
 sown in mixture, especially when intended for pasturage, 
 the resulting crop is technically called " seeds." As it ia 
 of importance to have the land clean and in good heart 
 when such crops are sown, they usually follow the grain 
 crop which immediately succeeds the fallowing process. 
 Being for the most part of a lower habit of growth, these 
 can be sown and grown along with white corn crops 
 without injury to either. When the latter are harvested, 
 the former, being already established in the soil, at once 
 occupy it, and grow apace. By this arrangement there is 
 therefore secured an important saving both of time and til- 
 lage. Barley being the crop amongst which the seeds of the 
 clovers and grasses are most frequently sown, and amongst 
 which, upon the whole, they thrive best, it is customary te 
 sow these small seeds at the same time as the barley, and 
 to cover them in with a single stroke of the common 
 harrows. This is erroneous practice, both as regards the 
 time and manner of sowing these small seeds. We have 
 already mentioned, in the proper place, that barley should 
 be sown as early in March as possible. Now, if the clovers, 
 &c, are sown as early as this, they are almost certain to 
 get so forward as both to rob the barley of its due share of 
 nourishment, and, when it is reaped, to bulk so largely in 
 the sheaves as to retard their drying, and aggravate the 
 risk of their being ill harvested. It is found, too, that 
 if there be plants enough, the clovers stand the winter 
 better, and ultimately yield a better crop, when, at the 
 reaping of the grain crop, they are puny-looking than when 
 they are very strong. It is better, therefore, to delay the 
 sowing of the small seeds till the end of April or beginning 
 of May. As to the manner of covering them in, we have to 
 remark that the smallness of these seeds and their mode 
 of germinating alike require that they receive only the 
 very slightest covering of soil This important fact is so 
 well illustrated in the following table, which exhibits the 1 
 results of some carefully-conducted experiments, reported 
 to the Highland Society by Mr Stirling of Glenbervie, 
 that we shall here quote it : — 
 
 " Column I. contains the scientific names. 
 Column II. contains the average weight of the seeds x>er uu&he 
 • in uouuls.
 
 •SUHASSES.J 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 371 
 
 Column III. contains the average number of seeds iu one ounce. 
 Column IV*. shows, in inchps, the depth of cover at which the 
 
 greatest number of seeds brairded. 
 Column V. shows, in inches, the depth of cover at which only 
 
 about half the number of seeds brairded. 
 Column VI. shows, in inches, the least depth of cover at which 
 
 none of the seeds brairded. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 500,000 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Agrtstis stolonifera, 
 
 13 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 4 to i 
 
 1 
 
 
 12 
 
 425,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aira baespitosa, . . . 
 
 14 
 
 132,000 
 
 to 
 
 4 
 
 » tol 
 
 21 
 
 Alopecnrus pratensis, . 
 
 *utnoxanthum oilora- ) 
 
 turn, . . . . ) 
 
 5 
 
 76,000 
 
 to 
 
 i 
 
 1 tol} 
 
 2} 
 
 6 
 
 71,000 
 
 to 
 
 i 
 
 1 toll 
 
 2 
 
 Arrhcnatherum avena- ) 
 
 7 
 
 21,000 
 
 4 to 
 
 I 
 
 14 toi| 
 
 4 
 
 Brachypodium sylva- ) 
 ticum ( 
 
 10 
 
 15,500 
 
 to 
 
 t 
 
 4 to | 
 
 2 
 
 Cynosurus cristatus, . 
 
 26 
 
 28,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dactylis gloraerata, 
 
 12 
 
 40,000 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 f to 1 
 
 2i 
 
 gloraerata giganUa, 
 
 10 
 
 34,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Elyinus arenarius, . . 
 
 11 
 
 2,320 
 
 1 to 14 
 
 2 to 2J 
 
 5 
 
 geniculates, . . . 
 
 12 
 
 2,300 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kestuca duriuscula, 
 
 10 
 
 39,000 
 
 to 
 
 i 
 
 ? to 1 
 
 2} 
 
 elatior, .... 
 
 14 
 
 20,500 
 
 to 
 
 
 1 tol} 
 
 22 
 
 "4 
 
 elatior gigantea, 
 
 13 
 
 17,500 
 
 to 
 
 I 
 
 l}tol4 
 
 3 
 
 heterophylla, . . 
 
 12 
 
 33,000 
 
 to 
 
 i 
 
 1 tol| 
 
 2} 
 
 gigantea 
 
 16 
 
 8,600 
 
 
 
 
 
 ovina, . . . 
 
 14 
 
 64,000 
 
 to. 
 
 I 
 
 Jt'ol 
 
 Si" 
 
 ovina tenuifolia, . 
 
 15 
 
 , 80,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 pratensis, . . . 
 
 14 
 
 26,000 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 Jtol 
 
 24 
 
 pratensis loliucea, . 
 
 15 
 
 24,700 
 
 
 
 
 
 rubra, .... 
 
 10 
 
 39,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Glyceria aquatica, . . 
 
 13 
 
 58,000 
 
 | to 
 
 1 
 
 I tol 
 
 2} 
 
 fluitans, . . .' 
 
 15 
 
 33,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Holcus lanatus, . . . 
 
 7 
 
 95,000 
 
 4 to 
 
 J 
 
 Jt'ol 
 
 24 
 
 mollis 
 
 6 
 
 85,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lolium italicum, . . 
 
 15 
 
 27,000 
 
 to 
 
 i 
 
 1 Vol} 
 
 s'i 
 
 perenne, .... 
 
 18-30 
 
 15,000 
 
 J to 
 
 \ 
 
 14 to If 
 
 34 
 
 Milium effusum, . . 
 
 25 
 
 80,000 
 
 ito 
 
 1 
 
 1 to } 
 
 2J 
 
 Phalaris arundinacea, . 
 
 48 
 
 42,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phleum pratense, . . 
 
 44 
 
 74,000 
 
 to 
 
 ! 
 
 j to 1 " 
 
 2 
 
 Poa nemoralis, . . . 
 
 15 
 
 173,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 nemoralis semper- ) 
 virens, . . . ) 
 
 15J 
 
 133,000 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 ito 4 
 
 1 
 
 pratensis, . . . 
 
 13 
 
 243.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 trivia] is 
 
 15 
 
 217,000 
 
 ,to 
 
 1 
 
 4 to J 
 
 i'i 
 
 Psamraa arundinacea, . 
 
 15 
 
 10,000 
 
 4tol 
 
 14 to 15 
 
 4 
 
 Trisetuni flavescens, • . 
 
 B4 
 
 118,000 
 
 to 
 
 i 
 
 jtol 
 
 2 
 
 Acbillea Millefolium, . 
 
 30 
 
 200,000 
 
 Ito 
 
 4 
 
 ito J 
 
 11 
 
 Cichorium Intybus ) 
 (chicory), . . . \ 
 
 32 
 
 21,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lotus coraiculatus, 
 
 62 
 
 28,000 
 
 to 
 
 i 
 
 ito J 
 
 li 
 
 major 
 
 64 
 
 51,000 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 Medicago lupulina, 
 
 63 
 
 16,000 
 
 to 
 
 i 
 
 Jtol 
 
 i'i 
 
 
 60 
 
 12,600 
 
 
 
 
 
 ODobrycbis sativa, . . 
 
 26 
 
 1,280 
 
 I tol 
 
 2 to 2} 
 
 i'i 
 
 Petrosal i nam sativum, 
 
 41 
 
 12,800 
 
 
 
 
 
 Plantago laDceolata, 
 
 62 
 
 15,600 
 
 ito 
 
 4 
 
 11 to 14 
 
 24 
 
 Poterium Sanguisorba ) 
 (burnet), . . . j 
 
 25 
 
 3,320 
 
 4 to 
 
 f 
 
 14 tol} 
 
 4 
 
 Tiifolium filiforme, 
 
 65 
 
 £4,000 
 
 to 
 
 i 
 
 4 to 4 
 
 11 
 
 hybridum, . . . 
 
 63 
 
 45,000 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 4 to 1 
 
 li 
 
 pratense 
 
 64 
 
 16,000 
 
 to 
 
 4 
 
 34 to l| 
 
 2 
 
 pratense perenne, . 
 
 64 
 
 16,000 
 
 to 
 
 4 
 
 litoli 
 
 2 
 
 repens 
 
 65 
 
 32,000 
 
 to 
 
 » 
 
 4to J 
 
 14 
 
 "The results in the three last columns of the preceding table were 
 obtained by sowing the seed in finely-sifted dark loam, which was 
 kept moist throughout the process of germination, to which is 
 attributable the circumstance of so many of the sorts vegetating best 
 (as shown in Column IV.) without covering, and nnder full exposure 
 to the light. The combination of such favourable circumstances 
 of soil and moisture can, however, seldom be calculated upon in 
 field sowing, therefore a covering of mould for the seeds, however 
 slight, is always advisable. Eut it will be seen, by the results in 
 Column VI., that a great number of seeds must be inevitably lost 
 from over-depth of covering, unless the ground be in all cases care- 
 fully prepared and pulverised before sowing either the natural or 
 -trtificiol grasses." 1 
 
 From this it is evident that to scatter these tiny seeds 
 aver a cloddy surface, and then to harrow it, may more 
 
 Hrrtm't c>. /»/«... ^ Afrimimrt — article "Grasses," voL i. p. 999. 
 
 aptly be called ourying than sowing them, fne following 
 is a more rational mode of proceeding ; — When these seeds 
 are to be sown among winter wheat, it is expedient te 
 begin by using the horse-hoe (supposing the wh&it to have 
 been drilled), as well to loosen the surface and produce a 
 kindly bed for the seeds as to destroy weeds. In the case 
 of broadcasted wheat, a turn of the harrows secures the 
 same end. In the case of the more recently sown barley 
 all that is needed is to smooth the surface with the one- 
 horse roller. Over the ground thus prepared the small 
 seeds are distributed by a broadcast sowing-machine, 
 which covers at once a space of 15 or 18 feet in width. 
 The covering is then effected by simply rolling with the 
 smooth roller, or by dragging over the surface the chain- 
 harrow, which may either be attached to the sowing-machine 
 or to a separate frame; or by using Cambridge's or Crosskill's 
 roller, with a very light chain harrow attached to it. On 
 clay soils the chain-web is to be preferred; but on loose 
 soils Crosskill's roller imparts a beneficial firmness, and, 
 with its tail-piece of chain-web to fill up the indentations, 
 gives an accuracy of finish which rivals the neatness of a 
 newly-raked garden plot. "We have long regarded this 
 covering in of grass seeds as the most important use to 
 which Crosskill's valuable implement is put. The only 
 drawback to it is, that it makes a heavy demand on the 
 horse-power of the farm at a pressing season. As it can 
 only be worked in dry weather, it is advisable, when the 
 land is in trim, to work it double tides by means of a relay 
 of horses. This mode of procedure is alike applicable to 
 the sowing of mixed clovers and grasses, and to that of the 
 clovers alone, and is the course usually pursued in sowing 
 for one or two years' " seeds." 
 
 Wben it is intended to lay down arable land to grass 
 for several years, or to restore it to permanent pasture or 
 meadow, it is always advisable to sow the seeds without a 
 con crop. This doubtless involves an additional cost at 
 the outset, but it is usually more than repaid by the en- 
 hanced value of the pasture thus obtained. To grow the 
 grasses well, the soil should be pulverised to the depth of 
 3 or 4 inches only, and be full of manure near the surface. 
 There is no better way of securing these conditions than 
 by first consuming a crop of turnips on the ground by 
 sheep folding, and then pulverising the surface by means 
 of the grubber, harrow, and roller, without ploughing it. 
 
 Much diversity of practice exists in regard to the kinds 
 and quantities of seeds used in sowing down with a grain 
 crop. In Scotland from 2 to 4 pecks of ryegrass seeds, 
 with from 10 to 14 ft of those of red, white, alsike, and 
 yellow clovers, in about equal proportions, is a common 
 allowance for an acre. A pound or two of field parsley ia 
 occasionally added, or rather is substituted for an equal 
 weight of clover seeds. The natural grasses are seldom 
 sown, and only, when the land is to be laid to permanent 
 pasture. In England ryegrass is in much less repute than 
 in Scotland, the clovers being there very generally sown 
 unmixed, and always in larger quantities than we have 
 "just named — 20 ft per acre being a common allowance. 
 There can be little doubt that both these plans are 
 faulty. 
 
 When a good natural pasture is carefully examined, it is 
 found to consist of an amazing number of different grasses 
 and other plants. Not only does a natural pasture contain 
 a great variety of herbage at any one time, but it has its 
 plants which replace each other at different seasons; and 
 some also which are prominent only in wet years and others 
 in dry ones. The provision thus made for affording ft all 
 times such a variety of food as is at once grateful and whole- 
 some to the animals which browse on it, and for keeping 
 the ground fully occupied under every diversity of seasons 
 and weather. i3 truly admirable, and the study of it well
 
 372 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [grasses. 
 
 fitted to interest and instruct tho husbandman. The 
 importance of this subject is beginning to be appreciated 
 by agriculturists; as one proof of which we now see our 
 leading seedsmen regularly advertising for sale an extensive 
 list of grasses and other pasture plants. Most of them 
 also, for the guidance of their customers, point out the 
 kinds and quantities per acre which are appropriate for 
 diversity of soils and other circumstances. We refer, as an 
 example of this, to the manual of Messrs Lawson of Edin- 
 burgh, who have devoted much attention to this subject. 
 The following Tables will be found useful : — 
 
 " I.— For Alternate Husbandry. 
 
 Fori year'* Hay For 1 year'* Hi/ 
 
 For 1 year'a Hay. and and 
 
 1 year's Pasture. 2 years' Future, 
 lb lb to 
 
 Lolium iUlicum 9 9 9 
 
 perenne 18 18 18 
 
 Dactylis glomerata — 2 2 
 
 Phleum pretense 12 2 
 
 Medicago lupulina — 1 1 
 
 Trifolium hybridum 12 2 
 
 pratense 8 4 2 
 
 pratense perenne — 2 4 
 
 repens 2 4 4 
 
 39 44 44 
 
 " For sheep pastures it will often be found advantageous to add 
 from 2 to 4 lb per acre of parsley seed to the above mixtures ; and 
 for pastures in certain upland districts established practice will jus- 
 tify the introduction of an additional pound or two of yellow clover 
 {Medicago lupulina), together with from 2 to 3 tb of ribgrass 
 (Plantago lanceolata). And for very heavy as well as for peaty 
 •oils, 1 to 1 J lb of Phleum pratense may be added advantageously, 
 both for hay and pasture. 
 
 " II.— For Permanent Pasture. No. I. 
 
 to 
 
 Alopecurns pratensis 2 
 
 Dactylis glomerata 6 
 
 Festuca duriuscula 2 
 
 elatior 2 
 
 pratensis 2 
 
 lolium italicum 6 
 
 perenne 8 
 
 Phleum pratense 2 
 
 Poa nemoralis sempervirens 2 
 
 trivialis 3 
 
 Medicago lupulina 1 
 
 Trifolium pratense 1 
 
 perenne .' 3 
 
 repens 6 
 
 46 
 " In certain cases the following additions to Table II. may be 
 made — namely, 1 to 2 lb each of Festuca rubra and Poa pratensis 
 on dry sandy soils; 1 lb of Achillea Millefolium, and 1 to 2 lb 
 of Petrosalinum sativum in sheep pastures ; 2 lb chicory (Cich&rium 
 Inlybus) in cattle pastures, 6 or 1 lb of Onobrychis saliva and 4 
 to 6 lb of Poterium Sanguisorba (burnet) in dry calcareous soils'. 
 When a crop of hay is taken the first year, both the ryegrasses 
 (Lolium) may be increased by a third ; and 2 lb of Trifolium pra- 
 tense added. Also J to 1 lb per acre of Anlhoxanthum odoralum 
 when occasional crops of hay are to be taken." l 
 
 When land ha3 been thus sown for a permanent pasture, 
 care should be taken not to allow a sheep to set foot upon 
 it for the first two years, for if these industrious nibblers 
 are allowed to crop the tender clover seedlings before they 
 are fully established in the soil, they are certain to remove 
 the crown from most of them, and thus ruin the pasture at 
 the verj -outset. Innumerable instances of failure in the 
 attempt to obtain good permanent pastures are entirely 
 owing to this premature grazing by sheep. The first growth 
 should therefore be mown, care being taken to do so before 
 any of the grasses have flowered. Then roll repeatedly, 
 and stock with young cattle only until the second season 
 is over. 
 
 Having described the means to be used for obtaining 
 
 rton'i Cyelopoedia of Agriculture— article " GraBscs," voL i. 
 r- 1000. 
 
 good pastures, let us now consider how to use them pro- 
 fitably. The art of grazing embraces tb; practical solution 
 of two important problems, viz., lit, How to obtain the 
 greatest amount and best quality of herbage from any-given 
 pasture; and 2d, How to consume this herbage by live 
 stock so as to make the most of it. The grazier has ever 
 to kcop in view what is best for his "and and what is best 
 for his stock; and must taku his measures throughout tho 
 entire season with an eye to bovh thjso objects. As regards 
 the first of them, experience ykudj the following maxims 
 for his guidance : — 
 
 Never to stock his pastures in *pring until genial weather 
 is fairly established. 
 
 Never to allow the grasses to run to seed, nor parts of a 
 field to be eaten bare, aud others to get rank and coarse. 
 
 Duly to spread about the droppings of the cattle, to 
 remove stagnant water, and to extirpate tall weeds. 
 
 Some time about midsummer to make a point of having 
 the pasture eaten so close that no dead herbage or " fog- 
 gage " shall be left on any part of it. 
 
 In what more immediately concerns the welfare of the 
 live stock he is in like manner taught in stocking his 
 pastures — 
 
 To adapt the stock, as regards breed, size, condition, and 
 numbers, to the actual capabilities of the pasturage. 
 
 To secure to the stock at all times a full bite of cleaD, 
 fresh-grown, succulent herbage. 
 
 In moving stock from field to field to take caro that it 
 be a change to better fare — not to worse. 
 
 Pasturage consists either of natural herbage or of " seeds." 
 In the south-eastern counties of Scotland there is little 
 good old grass; all the really fertile soils being employed 
 in arable husbandry, with tho exception of small portions 
 around the mansions of landowners. The pasturage 
 consists, therefore, for the most part of the cultivated 
 clovers and grasses. Comparatively few cattle are Lhere 
 fattened on grass; the object of graziers being rather to 
 stock their pastures with young and growing animals, and 
 to get them into forward condition for being afterwards 
 fattened upon turnips. The grazing season is there also 
 much shorter than in England, old grass seldom affording 
 a full bite for a well-conditioned bullock before the middle 
 of May, or later than the middle of September. It is 
 quite otherwise in England, various parts of which abound 
 with old grass lands of the very richest description, on 
 which oxen of the largest size can be fattened rapidly. 
 These, in many cases, admit of being stocked towards the 
 end of April, and under judicious management continue to 
 yield excellent pasturage for half the year. When stocked 
 with cattle in fresh condition, two sets or " runs " are not 
 unfrequently fattened in such pastures in the same season 
 These grass-fed cattle begin to come to market early in 
 July, and for four or five months thereafter constitute the 
 chief supplies of beef in our markets. 
 
 Cattle already well-fleshed are alone suitable for turning 
 into these rich old pastures. When this is attended to, 
 and care taken not to over-stock the pastures until they 
 yield a full bite, the progress of the oxen will usually be 
 very rapid. It is now customary to hasten this progress 
 by giving about 4 lb of oilcake to each beast daily. 
 The dust and crumbs being sifted out, the bits of cake 
 are strewn upon the clean sward, from whence they are 
 quickly and carefully gleaned by the cattle. This is 
 usually a profitable practice. It brings the beasts forward 
 rapidly, improves their appearance and handling, and, 
 besides enriching the land, admits of about twelve per cent, 
 more numbers being fed upon a given acreage. These 
 choice old pastures are usually occupied in combination 
 with others of inferior quality. The most forward lot of 
 cattle having been fattened and sold off from the former,
 
 GRASSES, 
 
 ■•] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 373 
 
 they are ready to receive a fresh stock. If it is con- 
 templated to get them also fattened before the expiry of 
 the season, they are not put on the best land instantly on 
 the first lot being sold ; but a crowd of sheep or store- 
 beasts being turned upon it for a few days, the existing 
 herbage is cleared off, and the pasture (Anglice) "laid in " 
 or (Scotlice) " hained," until a fresh clean growth fits it 
 for receiving a suitable number of the best cattle from the 
 other pastures. . It is inexpedient to graze sheep promis- 
 cuously with cattle on these best lands, as they pick out 
 the sweetest of the herbage, and so retard the fattening of 
 the oxen. Neither do we approve of having horses among 
 such cattle ; not so much from their interfering with their 
 pasturage as from the disturbance which they usually cause 
 by galloping about. This does not apply to the draught- 
 horses of- a farm, which are usually too tired and hungry 
 when turned out from the yoke to mind anything but food 
 and rest, but it is better thrift to soil them; and frolic- 
 some, mischievous colts are unsuitable companions for 
 sedate, portly oxen. In favourable seasons, the grass often 
 grow3 more rapidly than an ordinary stocking of cattle can 
 consume it, in which case they select the best places, and 
 allow the herbage on some parts to get rank and coarse. If 
 these rank places are neglected until the herbage gets dry 
 and withered, the finer plants die out, the coarser-growing 
 grasses usurp the ground, and the pasturage is injured for 
 future years. To check this evil in time, these neglected 
 places should be mown, and the grass either brought to 
 the homestead for soiling, or left to dry where it grew; in 
 which state the cattle will eat up most of it, and be the 
 better for it, especially if their bowels are unduly relaxed 
 by the succulence of the growing herbage. The remarks 
 now made apply equally to all old pastures employed for 
 the fattening of cattle, although not of the first quality. 
 All that is required is, to observe a due proportion between 
 the capabilities of the pasturage and the breed and size of 
 the cattle. A pasture that will fatten a fifty-stone ox may 
 be quite inadequate for one of seventy, and the hardy 
 Galloway or West Highlander will thrive apace where the 
 heavier and daintier shorthorn could barely subsist. 
 
 With the exception of the best class of rich old pastures, 
 grass is usually consumed to greater profit by a mixed stock 
 of sheep and store cattle than by one kind of animals only. 
 This holds true both as regards the natural herbage of 
 pastures or water meadows, and cultivated grasses, clovers, 
 or sainfoin. When old pastures and mixed " seeds " are 
 grazed chiefly by sheep, the same rules ppply that have 
 already been noticed in connection with cattle. The herbage 
 should if possible' be fully established in a growing state, 
 and so far advanced as to afford a full bite, before the 
 pasture is stocked iu spring. If the sheep are turned into 
 it prematurely, their close nibbling hinders the plants from 
 ever getting into a state of rapid growth and productiveness, 
 and the necessity imposed upon the stock of roaming over 
 the whole field, and keeping long afoot before they can 
 glean enough to appease their appetite, is prejudicial 
 alike to them and to their pasture. The prudent grazier 
 endeavours to avoid these evils by having stores of 
 swedes or mangolds to last until the full time at which he 
 may reckon on having good pasturage. In distributing 
 the flocks to different fields, the best pasturage is allotted to 
 those that are in most forward condition. It is advan- 
 tageous to have the pastures so subdivided that one portion 
 may be double stocked while another is rested. By fre- 
 quently removing the stock from the one portion to the 
 other the herbage of each by turns gets time to grow and 
 freshen, and is more relished by the sheep, and more whole- 
 some than when the whole is tainted by their uninterrupted 
 occupation of it. In the case of clover, trefoil, sainfoin, 
 and water-meadows, this principle >-« vet more fully carried 
 
 out by folding the flock and giving them a fresh piece 
 daily. The crop is thus eaten' close off at once in daily 
 portions, and the plants being immediately thereafter left 
 undisturbed, and receiving over the whole area their due 
 share of the excrements of the flock, grow again more 
 rapidly than when subjected to constant browsing under a 
 system of promiscuous grazing. .This plan of folding sheep 
 upon such crops has the same advantages to recommend it 
 as soiling, only that it is cheaper to shift the fold daily 
 than to mow and cart home the forage and carry back the 
 manure. In the case of water-meadows it is the practice 
 to irrigate them afresh as each crop of grass is fed off. 
 This is attended with considerable risk of the sheep getting 
 tainted with rot, which must be guarded against as much 
 as possible. In the first place, it is well to give them a 
 daily allowance of bran, beans, or cake, and salt; and 
 besides this, to put on this land only such sheep as are 
 nearly ready for the butcher. They will thus fatten very 
 rapidly, and be slaughtered before there is time for harm 
 to ensue. 
 
 The modes of grazing which we have now described are 
 appropriate for sheep in forward condition. The poorer 
 pastures are usually stocked with nursing ewes and lean 
 sheep bought in from higher grazings. Lambs, both before 
 and after weaning, require clean pastures, and of course 
 frequent changes. If kept on tainted pastures, they are 
 certain to become subject to diarrhoea, to be stinted in 
 their growth, and to have their constitution so weakened 
 that many of them will die when afterwards put upon 
 turnips. To avoid these evils, they must be frequently 
 moved from field to field. A sufficient number of store 
 cattle must be grazed along with them, to eat up the tall 
 herbage and rank patches avoided by the sheep. After the 
 lambs are weaned, the ewes require to fare rather poorly 
 for a time, and can thus be made use of to eat up the worst 
 pasturage, and the leavings of the young and fattening 
 sheep. When the latter, with the approach of autumn, 
 are put upon aftermath, clover stubbles, rape, cabbages, 
 or turnips, their previous pastures should in succession be 
 thickly stocked by the ewes and other store stock, so as to 
 be eaten bare and then left to freshen and get ready 
 for the ewes by rutting-time, when they require better 
 food. In depasturing sheep on poor soils it i3 usually 
 highly advantageous to give them a daily allowance of 
 grain or cake in troughs, which must be shifted daily, so as 
 to distribute the manure regularly over the land. By means 
 of this auxiliary food sheep can be fattened on land the 
 herbage of which would «ot alone suffice for the purpose. 
 It admits also of a larger number of sheep being kept per 
 acre, and of the pasturage being fed off more closely than 
 could otherwise be done. The produce of poor siliceous 
 soils, both in grass and after crops, is much increased by 
 the additional manuring and treading which the con- 
 sumption of such extraneous food upon them occasions. 
 
 It is always advantageous to have pastures provided 
 with a shed, under which the stock can find shelter from 
 sudden storms, or from the attacks of insects and the 
 scorching rays of the summer's sun. When such sheds are 
 regularly strewed with dried peat or burnt clay, much 
 valuable compost for top-dressing the pasture can be 
 obtained. The dung of the cattle, thus secured and applied, 
 benefits the pastures more than that which is dropped 
 upon it by the animals. Such clots require to be spread 
 about from time to time. 
 
 The temperate climate of Britain is so peculiarly favour- 
 able to the growth of the grasses and other pasture plants, 
 and to the keeping of live stock with safety in the open 
 fields for a large part of the year, that the practice of con- 
 suming these crops by depasturing, as already described, 
 has hitherto been decidedly preferred to soilin/. One con-
 
 374 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [grasses. 
 
 eequence of this is, that forage crops have been compara- 
 tively neglected. There is now, however, a growing 
 conviction among agriculturists that it is more convenient 
 to keep neat cattle and horses, during summer, in yards or 
 loose boxes, and to feed them with succulent forage, mown 
 and'brought to them daily as it is needed, than to turn 
 them adrift to browse in the fields. The pasturing plan 
 is preferred by many because it involves the least labour, 
 and is alleged to be more healthful to the animals. In 
 behalf of the soiling plan it is urged that a given space of 
 ground under gree-a crop keeps nearly twice as much stock, 
 when its produce is mown and consumed elsewhere, than 
 when it is constantly nibbled and trodden upon ; that 
 housed cattle being exempted from the vicissitudes of the 
 weather, the attacks of insects, mutual disturbance, and 
 the labour of gathering their food, eat less and yet fatten 
 more rapidly than they do at pasture ; that more good is 
 gotten of their excrements when mixed with litter and 
 trodden down under cover, than when dropped about in the 
 open fields ; and that land from which a green crop has 
 been mown, when ploughed up, is freer of weeds and 
 (other things being equal) bears a better corn-crop than 
 that which has been pastured. It is a further recommend- 
 ation to the soiling plan that it admits of oilcake or meal 
 being administered along with green food with a precision 
 and economy that is unattainable in the pasture fields. 
 There being so many and such cogent reasons in favour of 
 the practice of soiling, we may warrantably anticipate that 
 it will in future be much more generally adopted. It is 
 proper, however, to notice that the success of this system 
 is absolutely dependent on the following conditions : — The 
 green food must be mown and brought home at least twice 
 a-day, owing to the rapidity with which it ferments when 
 put together ; it must be given to the stock not less than 
 four times daily, and only in such quantity at each feed as 
 they can eat clean up in the interval betwixt meals ; they 
 must have constant and ample supplies of pure water and 
 of fresh litter ; and, in particular, matters must be so 
 arranged that there shall be an unfailing supply of green 
 forage of the best quality through the entire season. This 
 is accomplished either by successive cuttings of one kind 
 of crop from the same ground — as of irrigated meadow or 
 Italian ryegrass — or by a combination of such crops as 
 naturally come to maturity in succession, or are made to 
 do so by a sequence of sowings. From what has been said 
 it is obvious that soiling can only be carried out successf uUy 
 with a moderately good soil and climate, a liberal use of 
 manure, and skill and foresight on the part of the farmer. 
 With these, however, its results will usually be highly satis- 
 factory. It is peculiarly adapted for clay soils, on which 
 the culture of root crops is attended with much difficulty, 
 and where there is, therefore, abundance of litter for use 
 in summer, and much need for the soiling system to get 
 it converted into good manure. 
 
 Section 2. — Natural Meadow Grass. 
 
 In proceeding to notice the crops most usually cultivated 
 in Britain for green forage we shall begin with natural 
 meadow grass. In the south-western parts of England 
 abundant crops of grass are obtained by irrigation with 
 water alone. Our remarks will here, however, be re- 
 stricted to those situations where sewage from towns or 
 villages is available. Wherever a few scores of human 
 families are congregated together, and have their dwellings 
 properly drained and supplied with water, there is an 
 opporturity for manuring a considerable extent of meadow 
 with the sewage-water accruing from them throughout the 
 year. The celebrated meadows in the environs of Edin- 
 burgh are interesting illustrations of the value of such 
 water for irrigating purposes, and of the astonishing bulk 
 
 of rich herbage wnich can be obtainea in the course of jt 
 year from an acre of land thus treated. From the thick- 
 ness of the crop in these meadows, and the rink luxurianor 
 of its growth, the grass must be cut before it exceeds ten 
 inches in height, as otherwise the bottom gets' blanched 
 and the grass rots out The mowing begins usually in 
 April and continues till November, so that by fitly pro- 
 portioning the head of stock to tie extent of meadow, 
 and having the latter arranged in plots to be mown in 
 regular succession, soiling can be practised throughout the 
 season by the produce of the meadow alone. This practice 
 is necessarily limited to situations where sewage-water is 
 available. The following excerpts from a paper read before 
 the Royal Scottish Society of Arts in January 1867 On 
 tlie Collection, Removal, and Disposal of t/ce Refuse of tlu 
 City of Edinburgh, by Charles Macpherson, C.E., burgh 
 engineer, to which the society's silver medal was awarded, 
 will explain this system and exhibit its results : — 
 
 "The waters of the Craigentinny Bum, the Locbjin- Burn, tfc* 
 Jordan Burn, and the Broughton Burn, are used in irrigating part 
 of the lands adjoining the course of the respective streams. The 
 waters of the Craigentinny Burn are used for irrigating about 260 
 acres; Lochrin Burn, about 70 acres; Jordan Burn, about 11 acres; 
 and Broughton Burn, about 5 acres — being 836 acres in all irrigated 
 by the water flowing in these four natural outlets for the drainage of 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 " The area within the city draining towards the CraigentinnT 
 Burn — to the meadows irrigated by the waters of which I shall 
 confine these remarks — is about one square mile and a half in extent. 
 From this district there flows about 20 cubic feet of spring-water pet 
 minute ; the surplus rainfall being the non-absorbed portion of 24 
 inches per annum; and the sewage from a population of 95,589 
 persons, according to the census of 1861, with a water supply of saj 
 25 gallons per head. Of this population about 60,000 have the um 
 of water-closets ; and excrementitious matter from about 15,000 or 
 20,000 of the remainder finds its way to the sewers connected with 
 the burn at the rate of about 265 feet per minute of sewage. 
 
 " Various kinds of soil are irrigatei The subsoil of the part of 
 the meadows nearest the city is peat, with loam over it near the 
 course of the burn ; while to the northward it is naturally sand, but 
 the sand has been taken away, and the ground made up with rubbish 
 of buildings, &c, dressed off with soil. Further dawn the course 
 of the stream the soil is reddish clay, or loamy clay, or sandy clay ; 
 while at the part of the Figgate 'Whins adjoining the sea-shore it is 
 pure sand, with a coating of rich loam, varying from 1 inch to 4 or 
 5 inches deep, entirely derived from repeated applications of th* 
 sewage, no soil having been ever spread over the sand. The deepei 
 soil is nearest the channels' for conveying the sewage to the land. 
 The meadows on the farm of Lochend, at Restalrig, and at Craigen- 
 tinny, have a slope transversely to the course of the stream, varying 
 from the steepest part, 1 in 25, which is of small extent, to about I 
 in 60, which is the slope of the greatest part of these meadows. 
 The Figgate 'Whins were artificially levelled to allow of irrigation. 
 
 " It is important to remark that the land (except the sand at the 
 Figgate Whins) has been drained thoroughly to a depth of 4 feet 
 below the surface. It was found that with shallower drains the 
 sewage was drawn off by the drain, leavingthe lower part of the 
 ground without irrigation. At the Figgate Whins the sewage soake 
 into the sand, and oozes out upon the sea-shore. 
 
 " The kinds of grasses grown are Italian ryegrass and meadow 
 grass. The ryegrass requires to be resown every third year ; but the 
 meadow grass has not required resowing, not even on the Figgate 
 Whins, which were sown about forty years ago, when the ground 
 was first irrigated. Opinions differ as to which grass is best adapted 
 for the purpose ; but ryegrass seems to produce the heavier crops. 
 The irrigated ground is let off in small plots or squares for th* 
 season, to the highest bidder. The grass is cut by the tenant as 
 required, so that the annual yield of any particular plot has neve* 
 been accurately ascertained ; but an average crop is considered to b» 
 from 80 to 40 tons per acre, in four cuttings. Tho first cutting 
 takes place at the beginning of April, and the last at the end of 
 September, the let of the ground expiring at 1st October. The 
 time of cutting the intermediate crops depends upon the wants of 
 the tenant. 
 
 "The whole grass is eaten by about 3100 cows — the number previous 
 to the cattle plague — in Edinburgh, Newhaven, Leith, and Portobello ; 
 but after the fourth crop is cut, sheep are turned on some parts of 
 the ground about the beginning of November, and remain for about 
 a fortnight, should the weather be favourable. The sheep do not 
 seem to thrive, however, although the food is plentiful. The grass 
 has been found most suitable for feeding cows — the attempts to ns» 
 it for feeding other «nim»l» having been found not to answer, and-
 
 GRASSKS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 375 
 
 the cost of converting it into hay being proved to be such as to 
 render the process unprofitable. 
 
 "The price paid for the plots varies considerably, the best being 
 known to bring £40 per acre, while others are as low as £15 or £20. 
 Last s.- "sou, owing to the cattle plague, the former high prices could 
 not be obtained. The best land produces the heaviest crop ; but on the 
 Figgate Whins, mere irrigated sand, the first crop is earlier in the 
 season — a matter of such consequence that, although .the annual 
 yield is less, the rent paid for these plots is about as nigh as for the 
 plots producing the heavier crop. The rectal of the Figgate Whins 
 previous to the irrigation was, I have been informed, about 20s. per 
 acre ; while, when irrigated, parts have been let for some years at 
 £40 per acre. The only works having been the levelling of the 
 sandy hillocks and formation of channels for the sewage — neither 
 of them very costly operations — and the annual outlay being small, 
 the increased annual value of that land may be stated at not much 
 less than the difference between the two sums. 
 
 " It might be an interesting speculation to consider how far the 
 cost of the works necessary for collecting and removing the sewage 
 from the district of the city draining towards Craigentinny might 
 have been defrayed by the advance of rent obtained by the disposal 
 of the sewage in irrigating the land along the course of the stream. 
 The cost of the whole sewerage works (including many of the branch 
 drains) constructed within the district in the city which is drained 
 to the Craigentinny Burn, may be stated at £9G,000. Assuming 
 that the annual rent of the 250 acres irrigated was £5 per acre uu 
 an average previous to being laid out for irrigation, while the reut 
 was raised to £25, then the difference, £20 per acre, is the annual 
 value of the irrigation. There being 250 acres, gives £5000 as the 
 return, or upwards of 5 per cent, on the cost of the sewers. 
 
 " The produce of the various irrigated meadows round Edinburgh 
 is sufficient to supply the present demand for grass ; necessitating 
 any further application of the sewage to some other kind of crop, 
 unless a more extensive market is obtained for the grass produced." 
 
 Section 3. — Italian Ryegrass. 
 
 Italian ryegrass can be cultivated over as wide a range 
 of soils and climate as any forage crcp which we possess, 
 and its value for soiling is every day getting to be more 
 generally appreciated.* When first introduced, and indeed 
 until very recently, it was chiefly sown in mixture with 
 other grasses and clovers for pasturage, a purpose to which 
 it is well adapted from its early and rapid growth in spring. 
 Its true function, however, is to produce green food for 
 soiling, for which purpose it is probably unrivalled. It is 
 in connection with the system of irrigation with liquid 
 manure that its astonishing powers have besn most fully 
 developed. - When grown for this purpose it is sown in 
 April, on land that has borne a grain crop after turnips or 
 summer fallow. If sown with a grain crop as thickly as 
 is requisite, it grows to nearly the height of the grain, and 
 both are injured. A liberal dressing of farm-yard dung 
 is spread upon the stubble in autumn, and immediately 
 ploughed in. In the end of March or beginning of April 
 the land is prepared for the seed by being stirred with the 
 grubber and then well harrowed. The Leed, at the rate 
 of 4 bushels per acre, is then sown in the way already 
 described for clover and grass seeds. When the liquid 
 manure system is practised, the crop is watered as soon as 
 the young plants are about an inch high, and so rapid is 
 its growth in favourable circumstances that a cutting of 10 
 tons per acre has in some case3 been obtained six weeks after 
 sowing. When there i3 no provision for supplying liquid 
 manure, a top-dressing of guano, nitrate of soda, soot, or the 
 first two articles mixed, is applied by hand-sowing, care 
 being taken to give this dressing when rain seems at hand 
 or has just fallen. A similar top-dressing is repeated after 
 each cutting, by which means three cuttings are ordinarily 
 obtained from the same space in one season. A very 
 great quantity of stock can thus be supported from a very 
 limited extent of ground. This grass is also found to be 
 very grateful to the palates of horses, cattle, and sheep, 
 which all thrive upon it. Though so very succulent, it 
 does not produce purging in the animals fed upon it. It 
 is peculiarly suitable feeding for milch cows, as appears 
 from the published account at Canning Park. Such results 
 
 as those obtained by Mr Kennedy and others are not to 
 be expected unless under similar conditions ; but on good 
 loauxs, clean and in good heart, and under such treatment as 
 is described at the beginning of this section, as large crops 
 of this grass as of red clover may be reckoned on, with at 
 least equal feeding powers, and with a degree of certainty 
 which the farmer cannot now entertain in regard to the latter 
 crop. If it is regularly mown when the ear begins to show, 
 and care taken never to allow the seed to form, it is 
 fully ascertained that this grass will grow abundantly for 
 a second year, with the advantage of being ready for use very 
 much earlier than in its first season. It is sometimes sown 
 in autumn, but those who have had the fullest experience in 
 its cultivation give a decided preference to spring sowing, 
 either after a grain crop which has followed a green crop 
 or fallow, or at once after turnip3, It is of great import- 
 ance to get fresh and genuine seed. That directly imported 
 from Italy yields the best crop when otherwise goad. As 
 a proof of the fondness of sheep for this grass, it has been 
 observed that when it had been sown in mixture with red 
 clover and cut for hay, sheep, on being turned" Into the 
 aftermath, eat down the Italian ryegrass in preference to 
 the clover. 
 
 Section 4. — Crimson Clover. 
 
 Crimson clover, though not hardy enough to withstand 
 the climate of Scotland in ordinary winters, is a most 
 valuable forage crop in England. It is sown as quickly as 
 possible after the removal of a grain crop at the rate of 18 
 lb to 20 lb per acre. It is found to succeed better when 
 only the surface of the soil is stirred by the scarifier and 
 harrow than when a ploughing is given. It grows rapidly 
 in spring, and yields an abundant crop of green food, 
 peculiarly palatable to live stock. It is also suitable for 
 making into hay. Only one cutting, however, can be 
 obtained, as it does not shoot again after being mown. 
 
 Section 5. — Bed Clover. 
 This plant, either sown alone or in mixture with ryegrass, 
 has for a longtime formed the staple crop for soiling; and 
 so long as it grew freely, its power of shooting up again 
 after repeated mowings, the bulk of crop thus obtained, its 
 palatableness to stock and feeding qualities, the great 
 range of soils and climate in which it grows, and its fitness 
 either for pasturage or soiling, well entitled it to this pre- 
 ference. Except on certain rich calcareous clay soils, it 
 has now, however, become an exceedingly precarious crop. 
 The seed, when genuine, which unfortunately is very often 
 not the case, germinates as freely as ever, and no greater 
 difficulty than heretofore is experienced in having a full 
 plant during autumn and the greater part of winter ; but 
 over most part of the country, the farmer, after having his 
 hopes raised by seeing a thick cover of vigorous-looking 
 clover plants over his field, finds to his dismay, by March 
 or April, that they have either entirely disappeared, or are 
 found only in capricious patches here and there over the 
 field. No satisfactory explanation of this clover failure 
 has yet been given, nor any certain remedy, of a kind to 
 be applied to the soil, discovered. One important fact is, 
 however, now well established, viz., that when the crop- 
 ping of the land is so managed that clover does not 
 recur at shorter intervals than eight years, it grows with 
 much of its pristine vigour The knowledge of this fact 
 now determines many farmers in varying their rotation so 
 as to secure this important end. At one time there was a 
 somewhat prevalent belief that the introduction of beans 
 into the rotation had a specific influence of a beneficial kind 
 on the clover when it came next to be sown ; but the true 
 explanation seems to be, that the beans operate favour- 
 ably only by the incidental circumstance of almost neces-
 
 37G 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [foiuce cuors. 
 
 sarily lengthening the interval betwixt the recurrences of 
 clover. 
 
 When the four-course rotation is followed, no better 
 plan of managing this process has been yet suggested than 
 to sow beans, pease, potatoes, or tares, instead of clover, 
 for ono round, making the rotation one of eight years 
 instead of four. The mechanical condition of the soil 
 seems to have something to do with the success or failure 
 of the clover crop. We havo often noticed that headlands, 
 or the converging line of wheel tracks near a gateway at 
 which the preceding root crop had been carted from a field, 
 have had a good take of clover, when on the field generally 
 it had failed. In the same way a field that has been much 
 poached by sheep while consuming turnips upon it, and 
 which has afterwards been ploughed up in an unkindly 
 state, will have the clover prosper upon it, when it fails 
 in other cases where the soil appears in far better condition. 
 If red clover can be again made a safe crop, it will be a 
 boon indeed to agricultura Its seeds are usually sown 
 along with a grain crop, any time from 1st February to 
 May, at the rate of 12 lb to 20 lb per acre when not com- 
 bined with other clovers or grasses. 
 
 Italian ryegrass and red clover are now frequently sown 
 in mixture for soiling, and succeed admirably. It is, how- 
 ever, a wiser course to sow them separately, as by substi- 
 tuting the Italian ryegrass for clover, for a single rotation, 
 the farmer not only gets a crop of forage as valuable in all 
 respects, but is enabled, if Le choose, to prolong the in- 
 terval betwixt the sowings of clover to twelve years, by 
 sowing, as already recommended, pulse the first round, 
 Italian ryegrass the second', and clover the third. 
 
 These two crops, then, are those on which the arable- 
 land farmer mainly relies for green forage. To have them 
 good, he must be prepared to make a liberal application of 
 manure. Good farm-yard dung may be applied with 
 advantage either in autumn or spring, talcing care to cart 
 it upon the land only when it is dry enough to admit of 
 this being done without injury. It must also be spread 
 very evenly so soon as emptied from the carts. But it is 
 usually more expedient to use either guano, nitrate of soda, 
 or soot, for this purpose, at the rates respectively of 2 cwt, 
 1 cwt., and 20 bushels. If two or more of these substances 
 are used, the quantities of each will be altered in proportion. 
 They are best also to be applied in two or three portions 
 at intervals of fourteen to twenty days, beginning towards 
 the end of December, and only when rain seems imminent 
 or has just fallen. 
 
 When manure is broadcast over a young clover field, 
 and presently after washed in by rain, the effect is identical 
 with that of first dissolving it in water, and then distribut- 
 ing the dilution over the surface, with this difference, 
 namely, that the first plan costs only the price of the guano, 
 &C., and is available at any time and to every one, whereas 
 the latter implies the construction of tanks and costly 
 machinery. 
 
 Section 6. — Vetclies. 
 
 Vetches are another very valuable forage crop. Being 
 indigenous to Britain, and not fastidious in regard to soil, 
 they can be cultivated successfully under a great diversity 
 of circumstances, and are well adapted for poor Boils. By 
 combining the winter and spring varieties, and making 
 several sowings of each in its season at intervals of two 
 or three weeks, it is practicable to have them fit for use 
 from May till October, and thus to carry out a system of 
 soiling by means of vetches alone. But it is usually more 
 expedient to ure them in combination with grass and clover, 
 beginning with the first cutting of the latter in May, 
 taking the winter vetches in June, recurring to the Italian 
 ryegrass or clover as the second cutting is ready, and 
 
 afterwards bringing the spring vetches into use. Each 
 crop can thus be used when in its best state for cattle food, 
 and so as gratefully to vary their dietary. 
 
 Winter Vetches. — There is no botanical difference between 
 winter and spring vetches, and the seeds being identical 
 in appearance, caution is required in purchasing seed to 
 get it of the right sort. Seed grown in England is found 
 the most suitable for sowing in Scotland, as it vegetates 
 more quickly, and produces a more vigorous plant than 
 that which is home-grown. As the great inducement to 
 cultivate this crop is the obtaining of a supply of nutritious 
 green food which shall be ready for use about the 1st May, 
 and so as to fill up the gap which is apt to occur betwixt 
 the root crops of the previous autumn and the ordinary 
 summer food, whether for grazing or soiling, it is of the 
 utmost importance to treat it in such a way that it may 
 be ready for use by the time mentioned. To secure this, 
 winter tares should be sown in August if possible, but 
 always as soon as the land can be cleared of the preceding 
 crop. They may yield a good crop though sown in October, 
 but in this case will probably be very little in advance of 
 early-sown spring vetches, and possess little, if any, advan- 
 tage over them in any respect. The land on which they 
 are sown should be dry and well sheltered, clean, and in 
 good heart, and be further enriched by ploughing into it 
 from 12 to 15 loads of farm-yard manure. Not less than 
 3§ bushels of seed per acre should be sown, to which some 
 think it beneficial to add half a bushel of wheat. Rye is 
 frequently used for this purpose, but it gets reedy in the 
 stems, and is rejected by the stock. Winter beans are 
 better than either. The kind having been ploughed rather 
 deeply, and well harrowed, it is found advantageous to 
 deposit the seed in rows, either by a drilling-machine or 
 by ribbing. The latter is the best practice, and the ribs 
 should be at least a foot apart and rather deep, that the 
 roots may be well developed before top-growth takes place. 
 As soon in spring as the state of the land and weather 
 admits of it, the crop should be hoed betwixt the drills, a 
 top-dressing at the rate of 40 bushels of soot or 2 cwt. of 
 guano per acre applied by sowing broadcast, and the roller 
 then used for the double purpose of smoothing the surface 
 so as to admit of the free use of the scythe, and of pressing 
 down the plants which may have been loosened by frost. 
 It is thus by early sewing, thick seeding, and liberal 
 manuring, that this crop is to be forced to an early and 
 abundant maturity. May and June are the months in 
 which winter vetches are used to advantage. A second 
 growth will be produced from the roots if the crop is 
 allowed to stand ; but it is much better practice to plough 
 up the land as the crop is cleared, and to sow turnips upon 
 it. After a full crop of vetches, land is usually in a good 
 state for a succeeding crop. When the whole process has 
 been well managed, the gross amount of cattle food yielded 
 by a crop of winter vetches, and the turnip crop by which 
 it is followed in the same summer, will be found consider- 
 ably to exceed what could be obtained from the fullest crop 
 of turnips alone, grown on similar soil, and with the same 
 quantity of manure. It is vain to sow this crop where 
 game abounds. 
 
 Spring Vetches, if sown about the 1st of March, will be 
 ready for use by 1st July, when the winter vetches are just 
 cleared off. To obtain tie full benefit of this crop, the 
 land on which it is sown must be clean, and to keep it so 
 a much fuller allowance of seed is required than is usually 
 given in Scotland. When the crop is as thick set as it 
 should be, the tendrils interwine, and the ground is covered 
 by a solid mass of herbage, under which no weed can 
 live. To secure this, not less than 4 bushels of seed per 
 acre should be used if sown broadcast, or 3 bushels if in 
 drills. The latter plan, if followed by hoeing, is certainly
 
 FORAGE CROPS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 :j?7 
 
 the best ; for if the weeds are kept in cneck until the crop 
 is fairly established, they have no chance of getting up 
 afterwards. With a thin crop of vetches, on the other 
 hand, the land is so certain to get foul, that they should at 
 once be ploughed down, and something else put in their 
 place. As vetches are in the best state for use when the 
 seeds begin to form in the pods, repeated sowings are 
 made at intervals of three weeks, beginning by the end of 
 February, or as early in March as the season admits, and 
 continuing till May. The usual practice in Scotland has 
 been to sow vetches on part of the oat break, once ploughed 
 from lea. Sometimes this does very well, but a far better 
 plan is to omit sowing clover and grass seeds on part of 
 the land occupied by wheat or barley after turnips, and 
 having ploughed that portion in the autumn to occupy it 
 with vetches, putting them instead of " seeds " for one 
 revolution of the course. 
 
 When vetches are grown on poor soils, the most pro- 
 fitable way of using them is by folding sheep upon them, 
 a practice very suitable also for clays, upon which a root 
 crop cannot safely be consumed in this way. A different 
 course must, however, be adopted from that followed when 
 turnips are so disposed of. When sheep are turned in 
 upon a piece of tares, a large portion of the food is trodden 
 down and wasted. Cutting the vetches and putting them 
 into racks does not much mend the matter, as much is still 
 pulled out and wasted, and the manure unequally dis- 
 tributed over the land. To avoid those evils, hurdles with 
 vertical spars, betvixt which the sheep can reach with head 
 and neck, are now used. These are set close up to the 
 growing crop along a considerable stretch, and shifted for- 
 ward as the sheep eat up what is within their reach. 
 This requires the constant attention of the shepherd, but 
 the laboul is repaid by the saving of the food, which being 
 always fresh and clean, does the sheep more good. A 
 modification of this plan is to use the same kind of hurdles, 
 but instead of shifting them as just described, to mow a 
 swathe parallel to them, and fork this forward within reach 
 of the sheep as required, repeating this as often during 
 the day as is found necessary, and at night moving the 
 sheep close up to the growing crop, so that they may lie for 
 the next twenty -four hours on the space which has yielded 
 food for the past day. During the night they have such 
 pickings as have been left on the recently-mown space, and 
 so much of the growing crop as they can get at through the 
 spars. There is less labour by this last mode than the 
 other, and having practised it for many years we know 
 chat it answers well. This folding upon vetches is suitable 
 either for finishing off for market sheep that are in forward 
 condition, or for recently-weaned lambs, which, after five 
 or six weeks' folding on this clean, nutritious herbage, are 
 found to take on more readily to eat turnips, and to thrive 
 better upon them, than if they had been kept upon the 
 pastures all the autumn. Sheep folded upon vetches must 
 have water always at command, otherwise they will not 
 prosper. 
 
 As spring-sown vetches are in perfection at the season 
 when pastures usually get dry and scanty, a common 
 practice is to cart them on to grass land and spread them 
 out in wisps, to be eaten by the sheep or cattle. It is, 
 however, much better either to have them eaten by sheep 
 where they grow, or to cart them to the homestead. 
 
 Section 7. — Beans. 
 
 The common field bean has not hitherto been recog- 
 nised as an available forage plant. Mr Mechi Has, we 
 believe, the merit of first showing its great value for this 
 purpose. In the hot dry summer of 1868, when pastures 
 utterly failed, and men were at their wits' end how to keep 
 their stock in life, he had recourse to his bean crop, then at 
 
 its full growth, and its green pods filled with soft pulse. 
 His plan of using it was, to mow the needed quantity 
 daily, pas3 it through a chaff-cutter, and then send it out 
 in troughs to his sheep in their pastures, and to his cattle 
 in their stalls. The quantity of green food per acre yielded 
 by a full crop of beans when used in this way is very great, 
 and probably exceeds that of any other crop we grow. As 
 Mr Mechi observed, on first announcing his practice, " no 
 farmer need to be at a loss for food for his live stock who 
 has a crop of beans at command." We know that many 
 farmers availed themselves of this seasonable hint with 
 the very best results. That pre-eminently successful 
 grazier, Mr William M'Combie, M.P., Tillyfour, has, in his 
 instructive pamphlet, shown how useful it is to have a 
 few acres of mixed beans, peas, and tares ready to give to 
 cattle in forward condition in the month of August, by 
 laying down to them daily on their pastures a supply of 
 this very palatable and nourishing forage. By this ex- 
 pedient they make rapid progress at a season when they 
 would lose the condition they had already gained if left 
 dependent on the then failing pasturage. We can testify 
 from experience that we never have our cattle make such 
 rapid progress on any kind of food as when thus supplied 
 with green pulse on autumn pastures. 
 
 Section 8. — Mustard. 
 
 After a crop of vetches has been consumed, if the season 
 is too far advanced to admit of turnips being sown, it ia 
 not unusual to take a crop of white mustard or crimson 
 clover. 
 
 By means of the crops now enumerated, the practice of 
 soiling can be carried out in all cases where it is practicable. 
 
 There are other valuable crops of this kind, several of 
 which we shall now describe ; but their culture is either 
 limited by their requirements in regard to soil and climate, 
 or attended with too great expense to admit of their com- 
 peting with those already described. 
 
 Section 9. — Sainfoin. 
 
 This very important forage plant would be well entitled 
 to a more . prominent place in our list but for the circum- 
 stance that it is only on dry calcareous soils that its 
 excellences are fully developed ; and to these, accordingly, 
 its culture may be said to be confined. In all the chalk 
 districts of England sainfoin occupies an important place 
 in the rotation of crops.- Referring to the chalky downs 
 round Dsley in Berks, Mr Caird says : — " About a tenth 
 part of the land is kept under sainfoin, in which it remains 
 for four years, being each year cut for hay, of which it 
 gives an excellent crop. A farmer having 40 acres of 
 sainfoin sows out 10 acres and breaks up 10 acres 
 annually. This goes regularly over the whole farm, the 
 sainfoin not returning on the same field for considerable 
 intervals, and when its turn comes round the field receives 
 a rest of four years from the routine of cultivation. It 
 is then ploughed up in spring, and sown with oats on 
 one furrow, the crop of which is generally excellent, as 
 much as 80 bushels an acre not being uncommon." 1 The 
 seed, at the rate of 4 bushels per acre, is drilled in 
 immediately after barley or oats has been sown, working 
 the drill at right angles to its course when it deposited the 
 grain. It is frequently pastured for one or more years 
 before being mown either for green forage or for hay. It 
 is sometimes allowed to stand for eight or ten years, but 
 the plan described in the above quotation is the more 
 approved one. A variety called giant sainfoin has been 
 introduced by Mr Hart of Ashwell, Herts. As compared 
 with the common sort it is more rapid in its growth in 
 
 1 Caird's Ewjlish Ayrictdlvtc, p. 11C
 
 378 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [rOKJLOB CIIO 11 
 
 spring, and still more so after the first and second cuttings. 
 Three cuttings for hay, and one of these ripening the seed, 
 have been yielded by it in one year, and a good eddish 
 after all. Tho yield from it in the first year after sowing 
 is largo in comparison with the common Bainfoin, from its 
 attaininc maturity much sooner ; but for the same reason 
 it is thought judicious to break it up after three years, 
 whilo still in vigour. 
 
 Section 10. — Lucerne. 
 Lucerne is much cultivated as a forago crop in France 
 and other parts of the continent of Europe, but ha3 never 
 come into geueral use in Britain. It is, however, frequently 
 met with in small patches in districts where the soil is 
 very light, with a dry subsoil. Its thick tap-roots penetrate 
 very deeply into the soil ; and if a good cover is once 
 obtained, the plants will continue to yield abundant cuttings 
 of herbage for eight or ten years, provided they are statedly 
 top-dressed and kept free from perennial weeds. In 
 cultivating lucerne, the ground must first be thoroughly 
 cluaued, and put into good heart by consuming a turnip 
 crop upon it with sheep. In March or April, the surface- 
 soil having first been brought to a fine tilth, the seed, at 
 the rate of 10 lb per acre, is sown in rows 15 to 18 
 inches apart. As suon as the plants appear they must be 
 freed from weeds by careful hoeing and hand-weeding, 
 repeated as occasion requires. Little produce is obtained 
 from them the first season, and not a very heavy cutting 
 the second; but by the third year two or more abundant crops 
 of herbage will be produced, peculiarly suitable for horse- 
 feed. It is the slow growth of the plants at first, and the 
 difficulty of keeping them free from weeds on those dry 
 soils which alone are adapted for growing lucerne, that 
 have deterred farmers from growing it more extensively 
 than has hitherto been done. We have grown it success- 
 fully in Berwickshire on a muiry soil resting on sandstone 
 rock, in an exposed situation, at an elevation of 400 feet 
 The time to cut it is, as with clover and sainfoin, when it 
 is in full flower. 
 
 Section 11. — Chicory, <tc. 
 
 Chicory, burnet, cow-parsnip, and prickly comfrey, all 
 known to be palatable to cattle and yielding a large bulk 
 of produce, have probably been less carefully experimented 
 with than their merits deserve. Although they have long, 
 figured in such notices as the present, or in occasional 
 paragraphs in agricultural periodicals, they have never yet, 
 that we are aware of, been subjected to such a trial as 
 either conclusively to establish their claim to more extended 
 culture, or to justify the neglect which they have hitherto 
 experienced. 
 
 Section 12. — Gorse or Whin. 
 
 Notwithstanding its formidable spines, the young shoots 
 of this hardy evergreen yield a palatable and nutritious 
 winter forage for horses and cattle. To fit it for this 
 purpose it must be chopped and bruised to destroy the 
 spines. This is sometimes done in a primitive and laborious 
 way by laying the gorse upon a block of wood and beating 
 it with a mallet, flat at one end and armed with crossed 
 knife-edges at the other, by the alternate use of which it 
 is bruised and chopped. There are now a variety of 
 machines by which this is done rapidly and efficiently, and 
 which are in use where this kind of forage is used to any 
 extent. The agricultural value of this plant has often been 
 over-rated by theoretical writers. In the case of very poor, 
 dry soils, it does, however, yield much valuable food at a 
 Beason when green forage is not otherwise to be had. It 
 is on thus account of importance' to dairymen ; and to 
 them it ha,* this further recommendatiou, that cows fed 
 
 upon it give much rich milk, which is free from any 
 unpleasant flavour. To turn it to good account, it must 
 be sown in drills, kept clean by hoeing, and treated as a 
 regular green crop. If sown in March, on land fitly pro- 
 pared and afterwards duly cared for, it is ready for use 
 in the autumn of the following year. A succession of 
 cuttings of proper age is obtained for several years from 
 the same field. It is cut by a short stout scythe, and must 
 be brought from the field daily ; for when put in a heap 
 after being chopped and bruised it heats rapidly. It is 
 given to horses and cows in combination with chopped 
 hay or straw. An acre will produce about 2000 faggota 
 of green two-year-old gorse, weighing 20 lb each. 
 
 This plant is invaluable in mountain sheep-walks. The 
 rounded form of the furze bushes that are met with in 
 such situations shows how diligently the annual growth, 
 as far as it is accessible, is nibbled by the sheep. The 
 food and shelter afforded to them in snow-storms by 
 clusters of such bushes is of such importance that the 
 wonder is our sheep fanners do not bestow more pains to 
 have it in adequate quantity. Young plants of whin are 
 so kept down by the sheep that they can seldom attain to 
 a profitable size unless protected by a fence for a few years. 
 
 Section 13. — Tussac Grass. 
 
 The tussac grass of tho Falkland Islands has of late 
 years attracted considerable attention as a forago plant. 
 From its gigantic growth, even in thoso imgcuial regions, 
 and the extraordinary relish manifested for it by horses 
 and cattle, sanguine hopes were entertained that it was to 
 prove a truly valuable addition to our present list of -forage 
 plants ; but the attempts hitherto made to introduce it hi 
 Britain have not been of a very encouraging kind The 
 only successful cases have been in tho Orkneys and in 
 Lewis. Messrs Lawson of Edinburgh, who have given 
 much attention to it, say — " Our own experience leads to 
 the conclusion, that localities within influence of the sea 
 spray, the soil being of a peaty nature, are without doubt 
 the best adapted for the growth of tho tussac; and in such 
 places it is likely to be of great service, as few other 
 nutritive grasses will • exist there. In our own experi- 
 mental grounds it does not thrive well; which may 
 perhaps be accounted for by the nature of the soil, which 
 is light and dry. Regarding its value as a forage plant, 
 we have before us an analysis made, at our request, by 
 Professor Johnston, the results of which show that ' the 
 tussac grass ought to be very nutritive.' Propagation, in 
 the absence of seed, is easily effected, under favourable 
 circumstances, by subdivision of the routs." 
 
 We have thus noticed all the more important of our 
 forage crops of ascertained value. Additions will probably 
 be made to them from time to time., especially from the 
 increased attention now bestowed on green crops of all 
 kinds. It has lately been suggested thai maize and also 
 lupins, although unfit for our climate as grain crops, might 
 with advantage be tried as forage plants. Both are 
 successfully grown for this purpose in Germany. Being 
 unable to withstand frost, they should be sown not earlier 
 than May. The maize requires a deep rich soil; the 
 lupins again are said to do best on light siliceous soils. 
 Both should be sown in rows 15 to 18 inches apart, and 
 seeded at the rate of 2 bushels per acre. A trial which 
 we made with lupins (both the blue and the yellow sorts) 
 in 1858, on a light moorland, proved a total failure. 
 
 Section 14. — Haymaking. 
 
 Having spoken of the cultivation and use in a green 
 state of herbage and forage crops, it remains to describe 
 the process by which they are preserved for use in a dry 
 state, or made into hay. On every farm a supply of good
 
 n <v.j 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 371. 
 
 hay, adeqnate to tuc wants 01 its own live stock, is, or at 
 least ought to be, statedly provided. This is no doubt 
 an expensive kind of food, but on the other hand it is 
 highly nutritious, and conduces much to the healthfulness 
 of the animals fed upon it. Many a valuable farm horse 
 is annually sacrificed to a false economy in feeding him 
 solely on innutritious straw or ill-gotten hay. The 
 owners of such stock would do well to consider that the 
 death of a horse yearly, and the impaired health and 
 condition of the whole stud, more than counterbalance 
 any saving that can be effected by using bad fodder instead 
 of good. But the great consumption of hay is by the 
 numerous horses constantly required in this country for 
 other purposes than farm labour. In the vicinity of towns 
 hay is therefore a staple agricultural product, and hay- 
 making an important branch of rural economy. It is one 
 in the practice of which English farmers generally excel 
 their brethren north of the Tweed. In the counties near 
 the metropolis, in particular, this process is conducted with 
 admirable skill 
 
 In converting the grasses and forage plants into hay, 
 the object is to get quit of the water which they contain, 
 amounting to nearly two-thirds of their weight, with the 
 least possible loss of their nutritive qualities. In order to 
 this the crops must be mown at that stage of their growth 
 when the greatest weight of produce with the maximum of 
 nutritive value can be obtained ; and then it is necessary 
 jo to conduct the drying process that the inspissated juices 
 shall not be washed out and lost by external wetting. A 
 simple and sufficiently accurate rule for determining the 
 first point is to mow" when the plants are in full flower. If 
 this stage is exceeded, both the quality of the hay and the 
 amount of the foggage or aftermath are seriously impaired. 
 It follows from this that mowing should be commenced 
 somewhat earlier than the stage indicated, otherwise, before 
 the whole can be cut the last portion will have exceeded 
 the proper degree of ripeness. By cutting a part too soon 
 a slight loss of weight is incurred, which, however, is 
 compensated for by a better aftermath; whereas if part is 
 allowed to mature the seeds, there is a loss of weight, 
 quality, and aftermath. Haymaking, to be done well, must 
 be done quickly, and in order to this a full supply of 
 labourers is indispensable. As a good mower can cut on 
 an average an acre in a day, as many must be engaged as 
 can overtake the extent of crop while it is in the best state 
 for cutting. It is of great importance, too, to have the 
 grass cut close to the ground. A loss of from 5 to 10 
 per cent, on the gross produce is frequently incurred by 
 unskilful or careless mowers leaving the sward too high. 
 Now that efficient mowing-machines can be had, this work 
 can be performed with a celerity and accuracy hitherto 
 unattainable. To admit of accurate and expeditious mow- 
 ing, whether by scythe or machine, care must be taken, at 
 the proper season, to remove all stones and other obstruc- 
 tions, and to .make the surface smooth by rolling. 
 
 Confining our attention, in the first place, to natural 
 meadow grass, let us glance at the process a<3 Conducted by 
 those who are most proficient in it. The mowers having 
 commenced their work at sunrise, the haymakers, in the 
 proportion of two men and three women to each mower, so 
 soon as the dew is off, shake out the swathes evenly over 
 the whole ground, until they have overtaken as much as 
 they can get into cocks the same day. This quantity they 
 now turn and toss about as frequently as possible, getting 
 it, before evening, either into a compact windrow, or 
 forming it into very small cocks. Next day these cocks 
 are again opened out, and as much more of the grass in 
 swathe as can be overtaken, all of which is anew subjected 
 to the same repeated turnings, and again, as evening 
 approaches, secured from dew and rain by windrowing 
 
 and cocking ; that which is driest being put into large! 
 cocks than on the previous day. If the weather is hot and 
 parching, that which was first cut is by the fourth da^ 
 ready for the stack, and is immediately carried. A large 
 rick-cloth is drawn over the incipient stack until more hay 
 is in condition to be added to it, and then, if weatheJ 
 favour, the whole process, from mowing to stacking, for a 
 time goes on simultaneously, and is speedily completed. 
 As the building of the stack proceeds, its sides arc. by 
 pulling, freed from loose hay, and straightened ; and when 
 completed it is thatched with the least possible delay. If 
 the weather prove showery, the grass is left untouched in 
 the swathe until it begins to get yellow on the under side, 
 in which case it is usually turned over without opening out 
 until weather again favour. To produce fine hay, care 
 must be taken to secure from dew or rain by cocking 
 before nightfall all that has been spread out during the 
 day — never to touch it until dew or wet is off — to shake 
 all out so thoroughly as that the whole may be dried alike 
 — and never to suffer it, after being tedded out, to lie so 
 long as to get scorched on one side. When these operations 
 are conducted successfully, the hay is of a fine light-green 
 colour, delightfully fragrant, and retains its nutritious 
 matter unimpaired. To accomplish this in our variable 
 climate much skill and energy, and" an ample command 
 of labour, are necessary 
 
 The cost and labour of this process are now, indeed, 
 much reduced by the use of machinery, consisting of 
 mower, tedder, and rake, by means of which a man and 
 pair, of horses can do the work of ten scytbemeu, and 
 another man and horse can toss, turn, and draw into 
 windrows as much grass as could be overtaken in the 
 same time by fifteen people. The hay-tedder, moreover, 
 shakes out the grass more thoroughly than it can be dona 
 by hand. After the hay is gathered into rows, horse labour 
 is also sometimes employed to collect it into heaps by 
 means of a sweep, that is, a piece of plank with a rope 
 attached to each end of it, by which a horse draws it 
 along on edge, whire two lads hold it down, and the hay is 
 thus pushed forward in successive portions, which are 
 then by hand labour made into orderly cocks. The yield 
 of meadow hay ranges from 1 to 2 tons per acre, and the 
 cost of making it is about 10s. per ton. In London hay 
 is brought to market in -trusses, each weighing 5G lb, 
 36 of which are called a load. In cutting up a stack 
 these trusses are removed from it in compact cubes, which 
 are then neatly secured by bands of twisted hay. 
 
 In converting the cultivated forage crops, such as clover 
 (either pure or mixed with ryegrass), sainfoin, lucerne, or 
 vetches, into hay, the procedure varies considerably from 
 that pursued with the natural grasses. A considerable 
 part of these plants consists of broad tender leaves, which, 
 when scorched by the sun, become so dry and brittle that, 
 on the least rough handling, they fly into dust, aud are 
 totally lost. These crops, therefore, do not admit of being 
 shaken asunder and tossed about like the natural grasses, 
 a circumstance which unfortunately forbids the use of 
 the tedding-machine in getting them. The swathes are 
 accordingly left untouched until tbey have got slightly 
 withered on the upper side, after which they are turned 
 several times with as little breaking up as possible ; made 
 up first into small cocks, opened out again, gently turned, 
 and made into larger cocks, which as speedily as possible 
 are carried and stacked. These crops can be stacked with 
 safety in a very green state by mixing with them frequent 
 layers of clean dry straw, by which the redundant juices 
 are absorbed, and injurious heating prevented. The straw 
 thus impregnated acquires a flavour which renders it palat- 
 able to cattle ; but it is advisable, when this practice is 
 adopted, to cut the whole into chaff before using it as fodder.
 
 380 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [klax. 
 
 When it is desired to save the seeds of Italian or 
 common ryegrass, the crop, after being mown, is allowed to 
 lie for a day or two in swathe, and is then neatly gathered 
 into sheaves, bound, and stocked, precisely like a crop of 
 oats. When sufficiently dried, the seed is either thrashed 
 out in the field, the straw stacked like other hay, and the 
 seed spread thinly over a granary floor, and turned several 
 times daily until it is dry enough to keep in a bin or 
 in sacks ; or the sheaves are built into small round stacks, 
 which stand until the seed is wanted, when it is thrashed 
 out by machinery like grain. 
 
 Of late years we have frequently secured considerable 
 quantities of useful hay by mowing seeds that had been 
 pastured by sheep in the early part of the season. In July 
 we run the mowing-machines over such fields, taking care 
 to set the cutting-bar high enough to leave the fresh-grown 
 herbage untouched, and to remove only that of older and 
 taller growth. The mown sturf is left untouched for two 
 or three days ; is then drawn together by the horse rake, 
 and put into cocks for a short time, or carted at once to 
 the rick-yard as weather permits. In this way much 
 herbage that would otherwise go to waste is converted 
 into useful winter fodder, and a fresh-grown clean pasture 
 secured for lambs or other stock. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 CULTIVATED CROPS — CROPS OF LIMITED CULTIVATION. 
 
 Under this head we shall notice a variety of crops which, 
 however valuable in themselves, and important to the 
 farmers of particular localities, are, from one cause or other, 
 toot adapted for general cultivation. 
 
 Section 1. — Flam. 
 
 Flax is~probably the most important of these crops. In- 
 deed, from the rapid growth of our linen trade, the growing 
 demand for linseed and its products, and the fitness of the 
 Boil and climate for the successful growth of flax, it is not 
 without cause that its more extended cultivation has been 
 so strenuously urged upon our farmers, and that influential 
 societies have been organised for the express purpose of 
 promoting this object. Viewed merely as an agricultural 
 crop, the cultivation of flax is exceedingly simple, and 
 could be practised as readily and extensively as that of the 
 cereal crops. The difficulty is, that before it can be 
 disposed of to any advantage, it must undergo a process of 
 partial manufacture ; thus there i3 required not only an 
 abundant supply of cheap labour, but such an amount of 
 skill and personal superintendence on the part of the farmer 
 as is incompatible with duo attention to corn and cattle 
 husbandry. If a ready and remunerative market were 
 available for the fibre in its simple form of flax straw, this, 
 in combination with the value of the seed for cattle feeding, 
 would at once hold out sufficient motive to our farmers to 
 grow it statedly and to any required extent. Until this 
 is the case, its culture cannot extend in the corn-growing 
 districts of Great Britain. In Ireland and parts of the 
 Highlands of Scotland, where there is a redundant popula- 
 tion much in want of such employment as the flax crop 
 furnishes, and where the climate is suited for its growth, 
 it is highly desirable that its culture should extend, and 
 probable that it will do so. Flax prospers most when 
 grown upon land of firm texture resting upon a moist 
 subsoil. It does well to succeed oats or potatoes, as it 
 requires the soil to be in fresh condition without being too 
 rich. Lands newly broken up from pasture suit it well, as 
 these are generally freer from weeds than those that have 
 been long under tillage. It is usually inexpedient to apply 
 manure dirictly to the flax crop, as the tendency of this is 
 to produce over-luxuriance, nod thereby to mar the quality 
 
 ot the fibre, on which its value chiefly depends. For the 
 same reason it must be thickly seeded, the etfect of this 
 being to produce tall slender stems, free from branches. 
 The land having Iwe'u ploughed in autumn, is prepared for 
 sowing by working it with the grubber, harrow, and roller, 
 until a fine tilth is obtained. On the smooth surface the 
 seed is sown broadcast by hand or machine, at the rate of 
 3 bushels per acre, and covered in the same manner as 
 clover seeds. It is advisable immediately to hand-rake it 
 with common hay-rakes, and thus to remove all stones and 
 clods, and to secure a uniform close cover of plants. 
 When these are about 3 inches long the crop must be 
 carefully hand-weeded. This is a tedious and expensive 
 process, and hence the importance of sowing the crop on 
 land as free as possible from weeds of all kinds. To obtain 
 flax of the very finest quality the crop must be pulled as 
 soon as the flowers fall, but in the improved medss of 
 steeping, whether by Schenck's or Watt's patent, the value 
 of the fibre is not diminished by allowing the seeds to 
 mature. It must not, however, be allowed to become dead 
 ripe, but should be pulled whenever the seeds appear, on 
 opening the capsule, to be slightly brown-coloured. The 
 pulling requires to be managed with much care. It is 
 performed by men or women, who seize a small quantity 
 with both hands and pull it by a slight jerking effort. The 
 important point to be attended to is to keep the butts even 
 as successive quantities are seized and twitched from the 
 ground. When a convenient handful has been pulled it is 
 laid on the ground, and the next parallel to it at a foot or 
 so apart. The next handfuls are laid across these, and so 
 on until a small pile is made, af ter which another is begun. 
 After lying in this position for a few days, the seed-vessels 
 or bolls are separated from the flax by lifting each handful 
 separately and pulling the top through a ripple or iron 
 comb fixed upon a piece of plank. As many of these 
 handfuls as will make a small sheaf are then laid very 
 evenly together, and bound near both ends with bands 
 formed of a few stems of flax. These sheaves are set up 
 in stooks, and when dry enough to keep without heating 
 are stacked and thatched until an opportunity occurs of 
 disposing of the flax straw. Sometimes the flax is bound 
 into sheaves and stooked as it is pulled, and treated exactly 
 like a grain crop. In this case the seed is separated from 
 the straw by passing the head of each sheaf between iron 
 rollers. The only objection to this plan is that the bolls of 
 separate sheaves get so entangled in each other as to render 
 it exceedingly difficult to handle them in carrying the crop, 
 and in building and taking down the stacks, without dis- 
 arranging the sheaves and wasting much straw and seed. 
 
 It would be tedious to enter here into a minute detail of 
 the ordinary method of separating the flax fibre from the 
 woody part of the Etem. Suffice it to say that in the 
 ordinary practice the sheaves or beets of flax straw are 
 immersed in a pit or pool filled with clear soft water. The 
 sheaves are kept under water by laying boards upon them 
 loaded with stones to keep them down. K;ire the flax 
 undergoes a process of fermentation by which the parts are 
 separated. About nine or ten days are usually required for 
 this purpose, but this is much influenced by the temperature. 
 A good deal of skill and close watching is required to know 
 exactly when it has been watered enough. The flax is now- 
 taken from the pit and evenly spread upon a smooth, clean, 
 recently-mown meadow, where it lies for. about ten days 
 more, receiving several turnings the while. When the 
 retting, as this is called, is perfected, the flax is carefully 
 gathered up when perfectly dry, and again tied into sheaves, 
 in which state it is stored under cover until the breaking 
 and scutching can be overtaken. 
 
 All this necessarily requirtc much skilful watchiftg and 
 nice manipulation, — more, as we have already said, than is
 
 HOPS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 381 
 
 compatible with the othe"r avocations ot an extensive fanner. 
 There are, however, improved modes of accomplishing this 
 preliminary manufacture of flax which, wherever estab- 
 lished, pave the way for the growth of flax as an ordinary 
 field crop. For these see article Flax. 
 
 The extent of flax cultivation in Ireland is considerable, 
 but the acreage has been gradually diminishing during 
 late years. In 1864 it reached the maximum, 301,693 
 acres; next year it fell to 251,433. Since 1869 it has 
 steadily declined, there being 229,252 acres in flax crop 
 that year, and only 122,003 in 1872. 
 
 Hemp, although at one time very generally grown in 
 Great Britain, is now so rarely met with that it is unneces- 
 sary to enter into details of its cultivation. 
 
 Section 2. — Hops. 
 
 The hop is an important crop in several of the southern 
 counties of England. Although an indigenous plant, it 
 was originally brought into England for cultivation from 
 Flanders in 1525. It is cultivated to a considerable extent 
 in Belgium, Bavaria, in the United States of America, and 
 more recently in Australia. Hops, as is well known, are 
 chiefly used for preserving and imparting a peculiar flavour 
 to beer. Probably the only parts of the hop flower which 
 enter into the composition of the beer are the seeds, and 
 tne yellow glutinous matter which surrounds the outer in- 
 teguments of the seed, and lies' at the bottom of the petals. 
 This yellow matter (technically termed the condition of the 
 hop) has an intensely bitter taste, and emits a peculiar and 
 very agreeabla aroma, which, however, is extremely volatile ; 
 and hence tie necessity for close packing as soon as possible 
 after the hops are dried. When kept over a year, much 
 of this aroma flies off, and hence new hops are indispensable 
 in brewing the first kinds of beer. Several varieties of the 
 hop are cultivated in England. Of these, the Farnham 
 and Canterbury whitebines and goldings are esteemed 
 the finest These are tall varieties, requiring poles of 
 from 14 to 20 feet. The grapes, so called from grow- 
 ing in clusters, and of which there are several varieties 
 of various quality, require poles from 10 to 14 feet long. 
 Jones's, adapted .for lighter and inferior land, requires 
 these but 8 to 10 feet. The colegates are a hardy and 
 late-ripening variety, which grow best on stiff soils ; and 
 the Flemish redbine, only cultivated from its less liability 
 than the other to be attacked by the aphis or black blight. 
 
 The hop is a very exhausting crop for the land, requir- 
 ing to be planted only on the most fertile soils, and to have 
 them sustained by freq lent and large dressings of manure 
 rich in , nitrogen. Hops are principally cultivated in the 
 counties of Kent, Sussex, Surrey, Hants, Worcester, and 
 Hereford, and to a more limited extent in Essex, Suffolk, 
 and Nottingham. The best quality of Jiops are grown at 
 Farnham in Kent, upon the outcrop of the upper greensand 
 formation, from whence the phosphatic nodules or coprolites 
 now so well known in the manure market are obtained. 
 fn 1871 the land under hop cultivation in Great Britain 
 measured 60,030 acres; in 1872 it amounted to 61,927 
 acres, of which there were in Kent 37)927, in Sussex 9738, 
 and in Hereford 6106 acres. 
 
 In forming a new plantation, the ground soon after Michaelmas 
 is trenched to the depth of 18 inches, if it has previously been 
 in meadow or old pasture, taking care not to bury the surface-soil 
 above half that depth. Subsoil-ploughing will suffice with land 
 that is in tillage. If the land is wet, drains are .made from 4 to 
 6 feet deep, laid with pipes, and a foot of broken Stones over them, 
 to prevent the roots of the hops from obstructing the pipes. The 
 distance between the drains is determined by the necessities of each 
 case. Perfect draining is essential to the success of the crop ; and the 
 hops are planted in squares or triangles at equal distances, varying 
 from 6 to 7 feet, according to the fertility of the soil and the 
 greater or less luxuriant habit of growth of* the variety selected. 
 The plants ore raised by cutting off the layers or shoots of the pre- 
 
 ceding year, which are beddtd ont during the month of March in 
 ground previously prepared; and in the succeeding autumn become 
 what are callsd nursery plants or bedded sets. Early in No /ember 
 these are planted, one, two, or three being used for a hill according 
 to the strength of the plants. Care must be taken to introduce a 
 sufficient number of male plants, six hills to the acre being deemed 
 sufficient The presence of these is found to induce earlier matu- 
 rity, and to improve both the quality and weight of the crops. 
 The ground must at all times be kept free from weeds and have a 
 good depth of pulverised soil. From the first, a stick, 6 feet high 
 or so, is placed to each hill, to which all the young bines, as they 
 shoot out during summer, must be tied. A liberal dressing ol 
 superphosphate of lime and guano is in June hoed in around each 
 hu\ which is repeated in July, under which treatment 2 or 3 cwt 
 of hops is obtained the first year, in addition to a crop of mangolds, 
 turnips, or potatoes, grown in the intervals between the hills. On 
 newly broken up ground lime is applied the following spring. 
 When a plantation has been established, the annual routine ol 
 culture begins in autumn, as soon as the crop has been gathered, 
 when the haulm is stripped from the poles, and stored away as a 
 substitute for straw. The poles are stacked or piled in quantities 
 of 400 or 500, at regular distances on the ground. During winter 
 _they are sorted and repointtd when required, and new ones substi- 
 tuted for those that are broken or decayed ; this work and the 
 carrying on of manure being accomplished in frosty weather. The 
 ground is dug over by the fork at this season. In March the earth 
 is removed from the plants by a beck or pronged hoe till the crown 
 is exposed, that the plant may be pruned. Immediately after this 
 the poles are set the length and number of these for each hit' 
 depending upon the kind of hops and amount of growth anticipated. 
 They are fixed into holes made for them by a hop-bar. As the 
 season advances, the ground is hoed and again dug or stirred by a 
 nidget or scarifier drawn by a horse. Early in May the bines or 
 young shoots, as soon as long enough, are tied to the poles with 
 rushes pv bast. This tying is repeated several times as the bines 
 get higher, and has even to be done by step-ladders. In June the 
 hops are earthed up or hilled, at which time weak plants get a 
 dressing of guano. Throughout th i summer weeds are destroyed as 
 they appear, and the soil kept loose by the nidget or the hand-hoe. Ii 
 poles are blown over by high winds, they are immediately replaced. 
 The picking' of the hops usually begins about the second week in 
 September, and furnishes ample employment for several weeks to 
 the entire population of the districts, and to a large influx of 
 strangers ; men, women, and children all engaging in it. The 
 hop-pickers axe arranged into companies, and are supplied with 
 baskets or bins, holding 7 or 8 bushels each, which are gauged 
 with black lines inside to save the trouble of measuring. Each 
 company is under the superintendence of a hop-bailiff, who keeps an 
 account of the earnings, &c. Under him are several men called 
 
 Eole-pullers, whose duty it is to supply the pickers with poles of 
 ops, and to assist in carrying the picked hops to the carts. They 
 use an iron lever called a hop-dog in pulling up the poles. The 
 hops are picked, one by one, into the bins, care being taken that no 
 bunches, nor leaves, nor mouldy hops, are included. The hops are 
 dried in kilns or oast-houses, on floors of haircloth. Great improve- 
 ments have been made of late years in the construction of these oasts. 
 Much nice discrimination is req aired in managing the drying so as 
 to produce the best quality of hops. As soon as they are removed 
 from the kiln they are packed into pockets, which during the 
 process are suspended from a hole in' the floor, and the hops trodden 
 into them by a man. This is now done more accurately by 
 machines, in which a piston presses the hops into the pockets. 
 Hop-growing is a hazardous speculative business, the return at times 
 being very great and at other times not covering expenses. This 
 arises from the liability of the hop to the attacks of insects, but more 
 especially to blight and mould. The blight is caused by innumer- 
 able hordes of the Aphis humuli, which sometimes destroy the plants 
 altogether. The mould is a parasitical fungus. It is believed that 
 a means has at last been discovered of checking the ravage! of these 
 assailants, by enveloping each plant separately in a light covering, 
 and subjecting it to the fumes of tobacco in the case of blight, anoj 
 to a cloud of powdered brimstone in the case of mildew. In blight 
 years it usually happens that some grounds altogether escape, in 
 which case the returns from them are enormous, owing to the 
 enhanced price. 
 
 Section 3. — Sugar-Beet. 
 
 The Silesian white beet has long been cultivated in 
 various states of continental Europe for the production of 
 sugar, and in several of them is now a staple product of 
 very great value and importance. After sevaral abortive 
 ■ attempts to introduce this industry into our own country, it 
 seems at last to have obtained a firm footing in England, 
 through the enterprise and \ erseverance of Mr James
 
 ;;s2 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [SUGAR-BEKT 
 
 Duncan, sugar-refiner, of Mincing Lane, London, who five 
 years ago erected the necessary buildings and machinery 
 at Lavenham, in Suffolk. Through the kindness of Mr 
 Duncan we are enabled to submit to our readers the follow- 
 ing details regarding this most interesting enterprise. 
 
 The sugar factory at Lavenham was erected in 1868, 
 although not completed until February 1869. Mr Duncan 
 had first of all contracted with various farmers in that 
 neighbourhood to grow beet for him at the price of 20s. 
 per ton of clean roots, delivered at his factory, with the 
 option to the growers of receiving back the resulting pulp 
 at 12s. per ton, if removed as made. Mr Duncan also 
 procured from the continent the necessary supplies of 
 seed of the best sort, and furnished the growers with in- 
 structions as to the proper mode of cultivation. In grow- 
 ing mangolds farmers try to grow the largest possible weight 
 per acre, and for this purpose they manure heavily, and 
 give the individual plants ample space. This will not do in 
 the case ef sugar-beet, as it is found that small roots are 
 richest in sugar, and that 2 \ lb each is the best size to 
 aim at The endeavour, therefore, must be to have the 
 roots small individually, and yet to secure a good weight 
 per acre. As the part of the bulb that grows above ground 
 contains very little sugar, a further object is to have as 
 little of it exposed to light as possible. All this is accom- 
 plished by sowing the crop in rows about 16 inches apart, 
 and leaving the plants close to each other. If all is well 
 managed, the crop should yield from 15 to 20 tons of 
 cleaned roots per acre. The delivery of the roots at the 
 factory begins about the end of September, when they are 
 carted direct from the field as they are pulled. The exi- 
 gences of wheat-sowing and othor field labour at that 
 season induce the growers to store a considerable part of 
 their beet crop at home, and to deliver it at the factory 
 from time to time as they can overtake this heavy cartage. 
 The roots lose weight rapidly when kept in clamps, to 
 cover which a little extra price is given as the season 
 advances. The convenience of the growers is much fur- 
 thered by this arrangement ; but it sometimes results in 
 irregular supplies, and consequent loss to the manufacturer. 
 
 Owing to the extreme drought of 1868 the beet was 
 late in being sown, and the crop was small, amounting 
 only to 1200 tons; but it was exceedingly rich in sugar. 
 The following season was moist, and the yield per acre good, 
 but the area under crop wa3 small, and the total quantity 
 delivered at the factory about 3000 tons. The year 1870 
 was again an extremely hot and dry one, with a gross 
 produce of 4500 tons, which yielded 12 per cent, of syrup. 
 The produce in 1871 was 6000 tons, yielding 10 per 
 cent, of syrup, and that of 1872 exceeded 7000 tons of 
 very good roots ; but the wetness of the season and strikes 
 among the labourers so protracted the factory work, that 
 instead of being completed in December it was prolonged 
 until March, and the percentage of sugar was smaller than 
 it ought to have been. The particulars of this last crop 
 are as follows. The total weight of clean roots ffom 571 
 acres was — 
 
 Delivered fresh from the fields, 2370 tons. 
 
 Clamped by growers at their farms, 6485 ,, 
 
 Of the S71 acres, 89 
 115 
 
 by 
 
 by 
 61 by 
 211 
 
 7855 „ 
 2 growers averaged 17 tons per acre. 
 
 147 
 10 
 S3 
 18 
 15 
 62 
 
 •by 26 
 
 ! I. 
 
 16 
 15 
 14 
 13 
 12 
 11 
 10 
 
 8n that wi ;h a total average of 13} tons per acre, two-thirds 
 
 of tho crop averaged 15 tons, and the remaining third only 
 9J tons. The proportion of feeding pulp has been large 
 in 1871 and 1872, — both having been moist seasons, — and 
 has been 22 per cent, of the weight of the roota. Id 
 1870 it was only 19 per cent The details of the disposal 
 of the pulp from crop 1872 are also interesting. Of 1235 
 tons of pulp purchased by nine farmers — ' 
 
 597 tons were taken by one, 
 326 ,, by another, 
 116 ,, by another, 
 95 „ by another, not a grower of beet 
 
 In addition to these quantities sold, about 500 tont 
 were stored at the factory, where at the same time about 
 100 tons of crop 1871 were still on hand, and in excellent 
 condition. To this latter fact we can add our own testi- 
 mony, having been favoured by Mr Duncan with a sample 
 of it after it had been eighteen months in store, when wc 
 found it perfectly sweet and good, retaining unimpaired 
 the taste and smell of fresh beet-root. The modo of storing 
 the pulp is very simple. On a piece of dry ground a trench 
 is dug out about 7 feet wide and 1 foot deep. Into th» 
 trench the pulp is firmly trodden by the feet of th< 
 labourers, and gradually drawn to a point, precisely as i» 
 done in storing roots. The whole is then covered with 
 earth to the depth of 12 inches ; and thus stored, the pulp 
 keeps well for two or three years. In using it, a thin crus' 
 from the outsides is rejected. In Germany and Austria 
 tanks of brick-work are used to economise space, but not 
 in France or Belgium. Three tons of this pulp are esti- 
 mated to be equal in feeding value to one ton of good hay. 
 Hitherto farmers give the preference to fresh-made pulp ; 
 but Mr Duncan regards this as quite a mistake, as in hii 
 own practice he finds that pulp a year old is a better feeding 
 material than when newly made. In 1872 ho fattened 50 
 cattle on pulp three years old, and in the summer of 1873 
 he had 60 cattle consuming the surplus of the previous 
 season. These cattle (27 yearlings and 33 two-year-olds) 
 consumed daily 35 cwt. of pulp and 4 cwt of cut chan 
 (of hay and barley straw) mixed together. The older 
 beasts received daily in addition 7 lb each of bean-meal, on 
 which ration they made good progress. To meet the cart- 
 age difficulty, Mr Duncan contracted that year (1873) 
 with one grower to perform the haulage of 2000 tons of 
 beet roots a distance of 5 miles by a traction engine. 
 
 Several joint-stock companies have been formed for 
 prosecuting this industry, but Mr Duncan's is the only 
 factory as yet in actual operation. It is known also that 
 Mr Lawe3 and Dr Gilbert have for several years been 
 engaged in extensive experiments on sugar-beet, and with 
 most successful results. 
 
 The manufacture of sugar from beet-root has attained to 
 very great dimensions on the continent of Europe It is 
 known that from the crop of 18 7 2 there has been produced 
 1,025,000 tons of sugar, worth £24 per ton, and 250,000 
 tons of molasses, worth £3 per ton, and that new factories, 
 some of them on a gigantic scale, are now in course of 
 erection. A most important fact connected with this 
 rapidly-extending industry is that the erection of a sugar 
 factory is immediately accompanied by an improvement in 
 the agriculture, and an increase in the value of the land, 
 of the surrounding district In many places farmers gladly 
 contract to supply beet-root at 18s. per ton for ten years, 
 on condition that they receive back purjj in fair proportion 
 to the quantity of root supplied by them, Russia pro- 
 duces the finest quality of best, instances being known in 
 which the roots yielded. 10 per cent, of loaf-sugar. There 
 are good grounds for concluding that Russia will at no 
 'very distant datj tako a prominent place as a sugar- 
 nroducing country 
 
 There seems at present a reasonable prospect that the
 
 §WD6.J 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 383- 
 
 coltivation of sugar-beet will be adopted in various parts 
 of our own country. It has already been proved that the 
 beet grown in the south-eastern counties of Eugland i3 
 richer in sugar than that produced in the north of France. 
 And it seems well worth while to ascertain, by careful ex- 
 periment, whether in certain parts of Scotland, such as the 
 Lothians, Fife, and the carses, sugar-beet could not with 
 advantage be substituted for the precarious and exhausting 
 potato crop. The repeal of the sugar-duty would give a 
 great stimulus to this enterprise, and should be pressed for 
 jn the interest of our native agriculture. 
 
 Section 4. — Chicory (for its Hoots). 
 
 The very extensive and constantly increasing consump- 
 tion of the roots of chicory as a substitute for coffee, renders 
 it now an agricultural crop of some importance. The soils 
 best adapted for its growth are deep friable loamc, The 
 process of cultivation is very s imil ar to that required for 
 the carrot, excepting only that it is not sown earlier than 
 the first week of May, lest the plants should run to seed. 
 When this happens, such plants must be thrown aside 
 when the crop is dug, else the quality of the wh'ole will 
 be injured. About 4 & of seed is the quantity to 
 sow per acre, either broadcast or in rows. The latter is 
 undoubtedly the best mode, as it admits of the land being 
 kept clean, and yields roots of greater weight. The crop is 
 ready for digging up in November. A long stout fork is the 
 best implement for this purpose. In using it, 'oare must 
 be taken to get out the roots entire, not only for the sake 
 of the roots, but to lessen an inconvenience attendant on 
 the culture of this plant, namely, that the fragments left in 
 the soil grow amongst the after crops, and are as trouble- 
 some as weeds. The roots, when dry, are carefully washed, 
 cut into thin slices, and kiln-dried, when they are fit for 
 the coffee-grinder. From 1 to 1£ tons per acre of the dried 
 root is an average produce. 
 
 Section 5. — Oil-yielding Plants. 
 
 Various plants are occasionally cultivated in Britain for 
 the sake of the oil which is expressed from their ripened 
 seeds. We have already noticed the value of flax-seed for 
 this purpose, although the fibre is the product which is 
 chiefly had in view in cultivating it. The plants most 
 commonly sown expressly as oil-yielding crops are — rape 
 (Brassica Napus), colza (Brassica campestris oleifera), gold 
 of pleasure (Camelina sativa), 'and the poppy (Papaver 
 tomniferum). Rape is the plant most frequently and ex- 
 tensively grown for the production of oil. The coka is 
 said to yield better crops of seed than the other species. 
 This plant is much cultivated in Flanders for this purpose. 
 In Great Britain it seems rather on the decline. It is 
 chiefly on rich alluvial soils that this crop is grown. For 
 a seed-crop rape is sown in June or July, precisely in the 
 manner already described for turnips. The young plants 
 are thinned out to a width of 6 or 8 inches apart, and 
 afterwards kept clean by hoeing. The foliage may be 
 eaten down by sheep early in autumn, without injuring it 
 for the production of a crop of seed. In spring the horse 
 and hand hoe must be used, and the previous application 
 of 1 or 2 cwt. of guano will add to the productiveness 
 of the crop. It suits well to lay down land to clover or 
 grass after a crop of rape or turnip seed, and for this pur- 
 pose the seeds are sown at the time of giving this spring 
 culture. The crop must be reaped as soon as the seeds are 
 obsorved to acquire a light brown colour. The reaping is 
 managed precisely as we have described in the case of 
 beans. As the crop, after being reaped and deposited in 
 separate handfuls on the ground, very soon gets dry enough 
 for thrashing, and as the seed is very easily shed after this 
 is the aiae, this process must be performed as rapidly as 
 
 possible. Sometimes it is conveyed to the thrashing-mill 
 on harvest carts, on which a cloth is stretched to save th« 
 seeds knocked out in the loading 'and unloading, but mort 
 usually the flail is used on temporary thrashing-floors pro. 
 vided in the field by spreading down large cloths. The 
 crop is gently lifted from the ground and placed, head* 
 innermost, on a blanket which two persons grasp by the 
 corners, and carry to the thrashing-floors. A large number 
 of people are required to push this process through rapidly, 
 for unless the crop is quickly handled, a great loss of seed 
 ensues. The seed is immediately spread thinly upon a 
 granary floor, and frequently turned until dry enough tc 
 keep in sacks, when it is cleaned and disposed of. On 
 good soil and in favourable seasons the yield sometimes 
 reaches to 40 bushels per acre. The haulm and husks 
 are either used for litter or burned, and the ashes spread 
 upon the land. It makes good fuel for clay-burning. 
 
 Section 6. — Seeds of Agricultural Crops. 
 In the case of seed-corn it is customary for farmers 
 either to select from. the best of their own growth, to ex- 
 change with or purchase from neighbours, or, if they wish 
 a change from a different locality, to employ a commission- 
 agent to buy for them. In all districts there are careful 
 farmers who, by occupying land that produces grain of 
 good appearance, and being at pains to have good and pure 
 sorts, are stated sellers of seed-corn, and manage in this 
 way to get a few shillings more per quarter for a part of 
 their produce. It is therefore only in the case of new and 
 rare varieties that professional seedsmen ordinarily deal in 
 seed-corn. There are, however, other field crops, such as 
 clovers, grasses, turnip, mangold, carrots, winter vetches, 
 &c, the seeds of which, to a large extent, pass through the 
 hands of seedsmen, and the growing of which is restricted 
 to particular districts, and is in the hands of a limited 
 number of farmers. These seed crops are sometimes very 
 remunerative to the grower; but are hazardous ones for 
 farmers to attempt at their own risk. The only safe course 
 is to grow them at a stipulated price, to the order of some 
 thoroughly respectable seedsman, and to hold to the pro- 
 duction of the particular kind or kinds which he requires. 
 This applies in a less degree to the clovers, and to the 
 more commonly cultivated grasses, than to the other seeds 
 just referred to. Such an arrangement is beneficial to all 
 concerned. 
 
 We have already described (chap. xiii. sec. 13) the mode 
 of saving the seeds of Italian or common ryegrass ; and as 
 other grasses are managed in ihe same way, it is unneces- 
 sary to say more regarding.them. 
 
 It is only in the southern parts of England that clover 
 is grown for the sake of its seeds. When it is meant to 
 take a crop of seed, the clover is fed off with sheep, or 
 mown early in the season, and then allowed to produce its 
 flowers and ripen its seeds. This preliminary eating or 
 cutting over causes the plants to throw up a greater 
 number of seed-stems, and to yield a fuller and more equally 
 ripening crop. The crop is mown when the seeds are seen 
 to be matured. In the case of white clover the cutting 
 takes place while the dew is upon the crop, as working 
 amongst it when dry would cause' a loss of seed. After 
 mowing and turning the crop, the ground is raked with 
 close-toothed iron rakes, to catch up loose heads. The 
 thrashing is a twofold process — first the separation of the 
 heads or cobs from the stem, called " cobbing," and then 
 of the seeds from the husks, called " drawing.'^ This was 
 formerly accomplished by a laborious and tedious process 
 of thrashing with flails, but it is now done by machinery. 
 In favourable seasons the yield is about 5 or 6 bushels 
 (of 70 lb each) per acre. 
 
 Turnip seed is the next most important crop of this kind
 
 384 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [live stock — 
 
 From the strong tendency in the best varieties of turnips 
 »nd swedes to degenerate, and the readiness with which 
 they hybridise with each other, or with any member of the 
 fimily Brassica, no small skill and pains are needed to 
 wise seed that can be depended upon to yield roots of the 
 best quality. Turnip seed is saved either from selected 
 »nd transplanted roots, or from such as have been sown 
 for the express purpose, and allowed to stand as they grow. 
 The first plan, if the selection is made by a competent judge, 
 is undoubtedly that by which seed of the purest quality is 
 obtained. But it is an expensive way, not only from the 
 labour required in carrying it out, but from the yield of 
 seed being generally much less than from plants that have 
 not been disturbed. Professional seed-growers usually re- 
 ?ort to a compromise by which the benefit of both plans is 
 jecured, viz., by selecting with great care and transplant- 
 ing a limited number of bulbs, and saving the seed obtained 
 from them to raise the plants which are to stand for their 
 main seed crop. The latter are carefully examined when 
 they come into bloom, and all plants destroyed the colour 
 of whose flower varies from the proper shade. Turnips 
 that are to bear seed are purposely sown much later in the 
 season than when intended to produce cattle food, as it is 
 found that bulbs about 1 lb weight are less liable to be 
 injured by frost or to rot before the seed is matured, than 
 those of larger size. The management of a turnip-seed 
 crop, both as regards culture and harvesting, is identical 
 with that of rape for its seeds, which has already been 
 described. 
 
 Mustard. — Both the white and brown mustard is culti- 
 vated to some extent in various parts of England. The 
 former is to be found in every garden as a salad plant ; 
 but it has of late been coming into increasing favour as a 
 forage crop for sheep, and as a green manure, for which 
 purpose it is ploughed down when about to come into 
 flower. The brown mustard is grown solely for its seeds, 
 which yield the well-known condiment. When white mus- 
 tard is cultivated for its herbag. , it is sown usually in 
 July or August, after some early crop has been removed. 
 The land being brought into a fine tilth, the seed, at the 
 rate of 12 Ki per acre, is sown broadcast, and covered in 
 the way recommended for clover seeds. In about six weeks 
 it is ready either for feeding off by sheep or for ploughing 
 down as a preparative for wheat or barley. White 
 mustard is not fastidious in regard to soiL When grown 
 for a seed crop it is treated in the way about to be de- 
 scribed for the other variety. For this purpose either kind 
 requires a fertile soil, as it is an exhausting crop The 
 seed is sown in April, is once hoed in May, and requires 
 no further culture. As soon as the pods have assumed a 
 brown colour the crop is reaped and laid down in handfuls, 
 which lie until dry enough for thrashing or stacking. In 
 removing it from the ground it must be handled with great 
 care, and carried to the thrashing-floor or stack on cloths, 
 to avoid the loss of seed. The price depends much on its 
 being saved in dry weather, as the quality suffers much 
 from wet. The yield varies from 20 to 30 bushels 
 per acre, and the price from 10s. to 20a. per busheL It 
 is chiefly grown on rich alluvial soils in the south-eastern 
 counties of England. This great evil attends its growth, 
 that the seeds which are unavoidably shed in harvesting 
 the crop remain in the soil, and stock it permanently with 
 what proves a pestilent weed amongst future crops. 
 
 Market Gardening. — In Essex and Kent no inconsider- 
 able extent of land is annually occupied in growing the 
 seeds of the staple crops of our kitchen and flower gardens. 
 Wholesale seedsmen contract with farmers to grow th^se 
 seeds for them at a stipulated price. 
 
 The growth of fruits and of culinary vegetables is in 
 various parts of Great Britain an important department of 
 
 farming — for the scale on which it is conducted allies it 
 quite as much to agriculture as to horticulture. In the 
 counties contiguous to London thousands of acres are 
 occupied in growing vegetables and in producing fruit. 
 Very large numbers of persons find employment in these 
 market gardens. The system of cultivation pursued in 
 them is admirable. The soil is trenched two spits deep 
 for nearly every crop; it is heavily manured and kept 
 scrupulously clean by incessant hoeing. Whenever a crop 
 is removed, some other suited to the season is instantly put 
 in its place, and not an inch of ground is suffered to be 
 unproductive. A young farmer, bent on knowing his 
 business thoroughly, could not occupy a few.months to better 
 purpose than' by placing himself under one of these clever 
 market gardeners. 
 
 Kent has long been peculiarly celebrated fcr its orchards. 
 The best of them are on the borders of the greensand for- 
 mation, or ragstone as it is provincially called. Apples, 
 pears, plums, cherries, and nuts are produced in immense 
 quantities. The filbert plantations alone are said to 
 occupy 5000 acres. An abundant and cheap supply of 
 fruit and vegetables for the inhabitants of our towns is 
 undoubtedly an important object, and is likely to occupy 
 increased attention wherever a suitable soil and exposure, 
 with facility of carriage by railway, are combined. In 
 Cornwall and in the Channel Islands the cultivation of 
 brocoli and early potatoes is an important and growing 
 industry. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 LTVE STOCK — HOKSES. 
 
 The breeding and rearing of domesticated animals has 
 ever been a favourite pursuit in Great Britain, and has 
 been carried to greater perfection than any other department 
 of rural affairs. In no other country of similar extent can 
 so many distinct breeds of each class of these animals be 
 found — most of them excellent of their kind, and admirably 
 adapted to the particular use for which they are designed. 
 Observing the usual order, we notice first Horses. 
 
 Section 1. — Breeds. 
 
 Here we shall confine our attention to those breeds which 
 are cultivated expressly for the labours of the farm ; for 
 although the breeding of saddle-horses is chiefly carried 
 on by farmers, and forms in some districts an important 
 part of their business, it does not seem advisable to treat 
 of it here. It is a department of husbandry requiring such 
 a combination of fitness in the soil, climate, and enclosures 
 of the farm, of access to first-class stallions, and of taste 
 and judgment on fie part of the farmer, that few indeed 
 of the many who try it are really successful. The morale 
 too of the society into which the breeding of this class of 
 horses almost necessarily brings a man is so unwhole- 
 some, that none can mingle in it freely without experienc- 
 ing to their cost that " evil communications corrupt good 
 manners." We have noted it as a fact of peculiar signifi- 
 cance, in this connection, that of the few men who really 
 make money by this business, scarcely one desires to see it 
 prosecuted by his sons. 
 
 The immense size and portly presence of the English 
 black horse entitle him to priority of notice. This breed is 
 widely diffused throughout England, though found chiefly 
 in the midland counties. It is in the fens and rich pas- 
 tures of these counties that the celebrated dray horses of 
 London are bred and reared. These horses are too slow 
 and heavy for ordinary farm-work, and would not be bred 
 but for the high prices obtained for them from the great 
 London brewers, who pride themselves on the great size, 
 majestic bearing, and fine condition of their team horses. 
 The breeders of these horses employ brood mares and young
 
 KORSES.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 385 
 
 colts exclusively for their. larm-work. The colts are highly 
 fed, and worked very gently until four years old, when 
 they are sold to the London brewers, often at very great 
 prices. The same breed is largely used in England for 
 ordinary farm labour, although not found of such gigantic 
 proportions as in those districts where they are bred for 
 the special destination just referred to. Although very 
 docile, their short step, sluggish gait, large consumption of 
 food, and liability to foot lameness, render them less pro- 
 fitable for ordinary farm-work than the breeds about to be 
 mentioned. 
 
 The Suffolk Punch is a well-marked breed which has 
 long been cultivated in the county from which it takes its 
 name. These horses are, for the most part, of a sorrel, 
 bay, or chestnut colour, and are probably of Scandinavian 
 origin. They are compact, as their name imports, hardy, 
 very active, and exceedingly honest pullers. These horses 
 at one time were very coarse in their form and rather slow ; 
 but they have- now been so much improved in form and 
 action that we find them the chief prize-takers at recent 
 exhibitions of the Royal Agricultural Society. 
 
 The Cleveland Bays are properly carriage-horses ; but 
 still in their native districts they are largely employed for 
 field work. Mr Milburn says — " The Cleveland, as a pure 
 breed, is losing something of its distinctiveness. It is 
 running into a proverb, that ' a Cleveland horse is too stiff 
 for a hunter, and too light for a coacher ;' but there are 
 still remnants of the breed, though less carefully kept dis- 
 tinctive than may be wished by advocates of purity. Still, 
 the oontour of the farm-horses of Cleveland has the light- 
 ness, and hardiness, and steadiness of the breed j and it 
 is singular that while the lighter soils have horses more cal- 
 culated for drays, the strong-land farmer has the compact 
 and smaller, but comparatively more powerful animaL" 
 
 In the north-eastern counties of England, and the ad- 
 jacent Scottish borders, compact, clean-legged, active horses, 
 of medium size, with a remote dash of blood in them, are 
 generally preferred to those of a heavier, and slower kind. 
 One needs only to see how such horses get along at turnip- 
 sowing, or with a heavy load in a one-horse cart, to be 
 convinced of their fitness for the general work of a farm. 
 
 The Clydesdale Horses are not excelled by any cart breed 
 in the kingdom for general usefulness. They belong to the 
 larger class of cart-horses, sixteen hands being an average 
 height. Brown and bay are now the prevailing colours. 
 In the district whose name they bear the breeding of them 
 for sale is extensively prosecuted, and is conducted with 
 much care and success. Liberal premiums are offered by 
 the local agricultural societies for good stallions. Horses 
 of this breed are pecutiarly distinguished for the free step 
 with which they move along when exerting their strength 
 in cart or plough. Their merits are now so generally 
 appreciated that they are getting rapidly diffused over the 
 country. Many small farmers in Clydesdale make a 
 business of raising entire colts, which they either sell for 
 stallions or send into distant counties to serve for hire in 
 that capacity. 
 
 In the Highlands of Scotland, a breed of hardy and very 
 serviceable ponies, or " garrons, " as the natives call them, 
 are found in great numbers. In their native glens they 
 are employed in tillage, and although unfit for stated 
 farm-work in the low country, aje even there often used in 
 light carts for work requiring despatch rather than great 
 power. Similar ponies abound in Wales. 
 
 Section 2. — Breeding of Cart-Horses. 
 in breeding cart-horses regard must Tje had to the pur- 
 pose for which they are designed. , If the farmer contem- 
 plates the raising of colts for sale, he must aim at a larger 
 Craire than if he simply wishes to keep ,up his own sjjcK 
 
 1-14 
 
 of working cattle. These considerations will go far guide 
 him as to the size of the mares and stallions which he 
 selects to breed from; but vigorous constitutions, perfect 
 freedom from organic disease, symmetrical form, and good 
 temper are qualities always indispensable. Nothing is 
 more common than to see mares used for breeding merely 
 because, from lameness or age, they have ceased to be 
 valuable for labour. Lameness from external injury is, of 
 course, no disqualification : but it is mere folly to expect 
 valuable progeny from unsound, mis-shapen, ill-tempered, 
 or delicate dams, or even from really good ones, when their 
 vigour has declined from age. A farmer may grudge to 
 lose the labour of a fiist-rate mare for two or three months 
 at his busiest season ; but if he cannot make arrangements 
 for doing this, he had better let breeding alone altogether ; 
 for it is only by producing horses of the best quality that 
 it can be worth his while to breed them at all It is 
 always desirable that both sire and dam should have arrived 
 at maturity before being put to breed. 
 
 The head of the cart-horse should not be large, at least 
 not heavy in the bones of the face aud jaws, nor loaded 
 with flesh. Full development of brain is, indeed, of great 
 importance, and hence a horse somewhat wide between the 
 ears is to be preferred. .Prick ears and narrow forehead 
 have by some been reckoned excellences, but we have so 
 invariably noticed such horses to be easily startled, given 
 to shying, and wanting in courage and intelligence, that 
 we regard such a form of head as a defect to be avoided. 
 The eye should be bright, full, and somewhat prominent, 
 the neck inclining to thickness, of medium length, and 
 slightly arched, and the shoulders oblique. Upright 
 shoulders haye been commended as an advantage in a horse 
 for draught, it being alleged that such a form enables him 
 to throw his weight better into his collar. It should be 
 remembered, however, that the horses which display the 
 greatest power in drawing heavy loads are characterised 
 by muscular vigour and nervous energy rather than mere 
 weight of carcase ; and these qualities are more usually 
 found in connection with the oblique shoulder than the 
 upright one — not to mention that this form is indispensable 
 to that free and full step so necessary in a really useful 
 farm-horse. 
 
 V The hack should be straight and broad, the ribs well arched, 
 and the false ribs of doe length, so as to givo the abdomen capacity 
 and roundness. The tail should be well set out, not too drooping, 
 and the quarters should be full and muscular. The horse should 
 girth well, and have his height in his body rather than in his. legs, 
 so as to look less than measurement proves him to be. The forelegs 
 should be strong, and flat below the knee, and by no means round 
 and gummy either before or behind, neither should they have white 
 hair about them, nor much hair of any colour. The hocks should 
 be broad in front, and neither too straight nor too crooked, nor yet 
 cat-hammed. All diseases of this joint, whether curbs, spavins, or 
 thproughpins, are sufficient grounds for rejecting a horse. The feet 
 are a matter of very much importance. The tendency of many 
 heavy horses is to have thin horn and flat feet A stallion possess- 
 ing such feet is exceedingly objectionable. Plenty of horn is a 
 recommendation, and the feet had better be too large than too 
 small. The brood mare should possess as many of the points now 
 enumerated as possible. If the mare is small but symmetrical, we 
 may very properly select a large stallion, provided he has good 
 action. If, on the other hand, the mare is large and has a tendency 
 to coarseness, we should select a middle-sized horse of symmetrical 
 appearance." 1 
 
 Sixteen hands is a good neight for a farm-horse. Except 
 for very heavy land, we have always had more satisfaction 
 from horses slightly below this standard than above it 
 
 We have repeatedly put a well-bred saddle mare to a 
 cart-horse, and have invariably found the produce to prove 
 excellent farm-horses. The opposite cross, betwixt a cart- 
 mare and blood stallion, is nearly as certain to prove un- 
 gainly, vicious, ».nd worthless. These horses are generally 
 
 1 Morton'i Cyclopadia of Agriculture— article "Horse."
 
 38(i 
 
 A G li I U L T1JRE 
 
 [live stock— 
 
 much stronger than their appearance indicates, nave great 
 powers of endurance, and can be kept in prime working 
 condition at much less cost than bulkier animals. It is on 
 muscular power and nervous energy that the strength of 
 animals depends, and this, therefore, should be sought after 
 in the farm-horse rather than mere bulk. 
 
 Cart-niarcs should not foal earlier than May Provided 
 they are not unduly pushed or put to draw heavy loads, 
 they may be kept at work almost up to their time of foaling, 
 and are thus available for the pressing labours of spring. 
 J t- is of importance, too, that the pasture should be fresh 
 and the weather mild ere their nursing duties begin. 
 Mures seldom require assistance in bringing forth their 
 young, and although it is well to keep an eye upon them 
 when this event is expected, they should be kept as quiet 
 as possible, as they ara.impatient of intrusion, and easily 
 disturbed in such circumstances. A sheltered paddock 
 with good grass, and where there are no other houses, is 
 the most suitable quarters for a mare that has newly foaled. 
 There must be no ditch or pond in it, as young foals have 
 a peculiar fatality for getting drowned in such places. A 
 mare, in ordinary condition, receives the stallion od the 
 ninth or tenth day after foaling, and with a greater cer- 
 tainty of conceiving than when it is delayed until she is 
 again in heat. If the mare's labour can at all be dis- 
 pensed with, it is desirable to have her with her foal for 
 two months at least. She may then be put to easy vork 
 with perfect safety, so that the 13 20t kept away from the 
 foal longer than two or three hours at a time. 'When the 
 foal has got strong enough, it may even be allowed to follo-v 
 its dam at her work, and to get suck as often as it des- ; res 
 it. Towards the end of September foals are usually 
 weaned, and are then put under cover at night, and receive 
 a little com, aiong with succulent food. Good hay, bran, 
 carrots, or swedes, and a few oats, must be given regularly 
 during the first winter, ".vith a warm shed to lie in, and an 
 open court for exercise. At weaning it is highly expedient 
 to put a cavasin on colts, and lead them about for a few 
 times.' A few lessons at this early age, when thoy are 
 easily controlled, saves a world of trouble afterwards. I 
 Before being turned to grass in spring, they should, on the 
 same principle, be tied up in stalls for a wees or so. It is 
 customary to castrate colts at a year old. Some, indeed, 
 advise its being done a few weeks after birth, when, of 
 course, the pain to the animal and itsk of death are less. 
 It must, however, be borne in mind that this early emascu- 
 lation will probably ensure a skranky neck, whereas a 
 natural tendency to this defect can in good measure be 
 remedied by deferring the operation. We have seen a 
 puny colt much improved in figure by being left entire 
 until he was two years old. By giving good pasture in 
 summer, and a liberal allowance of haj, roots, and oats in 
 winter, colts may with safety, and even benefit, bo put to 
 moderate work in their third spring. Some time before 
 thi3 is done they should be put through a short course of 
 training, to use them to the bit, and make them quiet and 
 handy. Many good cart-horses are ruined for want of a 
 little timely attention in this way. When they have got 
 familiar with the harness, they should be yoked to a log of 
 wood, and made to draw that up and down the furrows of 
 a fallow field, until they become accustomed to the restraint 
 and exertion, after which they may with safety be put to 
 plough alongside a steady and good-tempered horse, and, 
 what is of equal consequence, under the charge of a steady, 
 good-tempered ploughman. As they should not have move 
 than five hours' work a-day for the first summer, it is 
 always an advantage to have a pair of them to yoke at the 
 same time, in which case they take half-day about, and 
 do a full horse's work betwixt them. With such moderate 
 work and generous feeding their growth will be promoted. 
 
 By midsummer, the press of field labour being over, it h 
 advisable to turn the striplings adrift, and let them enjoy 
 themselves in a good pasture until after harvest, when they 
 can again be put to plough. Horses should not be required 
 to draw heavy loaded carts until they are five years old. 
 When put into the shafts earlier than this they frequently 
 get strained and stiffened in their joints. On every farm 
 requiring four or five pairs of horses it is highly expedient 
 to have a pair of young ones coming in annually. This 
 enables the firmer to be provided against contingencies, and 
 to have his stable occupied at all times with horses in 
 their full vigour, which go through their work with spirit, 
 and never falter for a little extra pushing in emergencies. 
 
 Section 3. — Feeding and General Management of 
 Farm-Horses. 
 
 As there is true economy in employing only the best 
 quality of horses, and these in their prime, so also is there 
 in feeding them uniformly well, and looking to their com- 
 fort in all respects. The following quotation from the 
 Transactions (for October 1850) of the Highland and Agri- 
 cultural Society of Scotland, describes the practice of some 
 of our most experienced farmers in this particular : — 
 
 " The system, cf feeding I adopt is as follows :— From the iniddia 
 of October till the end of May my horses get one feed of steamed 
 food and two feeds of oats daily, with the Tbest oat or wheat straw 
 for fodder. I never give bean straw unless it has been secured in 
 flue condition, having often seen the bad effects of it, partly owing, 
 I think, to its long exposure to the weather. In our variable oliuwte, 
 and from the quantity of sand which adheres to it, I use it generally 
 for litter. The steamed food used is well washed Swedish turnips 
 and potatoes in equal proportions, mixed with sifted wbeat-chaJf. 
 In those years when we had a total loss of potatoes Swedish turnip 
 alone was used, but not with tho same good effect as when mixed 
 with potatoes. This year, having plenty of diseased potatoes id a 
 firm state, I give a larger proportion of potatoes than turnip, and 
 never upon any occasion give oat husks, commonly called meal- 
 seeds, having often seen their injurious effects. At live o'clock in the 
 morning end: horse gets 6 lb weight of bruised oats, at uoon the 
 same quantity of oats, and at half-past seven P.M. 47 lb weight of 
 steamed food. I find that it takes 62 lb weight of uustcamed 
 potatoes and turnip to produce 47 lb steamed ; to each feed of 
 1 food, 4 oz. of common salt are added, and mixed up with 
 one-fourth part of a bushel. of wheat-chaff, weighing about 1J lb, 
 a greater quantity of wheat-chaff than this having generally too laxa- 
 tive an effect. Each horse eats from 14 lb to 18 tb of fodder during 
 the twenty -four hours, besides what is required for litter. In spring 
 I sometimes give a mixture of bruised beans and oats, instead of oats 
 alone ; from June to the middle of October those horses that are 
 required for the working of the green crop, driving manure, and 
 ht'-vect work, are fed with cut grass and tares in the, house ; and 
 about 7 lb of oats each day, given at twice, increasing or decreasing 
 the quantity according to the work they have to do ; and I turn out 
 to pasture only those horses that are not required until the busy 
 season. I disapprove of horses that are regularly worked being 
 turned out to grass, and exposed to all the changes of our variable 
 climate, as I believe it to be the origin of many diseases. By this 
 mode of feeding the horses are always in fine sleek condition, aud 
 able for their work. 1 have acted upon this system for the last f . 
 years, have always had from 16 to 20 horses, and during that 
 period I have only lost 7 horses, 3. of them from accidental causes ; 
 and I attribute this, in a great measure, to the mode of feeding, aud 
 in particular to the steamed food." 
 
 The treatment of horses differs somewhat in other place* 
 from that now detailed. In Berwickshire, for example, 
 they are usually turned to pasture as socn as the mildness 
 of the weather and the forwardness of the pasture admit of 
 it. While employed in carrying tho crop, their fodder 
 consists largely of tares, and afterwards till Martinniat they 
 are fed on hay. From this date oat aud bean straw, with 
 8 or 10 lb of raw swedes to each per diem, is substituted till 
 the 1st of March, when, with the recurrence of harder labour, 
 hay is again given till the return of the grazing season. 
 During three-fourths of the year they receive about lb' lb 
 of oats per diem, in three separate feeds. From the close 
 of turnip-sowing until harvest, oats are either withheld or 
 given only when a harder day's work occurs. The practice
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 PLATE V 
 
 
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 PHCEITIX 
 
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 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNIC*. NINTH EDITION.
 
 CATTLE,] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 3RT 
 
 of bruising the whole of the oats given to horses, and also 
 of chopping their hay, is now very prevalent. By. giving 
 a few pounds of chopped hay with each feed of bruised 
 oats, and oat-straw in the racks, during the whole of the 
 winter half-year, horses are kept in better condition and 
 at no more ■ expense than by giving them straw alone for 
 half the period, and hay alone the other half. We are 
 persuaded, also, that unless horses are stripped of their 
 shoes and turned adrift altogether for a summer's run, 
 soiling in boxes or sheds, with an open yard, is preferable 
 to grazing. Hay and oats ought undoubtedly to constitute 
 the staple fare of farm-horses. Without a liberal allowance 
 of suitable and nourishing food, it is impossible that they 
 can perform the full amount of work of which they are 
 capable, or be sustained for any length of time in robust 
 health. When alleged very cheap plans of feeding horses 
 are inquired into, it is usually found that the amount and 
 quality of the -work performed by them is in fitting pro- 
 portion. In this, as in so many other things, cheapness 
 and economy are not convertible terms. The true way to 
 economise the horse-labour of a farm is to have only good 
 and well-fed animals, and to get the greatest possible amount 
 of work out of them. 
 
 .CHAPTER XVL 
 
 LIVE STOCK CATTLE; 
 
 Section 1. — Breeds — 1st, Heavy Breeds. 
 
 As our limits do not admit of even a brief notice of all 
 those breeds of cattle for which Great Britain is so famous, 
 we shall restrict our remarks to some of the most important 
 of them. Without entering upon curious speculations as 
 to the origin of these breeds, we proceed to notice them in 
 the order suggested by their relative importance in practical 
 agriculture. The large lowland cattle thus claim our first 
 attention, and amongst them we cannot hesitate in assign- 
 ing the first place to the 
 
 Short-horns. — It appears that from an early date the 
 valley of the Tees possessed a breed of cattle which, in 
 appearance and general qualities, were probably not unlike 
 thoso quasi short-horns which abound in various parts of 
 the country at the present day. By the time that the 
 Messrs Colling came upon the field it is evident that 
 there were many herds around them in which considerable 
 improvement had already been effected, and that they com- 
 menced their memorable efforts in cattle-breeding with 
 exceedingly hopeful materials to work upon. But in their 
 masterly hands these materials seemed at once to acquire 
 an unwonted plasticity; for in an incredibly short time 
 their cattle exhibited, in a degree that has not yet been 
 excelled, that combination of rapid and large growth with 
 aptness to fatten, of which their symmetry, good temper, 
 mellow handling, and gay colours are such pleasing indices 
 and accompaniments, and for which they have now acquired 
 a world-wide celebrity. It was by judicious selection in 
 the first instance, and then by coupling animals of near 
 affinity in blood, that they so developed and stereotyped 
 these qualities in their cattle as to entitle them at once to 
 take rank as tha progenitors of a new and well-marked 
 breed. These Durham, Teeswater, or Shorthorn cattle, as 
 they were variously called, were soon eagerly sought after, 
 and spread over the who'e country with amazing rapidity. 
 For a time their merits were disputed by the eager ad- 
 vocates of other and older breeds, some of which (such as 
 the long-horns, once the most numerous breed in the 
 kingdom) they have utterly supplanted, while others, such 
 as the Herefords, Devons, and Scotch polled cattle, have 
 each their zealous admirers, who still maintain their supe- 
 riority to the younger race. But this controversy is mean- 
 wfulo getting practically decided in favour of the short- 
 
 horns, which constantly encroach upon their rivals even in 
 their headquarters, and seldom lose ground which they once 
 gain. Paradoxical as the statement appears, it is yet true 
 that the very excellence of the short-horns has in many cases 
 led to their discredit. For many persons desiring to 
 possess these valuable cattle, and yet grudging the cost of 
 pure-bred bulls, or being ignorant of the principles of breed- 
 ing, have used worthless cross-bred males, and so have filled 
 the country with an inferior race of cattle, bearing indeed 
 a general resemblance in colour, and partaking in some 
 measure of the good qualities of short-horns, but utterly 
 wanting in their peculiar excellences. By ignorant or pre- 
 judiced persons the genuine race is nevertheless held 
 answerable for the defects of the mongrels which usurp 
 their name, and for the damaging comparisons 'which are 
 made betwixt them and choice specimens of other breeds. 
 That the short-horn breed should spread as it does, in spite 
 of this hinderance, is no small proof of its inherent ex- 
 cellence, and warrants the inference that whenever justice 
 is done to it, it will take its place as the one appropriate 
 breed of the fertile and sheltered parts of Great Britain. 
 This" desirable consummation has hitherto been retarded by 
 the scarcity and high price of pure-bred bulls. We are 
 quite aware that bull-breeding, as hitherto conducted, is a 
 hazardous and unremunerative business, notwithstanding 
 the great prices sometimes obtained for first-class animals. 
 We are of opinion, however, that it might be conducted in 
 such a way as to be safer and more profitable to the breeder 
 and more beneficial to the country at large, than it has 
 hitherto been. There is at present a large and growino 
 demand for good yearling short-horn bulls, at prices ranging 
 from £25 to £50. With a better supply both as to quahtv 
 and numbers, this demand would steadily'increase, for we 
 have long observed that there is no want of customers fo» 
 really good a^nimals at such prices as we have named. 
 When higher prices than these are demanded, farmers who 
 breed only for the production of beef feel that they are 
 beyond their reach, and are fain to content themselves with 
 lower-priced and inferior animals. We are glad, therefore, 
 that it is a steadily increasing practice for breeders of short- 
 horns to dispose of their young bulls by an annual auction 
 sale on their own premises ; or for a number of breeders to 
 concur in offering their lots for sale on the same day at 
 some central auction mart. The good effects of this in- 
 creasing supply of well-bred bulls are becoming apparent 
 in the improved quality of the cattle now brought to our 
 markets. 
 
 A great stimulus has been given to the breeding of high- 
 class short-horns by the extraordinary prices which of late 
 have been obtained for animals of certain favourite and 
 fashionable strains. To illustrate this we give the follow- 
 ing particulars of the four principal sales of the year 
 1872 :— 
 
 The late Mr Pawlet's . herd of 60 animals averaged £195 18 7 
 
 Mr G. Bowly's . . „ 80 „ 15* 1 9 
 
 Earl of Dunmore's „ 64 „ 242 18 9 
 
 Messrs Harward & Downay's „ 61 „ 253 8 2 
 
 It is said that the operations of one enterprising Canadian 
 breeder — Mr Cochran of Hillhurst — have had a powerfu-J 
 effect in determining these extraordinary market rates for 
 short-horns of the choicest type. One cargo, including 
 forty short-horn bulls and heifers, and choice specimens of 
 Cotswold sheep and Berkshire pigs, taken out by this 
 gentleman in 1870, is said to have cost him £15,000. 
 American breeders of short-horn cattle have now established 
 a herd-book of their own, and have been so successful in 
 their efforts that already they have made numerous sales to 
 English breeders at long prices. While we write, accounts 
 have come of the sale by auction, on 10th September 1873, 
 of the herd of Mr Campbell of New York Mills, near
 
 388 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [live stock—* 
 
 Utica, when 108 animals realised $380,000. Of these 10 
 were bought by British breeders, 6 of which, of the Duchess 
 family, averaged $21,517, and one of them, "Eighth 
 Duchess of Geneva," was bought for Mr Pavin Davies of 
 Gloucestershire at the unprecedented price of £8120. 
 Choice specimens of these cattle are now also being sent in 
 large numbers to our Australian colonies and to various 
 parts of the continent of Europe. Indeed, it may be said 
 of thorn, that, like our people, they are rapidly spreading 
 over the world 
 
 As already hinted, the Hereford is the breed which 
 in England contests most closely with the short-horns 
 for the palm of excellence. They are admirable grazier's 
 cattle, and when of mature age and fully fattened, pre- 
 sent exceedingly level, compact, and massive carcases of 
 excellent beef. But the cows are poor milkers, and the 
 oxen require to be at least two years old before being put 
 up to fatten — defects which, in our view, are fatal to the 
 claims which are put forward on their behalf. To the 
 grazier who purchases them when their growth is somewhat 
 matured they usually yield a good profit, and will generally 
 excel shortihorns of the same age. But the distinguishing 
 characteristic of the latter is that, when properly treated, 
 they get sufficiently fat and attain to remunerative weights 
 at, or even under, two years old. If they are kept lean 
 until they have reached that age their peculiar excellence 
 is lost. From the largeness of their frame they then cost 
 more money, consume more food, and yet do not fatten 
 more rapidly than bullocks of slower growing and more 
 compactly formed breeds. It is thus that the grazier fre- 
 quently gives his verdict in favour of Herefords as compared 
 with short-horns. Even under this mode of management 
 short-horns will usually yield at least as good a return as 
 their rivals to the breeder and grazier conjointly. But if 
 fully fed from their birth so as to bring into play their 
 peculiar property of growing and fattening simultaneously, 
 we feel warranted in saying that they will yield a quicker 
 and better return for the food consumed by them than 
 cattle of any other breed. Unless, therefore, similar 
 qualities are developed in the Herefords, we may expect to 
 see them more and more giving place to the short-horns. 
 These remarks apply equally to another breed closely allied 
 to the Herefords, viz., the 
 
 North Devons, so much admired for their pleasing colour, 
 elegant form, sprightly gait, and gentle temper, qualities 
 which fit them beyond all other cattle for the labour of the 
 field, in which they are still partially employed in various 
 parts of England If it could be proved that ox-power is 
 really more economical than horse-power for any stated part 
 of the work of the farm, then the Devons, which form such 
 admirable draught oxen, would be . deserving of general 
 cultivation. It is found, however, that when agriculture 
 reaches a certain stage of progress, ox-labour is inadequate 
 to the more rapid and varied operations that are called 
 for, and has to be superseded by that of horses. 
 
 Scotland possesses several indigenous breeds of heavy 
 cattle, which for the most part are black and hornless, 
 such as those of Aberdeen, Angus, and Galloway. These 
 are all valuable breeds, being characterised by good m il ki ng 
 and grazing qualities, and by a hardiness which peculiarly 
 adapts them for a bleak climate. Cattle of these breeds, 
 when they have attained to three years old, fatten very 
 rapidly, attain to great size and weight of carcase, and 
 yield beef which is not surpassed in quality by that of any 
 cattle in the kingdom. 
 
 The cowb of these breeds, when coupled with a short- 
 horn bull, produce an admirable cross-breed, which com- 
 bines largely the good qualities of both parents. The 
 great saving of time and food which is effected by the 
 earlier maturity of the cross-breed has induced a very 
 
 extensive adoption of this practice in all the north-eastern 
 counties of Scotland Such a system is necessarily inimical 
 to the improvement of the pure native breeds; but when 
 cows of the cross-breed are continuously coupled with pure 
 short-horn bulls, the progeny ill a few generations become 
 assimilated to the male parent, and are characterised by 
 a peculiar vigour of constitution and excellent milking 
 power in the cows. With such native breeds to work upon, 
 and this aptitude to blend thoroughly with the short-horn 
 breed, it is much more profitable to introduce the latter in 
 this gradual way of continuous crossing than at once to 
 substitute the one pure breed for the other. The cost of 
 the former plan is much less, as there needs but the pur- 
 chase from time to time of a good bull ; and the risk is 
 incomparably less, as the stock is acclimatised from the first, 
 and there is no danger from a wrong selection. The 
 greatest risk of miscarriage in this mode of changing the 
 breed is from the temptation to which, from mistaken 
 economy, the breeder is exposed of rearing a cross-bred 
 bull himself, or purchasing a merely nominal short-horn 
 bull from others. 
 
 From this hurried review of our heavy breeds of cattle 
 it will be seen that we regard the short-horn as incom- 
 parably the best of them all, and that we anticipate its 
 ultimate recognition as the breed which most fully meets 
 the requirements of all those parts of the country where 
 grain and green crops are successfully cultivated. 
 
 2d. — Dairy Breeds. 
 
 The dairy breeds of cattle nex,t claim our attention, foi 
 although cattle of all breeds are used for this purpose, there 
 are several which are cultivated chiefly, if not exclusively, 
 because of tbeir fitness for it. Dairy husbandry is pro- 
 secuted under two very different and well-defined classes of 
 circumstances. In or near towns, and in populous mining 
 and manufacturing districts, it is carried on for the purpose 
 of supplying families with new milk. In the western half 
 of Great Britain, and in many upland districts, where the 
 soil and climate are more favourable to the production of 
 grass and other green crops than of corn, butter and cheese- 
 constitute the staple products of the husbandman. The 
 town dairyman looks to quantity rather than quality of 
 milk, and seeks for cows which are large milkers, which 
 are - long in going dry, and which can be readily fattened 
 when their daily yield of milk falls below the remunerative 
 measure. Large cows, such as short-horns and their crosses, 
 are accordingly his favourites. In the rural dairy, again, 
 the merits of a cow are estimated by the weight and quality 
 of the cheese or butter which she yields, rather than by the 
 mere quantity of her milk. The breeds that are cultivated 
 expressly for this purpose are accordingly characterised by 
 a less fleshy and robust build than is requisite in grazier's 
 cattle. Of these we select for special notico the Ayrshire, 
 the Suffolk dun, and the Jersey breeds. 
 
 The Ayrshires, by common consent, now occupy the very first 
 rank as profitable dairy cattle. From the pains which have been 
 taken to develop their milk-yielding power it is now of the highest 
 order. Persons who have been conversant only with grazing cattle 
 cannot but be surprised at the strange contrast between an Ayrshire 
 cow in full milk and the forms of cattle which they have been useJ 
 to regard as moat perfect. Her wide pelvis, deep flank, and enor- 
 mous udder, with its small wide-set teats, seem out of all proportion 
 to her fine bone and slender forequarters. As might be expected, 
 the breed possesses little merit for grazing purposes. Very useful 
 animals are, however, obtained by crossing these cows with a short- 
 horn bull, and this practice is now rather extensively pursued in the 
 west of Scotland by farmers who combine dairy husbandry with the 
 fattening of cattle. The function of the Ayrshire cattle is, however, 
 the dairy. For this th«y are unsurpassed, either as respects the 
 amount of produce yielded by them in proportion to the food which 
 they consume, or the faculty which they possess of converting the 
 herbage of poor exposed soils, such as ahoiiDd in their native district, 
 into butter and cheese of the best quality.
 
 vol. i. 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 PLATE 71 
 
 Bred, ly On Eyhi Hoi tu On Earl of Talbot. 
 
 ■ 
 
 EWE&LAM®».S(D)IIJ [ irHlXQ)'WM BESIEID) 
 
 Bird, by Tkom&s Ellm&n. E$q r . fieddingham* 
 Ccpud by pe-mission tfom. Froftssor Low's dtscnptun of brads of Dcmistiailai Jnundt 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA MITAMICA. NINTH EDITION.
 
 CATTLE.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 3«> 
 
 The county of Suffolk has "for centuries oeen celebrated for its 
 dairy produce, which is chiefly obtained from a polled breed of cattle, 
 the prevailing colour of which is dun 6r pale red, from which they 
 ure known as the Suffolk Duns. They have a strong general resem- 
 blance to the' Scotch polled cattle, but nevertheless seem to be 
 indigenous to Suffolk. They are ungainly in their form and of 
 little repute with the grazier, but possess an undoubted capacity of 
 yielding a large quantity of milk in proportion to the food which 
 they consume. They are now encroached upon by, and will pro- 
 bably give place to, the short-horns, by which they are decidedly 
 excelled for the combined purposes of the dairy and the fattening" 
 stall. 
 
 The breeds already referred to are those to which professional 
 dairymen give the preference, but the cattle of the Channel Islands, 
 of which the Jersey may be regarded as the type, are so remarkable 
 for the choice quality of the cream and batter obtained from their 
 rather scanty yield of milk, that they are eagerly sought after for 
 private dairies, in which quality of produce is more regarded than 
 quantity. The rearing of heifers for the English market is of such 
 importance to these islands that very stringent regulations have 
 been adopted for insuring the purity of their peculiar breed. These 
 cattle iii general are utterly worthless for the purposes of the 
 grazier. The choicer specimens of the Jerseys have a certain deer- 
 like form which gives them a pleasing aspect. Tne race, as a 
 whole, bears a striking resemblance to the Ayrshires, which are 
 alleged to owe their peculiar excellences to an early admixture of 
 Jersey blood. 
 
 3d. — Mountain Breeds. 
 
 The mountainous parts of Great Britain are not less favoured than 
 the lowlands in possessing breeds of cattle peculiarly adapted to the 
 exigencies of the climate. 
 
 The Kyloes or West Highland cattle are the most prominent of 
 this group. They are widely diffused over the Highlands of Scotland, 
 but are found in the greatest perfection in the larger Hebrides. Well- 
 bred oxen of this breed, when of marura growth and in good con- 
 dition, exhibit a symmetry of form and noble bearing which is 
 unequalled by any cattle in the kingdom. Although somewhat 
 slow in arriving at maturity, they are contented with the coarsest 
 fare, and ultimately get fat where the daintier short -horns could 
 barely exist. Their hardy constitution, thick mellow hide, and 
 shaggy coat, peculiarly adapt them for a cold humid climate and 
 coarse pasturage. Fewer of these cattle are now reared in the 
 Highlands than formerly, owing to the lessened number of cottars 
 and small tenants, the extension of sheep husbandry, and latterly from 
 the excessive multiplication of deer forests. Large herds of cows are, 
 however, kept on such portions of farms as are. unsuited for sheep 
 walks. The milk of these cows is very rich, but as they yield it in 
 small quantity, and go soon dry, they are unsuited for the dairy, and 
 are kept almost solely for the purpose of suckling »ach her own calf. 
 The calves are generally housed during their first winter, but after 
 that they shift for themselves out of doors all the year round. 
 Vast droves of these cattle are annually transferred to the lowlands, 
 where they are in request for their serviceableness in consuming 
 profitably the produce of coarse pastures and the leavings of daintier 
 stock. Those of a dun or tawny colour are often selected for 
 grazing in the parks of the aristocracy, where they look quite as 
 picturesque as the deer with which they are associated. Indeed, 
 they strikingly resemble the so-called wild cattle that are carefully 
 preserved in the parks of several of our nobility, and like them are 
 probably the descendants of the cattle of the ancient Britons. This 
 view is confirmed by the strong family likeness borne to them by 
 the 
 
 Welsh cattle, which is quite what might.be expected from the 
 many features, physical and historical, which the two provinces have 
 in common. Although the cattle of Wales, as a whole, are obviously 
 of common origin, they are yet ranged into several groups, which 
 owe their distinctive features either to peculiarities of soil and 
 climate or to mtermixture with other breeds. The Pembrok.es may 
 be taken as the type of the mountain groups. These are hardy 
 cattle, which thrive on scanty pasturage and in a humid climate. 
 They excel the West Highlanders in this respect, that they make 
 good dairy cattle, the cows being peculiarly adapted for cottagers/ 
 purposes. When fattened they yield beef of excellent quality. 
 Their prevailing and most esteemed colour is black, with deep orange 
 on the naked parts. The Anglesea cattle are larger and poarser 
 than the Pembrokes, and those of Merioneth and the higher districts 
 are smaller, and inferior to them in every respect. The county of 
 Gla-norgan. possesses a peculiar breed, bearing its name, which has 
 long been in estimation for combined grazing and dairy purposes. 
 It has latterly been so much encroached upon by Herefords and short- 
 horns that there seems some likelihood of its becoming extinct, 
 which will be cause for regret, unless pains are taken to occupy 
 its place with cattle not inferior to it in dairy qualities. - We con- 
 clude this rapid review of our native breeds by noticing the most 
 •inirul.ir of them all, viz.. 
 
 The Shetland cuUle, which are the most diminutive in the world. 
 
 The carcase of a Shetland cow, when fully fattened, scarcely exceed* 
 in weight that of a long-woolled wether. These little creatures are, 
 however, excellent milkers in proportion to their size ; they are very 
 hardy, are contented with the scantiest pasturage, come early to 
 maturity, are easily fattened, and their beef surpasses that of all 
 other breeds for tenderness and delicacy of flavour. The diminutive 
 cows of this breed are not unfrequently coupled with short-horn 
 bulls, and the progeny from such apparently preposterous unions 
 not only possess admirable fattening qualities, hut approximate in 
 bulk to their sires. These curious and handsome little creatures, 
 apparently ot Scandinavian origin, are so peculiarly fitted to the 
 circumstances of their bleak and stormy habitat, that the utmost 
 pains ought to be taken to preserve the breed m purity, and to 
 improve it by judicious treatment. 
 
 Section 2. — Farm Management of Cattle. 
 
 We snail now endeavour to describe the farm management 
 of this valuable class of animals, under the heads of breeding, 
 rearing, fattening, and dairy management. The proceedings 
 of those engaged in the breeding and rearing of cattle for 
 the production of beef are, however, largely determined by 
 the character of the soil and climate of particular districts 
 and farms. The occupiers of all comparatively fertile soils 
 carry forward to maturity such animals as they breed, and 
 dispose of them directly to the butcher. Those who are 
 less fortunately circumstanced in this respect advance their 
 young cattle to such a stage as the capabilities of their 
 farms admit of, and then transfer them to others, by whom 
 the fattening process is conducted. It cannot be too 
 strongly impressed upon those who ongage in this business 
 that it never can be profitable to breed inferior cattle ; or 
 (however good their quality) to suffer their growth to be 
 arrested by cold or hunger ; or to sell them in a lean state. 
 In selecting a breeding stock of cattle, the qualities to be 
 aimed at are a sound constitution and a symmetrical form; 
 aptitude to fatten, quiet .temper, and. large milk-yielding 
 power in the cows. As all these qualities are hereditary, 
 cattle are valuable for breeding purposes not merely in pro- 
 portion as they are developed in the individuals, but 
 according to the measure in which they are known to have 
 been possessed by their progenitors. A really good pedi- 
 gree adds therefore greatly to the value of breeding-stock. 
 It is doubtless important to have both parents good; but 
 in the case of ruminants, the predominating influence of 
 the male in determining the qualities of the progeny is so 
 well ascertained, that the selection of the bull is a matter 
 of prime importance. We are able to state, from 'ample 
 personal experience, that by using a bull that is at. once 
 good himself and of good descent, a level and valuable lot 
 of calves can be obtained from very indifferent cows. It is 
 indeed miserable economy to grudge the price of a good 
 bull Coarse, mis-shapen, unthrifty cattle cost just as much 
 for rearing and fattening as those of the best quality, and 
 yet may not be worth so much by £3 or £1 a-head when 
 they come ultimately to market. The loss which is 
 annually sustained from breeding inferior cattle is far 
 greater than those concerned seem to be aware of. It is 
 impossible to estimate this loss accurately, but from careful 
 observation and inquiry we are confident that it amounts 
 to not less than 50s. a-head on one-half of the fat cattle 
 annually slaughtered in Great Britain. If this be so, it 
 follows that without expending a farthing more than is 
 done at present on food, housing, and attendance, the profit 
 which would accrue from using only the best class of bulls 
 would be equivalent to an advance of Is. per stone in the 
 pnee of beef as regards half of the fat bullocks brought to 
 market. This profit could, moreover, be secured by a very 
 moderate outlay ; for if properly gone about, the best class 
 of bulls might be employed without adding more than 3s. 
 or 4s. a-head to the price of each calf reared. We may 
 surely anticipate that such a palpable source of profit will 
 not continue to be neglected by the breeders of cattle. 
 There are many instances in which landlords would find it
 
 :;)() 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 mucn for their interest to aid their tenantry in at once 
 procuring really good bulls. Cattle shows and prizes are 
 useful in their way as a means of improving the cattle of 
 a, district, but the introduction of an adequate number of 
 bulls from herds already highly improved is the way to 
 accomplish the desired end cheaply, certainly, and speedily. 
 We must here protest against a practice by which short- 
 horn bulls are very often prematurely unfitted for breeding. 
 Their tendency to obesity is so remarkable that unless they 
 are kept on short commons they become unwieldy and 
 unserviceable by their third or fourth year. Instead, how- 
 ever, of counteracting this tendency, the best animals are 
 usually " made up," as it is called, for exhibition at cattle 
 shows or for ostentatious display to visitors at home, and 
 the consequence is, that they are nuned for breeding pur- 
 poses. We rejoice to see that the directors of our national 
 agricultural societies are resolutely setting their faces 
 against this pernicious practice. It is needful certainly 
 that all young animals, although intended for breeding 
 stock, should be well fed, for without this they cannot 
 attain to their full size and development of form. But 
 when this is secured, care should be taken, in the case of 
 all breeding animals, never to exceed that degree of flesh 
 which is indispensable to perfect health and vigour. The 
 frequent occurrence of abortion or barrenness in high- 
 pedigreed herds seems chiefly attributable to overfeeding. 
 The farmer who engages in cattle-breeding with the view 
 of turning out a profitable lot of fat beasts annually) will 
 take pains first of all to provide a useful lot of cows, such 
 as will produce good calves, and if well fed while giving 
 milk will yield enough of it to keep two or three calves 
 a-piece. That he may be able to obtain a sufficient supply 
 of good calves he will keep a really good bull, and allow 
 the cottagers residing on the farm or in its neighbourhood 
 to send their cows to bim free of charge, stipulating only 
 that when they have a calf for sale he shall have the first 
 offer of it. 
 
 Cows are an expensive stock to keep, and it is therefore 
 of importance to turn their milk to the best account. It is 
 poor economy, however, to attempt to rear a greater number 
 of calves than can be done justice to. Seeing that they 
 are to be reared for the production of beef, the only pro- 
 fitable course is to feed them well from birth to maturity. 
 During the first, weeks of calf-hood the only suitable diet 
 is unadultered milk, warm from the cow, given three times 
 a-day, and not less than two quarts of it at each meal 
 By three weeks old they may be taught to eat good hay, 
 linseed cake, and sliced swedes. As the latter items of 
 diet are relished and freely eaten, the allowance of milk is 
 gradually diminished until about the twelfth week, when 
 it may bo finally withdrawn. The linseed cake is then 
 given more freely, and water put within their reach. For 
 the first sue weeks calves should be kept each in a separate 
 crib ; but) after this they are the better of having room to 
 frisk about. Their quarters, however, should be well 
 sheltered, as a comfortable degree of warmth greatly 
 promotes their growth. During their first summer they 
 do best to be soiled on vetches, clover, or Italian ryegrass, 
 with from 1 ft to 2 ft of cake to each calf daily. When 
 the green forage fails, white or yellow turnips aro substi- 
 tuted for it. A full allowance of these, with- abundance 
 of oat straw, and not less than 2 ft of cake daily, is the 
 appropriate fare for them during their first winter. Swedes 
 will be substituted for turnips during the months of spring, 
 •nd these ngain will give place in due time to green forage 
 or the best pasturage. The daily ration of cake should 
 never be withdrawn. It greatly promotes growth, fattening, 
 and general good health, and in particular is a specific 
 ajminst the disease called blackleg, which often proves so 
 fatal to young cattle. Young cattle that have been skil- 
 
 [live stock.- • 
 
 fully managed upon the system which we have cow 
 sketched, are at 18 months old already of great size, with 
 open horns, mellow hide, and all those other features which 
 indicate to the experienced grazier that they will grow and 
 fatten rapidly. This style of management is not only the 
 best for those who fatten 'as well as rear, but is also the 
 most profitable fo" those who rear only. 
 
 We hav6 already stated that in Scotland comparatively 
 few cattle are fattened on pasturage. An increasing 
 number of fat beasts are now prepared for market during 
 the summer months by soiling on green forage ; but it is 
 by means of the turnip crop, and during the winter months, 
 that this branch of husbandry is all but exclusively con- 
 ducted in the northern half of Great Britain. But a few 
 years ago the fattening of cattle on Tweedside and in the 
 Lothians was conducted almost exclusively in open courts, 
 with sheds on one or more sides, in which from two to 
 twenty animats were confined together, and fod on turnips 
 and straw alone. Important changes have now been in- 
 troduced, both as regards housing and feeding, by mean? 
 of which a great saving of food has been effected. Under 
 the former practice the cattle received as many turnips as 
 they could eat, which, for an average-sized two-year-old 
 bullock, was not less than 220 ft daily. The consequence 
 of this enormous consumption of watery food was, that for 
 the first month or two after being thus fed the animals 
 were kept in a state of habitual diarrhoea. Dry fodder 
 was, indeed, always placed within their reach; but as long 
 as they had the opportunity of taking their fill of turnips, 
 the dry straw was all but neglected. By stinting them to 
 about 100 ft of turnips daily, they can be compelled to 
 eat a large quantity of straw, and on this diet they thrive 
 faster than on turnips at will. A better plan, however, is 
 to render the fodder so palatable as to induce them to eat 
 it of choice. This can be done by grating down the tur- 
 nips by one or other of the pulping-machines now getting 
 into common use, and then mixing the grated turnip with 
 an equal quantity, by measure, of cut straw. Some persons 
 allow the food after being thus mixed to lie in a heap for 
 two days, so that fermentation may ensue before it is given 
 to the cattle. There is, however, a preponderance of 
 evidence in favour of using it fresh To this mess can 
 conveniently be added an allowance of ground cake, whether 
 of linseed, rape, or cotton seed, and of meal of any kind of 
 grain which the farmer finds it most economical at the 
 time to use. The ground cake and meal are, in this case, 
 to be thoroughly mixed with the pulped turnip and cut 
 straw. The same end can be accomplished by giving a 
 moderate feed (say 50 lb) of sliced roots twice a-day, and 
 four hours after each of these meals, another, consisting of 
 cut straw, cake, and meaL In this case the chaff and 
 farinaceous ingredients should be mixed and cooked by 
 steam in a close vessel; or the meal can be boiled in an 
 open kettle, with water enough to make it of the consistency 
 of gruel, and then poured over the chaff, mixed thoroughly 
 with itr, and allowed to lie in a heap for two or three houre 
 before it is served out to the cattle. From 2 to 4 ft of 
 meal, <fcc, a-head per diem is enough to begin with. But 
 as the fattening process goes on it is gradually increased, 
 and may rise to 7 or 8 ft during the last month before 
 sending to market. It is advisable to mix with the cooked 
 mess about 2 ounces of salt per diem for each bullock. 
 An important recommendation to this mode of preparing 
 cattle food is, that it enables the farmer to use rape-cake 
 freely ; for when this article ik reduced to a coarse powder, 
 and heated to the boiling point, it not only loses its acrid 
 qualities, but acquires a smell and flavour which induce 
 cattle tcaat it greedily. Moreover, if the rape-seeds should 
 have been adulterated with those of wild mustard before 
 going to tbe crushing-mill (as not unfrequently bappenB),
 
 jflEEP.l 
 
 A. a & I C CT L T U R E 
 
 391 
 
 ind a cake is thus produced which in its raw state is 
 poisonous- to cattle, it has been ascertained that boiling 
 deprives such spurious cake of its hurtful qualities and 
 renders it safe and wholesome. As rape-cake possesses 
 fattening elements equal to those of linseed-cake, and can 
 usually be bought at half the price, it is well worth while 
 to have recourse to a process by which it can so easily be 
 rendered, a palatable and nourishing food for cattle. 
 
 Fattening cattle are usually allowed to remain in the 
 pastures to. a later date in autumn than is profitable. The 
 pressure of harvest work, or the immature state of his 
 turnip crop, often induces the farmer to delay housing his 
 bullocks until long after they have ceased to make progress 
 on grass. They may still have a full bite on their pastures ; 
 but the lengthening nights and lowering temperature lessen 
 the nutritive quality of the herbage, and arrest the further 
 accumulation of fat and flesh. The hair of the cattle begins 
 ilso to grow rapidly as the nights get -chilly, and causes 
 ciiem to-be housed with rougher coats than are then ex- 
 pedient. To avoid these evils the farmer should early in 
 August begin to spread on the pasture a daily feed of green 
 forage, consisting of vetches, peas, and beans grown in 
 mixture in about equal proportions, which if well podded 
 and full of soft pulse, supplies exactly the kind of food 
 required to compensate for the deteriorating pasturage. 
 Early in September cabbages and white globe turnips should 
 be given on the pasture in lieu of the green forage. After 
 ten days or so of this treatment they should be transferred 
 to their winter quarters. For the first two months after 
 they go into winter quarters they make as good progress on 
 yellow turnips as on any kind of roots ; for the three 
 following months well stored' swedes are the best food for 
 them.; and from the beginning of March until the end of 
 the season, mangolds and potatoes, in the proportion of 
 four parts of the former to one of the latter. The chaff 
 of wheat, oats, or beans, if tolerably free from dust, is quite 
 is suitable as cut straw for mixing with the pulped roots 
 and cooked food. The addition of a small quantity of 
 chopped hay, or of the husks of kiln-dried oats, to the 
 other food, usually induces cattle to feed more eagerly. In 
 short, the animals must be closely watched, and occasional 
 variations made in the quantity and quality of the food i 
 given to particular individuals or of the general lot as their | 
 circumstances may require. Besides the food given in the ' 
 manger it is desirable that each animal should receive a 
 daily allowance of fresh oat straw in a rack to which he 
 has access at pleasure. 
 
 A better appreciation of the effects of. temperature on the 
 animal economy has of late years exerted a beneficial influ- 
 ence upon the treatment of fattening cattle. Observant 
 farmers have long been aware 'that their cattle, when kept 
 dry and moderately warm, eat less and thrive faster than 
 under opposite conditions. They accounted for this in a 
 vague way by attributing it to their greater comfort in such 
 circumstances, .ocientific meu have now, however, showed 
 us that a considerable portion of the food- consumed by 
 warm-blooded animals is expended in maintaining the 
 natural heat of their bodies, and that the portion of food 
 thus disposed of is dissipated by a process so closely an- 
 alogous to combustion that it may fitly be regarded as -so- 
 much fueL The fat which, in favourable circumstances, 
 is accumulated in their bodies, may iD like manner be 
 regarded as a store of this fuel laid up tor future emer- 
 gencies. The knowledge of this fact enables us to under- 
 stand how largely the profit to be derived from the fattening 
 of cattle is dependent upon the manner in which they 
 are housed, and necessarily forms an important element in 
 deter mi ni n g the question whether yards, stalls, or boxes 
 are best adapted for this pT^pose. A really good system 
 of housing must combine the folio wing conditions : — 
 
 1st, Facilities for supplying food and litter, and for re- 
 moving dung with tho utmost economy of iiine and labour, 
 
 2d, Complete freedom from disturbance , 
 
 3d, A moderate and unvarying degree of warmth j 
 
 4tn, A constant supply of pure air , 
 
 5th, Opportunity for the cattle having a slight degre, 
 of exercise ; and 
 
 6th, The production of manure of the best quality. 
 
 We have no hesitation in expressing our opinion that 
 the whole of these conditions are attained most fully by 
 means of well-arranged and well-ventilated boxes! Stall; 
 are to be preferred where the saving of litter is an object, 
 and yards for the rearing of young cattle, which require 
 more exercise than is suitable for fattening stock. These 
 yards are now, however, in the most improved modem 
 homesteads, wholly roofed over, and thus combine the good 
 qualities of both yard and box. 
 
 CHAPTER XVTL 
 
 LITE STOCK — SHEEP. 
 
 When Fitzherbert so long ago said, " Sheep is the most 
 prontablest cattle that a man can have," he expressed an 
 opinion in which agriculturists of the present day fully 
 concur. But if this was true of the flocks of •his time, 
 how much more of the many admirable breeds which now 
 cover the rich pastures, the grassy downs, and the heath- 
 clad mountains of our country. . Their flesh is in high 
 estimation with all classes of the community, and con- 
 stitutes at least one-half of all the butcher meat consumed 
 by them. Their fleeces supply the raw material for one of 
 our most flourishing manufactures. They furnish to the 
 farmer an important source of revenue, and the readiest 
 means of maintaining the fertility of his fields. 
 
 Section 1. — Breeds, 
 
 The distinct breeds and sub-varieties of sheep found in 
 Great Britain are very ifumerous. We have no intention 
 of describing them in detail, but shall confine our observa- 
 tions to those breeds which by common consent are the 
 most valuable for their respective appropriate habitats. 
 They may be fitly classed under three heads — viz., the heavy 
 breeds of the plains, those adapted for downs' and similai 
 localities, and the mountain breeds. 
 
 1st. — Heavy Breeds. 
 
 Of the first class, the -improved Leicesters are Btill the 
 most important to the country. They are more widely 
 diffused in- the kingdom than any of their congeners. 
 Although, from the altered taste of the community, their 
 mutton is less esteemed than formerly, they still constitute 
 the staple breed of the midland counties of England. 
 Leicester rams are also more in demand than ever foi 
 crossing with other breeds. It is now about a century 
 since this breed was produced by the genius and persever- 
 ence of Bakewell, in whose hands they attained a degree 
 of excellence that has probably not yet been exceeded hj 
 the many who have cultivated them since his day. Thf 
 characteristics of this breed are extreme docility, extra- 
 ordinary aptitude to fatten, and the early age at which they 
 come to maturity. The most marked feature in their 
 structure is the smallness of their heads, and of their bones 
 generally, as contrasted with their weight of carcase. They 
 are clean in the jaws, with a full eye, thin ears, and placid 
 countenance. Their backs are straight, broad, and flat, 
 the ribs arched, the belly carried very light, so that the> 
 present nearly as straight a line below as above ; the chest 
 is" wiuc. the skin very mellow, and covered with a beautiful 
 fieece of long, soft wool, which weighs on the average from 
 6 to 7 It). On good soils and under careful treatment
 
 392 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [live stock — 
 
 these sheep are currently brought to weigh from 18 to 20 
 lb per quarter at 1 4 months old, at which age they are now 
 usually slaughtered. At this age their flesh is tender and 
 juicy ; but whon feeding is carried on till they are older and 
 heavier, fat accumulates so unduly as to detract from the 
 palatableness and market value of the mutton. 
 
 Lincolns. — These were at one time very large, ungainly animals, 
 with an immense fleece of very long wool. By crossing them with 
 the Leicesters the character of the breed has been entirely changed, 
 and very greatly for the better. It is now, in fact, a sub-variety of 
 the Leicester, with larger frame and heavier fleece than the pure 
 breed. Their wool, however, retains its distinctive characteristics — 
 viz., great length of staple, an unctuous feeling, and, in particular, 
 a brightness or lustre which adds largely to its value. Sheep of 
 this kind are reared in immense numbers on the wolds and heaths of 
 Lincolnshire, and are sold when about a vear old in the wool, and in 
 very forward condition, to the graziers of the fens and marshes, who 
 ultimately bring them to very great weights. 
 
 Cotswolds, sometimes called Glo'sters or New Oxfords, are also 
 large and long-woolled sheep, with good figure and portly -gait. 
 Great improvement has been effected in this breed during the last 
 SO years, in consequence of which they are rising rapidly in public 
 estimation. The qualities for which they are prized are their hardi- 
 ness, docility, rapid growth, aptitude to fatten, and the great weight 
 to which they attain. Their chief defect is that they yield mutton 
 somewhat coarse in the grain and with an undue preponderance of 
 fat. But in addition to their great merits as a pure breed they are 
 especially valuable for the purpose of crossing with Downs and other 
 short-wooUed sheep. Of this we shall speak more particularly when 
 we come to notice the Cross-breeds. 
 
 Tecsnoalers. — This breed, found formerly in the vale of the Tees, 
 ased to have the reputation of being one of the largest and heaviest 
 of our native breeds. They had lighter fleeces than the old Lincolns, 
 ■ but greater aptitude to fatten. Like them, however,*they have been 
 so blended with Leicester blood as.to have lost their former charac- 
 teristics. As now met with, they constitute simply a sub-variety 
 of the latter breed. 
 
 The Kents or Romney Marsh Sheep, are another distinct long- 
 woolled breed which have much in common with the old Lincolns, 
 although they never equalled them either in the weight or quality 
 of their fleece. They too have been much modified by a largo 
 infusion of Leicester blood ; but as their distinctive qualities fit them 
 well for a bleak and humid habitat, there is now an aversion to risk 
 these by further crossing. As they now exist they are a great 
 improvement upon the old breed of the Kentish marshes ; and this, 
 in the first instance at least, was the result of crossing rather than 
 selection. 
 
 2d. — Down and Forest Breeds. 
 
 The breeds peculiar to our chalky downs and other 
 pastures of medium elevation next claim our notice. 
 
 Southdowns.— Not long after Robert Bakewell had begun, with 
 admirable skill and perseverance, to bring to perfection his celebrated 
 Leicesters, which, as we have seen, have either superseded or totally 
 altered the character of all the heavy breeds of the country, another 
 breeder, Mr John Ellman of Glynde, in Sussex, equal to Bakewell 
 in judgment, perseverance, and zeal, and wholly devoid of his 
 illiberal prejudice and narrow selfishness, addressed himself to the 
 task of improving the native sheep of the downs, and succeeded in 
 bringing them to as great perfection, with respect to early maturity 
 and fattening power, as they are perhaps susceptible of. Like 
 Bakewell, he early began the practice of letting out rams for hire. 
 These were soon eagerly sought after, and the qualities of his 
 improved flock being rapidlv communicated to others, the whole race 
 of down sheep has more or less become assimilated to their standard. 
 These improved Southdowns have, in fact, been to all the old forest 
 and other fine-woolled breeds what the Leicesters have been to their 
 congeners. Many of them have entirely disappeared, and others 
 only survive in those modifications of the improved Southdown 
 type which are to be found in particular localities. These down 
 steep possess certain well-marked features which distinguish them 
 from all other breeds. They have a close-set fleece of fine wool, 
 weighing, when the »T)im»1a are well fed, about 4 lb. ; their faces 
 and legs are of a dusky brown colour, their neck slightly arched, 
 their limbs short, their carcase broad and compact, their offal light, 
 and their bnttocks very thick and square behind. They are less 
 impatient of folding, and suffer less from a pasture being thickly 
 stocked with them than any other breed It is in connection with 
 this breed that the practice of folding as a means of manuring the 
 soil is so largely earned out in the chalk districts of England. It is 
 well ascertained that the injury done to a flock by this practice 
 exceeds the benefit conferred on the crops. Now that portable 
 manures arc 80 abundant, it is to b* hoped that this pernicious 
 practice of using sheep as mere muck machines will be everywhere 
 abandoned. 
 
 These sheep are now usually classed as Sussex Downs and Hamp- 
 shire Downs, the former being the most refined type of the class, 
 both as regards wool and carcase, and the latter, as compared with 
 them, having a heavier fleece, stronger bone, and somewhat coarser 
 and larger frame. 
 
 The Shropshire sheep, while partaking of the general character- 
 istics of the Southdown, is so much heavier both (in fleece and 
 carcase, and is altogether so much more robust an animal, that it now 
 claims to be ranked as a separate breed. The qualities just referred 
 to as distinguishing it from other downs seem, however, to be the 
 result of selection rather than of crossing with other breeds, and tbu» 
 the Shropshire sheep, while a pure down, is yet of so distinct a 
 type from the high-bred "Southdown," that it is well entitled to be 
 recognised as a distinct and very valuable breed, as has been done 
 by the Royal Society, which now assigns it a separate class at its- 
 annual meetings. Shropshire rams are eagerly sought after, and 
 many breeders of eminence in that county nave now their annual 
 sales of these animals. 
 
 These breeds are peculiarly adapted for all those parts of England 
 where low grassy hills occur, interspersed with, or in proximity to, 
 arable land. In such situations they are prolific, hardy, and easily 
 fattened at an early age. It is to their peculiar adaptation'-for cross- 
 ing with the long-woolled breeds that they are indebted for their 
 recent and rapid extension to other districts. 
 
 Dorsets. — This breed has from time immemorial been naturalised 
 in the county of Dorset and adjacent parts. They are a white-faced, 
 horned breed, with fine wool, weighing about 4 lb per fleece. They 
 are a hardy and docile race of sheep, of good size, and fair quality 
 of mutton. But the property which distinguishes them from every 
 other breed in Great Britain is the fecundity of the ewes, and their 
 readiness to receive the male at an early season. They have 
 even been known ta yean, twice in the same year. Being, in addition 
 to this, excellent nurses, they have long been in use for rearing 
 house lamb for the London market. For this purpose the rams are 
 put to them early in June, so that the lambs are brought forth in 
 October, and are ready for market by Christmas. But for this 
 peculiarity, they would ere now have shared the fate of bo many 
 other native breeds, which have given place either to the Leicester* 
 or Southdowns, according to the nature of the pastures. So long, 
 however, as the rearing of early house lamb is found profitable, there- 
 is a sufficient inducement to preserve the Dorset breed in their purity, 
 as they are unique in their property of early yeaning. 
 
 3d. — Mountain Breeds. 
 
 Cheviots. — As wo approach and cross the Scottish border we find 
 a range of hills covered with coarser herbage than the chalky downs 
 of the south, and with a climate considerably more rigorous. Here- 
 the Southdown sheep have been tried with but indifl'ercnt success. 
 This, however, is not to be regretted, seeing that the native Cheviot 
 breed rivals them in most of their good qualities, and possesses in. 
 addition a hardihood equal to the necessities of the climate. This 
 breed, besides occupying the grassy hills of the border counties, ia 
 now found in great force in the north and west Highlands of Scot- 
 land. In the counties of Sutherland and Caithness, where they 
 were introduced by the late Sir John Sinclair, they have thriven 
 amazingly, and in the hands of some spirited breeders have attained 
 to as great perfection' as in their native district. During the last 
 30 years this breed has undergone very great improvement in size, 
 figure, weight of fleece, and aptitude to fatten. In proof of this, it 
 is enough to mention that Cheviot wether lambs are now in the 
 border counties brought to market when weaned, and are transferred 
 to the low country graziers, by whom they are sent fat to the butcher 
 at sixteen months old, weighing then from 1 6 to 1 8 lb per quarter. 
 This is particularly the case in Cumberland, where Cheviot lambs' 
 are preferred to all other breeds by the" low-country farmers, by 
 whom they are managed with great skill and success. It is not at 
 all unusual with them to realise an increase of from 20s. to 25s. per 
 head on the purchase price of these lambs, after a twelvemonth's 
 keep. This fact is peculiarly interesting from the proof which it 
 affords of a hitherto unsuspected capacity in Cheviots, and probably 
 in other upland breeds, to attain to a profitaUe degree of fatness and 
 weight of carcase at almost as early an age as the lowland breeds 
 when the same attention and liberal feeding is bestowed upon them. 
 There is no breed equally well adapted for elevated pastures, con- 
 sisting of the coarser grasses with a mixture of heath ; but when- 
 ever, from the nature of the soil or greater elevation, the heaths un- 
 mistakably predominate, a still hardier race is to be preferred, viz. — 
 
 The Blackfaced or Heath Breed.— They are accordingly found on 
 the mountainous parts of Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cumberland, and 
 Westmoreland ; over the whole of the Lammermuir range, the upper 
 part of Lanarkshire, and generally over the H ighlands of Scotland. 
 Both male and female of this breed have horns, which in the former 
 are very large and spirally twisted. The face and legs are black or 
 specked with black, with an occasional tendency to this colour on, 
 tne fleece ; but there is nothing of the brown or russet colour which 
 distinguishes the down breeds. The choicest flocks of these sheep
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
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 ENCYCLOPEDIA. BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION.
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
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 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRUANNtCA. NINTH EDITION
 
 SHEEP. 1 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 393 
 
 are found in Lanarkshire and in the Lammermuirs, where consider- 
 able pains are now bestowed on their improvement. Their chief 
 defects are coarseness of fleece and slowness of fattening until their 
 growth is matured. In most flocks the wool, besides being open 
 and coarse in the staple, is mixed with Jcemps or hairs, which detract 
 from its value. Rams with this defect are now carefully avoided 
 by the best breeders, who prefer those with black faces, a mealy 
 mouth, a slight tuft of fine wool on the forehead, horns fiat, not 
 very large, and growing well out from the head, with a thickset 
 fleece oflong, wavy, white wool. Greater attention is now also being 
 paid to their improvement in regard to fattening tendency ; in which 
 respect we do not despair of seeing them brought nearer to a par 
 with other improved breeds. Whenever this is accomplished we 
 shall possess in the breeds now enumerated, and their crosses, the 
 means of converting the produce of our fertile plains, grassy downs, 
 rough upland pastures, and heath-clad mountains, into wool and 
 mutton of the best quality, and with the utmost economy of which 
 the circumstances admit. 
 
 In the higher grounds of Cumberland, and also in 'Westmoreland, 
 Lancashire, and part3 of Yorkshire, two varieties of the heath breed 
 of sheep are found, viz., He r dwicks and Lonks — which, witha general 
 resemblance to the blackfaced Highland breed, differ from it in 
 having a close-set fleece of fine soft wool. They are sometimes de- 
 scribed by saying that they have ' ' the fleece of a Cheviot on the car- 
 case of a Highlander ;" but the Herdwicks are so small, and both 
 breeds are so inferior to the blackfaced in aptitude to fatten, that 
 they are losing ground in their native districts, where the blackfaces 
 are spreading rapidly, being in great repute for breeding ^crosses to 
 long-woolled rams. 
 
 4th. — Crois-Breedt. 
 
 We have thus enumerated the most important of our 
 pure breeds of sheep, but our list would be defeotive were 
 we to omit those cross-breeds which are acquiring increased 
 importance every day. With the extended cultivation of 
 turnips and other green crops there has arisen an increased 
 demand for sheep to consume them. Flockmasters in 
 upland districts, stimulated by this demand, happily be- 
 thought them of putting rams of the improved low-country 
 breeds to their Cheviot ewes, when it was discovered that 
 the lamb3 produced from this' cross, if taken to the low 
 country as soon as weaned, could be fattened nearly as 
 quickly, and brought to nearly as good weights, as the 
 pure low-country breeds. The comparatively low prime 
 cost of these cross-bred lambs is a farther recommendation 
 to the grazier, who finds also that their mutton, partaking 
 at once of the fatness of the one parent and of the juiciness, 
 high flavour, and larger proportion of lean flesh of the 
 other, is more generally acceptable to consumers than any 
 other kind, and can always be sold at the best price of the 
 day. The wool, moreover, of these crosses, being at once 
 long and fine in the staple, is peculiarly adapted for the 
 manufacture of a class of fabrics now much in demand, anol 
 brings in consequence the best price of any British-grown 
 wooL The individual fleeces, from being close set in the 
 pile, weigh nearly as much as those of the pure Leicesters. 
 On all these accounts, therefore, the3e sheep of mixed blood 
 have risen rapidly in public estimation, and are produced 
 in ever-increasing numbers. This is accomplished in several 
 ways. The occupiers of uplying grazings in some cases 
 keep part of their ewe flock pure, 'and breed crosses from 
 another part. They sell the whole of their cross-bred 
 lambs, and get as many females from the other portion as 
 keeps up the number of their breeding flock. This system 
 of crossing cannot be pursued on the most elevated farms, 
 as ewes bearing these heavier crossed lambs require better 
 fare than when coupled with rams of their own raee. The 
 surplus ewe lambs from such high-lying grazings are an 
 available source of supply to those of a lower range, and 
 are eagerly sought after for this purpose.. Others, however, 
 take a bolder course. Selecting a few of the cjjpicest pure 
 Cheviot ewes which they can find, and putting these to a 
 first-rate Leicester ram, they thus obtain a supply of cams 
 of the first cross, and putting these to ewes, also of the first 
 cross, manage in this way to have their entire flock half- 
 jred, and to go on continuously with their own stock. 
 
 without advancing beyond a first cross. They, however, 
 never keep rams from such crossed parentage, but always 
 select them from the issue of parents each genuine of their 
 respective races. We know several large farms on which 
 flocks of crosses betwixt the Cheviot ewe and Leicester ram 
 have been maintained in this way for many years with 
 entire success ; and one at least in which a similar cross 
 with Southdown ewe3 has equally prospered. Many, how- 
 ever, prefer buying in females of this first cross K and 
 coupling them again with pure Leicester rams. In one or 
 other of these ways cross-bred flocks are increasing on 
 every sida So much has the system spread in Berwick- 
 shire, that whereas, in our memory, pure Leicesters were 
 the prevailing breed of the county, they are now confined 
 to a few ram-breeding flocks. The cross-breed in best 
 estimation in England is that betwixt the Cotswold and 
 Southdown, which is in such high repute that it is virtually 
 established as a separate breed under the name of Oxford 
 Downs. In Scotland the cross betwixt the Leicester ram and 
 Cheviot ewe is that which seems best adapted to the climate 
 and other conditions of the country, and is that accordingly 
 which is most resorted to on farms a portion of which is in 
 tillage. On higher grounds a cross betwixt the Cheviot ram 
 and blackfaced ewe is in good estimation, and has been 
 extending considerably in recent ysws. This cross-breed 
 seems to equal the pure blackfaced in hardiness, and is of 
 considerably greater value both, in fleece and carcase. 
 This cross-breed is known by thooame of Halflangs. As 
 in the case of the Leicester-Cheviot ewes, flocks are main- 
 tained by using rams of the cross-breed. 
 
 Section 2. — ^Management of Lowland Sheep. 
 
 As the management of sheep is influenced mainly by the> 
 nature of the lands upon which they are kept, we shall 
 first describe the practice of Lowland flockmasters, and 
 afterwards that pursued on Highland sheep-walks. 
 
 On arable farms, where turnips are grown and a breeding 
 stock of sheep regularly kept, it is usual to wean the lambs 
 about the middle of July. When this has been done, the 
 aged and faulty ewes are drafted out, and put upon good 
 aftermath or other succulent food, that they may be got 
 ready for market as soon as possible. In many districts it 
 is the practice to take but three crops of lambs from each 
 ewe. A third part of the breeding flock — viz., the four- 
 year-old ewes — is thus drafted off every autumn, and their 
 places supplied by the introduction of a corresponding 
 number of the best of the ewe-lambs of the preceding year's 
 crop. These cast or draft ewes are then sold to the occu- 
 piers of richer soils in populous districts, who keep then 
 for another season to feed fat lambs. Such parties buy in 
 a fresh stock of ewes every autumn, and, as they phrase it, 
 " feed lamb and dam." In other cases the ewes are kept 
 as long as their teeth continue sound, and after that they 
 are fattened and sold to the butcher directly from the farm 
 on which they have been reared. When the ewes that are 
 retained for breeding stock have been thus overhauled, they 
 are put to the worst pasture on the farm, and run rather 
 thickly upon it. Attention is necessary, for some dayB 
 after weaning, to see that noneof them suffer from gorging 
 of the udder. When it appears very turgid in any of them, 
 they are caught and partially milked by hand ; but usually 
 the change to poorer pasturage, aided by their restlessness 
 and bleating for want of their lambs, at once arrests the 
 flow of milk.' The time of admitting the ram is regulateo 
 by the purpose for which the flock is kept, and by the date 
 at which fresh green food can be reckoned upon in spring 
 When the produco is to be disposed of as fat lambs, it L 
 of course an object to have them early ; but for a holding 
 stock, to be reared and fattened at fourteen to sixteen
 
 304 
 
 AGRICULTU 11 £ 
 
 [uVK STOCS.->, 
 
 months old, from 20th September to 20th October, accord- 
 ing to the climate of tho particular locality, is a usual time 
 for admitting rams to ewes. A few weeks beforo this 
 takes place tho ewes are removed from bare pasture, and 
 put on the freshest that the farm affords, or, better still, on 
 rape ; failing which one good feed of white turnips per 
 diem is carfed and spread on their pastures, or the ewes 
 are folded for part of the day on growing turnips. The 
 rams are turned in amongst them just when-this better 
 fare has begun to tell in their improving appearance, as it 
 is found that in such circumstances they come in heat 
 more rapidly, and with a greatly increased likelihood of 
 conceiving twins. On level ground, and with modorate- 
 tdzed enclosures, one ram suffices for sixty ewes ; but it is 
 bad economy "to overtask the rams, and one to forty ewes 
 is better practice. Sometimes a large lot of ewes are kept 
 in one flock, and several rams, at the above proportion, 
 turned among them promiscuously. It is better, however, 
 when they can be placed in separate lots. The breasts of 
 tho rams are rubbed with ruddle, that the shepherd may 
 know what they are about. Those who themselves breed 
 rams, or others who hire in what they use at high prices, 
 have recourse to a different plan for the purpose of getting 
 more service from each male, and of knowing exactly when 
 each ewe may be expected to lamb ; and also of putting 
 each ewe to the ram most suitable to her in point of size, 
 figure, and quality of flesh and fleece. The rams in this 
 case are kept in pens in a small enclosure. What is techni- 
 cally called a teaser is turned among the general flock of 
 ewes, which, on being seen to be in heat, are brought up 
 and put to the ram that is selected for them. They are 
 then numbered, and a note kept of the date, or othei (vise 
 a common mark, varied for each successive week, is put on 
 all as they come up. The more usual practice is to mark 
 the breast of the ram with ruddle, as already described, for 
 the first seventeen days that they are among the ewes — 
 that being the time of the periodic recurrence of the heat 
 — and then to use soot instead. When lambing-time 
 draws near, the red-rumped ewes, or those that conceived 
 from the first copulation, are brought into the fold, and 
 the remainder after the lapse of the proper interval. If 
 all goes on well, six weeks is long enough for the rams to 
 remain with the flock. The ewes are then put to more 
 moderate fare, taking care, however, not to pinch them, 
 but to preserve the due medium betwixt fatness and 
 poverty. Under the first-mentioned extreme there is 
 great risk of losing both ewe and Iamb at the time of 
 parturition ; and under the second, of the ewe shedding 
 her wool, and being unable to nourish her lamb properly 
 either before its birth or after. When there is a consider- 
 able breadth of grass-land, the grit or in-lamb ewes are run 
 thinly upon it so long as the weather continues moderate. 
 As the pasturage fails or winter weather sets in, they 
 receive a daily feed of turnips or hay, or part of both. In 
 districts where the four-course rotation is pursued, and 
 wheat sown after seeds, there is a necessity for keeping tho 
 swes wholly on turnips and chopped hay or straw. In 
 this case they are made to follow the fattening sheep, and 
 to eat up their scraps, an arrangement which is suitable 
 for both lots. A recently-introduced practice is better 
 still — namely, to feed the ewes at this season on a mixture 
 of one part by measure of pulped turnips or mangel-wurzel 
 to two of chopped straw, which is served out to them in 
 troughs set down in their pastures. From the large 
 quantity of straw which ewes are thus induced to eat, they 
 can be allowed to take their fill of this mixture, and bo 
 kept in a satisfied and thriving state with a very moderate 
 allowance of roots. As their time to lamb draws near, the 
 mess should be made more nourishing by adding to it 
 ground r^pe-cake, beaa-meal, and bran, at the rate of 
 
 from Jth to Jd of a pound of each of these articles to each 
 ewe daily. 
 
 The period of gestation in the ewe is twenty-one weeks. 
 No lambs that are born more than twelve days short ol 
 this period survive. Before any lambs are expected to 
 arrive a comfortable fold is provided, into which either the 
 entire flock of ewes, or those that by their markings are 
 known to lamb first, are brought every night. This fold, 
 which may either be a permanent erection or fitted up 
 annually for the occasion, is provided all round with 
 separate pens or cribs of size enough to accommodate a 
 single ewe with her lamb or pair. The pasture or turnip 
 fold to which the flock is turned by day is also furnished 
 with several temporary but well-sheltered cribs, for the 
 reception of such ewes as lamb during the day. It is of 
 especial consequence that ewes producing twins be at once 
 consigned to a separate apartment, as, if left in the crowd, 
 they frequently lose sight of one lamb, and may refuse to 
 own it when restored to them, even after a very short 
 separation. Some ewes will make a favourite of one lamb, 
 and wholly repudiate the other, even when due tare has 
 been taken to keep them together from the first. In this- 
 caso the favourite must either be separated from her or be 
 muzzled with a piece of network, to prevent it from getting 
 more than its share of the milk in the shepherd's absence. 
 Indeed the maternal affection seems much dependent on 
 the flow of milk, as ewes with a ■ well-filled udder seldom 
 trouble the shepherd by such capricious partialities. As 
 soon as the lambs have got fairly afcot, their dams are 
 turned with them into the most forward piece of seeds, or 
 to rape, rye, winter-oats, or water-meadow, the great point 
 being to have abundance of succulent green food for the 
 ewes as soon as they lamb. Without this they cannot yield 
 milk abundantly, and without plenty of milk it is im 
 possible to have good lambs. It is sometimes necessary to 
 aid a lamb that has a poor nurse with cow's milk. This is 
 at best a poor alternative ; but if it must be resorted to, 
 it is only the milk of a farrow cow, or at least of one thai 
 has been calved six months, that is at all fit for this pur- 
 pose. To give the milk of a recently-calved cow to a young 
 lamb is usually equivalent to knocking it on the head. 
 Ewe milk is poor in butter, but very rich in curd, which 
 is known to be also in a measure the character of that 
 of cows that have been long calved and are not again 
 pregnant We have found the Aberdeen yellow bullock 
 turnip the best for pregnant and nursing ewes. Mangel- 
 wurzel is much approved of by the flockmasters of the 
 southern counties for the same purpose. It is of impor- 
 tance at this season to remove at once from the fold and 
 pens all dead lambs, and filth of every kind, the presence 
 of putrefying matter being most hurtful to the flock. 
 Should a case of puerperal fever occur, the shepherd must 
 scrupulously avoid touching the ewe so affected ; or if he 
 has done so, some one should take his accoucheur duties 
 for a few days, as this deadly malady is highly contagiouc, 
 and is often unconsciously communicated to numbers of 
 the flock by the shepherd's hands. Unnecessary inter- 
 ference with ewes during parturition is much to be depre- 
 cated. When the presentation is all right, it is best to 
 leave them as much as possible to their natural efforts. 
 When a false presentation does occur, the shepherd must 
 endeavour to rectify it by gently introducing" his hand after 
 first lubricating it with fresh lard or olive-oil The less 
 dogging or disturbance of any kind that ewes receive during 
 pregnancy the less risk is there of unnatural presentations. 
 As soon as lambs are brought forth tho shepherd must 
 give them suck. When they have once got a bellyful, and 
 are protected from wet or excessive cold for two or three 
 days, there is no fear of their taking harm from ordinary 
 weather, provided only that the ewes have plenty ci suitr
 
 SHEEP.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 395 
 
 able food. Lanibs are castrated, docked, and ear-marked, 
 with least risk when about ten days old. Ewes with lambs 
 must have good and clean pasturage throughout the sum- 
 mer. .For this purpose they must either be run thinly 
 among cattle or have two or more "enclosures, one of which 
 may always be getting clean and fresh for their reception 
 as the other gets bare and soiled. We have not found any 
 advantage in allowing lambs yeaned in March to run with 
 their dams beyond 20th July. A clover eddish or other 
 perfectly clean pasture i3 the most suitable for newly- 
 weaned lambs. Such as abound in tath, as it is called in 
 Scotland — that is, rank herbage growing above the drop- 
 pings of sheep or other animals — are peculiarly noxious to 
 them. Folding upon rape or vetches suits them admirably, 
 so that fresh supplies are given regularly as required. 
 Sheep, when folded on green rye or vetches, require a good 
 deal of water, and will not thrive unless this is supplied to 
 them. 
 
 All sheep are liable to be infested with certain vermin, 
 especially "fags" or "kaids" (Melopfiagus ovinus) and 
 lice. To rid them of these parasites various means are 
 resorted to. Some farmers use mercurial ointment, 
 which is applied by parting the wool, and then with the 
 finger rubbing the ointment on the skin, in three or four 
 longitudinal seams on each side, and a few shorter ones on 
 the neck, belly, legs, &c. Those who use this salve dress 
 their lambs with it immediately after shearing their ewes, 
 and again just before putting them on turnips. More 
 frequently the sheep are immersed, all but their heads, in 
 a bath in which arsenic and other ingredients are dissolved. 
 On being Lifted out of the bath, the animal is laid on spars, 
 over a shallow vessel so placed that the superfluous liquor, 
 as it is wrung out of the fleece, flows back into the bath. 
 If this is done when the ewes are newly shorn, the liquor 
 goes farther than when the process is deferred until the 
 lambs are larger and their wool longer. It is a good practice 
 to souse the newly-shorn ewes, and indeed the whole flock 
 at the same time, in a similar bath, so as to rid them all 
 of vermin. 1 
 
 As turnips constitute the staple winter fare of sheep, it 
 is necessary to have a portion of these sown in time to be 
 fit for use m September. Young sheep always show a 
 reluctance to take to this very succulent food, and should 
 therefore be put upon it so early in autumn that they may 
 get thoroughly reconciled to it while the weather is yet 
 temperate. Rape or cabbage suits admirably as tran- 
 6itionaiy food from grass to turnips. When this trans- 
 ference from summer to winter fare is well managed, they 
 usually make rapid progress during October and November. 
 Some farmers recommend giving the hoggets, as they are 
 now called, a daily run off from the turnip-fold to a neigh- 
 bouring pasture for the first few weeks after their being 
 put to this diet. We have found it decidedly better to 
 keep them steadily in the turnip-fold from the very first. 
 When they are once taught to look for thi°, daily enlarge- 
 ment, they become impatient for it, and do not settle quietly 
 to their food. If possible, not more than 200 should be 
 kept in one lot. The youngest and weakest sheep should 
 also have a separate berth and more generous treatment 
 Turnips being 1 a more watery food than saeep naturally 
 feed upon, there is great advantage in- giv-ng them from 
 the first, along with turnips, a liberal allowance of clover 
 hay cut into half-inch chaff. When given in this form, in 
 suitable troughs and in regular feeds, they will eat up the 
 whole without waste, and be greatly the better for it To 
 
 1 The mercurial and arsenical salves and washes commonly in use 
 are believed often to have a hortfol effect on the health of the flocks 
 to which they- are applied, and have sometimes caused very serious 
 losses. Having used Ma<-d^u£raU's dip (a preparation of carbolic acid; 
 Cor mar-y v^ws "" <"an testify to its efficacy and safety. 
 
 economise the hay, equal parts of good oat straw may to 
 cut up»with it, and will be readily eaten by the flock. A 
 liberal supply of this dry food corrects the injurious effects 
 which are so often produced by feeding sheep on turnips 
 alone, and at the same time lessens the consumption of the 
 green food. We believe also that there is true economy in 
 early beginning to give them a small daily allowance, say 
 I lb each, of cake or corn. This is more especially desir- 
 able when sheep are folded on poor soil The extraneous 
 food both supplies the lack of nutrition in the turnips and 
 fertilises the soil for bearing succeeding crops. An im- 
 mense improvement has been effected in the winter feeding 
 of sheep by the introduction of machines for slicing turnips. 
 Some careful farmers slice the whole of the turnips used 
 by their fattening sheep, of whatever age ; but usually the 
 practice is restricted to hoggets, and only resorted to for 
 them when their milk-teeth begin to fail. In the latter 
 case the economy of the practice does not admit of debate. 
 When Mr Pusey states the difference in value between 
 hoggets that have had their turnips sliced and others that 
 have not, at 8s. per head in favour of the former from this 
 cause alone, we do not think that he over-estimates the 
 benefit. Those who slice turnips for older sheep, and for 
 hoggets abo as soon as ever they have taken to them, are, 
 we suspect, acting upon a sound principle, and their ex- 
 ample is therefore likely to be generally followed. There 
 is no doubt of this at least, that hoggets frequently lose 
 part of the flesh which they had already gained from the 
 slicing of the turnips being unduly delayed. By 1st 
 December their first teeth, although not actually gone 
 have become so inefficient that they require longer time 
 and greater exertion to feed their fill than before; and 
 this, concurring with shorter days and colder Weather, 
 -operates much to their prejudice. When the slicing is 
 begun, it is well to leave a portion of growing turnips in 
 each day's fold, as there are always some timid sheep in a 
 lot that never come freely to the troughs ; and they serve, 
 moreover, to occupy the lot during moonlight nights, and 
 at other times when the troughs cannot be instantly re- 
 plenished. As the sheep have access to both sides of the 
 troughs, each will accommodate nearly as many as it is 
 feet in length. There should therefore be provided at least 
 as many foot-lengths of trough as there are sheep in the 
 fold. The troughs should be perpendicular at their outer 
 edges, as the sheep are less apt to scatter the sliced turnips 
 on the ground with this form than when they slope out- 
 wards. It is expedient to have a separate set of similar 
 troughs for the cake or grain and chopped fodder, which 
 it is best to use mixed together. 
 
 As the season when frost and snow may be expected 
 approaches it is necessary to provide in time for the flock 
 having clean unfrozen turnips to eat in the hardest weather. 
 To secure this, care must be taken to have always several 
 weeks' supply put together in heaps and covered with earth 
 to a sufficient thickness to exclude frost. The covering 
 with earth is the only extra cost incurred from using this 
 precaution, for if slicing the roots is practised at all, it 
 necessarily implies that the roots must be pulled, trimmed, 
 and thrown together, and this again should be done in 
 such a way as to insure that the dung and urine of the 
 sheep shall be equally distributed over the whole field. 
 This is secured by throwing together the produce of 18 or 
 20 drills into small heaps, of about a ton each, in a straight 
 row and at equal distances apart. For a time it will suffice 
 to cover these heaps with a few of the turnip leaves and a 
 spadeful of earth here and there to prevent the leaves from 
 being blown off. This arrangement necessitates the 
 regular moving of the troughs over the whole ground. 
 As the heaps are stript of their covering special care must 
 be taken to scatter the tops well about, otherwise there
 
 396 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [lIVE STOCK— 
 
 will be corresponding rank spots in the grain crop that 
 follows. 
 
 On light dry soils it ia usually most profitable to con- 
 sume the whole turnip crop where it grows by sheep, and 
 to convert the straw of the farm into dung by store cattle 
 kept in suitable yards, to which a daily allowance of 
 rape or cotton cake is given, with wholesome water con : 
 stantly at their command. But it may at times oe more 
 profitable to use young sheep instead of cattle for this 
 purpose, and it is quite practicable to do so. In the winter 
 of 1865-66, in consequence of the prevalence of rinder- 
 pest, we had recourse to this expedient with entire success. 
 A lot of 200 hoggets was put into two contiguous yards, 
 of a size which ordinarily had accommodated 1 5 cattle each ; 
 the hoggets were fed on hay cut into chaff, which was 
 served to them in troughs so placed as to be protected from 
 rain. Along with this chaff they received 2 ft> each daily 
 of mixed cakes and grain, and a constant supply of water. 
 A covered passage by which the yards communicated was 
 coated with quicklime, which was stirred up daily and 
 added to twice a-week. Care was taken to drive .the whole 
 lot of sheep over this limed passage once every day, with 
 liberty to them to pass and repass as much as they liked 
 at all times. The yards were kept clean by being thinly 
 covered over with fresh straw every day. By this means, 
 and by an occasional paring of the hoofs when seen to be 
 necessary, their feet were kept perfectly sound. In other 
 respects they throve well, and the death-rate was unusually 
 small. 
 
 To clear the ground in time for the succeeding grain crop 
 a portion of the turnip crop is usually stored on some piece 
 of grass or fallow, where the flock is folded until the pas- 
 tures are ready to receive them. As the date of this varies 
 exceedingly, it is well to lay in turnips for a late season, 
 and rather to have some to spare than to be obliged to stock 
 the pastures prematurely. If corn or cake has been given 
 in the turnip field, it must be continued in the pasture. 
 Hoggets that have been well managed will be ready for 
 market as soon as they can be shorn, and may not require 
 grass at alL They usually, however, grow very rapidly on 
 the first flush of clovers and sown grasses, especially when 
 aided by cake or corn. When the soil is of poor quality, 
 it is expedient to continue the use of such extra food during 
 summer. The best sheep are generally sent to market first, 
 and the others as they attain to a proper degree of fatness. 
 Store sheep or cattle are then purchased to occupy their 
 place3 until the next crop of lambs is weaned. 
 
 Lowland flocks are for the most part shorn in May, 
 although many fat sheep are sent to market out of their 
 wool at a much earlier date. Indeed railway transit ha3 
 made it practicable to forward newly-shorn sheep to. market 
 so quickly that there is now little risk of their suffering 
 from ■ exposure to bad weather, and accordingly few fat 
 aheep are now sent to market rough after the 1st of ApriL 
 But in the case of nursing ewes and store sheep of all 
 kinds it is highly inexpedient to deprive them of their 
 fleeces until summer weather has fairly set in. Accordingly, 
 the latter half of May and the first half of June are, in 
 average seasons, the best shearing time, beginning with the 
 hoggets and ending with the ewes. 
 
 This practice of shearing a portion of the flock so early 
 as April renders it necessary to make a change on that mode 
 of sheep-washing so well described by the author of the 
 Seasons. Artificial washing-pools are accordingly now pro- 
 vided by damming up some small stream of clean water. 
 The bottom is paved and three sides faced with bricks 
 set in cement, with a sluice to let off the foul water 
 when necessary. The most accessible side of the pool is 
 formed of strong planks, securely jointed, behind which 
 the men engaged in washing the sheep stand dry, and ac- 
 
 complish tneir woric much in the way Hat a washer- 
 woman does hers at her tub. A sloping lassage at the 
 upper end of the pool allows the sheep to walk out, one 
 by one, as they are washed. One such pool Is often made 
 to accommodate several neighbouring farms. 
 
 Section 3. — Management of Mountain Sheep. 
 
 We have already taken notice of the extent to which 
 Cheviot sheep have of late years been introduced in the 
 Highlands of Scotland. Many of the immense grazings 
 there are rented by farmers resident in the south of Scot- 
 land, who only visit their Highland farms from time to 
 time, and intrust the management of their flocks and 
 shepherds, which rival in numbers those of the ancient 
 patriarchs, to an overseer, whose duty it is to be constantly 
 on the grounds, to attend in all respects to the interests of 
 his employer, see his orders carried into effect, and give 
 him stated information of how it fares with his charge. 
 
 The following pertinent remarks we quote from an 
 extensive and experienced Highland sheep-farmer :— 
 
 "The management of flocks in the Highlands is much the same 
 as on high and exposed farms in the higher districts of Roxburgh- 
 shire, Dumfriesshire, and Selkirkshire, as regards, the ewe hirsels ; 
 the ewe lambs either not being weaned, or that only for eight or 
 ten days, so that they may continue to follow their mothers. The 
 wether lambs are sent to the wether ground about the beginning of 
 August, and herded on the part of it considered most adapted for 
 their keep till about the middle of October, when they are sent to 
 turnips mostly in Ross-shire, where they remain till the middle of 
 March or beginning of April. This is one of the heaviest items of 
 expense in Highland farming, amounting to fully 4s. per head ; 
 ana thus, upon a farm equally stocked with ewes and wethers, adds 
 just about one-third to the rental of the farm. On the return of 
 the wether hogs they are put to particular parts of the wether 
 ground, at large amongst the other. ages of wether stock, where 
 they remain until drawn out when three years ol,d at the usual 
 season to send to market ; with this exception, that the year follow- 
 ing (when they are dinmonts), the smallest of them, those that are 
 not considered capable of wintering at home, say to the extent of 
 two or three to the score, are again drawn out and sent with the 
 hogs to turnips. 
 
 "Mr Beiiar, in his Report of the County of Sutherland, gives 
 a very minute and detailed account of the mode of management as 
 practised on his farms. This, however, does not apply to extensive 
 West Highland farms, which have no arable farms attached, no 
 fields to bring in the diseased or falling-off part of the stock to, nor 
 Is it ever practicable to shift any part of the stock to different parts 
 of the farm from that on which they have been reared." 
 
 Sheep Farming on the hills drained by the Tweea. 
 
 Until quite a recent date the grassy hills enclosing the 
 upper valley of the Tweed and its numerous tributaries 
 were stocked almost entirely with Cheviot sheep, and the 
 highest and most heathery portions of the Lammermuir 
 hills with the blackfaced breed. Since about the year 
 1850, under the stimulus of a growing demand and rapidly 
 advancing price for cross-bred lambs, a great change of 
 practice has been going steadily on. Formerly, on such 
 hill-country farms, cultivation of the soil was restricted to 
 a very small scale indeed, but latterly it has been extending 
 up the valleys and hill-sides at a rapid rate. Large areas 
 of rough natural pasture are yearly being converted into 
 fields, which are well enclosed by substantial stone walls, and 
 by draining, liming, and the liberal application of portable 
 manures, are made to produce luxuriant crops of turnips, 
 oats, and the cultivated clovers and grasses. As this pro- 
 cess of reclamation goe3 on, half-bred sheep (Leicester- 
 Cheviots) are substituted for pure Cheviots, the lambs of 
 this cross breed being at weaning-tiine worth from 10s. to 
 15s. more per head than Cheviots, their fleeces heavier by 
 2 R> each as well as more valuable per K>, and the draft 
 ewes also more valuable in about the same proportion as 
 the lambs. These half-bred sheep must be kept almost 
 exclusivelyon the reclaimed lands, which, however, will keep 
 about double the number of this more valuable breed of
 
 VTEEP.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 397 
 
 Aheep than they did of the less valuable when in their 
 natural unreclaimed state. When the lowost-lying and kind- 
 liest soils of such farms have thus been improved and 
 devoted to the keeping of half-bred sheep, the higher and 
 poorer parts are often unfit for keeping Cheviot sheep, and 
 are stocked with the hardier blackfaced breed. • Cheviots 
 are in consequence rather at a discount at present aa core- 
 pared with a period still recent. 
 
 The general management of these hill-country half-bred 
 flocks does not differ materially from those of the plains. 
 They require generous feeding, and being prolific and good 
 nurses, they pay well for it. The oats grown on such 
 farms are disposed of most profitably when consumed by 
 the flock. 
 
 We begin our description of the management of strictly 
 hill flocks with autumn, and assume that the yearly cast of 
 lambs and aged ewes has been disposed of, and only as 
 many of the ewe lambs retained as are required to. keep up 
 the breeding stock. A former practice was to keep these 
 ewe lambs or hoggets by themselves on the best portions 
 of the respective walks, or rakes as they are called on the 
 Borders. Now, however, they are kept apart from their 
 dams only as long (eight or ten days) as suffices to let the 
 milk dry up ; whereupon they are returned to the flock or 
 hirsel to which they belong, and at once associate again 
 each with its own dam. The hoggets, under the guidance 
 of the ewes, are thus led about over the ground, according 
 to varying seasons, and under the promptings of an instinct 
 which far surpasses the skill and care of the best shepherd. 
 The latter, indeed, restricts his interference chiefly to keep- 
 ing his flock upon their own beat, and allows them to dis- 
 tribute themselves over it according to their own choice. 
 When thus left to themselves each little squad usually selects 
 its own ground, and may be found, the same individuals 
 about the same neighbourhood day after day. This plan 
 of grazing the hoggets and ewes together has been attended 
 with the best results. There are far fewer deaths among 
 the former than when kept separate, and being from the 
 first used to the pasturage and acquainted with the ground, 
 they get inured to its peculiarities, and grow up a healthy 
 and shifty stock, more easily managed and better able to 
 cope with trying seasons than if nursed elsewhere, and 
 brought on to the ground at a more advanced age. Each 
 hogget and its dam may be seen in couples all through the 
 winter and spring, and with the return of summer it is a 
 pretty sight to see these family groups grown into triplets 
 by the addition to each of a little lamb. 
 
 As the automn advances, the flockmaster makes his 
 preparations for smearing or bathing. The smearing 
 material is a salve composed of tar and butter, which is 
 prepared in the following manner : — Six gallons of Arch- 
 angel tar and 50 lb of grease-butter are thoroughly incor- 
 porated, and as much milk added as makes the salve work 
 freely This quantity suffices for 100 sheep. This salve 
 destroys vermin, and by matting the fleece is supposed to 
 add to the comfort and healthiness of the sheep. It adds 
 considerably to the weight of the fleece, but imparts to it 
 an irremediable stain, which detracts seriously from its 
 value per lb. A white salve introduced by Mr Ballantyne 
 of Holylee is now in repute on the borders. It is prepared 
 as follows: — 30 ft> butter, 14 Bb rough turpentine, and 
 3 lb soft soap are melted and mingled in a large pot ; 
 2^ soda and A lb arsenic are then dissolved in a gallon 
 of boiling water, and this, along with 12 gallons more of 
 cold water, is intimately mixed with the other ingredients, 
 and yields enough for dressing 100 sheep at the rate of 
 a quart to each. Some persons, believing the arsenic 
 an unsafe application, substitute for it half-a-gallon of 
 tobacco juice. Instead of the rough turpentine, some 
 also use half-a-gill of spirit of tar for each sheep; this 
 
 ingredient being mixed in each quart-notful at the time 
 of application. 
 
 In applying these salves, the sheep are brought to the 
 homestead in daily detachments, according to the number of 
 men employed, each man getting over about sixty in a day. 
 A sheep being caught and laid upon a stool, the wool is 
 parted in lines running from head to tail, and the tar salve 
 spread upon the skin by taking a little upon the fingers 
 and drawing them along. In using the white salve each 
 shepherd has a boy assistant who pours the liquid salvo 
 from a tin pot with a spout, while he holds the wool apart. 
 This white salve destroys vermin, and is believed to nourish 
 the wool and to promote its growth. Of late years the 
 practice of dipping has largely been substituted for salving 
 or pouring. It is practised as already described in the case 
 of low-country flocks, save only that with large flocks it is 
 expedient to have it performed at some central and other- 
 wise convenient part of the grounds. Instead of a movable 
 tub and dripping board of wood, it is better to have a fixed 
 one built of concrete, or bricks set in cement, with a paved 
 dripping pen large enough to hold 50 sheep in each of ite 
 two divisions. The other requisites are a boiler to supply 
 hot water for dissolving the dipping stuff, a pipe to convey 
 cold water to the bath, and a waste pipe to empty it for 
 cleansing. This salving or dipping must all be accomplished 
 before the 20th November, about which time the rams are 
 admitted to the flock. Before this is done another pre- 
 liminary is required. As the ewe hoggets graze with the 
 flock, it is necessary to guard them from receiving the male, 
 for which purpose a piece of cloth is sewed firmly over their 
 tails, and remains until the rams are withdrawn. This is 
 called breeking them. On open hilly grounds about forty 
 ewes are sufficient for each ram. To insure the vigour and 
 good quality of the flock, it is necessary to have a frequent 
 change of blood. To secure this by purchasing the whole 
 rams required would be very costly, and therefore each 
 flockmaster endeavours to rear a home supply. For this 
 purpose he purchases every autumn, often at a high price, 
 one or two choice rams from some flock of known ex- 
 cellence, and to these he puts a lot of his best ewes, care- 
 fully selected from his whole flock These are kept in an 
 enclosed field until the rutting season is over, and after 
 receiving a distinctive mark are then returned to their 
 respective hirsels. From the progeny of these selected 
 ewes a sufficient number of the best male lambs is reserved 
 to keep up the breeding stock of the farm. The rams are 
 withdrawn from the flock about 1st January, and are then 
 kept in an enclosed field, where they receive a daily feed of 
 turnips. 
 
 Except in heavy falls of snow and intense frosts, the 
 flocks subsist during the entire season on the natural 
 produce of their pastures. It is necessary, however, to be 
 provided for such emergencies both as regards food and 
 shelter. For this purpose each shepherd has at suitable 
 parts of his beat several stells or artificial shelters, such as 
 are described at p. 402, and beside each of them a stack of 
 hay from which to fodder the flock when required. So 
 long as the sheep can get at heather or rushes by scraping 
 away the snow with their feet they will not touch the hay, 
 but when the whole surface gets buried and bound up, 
 they are fain to take to it. The hay is laid out in handfuls 
 over the snow, twice a day, if need be. The hay should, 
 however, be administered with caution, and never to a 
 greater extent than is absolutely necessary. Whenever 
 there is a lull in the storm, the shepherd should use his 
 utmost endeavour to move the flock out from their shelter 
 to the nearest piece of rough heather or ground from which 
 the wind has drifted off the enow, and where the sheep can 
 by scraping with their feet get at their natural food. This 
 should bo done not merely to economise hay, but bemuse
 
 398 
 
 A O K I C U L T U K E 
 
 [live stock — 
 
 it is found that sheep invariably come' through the hard- 
 ships of-winter in better condition when thus encouraged 
 to shift as much as possible for themselves, than when fed 
 to the full on hay, and allowed to keep to their shelter all 
 the day. 
 
 Much vigilance, promptitude, and courage, are required 
 on the part of shepherds in these wild and stormy districts 
 in getting their flocks into places of safety on the breaking 
 out of sudden snow-storms, and tending them skilfully 
 there. 
 
 In spring advantage is taken of any dry weather tnat 
 occurs to set fire to the roughest portions of the old 
 heather andothcr coarse herbage, and this being thus cleared 
 off, a fresh young growth comes up, which yields a sweeter 
 pasture to the flocks for several succeeding years. Careful 
 shepherds are at pains to manage the muir-buming so as 
 to remove the dry effete herbage in long narrow strips, 
 and thus to secure a regular intermixture of 'old and 
 young heath. 
 
 The lambing season . is one of much anxiety to the 
 master ; and to his shepherds and their faithful sagacious 
 dogs it is one of incessant toiL They must be a-foot from 
 " dawn till dewy eve," visiting every part of their wide 
 range several times a-day, to see that all is right, and 
 to give assistance when required. The ewes of these 
 hardy mountain breeds seldom require man's assistance in 
 the act of parturition, but still cross presentations and 
 difficult cases occur even with them. Deaths occur also 
 among the newly-dropt lambs, in which case the dam is 
 taken to the nearest stell, and a twin-lamb (of which there 
 are usually enough to .serve this purpose) put in the dead 
 one's place. The dead lamb's skin is stript off, and 
 wrapt about the living one, which is then shut up beside 
 the dam in a small crib or parik, by w'uch means she is 
 usually induced in a few hours (and always the sooner the 
 more milk she has) to adopi the supposititious lamb. As 
 the lambing season draws to a close, each shepherd collects 
 the unlambed ewes of his flock into an inclosure near his 
 cottage, and examines them one by one to ascertain which 
 are pregnant. To the barren ones he affixes a particular 
 mark, and at once turns them again to the hill, but the 
 others are retained close at hand until they lamb, by which 
 means he can attend to them closely with comparatively 
 little labour. The lambs are castrated and docked at 
 from 10 to 20 days old. For this and for all sorting and 
 drafting purposed an ample fold and suit of pens, formed 
 of stout post and rail, are provided on some dry knoll con- 
 venient for each main division of the flock. ' To this the 
 flock is gently gathered, and penned off in successive lots 
 of 10 or 12, taking care that each lamb has its own dam 
 with it before it is penned, and to do this with as little 
 dogging and running as possible. The male lambs of the 
 pure blackfaced breed, when designed to be kept as wethers, 
 are not castratsd until they are eight or ten weeks old, 
 partly because when this is done sooner their horns have a 
 tendency to get so crumpled as to grow into their eyes, and 
 partly because a bold horn is thought to improve the 
 appearance of :,u agod wether. 
 
 On these eluvated sheep-walks shearing does not take 
 place until July. It cannot, in fact, be performed until 
 the young wool has begun to grow or rise, and so admit of 
 the shears working freely betwixt the skin and the old 
 matted fleece. The sheep are previously washed by causing 
 them to swim repeatedly across a pool with a gentle 
 current flowing through it. They are mude to plunge in 
 from a bank raised, either naturally or artificially, several 
 feet above the surface of the water. This sousing and 
 swimming in pure water cleanses the fleece far more effect- 
 ually than could be supposed by persons accustomed only 
 Uj the mode pursued in arable districts. Shearing takes 
 
 place three or four days after wasbijg, and in the interim 
 much vigilance is required on tho part of the shepherd to 
 prevent the sheep from rubbing themselves under banks of 
 moss or earth, and so undoing the washing. In the case 
 of blackfaced flocks washing is now not unfrequcntly 
 altogether dispensed with, because the greater weight of 
 unwashed wool more than counterbalances the difference in 
 price betwixt washed and unwashed fleeces. Each man 
 usually shears about 60 sheep a day. It is neither 
 practicable nor expedient to shear these mountain sheep so 
 closely as the fat denizens of lowland pastures. For this 
 operation each shearer is provided with a low-legged spaired 
 stool, having a seat at one end, or with a bench built of 
 green turf. These are arranged in a row close in front of a 
 pen, in which the unshorn sheep are placed. The shearers 
 being seated, each astride his stool or bench, with their 
 backs to the pen, a man in it catches and hands over a 
 sheep to each of them. The sheep is first laid on its back 
 upon the stool, and the wool shorn from the under part3, 
 after which its legs are bound together with a soft woollen 
 cord, and the fleece removed, first from the one side and 
 then from the other, by a succession of cuts running from 
 head to tail. The fleeces are thrown upon a cloth and 
 immediately carried to the wool-room, where, after being 
 freed from clots, they are neatly wrapped up and stored 
 away. Before the shorn sheep are released each receives 
 a mark or buist by dipping the owner's cypher in melted 
 pitch, and stamping it upon the skin of the animal To 
 discriminate different ages and hirsels, these marks vary in 
 themselves or are affixed to different parts of the sheep. 
 Once or twice a year all stray sheep found upon the farms 
 of a well-defined district are brought to a fixed rendezvous, 
 where their marks are examined by the assembled shep- 
 herds, and each is restored to its proper owner. 
 
 Weaning takes place in August or early in September. 
 A sufficient number of the best ewe lambs of the pure 
 breeds are selected for maintaining the flock, and are 
 treated in the way already noticed. With this exception, 
 the whole of the lambs are sold either to low-country 
 graziere or as fat lambs to the butcher. The wether 
 lambs usually go to the former, and the ewe lambs of the 
 cross betwixt blackfaced ewes and Leicester rams to the 
 latter. These ewes being excellent nurses, make their 
 lambs very fat in favourable seasons, in which case they 
 are worth more to kill as lambs' than to rear. Immediately 
 after the weaning, the ewes which have attained mature 
 age are disposed of, generally to low-country graziers, who 
 keep them for another year, and fatten lamb and dam. 
 To facilitate the culling out of these full-aged ewes, each 
 successive crop of ewe lambs receives a distinctive ear- 
 mark, by which all of any one age in the flock can ho. at 
 once recognised. 
 
 Section 4. — Wool. 
 
 Wool is such an important part of the produce of our 
 flocks that it seems proper to offer a few remarks upon 
 it before leaving this subject, although it wiD fall to be 
 considered under its proper heading. We here insert with 
 much pleasure the following communication received from 
 the late John Barff, Esq., of Wakefield : — 
 
 "I willingly give you a reply to your various inquiries regarding 
 wool, as far as fam able. As to the kinds grown in the various 
 counties of the United Kingdom, this 1 cannot fully answer, as there 
 are some counties' wools which have not come much under my 
 inspection ; but generally I may remark that wherever the turnip 
 can be cultivated and has been introduced, the Leicester, Lincoln- 
 shire, Cotswold, and the half-breds from Down and Cheviot, are 
 to be found ; and in the same counties, in several instances, you 
 hav.e several kinds, if we except Lincolnshire and Leicestershire, 
 which have entirely tho long-wool sheep. The great bulk also of 
 York, Warwick, Oxford, Cambridge, Gloucester, Northampton, 
 and Nottingham shires, have this description of sheep, but they
 
 GOATS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 399 
 
 have also Downs and half-brecLi. Kent has its own sheep, called 
 Kents ; the wool being much finer than the real long-wool sheep, 
 running in quality ana. weight of fleece between the latter and the 
 Down, something like your half-.breds from Cheviot ewes by 
 Leicester rams. They have somewhat of a similar sheep in Devon, 
 Cornwall, Hereford, and Shropshire, but the quality in the two 
 former counties scarcely so fine as the two latter, or the Kent wools. 
 Norfolk has the original Down and the half-bred ; Surrey, Suffolk, 
 Essex, Sussex, and. Hampshire are nearly all Down wools, though 
 in these counties, upon some of their best lands, where they can 
 cultivate the turnip, the half-bred are being introduced ; and I 
 need scarcely say 'to you, the Leicester sheep, as well as half-breds 
 and Cheviots, are to be found in Durham, Northumberland, 
 Berwickshire, Koxburghshire, Lothians, and other parts of Scotland 
 wliere the turnip is cultivated ; and in those parts where it is not, 
 and on the hilk, the Cheviot and blackfaced prevail The black- 
 faced are used for low padding cloths, carpels, and horse-rugs. The 
 Down wools were formerly all used for cloths and flannels ; but 
 now, from the improvement in worsted machinery, one-third is used 
 for worsted yarns and goods ; and as the portion suitable for comb- 
 ing purposes is more valuable for this purpose than fof cloths or 
 flannels, the grower aims at getting it as deep-stapled as possible ; 
 and this has led to a great increase in the weight of the fleece, but 
 at the same time a deterioration in. the quality. The Leicester, 
 Lincolnshire, and half-bred, and Cotswolds, as well as the Kents 
 and Devons, are entirely used for worsted yarns and goods ; and a 
 very small portion of the wools imported come in competition with 
 them. The nearest approach is. a little imported from Holland and 
 Denmark j but they partake more of your cross from a blackfaced 
 ewe by a Leicester ram. The Irish wools are either the long- 
 woolled sheep similar to the Leicester, the mountain sheep similar 
 to your Cheviot, or the small Welsh sheep. The Irish wools are 
 generally open-haired, and have not the richness of the Leicester or 
 our English, and are not so much esteemed or valuable as English 
 wool of apparently the same quality by £d. to Id. per lb. Richness 
 of handle is now very desirable, as there is a demand for what are 
 called glossy yarns, which Wools fed on pasture or good new seeds 
 only can produce, and which cannot be obtained from the wools 
 grown on chalk or hard lands, such as our midland counties — viz., 
 Oxford, Bedford, and Northampton— generally produce. 
 
 "In fc-.'ery fleece of wool there are two or three qualities — not 
 more thin two or" three in the blackfaced, four or five in the long- 
 woolled sheep, five or six in the half-bred, and seven or eight in a 
 Down fleece ; and I may say every fleece undergoes this sorting or 
 separation before being put into any process of manufacture. ■ Of 
 course the more there is of the best quality in any fleece the more 
 desirable and valuable the fleece is ; in blackfaced, to be free from 
 dead hair or kemps ; and we find in. all the other wools that the more 
 close the staple and purly the wooi, the more it yields of the finer 
 qualities,' whilst .the open-haired makes more of the lower quality. 
 The breeder should therefore, in selecting his tups with a view to 
 good wool! choose them with a close purly staple. A great deal of 
 the excellence, however, of wool depends upon the nature of the 
 soil on'which the sheep are fed'. Upon the chalk and sandy hard 
 lands we always find the worst qualities of wool of its kind, whilst 
 the best comes from the rich good lands, where there is plenty of 
 old grass or seeds. Thus the wools of Roxburghshire, as a general 
 rule, are better than Berwickshire or Lothian ; Leicester, Lincoln- 
 shire, Nottingham, and Warwickshire, superior ;to Oxford, Cam- 
 bridge, Bedford, or Northampton ; and in Downs, Sussex and Surrey, 
 better than. Essex and Norfolk, from their downs' being more grassy 
 and the land better. The principal 'quality required in wool is a 
 rich soft handle, as such is always found to improve in every pro- 
 cess it is put through in the various stages of its' manufacture, 
 whilst the wools grown on chalk or hard lands, and which have a 
 hard bristly handle, get coarser as they progress in the manufacture. 
 
 " With regard to the salves or baths used for distroying vermin, 
 we do not know what, kinds are used in the different localities, but 
 of those used with you we dislike the spirit of tar and tobacco. 
 Wilson of Coldstream's dip appears to answer, and one called 
 Ballantyne's, used in Selkirkshire ; but in all these a great deal 
 depends upon their being properly attended to, &d being put on at 
 the proper season. If put on in the autunin, we don't perceive tllat 
 they have been used, and whenever we have, to make a complaint 
 on this head, we find it arises from the baths having been used in 
 spring." 
 
 CHAPTER XVHL 
 
 LIVE STOCK — GOATS, (fee. 
 
 Section 1. — Goals. 
 
 Goats never occupied an important piace among the 
 domesticated animals of the British Islands, and, with the 
 tt^ptioD of Ireland, their numbers have been constantly 
 
 diminishing. By the slirtisticaJ returns it appears that in 
 
 1871 there were 232,892 goats in Ireland, which in 
 
 1872 had increased to 242,310. The value of goat's milk, 
 as a source of household economy, is much greater than is 
 usually supposed. This is so well shown by Cuthbert W. 
 Johnston, Esq., in an article in the Farmers' Maggzine, that 
 we shall quote from it at some length. 
 
 " The comfort derived by the inmates of a cottage from a regular 
 supply of new milk need hardly be dwelt upon. Every cottager's 
 wife over her tea, every poor parent of a family of children fed 
 almost entirely on a vegetable diet, will agree with me that it is 
 above all things desirable to be able to have new milk as a varia- 
 tion to their daily food of bread and garden vegetables. The 
 inhabitant of towns and of suburban districts, we all know, is at th6 
 mercy of the milk dealer ; the milk he procures is rarely of the best 
 quality, and under the most favourable circumstances he receives it 
 with suspicion, and his family consume it with sundry misgivings 
 as to its wholesomeness. 
 
 " Having personally experienced these difficulties, and' having 
 about three years since commenced the attempt to supply my 
 family with goat's milk, and as our experience is cheering, 1 desire 
 in this paper to advocate the claims of the milch goat to the 
 attention of the oottager, and the other dwellers in the suburban 
 and rural districts. 
 
 *' Few persons are perhaps aware of the gentleness and playful- 
 ness of the female goat — how very cleanly are its habits, how readily 
 it accojnmodates itself to any situation in which it is placed 
 Confined in an outhouse, turned on to a common or into a yard, 
 tethered on a grass plat, it seems equally content. I have found it 
 readily accommodate itself to the tethering system, fastened by a 
 leathern collar, rope, and iron swivel, secured by a staple to a 
 heavy log of wood. The log is the best (and this with a smooth 
 even surface at the bottom), oecause it can be readily moved about 
 from one part of the grass plat to another. The goat, too, uses the 
 log as a resting-place in damp weather. The goat should be fur- 
 nished with a dry sleeping- place, and this, in case of its inhabiting 
 open yards, can be readily furnished ; anything that will serve for 
 a dry dog-kennel will be comfortable enough for a goat. 
 
 "The milk of the goat is only distinguishable from that of the 
 cow by its superior richness, approaching, in fact, the thin cream 
 of cow's milk in quality, . The cream of goat's milk, it is true, 
 separates from the milk with great tardiness) and never so com- 
 pletely as in' the case of cow's milk. This, however, is of littl- 
 consequence, since the superior richness of goat's milk renders th» 
 use of its cream almost needless. The comparative analysis of milk 
 of the. cow and goat will shoW my readers how much richer tie 
 latter is than that of the former ; 100 parts of each, according to 
 M. Regnault, gave on an average — 
 
 Cow. Goat 
 
 Water. 847 826 
 
 Butter 40 45 
 
 Sugar of milk and soluble salts 60 4'6 
 
 Caseine (cheese), albumen, and insoluble salts, 3 '6 9'0 
 
 So that, while the milk gf the cow yields 12 '8 per cent, of solid 
 matters, that, of the goat produces 17 per cent., goat's milk yield- 
 ing rat ner more butter, rather less sugar of milk, but considerably 
 more caseine (cheese) than that of the cow. 
 
 . " It must not be supposed that the taste of the milk of the goat 
 differs in any degree from that of the cow ; it is, if anything, 
 sweeter, but it is quite devoid of any taste which might very 
 reasonably be supposed to be derivable from the high-flavoured 
 shrub3 and herbs upon which the animal delights to browse. 
 
 "The amount of the milk yielded by the goat varies from two 
 quarts to one quart per day ; it is greatest soon after kidding tinje, 
 and this gradually decreases to about a pint per day, a quantity 
 which will continue for twelve months. 1 nis is not a large supply, 
 it is true ; but still it is one which is available for many very useful 
 purposes ; and be it remembered that when mixed with more than 
 its own iulk of lukewarm water, it is then in every respect superior 
 to the milk supplied by the London dairymen. 
 
 " In regard to the best variety of goat to be kept, I would recom- 
 mend the smooth-haired kind, which are quite devoid of beards or 
 long hair. In this opinion I am confirmed by an experienced 
 correspondent, Mr W. H. Place of Hound House, near Guildford, 
 who remarked, in a recent obliging communication — 'I found that 
 the short-haired goats with very little beards were the best 
 milkers ; but from these I seldom had more than four pints a-day 
 at the best (I should say three pints were the average), and this 
 quantity decreases as the time for kidding approaches (the goat 
 carries ner young 21 to 22 weeks). They should not be fed too 
 well near the time of kidding, or you will lose the kids. In winter 
 I gave them hay, together with mangel-wurzel, globe and Swedish 
 turnips, carrots, and sometimes a few oats, and these kept up their 
 milk as well as anything, but of course it'was most abundant whaa
 
 400 
 
 they could get fresh grass. The milk I always found excellent, 
 but I never had a sufficient quantity to induce me to attempt mak- 
 ing butter except onco, as an experiment : my cook then made a 
 little, which was easily done in a little box-churn ; the butter 
 proved very good. I found the flesh of the kids very tender and 
 delicate. 
 
 " I can add little to Mr Place's information as to their food ; 
 mine have generally fed out of the same rack as a Shetland pony, 
 ■with whom thoy are on excellent terms. The pony throughout the 
 summer is soiled with cut grass, and I notice that the goats pick 
 out the sorrel, sow thistle, and all those weeds which the pony 
 rejects. 
 
 " In the garden (if they are, by any chance, allowed to browse), 
 I notice that they select the rose-trees, common laurels, arbutus, 
 laurestinas, and the laburnum. Of culinary vegetables thoy prefer 
 cabbages and lettuces ; they also bite pieces out of the tubers of the 
 potato. They carefully pick up the leaves, whother green or 
 autumnal, of timber trees ; of these they prefer those of the oak 
 and elm, and delight in acorns and oak-apples. We are accustomed 
 to collect and store the acorns for them against winter ; spreading 
 the acorns thinly on a dry floor, to avoid the mouldiness which 
 follows the sweating of acorns laid in a heap. As I have before 
 remarked, none of these astringent substances afl'ect the taste of 
 their milk ; and I may here observe that, with ordinary gentleness, 
 there is no more difficulty, if so much, in milking a goat than a 
 cow. 
 
 " The he-goat engenders at a year old. The she-goat can produce 
 when seven months old. She generally yeans two kids. The 
 manure of the goat is perhaps the most powerful of all our domestic 
 animals. 
 
 "Such are the chief facts which I have deemed likely to be 
 useful in inducing the extended keeping of the milch goat. It is 
 an animal that, I feel well assured, may be kept with equal ad- 
 vantage by the cottager and the dwellers in larger houses. It is 
 usoless to compare it with the cow, or to supposo that the goat can 
 supplant it in situations whore the cow can do readily kept ; but in 
 the absence of pastures, and in places where there is too little food 
 for cows, I feel well convinced that, with ordinary care and atten- 
 tion, and a moderate firmness in overcoming the prejudices of those 
 unaccustomed to the goat (and unless these are found in the ownor, 
 live stock never are profitable), the value and the comfort of a 
 milch goat are much greater than is commonly known. 
 
 "The waste produce of a garden is exceedingly useful in the keep 
 of a goat. By them almost every rofuse weed, all the cuttings and 
 clearings which are wheeled into the rubbish-yard, are carefully 
 picked over and consumed. To them the trimmings of laurels and 
 other evergreens, pea-haulm, and cabbage stalks, &c, are all grate- 
 ful variations of their food. In winter a little sainfoin, hay, or a 
 few oats, keeps them in excellent condition. In summer the 
 mowings of a small grass-plot, watered with either common or 
 sewage water, will, with the aid of the refuse garden produce, keep 
 a goat from the end of April until October." 
 
 Section 2. — Hogs. 
 Although occupying a less prominent place in the estima- 
 tion of the farmer than the ox and sheep, the hog is never- 
 theless an animal of great value. He is easily reared, 
 comes rapidly to maturity, is not very nice as to food; 
 consuming offal of all kinds, and yields a larger amount of 
 flesh in proportion to his live 'weight and to the food which 
 he has consumed, than any other of our domesticated 
 animals whose flesh is used for food. To the peasantry 
 he is invaluable, enabling the labouring man to turn the 
 scraps even from his scanty kitchen, and from his garden 
 or allotment, to the best account. On such fare, aided by 
 a little barley or pollard, he can fatten a good pig, and 
 supply his family with wholesome animal food at the 
 theapest possible rate. 
 
 The breeds of swine In Great Britain are numerous,juid so exceed- 
 ingly blended that it is often impossible to discriminate or classify 
 them properly. The original breeds of the country seem to be two, 
 viz., " The old English Bog," tall, gaunt, very long in the body, 
 with pendent ears and a thick covering of b/istles. The represen- 
 tatives of this old breed are found chiefly in the western counties of 
 England, especially in Lancashire, Yorkshire, and Cheshire, where 
 hogs of immense size are still reared, but greatly improved as com- 
 pared with their ancestry. Their bones are smaller, their hair finer 
 and thinner set, their skin thinner and with a pink tint, the cars 
 still pendulous but much thinner, the carcase much thicker, and 
 their propensity to fatten greatly increased. This large breed is 
 exceedingly prolific, and the sows are excrcllenc nurses, it being 
 <juite common for 'hem to farrow and rear from 12 to 18 pigs at 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [live stock— 
 
 each litter. They are somewhat tardy in arriving at maturity, ami 
 do not fatten readily until that is the case. Alter sixteen months 
 old they, however, lay on flesh very rapidly, grow to very great 
 weights, and produce hams of excellent quality, with a large pro- 
 portion of lean flesh in them. The Berkshire and Hampshire hog 
 seems originally to have been from the same stock, but by some 
 early cross acquired the thicker carcase, prick-ears, shorter limbs, 
 and earlier maturity of growth, by which they are characterised. 
 The other native breed is found in the Highlands and Islands of 
 Scotland. They are very small, of a dusky brown colour, with 
 coarse bristles along the spine, and prick-ears. They are exceed- 
 ingly hardy, and subsist on the poorest fare, being often left to range 
 about without shelter, and support themselves as they best can on 
 the roots of plants, shell-fish, seaweed, and dead fish cast up by 
 the tide. 
 
 The improvod breeds now so abundant have been obtained by 
 crossing these old races with foreign hogs, and chiefly with the 
 Chinese and Neapolitan. Our modern white breeds, with prick-ears, 
 short limbs, fino bone, delicate white flesh, and remarkable pro- 
 pensity to fatten at an early age, are indebted for these qualities 
 to the Chinese stocks. The improved black breeds, of which the 
 Essex may be selected as the type, and which possess the qualities 
 just enumerated in even a greater degree, are a cross from the 
 Neapolitan. They are characterised by their very small muzzle, 
 fine bone, black colour, and soft skin nearly destitute of hair. 
 They can be brought to profitable maturity at from eight to twelve 
 months old, the white breeds at from t'weife to sixteen months. 
 Both kinds are peculiarly suitable for producing small pork to be 
 used fresh, or for pickling. The flesh of these sraallor breeds pro- 
 duces, however, excellent bacon when used in that manner, and at 
 less cost than that of the larger breeds, for this reason, that it is 
 only from the flesh of a hog that has reached maturity that bacon 
 of the first quality can bo produced ; and as these nave reached 
 that point at an age when the others are but ready for beginning 
 the fattening process, it follows that the carcase of the former, in a 
 state fit for curing, is produced at less cost than that of the latter. 
 Sows of the Neapolitan breed and its crosses are better mothers and 
 nurses than the Chinese. Both kinds require peculiar care to pre- 
 vent-the pregnant sow from becoming hurtfully fat. Unless kept 
 on poor and scanty fare they inevitably become useless for .the 
 purpose of breeding. The Berkshire hog combines the good quali- 
 ties of the larger and smaller breeds already referred to, so happily, 
 that he deservedly enjoys the reputation of being as profitable a 
 sort for the farmer as can be found. With proper treatment he 
 arrivos at maturity at about sixteen months old, yields a good 
 weight of carcase for the food which he has consumed, and his 
 flesh is well adapted for being used either as fresh meat, pickled 
 pork, or bacon, according to«the age at which he is slaughtered. 
 A very profitable hog is also obtained by coupling sows of the larger 
 breeds with males of some of the smaller races. 
 
 It too frequently happens that less care is bestowed on 
 the breeding of pigs than of the other domesticated 
 animals. 
 
 From the early age at which they begin to breed there 
 is need for constant change of the male, to prevent the 
 intermingling of blood too near akin. These animals, too, 
 are exceedingly sensitive to cold, and often suffer much from 
 the want of comfortable quarters. "Whether for fattening 
 hogs, or sows with young pigs, there is no better plan than 
 to lodge them in a roomy house with a somewhat lofty 
 thatched roof, the floor being carefully paved with stone or 
 brick, and the area partitioned off into separate pens, each 
 furnished with a cast-iron feeding-trough at the side next 
 the dividing alley, and with adequate drainage, so that the 
 litter in them may be always dry. The period of gestation 
 with the sow is sixteen weeks, and as her pigs may be 
 weaned with safety at six weeks old, she usually farrows 
 twice in the year. In this climate it is desirable that her 
 accouchement should never occur in the winter months. 
 It is a common arrangement to have a pig-shed so placed 
 that the Btore pigs lodged in it can have access to the 
 cattle-courts, where they grub amongst the litter, and pick 
 up scattered grains that have escaped the thrashing-mill, 
 and fragments of turnips and other food dropped by the 
 cattle. On such pickings, and the wash and offal from 
 the farm kitchen, aided by a few raw potatoes, Swedes, or 
 mangold, and in summer by green vetches, a moderate 
 number of store pigs can be got into forward condition, 
 and afterwards fattened very quickly, by putting them
 
 tol. i. 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 PL A TS LZ. 
 
 
 ^^^K^^^^ 
 
 Ewe in her second Beece 
 Brtd by If Bishop oriosaihoji House. KuO. 
 
 1 3 T ; . -"-- 
 
 S©W ©IF ITffilS U1SK EKCSILHSM IffilE© 
 
 fimi fy. and Uu JhptrO/ c/'JTSdducn.. Korkshir*. 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITaHNICA. NINTH EDITION
 
 POULTRY.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 401 
 
 into pens and improving their fare. There is no cheaper 
 •way of fattening hogs than by feeding them* on boiled or 
 steamed potatoes, mashed and mixed with a portion of 
 barley or pease-meal. When barley-meal alone is used, it 
 should be mixed with cold water, and allowed to soak for 
 twelve hours before being given to . the hogs. A few 
 morsels of coal should be frequently thrown into their 
 troughs. These are eaten with evident relish, and conduce 
 to the health of the animals. 
 
 An interesting account of the most approved methods 
 of cutting up, curing, and disposing of 'carcases of pork, is 
 given in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 
 voL xi, p. 585. 
 
 Section 3. — Poultry. 
 
 is a class of stock deserving more attention than farmers 
 generally give it. There are, indeed, few farm-yards un- 
 tenanted by fowls of some sort, and few homesteads with- 
 out a poultry-house. It is rare, however, to meet with 
 an instance where the breeding and management of poultry 
 is conducted with the care and intelligence so frequently 
 bestowed on other kinds of live stock. Now, if poultry 
 is kept at all, whether for pleasure or profit, it is surely 
 ■worth while to use rational means for securing the object 
 in view. To have good fowls, it is necessary to provide 
 a dry, warm, well-ventilated house, in which they may 
 Toost and deposit their eggs. This house must be kept 
 •clean, and its tenants regularly supplied with abundance 
 of suitable food. Constant and careful attention is also 
 absolutely indispensable. On farms of the lesser sort, 
 this duty is usually undertaken by the farmer's wife or 
 daughters. It will, however, in most cases be better 
 to entrust- the entire charge of the poultry to some elderly 
 female servant, who shall give her undivided attention 
 to it. 
 
 The kinds of poultry most suitable for a farm-yard are 
 the common fowls, geese, and ducks. Turkeys and guinea- 
 fowl are difficult to rear, troublesome to manage, and less 
 profitable than the other sorts. Of the common fowl there 
 are now many excellent and distinct breeds. The Cochin 
 China or Shanghae is the largest breed we have. They 
 are hardy and very docile ; their flesh is of good quality 
 when young ; their eggs, of a buff colour, are comparatively 
 small but excellent in flavour, and are produced in great 
 abundance. The hens resume laying very soon after hatch- 
 ing a brood ; sometimes so soon as three weeks. They are 
 the more valuable from the circumstance that their principal 
 laying season is from October to March, when other fowls 
 are usually unproductive. The Dorkings, of which there 
 are several varieties, as the speckled, the silver, and the 
 white, are not excelled by any breed for general usefulness. 
 The hens are peculiarly noted for their fidelity in brooding, 
 and their care of their young. The Spanish fowls are very 
 handsome in their plumage and form, have very white and 
 excellent flesh, and lay larger eggs than any other breed. 
 The Polish and Dutch every-day layers are peculiarly 
 suitable where eggs rather than chickens are desired, as 
 the hens of both these breeds continue to lay for a long 
 time before showing any desire to brood. 
 
 It is to be recommended that, except in situations where 
 agood price can be got for chickens, the return should be 
 sought 'for chiefly in eggs. 
 
 A suitable stock of fowls being selected, pains must be 
 taken to preserve their health and other good qualities by 
 breeding only from the best of both sexes, and these not 
 too near akin. A very simple plan for securing this is to 
 select a. cock, and not more than six or eight hens, of the 
 best that can be got, to entrust these to the care of some 
 neighbouring cottager, whose dwelling is sufficiently apart 
 <o prevent intercourse with other fowls, and then to use 
 
 1-U* 
 
 only the eggs from these selected, fowls for the general 
 hatching. There are many advantages in such a course. 
 The whole stock of fowls can thus be had of uniform 
 character and superior quality. If it suit the fancy or 
 object of the owner, his fowls may be of several distinct 
 breeds without any risk of their intermingling ; the select 
 breeding stocks can be kept up by merely changing the 
 cock every second year, and not more than one cock to 
 thirty hens need be kept for the general stock, as it is no 
 consequence whether their eggs are impregnated or not. 
 Besides having the run of the barn-door, cattle-court3, 
 and stack-yard, fowls are greatly benefited by having free 
 access to a pasture or roomy grass-plot. If the latter is 
 interspersed with evergreen shrubs so much the better, as 
 fowls delight to bask under fhe sunny side of a bush, 
 besides seeking shelter under it from sudden rain. Their 
 court should also be at all times provided with clean wate:, 
 and a heap of dry sand or coal-ashes, in which they wallow, 
 and free themselves from vermin. To keep them in pro- 
 fitable condition, they require, besides scraps from the 
 kitchen and refuse of garden stuffs, &c, a daily feed of 
 barley or oats at the rate of a fistful to every three or four 
 fowls. In cold weather they are the better of having 
 some warm boiled potatoes thrown down to them, as also 
 chopped Liver or scraps.of animal food of any kind. There 
 is an advantage in having the poultry-house adjoining to 
 that in which cattle-food is cooked in winter, 'as, by carry- 
 ing the flue of the furnace up the partition-wall, the fowls 
 get the benefit of the warmth thus imparted to their roost' 
 ing-place. Saw-dust, dried peat, or bernt clay, are suitable 
 materials for littering poultry-houses, and are preferable to 
 straw. By strewing the floor with such substances two or 
 three times a week, each time carefully removing the pre- 
 vious application, and storing it with the mingled drop- 
 pings of the fowls under cover, a valuable manure can be 
 secured. When 100 common fowls, a score of geese, 
 and a dozen or two of ducks are kept, the quantity and 
 value of the manure produced by them, if kept by itself 
 and secured from the weather, will surprise those who 
 have not made trial of such a plan. 
 
 Of late years the breeding of poultry has in various 
 parts of the kingdom become quite a passion. Not only 
 have many separate treatises been published entirely de- 
 voted to this subject, but every agricultural periodical now 
 bears evidence to the popularity of this pursuit 
 
 Section 4. — Treatment of Live Stock under Disease. 
 
 Time was when every such treatise as the present was 
 expected to contain a description of the diseases to which 
 the domesticated animals are most subject, and instructions 
 for their treatment under them. , But now that farriery is 
 discarded and veterinary medicine is taught in colleges, 
 the han dlin g of such a subject is obviously beyond the 
 province of a practical farmer. A few general observations 
 is all, therefore, that we offer regarding it. The province 
 of the stockmaster obviously is to study how to prevent 
 disease, rather than how to cure it For this end let him 
 exercise the utmost care, first, in selecting sound and 
 vigorous animals of their respective kinds, and then in 
 avoiding those errors in feeding and general' treatment 
 which are the most frequent causes of disease. When 
 cases of serious disease occur, let the best professional aid 
 that is available be instantly resorted to ; but in all those 
 cases which farmers usually consider themselves competent 
 to treat we advise' that they should trust rather to good 
 nursing, and to the healing power of nature, than to thaf 
 indiscriminate bleeding and purging which is so commonly 
 resorted to, and which in the majority of cases does harm 
 instead of good.
 
 402 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [improvement .of 
 
 CHAPTEE XIX. 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF WASTB LANDS. 
 
 Notwithstanding the great progress which agriculture 
 has made, and the immense amount of capital, energy, 
 and skill which for generations has been brought to bear 
 upon the improvement of our soil, there are still large 
 portions of the surface of our country lying in their natural 
 state, and usually classed under the head of Waste Lands, 
 in contradistinction to those which'are under tillage, or have 
 at some time been subjected to the plough. Of this (so 
 called) waste land but a limited portion is absolutely- 
 unproductive. Much of it is capable of being converted 
 into arable land, and doubtless will in course of time be 
 so dealt with, but in the meantime this class of waste 
 lands, and very much more that will never be tilled, is of 
 great and steadily increasing value as sheep-walks. Even 
 for this purpose most of it is susceptible of great im- 
 provement, and would well repay it. These lands are 
 comprised under the following descriptions : — 1st, Those 
 hilly and mountainous parts of Great Britain which, from 
 their steep and rugged surface and ungenial climate, are 
 unfit for tillage ; 2d, Those which lie uncultivated owing 
 to natural poverty of soil, its wetness, or the degree to 
 which it is encumbered with stones ; 3d, Bogs and mosses ; 
 4th, Lands so near the sea-level as to be more or less 
 liable to be submerged ; and 5th, Blowing sands: 
 
 Section 1. — Improvement of High-lying SJieep Pastures. 
 
 The lands referred to under the first of these heads are 
 of very great extent, embracing the whole of the mountain- 
 ous parts of Scotland and Wales, and much of the high 
 grounds in tho. north of England and south of Scotland. 
 These high grounds afford pasturage for innumerable flocks 
 of sheep of our valuable mountain breeds. The business 
 of sheep-farming has received a great stimulus of late years 
 trom the ever-growing demand for sheep to consume the 
 green crops of arable districts. These upland sheep-walks 
 are accordingly rising in value, and their improvement 
 is becoming every day of increasing importance. The im- 
 provement of these hill grazings embraces these leading 
 features, viz., drainage, shelter, and enclosure. Until of 
 late years our hill flocks were peculiarly liable to the rot 
 and other diseases arising from the presence of stagnant and 
 flood water upon their pastures. Many gTazings that had 
 at one time an evil reputation on this account now yield 
 sound and healthy sheep, solely from ths care with which 
 they have been drained. To guard against the pernicious 
 effects of flooding, the courses of brooks and runnels, which 
 in heavy rains overflow their grassy margins, are straight- 
 ened, deepened, and widened, to such an extent as is 
 required to carry off all flood water without allowing it to 
 overflow. Some grounds are naturally eo. dry that this is 
 all that is required to render them safe. But in general 
 the slopes and hollows of hilly grounds abound with springs 
 and deposits of peat, and with flats on which water stag- 
 nates after rain. On well-managed grounds such places are 
 covered with a network of open drains or shallow ditches, 
 about 30 inches wide at top and half as many deep, by 
 which superfluous water is rapidly carried off. The cutting 
 of these drains costs from 8s. to 10s. per 100 rods (of six 
 yards each). In pastoral districts there are labourers who 
 are skilled in this kind of work, and to whom the laying 
 out of the lines is frequently entrusted, as well as the exe- 
 cution of tho work. On very steep places they are careful 
 to avoid a run directly down the declivity, as a strong 
 current of water in such circumstances gutters the bottom 
 of the drain, and cliokes those below with the debris 
 thus produced; but with this exception the drains are 
 always run straight down the greatest slope of the ground. 
 
 When such drains have .been properly nindo,, it is neces- 
 sary to have them statedly overhauled and kept in good 
 order. 
 
 Next in importance to drainage is good and sufficient 
 shelter. This, in the absence of natural coppices of birch 
 or hazel, is provided by means of clumps and belts of fir 
 plantation. These should always be of such extent that 
 the trees may shelter each other as well as the sheep. 
 Trees planted in a mass always shoot up faster than in 
 narrow strips, and restrain the snow-drift which passes 
 through the latter. A shepherd who knows, the ground 
 well should always be consulted about tno sites of such 
 plantations. The conditions requisite are, that the soil be 
 such as trees will grow in ; that it be so far removed from 
 any brook, ravine, or bog, as to be accessible to the flock from 
 all sides; that there be rough herbage, such as heather, 
 gorse, or rushes, near at hand, which the sheep may be 
 able to get at in deep snow ; that it be contiguous to the 
 sheep-walk, and placed so as to afford defence against the 
 most prevalent winds. A less costly sholter is formed by 
 building what are called slells, which consist of a simple 
 dry-stone wall enclosing a circular space twenty yards or 
 so in diameter, with an opening on one side ; or forming a 
 cross, in one angle of which the sheep find shelter from 
 whatever point the wind blows. A haystack is a necessary 
 adjunct to such defences. 
 
 It is a further point of importance to have such grazings 
 surrounded with a ring fence, consisting either of dry- 
 stone walls, turf walls with wire a-top, or a simple wire 
 fence. This prevents trespass ; and the sheep having 
 freedom to range, without watching, up to the boundary, 
 more of them can be kept on the ground than when they 
 are ever and anon turned back by the shepherd. These 
 needful and inexpensive improvements are now generally 
 attended to over the wide pastoral districts of the Scottish 
 border counties. In the remote Highlands they aro still 
 much neglected. There are, however, few agricultural im- 
 provements which yield so quick and certain a return. 
 
 Section 2. — Reclaiming of Moor Lands. 
 
 The improvement of the second class of these urrre- 
 claimed lands is now much facilitated by the readiness with 
 which portable manures can be obtained for them. Drain- 
 ing and enclosing here necessarily demand the first atten- 
 tion. In some cases the land is so encumbered with stones 
 that careful trenching of the whole surface is the only way 
 of getting rid of them. In the north of Scotland many 
 thousands of acres formerly useless have been converted 
 into valuable arable land by this means. 
 
 In nearly all parts of the country there are extensive 
 tracts of this muiry soil, producing only a scanty and 
 coarse herbage, which are susceptible of remunerative im- 
 provement. We are happy in being able to submit to the 
 reader the following detailed account of a successful 
 instance of this, kindly furnished to us by George A. Grey, 
 Esq. of Millfield Hill, Northumberland :— 
 
 " It is said that necessity is the mother of invention. I ws» 
 told by some of my friends that I had given too high a price fur this 
 estate, and that it would be a dearer farm to me now than whin 1 
 rented it from Lord Grey. To overcome this opinion or fact, I 
 ' hi of several plans of making it more remunerative, and 
 
 decided on that which I am now about to describe. 
 
 "On the high part of the farm, at an elevation of from 400 to 500 
 feet above the sea, I had upwards of 100 acres of moorland of a poor 
 description, which had never been under the plough. This consisted 
 of short heath, bilberry bushes, and dry white bent grass, and a soft 
 dry deep moss, delightful as a Turkey carpet under foot, and excel, 
 lent excursive ground for old hunters, with a small portion of sprattj 
 grass and rushes in the damp hollows. The soil is of a free turnip 
 and barley lcam on the Totten whinstone. By planting on the wes1 
 side, and in some places suitable for shelter, I reduced the quantitv 
 to about 100 acres. This I divided into three fields of about 3S 
 acre* OMh.
 
 WASTE LANDS, j 
 
 " My great dread was the length of time which such a rough dry 
 surface would require to decompose sufficiently to allow of cultivation, 
 having seen heathery moors in many parts of Scotland lying for two, 
 three, and four years before crops could be obtained, owing to the 
 great cover of coarse vegetation preventing the furrow from lying 
 over, and keeping the land so open and dry through summer that if 
 a braird of com or green crop was obtained, it would wither away 
 in dry weather. 
 
 " I had heard of paring and burning, but knew nothing of the 
 process. I, however, obtained the necessary information very much 
 from Mr Langlands of Bt vick, who had practised it to a consider- 
 able extent "With what I saw there I was so much pleased that I 
 determined to proceed at once. 
 
 " I also saw Mr Langlanda's work done by a paring-plough, such 
 as is used in the south of England, with a wide plate to cut a furrow 
 of 10 or 12 inches in width. On the point of this is j an' upright 
 piece of steel, wnich cuts and divides the heath, — the mould-board 
 turns the furrow over flat on its back, and from end to end of the 
 landing the furrows. lay side by side like planks from a saw-mill, and 
 were about half an inch in thickness. 
 
 " I must, however, remark, as a caution to others against falling 
 iuto th-3 same error as I did, that this land had been in tillage at 
 some former time, and was in ridges with a regular surface, so that 
 when the plough was set, it cut the whole furrow at a uniform depth, 
 and was drawn by two horses with ease, and at an expense of about 
 eight shillings per acre. 
 
 " I got this plough, and gave it a fair trials but from my land 
 never having been laid smooth, it cut one part as thin as was wished, 
 and the next yard perhaps six or twelve inches thick, which caused 
 a great extra expense in drying, lifting, and burning, and^ wasted 
 more soil than was necessary or desirable. Also my land having a 
 great deal of small whinstone below the turf, the steel plate frequently 
 got injured and broken. It was" therefore with great reluctance laid 
 aside, and the ordinary method of paring by hand adopted, which is 
 Blower and much more expensive, but very perfect. It saves soil 
 and cheapens the burning operation, the paring being so thin when 
 the heath, &c, was divided, that light could be seen through the 
 sod, which was only held together with the roots and fibres. 
 
 '.'I began with No. 1 field in July 1849. I let the paring and 
 burning to a company at 25s. per acre, but they made low wages, 
 and after getting more than their work came to, gave up the job. 
 I then got some experienced hands to pare, and paid them the usual 
 wages, at that time 9s. per week, and gave them their food, say 13s. 
 per week, the work being very hard. The total cost of this 
 averaged me 24s. 9d. per acre. A portion of the top part of No. 1 
 was left undone owing to the lateness of the season. This was dry 
 beuty turf. It was ploughed in the common way, and grew no oats 
 in 1850. It was again ploughed and much harrowed and rolled, 
 and sown with the remainder of the field in 1851 with rape, and has 
 grown only a few plants at wide distances. It is still in such a dry 
 undecomposed state that although it is on the high part of the 
 field where sheep draw to lie, I do not expect that it will grow a crop 
 of corn next year ; while a portion which was pared down the middle 
 of it grew good corn and rape. 
 
 "A portion of No. 2 field was also ploughed in the ordinary way. 
 This was moist land, growing shorter and sweeter grass than any 
 other. It grew a very thin irregular crop of oats in 1850, not within 
 three-quarters per acre of the pared land, but is now (1851) bearing 
 a good erop of oats, that field being a second time in oat crop. To 
 return: 
 
 " I had a fair crop of rape in the autumn of 1849 on a consider- 
 able portion of No. 1, where it was sown in tolerable season during 
 all August ; after that it appeared to be too late. All was, however, 
 ploughed up at once to secure the ashes, and was well harrowed and 
 sown with oats in the spring of 1850. The pared land turned out 
 to be much too thickly sown at four bushels per acre. Corn tillers 
 so much on such land that in some parts it prevented it from 
 coming to maturity. I have since sown much thinner, say three 
 bushels per acre, and even in some degree I find the same fault, there 
 being from five to eight sterns from one root. My crop of 1850 
 turned out to be 30 bushels per acre, but it was on the point of being 
 cut when the high wind in August devastated this district, and 
 that lying high and fully exposed to the wind suffered most severely. 
 I should say it was not below six quarters per acre, and the quality 
 of the grain good. 
 
 • " In Jane and July 1850 T p?r°.d No. 3 by the same hands who 
 finished my work the previous year. I let the burning of it to an 
 Irishman at 2s. 6d. per acre, binding bim to burn it closely piled up 
 in good-sized heaps like hay-cocks, to prevent the escape of the ashes 
 »» the shape of smoke into the atmosphere. 
 
 "This, with the paring, cost me on 36 acresl9s. 6d. per acre. I 
 got 20 acres of it ploughed and sown with white turnips, broadcast 
 in July and August. I had a close nice crop, though the roots were 
 email, which kept a large flock of sheep for several weeks. This 
 had the pood etfect uf treading down the land and making it plough 
 better for oats. 
 " Nos. 1 and 2 were limed at the rate of 7 loads per acre, in 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 403 
 
 June 1851 No. 1 was sown broadcast with rape, by mixing 4 lb. of 
 rape seed with one bushel of oat shellings for an acre, and sowing 
 them out of a grass-seed machine. The crop is very close and fine, 
 and has kept rwenty scores of sheep from an early day in August to 
 this date (September 27th). 
 
 "No. 2 in 1851 was again sown with oats, which proved a very 
 fine crop, as also did No. 3. The produce was about nine quarters 
 per acre. The oats are very thick and tall, and have very long, large 
 heads, and the grain is plump and good; the stalks being strong, the 
 crop is not lodged so as to injure the yield. I estimate it at cer- 
 tainly 7J quarters per acre, but shall calculate it at 6 quarters. 
 
 " I sow on that land the sandy oat, being early, not liable to 
 lodge nor to shake in moderately high winds, although it was not 
 proof against that of 1850. 
 
 ' ' Previously to breaking up I drained with pipes all the land 
 which required drying, of which I shall give a statement, along with 
 the expenses and profits of the whole. 
 
 "The result shows that if I had, some years ago, when price of 
 grain were £ood, done as a tenant what I have done now, I should 
 have been amply repaid by the first or second crops, and have had 
 my farm for the remainder of a twenty-one years' lease worth fully 
 £100 a year more than when I began. 
 
 "The result of my experience is, that I neither agree with the 
 generality of Scotsmen nor with many Southerns. The former 
 are of opinion that burning wastes the vegetable matter, which 
 should be kept to decompose and enrich the soil, not considering 
 that at once the land receives a rich dressing of ashes quite equal to 
 two quarters of bones, or 4 or 5 cwt. of the best guano ; and that, 
 during the several years which such a slow process would require to 
 take place, the land might be much more enriched by growing and 
 having eaten upon it fine crops of rape and turnip, and by producing 
 heavy corn crops, which would in a much shorter space be returned 
 to it in the shape of manure ; and also that by the process of burn- 
 ing the land is freed from the larvae of insects, such as grubs, slugs, 
 wireworms, &c. &c, which are engendered among the rough grass, 
 and fostered for a length of time under the rough, dry, undecomposed 
 turf ; to say nothing of the length of time which the speculator is 
 kept out of a large amount of capital and interest, instead of having 
 the former returned with the latter after the first or at most the 
 second year. 
 
 " The latter, again (the Englishmen), are too much in the habit 
 of repeating the operation of burning, even after the land has 
 lain in grass only for a few years, when it might as well be ploughed 
 and cultivated without such expense, thereby unnecessarily reducing 
 the soil, there not being the same difficulties to be overcome nor 
 the same advantage to be gained from it. 
 
 " I should certainly burn all land with a rough harsh surface, 
 and should as certainly plough and sow all land with a sweet grassy 
 face upon it. 
 
 t "In my opinion there are few farms in this country which do not 
 contain certain portions of land capable of remunerative improvement, 
 and I have shown that such improvement is quite within thescopo 
 of a tenant with a lease, without which no man can farm well, at 
 least in the Northumbrian system. "Would it not be better, then, 
 for landlords, tenants, and the country generally, were tenants to 
 employ labourers on works so speedily remunerative to themselves, 
 rather than run to their landlord whenever they feel the screw, and 
 ask for abatement of rent, or to be allowed to plough out some pieco 
 of valuable old grass, or otherwise cross crop their land, with a 
 view of obtaining some temporary advantage, but in the end to the 
 inevitable injury of all concerned? (Signed) "G. A. Grey. 
 
 "Millfield Hill, Dec. 1, 1851." 
 
 From a statement of outlay and returns appended to the 
 above paper it appears that the profits on the three fields 
 were respectively £50, 12s. 5d., £84, 19s. 3d., and £39, 
 2s. 9d., from -which, however, there falls to be deducted 
 the' expense of fencing (£35), leaving a gross profit of 
 £139, 14s. 5d, 
 
 Section 3. — 'Reclaiming of Bogs. 
 The reclamation of extensive bogs, or deposits of peat, 
 is a more arduous undertaking, requiring a considerable 
 expenditure of capital and longer time before a return is 
 obtained from it. The extent of land of this description 
 in Great Britain and Ireland is very great Very exagge- 
 rated statements of the profits to be derived from its 
 improvement have often been published, and not a few 
 persons have incurred serious loss by rashly undertaking 
 this kind of work. On the other hand, when bogs are 
 favourably situated with reference to a command of marl 
 or other calcareous matter, to assist in their decomposition 
 and consolidation, and of manure to enrich them, their
 
 404 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [improvement op 
 
 reclamation has proved a very profitable speculation. The 
 well-known instance of Chat Moss in Lancashire affords so 
 interesting an example of this that we shall here quote 
 a description of it. 
 
 " Chat Moss, well known as that black barren swamp between 
 Liverpool and Manchester, contains 6000 acres, one-half of which is 
 in the township of Barton, and the remainder in the townships of 
 Bedford, Astley, and Worsley. 
 
 " The principal part of this moss, which b'es in Barton township, 
 belongs to the Trafford family, and is entailed, but the ancestor of 
 the present Sir Thomas de Trafford appears to have obtained, at 
 the latter end of .the last century, an Act of Parliament to grant a 
 ninety-nine years'Uease of 2500 acres to a Mr Wakefield, who about 
 the year 1805 disposed of his interest in it to the late William 
 Roscoe, of literary celebrity, who spent a large sum in a fruitless 
 endeavour to improve it, failing in which, the Tease was sold in 1821 
 to other parties. J. A. Brown, Esq., of Woolden HalL bought 
 1300 acres ; the late Edward Baines, M.P. for Leeds, purchased the 
 remaining 1200 acres. The most extensive and successful efforts 
 at improving this moss have been made on a part of the 1200 acres 
 bought by Mr Baines, who, besides occupying the part operated* 
 upon by Air Roscoe, improved a considerable bread/h himself,, and 
 let several portions to other parties, who have made considerable 
 progress in improving small portions. The most extensive opera- 
 tions, however, upon the whole, have been carried out by a company 
 to whom Mr Baines, in 1 828, granted a lease of 550 acres for 68 years, 
 the remainder of the original term, at a nominal rent for the first 
 year, increasing gradually till at the end of five years the rent 
 attained its maximum of £165 per annum for the 650 acres. This 
 company, which was formed at the .time the Liverpool and Man- 
 chester Railway was in progress of being made on the property, 
 consisted, amongst others, of some practical farmers, and originated 
 with William Reed, who for the three first years was the manager, 
 and resided on this farm, which they called Barton Moss farm. , 
 During that period I had the pleasure of paying my friend Reed a 
 visit, and of witnessing the skill and success attending his enterprise 
 and various experiments. 
 
 " The first operation, that of draining, bad been effected by open- 
 ing side drains at intervals of fifty yards, into which were laid 
 covered ones six yards apart, at right angles with and emptying 
 into the open side drains. 
 
 " The moss being in a semi-fluid state, it was necessary to proceed 
 slowly with draining, taking out only one graft or depth at a time, 
 allowing it to remain a week or a month, according to the state of 
 the weather, before taking out the second graft ; this admitted of 
 the sides becoming consolidated, and of the second graft being taken 
 out without the moss closing in. It was again allowed to remain 
 as before till sufficiently dry to admit of the third being removed. 
 
 " The open drains were made 3 feet wide and 3 feet 6 inches deep, 
 and the covered drains 1 6 inches wide and 3 feet deep ; the last graft of 
 the latter being only about 6 inches wide at the top, tapering to 4 
 inches at the bottom, and being taken out of the middle of the 
 cut, left a shouldor on each side. The sod or graft first taken out 
 had by this time become tough and dry, and was placed, with the 
 heath side downwards, in the shoulder, thus leaving the narrow spit 
 at the bottom open for a depth of about 14 inches ; the other square 
 sod being put on the top, completed the drain." 
 
 "The cost of this mode of draining, insluding the side drains, 
 was about 88s. per acre. The drains first put in required to be 
 renewed in a few years, in consequence of the moss becoming so 
 much consolidated and reduced in height that the plough, as well 
 as the horses' feet, broke through the roof, although the horses were 
 shod with 'pattens,' or boards of about 10 inches square, with the 
 angles taken off. The second draining, however, was more perma- 
 nent, and would probably not have required renewing for many . 
 years but for the moles, which have been very troublesome in 
 working down to the drains, and filling them up in various places ; 
 so that the operation of draining has required to he partially renewed 
 in every fiold, and in many of them entirely so ; and thus these little 
 ani m als have been the cause of a very considerable increase in the 
 cost of labour. It has subsequently been found advisable to put 
 the under drains in at 4 yards, instead of 6 yards asunder, and the 
 advantage in one crop has been quite sufficient to pay the extra cost. 
 A two-horso engine was erected, which drives the thrashing-machine, 
 straw-cutter, and crushing-mill ; and the escape-steam from it 
 steams the horses' food. 
 
 "The buildings were erected principally of timber, covered with 
 asphalted felt 
 
 "After draining, making roads, and burning off the heath plant, 
 the bind was scarified lengthwise of the fields by an implement 
 with knives shaped like coulters! reversed, sharp on the convex 
 side, fixed in two bars, and drawn by three horses yoked abreast 
 
 "The tough surface was by this means cut at every four inches ; 
 the bind was then ploughed Across the scarifying ; a roller, sur- 
 rounded with knives, was next passed across the plough ; after 
 this the land was well harrowed till sufficiently reduced. 
 
 " From 60 to 100 cubic yards of marl were put on an acre, and 
 in the following summer the land was manured, also by means of 
 the movable railway, at the rate of fifty tons of black Manchester 
 manure per acre, and planted with potatoes, which were followed 
 by wheat sown with red clover and ryegrass, for mowing for one 
 or two years ; then oats and potatoes, Jtc, as before. These wcie 
 all flourishing crops ; the wheat in particular looked bright and 
 beautiful The potatoes were sold for i'25 and £30 per acre, which 
 more than paid the whole cost of improvement. Mr John Bell, 
 resident bailiff, has made many valuable experiments relative to 
 the improvement of raw moss, one of which has resulted in a dis- 
 covery likely to be of considerable importance, which is, that a 
 mixture of lime and salt applied a while before seeding, with the 
 addition of a good dressing of guano, in the proportion of four tone 
 of lime and nve cwt of salt per acre, qualifies it to produce a 
 crop of potatoes or oats equal to that after the application of 60 
 yards of marl per acre. It is essential that the mixture should be 
 spread while it is hot Mr Evens (one of the proprietors) is con- 
 vinced that the peat on the surface ought never to be burned ; he 
 has always found that, when the heathvsod is turned down to decay, 
 much better crops have been obtained than when it has been burnt 
 off, or than when the top has been taken away either for fuel oi 
 other purposes. What are termed moss-fallows, — that is, parts which 
 have had the moss taken off for fuel, — will never bear so good a crop 
 as the upper surface, however deep the moss may be underneath. 
 — (Notes on the Agriculture of Lancashire, vrith Suggestions /or its 
 Improvement, by Jonathan Binns.) 
 
 About a century ago, Lord Karnes, on becoming pro- 
 prietor of the estate of Blair-Drummond, in the county 
 of Perth, began the improvement of a large tract of worth- 
 less moss by a totally different process from that now 
 detailed. In this, case the moss had accumulated upon a 
 good alluvial clay soil Instead, therefore, of attempts being 
 made to improve the moss itself, it was floated off piecemeal 
 into the neighbouring Firth of Forth The supply of water 
 required for this purpose was obtained from the river Teith, 
 from which it was raised to the requisite height by a 
 powerful water-wheeL ■ Being conveyed througV the moss 
 in channels, successive layers of peat were dug and thrown 
 into these channels, which were shifted as occasion required, 
 until the whole inert mass was removed. A thin stratum 
 next the clay was burnt, and the ashes used as manure. 
 An immense extent of moss has thus been got rid of on 
 that estate and on others in the neighbourhood, and "an 
 extensive tract of country, where formerly only a few snipes 
 and muir-fowl could find subsistence, has been converted, 
 as if by magic, into a rich and fertile carse of alluvial soil, 
 worth from £3 to £5 per acre." 
 
 Section 4. — Reclaiming of Fen Lands. 
 
 We next notice the fen lands of England. " In popular 
 language, the word fen designates' all low wet lands, 
 whether peatbog, river alluvium, or salt marsh ; put in the 
 great Bedford level, which, extending itself in Cambridge- 
 shire and five adjoining counties, is the largest tract of fen 
 land in the kingdom, the farmer always distinguishes, and 
 it is thought conveniently and correctly, between fen land 
 and marsh land. By the former they mean land partly 
 alluvial and formed by river floods, and partly accumulated 
 by the growth of peat. Such lands are almost invariably 
 of a black colour, and contain a great percentage of carbon. 
 By marsh lands they mean low tracts gained from the sea, 
 either by the gradual silting up of estuaries or by artificial 
 embankments." Low-lying peat occurs in small patches in 
 nearly every maritime county of Britain, being usually 
 separated from the sea or from estuaries by salt marsh or 
 alluvium. There is a large extent of such land in Somerset- 
 shire yet but partially drained, -and a still larger breadth 
 in Lancashire, where its improvement makes steady pro- 
 gress. In Kent, on the seaboard of Norfolk, on both shores 
 of the Hnmber, and stretching along the sides of its tribu- 
 taries, there are immense "tracts of this description of land. 
 But these are all exceeded in importance by the " great 
 level of the fens, which occupies, the south-eastern quarter 
 of Lincolnshire, the northern half of Cambridgeshire, and
 
 WASTE LANDS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 405 
 
 spreads also into the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Hunting- 
 don, and Northampton. Its length is about 70 miles, its 
 breadth from 3 or 4 to 30 or 40 miles, the whole area being 
 upwards of 1060 square miles, or 680,000 acres. On the 
 map tho fens appear like an enlargement of the Wash, and 
 in reality have the aspect of a sea of land, lying between 
 that bay and the high lands in each of the above-named 
 counties, which seem to form an irregular coast-line around 
 it." This fen country has for centuries been the scene of 
 drainage operations on a stupendous scale. The whole sur- 
 face of the great basin of the fens is lower than the sea, 
 the level varying from four to sixteen feet below high- 
 water mark in the German Ocean. The difficulty of drain- 
 ing this flat tract is increased from the circumstance that 
 the ground is highest near the shore, and falls inland 
 towards the foot of the slope. These inland and lowest 
 grounds consist of spongy peat, which has a natural 
 tendency to retain water. The rivers and streams which 
 flow from the higher inlands discharge upon these level 
 grounds, and originally found their way into the broad 
 and shallow estuary of the Wash, obstructed in all direc- 
 tions by bars and shifting sand-banks. These upland 
 waters being now caught at their point of entrance upon 
 Ihe fens, are confined within strong artificial banks, and 
 so guided straight seaward. They are thus restrained from 
 flooding the low grounds, and by their concentration and 
 momentum assist in scouring out the silt from the' narrow 
 channel to which they are confined. The tidal waters are 
 at the same time fenced out by sea-banks, which are pro- 
 vided at proper intervals with sluice doors, by which the 
 waters escape at ebb-tide. To show the extent of these 
 operations, it may be mentioned that the whole sea-coast 
 of Lincolnshire and part of Norfolk, a line of at least 130 
 miles, consists of marsh lands lower than the tides, and is 
 protected by barrier banks, besides which there are hun- 
 dreds of miles of river embankments. When this does 
 hot provide such a drainage as to admit of cultivation, the 
 water is lifted mechanically by wind or steam mills into 
 the main aqueducts. 
 
 The first use of steam-engines for the purpose of drain- 
 ing was in Deeping fen, where, in 1824-5, two, of 80 and 
 60 horse-power respectively, were erected. By means of 
 these two engines upwards of 20,000 acres have now a 
 good drainage, whereas formerly forty-four wind-mills, 
 with an aggregate power of 400 horses, failed to keep' 
 them sufficiently dry. The scoop-wheel of the larger 
 engine is 28 feet in diameter, and the float-boards are 5 
 feet wide. It was intended to have a " dip " of "5 feet, 
 but the land has subsided so much in consequence of the 
 draining that it seldom has a dip of more than 2 feet 9 
 inches. The water is lifted on an average 7 feet high. 
 When both engines are at work they raise 300 tons weight 
 of water per minute. 
 
 The soil of the fens consists for the most part of dark- 
 coloured peat, from 1 to 8 or 10 feet in depth. The surface 
 in general is not pure peat, but is mixed with silt or other 
 soil. Under thi3 there is in general a stratum of brown 
 spongy peat, which sometimes rests upon gravel, but for 
 the most part upon clay, which usually contains a portion 
 of calcareous matter. The removal of the water has of 
 course been the primary improvement ; but subsidiary to 
 this the rapid amelioration and great fertility of the fen 
 lands are largely due to this fortunate conjunction of clay 
 and peat. The early practice ot the fen farmers was to 
 pare and burn the surface, grow repeated crops of rape, 
 oats, wheat, &c, and burn again. The subsidence of the 
 soil subsequent to the draining and repeated paring and 
 burning, brought the surface nearer to the subjacent clay, 
 which the cultivators by and by began to dig up and spread 
 over the surface. This practice is now universal, and its 
 
 continued use, together with careful cultivation and liberal 
 manuring, has changed a not very productive peat into on© 
 of the most fertile soils in the kingdom. Nowhere in our 
 country has the industry and skill of man effected greater 
 changes than in the fens. What was once a dismal morass, 
 presenting to the view in summer a wilderness of reeds, 
 sedges, andjpools of water, among which the cattle waded, 
 and in winter almost an unbroken expanse of water, is 
 now a fertile corn land. JThe fen men, who formerly lived 
 upon the adjacent high lands, and occupied themselves with 
 fishing, fowling, and attending to their cattle, have now 
 erected homesteads upon the fen lands, divided them by 
 thorn hedges, and brought them into the highest state of 
 cultivation. 
 
 We referred at the outset to the distinction betwixt fen 
 land and marsh land. The following pertinent observa- 
 tions on the reclamation of marsh land are extracted from 
 Mr David Stevenson's paper in the Highland and Agricul- 
 tural Society's Transactions, vol. iii., 1871. 
 
 First, In order to insure success, the space to be reclaimed most 
 be within the influence of water containing much alluvial matter, 
 and not on the shores of an open sandy estuary. 
 
 Secondly, The spaces to be reclaimed should he allowed to receive 
 the deposit left by the tide for as long a period as possible, and no 
 attempt should be made entirely to exclude the water from them, 
 until they have by .gradual accretion attained the level of at least 
 ordinary spring tides. 
 
 The first case to which I shall refer is Loch Foyle, a situation 
 where the amount of salt water greatly preponderates over the fresh. 
 Extensive reclamations have been made there, and I have received 
 from Mr G. Henry Wiggins, of Londonderry, some notes regarding 
 them, from which I extract the following interesting information: — 
 
 "After the salt water had been excluded, shallow surface drains 
 were made with spades or forks, and in about two years ryegrass 
 grew pretty freely : exceptional spots remained barren for some time. 
 The gras3 was followed by oats, which improved as the said left the 
 soil. Deeper draining allowed the cultivation of flax and clover ; 
 afterwards, on deeper draining, all ordinary crops began to grow 
 well — wheat, beans, turnips, mangold, and carrots — but all requiring 
 fully as much manure as any old upper land. These sloblands, 
 says Mr Wiggins, yield a great return for manure, but must have 
 manure on the lower and damper portions. Feorin grass grows well 
 without manure. 
 
 "Whenever the ditches -have so far drained the soil as to allow 
 of its becoming cracked and open to the air, the crops begin to 
 increase in produce, but the full value of the soil is never known 
 until thoroughly under-drained with tile or stone ; it then mostly 
 yields excellent crops of almost any produce, clover and ryegrass 
 for hay being perhaps the most profitable. Grazing the land does not 
 answer, except from the beginning of May to the end of September; 
 after this the soil is too cold and damp for the beasts to fie down, 
 and they begin to fail." 
 
 The expense of these intakes on the Foyle may be taken at 
 about £20 an acre to get them from the sea ; the expense of bring- 
 ing the land when got into cultivation will come to at least £10 
 more ; making a total of £30 per acre. The best lands are worth 
 50s. to 40s. the Cunningham or Scotch acre, and the lowest and 
 wettest parts perhaps not more than 10s. — say 30s. round as a fair 
 average. To this has to be added the expense of keeping up the 
 banks and pumping water ; so that I believe Mr Wiggins is right 
 when he says that no great profit can be expected, ana that these 
 matters are generally undertaken by hopeful and energetic enthu- 
 siasts, who seldom realise their expectations, and afterwards fall into 
 the hands pf other parties, who are perhaps rather more successful. 
 
 The reclamations made by the Ulverston and Lancaster Railway 
 in Morecambe Bay were rapidly formed by the embankment for 
 carrying the railway, which was made in pretty deep water. ' Like 
 the Foyle, there is also predominance of sea-water. Mr G. Drewry, of 
 Holker in. Lancashire, has favoured me with the following informa- 
 tion : — " A portion of the land enclosed by the railway in 1856 was 
 grassed over, and the remainder was sand without any vegetation on 
 it. After it was levelled it was divided into fields by open ditches 
 and wire fences ; the ditches had to be made very wide at the top, in 
 order to get them to stand. The land was ther drained with 3-inch 
 pipes, each drain opening into the ditch at each side of the field. 
 The tiles were all covered round with peat moss, to act as a filter to 
 prevent the sand from running into them. The sand is so fine 
 that without this precaution the drains would have filled up very 
 quickly. The drainage is the great difficulty, as they are very apt 'o 
 nil up after every precaution has been taken. 
 
 " On the portion which was grassed over, two crops of oats were 
 first taken, and then it was green-cropped. It grew for a few years
 
 406 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 good cropa'or wheat, beans, and clover, as well as Sweaian turnips 
 and mangolds ; but though a great quantity of manure was used, 
 the crops fell off, and at present it is nearly all in grass. The 
 portion which vas bare sand was treated in the same way, except 
 as to the first two crops of oats. It was gMen-cropped after it had 
 been enclosed about two years. A/ter the railway was made there 
 was do means of silting the land. The tide was entirely kept out ; 
 had it been admitted, this land would have been much more vain- 
 able and much higher — we would then have had a better drainage 
 and a richer sand. That portion which was grassed over at the 
 time it was. enclosed is still much the best 
 
 • " When land is reclaimed from the sea, the fint thing to be looked 
 to is a good outfall for the water, and, when it is possible, no doubt 
 it is very desirable that the land should be silted Up gradually. 
 In our case this could not be done, as the reclamation of the land 
 wag i very secondary affair." 
 
 In the district called Marshland, in Norfolk, extending 
 between the Ouse and the Nen ; in that called South 
 Holland, in Lincolnshire, stretching between the Nen and 
 the Welland ; northward of Spalding, and also north-east 
 of Boston, there is a considerable tract of marine clay soil 
 In Marshland this is chiefly arable land, producing large 
 crops of wheat and beans ; but in Lincolnshire it forms 
 exceedingly fine grazing land. This tract lies within the 
 old Roman embankment* by which the district was first 
 defended from the ocean. Outside this barrier are the 
 proper marsh lands, which have been reclaimed in portions 
 at successive periods, and are still intersected in all direc- 
 tions by ranges of banks. The extraordinary feature of 
 this tract is, 'that the surface outside the Roman bank is 
 3 or 4 feet higher . than that in the inside, and the 
 level of each new enclosure is more elevated than the pre- 
 vious one. The land rises step by step as the coast is 
 approached, so that the most recently reclaimed land is 
 often 12 or even 18 feet higher than the lowest fen 
 land in the. interior, the drainage from which must 
 nevertheless be conveyed through these more elevated 
 marshes to the sea. 
 
 Lands such as some of those which we have just been 
 describing are often greatly improved, or rather may be 
 said to be made, by means of a peculiar mode of irrigation 
 called " warping." It is practicable only in the case of 
 land lying below the level of high tide in muddy rivers. 
 It is little more than a century since it was first practised 
 in England, the first instance of it being near Howden, on 
 the banks of the Humber. But although' the practice is 
 comparatively new in Britain, it has long been in use on 
 the continent of Europe, particularly in Italy, and is thus 
 described by Mr Cadell : — " In the Val de Chiana, fields 
 that are too low are raised and fertilised by the process 
 called colmata, which is done in the following manner : — 
 The field is surrounded by an embankment to confine the 
 water. The dike of the rivulet is broken down so as to 
 admit the muddy water of the high floods. The Chiana 
 itself is too powerful a body of water to be used for this 
 purpose; it is only the streams that flow into the Chiana 
 that are thus usei This water, is allowed to settle and 
 deposit its mud upon the field. The water is then let off 
 into the river at the lower end of the field by a discharg- 
 ing course ca v ied scolo, and in French canal d'ecoulement. 
 The water-course which conducts the water from a river, 
 either to a field for irrigation or to a mill, is called yora. 
 In this manner a field will be raised 5i and sometimes 7£ 
 feet in ten years. If the dike is broken down to the bottom, 
 the field may be raised to the same height in seven years ; but 
 then in this case gravel is also carried in along with the 
 mud. In a field of 25 acres, which had been six years 
 under the process of colmata, in which the dike was broken 
 down, to within 3 feet of the bottom, the process was seen to 
 be so far advanced that only another year was requisite for 
 its completion. The floods in thi3 instance had been much 
 charged with soiL The water which comes off cultivated 
 land cumvletos the process sooner than that which comes 
 
 WASTE LANDS 
 
 off hill and woodland. Almost the whole of the Val di 
 Chiana has been raised by the process of colmata." * 
 
 Section 5. — Blowing Sands. 
 
 On many parts of our sea-coasts, and especially in th« 
 Hebrides, there occur extensive tracts of blowing sands, 
 which are naturally not only sterile themselves, but a source 
 of danger to better lands adjoining them, which in some 
 instances have been quite ruined by the sand deposited 
 upon them by the winds. This mischief is effectually pre- 
 vented by a process beautifully simple and useful, namely, 
 planting the sand-banks with sea bent^grass (Amnio 
 armaria), the matting fibres and stems of which not only 
 bind the sand, but clothe it with a herbage which is relished 
 by cattle, and which, being able to resist the severest winter 
 weather, furnishes a valuable winter forage in those bleak 
 situations. The bent-grass can be propagated by seed, 
 but in exposed situations it is found better to transplant 
 it. This operation is performed betwixt" October and 
 March, as it succeeds best when the sand is moist and 
 evaporation slow. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 According to the method proposed at the outset, we 
 now offer a few observations on several topics connected 
 with our subject. 
 
 Section 1. — Of the Tenure of Land. 
 
 The extent of land in Graat Britain occupied by its 
 owners for agricultural purposes bears a very small pro- 
 portion to the whole area. The yeoman class is still 
 numerous in several parts of England, but must have 
 diminished greatly from that continuous amalgamation of 
 small estates into large ones which has formed a marked 
 feature in our social history during the present century. 
 This change, although to be regretted on public grounds, 
 has had a favourable influence on the cultivation of the soil, 
 for it almost invariably happens that a larger produce is 
 obtained from land when it is occupied by a tenant than 
 when it is cultivated by its proprietor. As a matter ol 
 fact, the land of the country is now, with trifling exceptions, 
 let out to professional farmers in quantities varying from 
 the rood-allotment of the village labourer to the square, 
 miles of the Highland grazier. Farms of all sizes are 
 usually to be found in any district, and most important It 
 is that this should be the case ; but the extent of farms is 
 chiefly determined by the amount of hired labour employed 
 upon them, and the measure of personal superintendence 
 on the part of the tenant which the kind of husbandry 
 pursued upon them calls for. We accordingly find that 
 in very fertile tracts, in the vicinity of towns, and in dairy 
 districts, they seldom exceed 200 acres ; wheve the ordinary 
 alternate husbandry is practised the average ranges from 
 300 to 400 ; in more elevated tracts, where a portion of 
 natural sheep-walk is occupied along with arable land, it 
 rises to 800 or 1000; while that of the sheep grazings of 
 our hills and mountains is limited only by the capital of 
 the tenant. About a century ago there occurred in various 
 parts of Great Britain a similar amalgamation of small 
 holdings into farms of the sizes which we ha»e now re- 
 ferred to as is at present in progress in Ireland. This 
 enlargement of farms, with the employment of increased 
 capital in their cultivation, insures a more' rapid reclama- 
 tion of waste lands, and general progress of agriculture up 
 to a certain point, than would otherwise take place. But 
 as every step in advance beyond this point implies an 
 
 1 Journey in Carniola, Italy, and France, by W. A. Cadell, Esq.. 
 F.B.S.
 
 LAND TENURE.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 407 
 
 increase of outlay in proportion to the extent, and the need 
 for closer superintendence, it seems likely that, in future, 
 the size of arable farms will not further increase, but may 
 rather be expected to approximate towards that which at 
 present obtains in suburban districts. 
 
 Farms are held either by yearly tenancy or under leases 
 for a specified number of years. The latter plan is that 
 upon which nearly the whole lands of Scotland are let ; 
 and it obtains also to a considerable extent in the northern 
 counties of England, in West Norfolk, and in Lancashire. 
 But with these and other exceptions, amounting altogether 
 to about a tenth part, the farms of England are held by 
 yearly tenancy, which can be terminated by either of the 
 contracting parties giving the other six months' notice to 
 that effect. This precarious tenure has been attended by 
 far fewer changes than a stranger might suppose, owing 
 to the highly honourable conduct for which English pro- 
 prietors as a class have long been noted. On all the large 
 estates it is quite common to find families occupying farms 
 of which their ancestors have been tenants for generations, 
 or even for centuries. The mutual esteem and confidence 
 which usually subsist between such landlords and tenants 
 are undoubtedly much to the credit of both, but not the less 
 has the system, as a whole, operated unfavourably for all 
 concerned ; for however numerous and striking the excep- 
 tions, it is yet the fact that under this system of tenancy- 
 at-wiO less capital has been invested in the improvement of 
 farms* less labour has been employed, and less enterprise 
 displayed in their ordinary cultivation, less produce has 
 been obtained from them by the occupiers, and less rent 
 has been raceived for them by the owners, than in the 
 case of similar lands let on leases for a term of years. 
 These different results ensue, not because tenants with leases 
 are abler men or better farmers than their neighbours who 
 are without them, but solely bcause the one system re- 
 cognises certain important principles which the other 
 ignores. It is contrary to human nature to expect that 
 any body of men will as freely invest their capital, whether 
 in the shape of money, skill, - or labour, in a business 
 yielding such slow returns as agriculture, with no better 
 guarantee that they or their families shall reap the fruits 
 of it than the continued good-will of existing proprietors 
 or those who any day may succeed .them, as they will 
 do with the. security which a lease for a term of years 
 affords. It does therefore seem strange that a majority 
 of the farmers of Great Britain should be tenants-at-will, 
 and still more strange that they should be- so_ of choice. 
 It is nevertheless true that a considerable portion of the 
 tenantry of England are even less disposed to accept of 
 leases than their landlords are to grant them. The latter 
 cling to the system because of the greater control which 
 they thereby retain over their estates, and the greater 
 political influence with which it invests them : the former 
 do so because low rents are one of its accompaniments. 
 Since the removal of restrictions on the importation of 
 foreign agricultural produce, there are indications that 
 neither landlords nor tenants are so well satisfied with this 
 system of tenancy-at-will as they once were. Not only is 
 the granting of leases becoming more common than it has 
 hitherto been, but there is a growing desire on the part of 
 tenants to obtain the benefit of that guarantee for the 
 realising of their capital which tenant-right affords to en- 
 terprising farmers who may have unexpectedly to quit their 
 farms. In certain districts of England this claim, called 
 tenant-right, has been recognised so long that, apart either 
 from written stipulation or statutory enactment, it has, by 
 mere usage, attained to something like a legal standing. 
 In Lincolnshire an' out-going tenant can, by virtue of this 
 usage, claim from his landlord or successor repayment, .in 
 certain definite proportions, of the cost of such ameliora- 
 
 tions of a specified kind as he may have made during the 
 last years of his occupancy, and the benefits of which his 
 removal hinders him from realising in the natural way. 
 
 Tenant-right is certainly a valuable adjunct to tenancy- 
 at-will, but still it does not meet the real exigencies of the 
 case. There are feelings inherent in man's nature which 
 cause him to recoil from exertions the fruits of which are 
 as likely to be enjoyed by a stranger as by himself or his 
 family. ' This repugnance, and its paralysing influence, is 
 not to be removed by a mere " right " to pecuniary com- 
 pensation. It is certainty of tenure — so far at least as 
 human arrangements can be certain — which will really 
 induce a fanner to throw his whole heart into his business. 
 It is . accordingly to this principle that leases owe their 
 value, and by it also that the only weak point in them 
 is to be accounted for. The first years of a lease - are 
 usually characterised by an energetic performance of various 
 improvements, whereas towards its close there is usually 
 such a withdrawing even of ordinary outlay as is unfavour- 
 able to the interests of both landlord and tenant. There 
 is at present a very generally entertained opinion that 
 this inconvenience would be obviated by engrafting the 
 system of tenantrright upon that of leases. So strongly 
 has the current of opinion been running in this direction 
 that a bill has been submitted to the legislature for the 
 purpose of conferring on out-going tenants a legal claim to 
 .compensation for certain specified investments which may 
 have been made by them, but of which their removal hinders 
 them from reaping the benefit. This bill further provided 
 that in the event of a tenant having erected buildings for 
 his own accommodation without the sanction of his landlord, 
 he should have a right to remove the materials if the 
 landlord or incoming tenant declined to purchase them. 
 Through accidental circumstances this bill was withdrawn 
 without being discussed, but it is certain to be re-intro- 
 duced, and sooner or later to be passed. It is now admitted 
 on all hands that land . cannot be cultivated to its full 
 measure of productiveness without a large investment of 
 capital, and that this outlay, -when once incurred, cannot 
 be recouped for several years at the 'least. It is in vain, 
 therefore, to expect that these so much needed investments 
 will be made nntil those who should make them are secured 
 against having their property confiscated by a sb: months' 
 notice to quit. 
 
 It seems to be generally admitted that twenty-one years 
 is the proper duration for an agricultural lease. Such a 
 term suffices to give confidence to the tenant in embarking 
 his capital, and secures to the landlord his legitimate 
 control over his property, and due participation in its 
 varying value. . It is generally felt by tenants that the 
 lease or document in which their agreement ■with their 
 landlord is engrossed might with advantage be mnch 
 shortened, as well as simplified in its terms. When treating 
 of the succession of crops we have already expressed our 
 views regarding those restrictive clauses which usua"y 
 occupy a prominent place in such writings. Such restric- 
 tions are of course introduced with the view of guarding 
 the property of the landlord froni deterioration ; but when 
 he is so unfortunate as to meet with incompetent or dishonest 
 tenants, they entirely fail to secure this object, and yet ere 
 a hindrance and discouragement to enterprising and con 
 scientious tenants. It is probable that the .existence of 
 the laws of distraint in England and hypothec in Scotland, 
 which give to landlords a Hen over the effects of their 
 tenantry in security for the payment of the current year's 
 rent, has had its influence in adding rb the number and 
 stringency of these clauses, and has encouraged the practice 
 of letting lands by tender to the highest offerer. For the 
 law in question, by rendering landlords to a considerable 
 extent independent of the personal character and pecuniary
 
 IDS 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [oKNBBAr 
 
 circumstances of the occupiers of their land, has obviously 
 a direct tendency to render them less cautious than they 
 would otherwise be, and to induce them, when tempted 
 by the promise of high rents, to trust more to this legal 
 »e.;u.- _• than to the mural character, business habits, pro- 
 fessional skill, and pecuniary competency of candidates for 
 their farms. 
 
 Section 2. — Capital required for working a Farm. 
 
 The amount of capital that is required in order that the 
 business of farming may be conducted advantageously, is 
 largely determined by the nature of the soil, <fcc, of each 
 farm, the system of management appropriate to it, the price 
 of stock and of labour; and the terms at which its rents 
 are payable. In the case of land of fair quality, on which 
 the alternate husbandry is pursued, and when the rents 
 are payable as the produce is realised, £10 per acre may 
 be regarded as an amount of capital which will enable a 
 tenant to prosecute his business with advantage and com- 
 fort. In letting a farm, a landlord not only does a just and 
 prudent thing for himself, but acts as a true friend to his 
 proposed tenant, when he insists upon being shown that 
 the latter is possessed of available funds to an amount 
 adequate to its probable requirements. 
 
 The importance of the topics to which we have thus 
 referred is happily expressed by Mr Pusey, when, after 
 enumerating various agricultural desiderata, he says, " In 
 Borne degree none of us carry out all that is in our power ; 
 but want of capital and want of confidence in the tenure 
 of farms are, I suppose,, the two principal causes of this 
 omission." 
 
 Section 3. — Education of Farmer). 
 
 But the mere possession of capital does not qualify a 
 man for being a farmer, nor is .there any virtue inherent in 
 a lease to insure his success. To these must be added 
 probity, knowledge of his business, and diligence in pro- 
 secuting it. These qualifications are the fruits of good 
 education (in the fullest sense of that term), and are no 
 more to be looked for without it than good crops without 
 good husbandry. Common school instruction will, of 
 course, form the groundwork of a farmer's education ; bur 
 to this should be added, if possible, a classical curriculum. 
 It has been the fashion to ask, " Of what use are Greek and 
 Latin to a farmer?" Now, apart from the benefit which 
 it is to him, in common with other men, to know the 
 structure of language, and to read with intelligence the 
 literature of his profession, which more and more abounds 
 in scientific terminology, we believe that no better discipline 
 for the youthful mind has yet been devised than the classical 
 course which is in use in our best public schools. Of this 
 discipline we desiro that every future fanner should have 
 the advantage. But the great difficulty at present lies in 
 finding appropriate occupation for such youths between 
 their fifteenth and twentieth years. In many cases the 
 sons of farmers are during that period put to farm labour. 
 If they are kept statedly at it, and are made proficient in 
 ivery kind of work pel formed on a farm, it is a good pro- 
 fessional training as far as it goes. The more common 
 me — at least as regards the sons of the larger class of 
 farmers — which consists of loitering about without any 
 stated occupation, attending fairs and markets, and pro- 
 bably the race-course and hunting-field, is about the most 
 absurd and pernicious that can well be imagined. Such 
 youths are truly to be pitied, for they are neither inured 
 to bodily labour nor afforded the benefits of a liberal educa- 
 tion. It need not surprise any one that such hapless lads 
 often prove incompetent for the struggles of life, and have 
 to yield their places to more vigorous men who have enjoyed 
 the benefit of "bearing the yoke in their youth." Unless 
 
 young men are kept at labour, either of mind or of body, 
 until continuous exertion during stated hours, confinement 
 to one place, and prompt obedience to their superiors 
 have ceased to be irksome, there is little hope of their either 
 prospering in business or distinguishing themselves in their 
 profession. Owing to the altered habits of society, there 
 is now less likelihood than ever of such young persons 
 as we are referring to being subjected to that arduous 
 training to bodily labour which was once the universal 
 practice ; and hence the necessity for an appropriate course 
 of study to take its place. Many Scottish farmers en- 
 deavour to supply this want by placing their sons for several 
 years in the chambers of an attorney, estate-agent, or land 
 surveyor, partly in order that they may acquire a know- 
 ledge of accounts, but especially for the sake of the whole- 
 some discipline which is implied in continuous applicatioa 
 and subjection to superiors. It is also common for such 
 youths to be sent to Edinburgh for a winter or two to 
 attend the class of agriculture iu the University, and 
 perhaps also that of chemistry, and the Veterinary College 
 classes. This is well enough in its way ; but there is 
 wanting in it an adequate guarantee that there is real 
 study — the actual performance of daily mental work. The 
 agricultural college at Cirencester appears to come more 
 fully up to our notion of what is needed for the professional 
 training of farmers than any other institution which we yet 
 possess. We shall rejoice to see such opportunities of 
 instruction as it affords multiplied in Great Britain. After 
 enjoying the benefits of such a course of training as we 
 have now indicated, young men would be in circumstances 
 to derive real advantage from a residence with some ex- 
 perienced practical farmer, or from a tour through the best- 
 cultivated districts of the country. We are well aware that 
 what we have now recommended will appear sufficiently 
 absurd to the still numerous class of persons who bebeve 
 that any one has wit enough to be a farmer. But those 
 who are competent to judge in the case can well afford to 
 smile at such ignorance. They know that agriculture is at 
 once an art, a science, and a business ; that the researches 
 of naturalists, chemists, geologists, and mechanicians are 
 daily contributing to the elucidation of its principles and 
 the guidance of its practice ; and that while its pursuits 
 afford scope for the acutest minds, they are relished by the 
 most cultivated. As a business it shares to the full in the 
 effects of that vehement competition which is experienced 
 in every other branch of industry, and has besides many 
 risks peculiar to itself. The easy routine of the olden 
 time is gone for ever; and without a good measure of tact, 
 energy, and industry, no man can now obtain a livelihood 
 by farming. It is desirable that all this should be known, 
 as nothing has been more common than for parents who 
 have sons too dull to be scholars or too indolent for trade, 
 to put them to farming; or for persons who have earned a 
 competency in some other calling to covet the (supposed) 
 easy life of a farmer, and find it to their sorrow a harassing 
 and ill-requited one. 
 
 The 
 
 Section 4. — Farm Labourers. 
 agriculture of a country must ever be largely 
 
 affected by the condition and character of the peasantry by 
 whom its labours are performed. An acute observer has 
 shown that in England a poor style of farming and low 
 wages — that good farming and high wages, usually go 
 together ; and that a low rate of wages is significantly 
 associated with a high poor-rate. The worst paid and 
 worst lodged labourers are also the most ignorant, the 
 most prejudiced, the most reckless and insubordinate. 
 The eminence of the agriculture of Scotland is due in 
 large measure, to the moral worth and intelligence of her 
 peasantry. For this she is indebted to the earlv establish
 
 OBSERVATIONS.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 409 
 
 ment ot her parochial scnools, and to the sterling quality ot 
 the elementary education which the children of her tenantry 
 and peasantry have for generations received in these 
 schools together. These schools had unfortunately become' 
 inadequate to the increased population ; -but still in the 
 rural districts of the Scottish lowlands it is a rare thing to 
 meet with a farm labourer who cannot both read and write. 
 Apart from higher benefits, the facilities which the services 
 of such' a class of labourers have afforded for the intro- 
 duction and development of improved agricultural practices, 
 the use of intricate machinery, and the keeping of accurate 
 accounts, cannot well be over-rated. It is an interesting 
 testimony to the value of a sound system of- national 
 education that our Scottish peasantry should be in such 
 tequest in other parts of the kingdom as bailiffs, gardeners, 
 and overseers'. Recent legislation warrants the expectation 
 that this inestimable blessing will speedily be enjoyed by 
 our entire population. 
 
 The pernicious influence of the present law of settlement 
 and removal upon the English labourer is now attracting 
 the attention which it so urgently demands. . The pro- 
 prietors and tenants of particular parishes in various parts 
 of England at present combine to lessen their own share of 
 the burden of the poor-rate by pulling down cottages and 
 compelling their labourers to reside out of their bounds. 
 The folly and cruelty of such short-sighted policy cannot 
 be too strongly reprobated. These poor people are thus 
 driven into towns, where their families are crowded into 
 wretched apartments, for which they must pay exorbitant 
 rents, and where they are constantly exposed to moral and 
 physical contamination of every sort. From these com- 
 fortless abodeS the wearied and dispirited men must trudge 
 in all weathers to the distant scene of their daily labours. 
 One cannot conceive of a prosperous agriculture co-existing 
 with such a system, nor feel any surprise that thieving, 
 incendiarism, and burdensome rates should be its frequent 
 accompaniments. It is pleasant to contrast with this close- 
 parish policy the conduct of some of our English nobility, 
 who are building comfortable cottages and providing good 
 schools for the whole of the labourers upon their princely 
 estates. 
 
 About the middle of the 18th century, when the old 
 township system began to be broken up, and the land to 
 be enclosed and arranged into compact farms of considerable 
 size, it happily became the practice in the south-eastern 
 counties of Scotland, and a portion of the north of England, 
 to provide each farm with its own homestead, set down as 
 near its centre as possible, and with as many cottages as 
 would accommodate all the people statedly required for the 
 work of that farm. These cottages, always placed in con- 
 venient proximity to the homestead, are let to the tenant 
 along with the farm as a necessary part of its equipment. 
 The farmer hires his servants by the year at stipulated 
 wages, each family getting the use of a cottage and small 
 garden rent free. The farmer has thus always at hand 
 a staff of labourers on whose services he can depend ; and 
 they, again, being engaged for a year, are never thrown out 
 of work at slack seasons, nor are they liable to loss of wages 
 from bad weather or casual sickness. This arrangement 
 has the further advantage of the men being removed from 
 the temptations of the village alehouse. So successfully 
 has this system worked that the counties in which it pre- 
 vails have long had, and still have, an agricultural popula- 
 tion unequalled in Great Britain for intelligence, good 
 conduct, and general well-being. 
 
 Over & very large portion of Scotland, and more especially 
 in the counties lying betwixt the Forth and the Moray Frith, 
 while the arrangement of farms and mode of management 
 ire substantially the same as those of the border counties, 
 '.here is this marked difference, that the ploughmen as a rule 
 
 live by themselves in bothies. They are for the most pari 
 unmarried men, although not a few of them have wives and 
 children living under the most unfavourable -conditions in 
 distant town; and villages ; and so it comes to pass, under 
 this bothy system, that about two-thirds of all the men 
 statedly employed in farm labour are' shut out from all the 
 comforts and blessings of family life, and have become in 
 consequence rude, reckless, and immoral. Until a quite 
 recent date this system, because of its supposed economy, 
 was stoutly defended both by landlords and farmers ; but 
 its evil effects have become so manifest as to convince them 
 at last that the system is WTong, and there is now in con- 
 sequence a general demand for mor' • ttages on farms. 
 
 The condition of the agricultural labourers in the southern 
 counties of England has long been of a most unsatisfactory 
 character. The discontent that had long existed among 
 them has at last, in the summer of 1873, culminated in 
 wide-spread combinations and strikes for higher wages and 
 better terms. To a large extent the labourers have been 
 able to make good their demar is, although at the cost of 
 much unhinging of old reku.ons betwixt them and their 
 employers, and a great deal of mutual grudging and 
 jealousy. The thorough healing of chronic social maladies 
 is always difficult, and usually demands the patient use of 
 a variety of remedial measures. We venture to express the 
 opinion that much benefit would ensue from the adoption 
 in southern England of the essential parts of the border 
 system, viz., cottages on each farm for all its regular 
 labourers, yearly engagements, and a cow's keep as part 
 of the wages of each family. 1 
 
 Section 5. — What the Legislature should do for Agriculture, 
 The further progress of our national agriculture is un- 
 doubtedly to be looked for from the independent exertions 
 of those immediately engaged in it ; but important assist- 
 ance might be, and ought to be, afforded to them by the 
 legislature, chiefly in the way of removing obstructions. 
 What we desiderate in this respect is the repeal, or at least 
 the important modification, of the law of distraint and 
 hypothec ; the commutation of the burdens attaching to 
 copyhold lands ; the reformation of the law of settlement ; 
 the removal of the risk and costs which at present interfero 
 with the transference of land ; the endowment of on 
 adequate number of agricultural colleges, with suitable 
 museums, apparatus, and illustrative farms; and the com- 
 pulsory adoption Of a uniform standard of weights and 
 measures. We desire also to see the arterial or trunk 
 drainage of the country undertaken by government. _ Until 
 this is done, vast tracts of the most fertile land in the 
 kingdom cannot be cultivated with safety and economy, 
 or attain to the productiveness of which they are capable. 
 It is the opinion at Mr Bailey Denton, the eminent draining 
 engineer, that not more than three millions of acres of the 
 land of Great Britain have yet been drained. Our national 
 interests' surely require that its agriculture should be freed 
 from such obstructions as these, and that it should receive 
 the benefit of a fair share of public provision, such as is 
 made for training youths for the learned professions and. 
 for the public service ; and of such grants as are given in 
 aid of scientific research for the encouragement of the fine 
 arts, and for the furtherance of manufactures and commerce. 
 We cannot close this section without referring to another 
 grievance which has long had a most depressing effect on 
 the agriculture of particular districts of our country, and is 
 now, we regret to say, spreading rapidly to all parts of it, 
 
 1 For confirmation and full illustration of the statements and 
 opinions in the above section on agricultural labourers, the reader is 
 referred to the reports of, and the evidence collected by, the " Com- 
 mission on the Employment of ClWdren, Young Persons, and Women 
 in Agriculture." in 1870.
 
 410 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [pRonitEss. 
 
 in the excessive preservation of game. This evil has been 
 greatly aggravated since that modo of sporting called the 
 battue has unhappily become the fashion. For this amuse- 
 ment a very large head of game is reckoned to bo indis- 
 pensable, and proprietors who engage in it are naturally 
 enough led to vie with each other as to who shall show 
 the greatest quantity of game, and report the heaviest bag, 
 at their respective shooting parties. All this necessarily 
 implies a grievous waste of farm produce, and frightful loss 
 to farmers whose crops aro exposed to the incursions of the 
 privileged vermin. Worst of all, these hordes of game 
 present such irresistible temptation to poaching that the 
 rural population is demoralised by it to au alarming 
 extent. So long as field sports were in a great measure 
 restricted to resident landowners and their personal friends, 
 they were, with rare exceptions, careful not to allow their 
 tenants to be injured by game. Now, however, there are 
 multitudes of men who, having acquired wealth in business, 
 are eager to engage in field sports, and ready to give almost 
 any amount of money for tl ' privilege of doing so. These 
 game tenants are often utterly regardless of the interests of 
 farmers, and cause them both loss and annoyance. All this 
 is occasioning such an amount of heart-burning and aliena- 
 tion of feeling between different classes of society as cannot 
 fail to have disastrous consequences. A few years ago the 
 removal of hares and rabbits from the list of animals pro- 
 tected by the game-laws would, so far at least as landlords 
 and their tenants are concerned, have put an end to all this 
 misery. The refusal of so moderate a concession has in all 
 likelihood sealed the fate of these oppressive laws which 
 have so long embittered society and disgraced our country. 
 
 Section- 6. — Concluding Remark*. 
 
 On carefully comparing the present condition of British 
 agriculture with what it was forty years ago, the change 
 for the better is found to be very grea^ indeed. But on 
 all hands there are many indications warranting the an- 
 ticipation that the progress of discovery and improvement 
 in future will be more steady, more rapid, and more general 
 than it has hitherto been. There is not only a more general 
 and more earnest spirit of inquiry, but practical men, 
 instead of despising the aids of science, seek more and more 
 to conduct their investigations under its guidance. Experi- 
 ments are made on an ever-widening scale and upon well- 
 concerted plans. Their results are so recorded and published 
 that they at once become available to all, and each fresh 
 investigator, instead of wasting his energies in re-discovering 
 what (unknown to him) has been discovered before, now 
 makes his start from a well-ascertained and ever-advancing 
 frontier. Formerly the knowledge of the husbandman con- 
 sisted very much of isolated facts, and his procedure was 
 often little better than a groping in the dark. As the 
 rationale of his various processes is more clearly discovered, 
 he will be enabled to conduct them with greater economy 
 and precision than he can do at present. A clearer know- 
 ledge of what really constitutes the food of plants, and of the 
 various influences which affect their growth, will necessarily 
 lead to important improvements in all that relates to the 
 collection, preparation, and use of manures. 
 
 What may truly be called a revolution in agriculture is 
 now in the act of rapid development, in the application of 
 steam-power to the tillage of the soil, which is spreading 
 on every side. Enough has already been accomplished to 
 show that, under the combined influence of drainage and 
 Bteam tillage, the clay soils of England will speedily have 
 their latent fertility brought into play in a manner that 
 will mightily augment our supplies of home-grown bread- 
 
 corn and butcher-meat. It may indeed now be reasonably 
 anticipated that these hitherto impracticable soils will again 
 take their place as our best corn-growing lands, and that 
 those large portions of the country where for a long time 
 our national agriculture presented its poorest aspect, may 
 ere long exhibit its proudest achievements. 
 
 Tn closing this rapid review of British Agriculture, it is 
 gratifying and cheering to reflect that never was this great 
 branch of national industry in a healthier condition, and 
 never were there such solid grounds for anticipating for it 
 a steady and rapid progress. The time has hardly yet gone 
 by when it was much the way with our manufacturing 
 and trading men, and our civic population generally, to 
 regard our farmers as a dull, plodding sort of people, greatly 
 inferior to themselves in intelligence and energy. Many 
 of them seem now, however, to be awakening to the fact 
 that their rural brethren possess a full share of those 
 qualities which so honourably distinguish the British race. 
 Nay, some of them may have experienced no little surprise 
 when they became aware that in a full competition of our 
 whole industrial products with those of other nations, as at 
 Paris in 1855, and at similar and more recent international 
 expositions, tho one department in which Britain con- 
 fessedly outstripped all her rivals was not in any of hei 
 great staple manufactures, but in the live stock of her farms, 
 and in her agricultural implements and machinery 
 
 List of Plato accompanying this Article, 
 Plate 
 
 No. II L Plan of Covered Homestead for a small Farm, by Mr J. 
 Cowie. 
 IV. Ground Plan of 8teading and Offices on the Homo Farm 
 
 of the Earl of Southeek. 
 V. Shorthorn Bull and Cow. 
 
 VI. Hereford Bull, and South Down Ewe and Lamb. 
 VII. Cheviot Ewe and Blackfaced Heath Sheep. 
 VIII. Leicester Ram and Ewe. 
 IX. Komsey Marsh Ewe, and Sow of the Large English Breed 
 
 The following description has been supplied along with 
 the plan given in Plate IV. : — "It represents the ground 
 plan of a steading of offices recently built on tho home farm 
 of the Earl of Southesk, planned by Charles Lyall, Esq., 
 his lordship's factor. It contains a powerful thrashing- 
 mill, corn ; bruiser, oil-crusher, chaff-cutter, and turnip- 
 slicer, all driven by a portable steam-engine ; and is amply 
 supplied with water for the troughs, and is lighted by gas. 
 It may be regarded as a model, containing as it does all 
 the conveniences and appliances necessary for the complete 
 development of the stock and implement departments. It 
 is calculated for an occupancy of 500 acres, and was built, 
 including the steam-engine, at a cost of about £5000." 
 
 This plan may very well illustrate the present state of 
 opinion as to whether or not cattlo should be kept wholly 
 under cover. It gives an affirmative answer to this ques- 
 tion in the case of fattening cattle ; but for breeding stock 
 of all ages it provides accommodation in open yards. This 
 we consider the best arrangement ; for it is impossible in 
 the case of breeding stock to retain that fine coat of hair 
 which so enhances the good looks and value of high-class 
 cattle without such an amount of exposure to the weather 
 as is afforded by open yards with covered sheds. There 
 is one feature in this plan which we cannot but regret, 
 viz., its bothy. It is indeed one of the best of its kind, 
 having a separate sleeping-place for each of its inmates, 
 and suitable arrangements for their cleanliness and com- 
 fort ; but the meanest cottage in the country, inasmuch as 
 it admits of family life, is to be preferred to the most 
 perfect bothy. (t. W.)
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 411 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 LARGE AND SMALL FARMING. 
 
 No treatise on agriculture will in these days be con- 
 sidered complete which does not take note of some of the 
 various modes in which the treatment of the soil may be 
 affected by variations in the cultivating occupier's form of 
 tenure. A farm may be the property of its occupier, or 
 be held by him at will or on lease. According to its 
 extent it will be the subject of grande or of petite culture, 
 expressions which in the following pages will be Anglicised 
 as large and small culture or farming. If a farm be of 
 small size, and if its occupant be also its owner, peasant 
 proprietorship comes into play. If it be let, its rent may 
 consist of a payment of predetermined amount in money 
 or in kind, or may, instead of a fixed portion, be a pre- 
 determined proportion of the annual produce. It may be 
 let to one individual, singly responsible for the rent and 
 for all imposts, fiscal or other, and exclusively entitled to 
 the whole of the remaining net produce; or it may be held 
 in common by any number of coparceners, all co-operating in 
 the cultivation, and jointly and severally responsible for the 
 rent and other dues, and all participating in the net profits. 
 
 Each of these systems has its advocates, and of one of 
 them, at least, the admirers are so much enamoured as to be 
 unable to perceive merit in any of the rest. A judgment 
 upon them that would be generally acceptable*is therefore 
 impossible, and need not be attempted here. Nothing 
 more will be aimed at than such an impartial estimate of 
 the advantages and disadvantages of each as may help an 
 unbiassed reader to judge for himself. 
 
 L In regard to tenancy at will and to leases, little 
 need be added to the observations made in previous 
 chapters of this article. For the consideration, how- 
 ever, of those who insist on the undoubted fact that 
 in Great Britain, where tenancy at mil is still the rule, 
 and leases as yet only the exception, the same families, 
 although liable to be ousted at six months' notice, are 
 nevertheless often found occupying the same land from 
 generation to generation, the following may be suggested 
 as a not improbable explanation of the landlord's non- 
 exercise of the power of eviction. It may perhaps be not 
 so much that the farmers really confound past continuity 
 with future permanency of tenure, as that their want of 
 security for the future prevents their investing liberally in 
 improvements, and thereby bringing the land into a con- 
 dition calculated to attract higher bidders for its possession. 
 Such increase as does take place in its lettable value is 
 chiefly due to enhancement of the prices of produce; and 
 to a rise of rent proportionate to such enhancement the 
 old tenants readily submit rather than be removed. The 
 principal loser here is the landlord, whose short-sighted 
 policy deters his tenants from a species of enterprise the 
 benefit of which would eventually become principally his 
 own. If the tenants took the trouble to make the com- 
 parison, they might, it is true, deliberately prefer the mere 
 chance of a long series of years at a low rent to the cer- 
 tainty of the same low rent for a limited term, coupled with 
 the nearly equal certainty of a rise of rent at the end of 
 the term. Their gains in the /ormer case, they might 
 argue, however meagre, might at least be easily earned; 
 whereas materially to increase them in the latter case, 
 although perhaps possible, would be possible only at the 
 expense of much anxiety of mind- as well as of much 
 extra sweat of the brow. 
 
 II. Of grande culture, or large fanning, it may perhaps 
 be thought almost superfluous here to enumerate the recom- 
 mendations, which indeed on one condition are obvious and 
 incontrovertible. Provided a large farmer ba possessed of 
 
 capital duly proportioned to the extent of his holding, and of 
 intelligence to employ his capital judiciously, his husbandry 
 can scarcely fail to prove abundantly satisfactory. In a 
 territory entirely parcelled out among farmers of this de- 
 scription there would, from a purely agricultural point of 
 view, seem little left to desire. The system certainly ap- 
 proaches towards the realisation of the great object of all 
 agriculture — that of the production of the greatest pos- 
 sible quantity and the best possible quality of raw material 
 for the use of man. The distinguishing characteristic 
 of large culture is the scope it affords for the appli- 
 cation to husbandry of the great principle of division- of 
 labour. A well-managed large farm is indeed a factory 
 for the production of vegetable and animal substance. 
 The extensive scale on which operations are there carried 
 on necessitates the employment of several persons, to each 
 of whom some special occupation may be assigned, and 
 constant practice naturally increases the labourer's skill. 
 Time, too, is saved which would otherwise be lost in 
 turning frequently from one occupation to another; and 
 there is also a further saving in implements, large and 
 small, and in draught cattle, fewer of which will suffice 
 for the tillage of a given area held entire than would 
 be needed if the same acreage were divided amongst 
 numerous tenants. Some, again, of the more important 
 of agricultural operations, and notably those of drainage 
 and irrigation, are in many situations incapable of being 
 efficiently performed except on a large scale ; and though 
 they may be, and often are, most efficiently performed 
 on the very largest scale by a combination of small land- 
 holders, still every such combination must necessarily 
 be preceded by negotiations involving indefinitely pro- 
 longed delay, with which a single individaal, occupying 
 the entire tract, could at his option dispense. And 
 a similar remark applies to the costlier implements and 
 machines, in the adoption of which associations of small 
 farmers may slowly follow the example of individual large 
 farmers, but which they would not, without such example, 
 have themselves adopted — which, indeed, unless previ- 
 ously patronised by large farmers, would never have been 
 offered for their adoption; Probably no inventive genius, 
 however disinterestedly ardent, would have been at the 
 pains to devise a steam thrashing-machine or a steam 
 plough, had there not been wealthy agriculturists, some of 
 whom might readily be persuaded to risk, at their own 
 cost and charges, an immediate trial of any promising 
 invention. Farmers of limited means, even when living 
 in the same neighbourhood, would have to be educated 
 into faith in the novel apparatus before the inventor 
 would get a single specimen taken off his hands. 
 
 Besides, wherever large farming prevails,, large properties are its 
 invariable concomitants ; and wherever it i3 the fashion for pro- 
 prietors to reside on their estates, many of them are sure to amuse 
 themselves with farming. Very likely, if they were to count the 
 cost, they might find the amusement an expensive one. Not im- 
 possibly they often spend on the land as much as they get back 
 from it, or even more, the expenditure in that case at best producing 
 only its bare equivalent. But the same expenditure, unless se 
 applied, would as likely as not have remained utterly unproductive, 
 being devoted to some other amusement, or to mere parade'or 
 luxury, from which no tangible return whatever would be possible ; 
 so that its application to agricultural extravagance is virtually a gain, 
 in the sense, at all events, of preventing total loss. Nor in that 
 sense only; for rich men who take to fanning as a pastime are 
 precisely those most likely to be forward in putting new inventions 
 and new processes to the test of experiment ; while the experience 
 thereby acquired, instead .of being jealously concealed, is liberally 
 published far and wide, so becoming the property of the whole body 
 of farmers by profession, and serving them, according to circum
 
 412 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [larce and 
 
 stances, as a guide to follow or a beacon to avoid. Every one 
 interested in such matters knows how much has been done in this 
 way by successive Dukes of Bedford and Portland and Marquesses 
 Townshend ; by the late Earls of Leicester and Scarborough and 
 Earl Spencer ; and by the present Earl of Ducie and Earl Grey ; Dor 
 are there many ways in which a landed aristocracy can better rebut 
 the reproach of inutility than by thus doing honour to agriculture, 
 and having the honour reflected back on themselves. 
 
 As already hinted, however, it is only on condition of being con- 
 ducted with adequate capital that large farming can succeed. True, 
 with deficient capital small fanning could succeed no better, per- 
 haps indeed not so well ; but then there is much more danger of the 
 1 capital being wanting to a large farmer than a small one. 
 Whatever, from £5 to £20, be the desirable proportion per acre, the 
 number of persons possessing the £50 or £200 required for stocking 
 a farm of ten acres is likely to be everywhere many times more 
 than fifty-fold that of those possessing the £2500 or the £10,000 
 which a single farm of 500 acres would require. Besides, in coun- 
 tries abounding with fortunate individuals able to count their 
 pounds sterling by the thousand, promising modes of investing 
 such considerable sums abound proportionally; and even in a 
 country so exceptionally rich as our own, the number of capitalists 
 prepared to invest their thousands in farming is sadly below the 
 lumber of farms which would be all the better for having the same 
 thousands .so invested. We are justified then by experience in 
 saying, that wherever large farming is the rule, there will probably 
 be very many farmers without adequate capital. Now, in agricul- 
 ture, inadequate capital means, among other things, insufficient 
 live stock and insufficient manure, and, as an inevitable consequence, 
 defective crops. It means, in short, imperfect cultivation. 
 
 ILT. From these premises it would apparently result 
 that small farmers will generally bo more nearly pro- 
 vided with the capital required for their business than 
 large ones; and such seems to be actually the fact where- 
 ever peculiar circumstances have not been at work as pre- 
 ventives. It is not indeed so in Ireland, where feudal 
 oppression or anarchy, alternating with alien misrule, has 
 in all generations made destitution the heritage of the 
 peasantry. Neither is it so in France, where the swarms 
 of petty landholders had little of either precept or example 
 to teach them that to employ their spare napoleons in 
 thoroughly cultivating the few acres they already possess, 
 would be a much better investment of their money than 
 the purchase with it of an additional acre or two to be as 
 imperfectly cultivated as the rest. In England the system 
 of small cultivation, strictly so called, has probably ceased 
 to exist, now that amateur farming has come so much into 
 fashion, and that the instances have become comparatively 
 so numerous of men of considerable substance turning 
 to farming for a livelihood. It will not, however, help 
 us much, when endeavouring to ascertain the relative 
 merits of two rival agricultural systems, to contrast good 
 specimens of the one and bad specimens of the other. If 
 we would accurately gauge their respective capabilities, wo 
 should take them both at their best, and the comparison 
 here of large with small farming will accordingly be of the 
 former as it presents itself in England, and of the latter as 
 developed in Flanders. Now, in the territory first named 
 the average capital of occupants of 100 acres and upwards 
 would certainly not be understated, and would probably 
 be materially overstated, at £6 per acre; yet M. do 
 Laveleye, while giving £8 as the average for Flanders 
 (where the medium size of farms is but 7J acres in the 
 western, and no more than 5 acres in the eastern province), 
 adds that good farmers, judging of others by themselves, 
 would call that sum much too low even for an average; 
 and further remarks that, although a small tenant may, on 
 entering, have only £8 an acre, the additions he is con- 
 tinually making to hi3 live stock, and his continually 
 increasing purchases of manure, commonly raise the £8 to 
 £16 before the expiration of his lease. He also informs us 
 that in other Belgian districts — in the Hesbayan portions 
 of Brabant and Hainault, whereof one-sixth is occupied by 
 farms of 100 acres and upwards, and in the Condrusian 
 portion of the province of Namur, where farms of 250 
 acres and upwards are pretty numerous — a farmer's average 
 
 capital is estimated at between £5, 12s. and £6, 8s., and 
 between £3 and £4 per acre respectively. True, as already 
 intimated, thero are certain descriptions of stock on which 
 the small farmer's expenditure must necessarily somewhat 
 exceed his rival's — ten Flemish farmers of 10 acres each 
 being probably obliged to keep ten horses, while an Eng- 
 lish farmer of 100 acres might not perhaps have occasion 
 for more than a pair, reducing also his number of carts, 
 ploughs, and the like, in similar proportion. But after all 
 reasonable deduction on this account, the balance of capital 
 remaining for the purchase and maintenance of those animals 
 and materials of which no farmer ever has too many or too 
 much, is in general much greater in the Fleming's case than 
 in the Englishman's. " It would startle the English farmer 
 of 400 acres of arable land," said Mr Kham forty years 
 ago, " to be told that he should constantly feed 100 head 
 of cattle, yet this would not be too large a proportion if 
 the Flemish system were strictly followed, a beast for every 
 3 acres being a common Flemish proportion, and on very 
 small occupations, where spade husbandry is used, the pro- 
 portion being still greater." " That the occupier," he pro- 
 ceeds, " of only 10 or 12 acres of light arable soil should 
 be able to maintain four or five cows may appear astonish- 
 ing, but the fact is notorious -throughout the Waes country." 
 These statements are of somewhat ancient date, but are 
 still as applicable as ever. During a recent tour through 
 Belgium, tho present writer visited two farms near St 
 Nicolas, in the Pays de Waes — the first two that came in 
 his way. On one, of 10 acres, he found four cows, two 
 calves, one horse, and two pigs, besides rabbits and poultry. 
 On the other, of 38 acres, one bull, six cows, two heifers, 
 one horse, and seventy-five sheep — these last, however, 
 being allowed, in addition to what they got on their owner's 
 ground, the run of all the stubbles in the commune; the 
 whole commune, on the other hand, being allowed the use 
 of the bull gratis. A few days later the writer went ovei 
 a farm a few mile3 from Ypres. On this, of 32 acres in 
 extent, he counted eight cows, six bullocks, a calf eight 
 weeks old, and four pigs. To possess plenty of live stock 
 is to possess in an equal abundance the first requisites of 
 sustained fertility. "No cattle, no dung; no dung, no 
 crop," is a Flemish adage; and the wealthiest of English 
 agriculturists are less prodigal of manure than the Flemish 
 peasantry. Mr Caird, in his instructive and interesting 
 treatise on English Agriculture, cites as something extra- 
 ordinary that, for a farm six miles from Manchester, manure 
 should have been bought at the rate of 1 2 or 1 3 tons an acre ; 
 but this, which in England passes for lavishness, might 
 seem more like niggardliness in Flanders ; for there from 
 10 to 15 tons of good rotten dung and i0 hogsheads of 
 liquid from the urine tank, per acre, are quite common 
 sacrifices and libations to the Sterculine Saturn, and some 
 30s. worth of purchased fertilisers — bones, wood-ashes, 
 linseed-cake, and guano — are not unfrequently superadded. 
 Nay, when potatoes are the crop for whose increase the 
 deity is invoked, 60 tons of manure per acre are no unusual 
 quantity to lay on. The holder of the farm of 32 acre3 
 near Ypres, just alluded to, assured the writer, in his land- 
 lord's presence, that, over and above what his own cattle 
 supply, he purchases manure to the value of no less than 
 £200 annually. 
 
 One of the respects in which small culture has been admitted to 
 stand at some disadvantege in comparison with large is that of 
 division of labour ; but against whatever loss of time or even infe- 
 riority of skill may result from the necessity there is for each of the 
 labourers engaged in the former culture to occupy himself with 
 a variety of operations instead of confining himself to one, are to be 
 set the additions voluntarily made to the labour employed, and also 
 its superior heartiness. The tillage of a small farm is executed 
 often entirely, and always in great measure, by the farmer himself 
 and the members of his family; and when these have adequate 
 security that the entire increase of the soil, over and above a specified
 
 StfALL .FARMING.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 413 
 
 quantity, will belong to themselves, they .generally do their utmost 
 to make the increase as large as possible. Not, indeed, always. 
 Industry, in common with other virtues, is greatly influenced by 
 example ; and small leaseholders, or even small freeholders, thinly 
 interspersed among numerous tenants-at-wilL are much more likely 
 to accept as their standard of becoming exertion the habitual list- 
 lessness of the latter than to set up an independent standard of 
 their own. Where, however, small farmers are in a decided 
 majority, they are, unless some extraordinary circumstances are in 
 operation to depress their energy, sure to appear as models of dili- 
 genoe. Their activity is not then restricted within set hours of 
 work. Whenever a thing requires to be done is with them the 
 proper time for doing it, and early and late, consequently — long 
 before the hired journeyman comes in the moraing and long after 
 he has gone home in the evening— they may be seen afield, doing, 
 too, whatever they do, not only with all their might, but with all 
 the heed which people usually bestow on their own affairs, even 
 though they bestow it on nothing else. In particular, they waste 
 nothing — least of all anything that can be used as manure. Now, 
 there are no crops which would not be the better for such special 
 attention, and there are some to which it is an almost indispensable 
 condition of excellence. Flax, hemp, hops, wine, oil, and tobacco 
 furnish instances of culture in which the individual plants require, 
 or at any rate abundantly repay, separate care. But such minute 
 attention no supervision can ensure — no rate of hire can command. 
 It is habitually rendered by those only who are directly interested 
 in rendering it, or otherwise directly stimulated — by the small 
 farmer and the small farmer's wife and children all working with 
 their own bands for their own behoof, and by his- servants, if he 
 have any ; for that must be a pitiful creature indeed whd, with his 
 employer working by bis side, will let his employer work harder 
 than himself. Herein, then — (in the greater quantity and better 
 quality of work which the same number of persons will do in small 
 as compared with large farming) — consisting the distinctive excel- 
 lence of the former system, how far does this counterbalance the 
 superiority of large fanning in regard to the saving of labour and 
 implements ? There can be no more conclusive mode of answering 
 this question than by contrasting the substantial results of the two 
 systems, adopting as tests the respective amounts both of gross and 
 of net produca Now, in England the average yield of wheat per acre 
 was in 1837 only 21 bushels, the highest average for any single 
 county being no more than 26 bushels. The highest average since 
 claimed for the whole of England is 32 bushels; but this is pro- 
 nounced to be much too high by the best, perhaps, of all authori- 
 ties, Mr Caird, who gives 26 4 bushels as "the average of figures 
 furnished to him by competent judges in all parts of the kingdom," 
 adding, as the result of his own observation, that 32 bushels, as an 
 average produce, is to be met with " only on farms where both soil 
 and management are superior to the present average of England." 
 In Jersey, however, where the average size of farms is only 16 acres, 
 the average produce of wheat for the five years ending with 1833 
 was, by official investigation, ascertained to be 40 bushels. In 
 Guernsey, wheVe farms are still smaller, 32 bushels per acre was, 
 according to Inglis, considered, about the same time, "a good, but 
 Btill a common, crop ;" and the light soil of the Channel Islands is 
 naturally by no means particularly suitable for the growth of 
 wheat. That of Flanders, originally a coarse silicious sand, is par- 
 ticularly unsuitable, and accordingly little wheat is sown there, but 
 of that little the average yield, at least in the Waes district, is, 
 according to a very minute and careful observer, from 32 to 36 
 bushels. Of barley, a more congenial cereal the average is in 
 Flanders 41 bushels, and in good ground 60 bushels ; while in 
 England it is probably under 33, and would certainly be over- 
 stated at 36 bushels. Of course the English averages are consider- 
 ably exceeded in particular localities — on such farms, for instance, 
 as those of Mr Paget, near Nottingham, and of Mr Stansfeld, in 
 the West Riding of Yorkshire, wheat crops of 46 bushels per acre 
 being not extraordinary, and of 56 bushels not unknown ; but these 
 exceptional cases may he more than matched' in Guernsey, where 
 the largest yield of wheat per acre, in each of the three years ending 
 with 1847, was proved to the satisfaction of the local agricultural 
 society to have been not less than 76, 80, and 72 bushels respec- 
 tively. Of potatoes, 10 tons per acre would anywhere in England, 
 even on the rich "warp lands" bordering the tidal affluents of the 
 Humber, be considered a high average crop ; but in Jersey the 
 average is reckoned 1 at 15 tons, - and near Tamise, in eastern 
 Flanders, Mr Rham found a cultivator of 8 acres, of poor land rais- 
 ing nearly 12 tons from one of them. Clover, again, " the glory of 
 Flemish farming," "is nowhere else found in such perfect luxuri- 
 anoe" as in Flanders, where it exhibits "a vigour and weight of 
 produce truly surprising," especially when it is discovered "that 
 such prodigious crops are raised from 6 tb of seed per acre." Most 
 of the other green crops, and also most of the root crops, grown in 
 Flanders deserve to be spoken of in similar terms ; and to the 
 extraordinary number of cattle fed upon these green and root crops 
 reference has already been made. If any reliance may be placed on 
 ihaee 'tatistics, it cannot, however startling at first hearing, be too 
 
 much to affirm that in the Channel Islands and in Flanders the 
 average of gross produce is greater than in England by fully one- 
 fourth, or say by the equivalent of 9 bushels of wheat Der acre. 
 
 Gross produce, however, is not the only thing to' b6 
 considered, for there is no doubt that on equal areas 
 small farming employs more hands than large; and it 
 might be that the entire produce of a email farm was not 
 more than sufficient to feed the extra mouths. This 
 would not necessarily be an evil, unless on the assump- 
 tion that the condition of agricultural labourers is neces- 
 sarily so wretched that an increase in their number is 
 tantamount to an increase of wretchedness. Possibly, 
 however, the extra produce might be less than sufficient 
 to feed the extra mouths, so that the quantity of net pro- 
 duce remaining available for sale to the non-agricultural 
 portion o? the community would be diminished ; and, if 
 thi3 were really the fact, it might be conclusively con- 
 demnatory of small farming. Nor, to prove that it is 
 nbt the fact, will it suffice to urge that land, when divided 
 among numerous occupants, commonly fetches a much 
 higher rent than when united: into a few extensive hold- 
 ings-r-that whereas, for example, 30s. .an acre would in 
 England be considered a fair and even a high rate for 
 middling land, it must be very middling land indeed 
 which in Guernsey will not let for at least £i, while in 
 Switzerland, another territory of petite culture, the average 
 rent is £6. For these . higher rents might be the results 
 of an incident, nof of culture, but of tenure — of that 
 excessive competition for land which is unhappily a too 
 frequent accompaniment of small farming. Neither will 
 it suffice to show that, although the agricultural popula- 
 tion of a minutely-divided territory is always far denser 
 than that of one of large farms, certain territories of the 
 former description are nevertheless among those which 
 maintain the largest manufacturing and commercial popu- 
 lation — Belgium, for instance, being second to England 
 alone in that respect, and Switzerland and Rhenish 
 Prussia being likewise cases in point. For it may obvi- 
 ously be replied that the non-agricultural classes of a 
 community need not be entirely dependent for food on 
 home produce, but may derive part of their supplies from 
 abroad, and it may generally be impossible to ascertain 
 what is the proportion imported. This objection does 
 not, indeed, apply to the Channel Islands ; and Mr W. T. 
 Thornton has, in a new edition of his Plea for Peasant 
 Proprietors, -been at considerable pains to prove that in 
 Guernsey two, and in Jersey four, non-agricultural inhabi- 
 tants are maintained on the produce of every acre and 
 a half of cultivated land, whereas in England only one 
 such person is so fed. Be this as it may, a preferable, or 
 at any rate more generally applicable, test is the propor- 
 tion between the extra production of small farming an<? 
 the consumption of the extra labourers therein employed. 
 Now, in Flanders and in the two principal Channel 
 Islands the agricultural population is about-four times as 
 dense as in England, being at the rate of about one peison 
 for every 4 acres, instead of one for every 17; but cause 
 has also been shown for believing that in Flanders and in 
 the same islands the average produce of the soil is greater 
 than in England by the equivalent of 9 bushels of wheat 
 per acre, or of 153 bushels for every 17 acres. But 153 
 bushels, or say 19 quarters, of wheat is much more than 
 three persons — and these not all adult males, but, more 
 likely, a man, a woman, and a child — would consume, 
 even if it were supplied to them, and there were nothing 
 else for 'them,' to eat, and is fully three times as much as 
 three such persons of the farm labourers' class in any part 
 of Europe Lave the means of procuring. After deduction, 
 therefore, of their consumption, Hhere would still remain 
 available for sale to non-agriculturists, from the produce o/
 
 414 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 [lakoe and 
 
 17 acres under small culture, the equivalent of nearly 100 
 bushels of wheat more than could be spared for the same 
 purpose from an equal extent of land under a large farmer. 
 These conclusions are not put forward as more than 
 roughly approximate, nor, indeed, in the present disgrace- 
 fully defective state of British agricultural statistics, are 
 any but rough approximations on the subject possible. 
 But, unless very wide indeed of the truth, they must be 
 acknowledged to furnish adequate reason why rural 
 magnates should not engross all our praises, and why the 
 honest agricultural muse should reserve a share of com- 
 meudation for small leaseholding fanners also. 
 m IV. And while so much can be said for small leaseholders, 
 it is obvious that every one of tho arguments adduced in 
 favour of that class applies with redoubled force to small 
 freeholders cultivating their own freeholds. A peasant 
 proprietor, whose whole produce belongs to himself, is 
 of course richer than he would be if he had to pay rent 
 — can more easily bear the expenses of cultivation, of 
 procuring proper implements and manure, of drainage and 
 irrigation, and of the keep of live stock. Small lease- 
 holders, as a class, lay out more money on their land, in 
 proportion to it3 extent, than large occupiers; but a small 
 freeholder has more money to lay out than a leaseholder 
 of the same degree, and has besides stronger motives for 
 laying it out on improvements. " A small proprietor," says 
 Adam Smith, " who knows every part of his little terri- 
 tory, who views it with all the affection which property, 
 especially small property, naturally inspires, and who, upon 
 that account, takes pleasure not only in cultivating but in 
 adorning it, is generally of all improvers the most indus- 
 trious, the most intelligent, and the most successful." It 
 might have been added, that he is likewise the most enter- 
 prising. He need not carefully calculate whether his outlay 
 will be fully recovered by him within a certain term of years; 
 he has only to consider whether the increased value of his land 
 will be equal to fair interest on the sum which the improve- 
 ments will cost He does not require that the principal 
 should ever be returned. He is satisfied to sink it for ever 
 in his own land, provided that, in that safest of all invest- 
 ments, it promise to yield a perpetual annuity equal to 
 what would be its annual increase in another employment. 
 4.gain, the peasant proprietor has the strongest possible 
 incentives to diligence. A man never works so well as 
 when paid by the piece ; but even then, the more he is 
 paid, the better he works. The small leaseholder, not less 
 than the small proprietor, is paid in proportion to his 
 labour; but the latter is paid at a higher rate, for he takes 
 to himself the whole fruit of his labour, while the former 
 must content himself with part. The proprietor, too, 
 knows that, so long as his labour continues equally pro- 
 ductive, his remuneration will remain the same ; while 
 that of the tenant, though augmented solely by his own 
 exertions, may be diminished at the expiration of his lease. 
 Besides, many rural operations yield no profit until after a 
 long lapse of time ; and the annual profit of others is so 
 Email that the enjoyment of it in perpetuity is requisite to 
 recompense the labour expended. Such operations are 
 seldom undertaken except by proprietors. No tenant would 
 think of planting an orchard such as Arthur Young saw 
 near Sauve on a tract consisting " seemingly of nothing 
 but bare rocks;" or, as in the mountains of Languedoc, 
 would " carry earth in baskets on the back to form a 
 garden where nature had denied it ;" or would enclose 
 and till fields and gardens on a " wretched blowing sand 
 naturally as white as snow." But, as Young exclaims, 
 "give a man the secure possession of a bleak rock, and he 
 will turn it into a garden !" There is " no way so suro 
 of carrying tillage to a mountain-top as by permitting 
 the neighbouring villagers to acquire it in property. Tho 
 
 magic of property turns sand to gold." It may perhaps 
 be objected that the gold does not repay the cost of trans- 
 mutation, and that therefore the labour expended upon it 
 has been wasted; and no doubt a monicd speculator, who 
 should engage in such alchemy with hired labour, might 
 never recover the amount of his outlay. But — and here 
 comes a conclusive answer to those who, instead of admir- 
 ing such achievements, condemn them as mere waste of 
 power — the peasant who performs them on his own account 
 performs them with labour which would otherwise be 
 valueless at that particular time. When the hired journey- 
 man has earned his day's wages, and gives himself up 
 to rest or amusement, the littlo landowner is content to 
 recreate himself by turning to some lighter work. It is 
 sufficient amusement for him to weed or wa,ter his cabbages, 
 or to train or prune bis fruit-trees; and, in wet or wintry 
 weather, when outdoor work is scarce worth paying for, 
 and when the day-labourer must often remain idle because 
 no one will employ him, then it is that the independent 
 cottager builds up terraces on the steep hillside, or lays 
 the site of a garden among rocks. It is, in short,- one prime 
 excellence of peasant proprietorship that it stirs into 
 activity labour which otherwise would not have been 
 exerted — in other words, would not have existed, and the 
 fzuits of which, consequently, however insignificant, are 
 at any rate all pure gain. 
 
 The pastoral tribes, by which most civilised countries were 
 originally occupied, have almost invariably been followed, either 
 immediately or after a certain interval, by a race of peasant pro- 
 prietors. The revolution has taken place at different stages o( 
 national progress, but scarcely an instance can bo mentioned in 
 which it has not occurred sooDer or later. In territories of very 
 small extent, very 'Darren or much intersected by mountains, rivers, 
 or other natural barriers, it has commonly been coeval with ths 
 first appropriation of land by individuals. In snch situations, the 
 original tribes of nomad herdsmen must necessarily have been 
 small for want of pasture ; and the same cause must have prevented 
 any individual from acquiring very great numbers of cattle, and 
 from very greatly surpassing his companions in wealth and power. 
 All must have been nearly equal in rank ; and, whenever a partition 
 of their common territory was resolved upon, every one, no doubt, 
 made good his claim to a share. On the other band, in countries 
 containing abundance of good pasture, separate tribes might expand 
 indefinitely, aed the cattle of single proprietors bo counted by 
 thousands and tens of thousands. Great wealth would then imply 
 great disparity of rank, and rich herdsmen would have many poor 
 retainers entirely indebted to their bounty, and consequently entirely 
 devoted to their service. Such dependants, when the community 
 passed from a migratory and pastoral to a stationary and agricultural 
 condition, could put forward no pretensions on their own bcbal£ 
 Their relation to their masters would remain the same as before, 
 or rather would be exchanged for a more stringent form of bondage. 
 From servants they would become serfs, and the duty assigned 
 to them would be that of tilling their masters' fields, as they had 
 previously tended his herds. In the course of ages, however, they 
 would imperceptibly acquire some important privileges. Residing 
 for many successive generations on the lands allotted to them for 
 their owd subsistence, and paying to their lord always the same, or 
 nearly the same, portion of the produce, they would come at length 
 to bo regarded as conditional proprietors of theirrespective holdings, 
 or as perpetual lessees at a quit and almost nominal rent. Their 
 proprietary title, although at first merely prescriptive, would be 
 eventually legalised ; and thus it is that from villeins and serfs has 
 descended a progeny no less respectable than English copy-holdera 
 and German bauers. 
 
 V. In one or other of these ways almost every country 
 on the face of the globe which has passed regularly through 
 the various stages that separate barbarism from civilisa- 
 tion, has been at some period, as many are still, occupied 
 in great measure by peasant proprietors. In those 
 countries, however, in which peasant proprietorship has 
 been evolved from serfdom, there must have been, inter- 
 mingled with the lands held by servile tenure, others, not 
 less extensive, in the immediate occupation of a rural 
 aristocracy. These seignorial domains would long con- 
 tinue to be cultivated by the serfs or slaves of their re- 
 spective owners, but as feudal and domestic slavery fell
 
 SMALL FARMING.] 
 
 AGKICCJLTUhE 
 
 4 IT) 
 
 into desuetude, the landlords, in order to get their lanas 
 tilled, would be reduced to the necessity of holding out 
 inducements to free husbandmen to lend their assistance. 
 In England,' -where, thanks to the comparative security 
 enjoyod by industry, plebeians of some substance were 
 already not rare, it might suffice to offer tenancies for 
 terms of years or -for lives; but, in those continental 
 countries in which feudal misrule had given way, only to 
 be replaced by monarchical tyranny, it was generally 
 necessary for the landowner, who desired that his farms 
 Should be tolerably stocked, to stock them himself. Hence 
 Urose a system which, having never existed in England, has 
 Co English name, but which in certain provinces of Italy 
 find France, where it was once almost universal, and is still 
 ivery common, is called mezzeria and metayage, or halv- 
 .jug — the halving, that is, of the produce of the soil between 
 landowner and landholder. These expressions are not, 
 however, to be understood in a more precise sense than 
 that in which we sometimes talk of a larger and a smaller 
 half. They merely signify that the produce is divisible in 
 certain definite proportions, which must obviously vary 
 with the varying fertility of the soil and other circum- 
 stances, and which do in practice vary so much that the 
 landlord's share is sometimes as much as two-thirds, some- 
 times as little as one-third. Sometimes the landlord 
 supplies all the stock, sometimes only part — the cattle 
 and seed perhaps, while the farmer provides implements ; 
 or perhaps only half the seed and half the cattle, the 
 farmer finding the other halves — taxes too being paid 
 wholly by one or the other, or jointly by both. 
 
 ■Now, with whatever virtue a system like this may be condition- 
 ally credited, it plainly can have no virtue at all except on con- 
 dition of its being believed to be permanent. The mUaycr must 
 have full confidence that the landlord, although authorised by law, 
 will be prevented by respect for custom, from increasing his exac- 
 tions ; but even on this condition the system is open to the 
 serious objection, that the metayer will deem it his interest to lay 
 out on the land as little as possible, if anything, of his own, except 
 labour. If in England, previously to tithe commutation, a farmer 
 was discouraged from spending money on improvements by the 
 knowledge that the parson would claim one out of every ten ad- 
 ditional sheaves of corn or pounds of butter produced in conse- 
 quence, what chance is there of a metayer risking a similar expendi- 
 ture, while knowing that the landlord.'s share of the consequent 
 produce would be a moiety or more instead of a tenth ? In this 
 particular, metayage closely resembles English tenancies at will, 
 which practically render it almost equally incumbent on the land- 
 lord to bear the entire expense of all costly improvements, and over 
 which me'tayage, in another and nearly allied particular, possesses a 
 marked advantage. Although the metayer may, for one very cogent 
 reason — a reason, however, likely to be somewhat counteracted by 
 belief, whether well or ill founded, in the fixity of his tenure — be 
 reluctant to use in his business any capital of his own, he will, for 
 the converse of that same reason, be anxious to make the most of 
 the capital entrusted to him by his landlord. He is his landlord's 
 partner, entitled to a moiety or thereabout in his landlord's gains. 
 It is his interest, then, to gee the most out of the land that can be 
 brought, out of it by means of the landlord's stock. Virtually, 
 indeed, he is himself, in a qualified sense, a peasant proprietor, pos- 
 sessing in a minor degree all the stimulants to diligence, heedful- 
 ness, and thrift, incidental to that character ; and there can scarcely, 
 therefore, ' be inherent in his constitution any such incurable vice 
 as would warrant his being condemned a priori. Equally with 
 other people he is entitled to be judged by his behaviour. As to 
 this the testimony of experience is very conflicting. English 
 writers who see nothing of metayage at home, and maybe suspected 
 of looking with not wholly unprejudiced eyes at what they see of it 
 abroad, were, until Mr J. S. Mill adopted a different tone, unani- 
 mous in condemning it. They judged it, however, by its appear- 
 ance in France, where it has never worn a very attractive aspect. 
 In that country every form of agriculture still retains many of the 
 traditions of the ante-Revolutionary period, and me'tayage, in par- 
 ticular, labours under great difficulties in consequence. Under the 
 ancien rlgime not only were all direct taxes paid by the metayer, the 
 noble landowner being exempt, but these taxes, being assessed accord- 
 ing to the visible produce of the soil, operated as penalties upon all 
 endeavours to augment its productiveness. No wonder, then, if 
 the metayer fancied that his interest lay less in exerting himself to 
 augment the tetal to be divided between himself and his landlord, 
 
 than in studying how to defraud the latter of part of his rightful 
 share ; nor any great wonder either if he has not yet got entirely 
 rid of habits so acquired. Rather would it be strange if he had, 
 especially when it is considered that he still is, as his predecessors 
 were formerly, destitute of the virtual fixity of tenure without 
 which metayage cannot reasonably be expected to prosper. French 
 metayers, in Arthur Young's time, were ," removable at pleasure, 
 and obliged to conform in all things to the will of their landlords," 
 and so in general they are still. Yet even in France, according to 
 M. de Lavergne, although ' ' metayage and extreme rural poverty 
 usually coincide," there 13 one province, Anjou, where the contrary 
 is the fact, as it is also in Italy. Indeed, to every tourist who has 
 passed through the plains of Lombardy with his eyes open, the 
 knowledge that metayage has for ages been there the prevailing 
 form of tenure ought to suffice for the triumphant vindication of 
 metayage in the abstract. Its perfect compatibility with the most 
 flourishing agriculture must be clear to any one who, noting the 
 number and populousness of the cities in the Lombard provinces, 
 is at the same time aware how much of agricultural produce those 
 provinces export and how little they import. An explanation of 
 the contrasts presented by metayage in different regions is not far 
 to seek._ Metayage, in order to be in any measure worthy of com- 
 mendation, must be a genuine partnership, one in which there is no 
 sleeping partner, but in the affairs of which the landlord, as well 
 as the tenant, takes an active part. If he do this, he cannot 
 be an absentee. He must be on the spot to judge when and what 
 advances are required from him, and to watch over their proper 
 application ; to that end conferring habitually with the metayer, 
 and taking as well as giving counsel on the subject, as on one in 
 which both are equally concerned. This exhibition of common 
 interest on one side is sure to beget it, if previously wanting, on the 
 other ; feelings of mutual attachment insensibly spring up, and 
 the spirit which governs the mutual relations becomes one of friendly 
 and almost affectionate association. Such is, or at any rate 
 used to be, the state of affairs in Piedmont, in Lombardy, and in 
 Tuscany ; and wherever the same description applies, the results of 
 metayage appear to be as eminently satisfactory, as they are de- 
 cidedly the reverse wherever the landlord holds himself aloof, 
 contenting himself, as it were, with putting out his stock to usury, 
 and never intervening except to carp at the smallness of the returns. 
 Instead of community, there is then conflict, of interests. Anta- 
 gonism takes the place of association. The landlord grudges tho 
 scantiest advances, and even of those the farmer does his best to 
 cheat the soil, which, starved by them who ought to feed it, leaves 
 them to starve in return. 
 
 On the whole, and according to preponderance of testimony, 
 metayage must perhaps be admitted to be everywhere showing a 
 tendency to degenerate after the above fashion; yet even so, the 
 worst that need be said of it is, that it is becoming an anachronism ; 
 this, moreover, being perhaps a reproach less to itself than to the 
 age in which we live. It is the present generation of mankind who 
 are chiefly to blame if the tie3 which anciently linked together 
 employers and employed in more or less kindly fellowship, are now- 
 a-days, in agriculture as in other departments of industry, visibly 
 decaying, and if each section of the agrarian class, bidding the others 
 keep their distance, prefers to perform its own functions separate!;', 
 and without more of natural intercourse than business obligations, 
 arranged beforehand, render indispensable. But whenever, from 
 whatever cause, landowners have come to be regarded by landholders 
 as mere receivers of rent, me'tayage cannot possibly thrive, and it is 
 accordingly dying out, even in the quarters to which it has hitherto 
 appeared most congenial. Even in the Milanese, where the minute 
 and assiduous attention to details which me'tayers, next alter peasant 
 proprietors, can best be depended on for bestowing, is in especial de- 
 mand for sericulture and viticulture, metayage is undergoing changes 
 which M. de Laveleye [Economic Euralc de la Zombardic) describes 
 as follows : — 
 
 " The primitive conditions of contract which fixed, according to 
 local and traditional usage, the cultivator's share, are daily more 
 and more departed from. For a considerable time past, in the parts 
 about Como and Milan, to the arrangement for sharing by halves, 
 which now applies only to plantation crops, grasses, and cocoons, 
 has been added a clause providing for the annual payment of a 
 determinate quantity of corn ; and, as this quantity is settled no 
 longer by local custom, but by the demands of the proprietors and 
 the offers of intending tenants, it follows that metayage is losing its 
 character of fixity, and falling under the law of increase which 
 g iverns farming rent. The clause in question is continually be- 
 coming more and more of a habit ; and, even where it has not yet 
 been adopted, the ancient contract has undergone other and not less 
 regretable modifications. The high price of commodities, particu- 
 larly of silk, having markedly augmented the profits of the meta- 
 yers, the landlords nave availed themselves of this circumstance to 
 introduce new stipulations — sometimes taking more than half of 
 the cocoons, sometimes claiming a quantity of mulberry leaves to 
 sell for their own profit, sometimes taking tithes first and then 
 halving the residue. All this is done with the same aim and the
 
 416 
 
 A G K 1 C U L T U K E 
 
 woe result, tlie arm being to secure to tile landlord tbo whole 
 benefit of continually rising prices, the result that of depriving the 
 metayer of the security which the primitive tgreement gave Turn, 
 and of subjecting him to all the disadvantages of a leaseholder 
 ' without any of the latter's compensations." 
 
 VI, The plan of industrial partnerships, wherever it has 
 had a fair trial, has invariably been attended by the hap- 
 piest results; but it has hardly yet been fairly tried in 
 farming, where, however, its application would in one 
 respect be comparatively easy. In most other kinds of 
 business, to determine to the satisfaction of both parties 
 concerned how much, if any, of extra profits had been due 
 to extra zeal «n the part of the employed, might be an 
 operation of some difficulty; but there need never be any 
 doubt whether the crops of a given acreage were or were 
 not above the average, or what, therefore, if any, was the 
 surplus in which, according to the agreement, the employed 
 were entitled to participate. That farmers would risk but 
 little and only occasional loss, and in the long run would 
 be sure to gain considerably, by permitting their labourers 
 to share -.vith them in a surplus which the labourers would 
 have by voluntary exertion to create before they could 
 share in it, may perhaps to an indifferent bystander seem 
 a self-evident proposition. Farmers in general, however, 
 may long be prevented from recognising its truth by an 
 intervening haze of traditional prejudice, which must first 
 be cleared away, and the removal may occupy so much 
 time that not improbably another and more advanced form 
 of agricultural co-operation, not needing the farmers' con- 
 currence, may in the mean time come into vogue. 
 
 Intermingled with the multitudinous peasant proprietary 
 ©f France are not only a much larger number of well-to-do 
 country gentlemen than is commonly supposed, but also a 
 not inconsiderable sprinkling of rural magnates, who, even 
 beside English dukes, might well pass for extensive land- 
 owners. Among these latter are representatives of some 
 of the oldest and noblest French families — men rejoicing 
 in the grand historic names of Rochefoucauld, Noailles, 
 Luynes, Montemart, D'Usez, and the like — who having at 
 the restoration been partially reinstated in the domains 
 of which the first revolution had despoiled them, dis- 
 appeared, on the second expulsion of the Bourbons, from 
 court and office, and, returning to their country seats, be- 
 took themselves, under the Orleaniit dynasty and second 
 empire, to the improvement of their estates. A difficulty 
 which here confronted them was that of finding tenants 
 possessed of capital enough for any but very small farms, 
 and this they have latterly endeavoured to obviate by 
 devising, under the name of metayage par groupes, an ex- 
 panded modification of a discredited tenure. This consists 
 in letting a considerable farm, not to one metayer, but to 
 an association of several, who work together for the general 
 good, under the supervision either of the landlord 
 hims»lf, or of a manager or bailiff of his appointment 
 This plan is by no means the novelty it may perhaps 
 appear, its near counterpart having within the present cen- 
 tury existed in some singular patriarchal communities 
 — Jaults, Guittards, and Garriotts (see Thornton On 
 Labour, 2d edition, pp. 488-90), in Nivernais and Au- 
 vergne, and still existing among the massari of the sub- 
 alpine districts of northern Italy. Its merit consists in its 
 tendency to excite among the associates the generous 
 emulation and other healthy stimulating and controlling 
 influences of co-operative fellowship; but as yet it has 
 scarcely been long enough in operation to show very deci- 
 sively how it is likely to work. In the event of its proving 
 
 a marked success, it may become the 6tarting-poTaJ ot 
 much further progress. One easy and important step in 
 advance would be for a body of metayers to persuade their 
 landlord to let them have their farm on lease, and at a fixed 
 rent, thus raising themselves to that higher stage of agri- 
 cultural co-operatioD of which an imperfect but encourag- 
 ing example has been afforded among ourselves by Mr 
 Gurdon's well-known experiment at Assington in Suffolk. 
 Of the two or three scores of labourers who are there par- 
 ties to the leases by which two farms — one of 130, the 
 other of 212 acres — are held, not more than ten or a dozen 
 have regular work in their own fields, the rest being 
 therefore little more than passive capitalists, sleeping 
 partners in the concern, while the active members receive, 
 in addition to wages at the rates current in the neighbour- 
 hood, no larger shares in the profits than the members who 
 do not exert themselves to increase those profits. Never- 
 theless, to sum up in a single phrase of especial significance 
 for our present purpose the praises of the results achieved, 
 Mr Gurdon declares that " he has no other land so well 
 farmed " as that on which the co-operative principle is even 
 thus partially applied. It would seem, therefore, that the 
 adoption of the same principle in its integrity would result 
 in better farming still, and it may be hoped that the ques- 
 tion will, at Assington or elsewhere, be ere long put to the 
 proof. (w. t. t. ) 
 
 Alphabetical Contents. 
 
 Ancient husbandry, 291 
 Artichokes, 369. 
 Bakewell. 302. 
 Bailey, 358. 
 Bams. 308. 
 Beans, 360, 377. 
 Beet, 881. 
 Belhaven. 301. 
 Blood, 349. 
 Boga, 403. 
 Bondsmen, 294. 
 Bones, 847. 
 Breast plough, 3 
 Breeding, 302. 
 Cabbage, 869. 
 Capital, 408. 
 Carrots, 369, 
 Carts, 323. 
 Cattle, 387. 
 Chaff cutting, 328. 
 Chalk. 361. 
 Chicory, 878, 88S. 
 Clay, burnt, 361. 
 Cleaning. 338. 
 Climate, 306. 
 Clovers, 376. 
 Colza, 383. 
 Co-operation, 416. 
 Cottages. 309. 
 Culley, 303. 
 
 Cultivators, steam, 318, 
 Dawson, 303. 
 Donaldson, 30L 
 Draining, 328. 
 Drills, 820. 
 Education, 408. 
 Egypt, ancient, 291. 
 Fallowing, 337; Bummer, 
 
 840. 
 Farm buildings, 308.. 
 Farming, large, 411; 
 
 ■mail, 412. 
 Tences, 309. 
 Fena, 404. 
 Flax. 380. 
 Fowler, 816. 
 Goats, 399. 
 GorBe, 378. 
 Grain crops, 864. 
 Grasses, 370. 
 Greece, ancient, 29* 
 Grinding, 326. 
 Grubbers, 812. 
 Grubbing, 338. 
 Guano, 847. 
 Gypsum, 361. 
 Harrowing, 887. 
 Harrows, 818. ■ 
 Harvesting, 862. 
 Haymakers, 32*. 
 
 Haymaklng, 378. 
 Highland Soclety,303, 306. 
 History, ancient, 291, 
 
 ,1634-16*6, 295; 
 
 1688-1760, 299; 
 
 1760-1796, 802; 
 
 1796-1816, 303; 
 
 Recent, 804. 
 Hoes, 321. 
 Hops, 381. 
 Horses, farm, 884 
 Howard, 316. 
 Implements, 811. 
 Improvements, recent, 808. 
 Indian corn, 362. 
 Jewish husbandry, 291. 
 Knowledge, Increase of, 
 
 303. 
 Kohl Rabl, 870. 
 Labourers, 408. 
 Land tenure, 406. 
 Large farming. 411. 
 Laws, old, 298; recent, 
 
 804. 
 Leases, 407, 411; restric- 
 tive, 341. 
 Legislation. 409. 
 Levelling, 336. 
 Lime, 360. 
 Literature, 299, 806. 
 Lucerne, 378. 
 Machines. 313. 
 Maize. 362. 
 Mangel-wurzel. 868. 
 Msnurt dls'rlbuiors, 821. 
 Manures, 342; artificial, 
 
 863; liquid, 343. 
 Marl, 361. 
 Maxwell, 302. 
 Me'tayage, 414. 
 Middle ages. 293. 
 Moorland, 402. 
 Mortimer, 299. 
 Mowing-machines, 323. 
 Mustard, 377, 384. 
 Nitrate of soda, 363. 
 Oats, 369. 
 Olla 883. 
 Paring, 836. 
 Parsnips, 869. 
 Pasture, 370. 
 Pastures, aheep, 402. 
 peasant proprietors, 414. 
 Pease, 361. 
 Peel, charred, 869. 
 Pigs, 400. 
 Ploughing, 336. 
 Ploughs, 311; steam, 81*. 
 Population, Influence of, 
 807. 
 
 Potash, 358. 
 
 Potato disease, 304. 
 
 Potatoes, 364. 
 
 Poultry. 401. 
 
 Purveyance, 294. 
 
 Railways. 306. 
 
 Rakes, 323. 
 
 Rape, 370, 888. 
 
 Rape-cake, 349. 
 
 Reaping-machines, a 
 
 Reclaiming, 402. 
 
 Rinderpest, 304. 
 
 Road steamers, 823. 
 
 Rollers, 319. 
 
 Rome, ancient. 292. 
 
 Root crops, 364. 
 
 Rotation crops, 340. 
 
 Rye, 860. 
 
 Ryegrass, 876. 
 
 Sainfoin, 877. 
 
 Salt, 863. 
 
 Sands, 406. 
 
 Scotland, 2S8. 
 
 Sea weed, 360. 
 
 Seed, 383. 
 
 Sewage, 349. 
 
 Sheep, 391; farming, 8»».. 
 
 pastures; 402. r 
 Small fanning, 212. 
 Societies, 808, 306. 
 Solla, 806. 
 Soot, 362. 
 
 Sowing Implements, 320 
 Spa' i, mediaeval, 293. 
 Stacking, 863. 
 Statistics, Govenmw 
 
 305. 
 Steam-engines. 823. 
 Steam-power, 318, 410. 
 Stones, removal of, 83* 
 Swine, 400, 
 Tenant-right, 407 
 Tenants, Ufa, 294. 
 Tenure, land, 406. 
 Threshing-machines, 80S, 
 
 324. 
 Tlllsge laws. 298. 
 Trenching, 336; fork, 820 
 TuU, 299.. 
 Turnip cutters, 826; pulp> 
 
 era, 826; thinners, 82L 
 Turnips, 299, 366. 
 Tuasac, 378. 
 Vagabonds, 298. 
 Vetches, 376. 
 Waste lands, 402. 
 Water, 809. 
 Wheat. 354. 
 Winnowing, :;i 
 Wool, »*t>..
 
 A G E— A G R 
 
 417 
 
 AGRIGENTUM, ill Ancient Geography, a city on the 
 south coast of Sicily, part of the site of which is now 
 occupied by a town called Girgenti, from the old name. 
 (See Giegenti.) It was founded by a colony from Gela, 
 582 b.c. An advantageous situation, a free govern- 
 ment, and an active commercial spirit raised the city to 
 a degree of wealth and importance unknown to the other 
 Greek settlements, Syracuse alone excepted The pro- 
 sperity of Agrigentum was interrupted by the usurpation 
 of Phalaris which lasted about fifteen years. He met with 
 the common fate of tyrants, and after his death the Agri- 
 gentines enjoyed their liberty for sixty years; at the 
 expiration of which term Theron usurped the sovereign 
 authority. The moderation, justice, and valour of this 
 prince preserved him from opposition. He joined his son- 
 in-law Gelon, king of Syracuse, in a victorious war against 
 the Carthaginians. Soon after his decease, 472 B.5., his 
 son Thrasydeus was deprived of the diadem, and Agri- 
 gentum restored to her old democratical government, which 
 she retained till the Carthaginian invasion in 406 b.c. 
 During this interval of prosperity were executed most of 
 those splendid public works which excited the admiration 
 of succeeding ages, and caused Empedocles to remark 
 " that the Agrigentines built their dwellings as though 
 they were to live for ever, and indulged in luxury as if 
 they were to die on the morrow." The total number of 
 the inhabitants at this period was 'estimated by Diodorus 
 at 200,000. The power of the Agrigentines now ex- 
 perienced a terrible reverse. They were attacked by the 
 Carthaginians in 406 B.C., their armies routed, their city 
 taken, and their race almost extirpated, scarcely a vestige 
 of their material greatness being left. Although some of 
 the fugitive inhabitants availed themselves of permission to 
 return to •the ruined city, and after a few years were even 
 able to shake off the yoke of Carthage, Agrigentum 
 never fully recovered from this fatal disaster. Such was 
 the condition of the city 340 b.c. that Timoleon, after his 
 triumph over the Carthaginians, found it necessary to re- 
 colonise it with citizens from Velia in Italy. During the 
 first Punic war Agrigentum was the headquarters of the 
 Carthaginians, and was besieged by the Roman consuls, 
 who, after eight months' blockade, took it by storm. It 
 nevertheless changed masters several time3 during the 
 contest, and in every instance suffered most cruel outrages. 
 At the close of the war Agrigentum finally fell under the 
 dominion of Rome. 
 
 The profuse luxury and display for which the Agrigen- 
 tines are celebrated in history were supported 'by a fertile 
 territory and an extensive commerce, by means of which 
 the commonwealth was able to resist many shocks of 
 adversity. It was, however, crushed in the fall of the 
 Eastern Empire, and the Saracens obtained possession of 
 the city. 
 
 Agrigentum occupied a hill rising between the small 
 rivers Agragas and Hypsas, and was remarkable for its 
 strength as a fortress. The whole space comprehended 
 within the walls of the ancient city abounds with traces 
 of antiquity. Of its many celebrated edifices, the most 
 magnificent was the temple of Olympian Jupiter. Of this 
 vast structure nothing remains except the basement and a 
 few fragments of the columns and entablature ; but these 
 and many other monuments attest the ancient magnifi- 
 cence of the Agrigentines. 
 
 AGRIONTA, festivals celebrated annually by the Boeo- 
 tians in honour of Dionysus, in which the women, after 
 playfully pretending for some time to search for that god, 
 desisted, saying that he had hidden himself among the 
 Muses. They were solemnised at night by women and the 
 priests only. The tradition is that the daughters of Minyaa, 
 having despised the rites of the god, were seized with 
 
 frenzy and ate the flesh of one of their children, and that 
 the Agrionia were celebrated in expiat'on of the offence. 
 
 AGRDPPA, Hebod, the son of Aristobulus and 
 Berenice, and grandson . of Herod the Great, was bora 
 about 11 B.C. Josephus informs us that, after the deati 
 of his father, Herod, his grandfather, sent him to Rom< 
 to the court of Tiberius. The emperor conceived a great 
 affection for Agrippa, and placed him near his son Drusus 
 whose favour he very soon Won, as well as that of th« 
 empress Antonia. On the death of Drusus, Agrippa. 
 who had been recklessly extravagant, was obliged to leav« 
 Rome, overwhelmed with debt, and retired to the castle o( 
 Malatha. After a brief seclusion, Herod the tetrarch, hit 
 uncle,- who had married Herodias, his sister, made him 
 principal magistrate of Tiberias, and presented him with 
 a large sum of money; but his uncle grudging to con- 
 tinue his support, and reproaching him with his bad 
 economy, Agrippa left Judea, and soon after returned to 
 Rome. There he was received with favour by Tiberius, 
 and commanded to attend Tiberius Nero, the son of 
 Drusus. Agrippa, however, chose rather to attach himself 
 to Caius, who at that time was universally beloved, and so 
 far won upon thi3 prince that he kept him continually 
 about him. Agrippa being one day overheard by Euty- 
 ches, a slave whom he had made free, to express his 
 wishes for Tiberius's death. and the advancement of Caius, 
 was betrayed to the emperor and cast into prison. Tibe- 
 rius soon after died, and Caius Cahgula ascended the 
 throne 37 A.V. The new emperor heaped wealth and 
 favours upon Agrippa, changed his iron fetters into a 
 chain of gold, set a'royal diadem upon his head, and gave 
 him the tetrarchy of Batanaea and Trachonitis, which Philip, 
 the son of Herod the Great, had formerly possessed. To 
 this he added that held by Lysanias; and Agrippa returned 
 very soon into Judea to take possession of his new kingdom. 
 On the assassination of Caligula, Agrippa, who was then 
 at Rome, contributed much by his advice to maintain 
 Claudius in possession of the imperial dignity, to which ho 
 had been advanced by the army; and while he made a 
 show of being in the interest of the senate, he secretly 
 advised Claudius to maintain his position with firmness. 
 The emperor, as an acknowledgment of his services, gave 
 him the government of Judea; and the kingdom of Chalcis, 
 at his request, was given to hi3 brother Herod. Thus 
 Agrippa became of a sudden one of the greatest princes of 
 the East, the territory he possessed equalling in extent 
 that held by Herod the Great, his grandfather. He 
 returned to Judea, and governed it to the great satisfac- 
 tion of the Jews. But the desire of pleasing them, and a 
 mistaken zeal for their religion, impelled him to acts cf 
 cruelty, the memory of which is preserved in Scripture 
 (Acts xfi. 1, 2, (fcc.) About the feast of the Passover, 44 
 A.D., James the elder, the son of Zebedee and brother cf 
 John the evangelist, was seized by bis order and put to 
 death. He proceeded also to lay hands on Peter, and 
 imprisoned him, delaying his execution till the close of 
 the festival. But God having miraculously delivered Peter 
 from prison, the designs of Agrippa were frustrated. 
 After the Passover, he went from Jerusalem to Cassarea, 
 where he had games performed in honour of Claudius, 
 and the inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon waited on him to 
 sue for peace. Agrippa having come early in the morn- 
 ing to the theatre to give them audience, seated himself on 
 his throne, dressed in a robe of silver tissue, which reflected 
 the rays of the rising sun with such lustre as to dazzle the 
 eyes of the spectators. When the king had delivered hia 
 address, the parasites around him shouted out that it was 
 not the voice of a man but of a god The vain Agrippa 
 received the impious flattery with complacent satisfaction ; 
 but in the midet of his elation, looking upwards, he saw, 
 
 1-1.",
 
 418 
 
 AGRIPPA 
 
 with superstitious alarm, an owl percneo. over his head 
 During his confinement by Tiberius he had been startled 
 by a like omen, which had been interpreted as portending 
 his speedy release, with the warning that whenever he 
 should behold the same sight again, his death was to 
 follow within the space of five days. Seized with terror, 
 ho was immediately smitten with disease, and after a few 
 days of excruciating torment, died, according to the 
 Scripture expression, "eaten of worms," 44 A.D. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Herod, IL, son of the preceding, born about 
 '27 A.D., was made king of Chalcis on the death of his 
 uncle Herod, 48 a.d. ; but three or four years after he 
 was deprived of that kingdom by Claudius, who gave him 
 other provinces instead of it. In the war which Vespasian 
 carried on against the Jews Herod sent him a succour of 
 2000 men, by which it appears that, though a Jew in 
 religion, he was yet entirely devoted to the Romans, whose 
 assistance indeed he required to secure the peace of his 
 own kingdom. He died at Rome in the third year of 
 Trajan, 100 a.d. He was the' seventh and last king of 
 the family of Herod the Great. It was before him and 
 Berenice, his sister, that St Paul pleaded his cause at 
 Caesarea (Acts xxvi.) 
 
 AGRIPPA, Marcus ViPSAinus, according to Tacitus, 
 was born of humble parents about 63 B.O. At the age of 
 eighteen he was the chosen companion of Octavius (after- 
 wards Octavianus), the nephew and successor of Julius 
 Caesar, many of whose successes were mainly due to the 
 courage and military talents of Agrippa. On the assassina- 
 tion of Caesar, 44 B.C., Agrippa accompanied his friend to 
 Italy, and rendered essential service in the conduct of the 
 first war against M. Antonius, which terminated in the 
 capture of Perusia in 40 b.o. Three years after this 
 Agrippa was made consul, and had the command in Gaul, 
 when he defeated the Aquitani, and led the Roman eagles 
 beyond the Rhine to punish the aggressions of the Ger- 
 mans on his province. But Agrippa was soon summoned 
 to Italy by the critical state of the affairs of Octavianus, 
 the whole coast being commanded by the superior fleets of 
 Sex. Pompeius. His first care was the formation of a 
 secure harbour for the ships of Octavianus, and this he 
 accomplished by uniting the Lucrine lake with the sea. 
 He made an inner haven also by joining the lake Avernus 
 to the Lucrine. In these secure ports the fleet was 
 equipped, and 20,000 manumitted slaves were sedulously 
 trained in rowing and naval manoeuvres until they were 
 able to cope with the seamen of Pompeius. Agrippa was 
 thus enabled in the following year to defeat Pompeius 
 in the naval action of Mylae ; and soon after won a more 
 signal victory near Naulochus. These victories gave Octa- 
 vianus the empire of the Mediterranean, and secured to 
 him Sicily, the granary of Rome, after an easy triumph 
 over his feeble colleague Lepidus ; and they prepared the 
 "way for the overthrow of the power of M. Antonius, the 
 other triumvir. The merit of all these successes was 
 very much due to the skill, resolution, and sagacity of 
 Agrippa, 
 
 Agrippa was chosen aedile 33 B.C., and signalised his 
 tenure of office by great improvements in the city of 
 Rome, in the repair and construction of aqueducts and 
 fountains neglected or injured during the civil wars, 
 and in the enlargement and repair of the sewers. He 
 i '^peare also to have introduced an effectual mode of 
 fishing the sewers by conducting into them the united 
 * iters of several different streams. From these useful 
 labours Agrippa wa3 again called away in 31 B.C. to com- 
 mand the 'Roman fleet, which, by the victory at Actium, 
 fixed the empire of the world on Octavianus. The 
 services of Agrippa made him a special favourite with 
 Ocuvianus, who gave him his niece Marcella in marriage, 
 
 27 B.C., when he was consul for the third time. In tb» 
 following year the servile senate bestowed on Octavianus 
 the imperial title of Augustus. Agrippa, in commemo- 
 ration of the naval victory of Actium, dedicated to Jupit.:i 
 and all the other gods the Pantheon, now called La 
 liotonda. The inscription on its portico still remains, 
 M. AoRrrPA L. F. Cos. Tertium Fecit. In 25 b.o. we 
 find this eminent man employed in Spain, where he re- 
 duced the insurgent Cantabri, the ancestors of the present 
 Biscayans. 
 
 The friendship of Augustus and Agrippa seems to have 
 been clouded by the jealousy of Marcellus, which was 
 probably fomented by the intrigues ol Livia, the second 
 wife of Augustus, in dread of his influence with her hus- 
 band. The consequence was that Agrippa left Rome ; 
 and though, to cloak his retirement, ho was appointed 
 proconsul of Syria, he went no farther than Mytileno. 
 Marcellus dying within a year, Agrippa was recalled to 
 Rome, and being divorced from Marcella, became the hus- 
 band of the widowed Julia, who was no less distinguished 
 by her beauty and abilities than afterwards by her shame- 
 less profligacy. 
 
 In 19 b.o. Agrippa again led an army into Spain, where 
 he subdued the Cantabri, who had been for two years in 
 insurrection against the Romans. While in Gaul, where 
 he also pacified the insurgent inhabitants, he constructed 
 four great public roads, and the splendid aqueduct at 
 Nemausus (now Nismes), the ruins of which even yet 
 excite admiration. On his return to Rome, 18 B.C., he 
 was invested with the tribunician power, along with the 
 emperor, for five years. After that he was a second time 
 made governor of Syria, 17 B.C., where, by his just and 
 wise administration, he obtained general commendatior., 
 especially from the Hebrew population of his province, of 
 which Judea formed a part. This resulted from his having, 
 at the request of Herod the Great, gone up to Jerusalem, 
 aud granted special privileges for their religious worship 
 to the Jewish subjects of the empire. In this journey, too, 
 he colonised Berytus (now Beyrout) as a military and com- 
 mercial settlement. 
 
 The last military employment of Agrippa was in Pau- 
 nonia, 13 B.C., where his character for equity was of itself 
 sufficient to put down insurrection without bloodshed. 
 Returning to Italy, he lived there in retirement, greatly 
 honoured, and died at Campania, 12 B.C., two years before 
 his imperial father-in-law. He was the greatest military 
 commander of Rome since the days of Julius Ca?sar, and 
 the most honest of Roman governors in any province. 
 
 Under the care of Agrippa, Julius Caesar's design of 
 having a complete survey of the empire made was carried 
 out. He had a chart of the entire empire drawn up, and 
 projected a great work on the geography of its provinces. 
 His materials were placed in the public archives, where 
 Pliny consulted them (Nat. Hilt., iii.) Agrippa also wrote 
 an account, now lost, of the transactions in which he had 
 taken part. 
 
 Agrippa left several children : byhi3 first wife he had Pom- 
 ponia Vipsania, who became the first wife of Tiberius, and 
 was the mother of Drusus; and by Julia he was the father 
 of Caius and Lucius Caesar, who were adopted by Augustus : 
 of Julia, married to Lepidus; of Agrippina the elder; and 
 of Agrippa Posthumus. (See Dio Cassius; Appianus ; 
 Suetonius ; Velleius Paterculus ; Fergusson's Horn. Rep. ; 
 Merivale's Romans under the Empire.) 
 
 AGRIPPA Henry Cornelius (von Nettesheim), 
 knight, doctor, and by common reputation a magician, was 
 born of a noble family at Cologne on the 14th Sept. 1486. 
 Educated at the university of Cologne, he entered when still 
 very young into the service of the Emperor Maximilian, 
 who sent him on a diplomatic mission to Paris in 1506.
 
 AGR^-AGK 
 
 419 
 
 During the next three years he was engaged in a military 
 Expedition to Catalonia, and then in the formation of a 
 secret society of theosophists, the first of those alternations 
 between the career of the knight and the career of the 
 student in which his whole life was passed. In 1509 he 
 #ent by invitation to the university of D61e in Burgundy, 
 and read lectures on Reuchlin's De Verbo Mirifico, which 
 gained for him the degree of doctor of divinity and a 
 stipend. It was these lectures that first stirred against 
 |him that malignant hatred of the monks which embittered 
 lus life and blackened his memory. He was denounced as 
 |an impious and heretical cabahst by an obscure monk 
 jnamed Catilinet, in Jectures delivered at Ghent (1510) 
 before Margaret of Burgundy, and his hopes of securing 
 the patronage of that princess were thus for the time dis- 
 appointed. To win her favour, he had composed (1509) 
 and dedicated to her a treatise, De NobUitale et Prcecel- 
 lentia Fteminei Sexus, the publication of which was 
 delayed from motives of prudence until 1532. For the 
 same reason the same course was followed in regard to his 
 treatise De Occulta Philosophic., which, though completed 
 in the spring of 1510, did not appear until 1531. In 
 writing it he had the advice and assistance of the abbot 
 Trithemius of Wurzburg. Failing to receive encourage- 
 ment as a man of letters, Agrippa was forced again to 
 enter the diplomatic service. In 1510 the emperor sent 
 him on a mission to London, where he became the guest 
 of Dean Colet at Stepney. Soon after his return home he 
 wa3 -summoned to follow his imperial master to the war 
 in Italy, where he won hi3 spurs — probably at the battle 
 of Ravenna. In the autumn of 1511, on the invitation of 
 the Cardinal de Santa Croce, he attended the schismatic 
 council of Pisa as theologian, and by so doing still further 
 provoked the hostility of the papal party. After a period 
 spent in the service of the Marquis of Montferrat, during 
 which he visited Switzerland, Agrippa was invited in 1515 
 to the university of Pavia, where he delivered lectures on 
 the Pimander of Hermes Trismegistus, the first of which 
 is preserved among his published works, and received a 
 doctor's degree in law and medicine. He was still doomed, 
 however, to a harassed, unsettled life. Three years were 
 spent in the service of the Marquis of Montferrat and the 
 Duke of Savoy. In 1518 he became syndic at Metz, 
 where he was involved in disputes with the monks, and 
 especially with the inquisitor Nicolas Savin, before whom 
 he boldly and persistently defended a woman accused of 
 witchcraft. He was, chiefly in consequence of this, com- 
 pelled fo resign his office, and quitted Metz for Cologne 
 in January 1520. . After two years spent in seclusion in 
 his native city, he went to Geneva, where he practised 
 medicine for a short time. In '1523 he removed to 
 Friburg, having been appointed town physician. In the 
 following year he was induced to go to Lyons as court 
 physician to the queen-mother, Louisa of Savoy, but the 
 change did not better his condition, since, though he re- 
 ceived several empty honours, - his salary remained unpaid. . 
 It was probably amid the privations of poverty that he 
 composed, in 1526, his De Incertitudine et Vanitate Scien- 
 tiarum et Artium atque Excbllenlia Verbi Dei Declamatio, 
 which was first published in 1530. The work is remark- 
 able for the keenness of its satire on the existing state of 
 science and the pretensions of the learned, and when 
 published furnished fresh occasion for the malicious' mis- 
 representation of his enemies. A quarrel with the queen 
 compelled Agrippa to leave Lyons and betake himself to 
 the Netherlands. In 1529 he was appointed historio- 
 grapher to the Emperor Charles V., and in that capacity 
 wrote a history of the emperor's reign. The salary attached 
 to the office was, however, left unpaid, and Agrippa was 
 uonsequently imprisoned at Brussels, and afterwards 
 
 banished from Cologne, for debt. Ha died at Grenoble 
 in 1535. 
 
 J The character of Agrippa has been very variously repre- 
 sented. The earlier accounts are grossly disfigured by 
 the calumnies of the Dominicans, whose hatred, following 
 him even to the grave, placed over it an inscription that 
 is probably unique in its spiteful malignity ' In later 
 times full justice has been done to his memory. A Life 
 of Agrippa by Henry Morley (London 1856) contains 8 
 detailed analysis of his more important works. A com- 
 plete edition of his writings appeared in two volumes at 
 Ley den in 1550, and has been several times republished. 
 
 AGRLPPINA (the Elder), the virtuous and heroic but 
 unfortunate offspring of M Agrippa by a very abandoned 
 mother, and herself the parent of a still more profligate, 
 and guilty daughter of the same name. She was early 
 married to Gennanicus, the son of Drusus and Antonia,- 
 the niece of Augustus. On the death of Augustus she 
 joined her husband in his German campaigns, where aha 
 had several opportunities of showing her intrepidity, shar- 
 ing with Gennanicus his toils and his triumphs. The 
 love which the army showed for this leader was the cause 
 of his recall from the Rhine by the suspicious Tiberius. 
 He was soon afterwards sent into Syria, where he died at 
 Antioch from the effects, as was believed, of poison ad« 
 ministered to bim by Piso, the governor of Syria. 
 
 On his deathbed Gennanicus implored his wife, for tha 
 sake' of their numerous children, to submit with resigna- 
 tion to the evil times on which they were fallen, and not 
 to provoke the -sngeance of the tyrant Tiberius. .But, 
 unhappily, this prudent advice was not followed by the 
 high-spirited woman, who, on landing at Brundusium, 
 went straight to Rome, entered the city bearing the urn 
 of her deceased husband in her arms, and was Teceived 
 amid the tears of the citizens and the soldiery, to whom 
 Gennanicus was dear. She boldly accused Piso of the 
 murder of her husband ; and he, to avoid public infamy, 
 committed suicide. She continued to reside at Rome, 
 watched and suspected' by Tiberius, who for some time 
 dreaded to glut his vengeance on the widow and family of 
 so popular a prince as Germanicus. She soon had the 
 temerity to upbraid the tyrant with his hypocrisy in pre- 
 tending to worship at the tomb of Augustus. He began 
 by putting to death both men and women who had shown 
 attachment to the family of Germanicus; and finally he 
 anested Agrippina and her two eldest sons, Nero and 
 Drusus, and transported them to the isle of Pandataria, 
 where her mother Julia had perished ; and there she was 
 starved, or starved herself, to death in the 33d year of ou- 
 era. Tiberius also ordered the execution of her two eldest 
 sons; yet it is remarkable that by his will the emperor 
 left her youngest son Caius, better known by the name 
 of -Caligula, as one of the heirs of the empire. 
 
 AGRLPPINA, daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina 
 the elder, sister of Caligula, and mother of Nero, .was 
 born. about 15 A.D., at Oppidum TJbiorum, which was at 
 that time the headquarters of her father's legions, and 
 which was after her named .Colonia Agrippina Ubiorum 
 (now Cologne). • She wrote memoirs of her times, which 
 Tacitus quotes, and Pliny commends; but her life is 
 notorious for intrigue and perfidy. In 28 a.d. she became 
 the wife of Cn. Dom. Ahenobarbus, who died 40 A.D. Hei 
 next husband was Crispus Passienus, whom some years 
 afterwards she was accused of poisoning. For flagitious 
 conduct, Caligula banished her to the isle of Pontia ; but 
 on the accession of her uncle Claudius, 41 A.D., she was set 
 free, and began to succeed in her ambitious schemes. After 
 Messalina had been put to death, 48 A.D., Agrippina was 
 raised by Claudius to her place as his imperial consort, 
 49 A.D. She prevailed upon him to discard Britanuicu*
 
 420 
 
 A G 11— A H A 
 
 his own son, and to adopt her son Domitius in his stead. 
 Sho removed from her path all whom she feared or envied, 
 and in 54 a.d. poisoned Claudius at Sinuessa that she might 
 reign as regent for her son. Nero in a short time grew 
 tired of her interference, and when she first intrigued 
 against and then frowned upon him, he ordered her to 
 be slain at her villa on the Lucrine lake. After having 
 been slightly wounded by Anicetus, she Derishcd by the 
 sword of a centurion, 60 a.d. 
 
 AGROTERAS THUSIA, an annual festival at Atnens 
 in honour of Artemis or Diana, in fulfilment of a vow mude 
 by the city before the battle of Marathon to offer in sacrifice 
 a number of goats equal to that of the Persians slain in the 
 conflict. The number was afterwards restricted to 500. 
 
 AGTELEK, a village of Hungary, in the county of 
 Gbmbr, near the road from Pesth to Kaschau. In the 
 neighbourhood is the celebrated stalactite grotto of Baradla, 
 one of the most remarkable in Europe. Tho entrance is 
 extremely narrow, but the interior spreads out into a 
 labyrinth of caverns, the largest of which, called the 
 Flower Garden, is 96 feet high ana 1 90 feet wide, and 
 extends nearly 900 feet in a straight line. In these caverns 
 there are numerous stalactite structures, which, from their 
 eunous and fantastic shapes, have received such names as 
 the Image of the Virgin, the Mosaic Altar, <fcc. 
 
 AGUA, Volcano de, a huge mountain in Central 
 America, 25 miles S.W. of Guatemala. It is of a conical 
 shape, and rises to a height of 15,000 feet above the level 
 of the sea. At the summit there is a crater, measuring 
 about 140 yards by 120, from which stones and torrents 
 of boiling water are occasionally discharged. In close 
 proximity to Agua are the volcanoes of Pacaya, on the S.E., 
 and Fuego on the \V., and the three present together a 
 scene of great magnificence. 
 
 AGUADO, Alexander Maria, one of the most famous 
 bankers of modern times, was born of Jewish parentage 
 at Seville in 1784. He commenced life as a soldier, fight- 
 ing with distinction in the Spanish war of independence 
 on the side of Joseph. After the battle of Baylen (1808) 
 he entered the French army, in which he had risen to be 
 colonel and aide-de-camp to Marshal Soult, when he took 
 his discharge in 1815. He immediately commenced busi- 
 ness as a commission-agent in Paris, and chiefly through 
 his connection with Spain and the Spanish colonies, 
 acquired in a few years wealth enough to enable him to 
 undertake banking. The Spanish government gave him 
 full powers to negotiate the loans of 1823, 1828, 1830, 
 and 1831 ; and Ferdinand VII. rewarded him with the 
 title oi Marquis de las Marismas del Guadalquiver, and the 
 decorations of several orders. Aguado also negotiated the 
 Greek loan of 1834. In' 1828, having become possessed 
 of large estates in France, including the Chateau Margaux, 
 famous for its wine, ho was naturalised as a French citizen. 
 He died irt 1842, leaving a fortune computed at 60,000,000 
 francs. The designs of the leading pictures in an exten- 
 sive and admirable art collection which he had formed 
 were published by Gavard under the title Galerie Aguado 
 (1837-42). 
 
 AQUAS CALLENTES, a town in Mexico, capital of 
 the state of the same name, situated 270 miles N.W. of 
 the city of Mexico, in 22° N. lat., and 101° 45' W. long. 
 It takes its name from the hot springs in its vicinity. The 
 climate is fine, and the extensive and beautiful gardens 
 surrounding the town produce an abundance of olives, 
 figs, grapes, and pears. It has a large manufactory of 
 woollen cloth, and the general trade is considerable. 
 Population, 22,534. 
 
 AGULLAR, Grace (1816-47), an admired English 
 authoress, was the daughter of a Jewish merchant in 
 London. She was educated wholly br her parents, and 
 
 commenced her literary career at an early age. Her works, 
 written in a phasing, elegant, and impressive style, consist 
 chiefly of religious fictions, such as The Martyr and Hcmt 
 Influence. She also wrote, in defence of her faith and its 
 professors, The Spirit of Judaism, and other works. Hei 
 services in the latter direction were acknowledged grate- 
 fully by the " women of Israel," in a testimonial which 
 they presented shortly before her death. In 1835 she had 
 a severe attack of measles, from the effects of which her 
 constitution never wholly recovered. After a long struggle 
 with increasing bodily infirmities, sho died at Frankfort, 
 on her way to Schwalbach, in the autumn of 1847. 
 
 AGU1LAR de la Frontera, a town of Spain, stands 
 near the river Cabra, 22 miles S.S.E. of Cordova. The. 
 houses are well built, and distinguished by their cleanness 
 and regularity. The town has three handsome public 
 squares, and the principal buildings are the parish church, 
 the chapter-house, a new town-hall, the prison, and iho 
 markets. Near the church are the ruins of a once magni- 
 ficent Moorish castle. The district produces excellent 
 wines, which go by the name of Montilla, and there is 
 also some trade in corn and oil Population, 12,000. 
 
 AGUILLON, Francois d', an eminent mathematician, 
 born at Brussels in 1566. He entered the Society of 
 Jesus in 15S6, and was successively professor of philosophy 
 at Douay and rector of the Jesuit College at Antwerp. 
 Eminent for his skill in mathematics, he was the first to 
 introduce the study of that science among the Jesuits in 
 the Low Countries. He wrote a treatise on Optics in six 
 books (Antwerp, 1613), and was employed in finishing 
 another on Catoptrics and Dioptrics when he died, in 1617. 
 
 AGUIRRA, Josef Saenz d', a distinguished Spanish 
 ecclesiastic and theological writer, was born at Logrogno 
 on the 24th March 1630. He belonged to the Benedictine 
 order, and was abbot of St Vincent, professor of theology 
 at the university of Salamanca, and afterwards secretary 
 to the Spanish Inquisition. For a work (Defensio Catliedrce 
 S. Petri adversus Declarationes Cleri Gallici, 1682), which 
 he wrote in support of the papal authority against the four 
 propositions of the Gallican Church, he was promoted to 
 the rank of cardinal by Pope Innocent XX in 1686. Of 
 his other works the chief are a Collection of the Councils 
 of Spain (1693-4), and a Treatise on the Theology of 
 Anselm, only three volumes of which appeared, the fourth 
 and last being still incomplete when the author died, 
 August 19th, 1699. To judge from a warm eulogium of 
 Bossuet, his opponent in controversy, Aguirra had a very 
 high reputation for piety. 
 
 AGULHAS, Cape, the most southern point of Africa, 
 100 miles E.S.E of the Cape of Good Hope, in 34° 51' 30" 
 S. lat., and 19° 56' 30* E. long/. At a distance of a mile 
 from the sea it rises to a height of 455 feet In 1849 a 
 lighthouse was opened on it nearer the shore, the light in 
 which stands 128 feet above high- water mark.'. An im- 
 mense bank, the Agullias Bank, extends from the Cape oi 
 Good Hope along the coast to the great Fish River, a 
 distance of 560 miles, with a breadth, opposite to the Cape, 
 of 200 miles. The great oceanic current from the Indian 
 Ocean to the Atlantic sets along its outward edge, and ha& 
 sharply defined it. This current has such velocity that 
 ships are often carried far to the westward, and round the 
 Cape of Good Hope, even against a smart breeze. The 
 bank abounds with fish ; and the approach to it is denoted 
 by the appearance of many whales, sharks, and seals, and 
 innumerable sea-birds. 
 
 AHAB, king of Israel, was the son and successor of 
 OmrL He ascended the throne in the 38th year of Asa, 
 king of Judah, i.e., 918 B.C., and reigned over Samaria 22 
 years. Having married Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal^ 
 king of the Sidonians, he was bvoaght into closer counto
 
 A H A — A H A 
 
 421 
 
 tion with the neighbouring powers in the north, and 
 strengthened himself considerably, so that he was able to 
 consolidate the disunited kingdom, and render it powerful 
 against Judah. Some notices out of Menander, preserved 
 by Josephus, led to the conclusion that Ethbaal, father of 
 Jezebel, was identical with Ithobal, priest of Astarte, who 
 usurped the throne of Tyre after murdering Pheles the 
 king. It is not improbable that Ahab's marriage with 
 such a princess was the means of procuring him great 
 riches, which brought pomp and luxury in their train, 
 along with the material and social influence that give a 
 certain security to monarchy. We read of his building an 
 ivory palace and founding new cities, the effect perhaps of 
 a share in the flourishing commerce of Phoenicia. But his 
 matrimonial connection with Tyre and Sidon, however 
 fruitful in wealth, was in many respects detrimental. His 
 wife was a strong-minded, passionate devotee of idolatry, 
 who exercised an injurious influence over him. Led by 
 her, he gave a great impulse to the worship of Baal and 
 Astarte in his kingdom. For the former he built a temple 
 with an altar; of the latter he made the well-known image 
 which existed long after, t'nder the patronage of Jezebel, 
 the Phoenician cultus assumed important dimensions, for 
 Baal is said to have had 450, Astarte 400 priests and proph- 
 ets. The infatuated queen was especially hostile to the 
 prophets and priests of Jehovah, whom she tried to exter- 
 minate ; but the former in particidar, though sore pressed, 
 were not entirely cut off. They still held their ground; 
 and Elijah, the most conspicuous of them, came oft victor 
 in the contest with Baal's ministers. Jehovism triumphed 
 in the person of the intrepid Tishbite, whom the queen 
 was unable to get into her power. Ahab was a public- 
 spirited and courageous monarch. He defeated the Syrians 
 twice, and concluded a peace with Benhadad on favourable 
 terms. Mesha, king of Moab, paid him a large yearly 
 tribute. In conjunction with Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, 
 he went forth to battle a third time against the Syrians, 
 and was slain at Bamoth-Gilead. It speaks favourably for 
 his disposition that he repented of the cruel measures 
 taken against Xaboth, and that he humbled himself before 
 the Lord. Though he feared Elijah and Micaiah, he was 
 not insensible to their utterances; nor could he have suf- 
 fered so many as 400 prophets to live in his kingdom 
 without some little regard for their office. The prophetic 
 voice, held as it was in small esteem, must have had 
 6ome influence upon his administration, especially when 
 political grounds coincided with it. His evil courses were 
 due much more to the influence of Jezebel than to his own 
 vicious impulses. 
 
 As the accounts of Ahab are fragmentary, it Is not always easy 
 to make out from them a clear or connected history of his reign. 
 There is room for conjecture and miscouception. Thus Ewald 
 represents him as building a splendid temple with an oracle- 
 grove of Astarte near his favourite palace at Jesreel, on the basis of 
 1 Kings xvi. 32, xviii. 19; but this is imaginary, since the original 
 does not speak of a grove but of AatarU (xviii. 19) ; nor is it prob- 
 able that a second structure of the kind mentioned existed else- 
 where in addition to Baal's temple in Samaria. Neither can it be 
 held as likely that a large statue of Baal was set up in front of his 
 temple, and small statues of him in the interior,merely because we 
 read in 2 Kings x. 26, 27, first of bringing forth the images of Baal, 
 and then of breaking the image of the same sun-god. Rather were 
 the smaller images in the porch and the chief one in the interior, 
 so that the reading or punctuation of verse 26 should be slightly 
 altered. Whether the 450 or 400 prophets were distinct from the 
 priests is doubtful. Identifying them, we believe that the priests 
 acted asprophets,procuringfor themselves greaterrenown among 
 the ignorant people by their arts of necromancy and magic. 
 
 For the biography of this monarch we are indebted almost exclu- 
 sively to the books of Kings, where the writers consider him in a 
 theocratic rather than a political aspect. Viewing him from their 
 later prophetic standpoint, their portrait is somewhat one-sided, 
 though correct in the main. It is observable that the portions of 
 the Kings in which he is spoken of are somewhat different in char- 
 acter and expression, betraying the use of different sources by the 
 
 compiler. 1 Kings xvi. 29-33, xxii. 39, 2 Kings x. 25-28, are more 
 historical than the rest, which contain almost all that is related of 
 Ahab, and were derived from tradition. It has been conjectured 
 by Hitzig that the 45th psalm owes its origin to Ahab, being the 
 joyous poetical expression of a matrimonial connection with Ty re, 
 which augured unusual prosperity for the distracted kingdom. 
 But the assumption is improbable, because, as De Wette observes, 
 an event belonging to Ephraim was hardly a fitting subject for » 
 poem included in the canon. 
 
 Another Ahab, a false prophet in the time of the : 
 Ionian exile, is mentioned by Jeremiah (xiix. 21), and 
 threatened with terrible punishment. (s. D.) 
 
 AHALA, a noble Boman family of the gens Servilia, 
 which produced many distinguished men. Of these the 
 most celebrated is C. Servilius Structus Ahala, master of 
 the horse to the dictator Cineinnatus, b. c. 439. He sig- 
 nalised himself by his boldness in slaying in the forum 
 with his own hand the popular agitator Sp. Melius, fot 
 refusing to appear before the dictator on a charge of con- 
 spiracy against the state. For this act Ahala was brought 
 to trial. He saved himself from condemnation by retiring 
 into exile. 
 
 AIIAXTA, a territory on the Gold Coast of Africa, 
 lying on the second parallel of "W long. It is one of the 
 richest and most fertile districts in that part of the con- 
 tinent. Axim, the chief settlement, was founded bv the 
 Dutch, but now belongs to Britain. 
 
 AHASUERUS, the Latinised form of the Hebrew 
 Ahashverosh, *vyf !™ (in the LXX. 'Ao-crov)?pos,once in Tobit 
 'A<rvr]pos), occurs as a royal Persian or Median name in 
 three of the books of the canonical Scriptures, and in one 
 of the books of the Apocrypha. In every case the identi- 
 fication of the person thus named with those found in 
 profane history is matter of controversy. The hypothesis 
 of Fiirst and others, that in all the passages one and the 
 same person is meant, viz., the well-known Xerxes, may 
 be set aside as quite inapplicable to the facts ; and it becomes 
 necessary to glance at the particular places. 
 
 In Dan. ix. 1, Ahasuerus appears as the father of Darius the 
 Mede, who "was made king over the realm of the Chaldeans'* 
 after the conquest of Babylon and death of Belshazzar. Who this 
 Darius was is oue of the most difficult and disputed questions of 
 aucient history. If, as is very generally supposed, he is Ast _ 
 the grandfather of the great Cyrus, and the last independent king 
 of Media, then Ahasuerus is to be identified with Cyaxares, the 
 father of Astyages. The passage in Tobit where the name occurs 
 (xiv. 15) lends confirmation to this view. It is there stated that 
 Xineveh was captured and destroyed by "Nabuchodonosor and 
 Assueru9." According to Herodotus (i. 106 cf. Raw linson's Her m 
 vol. i. 412), it was the Medes under Cyaxares who took Xineveh. 
 
 In Ezra iv. 6, Ahasuerus is mentioned as a king of Persia, to 
 whom the enemies of the Jews sent representations opposing the 
 rebuilding of the temple at Jerusalem. Here the sequence of the 
 reigns in the sacred writer and in the profane historians — in the 
 one, Cyrus, Ahasuerus, Artexerxes, Darius; in the other. Cyrus, 
 Cambyses.Smerdis, Darius— leads naturally to the identification 
 of Ahasuerus with Cambyses. Other circumstances, especially the 
 known policy of the usurper Smerdis, and its reversal by Darius 
 (see Inscr. of Behistun, col. 1. $ 14), corroborate this conclusion. 
 
 In the Bookof Esther, Ahasuerus is the name borne by that king 
 of Persia, certain eventsof whose court and empire I which will be 
 noticed elsewhere, see Esther) form ; I of tin- whole nar- 
 
 rative. (Throughout this book the LXX. render the name by ' Aprof- 
 «'f>£is-) The hypothesis of certain writers, that this Ahasuerus is the 
 Cyaxares, king of Media, already referred to, may be at once dis 
 missed. That of others, identifying him with Artaxerxes Longi 
 manus, the son and successor of Xerxes, though countenanced 
 by Josephus, deserves scarcely more consideration. Recent in- 
 quirers are all but universally of opinion that he must be a mon- 
 arch of the Achtemenian dynasty , earlier than this Artaxerxes: and 
 opinion is divided between Darius Hystaspis ami Ins son and suc- 
 cessor Xerxes. In support of the former view it is alleced. among 
 other things (see Tyrwhitt's Bather and Ahasu . that 
 
 Darius was the first Persian king of whom it could be said, as in 
 Esther i. 1, that he " reigned from India even unto Ethiopia, over 
 an hundred and seven and twenty provinces;" and th.it it was 
 also the distinction of Darius that i Esther x. It he " laid a tribute 
 upon the land and upon the isles of the sea" i Hei 
 In support of the latter view it is alleged— (1.) That the Hebrew
 
 -\21 
 
 A H A — A H M 
 
 Ahashverosh is the natural equivalent of the old Persian Khsha- 
 yarsha, the true name of the monarch called by the Greeks Xerxes, 
 as now read in his inscriptions ; (2.) That there is a striking simi- 
 larity of character between the Xerxes of Herodotus and the 
 Ahasuerus of Esther ; (3.) That certain coincidences in dates and 
 events corroborate this identity, as, e.g., " In the third year of his 
 reign Ahasuerus gave a grand'feast to his nobles, lasting one hun- 
 dred and eighty days (Esther i. 3) ; and Xerxes in his third yeur 
 also assembled his chief officers to deliberate on the invasion of 
 Greece (Herod, vii. 8). Again, Ahasuerus married Esther at 
 Shushnn in the seventh year of his reign ; in the same year of his 
 reign Xerxes returned to Susa with the mortification of his defeat, 
 ana sought to forget himself in pleasure. Lastly, the tribute im- 
 posed on the land and isles of the sea also accords with the state of 
 his revenue, exhausted by his insane attempt against Greece" 
 (Kitto's Cyclopcedia, Ml Ahasuerus). To this it may be added 
 that the interval of four years between the divorce of vashti and 
 the marriage of Esther is well accounted for by the intervention of 
 an important series of events fully occupying the monarch's 
 thoughts, such as the invasion of Greece. It may be added that 
 by the advocates of both views appeal is made, with more or less of 
 confidence, to the names of the queens of the respectivo sovereigns ; 
 Atossa, wife of Darius, answering to Hadassah, and Amestris, wife 
 of Xerxes, to Esther (Esther ii. 7) ; and also to the number of gene- 
 rations, indicated in the genealogy of Mordecai from the deporta- 
 tion of the Jews into Babylon (Esther ii. 5 ; cf. Tyrwhitt, p. 95, 
 with Kawlinson, Bampton Led., p. 186). If, as seems probable, 
 the name Ahasuerus is the transcription of the Persian Khshayarsha 
 (written Hisiarsa in Babylonian) which, according to Sir H. Rawlin- 
 son, means "venerable king" (see Rawlinson's Her. iii. 363), then 
 this name may be reasonably supposed to have been originally an 
 appellative, and its application, especially by foreigners like the 
 Jews, to different royal persons, is explained. 
 
 AHAfl (literally Possessor), son ef Jotham, and the 
 eleventh king of Judah, reigned 16 years, from 741 to 
 725 b.c. He was the most weak-minded and corrupt of 
 all the kings that had hitherto reigned over Judah. About 
 the time of his accession, Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin, 
 king of Syria, had formed an alliance with the view of 
 acquiring the kingdom of Judah by conquest. They in- 
 vaded the country, laid siege to Jerusalem, and carried 
 away an immense number of captives, though they failed 
 to secure their ultimate object. At the same time incur- 
 sions were made by the Edomites and Philistines, and 
 Ahaz was fain to call in the aid of Tiglath-Pileser, king of 
 Assyria, who destroyed the power of Syria, but took care 
 to exact heavy tribute for the service thus rendered. Ahaz 
 was even compelled to appear as a vassal at Damascus, and 
 so to bring his kingdom to the lowest point of political 
 degradation. In religion Ahaz was a heathen. He broke 
 in pieces the vessels of the temple of God, and at last 
 ventured to close its gates altogether. He sacrificed to 
 Syrian deities, erected altars on which incense was to be 
 offered, and caused his son to pass through the fire to 
 Moloch. He was succeeded by his son Hezekiah. In the 
 inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser II., king of Assyria, Yahu- 
 khari Jahudai, that is, Joahaz or Ahaz of Israel, appears 
 amongthenames of those who acknowledged his sovereignty 
 and paid tribute. (Schrader's Die KeilinschrifUn und das 
 Alte Testament.) 
 
 AHAZIAH (lit -Whom the Lord sustains), eon and 
 successor of Ahab, and eighth king of Israel, reigned 
 scarcely two years, from 897 to 896 B.C. He continued 
 in the idolatrous practices of his father, worshipping Baal 
 and Astarte. Upon his accession the Moabites revolted, 
 and refused any longer to pay the tribute which had been 
 exacted from them since lie establishment of Israel as a 
 separate kingdom. Before Ahaziah could take measures 
 to subdue them, he was seriously injured by a fall from the 
 lattice of an upper chamber in his palace. He immediately 
 sent messengers to the oracle of the god Baalzebub at 
 Ekron to inquire. the issue of his illness. While on their 
 way they were met by Elijah the prophet, who bade them 
 return and tell the king that he would surely die. 
 
 A.HA2IAH, son of Jehoram and Athaliah, daughter of 
 Ahab. and sixth king of Judah, reigned one year, 885 b.c 
 
 Under the evil influence of his mother,- n walked in the 
 ways of Ahab's house, and was an idolatrous and wicked 
 king. He was slain by Jehu, the son of NimshL 
 
 AHENOBARBUS, the name of a plebeian Roman family 
 of the gens Domitia, which rose in'the course of time to 
 considerable distinction. The name was derived from the 
 red beard and hair by which many of the family were dis- 
 tinguished. The emperor Nero was of this family. 
 
 AHITHOPHEL (lit Brother of Foolishness, i.e., foolish), 
 the very singular name of one of the sagest politicians in 
 Old Testament history. La regard to his family rela- 
 tionships it is almost beyond doubt that he was the grand- 
 father of Bathsheba, and it has been suggested as probable 
 that he was first introduced at court through this connec- 
 tion. He was one of David's most trusted counsellors, 
 and his defection to the cause of Absalom was a severe 
 blow to the king, who prayed that God would bring his 
 counsel to "foolishness," probably alluding to his name. 
 David's grief at the desertion is expressed in Ps. xli. 9, 
 lv. 12-14. AhithopheFs advice was at first acceptable to 
 Absalom's party, and probably laid down the policy which 
 alone was likely to be successful ; but Hushai'a counsel of 
 delay, given in the secret interest of David, was ultimate!} 
 adopted. Ahithophel's political foresight enabled him tc 
 see that this resolution would prove fatal to the rebel causae, 
 and he at once returned to his home at Giloh, "put his house- 
 hold in order, and hanged himself." This is the only case of 
 deliberate suicide that is mentioned in the Old Testament 
 
 AHMADAbAD, a district and city of British India, in 
 the province of Gujrat, within the jurisdiction of the 
 governor of Bombay. The district lies between 21°. 4 
 and 23° 6' N. lat, and between 71° 2' and 73° 25' E. long. 
 It is bounded by the province of Katiwar on the N. and 
 W., by the Mahi Kanta on the N. and E., by the Kaira 
 collectorate on the E. and S., and by the gulf of Camba) 
 on the S. The area of the district is returned at 3844 
 square miles. The river Sabarmati and its tributaries, 
 flowing from, north-east to south-west into the gulf of 
 Cambay, are the principal streams that water the district 
 The north-eastern portion is slightly elevated, and dotted 
 'with low hills, which gradually sink into a va6t plain, sub- 
 ject to inundation on its western extremity. With the 
 exception of this latter portion, the soil is very fertile, and 
 some parts of the district are beautifully wooded. The 
 total population of Ahmadabad is returned at 829,637 
 souls, the average density, as compared with the area, 
 being 216 to the square mile, and the proportion of females 
 891 to every 1000 males. About 86 per cent of the popu- 
 lation are returned as Hindus, 10 per cent as Mahome- 
 tans, and 4 as Buddhists. The percentage of persons of 
 other denominations is infinitesimal, their total number 
 being only 1237 souls. 
 
 The hamlets for the most part consist of substantial houses of 
 bricks and tiles, with only a small proportion of huts. Some of the 
 larger villages contain houses with upper stories, and the general 
 appearance of the inhabitants indicates prosperity. The principal 
 agricultural products are rice, wheat, bajra, and cotton, with a 
 little sugar-cane, tobacco, and oil-seeds. Silk manufacture forms 
 an important industry of the city. The total revenue of the district 
 in 1872 amounted to £152,344, of which £147,283 was derived from 
 the land ; the total net expenditure on civil administration in the 
 same year amounted to £21,700. The fiscal system consists for the 
 most part of settlements direct with the husbandman, technically 
 known as rayatwari ; but some villages are " tdluiddri," in which 
 the "tilukdar" or landholder collects the revenue, and pays 70 
 per cent of it to Government, retaining the remaining 30 per cent 
 for himself. The excise revenue is generally farmed out, but » 
 government distillery exists in the city. The land settlement i 
 fixed for a period of thirty years, and expires in different parts o, 
 the district between the years 1884 and 1888. Seventy-five pel 
 cent of the total area of the district is cultivable, of which 54 pel 
 cent is actually under cultivation, the other 20 per cent remaining 
 fallow. The principal marts in Ahmadabad are Dnollcra, Gogo 
 Dholia. and Vfrmngdon. Municipalities have ben established in
 
 AHM-AHM 
 
 423 
 
 the towns of Ahmadabdd, Dholka, Mandu, Gogo, Dhanduka, 
 Prsntej, and Morashd ; the rate of municipal taxation per head of 
 population varies from 2s. 6Jd. in Ahmadabad to 4|d. in .Morashd, 
 the average throughout the eight towns being Is. 7|d. per head. 
 The municipal income is chieily derived from octroi duties, which 
 in some of the towns are farmed. Thirteen towns are returned as 
 containing a population exceeding 5000 souls, namely, Ahmadabad, 
 population 116,873; Dholka, 20,854; Viramgaon, 19,661 ; Dhollerd, 
 12,468 ; Dhanduka, 9782 ; Gogo, 9571 ; Prantej, 8341 ; Morashd, 
 7436 ; Sanand, 7229 ; Mandu, 6774 ; Patri, 6320 ; Barwala, 5813 ; 
 and Ranpur, 5796. The district contains "145 schools, in eight 
 of which English is taught. The police force numbers 1189 men. 
 The Kolis contribute most largely to the criminal populatioa 
 
 Ahmadabad City, the capital of the district, is situated 
 on the east or left bank of the river Sabarmati, in 23° 
 N. lat., and 72° 36' E. long. It was formerly one of the 
 largest towns in India, celebrated for its commerce and 
 manufactures of gold and silver, silk and cotton fabrics, 
 articles of gold, silver, steel; enamel, mother of pearl, 
 lacquered ware, and fine wood-work. Excellent paper 
 was also manufactured, and a large trade carried on in 
 indigo, cotton, and opium. With the rise of the Marhatta 
 power, however, Ahmadabad became the scene of repeated 
 struggles between the Marhattas and the Mussulmans, whose 
 power was then on the wane, and from this period its pros- 
 perity-declined. It was captured by the Marhattas in 
 1755, and again by the British in 1780. The latter soon 
 afterwards gave the town back to the Marhattas, who held 
 it till it finally came into the hands of the English in 1818. 
 The present state of the city is flourishing. It contains a 
 population of 116,873 souls, and is a large and important 
 station on the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Kail- 
 way. It is the seat of important silk manufactures, and 
 bas two cotton-milk worked by steam-power. 
 
 The principal objects of architectural interest are the 
 Jain temple of Seth Hathisiiih and the Juma Masjid or 
 Great Mosque, The Jain temple is a modern edifice, having 
 been erected about twenty-five years ago by Hathi Sinh, a 
 rich Jain merchant, who dedicated it to Bharmnath. This 
 modern style shows that the Jain style of architecture has 
 nardly degenerated from its ancient excellence. The ex- 
 ternal porch, between two circular towers, is of great magni- 
 ficence, most elaborately ornamented, and leads to an outer 
 court, with sixteen cells on either side. , In the centre of 
 this court is a domed porch of the usual form, with twenty 
 pillars. The court leads to an inner porch of twenty-two 
 pillars, two stories in height, with a roof of a shape very 
 fashionable in modern Jain temples, though by no means 
 remarkable for beauty. This inner porch conducts to a 
 triple sanctuary. The exterior of the temple expresses the 
 interior more completely than even a Gothic design ; and 
 whether looked ' at from its courts or from thd outside, it 
 possesses variety without confusion, and an appropriateness 
 of every part to the purpose for which it was intended. 
 The Jmna Masjid or Great Mosque of Ahmadabad, although 
 Dot remarkable for its size, is one of the most beautiful 
 mosques in the East, the Jain style of architecture being 
 plainly visible in its construction. Its external dimensions 
 are 382 feet by 258 feet. 
 
 AHMADNAGAR, a district and city In British India, 
 in the province of Gujrat, within the. jurisdiction of the 
 Governor of the Presidency of Bombay. The coixectobate 
 e-rtends from 18° 6' to 19° 50' N. lat., and from 73° 40' 
 to 75° 37' E. long., and contains the following eleven 
 talukas or sub-districts: — Nagar, Janikhair, Parnair, 
 .Srigonda, Karjat, Ncwasa, Kopargam, Sangamnair, Kahuri, 
 Siog&m, and Ankola. A natural boundary is formed on 
 the west of the Ankola taluka by the Western Ghats, and, 
 further south, by the edge of the table-land of Parnair; 
 •on the S.W. the district is bounded by the Gor river; 
 on the S. by the Bhima and Sholapur collectorates ; on 
 the E. by the Nizani'a dominions j on ths N.E. by the 
 
 Godavarf river; and on the N. by the NasTk district The 
 total area of the district is returned at 4,209,036 acres, 
 or 657662 square miles. Of the total area, 3,068,16a 
 acres, or 479400 square miles, are cultivated; 121,474 
 acres, or 189 80 square miles, are cultivable, but not 
 actually under tillage; and 1,019,400 acres, or 1592-81 
 square miles, are uncultivable. The last portion includes 
 (besides unarable lands) village sites, roads, tanks, rivers, 
 &c. The population of the district, according to the census 
 taken on the night of the 21st February 1872, numbered 
 773,938 souls, divided into the following five classes: — 
 Hindus, 716,820, or 92-62 per cent, of the total popu- 
 lation; Mahometans, 42,435, or 5-49 per cent.; Bud- 
 dhists, 12,547, or 1-62 per cent.; Christ'ins, 941, or 0-12 
 per cent; and other denominations, 1195, or - 15 per 
 cent. The bulk of the population consists of Marhattas 
 and Kunbis, the latter being the agriculturists. On the 
 north the district is watered by the Godavarf and its tribu- 
 taries the Frawara and the Mula; on the north-east by the 
 Dor, another tributary of the Godavarf; on the east by the 
 Se'phanl, which flows through the valley below the Bali 
 Ghat range; and in the extreme south by the Bhima and 
 its tributary the Gor. The Sina river, another tributary 
 of the Bhima, flows through the Nagar and Karjat talukas. 
 The collectorate on the whole is fairly well watered, although 
 in some villages among the hills and spurs of the Western 
 Ghats the supply is insufficient. The district is intersected 
 by the Bombay and Agra road; a second road connects 
 Puna via Serur with the town of Ahmadnagar, and is con- 
 tinued thence towards Maligam; a third road leads from 
 Puna to Narayangam, besides various cross-tracts and 
 minor roads connecting the different towns of the district 
 
 The only important industry is weaving. The principal agri- 
 cultural products are wheat, gram, bajra, joir, and tur dal. The 
 early or spring crop is bajra and tur dal ; wheat, gram, and joar 
 being sown later in the season. Several other food grains are 
 also raised ; and sugar-cane, betel leaves, a little cotton, and all 
 descriptions of vegetables are sown on suitable soils. The staple 
 food of the people is bajra and joir (coarse kinds of millet). The 
 total revenue of the district is returned at nearly £170,000 ; about 
 £140.GC0 being derived from the land revenue. The total annual 
 expenditure is returned at £50,000. The present land settlement 
 was introduced about 1S44-45, and the thirty years' leases are now 
 beginning to fall in. In a few villages which were transferred to 
 Ahmadnagar from the Ndsik collectorate the leases have already 
 expired, and a revision of the settlement is in progress (1873). The 
 following eight towns are returned as containing a population ot 
 upwards of 5000 souls : — Ahmadnagar, population 32,841 ; Sangam- 
 nair, 6978; Pathardi, 7117; Khurda, 6889; Srigonda, 6175; 
 Bhingar, 5752; Karjat, 6535; and Sonai, 5254. The municipal 
 system has been introduced into the towns of Ahmadnagar, San- 
 gamnair, and Bhingar. In the two first named, the municipal 
 revenue is derived from a house tax and octroi duties on goods and 
 articles imported into the town for consumption. In Bhingar tie 
 municipal revenue is raised by the levy of a classified tax on pro- 
 fessions and trades carried on within the town. The municipal 
 revenue and expenditure in 1872, together with the incidence of 
 municipal tax per head of the population in each of the three 
 to.7ns, was as follows: — Ahmadnagar, municipal income, £3611, 
 18s. ; municipal expenditure, £3557, 12s. ; incidence per head of 
 population, 2s. 2|d. Sangamnair, municipal income, £275, 4s., — 
 64d. per head; expenditure, £217. Bhingar, municipal revenue, 
 £259, 18s. — 8Jd. per head; expenditure, £259, 18s. Ahmadna- 
 gar district contains 1 high school, 1 first-grade Anglo-vernacular 
 school, 3 middle-class schools, 164 lower-class schools, and 1 girls' 
 school. Education is making fair progress, and the number of 
 schools is annually increasing as funds become available. For the 
 protection of person and property, a regular police force of 694 
 men of all grades is maintained, at a cost, during 1S72-7S, of 
 £9869. A village police, numbering 2042 men, is also kept up, m 
 a cost of £1978 per annum. There are no special criminal ol 
 in the district except a few Bhils, and they are now much lesi 
 troublesome than formerly. 
 
 Ahjiadnagar City, the capital of the district of the 
 same name, is situated in 19° 6' N. lat, and 74° 46' R 
 long. It is a town of considerable antiquity, having been 
 founded, in 1494, by Ahmad Nizam Shah, on the site of
 
 424 
 
 AHM-AID 
 
 a more ancient city, Bhingar. This Ahmad established a 
 new mona.chy, which lasted until its overthrow by- Shah 
 Jahan in 1636. in 1759 the Peshwd obtained possession 
 of the place by bribing the Mahometan commander; and 
 in 1797 it was ceded by the Peshwa to the Marhatta 
 chief Daulat Rao SindhiA. During our war with the 
 Marhattas in 1803 Ahmadnagar was invested by a British 
 ■force under General Wellesley, and captured. It was after- 
 wards restored to the Marhattas, but again came into the 
 possession of the British in 1817, according to the terms 
 of the treaty of Puna. The town has rapidly advanced in 
 prosperity under British rule. • It now contains a popula- 
 tion of 32,841 souls, is an important station on the Great 
 Indian Peninsular Railway, and has been created a inuni- 
 iipality, as is mentioned above. 
 
 AHMED SHAH, founder of the Durani dynasty in 
 Afghanistan, born about 1724, was the son of Samniaun- 
 Khan, hereditary chief of the Abdali tribe. While still a 
 boy Ahmed fell into the hands of the hostile tribe of 
 Ghilzais, by whom he was kept prisoner at Kandahar. In 
 March 1738 he was rescued by Nadir Shah, who soon 
 afterwards gave him the command of a body of cavalry 
 composed chiefly of Abdalis. On the assassination of 
 Nadir in 1747, Ahmed, having failed in an attempt to 
 seize the Persian treasures, retreated to Afghanistan, where 
 he easily persuaded the native tribes to assert their inde- 
 pendence, and accept him as their sovereign. He was 
 crowned at Kandahar in October 1747, and about the same 
 time he changed the name of .his tribe to Durani. Two 
 things may be said to have contributed greatly to the con- 
 solidation of hia power. He interfered as little as possible 
 with the independence of the different tribes, demanding 
 from each only its duo proportion of tribute and military 
 service; and he kept his army constantly engaged in bril- 
 liant schemes of foreign conquest. Being possessed of the 
 Koh-i-noor diamond, and being fortunate enough to inter- 
 cept a treasure on its way to the Shah of Persia; he had all 
 the advantages which great wealth. can give. He first 
 crossed the Indus in 1748, when he took Lahore; and in 
 1751, after a feeble resistance on the part of tho Mahome- 
 tan viceroy, he became master of the entire Panjab. In 
 1750 he had taken Nishapiir, and in 1752 he' subdued 
 Kashmir. His great expedition to Dehli was undertaken 
 in 1756 in order to avenge himself on the Great Mogul for 
 the recapture of Lahore. Ahmed entered Dehli with his 
 army in triumph, and for more than a month the city was 
 given over to pillage. The Shah himself added to his wives 
 a princess of the imperial family, and bestowed another 
 upon his son Timur Shah, whom he made governor of the 
 Panjab and Sirhind. As his viceroy in Dehli he left a 
 Rohilla chief in whom he had all confidence, but scarcely 
 had he crossed tho Indus when the Mahometan vizier 
 drove the chief from the city, killed the Great Mogul, and 
 set another prince of the family, a tool of his own, upon 
 the throne. The Mahratta chiefs availed themselves of 
 these circumstances to endeavour to possess themselves of 
 the whole country, and Ahmed was compelled more than 
 once to ctoss the Indus in order to protect his territory from 
 them and the Sikhs, who were constantly attacking his 
 garrisons. In 1758 the Mahrattas obtained possession of 
 the Panjab. but on the 6th January 1761 they were totally 
 routed by Ahmed in the great battle of Eanipat. In a 
 later expedition he inflicted a severe defeat upon the Sikhs, 
 but had to hasten westwards immediately afterwards in 
 order to quell an insurrection in Afghanistan. Meanwhile 
 the Sikhs again rose, and Ahmed was now forced to abandon 
 all hope of retaining the command of the Panjab. After 
 ' 'ngthened suffering from a terrible disease, said to have 
 been cancer in the face, he died in 1773, leaving to hia 
 aoE Timur tho kingdom he had founded. 
 
 AHRIMAN or Arimanes (Anpra-Mainyus, Hostile or 
 Destroying Spirit), in tho Zend-Avesta, the principle of evil, 
 opposed to Ormuzd, the principle of good, the one being 
 symbolised by darkness and the other by light. Both were 
 visible manifestations of the Zervan-Akerene (Infinite 
 Time), and existed from all eternity, according to the doc- 
 trine of the Magians. Zoroaster himself, however, seems 
 to nave taught that Ormuzd alone was eternal, while 
 Ahriman was created, in ihe Avefta this world is repre- 
 sented as the theatre of a fierce conflict between the two 
 spirits, which is to last for 12,000 years.. In the end 
 Ahriman is to acknowledge the supremacy of Ormuzd. (See 
 Zoroaster.) 
 
 AHWAZ, a town in Persia, on the left bank of the river 
 Karoon, about 100 miles N.E. of Bassorah. Though 
 now an insignificant place, it occupies the site of what was 
 once an extensive and important city. Of this ancient city 
 vast remains are left, extending 1 2 miles along the bank of 
 the river. Among the most remarkable are the ruins of a 
 bridge and a palace, besides vestiges of canals, and water- 
 mills, which tell of former commercial activity. There is 
 also, in a ruined state, a bund or stone dyke of great 
 strength thrown across the river for purposes of irrigation. 
 It extends 100 feet in length, and many single blocks in it 
 measure from 8 to 10 feet in thickness. Ahwaz reached 
 the height of its prosperity in the time of the earliest 
 Mahometan caliphs. 
 
 AI (Sept. 'Ayyai, 'Ayyai, and Vat; Vulg. Hai), a royal 
 city of the Canaanites, east of BetheL It existed in the 
 time of Abraham, who pitched his tent between the two 
 cities (Gen. xii. 8; xiii. 3); but it is chiefly noted for its 
 capture and destruction by Joshua (vii. 2-5; viii. 1-29), 
 who made it " a heap for ever, even a desolation." At 
 a later period Ai was, however, rebuilt, and is mentioned 
 by Isaiah (x. 28), and also after the captivity, The site 
 was known, and some scanty ruins still existed, in the time 
 of Eusebius artd Jerome (Onomast., s.v. 'Ayyat). Dr Robin- 
 son was unable to discover any certain traces of either. He 
 remarks (Bib. Researches, ii. 313), however, that its situa- 
 tion with regard to Bethel may be well determined by the 
 facts recorded in Scripture. That Ai lay to the east of 
 Bethel is distinctly stated ; and the two cities were not so 
 far distant from each other but that the men of Bethel 
 mingled in the pursuit of the Israelites as they feigned to 
 flee before the king of Ai. and thus both cities were left 
 defenceless (Josh, viii 17). A little to the south of a 
 village called Deir Diwan, and one hour's journey from 
 Bethel, the site of an ancient place is indicated by reservoirs 
 hewn in the rock, excavated tombs, and foundations of 
 hewn stone. This, Dr Robinson thinks, may mark the site 
 of Ai, as it agrees with all the intimations as to its position. 
 In this view more recent authorities generally coincide. 
 Kiepert's map gives it a place near these ancient ruins. 
 Stanley places it at the head of the Wady Harith. 
 
 AIDAN, a king of Scottish Dalriada, who reigned about 
 the close of the 6th century. He usurped the succession 
 from the son of Conall, and was crowned by Columba, who 
 personally preferred another, and, it' is said, was compelled 
 to perform the ceremony by an interposition of divine 
 power. During Aidan's reign the Scottish Dalriada was 
 completely freed from subjection to the Irish monarchs. 
 (See Adamnan, lib. iii., c 5; and Bede.) 
 
 AIDAN, St, first bishop of Lindisfarne or Holy Island, 
 embraced a religious life in the monastery of Iona. Oswald, 
 king of Northumbria, having requested a mission of monks 
 from Iona to labour for the conversion of his subjects, 
 Aidan was chosen by the abbot as leader of the expedition, 
 and was consecrated a bishop about 634-5 A.D. Bede 
 speaks of the holiness of his life, of the influence of his 
 preaching as seen in the conversion of multitudes, and also
 
 A I D — A I L 
 
 425 
 
 of numerous miracles ■which he performed. Aidan died 
 on the 31st August 651. 
 
 AIDE-DE-CAMP, a confidential officer attached to the 
 " personal " or private staff of a general. In the field he is 
 the bearer of his chiefs written or verbal orders, and when 
 employed as the general's mouthpiece, must be implicitly 
 obeyed. In garrison and quarters his duties are more of a 
 social character — he superintends the general's household, 
 writes and answers invitations, &c. To increase their 
 state, colonial governors and the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland 
 have aides-de-camp with functions analogous to those of 
 equerries to royalty. Officers above the rank of captain 
 are seldom taken as aides, and none of less than two years' 
 service. The sovereign, as head of the army, may have an 
 indefinite number of aides-de-camp. In 1874 there were 
 thirty-three military aides-de-camp; of these, twelve, taken 
 from the militia, were honorary, the remainder, from the 
 regular army and marines, wertj chosen for distinguished 
 war services. The appointment carries with it promotion to 
 the army rank of " full " coloneL The Queen has also at 
 present (1874) eleven naval aides-de-camp, in compliment 
 to the sister service ; but the r.ppointment is more especially 
 of a military character. An admiral's aide-de-camp is his 
 flag-lieutenant. 
 
 AIDIN, or Guzel-Hissae, a town of Turkey in Asia, 
 in the pashalic of Anatolia, about 70 miles S.E. of 
 Smyrna. It is beautifully situated near the river Meander, 
 and ia the residence of a pasha. Since 1866 it has been 
 connected with Smyrna and Ephesus by rail. On a neigh- 
 bouring height are to be seen the ruins of the ancient 
 Trailer. Aidin is a place of very extensive trade, and is 
 celebrated for its figs, which are grown in great abundance 
 in the beautiful orchards between the town and the river, 
 and form an important article of export. The streets of 
 the town, overshadowed by trees, and having numerous 
 well-frequented bazaars, present a very picturesque appear- 
 ance. Among the inhabitants are considerable numbers of 
 Greeks, Armenians, and Jews; and there are several 
 churches and synagogues in addition to the fine Turkish 
 mosques. Population, 30,000. 
 
 AIDS (Auxilia), a pecuniary tribute u»der the feudal 
 system, paid by a vassal to his lord on particular occasions ; 
 originally a voluntary grant which in process of time 
 became exigible as a right. The aids of this kind were 
 chiefly three, viz. : — 1st, When the lord made his eldest son 
 a knight; 2c?, To provide a dower when he gave his eldest 
 daughter in marriage; 3c?, To ransom the person ef the 
 lord when taken prisoner. The amount of the first two 
 was definitely fixed by 3 Ed. L, c. 36, but that of the last 
 was of course uncertain. The right of levying aids was 
 abolished by 12 Car. IL, c. 24. 
 
 AKIN, John, M.D. (1747-1822), was born at Kibworth- 
 Harcourt, received his elementary education at the dissent- 
 ing academy of Warrington, where his father was tutor, 
 and prosecuted his medical studies in the university* of 
 Edinburgh, and in London under the celebrated Dr William 
 Hunter. He commenced his professional career as a surgeon 
 at Chester; but being unsuccessful, he removed to Warring- 
 ton. Finally, he went to Leyden, took the degree of M.D. 
 in that university (1780), and attempted to establish him- 
 eelf as a physician in London. His success in this new 
 field does not seem to have been considerable; chiefly, 
 no doubt, because he concerned himself more with the 
 advocacy of liberty of conscience than with his professional 
 duties. He therefore began at an early period to devote 
 himself to literary pursuits. Dr Aikin's reputation chiefly 
 rests on his endeavour to popularise scientific inquiries. 
 In conjunction with his sister, Mrs Barbauld, he com- 
 menced the publication of a series of volumes on this 
 principle, entitled Evenings at Home (6 vols., 1792-5), a 
 
 popular and interesting work, chiefly commendable for 
 the purity of the principles it inculcates, and the pleasing 
 views it gives of human nature. It has been translated 
 into almost every European language. His love of nature, 
 and his power in delineating its features, are well illustrated 
 in The Natural History of the Year, as well as in his mis- 
 cellaneous Essays. In 1798' Dr Aikin retired from pro- 
 fessional life, and devoted himself with "Teat industry to 
 literary undertakings of numerous and varied kinds, among 
 which bJ3 valuable Biographical Dictionary (10 vols. 
 1799-1815) holds a conspicuous place. Besides these, he 
 published Biog. Memoirs of Medicine ( 1 780) ; Lives of John 
 Selden and Archbishop Usher; Memoirs of Huet, Bishop of 
 Avranches; Geographical Delineations of All Nations, <fec 
 He edited tne Monthly Magazine from 1796 to 1807, and 
 started the Athenaeum in 1807. The latter was discon- 
 tinued, however, in 1809. 
 
 AIKIN, Lucy, daughter of the preceding, a well-known 
 historical writer, was born at Warrington on 6th Nov. 
 1781. After rendering valuable assistance to her father 
 in several of his later works, she commenced her own 
 career as an authoress by the publication of several books 
 for the young, the most important of which were the 
 Adventures of Rolando, a translation, and Lorimer, a tale. 
 In 1818 she published her Memoirs of the Court of Queen 
 Elizabeth, the first and best of the series of historical works 
 on which her reputation rests. It was very popular, and 
 passed through several editions. The Memoirs of the Court 
 of King James J. (1822) was highly commended in the 
 Edinburgh Review, which pronounced it "a work very 
 nearly as entertaining as a novel, and far more instruc- 
 tive than most histories." Her Memoirs of the Court of 
 Charles I. (1833) showed a falling off; and her latest work, 
 the Life of Addison (1843), was declared disappointing 
 by Macaulay in the Edinburgh Review, voL lxxviii. Miss 
 AilHn died at Hampstead, where she had resided for forty 
 years, on the 29th Jan. 1864. A Life by P. H. le Breton 
 appeared in a volume entitled Memoirs, Miscellanies, and 
 Letters of Lucy Aikin (Lond. 1864). 
 
 AIRMAN, William, a celebrated portrait-painter, born 
 at Cairney, Forfarshire, on tire 24th Oct. 1682. He 
 was intended by his father for the bar, but followed his 
 natural bent by becoming a pupil under Sir John Medina, 
 the leading painter of the day in Scotland. In 1707 
 he went to Italy, resided in Kome for three years, after- 
 wards travelled to Constantinople and Smyrna, and in 
 1712 returned home. In Edinburgh, where he practised 
 as a portrait-painter for some years, he enjoyed the patron- 
 age of the Duke of Argyll; and on his removal to London 
 in 1723 he goon obtained many important commissions. 
 Perhaps his most successful work was the portrait of the 
 poet Gay. He also painted portraits of himself, Fletcher 
 of Saltoun, William Carstairs, and Thomson the poet. 
 The likenesses were generally truthful, and the style was 
 modelled very closely upon that of Sir Godfrey Kneller. 
 Aikman held a gjod position in literary society; and 
 counted among his personal friends Swift, Pope, Thomson, 
 Allan Eamsay, Somerville, and Mallet. He died in June 
 1731, leaving unfinished a large picture of the royal family. 
 
 ALLRED, Ealkep, Ethelrepus, Alprepcs, an Eng- 
 lish ecclesiastic and historian, born at Hexham in 1109. 
 He was educated at the Scotch court with Henry the son 
 of King David. The king is said to have offered him a 
 bishopric, which he refused, preferring to become a monk 
 in the Cistercian abbey of Rievaulx, Yorkshire. In 1146 
 he was chosen abbot, and he held that position till his 
 death in 1166, — the accounts which state that he was trans- 
 ferred to Revesby in Lincolnshire being probably founded 
 on a confusion of names. Leland says that he had seen his 
 tomb at Rievaulx adorned with gold and silver ornamenti 
 
 1— li
 
 426 
 
 A 1 L — A I N 
 
 Ailred was the author of a large number of historical and 
 theological works. The former are of little value, owing 
 to his credulity, except for the occasional glimpses they 
 give of contemporary life and manners. His theological 
 works, including a volume of homilies, a treatise on charity, 
 and a treatise on friendship, are somewhat in the style of 
 St Bernard. (For a full account of the historical writings 
 see Sir T. D. Hardy's Descriptive Catalogue.) 
 
 AILSA CRAIG, a remarkable island-rock at the month 
 of the Firth of Clyde, off the coast of Ayrshire, Scotland. 
 It is of a conoidal form, with an irregular elliptic base, 
 and rise3 abruptly from the sea to the height of 1139 feet. 
 The only side from which the rock can be ascended is the 
 east; the other sides being for the most part perpendicular, 
 and generally presenting lofty columnar forms, though not 
 so regular as those of Stafla. The rock is a greenstone or 
 syenite, with a basis of grayish compact felspar traversed 
 by numerous trap veins. A columnar cave exists towards 
 the north side, and on the eastern are the remains of a 
 tower, with several vaulted rooms. Two springs occur on 
 the island, and some scanty grass affords subsistence to 
 numerous rabbits. The precipitous parts of the rock are 
 frequented by large flocks of solan geese and other aquatic 
 wild fowl. It is situated in 55° 15' N. lat., 5° T W. long. 
 
 AIN, a department on the eastern frontier of France, 
 bounded on the N. by the departments of Jura and Sa6ne- 
 et-Loire, on the W. by SaOne-et-Loire and Rhone, on the 
 S. by Isere, and on the E. by the departments of Savoie 
 nnd Haute Savoie and the Swiss cantons Geneva and 
 Vaud. It extends at the widest points 52 miles from N. 
 to S., and about the same distance from E. to W., with 
 an area of 2241 square miles. The east of the depart- 
 ment is very mountainous, being traversed by the southern 
 portion of the Jura range, but in the north-west the surface 
 is comparatively level, and in the south-west flat and 
 marshy. | A in is wholly within the basin of the Rhfine, 
 that river itself being the boundary on the east and south, 
 while it receives the Ain, which passes southward through 
 the centre, and the Saone, which forms the western 
 boundary of the department. The climate is usually cold, 
 but on the whole healthy, except in the damp marshy 
 districts on the west. The soil in the valleys and plains of 
 the department is fertile, producing wheat, barley, maize, 
 rye, and fruits of various kinds, as well as wine of excellent 
 quality; the tops of many of the mountains are covered 
 with forests of fir and oak, and the lower slopes yield 
 excellent pasture for sheep and cattle. The chief mineral 
 product is asphalt, besides which potter's clay, iron, build- 
 ing-stone, and the best lithographic stone in France, are 
 produced in the department. There are many corn and 
 saw mills on the mountain streams; and cotton, linen, and 
 silk fabrics, coarse woollen cloth, paper, and clocks, are 
 manufactured to a limited extent. Ain, which formed 
 a part of the ancient province of Burgundy, is divided into 
 five arrondissements — Bourg and Trevoux in the west, and 
 Gex, Nantua, and Belley in the east; containing in all 36 
 cantons and 452 communes. Bourg is the capital, and 
 Belley is '*ie seat of a bishop. Population of Ain in 
 1872, 363,290, of whom 185,074 were males, and 178,216 
 were females. Of the total population, 115,407 could 
 neither read nor write, and 46,450 more could not write. 
 
 AINAD, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hadra- 
 maut, about 207 miles N.E. of Aden. Near it is the 
 tomb of a Moslem prophet much frequented by pilgrims, 
 at which a great annual fair is also held. The population 
 is said to be about 10,000. ' 
 
 AINMULLER, Maximilian Emmanuel, founder of a 
 new school of glass - painting, was born at Munich 
 on the 14th February 1807. He was induced, by the 
 advice of Gartner, director of the roval porcelain manu- 
 
 factory, to devote himself to the study of ^lass-paint 
 ing, both as a mechanical process and as an art, and he 
 made such progress that in 1828 he was appointed director 
 of the newly-founded royal painted-glass manufactory at 
 Munich. The method which he gradually perfected tin re 
 was a development of the enamel process adopted in tht 
 Renaissance, and consisted in actually painting the design 
 upon the glass, which was subjected, as each colour was 
 laid on, to carefully-adjusted heating. The fault of this 
 new style is its production of transparent pictures seen by 
 transmitted and not by reflected light; but the popular 
 verdict in its favour has been, notwithstanding, proved by 
 the extent to which it has been adopted. The carliist 
 specimens of Ainmiiller's work are to be found in the 
 cathedral of Ratisbon. With a few exceptions, all the 
 windows in Glasgow cathedral are from his hand. Speci- 
 mens may also be seen in St Paul's cathedral and St Peter's 
 College, Cambridge. On the Continent it must suffice to 
 mention Cologne cathedral as containing some of his finest 
 productions. Ainmuller had considerable skill as an oil- 
 painter, especially in interiors; and his pictures of the 
 Chapel Royal at Windsor and of Westminster Abbey have 
 been much admired. He died 9th December 1870. 
 
 AINOS, the name of a small but remarkable tribe in 
 Japan, found chiefly in tho island of Yesso. They are dif- 
 ferent in race and character from the ordinary Japanese, and 
 seem to have been the earliest inhabitants of the country. 
 Since the invasion of the islands by the Japanese, however, 
 the Ainos have been gradually supplanted by the invaders, 
 and are now completely subject to them,- although they 
 still preserve the appearance of internal self-government, 
 living in societies of from ten to twenty families, under a 
 hereditary chief. Their language is quite distinct from 
 the Japanese, and intercourse between the two peop 
 carried on by a sort of mongrel dialect. The Ainos are 
 not tali, averaging a little over 5 feet; but they are well- 
 proportioned and strongly-built, with a type of counte- 
 nance European "rather than Asiatic. They are distin- 
 guished by an exuberance of hair on the head and body, a 
 circumstance which has given rise to their name of " 11 airy 
 Kuriles." Tie women are ugly, and are much addicted to 
 tattooing. The dress of the Ainos consists of a robe of skin 
 or cotton, reaching to the knees and secured by a girdle; 
 their huts are small and uncomfortable, with little or no 
 furniture ; and their food is mostly the produce of fishing and 
 hunting, together with rice got by barter from the Japanese. 
 They are probably less than 50,000 in number. 
 
 AINSWORTH, Henry, divine and scholar, was bom 
 "about 1560" at Pleasington, near Blackburn, Lancashire, 
 having been second son of Lawrence Ainsworth of Pleas- 
 ington Hall. Young Henry Ainsworth is believed to have 
 received his education at Queen Elizabeth's Grammar 
 School in Blackburn, of which his father was an original 
 founder. According to tradition, he was a Roman Catholic, 
 and a younger brother, John, a Protestant; and the two 
 brothers, entering into a written controversy, mutually con- 
 verted each other — Henry having embraced Protestantism, 
 and John, Popery. The subsequent earlier history of Aias- 
 worth is still obscure. No record survives; but various 
 authorities concur in stating that he passed from Blackburn 
 to Cambridge. He associated with the Puritan party in 
 the Church of England, and eventually adopted the plat- 
 form of the Independents as represented by the Brownists. 
 He was driven from his native country by the state 
 proscription of tho sectaries before the year 1593. He is 
 found residentin "ablind lane at Amsterdam" about 1595-6. 
 His exile must have reduced him to extreme poverty. He 
 is stated to have been a " porter " to a scholarly bookseller 
 in Amsterdam, who, on discovering his skill in the Hebrew- 
 language, made him known to his countrymen. Roger
 
 A 1 X — A 1 R 
 
 427 
 
 Williams, in one of his fiery tractates, reproaches ninsworth 
 as " living upon ninepence a week and some boiled roots." 
 When the Brownists erected a church in Amsterdam^ 
 Francis Johnson wa3 chosen for their pastor, and Henry 
 Ainsworth for their doctor or teacher. In 1596 these 
 two divines drew up a confession of their faith (in Latin), 
 which was reprinted in 1598, and dedicated to the 
 various universities of Europe (including St Andrews, 
 Scotland). The separations and controversies which ensued 
 at Amsterdam and at Leyden belong to church history. Of 
 Ainsworth it may be said, that while he never put himself 
 forward or sought notoriety, he was beyond comparison 
 'the most steadfast and most resolute and most cultured 
 champion of those principles of civil and religious freedom 
 represented by the now large and influential body of Non- 
 conformists in Britain and America called Independents or 
 Congregationalist3. The personal squabbles and temporary 
 animosities have long passed away; and it is recognised 
 that in Henry Ainsworth Nonconformity had a man of 
 saintly worth, of intellectual power, and of uncompromising 
 intrepidity. Amid the strifes and clamours of controversy 
 he pursued steadfastly his rabbinical studies. The com- 
 bination was so unique that Moreri and Zedler, like others, 
 made two Henry Ainsworths — one Dr Henry Ainsworth, 
 a learned biblical commentator; the other H. Ainsworth, 
 an arch-heretic, and " the ringleader of the Separatists at 
 Amsterdam." Kindred mistakes are found regarding his 
 writings in Hornbeck's Summa Controversiarum, and more 
 recent bibliographical authorities. In 1608 our Ainsworth 
 defended the Separation against Richard Bernard and 
 William Crashaw (father of the poet). But his ablest and 
 most arduous minor work in controversy was his crashing 
 reply to the notorious Smyth, entitled A. Defence of the 
 Holy Scriptures, Worship, and Ministry, used in the Chris- 
 tian Church 'separated from Antichrist, against the Chal- 
 lenges, Cavils, and Contradictions of M. Smyth (1609). 
 His memory abides through his rabbinical learning. The 
 ripe fruit of many years' diligence appeared in his Notes 
 on Genesis, 1616; Exodus, 1617; Leviticus, 1618; Num- 
 bers, 1619; Deuteronomy, 1619; Psalms, 1612, 2d edition 
 1617; Song of Solomon, 1623. These were collected in 
 folio in 1627, and again in 1639, and later in various 
 forms. From the outset the Annotations have taken a 
 commanding place especially among Continental scholars, 
 as witness Clement, Dornius, Voght, Lilienthal, and 
 Simon, the last urging Catholics to study and value them. 
 Perhaps nothing more clearly shows even his home repute 
 than the praiseworthy zeal with which Vice-Chancellor 
 Dr John Worthington endeavoured to recover certain 
 posthumous MSS. of Ainsworth. These, it is to be feared, 
 have irrecoverably disappeared. Moreri mentions a cur- 
 rent report that the famous Lightfoot " pillaged the best 
 of his observations" from Ainsworth. A comparison of 
 the Exercitations with the Annotations shows, however, that 
 the two scholars worked independently. Moreri' a groundless 
 remark has been transmuted into an imputation as ground- 
 less — that Lightfoot had got into his possession the MSS. 
 of Ainsworth. The character and learning of the great rab- 
 binist ought to have silenced such an unworthy suspicion. 
 There is nothing more striking in the career of Ains- 
 worth than the reported manner of his death, which took 
 place at Amsterdam in 1622-3. It is stated that, having 
 found a diamond of great value, he advertised it; and when 
 the owner, who was a Jew, came to demand it, he offered 
 the finder any gratuity he sought. Ainsworth, though poor, 
 requested only of the Jew that he would procure him a 
 couference with some of his rabbis upon the prophecies of 
 the Old Testament relating to the Messiaj, which th« Jew 
 promised ; but not having interest to obtain such a con- 
 ference, it is thought that he contrived to get Ainsworth 
 
 poisoned (Neal, Puritans, ii. 47). Another account says 
 that he attended the conference, and so confounded the 
 Jews that, from spite and malice, they in this manner put 
 a period to his life (Brook, Puritans, ii. 302). There is 
 an air of improbability about the narrative; but it is cer- 
 tain he was dead in 1623, for in that year was published 
 his Seasonable Discourse, or a Censure upon a Dialogue 
 of the Anabaptists, in which the editor speaks of him as a 
 departed worthy. For a pretty complete list of his writ- 
 ings, lesser and larger, see Chalmers, Brook, and Hanbury. 
 Many are now extremely rare and high-priced. (See Wor- 
 thington's Diary [Chetham Society], by Crossley, i 
 263-6; Hanbury's Memorials, s.v.; Works of Robinson, 
 iii., Appendix, and supra.) (a. b. g.) 
 
 AINSWORTH, Robert (1660-1743), author of a well- 
 known Latin dictionary, was born at Woodvale, near Man- 
 chester. After teaching for some time in Bolton, he 
 removed to London, where he conducted a boarding-school, 
 first at Bethnal Green, and then at Hackney. At a com- 
 paratively early period of his life he had realised a com- 
 petency, and was able to retire. Proposals for the pre- 
 paration of a Latin dictionary were made to him in 1714, 
 but the work was not published till 1736. It was long 
 extensively used in schools, and often reprinted, the later 
 editions being revised and enlarged by other hands. Ains- 
 worth's Dictionary was, however, radically imperfect, con- 
 taining a mere register of words, with no scientific 
 classification or complete and exact definition of their 
 various meanings, and necessarily wanting the results of 
 modern philological research. Later works have now 
 entirely superseded it. 
 
 A IN TAB, a large garrison town on the northern frontier 
 of Syria, 65 miles N.N.E. of Aleppo, in 36° 58' N. lat., 
 37° 13' E. long. It has a considerable trade, chiefly in 
 hides and leather, and cotton of coarse quality is grown in 
 the district. Population, about 20,000. 
 
 AIR was the name formerly given to all gaseous sub- 
 stances. The gas now known as oxygeD, for instance, was 
 named by Priestley dephlogisticated air, in contradistinc- 
 tion to nitrogen or azote, which was phlogisticatcd air. £o 
 hydrogen gas was known to the early chemists as inflam- 
 mable air, carbonic acid gas as fixed air, &c. The name 
 is now ordinarily restricted to what is more accurately 
 called atmospheric air — the air we breathe — the invisible 
 elastic fluid which surrounds the earth, extending to an 
 unknown height. The properties of this fluid will be fully 
 considered under such headings as Atmosphere, Baro- 
 meter, Chemistry, VE^ T TrLATION■, .&c. Reference may 
 be made here to the mechanical use of air a3 a moving 
 power, or rather as a means for transferring power, just as 
 it is transferred by a train of wheelwork. Compressed air 
 can be employed in this way with great advantage in mines, 
 tunnels, and other confined situations, where the discharge 
 of steam would be attended with inconvenience. The 
 work is really done in these cases by a steam-engine or 
 other prime mover in compressing the air. In the con- 
 struction of the Mont Cenis tunnel the air was first coins 
 pressed by water-power, and then carried through pipes 
 into the heart of the mountain to work the boring machines; 
 This use. of compressed air in such situations is also of 
 indirect advantage in serving not only to ventilate the r ' voe 
 in which it is worked, but also to cool it; for it must .he 
 remembered that air falls in temperature during expans.'ca, 
 and therefore, as its temperature in the machines was onij 
 that of the atmosphere, it must, on being discharged frcrm 
 them, fall far below that temperature. . This fall is so great 
 that one of the most serious practical difficulties in working 
 machines by compressed air has been found to be the forma- 
 tion of ice in the pipes by the freezing of the moisture io 
 the air, which frequently chokes them entirely up.
 
 428 
 
 A I K — A I R 
 
 AIR-ENGINE. Engines which have for their working 
 Raid heated air instead of steam are called " air-engines." 
 The name "caloric engine" has also been applied to them, 
 but is not to be commended, for they have no more right to 
 that title than steam-engines — the useful effect of both 
 machines being due to the transformation of heat into 
 mechanical energy, the air in the one case and the steam 
 in the other being merely convenient media through which 
 to effect that transformation. 
 
 The utilisation of the expansion of heated air for driving 
 an engine has for many years been a subject which has 
 exercised the ingenuity of inventors. The history of air- 
 engines has, however, been little more hitherto than a 
 history of failures, and they are as far now from super- 
 seding steam-engines as they were fifty years ago. This 
 is owing mostly to the fact that the inventors have too 
 often worked empirically, without any real knowledge of 
 the conditions under which, and under which only, the 
 real advantages of the fluid could be attained, and have 
 therefore continually violated these conditions. There are 
 also certain constructive difficulties in the way of making 
 a successful air-engine which have never been fully over- 
 come. It should be distinctly understood that, regarded 
 simply as a medium for transforming heat into work, air 
 possesses no advantage over steam or any other fluid. Its 
 advantage is, that it can be used with safety at much higher 
 temperatures than steam (and therefore a larger propor- 
 tion of the heat given to it can be transformed into work), 
 and that by employing the gases of combustion in the 
 cylinder much heat can be utilised which with steam- 
 engines is necessarily wasted. 
 
 Of the air-engines which have actually worked we have — 
 (1.) Those in which the changes of temperature take place 
 at a pair of constant volumes; (2.) those in which the 
 changes of temperature take place at a pair of constant 
 pressures; and (3.) those in which heat is received and 
 rejected at a pair of constant pressures. The first two 
 classes, fitted with " economisers," are in theory "perfect" 
 engines; that is, they are theoretically capable of trans- 
 forming into work the largest fraction he limits of tem- 
 perature allow of the heat received from the fueL The 
 third class are not perfect engines, but possess certain 
 practical advantages which will be afterwards mentioned. 
 
 The well-known engine invented by the Rev. Dr Stirling in 1816, 
 and subsequently improved by bim, in conjunction with his brother, 
 Mr James Stirling, C.E., of Edinburgh, belongs to the first class. 
 In this engine the same mass of air is used again and again, and is 
 compressed at starting to a pressure of 7 to 10 atmospheres. A 
 cylindrical air-receiver, in whi"h a plunger can be moved up 
 and down, is placed over the flue of the furnace. The annular 
 space between the plunger and the sides of this receiver is occu- 
 pied by an immense number of thin sheets of metal, which form 
 the " economises " In the upper part of the receiver, which com- 
 municates freely with one end of a working cylinder of the usual 
 construction, is a "refrigerator," consisting of a coil of tubing 
 through which cold water continually circulates. The plunger is 
 alternately raised and lowered by suitable mechanism, and in its 
 motion causes the great body of air in the machine to occupy alter- 
 nately the bottom or heating end and the top or cooling end of the 
 receiver. It thus undergoes alternate expansion and contraction, 
 and thereby gives motion to the piston of the working cylinner, 
 and thence to a crank shaft in the usual way. The advantages of 
 this engine were, that ths air in the cylinder waj always cool, and 
 that the great pressure which could be used rendered the size of the 
 machine for a given power very moderate. It was ultimately aban- 
 doned because of the failure of the receiver to stand the destructive 
 action of the heat. 
 
 The most familiar example of the second class of air-engines is 
 that invented by Captain Ericsson. It differed from Stirling's in 
 many respects, and does not seem in any one particular to have 
 been an improvement on it. Fresh air was drawn from the atmo- 
 sphere at every stroke, and a very low pressure used, and what was 
 the receiver in' Stirling's engine became the working cylinder of 
 Ericsson's. It was thus excessively bulky in proportion to its 
 power, and all the working parts were exposed to the destructive 
 actios of intense heat It i» chiefly interesting on account of th« 
 
 enormous scale on which its construction was actually carried out. 
 The engines of the steamship "Ericsson" had four working cylinder*, 
 each 14 ft. in diameter, with other parts in proportion. The trials 
 of this vessel were conducted in a manner which did not allow any 
 confidence to be placed in the results Baid to be obtained, and steam- 
 engines replaced those of Ericsson within two years. 
 
 To the third class of air-engines belong those of Sir George Cayley 
 and several of the older inventors. The best known modern ex- 
 ample is, however, the engine of Mr Philander Shaw, which is 
 shown in our engraving, and which was exhibited at the Paris 
 Exhibition of 1867. The most important feature of this type of 
 engine is the use of the products of combustion themselves, instead 
 of merely the air heated by them, to drive the piston. The con- 
 struction of the engine is very simple : the working piston is fitted 
 with a trunk on its upper side, which, thus reduced in area, serves 
 as a compressing pump, and the products of combustion act directly 
 upon its under side, which is protected by a large drum filled with 
 non-conducting material from the heat. The furnace stands beside 
 the cylinder, and is entirely closed up, means being provided f )r 
 feeding it with fuel without allowing any air to enter. The air 
 compressed by the pump is delivered into the furnace, where it com- 
 bines with the fuel to form the- gases of combustion, and in this 
 way receiving additional heat, expands, and raises the piston of the 
 working cylinder for a portion of its stroke. The admission-valve 
 of the latter is then closed, and the gase3 expand, without addition 
 of heat, until the piston has completed its stroke, and are then dis- 
 charged into the atmosphere. By the addition of an " economiser," 
 the efficiency of this type of engine may be very greatly increased ; 
 but its principal advantage is that, by actually using the products 
 of combustion inside the engine, much heat is saved which in other 
 engines is unavoidably sent up the chimney and lost. 
 
 One of the principal features of all air-engines is tho 
 " economiser" (sometimes erroneously called the " regene- 
 rator"), an invention of Mr Stirling's. The object of this 
 apparatus is to store up the heat rejected by the fluid when 
 it falls in temperature, and subsequently to raise the tem- 
 perature of the fluid by re-storing the same heat, so that 
 the only heat which the furnace has to supply is the latent 
 heat of expansion, together with the amount of sensible 
 heat which maybe lost through the imperfection of the 
 economiser. 
 
 (For a popular explanation of the theory of air-engines, 
 see an admirable paper by the late Professor Bankine in 
 the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for January 1855; 
 and for a complete account of the same, involving the use 
 of the higher mathematics, see the same author's Steam- 
 Engine, pp. 345, et seq. See also Prof. Clerk Maxwell's 
 Theory of Heat, and a series of papers on the subject in 
 Engineering, 1874.) (a. b. w. k.) 
 
 AIR-GUN, a weapon like a commo^ gun in shape, in 
 which the force employed to propel the bullet is the elas- 
 ticity of condensed atmospheric air. It has attached to 
 it, or constructed in it, a strong metal chamber, into which 
 air is forced by a condensing syringe (see Pneumatics). 
 In this way a pressure may be obtained of several hundred 
 atmospheres. When a trigger is touched, the condensed 
 air rushes into a space behind the bullet with such force a3 
 to propel it frcai the barrel to a considerable distance. If 
 only a little air be allowed to escape each time, a single 
 charge will propel a number of bullets in succession, with
 
 AIR-AIR 
 
 429 
 
 a constantly diminishing force. Sometimes the weapon is 
 made in the form of a walking-stick, and is then called an 
 air-cane. ' The air-gun is little else than a scientific toy, 
 and has no practical value. The apparatus is costly, the 
 process of condensation requires considerable labour, and 
 the propulsive force of the air is, at its maximum, less 
 than that of an ordinary charge of gunpowder. The only 
 advantage it can be said to have in any way is the ques- 
 tionable one of its use being unattended by the explosive 
 noise that accompanies the discharge of a common gun. 
 
 ATTUPUMP, an apparatus by means of which a closed 
 vessel can have the air it contains removed from it It con- 
 sists essentially of two parts — a receiver, from which the air 
 is to be exhausted ; and a pump, to perform the work of 
 exhaustion. The receiver is in general made of glass, in 
 order that the condition of objects placed within it for the 
 purpose of experiment may be readily seen by the opera- 
 tor. It is open at the bottom, and has its lower edge 
 accurately ground ; when in its place in the air-pump it 
 stands upon a smooth brass plate. The pump itself is a 
 brass cylinder, having a piston in it, which can be moved 
 backwards and forwards by means of a rod, in the usual 
 way. At the end of the cylinder nearest the receiver is 
 placed a small valve, in the piston itself is another (or 
 some mechanism which serves the purpose of a valve), and 
 there is frequently a third in the outer end of the cylinder. 
 AH these valves open outwards from the receiver. The action 
 of the pump, when arranged in this way, is exactly similar 
 to the action of an ordinary well-pump, with air as the 
 fluid instead of water. The air-pump was. invented about 
 1654 by Otto von Guericke, a magistrate of Magdeburg, 
 and a man who devoted great attention to various pro- 
 blems in pneumatics. 1 The first description of his pump 
 was published in 1657 in the Mechanica Hydraulico- 
 pneumatica of Gaspar Schottus, professor of mathematics 
 at Wurtemberg. He used a spherical glass receiver, with 
 a pumping syringe attached, and kept the whole of the 
 working parts under water to prevent leakage. His pump 
 
 was very imperfectly constructed, but he did eventually 
 succeed in getting a very good vacuum with it. The 
 method of producing the Torricellian vacuum, by fillin g a 
 vessel with liquid and then removing the liquid without 
 permitting ingress of air, was previously known ; but a 
 vacuum produced in this way was obviously useless for 
 experiments with any objects but those which could pre- 
 viously be immersed in the liquid used Guericke was, 
 however, the first to recognise that, by virtue of its perfect 
 
 1 He was also the inventor of the " Magdeburg hemispheres." 
 
 elasticity, or tendency to expand indefinitely, air could be 
 pumped out of a closed space as well as. water; and. this 
 is the principle of his and all succeeding air-pumps. Al- 
 though the invention of the air-pump is due to a German) 
 almost all the improvements made in it from time to time 
 have come from Englishmen. Dr Boyle contributed so 
 much to its perfection that for a long time the state of the 
 air in an exhausted receiver was called vacuum Boykanum, 
 and the air-pump itself machina Boyleana. Dr Hook, 
 Hawkesbee, John Smeaton, and others brought the air- 
 pump externally to very much the same form as that in 
 which it is commonly seen at present, and which is shown 
 in the annexed woodcut The pump here has two cylin- 
 ders, which are worked by a winch handle, the pump rods 
 havksg toothed racks on the upper part of their length 
 Professor Tate is the inventor of a double-action air-pump, 
 now much used where a very perfect vacuum is required 
 It has two pistons in one barrel, the air being drawn from 
 the receiver at the centre of the barrel, and discharged into 
 the atmosphere at its extremities. Very complete air- 
 pumps have two or three barrels, arranged as shown in the 
 woodcut, for rapid exhaustion, until the pressure in the 
 receiver is equal to (say) half-au-inch of mercury; and in 
 addition to these a horizontal Tate's barrel, which can then 
 be put into action to bring the vacuum down to fa inch of 
 mercury(l-600thofthepressure of the atmosphere), or even 
 less at low temperatures. See Pneumatics. 
 
 Ate-Ptjmp, in steam-engines, is the pump which draws 
 the condensed steam, along with the air which is always 
 mixed with it, and also the condensing water (except 
 where a surface condenser is used), away from 'the con- 
 denser, and discharges it into the hot well See Steam- 
 Engine, (a. b. w. k.) 
 
 AIR, or Asben, a country of central Africa, lying be- 
 tween 15° and 19° N. lat. and 6° and 10° E. long. The 
 northern and best known portion of tMs region is of a very 
 diversified character. It has numerous mountain ranges, 
 some of which rise to a height of 5000 feet, with richly- 
 wooded hollows and extensive plains interspersed The 
 mimosa, the dum-palm, and the date are abundant ; and the 
 valleys are covered with the exuberant vegetation of the 
 tropics. Some of the plains afford good pasturage for 
 camels, asses, goats, and cattle; others are-'. desert table- 
 lands. In the less frequented districts wild animals abound, 
 notably the lion and" the gazelle. • The country generally is 
 of sandstone or granite formation, with occasional trachyte 
 and basaltic ranges. There are no permanent rivers; but 
 during the rainy season, from August to October, very 
 heavy floods convert the wafer-courses in the hollows of the 
 mountains into broad and rapid streams. Numerous wells 
 supply the wants of the people and their cattle. To the 
 south of this variegated region lie3 a desert plateau, 2000 
 feet above the level of the sea, destitute of water, and 
 tenanted only by the wild ox, the ostrich, and the giraffe. 
 Still further south is the district of Damerghu, nominally 
 tributary to Air, undulating and fertile, and yielding rich 
 crops. Notwithstanding the fertility of the valleys in the 
 northern portion of the country, there is little of the soil 
 under cultivation except in the neighbourhood of the vil- 
 lages, where slaves are employed in tillage. Millet, dates, 
 •indigo, and senna are the principal productions. The great 
 bulk of the food supplies is brought from Damerghu, and 
 the whole materials for clothing are also imported Were 
 it not for the traffic in salt between Bilma and the Hansa 
 states of Soudan, the country could searcely maintain ita 
 present limited number of inhabitants. A great caravan 
 annually passes through Air, consisting of several thousand 
 camels, carrying salt from Bilma to Sokoto. Air was called 
 Asben by the native tribes until they were conquered by 
 the Berbers. The present inhabitants are for the most.
 
 430 
 
 X I R — A I S 
 
 part of a mixed race, combining the finer personal traits of 
 the Berbers with the characteristics of the negro. The 
 king or sultan of Air occupies a very precarious position, 
 being to a great extent dependent on the chiefs of the 
 Tawarek tribes inhabiting a vast tract of the Sahara to 
 the north-west, who are continually at war among them- 
 selves. A large part of the revenue of the king is derived 
 from tribute exacted from the salt caravan. His authority 
 does not seem to be great in the outlying parts of his 
 dominions. The chief town of Air is Acades (q. v.) (See 
 Dr Barth's Travels in Central Africa, ro\. i.) 
 
 \TRAY, Henky, D.D. This celebrated Puritan presi- 
 dent of Queen's College, Oxford, was born at Kentmere, 
 Windermere, but no record remains of the date of 
 either birth or baptism. Anthony a Wood names West- 
 moreland as his birthplace. In the well-known Life of 
 Bernatd Gilpin it is told that when he was making pre- 
 parations for martyrdom, he " received the account with 
 great composure ; and immediately after called up William 
 Airay, a favourite domestic, who had long served him as 
 his almoner and steward." From the great kindness 
 shown to our Airay by Gilpin, and from the vicinity 
 of Kentmere to the Rectory, it does not appear to be 
 hazarding too much to assume that this William Airay 
 was his father, and -that the family tradition is right in 
 assigning Kentmere, not Barton or Wilford, as his birth- 
 place. The truly apostolic man's bounty showed itself in 
 sending Henry and a (probable) brother Ewan or Evan 
 to his own endowed school, where they were fully educated 
 "in grammatical learning," and were in attendance at 
 Oxford when Gilpin lay a-dying. From the Athena; we 
 glean the details of Array's college attendance. He was 
 " sent," says Wood, " to St Edmund's Hall in 1579, aged 
 nineteen or thereabouts." " Soon after," he continues, 
 " our author, Airay, was translated to Queen's College, 
 tvhere he became, pavper puer serviens ; that is, a poor 
 serving child that waits on the fellows in tie common 
 hall at meals, and in their chambers, and do other servile 
 work about the college." His transference to Queen's 
 College is explained by its having been Gilpin's wn 
 college, and by his Westmoreland origin givrng trim a 
 claim on Eaglesfield's foundation. He proceeded B.A. on 
 June 19, 1583. On June 15, 1586, he passed M.A. ; B.D. 
 in 1594; and D.D. on June 17, 1600— all in Queen's 
 College. " About the ttmo he was master" (1586), " he 
 entered holy orders, and became a frequent and zealous 
 preacher in the university " His Commentary on the 
 epistle to the Philippian3 (1618), reprinted 1864, is a 
 specimen of his preaching before his college, and of his 
 fiery denunciation of Popery, and his fearless enunciation 
 of that Calvinism which Oxford, in common with all 
 England, prized then. In 1598 he was chosen provost of 
 his college, and in 1606 was vice-chancellor of the uni- 
 versity. In the discharge of his vice-chancellor's duties, 
 he came into conflict with Laud, who even thus early was 
 betraying his Romish tendencies. He was also rector of 
 Otmore (or Otmoor), near Oxford, a living which involved 
 him m a trying litigation, whereof present incumbents 
 reap the benefit. He died on 6th October 1616. H13 
 character as a man, preacher, divine, and as an important 
 ruler in "the university, will be found portrayed in the 
 Epistle by Potter, prefixed to the Commentary. He must 
 have been a fine specimen of the more cultured Puritans — 
 possessed of a robust common-senso in admirable contrast 
 with some of his contemporaries. (Lectures on the whole 
 Epistle of Paul to the Philippians, 1618, 1864; Wood's 
 Athene, by Bliss, ii 177, 178, Ac. ; Laud's Works; Wills 
 (Surtees Society.) (a. b. o.) 
 
 AIRDRrE, a parliamentary and municipal burgh and 
 market-town of Scotland, in the parish of New Monkland, 
 
 Lanarkshire, 21 miles E. of Glasgow and 32 TV. of Earn 
 burgh. The high road between these cities passes through 
 Airdrie, forming its principal street, from which others 
 diverge at right angles. It is well built, paved, and lighted 
 with gas, but it contains little that is beautiful or attrac- 
 tive. It possesses a fine town-ball and a handsome edifice 
 erected as the county buildings, as well as two places of 
 worship belonging to the Church of Scotland, three to the 
 Free Church, two to the United Presbyterians, and one 
 each to the Reformed Presbyterians, the Congregationalists, 
 the Baptists, the Wcsleyan Methodists, and the Roman 
 Catholics; five branch banks, with excellent places of 
 business constructed or in course of construction; a me- 
 chanics' institute, and several schools. The extensive coal 
 and iron mines in the vicinity give employment to a large 
 part of the population of Airdrie, and have been the means. 
 of raising it, since the commencement of the century, from 
 the insignificance of a village to its present prosperity. In 
 the town itself there are manufactories of cotton goods and 
 iron wares, besides foundries, engineering shops, sawmills, 
 and other branches of industry. A branch of the North 
 British Railway from Glasgow, passing through Airdrie to 
 Edinburgh, connects it by a direct line with both cities. 
 It is also connected with Glasgow by the Monkland Canal, 
 which comes within a mile of the town. By the Reform Act 
 of 1832 Airdrie. was created a parliamentary burgh, uniting 
 with Falkirk, Hamilton, Lanark, and Linlithgow in send- 
 ing one memoer to parliament. Its municipal corporation, 
 which dates from 1821, consists of twelve councillors, in- 
 cluding a provost and three bailies. There are weekly 
 courts held by the magistrates, and courts are held twice 
 a week by the sheriff-substitute and the justices of the 
 peace respectively. The market-day i3 Tuesday, but the 
 market is of little importance. By the census of 1871 the 
 population of Airdrie was 13,488, the number of inhabited 
 houses .1167, and the parliamentary constituency 1702, 
 increased in 1873 to 1932. The annual value of real pro- 
 perty in the burgh, not including railways, is £26,145; 
 and the corporation revenue for 1873, £3401. 
 
 AIRE, an English river which rises in the West Riding 
 of Yorkshire and pursues a south-easterly course through 
 the populous " clothing district " of which Leeds ia the 
 capital. At Castleford, below Leeds, it receives a small 
 tributary, the Calder, and it joins the Ouse shortly before 
 that river's expansion into the estuary 'of the Humber 
 above Hull. It is navigable to Leeds for small craft. 
 
 AIRE, a fortified town of France, on the river Lys, in 
 the department of Pas-de-Calais, 10 miles S.E. of St Omer. 
 Although its situation is low and marshy, the town is neat 
 nnd well built. It possesses extensive barracks ; and the 
 Church of St Paul is a handsome Gothic structure. Its 
 manufactures consist of hats, cotton and woollen goods, 
 hardware, yarn, soap, and oiL Population, 8803. 
 
 AIRE, a town in ihe south of France, in the department 
 of Landes, on the left bank of the Adour, 14 miles S.S.E. 
 of St Sever. At one time it was the capital of the Visi- 
 goths, and since the fifth century it has been the seat of 
 a bishopric. It has a college and cathedral ; and there are 
 manufactories of leather and hats. Population, 5144. 
 
 AISLE sometimes written Isle, Yle, and Alley (Laf 
 and ItaL Ala, awing; Fr. Aile, Bos cite; Ger. Seitenschiff, 
 Seitencluyr), in its primary sense, the wing of a house, but 
 generally used to describe the alleys or passages at the 
 sides of the naves and choirs of churches. In reckon- 
 ing their number, the nave is usually cranui Thus a 
 nave with an aisle on each Bide is generally called a thiee- 
 aisled church ; if with two aisles on each side, a five- 
 aisled church. In England there are many churches with 
 one piHc-aisle only ; but there is only one cathedral with 
 live aisles, that at Chichester. There are, however, very
 
 a i s - a r x 
 
 431 
 
 many sucli on the Continent, the most celebrated of which 
 are at Milan ami Amicus. Others have three aisles on each 
 side, or seven aisles in all, as the cathedrals at Antwerp 
 and Paris. The most extraordinary, however, is that at 
 Cordova, origiually erected for a mosque. It was first built 
 with a nave and live aisles ou each side, and eight others 
 alterwards were added, making nineteen aisles in alL Old 
 English writers frequently call the transepts " the cross 
 isle, or yle," and the nave the " middle ile." 
 
 AISNE, a frontier department in the north-east of 
 France, bounded on the N. by the department of Nord 
 and the kingdom of Belgium, on the E. by the department 
 of Ardeuues, on the S.E. by that of Marne, on the S. by 
 that of Seine-et-Marne, and on the W. by those of Oise 
 and Souune; extending at the widest points 75 miles 
 from N. to S., and 53 from E. to W. f with an area of 
 2S33 square miles. The surface of the department con- 
 sists of tine undulating plains, diveisifisd in the north by 
 hilly ground which forms a part of the mountain system 
 of the Ardennes. The chief rivers are the Somme, the 
 Escaut, and the Sambre in the north ; the Oise, traversing 
 the north-west, with its tributaries the Serre and the Aisne, 
 the latter of which joins it beyond the limits of the depart- 
 ment ; aud the Mame and the Ourcq in the south. The 
 soil of Aisue is, as a whole, fertile, and in some parts very 
 rich, yielding wheat, barley, rye, oats, hops, flax, fruit, 
 beetroot, and potatoes ; there is good pasturage, and much 
 attention is paid to the rearing of cattle, sheep, and horses. 
 Wine is produced, but, except in the valley of the Mame, 
 its quality is inferior. Large tracts of the department are 
 under wood, the chief forests being those of Nouvion and 
 St Michel in the north, Coucy and St Gobain ic che centre, 
 and Villers-Cotterets in the south. There are no minerals 
 of importance in the department, but good building-stone 
 aud slates of a fair quality are fouud. Aisne is an im- 
 portant manufacturing department ; its chief industrial pro- 
 ducts being shawls and muslin — as well as other cotton, 
 linen, and woollen goods — glass, including the famous 
 mirrors of St Gobain, iron wares, beetroot sugar, leather, 
 and pottery. It has a good trade, which is much facilitated 
 by railroads (the most important being those between Paris 
 and Strasbourg, and Paris and Mons), canals, and the 
 navigable portions of the rivers. Aisne, which is com- 
 posed of parts of the ancient provinces of Picardy and the 
 Isle of France, is divided into five arrondissements — St 
 Quentin and Vervins in the north, Laon in the centre, and 
 Soissons and Chateau Thierry in the south. It contains in 
 all 37 cantons and 837 communes. Laou is the capital, 
 aud Soissons the seat of the bishop. The other towns of 
 importance are Chauny, St Quentin, Vervins, Hirson, Suise, 
 Villers-Cotterets, and Chateau Thierry. Population in 1872, 
 552,439, of whom 183,104 could neither read nor write, 
 end 28,651 could read, but could not write. 
 
 ALTON, William (1731-1793), an eminent botanist 
 and gardener, was born near Hamilton in Scotland. Having 
 been regularly trained to the profession of a gardener, he 
 travelled to England in the year 1754, where he became 
 assistant to Philip Miller, then superintendent of the 
 physic garden at Chelsea. In 1759 he was appointed 
 director of the newly-established botanical garden at Kew, 
 in which office he continued till his death. The garden 
 at Kew, under the auspices of King George III., was 
 destined to be the grand repository of all the vegetable 
 riches which could be accumulated by regal munificence, 
 from researches through every quarter of the globe. 
 Alton's care and skill in cultivation, and intelligence in 
 arrangement, gained for him high reputation among the 
 lovers of the science, and the particular esteem of his rt>y»l 
 patrons. ' Under his superintendence many improvements 
 took i)lace i*-Hbe plan and edifices of Kew j;ardfu», wlu»\i 
 
 rendered them the principal scene of botauical culture in 
 the kingdom. In 1783 his merit was rewarded with tho 
 lucrative office of manager of the pleasure and kitchea 
 gardens of Kew, which he was allowed to hold along with 
 the botanical direction. In 1789 he published his lloilua 
 Kewensis, a catalogue of the plants cultivated in the Royal 
 Botanical Garden at Kew, in 3 vols. 8vo, with 13 plates — . 
 a work which had been the labour of many years. The 
 llortus, in which the Liunffian system of arrangement, with 
 some modification, was adopted, was very favourably re- 
 ceived by students of. science, and a second edition was 
 issued (1810-3) by W. T. Aiton, his eldest son and suc- 
 cessor. He was for many years honoured with the friend- 
 ship of Sir Joseph Banks, the president of the Royal Society, 
 and was aided by the Swedish naturalists, Solander and 
 Dryander, in the preparation of his Ilorlus EeivensU. 
 
 AITZEMA, Leon van, Dutch historian and statesman, 
 was born at Doccum, in Friesland, on the 19 th Novembei 
 1600, and died at the Hague on the 23d February 1069.' 
 In his youth he published a volume of Latin poems under 
 the title of Poemata Juvenilia. He subsequently devoted 
 himself almost entirely to political life, and held for 9 
 lengthened period the position of resident at the Hague- 
 for the towns of the Hanseatic League. His most im- 
 portant work was the Hutorie oft Verhaal van Saciken van 
 Staet in Oorlogh (14 vols 4to, 1657-71), embracing the 
 period from 1021 to 1608. It contains a large number of 
 state documents, and is an invaluable authority on one of 
 the most eventful periods of Dutch history. 
 
 ALX, an ancient city of France, the chief town of th<» 
 arrondissenient of the same name, in the department of 
 the Bouches du-Rhone. It was the Aqua Sejctice of tho 
 Romans, and between this and Arelate (Aries) is the field 
 on which Marius gained his great victory over the Teutons. 
 Under the counts of Provence, Aix became celebrated as 
 a seat of learning ; and it still retains many relics of its 
 former splendour, and is distinguished by the number and 
 excellence of its literary institutions. It has a library o£ 
 100,000 volumes, an academy of law, science, and theo- 
 logy, a museum, and a chamber of commerce. The 
 cathedral — the baptistry of which is said to have been 
 constructed from the remains of a Roman temple — the 
 "Palais," the town-hall, and the clock-tower, are fine speci- 
 mens of ancient architecture. There are numerous public 
 fountains, on one of which is sculptured a figure of King 
 Reu6 by David The hot springs, from which the city 
 derives its name, are not now in much repute. Aix is the 
 seat of a court of justice and an archbishopric. The chief 
 manufactures are cotton, silk, thread, and hardware; and 
 olives and almonds are cultivated on the surrounding hills. 
 There is considerable commerce in corn, wine, and oil 
 The naturalists Adauson and Tournefort, and the painter 
 Vanloo, were born at Ais. Population (1872), 29,020. 
 
 AIX, or Aix-LE»-]!.uN>,ntown of France, in the depart- 
 ment of Savoie, near Lake Bourget, 8 miles north of 
 Chambery. It was a celebrated bathing-place in the time 
 of the Romans, and possesses numerous ancient remains. 
 The hot springs, which are of sulphureous quality, and have 
 a temperature of from 109° to 113° Fahr., are still much 
 frequented, attracting annually above 2000 visitors. They 
 are used for drinking as well as for bathing purposes. 
 Population, 4430. 
 
 ATX-LA-CHAPELLE, the German Aachen, the capital 
 of a district of the same name in Rhenish Prussia, situated 
 near the VVunn, a tributary of the Meuse, in a pleasant 
 and fertile valley about 40 miles west of Cc'.ogne, with 
 which it is connected by railway. It is well built, and ia 
 enclosed by ramparts that have been converted into pro- 
 menades, and its appearance is rather that of a prosperous 
 >aud»rD town than of an ancient city full of historical
 
 432 
 
 A I X — A J A 
 
 associations. Its town-house, built in 1353 on the ruins 
 of Charlemagne's palace, contains the magnificent corona- 
 tion hall of the German emperors, 162 feet long by GO feet 
 wile. Near the town-house are two ancient towers, one.of 
 which, called the Granustliurm, is sometimes said to be of 
 Roman origin ; and a fountain, with a statue of Charle- 
 magne, which was erected in 1620. The cathedral of 
 Alx-la-Chapelle consists of two parts, distinct both as to 
 the time of their erection and their stylo of architecture. 
 The older portion may be said to date either from 796 a.d., 
 when it was erected by Charlemagne as the palace chapel, 
 or from 983, when it was rebuilt on the old model by 
 Otho III., after having been almost, entirely destroyed by 
 the Kormans. It consists of an octagon, planned after 
 that of St Vitale at Ravenna, surrounded by a sixteen- 
 sided gallery, and terminating in a cupola. It contains 
 the tomb of Charlemagne, which was opened in the year 
 1000, when the body of the femperor was found seated on 
 a marble throne which was afterwards used in the imperial 
 coronation ceremonies. The Gothic choir, which forms 
 the more modern portion of the cathedral, was added 
 during the latter half of the 14th and the beginning of the 
 15th centuries. The cathedral possesses many relics, the 
 most sacred of -which are exhibited only once every seven 
 years, when they attract large crowds of worshippers. Be- 
 sides these buildings, almost the only other of any antiquity 
 is the corn exchange, probably of the 12th century. Of 
 modern edifices, Aix-la-Chapelle possesses a theatre, a public 
 library, a gymnasium, and several churches and hospitals. 
 The chief manufactures of Aix-la-Chapelle are -woollen 
 cloths, stockings, shawls,"silks, leather, glass, needles, pins, 
 machines, general ironmongery, carriages, beer, brandy, 
 tobacco, and chemicals. There is a good trade in these 
 articles, not only with Germany and other continental 
 countries, but also, in the case of cloth especially, with 
 the United States of America. The hot sulphur springs 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle are another important source of revenue 
 to the inhabitants. These springs were known to the 
 Romans, and have long been celebrated for the cure of 
 rheumatism and gout. There are six in all, of which the 
 Kaiserquelle is the chief, with a temperature reaching as high 
 as 136° Fahr. There are also two cold chalybeate springs. 
 Aix-la-Chapelle is the Aquisgranum, or Civitas Aquensis, 
 of the Romans. Charlemagne, who perhaps was born and 
 certainly died in the town, made it the second city of his 
 empire and the capital of his dominions north of the Alps. 
 He conferred numerous privileges upon its citizens, exempt- 
 ing them from military service and from all taxes, even when 
 they were living in other parts of the empire. From 813 
 to 1531 the emperors of Germany were crowned at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, which during that period became one of the most 
 important free imperial cities, although it was ravaged by 
 the Normans in 851, and again in 882. By the removal of 
 the coronations to Frankfort, Aix-la-Chapelle lost its lead- 
 ing position in Germany, and its internal prosperity was 
 much injured by a disastrous fire in 1656, During the 
 revolution it for a time belonged to France, but in 1815 it 
 was ceded to Prussia, and has now become one of the chief 
 seats of commerce in that kingdom. Population of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle (1871), 74,238. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, Congresses and Treaties oj. The first 
 congress of Aix-la-Chapelle concerned the succession of 
 Maria Theresa to the empire. It was held in 1748, and 
 resulted in the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, signed in the 
 same year, by which Maria Theresa was left in possession 
 of most of her hereditary dominions, the chief exception 
 being Silesia, which was ceded to Prussia. The second 
 congress, held in 1818, resulted in the convention of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle. The object of this congress was the regulation 
 ef the affairs of Europe, especially of France, after the waf. 
 
 A treaty of peace between France and Spain was also signed 
 in this city in 1668. whereby Louis XIV. gave up his claim 
 to the Spanish Netherlands, but was left in possession of 
 much that he had already conquered. 
 
 AJACCTO, the chief town of Corsica, one of the depart- 
 ments of France. It is a seaport, situated on the west 
 coast of the island, in 41° 54' N. lat., and 8 3 44' E. long. 
 The harbour is commodious, and sheltered on all sides save 
 the south-west. The town is well built, and its principal 
 buildings are the cathedral, the town-house, and the citadel. 
 It is the seat of a bishop and a court of justice, and has a 
 commercial college, a school of hydrography, a large library, 
 and a botanic garden. Wine, fruits, and olive oil are the 
 chief articles of trade ; and anchovy and coral fisheries are 
 extensively prosecuted along the coast. Ajaccio is cele- 
 brated as the birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte. The house 
 where he was born (15th August 1769) is still standing in 
 good preservation. A marble statue was erected to his 
 honour in 1850, and the people still retain strong Bonapartist 
 sympathies. Population (1872), 16,545. 
 
 AJAN (the ancient Azania), a tract which forms the 
 eastern horn of Africa, with a coast-line of about 10° of 
 latitude, from Cape Gardafui nearly to the equator. 
 It extends inland to the territory of the Gallas, but its 
 limits cannot be strictly defined, as this part of Africa has 
 been little explored. The coast towards the south is low 
 and sandy, but northward, near Cape D'Orfui, it becomes 
 high and mountainous, with some fertile valleys inter- 
 spersed. Cape Gardafui, the most eastern point of Africa, 
 is a bold promontory backed by lofty hills. There are no 
 considerable rivers in Ajan, and the land for the most part 
 is barren. The inhabitants, a tribe of the Somali, carry on 
 a trade with the Arabs in ivory and gum, and the country 
 possesses an excellent breed of horses. 
 
 AJAX (Aios), the son of Telamon. In Greek legend 
 Ajax represents throughout only physical qualities, like 
 Hercules, with whom, indeed, a likeness must have been 
 recogniped, or there would ha^e been no sufficient basis foi 
 the belief that the child Ajax was born at the prayer cf 
 Hercules in behalf of his friend Telamon (the-name Aia? 
 — or Ai-as with digamma — being an allusion to the eagle, 
 ai€T05, which appeared to announce the success of the 
 prayer); and again, that Hercules was present at the birth 
 of the infant, and by wrapping it in his lion's skin made 
 it invulnerable, except in the armpit. In respect of being 
 open to a wound in - only one small spot Ajax resembles 
 Achilles, with whom in the usual genealogy he claims to 
 be related as cousin. But of this relationship there is no 
 evidence in the Iliad, where Ajax appears of colossal frame 
 (TTcAulpios), in himself a tower of strength (■nrpyo': 'Axauwv), 
 and, a3 the simile implies, prepared for, defence, not to 
 lead assaults, unmoved by the shafts of enemies as is an ass 
 in a corn-field by the pelting of boys (Iliad, xi. 556-566), 
 while Achilles is no less clearly drawn as sensitive to finer 
 passions and tastes, if equally bold in war. Unwarranted 
 as it was by the Iliad, the identification of Ajax with the 
 family of jEacus was chiefly a matter which concerned the 
 Athenians, and that not until Salamis had come into their 
 possession, on which occasion Solon inserted a line in the 
 Iliad (ii 557) for the purpose of supporting the Athenian 
 claim to therisland. Ajax then became an Attic hero, his 
 name being given to one of the tribes. In this way his 
 deeds came to be a favourite subj ect of the Attic drama, though 
 they are not always represented in a creditable manner — as, 
 f oi Example, when, contrary to his steady character in the 
 Iliad of being respectful to the gods, he is charged with insult 
 to Athena, to account for her having influenced the decision 
 against him in his competition with Ulysses for the armour 
 of Achilles. It was Athena, also, who made him insane 
 then, and led him to take his own life. From hin blood
 
 A J A — A J M 
 
 433 
 
 sprang a flower, as at the death of Hyacinthus, -which bore 
 the initial letter of his name. In later times the people of 
 Xovum Ilium believed him to have been wronged by the 
 decision, and told how, when Ulysses had been shipwrecked, 
 the armour of Achilles was wafted by the tide upon the 
 shore near the tomb of Ajax. (a. s. m.) 
 
 AJAX OILEUS, or the Lessee Ajax, was a son of the 
 King of Locri, whose subjects he led before Troy, contribut- 
 ing a contingent of forty ships. In boldness he was in the 
 first rank among the Greeks there, equal to make a stand 
 against Hector, and swift of foot next to Achilles. But, com- 
 pared with the other leaders, he is impatient and overbear- 
 ing. Like the Telamonian Ajax, he appears as an enemy 
 of Ulysses, and as the victim of Athena's.vengeance. It was 
 due to her influence that he, known for his speed, lost 
 the nee with Ulysses at the games in honour of Patroclus 
 {Iliad, xxiii. 754—784); and again it was through her that 
 on his return homeward his ship was wrecked upon the 
 mythical Gynean rock {Odyssey, iv. 499). As it stands in 
 later story, he had drawn down Athena's anger by his assault 
 upon Cassandra at the image of the goddess. Ulysses 
 charged him with this offence, and demanded that he should 
 be stoned. But, according to another version of the legend, 
 he had only carried her off to his tent without any harm, 
 when Agamemnon took her from him, and spread a report 
 that Athena would destroy the whole army unless Ajax were 
 slain; upon which, thinking of the unjust verdict given 
 against his namesake, he went to sea in a frail vessel and 
 perished. The news was received in the camp with grief, 
 a funeral pile was erected on the ship which had conveyed 
 him toTroy, sacrifice was offered, and when the evening wind 
 came on, the burning ship was cut adrift. (a. s. m.) 
 
 AJEHO, or A-she-hoh, also called Alchttku, a consider- 
 able and rapidly increasing city of Manchuria, 30 miles 
 south of the river Soongari, and about 120 north of Kirin. 
 It is advantageously situated on the slopes of a gentle 
 descent leading to the river. The country around is very 
 fertile, producing in abundance various kinds of grain, 
 besides pulse and opium. The population of the district 
 consists entirely of Chinese immigrants, who are engaged in 
 the reclamation and cultivation of the soil, which is given 
 to them at a nominal price. A large trade is done in the 
 town ; and although the shops are of mean appearance, 
 quantities of porcelain and other ornamental articles ex- 
 posed for sale indicate its growing wealth. The population 
 is about 40,000, and includes a considerable number of 
 Mahometans. 
 
 AJMIR, a district and town of British India, in Edjpu- 
 tana. The district lies between 25° 43' and 26° 42' N. 
 lat., and 74" 22' and 75° 33' E. long., measuring 80 miles 
 in length from north to south, by 50 miles in breadth, 
 and comprising an area of 2057 square miles. It is 
 bounded on the E. by the states of Krishnagar and Jaipur, 
 on the S. by Mewar, on the W. by the British district of 
 Mairwara, and on the N.W. by the state of Jodhpur. The 
 population in 1865 was returned at 426,268; of whom 
 363,539, or 85 per cent., were Hindus, and the remainder 
 chiefly Mahometans. The eastern portion of the district 
 is generally flat, broken only by gentle undulations, but 
 the north and north-western parts are intersected by 
 the great Aravalli range (q.r. ) Many of the valleys in 
 this region are mere sandy deserts, with an occasional oasis 
 of cultivation, but there are also some very fertile tracts ; 
 among these is the plain on which lies the town of Ajmir. 
 This valley, however, is not only fortunate m possessing 
 a noble artificial lake, but is protected by the massive 
 walls of the Nag-pathar range or Serpent rock, which forms 
 a barrier against the sand. The only hills jn the district 
 are the Aravalli range and its offshoots. Ajmir is almost 
 totally devoid of rivers, the Banas being the only stream 
 
 which can be dignified with that name, and it only touches 
 the south-eastern" boundary of the district so as to irrigate 
 the Pargana of Samur. Four small streams — the Sagar- 
 mati, Saraswatf, Khari, and Dai — also intersect the dis- 
 trict. In the dry weather they are little more than brooks. 
 The Sagar-mati and Saraswatf unite at Gobindgarh, the 
 united waters flowing on under the name of the Luni (or 
 salt water) river. There are two first-class roads in Ajmir, 
 viz., one from Ajmir city to Gangwana, and thence through 
 the Krishnagarh and Jaipur states to Agra; and another 
 from the city- to the cantonment station of Nasfrabad, a 
 distance of 14 miles. There is also a second-class road 
 from Ajmir to Naya Nagar, a distance of 36 miles, besides 
 sixteen third-class tracks connecting the principal towns 
 and villages with the city. The principal products of the 
 district are wheat, barley, rice, sugar-cane, peas, bajra, 
 maize, til (oil-seed), tobacco, and cotton. With the excep- 
 tion of woollen blankets, turbans, <fcc., manufactures can 
 be scarcely said to exist in Ajmir. Salt is made in a rude 
 method at Bamsur, from the saline exudations of the soil, 
 to the extent of 3000 cwt. per annum. After supplying 
 local wants, the surplus is exported towards Malwa and 
 Sagar. The principal trade is in wool, cotton, opium, 
 printed cloths, and tobacco. A large quantity of cotton 
 is exported to Nayd Nagar, in Mairwara district, whence it 
 finds its way into the Bombay market. Oil is also a pro- 
 fitable article of trade. The domestic animals are sheep, 
 horses, bullocks, camels, and goats. Cattle, and especially 
 bullocks, are much valued, but are very scarce, owing partly 
 to the want of sufficient pasturage and partly to frequent 
 droughts. When these occur, the cattle are sent away to 
 the neighbouring states, where better pasture can be pro- 
 cured, and very few find their way back. The imperial 
 revenue obtained from the district in 1867 amounted to 
 £61,791, 8s., exclusive of local funds raised by a road, 
 tank, and postal cess. 
 
 The tenures of the agricultural village communities in Ajmir ara 
 of a very simple and" uniform kind. They all belong to the typa 
 known aa "imperfect patidari," by which the better descriptions of 
 land are held in severalty by each member of the proprietary body. 
 Each member is responsible for the amount of revenue allotted on 
 his holding; but in event of the default of any shareholder, the 
 whole community is collectively liable for the total sum. The 
 inferior and waste lands remain the property of the whole village, 
 and the income derived from them is credited to the common account. 
 Tho cultivators are nearly all proprietors of the land they till. A 
 large portion of Ajmir district is parcelled out into estates, varying 
 in size from a single village to a large pargcuui (or fiscal division). 
 These estates are held by Rajput chiefs, some of whom descend 
 from the original ruling families, while others owe their position to 
 force or to the favour of the reigning power. They have all been 
 confirmed in their estates by the British on payment of a fixed 
 annual quit rent. Three towns are returned aa containing a popu- 
 lation of upwards of 5000 inhabitants in 1867 — viz., Ajmir city (the 
 capital and the only municipality in the district), population 
 34,763 ; Kekri, 6357 ; and Pisangun, 5055. There is also a military 
 cantonment at Nasirabad, the garrison of which in 1867 consisted 
 of a battery of European artillery, a European infantry regiment, a 
 squadron of native cavalry, and a regiment of native infantry. In 
 1867 there were eighteen government schools in the district, attended 
 by 647 pupils, and a government college at Ajmir city attended by 
 320 students. Besides these there were three mission schools for 
 boys and one for girls in Ajmir city, and eight others iD. its neigh- 
 bourhood. The average attendance at the mission schools amounted 
 to 347. 
 
 AjMfR City, the capital of Ajmir district, is situated in 
 a picturesque and teitiie valley surrounded by monntains, 
 in 26° 29' N. lat. and 74' 43' E. long. The town is 
 partly built on the lower slope of the Taragarh hill, and is 
 surrounded by a stone wait with five handsome gates. To 
 the north of the city is 3 large artificial lake called the 
 Anasagar, whence the water supply of the place is derived. 
 The town is clean, and possesses several handsome streets:, 
 the dwellings of the better classes being large and well 
 built. The population in 1S67 numbered 34.763, about
 
 434 
 
 AJU-AKB 
 
 two-thirds being TTimltis, and the remainder Mahometans. 
 Tke < ity trade chii ly © ists of salt and opium. The 
 met is imported in large quantities from the Sambar 
 lake and Ramsur. Oilmaking is also a profitable branch 
 of trade. Cotton cloths are manufactured to some ex" 
 fur the dyeing of which the city has attained a high repu- 
 tii-ion. A municipal income of about £2000 a-year is 
 derived from octroi duties levied on articles consumed in 
 the town. Out of this the police and conservancy arrange- 
 ments are paid, the balance being spent on roads and in 
 the support of charitable institutions. The Ajmfr college, 
 affiliated to the Calcutta university, nad 320 pupiis in 
 1867. The college buildings being inadequate to this 
 number of pupils, the foundation-stone of a new structure 
 was laid on the 17th February 1868. The agent to the 
 mor-general for IUjputana resides at Ajmir, which is 
 also the headquarters of the commissioner of the Ajmlr and 
 Mairwara division. It is likewise a station of a Scotch 
 Presbyterian mission. 
 
 The chief object of interest is the dargi, or tomb of a famous 
 Mahometan saint named Mayud-u'cl-din. It is situated at the 
 foot of the Taragarh mountain, and consists of a block of white 
 marble boildings, without much pretension to architectural beauty. 
 To this place the emperor Akbar, with his empress, performed a 
 pilgrimage on foot from Agra, in accordance with the terms of a vow 
 li •Tiad made when praying for a son. The large pillars erected at 
 intervals of two miles the whole way, to mark the daily halting-place 
 of the imperial pilgrim, are still extant. An ancient Jain temple, 
 now converted into a Mahometan mosque, is situated on the 
 lower slope of the taragarh hill. With the exception of that r>art 
 used as a mosque, nearly tho whole of the ancient temple has fallen 
 into ruins, but the relics are not excelled in beauty of architecture 
 and sculpture by any remains of Hindu art. Forty columns sup- 
 port the roof, but no two are alike, and great fertility of invention 
 is manifested in the execution of the ornaments. The summit of 
 Taragarh mountain, overhanging Ajmir, is crowned by a fort, tho 
 lofty thick battlements of which run along its brow and enclose the 
 table-land. The walls are 2 miles in circumference, and the fort can 
 only be approached by steep and very roughly-paved planes, com- 
 manded by the fort and the outworks, and by the hill to tho west. 
 On coming into the hands of the English, the fort was dismantled 
 by order of Lord William Bentinck, and is now converted into a 
 sanitarium for the troops at Nasirabad. Ajmir was founded 
 about the year 145 A. h. by Aji, a Chohan, who established the 
 dynasty which continued to rule the country (with many vicissi- 
 tudes of fortune) while the repeated waves of Mahometan invasion 
 swept over India, until it eventually became an appanage of tho 
 crown of Dehli in 1193. Its internal government, however, was 
 handed over to its ancient rulers upon the payment of a heavy 
 tribute to the conquerors. It then remained . feudatory to Dehli 
 till 1365, when it was captured by the ruler of Mewdr. In 1509 
 the place became a.source of contention between the chiefs of Mewir 
 and Marwar, and was ultimately conquered in 1532 by tho latter 
 prince, who in his turn in 1559 had to give way before the emperor 
 Akbar. It continued in the hands of the Mughuls, with occasional 
 revolts, till 1770, when it was ceded to the Marhattas, from which 
 time up to 1818 the unhappy district was the scene of a continual 
 struggle, being seized at diluent times by the Mewir and Marwar 
 from whom it was as often retaken by tho Marhattas. In 
 1S18 the latter ceded it to the British in return for a payment of 
 60,000 rupees. Since then the country has enjoyed unbroken 
 peace and a stable government. 
 
 AJURUOCA, a town of Brazil, in the province of Minas 
 Oeraes, 117 miles N. of Rio de Janeiro. It is situated on 
 the Ajuruoca river, which is here crossed by a bridge. Gold 
 was once found in the vicinity, but the soil has been long 
 exhausted of the precious metals ; and the people are 
 chiefly engaged in agriculture, and in rearing animals for 
 the markets of Rio. The land is fertile, and produces 
 millet, mandioca, coffee, sugar-cane, and tobacco. The 
 population of the town and district is 12,000. 
 
 AKAIJAII, The Gulf of, the Sinus Elanites of anti- 
 quity, is the eaatmost of the two divisions into which tho 
 Red Sea bifurcates near its northern extremity. It pene- 
 trates into Arabia Petnea in a N.N.E, direction, from 28° 
 to 29° 32' N. lat,, a distance of 100 miles, and its breadth 
 varies from 12 to 17 miles. The entrance is contracted 
 by Tiran and other islands, so that the passage is 
 
 rendered somewhat difficult; and its navigation is danger 
 ous on account of the numerous coral reefs, and the sudden 
 squalls which sweep down from the adjacent mountains, 
 many of which rise perpendicularly to a height of 2000 
 feet. The only well-sheltered harbeur is that called the 
 Golden Port, situated on its western shore about 33 miles 
 from the entrance, and 29 miles E. of Mount Sinai. 
 About 2i miles from the head of the gulf is the village 
 of Akabah, with a fortified castle, garrisoned by a few 
 soldiers for the protection of the Moslem pilgrims on their 
 way to Mecca. In the vicinity of the village there are 
 extensive date groves ; and there is abundance of good 
 water, fruit, and vegetables. Akabah, though now of 
 small importance, is not devoid of historical interest. It 
 is supposed to occupy the eite of the Elath of Scripture, 
 which in remote ages carried en an extensive commerce; 
 and some ruins in the sea a short distance southward are 
 surmised to be the remains of Eziongcber. 
 
 AKBAR, AKDBAJt, or Akbee, Jellaxadin Moham- 
 med, one of the greatest and wisest of the Moghul emperors, 
 was born at Amerkote in Sindh on the 14th October 1542, 
 his father, Humayun, having been driven from the throne 
 a short time before by the usurper Sher Khan. After more 
 than twelve years' exile, Humayun regained his sovereignty, 
 which, however, he had held only for a few months when 
 he died. Akbar succeeded his father in 155C under the 
 regency of Bahram Khan, a Turkoman noble, whose energy 
 in repelling pretenders to the throne, and severity in main- 
 taining the discipline of the army, tended greatly to the 
 consolidation of the newly-recovered empire. Bahram, 
 however, was naturally despotic and cruel; and when order 
 was somewhat restored, Akbar found it necessary to take 
 the reins of government into his own hands, which he did 
 by a proclamation. issued in March 1560. The discarded 
 regent lived for some time in rebellion, endeavouring to 
 establish an independent principality in Malwah, but at 
 last he was forced to cast himself on Akbar's mercy. The 
 emperor not only freely pardoned him, but magnanimously 
 offered him the choice of a high place in tho army or a 
 suitable escort for a pilgrimage to Mecca, and Bahram 
 preferred the latter alternative. When Akbar ascended 
 the throne, only a small portion of what had formerly been 
 comprised within tho Moghul empire owned his authority, 
 and he devoted himself with great determination and mar- 
 vellous success to the recovery of the revolted provinces. 
 Over each of these, as it was restored, he placed a governor, 
 whom he superintended with great vigilance and wisdom. 
 He tried by every means to develop and encourage com- 
 merce; he had the land accurately measured for the purpose 
 of rightly adjusting taxation ; he gave tho strictest instruc- 
 tions to prevent extortion on the part of the tax-gatherers, 
 and in many other respects displayed an enlightened and 
 equitable policy. Thus it happened that, in the fortieth 
 year of Akbar's reign the empire had more than regained 
 all that it had lost, the recovered provinces being reduced, 
 not to subjection only as before, but to a great degree of 
 peace, order, and contentment. Akbar's method of dealing 
 with what must always be the chief difficulty of one who 
 has to rule widely diverse races, affords perhaps the crown- 
 ing evidence of his wisdom and moderation. In religion 
 he was at first a Mussulman, but the intolerant exclu- 
 siveness of that creed was quite foreign to his character. 
 Scepticism as to the divine origin of the Koran led him to 
 seek the true religion in an eclectic system. He accord- 
 ingly set himself to obtain information about other religions, 
 sent to Goa, requesting that the Portuguese missionaries 
 there would visit him, and listened to them with intelligent 
 attention when they came. As the result of these inquiries, 
 he adopted the creed of pure deism and a ritual based 
 upon the p,v«*erc of Zoroaster. The religion thus founded.
 
 A K E — A K E 
 
 435 
 
 iiowever, having no vital force, never spread beyond the 
 limits of the court, and died with Akbar himself. But 
 though his eclectic system failed, the spirit of toleration 
 which originated it produced in other ways many import- 
 ant results; and, indeed, may be said to have done more 
 to establish Akbar's power on a secure basis than all hio 
 economic and social reforms. He conciliated the Hindoos 
 by giving them freedom of worship; while at the same 
 time he strictly prohibited certain barbarous Brahminical 
 practices, such as trial by ordeal and the burning of widows 
 against their will He also abolished all taxes upon pil- 
 grims as an interference with the liberty of worship, and 
 the capitation tax upon Hindoos, probably upon similar 
 grounds. Measures like these gained for him during his life- 
 time the title of "Guardian of Mankind," and caused him to 
 be held up as a model to Indian princes of later times, who 
 in the matter of religious toleration have only too seldom 
 followed his example. Akbar was a munificent patron of 
 literature. He established schools throughout his empire 
 for the education of Hindoos as well as Moslems, and he 
 gathered round him many men of literary talent, among 
 whom may be mentioned the brothers Feizi and Abul- 
 fazl. The former was commissioned by Akbar to trans- 
 late a number of Sanscrit scientific works into Persian; 
 and the latter (see Abulfazl) has left, in the Akbar-Nameh, 
 an enduring record of the emperor's reign. It is also said 
 that Akbar employed. Jerome Xavier, a Jesuit missionary, 
 to translate the four Gospels into Persian. The closing 
 years of Akbar's reign were rendered very unhappy by the 
 misconduct of his sons. Two of them died in youth, the 
 victims of intemperance; and the third, Selim, afterwards 
 the emperor Jehanghir, was frequently in rebellion against 
 his father. These calamities were keenly felt by Akbar, and 
 may even have tended to hasten his death, which occurred 
 at Agra on the 13th October 1605. His body was deposited 
 in a magnificent mausoleum at Sicandra, near Agra. 
 
 AKEN, or Acken, a town in Prussian Saxony, situated 
 on the Elbe, 25 miles E.S.E. of Magdeburg, close to the 
 frontiers of Anhalt. It has manufactures of cloth, leather, 
 chemicals, and optical instruments; large quantities of 
 beetroot sugar are produced in the neighbourhood; and 
 there is a considerable transit trade on the Elbe. Popula- 
 tion (1871), 5273. 
 
 AKENSIDE, Mark. Like young Henry Kirke White, 
 the poet of the Pleasures of Imagination was the son of a 
 butcher. He was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on November 
 9th, 1721. His school was the free one founded by a 
 former mayor of Newcastle, Thomas Horsley. Later, one 
 of the ministers of the Presbyterians added to his school- 
 acquired knowledge in private. In his sixteenth year he 
 sent to the Gentleman's Magazine a copy of verses entitled 
 " Tfee Virtuoso." Sylvanus Urban graciously printed the 
 poem : but the old man was not difficult to please. Other 
 verse contributions succeeded — imitative, yet not without 
 gleams of a true faculty: Some written in the Lake 
 country, while on visits with friends at Morpeth, have 
 Wordsworthian touches. The memories of these visits 
 transfigure the Pleasures of Imagination. In his nineteenth 
 year, being intended for the clerical profession, he pro- 
 ceeded to the university of Edinburgh; but within one 
 session, like many others, he. changed his purpose, and 
 transferred his name from the theological to the medical 
 classes — although, indeed, then, as still, the opening years 
 •were occupied with the same studies for either. On his 
 change he honourably returned certain moneys which his 
 fellow Presbyterians had advanced towards his theological 
 education. He attended the university for only two years. 
 While there, in 1740, a medical society, which combined' 
 with it a debating club, gave him a fine field for the 
 exercise of his oratorical powers. ' Dugald Stewart 
 
 states that Robertson the historian, then a student of 
 divinity, used to attend the meetings in order to hear 
 Akenside's speeches. Some of his miuor poems belong to 
 this period, such as his Ode " for the Winter Solstice," 
 the elegy called " Love," and the verses " to Cordelia." 
 He returned to his native toWn in 1741, and then his 
 friendship with Jeremiah Dyson had commenced, " a name 
 never to be mentioned by any lovei of genius or noble 
 deeds without affection and reverence" (Willmott). Iu 
 the years 1741 to 1743 he must have been ardent in his 
 wooing of the Muses. In the summer or autumn of 1743 
 Dodsley carried with him to Pope at Twickenham a MS. 
 for which the writer asked £120. The oracle of Twicken- 
 ham having read the poem, counselled the publisher to 
 make no niggardly offer, because "this was no every-day 
 writer." It was something for Pope to be thus prescient 
 in the absence of rhyme — albeit Pope's insertions in The 
 Seasons remain to attest that, supreme artist as he was in 
 rhyme, he could also manage blank verse with exquisite 
 cunningness. The MS. was the Pleasures of Imagination, 
 which Dodsley published in 1744. It his twenty-third 
 year the author, like Byron, awoke to find himself famous. 
 The assaults of Warburton and Hurd were scarcely a deduc- 
 tion from the universal welcome. The poet's "Epistle" to 
 Warburton was effective. He went to Leyden, and there 
 pursued his medicai studies with ardour. He obtained the 
 degree of M.D., May 16th, 1744; his inaugural disserta- 
 tion describing the, formation and growth of the human 
 foetus with original observation and acuteness. He now 
 returned to England, advancing more and more in his 
 friendship with the good and large-hearted Dyson. He 
 chose Northampton as the place wherein he should com- 
 mence practice. It was an unfortunate selection, as Sir 
 James Storehouse " possessed the confidence of the town," 
 and it was deemed an intrusion. A not very creditable 
 controversy arose; and we are at a loss whether most to 
 admire the stinging rebuffs in honeyed courtesies or the 
 mutual pretence of ultimate satisfaction and good-will. At 
 Northampton Akenside was on friendly terms with Dr 
 Doddridge. There, too, he wrote his " Epistle to Curio," 
 which Lord Macaulay pronounced his best production, as 
 " indicating powers of elevated satire, which, if diligently 
 cultivated, might have disputed the pre-eminence of Dry- 
 den." Willmott traces some of the most nervous lines of 
 the Pleasures of Hope to this " Epistle to Curio." Not 
 succeeding in his profession at Northampton, he removed 
 to Hampstead in 1747. The Odes had then been published. 
 Dr Akenside came to Hampstead under the aegis of the 
 generous Dyson. Somehow, in Hampstead as at North- 
 ampton, he manifested a vanity of self-display and hauteur 
 of manner that made him many enemies. Within three 
 years he had to leave Hampstead for London. He set 
 up in Bloomsbury Square in a "fine house," and with 
 an annuity of £300 from the still ungrudging Dyson. 
 One is pleased to come on these words of a far greater poet 
 a century later, "I am not unfrequently,"wiote Wordsworth 
 in 1837, "a visitor on Hampstead Heath, and I seldom pass 
 by the entrance of Mr Dyson's villa at Goulder's Hill, 
 close by, without thinking of the pleasure which Akenside 
 often had there." The generous clerk of the House of 
 Commons and secretary of the Treasury nobly earned his 
 imperishable place in the (revised) Pleasures of Imagina- 
 tion. Contemporaneous with, his professional duties, the 
 poet became an essayist and reviewer for Dodsley in the 
 now forgotten Museum. In 1753 the university of Cam- 
 bridge bestowed on him the degree of doctor of medicine. 
 In 1754 he was elected a fellow of the College of Physi- 
 cians. In 1755 he read before the college the Gulstonian 
 Lectures; and in 1756 the Croonian Lectures. In 1759 
 he was chosen assistant, and two months later chief.
 
 436 
 
 AKE-AKO 
 
 physician of St Thomas's Hospital. In this year he had 
 removed to Craven Street In 1762 he changed once more 
 to Burlington Street. In 1760 was published the Harveian 
 Oration by order of the College of Physicians. In 1761, 
 along with Dyson, he passed from a somewhat noisy 
 Whiggery to the Tories, which added " renegade" to his 
 name. In 1765-6 he was working upon the revised and 
 enlarged copy of the Pleasures of Imagination. His fame 
 was widening professionally and poetically, when a putrid 
 fever carried him off suddenly on June 23d, 1770. He 
 was buried at St James'» Church on the 28th. As a man, 
 the nearer one gets to Akenside the less is there lovable 
 about him; there seem to have been ineradicable mean- 
 nesses in his nature. Lavish in his expenditure while 
 practically dependent on Dyson, and remaining dependent 
 after his professional income ought to have released his 
 patron, we cannot think of him as high-minded. His 
 personal vanity was constantly bringing him sorenesses. 
 The " Doctor " in Peregrine Pickle was painted from the 
 life, not a mere creation of Smollett's genius. As a poet, 
 the place of Akenside is secure, but it is not very lofty. 
 His imagination is rhetorical rather than subtle, consisting 
 more of pomp of words than greatness of thought. His 
 chief defect is lack of emotion, and especially pathos. The 
 enlarged Pleasures of Imagination, notwithstanding some 
 roblo additions, was a blunder. Some of his minor pieces 
 have a classical grace and charm of expression. (See the 
 original editions of his writings ; Bucke's Life, Writings, 
 and Genius of Akenside, 1832; Dyce and Willmott's edition 
 of his Poems; Cunningham's Johnson's Lives of the Poets, 
 B.v. ; Biog. Brit.; Medical Biog., s.v.) (a. b. O.) 
 
 AKERBLAD, Jan David (1760-1819), a learned 
 Swede, distinguished for his researches in Runic, Coptic, 
 Phoenician, and ancient Egyptian literature. He entered 
 the diplomatic service as secretary to the Swedish embassy 
 at Constantinople, and utilised the leisure which the situa- 
 tion afforded by visiting Jerusalem (1792) and the Troad 
 (1797). After an interval spent at Gottingen, he was 
 appointed ambassador to Paris. His last years were passed 
 at Rome, where he enjoyed a pension from the Duchess 
 of Devonshire. Akerblad was a diligent student of hiero- 
 glyph ics ; and though he failed to decipher the Rosetta 
 stone, he arrived at certain conjectural conclusions with 
 regard to 'the true method of interpretation, which were 
 afterwards confirmed by Dr Young. His works include 
 letters on the Coptish cursive writing and on the Rosetta 
 inscription, both addressed to M. de Sacy ; and a number 
 of pamphlets on the interpretation of various Runic and 
 Phoenician inscriptions. 
 
 AK.ERM AN (perhaps the ancient Tyros or Julia Alba), 
 a town of Russia in Europe, in the province of Bessarabia, 
 on a tongue of land projecting into the estuary of the 
 Dniester. Its harbour is too shallow to admit vessels of 
 large size; but the trade of the town is, notwithstand- 
 ing, very considerable. Large quantities of salt are ob- 
 tained from the saline lakes in the neighbourhood; and 
 corn, wine, wool, and leather are among the other exports. 
 The town, which is ill-built, contains several mosques and 
 Greek and Armenian churches ; it is guarded by ramparts, 
 and is commanded by a citadel placed on an eminence. 
 Akerman derives some historical celebrity from the treaty 
 concluded there in 1826 between Russia and the Porte, 
 securing considerable advantages to the former. It was 
 the non-observance of this treaty by Turkey that led to the 
 war of 1828. Population (1867), 29,609. 
 
 AKERMAN, John Yonge, an antiquarian, distinguished 
 chiefly in the department of numismatics, was born in 
 Wiltshire on the 1 2th June 1806. He became early known 
 in connection with his favourite study, having initiated the 
 Numismatic Journal in 1836. In the following year he 
 
 became the secretary of the newly-established Numisms»t ; c 
 Society. In 1848 he was elected secretary to the Society 
 of Antiquaries, an office which he was compelled to resign 
 in 1860 on account of failing health. He died on ltith 
 November 1873. Akerman published a considerable num- 
 ber of works on his special subject, the more important 
 being a Catalogue of Roman Coins (1839); a Numismatic 
 Manual (1840); Roman Coins relating to Britain (1844), 
 for which he received the medal of the French Institute; 
 Ancient Coins — Ilispania, Gallia, Britannia (1846); and 
 Numismatic Illustrations of the New Testament (1846). He 
 wrote also a Glossary of Words used in Wiltshire (1842); 
 Wiltshire Tales, illustrative of the Dialect (1853); and 
 Remains of Pagan Saxondom (1855). 
 
 AKHALZIKH, a city of Georgia, in Asiatic Russia, on 
 an affluent of the Kur, 110 miles west of Tiflis, in 41° 40' 
 N. lat., 43° 1' E. long. It contains a strong castle, a college 
 and library, and a fine mosque, and has a considerable trade 
 in silk, honey, and wax. Population (1867), 15,977. 
 
 AE.HISSAR, the ancient Thyatira, a town of Turkey 
 in Asia, in Anatolia, 58 miles N.E. of Smyrna. The inha- 
 bitants are Greeks, Armenians, and Turks. The houses 
 are built of earth or turf dried in the sun, and are very 
 low and ill-constructed; but there are six or seven mosques, 
 which are all of marble. . Remarkable inscriptions are to be 
 seen in several parts of the town on portions of the ruins 
 of the ancient city. Cotton of excellent quality is grown 
 in the neighbourhood, and the place is celebrated for its 
 scarlet dyes. Population, about 6000. 
 
 AKHTYRKA, a town of Russia in Europe, in the 
 Ukraine, situated on a river of the same name, 45 miles 
 N.W. of Kharkov. It has eight churches, one of which, 
 containing an image of the Virgin, is hold in great venera- 
 tion. The town is enclosed by ditches ; and the environs 
 are fertile, the orchards producing excellent fruit. There 
 are some manufactures of light woollen stuffs, and a great 
 market is held annually in May. Population (1867), 17,411. 
 
 AK1BA, Ben Joseph, a famous rabbi who flourished 
 about the close of the first and the beginning of the second 
 centuries. It is almost impossible to separate the true from 
 the false in the numerous traditions respecting his life. 
 He became the chief teacher in the rabbinical school of 
 Jaffa, where, it is said, he had 24,000 scholars. What- 
 ever their number, it seems certain that among them was 
 the celebrated Rabbi Meir, and that through him and 
 others Akiba exerted a great influence on the development 
 of the doctrines embodied in the Talmud. He sided with 
 Barchochebas in his revolt, recognised him as the Messiah, 
 and acted as his sword-bearer. Being taken prisoner by 
 the Romans under Julius Severus, he was flayed alive 
 with circums.ances of great cruelty, and met his fate, 
 according to tradition, with marvellous steadfastness and 
 composure. He is said to have been a hundred and twenty 
 years old at . the time of his death. The Jews were long 
 accustomed to pay visits to his tomb, and he is one of the 
 ten Jewish martyrs whose names occur in a penitential 
 prayer still used once a year in the synagogue service. A 
 number of works commonly attributed to Akiba are of 
 later origin; but the one entitled *?*??. "'?;■; "»? (Doctrine 
 of Rabbi Akiba) is probably genuine. 
 
 AKOLA, a district and city of British India, in the 
 commissionership of West Berar, within the Haidarabad 
 assigned districts. Akola district lies between 20° 23' 
 and 21° 10' N. lat., and between 76° 25' and 77° 19' E. 
 long.; its greatest length from N. to S. being 72 miles r and 
 its greatest breadth from E. to W. 63 miles. It is bounded 
 on the N. by the Satpura range ; on the E. by Elichput 
 district ; on the S. by the Satmal and Ajanta hills ; and 
 on the W. by the Buldana and Khandesh districts. The 
 total area of the district in 1869 was 2697$ square miles.
 
 4K0-AKY 
 
 437 
 
 or 1,726,625 acres, of which 1,326,583 acres, or 2072-78 
 square miles were under cultivation; 127,003 acres, or 
 198'45 square miles, cultivable but not actually under 
 tillage; 41,198 acres, or 64'37 square miles, alienated land 
 held rent free; the remaining 231,842 acres, or 36225 
 square miles, consisting chiefly of unarable land, but includ- 
 ing river-beds, tanks, village sites, pasturage land, or land 
 occupied for public uses, <fcc. The population of the dis- 
 trict in 1869 numbered 487,558— viz., Hindus, 433,238; 
 Mahometans, 39,030; aborigines, 15,157; Christians, 78; 
 Parsfs, 45; Jews, 10. The district is square in shape 
 and almost of a dead level, with the exception of two 
 conical-shaped hills which stand out quite apart from any 
 other eminences, and rise straight up from the plain. The 
 principal river of Akola, which, although not navigable, 
 represents the main line of drainage, and into which the 
 other streams discharge themselves, is the Pdrna, flowing 
 east and west. The principal tributaries on its south 
 bank are the Kata Puma, Murna, Num, and Bordi ; and 
 on its north bank, the Shahnur, Idriipa, and Wiin. None 
 of these streams are navigable, and some of them almost 
 dry up after the rainy season. 
 
 The extension line of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway from 
 Bhosawal to Nagpur intersects the district, with stations at Jalam 
 Shegaon, Paras, Akola, and Borgaon. Of eight main roads, 
 three have been metalled. The first runs from Akola to Akot, a 
 rising cotton mart, and is 28 miles in length, running north-north- 
 east. It is metalled, and all the smaller water-courses are bridged. 
 The Purna and Shahnur rivers, however, cross the line, and are not 
 bridged, a circumstance which impairs the usefulness of the road 
 during the rainy season. The second road is known as the Basim 
 road, and runs for 24 miles southwards through the district. The 
 third road is 12 miles long, from Khamgaon to Nandura railway 
 station, and is metalled throughout. The other five lines of road are 
 neither bridged nor metalled, but only marked out and levelled. 
 The district imports piece goods from Bombay, and food grains from 
 the adjoining districts. Its principal exports ore cotton to Bombay, 
 clarified butter, dyes (indigo and kusamba), and cattle. Internal 
 trade is chiefly carried on at weekly markets and by annual fairs. 
 The principal manufacture of the district is the weaving of cotton. 
 Carpets and coarse cloths are woven in almost every ■ village, with 
 turbans at Balapur, and silk cloths for native women at Akola 
 and in the larger towns. The principal agricultural products are as 
 follows : — The wet weather or kharif crop consists of joar (eighteen 
 varieties); bajra (two kinds); cotton (two kinds); tur, urid, and 
 mug (three kinds of pulse) ; rice and kulkar (a smaller variety of 
 rice) ; Indian corn ; rala ; ganja ; ajwan ; indigo ; and til (oil-seeds 
 of two kinds). The cold weather or rabi crop consists of — wheat 
 (three kinds) ; gram ; linseed ; lakh (a pulse) ; peas ; ihusuri ; tobacco ; 
 and mustard. The principal articles of garden produce are the follow- 
 ing : — Sugar-cane (two kinds) ; Indian corn (two kinds) ; ground 
 nuts ; onions ; garlic ; coriander ; pan leaves ; chillies ; opium ; sweet 
 potatoes ; grapes ; plantains ; saffron ; and numerous kinds of vege- 
 tables. A tenure peculiar to Akola is that known as metkart hold- 
 ings. These consist of certain strips of land extending along the 
 whole breadth of the district at the foot of the frontier range. They 
 are now of considerable value, and were originally held as payment 
 for the maintenance of a chain of outposts or watch-towers on 
 elevated points in the ridge, with a view to giving warning of the 
 approach of the Bhil or Gond banditti, and warding off their attacks. 
 Seven towns are returned as containing a population exceeding 3000 
 — vii, Akola (the capital of the district), population 12,236 ; Akot, 
 one of the principal cotton marts of Berar, and also celebrated for its 
 cotton manufacture, 14,006 ; Khamgaon, now the largest cotton mart 
 in the province, but which has only sprung into importance within 
 recent times, 9432 ; Balapur, one of the chief military stations 
 in the Berars during the Mahometan rule, 12,631 ; Jalgaon, an 
 important cotton market, 8763 ; Patur, 6011 ; Shegaon, a station 
 on the Great Indian Peninsular Kailway, and a cotton market, 
 7450. In 1869 there were 1 higher class, 10 middle class, and 63 
 lower schools for boys in Akola district ; besides 7 female schools 
 and 1 normal school for training Hindustani and Marhati masters, 
 making a total of 82 schools in all. For the protection of person 
 and property there were in 1869 13 police stations and 12 outposts, 
 with a regular police force of 636 officers and men, equal to one man 
 to every five miles of the district area, or one man to every 909 of 
 the population. 
 
 AkoiX Town, the headquarters of the district of the 
 same name, and also of the west Berar division of the 
 HnidaraLAd assigned territory, is situated on the Nagpur 
 
 extension of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway, in 20" 
 6' N. lat., and 76° 2' E long. The town contains three or 
 four wealthy merchants; and two markets are held each 
 week — one on Sundays, the other on Wednesdays. The 
 commissioner's and deputy-commissioner's court-houses, the 
 central jail (capable of holding 500 prisoners), the post- 
 office, and barracks or rest-houses for European troops, 
 close to the station, are the principal public buildings. 
 Besides these, there are a civil hospital, a charitable dispen- 
 sary, an English high school, a town-hall, and an English 
 church. A detachment of infantry is stationed at the town. 
 Population in 1869, 12,236. 
 
 AKRON, a town of the United States, capital of Sum- 
 mit county, Ohio, situated on the Atlantic and Great 
 Western Railway, and on the Ohio and Erie Canal, at its 
 junction with the Pennsylvania and Ohio Canal, 36 miles 
 S. of Cleveland. By means of the canal and the Little 
 Cuyahoga river the town is amply supplied with water- 
 power, which is employed in a variety of manufactures ; 
 and its mercantile business is extensive. It has several 
 flour mills, woollen factories, and manufactories of iron 
 goods. Mineral fire-proof paint, immense beds of which 
 are found in the vicinity, and wheat are important articles 
 of export. Akron was founded in 1825, and was made the 
 capital of the county in 1841. Population in 1870, 10,006. 
 
 AK-SU, a town of Chinese Turkestan, is situated in 
 41° 7' N. lat., 79° E. long., 250 miles N.E of Yarkand. 
 It has a flourishing trade, and is resorted to for purposes 
 of commerce by caravans from all parts of Central Asia. 
 There are some cotton manufactures; and the place is 
 celebrated for its richly-ornamented saddlery made from 
 deer-skin. A Chinese garrison is stationed here, and 
 copper and iron are wrought in the neighbourhood by 
 exiled Chinese criminals.' The district is well cultivated, 
 and sheep and cattle are extensively reared. The popula- 
 tion of the town is about 20,000 ; that of the town and 
 district 100,000. 
 
 AKYAB, a district and city within the Arakan division 
 of British Burmah, and under the jurisdiction of the chief 
 commissioner of that province. The district lies along the 
 north-eastern shores of the Bay of Bengal, between 20" 
 and 2 1 £° N. lat. , and 92° 1 2' and 9 4° E. long. It forms the 
 northernmost district of British Burmah, and the largest 
 of the three districts of the Arakan division. It is bounded 
 on the N. by the Chittagong district of Bengal; on the E. 
 by the Sumadoung ranges, which separate it from Inde- 
 pendent Burmah; on the S. by the Arakan districts of 
 Ramri and Sandoway ; and on the W. by the Bay of Bengal 
 In 1871 the frontier or hill tracts of the district were placed 
 under a special administration, with a view to the better 
 government of the wild tribes which inhabit them. The) 
 present area is returned at 4858 square miles, of which 
 621 square miles are cultivated, 913 cultivable but not 
 actually under tillage, and 3424 square miles uncultivable 
 and waste. The population of the district in 1872 
 amounted to 263,152, of whom' 192,885 were Buddhists 
 or Jains, 47,349 Mahometans, 8687 Hindus, 13,928 abori- 
 gines, and 303 Christians. The central part of the district 
 consists of three fertile valleys, watered by the Myu, 
 Koladyne, and Lemyu. These rivers approach each other 
 at their mouths, and form a vast network of tidal chan- 
 nels, creeks, and islands. Their alluvial valleys yield 
 inexhaustible supplies of rice, which the abundant water 
 carriage brings down to the port of Akyab at a very cheap 
 rata The four chief towns are Khumgchii in the extreme 
 north-east of the district; Koladyne in the centre; Arakan, 
 further. down the rivers; and Akyab on the coast, where 
 their mouths converge. This district passed into the hands 
 of the British, together with the rest of Arakan division, 
 | at the close of the first Burmese war of 1825.
 
 438 
 
 A K Y — A L A 
 
 Aiyab, Town and Poet," situated at the point of con- 
 vergence of the three large rive "8 Myu, Koladyne, and 
 Leniyu, £0° 9' X. lat., and 92° 56' E. long., is the chief 
 town of the district of the same name, and the most flourish- 
 ing city of the Arakan division. The town is regularly 
 built, with broad streets running at right angles to each 
 other. The port is commodious, is the seat of a large export 
 trade in rice, and possesses steam communication direct 
 with Calcutta once a fortnight, except during the. south-west 
 monsoon. The population in 1871-72 numbered 15,281. 
 Akyab monopolises almost the whole sea-borne trade of the 
 province of Arakan, amounting in 1871-72 to £1,345,417; 
 to which the export of nee contributed £105,894. During 
 1871-72, 256 vessels, of a total burden of 129,061 tons, 
 entered the port; and 262 vessels, of a burden of 130,203 
 tons, cleared. 
 
 ALABAMA, one of the Southern States of the North 
 American Union, lies between 30° 13' and 35° N. lat., and 
 between 85° and 88° 35' W. long.' It is bounded by 
 Florida and the Gulf of Mexico on the S., Mississippi 
 on the W., Tennessee on the N., and Georgia on the E. 
 
 Its length i3 330 miles, average breadth 154, and area 
 50,722 square miles. The Alleghany range stretches 
 into the northern portion of the state, but the elevation 
 is nowhere great ; the centre is also hilly and broken ; on 
 the south, however, for nearly 60 miles inland, the country 
 is very flat, and raised but little above the sea-leveL 
 The Alabama is the chief river of the state-. It is 
 formed by the junction of the Coosa and the Talapoosa, 
 which unite about 10 miles above the city of Mont- 
 gomery. Forty-five miles above Mobile the Alabama is 
 joined by the Tombigbee, and from that point is known 
 as the Mobile River. It is navigable from Mobile to 
 Wetumpka, on the Coosa, some 460 miles. The Tombig- 
 bee is navigable to Columbus, and the Black 'Warrior, one 
 of its chief tributaries, to Tuscaloosa. The Tennessee 
 flows through the northern portion of the state, and the 
 Chattahoochee forms part of its eastern boundary. The 
 climate of Alabama is semi-tropical. The temperature 
 ranges from 82° to 18° Fahr. in winter, and in summer 
 
 from 105° to 60°; the mean temperature for the year "being 
 a little over 60°. The average severity of the winter 
 months is considered to have increased — a result due, it is 
 said, mainly to the felling of the forests, which gives more 
 unrestricted scope to the cold north-west winds from the 
 Rocky Mountains. The uplands are healthy, but the in- 
 habitants of the low-lying lands aie subject to attacks of 
 intermittent, bilious, and congestive fevers. The stratified 
 rocks of the state belong to the Silurian, carboniferous, 
 cretaceous, and tertiary systems. The silurian strata throw 
 up numerous mineral springs along the line of the anti- 
 clinal axes, some of which, such as Blount Springs and 
 the St Clair .Springs, are much resorted to for their health- 
 giving properties. There are also several noted springs 
 arising from the tertiary beds, such as those of Tallahatta 
 and Bladon. Alabama possesses extensive coal deposits. 
 Mr Tait, the state commissioner for the industrial resources 
 of Alabama, considers that the area of the coal-lands in 
 the state amounts to 5500 square miles, of which 5000 
 belong to the Warrior, and the remaining 500 to the 
 Cahawba and Coosa fields. Assuming that only one-half of 
 this area can be worked to advantage,. Mr Tait further esti- 
 mates the aggregate possible yield at 52,250,000,000 tons. 
 At present, however, the annual output probably does not 
 exceed 12,000 tons. In regard to iron, the natural wealth 
 of Alabama is also very great. Mr Tait asserts that a 
 ridgo of iron, of an average thickness of 15 feet, runs 
 parallel to one of the principal railway lines for a distance 
 of 100 miles ; and in other parts of the country there are 
 large deposits of ore, both red hematite and blackband. 
 The ores of Alabama are said to yield from 10 to 20 per 
 cent more iron than those of Britain. Grcnite,- marble, 
 flagstones, roofing-slate, lime, and porcelain clay, are 
 among the other mineral products. A little gold has 
 also been found in the state. 
 
 The soil of Alabama varies* greatly in character, but is 
 for the most part productive to a greater or lesser extent, 
 except in the south, where there are considerable tracts of 
 sandy, barren, and almost worthless soiL • The forests are 
 mainly in the central and northern parts of the state, and 
 embrace oaks, poplars, cedars, chestnuts, pines, hickories, 
 mulberries, elms, and cypresses. The following table 
 exhibits the chief agricultural statistics of Alabama for 
 1870, as compared with 1860, the year before the war: — 
 
 
 1870. 
 
 1860. 
 
 Land in 
 
 Improved, . . 
 
 . acres 
 
 6,062,204 
 
 6,385,724 
 
 Farms. 
 
 Unimproved, . 
 
 
 9,898,974 
 
 12,718,821 
 
 Live Stock 
 
 
 
 80,770 
 76,675 
 
 127,063 
 111.687 
 
 Moles and Aaooe, 
 
 ■ • . • 
 
 on 
 
 
 
 487,163 
 
 773,396 
 
 Farms. 
 
 
 * 
 
 241,934 
 
 370,156 
 
 
 I Swine, . . • 
 
 * . 
 
 719,757 
 
 1,748,321 
 
 
 /Indian Com, . 
 
 bushels 
 
 16,977,948 
 
 33,226,282 
 
 
 Wheat, . . . 
 
 
 1,055,063 
 
 1,218,444 
 
 
 
 
 18,977 
 
 72,457 
 
 
 
 
 770,866 
 
 882, 
 
 
 Potatoes, . . 
 
 
 2,033,872 
 
 5,931. 
 
 Chief 1 
 
 Pease and Beans, 
 
 
 156,574 
 
 1,4*2,036 
 
 Products. 
 
 Butter, . ■ 
 
 tt> 
 
 8,213,753 
 
 6,02?, 478 
 
 
 Cotton, . . 
 
 bales 
 
 429,482 
 
 989,955 
 
 
 Wool, . . . 
 
 
 881,253 
 
 775,117 
 
 
 Rice 
 
 lb 
 
 222,945 
 
 493,465 
 
 
 Tobacco, . . 
 
 
 152, 742 
 
 232,914 
 
 
 ^Molasses, . . 
 
 gallons 
 
 433,281 
 
 140,768 
 
 Alabama possesses comparatively few manufactures. It 
 is estimated that in 1870 the capital invested amounted 
 to £1,140,806, and the total products in the same year 
 were valued at £2,608,124. There were in 1870 thirteen 
 establishments for the manufacture of cotton goods, whoso 
 products amounted in all to 2,843,000 ft, including 
 4,518,403 yards of sheetings and shirtings, and 1,039,321
 
 ^ 
 
 1 .
 
 ALA-ALA 
 
 439 
 
 yards of ginghams and checks. In the same year 613 flour 
 m0l3 operated on 3,298,848 bushels of grain. There were 
 234 lumber mills, producing 1,115,000 laths, 97,192 feet 
 of lumber, and 1,422,000 shingles. In the iron manufac- 
 tures there has been a marked advance, which is the more 
 noticeable because several other industries have experienced 
 a serious decline. Thus, in 1850 the quantity of ore used 
 for making pig-iron was only 1138 tons, in 1860 it had 
 risen to 3720 tons, and in 1870 to 11,350; the value of 
 the products being respectively £4500, £12,918, and 
 £42,051. Alabama has also manufactories of rolled and 
 cast iron; but the rise in the value of their products is not so 
 marked. There are, besides, tanneries, carriage and waggon 
 works, an 1 machinery factories, in addition to industries 
 of a local nature. Mobile is the chief mercantile city of 
 the state. In the years ending June 30, 1871 and 1872, 
 688 and 369 vessels (gross burden, 558,525 and 272,853 
 tons) entered, and 711 and 369 (551,310 and 277,356 tons) 
 cleared the port of Mobile. Cotton was the principal 
 article of export — the amount in 1871 being 287,074 
 bales, and in 1872, 137,977; of which 240,660 and 
 123,522 bales went to Great Britain. Mobile is con- 
 nected with the general network of railways of the United 
 States. A line runs from the city through Montgomery 
 and on to Atlanta in Georgia; another runs from Mobile 
 to Meridian in Mississippi; a line crosses the state from 
 Meridian through Cahawba to Montgomery; a loop-line 
 runs from Montgomery to Troy, and proceeding round by 
 Columbus in Georgia, rejoins the main line at Opelika; from 
 Selma a line proceeds north-easterly, following the valley 
 of the Coosa, and passing through Georgia and Tennessee; 
 and another traverses the valley of the Tennessee, from 
 which a branch strikes off to the nortb,to join the Ten- 
 nessee group of railways at Nashville. A line also con- 
 nects Mobile with New Orleans. The part of the line 
 from Mobile to Montgomery between Mobile and Tensaa 
 was completed under considerable engineering difficulties. 
 It crosses the Mobile river by a swing drawbridge 1000 
 feet in length, with a draw of 260 feet; while the 
 Tensas river bridge is built on cylindrical piers, each 
 span measuring 152 feet, and its total length 2084 feet. 
 There are at present 1602 mile3 of railway and 2135 of 
 telegraph lines in operation in Alabama. 
 
 Alabama returns 8 members to Gongress. The state 
 government is vested in a governor, Senate, and House of 
 Representatives. The Senate consists of 33 members 
 elected for four years, one half retiring every two years. 
 The House of Representatives consists of not more -than 
 100 members, elected for two years, and apportioned 
 among the counties according to population, each county, 
 however, being » entitled to at least one representative. 
 The members of both houses receive 1 6s. 8<L each per diem, 
 and the governor £520, 16s. 8d. per annum. The taxation 
 in 1870 amounted to $2,982,932, and the public debt to 
 $13,277,154. In 1860 the taxation was only $851,171. 
 The state is divided into 65 counties, and Montgomery is 
 the capital The other principal towns are Mobile, Tus- 
 caloosa (the former capital), Florence, Huntsville, Selma, 
 and Wetiimpka. 
 
 Alabama was first penetrated by the Spaniards in quest 
 of gold in 1541, under the celebrated leader De Soto. The 
 natives defended themselves stubbornly, and in their 
 defence inflicted and sustained very severe losses. The 
 present site of Mobile was first occupied by the French in 
 1711. In 1763 the French possessions east of the Missis- 
 sippi, including Alabama, were ceded to England. Alabama 
 was originally included in Georgia, but in 1802 became 
 part of the territory of Mississippi. In 1813 the Creek 
 indians made a desperate effort to check the encroach- 
 ments of the Anglo-Saxons, but were eventually crushed id 
 
 the battle of Horse Shoe Bend by General Jackson, who 
 compelled them to surrender three-fourths of their terri- 
 tory. In 1819 Alabama was admitted into the Union as 
 an independent member of the confederation. It seceded 
 in the year 1861, but since the close of the war has been 
 again admitted into the Union. 
 
 The census of 1870 showed the following results : — Total 
 population of Alabama, 996,992; coloured, 475,510; with 
 98 Indians. Of these, 987,030 were native born, and 
 9962 foreign. In 1860 the population was 964,201,. of 
 whom 526,271 were whites and 437,770 (435,080 slaves) 
 were coloured; in 1820 (the year after Alabama had been 
 admitted into the Union) the numbers were — total, 127,901; 
 whites, 85,451 ; coloured, 42,450 (41,879 slaves). Of ths 
 total population in 1870, 488,738 were males (255,023 
 whites, 233,677 coloured, 38 Indians) and 508,254 females 
 (respectively, 266,361, 241,833, 60). In regard to educa- 
 tion, there were in the state between 5 and 18 years 
 of age, 173,273 males (91,989 whites, 81,274 coloured, 
 and 10 Indians) and 169,703 females (89,798, 79,882, 
 and 23); of whom 77,139 have attended school (viz., 
 31,098 white and 7502 coloured males, and 30,226 
 white and 8313 coloured females). The returns give 2969 
 schools, with 2372 male and 992 female teachers. Of 
 persons 10 years and upwards, there were 349,771 returned 
 as unable to read, and 383,012 as unable to write. 
 
 ALABASTER (said to be derived from the Arabic al 
 batstraton, the whitish stone), a name properly restricted to 
 the fine massive variety of gypsum, or sulphate of lime, which 
 is used in the manufacture of ornamental vases, statuettes, 
 clock-frames, &c. When pure, it is of a brilliant pearly- 
 white lustre, so very soft as to be easily scratched by the 
 nail, and is soluble to a slight extent ha water. It occurs in 
 large and very pure masses at several localities in Tuscany, 
 and is turned or chiselled into its various ornamental forms 
 in Florence, which is the centre of the alabaster trade. At 
 a time when the taste for alabaster work was more general 
 than now, it was quarried at Lagny, near Paris. In Eng- 
 land considerable deposits are found in various localities, 
 but chiefly in Derbyshire and Staffordshire, where it is 
 worked to form the plaster of Paris moulds used by pottera ; 
 hence it is termed " potters' stone." Fine blocks found 
 in quarrying the potters' stone are reserved for the 
 alabaster turners. A yellow variety of alabaster, found at 
 Sienna, is termed " alabastra agatato." When it presents a 
 fibrous structure, it is known as ,: satin spar," which when 
 cut has the opalescent appearance of " cat's eyes." Ori- 
 ental alabaster is the name applied to the stalagmitic 
 variety of carbonate of lime formed on the floors of lime- 
 stone caves by th'e percolation of water, an entirely dif- 
 ferent material from the above. It is usually clouded or 
 banded in an agate-like manner, and hence is sometimes 
 known as onyx marble. The alabaster yielded by celebrated 
 quarries, known to the ancients and now again worked, in 
 the province of Oran. Algeria, is of this kind. It is this 
 oriental alabaster that is referred to in the Bible, the 
 a\aftao~rpirt)i of the Greeks. The stone was held in very 
 high estimation among the civilised nations of antiquity, 
 being then chiefly procured from quarries in the neighbour- 
 hood of Thebes, which to this day remain unexhausted. At 
 the present time it is procured from Oran (Algerian onyx), 
 the Pyrenees. Chili. California, ic In the Soanean Museum 
 there is an Egyptian' sarcophagus in oriental alabaster, 
 covered with hieroglyphics, which was purchased by Sir 
 John Soane for 2000 guineas. 
 
 ALABASTER. William, D.D., poet and scholar. If 
 to have been commemorated with golden words by Ed- 
 mund Spenser in his Colin Clouts come Home Againe, 1L 
 400 415. and by Herrick in bis Hesperides ; and to have 
 been reckoned " foeman worthy of his steel " by Bishop
 
 440 
 
 ALA-ALA 
 
 Bedell ; and to have had his portrait painted by Cornelius 
 Jansen, and engraved by Payne ; and to have been pro- 
 nounced by Fuller " a most rare poet as any our age or 
 nation hath produced ;" and to have drawn from Samuel 
 Johnson unequivocal eulogium, may be regarded as entit- 
 ling to a claim on our interest at this later day, Dr William 
 Alabaster unites in himself all these memorable tributes.. 
 Alabaster was his own spelling, as it was Bedell's and 
 Fuller's ; but it is found contemporaneously " Arblastier." 
 The name, is derived from arcubalista (in arms of the 
 family, a cross-bow bent in pale), and the' same probably 
 as Arblastier. He was born* at Hadleigh, Suffolk, about 
 1567, was educated at Westminster School, and went 
 thence to Trinity College, Cambridge. He was also in- 
 corporated at Oxford in 1592. He became fellow of 
 Trinity. Having been appointed chaplain to Robert, Earl 
 of Esses, he attended him in that expedition, designed to 
 aid Henry TV. against the League in 1591, celebrated by 
 Dr Donne in "The Storm" and "The Calm." While in 
 France (in his twenty-fourth year), he was converted to 
 Roman Catholicism, and a quaint English sonnet, " Of his 
 Conversion," survives, wherein ho defies the " frowne and 
 scorne and purblind pittie" of the world, as having a 
 vision of perdition if he yielded thereto. He did not long 
 remain a Roman Catholic. In the preface to his work 
 entitled Ecce Sponsus Venit (1633), he relates that certain 
 doctrines of his having become obnoxious to the court of 
 Rome, he wa3 enticed to that city and imprisoned there 
 by authority of the Inquisition ; and that on his liberation 
 he wa3 confined within 'the city walls, but escaped at the 
 peril of his life, and returned to Eugland.. On his return 
 he became prebendary of St Paul's and rector of Hatfield. 
 Dr Alabaster was famous as a Hebraist; but his studies of 
 Hebrew took a twist in the direction of the cabalistic 
 learning, by which he luxuriated in discussions on the 
 mystical meanings imagined to be bidden in the words of 
 the Old Testament. The investigation and application of 
 this supposed mystical meaning of Scripturo was the main 
 object of his Apparatus in Revelationem Jem Christi 
 (Antwerp, 1607); and, indeed, it run3 through all his 
 critical writings, as in his singular Spiraculum Tubarum, 
 rive Fons Spiritualium Expositionem ex equivocis Penta- 
 glotli Significationibus (n.d., folio), his Lexicon Pentaglotton 
 (1637, folio), and the Commentarius de Bestia Apoca- 
 lyptica (1621). It was of these books Herrick wrote -as 
 making Alabaster "the one, one onely glory of a million." 
 A MS. of Alabaster's Elisceis is among Emanuel College 
 MSS. ; a better one, with additional poems, entitled 
 " Inuenta Bellica" — recalling Herbert's " Triumphus 
 Mortis," so headed — and " Inuenta Adespota," is in the 
 Chetham Library, Manchester. The poem is unfinished, but 
 has lines in it which account for Spenser's lofty praise and 
 hopes. It has never been printed. His best known verse 
 is a Latin tragedy called Roxana. This is praised by 
 Fuller, stirred Anthony a Wood into enthusiasm, and is 
 regarded by Dr Johnson as the only Latin verse in Eng- 
 land worthy to be named previous to Milton. It was 
 prepared for InV college (Trinity), and never meant for 
 publication. Having been surreptitiously published in 
 1632, the author thereupon reprinted it, with this on the 
 title-page, "A plagiariis unguibus vindicata, aucta et 
 agnita." It is a curious composition. The subject is an 
 oriental tale which had previously been dramatised in the 
 Dalida of Groto, an Italian. The scenes consist of con- 
 versations between real and allegorical personages. The 
 first act is entirely carried on between the ghost of one of 
 the characters and personifications of Death and Suspicion. 
 Hallam charges Alabaster with plagiarism from Dalida, 
 but he cannot have really read the two. Alabaster died 
 about 1 64i. (a. b. a.) 
 
 ALACRANES, a group of coral reefs and islands in ths 
 Gulf of Mexico, 80 miles off the north coast of Yucatan, 
 and extending 14 miles from north to south, and 11 from 
 east to west. On the 12th February 1847 the mail steamer 
 Tweed was wrecked on the Alacraues ; and in January 1849 
 a similar disaster befell the Forth, belonging to the same 
 company. On the south side, in 22° 23' 36" N. lat., and 
 89° 42' W. long., there is a secure harbour, well sheltered 
 by dry reefs. 
 
 ALAGOAS, a maritime province of Brazil, formerly a 
 district of Pernambuco, is situated between 9° and 10° 30' 
 S. lat., and extends inlaud 150 miles. It is.bounded on 
 the N. and W. by Pernambuco, and is separated by the 
 river San Francisco from the province of Sergipe on the 
 S. It embraces an area of 12,000 square miles. The 
 country, particularly in the north-west, is very moun- 
 tainous, but at the same time richly wooded. On the 
 eastern side of the mountains, hilly tracts, well suited for 
 the cultivation of cotton, descend towards the coast, and 
 nearer the sea there is a rich alluvial soil interspersed with 
 swamps (lagoas), whence the province takes its name. The 
 chief articles of produce and export are sugar-cane, rice, 
 cotton, hides, and rosewood. Tropical fruits of all kinds 
 are produced ib abundance, and the forests, besides ad- 
 mirable timber, yield various dyes and drugs. The people 
 are chiefly engaged in agriculture, and there are no manu- 
 factures of importance. The population of the province is 
 300,000. The town of Axagoas, formerly the capital of the 
 province, is situated on Lake Manguaba. It has deci/ned 
 considerably since the transfer of the local government 
 to Maceio. Population, including district, 12,000. 
 
 AT, ATM DE LILLE (Alant/s ab Insulis), theologian 
 and ecclesiastic, born at Lille or Ryssel about the year 
 1114. The facts of his life are involved in uncertainty, 
 owing to his having been frequently confounded by bio- 
 graphers with others, nearly contemporary, who bore the 
 same uame. Some have identified, him with Alarms, 
 bishop of Auxerres ; others confound him with an elder 
 Alanus, also born at Lille. These, however, were probably 
 three distinct persons. Of the theological writer known 
 as the doctor universalis, all that can be said with certainty 
 is that he was a Cistercian monk. It is probable that 
 he passed a great part of his life in England, though he 
 ended his days in the abbey of Citeaux His works are 
 very numerous, the most important of them being entitled 
 Anti-Claudianus, she de Officio Firi Boni et Perfecti. The 
 title denotes that the work takes for its model Claudian's 
 satire against Rufinus, the minister of Theodosius. It is 
 written in verse, and partakes somewhat of the character 
 of an encyclopedia, Alain's De Arte Catholics Fidei is 
 remarkable for its endeavour to base dogmatic theology on 
 the exact reasoning of mathematical demonstration, and 
 for its admission that heresy was to be overcome by argu- 
 ment and not by mere authority. His exposition of the 
 prophecies of Merlin, in seven books, is of some importance 
 in its bearing upon English history. A Life of St Bernard 
 and a treatise against heretics, usually included among the 
 works of this author, are, from internal evidence, to be 
 attributed with more probability to the bishop of Auxerres. 
 Alain died about 1202-3. 
 
 AT. ATS, a flourishing town of France, in the department 
 of the Gard, on the right bank of the Gardon, at the foot 
 of the Cevennes, 25 miles north-north-west of NImes, with 
 which it is united by rail. In the 17th century it was a 
 stronghold of the French Protestants, and was besieged 
 and taken by Louis XIII. in 1629. It has a citadel, 
 erected by Louis XIV., a fine Gothic church, and a mining 
 school. The town itself has considerable manufactures of 
 ribands, silk, earthenware, glass, and vitriol ; but its pros- 
 perity is chiefly derived from the adjacent mineral field.
 
 A L A — A L A 
 
 441 
 
 Which was opened up in 1819, and yields great quantities 
 of coal and iron, as well as zinc, lead, and manganese. 
 The numerous mines, blast furnaces, and iron foundries, 
 afford employment to many workmen. There are cold 
 mineral springs in the vicinity, which attract large num- 
 bers of visitors during the summer months. Population 
 Bi 1872, 19,230. 
 
 ALAJUELA, a city in the state of Costa Rica, Central 
 America, 23 miles W.N.W. from Cartago, and midway 
 between it and the west coast. It is a place of consider- 
 able trade, and is connected by a mule road with the port 
 of Puntas Arenas, the only good harbour possessed by Costa 
 Eica on the Pacific Ocean. Some parts of the town are 
 well built and beautifully situated; and the detached houses 
 in the environs are embowered by trees and flowering 
 shrubs. The sugar-cane is cultivated hi the neighbourhood. 
 Population, 12,57.5. 
 
 ALAMANNI, or Alemajott, Lr/iGi, an Italian states- 
 man and poet, was born at Florence in 1495. His father 
 was a devoted adherent of the Medici party, but Luigi, 
 smarting under a supposed injustice, joined with others in 
 an unsuccessful conspiracy against Giulio de' Medici, after- 
 wards Pope Clement VJ_l. He was obliged in consequence 
 to take refuge in Venice, and, on the accession of Clement, 
 to flee to France. When Florence shook off the papal 
 yoke, Alamanni returned, and took a prominent part in the 
 management of the affairs of the republic. On the restora- 
 tion of the Medici (1530), he had again to take refuge in 
 France, where he composed the greater part of his works. 
 He was a favourite with Francis I., who sent him as ambas- 
 uador to Charles V. after the peace of Crespi in 1544. As 
 an instance of his tact in this capacity, it is related that; 
 when Charles interrupted a complimentary address by 
 quoting from a satirical poem of Alamanni's the words — 
 
 " l'aquila grifagna, 
 Che per pin devorar, duoi rostri porta." 
 (Two crooked bilk the ravenous eagle bears, 
 The better to devour,) 
 
 the latter at once replied that he spoke then as a poet, 
 who was permitted to use fictions, but that he spoke now 
 as an ambassador, who was obliged to .tell the truth The 
 ready reply pleased Charles, who added some compli- 
 mentary words. After the death of Francis, Alamanni 
 enjoyed the confidence of his successor Henry IX, and in 
 1551 was sent by him as his ambassador to Genoa. He died* 
 at Amboise in 1556. He wrote a large number of poems, 
 distinguished by the purity and excellence of their style. 
 The best is a didactic poem, La Coltivazione (1533), written 
 in imitation of Virgil's G^orgics. His Opere Tolcant (1532) 
 consists of satirical pieces written in blank verse. An 
 unfinished poem, Arvarckide, in imitation of the Iliad, was 
 the work of his old age, and has little merit. It has been 
 said by some that Alamanni was the first to use blank 
 verse in Italian poetry, but the distinction belongs rather 
 to his contemporary Trissino. 
 
 ALAMOS, Los, a town bf Mexico, in the state of 
 Sinaloa, situated on a barren plain 140 miles N.N.W. of 
 Sinaloa. The hous.es of the town are mostly of stone or 
 brick covered with stucco, and several of the streets are 
 well paved; provisions are dear and water scarce. The 
 Burrounding district contains many rich silver mines. Of 
 the population, amounting to about 10,000, a large propor- 
 tion are employed in the mines. 
 
 ALAMOS DE BARRLENTOS, Don Balthazar, a 
 Spanish philologist, born at Medina del Campo, in Castile, 
 about 1550. He was on terms of intimate friendship with^ 
 Antonio Perez, secretary to Philip. H. ; and when the latter 
 fell into disgrace, Alamos was cast- into prison, where he 
 remained nearly twelve years. During this period he pre- 
 pared the translation of Tacitus, with a commentary, which 
 
 gave him his reputation as a classical scholar. Cn the 
 death of Philip IX Alamos recovered his liberty, and 
 afterwards received various important court appointments 
 through the influence of the Duke de Lerma and the Count 
 d'Olivarez. He died at the age of eighty-five. 
 
 ALAN, Allen, or Allyn, William (1532-94), car- 
 dinal, was born at Rossall in Lancashire. He studied 
 at Oriel College, Oxford, and was appointed principal of 
 St Mary's Hall in 1556. Two years later he was made a 
 canon of York; but being opposed to the Reformation, 
 was forced to flee to Louvain on the accession of Elizabeth. 
 He returned to England after a time, and for some years 
 resided chiefly at Oxford ; but his proselytising zeal being 
 discovered, necessitated a second flight. At Douay he 
 received a doctor's degree from the recently-founded univer- 
 sity, and he himself established a college there for English 
 Catholics. In 1587 he was made cardinal of St Martin 
 de Montibus, and in 1589 archbishop of Mechlin, The 
 great aim of his life seems to have been to restore the papal 
 supremacy in England. For this purpose he founded the 
 college at Douay, and sent over the Jesuit priests trained 
 there'to his native land. He was, of course, a bitter enemy 
 of Elizabeth, who expelled his emissaries, and even caused 
 some of them to be put to death. One of his pamphlets, 
 prepared for circulation among the English people, con- 
 tained charges against the queen so foul and scurrilous that 
 they can scarcely be repeated. It was only natural that he 
 should be one of the chief intriguers in the Spanish plot 
 which led to the fitting out of the Armada, especially as the 
 pope had promised him the archbishopric of Canterbury in 
 the event of the expedition being successful. His letters 
 to Philip were full of encouragement, and the failure of the 
 enterprise must have been a severe blow to him. When 
 the fact became known, he lost favour at the papal court 
 and was refused permission to return to his diocese. 
 
 ALAND 1M.A.\1>S, an archipelago at the entrance to 
 the Gulf of Bothnia, about 25 miles from the coast of 
 Sweden, and 15 from that of Finland. The group consists 
 of nearly 300 islands, of which about 80 are inhabited, the 
 remainder being desolate rocks. These islands form a 
 continuation of a dangerous granite reef extending along 
 the south coast of Finland. They formerly belonged to 
 Sweden ; and in the neighbourhood the first victory of the 
 Russian fleet over the Swedes was gained by Peter the 
 Great in 1714. They finally passed into the possession of 
 Russia in 1809. The inhabitants, amounting to about 
 16,000, are mostly of Swedish descent, and are hardy sea- 
 men and fishermen. The surface of the islands is generally 
 sandy, "the soil is thin, and the climate is keen; yet Scotch 
 fir, spruce, and birch are grown; and rye, barley, flax, and 
 vegetables are produced in sufficient quantity for the wants 
 of the people. Great numbers of cattle are reared; and 
 cheese, butter, and hides, as well as salted meat and fish, 
 are exported. The largest island, which gives its name to 
 the group, is 18 miles long by 14 broad, and contains about 
 two-thirds of the total population. There are several excel- 
 lent harbours (notably that of Ytternaes), which are of great 
 importance to Russia from the fact that they are frozen up 
 for a much briefer period than those on the coast of Finland. 
 The fortress of Bomarsund, in one of these islands, was 
 attacked and destroyed by an Anglo-French force in 1854. 
 
 AT, A N T, a number of nomadic tribes of eastern origin, 
 who spread themselves over Europe during the decline of 
 the Roman empire. The name was probably at first con- 
 fined to one tribe of Tatar race, whose original seat was 
 on the northern shores of the Caspian Sea, and was after- 
 wards, as the power of that race extended, appheti to other 
 tribes. It is supposed that their first encounter with the 
 Romans was during the Mithridatic war, when Ponipey led 
 an expedition into the Caucasus. Isolated statements in
 
 44-: 
 
 A L A — A L A 
 
 contemporary writers show that the Alani were frequently 
 in conflict with the Roman power. In March 276 a.d. they 
 received a decisive check in an attempt to make their way 
 eastward into Persia, being defeated by the emperor Tacitus, 
 who forced them to recross the Phasis. The most com- 
 plete account of the Alani is to be found in the pages of 
 Ammianus Marcellinus (lib. xxxi.), who describes their 
 manners and customs at considerable length. From him, 
 too, we leam of the advance of the Huns, who signally 
 defeated the Alani in a battle fought on the banks of the 
 Tanais in 375. The race thereupon divided, some retiring to 
 the east, while the great majority joined their conquerors 
 in an invasion of the kingdom of the Goths. Associated 
 with the Vandals and Suevi, they left the settlements 
 they had in Pannonia and entered Gaul in 406, whence 
 three years later they crossed the Pyrenees into Spain, 
 and founded a settlement in Lusitania and Baitica, where 
 they remained in peace for some years: In 418, however, 
 they were attacked and defeated by Wallia, king of the 
 Visigoths, with whom they had quarrelled Their king, 
 Ataces, was slain in the battle, and they became subject to 
 Gunderic, king ef the Vandals, their national independence 
 being lost Those of the Alani who had remained in Gaul 
 when the others invaded Spain, settled near Valence and 
 Orleans. Though serving under Theodoric, they sympa- 
 thised with AttOa and the Huns, and by deserting at 
 Chalons (451), all but changed the victory of the Romans 
 into a defeat. Soon afterwards their separate national 
 existence in Gaul was merged in that of the Visigoths. 
 The small portion of the Alani that had remained in their 
 original seat in the Caucasus are frequently noticed in 
 history down to the middle ages. In 572 they were allied 
 with the Armenians under King Saroes. They seem to 
 have afterwards regained their independence. In 1221 
 they were defeated by Gengis Khan, and in 1237 they 
 were so completely subjugated by Batu-Khan that their 
 very name disappears in subsequent history. 
 
 ALARCON, H-ERNiLNTO de, a Spanish navigator of the 
 16th century, known only in connection with the expedi- 
 tion to the coast of California, of which he was leader. 
 He set sail on the 9th May 1540, with orders from the 
 Spanish court to await at a certain -point on the coast the 
 arrival of an expedition by land under the command of 
 Vasquez de Coronado. The junction was not effected, 
 though Alarcon reached the appointed place and left letters, 
 which were afterwards found by Diaz, another explorer. 
 Alarcon was the first to determine with certainty that Cali- 
 fornia was a peninsula and not an island, as had. been sup- 
 posed. He made a careful and exact survey of the coast, 
 sailed a considerable distance up the Rio del Tizon (Colo- 
 rado), and was thus able, on his return to New Spain in 
 1 54 1, to construct a map of California, which, according to M. 
 Duflot de Mofras, scarcely differs from one of the present day. 
 
 ALARCON Y MENDOZA, Juan Ruiz de, one of the 
 most distinguished Spanish dramatists, born at Tasco in 
 Mexico about the close of the 16th century, was descended 
 from a noble family belonging to Alarcon in Cuenga. 
 Nothing is known with certainty of his early life, but it is 
 probable that he was educated at one of the Spanish univer- 
 sities. In 1622 he had taken up his residence at Madrid, and 
 in 1628 he was appointed to the office of relator (reporter) 
 of the royal council of the Indies, which afforded him a com- 
 petency. In the same year he published the first volume 
 of his comedies, dedicating it to " the rabble" in a daringly 
 contemptuous address. A second volume of comedies 
 appeared at Barcelona in 1634, in which he brought charges 
 against several poets of appropriating his productions. 
 About the same time he was successful in an open com- 
 petition for a dramatic libretto to be played at th9 ffites in 
 honour of Philip IV. These two facts, combined with bid 
 
 haughty disdain both of the public and of his literary 
 brethren, made Alarcon very unpopular; and he was scur- 
 rilously lampooned by most of the poets and dramatists of 
 the day, Calderou honourably distinguishing himself by his 
 silence. A further injustice was done him in the piracy of 
 his works by other and better known authors than himself. 
 To such an extent was this carried that Alarcon's reputa- 
 tion as a dramatist was almost extinct even before the 
 close of his life, and it is only quite recently that it has 
 been revived The date of his death is gu en, on doubtful 
 authority, as 1639. Alarcon holds a foremost place among 
 Spanish dramatists, being surpassed only, if at all, by Lope 
 de Vega and Calderon. He is distinguished by the cor- 
 rectness of his language, the harmony of his verse, and the 
 elevation of his sentiment. His La Verdad Sospechosa 
 (Suspicious Truth) supplied Corneille with the materials 
 for his Menteur, and called forth the highest praise from 
 the great French dramatist. His Tejedcr de Segovia (Weaver 
 of Segovia) and LasParedesOyeniy\&\h haveL'ars) are acted 
 at the present day. A complete edition of his comedies 
 was published by Hartzenbusch at Madrid (1848-52). 
 
 ALARIC (Al-ric, i.e., All rich), a chief, -?nd afterwards 
 king of the Visigoths, wa3 born of the noble family of 
 Balti (baltha, bold). He first appears in history (304 
 A.D.) as a commander in the army of subjugated Goths 
 whom the Emperor Theodosius employed in his war with 
 Eugcniut. On the death of Theodosius in 395 the Goths 
 asserted their independence, and under the leadership of 
 Alaric made an incursion from Thrace, where they had 
 been located, into the Morea, Athens yielded to them 
 without resistance, and Alaric enriched himself with the 
 movable treasures of the city, though ho did not, as some 
 have asserted, destroy buildings and works of art. Rufinus, 
 the crafty minister of Arcadius, did nothing to check the 
 advance of the barbarians, and it has even been said that 
 he had a secret understanding with Alaric. Opposition 
 came, however, from the Western Empire. Stilicho, the 
 famous general, landed at Corinth, and drove the Goths to 
 Mount Pholoe, on the frontiers of Elis, where he besieged 
 their camp. With proper vigilance, the siege could not 
 .have been raised; but the Romans were careless, and Alaric 
 with his army contrived to escape to Epirus. Stilicho 
 was prevented from following him by an order from the 
 Emperor Arcadius, who ' conferred upon Alaric the pre- 
 fecture of eastern Hlyricum. About the same time the 
 Gothic chief was chosen king by hi3 people. It was 
 natural that Aiaric's desire of conquest should increase 
 with the increase of his power, and accordingly about the 
 year 400 A.D. he set out to invade the Empire of the 
 West His march was exceedingly-slow, and it was not 
 until the spring of 403 that he appeared before Milan, 
 from which the Emperor Honorius instantly fled to the 
 fortress of Asta in Liguria. Being besieged there, he was 
 on the point of capitulating when he was relieved by 
 Stilicho, who, in the battle of Pollentia, fought on Easter- 
 day, gained a somewhat doubtful victory over Alaric. 
 Some time after, the contest was renewed at Verona, and 
 Alaric sustained a decisive defeat. He was obliged to 
 accept terms- of peace, and to retreat for the time ; but 
 his attitude was always threatening, and Honorius found 
 it expedient to buy him off by appointing him prefect of 
 western Hlyricum, with a large revenue. In this capacity 
 Stilicho encouraged Alaric to lead Tiis army against Con- 
 stantinople, probably more with the design of keeping him 
 at a distance from Italy than with any hope of reuniting 
 the divided empire. The final expedition to Constantinople 
 was not undertaken ; but for his services during three 
 years in Epirus, Alaric claimed an extravagant reward, 
 and Honorius, on the advice of Stilicho, promised him 
 4000 pounds of gold Shortly afterwards the weak
 
 ALA 
 
 ALA 
 
 443 
 
 minded" emperor procured the assassination of his minister, 
 the only Roman who had proved himself able to cope with 
 the Gothic forces, and broke all the treaties which Stiiicho 
 had made with' Alaric. The latter at once marched upon 
 Rome (408) by the Via Flaminia, and laid siege to the 
 city. On coming to treat with him, the Romans found his 
 •demands so extravagant that they threatened a desperate 
 resistance, to which Alaric made the well-known reply, 
 " The closer hay is pressed, the easier is it mown." At 
 last the barbarian was induced to retire by the promise of 
 5000 pounds of gold and 30,000 pounds of silver, besides 
 other treasure. The respite, however, was but for a time. 
 Honorius, who had left Rome for Ravenna, refused to 
 ratify by treaty certain conditions, moderate in themselves, 
 on which Alario firmly insisted, and the capital was again 
 at the mercy of the enemy. With commendable forbear- 
 ance, Alaric contented himself at first with taking posses- 
 sion of Ostia, from which he summoned the city to sur- 
 render, threatening the immediate destruction of the food 
 stores in case of refusal. The terrified people at once 
 opened .their gates, and agreed that the conqueror should 
 appoint another emperor in place of Honorius. ' Alaric's 
 choice fell upon Attalus, the prefect of the city, who, 
 though well received at first, soon proved himself thoroughly 
 incompetent, and Honorius had to be restored. While the 
 conferences as to the restoration were still being carried 
 on at Ravenna, the treachery of Honorius occasioned yet 
 another and more disastrous siege of Rome by the Goths. 
 Sarus, a barbarian and a hereditary enemy of the house of 
 Balti, was permitted by the emperor te attack the camp of 
 the Goths and return in triumph to Ravenna. * Alaric was 
 naturally indignant, laid siege to Rome for the third time, 
 and gained an entrance by the Salarian gate on the night 
 of the 2 -1th August 410. For six days the city was 
 given over to the horrors of a pillage, which the humane 
 orders of Alaric did but little to mitigate. On the 29th 
 August Alaric withdrew his troops from Rome, and led 
 them into southern Italy, which he ravaged for several 
 months. Towards the close of the year, while engaged in 
 the siege of Cosentia (Cosenza), he was seized with an 
 illness which proved fatal after a very short duration. He 
 was buried with his treasures in the bed of the river 
 Busentiaus, which wa3 diverted from its channel for that 
 purpose, and all the prisoners who were engaged in the 
 work were put to death in order that the place of his 
 sepulture might remain unknown. The character of Alaric 
 has been somewhat variously represented by historians. 
 In forming an estimate of it many have been misled by 
 the use of the term barbarian, which, as applied to him, it 
 should be remembered, indicates a national and not a 
 personal distinction. Many proofs may be found of his 
 humanity and moderation in trying circumstances, while, 
 on the other hand, the charges of cruelty brought against 
 him are not borne out by evidence. His marked respect 
 for Christianity is explained by the fact that, if he wa3 not 
 himself a Christian, he had como early under Christian 
 influence, having had frequent intercourse with Arian 
 teachers. 
 
 ALARIC H, eighth king of the Goths in Spain, suc- 
 ceeded hi3 father Euric or Evaric about 484. His dominions 
 not only included the greater part of Spain (Hispania 
 Tarraconensi3 and Baetica), but extended into Gaul as far 
 as the rivers Rhone and Loire. In religion Alaric was 
 an Arian, but that he was tolerant of the orthodox Catholics 
 is shown by the decrees of the Council of Agde, summoned 
 by him in 506. He displayed s imil ar wisdom and liber- 
 ality in political affairs by appointing a commission to 
 prepare an abstract of the Roman laws and imperial 
 decrees, which should form the authoritative code for his 
 dominions. This is generally known aa the Breviarium 
 
 Alaricianum. It contains six books of the code of The> 
 dosius, and is therefore sometimes called ths Corpus 
 Theodosii. The full text has been given by Savigny.' 
 Alaric was of a peaceful disposition, and endeavoured 
 strictly to- maintain the treaty which his father had con- 
 cluded with the Franks. Clovis, however, desiring to 
 obtain the Gothic province in Gaul, found a pretext for 
 war in the Arianism of Alaric. The intervention of 
 Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths and father-in-law of 
 Alaric, proved unavailing. The two armies met in 507 at 
 Voglade (Vouille), near Poitiers, where the Goths were 
 defeated, and their king, who took to flight, was overtaken 
 and slain by Clovis himself. 
 
 ALASCO, John (in Polish, LascH), a Polish nobleman, 
 born in 1499, who travelled extensively in his youth, and 
 during a residence in Zurich imbibed the doctrines of the" 
 Reformation from Zwingli. At Basel in 1525 he h?d 
 frequent intercourse with Erasmus, who held him in great 
 esteem, and bequeathed his library to hi™. On his return 
 to his native country he was offered more than once 
 ecclesiastical preferment, which the change in his religious 
 opinions prevented him from accepting. With the view of 
 securing more freedom, he quitted Poland, and after travel- 
 ling for a time, became pastor of a Protestant congregation 
 at Embden, in East Friesland, in 1542. Foreseeing per- 
 secution there, he went to London in 1551, on the invita- 
 tion of Cranmer, and became superintendent of the con- 
 gregation of foreign Protestants, most of whom were driven 
 into exile like himself in consequence of the Interim. The 
 revenues of the church of Augustin Friars were assigned 
 to support him and four assistant ministers, who had to be 
 approved by the king. On the accession of Mary in 1553, 
 Alasco and all his congregation were banished. In 1556 
 he returned to Poland, where he died on the 1 3th January 
 1560. Alasco wrote a number of theological treatises, 
 chiefly in defence of the doctrine of the sacraments as held 
 by the Swiss Reformers, and he was one of the eighteen 
 divines who prepared the Polish version of the Bible, 
 which was published in 1563. 
 
 ALA-SHEHR, a city of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalic 
 of Anatolia, 83 miles E. of Smyrna. It is dirty and ill- 
 built ; but, standing on elevated ground, and commanding 
 the prospect of the extensive and fertile plain of the 
 Hermus, presents at a distance an imposing appearance. 
 It is the seat of a Greek archbisljop, and has five Christian 
 churches and fifteen mosques. The city occupies the site 
 of the ancient Philadelphia, one of the "seven churches 
 in Asia" of the Apocalypse.' The ancient city, founded 
 two centuries B.C., was subject to frequent earthquakes. 
 In more modern times it was celebrated for its prolonged 
 resistance to the Turks, who took it in 1390, after all the 
 other cities of Asia Minor had surrendered. Ala-Shehr 
 has an active trade, and the population is about 18,000. 
 
 ALASKA, or Aliaska, formerly Russian America, 
 but now a territory of the United States, is a vast tract of 
 country forming the north-west portion of North America, 
 bounded on the N. by the Arctic Ocean, on the E. by 
 British America, and on the S. and W. by the Pacific 
 Ocean. The name was formerly confined to a long narrow 
 peninsula stretching into the Pacific, but has been extended 
 to the whole territory. Alaska comprises the whole of 
 North America from 141° W. long, to Behring Strait, and 
 also numerous islands along the coast, notably Prince of 
 Wales Islands, King George III. Archipelago, the Kodiak 
 Islands, and the Aleutian Islands, which stretch seaward 
 from the extremity of the peninsula. From the main 
 portion of the territory a narrow strip, with a breadth of 
 about 50 miles, extends south-east ^long the Pacific coast, 
 and terminates at the confines of British Columbia, in 
 54° 40' N. lat. From north to south the extreme length uf
 
 iU 
 
 Aoj A — A L A 
 
 Alaska is about 1100 miles, and the greatest breadth from 
 east to west is 800 miles. The area of the wholo territory 
 is estimated at 514,700 square miles. 
 
 The numerous islands, creeks, and inlets of Alaska 
 lengthen out its coast-line to 7860 miles, an extent 
 greater than that of the eastern coast-line of the United 
 States. Beginning at the south-east, the chief creeks and 
 bays are Cook's Inlet, Bristol Bay, Norton Sound, and 
 Kotzebue Sound ; while, following the same order, the 
 principal headlands, in addition to the extremity of the 
 peninsula, are Cape Newenham and Cape Romarizoff in 
 the Pacific, Cape Prince of Wales in Behring Strait, and 
 Cape Lisbume, Icy Cape, and Point Barrow in the Arctic 
 Ocean. Point Barrow is in 71° 23' N. lab, and is the 
 extreme northern point of the country. The exploration 
 of the northern coast was chiefly the work of the British 
 aavigators Cook, Beechy, and Franklin, and of the officers 
 of the Hudson's Bay Company. The principal river of 
 Alaska is the Yukon, or Kwichpuk, which rise3 in British 
 America, and, receiving the Porcupine river at Fort 
 Yukon, flows westward across the territory, and falls 
 into the Pacific Ocean to the south of Norton Sound. 
 •At a distance of 600 miles from the sea this magnificent 
 river has a width of more than a mile. Its tributaries 
 would in Europe be reckoned large rivers, and its volume is 
 eo great that 10 miles out from its principal mouth the 
 water is fresh. Among the other rivers of Alaska are 
 the Copper river, the Suschitna, the Nuschagak, and tho 
 Kuskokwim, falling into the Pacific, and the Colville, 
 flowing northward into the Arctic Ocean. A great moun- 
 tain range extends from British Columbia, in a north-west 
 direction, along the coast of Alaska, the summit being 
 covered with snow and glaciers. Mount St Elias, an 
 active volcano, in 60° 18' N. lat., and 140" 30' W. long., 
 rises to the height of 14,970 feet above the sea. The 
 mountain chain runs out along the peninsula which has 
 given its name to the country, and at the western extremity 
 there are several volcanic cones of great elevation; wh'h 
 i i the island of Uminak, separated from the mainland by 
 only a narrow strait, there are enormous volcanoes, one 
 vising to more than 8000 feet in height. In the interior 
 and to the north the country is also mountainous, with 
 great intervening plains. 
 
 The north-west coast of this part of America wa3 dis- 
 covered and explored by a Russian expedition under 
 Behring in 1741 ; and at subsequent periods settlements 
 were made by the Russians at various places, chiefly for 
 the prosecution of the fur trade. In 1799 the territory 
 was granted to a Russo-American fur company by the 
 Emperor Paul VIII., and in 1839 the charter of the com- 
 pany was renewed. New Archangel, in tha island of 
 Sitka, was the principal esttlement, but the company had 
 about forty stations. They exported annually 25,000 
 skins of the seal, sea-otter, beaver, &c, besides about 
 20,000 sea-horse teeth. The privileges of the company 
 expired in 1863; and in 1867 the whole Russian posses- 
 sions in America were ceded to the United States for a 
 money payment of $7,200,000. The treaty was -signed on 
 30th Mprch, and ratified on 20th June 1867 ; and on 9th 
 October following, the possession of the country was 
 formally made over to a military force of the United 
 State3 at New Archangel It still remains in the military 
 keeping of the United States, no steps having been taken 
 to organise a territorial government. It has, however, 
 been constituted a revenue district, with New Archangel, 
 or Sitka, as the port of entry. Since Alaska was ceded to 
 the United States considerable information has been col- 
 lected as to the resources of the less sterile parts of the 
 country; but the central and northern parts of this region 
 are only known as the inhospitable home of some wander- 
 
 ing tribes of Indians and Esquimaux. Portions of Alaska 
 SO been recently explored by the employes of the 
 i . American Telegraph Company in surveying a route 
 for a Ime of telegraph which was designed to cross from 
 America to Asia near Behring Strait- a project which was 
 abandoned, after an expenditure of £600,000, on communi- 
 cation »irh Europe being secured by the Atlantic cable. 
 
 The climate of the south-western coast of Alaska h 
 tolerably mild, considering its high latitude. The great 
 
 warm current of the. Pacific, sweeping i" a north-easterly 
 
 circuit from the East India Islands, and corresponding 
 very much in character and effects to the Gulf Stream of 
 the Atlantic, washes its shores ; and while it modifies the 
 temperature, also causes an excessive rainfall. At Sitka 
 the mean temperature is 42°9, and the average rainfall about 
 80 inches. Alaska will never have any great agricultural 
 value. From the great amount of rain and the want of 
 heat, cereals grow, but will not ripen, and vegetables d< 
 not thrive. Native grasses and berries grow plentifully, 
 but tho chief wealth of the country is in its vast forests, 
 in the furs of its wild animals, and in the fish with which 
 its rivers and seas abound. The forests, rising from tho 
 coast and covering the mountains to a height of 2000 feet, 
 consist of a very durable yellow cedar, spruce, larch, and 
 fir of great size, and also cypress f.nd hemlock. The wild 
 animals include the elk, the deer, and various species of 
 bear, and also many fur-bearing animals, such as the wolf 
 and fox, the beaver, ermine, marten, otter, and squirrel 
 Near the coast and islands there are innumerable fur- 
 bearing seals, which are caught in great numbers by the 
 settlers ; but from the rigour of the climate and the 
 arduous nature of the work, the trapping of the animals of 
 the interior is left to the Indians. The salmon abounds in 
 the rivers, and there are great banks along the shores, the 
 favourite haunt of cod and other fish. About eighty whalers 
 prosecute their fishing off the coast of Alaska. Coal and 
 iron are the most important minerals, but the value of the 
 deposits remains to be ascertained. 
 
 The population is very limited, consisting of 8000 whites 
 and 15,000 Indians, with some Esquimaux on the northern 
 coast. The Indians are rapidly decreasing in number, and 
 are described as treacherous and discontented. New Arch- 
 angel, now called Sitka, in the island of Sitka, in 57" 3' 
 N. lat., and 135° 18' W. long., was the seat of the Russian 
 governor, and is the headquarters of the United States 
 authorities. It contains about 1500 inhabitants, is the 
 residence of a Greek bishop, and has fortifications, maga- 
 zines, and a magnetic observatory. Of the other settle- 
 ments, Fort Nicholas on Cook's Inlet, and Fort St Michael 
 on Norton Sound, are the more important. The admirable 
 harbours on the coast and the great navigable river Yukon 
 afford facilities for the formation of new settlements and 
 the increase of trade by the Americans. At the junction 
 of the Porcupine river and th^ Yukon a fort was estab- 
 lished by the Hudson^s Bay Company ln 1847. (See 
 Whymper, Travels m Alaska and on the Yukon, 1868; 
 Dall, Alaska and its Resources, 1870.) 
 
 ALATRI, the ancient Alatrium, a town of Italy, 6 miles 
 N. of Frosinone, in the province of that name, which until 
 1870 formed part of the papal territory. It is the see 
 of a bishop, and has considerable remains of Pelasgian 
 antiquity. Population of commune, 11,370. 
 
 ALAVA, one of the Provincias Vascongadas, or Basque 
 Provinces, in the north of Spain. It is of a triangular 
 shape, and is bounded on the N. by Guipuzcoa and Biscay, 
 on tho E. by Navarre, on the S.W. by Logrono, and on 
 the \V. by Burgos; with an area of about 1200 square 
 miles. The surface of Alava is very mountainous, espe- 
 cially on the north, where a part of the Pyrenees forms its 
 natural boundary. It is separated from Logrono by the
 
 ALA-ALB 
 
 445 
 
 Ebro, and the other rivers are the Zadorra and the Ayuda. 
 The soil in the valleys is fertile, yielding wheat, barley, 
 maize, flax, hemp, and fruits. Oil, and a poor kind of 
 wine called chacoli, are also produced. Many of the 
 mountains are clothed with forests of oak, chestnuts, 
 beeches, and other trees, and contain iron, copper, lead, 
 and marble. Salt is also found in large quantities in the 
 province. The manufactures of Alava are unimportant ; 
 coarse cloth, iron ware, earthenware, hats, and shoes being 
 among the chief. The capital of the -province is Vitoria. 
 Population in 1870, 102,494. 
 
 ALAVA, Don Miguel Ricaedo d', a Spanish general 
 and statesman, born at Vitoria in 1771. He served first 
 in the navy, and had risen to be captain of a frigate when 
 he exchanged into the army, receiving corresponding rank. 
 In politics he followed a very devious course. At the 
 assembly of Bayonne, in 1808, he was one of the most 
 prominent of those who accepted the new constitution 
 from Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain. In 1811, when 
 Joseph's position was becoming insecure, Alava joined the 
 national independent party, who were fighting in alliance 
 witn the English. The Spanish Cortes appointed him 
 commissary at the English headquarters, and Wellington, 
 who seems to have regarded him with great favour, made 
 him one of hia aides-de-camp. Before the close of the 
 campaign he had risen to the rank of brigadier-general 
 On the restoration of Ferdinand, Alava was cast into 
 prison, but the influence of his uncle Ethenard, the in- 
 quisitor, and of Wellington, secured his speedy release. He 
 soon contrived to gain the favour of the king, who ap- 
 pointed him in 1815 ambassador to the Hague. Four 
 years later he was recalled, owing, it is said, to the marked 
 kindness he had shown to his banished fellow-countrymen. 
 On the breaking out of the revolution of 1820 lie was 
 chosen by the province of Alava to represent it in the 
 Cortes, where- he became conspicuous in the party of the 
 Exaltados, and in 1822 was made president. In the 
 latter year he fought with the militia under Ballasteros 
 and Murillo to maintain the authority of the Cortes 
 against the rebels. When the French invested Cadiz, 
 Alava was commissioned by the Cortes to treat with the 
 Due d'Angouleme, and the negotiations resulted in the 
 restoration of Ferdinand, who pledged himself to a liberal 
 policy. No sooner had he regained power, however, than 
 he ceased to hold himself bound by his promises, and Alava 
 found it necessary to retire first to Gibraltar and then to Eng- 
 land. On the death of Ferdinand, he returned to Spain, and, 
 espousing the cause of Maria Christina against Don Carlos, 
 was appointed ambassador to London in 1834, and to 
 Paris in 1835. After the insurrection of La Granja, he 
 refused to sign the constitution of 1812, declaring himself 
 tired of taking new oaths, and was consequently obliged 
 to retire to France, where he died at Bareges in 1843. 
 
 ALAY (lit. a triumphant procession), a Turkish cere- 
 mony observed on the assembling of the forces at the out- 
 break of war. Its essential feature is the public display 
 of the sacred standard of Mahomet, which may be seen 
 only by Moslems and touched only by the emirs. On one 
 occasion, when, owing to a long interval of peace, this 
 rule had been forgotten, the Christians, who had witnessed 
 the spectacle in large numbers, were cruelly massacred. 
 The procession in which the standard is carried is headed 
 by artisans bearing the implements of their respective 
 trades. 
 
 ALB, or Albe, a vestment of white linen, hanging down 
 to the feet, worn by priests at all the more solemn services 
 of the church. It corresponds to the surplice of the 
 English clergy, the difference being that the alb is closer in 
 the sleeves, and bound at the waist by a girdle. In the 
 ancient church it was customary for the neophytes who 
 
 were baptized on Easter-day to wear an alb for the eight 
 days following, and hence the Sunday after Easter was 
 called Dominica in Alois. 
 
 ALBA, the ancient Alba Pompna, a town of Italy, in 
 the province of Cuneo, situated on the Tanaro, 30 miles 
 S.E. of Turin. It is the seat of a bishop, and contains a 
 cathedral, founded in 1486, as well as other churches and 
 religious establishments. It has a large trade in cattle, 
 and the surrounding district is very fertile, producing silk, 
 wine, oil, grain, and fruits, and also marble and rock-salt. 
 Population of the commune (1865), 9687. 
 
 ALBA LONGA, the most ancient town in Latium, 
 was situated 15 miles S.E. from Borne, on a ridge be- 
 tween the mountain and the lake that were both called 
 from it Albanus. It derived its name probably from its 
 elevated or Alpine situation, the story of the white sow 
 discovered by iEneas on landing (Virgil, ^Eneid, iii. 390- 
 392) being of course mythical. Little beyond the bare 
 fact of its existence for a considerable period as the foremost 
 town in Latium can be accepted as strictly historical. 
 According to the legendary accounts, it was founded by 
 Ascanius, the son of ^Eneas, 300, or, as a later version 
 has it, 360 years before the foundation of Borne. Four- 
 teen kings, whose names are all preserved, are said to have 
 reigned over it in succession. The names, however, are 
 evidently an invention, having probably this substratum of 
 historic truth, that the r ulin g family belonged to the 
 Silvian gens. The city was destroyed by the Romans 
 under Tullus Hostilius, and its inhabitants removed to 
 Rome. Several of the patrician families, such a3 the 
 Julii, Curiatii, Servilii, Tullii, Quintii, ascribed their origin 
 to these immigrants from Alba. 
 
 ALBACETE, one of the new provinces of Spain, was 
 formed in 1833 out of districts taken from Murcia and 
 New Castile. It is bounded on the N. by Cuenca, on 
 the E. by Valencia and Alicant, on the S. by Murcia, 
 and on the W. by Ciudad Eeal and Jaen. The area is 
 5971 square miles. The province is generally hilly, some 
 of the peaks of the sierras rising to a height of 5000 feet ; 
 but it contains rich plains and many fertile valleys. The 
 principal rivers are the Mundo in the southern and thi 
 Jucar in the northern part of the province ; and there are 
 numerous smaller streams. Some parts of the country have 
 a bare appearance, being destitute of wood, but the neigh- 
 oourhood of Alcarez is covered with fruit trees, and pre- 
 sents the aspect of a garden. Agriculture is in a tolerably 
 prosperous state, more advanced than in the centre of 
 Castile, but less so than in the rich districts of Murcia 
 and Valencia. Cereals, pulse, and fruits of all kinds are 
 produced, as well as wine of fair quality, and excellent 
 honey. Saffron also is produced in large quantities, and 
 some attention is given to the keeping of silk-worms. 
 Many of the inhabitants devote 1 themselves to the rearing 
 of cattle, sheep, and goats. The bulls of Albacete are in 
 request for bull-fights ; there is a good breed of mules, 
 and the horses of the province have long mounted the 
 Spanish cavalry. Manufactures are confined to the spin- 
 ning of hemp, and the making of coarse cloths, porcelain, 
 earthenware, and cutlery. There are several distilleries, 
 and a considerable trade in wood. Tb» district is rich in 
 minerals, including silver, iron, copper, zinc, sulphur, 
 gypsum, and coal ; but, ex lepting stones and marble for 
 building purposes, they aru little wrought. In addition 
 to agricultural produce, small quantities of zinc, iron, and 
 sulphur are exported. There are numerous mineral 
 springs, chiefly sulphureous, and hot as well as cold, at 
 various places in the province. Among the chief towns 
 are Albacete, Chinchilla, Bonillo, and Alcarez. The rail- 
 way from Madrid to Valencia traverses the province, and 
 at Chinchilla a line branches southward to Murcia>
 
 44G 
 
 A L B - A L B 
 
 The state of education throughout the province is very low. 
 In the town of Albacete, where it is best, little more than 
 half the population can read; while at Yeste, where it is 
 worst, the proportion is only 1 in 15. Tho graver crimes 
 are of infrequent occurrence ; but the inhabitants always 
 wear arms, and offences against the person are numerous. 
 Population in 1867, 221,444. 
 
 Albacetk, a towu of Spain, capital of the above pro- 
 vince, is situated about 140 miles S.E. of Madrid, and is a 
 station on the railway between Madrid and Valenciar It 
 is surrounded by a fertile plain, and has considerable trade 
 in saffron and in the agricultural products of tho district. 
 A great market, chiefly for the sale of cattle, is held annu- 
 ally in September, and extends over several days. The 
 town is well built, and has several churches, two hospitals, 
 and a normal school. At one time it had an extcusivo 
 trade in cutlery, from which it received the name of the 
 Sheffield of Spain. This manufacture has been very much 
 reduced by the importation of cutlery from England and 
 Germany, but Albacete is still famous for its daggers, 
 which are held in high repute and much worn by the 
 Spaniards. They are formidable weapons, of coarse manu- 
 facture, but with richly-ornamented handles, and frequently 
 bear proverbial inscriptions suitable to their murderous 
 appearance. Population, 15,150. 
 
 ALBAN, St, usually styled tho protomartyr of Britain, 
 was born at Verulamium, and flourished towards the end 
 of tho third century. In his youth he took a journey to 
 Rome in company with Amphibalus, a monk of Caerleon, 
 and served seven years as a soldier under the Emperor 
 Diocletian. On his return home he settled at Verulamium, 
 and, influenced by the example and instructions of Amphi- 
 balus, renounced tho errors of paganism, ir which he had 
 been educated, and became a convert to the Christian 
 religion. It is generally agreed that Alban suffered 
 martyrdom during tho great persecution in the reign 
 of Diocletian ; but authors differ as to the precise date. 
 Bede, who gives a full account of the event, fixes it in 28G ; 
 some refer it to the year 296 ; while Usher reckons it 
 amongst the events of 303. Between 400 and 500 years 
 after St Alban's death, Offa, king of the Mercians, built 
 a largo and stately monastery near Verulamium to his 
 memory, and around it the present town of St- Albans was 
 gradually erected. 
 
 ALBANI, or Albano, Francesco (1578-1660), a 
 celebrated Italian painter, was born at Bologna, His 
 father was a silk merchant, and intended to bring up his 
 son, to the same occupation ; but Albani was alrtady, at 
 tho age of twelve, filled with so strong an inclination for 
 painting, that on the death of his father he devoted him- 
 self entirely to art. His first master was Denis Calvart, 
 with whom Guido Reni was at the same time a pupil He 
 was soon left by Calvart entirely to the care of Guido, and 
 contracted with him a close friendship. He followed Guido 
 to the school of the Caracci ; but after this, owing to 
 mutual rivalry, their friendship began gradually to cooL 
 They kept up for a long time a keen competition, and their 
 mutual emulation called forth some of their best produc- 
 tions. Notwithstanding this rivalry, they still spoke of 
 each other with the highest esteei a. Albani, after having 
 greatly improved himself in the school of the Caracci, 
 went to Rome, where he open :d an academy and resided 
 for many years. JBere he painted, after the designs of 
 Annibal Caracci, the whole of the frescoes in the chapel of St 
 Diego in the church of San Giacomo degli Spagnuoli His 
 best frescoes are those on mythological subjects, of which 
 there is a largo number in the Verospi Palace, now Tor- 
 Ionia. On tho death of his wife he returned to Bologna, 
 where he married a second time, and resided till his death 
 in the pnjuyuient of much domestic happH-uss ai*d geueiiu 
 
 esteem. His wifo and children were very beautiful, and 
 served him for models. But whilo thus studying from 
 nature, his love of artilieial refinement and conventional 
 expression was so great, that even his best works are defi- 
 cient in breadth and vigour, as well as in unaffected grace 
 and natural feeling. The learning displayed in the com- 
 position of his pictures, and their minute elaboration 
 and exquisite finish, gave them great celebrity, and entitle 
 them to a distinctive place among the products of the 
 Bolognese school. 
 
 "In point of original invention." says l.nnzi, "Albani is superior to> 
 Domenichino, perhaps to any other of the school ; and in his repre- 
 sentation of female forms, according to Mengs, he has no equal. By 
 some he is denominated the Anacreon of painting. Like that poet, 
 with his short odes, so Albani, from his small paintings, acquired 
 great reputation ; and as the one sings Venus and the Loves, and maids 
 and boys, so does the artist hold up to the eye the same delicate 
 and graceful subjects. Nature, indeed, formed, the perusal of tho 
 poets inclined, and fortune encouraged his genius for this kind of 
 painting ; and possessing a consort and twelve children, all of sur- 
 prising beauty, he was at tho same time blest with the finest 
 models for the pursuit of his studies. He had a villa most delight- 
 fully situated, which further presented him with a variety ;J object* 
 enabling him to represent the beautiful rufal views so familiar to 
 his eye. 
 
 A great number of his works are at Bologna. Among 
 the most celebrated of his pictures are the " Four Seasons ;" 
 " Diana and Venus," in the Florentine gallery; tho "Toilet 
 of Venus," in the Louvre; "Venus landing at Cythera," 
 in the Ghigi palace at Rome, <fec. Among the best of his- 
 sacred subjects are a " St Sebastian " and an " Assumption 
 of the Virgin," both in the church of St Sebastian at 
 Roma He was among the first of the Italian painters to 
 devote himself to the painting of cabinet pictures. 
 
 ALBANIA, a country of considerable extent, which 
 though frequently ruled by turbulent and nearly independ- 
 ent chiefs, ranks as one of the provinces of the Turkish 
 empire. The tract of land to which this name is now 
 applied extends from 39° to 43° N. lat., and from 18° 24' 
 to 21° 48' E long. ; from the Gulf of Cattaro in the north 
 to the Gulf of Arta in the south, and from the coast of 
 the Adriatic Sea and Ionian Sea on the west to an irregular 
 ill-defined line inland towards the east, roughly indicated 
 in its northern part by the Tchar Dagh, the ancient Scardus, 
 a part of the Haemus or Balkan range, and southwards by 
 the Pindus chain, or rather the portions of it now called 
 tho mountains of Sagori, Metzovo, and Suli. Within these 
 limits is included the ancient Epirvi, corresponding to 
 the southern part of tho country now comprehended 
 under tho general name of Albania, and divided from 
 Albania, properly so called, by the river Voyutza or Viosa, 
 which enters the Adriatic a few miles north of Avlona. 
 Albania, therefore, is bounded on the N. by Dalmatia, 
 Montenegro (from which it is separated by the river 
 Moroka), and Bosnia ; on the E. by Servia and the 
 Turkish province of Rum-ili, in which Macedonia, or the 
 greater part of it, is included; and on the S. by Hellas 
 or Northern Greece, which was the Turkish province of 
 Livadia before Greece regained its independence, and from 
 which it is separated by the river Garla or Suli. The 
 superficial area of Albania is estimated at about 18,944 
 square miles, and it has a coast-line of about 280 miles 
 from north to south, without reckoning indentations, &c. 
 It nowhere extends more than 100 miles from tho sea, 
 and in the southern part not more than 30 milea. 
 
 According to the most recent division of the Turkish 
 empire into eyalets, sanjaks, and livas, Albania is com- 
 prehended in three eyalets, namely, Uakub or Uskup 
 in the north; Roumelia, which also includes part of 
 Macedonia, in the centre; and Yania, corresponding pretty 
 nearly to the ancient Epirue, in the south. The chief 
 ^ towns of these eyalets are respectively Scutari, Monastir,
 
 ALBANIA 
 
 447 
 
 «ncT Joannina, sometimes written Janina or Yanina; and 
 these divisions are therefore spoken of by some writers as 
 the pashaliks of Scutari, Monastir, and Joannina. The 
 divisions chiefly recognised by the Albanians themselves 
 are those formed by the varieties of the native tribes. 
 Colonel Leake, who is considered one of the best informed 
 authorities on this head, divides them into the Ngege or 
 Ghegides, whose principal towns are Dulcigno, Scutari, and 
 Durazzo ; the Toske or Toskides, who occupy Berat and 
 Elbasan ; the Liape, a poor and predatory race, who in- 
 ■ habit the mountains between the Toske and Delvino ; and 
 the Tsami, who inhabit the most southerly district, and 
 whose principal towns are Suli and Paramithia. The 
 country is mountainous, the interior being traversed by a 
 range which forms a prolongation of the Dinaric Alps, 
 and which is continued southwards in the Pindus range. 
 These mountains, from which numerous spurs are thrown 
 out to the east and west, run in a direction from north to 
 south, parallel to the course of the Tchar Dagh. Along the 
 southern part of the coast-line, and parallel with it, run the 
 Khimara mountains, known to the ancients as the Aero- 
 ceraunian range, terminating northwards in the bold head- 
 land of Cape Glossa. There are three lakes of great size 
 in Albania — Scutari in the north, Okhrida in the centre, 
 and Joannina in the south. The rivers for the most part 
 are short, and run, generally speaking, from east to west, 
 or in a north-westerly direction. The Moroka and Zenta 
 enter the lake of Scutari, which is connected with the sea 
 by the Boyana, that flows into the Adriatic near Dulcigno. 
 The 'White Drin, flowing in a southerly direction, and the 
 Black Drin, running northwards from Lake Okhrida, form 
 the head streams of the Drin. The principal streams in 
 addition to these are the Skombia, Voyutza, Calamas, 
 Arta, and Gurla (the ancient Acheron), with its tributary 
 the Vuv6 (the ancient Cocytus). The climate is generally 
 healthy, though cold and bleak in the highlands; the 
 warmer regions along the coast are also frequently visited 
 by cold northerly winds. 
 
 Albania includes not only the ancient £pirus, but also 
 part of the ancient Macedonia, Illyria, and Chaonia. 
 This country was in early times, as now, distinguished by 
 the rude valour of its inhabitants. Its remote situation, 
 and the want of union among its tribes, generally pre- 
 vented it from acting any conspicuous part in "Grecian 
 politics. The only remarkable exception occurs in the reign 
 of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus (296-272 B.c), who was justly 
 ranked among the greatest captains of antiquity. After hi3 
 death the country wa3 again split into a -number of petty 
 states, which were unatie to resist the united strength of 
 Macedon ; and to that kingdom Epirus continued subject 
 till both were alike subdued by the Homan arms (167 B.C.) 
 
 It was during the time of the Greek empire that the 
 name of Albania was first given to this district. During 
 the decline of the empire the Albanians gradually rose to 
 distinction, and at last to independence. Their valour 
 enabled them to maintain their ground against the Bul- 
 garians, who had occupied all the neighbouring districts of 
 Greece. Nor were they less successful against the Turks, 
 a more formidable enemy. Under the command of the 
 celebrated George Castriot, called by the Turks Scander- 
 beg, they baffled all the efforts of Mahomet IL, the con- 
 queror of Constantinople. That powerful monarch entered 
 Albania only to experience a succession of defeats, and was 
 at length compelled to acknowledge its independence by a 
 formal treaty. On the death of Scanderbeg, the Turks 
 redoubled their efforts against Albania, which was at 
 length reduced to a state of nominal subjection. The 
 siege of Scutari, in 1478, formed the termination of this 
 memorable struggle. The subjection, however, was always 
 the imperfect; revolts were frequent, and the inhabitants of 
 
 mountainous districts still preserved their independence. 
 It was the motives of pay and plunder, rather than com- 
 pulsion, that brought these hardy soldiers into the Turkish 
 ranks. In proportion as the Ottoman empire declined 
 in vigour, its hold of Albania became less firm ; and the 
 vigorous and enterprising genius of Ali Pasha again con- 
 verted this dependency into what might almost be called a 
 separate kingdom. 
 
 In the grand insurrection of Greece (1821-1829), the 
 Albanians, accustomed to view with disdain the Ottoman 
 yoke, showed a considerable disposition to make common 
 cause with the Greeks, and their co-operation would havo 
 almost ensured success. But the Greeks, imprudently and 
 unhappily, could not divest themselves of the feelings of 
 enmity cherished during the long series of wars which Ali 
 had waged against them. At the siege of Tripolizza 
 (October 5, 1821) overtures were made to them by a corps 
 of 3000 Albanians, who formed part of the garrison; but 
 the Greeks, having succeeded in entering the place, began 
 a dreadful and indiscriminate massacre, in which the 
 Albanians were not spared. At the siege of Arta, al- 
 though the capture was much facilitated by the coming 
 over of a corps of Albanians, the Greeks treated them 
 extremely ilL The Albanian nation was thus forcibly 
 thrown into the arms of the Porte, to which it has since 
 continued nominally subject. The allegiance of the Alba- 
 nians, however, to Turkey rests on a very precarious basis 
 even at the present day, and, it will be remembered, in the 
 Crimean war many Albanian chiefs fought under the 
 Russian flag against the combined forces of England.. 
 France, and Turkey. 
 
 The inhabitants of Albania are estimated at 1,200,000, of 
 whom a considerable proportion are Turks and Greeks; but 
 the basis of the population consists of the original race, 
 called Arnauts. About half of the entire population are 
 Mahometans; of the other moiety, about 520,000 belong 
 to the Greek Church, and the remainder to the Latin 
 Church. The conversion of those who profess Maho- 
 metanism has been, however, very imperfect, and chiefly 
 induced by political motives. In every family, the males 
 usually go to the mosque, the females to church ; and some 
 members of a family are seen in the most amicable manner 
 eating from the same table, and even from the same plate, 
 meats forbidden to the others. With the Turks, accord- 
 ingly, infidel and- Albanian are terms nearly synonymous. 
 The native Albanian is of middle stature ; his face is 
 oval, with high cheek-bones ; his neck long ; his chest full 
 and broad. His air is erect and majestic to a degree which 
 never fails to strike the traveller. He holds in utter con- 
 tempt that dissimulation which is characteristic of the 
 Greek, and, unlike the Turk, he is gay, lively, and active. 
 Averse, however, to regular industry his whole delight is 
 in arms and plunder. He goes co stantly armed; and 
 there are few Albanians who have _iot, in the prime of 
 their life, belonged to some of the numerous bands of 
 robbers who infest the mountains of their native country, 
 of Thessaly, and of Macedonia. This occupation carries 
 with it no disgrace: it is common for the Albanian to 
 mention circumstances which occurred "when he was a 
 robber." In proportion as the trade of robbing becomes 
 overstocked, part of those engaged in it seek employment 
 in the service of the sultan and the different pashas 
 throughout the Turkish empire, by all of whom the Alba 
 nians are regarded as the most valuable of their troops.' 
 
 This fierce and haughty race display a greater degree of 
 contempt for the female sex than is usual even among the 
 most barbarous nations. The females are literally regarded 
 as inferior animals, and treated accordingly; but in the 
 country districts they are not confined cr veiled, as is cu*- 
 toraary in Mahometan countries.
 
 448 
 
 ALB-ALB 
 
 The national costume of the Albanians is handsome in 
 appearance, and bears some resemblance to the Highland 
 dress. It consists of a cotton shirt; a white 'woollen 
 fustanella or kilt, which reaches to the knees;, a jacket; a 
 sash round the waist, in which pistols and a yataghan are 
 commonly carried ; coloured leggings ; sandals ; and a red 
 cap, round which some twist a shawl or scarf. The chiefs 
 and wealthy Albanians generally wear a jacket and vest of 
 velvet, richly embroidered with gold, and metal greaves 
 over their leggings, which are usually made of fine scarlet 
 cloth. The poorer classes, though picturesque in appear- 
 ancej are extremely dirty in their habits, and seldom 
 change their clothes. As a protection from the weather, 
 every Albanian has a capote, or rough shaggy mantle with 
 a hood attached, and usually made of horse-hair stuff or 
 coarse woollen cloth. The dress of the females is more 
 various, and often fantastical. A singular custom prevails 
 among the girls of stringing together the pieces of money 
 which they have collected for their portion, and wearing 
 them upon their heads. Some of them have their hair 
 hanging down in braids to a great length, loaded with this 
 species of ornament. 
 
 Scutari, on the lako of that name, is now considered the 
 chief town of Albania. It is the centre of a large inland 
 trade, and contains about 40,000 inhabitants. Prisrend, 
 in the north-east, is noted for its manufactures of fire-arms 
 and cutlery, and has a population of'25,000. Monastir, 
 or Bitolia, although the capital of the eyalet of Eoumelia, 
 is not, strictly speaking, within the confines of Albania. 
 It has a large transit trade between eastern and western 
 Turkey. Joannina, with 36,000 inhabitants, situated on 
 the south-west shore of a lake of the same name, was* the 
 capital of Albania in the time of Ali Pasha, and was his 
 stronghola as well as the seat of his government. The other 
 important towns of the interior are Jacova, Tirana, Okhrida, 
 Elbasan, Delvino, and Metzovo. The principal seaports 
 and river-ports are Dulcigno, Durazzo, Parga, Prevesa, and 
 Arta. j 
 
 The commerce of Albania is chiefly carried on through 
 Arta and Prevesa, on the north side of the entrance to the 
 Gulf of Arta, The principal merchants, however, are 
 Greeks residing at Joannina, among whom a very active 
 commercial spirit appears to prevail. The exports consist 
 almost entirely of unmanufactured produce, live stock, and 
 provisions, and comprise valonia (the cup of the acorn of 
 the Valonia oak, used in tanning), raw silk, cheese, raw 
 hides, drugs, dye-woods, sheep, horses, and salted meats. 
 Notwithstanding its mountainous character, the fertility of 
 its plains affords a surplus of grain, of which a considerable 
 quantity is sent to Italy, the Ionian Isles, Malta, and 
 other places. The vine, olive, pomegranate, orange, lemon, 
 mulberry, and fig are also cultivated. Wool is exported, 
 chiefly unmanufacturi 1, but partly also wrought into coarse 
 cloth. Other importa t articles of export are oil, tobacco of 
 good quality, cotton, and cotton yarn. Some cargoes of wood 
 for building and firewood are annually sent to Malta. The 
 chief imports consist of woollen cloths, used for winter 
 coverings. For this purpose the preference is given to a 
 coarser and cheaper kind than any that is usually manu- 
 factured in Great Britain. This is supplied from Germany. 
 Fire-arms, cutlery, gunpowder, hardware, coffee, and sugar 
 are also imported. The manufactures of Albania are few 
 and unimportant, being almost entirely confined to capotes, 
 embroidery on cloth and velvet, fire-arms and cutlery to a 
 limited extent, and gun and pistol stocks — all for home 
 consumption. 
 
 See the Journey through Albania and Turkey of Mr 
 J. Cam Ilobhouse (Lord Brought*); Travels in the Ionian 
 Isles, Albania, <fec, by Sir Henry Holland, who resided for 
 some time in the capacity of physician et t'.e court of Ali 
 
 •Pasha ; Eev. T. S. Hugncs's Travels in Sicily, Greece, and 
 Albania; Leake's Travels in Northern Greece,' Mrs Mary 
 A Walker's Through Macedonia to the Albanian Lakes. 
 
 ALBANIA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Asia, 
 bounded, according to Strabo, on the W. by Iberia, on 
 the E. by the Caspian Sea, on the N. by Sarmatia, on the 
 S. by Armenia and the river Cyrus (Kour). The country 
 formerly called Albania corresponds with the modern 
 Daghistan, Schirvan, and Leghistan, and is extremely 
 fertile, owing to the alluvial deposits made by the river 
 Cyrus. The ancient historians describe the Albanians 
 as tall, strong-bodied, and, generally speaking, of a very 
 graceful appearance. The Albanians were originally a 
 nomad race, and never devoted themselves to agriculture 
 or commerce. They became .known to the Eomans during 
 Pompey's expedition in pursuit of Mithridatcs (C5 B.C.), 
 against which they opposed a force of C0,000 infantry 
 and 22,000 cavalry. Though Pompey exacted from them 
 a nominal submission, they continued practically inde- 
 pendent. 
 
 ALBANO, a town and lake in the Campagna di Eoma, 
 Italy, about 14 miles S.E of Eome. The town is much 
 admired for the picturesque scenery around it. It is well 
 built, and the Eoman aqueduct and other monuments of 
 antiquity are in tolerablo preservation. It contains a 
 cathedral, and there are many handsomo villas of the 
 Eoman nobles in the vicinity. Population, 6400. The 
 lake of Albano, lying to the N.E. of the town, occupies 
 the crater of an extinct volcano, and is of a beautiful 
 oval form, surrounded with high wooded banks, and about 
 7 miles in circumference. It has long been an object 
 of attraction to the painter and the traveller. In tho 
 fourth century of ancient Eome, during the siege of Veii, 
 there was an extraordinary rise of the waters of this lake, 
 and the oracle declared that there was no hope of success 
 against Veii while the Alban lake was allowed thus to 
 swell. This prompted the Eomans to drain it by a tunnel 
 cut through the rock, a mile and a half in length, 4 feet 
 wide, and 6 high, which is still perfect. This outlet keeps 
 the surface of the lake at the height of 920 feet above 
 the level of the sea, Monte Cavo, the ancient Albanus, 
 rises on the eastern side of the lake to a height of 3000 
 feet, and commands a magnificent prospect. On its sum- 
 mit stood the famous temple of Jupiter Latialis. 
 
 ALBANY, a city of the United States, capital of the 
 state of New York and of the county of Albany, pictu- 
 resquely situated in a beautiful and fertile country on the 
 western bank of the Hudson, 145 miles from New York. It 
 is, for an American city, irregularly laid out, and much of 
 its architecture is poor, although it contains several very 
 fine buildings, and many of its more recently made streets 
 are broad and handsome. The Capitol, a brown stone 
 edifice, 115 feet by 90, built in 1807, faces a square called 
 Capitol Park ; and opposite it, on the eastern side of the 
 square, are the State Hall and City Hall, both con- 
 structed of white marble. There are several beautiful 
 churches, including a large Eoman Catholic cathedral. 
 Among the literary and scientific institutions of Albany 
 may bo mentioned the university, incorporated in 1852, 
 giving instruction in most branches of education, especially 
 practical science and law ; a medical college ; an academy, 
 and other schools of various grades ; a large observatory ; 
 the state library, with about 90,000 volumes; and the 
 Albany Institute for the collection and diffusion of scien- 
 tific information. Albany is an important centre of trade, 
 being situated at the point where the united Erie and 
 Champlain canals join the Hudson, and possessing good 
 railway communication with most cities of the United 
 States. The chief articles of commerce are timber, wheat^ 
 barley, wool, and tobacco, enormous quantities of wLicb,
 
 ALB-ALB 
 
 449 
 
 especially of the first-mentioned, pass through the city 
 annually. Besides its transit trade, its numerous foundries, 
 its breweries, carriage and hat manufactories, and tanneries 
 are of importance. In 1873, 536 vessels (83 sailing and 
 352 unrigged vessels and 101 steamers), of 68,682 tons, 
 belonged to the port. Albany was founded by the Dutch 
 in 1623, and is thus one of the oldest European settle- 
 ments in the United States, dating sixteen years after 
 that of Jamestown in Virginia. It was captured by the 
 British in 1661, who changed its name from Beaverwyck 
 or Williamstadt in honour of the Duke of York and Albany. 
 It received its charter in 1686, and became the capital of 
 the state of New York in 1797. It is governed by a mayor 
 and twenty aldermen, and is divided into ten wards. Popu- 
 lation in 1870, 69,422 ; number of families, 14,105 ; and 
 of dwellings, 8748. 
 
 ALBANY, Louisa Maria Caroline, Countess op, 
 daughter of Prince Gustavus Adolphus of Stolberg-Gedern, 
 was born at Mons on the 27th Sept. 1753, and assumed the- 
 title of Albany in 1772, when she married the Pretender, 
 Charles Edward, grandson of James II. of England. Her 
 husband was much older than herself, and their union 
 proved very unhappy. There were no children, and the 
 Pretender, who was a confirmed drunkard, treated his wife 
 with such brutality that her health and even her life were 
 endangered. In 1780 she obtained a legal separation, and 
 entrusted herself to the care of her husband's brother, the 
 Cardinal of York, who placed her in a convent, and after- 
 wards removed her to his own house at Rome. Here she 
 was frequently visited by the poet Alfieri, who made her 
 the object of what seems to have been the only pure attach- 
 ment of his life, and who, according to his own avowal, 
 was indebted to her influence for all that was bestun his 
 works. (See Alfieri.) In 1788 she was freed from her 
 bonds by the death of the Pretender, and' in the same year 
 she is said to have been secretly married to Alfieri. For 
 the remainder of her life she resided at Florence, where 
 she continued to be known as Countess of Albany, and 
 distinguished herself as a patroness of literary men and 
 artists. Alfieri died at her house in 1803, and in 1810 
 she caused a monument to his memory, by Canova, to be 
 erected in the church of San Croce. With the death of 
 the Cardinal of York in 1807 the Stuart line became 
 extinct, and the countess, who died on the 29th January 
 1824, was the last who was known by the name of Albany. 
 She was buried beside Alfieri in the church of San Croce. 
 
 ALBATEGNI, an Arabian astronomer, whose proper 
 name is Mohammed Ibn Jdbir Ibn Sendn Abu Abdillah, 
 derived this appellation, from Batan in Mesopotamia, his 
 native town, of which he is said to have been chief. His 
 astronomical observations extended from 877 A.D. to his 
 death in 929, and were principally conducted at Bakkah 
 or Aracta, on the Euphrates, and at Antioch in Syria. His 
 principal work, Zidje Sabi, the original MS. of which is 
 in the Vatican, was published in a Latin translation by 
 Plato Tiburtinus at Nuremberg in 1537, under the title De 
 Scientia Stellarum, and reprinted at Bologna in 1645. 
 Among the unpublished works of Albategni are commen- 
 taries on the Almagest and Makaldt of Ptolemy, and a 
 Treatise on Astronomy and Geography. Instead of the 
 tables of Ptolemy, which were imperfect, he computed new 
 ones; these were adapted to the meridian of Bakkah, and 
 were long used as the best among the Arabs. Albategni 
 gives the motion of the sun's apogee since Ptolemy's time, 
 is woll as the motion of the stars, which he estimated at 
 1° in 70 years. He makes the obliquity of the ecliptic 
 23° 35'. His determination of the length of the tropical 
 year is more exact than that of Ptolemy, being only 2m. 
 26s. short. Upon his observations were founded the Al- 
 phonsine tables of the moon's motion. He first substi- 
 
 tuted sine3 for chords, and also introduced into trigonometry 
 the use of tangents and versed sines. On account of his 
 discoveries, the chief of which is the motion of the sun's 
 apogee, he has been called the Arabian Ptolemy, and has 
 been placed by some at the head of' Arabian astronomers. 
 ALBATROSS, a genu3 of aquatic birds (Diomedea), 
 closely allied to the Petrels and Gulls, beronging to the 
 family of Longipennatoe, or long-winged birds, in the ordei 
 Natatores. In the name Diomedea, assigned to them by 
 Linnaeus, there is a reference to the mythical metamor- 
 phosis of the companions of the Greek warrior Diomede* 
 into birds. They have the beak large, strong, and sharp- 
 edged, the upper mandible terminating in a large hook; 
 the wings are narrow and very long; the feet have no 
 hind toe, and the three anterior toes are completely webbed 
 Of the three species 
 that the genus includes 
 the best known is the 
 Common or Wandering 
 Albatross (Z>. emdans), 
 which occurs in all. 
 parts of the Southern 
 Ocean, and in the seas 
 that wash the coast of 
 Asia to the south of 
 Behring Strait. It is 
 the largestandstrongecc 
 of all sea-birds. The 
 length of the body is 
 stated at 4 feet, and 
 the weight at from 15 
 to 25 lb. It sometimes 
 measures as much as 
 17 feet between the 
 tips of the extended wings, averaging probably from 10 to 
 12 feet. Its strength of wing is very great. It often 
 accompanies a ship for days — not merely following it, but 
 wheeling in wide circles round it — without ever being 
 observed to alight on the water, and continues its flight, 
 apparently untired, in tempestuous as well as in moderate 
 weather. It has even been said to sleep on the wing, and 
 Moore alludes to this fanciful " cloud-rocked slumbering " 
 in his Fire Worshippers. It feeds on small fish and on 
 the animal refuse that floats on the sea, eating to such 
 excess at times that it is unable to fly, and rests helplessly 
 on the water. The colour of the bird is a dusky white,' 
 the back being streaked transversely with black or brown 
 bands, and the wings darker than the rest of the body. 
 The flesh, though hard, dry, and unsavoury, is eaten by 
 the inhabitants of Kamtchatka, who also capture the bird 
 for its entrails, which they inflate for net-floats, and its 
 long wing-bones, which they manufacture into various 
 articles, particularly tobacco-pipes. The albatross lays one 
 egg; it is white, with a few spots, and is about 4 inches 
 long. In breeding-time the bird resorts to solitary island 
 groups, like the Crozet Islands and the elevated Tristan 
 da Cunha, where it has its nest — a natural hollow or a 
 circle of earth roughly scraped together— on the open 
 ground The early explorers of the great Southern Sea 
 cheered themselves with the companionship of the alba- 
 tross in its dreary solitudes; and the evil hap of him 
 who shot with his cross-bow the bird of good omen is 
 familiar to readers of Coleridge's Riine of the Ancient 
 Mariner. 
 
 ALBAY, a town of Luzon, the chief of the Philippine 
 Islands, in 13° 22' N. lat. and 123° 52' E. long. It is the 
 capital of the fertile province of the same name, and the 
 residence of ths governor, and has an active trade. Clost 
 to the town is an active volcano by which it has been fre- 
 quently devastated. Population, 13,115. 
 
 1-16
 
 450 
 
 A L B — A L B 
 
 ALBERONI, Gnn.10, cardinal and statesman, was born 
 near Piacenza, probably at the village of Fiorenzuola, on 
 the 31st May 1664. His father was a gardener, and he 
 himself became first connected with the church in tho 
 hnmble position of verger in the cathedral of Piacenza. 
 Having gained the favour of Bishop Barni, he took priest's 
 orders, and afterwards accompanied the son of his patron 
 to Rome. During the war of the Spanish succession 
 Alberoni laid the foundation of his political success by the 
 services he rendered to the duke of Vendome, commander 
 of the French forces in Italy; and when these forces were 
 recalled in 1706, he accompanied the duke to Paris, where 
 he was favourably received by Louis XIV. In 1711 he 
 followed Vend6me into Spain as his secretary. Two years 
 later, the duke having died in the interval, Alberoni was 
 appointed Consular agent for Parma at the court of Philip 
 V. of Spain, being raised at the same time to the dignity 
 of count. On his arrival at Madrid he found the Princess 
 des Ursins all but omnipotent with the king, and for 
 a time he judged it expedient to use her influence in 
 carrying out his plans. In concert with her he arranged 
 the king's marriage with Elizabeth Farnese of Parma, 
 whom he represented to be of such a facile disposition that 
 the princess's power over Philip would be in no degree 
 impaired by the union. Alberoni was already in Parma 
 to conclude the negotiation ere the Princess des Ursins 
 discovered that he had entirely deceived her as to the 
 character of Elizabeth. A messenger was at- once des- 
 patched to prevent, if possible, the ratification of the 
 engagement; but he arrived too late. On reaching Spain 
 Elizabeth's first act, prompted doubtless by Alberoni, was 
 to demand the instant dismissal of the outwitted favourite, 
 who was compelled to leave the Spanish dominions. The 
 influence of the new j queen being actively exerted on 
 Alberoni's behalf, he speedily rose to high position. He 
 was made a member of the king's council, bishop of Malaga, 
 and in 1715 prime minister, and was raised to the dignity 
 ci cardinal in 1717. His internal policy was exceedingly 
 vigorous, and, though carried out altogether regardless of 
 popular rights and liberties, might have restored the lost 
 greatness of Spain had it not been for his unscrupulous 
 and audacious conduct of foreign affairs. The key to his 
 daring and crafty schemes is probably to be found in the 
 desire of Elizabeth to secure a throne for her son Don 
 Carlos, born in 1716. Seizing the flimsiest pretext for 
 making war upon Austria, he invaded the island of Sar- 
 dinia, then Austrian territory, and took possession of 
 Sicily In France he pressed the claims of Philip V. to 
 the regency in opposition to the Duke of Orleans; he sought 
 to keep England employed at home. by encouraging the 
 Pretender, and he pursued a similar policy towards Austria in 
 connection with Ragotski of Transylvania and the Sultan. 
 An alliance which he formed with Russia and Sweden led to 
 no practical results, and his other schemes similarly failed. 
 England, France, Austria, and Holland united themselves 
 in what is known as the Quadruple Alliance against the 
 aggressions of Spain; and though their first proposals 
 were rejected fearlessly by Alberoni, they were strong 
 enough to succeed when, in a second negotiation, they re- 
 quired of Philip the dismissal of his minister as an indispen- 
 sable condition of peace. On the 5th December 1719 he 
 was ordered to leave Spain, Elizabeth herself having taken 
 an active part in procuring tho decree of banishment. He 
 went to Italy, and chere had to take refuge among the 
 Apennines, Pope Clement, who was his bitter enemy, 
 having given strict orders for his arrest On the death of 
 Clement, Alberoni- boldly appeared at the Conclave, and 
 took part in the election of Innocent XHL (1721), 
 after which he was for a (short time imprisoned by the 
 pontiff on the demand of Spain. At tho next election he 
 
 was himself proposed for the papal chair, and secured ten 
 votes at the Conclave which elected Benedict XIII. Bone- 
 diet's successor, Clement XII., named him legate of 
 Ravenna, in which capacity he incurred the pope's dis- 
 pleasure by the strong and unwarrantable measures he 
 adopted to reduce the little republic of San Marino to 
 subjection to Rome. He was consequently replaced by 
 another legate in 1740, and soon after ho retired to Pia- 
 cenza, where he founded a' college which still bears his 
 name. He died on the 16th June 1752, leaving a sum of 
 600,000 ducats to endow the seminary he had founded, 
 and the residue of the immense wealth he had acquired in 
 Spain to his nephew. Alberoni left a largo quantity of 
 manuscripts; but the genuineness of tho Political Testa- 
 ment, published in his name at Lausanne in 1753, has 
 been questioned. 
 
 ALBERT (Albeecht) I., Duke of Austria, and after- 
 wards King of Germany, born in 1248, was tho son of 
 Rudolph of Habsburg, the founder of the imperial Austrian 
 dynasty. Rudolph having acquired the duchy of Austria 
 "by conquest, vested it in his son, with consent of the 
 electors, in 1282, and thus founded the dynasty which still 
 reigns. He also endeavoured to secure for Albert the suc- 
 cession to the throne of Germany, but was unsuccessful 
 On the death of his father in 1291, Albert seized the in- 
 signia of sovereignty, and with characteristic presumption 
 declared himself king of Germany, without regard to tho 
 decision of the electors. Their choice fell (1292) upon 
 Adolphus of Nassau, and Albert, who was called to sup- 
 press a revolt among his subjects in Switzerland, found it 
 necessary to acknowledge the superior claims of his rival. 
 The government of Adolphus having become displeasing 
 to the electors, they formally deposed him in 1298, and 
 named Albert his successor. As, however, tho former 
 refused to recognise their verdict, the matter had to be 
 referred to the arbitrament of the sword. The forces of 
 the rival kings met at Golheim, near Worms, where the 
 army of Adolphus was defeated, and he himself slain by 
 Albert's own hand Upon this, Albert, wishing probably 
 to show his moderation, resigned his claim to the throne; 
 but he was re-elected, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on 
 the 24th August 1298 Pope Boniface VILL, however, 
 denied the right of the electors, and refused to confirm their 
 choice, alleging that the empire belonged to him alone to 
 hold or bestow at his pleasure. In league with Philip the 
 Fair of France, Albert at first openly resisted the pope: 
 but soon finding it advisable to change his policy, he 
 deserted his ally, admitted the papal jurisdiction, and was 
 rewarded with the kingdom of the deposed Philip. It 
 should be noted, however, that he never received from tho 
 pope the crown of the Roman empire, though his name is 
 generally included in the list of emperors. His reign as 
 king of Germany was one of continual warfare. With a 
 rapacity which seems to have known no bounds, he endea- 
 voured to subdue Holland, Zealand, Friesland, Hungary, 
 and Bohemia; but was in each case unsuccessful The 
 attempt to bind his yoke more firmly upon the Swiss can- 
 tons caused the revolt of Unterwalden, Schwyz, and Uri, 
 in January 1 308, and thus laid the foundation of the Swiss 
 Confederation. It was while endeavouring to check this 
 revolt that Albert met his death at the hand of his nephew, 
 John of Habsburg, whose claim to his father's dominion of 
 Swabia had been refused in the most insulting terms by 
 the king. Incensed at the denial of his rights, John 
 formed a conspiracy with three noblemen of the king's 
 suite. On the 1st May 1308 the four crossed the river 
 Reuss at Windisch with Albert, who was slain immediately 
 on landing, and before the eyes of the other members of tho 
 suite, who had been left on the opposite side. He died in 
 the arms of a beggar woman, who happened to be passing.
 
 ALBERT 
 
 451 
 
 Albert was married to Elizabeth, daughter of the count of 
 Tyrol, who bore him eleven children. 
 
 Four other reigning dukes of Austria bore the name of 
 Albert. Of these, Albert II., surnamed the Wise, reigned 
 from 1330 to 1358; Albert III. from 1365 to 1390; and 
 Albert IV., surnamed the Pious, from 1390 to 1402. 
 Albert V., surnamed "The Magnanimous," bom in 1397, 
 was elected king of Germany in April 1438, and is therefore 
 sometimes styled Albert II., the higher dignity having 
 been previously borne only by the first of the name. 
 Through his marriage in 1422 with Elizabeth, daughter of 
 Sigismund, king of Bohemia and Hungary, he ultimately 
 added the sovereignty of these dominions to his own, being 
 elected king of Hungary on the death of Sigismund in 1437, 
 and king of .Bohemia in May 1438. He died at Langen- 
 dorf on the 27th October 1439, while engaged in an ex- 
 pedition against the Turks. 
 
 ALBERT I., margrave of Brandenburg, surnamed " The 
 Bear," from the heraldic emblem he assumed % born in 
 1106, was the son of Otto the Eich, count of Ballenstadt, 
 by his marriage with Eilica, eldest daughter of the duke of 
 Saxony. In 1121 he received from the Emperor Lothario 
 the marquisate of Lusatia, to be held in fief, and he served 
 the empire faithfully in the war with Bohemia in 1 126. In 
 the following year, from some unknown motive, the emperor 
 conferred the duchy of Saxony, to which Albert, as son of 
 the eldest daughter of Magnus, had the best claim, upon 
 Henry of Bavaria, son of a younger daughter; and in 1131 
 Albert was deprived of Lusatia. He still remained, how- 
 ever, loyal to the empire, and received as a reward the 
 margravate of Brandenburg in 1134. In 1136-7 he made 
 incursions into the territory of the Wends, his troublesome 
 neighbours on the north, and succeeded in strengthening his 
 position. In 1138 the Emperor Conrad III. conferred upon 
 him the duchy of Saxony; but finding himself unable to 
 maintain his rights against Henry the Lion, he betook himself 
 in 1142 to the emperor, who restored Saxony to his rival, 
 and allotted Swabia to him in compensation. A few yeara 
 later Albert again attacked the Wends, and secured by 
 conquest large accessions of territory, which he held as a 
 fief of the empire. On the extinction of the house • of 
 Staden in 1150, Albert wa3 raised to the dignity of an 
 elector. • A third expedition against the Wends, under- 
 taken in 1157, ended in their almost total extinction, and 
 Albert caused the depopulated territory to be colonised by 
 industrious agriculturists from the Rhine and the Nether- 
 lands, who greatly improved the face of the country. In 
 1158 Albert went on a crusade to the Holy Land, in com- 
 pany with his wife, returning the following year. The 
 close of his reign was ' signalised by another war with 
 Henry of Saxony (1164-8), in which Albert was unsuc- 
 cessful Immediately on peace being concluded, he abdi- 
 cated in favour of his eldest son; and after two years 
 spent in retirement, he died at Ballenstadt on the 18th 
 November 1170. 
 
 ALBERT, Margrave of Brandenburg and first Duke 
 of Prussia, third son of the Margrave Friedrich of Ans- 
 pach, was born on the 17th May 1490. Being intended 
 for the church, he was educated by Archbishop Hermann 
 of Cologne, and became a canon of Cologne cathedral He 
 seems, however, to have himself preferred a military life, 
 as he accompanied his father in the train of the emperor on 
 on expedition to Venice, and was present at the siege of 
 Pavia. On the 13th Feb. 1511 he joined the Teutonic 
 order; and a few days after, though scarcely twenty-one 
 years old, was chosen grand master, it being expected that, 
 rs nepnew of Sigismund of Poland, he would be able to 
 secure the privileges and immunities which the order were 
 at the time claiming from that monarch. The refusal of 
 Albert to swear allegiance to Sigismund led, after pro- 
 
 tracted negotiations, which proved fruitless, to a war with 
 Poland in 1520. A four years' truce being concluded at' 
 Thorn in 1521, Albert repaired to the diet at Nuremberg 
 to invoke the aid of his brother German princes on behalf' 
 of his order. The diet found itself unable to render him 
 any assistance, and at the same time he received advice 
 from Luther which altogether changed his purpose. Em- 
 bracing the doctrines of the Reformation, he was declared 
 Duke of Prussia, consented to hold the duchy as a fief from 
 Poland, and took the oath of allegiance at Cracow on the- 
 9th April 1525. At the same time he resigned the. grand 
 mastership of the order. In 1527 he . married Anne 
 Dorothea, daughter of the king of Denmark. His subse- 
 quent reign was marked by zealous efforts, amid many 
 difficulties, to promote the welfare of his duchy. He inter* 
 ested himself especially in the advancement of learning, 
 inviting men of letters to his court, and promoting the 
 publication of their writings. In 1544 lie founded the 
 university of Konigsberg, in spite of great opposition, 
 chiefly from the pope. Keen theological disputes between 
 the professors of this university were among the many 
 troubles of his later years. He died of the plague on the 
 20th of March 1568. His second wife, the Princes Anna 
 Maria of Brunswick, who had been attacked by the same 
 disease, survived him only a single day. 
 
 ALBERT, Cardinal Archbishop of Magdeburg and Elector 
 of Mentz, born 1489, was the youngest son of John, Elector 
 of Brandenburg. In 1513 he was consecrated archbishop 
 of Magdeburg, and about the same time he was chosen 
 administrator of the diocese of Halberstadt. Next year he 
 was raised to the still higher dignity of archbishop and 
 elector of Mentz, and he continued to hold all three offices 
 simultaneously. For the pallium in connection with the 
 latter appointment the pope demanded the exorbitant sum 
 of 30,000 ducats, but enabled the archbishop to recoup 
 himself by granting him the privilege of selling indulgences 
 throughout his diocese. It was his employment of the 
 Dominican Tetzel in this service which, by calling forth, 
 Luther's famous ninety-five theses, had so important an 
 influence on the course of the Reformation. In 1518 he 
 was created a cardinal as a reward for his services to the 
 Romish church. His opposition to the doctrines of Luther 
 did not prevent many within his own diocese from accept- 
 ing the Reformation; and he found it necessary to grant 
 religious liberty to his subjects in 1541, availing himself of 
 the opportunity to extort from them in return for the boon 
 the payment of his debts, which amounted to 500,000 
 florins. Albert was a patron of learning, and counted 
 Erasmus among his friends. He died at Mentz on the 
 24th September 1545. 
 
 ALBERT (PRINCE), Francis Charles Augustus 
 Albert Emilanuel, Prince Consort of England, born at 
 Rosenau on the 26th Aug. 1819, was the second son of the 
 hereditary Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, by his first wife 
 the Princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. He thus be- 
 longed to the Ernestine or elder branch of the royal family 
 of Saxony, which, on account of its adherence to the 
 doctrines of the Reformation, had to surrender the king- 
 dom to the Albertine or younger branch, which is still in 
 possession of it. The marriage of his parents proving an 
 unhappy one, they separated in 1824, and the young prince 
 never again saw his mother, who. died in 1S31. He was 
 educated, along with his elder brother Ernest, under the 
 care of Consistorial-Balh Florschutz, who, in a memoran- 
 dum drawn up after the prince's death, speaks in the 
 highest terms of his pupil's benevolent disposition and 
 studious habits. At the proger age the brothers proceeded 
 to the university of Bonn, where Herr Florschutz still 
 continued to exercise a general superintendence of their 
 studies. Prince Albert devoted himself especially to tho
 
 452 
 
 ALBERT 
 
 natural sciences, political economy, and philosophy, having 
 for teachers men of such world-wide fame as Fichte, 
 Schlegel, and Perthes. He also diligently cultivated at 
 this period the sister arts of music and painting, and thus 
 qualified himself for some of the most valuable services he 
 was afterwards to render to the land of his adoption. His 
 feeling for art in all its forms was very sensitive, and his 
 executive skill, both as a musician and painter, very con- 
 siderable. In gymnastic exercises he greatly excelled, 
 carrying off the first prize for fencing in a competition with 
 a large number of students. 
 
 In 1836 the prince visited England in company with his 
 father, and met his future consort for the first time. The 
 idea of a matrimonial alliance between the cousins had 
 occurred to various members of the family, and had been 
 cherished especially by their grandmother the dowager- 
 duchess of Coburg, and their uncle Leopold, the king of 
 the Belgians. From the time of the queen's accession 
 there seems to have been a family understanding on the 
 subject, though, owing to the youth of the prince and his 
 cousin, no formal engagement was entered into till two years 
 later. In the winter of 1838-9 the prince travelled in 
 Italy, accompanied by Mr Seymour, a young English gentle- 
 man, who was selected doubtless out of regard to the pro- 
 bable future of his charge. A year later the hopes of 
 many were realised when, on the 23d Nov. 1839, the 
 queen announced to the Privy Council her intended mar- 
 riage with her cousin. The circumstances of the engage- 
 ment have been fully made known since the prince's death, 
 and they show that the union was founded upon mutual 
 choice, springing from mutual affection. On the lOtb 
 February 1840 the marriage was celebrated at the chapel- 
 royal, St 'James's, amid universal rejoicings. A few days 
 before the event two bills had been passed in parliament, 
 one naturalising the prince as a British subject, and the 
 other providing an annuity of £30,000 a year for the 
 maintenance of his establishment. The ministry had 
 proposed that the sum should be £50,000, following the 
 precedent established in the case of Prince Leopold; but 
 the reduction was made on the motion of Colonel Sibthorpe, 
 who received the support of the radicals and. the entire 
 opposition. The result of the vote caused the prince con- 
 siderable vexation and disappointment, which were enhanced 
 when difficulties were raise'd in parliament as to the pre- 
 cedence to be accorded to him. The latter question was only 
 settled by an exercise of the queen's prerogative. Letters 
 patent were issued on the 5th March, giving the prince 
 precedence next to the queen. 
 
 The position in which the prince was placed by his 
 marriage, while it was one of distinguished honour, was 
 also one of peculiar difficulty, and it was only the posses- 
 sion of a rare discretion that" enabled him to fill it so 
 irreproachably as he did. Published letters and . memo- 
 randa show how thoroughly he appreciated the delicate 
 nature of his duties, and how clearly he perceived the 
 limits within which his influence must be confined if it 
 was to be legitimately and usefully exerted. A letter to 
 the Duke of Wellington, declining, after mature considera- 
 tion, to be designated to the office of commander-in-chief 
 of the army, is especially noteworthy as containing an 
 admirable description of the proper functions of a prince- 
 consort. Generally, his idea was that it was his duty to 
 merge his personality as completely as possible in that of 
 the sovereign, while giving her in all things real but unob- 
 trusive advice and support ; and that he acted during his 
 whole life in conformity with this idea those who had the 
 best means of knowing were the readiest to testify. Once, 
 indeed, at the commencement of the Crimean war, it was 
 generally believed that he had overstepped the limits of 
 his position by interfering unwarrantably with the foreign 
 
 policy of the country and the patronage of the army. 
 The charges were so definite and so widely circulated that 
 it was deemed necessary to take notice of them in parlia- 
 ment. They were met by a complete and emphatic denial 
 on the part of the ministry, and no one now believes that 
 they had any real foundation. It was, of course, both 
 natural and proper that the prince should interest himself 
 deeply in the affairs of the country over which, by an Act 
 passed on the 4th Aug. 1840, he had been named regent 
 in the event of the death of the queen before the heir to the 
 crown had attained the age of eighteen years. He had also 
 a right to interest himself in the administration of the army, 
 as being himself a field-majsshal and a colonel of hussars. 
 
 It was fortunate for the prince, shut out as he was by 
 the circumstances of his station from any share in party 
 politics, that he found other and more congenial work 
 sufficient to engage all his energies. He was qualified, as 
 few of his rank are, to deal with those social and scientific 
 problems in the solution of which men of all parties are 
 equally interested. He engaged himself especially in endea- 
 vours to secure the more perfect application of science and 
 art to manufacturing industry. The Great Exhibition of 
 1851 originated in a suggestion he threw out at a meeting 
 of the Society of' Arts, and owed the greater part of ita 
 success to his intelligent and unwearied efforts. Similar 
 institutions, on a smaller scale but with a kindred aim, 
 always found in him warm advocacy and substantial sup- 
 port. It was chiefly at meetings in connection with these 
 that he found occasion for the delivery of addresses cha- 
 racterised by profound thought and comprehensiveness of 
 view, a collection of which was published in 1857. One 
 of the most favourable specimens of his powers as a speaker 
 is the inaugural address which he delivered as President of 
 the British Association for the Advancement of Science 
 when it met at Aberdeen in 1859, printed in an edition of 
 his speeches which appeared in 1862. The education of 
 his family and the management of his domestic affairs 
 furnished the prince with another very important sphere 
 of action, in which he employed himself with conscientious 
 devotedness. The training of the Prince of Wales was 
 carried on under his own superintendence, in accordance 
 with a plan he himself had drawn up; and it may be 
 questioned whether so much wisdom and care was ever 
 bestowed on the upbringing of an heir to the British 
 throne. The estates of the Duchy of Cornwall, the here- 
 ditary appanage of the Prince of Wales, were so greatly 
 •improved under his father's management that the rent-roll 
 rose from £11,000 to £50,000 a year. Prince Albert, 
 indeed, had a peculiar talent for the management of landed 
 estates. His model farm at Windsor was in every way 
 worthy of the name; and the grounds at Balmoral and 
 Osborne, so universally admired, were laid out entirely in 
 conformity with his designs. 
 
 A character so pure, and a lif e so useful and well-directed 
 in all its aims, could scarcely fail to secure universal respect. 
 As the prince became better known, the mistrust, of which 
 the adverse votes in parliament were undoubtedly to some 
 extent an expression, gave way, and the people vied with 
 their queen in showering deserved honours upon him. 
 After a keen contest with Earl' Powis, he was elected chan- 
 cellor of the university of Cambridge in 1847 ; and he was 
 afterwards appointed master of the Trinity House. In 
 1857 the formal title of " Prince-Consort " was conferred 
 upon him by letters patent, in order to settle certain 
 difficulties as to precedence that had been raised at foreign 
 courts. As he had previously possessed no distinctive title, 
 the precedence he had received was only by courtesy. 
 
 It was in the prime of manhood and the full career of 
 his usefulness that the prince-consort was removed by 
 death. He had been greatly occupied during the autumn
 
 A L B — A L B 
 
 453 
 
 ef 1861 with the arrangements for the projected interna- 
 tional exhibition, and it was just after returning from one 
 of the meetings in connection with it that he was seized 
 with hii last illness. He died of typhoid fever on the 14th 
 of Dec. 1861. Few have ever been more sincerely or more 
 universally mourned. The grief of the queen was deep and 
 lasting, and the whole nation sympathised in the truest sense 
 with her in her sorrow. Perhaps never before, except on 
 the occasion of the death of the Princess Charlotte, had all 
 classes of the people been so closely knit together in the 
 feeling of a common bereavement and a common sorrow. 
 A national memorial, to be erected partly by parliamentary 
 vote and partly by public subscription, was at once resolved 
 upon, and nearly every town of importance throughout the 
 kingdom embodied in a statue or some other form its 
 tribute to the memory of " The Good Prince." The mag- 
 nificent mausoleum at Frogmore, in which his remains 
 were finally deposited, was erected at the expense of the 
 Queen and the royal family. (See Early Years of H.R.H. 
 the Prince Consort, 1867; Principal Speeches and Addresses 
 of Prince Albert, with an Introduction, 1862). 
 
 ALBEET NYANZA, a large lake in East Central 
 Africa, extending from 2° 45' N. lat. at least as far as 
 2° S. Its surface is 2720 feet above the level of the sea : 
 on its western coast are the Blue Mountains, rising 7000 
 feet higher ; and on the east a ridge of steep cliffs, with 
 elevations varying from 1500 to 5000 feet. The White 
 Nile, flowing in a north-westerly direction from Lake 
 Victoria Nyanza, enters Lake Albert Nyanza about 2° 
 15' N. lat., and issues from it near its northern extremity. ' 
 Messrs Speke and Grant were informed of the existence 
 of this lake by the natives, but Sir Samuel (then Mr) 
 Baker and his wife were the first Europeans who explored 
 it in 1864. (See Africa and Nile, and also Sir S. W. 
 Baker's The Albert Nyanza, the Great Basin of the Nile, and 
 Explorations of the Nile Sources, 2 vols., London, 1866). 
 
 ALBERTI, Leon Battista, distinguished as a painter, 
 poet, philosopher, musician, and especially as an architect, 
 was descended from the noble family of the Alberti of 
 Florence. The place and date of his birth are variously 
 given, but it is most probable that he was born at Venice 
 about the year 1404. He was so skilled in Latin verse 
 that a comedy he wrote in his twentieth year, entitled 
 Philodoxius, deceived the younger Aldus, who edited and 
 published it as the genuine work of Lepidus. In music 
 he was reputed one of the first organists of the age. He 
 held the appointment of canon in the metropolitan church 
 of Florence, and thus had leisure to devote himself to his 
 favourite art. He is generally regarded as one of the 
 restorers of the ancient style of architecture, and has been 
 called by some writers the Florentine Vitruvius. At Rome 
 he was employed by Pope Nicholas V. in the restoration 
 of the papal palace and of the fountain of Acqua Vergine, 
 and in the ornamentation of the fountain of the Piazza de 
 TrevL At Rimini he designed the celebrated church of 
 San Francesco, which is generally esteemed his finest 
 work. On a commission from Rucellai, he designed the 
 principal facade of the church of Santa Maria Novella in 
 Florence, as well as the family palace in the Via della 
 Scala, now known as the Palazzo StrozzL In Mantua he 
 was employed by the Marchese Ludovico Gonzaga to 
 design several buildings, the most important b»ing the 
 church of Sant' Andrea. Alberti wrote works on sculp- 
 ture, Della Statua, and on painting, De Pictura, which 
 are highly esteemed; but his most celebrated treatise is 
 that on architecture, De Re ^Edijicatoria, which has been 
 translated into Italian, French, Spanish, and English. A 
 splendid edition of this work in English and Italian, by 
 Leoni, was published at London in 1726, in 3 vols, folio. 
 Alberti. being of an amiable and generous disposition, was 
 
 highly esteemed by bis contemporaries. He died at Roma 
 in 1472, or, according to others, in 1484. 
 
 ALBERTRANDY, Jan CH»zciciEL,or John-Ckristian, 
 historian, was born at Warsaw in 1731, his father being 
 an Italian. Educated in the public school of the Jesuits, 
 he joined their order in his fifteenth year, and gave such 
 proof of his ability that, at the early age of nineteen, he 
 was appointed professor at the college of Pultusk. Alter 
 having successively filled similar positions in Plock, 
 Nieswiez, and Wihaa, he became,- in 1766, librarian to 
 Bishop Zaluski, who designed to make his extensive col- 
 lection of books available to the public. A detailed catalogue 
 of the 200,000 volumes which it contained was accordingly 
 prepared by Albertrandy. In 1764 he was chosen by 
 the primate Lubienski tutor to his grandson, Count Felix 
 Lubienski, afterwards minister of justice. In this capacity 
 he visited Italy in 1770 with his pupil, residing first at 
 Siena and then at Rome. The preference Lubienski 
 showed for numismatics induced Albertrandy to devote 
 himself while in Italy to the special study of that science, 
 and he was soon recognised as an authority on the subject. 
 When he returned to his native country, King Stanislaus 
 Augustus appointed him, at the request of Lubienski, 
 keeper of his medals, and afterwards his reader and 
 librarian. The representations he made to the king as to 
 the extent and value of the materials for Polish history 
 that were scattered throughout the libraries of Rome, 
 induced Stanislaus to send Him on a second visit to Italy, 
 in order that he might collect these materials. He arrived 
 at Rome in 1782, and devoted three years to the task. 
 The Excerpta, all written with his own hand, filled 110 
 volumes of manuscript. To complete the collection, he 
 subsequently visited Sweden, where the difficulty of the 
 work was greatly increased by his being forbidden to copy 
 any portions of the books or manuscripts he consulted. 
 An excellent memory, however, enabled him in great 
 measure to overcome the difficulty ; and from the libraries 
 of Stockholm and Upsala he made extracts which increased 
 the entire collection to 200 volumes. In recognition of 
 his merit the king bestowed on him the bishopric of 
 Zenopolis. He was the first president of the Royal 
 Society of the Friends of Science in Warsaw, and took a 
 large share in its proceedings up to the time of his death, 
 which occurred on the 10th August 1808. 
 
 ALBERTUS MAGNUS, a celebrated scholastic philo- 
 sopher, was born of the noble family Von Bollstadt at 
 Lauingen in Suabia. The date of his birth is most pro- 
 bably 1193. He was educated principally at Padua, where 
 he received particular instruction in Aristotle's writings. 
 In 1223 he became a member of the Dominican order, 
 and studied theology under its rules at Bologna and else- 
 where. Selected to fill the position of lecturer at Cologne, 
 where the order had a house, he taught for several years 
 there, at Regensburg, Freiburg, Strasburg, and Hildesheim. 
 In 1245 he repaired to Paris and received his doctorate, 
 teaching for some time, in accordance with the regulations, 
 and with great success. In 1254 he was made provincial 
 of his order, and fulfilled the arduous duties of the office 
 with great care and effectiveness. During the time he held 
 this office he publicly defended the Dominicans against the 
 university of Paris, commented on St John, and answered 
 the errors of the Arabian philosopher, Averroes. In 1259 
 the pope made him bishop of Regensburg, which office he 
 resigned after three years. The remainder of his life he 
 spent partly in preaching throughout Bavaria and the 
 adjoining districts, partly in retirement in the various 
 houses of his order ; almost the last of his labours was the 
 defence of the orthodoxy of his former pupil, Thomas 
 Aquinas. He died in 1280, aged 87. Albert's works, 
 published in twenty-one folios by the Dominican Petei
 
 454 
 
 A L B — A L B 
 
 Janrmy in 1651, sufficiently attest his great activity. He 
 was the most widely read and most learned man of his 
 time. Tho whole of Aristotle's works, presented in the 
 Latin translations and notes of the Arabian commentators, 
 were by him digested, interpreted, and systematised in 
 accordance with church doctrine. Albert's activity, how- 
 ever, is rather philosophical than theological, for while 
 pressing philosophy in general, and Aristotle in particular, 
 into the service of theology, he excludes from what belongs 
 to the natural reason all that is specially biblical, as, e.g., 
 miracles, the atonement, and the Trinity ; though he does 
 not refuse to see 'with Augustin exemplifications, shadow- 
 ings, of the latter doctrine even in nature. The philosophical 
 works occupying the first six and the last of the twenty- 
 one volumes are generally divided according to the 
 Aristotelian scheme of the sciences, and consist of inter- 
 pretations and condensations of Aristotle's relative works, 
 with supplementary discussions depending on the questions 
 then agitated, and occasionally divergences from the 
 opinions of the master. In logic, he attempts to unite 
 the three rival theories of universals, holding that uni- 
 wersals exist in three ways— (1.) Ante res, as ideas in the 
 mind of God, from which the class is modelled, and which 
 therefore exist before individual things ; (2.) In rebus, as 
 the common basis in a class of individual objects; (3.) 
 Post res, as the mental notion of the class. In the meta- 
 physical and physical treatises he mainly repeats Aristotle, 
 differing from him as regards the eternity of the world 
 and tho definition of the bouL His principal theological 
 works are a commentary in three volumes on the Books 
 of the Sentences of Peter Lombard (Magkter Sententiarum), 
 and the Summa Tlieologice, in two volumes. This last 
 is 4n substance a repetition of the first in a more didactic 
 form. Albert's knowledge of physical science was consider- 
 able, and for the age accurate. His industry in every de- 
 partment was great, and though we find in his system many 
 of those inner gaps from which no scholastic philosophy was 
 ever free, yet the protracted study of Aristotle gave him a 
 great power of systematic thought and exposition, and the 
 results of that study, as left to us, by no means warrant 
 the contemptuous title sometimes given him— the " Ape of 
 Aristotle." They rather lead us to appreciate the motives 
 which caused his contemporaries to bestow on him the 
 honourable surname " The Great," and the no less honour- 
 able title, " Doctor Universalis." For Albert's life the best 
 authorities are Sighart, Albertus Magnus, sein Leben und 
 seine Wissenschaft, 1857; and D'Assailly, Albert le Grand, 
 1870. The most comprehensive surveys of his philosophy 
 are those of Stock!, Geschichte d. Scholastischen Philosophic, 
 and, in smaller compass, Erdmann, Grundriss d. Ges. d. 
 Phil., vol. i. Haureau, Hitter, and Prantl may also be 
 referred to. 
 
 ALBI, a city of France, capital of the department of 
 the Tarn, is situated on the river Tarn, 41 miles N.E. of 
 Toulouse. It is a place of great antiquity, and was a 
 stronghold of the early French Protestants, giving its 
 name to the Albigenses. It is the seat of -an archbishop, 
 and has a chamber of commerce and a public library of 
 12,000 volumes. The cathedral) dedicated to St Cecilia, 
 is a magnificent Gothic edifice, in the style of the 13th 
 century, and has one of the finest choirs in France. Here 
 there is a very valuable silver shrine, of exquisite mosaic 
 work, containing the relics of St Clair, the first bishop of 
 the see. The environs are charming, and the promenade 
 of La Lice, without the city, is a beautiful terrace bordered 
 with two rows of very fine trees. At one end is the con- 
 vent of the Dominicans. Albi has woollen and linen 
 manufactures ; coal, iron, and copper are wrought in the 
 vicinity ; and the surrounding district is very fertile, pro- 
 ducing much grain and fruit. Population (1872), 17,469. 
 
 ALBIGENSES, a sect opposed to the Church of Rome, 
 which derives its name from Albiga (the modern Albi, 
 noticed above), either because its doctrines were ex- 
 pressly condemned at a council held there, or, more pro- 
 bably, because its adherents were to be found in great 
 numbers in that town and its neighbourhood. The Albi- 
 genses were kindred in origin and more or less similar in 
 doctrine to the sects known in Italy as Paterins, in 
 Germany as Catharists, and in France as Bulgarians, but 
 they are not to be entirely identified with any of these. 
 StiU less ought they to bo confounded, as has frequently 
 been the case, with, the TValdenses, who first appear at a 
 later period in history, and are materially different in their 
 doctrinal views. The descent of the Albigenses may be 
 traced with tolerable distinctness from tho Paulicians, a 
 sect that sprang into existence in the Eastern Church during 
 the 6th century. (See Paulicians.) The Paulicians were 
 Gnostics, and were acoused by their enemies and persecutors 
 of holding Manichaean doctrines, which, it is said, they 
 vehemently disowned. Their creed, wliateyer it was pre- 
 cisely, spread gradually westward through Europe. In the 
 9th century it found many adherents in Bulgaria, and 300 
 years later it was maintained and defended, though not 
 without important modifications, by the Albigenses in the 
 south of France. The attempt to discover the precise doc- 
 trinal opinions held by the Albigenses is attended with a 
 double difficulty. No formal creed or definite doctrinal 
 statement framed by themselves exists, and in default of 
 this it is impossible to depend on the representations of 
 their views given by their opponents in the Church of 
 Rome, who did not scruple to exaggerate and distort the 
 opinions held by those whom they had branded as heretics. 
 It is probably impossible now to determine accurately what 
 is true and what is false in these representations. It seems 
 almost certain, however, that the bond which united the 
 Albigenses was not so much a positive fully-developed 
 religious faith as a determined opposition to the Church of 
 Rome. They inherited indeed, as has been already said, 
 certain doctrines of eastern origin, such as the Manichaean 
 dualism, docetism in relation to the person of Christ, and 
 a theory of metempsychosis. They seem, like the Manichees, 
 to have disowned the authority of the Old Testament; and 
 the division of their adherents into perfecti and credentes is 
 similar to the Manichaean distinction between electi and 
 auditores. The statement that they rejected marriage, 
 often made by Roman Catholics, has probably no other 
 foundation in fact than that they denied that marriage was 
 a sacrament; and many other. statements as to their doctrine 
 and practice must be received at least with suspicion as 
 coming from prejudiced and implacable opponents. The 
 history of the Albigenses may be said to be written in 
 blood. At first the church was content to'condemn their 
 errors at various councils (1165, 1176, 1178, 1179), but as 
 their practical opposition to Rome became stronger, more 
 decided measures were taken. Innocent HL had scarcely 
 ascended the papal throne when he 6ent legates to Toulouse 
 ( 1 1 98) to endeavour to suppress the sect. Two Cistercians, 
 Guy and Regnier, were first commissioned, and in 1199 
 they wore joined by Peter of Castelnau and others, who 
 were known throughout the district as inquisitors. Ray- 
 mond VL, count of Toulouse, took the part of hia Albi- 
 gensian subjects, though not himself belonging to the sect, 
 and for this he was excommunicated in 1207. A year 
 later the pope found a pretext for resorting to the most 
 extreme measures in the assassination of his legate Peter of 
 Castelnau, Jan. 15, 1208. A crusade against the Albigenses 
 was at once ordered, and Raymond, who had meanwhile 
 submitted and done penance, was forced to take the field 
 against his own subjects. The bloody war of extennina 
 tion which followed has scarcely a parallel in history. As
 
 ALB-ALB 
 
 45* 
 
 town after town wa3 taken, the Inhabitan' s were put to the 
 swerd without distinction of age or sex, and the numerous 
 ecclesiastics who were in the army especially distinguished 
 themselves by a bloodthirsty ferocity. At the taking of 
 Beziers (July 22, 1209), the Abbot Arnold, being asked 
 how the heretics were to be distinguished from the faithful, 
 made the infamous reply, " Slay all ; God will know his 
 own." The war was carried on under the command of 
 Simon da Montfort with undiminished cruelty for a num- 
 ber of years. Raymond's nephew, Viscount Raymond 
 Roger, who had espoused the cause of the Albigenses, was 
 taken prisoner at Carcassone, and the sect became fewer in 
 numbers year by year. The establishment of an In- 
 quisition at Languedoc in 1229 accelerated the exterminat- 
 ing process, and a few years later the sect was all but 
 extinct. 
 
 ALBINO. The name Albinism, or Leucopathia, is ap- 
 plied to a remarkable peculiarity m the physical constitu- 
 tion of certain individuals, which consists in the skin and 
 hair being perfectly white. The earliest accounts we have 
 of it refer to its being observed among the negroes of West 
 Africa by the Portuguese, who called the persons so affected 
 Albinoes. They have also been called Leuc&thiopes, i.e., 
 white negroes. Albinism is most common and most 
 marked in the negro and Indian races, but it occurs in all 
 parts of the world and among all the varieties of the 
 human race. The appearance arises from the absence of 
 the minute particles of colouring matter which ordinarily 
 occur in the lowest and last-deposited layers of the epidermis 
 or outer skin, and to the presence of which the skin owes 
 its colour. With very rare exceptions, it affects the entire 
 body, and continues through life. The skin of the albino 
 is of a dull milky or pearly colour, unrelieved by the 
 slightest tint of red or brown, and is generally of rough 
 texture. All the hair on the body is of the same dull hue, 
 and is commonly soft and silky. Another peculiarity that 
 invariably accompanies this whiteness of skin and hair is 
 an affection of the eyes : the pupil is a bright red, and the 
 iris (or white of the eye) that surrounds it is of a pale rose 
 colour. This rednes3 is attributable to the absence of a 
 colouring matter, the pigmentum nigrum of the membrane 
 of the eye, which serves to protect the retina. In conse- 
 quence of this defect, the eye of an albino cannot bear a 
 strong light. Albinism is hereditary in the same limited 
 degree as blindness, deafness, <fcc. See on this Darwin's 
 Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication 
 (chap, xii), where mention is made that "two brothers 
 married two sisters, their first tfousins, none of the four nor 
 any relation being an albino ; but the seven children pro- 
 duced from this double marriage were all perfect albinoes." 
 Apart from the peculiarities mentioned above, there is no 
 distinction between albinoes and other men. Albinism is 
 not to be regarded as a diseased condition of body; and 
 the idea, once entertained, that it is accompanied with a 
 want of physical and mental vigour is now completely ex- 
 ploded. Probably this notion arose from some of the 
 albinoes whose condition was first described being unhealthy 
 or imbecile; and even still more (as the interesting account 
 of Saussure, Voyages dans les Alpes, 1787, suggests) from 
 the temptation to which, as natural curiosities, they were 
 exposed to live in indolence without exerting their natural 
 powers. In many species of anirrals albinism occurs, i.e., 
 an abnormal whiteness of the skin, hair, feathers, <fcc, due 
 to similar causes as in the human albino, but not so uni- 
 formly permanent. Of this, white hares, mice, blackbirds, 
 &c, are instances. White elephants are regarded with 
 particular veneration by some eastern nations. 
 
 ALBINUS (originally Weiss), Bernard Siegfried, 
 a celebrated anatomist, born in 1697 at Frankfort-on- 
 the-Oder, where his father was professor of the practice of 
 
 medicine. In 1702 the latter was transferred to a pr* 
 fessorship at Leyden, and it was there that Bernart 
 Siegfried commenced his studies, having for his teachers 
 such men as Boerhaave, Bidloo, and Rau. His great 
 ability, especially in surgery and anatomy, was early 
 recognised, and Rau, so justly celebrated as a lithotomist, 
 is said to have seldom performed an important operation 
 without inviting him to be present. Having finished his 
 6tudies at Leyden, he went to Paris, where, under the 
 instruction of Vaillant, Winslow, and others, he devoted 
 himself especially to anatomy and botany. After a year's 
 absence, he was, on the recommendation of Boerhaave, 
 recalled in 1719 to Leyden to be a lecturer on anatomy 
 and surgery. Two years later he succeeded his father in 
 the professorship of these subjects, and delivered an 
 address at his installation which wa3 received with uni- 
 versal approbation. Albinus speedily became one of the 
 most famous teachers of anatomy in Europe, his class- 
 room being resorted to not only by students, but by many 
 practising physicians. With little original genius, and 
 no special talent for exposition, he possessed those habits 
 of accurate observation and patient research which are the 
 best qualification for his department of study. The en- 
 gravings of bones and muscles executed by Wandelaar for 
 the treatise of Albinus on these organs were far superior in 
 clearness and exactness to anything that had previously 
 been produced. In 1745 Albinus was appointed professor 
 of -the practice of medicine, being succeeded in the anato- 
 mical chair by his toother Frederick Bernard, who, as well 
 as another brother, Christian Bernard, attained consider- 
 able distinction. Bernard Siegfried was twice rector of 
 his university, and was an associate of the learned societies 
 of London, St Petersburg, and Haarlem. He died on'the 
 9th September 1770. 
 
 ALBINUS, Flaccus. See Alcuin. 
 
 ALBOIN, a king of the- Lombards, who invaded Italy, 
 568 A.D. He was murdered at Verona on the 8th June 
 573. See Italy and Lombards. 
 
 ALBORNOZ, Gil Alvarez Carulo de„ a cardinal of 
 Spain, was born at Cuenca early in the 14th century, and 
 was related to the royal families of Leon and Arragon. 
 While still young he was appointed archbishop of Toledo 
 by Alfonso XL of Castile. Uniting, as many in that age 
 did, the exercise of the military with that of the clerical 
 profession, he was able to show his gratitude to his patron 
 by saving the- king's life at the battle of Tarifa in 1340. 
 He conducted the siege of Algeciraa in 1343, when the 
 king dubbed him a knight. Falling into disfavour with 
 Pedro the Cruel, whose licentious life he had rebuked, he 
 fled to Avignon, then the papal seat, and was soon after- 
 wards made a cardinal by Pope Clement VI. In 1353 
 Innocent VI. sent him as a legate into Italy, with a view 
 to the restoration of the papal authority in the 'States of 
 the Church. He wo3 recalled in 1357, but was sent again 
 to Italy after a brief interval ; and in 1362 had paved the 
 way for the return of Urban V. to Rome. As a mark of 
 gratitude, the pope appointed him legate at Bologna in 
 1367, but he died at Viterbo the same year. According 
 to his own desire, his remains were carried to Toledo, 
 where Henry of Castile caused them to be entombed with 
 almost royal honours. A work by Albornoz on the con- 
 stitution of the Church of Rome, first printed at Jes> in 
 1473, js now very rare. The college of St Clement at 
 Bologna was founded by Albornoz. 
 
 ALBRECHTSBERGER, Johann Georg, a celebrated 
 musician, born at Kloster-Neuburg, jaear Vienna, on the 
 3d February 1736. He studied musical composition under 
 the court organist, Mann, and became one of the most 
 learned and skilful contrapuntists of hi3 age. After being 
 employed as organist at Banb and Maria-Taferl, he was
 
 456 
 
 ALB-ALB 
 
 appointed in 1772 organist to the court of Vienna, and in 
 1792 kapellmeister of St Stephen's cathedral His fame 
 as a theorist attracted to him in the Austrian capital a 
 large number of pupils, some of whom afterwards became 
 eminent musicians. Among these were Beethoven, Hum- 
 mel, Moscheles, Seyfried, and Weigh Albrechtsberger 
 died in 1809. His published compositions consist of pre- 
 ludes, fugues, and sonatas for the piano and organ, string 
 quartettes, <tc. ; but the greater proportion of his works, 
 vocal and instrumental, exist only in manuscript, and are 
 in the possession of Prince Esterhazy. Probably the most 
 valuable service he rendered to music was in his theoretical 
 works, which to a great extent superseded earlier treatises, 
 and are still standard authorities. In 1790 he published 
 at Leipsic a treatise on composition, of which a third 
 rdition appeared in 1821. A collection of his writings on 
 harmony, in three volumes, was published under the care 
 of his pupil Seyfried in 1826. The English translation of 
 the latter is from a French version, and not from the 
 original. 
 
 ALBUERA, a small village of Spain, in the province of 
 Badajoz, 13 miles S.E. of the town of that name. It i3 
 celebrated on account of the victory gained there on the 
 16th of May 1811 by the English, Portuguese, and 
 Spaniards, under Marshal Beresford, over the French 
 army commanded by Marshal Soult. 
 
 ALBUFERA DE VALENCIA, a lagoon, 7 miles south 
 of Valencia in Spain, about 12 miles in length and 4 in 
 breadth, 12 feet being its greatest depth. It communi- 
 cates with the sea by a narrow outlet, which can be 
 opened or closed at pleasure. The lake is crown property, 
 and is of great value from the fish and wild fowl with 
 which it abounds. In 1812 Marshal Suchet was created 
 duke of Albuf era by Napoleon for his conquest of Valencia, 
 and invested with the domain; but the battle of Vitoria 
 soon deprived him of his possession, though he still re- 
 tained the title. Subsequently .the revenues of Albufera 
 were conferred upon the Duke of Wellington, in token of 
 the gratitude of the Spanish nation. 
 
 ALBUM (albus, white), . originally denoted a tablet 
 on which decrees, edicts, and other public notices were 
 inscribed in ancient Rome. It was so called probably 
 because the tablet was made of white or whitened material, 
 though some authorities say that the inscription was in 
 white characters. The Pontifex Maximus wrote his annals 
 (Annales Maximi) upon an album. In course of time the 
 term came to be restricted almost exclusively to lists of 
 official names. Such were the Album Judicum, Album 
 Senatorum, Album Decurionum, Album Centuriae. In 
 modern times album denotes a book in. which verses, auto' 
 graphs, sketches, photographs, &c, are collected. It is 
 also applied to the official list of matriculated students in 
 a university, and to the roll in which a bishop inscribes 
 the names' of his clergy. 
 
 ALBUMAZAR (Abu-Maaschar), a celebrated Arabian 
 astronomer, born at Balkh, in Turkestan, in 805 A.D., 
 died at Wasid in 885. He had reached the age of forty- 
 seven before he entered on the studies to which he owes 
 his fame. His principal works are An Introduction to 
 Astronomy and the Book of Conjunction, both published 
 in a Latin translation at Augsburg in 1489, and again at 
 Venice in 1515. A work On the Revolution of the Years is 
 also attributed to him, in which it is maintained that the 
 world was created when the seven planets were in con- 
 junction in the first degree of Aries, and that it will come to 
 an end at a like conjunction in the last degree of Pisces. 
 
 ALBUMEN, an organic substance of a very complicated 
 structure. It is typical of a group of bodies that have 
 the same chemical composition but very different pro- 
 perties. The principal varieties are named albumen, 
 
 fibrin, and casein. They are sometimes called the histo- 
 genetic bodies, because they are essential to the building 
 up of the animal organism. The vegetable kingdom is 
 the original source of the albumenoid group of substances. 
 In plants the albumen is found in greatest quantity in 
 the seed. The mean average percentage composition of 
 the albumenoids is as follows — 
 
 Carbon, 638 
 
 Hydrogen, 7-0 
 
 Nitrogen, 157 
 
 Sulphur, ]-2 
 
 Oiygen, ; 223 
 
 100-0 
 
 The true chemical formula of these bodies is unknown, 
 but if wo regard the sulphur as replacing oxygen, then 
 the simplest empirical formula is CyHjjN.O,. 
 
 All the albumenoid bodies are capable of existing in two 
 forms— (a) soluble, (6) insoluble. They belong to the class 
 of bodies called colloids, and easily pass from the one con- 
 dition into the other. Whether in the soluble or insoluble 
 condition, they are easily dissolved by caustic potash, and 
 may be precipitated by the addition of acetic acid. The 
 soluble varieties are coagulated by alcohol, and precipitated 
 by salts of copper, lead, and mercury. Strong su'phuric acid 
 dissolves them, with the production of leucine, tyrosine, 
 and ammoniacal salts. Strong nitric acid produces in 
 their solutions a coagulum of a bright orange' colour, 
 and then gradually dissolves it with effervescence. A 
 solution of nitrate of mercury, when heated with the 
 members of the group, produces a deep red colour, and 
 this is one of the most delicate tests. Somo varieties of 
 albumen coagulate when heated. All the albumenoid 
 bodies are amorphous, and may be kept when dry for any 
 length of time, but when moist they rapidly putrefy, and 
 produce a sickening odour. Among the products of 
 putrefaction are found leucine and tyrosine, and carbonate, 
 butyrate, valerate, and sulphide of ammonium. The readi- 
 ness with which these bodies change in the moist con- 
 dition produces the digestive and other ferments in tho 
 body, and the synaptase, diastase, and emulsin which we 
 find in plants. The special properties of albumen, fibrin, 
 and casein will be described in the article Chemistry. From 
 its property of coagulating when heated, albumen is employed 
 in the arts to remove colouring matters from liquids. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, a town of Spain, in the province of 
 Badajoz, 9 miles from the frontiers of Portugal. Situated 
 on an eminence, it is defended by an almost impregnable 
 fortress built on a high mountain. It was taken by the 
 allies of Charles, at that time a competitor for the Spanish 
 throne, in 1705, but was restored to the Spanish crown in 
 1715. It has woollen and linen manufactures, and exports 
 cattle and fruits. Population, 7000. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, Alphonso d' (in Portuguese Affonso 
 d'Alboquerque), surnamed " The Great," and " The Portu- 
 guese Mars," was born in 1453 at Alexandria, near Lisbon. 
 Through his father, Gonzalvo, who held an important 
 position at court, he was connected by illegitimate descent 
 with the royal family of Portugal, and through his mother, 
 Dona Leonora de Menezes, he could claim kindred with 
 Zarco and other illustrious navigators. He was educated 
 at the court of Alphonso V., and after the death of that 
 monarch seems to have served for some time in Africa. 
 On his return he was appointed estribeiro-mor (chief 
 equerry) to Joao II. In 1503 he set out on his first expe- 
 dition to the East, which was to be the scene of his future 
 triumphs. In company with his kinsman Francisco he 
 sailed round the Cape of Good Hope to India, and suc- 
 ceeded in establishing the king of Cochin securely 
 on his throne, obtaining in return for this service per- 
 mission to build a Portuguese fort at Cochin, and thus
 
 ALC- 
 
 Uyiug the foundation ol his country's cmpLro in the East. 
 He returned home in July 150-1, and was well received 
 by King Emmanuel, who entrusted him with the command 
 of a squadron of five vessels in the fleet of sixteen which 
 sailed for India in 1506 under Tristan da Cunha. After 
 a series of successful attacks on tho Moorish cities on the 
 east coast of Africa, Albuquerque separated from Da 
 Cunha, and sailed with his squadron against the island of 
 Ormuz, in the Persian Gulf, which was then one of the 
 chief centres of commerce in the East. He arrived on the 
 35th September 1507, and soon obtained possession of the 
 island, though he was unable long to maintain his position. 
 With his squadron increased by three vessels, he reached 
 the Malabar coast at the close of the year 1508, and im- 
 mediately made known the commission he had received 
 from the king empowering him to supersede the governor 
 Almeida. The latter, however, refused to recognise Albu- 
 querque's credentials, and cast him into prison, from which 
 he was only released, after three months' confinement, on 
 the arrival of the grand marshal of Portugal with a large 
 fleet. Almeida having returned home, Albuquerque 
 speedily showed the energy and determination of his 
 character. An unsuccessful attack upon Calicut in Janu- 
 ary 1510, in which the commander-in-chief received a 
 severe wound, was immediately followed by the investment 
 and capture of Goa. Albuquerque, finding himself unable 
 to hold tho town on his first occupation, abandoned it in 
 August, to return with reinforcements in November, when 
 he obtained undisputed possession. He next directed hia 
 forces against Malacca, which he subdued after a severe 
 struggle. He remained in the town nearly a year in order 
 to strengthen the position of the Portuguese power. In 
 1512 he sailed for the coast of Malabar. On the voyage 
 a violent storm arose, Albuquerque's vessel, the " Flor de 
 la Mar," which carried the treasure he had amassed in his 
 conquests, was wrecked, and he himself barely escaped 
 with his life. In September of the same year he arrived 
 at Goa, where he quickly suppressed a serious revolt 
 headed by Idalcan, and took such measures for the security 
 and peace of the town that it became the most flourishing 
 of the Portuguese settlements in India. Albuquerque 
 had been for some time under orders from the home 
 government to undertake an expedition to the Ked Sea, 
 in order to secure that channel. of communication exclu- 
 sively to Portugal. He accordingly laid siege to Aden in 
 1513, but was repulsed; and a voyage into the Eed Sea, 
 the first ever made by a European fleet, led to no sub- 
 stantial results. In order to destroy the power of Egypt, 
 he is said to have entertained the idea of diverting the 
 course of the Nile, and so rendering the whole country 
 barren. His last warlike undertaking was a second attack 
 upon Ormuz in 1515. The island yielded to him without 
 resistance, and it remained in the possession of the Portu- 
 guese until 1622. Albuquerque's great career had a pain- 
 ful and ignominious close. He had several enemies at 
 the Portuguese court who lost no opportunity of stirring 
 up the jealousy of the king against him, and his own 
 injudicious and arbitrary conduct on several occasions 
 served their end only too welL On his return from 
 Ormuz, at the entrance of the harbour of Goa, ho met a 
 vessel from Europe bearing despatches announcing that 
 he was superseded by his personal enemy Soarez. The 
 blow was too much for him, and he died at sea on tho 
 16th December 1515. Before his death he wrote a letter 
 to the king in dignified and affecting terms, vindicating 
 bis conduct and claiming for his son the honours and 
 rewards that were justly due to himself. His body was 
 buried at Goa in the Church of Our Ludy, and it is per- 
 haps the most convincing proof possiblo of the justice of 
 his administration, that, many years after, Moors and 
 
 ALC 
 
 457 
 
 Hindoos used to go to his tomb to invoke protcctiou 
 against the injustice of his successors. The king of Por- 
 tugal was convinced too late of his fidelity, and endeav- 
 oured to atone for the ingratitude with which he had 
 treated him by heaping honours upon his natural son 
 Affonso. The latter published a selection from his father's 
 papers, under the title Commentarios do Grande Affonso 
 d'Alboquerque. 
 
 ALCJEUS, one of the great lyric poets of Greece, was 
 a native of Mitylene in Lesbos, and flourished about the 
 year 600 B.C. From the fragments of his poems which 
 have come down to us we leam that his life was greatly 
 mixed up with the pelitical disputes and internal feuds 
 of hi3 native city. He sided with the nobles, and took 
 an active part against the tyrants, who at that time set 
 themselves up in Mitylene. He was obliged, in conse- 
 quence, to quit his native country, and spend the rest of 
 his life in exile. The date of his death is unknown. His 
 poems, which were composed in the jEolian dialect, were 
 collected afterwards, and apparently divided into ten 
 books. The subjects, as wo can 6till see from the frag- 
 ments, were of the most varied kind : some of his poems 
 were hymns to the gods ; others were of a martial or 
 political character ; others again breathed an ardent love 
 of liberty and hatred of the tyrants ; and lastly, some were 
 of an erotic kind, and appear to have been particularly 
 remarkable for the fervour of the passion they described 
 Horace looks upon Alcseus as his great model, and has, in 
 one passage (Od. ii. 13. 26, et sqq.) given a fine picture of 
 the poetical powers of the ^Eolian bard The care which 
 Alcseus bestowed upon the construction ol his verses was 
 probably the reason why one kind of metre, the Alcaic, 
 was named after him. Not one of his compositions has 
 come down to us entire, but a complete collection of all 
 the extant fragments may be found in Bergk's Poeice 
 Lyrici Greed, Lipsiae, 1852, 8vo. 
 
 ALCAICS, in Ancient Poetry, a name given to several 
 kinds of verse, from Alcseus, their reputed inventor. The 
 first kind consists of five feet, viz., a spondee or iambic, 
 an iambic, a long syllable, and two dactyles ; the second 
 of two dactyles and two trochees. Besides these, which 
 are called dactylic Alcaics, there is another, simply styled 
 Alcaic, consisting of. an epitrite, two choriambi, and a 
 bacchius; thus — 
 
 Cur timet fla\vum Tiber im \ tangere, cur | olivum 
 
 The Alcaic ode is composed of several strophes, each con- 
 sisting of four verses; the .first two of which are always 
 alcaics of the first kind; the third verse is an iambic 
 diameter hypercatalectic, consisting of four feet and a 
 long syllable; and the fourth verse is an alcai'c of the 
 second kind The following strophe is of this species, 
 which Horace calls "Alccei minaces camence" — ■ 
 
 Non possidentem multa vocaveria 
 Rede bealum; rectius oecupai 
 Nomen Beati, qui deorum 
 Muneribus sapientcr uti. 
 
 ALCAIDE, or Alcayde, a word of Moorish origin, 
 being derived from the Arabic kdda, to head, which was 
 applied by the Spanish, the Portuguese, and the Moors to 
 the military officer appointed to take charge of a fortres* 
 or prison. See Alcalde. 
 
 ALCALA DE GUADALRA, a town of Spain, in th« 
 province of Seville, Andalusia, situated on tho Gnadaira, 
 7 miles E. of Seville. It contains an old castle and other 
 Moorish remains ; but it is now chiefly remarkable for the 
 excellent quality of its bread, whence the epithet de los 
 Panaderos, sometimes applied to it. Nearly the whole of 
 the bread required by the town of Seville is made here. 
 Population, 7000. 
 
 1— 10*
 
 4f>8 
 
 A L C — A L C 
 
 ALCALA DE HENARES, an ancient Spanish city on 
 tbe river Hcnares, 17 miles E.N.E. of Madrid. It has 
 been identified with the Roman Complutum, which was 
 destroyed about the year 1000, and was rebuilt by the 
 Moors in 1083. In later times it was renowned for its 
 richly-endowed university, founded by Cardinal Ximenea 
 in 1510, which, at the height of its prosperity, numbered 
 more than 10,000 students, and was second only to that 
 of Salamanca. Here the famous edition of the Holy 
 Bible known as the Complutensian. Polyglot was prepared. 
 The college of St Ildefonso contains a magnificent chapel, 
 in which Ximenes is buried, and is distinguished by its 
 splendid architecture, partly Moorish and partly Gothic, 
 Alcala is further celebrated as the birthplace of the Ger- 
 man emperor Ferdinand L, the poet Figueroa, the naturalist 
 Bustamente de la Camera, the historian Solis, and last and 
 greatest of all, Cervantes, who was born here in 1547. 
 Since the removal of the university to Madrid in 1836 the 
 town has rapidly declined. It contains a military academy 
 and various public institutions, but is of little commercial 
 importance. Population, 8745. 
 
 ALCALA LA REAL, a town of the province of Jaen in 
 Spain, 18 miles S.W. of the town of that name. It stands 
 on a declivity between two mountain ridges, at an elevation 
 of about 3000 feet above the sea. It possesses a fine abbey. 
 Its distinctive name la Real, the Royal, is derived from its 
 capture in 1340 by Alphonso XL of Leon, in person. 
 In 1810 the Spaniards were defeated here by the French 
 under Sebastiani. Some trade is carried on at the place 
 in wine and wool. Population, 11,521. 
 
 ALCALDE (from the Arabic al-cadi, the judge), an 
 official title given in Spain to various classes of functionaries 
 entrusted with judicial duties. Criminal judges, members 
 of courts of appeal, magistrates, and even parish officers 
 are all known by the name alcalde — secondary descriptive 
 titles distinguishing their different positions and functions. 
 It is to be observed that the word is entirely distinct from 
 Alcaide, the latter being always employed to designate a 
 military officer. 
 
 ALCAMENES ('AXko/iot;?), a famous Athenian sculp- 
 tor, a pupil of Phidias, who is celebrated for his skill in 
 art by Cicero, Pliny, Pausanias, Lucan, &c. He flourished 
 from about 448 to 400 B.C., and appears as one of the 
 great triumvirate of Greek sculptors, Phidias, Alcamenes, 
 and Polycletus. He is said to have once competed with 
 his master, the subject being a statue of Minerva. In this 
 attempt the style of Alcamenes was exquisite in finish, 
 but he had overlooked the consideration that the statue was 
 to be placed on a high column, and there his work would 
 not bear comparison with that of his great master. His 
 statue of Venus Urania, in the temple of that deity at 
 Athens, was reckoned his masterpiece. 
 
 ALCAMO, a city of Sicily, in the Italian province of 
 Trapani, is situated 22 miles E. of Trapani, near the Gulf 
 of Castellamare. It lies in a district of peculiar fertility, 
 which produces some of the best wines in the island. The 
 town is pleasantly situated on elevated ground, but its 
 internal appearance is mean and dirty. It contains a very 
 strong castle, and many churches and monasteries. Near 
 it are. tho ruins of the ancient Segesta, including a Doric 
 temple and a theatre in good preservation ; and there are 
 also on the neighbouring hiy Moorish towere and other 
 remains, standing as memorials of the Saracen occupation 
 of Sicily. Population (1865), 19,518. 
 
 ALCANTARA, the ancient Norba Coesarea, a town of 
 Spain, in tho province of Caceres, on a rocky height on 
 the left bank of the Tagus. Alcantara (in Arabic, the 
 bridge) derived its name from the magnificent Roman 
 bridge which spanned the Tagus at this point, and whica 
 was erected, according to the inscription, A.D. 104, in 
 
 nonour of the emperor Trajan, who was a native of Spain. 
 This remarkable structure is built entirely of blocks of 
 granite without cement, and consisted, until its partial 
 destruction, of six arches of various span, with a total 
 length of 670 feet and a height of 210 feet The second 
 arch on the right bank was blown up by the English in 
 1809, and, although temporarily reconstructed, was again 
 destroyed in 1836 to prevent the passage of the Carlist 
 troops. The bridge has never since been repaired; and it 
 is a striking illustration of the want of public spirit in 
 Spain that the river is crossed by means of a ferry-boat in 
 the neighbourhood of this grand engineering work, which 
 it is a national duty to preserve. The population of the 
 town is 4200. 
 
 ALCANTARA, a seaport of Brazil, in the province of 
 Maranhao, on the bay of San Marcos. It has a tolerable 
 harbour; and excellent cotton is grown in tho vicinity, 
 forming tho chief article of commerce. Rico and salt, 
 obtained from the neighbouring lagoons, are also exported. 
 Population, 10,000. 
 
 ALCANTARA, Knights op (la Calalleria de Alcan- 
 tara), an order of knights of Spain, instituted about 1156 
 A.D. by the brothers Don Suarez and Don Gomez de Bar- 
 rientos for protection against the Moors. In 1177 they were 
 confirmed as a religious order of knighthood under Bene- 
 dictine rule by Pope Alexander IIL Until about 1213 
 they were known as the Knights of San Julian del Pereyro; 
 but when the defence of Alcantara, newly WTested from 
 the Moors by Alphonso IX. of Castile, was entrusted to 
 them, they took their name from that city. For a con- 
 siderable time they were in some degree subject to the 
 grand master of the kindred order of Calatrava. Ulti- 
 mately, however, they asserted their independence by 
 electing a grand master of their own, the first holder of 
 the office being Don Diego Sanche. During the rule of 
 thirty-seven successive grand masters, similarly chosen, the 
 influence and wealth of the order gradually increased until 
 the Knights of Alcantara were almost as powerful as the 
 sovereign. In 1494-5 Juan de Zufiiga was prevailed 
 upon to resign the grand mastership to Ferdinand, who 
 thereupon vested it, as he had already done that of two other 
 orders, in his own person as king; and this arrangement was 
 ratified by a bull of Pope Alexander VL, and was declared 
 permanent by Pope Adrian VI. in 1523. The yearly 
 income of Zuiiiga at the time of his resignation amounted 
 to 150,000 ducats. In 1540 Pope Paul III. released the 
 knights from the strictness of Benedictine rule by giving 
 them permission to marry, though second marriage was 
 forbidden. Tho three vows were henceforth obedientia, 
 castiias conjugalis, and conversio morum. In modern times 
 tho history of the order has been somewhat chequered. 
 When Joseph Bonaparte became king of Spain in 1808, he 
 deprived the knights of their revenues, which were only 
 partially recovered on the restoration of Ferdinand VII. 
 in 1814. The order ceased to exist as a spiritual body in 
 1835, though 1 it is still recognised in its civil capacity. 
 
 ALCARAZ, a small town in Spain, in the province of 
 Albacete, 34 miles W.S.W. of the town of that name. It 
 stands on very hilly ground near the river Guadarmena, 
 and has the remains of. a once strong castle and of a mag- 
 nificent Roman aqueduct. Weaving, iron-founding, and 
 agriculture are the chief branches of industry. Copper 
 and zinc are found in the vicinity. Population, 7325. 
 
 ALCAVALA, a duty formerly charged in Spain and its 
 colonies on all transfers of property, whether public or 
 private. It was originallyimposed by Alphonso XI. to secure 
 freedom from the Moors in 1341, as an ad valorem tax of 
 10, increased afterwards to 14 per cent., on the selling 
 price of all commodities, whether raw or manufactured, 
 which was chargeable as often as they were sold or ex-
 
 A L C - A L C 
 
 459 
 
 changed It subjected every farmer, every manufacturer, 
 every merchant and shopkeeper, to the continual visits and 
 examination of the tax-gatherers, whose number was neces- 
 sarily very great. This monstrous impost was permitted 
 to ruin the industry and commerce of the greater part of 
 the kingdom down to the invasion of Napoleon. Catalonia 
 and Aragon purchased from Philip V. an exemption from 
 the alcavala, and, though still burdened with other heavy 
 taxes, were in a comparatively flourishing state, in con- 
 sequence of their exemption from this oppressive duty. 
 (See M'Culloch On Taxation.) 
 
 ' ALCAZAR DE SAN JUAN, a Spanish town, in the 
 province of Ciudad Real, 45 miles N.E. of Ciudad Real, 
 and on the railway between Alicante and Madrid It is a 
 well-built town, and has manufactures of soap, saltpetre, 
 and gunpowder. This is the Alee of the Romans, taken 
 by T. Sempronius Gracchus 180 b.c. Population, 7800. 
 
 ALCAZAR KEBIR, a city of Marocco in Africa, 80 
 mile3 N.W. of Fez. It was formerly of great note as the 
 magazine and place of rendezvous for the Moorish invasions 
 of Spain. It is now greatly decayed, probably on account 
 of its low and unhealthy situation. Not far from the city is 
 the river Elmahassen, famous for the battle fought in 1578 
 between Sebastian, king of Portugal, and the Moors, in 
 which the Portuguese were defeated and their king slain. 
 Population, 6000. 
 
 ALCESTER, pronounced Auster, a market town in the 
 county of Warwick, situated at the junction of the Arrow 
 and Alne, 14 miles W.S.W. of Warwick. Its position on 
 the Roman way known as the Ickenild Street, and the dis- 
 covery of numerous remains of ancient art, as well as urns 
 and coins, make it sufficiently evident that this was a 
 Roman encampment. A monastery was founded here in 
 1140; but the building has totally disappeared, though 
 sufficient vestiges remain to indicate its site. The church 
 is a fine building, and contains several interesting monu- 
 ments, one of which, to the marquis of Hertford, is by 
 Chantrey, and is in the best style of that sculptor. The 
 town possesses a free grammar school and an elegant 
 market-halL Employment is afforded to about 1200 of 
 the inhabitants in the manufacture of needles, which is the 
 chief branch of industry. Eish-hooks are also manufactured 
 Population of parish, 2363._ 
 
 ALCESTIS, or Alceste, the daughter of Pelias and 
 Anaxibia, and wife of Admetus, king of Pherae in Thessaly. 
 She consented to die in place of her husband, and was 
 afterwards restored to lif« by Hercules. This beautiful 
 instance of conjugal devotion forms the subject of one of 
 the best plays of Euripides, the Alcestis, which furnishes 
 the basis for Robert Browning's Balaustioris Adventure. - 
 
 ALCHEMY, Chemy, or Hermetics. Considering the 
 present state of the science and the advance of public 
 opinion, the old definition of alchemy as the pretended art 
 of making gold is no longer correct or adequate. 
 
 Modern science dates from three discoveries — that of 
 Copernicus,, the effect of which (to borrow St Simon's 
 words) was to expel the astrologers from the society of 
 astronomers; that of Torricelli and Pascal, of the weight 
 of the atmosphere, a discovery which was the foundation 
 of physics; lastly, that of Lavoisier, who, by discovering 
 oxygen, destroyed the theory of Stab], the last alchemist 
 who can be excused for not being a chemist. 
 
 Before these three grand stages in the progress of science, 
 the reign of astrology, magic, and alchemy was universal 
 and almost uncontested Even a genius like Kepler,- who 
 by his three great laws laid the foundations for the Coper- 
 uicaD system, was guided in his investigations by astro- 
 logical and cabalistic considerations. Hence it follows 
 that a philosophical history of modern science is certain 
 to fall into the opposite superstition of idolising abstract 
 
 reason, if it does not do full justice to this long and ener- 
 getic intellectual struggle which began in India, Greece, 
 and Egypt, and, continuing through the dark ages down 
 to the very dawn of modern enlightenment, preceded and 
 paved the way for the three above-mentioned discoveries, 
 which inaugurated a new era. 
 
 It was the alchemists who first stated, however con- 
 fusedly, the problems which science is still engaged in 
 solving; and to them, in conclusion, we owe the enormous 
 service of removing the endless obstructions which a 
 purely rationalistic method, born before its time and soon 
 degenerating into verbal quibbles and scholastic jargon, 
 had placed in the path of human progress. 
 
 Alchemy was, we may say, the sickly but imaginative 
 infancy through which modern chemistry had to pass before 
 it attained its majority, or, in other words, became a posi- 
 tive science. The search for gold was only one crisis in 
 this infancy. This crisis is over, and alchemy is now a 
 thing of the past. There is no longer any need to exhort 
 adventurous spirits, who hope to find Golconda at tho 
 bottom of their crucibles, to leave such visions and turn to 
 the safer paths of science or industry. The battle has been 
 fought and won, the problem of the unity of chemical 
 elements or simple bodies belongs rather to the province 
 of metaphysics than to that of experimental science. If 
 here and there an honest student of the black art' still 
 survives, he is regarded as a mad but harmless enthusiast; 
 and as for the pretended searchers for the philosopher's 
 stone, they are, if possible, less interesting objects than the 
 dupes they still continue to cheat. Thu3 the full time is 
 come for applying to the occult sciences the same searching 
 analysis to which the other myths of prehistoric times 
 have been so rigorously subjected To trace its earliest 
 beginnings, to investigate its development by the aid of 
 modem criticism, i3 the province of physical science, no 
 less than of the sister science of morals. Nay, more, we 
 shall find that both had a common origin. Those ancient 
 cosmogonies, those poetical systems which the genius of 
 each nation and race has struck out to solve the problem 
 of the universe and of the destiny of mankind, were the 
 germs of science no less than of literature, of philosophy 
 as well as of religion. And a3 in the infancy of science 
 its various branches were confused and confounded, so in 
 a like stage of society we' often find the same person uniting 
 the parts of philosopher, savant, and priest. Besides this, 
 it is evident that in the absence of all scientific apparatus 
 or instruments, the ancients, if they had limited them- 
 selves to the exercise of their reason, must have remained 
 observers and nothing more. It is true they did observe, 
 and that widely and well ; but observation alone, even 
 when aided by the strongest and subtlest reason, can 
 lead to nothing but contradictory theories, irreconcilable, 
 because they cannot be verified And it is not in human 
 nature to remain a simple spectator. Curiosity was first 
 excited by fancy (and the fancy of primitive man, we must 
 remember, was far more active and vigorous than ours), 
 and when, it found itself baffled by a natural reaction, it 
 had recourse to divination. 
 
 ^ In a word, the ambition of these earliest philosophers 
 was more intense, because its sphere was narrower. In 
 the first stages of civilisation the magician was the man of 
 science. The mysteries of this magic art being inseparable 
 from those of religion and philosophy, were preserved, as it 
 were, hermetically sealed in the adyta of the temple. Its 
 philosophy was the cabala. We must consequently look 
 on the various cabalas or oral traditions, transmitted from. 
 age to age as the oracles of various faiths and creeds, aa 
 constituting the elements of that theory which the Jewish, 
 cabala promulgated some centuries later in a condensed 
 and mutilated form. Astrology and magic were the efforts
 
 460 
 
 ALCHEMY 
 
 made in various ways to verify and apply this theory ; 
 magic, indeed, or rather magical power, was at starting 
 purely cosmogouic, i.e., regarded as an attribute of God 
 >r nature, before it was counterfeited by the magicians of 
 various countries. But, as St Simon has well observed, 
 chemical phenomena aro much more complicated than 
 astronomical — the latter requiring only observation, the 
 former experiment— and hence astrology preceded alchemy. 
 But there was then no hard and fast line between the 
 several branches of science, and hence the most opposite 
 were united, not, as now, by a common philosophical or 
 philanthropical object, but by reason of their common 
 theological origin. Thui alchemy was the daughter of 
 astrology, and'it was not till tho end of the 16th century 
 a.d. that she passed from a state of tutelage. Just in the 
 same way medicine as. a magical or sacred art was prior to 
 alchemy; for, as was natural, before thinking of forming 
 new substances, men employed already existing herbs, 
 atones, drugs, perfumes, and vapours. The medical art was 
 indissolubly bound up with astrology, but, judging from 
 the natural inventiveness of the ancients, we should have 
 expected beforehand that chemical preparations would have 
 played a more important part among the instruments of 
 priestly thaumaturgy 
 
 As in the middle ages invention busied itself with instruments 
 of torture, and as in our days it is taken up almost as much with 
 the destructive engines of war as with the productive arts of peace, 
 so in those early age3 it applied itself to the fabrication of. idols, 
 to the mechanism and theatrical contrivances for mysteries and 
 religious ceremonies. There was then no desire to communicate 
 discoveries ; science was a sort of freemasonry, and silence was effect- 
 ually secured by priestly anathemas ; men of science were as jealous 
 of ono another as they were of all other classes of society. If we 
 wish to form a clear picture of this earliest stage of civilisation, an 
 age which represents at once the nalveti o'f childhood and tho suspi- 
 cious reticence of senility, we must turn our eyes to the priest, on 
 the en* hand, claiming as his own all art and science, and com- 
 manding respect by his contemptuous silence ; and, on the other 
 hand, to the mechanic plying the loom, extracting tho Tyrian dye, 
 practising chemistry, though ignorant of its very name, despised 
 and oppressed, and only tolerated when he furnished Religion with 
 her trappings or War with arms. Thus the growth of chemistry was 
 slow, and by reason of its backwardness it was longer than any 
 other art in ridding itself of the leading-strings of magic and astro- 
 logy . Practical discoveries must have been made many times with- 
 out science acquiring thereby any new fact. For to prevent a new 
 discovery from being lost there must be such a combination of 
 favourable circumstances as was rare in that age and for many 
 succeeding ages. There must be publicity, and publicity is of quite 
 recent growth ; the application of the discovoiy must be not only 
 possible but obvious,, as satisfying some want. But wants are only 
 felt as civilisation progresses. ' Nor is this all ; for a' practical dis- 
 covery to become a scientific fact, it must servo to demonstrate the 
 error of one hypothesis, and to suggest a new one, better fitted for 
 the synthesis of existing facts. But old beliefs are proverbially 
 obstinate and virulent in their opposition to newer and truer theories 
 which are destined to eject and replace them. To sum up, even 
 in our own day chemistry rests on a less sound b£sis than either 
 physics, which had the advantage of originating as late as the 17th 
 century, or astronomy, which dates from the time when the Chaldean 
 shepherd had sufficiently provided for his daily wants to find leisure 
 for gazing into the starry heavens. . 
 
 After this general introduction we may now proceed to 
 consider the subject in detail under the following heads: — 
 First, we will cast a rapid glance at certain cosmologies 
 and philosophical systems, in order to bring prominently 
 before the reader those points which throw light on 
 chemical theories. Secondly, we will consider alchemy at 
 the moment when it ceased to be purely religious and 
 began an independent existence ; that is to say, during the 
 3d and 4th centuries A.D., and in that city which was the 
 battlefield on which the various philosophical and religious 
 creeds of the East met. In the fierce struggles which ensued, 
 in the strange alliances which they there made, we shall find 
 them, by their mutual recriminations, involuntarily revealing 
 to us their hidden secrets. As the darkness of the middle 
 ages approaches, we shall follow our science in its journey to 
 
 Arabia ; from Arabia we shall trace it back to Europe, and 
 hear it taught with stammering lips and feeble tongue by 
 subtile or solemn doctors. We shall attempt to analyse its 
 ambitious aspirations and its barren performances. During 
 the Renaissance we shall see it at its zenith, inspired by a 
 mad enthusiasm which was near akin to genius, an enthu- 
 siasm which gave birth to medicine and modern chemistry. 
 Lastly, in the 17th and 18th centuries we shall see it 
 degenerate into pure charlatanism. In conclusion, wu 
 shall attempt to recover the few grains of pure ore which 
 may bo extracted from its broken alembics. 
 
 L Cosmogonies and Philosophies. 
 
 In India, as is wea known, tho contempt in which the 
 ca3te of artizans was held was still farther increased by tho 
 tendency of religion to consider birth and life, and tho 
 actions and desires which are part and parcel of man's life, 
 as an unmixed eviL Consequently, outside the workshop, 
 practical chemistry can have made but little progress. 
 Nevertheless, among the priests of India, as in later times 
 in Europe, we find the ordeal of fire and of serpents 
 commonly practised. It follows that the Brahmins musi 
 have possessed some chemical secrets to enable them to 
 kill or save those they thought guilty or innocent. These 
 secrets, too, must from time to time have been divulged by 
 indiscretion or perfidy, and spread beyond the temple ; 
 for we read of accused persons escaping unharmed from 
 the ordeal, even when their accuser was a Brahmin. But 
 the Mussulman traveller of the 9th century, who has pre- 
 served this curious detail, allows that the trial was in his 
 day becoming more elaborate and complicated, and that 
 it was next to impossible for an accused person to escape. 
 However this may be, it is certain that the meditative 
 genius which distinguishes the race had, even before they 
 conquered tho yellow and black races, led these first 
 speculators to certain conceptions which have an important 
 bearing on the present subject. Some had conceived 
 ether as composed of distinct atoms, others imagined an 
 ether decomposing itself into atoms by the free play of its 
 own forces. These two theories, the one dualisjtic, tho 
 other unitarian, strangely foreshadow the discoveries of 
 modern dynamics. Wo find the speculators of another 
 race indulging the singular fancy that thoy could observe 
 in atoms what we may call oscultations of the play of 
 forces. This, at any rate, is the most natural explanation 
 of the term nodes by which the Phoenicians designated 
 atoms. The Persians, who considered the first tree and 
 the first bull as the two ancestors of man, discovered in 
 physics generally two antagonistic principles, one male and 
 one female, primordial fire and primordial water, corre- 
 sponding to the good and bad principles of their religion. 
 Over all creatures and all things there were presiding genii, 
 Tzeds or Feroners. They had already formulated the paral- 
 lelism between the Sephiroth, the empyrean, the primum 
 mobile, the firmament, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Mercury, 
 Moon, and the parts of the body, the brain, lungs, heart, 
 &c. In this correspondence between the heavenly bodies 
 and the human frame which the ancient Persians laid 
 down, and the Hindu belief in the peregrination of sinful 
 souls through the animal, vegetable, and even the mineral 
 world, till, by these pilgrimages, they at last won absorp- 
 tion into the Deity, or Moncli, we have, in their original 
 form, the two fundamental beliefs of alchemy.. 
 
 The Greeks, unrivalled as they were in poetry, art, and 
 ethics, made little way in occult philosophy. The Greek 
 intellect, precise and anthropomorphic, with no leaning to 
 transcendentalism, was a protest against the boldness of 
 oriental metaphysics. Thus they contented themselves 
 with inventing a strange gamut of deities corresponding to 
 different types of men. This gamut — Jupiter, Salnra
 
 ALCHEMY 
 
 401 
 
 Apollo, Mercury, Mars, aud Venus — was afterwards com- 
 pleted in the cabala by the addition of the moon, typifying 
 the phlegmatic character of northern races, and forms a 
 connecting link between astrology and alchemy, by estab- 
 lishing a double correspondence between planets of the 
 same name and metals. The whole was systematised in 
 the works of Paracelsus and Bohme, and called the theory 
 of signatures. Whether the Greek philosophers taught 
 that the principle of all things was water, like Thales, or, 
 air, like Anaximander, or air and water, as Xenophanes, or 
 the four elements, earth, air, fire, and water, as the school 
 of Hippocrates, the tendency of Greek speculation was to 
 establish those profound distinctions which resulted later 
 in the theory of the four elements, the four humours, &c, 
 which the disciples of Aristotle held. Hippocrates, for 
 example, thought that if man was composed of a single 
 element, he would never be ill ; but as he is composed of 
 many elements, complex remedies are required. Thus 
 Hippocrates may be called an anti-alchemist ; and though 
 the theory of the four elements reigned supreme through- 
 out the middle ages, it easily lent itself to the search for 
 the philosopher's stone and the universal panacea, because 
 tho oriental idea of the transmutation of elements, from 
 tho time when the various systems of the East were 
 syncretised at Alexandria and received their final develop- 
 ment in Arabia in the writings of Geber Rhasis and Hon 
 Sina (Avicenna), was a universal article of belief. But 
 even in- the palmiest days of Greek anthropomorphism 
 there was a gradual infil tration of Asiatic ideas, partly 
 through the mysteries of Eleusis, partly through the 
 doctrines of certain philosophers, who were by nature 
 susceptive of barbaric influences. For, besides Greece 
 proper, there. was a second Greece in Asia Minor and a 
 third in Italy, not to mention the Pelasgic tribes who 
 adhered tenaciously to the primitive ideas of the race. 
 
 Among the Greek philosophers, then, who appreciably influenced 
 physics, chemistry, and physiology (the three sciences were then 
 one), we may notice in particular — 1. Heraclitus of Ephesus, sur- 
 named the "Obscure." Maintaining that fire alone was the prin- 
 ciple of all things, he regarded generation as an ascending road, 
 i.e., a volatilisation ; and decomposition aa a descending road, i.e., 
 a fixation. Here we have the first idea of Jacob's ladder or ' ' Homer's 
 Chain " of the alchemists. 2. Empedocles, who is indeed the first 
 who mentions the four elements; but he subordinates them as 
 complex products to his primordial indestructible atoms, which 
 were animated by love and hatred. 3. Democritus, who, investing 
 these atoms with a movement of their own, proceeds to construct 
 the universe by shocks and harmonies of shocks or vortices. 4. 
 Anaxagoras, who saw "the all-in-all" (Aristotle, Met. 4, 5), the 
 infinitely great universe in the infinitely Email atom, and ingeni- 
 eosly applied the principle of analogy to unravel the tangled skein 
 of ancient science. 5. Aristotle, who added to the four elements a 
 filth, ether, eternal and unchangeable, itself the primum mobile 
 (Arisl., Ve Colo, 1, 2). In the 4th century a.d., Nemesius, bishop 
 of Emesa (the modern Horns, on the east bank of the Orontes), is 
 one of the most distinguished representatives of Alexandrian syn- 
 cretism. A single quotation will suffice to show that the idea of 
 the transmutation of metals, from the time when Platonism, magic, 
 and neo-Christianity were combined in a species of eclectic mysti- 
 cism, was regarded as an article of orthodox belief : — "To prevent 
 the destruction of elements, or things which are compounded of ele- 
 ments, the Creator has wisely ordained that elements should be 
 capable of transmutation one into the other, or into their compo- 
 nent parts, or that their component parts should be resolved again 
 into their original elements. Thus the perpetuity of things is 
 secured by the continual succession of these reciprocal generations." 
 This statement of the piou3 bishop is all the more weighty, inas- 
 much as the author of The Nature of Man was only treating of 
 psychology and physiology. The study of gnosticism would carry 
 us too far ; and one more quotation from this work, which has long 
 fallen into unmerited oblivion, will prove to what an extent the 
 most scientific theories of this day wero tinged and vitiated by 
 mysticism :— r" Porphyry, in his treatise on sensation, tells us that 
 vision is produced neither by a cone nor an image, nor any other 
 object, but that the mind, being placed en rujrport with visible 
 objects, only sees itself in these objects, which are nothing else than 
 itself, seeing that the mind embraces everything, and that all that 
 
 exists is nothing but the mind, which contains bodies of all kinds." 
 
 Another step, and we are lauded in realism. It la not surprising, 
 then, to find that the alchemists, while working in the laboratory, 
 aspired at the same tilne to find the moral quintessence and vc'rilj 
 the doctrines of revealed religion. For mysticism in theory u 
 nothing hut a reaction against tho positivism of reason aud science : 
 the mystic, dissatisfied with these, seeks in nature a reflection of hi* 
 inner feelings. And in practice mysticism rests on confusions or cxag- 
 
 f stations, lite those of Porphyry, orsouie such dictum as the one whieli 
 Temesius quotes with the following uncritical comment : — "Nov.. 
 since Porphyry asserts that there is but one reasoning soul for A\ 
 things, he is right in saying that the soul sees itself in everything. " 
 
 Such visionaries, though they may to a certain extent have 
 observed, were not likely to experiment. Thus, at Babylon, where 
 similar theories prevailed, the college of philosophers was divided 
 into three classes, the " Hhartumun," or soothsayeis; the "Asa- 
 phim," who were more agriculturists than zoologists, more zoologists 
 than physicists, more physicists than chemists ; the "Mechasphiuc, " 
 or doctors, who were consulted by the great, as often to rid tucm of 
 their enemies as -to cure their families aud dependants; lastly, the 
 "Chasedim" or Chaldeans, properly so called; i.e., the astronomers 
 or astrologers. In this classification of sciences ae-pui sued at Babylon 
 by a peculiar caste, chemistry was little regarded. Science was the 
 monopoly of a privileged class before it became the common pro- 
 perty of the human race. A elass is sure to cling to a monopoly ; 
 an individual is obliged by his feebleness to impart his knowledge 
 to others. 
 
 Iu Egypt the doctrine of the Palingenesis was symbolised Dy the 
 Scarabaeus, which suggested to St Augustine the following strange 
 comparison: — "Jesus Christus bonus Ule scarabaeus meus, non ca 
 tantum de causa quod unigenitus, quod ipsemet sui auctor mor- 
 talium speciem induxerit, sed quod in hac fsece nostra sesc volutarit 
 et ex ipsa nasci homo volucrit. 
 
 These ideas, which St Augustine borrowed from the religious 
 beliefs of Egypt, were adopted by certain alchemists ; and Egypt, 
 which saw in the Scarabosus " tie Father, Man, a world of trial, a 
 kdder whereby fallen souls may rise," justly claimed to be the 
 birthplace of ancient chemistry, to which it assigned a peculiar rank, 
 calling it the "sacred art." But although certain Egyptian priests 
 may have spread the report that they owed their enormous fortunes 
 to their knowledge of chemical secrets, this veneration produced but 
 few practical results. It was, however, this report which made the 
 emperors Severus and Diocletian issue an edict that all their 
 magical books should be burned. 
 
 n. The Sacred Art. 
 
 Paganism, at the time when it was engaged in its last 
 struggle with Christianity, had long ceased to be exclu- 
 sively Greek or Roman. It had assimilated Mithratic, 
 Chaldean, and Egyptian mysteries, and even allied itself 
 to a certain extent with the Helleho-Hebraism of . the 
 Cabala. It was nob likely, then, to reject what purer 
 times would have regarded as an utter profanation. The 
 narrow ground on which the battle was fought, the intel- 
 lectual affinities between such men as St Basil and the 
 emperor Julian rendered the struggle as desperate and san- 
 guinary as any struggle can be when the combatants are 
 only rival creeds. The sacred and divine art (rcxyv $ cia 
 kcu Upa), the sacred science (cVto-nJ/xj? Upi), was one of the 
 mysteries which paganism derived from the dim religious 
 light of the temple. But we may presume that the sacred 
 art of the Alexandrians was no longer the 6ame as that of 
 the ancient Egyptians, that their Hermes was not the 
 Hermes of Egypt, that the pseudo-Democritus is not the 
 true Democritus, that Pythagoras, as retouched by Iamblicus, 
 is not the original Pythagoras. No epoch was so full of 
 forgeries as the 3d and 4th centuries A.D. ; and these 
 forgeries were in one sense fabricated in good faith. An 
 age of eclecticism is as eager for original documents as a 
 parvenu is for a coat of arms or a genealogical tree. These 
 forgeries Were no obstacle to human progress; but in an 
 age when the learning of Egypt was the fashion, it was 
 natural that Persian, Jewish, and Platonic doctrines should 
 be tricked out in an Egyptian dress. One of the masters 
 of the sacred art, Alexander of Aphrodisias, invented the 
 term chyics (xuucoV, from \iui, to pour, x^'"". to fuse or melt), 
 to describe the operations of the laboratory. Hence the 
 word chemics, a word unknown in the 4th century, and 
 only popular some centuries later. The reason is, that the
 
 4G2 
 
 ALCHEMY 
 
 true etymology oi tho word chemic is logical, and had 
 therefore no charms for the psychological spirit of the age. 
 Later on, when men began to reflect that the ancient naino 
 for Egypt was Cham or Chemia, because, according to 
 Plutarch, its soil was black like the pupil of the eye (xv/««i 
 tov 6<f>0akjxov), it flattered the chemists to call chemistry 
 " the art of the ancient Chemi." Hence from a false 
 derivation the art received a fresh impulse. 
 
 The discovery of the principal manuscripts of the sacred 
 art we owe to the labour of M. Ferdinand Hoefer. We 
 can take no safer guide than the judicious and profound 
 author of the History of C/iemistry in investigating the 
 delusions into which a master of the sacred- art was most 
 likely to fall. 
 
 "Let us forget for an instant the advances which this science ha3 
 made since the 5th century. Let us fancy ourselves for a moment 
 transported to the laboratory of one of the great masters of the sacred 
 art, and watch as neophytes some of his operations. 1st Experi- 
 ment.— Some common water is heated in an open vesseL The water 
 boils and changes to an aeriform body (steam), leaving at "the bottom 
 of the vessel a white earth in the form of powder. Conclusion — water 
 changes into air and earth. What objection could we make to this 
 inference, if we were wholly ignorant of the substances which water 
 holds in solution, and wnich are, after evaporation, deposited at the 
 bottom of the" vessel! 2d Experiment. — A piece of red-hot iron is 
 put under a bell which rests in a basin full of water. The water 
 diminishes in volume, and a candle being introduced into the bell 
 sets tire at once to the gas inside. Conclusion — water changes into 
 fire. Is not this the natural conclusion which would present itself to 
 any one who was ignorant that water is a composite body, consisting 
 of two gases, one of which, oxygen, is absorbed by the iron, while 
 the other, hydrogen, is ignited by contact with the flame? 3d Ex- 
 periment. — A piece of lead, or any other metal except gold or silver, 
 is burned (calcined) in contact with the air. It immediately loses 
 its primitive properties, and is transformed into a powder or species 
 of ashes or lime. The ashes, which are the product of the death of 
 the metal, are again taken and heated in a crucible together with 
 some grains of wheat, and the metal is seen rising from its ashes 
 and reassuming its original form and properties. Conclusion — metals 
 are destroyed by fire and revivified by wheat and heat. No objection 
 could be raised against this inference, for the reduction ef oxides 
 by means of carbon, such as wheat, was as little known as the 
 phenomenon of the oxidation of metals. It was from this power of 
 resuscitating and reviving dead, i.e., calcined metals, that grains of 
 wheat were made the symbol of the resurrection and life eternal. 
 4th Experiment. — Argentiferous lead is burned in cupels composed 
 of ashes or pulverised bones, the lead disappears, and at the end of. 
 the operation there remains in the cupel a nugget of pure silver. 
 NothAig was more natural than to conclude that the lead was trans- 
 formed into silver ; and to build on this and analogous facts, the theory 
 of the transmutation of metals, a theory which, later on, led to the 
 search for the philosopher's stone. 6th Experiment. — A strong acid 
 is poured on copper, the metal is acted upon, and in process of time 
 disappears, or rather is transformed into a green transparent liquid. 
 Then a thin plate of iron is plunged into this liquid, and the copper 
 is seen to reappear in its ordinary aspect, while the iron in its turn 
 is dissolved. What more natural than to conclude that iron is trans- 
 formed into copper? If instead of the solution of copper, a solution 
 of lead, silver, or gold had been employed, they would have held 
 that iron was transformed into lead, silver, or gold. 6th Experi- 
 ment. — Mercury is poured in a gentle shower on melted sulphur, 
 and a substance is produced as black as a raven's wing. This sub- 
 stance, when warmed in a closed vessel, is volatilised without chang- 
 ing, and assumes a brilliant red colour. Must not this curious 
 phenomenon, which even science in the present day is unable to 
 explain, have struck with amazement the worshippers of the sacred 
 art, the more as in their eyes black and red were nothing less than 
 the symbols of light and darkness, the good and evil principles, and 
 that the union ofthese two principles represented in the moral order 
 of things their God-universe. 1th and last Experiment. — Organic 
 substances are heated in a still, and from tho liquids which are 
 removed by distillation and the essences which escape, there remains 
 a solid residuum. Was it not likely that results such as these would 
 go far to establish the theory which made earth, air, fire, and water 
 the four elements of the world?" 
 
 But neither M. F. Hoofer's explanation of the appearances 
 which the first master of the sacred art mistook for fact, 
 nor the metaphysical theory of Nemesius, will enable us to 
 understand how Zosimua the Theban, in the very infancy 
 of the art, succeeded in discovering in sulphuric acid a 
 advent of metals : ia assigning to mercury (^wlrich he 
 
 called " holy water") its proper function, a function which 
 succeeding generations of alchemists so monstrously exag- 
 gerated; and finally in disengaging from tho red oxide of 
 mercury oxygen gas, that Proteus which so often eluded 
 the grasp of the alchemists, till at last it was held fast by 
 the subtle analysis of Lavoisier. For wo must remember 
 that solid metals wero considered as living bodies, and 
 gases as souls which they allowed to escape. Of all the 
 ingenious inventions of the Jewess Maria for regulating 
 fusions and distillations,.. the only one that has survived is 
 the Balneum Maria;. The principle it depends on, viz., 
 that the calcination of violent heat is less powerful as a 
 solvent or component than the liquefaction produced by , 
 gentle heat, was afterwards reasserted by the Arabian 
 Geber, and advocated by Francis Bacon. M. Hoefer ima- 
 gines that Maria the Jewess discovered hydrochloric acid, 
 the formidable rival of sulphuric acid. Succeeding writers 
 on the history of chemistry have remarked that the band- 
 ages of Egyptian mummies were not more numerous than 
 the mysteries of the sacred art, and the injunctions not to 
 divulge its secrets, " under pain of the peach tree," -or, to 
 translate into modern English the language of an ancient 
 papyrus, under pain of being poisoned by prussic acid. 
 We Bhould be wrong in thinking that all these allegories 
 had no meaning for the initiated, and that this mystical 
 tendency of the sacred art arrested its growth at starting. 
 Rather the truth is, that these myths, which at a later stage 
 prevented the free development of alchemy, at first served 
 to stimulate its nascent powers. 
 
 Modern critics have pronounced some traditional sayings 
 of Hermes Trismegistus to be apocryphal, but they have 
 not given sufficient weight to the remarkable circumstance 
 that it is precisely because these sayings are a medley of 
 the cabaljstic, gnostic, and Greek ideas with which 
 Alexandria was then seething, that the seven golden 
 chapters, the Emerald Table, and the Pimander obtained 
 their authority — an authority they would never have pos- 
 sessed had they been only a translation of some obscure 
 Egyptian treatise. No Egyptian priest could have written 
 a sentence like that we find so often quoted as an axiom 
 by subsequent alchemists : — " Natura naturam superat ; 
 deiudc ver6 natura naturae congaudet; tandem natura 
 naturam continet." Plato adds (not the disciple of 
 Socrates, but a pseudo-Plato in the famous collection 
 called Turba Philosoplwrum) — "continens autem omnia 
 terra est." For, translated into modern language, this 
 meand that there may indeed be in this universe things 
 which pass our intellectual ken ; but that all that exists, 
 all that is produced by tho strife and changes of the 
 elements, all, in a word, that appears to us supernatural, 
 is really natural. That this is his meaning we may 
 gather from the singularly bold comment which Plato 
 himself adds, and which we may thus translate — "Every- 
 thing, even heaven and hell, are of this earth." It is true 
 that the alchemists failed to draw any very definite con- 
 clusions from this fundamental axiom. But if we con- 
 sider it carefully, we shall see that this earliest doctrine of 
 the sacred art, which was now rapidly passing into 
 alchemy, by thus excluding the supernatural, was makings 
 a great advance in the direction of positive science. This 1 
 early advance was, however, counterbalanced by an early 
 error (which itself arose from a noble ambition), viz., that 
 art ia as powerful as nature. The Emerald Table begins 
 with a sentence no less celebrated than that quoted above : — 
 " This is true, and far distant from a lie ; whatsoever is 
 below is like that which is above, and that which is above 
 is, like that which 13 below. By this are acquired and 
 perfected the miracles of tho one thing." To understand 
 the importance of this emphatic and categorical exordium, 
 we must forget the sharp distinction we now draw between
 
 ALCHEMY 
 
 4G3 
 
 art, science, and literature ; we must think of that foolish- 
 ness of which St Paul speaks, by which he sought to save 
 those that believe, because of the insufficiency of human 
 reason. The seekers for the philosopher's stone were in 
 the same case. In the 'absence of clear fact3 and just 
 notions, reason for them was not sufficient. Thus it was 
 that they and the masters of the sacred art, and after them 
 the Arabs, and in later times the alchemists, one and all 
 listened eagerly to the "foolishness" of Trismegistus's 
 doctrine, which, in a modern form, would run thus : " We 
 go further than the Zohar — the sacred book of the cabala 
 — which says that as soon as man appeared, the world 
 above and the world beneath were consummated, seeing that 
 man is the crown of creation and unites all forms. We go 
 further than the Zohar, which says in another place that 
 the lower world was created after the similitude of the 
 upper world. We perfect the doctrine of a microcosm 
 and a macrocosm, and declare that there is no such. thing 
 as high or low — as heaven or earth, for the earth is a 
 planet, and the planets are earths; we affirm that the 
 chemical processes of our alembics are similar to those of 
 the sidereal laboratories. All is in all. Everywhere analogy 
 infers the same laws." From analogy to identity was an 
 easy step for the theorists ; and in the full light of the 
 19th century we find Hegel a devoted admirer of the 
 mystic Bbhme falling into this pitfall If the spectrum 
 analysis had been known, the Alexandrians, the Arabs, 
 and the alchemists would have been able to verify and 
 limit the sweeping generalisation by which they established 
 a vast system of correspondencies between the three worlds, 
 the physical or material, the rational or intermediary, and 
 the psychical or spiritual Between the heavens and earth 
 and man's nature they were ever seeking to discover 
 affinities, and ignoring differences which would have been 
 fatal to their system. Thus, according to them, even 
 heaven — the abode of spirits — was partly physical; and 
 even in the mineral world there was a spiritual element — 
 viz., colour, brightness, or, in their language, tincture. 
 Neither Linnaeus, Berzelius, nor Cuvier had yet classified 
 living beings and things. The' distinction between the 
 animal, the vegetable, and the inorganic world was 
 unknown, and indeed it was impossible that it should be 
 known. The alchemists sought for physical conditions in 
 the invisible and spiritual world, and for a spirit even in 
 stocks and stones. This explains the magic which they 
 found in nature, 'and which they tried to imitate by their 
 art. But to establish this harmony between heaven, man, 
 and nature, they required some fixed standard or scale, for 
 in their eclectic system they were bound to find room for 
 Pythagoras. ' Where was this scale to be found 1 In the 
 heavens ; for there must be the sphere of true music. Hence 
 arose chemical, medical, and physionomical astrology. 
 (See Astrology.) Hence the sun, which vivifies all 
 nature, the most active heavenly energy, or rather being — 
 for with them everything»had life — in the o-uvyatita, or 
 marriage between heaven and earth, represented the male 
 principle, ita ut ccelum agat et terra patiatur ; and 
 appearing in all terrestrial objects, since everything is 
 penetrated by heat, fire, or sulphur, presided principally 
 over the generation of gold — his image or antitype — in the 
 bowels of the earth. Hence, too, the moon represented 
 silver, Venus copper, Mercury (the planet and the god) the 
 metal of the same name, Mars iron, Jupiter tin ; while to 
 Saturn, the most distant and coldest of the planets, lead, 
 the most unsightly of metals, was dedicated. It was an 
 old belief that there was a time when gods and men dwelt 
 together on earth,' a belief, moreover, for which they 
 could quote chapter and verse. Was it not written ttS-o-iv 
 ovpaviW koivtjv yaZavl Turther, seeing that there were 
 three worlds, it followed that there were three heavens. 
 
 three suns, and three golds. For spirits still engrossed 
 with matter the philosopher's stone meant the search for 
 riches — the gold of the third world. For other spirits 
 which belonged to the first world it signified the healing 
 art — the preservation of humanity by means of the 
 universal panacea and a universal theory of morals. Hence 
 two rival systems, the first of which culminated in the 
 great doctor Paracelsus, the second in the great niuminato 
 PosteL Did not Dante, the bitter foe, not of the science 
 of alchemy, but of that miserable search for gold — for the 
 riches of this world — which, with keen irony, he calls 
 Peltro (tin whitened by mercury) — did not Dante himself 
 write his great poem in order to bring back humanity to 
 the right road from which it had strayed (svia), misled 
 by those who should have been its true guides, the pope 
 and the emperor? For the symbolism of those ancient 
 masters included an alchemy of morals as well as*-an 
 alchemy -of medicine and metallurgy, though the first was 
 even less known and less appreciated. 
 
 Recurring to our former illustration, it was this " foolish- 
 ness" of St Paul — this divine madness — which inspired 
 the Alexandrians, the Arabs, .Roger Bacon, Albertus 
 Magnus, and the host of anonymous alchemists of the 
 middle ages : such was the madness which cast a ray of 
 genius over the daring spirit of even a second-rate author 
 like Raymond Lully, which sustained Robert Fludd, 
 Paracelsus, and Postel, who tried to find the universal 
 panacea in universal peace. The fundamental axiom, the 
 stronghold from which these terribly logical madmen were 
 never wholly dislodged, may perhaps be summarised in a 
 single sentence. . The saying of Galen, in natura nihil planh 
 sincerum, was adopted by his implacable adversaries: — 
 Nature, they said, is in appearance an illegible scrawl, but 
 when deciphered there will be found a single element, a 
 single force, to separate and reunite, to produce decay and 
 growth — knowledge is power. To know the process of 
 generation in this triple universe, wherein one world 
 resembles another; to know by its signatures this universe, 
 which is a living organism in the eyes of all alchemists 
 (save indeed Jacob Bbhme, who, anticipating Hegel, 
 regarded it as a mighty tree); this is the first step towards 
 counterfeiting nature. Monstrosities are the production of 
 diseased metals (really alloys), which, if properly treated, 
 may be cured, and will turn to gold, or at least silver. The 
 second stage in this imitation of nature is to obtain by 
 tincture or projection solid or liquid gold — the cure of all 
 evils. Finally, to surpass material and rational nature, 
 this is the crowning end. For God delegates his power 
 to the sage. 
 
 Alchemy in Arabia. — How the sacred art passed into 
 Moslem lands it is hard, from dearth of evidence, to say. 
 Modern criticism now does more justice to the part which 
 Arabia took in the accumulation of scientific facts, and in 
 the scientific theories which we find in the books of Rhazes 
 and Geber. It is certain that in their treaties with the 
 European Greeks of Constantinople the Arabs always 
 stipulated for the delivery of a fixed number of manu- 
 scripts. Their enthusiasm for Aristotle is equally noto- 
 rious ; but it would be unjust to imagine that, in adopting 
 the Aristotelian method, together with the- astrology and 
 alchemy of Persia, and of the Jews of Mesopotamia' and 
 Arabia, they were wholly devoid of originality. , On the 
 other hand, we must not understand Arabia in the ethno- 
 logical sense of the word, but as signifying an agglomera- 
 tion of various races united by a common religion. Thus 
 Djafar (who lived in the middle of the 8th century), better 
 known to us as Geber, was a Sabaean. Avicenna, born in 
 978, was a native of Shiraz. The remarkable geographer 
 and geologist Kazwyny (geology was then a part of al- 
 chemy), derived his name from his birthplace. Casbin, in
 
 464 
 
 ALCHEMY 
 
 Persia. Moliaimnctl-bon-Zakurlay bo culcbiated iu nicdi- 
 aval Europe' under the name of Rhazfcs, was also a Persian. 
 In Spain the Jows of the famous school of Saadia aud 
 Juda Halevy exercised considerable influence over the 
 academy of Cordova. Lastly, European historians have 
 systematically exaggerated tie ignorance of the Arabs 
 before the time of Mahomet and their intolerance after 
 tho establishment of Moslemism, either from the zeal 
 which prompted them to carry on a sort of literary crusade 
 in honour of Christianity, or because in the 18th century 
 they directed against Mahomet attacks which were intended 
 for Christianity itself. 
 
 Alchemy received from the Arabians many significant 
 titles. It was the science of the key, because it opened all 
 the mysteries of creation, physiology, and medicine ; it was 
 tho science of the letter M {misam is tho Arabic for 
 balance), because by means of the balance the gain or loss 
 of all bodies could bo determined, even while undergoing 
 chemical combinations. Later on, as is well known, it was 
 by a rigorous and obstinate uso of the balance in the hands 
 of Priestley, Cavendish, and Lavoisier, that positive che- 
 mistry was founded. Lastly, Rhazes gave to the science 
 of the philosopher's stone a name which plunges us again 
 into the mythological ages of chemistry. He called it the 
 astrology of the lower world. 
 
 The discoveries of Gebcr as a chemist do not form part of our 
 subject ; but we may mention, in passing, the infernal stone, the 
 corrosive sublimate, the exact process of the cupoTlation of gold 
 and silver, and three sorts of distillation by evaporation, condensa- 
 tion, and simple filtration. In another direction Geber, by re- 
 inventing aqua fortls, and by discovering ammoniacal salts for his 
 aqua rcgalis, laid the foundation both of alchemy and chemistry. 
 The salt of ammonia, so easy to volatilise, was the source of many 
 baseless dreams, as is proved by its various names — waima sensibilis, 
 aqua duorum fratrum ex sorore, cancer, lapis angeli eonjungentis, 
 &c. Geber believed in tho parallelism between metals and planets ; 
 he thought that metals were all equally composed of mercury, 
 arsenic, and sulphur, and that in tho descending scale from gold to 
 lead, mercury,' arsenic, and sulphur were each present in a greater 
 or less degree of purity in proportion to tho colour and quality of 
 each metal. Later on, the audition of the four elements — heat, 
 cold, dryness, and moisture— complicated still more the reasonings 
 by which the alchemists sought to prove that the transmutation of 
 metals was- in the power of any man who imitated nature — i.e., per- 
 fected the imported metal by correcting its excess of heat or mois- 
 ture. Geber did not think that an operation of the laboratory 
 could counterfeit the natural work of purification, which demanded 
 a thousand years. But with him moisture played the same part as 
 phlogiston in Stahl's system. In other words, tho philosopher to 
 whom all succeeding searchers for tho philosopher's stone swore 
 allegiance was contented to formulate his theory without consider- 
 ing the possibility of putting it in practice. He was an alchemist 
 indeed, but no gold-seeker. This forerunner of positive science 
 foresaw the part which the gases would be found to play in the 
 composition of bodies ; he called them spirits — a figure which took 
 strong hold on tho imagination of Geber, as well as of the masters 
 of the sacred art, and which was formalised by the alchemists of tho 
 middle ages. Rhazes, who re-invented sulphuric acid and aqua vitoc, 
 was par excellence a doctor The same remark applies to Avicenna, 
 whoso works aro a methodical, but not very profound, systematisa- 
 tion of the current ideas and scienco of his day. Artephius was a 
 cabalist, as his theory of tho apparent and latent parts of man's 
 nature shows. Tho author of The Key of Wisdom and A Secret 
 Book on the Philosopher' ■ Stone was the reputed possessor of an elixir 
 pita;. .We do not know whether this was potable gold or a quint- 
 essence of all the active elements of the three kingdoms. However 
 this may be, this mysterious alchemist, who lived about 1130, was 
 the inventor of soap, and, what is of more importance for our sub- 
 ject the promoter of a new interpretation of Jacob's ladder or 
 Homer's chain. Minerals, lie said, come from the primitive ele- 
 ments, plants from minerals, animals from plants, and as each 
 body is resolved into another body of the order immediately below 
 it, animals become vegetables and vegetables minerals. We see 
 that in this view of the interdependence of the three kingdoms 
 there is as much truth as error. With Calid, tho author of the 
 Book of the -Three Words and of the Book of the Secrets of Alchemy, 
 the parallelism between the metals and planets takes a retrograde 
 ! astrology. This Calid, a soi-disant king of Egypt, 
 held that before engaging in any operation of alchemy the stars 
 ought to bo consulted. This recommendation was literally followed 
 by tiie thaumaturgists of the middle ages aud the Renaissance. The 
 
 luToct wis Cut .il; if, wln-u Calid or one of Ills school ww the metal" 
 obstinately refuse to bo purified iu his crucible, he did not wait for 
 a happy conjunction of constellations above in order to try his 
 chance again with tho operations of inferior astrology. 
 
 The East, when it accepted from Aristotlo tho theory of form and 
 matter, invested it with a signification of its own never dreamed of 
 by tho Stagyrite, and invented, as it were, an Arabian Aristotle — 
 that is, the Aristotle of the middle ages. Not only at Alexandria 
 had tho students of the sacred art evolved the theory of the trans- 
 mutation of tho four elements (Cicero assigns tho doctrine to the 
 Stoics), but in the East the translators of Aristotle added to the 
 theory a corollary more important than the proposition itself, viz., 
 that every body by ite form and natural motions indicates its soul, 
 its natural properties, &c. ; that the resemblance between the 
 external appearance of things and beings indicates their natura, 
 likenesses, &c. The idea of destiny, which all nations who accepted 
 the doctrine of the Logos expressed by some term or other analogous 
 to tho Latin fatum (what is spoken), Mahomet translated by his 
 famous phrase ntctoub (it was written). We find a Turkish writer, 
 the declared enemy of astrology and elixirs, Nabi Effendf, in his 
 remarkable book, Cou,isds to my Son, About Khair, saying that 
 heaven is covered with a writing that only God can read, and seek- 
 ing what letter tho eyes, the eyebrows, the mouth, 4c., form to 
 find therein the secret of their better use. Like c n o of the Tal- 
 mudiste, the obscure Kallir for instance, "he decomposes the name 
 Mahomet in order the better to offer the prophet, a« it w«re, the 
 quintessence of praise, more worthy of God, «<t«o in that eaored 
 name, as in all terrestrial things, has written at least one letter ol 
 the Word which will serve as a Icey to open all their hidden virtues. 
 By pursuing an analogous direction, medievalism, and more espe- 
 cially the Renaissance, introduced new subtleties into the astro- 
 logical branch of alchemy — tetragrams, pentacles, and other 
 mysterious characters and figures. 
 
 It is not surprising, then, to find that Nabi Effendi, who lived in 
 the second half of the 17th century, can produce no other reasons for 
 dissuading his son from joining tho alchemists than the fact that 
 some were poor, others quacks, and, as the most important ground of 
 all, that God had declared his wrath against those who dare to imi- 
 tate his works. Indeed, the peculiar symbolism of the various nations 
 of tho East had been broken up by revolutions and conquests, and 
 the disjecta membra again reunited, so as to form a wonderful phan- 
 tasmagoria of ideas and images — a sort -of scientific Arabian Nights. 
 
 IIL Alchemy of the Middle Ages. 
 
 Tho care wo have taken to note down at the moment of 
 ite birth each of the ideas which influenced alchemy, allows 
 us to sketch more rapidly the history of its decline and 
 fall Albert , Groot, commonly kiiown . as Albertus 
 Magnus (1193-1280), revived the theory of Gebcr; and, 
 in spite of the tendencies of the time, entertained the same 
 doubts as his illustrious master on the possibility of trans- 
 mutation. He is the first to speak of the affinity of bodies, 
 a term he uses in reference to the action of sulphur on 
 metals. He gives the savans of tho day the sage advice not 
 to take service with princes, who are sure to treat as thieves 
 those who do not succeed. And, indirectly, he warns 
 princes that philosopher's gold is only tinsel. Beginning 
 with nitric acid, which he calls prime water, and so on, 
 through a regular series of secondary, tertiary waters, &c, 
 he proposed a method for dissolving all metals. Rogei 
 Bacon, while opposing magic, calls oxygen aer cibus ignis, 
 and regards tho elixir as a substitute for time, that agent 
 of which nature takes no account Gold is perfect, because 
 nature has consummated her work. But Roger Bacon 
 seems to have turned his genius principally to physics and 
 mechanism. St Thomas Aquinas, in lus theological writ- 
 ings, forbids the sale of alchemist's gold, and in his special 
 treatise on the subject unmasks an imposture of the char- 
 latans of the day, who pretended to make silver by projecting 
 a sublimate of white arsenic on copper. Further, Aquinas, 
 by reducing the primitive elements of metals to two, revives 
 and corroborates the theory of Galen and Albertus Magnus. 
 About the same time we find a pope, Jonu XXII., and 
 a king, Alphonso X. of Leon and Castile, occupying 
 themselves with alchemy. But the pope in a well-known 
 bull denounced all those searchers for gold "who pro- 
 mised more than they could perform;" another proof that 
 alchemy and the search for gold, though distinguished by
 
 A LU a Ji il Y 
 
 4to 
 
 tLe true alchemist, were, confounded by many adepts. It 
 is evident that the science., as far as the seeker for gold 
 was concerned, was approaching the times of king John 
 and Philip the Fair, who found in unscrupulous charlatans 
 abettors iu their debasement of the currency, and that for 
 disinterested alchemists those evil days were at hand when, 
 disgusted at attaining no practical result, the most serious 
 of them sought in the physiological mysteries of generation, 
 in the Adam and Eve, the red man and the white woman, 
 of the first chapters of Genesis, what they failed to find in 
 Ithazes, in Geber, and the Arabian Aristotle. The science 
 was still called cheiny. It was as a compliment to the 
 Arabian masters, who were still quoted side by side with 
 Genesis, that they added to the word the Arabic article al. 
 The popular etymology of the day was likewise Arabic, or, 
 more correctly speakiug, Semitic; the Hebrew chom or the 
 Arabic cham signified heat. Hence their furnaces for 
 heating, the alembics for modifying heat, and the Bains- 
 Marie for imitating the temperature of warm blood; for 
 they could only proceed by analogy. Nevertheless, the 
 great men of the day were the alchemists. The boldness 
 of their actions, the eccentricity of their genius, prove it. 
 
 Few novels, are as interesting as the story of Raymond Lully 
 (1235-131 5). He began life as the passionate lover of the Lady 
 Eleanor of Castello. He was cured of his passion by the lady her- 
 self who discovered to him the ulcer which was eating away her 
 breast. At her desire he consecrated himself to God, to the service 
 of humanity in general, and especially to the conversion of Mussul- 
 mans. Christianity, in the mouths of the European disciples of 
 Geber and Rhazes, was better adapted than it now is for converting 
 infidels, whose knowledge it respected while deploring all the more 
 their errors. In his eightieth year Raymond Lully died in sight of 
 the' island of Minorca, from the consequences of a stoning he had 
 received at Tuui9 a few days before while preaching the gospel. 
 This was on his third mission, and he did not hide from his friends 
 that he sought the crown of martyrdom. He had invited the sup- 
 port of all the princes of Europe, and in particular of the kings of 
 France, England, and Castile. Alchemy,- indeed; with him seems 
 to Tiave been mainly a means of recommending himself to these 
 kings, and at the same time a search for the panacea. But his 
 trust was placed much more in his rhetoric, which he borrowed 
 from the cabala, in his oriental eloquence, and his Christian faith. 
 By the number of conversions he made at Algiers, at Tunis, and at 
 Bugia, where during his second voyage he was snatched from 
 imminent martyrdom by his friends among the converted Mussul- 
 mans — that is to say, in the very strongholds of Islamism — he suc- 
 ceeded in demonstrating that his idea of uniting all worshippers of 
 the true God in a common faith was not chimerical. Lully's prin- 
 cipal success was with the disciples of Averroes ; and no one who 
 reflects will be surprised at this. As the moral difficulties of mis- 
 sions were less than they are now, so the practical dangers were 
 greater. This too needs no explanation. 
 
 Raymond Lully's works on alchemy are hopelessly obscure, not- 
 withstanding elucidations, compendiums, vade-mecums, and a cer- 
 tain dialogue demogorgon, which, if the title is to be believed, 
 I/ullianis scriptis multam prozclare lucem adfert. Nor need we 
 wonder at this. Eirenseus Philalethes, the pseudonym under which 
 some English adept, whose real name has not been discovered, 
 wrote, states positively that he has learned nothing from Raymond 
 Lully, adding at the same time a curious reason — "Some who are 
 no adepts give more instruction to a beginner than one whom per- 
 fect knowledge makes cautious." Eirenseus is fond of quoting 
 Bernard of Trevisa, who, he tells us, has given him, more especially 
 in his letter to Thomas of Bologna, "the main light in the hidden 
 secret." But of all writers he gives the palm to Sir George Ripley. 
 Bernard of Trevisa, whom he mentions, spent a long life and a con- 
 siderable fortune in romantic travels, in the purchase of books, and 
 in the pursuit of chemical experiment's. When depressed and weary 
 with chasing shadows which were ever eluding his grasp, he used, 
 as a pastime and relaxation, to read the Turba Philosophorum, or 
 the Great Rosary, just as Don Quixote would read the romances of 
 chivalry. At last, when seventy-five years old, the good Bernard, 
 for so the adepts called him, thought he had discovered the secret, 
 — at least the joy of what he considered a real success served for a 
 while to lull his restless energies. His letter to Thomas of Bologna 
 shows no ordinary man. "Dissolutions of this sort," he writes, 
 " by acids or aquafortis, are not the true foundations of the art of 
 transmuting metals; but rather the impostures of sophistical 
 alchemists, who think that in them resides the secret of that sacred 
 art. They affirm that they produce dissolutions (solutionis), but 
 what thoy catfnevcr do is to produce the various kinds of metals in 
 
 tnelr penection ; Because metals wlien dissolved by corrosives do 
 not remain in the same proportion and original form as they do 
 when dissolved by mercury, which may be truly called the water of 
 metals. Bodies dissolved by mercury are not decomposed (separa- 
 buntur) ; their nature remains hidden in mercury till they fill up its 
 intervals (usque ad sui rcinspissationem). Mercury contains inter- 
 stices (lalentia), and therefore metals can lie hidden in mercury." 
 He then goes on to compare the part that mercury plays in 
 amalgams to that of water (simplex aqua) in vegetable and animal 
 structures. He is well acquainted with what the French now call 
 Veau de composition; but, as usual, he pushes his analogies too far. 
 ■We may remark in passing that it was his opponents the alchemists 
 who, by the discovery of their aquce fortes, provided modern 
 chemistry with one of its most powerful agents. 
 
 In speaking of Bernard, we incidentally hit upon a word which 
 exactly characterises mediaeval works on alchemy — they are 
 romances, romances full of interminable allegories ; they sometimes 
 begin and always end with an invocation to Christ and the Trinity. 
 From time to time, amid the old abortive attempts to read the 
 riddle of the universe, we find some new idea cropping up. The 
 generation of plants andauimals had failed to explain the genera- 
 tion of metals; so they turned to digestion and fermentation for 
 analogies, and though they never reached their goal, they picked 
 up much that Was valuable on the way. The road itself was 
 barred, and therefore to profit by their works we must follow 
 them into bypaths and digressions. Thus, for instance, we 
 may study with advantage their dialectics. Whilst refuting then- 
 adversaries, they were gradually laying the foundations of the 
 logic of science. True alchemists were generally haughty and con- . 
 temptuous ; the mechanic often grew rich on the scraps which the 
 alchemist was too proud to touch. We cannot always make sure 
 of understanding them, yet from the medley of their writings more 
 fragments of real chemistry may be gathered than is generally sup- 
 posed. There is rhythm and harmony, a ring of true genius about 
 the best of their works, which charms us if it does not send ns to 
 sleep with its sweet but monotonous music. In reading Laurent 
 Ventura's book, De Ratione Conficiendi Lapidis Philosophici, we 
 are tempted for a moment to endorse the strange fancy of the 
 Dutch Rabbins, "that even if a man do not understand the lan- 
 guage of the Zohar, he ought no less to read it ; for this language, 
 as the cabalists have written it, is a medicine for the souL" 
 
 Often what appeared a work of pure fiction (as the Roman de la 
 Rose) concealed a treatise on alchemy ; often, on the other hand, 
 what purported to be a work of pure alchemy was a medium for 
 heretical theology, sometimes for the ideas of Spinosa and Goethe. 
 The times, moreover, were sad, and all could appreciate the advan- 
 tage of a romance. It was not given to every one to follow the 
 terrible logic of Danstin, the contemporary of Kaymond Lully, the 
 author of a Rosarius, which has never been published, from which M. 
 F. Hbfer gives the following extract : — " All bodies may be divided 
 into three classes — 1. Sensible and intellectual beings (animals and 
 men) ; 2. Vegetables ; 3. Minerals. Like always tends to unite with 
 like. Intellectual elements are homogeneous with the Supreme Intel- 
 ligence ; that is why the soul yearns to be absorbed into the Deity. 
 The elements of the body are of the 6ame nature as the surround- 
 ing physical world ; hence their tendency to unite the one with the 
 other. Death is then for all a moment to be desired. " Dico Amen 
 tibi, reverende mi Doctor, to borrow Bernard's favourite expression. 
 
 After so much mist *nd fog we need a breath of fresh air. Let us 
 pass at once, then, to the Luther of science, who reproached so bitterly 
 .the Luther of theology with only going half-way — to an epoch which 
 witnessed the new birth of intellectual life, and to a man who was 
 carried by the new movement into every sort of extravagance, 
 though his errors were those of a generous and unselfish nature. 
 Let us treat of the Renaissance and Paracelsus. 
 
 IV. Paeacelsus and his Influence. 
 
 Tempting as the subject is, we must not linger either 
 on the philosophical doctrine or the medical system of this 
 extraordinary man, for fear of encroaching on the article 
 Medicine or the article Paeacelsus. We only wish to 
 show that he is the pioneer of modem chemists, and the 
 prophet of a revolution in general science. Those who 
 only know Bacon in manuals of philosophy are never 
 tired of repeating that the great English philosopher is the 
 father of experimental science. This is true, indeed, in the 
 sense that Bacon insisted with inexhaustible eloquence on 
 the necessity of experimental science, but it is false if t 
 means that Bacon inaugurated modern science by personal 
 experiments. It was this popular conception of Bacon 
 which Liebig attacked, and he thus found no difficulty iu 
 drawing up a long and crushing indictment Bacon was
 
 466 
 
 ALCHEMY 
 
 the prophet of experimentation, and this title is sufficient 
 to secure his fame against tho abuse of modern dogmatists, 
 who think that science increases little by little, with here 
 a fact and there an idea, without a single pause, a single 
 relapse or revolution. Few take tho trouble to consider 
 how far Bacon's philosophy belongs to the past ; most are 
 satisfied with cut and dried phrases about the part he 
 played in modern science. Just in tho same way, Para- 
 celsus, tho great innovator, who thought himself even 
 more enfranchised from the bondage of Aristotle and 
 Galen than he really was, is dispatched with ready-made 
 phrases, but, unlike Bacon, ho gets nothing but ridicule 
 and ftbuse. Madman, charlatan, impostor — no name is too 
 bad for him with tho historians ; and yet they are forced 
 to confess that this impudent adventurer brought about 
 a necessary revolution. Thomas Thomson is very severe; 
 he goes so far as to reproach Paracelsus with declining the 
 word tonitru. He would have wished, forsooth, tho revolu- 
 tionist of Basle to have delivered before his young and 
 enthusiastic audience " the sober lectures of a professor in 
 a university." Dryasdusts are fond of falling into such 
 anachronisms ; a far truer estimate of Paracelsus has been 
 given us by Mr Browning in the drama which bears his 
 name. Thero are self-deceived visionaries who are always 
 thinking that the problem is solved, who compose elaborate 
 romances with which enthusiasts are enchanted. Raymond 
 Lully was one of this class. There are spirits of light 
 who point out and trace the road along which humanity 
 travels slowly in their wake. Bacon belongs to the first 
 category, but has played the part of a genius of the second 
 order. Thirdly, there are souls of fire always enveloped 
 in clouds, from which ever and anon the lightnings of 
 genius flash forth, who bear humanity towards a goal 
 foreseen rather than seen by themselves, by a rough and 
 rugged road with endless turns and windings. Such 
 a nature was Paracelsus. His pride was more towering 
 than tho mountains of his native Switzerland. He be- 
 lieved that through him a new race, tho Germans, were 
 destined to succeed to science. Tho Greeks, the Arabians, 
 and the Italians, their immediate disciples, had had their 
 day with him, and through him the German era was to 
 begin. He studied under Trithema, the abbot of Span- 
 heim, and under his father, a distinguished alchemist : 
 Agrippa was his fellow-student. Afterwards he resorted 
 to strange masters— old wives and workmen, his beloved 
 miners, who confided to him their secrets. ' He was the 
 greatest traveller in that age of scientific travellers. Lastly, 
 he practised medicine as the doctor of the poor, and 
 inaugurated lectures in the vulgar tongue. Van Helmont, 
 his real successor, who inherited his goodness of nature, 
 established clinical medicine, i.e., lessons at the bedside of 
 the patient. Stahl, who inherited his arrogance and his 
 love of symbolism, developed from ono of the ideas of his 
 master the phlogistic theory, tho elaboration of which 
 theory was for chemistry a prosperous period of incubation, 
 while from the refutation of this theory the science may 
 be truly said to date its birth. Paracelsus's work, like his 
 genius, oscillates perpetually between magic and science, 
 but what has not been sufficiently observed is, that science 
 invariably ends by carrying the day. If, for instance, he 
 is giving us " the green Hon," a recipe for making gold, 
 he ends by breaking a lance with the seekers for gold : — 
 " Away with theie false disciples who hold that this divine 
 science, which they dishonour and prostitute, has no other 
 end but that of making gold and silver. True alchemy has 
 but one aim and object, to extract the quintessence of 
 things, and to prepare arcana, tinctures, and elixirs, which 
 may restore to man the health and soundness he has lost" 
 He beards the " white-gloved " disciples of Galen, and, in 
 spite of their juleps and draughts, asserts that alchemy is 
 
 indispensablo, and that without it there is no such thing 
 as medical knowledge. He rejects the easy explanation 
 of the universe by means of an entity, stigmatising it as 
 paganity, meaning thereby a necessary consequence of 
 paganism, which as a theosophist he holds in abhorrence. 
 He rejects the favourite instrument of tho schoolmen, the 
 syllogism. Nature, as he views it, is not a clear and 
 intelligible system of which the form declares the essence ; 
 no, it is mysterious. There is a spirit at work beneath the 
 outside shell. What is written on this shell no one can 
 read but tho initiated who have learned to separate tho 
 real and tho apparent. " At the same time, everything is 
 not active. To separate the active portion (the spirit) of 
 this outside shell from the passive, is the proper province 
 of alchemy." Thus we see that with Paracelsus alchemy 
 ceased to be the search for the first principles of bodies, 
 and. made one step in advance towards chemistry. His 
 innate genius for medicine, a3 he boasted,, but more truly 
 his noble heart, urged him to learn a study which better 
 satisfied his pride, but which had not the practical useful- 
 ness of medical chemistry to recommend it. The name ia(ro- 
 chemics marks this transition from alchemy to chemistry. 
 A remarkable saying of Paracelsus shows us tho close 
 connection between his alchemy and his medicine : " Vita 
 ignis, corpus lignum." This nation of the importance of 
 combustion was taken up again by Becker and his disciple 
 Stahl, the inventors of the term phlogiston, which they 
 thought was of an earthy nature, because resin, phos- 
 phorus, sulphur, and other combustible bodies are insoluble 
 in water. Paracelsus was too well initiated in the cabal- 
 istic theory of astral light, which symbolised the universal 
 agent of light and heat, to have accepted such a gross 
 materialistic theory. A distinguished Frenchman of tho 
 present century, who prided himself on being a follower of 
 the cabalists, has in one of his novels, called La Pcau de 
 Chagrin, reproduced the theory of Paracelsus, vita ignis, 
 corpus lignum. Each act, each wish of the possessor of 
 the talisman, causes the skin to shrink; and Mr Huxley, 
 in his remarkable lecture on The Physical Basis of Life, 
 has not been ashamed to borrow this illustration from Balzac. 
 What renders Paracelsus's saying so valuable is, that it is 
 neither materialistic nor spiritualistic, but merely dynamical 
 Another instance of Paracelsus's oscillating between the 
 modern and the ancient world is seen in the hesitation he 
 shows when discussing the influence of the planets over tho 
 internal organs of the body. Sometimes he seems tc take 
 the symbol for the thing itself, but ho ends by admitting 
 only the parallelism of the macrocosm and the microcosm. 
 When he assigns the brain to the moon and the heart to 
 the sun, he seems to say: " I do not think with Plato that 
 the brain is all ; it is but tho reflector and guide — tho heart 
 is tho regulator of the organism. I place my archeus a 
 little above the heart, as a connecting-link between the 
 nervous and sanguine circulation, as Hippocrates has his 
 enormon." li he had lived in calmer times, and known the 
 true Aristotle, Paracelsus would have allowed that popifxri 
 does not represent the orcA^a'a °f ^e Stagyrite, that 
 evepyiia is the true meaning. But in those times of false 
 Aristotelianism the Spagirism of Paracelsus was pitted 
 against the Stagyrism of Aristotle.' ■ By making the viscera 
 the seat of diseases, Paracelsus claims to bo the founder of 
 the organicists; by hi3 chemistry of the blood — mercury 
 which evaporates, sulphur which burns, salt which is con- 
 stant — he is answerable for the blunderings of Maitre 
 Purgon; by his archeus, the grand motor and regulator of 
 the astrology of tho body, he is the ancestor in a direct lino 
 of animism, and collaterally of modern Hippocratism or 
 vitalism of tho Montpollior school. In short, it is hard to 
 name anything that eannot be found in the works of thia 
 mad genius, who, in spite of the jars and jolts of his wild
 
 ALC-ALC 
 
 4G7 
 
 career, still manages to keep the road without upsetting 
 either at Paiis or Moutpellier. What, we may ask, would 
 modern therapeutics be without the opium and mercury of 
 Paracelsus — without the laudanum of his disciple Querce- 
 tan, physician to Henry IV , &.C 1 When this charlatan had 
 substituted for astrological influence a simple- parallelism, 
 it was easy for Van Helmont to rid modern science of this 
 simple parallelism. Besides all this, Paracelsus was a real 
 doctor. The death of Erasmus's friend, whom ho was 
 attending, did him less harm than the cure of another 
 .patient, who was dining with him ninety-nine days after 
 he had been pronouhced in extremis; more fatal still was' 
 the case of Cornelius do Liec.htenfels, who, when cured by 
 him of the gout,- refuged to pay his benefactor the stipulated 
 price. Paracelsus would not hold his tongue or submit 
 to the magistrates, and in consequence had to resign his 
 professorship at Basle. ' A double interest attaches to this 
 story; it hastened Paracelsus's death, and it proves that he 
 would never have accepted the vis medicatrix natures- of 
 Stahl We have seen that those strange bodies which 
 escaped from the retorts of the masters of the sacred art 
 were called by them souls; their successors, on a closer 
 acquaintance with them, called them spirits. Basil Valentin 
 and Paracelsus, recognising their importance in the trans- 
 mutation of. bodies, gave to them the name of mercury. 
 Van Helmont studied them more minutely, and invented 
 the name gas. He was acquainted with carbonic acid under 
 the name of woody gas: But his ignorance of the action of 
 the oxygen of the atmosphere prevented him from making 
 the fundamental distinctions between experiments per- 
 formed in a closed vessel and in one open to the air. Priest- 
 ley, Lavoisier, and Scheele by the use of the. test-tube and 
 the balance (both Van Helmont and Stahl had also turned 
 the balance to good account), weighed and tested the results 
 of ancient alchemy. Hence modern chemistry was born. 
 But we must in justice add that the work had already 
 been begun by men of genius, such as Bernard Palissy, 
 Boylq the eminent critic and experimentalist, Homberg, 
 the two Geoffreys, Margraff, Bergmann, Rouelle the master 
 of Lavoisier, who may be called the Diderot of chemistry. 
 Moreover, the most important discoveries in chemistry have 
 been made by men who combined with chemical experi- 
 ments a marked taste for alchemic theories. We may 
 instance Glauber, ablest of mystics; 'Kunkel, who thought 
 ho had found in. tho "shinirig pills" of his phosphorus 
 mirabilis as efficacious a remedy as the potable gold in 
 which he also believed; Glaser the alchemist, master of 
 Lemery, 'who has been called the father of chemistry;. 
 Robert Fludd, &,a. 
 
 It is curious to observe that soou after chemistry was 
 established as a science there was a regular deluge of 
 searchers for the philosopher's stone. The limits of this 
 article pvevent us from giving a full list of their names. 
 Suffice it to mention, among Frenchmen, De Lisle, who 
 died in the Bastile of the wounds his -guardians inflicted 
 on him to extort his secret; among Englishmen, Dr Price, 
 who committed suicide to escape from a public trial of. his 
 pretended discovery. As to the theoretical possibility of 
 making gold, the great French chemist Dumas considered 
 that a solution might be found in the doctrine of isomer- 
 ism; and the great English chemist Sir Humphrey Davy 
 refused to pronounce that the alchemists must be wrong. 
 Before concluding this short sketch of a vast subject, wo 
 must give a brief list of titles of the most important autho- 
 rities on the subject, and- enumerate the principal words 
 which alchemy has bequeathed to scientific terminology, 
 or which have passed into the language of common life : — 
 
 A cmroMTiES. — Roger Bacon, Thesaurus Chimicus, gvo, Francof., 
 1603; Francis Bacon Lord A r orulam. History of'MetaK fol., 
 ••ondon, 1670;.J. J. Becker, Opera Omnia, Francof., 1680 ; Chymia 
 
 Philosophies, 8vo, Nuremberg, 1639 ; John ■ Espagnet, Encluridion 
 PhilosophiaaHermetica^Paris, 1638; Robert Fludd, Cla vis Alchimise, 
 2 vols., Francof. ; T. R." Glauber, Works, Chimistry, fol., London, 
 lflfi9 ; Hermis Trismegisti, Traduction par J. -Mesnard, 8vo, Paris 
 (edited by Didier) ; J. Kunkel, Experiments, 8vo,. London, 1705 ; 
 Paracclsi Opera Omnia (with a remarkable preface by Fred. Bitiski), 
 2 vols. fol. ; J. B. Porta, Do iEris Transmutationibus, 4to, 
 Romoe, 1610 ; Quercetan, Hcrmetical Physic, 4to, London, 1605 ; 
 Georgii Ripley, Opera Omnia, 8vo, Casscl, 1649; J. Trithcmius, 
 De Lapide Philosophico, 8vo, Par. 1611; Basil Valentin, Last 
 Will, &c, 8vo, Loudon, 1671. Of compilations wo may mention— 
 Artis Aurifcrae quani Cliemiam vocant Duo Volutnina (this work 
 includes the Turba Philosophorum), Basilcx, 1610 , J. J. Mangctf 
 Bibliotheca Chemica Curio'sa, 2 vols, fol., 1702; Thcatrum Chimi- 
 cum, 6 vols. 8vo, Argent., 1662 ; The Lives of the Adepts iu 
 Alchemystical Philosophy, with a critical catalogue of the books in 
 this scieuce, and a selection of the most celebrated' treatises, &c, 
 '8vo, London, 1814 ; Es3a'i sur la Conservation de la Vie par lo 
 Vcte. Le Lapasse, 8vo, Paris. Among the best historical and critical 
 works with which we are acquainted we will mention— Petr. Gregor. 
 Tholozanus Sy'ntaxcon Artis Mirabilis, 2 vols,, Lugduni, 1576 ; O. 
 Borriehiue de Ortu ct Progrcssu Chemiaj, 4to, 1663 ; The History 
 of Chemistry, by Thomas Thomson, 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1830; 
 Eusebe-Salveitc, Lcs Sciences Occultes, 8vo, Paris, 1829; Fcrd. 
 Hoefer, Histoire dp la Chimie, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, and an abridg- 
 ment by the same. author ; Histoire do la Physique et dc la Chiroic, 
 8vo, Paris, 1872 ; Louis Cruveilhicr, Philosopliie des Sciences 
 Me"dicales, GSuvres Choisies, 8vo, Pari3, 1862 ; Fred. Morin, Genese 
 de la Science (an important work, which we only know from quota' 
 tions in French reviews and encyclopaedias) ; Dumas, .Philosophic 
 Chimique. Lastly, if we wish to trace the transition of alchemy to 
 chemistry we shall find valuable information in Le Dictionnaire da 
 Physique, dedicated to Mons. le Due do Berry,- 3 vols. 4to, 
 Avignon, 1761, under the words Alkali, Alum, Chimie, Pierre 
 Philosophale, Homberg/ Tho reader will observe that in.- this 
 encyclopaedia, written with' the express purpose of propagating the 
 Newtonian theory in 'France, the classical science could bring no 
 real arguments against alchemy. Ho may also consult the remark- 
 able work of LaMeth"rie, which- has been undeservedly forgotten— 
 Essoi Analytique sur l'Air pur et les Differentcs Especes dAir, 3 
 vols. Paris, 1785; and The Birth of Chemistry, by G. F. liodwcll, 
 London, 1874. 
 
 Etymology. — Tho idea that nature must bo tortured to make 
 her reveal her secrets-is preserved in tho wovd crucible: Fr. crcuscl, 
 Ital. eruciolo, Span, crisol — all from the Latin crux, a cross. The 
 word matrass, Fr. malms, is probably from the Celtic matara, an 
 arrow, through the old French verb malrasser, to harass. Bain-Marie 
 and amalgam {^i\ayna) are a legacy of. the sacred art. We can 
 trace the two principles, male and female, of the alchemists in tho 
 word. arsenic {kpaepiK6v, male). From the Arabs we get alcohol (al 
 kohl), properly anything burnt, then a powder of antimony ■ to 
 darken the eyelids, and lastly, spirits of wjue ; alkali, ashes ; borax, 
 the white substanco ; lacker, -from toc.'resin ; elixir, from el kesir, 
 essence ; alembic, Arab., alanbiq. Potash is obviously the ash of tho 
 pot, Germ, potasch ; laudanum is a corruption of laiulandum. The 
 derivation of' tartar, Fr.- tarlre, is etrnngo. Paracelsus considered 
 tartar to be the cause of the gout, -and borrowed the name from tho 
 infernal regions (Tartarus). , The Spaniards have borrowed- from 
 tho Arabs, azoguc, mercury ; azogar, to overlay with quicksilver ; 
 azogucr-o, a worker in mercury ; asogamicnlo, agitation ; azogada- 
 mente, with agitation. Tho scun'e Celtic root which gave to Latin 
 the word vcflrngus, used by Martial for greyhound, and to Creek 
 oiiipTayoi, found in /Elian, from which Dante took tho word vitro, 
 has also created a large family, of words — the Hal. pcllro; tin and 
 mercury; Span, pcltre, lead- and tin; old Fl.'pcautre = -pcllro; 
 Eng. pewter, pewterer, &c. The Placo Maubcrt at Paris derives its 
 namo from the fact that Magistcr Albertus livod there (Maubert = 
 Ma' Albert). From tho alchemists wo get both tho ideas and 
 the words affinity (Albertus Magnus), precipitate (li. Valentin), 
 reduce (Paracelsus), iaJuration(\ an Helmont), distillation, calcina- 
 tion, quintessence, aqua vita: (brandy. was originally only employed 
 as a medicine), aqua rcgalis,aqua secunda, gas, cobalt, from Kobolds, 
 the genii of mines, &c. (-T. A.)' 
 
 ALCIATI, Andrea, an eminent Italian jurist, born nt 
 Alzano, near Milan, ontlie 12th January 14 ( J2, died 1550. 
 He displayed great literary tkill in his exposition of the 
 laws, for which De Thou highly praises him. He published 
 many legal works, and some annotations on Tacitus. Hi." 
 Emblems, a collection of moral sayings in Latin verse, Las 
 been gTeatly admired, and translated into French, Italian, 
 and Spanish. Alciati's history, of Milan, under the title 
 Jierum Patrice, sen Histories Meilinlanensis, libri IV., waa 
 published posthumously at Milan in- 1625.
 
 4G8 
 
 ALC-ALG 
 
 ALCIBIADES was born at Athens about 450 B.C. 
 Through his father, detains, ho traced hi3 descent from 
 Eurysaces, the son of Ajax, and through hi3 mother, 
 Deinomache, from Megacles, the head of the Alcmoeonidae. 
 He was thus related to Pericles, who, after the death of 
 Cleinias at tho battle of Coronca (447 B.C.), became his 
 guardian. A youth early deprived of his father's control, 
 possessed of great personal beauty, and the heir to great 
 wealth — a youth consequently universally honoured, 
 courted, and caressed — was not in a position to acquiro a 
 knowledge of the virtue of self-restraint in any shape or 
 form. Spoilt accordingly by flatteries and blandishments, 
 the boy showed himself self-willed, capricious, and pas- 
 sionate, and indulged in tho wildest freaks and most 
 insolent, tyrannical behaviour. Nor did the instructors 
 of his early manhood supply the corrective which his boy- 
 hood lacked. The collection of moral, political, and reli- 
 gious beliefs which the earlier Greeks, from custom, con- 
 venience, or the promptings of common sense, had accepted 
 as a standard by which to regulate their own conduct and 
 judge that of others, had been exposed by the sophists to 
 the keenest scrutiny and tho widest scepticism. Negative 
 criticism, accompanied with showy novel paradoxes, are 
 always attractive to a young man of intellectual vigour ; 
 and thus Alcibiades learnt from Protagoras, Prodicus, and 
 others, tolaugh at tho common opinions about justice, temper- 
 ance, holiness,' patriotism, dec. The long, patient, laborious 
 thought, tho self-sufficing and comparatively ascetic life 
 of his master Socrates, he was able to admire, but not to 
 imitate or practise. On the contrary, his ostentatious 
 vanity, his amours, Ms' debaucheries, and his impious 
 revels, became notorious throughout Athens. But great 
 as were Alcibiades's moral vices, bis .'intellectual abilities 
 were still more conspicuous. He proved his courage at 
 the battle of Potidea (432 B.C.), where, wounded, he was 
 rescued by Socrates ; at the battle of Delium (424 B.C.), 
 where he protected his former deliverer ; and on many 
 subsequent occasions. Though he was not a very fluent 
 speaker, he always kept to the point. His energy was im- 
 mense, his ambition unbounded but selfish, and provided he 
 could gratify this passion, be never scrupled at the means 
 or the price. He could read the character of others, and adapt 
 himself to it with a versatility, adroitness, and flexibility 
 which if any even of his shifty fellow-countrymen equalled 
 they never surpassed. Nor were his personal qualities 
 his only recommendation to popular favour. His ancestors 
 and relatives had been for generations the recognised 
 leaders of the people; he had many admirers and followers 
 among the clubs of young nobles ; he had numerous de- 
 pendants who partook of his wealth ; and he gratified the 
 populace by the lavish expenditure with which he per- 
 formed his various liturgical duties. On his first entering 
 prominently into public life, he succeeded by a clever -but 
 unscrupulous trick in duping the Spartan ambassadors, and 
 persuading the Athenians to conclude an alliance with 
 Argos, Elis, and Mantinea (420 B.C.) Next year he was 
 appointed general, and for three years busily traversed the 
 Peloponnesus, endeavouring to advance the objects of the 
 alliance. But to be tho first man in Athens was far too 
 limited an object to satisfy the ambition of Alcibiades : all 
 Greece must be dazzled by his greatness. As the first step 
 towards the accomplishment of this scheme he fixed upon 
 the conquest of Sicily, which would necessarily be followed 
 by that of the Peloponnesus and probably by that of Car- 
 thage. 'With this view, he warmly advocated the adoption 
 of measures for tho relief of Segesta. The Sicilian expedi- 
 tion being resolved on with great enthusiasm, he, Nicias, 
 and Lamachus, were appointed generals. But shortly before 
 the day appointed for the armaments setting sail there took 
 j>laco a mysterious crime, which was destined to alter the 
 
 whoio complexion of Alcibiades's futuvo, and with it xlial 
 of tho Athenian state. In the courso of one night (May, 
 415 B.C.) all the busts of Hermes in Athens were sacrilegi- 
 ously mutilated. The enemies of Alcibiades (many of 
 them probably the actual perpetrators) endeavoured to 
 connect him with the sacrilege ; ■ and his well-known 
 impieties gave plausibility to a chargo which could never 
 have had any real foundation. Kccallcd to stand his trial 
 almost as soon as he reached Sicily, he escaped, and made 
 his way to Sparta, where he revealed all the plans of tlio 
 Athenians, and induced the Spartans to send Gylippua to 
 Sicily and an army to fortify Decelea. Ho then passed 
 over to Asia Minor, and prevailed upon many of the Ionic 
 allies of Athens to revolt. But in a few months he had 
 lost the confidence of the Spartans ; and at the instigation 
 of Agis II., whose personal hostility he had excited, an 
 order was sent from Lacedsemon for his execution. Re- 
 ceiving timely information of this order, he crossed over 
 to Tissaphernes (412 B.C.), and quickly worming him- 
 self into the satrap's confidence, he persuaded him to 
 cease, giving active assistance to Sparta, so that the two 
 Grecian parties, after wearing themselves out by their 
 mutual struggles, might both be easily expelled from Asia. 
 But Alcibiades was now bent on returning to'Athens, and 
 he used his supposed influence with Tissaphcrnes to effect 
 his purpose. In his negotiation with Pcisander, though 
 he failed in his immediate object, he succeeded in produc- 
 ing the impression that, whatever side he joined, he could 
 make Tissaphcrnes help. Under this impression, he was 
 recalled by Thrasybulus and the armament at Samos, 
 and appointed one of the generals. His appointment was 
 followed by the victories at Cynossema, Abydos, and 
 Cyzicus, and by the recovery of Chalcedon and Byzantium. 
 On his return to Athens after these successes ho was 
 welcomed with every demonstration of joy (407 B.C.); all 
 the proceedings against him were cancelled, and he was 
 appointed general with full powers. His ill success, how- 
 ever, at Andros, and the defeat of his lieutenant at Notium, 
 led the Athenians to dismiss him from his command. He 
 thereupon retired to the Thracian Chersoncsus ; but after 
 the battle of jEgospotami, and the establishment of the 
 Spartan supremacy throughout Greece, he crossed the 
 Hellespont, and took refuge with Pharnabazus in Phrygia. 
 There an attack was made upon him, but by whom or for 
 what cause historians are not agreed; his residence was set 
 on fire, and on rushing out on his cowardly assassins, 
 dagger in hand, he was killed by a shower of arrows, 404 
 B.c. By his wife Hipparete, Alcibiades left one son, who 
 was named after himself. 
 
 ALCINOUS, a Tlatonic philosopher of uncertain date, 
 author of a work entitled 'Ettito/i^'twi' TlXdrtovos SoyyaaTwr, 
 which has been translated into English by Stanley in his 
 History of Philosophy. The best edition of the Greek 
 original is that by Fischer, Lips. 1783, 8vo. 
 
 ALCINOUS, a mythical king of the Pha;acians, in the 
 island of Scheria, was son of Nausithous, and grandson of 
 Neptune and Peribcea. He has been immortalised in the 
 Odyssey, the description of his reception and entertainment 
 of Ulysses, who when cast by a storm on the shore of the 
 island was relieved by the king's daughter, Nausicaa, form- 
 ing the main subject of books vi. to xiii. of that poem. 
 The subjects of Akinous loved pleasure and good cheer, 
 yet were skilful seamen ; and ho himself is described a3 
 a good prince. 
 
 ALCIl'iiRON, the most eminent of the Greek epistolary 
 writers, was probably a contemporary of Lucian. His 
 letters, of which 1 1 G have been published, are written in 
 the purest Attic dialect, and are considered models of 
 style. The imaginary authors of them are country people, 
 Ssherwomec, courtesans, and parasites, -who express their
 
 ALC-ALC 
 
 409 
 
 ^ntiments and opinions on familiar subjects in refined and 
 elegant language, yet without any very • apparent incon 
 sistency. The new .Attic comedy being the principal 
 source from which Alciphron derived his information, 
 these letters are valuable as delineating the private life of 
 the Athenians at that period. The best editions arc by 
 Bergler, Lips. 1715, and Wagner, Lips. 1798. 
 
 ALCLRA, probably the Saetabicula of the Romans, s 
 Spanish' town, on an island in the river Xucar, 25 miles 
 S. W. of Valencia, in the province of that name. It is 
 surrounded by walls, and has two. fine bridges. There is 
 a remarkable stalactite grotto in the vicinity. The prin- 
 cipal productions are silk, rice, and oranges, which are 
 largely exported. Population, 15,400. 
 
 ALCMAN, sometimes also called Axcsleojt,- one of 
 the most ancient, and, in the opinion of the Alexandrian 
 critics, the most distinguished of the lyric poets of Greece. 
 According to one account he was by birth a Lydian, while 
 others state that he was a native of Sparta, where, at any 
 rate, he lived from a very early -age. The time at which 
 he flourished is uncertain, but it is generally assumed that 
 it embraced the period between the years 670 and 630 B.C. 
 Alcman may in some respects be regarded as the father of 
 lyric poetry among the Greeks, and it was probably for 
 this reason that the Alexandrian critics put him at the 
 head of their lyric canon. His poems, which seem to have 
 formed a collection of six books, are known to us only- 
 from a number of small fragments. Many of them were 
 of an erotic character, but others were hymns and didactic 
 pieces. All were written in the vigorous broad dialect of 
 the Dorians. The best collection of these fragments was 
 published by F. G. Welcker, Giesen, 1815, 4to; they are 
 also, contained in Bergk's Foeloe Lyrici Grceci, 1852, 
 Svo. 
 
 ALCSIENE, the daughter of Electryon, king of Mycense, 
 and wife Of Amphitryon. She was the mother of Hercules 
 by Jupiter, who assumed the likeness of her husband during 
 his absence, and of Iphicles by Amphitryon. 
 
 ALCOCK, . Jonx,- doctor of laws, and bishop of Ely in 
 tea reign of Henry VIL, was born at. Beverley in York- 
 shire before 1440, and educated at Cambridge. He was 
 made dean of Westminster and master of the rolls in 1462. 
 In 1470 he was appointed ambassador to the court of 
 Castile, and in 1471 was consecrated bishop of Rochester 
 In 1477 he was translated to the see of Worcester; and 
 in 1486. to that of Ely! He was a prelate of great 
 learning and piety, and so highly esteemed by King Henry 
 that he appointed him lord president of Wales, and after- 
 wards lord keeper of the G rea t Seal. Vlcock founded 
 schools at Kingston-upon-Hull and Beverley, nnd. built 
 the spacious hall .belonging to the episcopal palace at 
 Ely. He was also the founder of Jesus College ifi Cam- 
 bridge, for a master, six fellows, and as many scholars. 
 This house was formerly a nunnery, dedicated to St Radi- 
 gund; and Godwin says that the building being greatly 
 decayed; and the revenues reduced almost to nothing, the 
 nuns had all forsaken it, except, two ;. whereupon Bishop 
 Alcock procured a grant frxim the crown, and converted it 
 into a college. But Camden and others tell us that, the 
 nuns of that house were so notorious for their incontinence, 
 that King Henry VIL and Pope Julius IL consented 
 to its dissolution. Bishop .Alcock wrote several pieces, 
 among which are the ■ following: — 1. Moris Ferfectianis.; 
 2. In Psalmas FomiCentiales ; 3. ' Eomilice Vulgares; 
 4. Meditationes Pice. He died at Wisbeach,' ' October 
 1, 1500, and was buried in the chapel built by himself in 
 Ely cathedral. 
 
 ALCOHOL, a volatilo organic body, constantly formed 
 during the fermentation of vegetable juices containing 
 sugar in solution. It is extracted from spirituous liquors 
 
 of different kinds by successive distillations or rectifica- 
 tions ; the alcohol being more volatile than water, gradually 
 accumulates in the first portion of each . distillate. After 
 a few operations the spirit obtained is as strong as it can 
 be made by this process, and further repetition docs not 
 enable as to separate more water from it. In commerce 
 the strongest spirit is known as spirit of wine, and contains 
 about 90 per cent, of alcohol The remaining 10 per cent 
 of water must be removed by some chemical' agent that 
 will combine with water and retain it at the .boiling-point 
 of the spirit, and bo without any specific action on the 
 alcohol. The dehydrating substances in general use are 
 certain anhydrous salts, such as carbonate of- potash, acetate 
 of potash, or sulphate of copper. Tbege rapidly absorb 
 water at low temperature, and part with it at a red heat; 
 So that they may be used over and over again. The most 
 efficient dehydrating .agent is caustic lime or caustic 
 baryta. Lime is generally used in making the absolute 
 alcohol of commerce. For this purpose the caustic lime 
 is broken into small pieces about the size' of a walnut, and 
 placed in a retort ; spirits of wine is now poured into the 
 vessel, just sufficient to cover' the lime, and the whole is 
 left to digest for a night. During this time the lime 
 gradually slakes from the absorption, of water, and the 
 anhydrous alcohol is left, ready to distill off at the tempera- 
 ture of the water-bath. Absolute alcohol is a very mobile 
 colourless liquid, having a high refractive power, and 
 possessing a feeble agreeable smell and an acid burning 
 taste, which, ' however, diminishes as it is diluted with 
 water. The caustic ' taste is in great part due to the 
 rapidity with which it takes water from any living tissue 
 with which it comes in contact, producing coagulation if 
 the fluids are albuminous. Alcohol has a specific gravity 
 of 0-79.4 at a temperature of 60° Fahr., and boils at 173° - 1 
 Fahr., barometer being at 30 inches. It docs not conduct 
 electricity, arid has never been obtained in the soUd state, 
 although at very low temperatures it becomes viscid. For 
 this reason alcohol is always used to fill thermometers for 
 registering low temperatures, as mercury freezes, and can- 
 not be employed a3 an index of temperature below -39° 
 Fahr. Its high co-efficient of expansion, makes alcohol a 
 very sensitive fluid for thermometric purposes;. Alcohol 
 has a great tendency to absorb water from the atmosphere, 
 and must be kept in thoroughly sound vessels. It mixes 
 with water in all proportions, and during the dilution there 
 is a considerable amount of heat evolved. When alcohol 
 and water are mixed, a contraction of volume, occurs, which 
 augments until 100 parts of alcohol are mixad with 116"23 
 parts of water ; 103'775 volumes of alcohol and water 
 mixed in that ratio contracting to 100. Addition of 
 water beyond the proportion given above .causes less and 
 less contraction, and finally no diminution "of- volume can 
 be observed. As alcohol is diluted with water its volatility 
 and its power of dilatation diminish, whereas the specific 
 gravity increases, continually approaching, that of water. 
 Next to water, alcohol is the substance most generally 
 employed as a solvent. It dissolves many organic sub- 
 stances, and is especially used in the arts for the manu- 
 facture of varnishes.- In medicine it is invaluable as a 
 solvent of the active principle of many substances that are 
 insoluble in water, and would soon decompose in aqueous 
 solution. These alcoholic solutions are generally called 
 .tinctures. 
 
 Alcohol is an excellent antiseptic agent. As a pre- 
 servative of. animal structures it is generally used in the 
 impure states — known in commerce as methylated spirit. 
 This .is spirits of wine .mixed with 10 per cent, of com- 
 mercial wood spirits; which does not interfere with its 
 preservative or solvent powers, although it renders it unfit 
 for use as a beverage.
 
 470 
 
 ALCOHOL 
 
 Alcohol has the following chemical composition : — 
 
 Carbon 5267 percent 
 
 Hydrogen. 1200 
 
 Oxygen 34-43 ,, 
 
 100-00 
 
 Its formula in chemical symbols is C a II 6 0. During the 
 
 fermentation of sugar the change that takes place is rcpre- 
 
 tu'iiti d D ■ follows : — 
 
 C 8 H 10 O, = 2C 2 1I 6 + 2 CO, 
 Grape sugar. AlcohoL Carbonic acid. 
 
 The complex body, grape-sugar, breaks up by the action of 
 the ferment or yeast into alcohol or carbonic acid, without 
 anything being added. This kind of chemical change is 
 Lines called an action of presence, or catalytic action, 
 because the substance inducing it does not enter into the 
 composition of the products of the reaction. The alcohol 
 ferment or yeast is a minute cellular plant that grows 
 rapidly in sugar solution, especially if albumenoid matter 
 is also present, and during the continuance of its vital 
 functions causes a rearrangement of the atoms of the sugar. 
 In order that fermentation may proceed regularly, a tempera- 
 ture of about 60° Fahr. is required, and an amount of 
 sugar in solution not exceeding 10 per cent. The sugar 
 is principally obtained from malt, which is barley that has 
 been allowed to germinate for a. certain time, and is then 
 arrested in its growth by heating to a high temperature. 
 During this process of germination there is a peculiar 
 ferment produced called diastase ; this has the remarkablo 
 property of changing starch into grape-sugar. When the 
 malt is treated with water, the ferment causes all the starch 
 originally present in the grain to appear in solution as 
 grape-sugar. All kinds of starch may bo changed into 
 grape-sugar by boiling with dilute sulphuric acid, which 
 in this case acts somewhat like a ferment, because it is not 
 decomposed during the action. The sulphuric acid is 
 afterwards separated by treating with lime, which produces 
 insoluble sulphate of lime (gypsum), and leaves the sugar 
 in solution. In this way sugar for the alcohol manufacture 
 is now largely made from the potato and other starch- 
 yielding plants. Cane-sugar is too expensive to bo 
 employed in the distillery. Molasses, or the uncrystallis- 
 able portion of the cane-sugar, is, however, largely used. 
 
 Alcohol, when acted on by other chemical substances, 
 produces a great variety of new compounds. With acids 
 a remarkable class of bodies are produced called ethers, of 
 which ordinary ether is the type.. The majority of them 
 are very volatile fluids, that in many cases have a very agree- 
 able odour, and are not readily soluble in water. Many 
 ethers are obtained by simply heating a mixture of the 
 acid and alcohol in a closed vessel to a temperature of 
 212° Fair., and subsequently treating with water. The 
 water dissolves the alcohol not acted upon, and leaves the 
 ether floating on tho surface. 
 
 When alcohol is treated with chlorine, absorption occurs, 
 and hydrochloric acid is continuously evolved for many 
 hours, the temperature rising considerably during tho 
 action. Many substances are formed in succession, but 
 tho principal product, after long-continued action, is tho 
 substance chloral, now largely used, as an anaesthetic. 
 Bromine produces a similar body called bromaL . Iodine 
 does not act on alcohol at ordinary temperatures, further 
 than to pass into solution. When treated with a solution 
 of chloride of lime, alcohol is violently attacked, and the 
 result of the action is the well-known substsice chloroform. 
 Acted on by oxidising agents, alcohol gives \o new sub- 
 stances — aldehyde and acetic acid. The ease .Sth which 
 acetic acid is produced by heating with a mL" t ure of 
 bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid gives a delicate 
 tnMhod of detecting and estimating very small quantities 
 
 of alcohoL When tho vapour of alcohol is passed through 
 a red-hot tube filled with fragments of pumice-stone, com 
 plcte decomposition takes place. Among the products are 
 found naphthalin, benzol, hydrogen, marsh gas, ethylene, 
 and other bodies. 
 
 The synthesis of alcohol has been effected by means of 
 tho hydro-carbon called defiant gas, which may be made 
 directly from carbon and hydrogen. When this gas is 
 shaken with strong sulphuric acid it gradually combine's 
 with it ; and if it is afterwards diluted -with water and 
 distilled, alcohol passes over. As defiant gas is one of 
 the constituents of common coal-gas, this substance may 
 be used to make alcohol by the above method. The action 
 that takes place is represented thus : — 
 
 C a H, + H a O = C 2 H,0 ' 
 
 OlcQant Gas. Water. Alcohol. 
 
 As the value of spirituous liquors depends mainly on the 
 quantity of alcohol thoy contain, it is essential to find some 
 simple and rapid means of ascertaining the percentage 
 amount of the substance present. For this purpose three 
 methods may be employed, viz., specifio gravity determina- 
 tion, temperature of ebullition, or rate of expansion. Tho 
 easiest plan, and tho most generally used, is the density 
 method. Very accurate tables are published of the specific 
 gravity of mixtures of alcohol and water in all proportions, 
 so that it is only necssary to refer to these tables to get 
 the percentage composition. In the caso of liquors, like 
 wines or beers, that contain m?ny other substances in solu- 
 tion in addition to alcohol, it is necessary to separate the 
 alcohol from the extractive matters — sugar, salts, <fec- -by 
 distillation, and to take the density of tho volatile portion. 
 As wines contain many volatile ethers that would pass 
 over with the alcohol in the above process, and interfere 
 with accurate results being obtained, they aro generally 
 decomposed by heating with an alkali beforo the distillation 
 commences. 
 
 ' The physiological action of alcohol is a subject to which 
 considerable attention has been directed of late years, and 
 many investigators have attacked the problem.! Tho most 
 important contribution to our knowledge of the subject is 
 duo to Dr Parkes, who has made a long scries of observa- 
 tions on soldiers living on a constant diet with and without 
 tho use of alcohoL In these experiments tho weight of 
 the body, the amount of nitrogen in the urino and fxces, 
 the amount of urea, the pulse, and the temperature of the 
 body were all determined daily. The following are the 
 principal conclusions deduced from the investigation : — 
 
 The elimination of nitrogen during exercise was unaffected by 
 brandy ; and Bince a similar result occurred in a series of experi- 
 ments made during rest, it seems certain that in healthy men on 
 uniform good diet alcohol does not interfere with the disintegration 
 of nitrogenous tissues. 
 
 The heat of tho body, as judged of by tho axilla and rectum 
 temperature, was unaffected by the amount given. The apparent 
 heat afcer alcohol must thereforo be owing to subjective feelings 
 connected with tho quickened circulation, rather than to an actual 
 rise of temperature. 
 
 Tho pulse was increased In frequency by 4 ounces of brandy, and 
 palpitation and breathlessness were brought on by larger doses to 
 such an extent as grea«!y to lessen the amount of work the man 
 could do, aud to render quick movements impossible. As the effect 
 of labour alone is to augment tho strength and frequency of the 
 heart's action, it would appear obviously improper to act on the 
 heart still more by alcohol. Whether on a heart exhausted by 
 exertion alcohol would produce good or bad effects is not shown by 
 these experiments. 
 
 Neither exercise nor alcohol produced any effect on the phosphoric 
 acid of the urine, or the free acidity, or the chlorine. 
 
 As the action of alcohol in dietetic doses on the elimination of 
 nitrogen and on the bodily temperature is so entirely negative, it 
 seems reasonablo to doubt if alcohol can have the depressing effect 
 on tho excretion of pulmonary carbon which is commonly attributed 
 to it. It can hardly depress, one would think, the metamorphosis 
 of tissues or substances furnishing carbon, without affecting eitbe* 
 the changes of the nitrogenous structures or bodily heat.
 
 A L C — A L C 
 
 471 
 
 The elimination of alcohol from the body has been a 
 matter of dispute between different observers. Previous to 
 the year 1860 it was the generally-received opinion that 
 the greater portion of any alcohol taken was oxidised in 
 the system, and only a small fraction eliminated unaltered. 
 In that year Messrs Perrin and Lallemand published an 
 elaborate memoir on the subject, in -which they maintained 
 that all, or at least nearly all, the alcohol taken is eliminated 
 unaltered. • This subject has been recently reinvestigated 
 by Dr Austin, Dr Thudichum, and especially by Dr A. 
 Dupre! The main results of Dr Dupre's 6eries of observa- 
 tions may be summed up as follows : — 
 
 The amount of alcohol eliminated per day .does not Increase 
 with the continuance of the alcohol diet ; and therefore all tho 
 alcohol consumed daily must of necessity be disposed of daily; 
 and as it certainly is not eliminated within that time, it must be 
 destroyed in the system. 
 
 The elimination of alcohol following the ingestion of a dose or 
 doses of alcohol ceases in from nine to twenty-lour hours after the 
 last dose has been taken. 
 
 The amount of alcohol eliminated in both fcreath and urine is a 
 minute fraction only of the amount of alcohol taken. 
 
 In the course of these experiments the author found that, after 
 six weeks of total abstinence, and even in the case of a teetotaller, 
 a substance is eliminated in the urine, and perhaps also in the 
 breath, which, though apparently not alcohol, gives all the reactions 
 ordinarily used for the detection of traces of alcohol. The quantity 
 present in urine is, however, so small that the precise nature of the 
 substance has not as yet been determined. The author points out 
 an apparent connection between this substance and alcohol. It was 
 found that, after the elimination due to the ingestion of alcohol had 
 ceased, the amount of this substance eliminated in a given time 
 at first remained below the quantity normally excreted, and only 
 gradually rose again to the normal standard. . A careful study of 
 this connection may perhaps servo to throw some light upon tha 
 physiological action of alcohol. 
 
 ALCOY, one of the most thriving manufacturing cities 
 of Spain, on the river Alcoy, in the province of Alicante, 
 24 miles N.N.W. of the town of that name. It is built 
 on an elevated site at the foot of a gorge of the Sierra de 
 Mariola, and presents a picturesque appearance. There 
 are several handsome buildinga and a number of public 
 fountains, but the industry of the place is its chief character- 
 istic. The principal employment is papermaking. About 
 200,000 reams are produced annually, the extraordinary 
 quantity of 180,000 reams being a paper of light texture 
 used for making cigarettes. Coarse woollen stuffs are also 
 manufactured. A very curious festival is held annually in 
 April in honour of St George, the patron saint of the town. 
 Population, 27,000. 
 
 ALCUDIA, Manuel de Godoy, Duke of, "Prince 
 of the Peace," Spanish statesman, was born of poor but 
 noble parentage at Badajoz on the 12th May 1767 (died 
 1851). In 1784 he came to Madrid to join the royal body- 
 guard, and by his handsome presence and agreeable 
 manners soon attracted notice. The queen regarded him 
 with great favour, and the weak-minded Charles IV. raised 
 him rapidly from dignity to dignity, until in 1792, on the 
 disgrace of Aranda, he became prime minister. One of 
 the first steps he took on his accession to power was to 
 declare war against the French convention. Though 
 success at first attended the Spanish arms, the position of 
 matters was reversed in a second campaign, and the war 
 was concluded by the treaty of Basle, signed on the 22d 
 July 1795, for negotiating which Godoy received his title 
 of Prince of the Peace and a large landed estate. He was 
 also mado at the same time a grandee of Spain Qf the first 
 class. In 1796 he formed an offensive and defensive 
 alliance with tho French republic, which involved Spain 
 in a war with England. Next year he was married to 
 Maria Theresa de Bourbon, niece of the king by a mor- 
 ganatic marriage of his brother Luis. As it was under- 
 stood that Godoy had already married Dona Josef a 
 Tudo, this second alliance, though it brought him nearer 
 
 to the king," did much to increase his unpopularity with 
 the nation. On the 28th March 1798 he found himself 
 forced to resign his position in the ministry, but he. never 
 lost the favour of the king, who -appointed him grand 
 admiral in 1799. About the same time he was restored to 
 power, and entered into an alliance with Napoleon, having 
 for its object the partition of PortugaL The war, in which 
 Godoy himself commanded, was of short duration, the 
 treaty of Badajoz, signed on the 6th June 1801, securing 
 from Portugal a subsidy to France and a cession of terri- 
 tory to Spain. Godoy was rewarded for his service with 
 the title of Count of Evoramente, and an annual income of 
 100,000 piastres. In 1804 he became generalissimo of 
 the land and sea forces of Spain ; but the honours thus 
 heaped upon him by the king were accompanied by grow- 
 ing dislike on the part of the nobility and the people. 
 The higher classes regarded him with jealousy as a parvenu, 
 and he was necessarily unpopular with a nation that attri- 
 buted to him the defeat of Trafalgar, and the stoppage cf 
 its commerce through the blockade of the ports. A change 
 of policy, by which he endeavoured to break off his alliance 
 with France and enter into friendly relations with England, 
 came too late to save his position. Napoleon determined 
 to remove the Bourbons from the throne of Spain, and the 
 invasion of the French troops gave Godoy's enemies the 
 wished-for opportunity to secure his downfall. The prime 
 minister had retired from Madrid, and was making arrange- 
 ments for the removal of the king and queen to Mexico, 
 when the project was discovered by the Prince of Asturias, 
 the leader of the party opposed to him. On the. 18th 
 March 1808 Godoy was seized at Aranjuez by tho mub, 
 who were only restrained from executing summary ven- 
 geance upon him by the promise given them that he should 
 undergo a fair trial. Napoleon, however, wishing to avail 
 himself of his influence over Charles, sent Prince Murat to 
 effect his release. He was removed in April to Bayonnc, 
 where on the 5th May he signed the deed by which Charles 
 IV. abdicated in favour of the Prince of Asturias. He 
 continued to enjoy tho undiminished favour of Charle9, 
 whom he accompanied to Rome, his possessions in Spain 
 having been confiscated. On the death of his royal master 
 he removed to Paris, where he received a pension of 5000 
 francs from Louis Philippe. In 1836-8 he published 
 memoirs of his life, in which he defends his policy. In 
 1847 his -titles and the greater part of his estates were 
 restored to him, and he received permission to return to 
 Spain. He continued, however, to reside in Paris, where 
 he died on the 4th October 1851. 
 
 ALCUIN, in Latin Albinus, surnamed Flaccus, an 
 eminent ecclesiastic and a reviver of learning in the 8th 
 century, was born in. Yorkshire about 735 (died 804). 
 He was educated at York under the direction of Arch- 
 bishop Egbert, as we learn from his own letters, in which 
 he frequently calls that prelate his beloved master, and 
 the clergy of York the companions of his youthful studies. 
 He succeeded Elbert as director of the seminary, and in 
 later life modelled after it his famous school at Tours. 
 He survived Bedo about seventy years ; it is thereforo 
 hardly uossible that he could have received any part of hin 
 education under him, as some writers of literary history 
 have affirmed; and it is worthy of observation that ha 
 never calls Bede his master, though he speaks of him 
 with the highest veneration. It is not well known to 
 what preferments he had attained in the church before he 
 left England, though some say he was abbot of Canter- 
 bury. He was sent to Kome by Eanbald, the successor of 
 Ethelbert, to procure the pallium, and, in returning, at 
 Parma he met Charlemagne, who, as Alcuin had already 
 visited the French court, was no stranger to his extra- 
 ordinary merit The emperor contracted so great or
 
 472 
 
 ALO-ALD 
 
 estrom and friendship for Iiiin that Ire curnestly urged nnd 
 at length induced him to take up his residence at court 
 and become his preceptor in the sciences. Akuin accord- 
 ingly instructed Charlemagne and his family in rhetoric, 
 logic, mathematics, and divinity. He particularly distin- 
 guished himself by his writings in defence of the orthodox 
 faith against the adoptionists, Felix,' bishop of Urgel, 
 and Elipandus, archbishop of Toledo, convincing the 
 former of his error after a six days' debate at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle (799), and treating the latter in the most con- 
 ciliatory manner; and on more than one occasion he was 
 employed in important missions between Charlemagne and 
 Offa, king of Merciu. "'France," says one of our best 
 writers of literary history, with some degree of truth, " is 
 indebted to Akuin for all the polite learning it boasted of 
 in that and the following ages. The universities of Paris, 
 Tours, Fulden, Soissons, and many others, owe to him 
 their origin and increase, those of which he was not the 
 superior and founder being at least enlightened by his 
 doctrine and example, and enriched by the benefits he 
 procured- for them from Charlemagne." Alcuin. it is 
 alleged, however, forbade the reading of the classical poets. 
 In 790 he went to England in the capacity of ambassador, 
 and returned to France in 792, never again to visit his 
 native land. After Alcuin had spent many years in the 
 most intimate familiarity with the greatest prince of his 
 age, he at length, in 801, with great difficulty, obtained 
 leave to retire from court to the abbey of St Martin at 
 Tours, of which he had been appointed the head by 
 Charlemagne in 796. ■ Here he remained and taught till 
 his death in 804.. In his retirement he kept up a constant 
 correspondence with Charlemagne^, which displays, on the 
 part of both, an ardent love of learning and religion, and 
 great zeal and earnestness in contriving and executing 
 noble designs for their advancement. Alcuin composed 
 many treatises on a great variety of subjects, in a style 
 much superior in purity and elegance to that of most 
 writers of the age in which he flourished. His works 
 were collected and published by Duchesne, in 1 vol. 
 folio, Paris, 1617: a better edition is that of Froben, 2 
 vols, folio, Ratisbon, 1777. They consist of (1) Tracts 
 upon Scripture ; (2) Tracts upon doctrine, discipline, and 
 morality ; (3) Historical treatises, letters, and poems. It 
 is not improbable that Alcuin was the writer of the famous 
 Caroline Books, issued under the name of Charlemagne, 
 which denounced as idolatrous every form of image-worship. 
 A Life of Alcuin, by Lorenz, was published at Halle in 
 1829, and appeared in an English translation, by Slee, 
 in 1837. 
 
 ALCYONTUS, or ALCiONrus, Peteus, a learned 
 Italian, born at Venice in 1487 (died 1527). Distin- 
 guished as a classical scholar, he was employed for some 
 time by Aldus Manutius as a corrector of the press, and in 
 1522 was appointed professor of Greek at Florence through 
 the influence of Oiulio do Medici. When the latter became 
 pope, under the title of Clement VII., in 1523, Alcyonius 
 followed him to Rome, and remained there until his 
 death. Alcyonius published at Venice, in 1521, a Latin 
 translation of several of the works of Aristotle, which waa 
 shown by the Spaniard Sepulveda to be very incorrect. 
 He wrote a dialogue entitled Medices Legalus, live de 
 tixilio, in. connection with which he was charged with 
 plagiarism by his personal enemy, Paulus Manutius. The 
 accusation, which Tiraboschi has shown to be groundless, 
 bore that he had taken the finest passages in the work 
 from Cicero's De Gloria, and that he had then destroyed 
 the only existing copy of the original in order to escape 
 detection. Two orations on the taking of Rome by Charles 
 V., and another on the knights who perished at the siege 
 of Rhodes, arc also ascribed to Alcyonius. 
 
 ALDAN, a river of Siberia, in the government of 
 Yakutsk, which rises about 55° N. lat., and 125° E. long., 
 and after flowing more than 300 miles in a north-east 
 direction, turns to the north-west, joining the Lena about 
 100 mile3 below Yakutsk It has a total length of over 
 500 miles, for a considerable part of which it is navigable. 
 
 ALDAN MOUNTAINS, the name usually applied to 
 a branch of the Stanovoi mountains, which strikes off 
 from the main chain in the direction of the Aldan river, 
 or to a part of this range. According to some geographers, 
 however, the continuation of the Stanovoi range to Boh ring 
 Strait, or even the whole mountain system of eastern Siberia, 
 ought to receive the name. 
 
 ALIiln ilti lUGH, a town of Es land, in the tVi it! 
 Riding of Yorkshire, 16 miles W.N.W. of York. It 
 formerly returned two members to parliament, but was 
 disfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832. The place is 
 remarkable only from its numerous ancient remains. It 
 was the Isurium of the Romans, and here and in the 
 neighbourhood the remains of aqueducts, spacious build- 
 ings, and tesselated pavements have been found, as well 
 as numerous implements, coins, and urns. Population 
 (1871) of the parish, which extends into the North Riding, 
 2165 ; of the town, 502. 
 
 ALDEBUROH, or Axdborocoh, a market-town and 
 watering-place in the county of Suffolk, 25 miles E.N.E. 
 of Ipswich. The borough was incorporated by a charter 
 of King Edward VI., and in former times was a place of 
 considerable extent ; but the old town was gradually sub- 
 merged by the encroachments of the sea. Further destruc- 
 tion is now stayed by the accumulated sandbanks, and the 
 place has become a favourite resort, of summer visitors. 
 Fishing affords employment to many of the inhabitants. 
 The town is noted as the birthplace of the poet Crabbe, 
 who was born here on 24th December 1754. A marble 
 bust of the poet has been placed in the parish church. 
 Aldeburgh was formerly a parliamentary borough, but was 
 disfranchised by the Reform Act of .1832. f Population of 
 the parish in 1871, 1990. 
 
 ALDEGREVER, or Axdecraf, Heinrich, a German 
 painter and engraver, born in 1502 at Paderborn, from 
 which he removed in early life to Soest. From the close 
 resemblance of his style to that of his . master, Albert 
 Diirer, he has sometimes been ealled the Albert of West- 
 phalia. His numerous engravings, chiefly from his own 
 designs, are delicate and minute, though somewhat hard in 
 style, and entitle him to a place in the front rank of the 
 so-called "Little Masters." Specimens of his painting are 
 exceedingly rare. The genuineness of the works in the 
 Vienna and Munich collections attributed to him is at 
 least doubtful, the only uncnallenged example being a 
 portrait in the gallery at Berlin. Aldegrever died about 
 the year 1562. 
 
 ALDER, a genus of plants (Alnus) belonging to the 
 order JJetulacece, the best known of which is the common 
 alder (A. glutinosa). This tree thrives best in moist soils, 
 has a shrubby appearance, and grows, under favourable 
 circumstances, to a height of 40 or 50 feet. Under water 
 the wood is very durable, and it is therefore used for piles. 
 The supports of the Rialto at Venice, and many buildings 
 at Amsterdam, are of alder-wood. Furniture is sometimes 
 made from the wood, and it supplies excellent charcoal for 
 gunpowder. The bark is astringent ; it is used as a gargle, 
 and also in tanning and dyeing. 
 
 ALDERMAN, a word derived from the Anglo-Saxon 
 ealdorman, compounded of the comparative degree of the 
 adjective told (old) and man. The term implies the pos- 
 session of an office of rank or dignity; and among the 
 Anglo-Saxons, earls, governors of provinces, and other 
 persons of distinction received this title. Thus we read
 
 ALD-ALD 
 
 473 
 
 of the aldrrminnus totvus Anglioe, who seems to have corre- 
 sponded to the officer afterwards styled capitalis justi- 
 tiarvus Anglice, or chief justice of England: the alder- 
 mannus regis, probably an occasional magistrate, answering 
 to our justice of assize, or perhaps an officer whose duty it 
 was to prosecute for the crown; and aldermannus comitates, 
 a magistrate with a middle rank between what was after- 
 vards called the earl and the sheriff, who sat at the trial 
 Cf causes with the bishop, and declared the common law, 
 while- the bishop proceeded according to ecclesiastical law. 
 Besides these, we meet with the titles of aldermannus 
 tivitatis, burgi, castelli, hunaredi sive wapentdchii, &c. In 
 modern times aldennen are office-beareis in the muncipal 
 corporations of England and Wales, and Ireland. Before 
 the passing of the Municipal Corporation Act their func- 
 tions varied according' to - the charters of the different 
 burghs. By the statute 5th and 6th WilL IV. c. 76, and 
 3d and 4th Vict. c. 118, the aldermen are elected by the 
 councillors from among themselves (in Ireland, by the 
 burgesses), for six years, one-half going out every three 
 years. The number of councillors in each borough varies 
 from 12 to 48, according to its magnitude. One-fourth of 
 the municipal councd consists of aldermen, and three-fourths 
 of councillors. In the municipal corporations of Scotland 
 there is no such title as alderman, the office-bearers of 
 corresponding rank there being termed bailies. The cor- 
 poration of London was not included in the Burgh Reform 
 Act, and the antiquated system remains there in full 
 force. The Court of Aldermen consists of twenty-six, 
 twenty-five of whom are elected for life by the freemen of 
 the respective wards, who return two persons, one of whom 
 the Court of Aldermen elect to supply the vacancy. The 
 eity is divided into twenty-six wards ; twenty-four of these 
 send lap one alderman each, the other two combine to 
 choose a twenty-fifth. The twenty-sixth alderman serves 
 for the independent borough of Southwark, and is -appointed 
 by the other aldermen, who generally select the senior fiom 
 ■rnong themselves when a vacancy occurs. The lord mayor 
 is elected from such of the aldermen as. have served the 
 office of sheriff; of these the Common Hall, which con- 
 sists of the freemen of the different wards, select two, and 
 the aldermen elect, one of these to the mayoralty. The 
 Court of Aldermen act as magistrates for the city of 
 London, and also possess authority of a judicial nature in 
 the affairs of the corporation. The aldermen are members 
 of the Court of Common Council, the legislative body of 
 the corporation, which consists in all of 232 members, the 
 remainder being elected annually by the freemen. In the 
 United States aldermen form as a rule a legislative rather 
 than a judicial body, although in some cities they hold 
 courts and possess very considerable magisterial powers. 
 
 ALDERNEF, one of the Channel Islands, and the most 
 northerly of the four, lies between 49" 41' and 49° 45' N. 
 lat., and 2° 9' and 2° 14' W. .long - ., 7 miles to the westward 
 
 — tj^t."*^, 
 
 * X?uCLm4V£Xt<% ' 
 
 aldeb:neyV\ 
 
 Stints' 
 
 p* 
 
 Start ai VroiV 
 
 TtpruT^c* 
 
 of Cape la Hogue, and is separated from the French coast 
 by a narrow channel called the Pace of Alderney ^ The 
 -—age through this strait is rendered very dangerous in 
 
 stormy weather by its conflicting currents; but through it 
 the scattered remnant of the French fleet under Tourville 
 succeeded in escaping after the defeat of La Hogue in 1692. 
 The harbour of Alderney is 20 miles distant from St Peter 
 Port, Guernsey, 45 miles from St Helen's, Jersey, and 00 
 miles from Poitland Bill, the nearest point of England. 
 There is regular steam communication with Guernsey The 
 length of the island from N.E. to S.W. is 3^ miles; its 
 width about 1 mile; its greatest elevation is 280 feet; and! 
 the area is about 4 square miles. 
 
 The greater part of Alderney is a level table-laud, more 
 or less cultivated. The land continues flat to the edge of 
 the south-eastern and southern cliffs, which present a mag- 
 nificent succession of broken and perpendicular walls of 
 rock. Towards the north-west, north, and east, the coast ia 
 less rocky, and is indented by several bays of tame and 
 naked aspect, of which those of Crabby, Braye, and Longy 
 are the most noticeable. Sandstone, granite, and por- 
 phyry are the chief geological formations. From the 
 importance of the island in a military sense, it has. been 
 fortified by a chain of defensive works, extending round 
 the northern coast from the Clanque Fort on the west to 
 Fort Essex on the east. The cliffs of the southern shore 
 form a very strong natural bulwark. An extensive granite 
 breakwater has been constructed, protecting the bay of 
 Braye towards the west, intended to form an additional 
 defence, and to convert the bay into a secure harbour of 
 refuge. The works have cost upwards of a million and a 
 quarter sterling; but the new harbour is not much resorted 
 to, and the value of the breakwater as a means of defence 
 has been questioned. Fort Touraille stands on the eastern 
 side of the new harbour, and is a strong fortification, 
 mounting 50 heavy guns, with bomb-proof barracks and 
 powder magazine. 
 
 The population of Alderney has increased rapidly of 
 recent years, on account of the extensive public works. 
 In 1841 it was only 1030, in 1871 it was 2738. The 
 inhabitants are Protestants, and Alderney forms part of 
 the diocese of Winchester. Though a French patois lingers 
 in the island, English is generally spoken and universally 
 understood. The climate is healthy, and there is abun- 
 dance of. good water. Corn is grown, but much of the 
 sandy soil is in grass, affording -excellent pasture to 
 the diminutive but pretty cows for which Alderney is 
 famous. The only exports are cattle and early potatoes. 
 St Anne's; the town of the island, is situated at some dis- 
 tance from the beach, overlooking the new harbour. It is 
 plainly built, but has a fine new church in the early 
 English style, erected as a memorial of the family of Le 
 Mesurier, long the hereditary governors of the island. 
 The only other architectural feature worthy of notice is a 
 Gothic arch built as a memorial of the late Prince Albert 
 of England. 
 
 Alderney seems to have been known to the Romans as 
 Riduna, and Roman as well as Celtic remains have been 
 discovered. It is subject to the British crown, and is a 
 dependency of Guernsey. For its history and relation to 
 English legislation, see the article on the Channel 
 Islands. The internal government is vested in a judge 
 appointed by the crown, and six. jurats, chosen for life by 
 the people; and these, with twelve douzainiers, who are 
 popular representatives, but have not the power of voting, 
 form the legislature. Justice is administered by the same 
 judge and jurats, and several other officers. In civil cases 
 an appeal may be taken to the royal court of Guernsey, while 
 all criminal cases are referred to Guernsey for decision. 
 Two companies of infantry and a batterv of artillery com- 
 pose the local militia. 
 
 Off the western coast of Alderney there are many unin- 
 habited rocky islands: and six miles to the westward lie
 
 474 
 
 A L D — A L D 
 
 the Casqnets, a group of rocks extremely dangerous to 
 ships coming up the English Channel. On these rocks 
 there are three lighthouses, with revolving lights 112 foet 
 above the water. 
 
 ALDERS1IOTT CAMP, a standing garrison for a large 
 force, situated about 35 miles from London, on the confines 
 of Hampshire and Surrey. It was established in May 
 1855, and \va3 intended as a military training scliool, 
 especially for officers of the higher grades. Its germ is 
 to be found in the temporary camp on Chobham Ridges, 
 formed in 1853 by Lord Hardinge, then commander-in- 
 chief, the success of which convinced him of the necessity 
 of giving our troops practical instruction in the field, and 
 affording our generals opportunities of manoeuvring large 
 bodies of the three arms. He therefore advised the pur- 
 chase of a tract of waste land whereon a permanent camp 
 might be established. His choice fell on Aldershott, a spot 
 also recommended by strategic reasons, being so placed that 
 a force holding it covered the capital Nothing came of 
 Lord Hardinge's proposal till the experience of the Crimean 
 campaign fully endorsed his opinion. The lands at Alder- 
 shott — an extensive open heath country, sparsely dotted 
 by fir woods and intersected by the Basingstoke canal — were' 
 then acquired by the Crown. ' Tho first occupants of the 
 camp were two battalions of the Guards and seven of 
 embodied militia. On the return of the Crimean army, 
 cavalry, artillery, and infantry of the line arrived and took 
 possession of the lines of wooden huts and the permanent 
 barracks, which had by this time been erected. Since then 
 Aldershott has varied Little in its principal features. It is 
 separated into two grand divisions, styled the north and 
 south camps. Beyond the latter are tbe permanent cavalry 
 and infantry barracks and the queen's pavilion. Farnham 
 is the nearest town, being only 4 miles from the south 
 camp; Guildford and Godalming are 10 and 12 respectively, 
 Windsor 18J, and Reading 21 miles. The soil on which 
 the camp stands is a light peat, and a fruitful source of 
 discomfort to its inhabitants. A little wet turns it into 
 tenacious mud, while a little sunshine produces a black 
 dust, not soon forgotten by those who have campaigned 
 in the " Long Valley." The force stationed at Aldershott 
 at tho beginning of 1874 was composed of 1 cavalry 
 and 3 infantry brigades ; in the former there were 3 full 
 regiments, in tho latter a total of 11 battalions, with several 
 depots of regiments abroad. Besides these, there were 2 
 batteries of horse and 6 of field artillery, 2 companies of 
 Royal Engineers, and 4 troops of Royal Engineers' train 
 (with pontoon, &a); 7 companies of the Army Service 
 Corps and 2 of the Army Hospital Corps — to provide for 
 transport, and the services of bakehouse and slaughter- 
 house and hospital — made up the total strength of all ranks, 
 as shown in the returns dated 1st January 1874, to 10,601 
 men, 2198 horses, and 48 guns. It is a Lieutenant-general's 
 command, and one highly prized, from its essentially military 
 character and the practical experience it affords in handling 
 a considerable force. Sir William Knollys (afterwards comp- 
 troller of the household to tho Prince of Wales) was its 
 first chief. He was succeeded by Sir John Pennefather; 
 Sir James Scarlett followed; then Sir Hope Grant, who 
 held the command in 1874. Naturally so large a military 
 colony soon attracted other elements to Aldershott heath. 
 Within a few years a town of Aldershott sprang up close 
 by, and increased rapidly. Here the professions and all 
 trades are well represented; there are respectable solicitors, 
 surgeons, bankers, brewers, many schools, a steam printing 
 press, a weekly military paper, and numerous shops. Dur- 
 ing the summer months or "drill season" tho camp is a 
 scene of incessant activity; field-days and parades follow in 
 rapid succession, and owing to the camp's accessibility 
 from London, the troops arc often turned out at a few 
 
 hours' notice to make a show for royalty or foreign 
 visitors. . Yet there is much to beguile vacant hours ; many 
 clubs — for cricket, croquet, racquets, and the drama — a 
 gymnasium, and several excellent libraries. Admirable 
 charities also exist for the assistance and relief of the 
 soldiers' wives and children. (a. G.) 
 
 ALDHELM, or Adelm, St, Bishop of Sherborne in the 
 time of tho Saxon heptarchy, was born about the middlo 
 of tho 7th century He is said to have been tho son of 
 Kenred, brother to Ina, king of the West Saxons; but, in 
 the opinion of William of Malmesbury, his father was no 
 more than a distant relation to the king. Having received 
 the first part of his education in the school of Meildulf, a 
 learned Irish monk, he travelled in France and Italy for his 
 improvement. On his return home he studied some time 
 under Adrian, abbot of St Augustiu's in Canterbury, the 
 most learned professor of the sciences who had ever been 
 in England. The fame of his learning soon spread, not 
 only in England, but in foreign countries. Learned men. 
 sent him their writings for his criticism; among others, 
 a son of the king of Scotland is said to have sent his 
 compositions to Aldhelm, " entreating him to give them 
 the last polish by rubbing off their Scotch rust." He was 
 the first Englishman who wrote in the Latin language, 
 both in prose and verse ; and he composed a book for 
 the instruction of his countrymen on the prosody of that 
 language. Bcde says that Aldhelm "was a man of universal 
 erudition, having an elegant style, and being wonderfully 
 well acquainted with books both on philosophical and reli- 
 gious subjects." His Latin was in later times considered 
 somewhat barbarous and corrupt^ From one of his letters 
 to Hedda, bishop of Winchester, concerning the nature of 
 his studies whilst at Canterbury, he appears to have been 
 indefatigable in his endeavours to acquire every species 
 of learning in his power. For a copy of this curious 
 epistle see Henry's History, vol. ii p. 320. King Alfred 
 declared that Aldhelm was the best of all the Saxon 
 poets; and a favourite song, which was universally sung in 
 his time, nearly 200 years after its author's death, was of 
 his composition. He was a musician as well as a poet, and 
 made his own songs the medium of instruction and refine- 
 ment to his barbarous countrymen. After having governed, 
 the monastery of Malmesbury, of which he was the founder, 
 about thirty years, he was made bishop of Sherborne, where 
 he died in May 709. 
 
 Re wrote — 1. De octo VUiis Prinrip-iJibus. This treatise is extant 
 in tho Billiotkeca Patrupi of Caiiisius. 2. JEnigmalum Versus 
 Mille. This, with 'several other poems of his, was published by 
 Martin Delrio at Metitz, 17,01, 8vo. 3. A book addressed to a 
 certain king of Northumberland named Alfiid, on various subjects. 
 4. De Vila Monachorum. 5. De Laude Sanctorum. 6. Dc Arilh- 
 mctica. 7. -De Astroloyia. 8. A book on the mistake of the Briton, 
 concerning the celebration of Easter ; printed by Sonius, 157b". 
 9. De Laude Virginitalis; published among Bcde's Opuscula. 
 Besides these, ho wroto many sonnets, epistles, and homilies in the 
 Saxon language. 
 
 ALDINE EDITIONS. See Manuttus. 
 
 ALDINI, Giovanni, a distinguished physicist, born at 
 Bologna on the 10th April 17G2 (died 1834), was tho 
 nephew of Galvani, and brother of the statesman Count 
 Antonio Aldini. Devoted from his youth to the study of 
 natural science, he was chosen in 1798 to succeed his former 
 teacher Canterzani in the chair of physics at Bologna. 
 His most important service consisted in the numerous 
 experiments by which he sought to secure tho better appli- 
 cation of science to practical purposes. The subjects of 
 galvanism, the illumination of lighthouses by gas, and au 
 asbestos or fireproof fabric engaged his special attention, 
 and on all of them he published the results of his researches. 
 He was master of the leading European languages; and 
 most of his works were published in Italian, French, and
 
 A L D~A L D 
 
 475 
 
 English. Aldini was one of the founders of the National 
 Institute of Italy, and among his scientific honours he 
 counted the gold medal of the Royal Society of London, 
 and the prize of the Institute of France. In recognition 
 of his merits, the emperor of Austria made him a knight 
 of the Iron Crown and a councillor of state at Milan, where 
 he died on the 17th January 1834. He left by will a 
 considerable sum to found a school of natural science for 
 artisans at Bologna. 
 
 ALDRED, Eaxdred, or Axeej, a prominent eccle- 
 siastic in tlie 11th century, was successively abbot of 
 Tavistock, bishop of Worcester, and archbishop of York. 
 He was promoted to the see of Worcester'in 1046, and in 
 1050 was sent on a special mission to Rome by Edward' 
 the Confessor. In 1054 he went as ambassador to the 
 court of the Emperor Henry III. with the object of ne'gc- 
 tiatingforthe return of Edward the ^Ethelingfrom Hungary, 
 and remained a year at Cologne. In 1058 he undertook 
 and accomplished a journey to Jerusalem, a pilgrimage 
 which no English bishop had ventured on before. He was 
 appointed archbishop of York in 1060, and proceeded to 
 Rome to obtain the pallium; but the pope at first refused 
 to confirm the appointment. At length, however, Aldred 
 was duly invested with the robe of office on condition of 
 his resigning his former see, which he had continued to 
 hold till that time. On the death of Edward (1066) 
 Aldred sided with Harold, and officiated at his coronation; 
 but after the battle of Hastings' he made submission to 
 William, and poured the sacred oil on the head of the 
 Conqueror ere the year was completed in which he had 
 crowned Harold. There are several traditions, which may 
 be regarded as haying some foundation in fact, that repre- 
 sent Aldred as administering rebuke to William in the 
 interests of his countrymen or in defence of his church's 
 rights. At the same time, he remained faithful to William, 
 and when the English rose in the north against the Nor- 
 mans, he counselled submission. He died at York, Sept. 11, 
 1 069, of grief, it is said, because of the threatened attack on 
 his city by the combined forces of the English and Danes. 
 
 ALDRICH, Dr Hexry, theologian and philosopher, was 
 born in 1647 at Westminster, and was educated at the 
 collegiate school there, under Dr Busby. ■ In 1662 he 
 entered Christ Church College, Oxford, with which he con- 
 tinued to be intimately connected during his whole life. 
 He took so conspicuous a part in the controversy with the 
 Roman Catholics during the reign of James II., that at the 
 Revolution the deanery of Christ Church was conferred 
 upon him, Massey, the popish dean, having fled to the con- 
 tinent. In 1702 he was appointed rector of Wem in Shrop- 
 shire, but continued to reside at Oxford, where he died on 
 the 1 4th Dec. 1710. He was buried in the cathedral without 
 4ny memorial, at his own desire. Aldrich was a man of 
 unusually varied gifts. He is best known as the author of 
 a Compendium Artis Logicae, a work of almost no value in 
 itself, but historically important as being for upwards of a 
 century the manual in exclusive use at Oxford. His claims 
 to distinction as a musician and an architect, though not so 
 widely recognised, are much better founded than his repu- 
 tation as a logician. He composed a number of anthems 
 and church services of very considerable merit, which are 
 still frequently sung in cathedrals. He also adapted much 
 of the music of Palestrina and Carissimi to English words 
 with great skill and judgment. The catch " Hark, the 
 bonny Christ Church bells" is one of his most admired 
 compositions in the lighter style. Aldrich wrote a treatise 
 on architecture; and practical evidence of his skill in the 
 art may be seen in the church and campanile of All Saints, 
 Oxford, and in three sides of the so-called Peckwatcr 
 Quadrangle of Christ Church College, which were erected 
 after his designs. 
 
 In classical scholarship Di Aldrich had some reputation. The 
 Musx Anglicanm contains two specimens of his Latin verse, the 
 subjects being the accession of King William and the death of the 
 Duke of Gloucester. A humorous Latin version by Aldrich of the 
 popular ballad— 
 
 "A soldier and a sano., 
 A tinker and a tailor," ic, 
 
 has been preserved by Sir John Hawkins. Another specimen of 
 his wit is furnished by the following epigram, entitled ." Causai 
 Bitendi," which some, however, have ascribed to Pere Sirmond ;— 
 
 Si bene quid rnemini, Causae sunt guinque iibendi; 
 Mospitis Adventus, prmsens Sitis, atquefutura, 
 Aut Villi Bonilas, aul qucclibct altera Causa. 
 The translation runs — 
 
 If on my theme I rightly think, 
 There are five reasons why "men drink :— 
 Good wine ; a friend ; because I'm dry; 
 Or lest 1 should be by and by ; 
 Or — any other reason why. 
 
 ALDROVANDI, Ulisse, a celebrated naturalist, barn 
 of noble parentage at Bologna on the 11th Sept. 1522 
 (died 1607). While a boy he was page in the family of a 
 rich bishop, and afterwards apprentice to a merchant in 
 Brescia. Commercial pursuits soon became distasteful to 
 him, and he turned his attention to law and medicine, 
 studying first in his native town and afterwards at Padua. 
 In 1550, having been accused of heresy, he was compelled 
 to proceed to Rome in order to vindicate himself before 
 the Inquisition, which gave him a conditional acquittal. 
 In Rome he published his first work, a treatise on ancient 
 * statuary. Here he made the acquaintance of the eminent 
 naturalist Rondelet, from whom it seems not unlikely 
 that he derived the impulse towards what became from that 
 time his exclusive study. On his return to Bologna he 
 devoted himself specially to botany, under the teaching ol 
 Lucas Ghino, then professor of that science at the univer- 
 sity. In 1553 he took his doctor's degree in medicine, 
 and in the following year he was appointed professor of 
 philosophy and also lecturer on botany at the university. 
 In 1560 fee was transferred to the chair of natural history, 
 which he continued to occupy until rendered infirm by age 
 At his instance the senate of Bologna established in 1568 a 
 botanical garden, of which hewas appointed the first director. 
 He was also instrumental in founding the still existing 
 public museum of Bologna, which contains, especially in 
 the natural history department, a large number of speci- 
 mens collected by Aldrovandi. To procure these it is be- 
 lieved that he visited personally most of the countries of 
 Europe, though the details of his journeys have not been 
 preserved. "Some idea of the extent of his labours may be 
 gathered from the fact that his herbarium occupied sixty 
 large folio volumes. To the other offices held by Aldro- 
 vandi was added that of inspector of drugs, in which 
 capacity he published in 1574 a work entitled Antidotarii 
 Bononiensis Epitome, deserving of notice as furnishing the 
 model according to which nearly all subsequent pharma- 
 copaiias have been compiled. 
 
 The results of Aldrovandi's rarions researches were embodied in 
 his magnum opus, which was designed on the most complete scale, 
 so as to include everything that was known about natural history. 
 The first three volumes, comprising his ornithology, were published 
 in 1599. Three more, treating^ of insects and mollusea, appeared 
 during the author's lifetime. The seven volumes which completed 
 the work were compiled from Aldrovandi's manuscript materials, 
 under the editorship of several of his pupils, to whom the task was 
 entrusted by the senate of Bologna. The work was enriched by a 
 large number of pictorial illustrations, prepared at great expense, 
 the author having, it is said, employed several celebrated artists for 
 thirty years. Among these were Lorenzo Benini of Florence and 
 Christopher Coriolanus of Kurembeig. It has been said, indeed, 
 that the cost of the undertaking was so great as to exhaust its 
 author's means, and that he died penniless and blind in Uie publio 
 hospital of Bologna. This, however, is probably incorrect, at least 
 as regards the allegation of poverty. Published records of the senate 
 of Bologna show that it liberally supported Aldrovandi in his undei^ 
 Uking, doubling his salary soon after his appointment as professot
 
 476 
 
 A L D — A L E 
 
 and bestowing on liim from time to time oiims amouuttngjn all to 
 40,000 crowns. If, therefore, be dud In the public hospital, he 
 
 Srobably went there fur the better treatment of his disease. Ilia 
 rath occurred on the ltttli Nov, 1607. 
 
 AMrovandi was chiefly remarkable for laborious and patient 
 research. He seems to have been totally destitute of the critical 
 faculty ; and hardly any attempt is made in his great work to classify 
 facts or to distinguish between the true and the fabulous, the im- 
 portant and the trivial. Much is thus included that is of no 
 scientific value, but it also contains much information of very great 
 interest to the naturalist. 
 
 ALDSTONE, or Alston Moor, a market-town of 
 England, in the county of Cumberland, situated on an 
 eminence near the South Tyne, 19 miles E.S.E. from 
 Carlisle, with which it is connected by railway. The 
 surrounding country, which is bleak and desolate, contains 
 lead mines, mostly belonging to Greenwich Hospital, for- 
 merly very valuable, but now almost exhausted. Thread, 
 flannel, and shot are manufactured in the town. Popu- 
 lation (1871) of parish, 5G80 ; of town, 2G27. 
 
 ALE, a fermented liquor obtained from an infusion of 
 malt, and differing from beer chiefly in having a less pro- 
 portion of hops. Before the introduction of hops into 
 England from Flanders, about 1524, ale was the name 
 exclusively applied to malt liquor, the term beer being 
 gradually introduced at a later period to describe liquor 
 brewed with an infusion of hops. The two words, however, 
 are now used with little distinction of meaning. Ale, the 
 wine of barley, is said to have originally been made in 
 Egypt. The natives alike of Spain, France, and Britain 
 all use an infusion of barley for their ordinary liquor, 
 whioh was called c<elia and ceria in the first country, 
 cerevisia in the second, and curmi in the third — all 
 literally importing the strong water. 
 
 " All the several nations," says Pliny, " who inhabit the west of 
 Europe have a liquor with which they intoxicate themselves, made 
 of corn and water. The manner of making this liquor is sometimes 
 dilTerent in Gaul, Spain, and other countries, and is called by many 
 various names; but its nature and properties are everywhere the 
 same. The people of Spain, in particular, brew the liquor so well 
 that it will keep good a long time. So exquisite is the conning of 
 mankind in gratifying their vicious appetites that they have 
 thus invented a method to make water itself intoxicate." 
 
 The method in which the ancient Britons and other 
 Celtic nations made their ale isHhus described by Isidorus 
 and Orosius : — 
 
 " The grain is steeped in water, and made to germinate, by which 
 its spirits are excited and set at liberty; it is then dried and 
 ground ; after which it is infused in a certain quantity of water, 
 which, being fermented, becomes a pleasant, warming, strength- 
 ening, and intoxicating liquor." 
 
 This ale was most commonly made of barley, but some- 
 times of wheat, oats, and millet. Ale was the favourite 
 liquor of the Anglo-Saxons and Danes. Before their con- 
 version to Christianity, they believed that drinking large 
 and frequent draughts of ale was one of the chief felicities 
 which those heroes enjoyed who were admitted into the 
 hall of Odin. Anciently the Welsh and Scots had two kinds 
 of ale, called common ale and spiced ale, the relative values 
 of which -were thus appraised by law : " If a farmer had 
 no mead, he shall pay two casks of spiced ale, or four 
 casks of common ale, for one cask of mead." By this law 
 a cask of spiced ale, nine palms in height and eighteen 
 palms in diameter, was valued at a sum of money equal in 
 value to £7, 10s. of our present money ; and a cask of 
 common ale of the same dimensions at a sum equal to 
 £3, 15s. This is a sufficient proof that even common ale 
 at that period was an article of luxury among the Welsh, 
 which could only be obtained by the great and opulent. 
 
 For details as to the process of manufacture, statistics, 
 4c.', sea Brewing. 
 
 ALE-CONNER, an officer appointed yearly at the court- 
 lect of ancient manors for the assize of ale and ale-measures. 
 
 The gwstatorea eervitice — called in different lbcalitit* by 
 the different names, "ale-tasters," "ale-founders," and 
 "aleconners" — were sworn to examine beer and ale, to 
 take caro that they were good and wholesomo and were 
 sold at proper prices. In London, four aleconners are 
 still chosen annually by the liverymen in common hall 
 assembled, on Midsummer Day. Since ale and beer have 
 become excisablo commodities the custom of appointing 
 ale-tasters has in most places fallen into disuse. (For the 
 means now employed to test the quality of ales see 
 Adulteration, p. 172.) 
 
 VLEANDKO, Girolamo (Hieronymus), cardinal, 
 commonly called "the Elder," to distinguish him from his 
 grand-nephew of the same name, was born at Motta, near 
 Venice, on the 13th of February 1180 (died 1542). He 
 studied at Venice, and while still a youth acquired great 
 reputation for learning. In 1508 he went to Paris, on. 
 the invitation of Louis XII., as professor of belles lettres, 
 and he held for a time the position of rector in the uni- 
 versity. Entering the service of the prince-bishop of 
 Liege, he was- sent by that prelate on a mission to Koine, 
 where Pope Leo X. retained him, giving him (1519) the 
 office of librarian of the Vatican. In the autumn of 1 520 
 he went to Germany to be present as papal nuncio at the 
 coronation of Charles V., and in the following spring he 
 appeared at the diet of Worms, where he headed the 
 opposition to Luther, advocating the most extreme measures 
 to repress the doctrines of the Reformer. His conduct not 
 merely called forth the fiercest denunciations of Luther, 
 but estranged from him Erasmus, who had been his 
 intimate friend at Venice. The edict against the Reformer, 
 which was finally adopted by the emperor and the diet, 
 was drawn up and proposed by Aleandro. After the close 
 of the diet the papal nuncio went to the Netherlands, 
 where ho kindled the flames of persecution, two monks of 
 Antwerp, the first martyrs of the Reformation, being burnt 
 to ashes in Brussels at his instigation. In 1523, Clement 
 VII., having appointed him archbishop of Brindisi and 
 Oria, sent him as nuncio to the court of Francis I. Ho 
 was taken prisoner along with that monarch at the battle 
 of Pavia (1525), and was only released on the payment cf 
 a heavy ransom. He was subsequently employed oa 
 various papal missions, especially to Germany, but was 
 unsuccessful in preventing the German princcsfrom making 
 a truce with the Reformers, or in checking to any extent 
 the progress of the new doctrines. In 1538 Paul III. con- 
 ferred upon him the cardinal's hat, when he took the title 
 of St Chrysogonus. He died at Rome on the 31st January 
 or 1st February 15-12. 
 
 Aleandro compiled a Lexicon Grmco-Lalinnm, and wrote Latin 
 verse of considerable merit. The Vatican library contains a volume 
 of manuscript letters and other documents written by him in con- 
 nection with his various missions against Luther. Its historical 
 value renders this the most important of his works. 
 
 ALEMAN, Louis, Archbishop of Aries, and Cardinal of 
 St Cecilia, was born at Bugey in 1390. lie was one of 
 the presidents of the Council of Basle in 1431, and led the 
 party that maintained the supremacy of councils over popes 
 in opposition to the claims of Eugcnius IV. It was on 
 his motion that tho latter was deposed by the council, and 
 Felix V. elected in his stead. Eugenius thereupon deposed 
 the arch-pope, and deprived Aleman of all his ecclesiastical 
 dignities, but these were restored by Nicholas V. in 1447, 
 Felix V. having previously resigned, on the advice of tho 
 cardinal. In 1527 Aleman was canonised by Pope 
 Clement VII. 
 
 ALEMAN NI, a large German tribe on the Upper Rhine. 
 They are first mentioned by Dion Cassius, who relates 
 that the Emperor CaracaUa gained, in 213 A.D., a victory 
 over them on the banks of the Maine, and thence assumed
 
 A L E — A L JjJ 
 
 47' 
 
 the surname Alemanniats. The origin of this tribe, and 
 the country from which they came, are unknown ; but we 
 have a distinct statement, which is apparently confirmed by 
 the very name of the people, that they had flocked together 
 from all parts, and were a mixed race. They proved most 
 formidable enemies to the Romans as well as to the Gauls, 
 their western neighbours, who to this day apply the name 
 Alemanni (Allemands) to all the Germans indiscriminately, 
 though the Alemanni, properly so called, occupied only 
 the country between the Maine and the Danube. In the 
 reign of Aurelian, 270 a.d., they attempted to invade 
 Italy, but were repulsed. After the death of that emperor, 
 however, they renewed their attacks by invading Gaul, 
 and ravaging the country at different times. Several 
 undertakings against them were of little avail, untij in 
 357 a.d. the Emperor Julian completely defeated them in 
 the neighbourhood of Strasburg, where all their forces 
 were assembled under seven chiefs. This and other defeats, 
 however, did not break the power of the Alemanni, who, 
 being pressed on by other barb?rians in the north, were 
 forced to advance southward and westward to conquer 
 new countries for themselves. Hence, after the middle of 
 the 5th century, we find them established not only in the 
 country now called Suabia, but also in a part of Switzer- 
 land and in Alsace. In these countries the Alemanni 
 have maintained themselves ever since, and the greater 
 part of the modern Suabians and the northern Swiss are 
 descendants of that ancient race. 
 
 ALEMBIC (Arab, alanbiq, cognate to the Greek a/x/3i£), 
 an apparatus for distillation, used chiefly by the alchemists, 
 and now almost entirely superseded by the retort and the 
 worm-still. It varied considerably in form and construc- 
 tion, but consisted essentially of three parts — a vessel con- 
 taining the material to be distilled, and 'Called, from its 
 gourd like shape, the cucurbit ; a vessel to receive and con- 
 dense the vapour, called the head or capital ; and a receiver 
 for the spirit, connected by a pipe with the capital. The 
 entire apparatus was sometimes constructed of glass, but 
 as this rendered it very expensive and brittle, it was more 
 usual to make the cucurbit of copper or earthenware, and 
 the capital alone of glass. 
 
 ALEMTEJO (Spanish Alentejo), a province of Portu- 
 gal, bounded on the N. by Beira, on the E.-'by Spanish 
 Estremadura and Andalusia, on the S. by Algarve, and on 
 the W. by the Atlantic and Portuguese Estremadura. It 
 lies between 37° 20' and 39° 40' N. lat., and 6° 45' and 8° 
 53' W. long., and has an area of 10,225 square miles. 
 Alemtejo is traversed by several mountain ranges, whose 
 height does not generally rise much above 2000 feet, though 
 one of the peaks of the Sierra de Monchique has an elevation 
 of 4050 feet. The principal rivers are the Guadiana, which, 
 crossing the Spanish frontier, flows southward through the 
 province ; and the Sado, which rises in the Sierra de Mon- 
 chique, and flows to the north. Farther northward are the 
 Soro and the Zatas, tributaries of the Tagus. All these 
 rivers receive numerous affluents." There are several exten- 
 sive plains, notably that of Alemtejo, the largest in Portugal, 
 lying S.W. from the mountains of Portalegre ; and that of 
 Ourique, in the southern part of the province. Some por- 
 tions of these plains are fruitful, others marshy, while large 
 tracts are mere desolate wastes. The climate in the lower 
 parti.' of the country is exceedingly hot, and is rendered 
 unhealthy in summer by the stagnant marshes. Towards 
 the Spanish frontier the soil is fertile, and in the south 
 the country i3 covered by extensive forests of oak, pine, 
 chestnut, cork, and holm, especially on the sides of the 
 Sierras de Monchique and Caldeiraon. In the more fertile 
 parca of the province, grapes, figs, citrons, pomegranates, 
 a-'.i\ other fruits are produced. Wheat, maize, and rice are 
 iruayn, and some attention is given to the rearing of mules. 
 
 asses, goats, cattle, and sheep. Agriculture is, however, in 
 a backward state, the sparse population being mostly con* 
 centrated in the towns, leaving extensive districts unculti- 
 vated and almost uninhabited, Droves of swine are fed 
 on the waste lands, growing to a great size, and affording 
 excellent hams. Minerals are to be found in the moun- 
 tains, but they are little wrought. Manufactures scarcely 
 exist, being confined to the preparation of olive oil of 
 particularly good quality, and the making of earthenware, 
 woollen cloths, and leather. For administrative purposes 
 Alemtejo is divided into three districts — Beja, Evora, and 
 Portalegre; and it contains 50 communal divisions and 
 315 parishes. The chief towns are Evora, Portalegre, 
 Elvas, Beja, Estamof, and Moura. There are no seaports 
 of importance in the province. Population in 1868, 
 332,237. 
 
 ALENQON, the-chief town of the French' department 
 of Orne, situated in a wide and fertile plain, on the Sarthe, 
 close to its confluence with the Briante. It is a clean, 
 regularly-built town, with broad handsome streets. It is 
 the seat of a bishop; and the Gothic church of Notre Dame, 
 called the cathedral, is a fine building of the 16th century. 
 The only remains of the ancient castle of Alencon are 
 three towers that form part of the present town-halL The 
 lace known as " point d' Alencon " is the most noted manu- 
 facture of the town, although of late years its importance 
 has somewhat diminished. Among the other industries 
 are tanning, spinning, bleaching, linen manufacturing, and 
 cider-making. The cutting of quartz crystals, often called 
 Alencon diamonds, is also carried on. Alencon was a, 
 plaoe of small importance when it was handed over to the 
 Normans by Charles the Simple in the beginning of the 
 10th century. In 1025 it became, subject to the De 
 Belesmes, counts of Alencon, by whom it was enlarged, 
 and fortified. It was ceded to King Philip Augustus in 
 1221 by Alice, the .heiress of the last count. The duchy 
 of Alencon was created about the end of the 14th century, 
 and remained with the original family, a branch of the 
 house of Valois, until the middle of the 16th. The town 
 was repeatedly taken and retaken in wars with Henry V. 
 and Henry VL of England, and also in the time of the 
 League. In the war between France and Germany, Alengon 
 was taken by the Germans under the Grand Duke of 
 Mecklenburg on' the 17th of" January 1871. The towns- 
 people did not offer much resistance. The mayor and 
 municipality were, indeed, in favour of yielding^ without a 
 struggle ; but the newly-appointed prefect, an ultra-repub- 
 lican, insisted on a more martial policy. A feeble skirmish 
 took place outside the town on the evening of the 16th of 
 January, and the grand duke entered on the following morn- 
 ing without any further opposition. The Germans, as a 
 punishment for the previous resistance, imposed on the 
 citizens a fine of 300,000 francs, besides a large contribu- 
 tion of cattle, corn, and other provisions. Population 
 (1872), 16,037. 
 
 ALENIO, Giuxio, a missionary of the Jesuit order, 
 born at Brescia in 1582, died 1 649. He became a member 
 of the order in 1 600, and arrived at Macao as a propa- 
 gandist in 1610. For upwards of thirty years he laboured 
 to spread Christianity in China, adopting, in accordance with 
 the principles of his order, the dress and manners of the 
 c6untry. He was the first who planted the faith in the 
 province of Kiang-Si, and he built several churches in the 
 province of Fo-Kien. He composed a number of works in 
 thaChinese language, of which he was thoroughly master, the 
 most important being a Life of Christ and a Cosmography. 
 ■ALEPPO, or Haleb, a city of Syria, capital of the 
 Turkish vilayet of the same name, in 36° 12' N. lat, 37° 12' 
 E. long., 70 niiles E. of the Mediterranean, near the N.W. 
 extremity of the great Syrian desert It occupies the sit«
 
 478 
 
 A L E— A. L E 
 
 of the ancient Beroea, and is a plate of great antiquity. 
 After the destruction of Palmyra it speedily became the 
 great emporium of the trade between the Mediterranean 
 and the countries of -the East. ' It was overwhelmed by the 
 flood of Saracen invasion in 638; and in 1260, and again 
 in 1401, it was plundered and laid waste by the Tartars. 
 It finally came into the possession of the Turks in> 1517. 
 To the east of the modern city extensive .remain? of its 
 ancient grandeur have been discovered.- 
 
 Aleppo is built on eight low hillocks, and is encircled 
 by limestone hills of greater elevation, while beyond these 
 stretches a fertile plain. The river Koeik, the ancient 
 Cfiaius, flows through the town, and loses itself in a 
 morass 18 miles distant. It is subjedt to floods in winter, 
 when it overflows its banks, and inundates the neighbour- 
 ing gardens. The city is surrounded by a stone wall, 40 
 feet high and 3\ miles in circuit, erected by the Saracens. 
 This wall is flanked by frequent towers, but the ditch is 
 partially choked up; and the city, being commanded by 
 the adjacent heights, is entirely indefensible. The wall is 
 pierced by seven gates, which are known by different 
 names. Outside the city there are large irregular suburbs, 
 erected after the great earthquakes of 1822 and 1830, and 
 increasing the circuit of the place to 7 miles. The city 
 suffered very severely by the earthquake of 1822; two- 
 thirds of the inhabitants were swallowed up, the citadel 
 and many of the mosques were overthrown, and a great 
 part of the town was laid in ruins. Before the occurrence 
 of these disasters Aleppo was the fairest and cleanest of 
 Turkish cities; and although it has only partially recovered 
 from their calamitous effects, it has still an attractive ap- 
 pearance, especially when the white minarets of its nume- 
 rous mosques, and its houses, picturesquely plated on the 
 terraces of the hills, are viewed from a distance. The 
 houses are built of freestone, with flat roofs, and are gene- 
 rally of two or three storeys. One of the mosques, that 
 of Zacharias, is held in peculiar veneration by the Moslem 
 inhabitants. A new citadel has been erected in the N.W. 
 part of the town; and besides many mosques, warehouses, 
 and bazaars, there are several Christian churches and 
 schools, and also Turkish schools, libraries, and hospitals. 
 Aleppo is the seat of a Greek and Armenian patriarch, 
 and of a Maronite bishop. The Mahometan, the Chris- 
 tian, and the Jewish portions of the population dwell in 
 separate quarters of the town. Water is brought to the 
 city by an aqueduct from a distance of 8 miles, and sup- 
 plies upwards of 200 fountains, massive structures stand- 
 ing in the streets. Among the chief attractions of Aleppo 
 are its gardens, which extend continuously for about 12 
 miles S.E. of the city. They are watered by the Koeik, 
 and produce abundance of fruit and culinary vegetables; 
 but their most celebrated production is the pistachio-nut, 
 ii is regularly cultivated 
 
 Formerly Aleppo stood "in the first rank among the 
 cities of Asia Minor as a place of trade; and it is still the 
 emporium of Northern Syria, and has extensive commercial 
 relations with Diarbekir and the upper parts of Anatolia, 
 and also with Mosul and Baghdad Large caravans resort 
 to Aleppo from these and other eastern places, and the 
 imported foreign goods are brought by caravans from the 
 ports of Scanderoon or Alexandretta and Latakia. The 
 construction of a carriage-road between Aleppo and Alex- 
 andretta has been commenced, but no progress whatever 
 was made with it during 1872. Trade is conducted in 
 Aleppo by more than 100 mercantile houses, several of 
 them British; but no commercial bank has as yet been 
 established in the province. The principal manufacture 
 of the city consists of various kinds of cloth, of silk, cotton, 
 ar.d wool, some flowered and striped, others woven with 
 gold and silver thread. These cloths have long been famous 
 
 throughout the East, and the manufacture of them employ* 
 about 6400 looms. -A large amount is invested in the 
 manufacture of carpets, cloaks, and girdles. There are, 
 besides, numerous soap, dyeing, and print works, and also 
 rope-walks. In addition to cloths, the exports include 
 wheat, sesame, wool, cotton, oil, scammony, galls, pistachio- 
 nuts, camels' hair, &c. ; while the imports chiefly consist of 
 European manufactured goods and colonial produce. The 
 aggregate value of the trade of the province exceeded 
 JEl.500,000 in 1872 
 
 The air of Aleppo is dry and piercing, but not insalu- 
 brious. Tho city, however, as well as tho environs, is 
 subject to a singular epidemic disorder called tho boil of 
 Aleppo. It attacks the inhabitants chiefly in their child- 
 hood, and the ulcers, which last for a year, commonly 
 break out on the face. This malady is seldoni fatal, and 
 does not leave any hurtful effects except the scars, by which 
 almost all the inhabitants are disfigured The causes of 
 the disease have not been discovered, though some have 
 Supposed it due to the quality of the water. Aleppo is 
 also subject to the ravages of the plague, the recurrence of 
 ' Which is anticipated by the inhabitants every ten years. 
 Its effects are rendered the more deadly by tho blind 
 fatalism of the Turks, who cannot be persuaded to take 
 any precautions against the progress of this dreadful dis- 
 ease. In the end of last century about 60,000 of tho 
 inhabitants were swept off by one visitation; and that of 
 1827 was also very severe. 
 
 By the visitations of the plague, the earthquakes, the 
 cholera of 1832, and the oppression of the Egyptians while 
 Syria was subject to Mehemet Ali, the popidation of 
 Aleppo has been much reduced. In the earlier part of the 
 century the inhabitants numbered over 200,000; but the 
 population is now estimated at less than 100,000, of whom 
 15,500 are Christians, 4000 Jews, and the remainder 
 mostly Mahometans. Although the Christians enjoy tole- 
 ration at the hands of the Turkish government, they have 
 nevertheless been exposed to frequent persecution through 
 the jealousy of the turbulent Mahometan population. The 
 tumults of 1850 and 1862 occasioned some bloodshed, and 
 could only be suppressed by force of arms. In the former, 
 property to the amount of a million sterling was destroyed. 
 
 ALES, or Aless (Alesius), Alexander, a celebrated 
 divine of the school of Augsburg, was born at Edinburgh 
 on the 23d April 1500 (died 1565). His name was origi- 
 nally Alane, and that by which he is more generally known 
 (derived from oAteuw) was assumed by him when he went 
 into exile. He studied at St Andrews in the newly- 
 founded college of St Leonards, where he graduated in 
 1515. Some time afterwards he was appointed a canon of 
 the collegiate church, and in this office ho at first contended 
 vigorously for the scholastic theology as against the doc- 
 trines of the Reformers. His views were entirely changed, 
 however, on the occasion of the execution of Patrick 
 Hamilton in 1528. Ho had been chosen to meet Hamil- 
 ton in controversy, with a view to convincing him of his 
 errors, but the arguments of the Scottish proto-martyr, 
 and above all the spectacle of his intrepid conduct at the 
 stake, impressed Alesius so powerfully that he was entirely 
 won over to the cause of the Reformers, though for a time 
 he did not make the fact" known. A sermon which he 
 preached against the dissoluteness of the clergy gave great 
 offence to Prior Hepburn, who cast him into prison, and 
 might have carried his resentment. to the extrcmest limit 
 had not Alesius contrived to escape to the Continent in 
 1531. After travelling in various countries of northern 
 Europe, he settled down at Wittenberg, where he made 
 the acquaintance of Melancthon, and signed the Augsburg 
 confession. Meanwhile, he was tried in Scotland for 
 heresy, and condemned without a hearing. In 1533 *
 
 ALE-ALE 
 
 479 
 
 decree of the Scottish clergy;" prohibiting the reading of 
 the New Testament by the laity, drew from Alesius an 
 ably-argued defence of the right of the people, in the form 
 of a letter to James V. A reply to this by John Coch- 
 laeua, also addressed to the Scottish king, occasioned a 
 second letter from Alesius, in which he not onlyrestates 
 and amplifies his argument with great force and beauty of 
 style, but enters at some length into more general questions 
 connected with the Reformation. In 1535, Henry VIII. 
 having broken with the Church of Rome, Alesius was 
 induced to remove to England, where he was very cor- 
 dially received by the king and his advisers Cranmer and 
 Cromwell. After a short residence at Lambeth he was 
 appointed, through the influence of Cromwell, then chan- 
 cellor of the university, to lecture on theology "at Cam- 
 bridge; but when he had delivered a few expositions of 
 the Hebrew psalms, he was compelled by the opposition 
 of the papal party to desist. Returning to London, he sup- 
 ported himself for some time by practising as a physician. 
 In 1537 he attended a convocation of the clergy, and at 
 the request of Cromwell, the president, conducted a con- 
 troversy with Stokesley, bishop of London, on tho nature 
 of the sacrament3. His argument, which was marked by 
 great ability, was afterwards published at Leipsic. In 
 1539 Alesius was compelled to flee for the second time to 
 Germany, in consequence of the enactment of the perse- 
 cuting statute known as the Six Articles. He was imme- 
 diately chosen to fill a theological chair in the university 
 of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he was the first professor 
 who taught the Reformed doctrines. In 1543 he quitted 
 Frankfort for a similar position at Leipsic, his contention 
 that it was the duty of the civil magistrate to punish for- 
 nication having given offence to some of the authorities of 
 the former university. At Leipsic Alesius remained until 
 his death, which occurred on the 17th March 1565. He 
 enjoyed the intimate friendship of Melancthon, to whom 
 he rendered valuable assistance in many of his disputations 
 with the Catholic doctors. 
 
 Alesius was the author of a large number of exegetical, dogmatic, 
 and polemical works. He displayed his warm interest in his native 
 land by the publication (1544) of a Cohortatw ad Ccmcordiam Pietatis, 
 missa in Putnam suam, which had the express approval of Luther. 
 In 1P0C appeared his treatise, De Necessitate et Merilo Borwrum 
 Ope-wn. a valuable contribution to the synergistic side in the 
 controversy on good works. 
 
 ALESSANDRI, Alessantro {Alexander ab Alexandre*), 
 a learned jurisconsult, born at Naples about the year 1461 
 (died 1523). He studied at Naples and Rome, and after- 
 wards practised for a time as advocate in both cities. 
 At Naples he is said to have been royal proto-notary in 
 1490. Dissatisfied, according to his own account, with 
 the corrupt administration of justice, he at length quitted 
 the bar, and devoted himself entirely to literary pursuits, 
 especially to the study, of philology and antiquities. ' A 
 sinecure appointment, which he owed to the favour of the 
 pope, enabled him to lead a life of learned leisure at Rome, 
 where he died on the 2d October 1523. What is known 
 of his biography has been gathered chiefly from detached 
 statements in his work entitled Dies Geniales, which 
 appeared at Rome in 1522, and is constructed after the 
 model of the Nodes Atiicw of Aulus Gellius, and the 
 Saturnalia of Macrobius. The work consists of a confused 
 mass of heterogeneous materials relating to philology, 
 antiquities, . law, dreams, spectres, &c, and shows great 
 credulity and want of judgment on the part of its author. 
 
 ALESSANDRIA, a province of Italy, in the former 
 duchy of Piedmont, bounded on the N. by Novara, on the 
 E. by Pavia, on the S. by Genoa, and on the W. by Turin ; 
 with an area of 1951 square miles. There are no hills of 
 much elevation in the province, and the surface generally 
 
 is flat. .• The chief rivers are the Po, the Tanaro, the Belbo, 
 the Orba, and the Bormida. The soil is fertile, the chief 
 products being wheat, maize, wine, silk, madder, hemp, 
 flax, and fruit. The capital is Alessandria ; population of 
 the province in 1871, 683,361. 
 
 Alessandria, a city of Italy, the capital of tae above 
 province, is situated in a marshy district near the con- 
 fluence of the Tanaro and the Bormida. It is a strongly 
 fortified place, its citadel, on the left bank of the Tanaro, 
 being one of the most important in Europe. The town 
 itself, which lies chiefly on the right bank of the river, is 
 the seat of a bishop, and contains a cathedral and more 
 than a dozen other churches, besides monasteries and 
 nunneries. The principal manufactures of Alessandria 
 are silk, linen, and woollen goods, stockings, and hats. 
 Large quantities of fruit and flowers are also produced in 
 the neighbourhood. The trade of the city is extensive, 
 and there are two important fairs held every year that are 
 much resorted to by merchants from all parts of Italy. 
 Alessandria was built in 1168 by the Lombard League as 
 a bulwark against Frederick Barbarossa. It received ita 
 present name in honour of Pope Alexander III., but it 
 was also called Cesarea for a time. In 1174 it was 
 unsuccessfully besieged by Frederick Barbarossa, who 
 nicknamed it in derision Delia Paglia, i.e. "of straw." 
 It was ceded to Savoy by the peace of Utrecht in 1713, 
 after having belonged, at different periods, to the houses 
 of Montferrat and Milan. Its fortifications were greatly 
 enlarged and strengthened by Bonaparte during the French 
 occupation, which lasted from 1800 to 1814. The citadel 
 of Alessandria was taken by the Austrians after the battle 
 of Novara in 1849. Near Alessandria is Marengo, where 
 Napoleon defeated the Austrians in 1800. Inconsequence 
 of this defeat the Austrians concluded the armistice of 
 Alessandria, ceding all Italy north of the- Mincio to the 
 French. Population (1862), 27,027; of commune, 56,545. 
 
 A LESS I, Galeazzo (1500-72), a distinguished archi- 
 tect, born at Perugia, was a pupil of Caporali and a friend 
 of Michael Angelo. He was an enthusiastic student of 
 ancient architecture, and his style gained for him a 
 European reputation. Genoa is indebted to him for a 
 number of its most magnificent palaces, and specimens of 
 bis skill may be seen in the churches of San-Paolo and 
 San-Vittoria at Milan, in certain parts of the Escurial, 
 and in numerous churches and palaces throughout Sicily, 
 Flanders, and Germany. 
 
 ALEUTIAN ISLANDS, so called from the Russian 
 word aleut, signifying a bold rock, is the name given by 
 the Russian discoverers to a chain of small islands situated 
 in the Northern Pacific Ocean, and extending in an easterly 
 direction from the peninsula of Kamtchatka, in Asiatic- 
 Russia, to the promontory of Alaska, in North America. 
 This archipelago has been sometimes divided into threo 
 groups; the islands nearest Kamtchatka being properly 
 called Aleutia, the central group the Andreanov or An- 
 drenovian, and those nearest to the promontory the 
 Fox Islands. Thev are all included between 52° and 
 55° N. lat, and 172° E. and 163° W. long. The Aleu- 
 tian Islands were discovered by the Russian navigator 
 Behring in 1728, and were carefully explored in 1760 by 
 Captain Krenitzin, under a commission from the Empres3 
 Catherine. During his third and last voyage, in the year 
 1778, Captain Cook surveyed the eastern portion of th;- 
 archipelago, accurately determined the positions of somo 
 of the most remarkable islands, and corrected many errors 
 of former navigators. Subsequent expeditions of tho 
 Tiussians, aided by the settlement of fur traders on tho 
 islands, as well as on the neighbouring coasts of the 
 American contineut, have afforded further information aa 
 to this remarkable chain. The whole of the islands are
 
 180 
 
 A L E — A L E 
 
 bare and mountainous; and their coasts are rocky and 
 BuiToundcd by breakers, by which the approach is rendered 
 exceedingly dangerous. The land rises immediately from 
 the coasts to steep bald mountains, gradual!}' ascending 
 ;.ito lofty ranges running from east to west. Springs take 
 'heir rise at the bottom of the mountains, and either flow 
 in broad and rapid streams into the neighbouring sea, or, 
 collecting in the rocky vales and gleus, form ample lakes, 
 which send off their superfluous waters by natural canals 
 
 into the adjacent bays. These islands bear evidciit mark* 
 ol volcanic formation, and several of them have still active 
 volcanoes, which continually emit smoke and sometimes 
 flames. The most important group of the chain is that 
 called the Fox Islauds, of which tlio largest are Uniinak 
 and Ounalaska, both' near the western extremity of Alaska. 
 The thin argillaceous soil of the Aleutian Islands produces 
 little vegetation, and agriculture is almost unknown. The 
 climate is subject to sudden changes, and is very unfavoux- 
 
 V 
 
 ALEUTIAN ISLANDS 
 
 i e ' * 
 \ 
 
 •out»»t \ 
 
 IITCJ Cjt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ »»' 
 
 V. 
 
 able to any attempts at cultivation. Few trees grow on 
 the islands, but there are some stunted shrubs of birch, 
 willow, and alder. The timber required for building 
 purposes is obtained from the driftwood thrown on the 
 coasts. The principal occupations of the Aleutians are 
 fishing and hunting,' and the preparation of the imple- 
 ments necessary for both. Since the end of last century 
 the fur traders have had settlements here for the capture 
 of the seal and the sea-otter, which are found in great 
 numbers on the shores; and of the Arctic fox, which roams 
 over the islands. Fish are abundant; and dogs and rein- 
 deer are common. The population of the whole group is 
 about 8000, the natives being a kindred race to the inhabit- 
 ants of Kamtchatka. They are described as rather low 
 
 in stature, but plump and well-shaped, with short ncckf. 
 swarthy faces, black eyes, and long straight black hair. 
 They have nominally been converted to Christianity by) 
 the missionaries of the Greek Church, but are said to be- 
 unchaste-in their habits, and addicted to intemperance 
 whenever they have the opportunity. Until 1867 these 
 islands belonged to Russia, but they were included in the 
 transfer to the United States of the whole Russian posses- 
 sions in America made in that year. They now form part 
 of the United States territory of Alaska. (See Alaska.) 
 From the position of the Aleutian Islands, stretching like 
 a broken bridge from Asia to America, some ethnologists 
 have supposed that by means of them America was first 
 peopled. 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT 
 
 ALEXANDER OT., commonly called "The Great," son 
 of Philip II., king of Macedonia, and of Olympias, 
 daughter of the Molossian chief Neoptolemus ; was born at 
 Pclla, 356 b.o. His father was a man of fearless courage 
 and the soundest judgment ; bis mother was a woman of 
 savage energy and fierce superstition. Alexander inherited 
 the qualities of both his parents, and the result was the 
 combination of a boundless ambition with the most sober 
 practical wisdom The child grew up with the conscious- 
 ness that he was the heir of a king whose power was 
 rapidly growing ; ar.d the stories told of him attest at the 
 least the early awakening of a mind formed in the mould 
 of the heroes of mythical Hellas. Nay, the blood of 
 Achilles was flowing, as he believed, in his veins; and 
 the flattery of his Acarnauian tutor Lysimachus, who 
 addressed hiin as the son of Pelcms, may have strengthened 
 his love of the immortal poems which told the story of 
 that fiery warrior. By another tutor, the Molossian 
 Leonida3, his vehement impulses were checked by a 
 wholesome discipline. But the genius of Alexander, the 
 greatest of military conquerors, was moulded in a far 
 greater degree by that of Aristotle, the greatest conqueror 
 in the world of thought At the age of thirteen he became 
 for three years the pupil of a man who had examined the 
 political constitutions of a crowd of states, and who had 
 brought together a vast mass of facts and observations for 
 
 the systematic cultivation of physical science. Dump , 
 these three years the boy awoke to the knowledge that a 
 wonderful world lay before him, of which he had seen 
 little, and threw himself eagerly, it u said, into the ln.sk 
 of gathering at any cost a collection for the study of 
 natural history. While his mind was thus urged in one 
 direction, he listened to stories which told him oi the 
 great quarrel still to be fought out between the East and 
 the West, and learnt to look upon himself as the champion 
 of Hellas against the barbarian despot of StlSfl. 
 
 The future conqueror was sixteen years of age when he 
 was left at home as regent while his father besieged 
 Byzantium aud Perinthus. Two years later the alb'ance of 
 Thebes and Athens was wrecked on the fatal field of 
 Chaeronea, where Alexander, now eighteen years of age, en- 
 countered and overcame the Sacred Band which had been 
 foremost in the victories of Leuctra and Mautinea (see Epa- 
 minoxdas); but the prospects of Alexander himself became 
 now for a time dark and uncertain. Philip had divorced 
 Olympias and married Cleopatra, the daughter of Attains. 
 This act roused the wrath not only of Olympias, but of her 
 son, who with her took refuge in Epirus. Cleopatra 
 became the mother of a son. Her father, Attalus, rose 
 higher in the king's favour, and not a few of Alexander's 
 friends were banished. But the fends in his '.amily were 
 subjects of serious thought for Philip, who sought to
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT 
 
 481 
 
 counteract their ill effects by a marriage between hi'3 
 daughter and her uncle, the Epirot king Alexander, the 
 brother of Olympias. The marriage feast was celebrated 
 at iEgae. Clothed in a white robe, and walking purposely 
 apart from his guards, Philip was approaching the theatre 
 when he was struck down by the dagger of Pausanias. 
 
 It is certain that Alexander, if he mourned his father's 
 death at all, deplored it only as involving himself in 
 political difficulties ; but he took care to act as if he were 
 grieved by it, and he revenged it, we are told, by putting 
 out of the way some whose claims or designs might clash 
 with his own. The Greeks of Thebe3 and Athens knew 
 little what sort of man had taken the place of Philip. 
 Demosthenes, who, although he was mourning for the 
 death of his own daughter, appeared in festal attire to 
 announce the death of the Macedonian king, held up 
 Alexander to ridicule as a bragging and senseless Margites. 
 But they had to reckon with one who could swoop on his 
 prey with the swiftness of the eagle. Barely two months 
 had passed from the death of his father before the youth 
 of twenty years Btood with his army on the plains of 
 Thessaly. The argument of the Macedonian phalanx was 
 cot to be resisted. The Thessalians recognised him as the 
 Eegemdn or leader of the Greeks ; and the young king ' 
 passed on to Thebes, the citadel of which had been held 
 by a Macedonian garrison since the fight at Choeronea. 
 Thence he took himself across the isthmus to Corinth. 
 Here he was met by Athenian envoys, who brought him 
 apologies more abject and honours more extravagant than 
 any which had been paid to his father. He received them 
 in an assembly, from which he demanded and obtained 
 the title of supreme leader of the Hellenic armies, and to 
 ,which he guaranteed, at the utmost with a feigned reluc- 
 tance, the autonomy or independence of every Hellenic 
 city. No one knew better than Alexander that from the 
 whole armoury of weapons which might be employed to 
 reduce Greeks to slavery, none could more effectually do 
 his work than a theory of freedom which meant dissension, 
 and of self-government which meant endless feud, faction, 
 and war. 
 
 Alexander was now eager to carry out his great design 
 against Persia ; but he could not do so with safety until 
 he had struck a wholesome terror of his power into the 
 mountain tribes which hemmed in his dominions. His 
 blows descended swiftly and surely on the Thracians of 
 Mount Hsmus {the Balkan), on the Triballians, and on 
 Borne clans of Getae, whom he crossed the Danube to 
 attack. But these expeditions led him away from the 
 world of the Greeks. Silence led to rumours of his defeat, 
 and the rumours of defeat were followed by more confident 
 assertions of his death. At Thebes and at Athens the 
 tidings were received by some with eager belief. The 
 covenant- made with Alexander was made only with him 
 personally. The Theban exiles at Athens were anxious to 
 repeat the attempt which half a century earlier had been 
 made against the Spartan garrison of the Cadmea by 
 Pelopidas. With help in arms and money from Demos- 
 thenes and other Athenians, they entered Thebes, and 
 summoned the Macedonian garrison to surrender. The 
 answer was a blunt refusal, and a double line of circum- 
 vallation was drawn around the citadel, while envoys were 
 sent to call forth aid from every quarter ; but these efforts 
 could not affect the issue. The belief in Alexander's 
 death wa3 to be dispelled, by no gradual reports cf his 
 escape from the barbarians, but by his own sudden 
 appearance at the Boeotian Onchestus. He had just de- 
 feated the Illyrians when he heard of the revolt, and he 
 determined to smite the rebels without turning aside to 
 takg even a day's rest at Fella. In little more than a 
 fortnight his army was encamped on the southern side of 
 
 Thebes, thus cutting off all chances of aid from Athens. 
 It was his wish to avoid an assaidt, and he contented 
 himself with demanding the surrender of two only of the 
 anti-Macedonian leaders. The citizens generally were 
 anxious to submit, but the exiles felt or feared themselves 
 to be too deeply committed ; and the answer took tba 
 form of a defiance, accompanied by a demand for the 
 surrender of Antipatcr and Pbilotas. They had scaled 
 their own doom. Personal bravery was of no use against 
 the discipline, the numbers, and the engines of the enemy. 
 The defenders were driven back into the city ; the invaders 
 burst in with them ; and the slaughter which followed was 
 by no means inflicted by the Macedonians alone. The 
 Platosans, Thespians, and Orchomcnians felt that they had 
 old scores to settle. To these and to the rest of his Greek 
 allies Alexander submitted' the fate of the city. The 
 sentence was promptly pronounced. The measure which 
 the Thebans had dealt to Plataese, and would have dealt 
 to Athens, should now bo dealt out to themselves. The 
 whole town was razed to tho ground, the house of the 
 poet Pindar being alone spared from demolition, and his 
 descendants alone allowed to retain their freedom. Alex- 
 ander had gained his end. The spirit of the Greeks was 
 crushed; a great city was blotted out, and the worship 
 of its gods was ended with its ruin. These gods, it was 
 believed, would in due time take vengeance on the con- 
 queror ; but for the present the only hindrance to his 
 enterprise was removed from his path. Without turning 
 aside to Athens, he went on to Corinth to receive tho 
 adulations of the independent Greeks, and to find, it is 
 said, a less courtly speaker in the cynic Diogenes. . From 
 Corinth he returned to Macedonia, having left Greece for 
 the last time. 
 
 Six months later he set off from Pclla, crossed the Helles- 
 pont at Sestus, to appease at Ilium by a costly sacrifice the 
 wrath of the luckless rriam ; and then marched on, with not 
 more perhaps than 30,000 infantry and 4000 cavalry, and 
 with a treasure-chest almost empty, to destroy the monarchy 
 of Cyrus. With liim went men who were to be linked with, 
 the memory of his worst crimes and of his most astonishing 
 triumphs — Clitus, Hephxstion, Eumenes, Seleucus, Ptcw 
 lemy the son of Lagos, and Parmenion r with his sons Philotad 
 and Nicanor. The effects of Macedonian discipline were to 
 be seen at once on the banks of the Granicus, a little stream 
 flowing to the Propontis from the slopes of Ida. Losing, ill 
 is said, only 60 of his cavalry and 30 of his infantry, he 
 annihilated the Persian force, 2000 out of 20,000 foot 
 soldiers being taken prisoners, and nearly all the rest slain. 
 The terror of his name did his work as he marched south- 
 wards. The citadel of Sardis might with ease have beep 
 held against him : before he came within eight niileo of thj 
 city, the governor hastened to surrender it with all it3 
 treasure. At Ephesus he found the city abandoned by its 
 garrison. Miletus he carried by storm. Before Hali- 
 carnassus he encountered a more obstinate resistance from 
 the Athenian Ephialtes ; but the generalship of the latter, 
 was of no avail Alexander entered Halicarnassus, and 
 the Rhodian Memnon remained shut up in the citadel.' 
 Leaving Ptolemy with 1000 men to blockade it, he spent 
 the winter in conquering Lycia, Pamphylia, and Pisidia, 
 ending his campaign at Gordium, on the river Sangarius. 
 Here was preserved the ancient waggon of Gordius, tho 
 mythical Phrygian king. • Whoever could untie the knot, 
 curiously twisted with fibres of the cornel tree, which 
 fastened"its pole to the yoke, was, so tho story ran, to bo 
 lord of Asia. Alexander, as much at a loss as others to 
 unloose it, cut it with his sword ; but the prophecy was 
 none the less held to be fulfilled. H he was thus favoured 
 by sentiment, he was still more favoured by- the infatuation 
 which led Darius to abandon the policy of defence by sea 
 
 3-17
 
 482 
 
 A L E X A N D E II THE GREAT 
 
 for offensive warforo by land. From all parts of his vast 
 cmpiro was gathered a host, numbering, as some eaid, 
 600,000 men ; and the despot was as much elated at the 
 eight as Xerxes, when he looked down on his motley multi- 
 tudes at Doriscus. Like Xerxes he had one (the Athenian 
 Charidemus) by his side to warn him that Asiatic myriads 
 were not to be trusted in an encounter with the disciplined 
 thousands of Ak"<r.nder; but he lacked the generosity 
 which made Xerxes dismiss Demaratus with a smile for 
 liU good-will. Darius seized the e.rile with his own hand, 
 and gave him over to the executioner. " My avenger," 
 eaid C : S " will soon teach you that I have spoken 
 
 the truth." The Persian acted as though he wished to 
 bring about the speediest fulfilment of the prediction. 
 The Greek mercenaries were withdrawn from the fleet to 
 be added to the land forces ; but although a hundred of 
 those could have effectually barred the passage of Alex- 
 ander across the range of Taurus, and the passes of the 
 Amanian, Cilician, and Assyrian gates, the invader was 
 suffered to cross these defiles without the loss of a man. 
 Nay, so great was the contempt of Darius for the few 
 thousands of the enemy, that he wished to give them a freo 
 path until they reached the plain from which he would 
 sweep them away. But he could not wait patiently for 
 them in his position to the east of the Amanian range. 
 'Alexander had been ill, and he had work to do in subju- 
 gating western Cilicia. When at length he set out on 
 his march to the southern Amanian pass, Darius, with his 
 unwieldy train, crossed the northern pass, and entered 
 Issus two days after Alexander had left it. He had placed 
 himself in a trap. In a space barely more than a mile and 
 a half in width, hemmed in by the mountains on the one 
 6ide and the sea on the other, Darius, in his royal chariot, 
 in the midst of multitudes who had scarcely room to move, 
 awaited the attack of Alexander, who fell suddenly on his 
 right wing. The first onset was enough. The Persians 
 broke and fled. Darius, thinking himself in danger, fled 
 among the foremost. The Persian centre behaved well ; 
 but it mattered little now what they might do. Even the 
 Greek mercenaries were pushed back and scattered. Four 
 thousand talents filled the treasure-chest of the conqueror, 
 and the wife, mother, and son of Darius, appearing before 
 him as prisoners, were told that they should retain their 
 royal titles, hi3 enterprise being directed, not against Darius 
 personally, but to the issue which was to determine whether 
 he or Alexander should be lord of Asia. 
 
 The true value of armed Asiatic hordes was now as clear 
 [to all as the sun at noonday. Parmenion advanced to 
 attack Damascus, but he needed not to strike a blow. 
 The governor allowed the treasure in his charge to fall 
 into his hands, and then surrendered the city. Alexander 
 himself marched southward to Phoenicia. At Marathus 
 he replied to a letter in which Darius demanded the 
 restoration of his family and reproached him for his 
 wanton aggression. His answer repeated what he had 
 already said to his wife, adding that, if he WTOte again, 
 Darius must address him, not as his equal, but as his lord. 
 " I am now master of Asia," he wrote, " and if you will 
 not own me as such, I shall treat you as an evil-doer. If 
 you wish to debate the point, do so like a man on the 
 battlefield. I shall take care to find you wherever you 
 may be." The island city of Aradus was surrendered on 
 his approach. Sidon opened her gates. From the Tynans 
 he received a submission which demurred only to his 
 entering their city. A siege of seven months ended in its 
 fall ; and Alexauder hanged 2000 of the citizens, it is said, 
 on the sea-shore. The survivors, with the women and 
 children, were sold as slaves. Before the catastrophe of 
 the great Phoenician city he had received a second letter, in 
 xhich Darius offered him his daughter in marriage, to- 
 
 gether with the cession of all lands to the west of the 
 Euphrates. " Wero I Alexander," said Parmenion (if we 
 may believe the story), " I should take these terms, and 
 run no further risk." " So should I," answered Alexander, 
 " if I wero Parmenion ; but as I am Alexander, I cannot." 
 " You offer me," he wrote accordingly to Darius, " part of 
 your possession, when I am lord of all. U I choose to 
 many your daughter, I will do so whether you like it or 
 not." Darius sent no more letters. The issue, he saw, 
 must be determined by the sword. For the present he 
 was left to himself. Alexander's face was turned towards 
 Egypt. Gaza dared to resist ; but a siege of two months 
 was followed by a ruin as complete as that of Tyre. From 
 Gaza a march of seveu days brought him to Pelusium. 
 The Persian governor opened its gates to receive him ; and 
 the Egyptians expressed their delight at exchanging a 
 Persian for a Macedonian master. Marching in triumph 
 to Memphis, he offered solemn sacrifice to the calf-god 
 Apis ; and then, with the true instinct of the ruler and the 
 statesman, he hastened to found for his new kingdom a 
 new capital, which, after more than two millenniums, 
 remains a highway for the commerce of three continents. 
 
 Success thus unparalleled was, it would seem, already 
 producing its effects upon him. Calmly reviewing tlio 
 course of his march from Sestus and Ilium to Memphis, ho 
 could explain it only on the supposition that he was no 
 child of a human father, and he determined to obtain from 
 the oracle of Ammon, in the Libyan Oasis, a solution of 
 this mystery. The response greeted him as the son, not 
 of Philip, but of Zeus; and he returned, it is said, with 
 the conviction that the divine honours paid to Hercules 331 d.C 
 and Perseus were his own by indubitable right. March- 
 ing back through Phoenicia, he hastened to Thapsacus, 
 and then crossed the Euphrates. Thence turning north- 
 wards, he made a sweep which brought him to the Tigris 
 below Nineveh (Mosul), and there, without opposition, 
 crossed a stream where the resistance of a few hundreds 
 might have destroyed his army. After a few days' march 
 to the south-east, he received the news that Darius, with all 
 his host, was close at hand. Still convinced that mere 
 numbers must, with ample space, decide the issue of any 
 fight, and attributing his defeat at Issos only to the cramped 
 position of his troops, he had gathered a vast horde, which 
 some represent as more than a million, on the broad plain 
 stretching from Gaugamela eastwards to Arbela. His 
 hopes were further raised by changes made in the weapons 
 of his troops, and more especially in the array of his war- 
 chariots. For the Macedonians it is enough to say that 
 they were led by a man whose consummate generalship 
 had never shone more conspicuously than in the cautious 
 arrangements which preceded the battle of Arbela, or 
 rather of Gaugamela. All went as he had anticipated. As 
 at Issus, Darius fled ; and the bravery and even gallantry 
 of the Persians opposed to Parmenion were of no avail 
 when the main body had hurried away after the king. 
 So ended the last bf the three great battles (if such they 
 may bo termed) which sufficed to destroy the Persian 
 empire, or rather to make Alexander king of Persia ; and 
 so ended the first act in the great drama of his life. 
 
 The victory of Gaugamela opened for the conqueror the 
 gates of Babylon and Susa. The treasures found in the 
 former furnished an ample donation for all his men : those 
 of Susa amounted, it is said, to nearly twelve millions of 
 pounds sterling. The Persian king had wasted men on 
 the battlefield ; he had hoarded coin which, freely spent 
 in getting up a Greek army under Greek generals, might 
 have rendered- the enterprise of Alexander impossible. 
 From Susa the conqueror turned his face towards Per- 
 sepolis, the ancient capital of Cyras. Before him lay the 
 fortresses of the Uxii, to whom the Persian monarchs had
 
 ALFXANDFR THE GREAT 
 
 483 
 
 Oeen accustomed to pay tribute when they went from 
 .he one capital of their kingdom to the other. The same 
 demand was now made of Alexander, who told them to 
 ;ome to the pass and take it, and then, following a new 
 track which had been pointed out to him, descended on 
 their Tillages, and taught them that they had now to deal 
 with a sovereign of another kind. With Persepolis, Pasar- 
 gads, the city containing the tomb of Cyrus, opened its 
 gates to receive the avenger of the iniquities of Xerxes. As 
 Inch', he determined to inflict on Darius a signal punish- 
 fnent. Five thousand camels and a crowd of mules bore 
 «way the treasure, amounting, it is said, to nearly thirty 
 millions of pounds sterling, and then the citadel was set 
 pn fire. The men in the city were killed, the women 
 uade slaves. 
 
 For a month Alexander allowed his main army to rest 
 flear Persepolis y for himself there could be no repose. 
 With his cavalry he overran, and, in spite of the rigours of 
 winter, subdued, the whole region of Farsistan. Then re- 
 turning to Persepolis, he set forth on his march to Media, 
 where the fugitive king had hoped to be safe from his 
 pursuit Darius had left Agbatana (Ecbatana) eight days 
 before his pursuer could reach it. In this ancient fastness 
 of the Median and Persian sovereigns Alexander deposited 
 his treasures, exceeding, we are told, forty millions sterling 
 in amount, under the charge .of a strong Macedonian 
 garrison headed by Parmenion. He then hastened on 
 towards the Caspian gates, and learnt, when he had passed 
 them, that Dariu3 had been dethroned, and was. now the 
 prisoner of the Bactrian satrap Bessus. The tidings made 
 Alexander still more eager to seize him. His efforts were 
 so far successful that Bessus felt escape to be hopeless unless 
 Darius could be made to leave his chariot and fly on horse- 
 back. He refused to obey, and was left behind, mortally 
 wounded. Before Alexander could reach him, he was dead. 
 
 The conqueror now regarded, or professed to regard, 
 himself as the legitimate heir and successor of Xerxes. His 
 course of conquest was still unbroken ; but successful 
 forays against the Mardians on the northern slopes of 
 Mount Elburz, against the Arians of the modern Herat, and 
 the Drangians of the present Seistan, were followed by an 
 exploit of another sort. He had heard that a conspiracy 
 against himself had been revealed to Philotas, who for two 
 days had kept the secret to himself. ' On being asked why 
 he had done this, Philotas answered that the information 
 came from a worthless source and deserved no notice._ 
 Alexander professed himself satisfied with the explanation; 
 lut Philotas, it seems, had spoken freely to his mistress 
 Antigone of the large share which he and his father had 
 bad in the conquests of Alexander, and Antigone had in 
 her turn become an informer. Of real evidence against 
 Philotas there was none ; and a letter from Parmenion to 
 his sons, found when Philotas was treacherously arrested, 
 could tell against them only, in the eyes of one who was 
 resolved that Philotas should die. But Alexander could 
 not rest content with his death alone. There had been 
 nothing yet, even in the way of shadowy slander, to 
 criminate Parmenion, and he resolved that the needful 
 charges should be drawn by tortures from his son. Hidden 
 by a curtain, the conqueror of the world watched the 
 agonies and scoffed at the screams of the friend who had 
 fought by his side in a hundred fights. The issue was, or 
 was said to be, what he desired. Philotas had confessed ; 
 and Alexander sent off to Ecbatana a man bearing two 
 despatches, one to cheat Parmenion into a false security, 
 the other carrying to the officers next to him in command 
 the real order for his assassination. The old man was 
 reading the lying letter of the despot when he received a 
 mortal stab in bis back. The soldiers, on hearing of what 
 Hod been clone furiously demanded the surrender of the 
 
 murderers, and were with difficulty withheld from taking 
 summary vengeance on seeing the written orders of 
 Alexander. The command of Philotas, who had been at 
 the head of the companion-cavalry, was shared between 
 Clitus and Hephasstion ; and Alexander turned from 
 private murder to public war. The autumn and wintei 
 were spent in overrunning parts of the modern Afghanistan 
 and Cabul, in the formation of the Caucasian Alexandria, 
 and in the passage of the Ilindu-Kush. He was now in 
 the satrapy of Bessus. The surrender of Aornus and 
 Bactra was followed by the passage of the Oxus and by 
 the betrayal of Bessus, who was sent naked and in chains 
 to the city which had been his capital. His next exploit 
 (there is but slender ground for calling it into question) 
 was the slaughter, in Sogdiana, of the descendants of the 
 Milesian Branchida?, who, having incurred the hatred of 
 their fellow Greeks by surrendering to Xerxes the treasures 
 of their temple, had followed the despot on his retreat, and 
 by him had been placed in these distant regions. Five 
 generations had passed away since that time, when Alex- 
 ander gave the order that not one of them, man, woman, 
 or child, should be left alive. From the ruined city, by 
 way of Maracanda {Samarkand), he reached the Jaxartes 
 (which he believed to be the Tanais or Don), and having 
 laid on its banks the foundation of another Alexandria, ho 
 crossed the river to chase some Scythians who had shown 
 themselves on the further side. The end of this chase 
 marked the northernmost point reached in his campaigns. 
 The winter was spent in the Bactrian city of Zariaspa, 329-38? 
 where Alexander, summoning Bessus before him, had his B - c - 
 nose and ears cut off, and then sent him to be killed by 
 his countrymen at Ecbatana. 
 
 In the following summer his army was gathered again 
 at Maracanda. Repose from field-work left room fon the 
 display of the overbearing pride to be expected from one 
 who had convinced himself that he was a god, and for the 
 boundless flattery of those who found their interest in 
 keeping up the delusion. But there were not wanting 
 others to whom this arrogance and servility were intensely 
 disgusting, and whose anger was the more fierce from the 
 necessity of avoiding all open expression of it ; and in the 
 banquets of the divine son of Ammon there was always a 
 risk that these pent-up feelings might burst forth like a 
 winter torrent. The catastrophe was not long in coming. 
 In a feast at Maracanda, Alexander, boasting of all that he 
 had done since the death of his father, took credit further 
 for the victories of Philip in the later years of his reign. 
 The patience of Clitus had long been severely taxed, and 
 in the heat of the revel all thought of prudence was cast 
 aside. He spoke his mind plainly, telling Alexander that 
 all his exploits taken together were not equal to those of 
 the man who had found Macedonia a poor and distracted 
 country, and had left it a mighty and coherent state ; and 
 that his own greatest victories had been won through the 
 aid of Philip's old soldiers, some of whom he had murdered. 
 Stung to the quick, Alexander gave utterance to his rage ; 
 but his retort only led Clitus to remind him of the battle- 
 field of the Granicus, where he had saved him from death 
 by cutting off the arm of the Persian whose sword was 
 raised to smite him, and to warn him that, if he could 
 not bear to listen to the words of truth, he should confine 
 himself to the society of slaves. Alexander felt for his 
 dagger : it had purposely been placed out of his reach. 
 He called to hi3 guards to sound an alarm : they hesitated 
 to. obey the orders of a raying drunkard. Some of the 
 more sober and moderate of the party held h im in their 
 arms, praying him to do nothing hastily. By way of answer 
 he reviled them for keeping him a prisoner 'as Bessus had 
 kept Darius, and shaking himself free, snatched a pike 
 from one of the guards, and thrust it through the body of.
 
 484 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT 
 
 Clitus, bidding him go to rhilip and Parmenion. Tho 
 rage of tbe tiger was followed by a furious remorse, in 
 which, with considerable truth, he denounced himself a3 
 unfit to live. For three daj-3 he would neither eat nor 
 drink ; nnd tho army, alarmed at the threatened starvation 
 of tfieir king, voted that Clitus had been justly slain, 
 and that his body should not receive the rites of burial. 
 By reversing this vote, Alexander seemed to feel that ho 
 had gone a long way towards acquitting himself ; whatever 
 might be yet lacking to restore his self-complacence was 
 supplied by the prophets, who assured hhu that the disaster 
 bad been brought about wholly by the Thcbau vine-god 
 Dionysus, to whom ho had effered no sacrifice on tho day 
 of the banquet. 
 
 A few weeks after this murder Alexander captured the 
 Sogd'an rock, a fastness from which common oare would 
 have sent him away baffled. Having next reduced the rock of 
 Cuorienes, he returned to Eactra to celebrate his marriage 
 with Eoxana, the daughter of Oxyartes. who had been 
 among the captives taken on the So.-dian rock. The feast 
 was seized by Alexander as an opportunity for extracting 
 from his Greek and Macedonian followers a public acknow- 
 ledgment of his divinity. It was arranged that the sophist 
 Anaxarchus (or, as somo said, the Sicilian Cleon) should 
 make a speech, advising all to worship at once the man 
 whom they would certainly have to worship after his 
 death. The speech was delivered. The silence of most 
 of the Macedonian officers showed their disgust : but none 
 ventured to speak until tho Olynthian Callisthenes, the 
 nephew of Aristotle, insisted on the inmiety of all attempts 
 to confound the distinctions between gods and men. Con- 
 ceding to the conqueror the highest place amongst military 
 leaders and the first rank amongst statesmen, he rebuked 
 Anaxarchus for making a suggestion which ought to have 
 come from any one rather than from himself. The applause 
 which his words drew from the Macedonians taught Alex- 
 r.nder that open opposition would be useless ; but he was 
 none the more turned from his purpose, nor was it long 
 before ho found a pretext for carrying it out. A con- 
 spiracy was discovered amongst his pages. These un- 
 fortunate men were tortured (but without extracting from 
 them anything to impb'cate Callisthenes), and then stoned 
 to death. — as Alexander would have it, not by his orders, 
 but by tho loyal impulse of his army. Callisthenes he was 
 rjsolvcd, he said, to punish himself, together with those 
 who had sent 1dm, — an insinuation, manifestly, against his 
 v.ncle Aristotle, possibly also against all other Greeks, for 
 whom freedom of speech and action had rot yet altogether 
 lost its value. The philosopher who had extolled Alex- 
 finder as the greatest of earthly generals and statesmen 
 was first tortured and then hanged ; and the conqueror 
 went calmly on to subdue the regions between the Hindu- 
 Kush and the right bank of the Indus, and to storm the 
 impregnable rock of Aornus. 
 
 The next river to be crossed was the Indus. The bridge 
 was constructed by Hephaestion and Perdiccas, probably 
 near the present Attock. The surrender of Taxila left 
 Alexander an open path until he reached the Hydaspes 
 (Jhchim), where Porus was beaten only after a severe 
 struggle. The Indian prince was ta"kcn prisoner, and 
 treated with the courtesy which the family of Darius had 
 received after the battle of Issus. H«re died Alexander's 
 horse Eoukcphalos (Bucephalus), aud the loss was com- 
 memorated by the founding of Bucephalia. Tho passage 
 of the Acesines (Chenab), running with a full and impetu- 
 ous stream, was not accomplished without much danger; 
 that of the Hydraotes (Ravee) presented less formidable 
 difficulties, but he was encountered on the other side by 
 Indians, whoentrenched themselves in their town of Sangala. 
 Their resistauco ended, it is said, in the slaughter of 17,000 
 
 and the capture of 70.000. About 40 miles further to 
 the south-east flowed the Hyphasis (Sittly). Alexander 
 approached its bank, the limit of the Panjab, in the full 
 confidence that a few days more would bring him to tbe 
 mighty stream of the Ganges; but ho had reached the 
 goal of his conquests. The order for crossing the rivci 
 called forth murmurs and protests at once from his officers 
 and his soldiers, who expressed plainly their refusal to 
 march they knew not whither. Alexander in vain laid 
 before his officers his schemes of further conquest ; and 
 when ho offered the sacrifico customaiy before crossing a 
 river, the signs were pronounced to be unfavourable. The 
 die was cast. Twelve huge altars remained to show that 
 Alexander had advanced thus far on his conquest of the 
 world; and, in the midst of deluges of rain, the army set 
 out on its westward journey. The reinforcements which 
 he found on reaching the Hydaspes might, if they had 
 advanced as far as the Hyphasis, have turned the scale in 
 favour of progress to the east; they enabled Alexander to 
 undertake with greater ease a voyage down the Hydaspes to 
 its junction with the Indus after receiving, the waters of 
 the Acesines, Hydraotes, and Hyphasis, and thence on- 
 wards to the Indian Ocean. From the mouth of the Indus 
 he ordered h;3 admiral Nearchus to take the fleet along the 
 shores of the ocean and the Persian Gulf to the mouth of 
 the Tigris. The army marched by land through the 
 Gedrosian desert, suffering more from thirst and sickness 
 than they had suffered in all their battles and forced 
 marches. At length he reached Pasargadae, to find the 
 tomb of Cyrus broken open and plundered, and to avenge 
 the insult offered to the man whom he now regarded as the 
 founder of his own dynasty. Early in the following year 
 he entered Susa, and there, celebrating his marriage with 
 Statira, the daughter of Darius and of Parysatis the daughter 
 of his predecessor Ochus, he offered to pay the debts of 
 those soldiers who would follow his example by taking to 
 themselves Persian wives — a strange mode of inviting sober 
 and steady men who had no debts, but an effectual argu- 
 ment for the spendthrifts and ruffians of his army. His 
 new levies of Persian youths, armed and disciplined after 
 the Macedonian fashion, had now made him independent 
 of his veteran soldiers; and his declared intention of send- 
 ing homo the aged and wounded among them called forth 
 the angry remonstrances of their comrades, who bade him 
 complete his schemes of conquest with tbe aid of his father 
 Amnion. Alexander rushed into the throng, seized some 
 and had them executed, and then disbanded the whole 
 force. For two days he shut himself up in his palace; on 
 the third he marshalled his Persian levies (Epigoni, as he 
 called them) into divisions bearing the Macedonian mili- 
 tary titles, under Persian officers. The spirit of the veterans 
 was broken by this ignoring of their existence. They 
 threw down their arms at the palace gates, and begged 
 forgiveness with cries and tears. Alexander accepted their 
 contrition, and the restoration of harmony was celebrated 
 by a sumptuous sacrifice. 
 
 But for Alexander past victories were only a stimulus to 
 rurther exploits. Arabia still remained unsubdued, and 
 for this conquest a large addition was needed to his fleet. 
 Orders were sent to Phoenicia for the construction of ships, 
 which were to bo taken to pieces and sent overland to 
 Thapsacus on "the Euphrates, while others were to be built 
 at Babylon. His journey to Ecbatana was marked by a 
 violent quarrel between Eumenes and Hephaoalion. Their 
 reconciliation was soon followed by the death of the latter 
 from an attack of fever. The grief of the conqueror was 
 as fierce as that of Achilles, if we may not set it down as 
 a manifest imitation of it. For two days he neither ate 
 nor drank ; he cut his hair short, and ordered that the 
 horses and mulea in his army should have their manea
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT 
 
 485 
 
 docked also. Humsn blood could scarcely be shed with 
 prudence on his pyre ; but he was resolved that his friend 
 should begin his life in the unseen world with unstinted 
 wealth, and the precious things destined to be consumed 
 on his funeral pile represented, it is said, a sum of nearly 
 two millions and a half pounds sterling. Messengers were 
 sent to the Egyptian oracle to ask if the dead man might 
 be worshipped as a god, and Eumene3, with many others, 
 took care to anticipate its answer by offering him such 
 honours as might fall in with the humour of the divine 
 mourner. His grief seemed only to render his bursts of 
 passion more fearful. None dared to address him except 
 in language of the most grovelling flattery; and, in the 
 words of Plutarch, his only consolation was found in his 
 old habit of man-hunting. The diversion was this time 
 23 b.c. furnished by some mountain tribes between Media and 
 Farsistan. His march to Babylon steeped him still more 
 in the intoxication of success. As he advanced on his 
 road he was met by ambassadors not oaly from Illyrians 
 and Thracians, from Sicily and Sardinia, from Libya and 
 Carthage, but from Lucanians and Etruscans, and, as 
 some said, from Rome itself. The lord of all the earth 
 could scarcely look for wider acknowledgment or more 
 devout submission ; but his : self-gratulation may have 
 been damped by the warning of the Chaldean priests that 
 it would be safer for him not to enter the gates of Babylon. 
 For a while he hesitated, but he had more to do than to 
 heed their words. The preparations for his Arabian cam- 
 paign must be hurried on ; all that might be needed must 
 be done to improve the navigation of the Euphrates, and a 
 new city must be builtto rival, perhaps, the Alexandria which 
 he had founded by the banks of the Nile. More than all, he 
 had to celebrate the obsequies of Hephsestion, whose body 
 had been brought to Babylon from Ecbatana. The feasting 
 which everywhere accompanied the funeral rites of the 
 ancient world was exaggerated by the Macedonians, as by 
 ether half rude or savage tribes, into prolonged revelry. 
 Alexander spent the whole night drinking in the house of 
 his friend Medius, and the whole of the next day in sleep- 
 ing off his drunkenness. Throughout the following night 
 the same orgies were repeated. When he next awoke he 
 was unable to rise. Fever had laid its grasp upon him, 
 and each day its hold became tighter, while he busied 
 himself incessantly with giving orders about his army, his 
 fleet, his generals, until at length the powers of speech 
 began to fail. When asked to name his successor, he said 
 that he left his kingdom to the strongest. His signet-ring 
 he took from his finger and gave to Perdiccas. Throughout 
 the army the tidings of his illness spread consternation ; 
 old grudges were all forgotten ; his veterans forced them- 
 selves into his presence, and with tears bade farewell to 
 their general, who showed by signs that he still knew them. 
 A few hours later Alexander died, after a reign of less 
 than thirteen years, and before he had reached the age of 
 thirty-three. 
 
 That the schemes of conquest with which almost to the 
 last moment he had been absorbingly busied would, if he 
 had lived, have been in great part realised, can scarcely be 
 doubted, unless we suppose that causes were at work which at 
 no distant period would have disturbed and upset the balance 
 of Lis military judgment, and deprived him of that marvel- 
 lous power of combination and of shaping means to cir- 
 cumstances in which Hannibal and Napoleon are perhaps 
 his only peers. It would be rash to say that such a 
 daikcniny of his splendid powers might not have been 
 
 brought about, even before he could reach middle age, by 
 habits which, if we may judge from the history of his later 
 years, were fast becoming confirmed. In truth, except as 
 a general, he had lost the balance of his mind already. 
 The ruling despot who fancied himself a god, who could 
 thrust a pike through the body of one friend and sneer at 
 the cries drawn forth from another by the agonies of 
 torture, was • already far removed from the far-sighted 
 prudence of the politic statesman and ruler. His con- 
 quests served great ends; and before he set out on his 
 career of victory he may have had a distinct vision of theso 
 ends. Desire for knowledg3; the wish to r >e new forms 
 of human and animal life; the curiosity of traversing 
 unknown lands, of laying open their resources, of bringing 
 them all within the limits and the influence of the Mace- 
 donian, or, as he preferred to put it, the Greek world ; the 
 eagerness to establish over all known, possibly over all 
 unknown, regions a mighty centralised empire, which 
 should avail itself of all their forces, and throw down the 
 barriers which rendered the interchange of. their wealth 
 impossible, — may have mingled with his alleged or his real 
 purpose of avenging on the Persian king the misdoings of 
 Xerxes, Darius, and Cyrus. But there is little evidence or 
 none that these motives retained their power undiminished 
 as he advanced further on his path of victory, while there 
 seems to be evidence, only too abundant, that all other 
 motives were gradually and even fast losing strength as 
 the lust of conquest grew with his belief or his fancy of 
 his superhuman power and origin. During his sojourn 
 with Aristotle he must have learnt that real knowledge 
 can be reached and good government insured only where 
 there is freedom of thought and speech, and where the 
 people obey their own laws. A few years later he had 
 come to look on Aristotle as an enemy to be punished 
 with scarcely less severity than Callisthenes. But at the 
 least it must be remembered that his work was left un- 
 finished ; possibly he may have regarded it as little more 
 than begun. Looking at it from this point of view, we 
 can neither shut our eyes to the solid benefits accruing 
 from his conquests both for the East and the West, nor, 
 in spite of his awful crimes, can we place him in the rank 
 of those scourges of mankind among wnom Aiaric and 
 Attila, Genghiz, Timour, and Napoleon stand pre-eminent. 
 Of the several accounts of his career which have como 
 down to us, not one, unhappily, is strictly contemporary ; 
 and mere fairness calls upon us to give him the benefit of 
 a doubt, when doubt can be justly entertained, in reference 
 even to deeds which carry with them an unutterable horror 
 and shame. It is impossible to deny that with a higher 
 sense of duty Alexander would better have deserved the 
 title of Great ; but the judgment which may be passed on 
 some of his actions cannot affect his transcendent glory as 
 the most consummate general of ancient times, and perhaps 
 even of all ages. 
 
 For an examination of the sources of the history of Alexander the 
 Great, see Freeman, Historical Essays, second series, essay v. 
 The history itself is presented in various aspects by Thirlwall, 
 History of Greece, chaps, xlvii.-lv. ; Grote, Hislory'of Greece, part 
 ii., chaps, xci.-xciv. ; Niebuhr's Lectures on Ancient History, 
 lectures xxiv.-lxxx. ; Williams, Life oj Alexander the Great; St 
 Croix, Examcn Critique des Ancicns Hisloricns cT Alexandre le 
 Grand; Droysen, Gcschich/e Alexanders der Grosscn. See also 
 Finlay, Greece under the Romans, chap. i. ; Arnold, History o] 
 Rome, chap. xxx. For the geography of Alexander's Indian cam- 
 paigns, see Cunningham's Ancient Geography of India; and for tl o 
 scientific results of his conquests, Humboldt's Kosmos, vol. ii.. 
 part ii., section 2. ( a> W. a)
 
 486 
 
 ALEXANDER 
 
 ALEXANDER of Apheodisias, the most celebrated 
 of the Greek commentators on the writings of Aristotle, 
 and styled, by way of pre-eminence, 6 t'^yr^n/j, the Exposi- 
 tor. He was a native of Aphrodisias in Caria, and taught 
 the Peripatetic philosophy at Athens in the end of the 
 2d and the beginning of the 3d centuries of the Christian 
 erx Commentaries by Alexander on the following work3 
 of Aristotle are still extant: — The Analytica Priora, Lj the 
 Topica; the Meteorologica; the DeSensu;and the Metaphysial, 
 L-V., together with an abridgment of what he wiote on the 
 remaining books of the Metaphysial. His commentaries 
 were greatly esteemed among the Arabians, who translated 
 many of them. There are also several original writings 
 by Alexander still extant. The most important of these 
 are a work On Fate, in which he argues against the Stoic 
 doctrine of necessity; and one On t/ie Soul, in which 
 he contends that the undeveloped reason in man is 
 material (vovs vAikos), and inseparable from the body. He 
 identified the active intellect (vols ttoh/tikos), through whose 
 agency the potential intellect in man becomes actual, with 
 God. Several of Alexander's works were published in the 
 Aldine edition of Aristotle, Venice, 1495-98; his Be Fito 
 and De Anima were printed along with the works of The- 
 mistius at Venice, 1534; the former work, which has been 
 translated into Latin by Grotius and also by Schulthess, 
 was edited by Orelli, Zurich, 1824; and his commentaries 
 on the Metaphysica by Bonitz, Berlin, 1847. Nourisson 
 has treated of his doctrine of fate, Paris, 1870.' 
 
 ALEXANDER of Hales (Alexander Halensis), sur- 
 named Doctor Irrefragabilis and Fons Vita;, a celebrated 
 English theologian of the 1 3th century. Born in Gloucester- 
 shire, and trained in the monastery of Hales, from which 
 he takes his name, he was early raised to an archdeaconry. 
 Relinquishing this position, however, he went, like most 
 of the scholars of his day, to study at the university of 
 Paris, where he took the degree of doctor, and became cele- 
 brated as a teacher of philosophy and theology. Among 
 his pupils was Bonaventura; but it is evident from a 
 comparison of dates that he did not teach Duns Scotus 
 and Thomas Aquinas, as has been frequently asserted. In 
 1222, when at the height of his fame, Alexander entered 
 the order of Minorite Friars, and thenceforward lived in 
 Btrict seclusion. He refused, however, to renounce his 
 degree of doctor, and was the first of his order who con- 
 tinned to bear that title after initiation. He died in 1245, 
 and was buried in the convent of the Cordeliers at Paris, 
 where he had spent the last twenty-three years of his life. 
 The' most celebrated work of Alexander was his Summa 
 Theologian (Nuremberg, 1452; Venice, 1576), undertaken 
 by the orders of Pope Innocent IV, and approved by 
 Alexander IV., after he had submitted it to the examina- 
 tion of seventy learned theologians as a system of .instruc- 
 tion for all the schools in Christendom. Based on the 
 Sentences of Peter Lombard, it is divided into four parts; 
 the first treating of the nature and attributes of the Deity; 
 the second of the creation and of the various orders of 
 creatures ; the third of the scheme of redemption, the 
 incarnation of Christ, the law, and grace ; and' the fourth of 
 the sacraments. The form is that of question and answer, 
 end the method is rigidly scholastic. 
 
 ALEXANDER of Tralles (Alexander Tralliants), 
 a medical writer, was a native of Tralles, a city of Lydia, 
 and lived probably about the middle of the 6th century. 
 He is the author of a work, divided into twelve books, in 
 which he treats of bodily distempers. He was the first to 
 open the jugular vein, and to use cantharides as a blister 
 for the gout. Dr Freind, in his History of Physic, styles 
 him one of the most valuablo authors since the time of 
 Hippocrates. 
 
 Am also Dr Milward'i Tralliamu IUvivUcens ; or, An Account 
 
 of Alexander Trallian, one of (hi Greek Writers (hat flourished 
 after Oaten, being a Supplement to Dr FrcinoVs History of Physict 
 London, 1734, 8vo. The Greek text of his principal work was first 
 published by Jac Goupylus, Lutet. 1548, lol. It was reprinted* 
 and was then accompanied with a Latin Version by Jo. Guiuterius, 
 ll.isi), 1556, 8vo. He is likewise the author of an epistle on worma, 
 De Lumoricis, which was published, in Greek and Latin, by Mer- 
 curialis, in his Varicc Lectioncs, Vend. 1570, 4to. 
 
 ALEXANDER BALAS' (a surname that probably 
 means "lord"), a man of low birth who professed to bo 
 the son of Antiochus Epiphanes, and eventually became 
 king of Syria. His claims were recognised by tho Romans, 
 who desired to revenge themselves on Demetrius Soter; 
 and their example was followed by the king of Egypt and 
 other monarchs. Demetrius was at first victorious, but in 
 150 B.C. was slain in battle, and Balas obtained possession 
 of the kingdom. The new king soon made himself hateful 
 to his subjects by his voluptuousness- and debauchery, and 
 this encouraged Demetrius Nicator, the eldest son of 
 Demetrius Soter, to claim his father's crown. Alexander 
 took the field against him, but was defeated in a pitched 
 battle, and fled to Abse in Arabia, where he was murdered 
 by the emir, with whom he had sought refuge, 145 B.C. 
 
 ALEXANDER JANN^EUS, king of the Jews, suc- 
 ceeded his brother Aristobulus in 104 B.C., and died in 
 79 B.C. His reign, which he commenced by putting to 
 death one of his brothers who claimed the throne, was 
 disgraced by the cruelties that he perpetrated in order to 
 keep himself in power. 
 
 ALEXANDER SEVERUS, Roman emperor. See 
 
 SEYIKUa 
 
 ALEXANDER was the name of eight Popes : — 
 
 Alexander I., bishop of Rome, succeeded Evaristus in 
 108 or 109 a.d.,' and, according to Eusebius, suffered 
 martyrdom under Hadrian in the year 119. Catholic 
 writers ascribe to him the introduction of holy water, and 
 of the custom of mixing sacramental wine with water. 
 
 Alexander LL, whose family name was Anselmo 
 Baggio, was born at Milan, and occupied the papal chair 
 from 1061 to 1073. He had previously, as bishop of 
 Lucca, been an energetic coadjutor with Hildebrand in 
 endeavouring to suppress simony, and to enforce tho 
 celibacy of the clergy; and his efforts to augment the 
 influence of the Roman see prepared the way for the com- 
 plete- ascendancy which was established by his celebrated 
 successor. The imperial sanction being withheld from 
 Alexander's election, a council at Basle chose as anti-pope 
 Cadolaus, bishop of Parma, who assumed the name of 
 Honorius IT., and marched to Rome. He was deposed, 
 however, by a council held at Mantua, and Alexander's posi- 
 tion remained unchallenged. Alexander was succeeded by 
 his associate Hildebrand, who took the title of Gregory VIL 
 
 Alexander III. {Rolando Banuci of Siena), cardinal 
 and chancellor of the Roman church, was elected to the 
 popedom in 1159, and reigned until 1181. His career is 
 of great historical importance on account of the vigour and 
 ultimate success with which he carried out the ideas and 
 policy of Hildebrand in opposition to Frederick Barbarossa 
 and Henry II. of England. Three anti-popes (Victor IV., 
 1159; Pascal ILL, 1164; Calixtus IH., 1168) were con- 
 firmed by the German emperor in succession. Alexander, 
 however, steadfastly maintained his rights, though com- 
 pelled to take refuge in France between the years 1162 
 and 1165. The contest Between pope and emperor was 
 continued with varying fortune until, on the 29th May 
 1176, Frederick was decisively defeated at Legnano, when 
 he at once withdrew his support from the anti-pope and 
 submitted to Alexander. On the 1st August 1177 the 
 emperor yielded tho customary homage to the pope at 
 Vinice by kissing his foot, and was freed from the ban of
 
 ALEXANDER 
 
 467 
 
 -excommunication under which he had been placed ten 
 years previously. There seems to he no historical autho- 
 rity for the common story that during the ceremony 
 Alexander placed his foot upon the emperor's neck. 
 
 In England the papal supremacy was strenuously main- 
 tained against Henry II. by Thomas a Beclcct. Here, as 
 in the case of Germany, the struggle was protracted and 
 severe, but in the end the victory lay wiih the pope. 
 A Becket was canonised soon after his assassination, and 
 Henry II. was compelled to submit to a humiliating 
 penance. A contest with William the Lion of Scotland, 
 who insisted on instituting his chaplain Hugo, and not 
 the papal nominee, into the see of St Andrews, ended in 
 the excommunication of the king in 1181. 
 
 Alexander introduced several important changes in the 
 organisation and administration of the church. Chief 
 among these were the restriction of the right of canonisa- 
 tion to the pope alone, the still-existing law requiring the 
 votes of two-thirds of the cardinals for a valid papal elec- 
 tion, and the exemption of the clergy from civil control 
 and of church lands from civil burdens. Several of these 
 measures were ratified by the third general council of the 
 Lateran, summoned by Alexander in 1179. 
 . Alexa>~deb TV., Count Rinald.o de Segni, cardinal- 
 bixhop of Ostia, occupied the papal chair from December 
 1254 till his death in Hay 1261. He seems to have been 
 of a weak character, and in the struggle against the house 
 of Hohenstaufen. which he inherited from his predecessors, 
 he did little to strengthen the position of the papacy. The 
 opposition which he offered to Manfred, natural son of 
 Frederick II., proved unavailing, although he obtained the 
 aid of England by promising the disputed sovereignty of 
 the Two Sicilies to the Euglish Prince Edward. Manfred 
 was crowned king at Palermo in 1258, and in 1260 he 
 invaded the States of the Church, and compelled the pope 
 to recognise him as legitimate sovereign. The ecclesiastical 
 administration of Alexander was signalised by his efforts 
 to unite the Greek and Latin churches, by the establish- 
 ment of the Inquisition in France (1255), and by the 
 support he gave to the orders of Mendicant friars. The 
 last years of his pontificate were passed at Viterbo, where 
 he was compelled to take refuge on account of the violent 
 struggles at Home between the factions of the Guelphs and 
 the Ghibellines. 
 
 Alexander V. (Pt'etro riiUargi), a native of Candia, 
 enjoyed the dignity of Pope for only ten months, from the 
 26th June 1409 to the 3d May 1410. Born of poor 
 parentage, he owed his admission to a religious house to a 
 Franciscan monk, who noticed him begging. He studied 
 at Paris and Oxford, where he acquired such reputation 
 for scholarship, that on his return to Italy he was rapidly 
 promoted from dignity to dignity. In 1402 he was 
 appointed, through the influence of Galeazzo Visconti, to 
 the archbishopric of Mi'an, and in 1405 he was made a 
 cardinal by Innocent VEL The council of Pisa, after 
 deposing Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII., elected him 
 pops on the understanding that he would set himself to 
 reform the abuses of the church. The weakness of his 
 character and the shortness of his pontificate, however, 
 prevented anything effectual being done. He died, as was 
 generally believed, of poison administered by Baltliasar 
 Cossa, who became his successor under the title of John 
 
 xxrn. 
 
 Alexander VI. {Rodrigo Borgia), memorable as the 
 most characteristic incarnation of the secular spirit of the 
 papacy of the 15 th century, was born at Xativa in 
 Valencia, 1st January 1431. His biographers all Lat 
 unanimously assert his patronymic to have been Lenzuoli 
 {in its original Valencian form. Llanjol), and the name of 
 Borgia (or more properly Borja) to have been asfumed on 
 
 his adoption by lus maternal uncle. Francisco Escolano, 
 however, a compatriot, positively affirms {Cronica, lib. vi 
 cap. 23), that Llanijol was his mother's name, and that his 
 father was Giofre Borja. It is also disputed whether ha 
 originally followed the legal or the military profession ; 
 the former appears more probable. In cither case, his 
 career was determined by has uncle's elevation to the 
 papacy as CalLxtus III., 8th April 1455, and his own 
 immediate summons to Rome, where he was reserved in 
 petto as cardinal in the ensuing February, publicly pro- 
 moted in September, and by an unparalleled act of nepotism 
 elevated to the lucrative and dignified office of vice- 
 chancellor in the following July. He also succeeded his 
 uncle as archbishop of Valencia. An elder brother, Pedro 
 Luis, was made generalissimo of the papal forces by land 
 and sea. The animosity created by so invidious an exalta- 
 tion prepared Rodrigo's subsequent feud with the Homan 
 patriciate. For the moment he was all-powerful, and 
 the letters of that dexterous courtiar JEneas Sylvius attest 
 the importance attached to his good word. We must here 
 notice the ridiculous fiction concerning the parentage of 
 Borgia's natural children, which owes its currency to the 
 uncritical credulity of Gordon, his first formal biographer. 
 An anonymous MS. romance, professing to record the 
 secret history of the Borgia family, exists in many Italian 
 libraries ; a copy is in the British Museum. Gordon fell 
 in with this fiction, and whether from lack of judgment or 
 love of marvel, adopted it into his narrative. According 
 to this version, Rodrigo, when summoned to Rome, was 
 living with a beautiful Valencian courtesan, Rosa Vanozza, 
 by whom he had already had several children. Despatch- 
 ing his family to Venice under the care of a major-domo, 
 he entered upon a course of austere hypocrisy, designed to 
 secure his exaltation to the papacy, thus remaining apart 
 from his mistress and children for a period of nearly forty 
 years I This legend, originally circulated as a prime piece 
 of scandal, has been accepted as a vindication by Rodrigo's 
 apologists. Vanozza, they contend, was not his concubine 
 but his wife, and her decease must have preceded his ordi- 
 nation : Cassar and Lucretia were consequently legitimate. 
 The Abbe OLLivier goes a step further still, and disposes 
 of two scandals at a stroke by identifying Vanozza with 
 Giulia Farnese, whose charms, during Alexander's pontifi- 
 cate forty years afterwards, notoriously procured her 
 brother's elevation to the cardinalate. It is sufficient to 
 reply that in this case the beautiful Lucretia must have 
 espoused the Duke of Ferrara at forty, and have borne 
 him children at sixty The date of Caesar's birtb, more- 
 over is known to an hour, being fixed by the horoscope 
 preserved in Junctinus (torn. i. p. 171) at 18th September 
 1475. Nor is the history cf Vanozza any longer a secret. 
 It is inown that her family name was De' Cattanei ; that 
 after bearing five children to Alexander she was twice 
 married, on each occasion to a petty official about the papal 
 court ; that she possessed houses and other property in 
 Rome ; that she survived Alexander many years, and made 
 use of the name of Borgia {Reumont, BcL 3, pp. 202, 203). 
 Tho fortune of the Borgia brothers seemed menaced 
 with eclipse on the death of their uncle, Sth August 1458. 
 Pedro Luis, who had incurred the bitter enmity of the 
 Orsini family, escaped under the escort of Cardinal Barbo 
 to Civita Vecchia, where a fever soon carried him off! 
 Rodrigo remained for the conclave. No papal election is 
 more dramatically narrated in that edifying collection, 
 Conclavi de' Pontefici Romani, than the one which resulted 
 in the choice of JSneas Sylvius (Pius LT.) Borgia's share 
 in it had earned Pius's gratitude ; he was, nevertheless, 
 compelled to submit to some diminution of the authority 
 and emoluments of tho vice-chancellorship ; and a subse- 
 quent indiscretion in the too public indulgence of hia.
 
 •Jss 
 
 ALEXANDER VI. 
 
 taste for female society while discharging a legation at 
 Siena procured him one of the severest reprimands ever 
 addressed to a cardinal by a pope. Pius's reproof is pre- 
 served in Raynaldus (Append, ad ann. 1460, num. 31), 
 and alone refutes the fiction of Borgia's religious hypocrisy. 
 Cardinal Barbo, however, who succeeded as Paul II., was 
 the same spirited patrician who had befriended the Borgias 
 in their hour of need, and his ostentatious pontificate 
 ushered in the era of Rodrigo's unbroken prosperity. 
 " He is," writes at this time Gaspar Veronensis (Muratori, 
 torn, iil pt. 2, p. 1037), "a comely man of cheerful 
 countenance and honeyed discourse, who gains the 
 tions of all the women he admires, and attracts them as the 
 loadstone does iron ; it is indeed supposed that he proceeds 
 no further." A supposition rather pious than probable. 
 
 On the death of the jovial Paul (1471), Borgia is men- 
 tioned, along with Cardinals Orsino and Gonzaga, as one 
 if t.ho three who chiefly contributed to place the tiara on 
 the brows of the then famous preacher and exemplary 
 ascetic Sixtus IV., who immediately (per fuggire I'ingrati- 
 tudine) bestowed on him the opulent abbey of Subiaco, 
 and raised him to the dignity of cardinal-bishop. About 
 the same time must have commenced his intimacy with 
 Vanozza, In 1473 he undertook a legation to Spain, 
 avowedly with the purpose of visiting his diocese and of 
 composing differences between the kings of Castile and 
 Portugal, but in reality to display his magnificence to his 
 countrymen. Hi3 demeanour on this occasion is repre- 
 sented in the most unfavourable light by the cardinal of 
 Pavia, who had previously composed for him that elegant 
 oration to his Valencian flock which the Abbd Ollivier 
 has the simplicity to attribute to Borgia himself. The 
 cardinal, however, is too much of a time-server and a 
 rhetorician for his account-to be altogether trustworthy. 
 More certain is the occurrence of a tremendous tempest on 
 Borgia's return, in which part of his retinue perished, 
 while he himself narrowly escaped. Innocent VIII., the 
 successor of Sixtus, owed his election to Borgia's coalition 
 with the late pope's nephew, and the fortunes of the 
 former remained unimpaired throughout his tranquil ponti- 
 ficate. The long malady which terminated it afforded scope 
 for the intrigues of aspirants to the succession ; and when 
 the cardinals entered into conclave (August 1492), already 
 the rumour ran that a Spaniard would be pope. The 
 eimoniacal character of the election is indisputable. We 
 need not believe that the opulent and high-spirited 
 Cardinal Ascanio Sforza was tempted with four mule-loads 
 of silver, but his instant elevation to the vice-chancellorship 
 speaks for itself. Cardinal Orsino was bought with Borgia's 
 palace in Rome ; Cardinal Colonna with the abbey of 
 Subiaco ; money gained the minor members of the Sacred 
 College ; five cardinals alone are recorded as incorruptible. 
 Borgia's uneasiness was betrayed by his hasty assumption 
 of the pontifical vestments, and premature announcement 
 of the election to the expectant crowd. He assumed the 
 name of Alexander VI. His allocution to the cardinals 
 breathed spirit and dignity : an admonitory discourse to 
 his son Cxsar, which may be read in Gordon, is an inven- 
 tion of the anonymous romancer. The pomp of his coro- 
 nation far surpassed preceding examples, and the compli- 
 ments of foreign ambassadors on the majesty of his mien 
 and the maturity of hi3 wisdom were echoed by a public 
 accustomed to simony, relieved at their deliverance from 
 a period of anarchy, and sensible of their need of a firmer 
 hand. This hope Alexander justified and surpassed. Ere 
 long he had divided Rome into judicial districts, placed a 
 magistrate at the head of each, and himself ' established a 
 weekly audience, at which, by the admission of the mal- 
 content Infessura, " he administered justice after a marvel- 
 lous sort.'' 
 
 Alexander's pontificate might have been less eventful 
 but for a circumstance beyond his control. The political 
 system of Italy was on the eve of dissolution. Ludovico 
 the Moor, anxious to confirm himself in his ill-gotten 
 duchy of Milan, was already tempting the French monarch 
 across the Alps by the bait of the kingdom of Naples. 
 As of old in Greece, so now dissensions and political cor- 
 ruption were about to cast down the civilisation of Italy 
 at the feet of the stranger. The passion for family 
 aggrandisement on this occasion impelled Alexander to a 
 patriotic course.' His third son Giofr6 had espoused the 
 illegitimate daughter of the king of Naples, and received 
 as dower the principality of Squillace. When, therefore, 
 the French envoys demanded the investiture of Naples, 
 they met with a flat refusal. This encouraged Alexander's 
 enemies. Cardinal della Rovere (Julius II.) withdrew 
 from the papal court, seized upon Ostia, and from thenc& 
 addressed urgent appeals to the French king to march 
 upon Rome, convene a council, and purge Christendom of 
 the simoniacal pope. On this side Alexander felt himself 
 indeed vulnerable. Casting about for alliances, he de- 
 spatched an envoy to the Sultan ; the ambassador was 
 arrested as he returned with a favourable reply ; and the 
 publication of his instructions created a fresh scandaL 
 Others still, had Roman manners been less lax, might have 
 arisen from the marriage of the pope's acknowledged 
 daughter Lucretia to the Lord of Pesaro, under the 
 auspices of the whole Sacred College, biud from the elevation 
 of his second son Coesar to the cardinalate at the age of 
 eighteen, unblushing perjury being employed to conceal 
 his illegitimate birth. Yet, at the samo period, the suc- 
 cessor of Peter appeared for the last time in history as the 
 undisputed bestower of kingdoms and the ultimate tribunal 
 of appeal for Christian nations. Spain and Portugal 
 resorted to him for the adjustment of their claims to the 
 New World ; and by tracing a line upon a map he dis- 
 posed of three-fourths of the human race. Never, accord- 
 ing to mediceval ideas, had a pope exerted his prerogative 
 with equal grandeur ; but the medieval conception of the 
 papacy was passing away, and no one's faith in it was 
 feebler than the pope's. 
 
 Charles VIH. passed the Alps in the autumn of 1494 ; 
 city after city fell before him, and by the end of the year 
 Rome was added to the. number. Alexander had retired 
 into the castle of St Angelo. His deposition was uni- 
 versally expected, most of all by himself. But Charles's 
 minister, Brieonnet, had been gained by the promise of a 
 cardinal's hat. On 16th January the reconciliation of 
 king and pontiff was officially celebrated : they rode 
 together through the city ; but distrust still prevailed 
 between them. With really surprising firmness Alexander 
 continued to refuse the investiture of Naples, with which 
 Charles may have thought himself able to dispense. 
 Nothing, indeed, could have been more rapid than his 
 conquest, except hi3 loss of that kingdom. By March the 
 triumph of the French seemed complete : on 6th July 
 their retreating army cut its way through the Italian hosts 
 at Taro in Upper Italy ; on 7th July the King of Naples 
 re-entered his capital. Nothing remained of the French 
 incursion except a fatal contagion, and the more fatal 
 revelation of the weakness of Italy. 
 
 The retreat of the French left Alexander at liberty to 
 pursue what must have been the main object of any pope 
 of intelligence and spirit in his place — the extirpation of 
 the petty feudal vassals of the church, and the establish- 
 ment of the temporal independence of the papacy. This 
 was in truth but a phase of the great struggle of the 
 crown and the people against the aristocracy, universally 
 a characteristic of that age; but the pope's principal motive, 
 was unquestionably the insatiable appetite of family
 
 ALEXANDER VI. 
 
 489 
 
 •aggrandisement. The incurable vice, however, of his 
 policy was imposed upon him by the lack of men and 
 money to carry it into effect. To obtain the former, he 
 was compelled to incline alternately to France and Spain, 
 degrading the majesty of the Holy See, and forfeiting his 
 liberty of action as a member of the Italian body politic. 
 The finances had to be recruited by the sale of offices and 
 spiritual privileges of every kind. Such practices had long 
 been prevalent at Rome, but never had they attained the 
 enormity, the effrontery, or the method imparted to them 
 by Alexander. 
 
 His enterprise was at first unfortunate. After some 
 petty successes the papal forces were routed by the Orsini, 
 January 1497. Spanish, aid was invoked; the Great 
 Captain checked the Orsini and recovered Ostia. Alex- 
 ander's spirits rose ; on 7th June he alienated Benevento 
 in favour of his eldest son, the Duke of Gandia. That 
 day week the duke disappeared ; his body, pierced with 
 wounds, was soon found in the Tiber. . The public voice 
 attributed the murder to the pope's second son, the 
 Cardinal Caesar Borgia, but on no other grounds than his 
 capability of any atrocity, and the gain that accrued to 
 him by this. Some historians know what he said to the 
 pope in confessing his fratricide, and can report the pope's 
 rejoinder; so is history ' written. Alexander secluded 
 himself in a passion of grief. He talked of -abdication, 
 and actually appointed a commission to inquire into the 
 abuses of the Church. While it ineffectually deliberated 
 on reforms, the stake was preparing for a real reformer. 
 The history of Savonarola must be related elsewhere ; it 
 can only be said here that Alexander appears to have been 
 most unwilling to proceed against him, and only to have 
 consented to do so when the Dominican's hostile attitude 
 rendered further forbearance impossible. 
 
 Cmsar Borgia, meanwhile, was bent on improving the 
 opportunity which he had found or made. Three months 
 after Savonarola's death he propounded to the assembled 
 cardinals hi3 desire to renounce ecclesiastical orders for his 
 soid's health, and was soon at liberty to contract a royal 
 alliance. After encountering a refusal from the daughter 
 of the King of Naples he repaired to France, and there 
 (May 1499) espoused a princess of the house of Navarre, 
 receiving the title of Duke of Valentinois from the French 
 king. Lucretia also benefited by her family's enlarged 
 views ; her alliance with the lord of Pesaro was dissolved 
 on a pretext of nullity, and she married the Duke of 
 Bisceglia, a natural son of the King of Naples. This had 
 occurred a year previously, when Alexander still attached 
 weight to the Neapolitan alliance ; but the political horizon 
 was now changed. In October 1499 a French army crossed 
 the Alps and conquered Lombardy, almost without resist- 
 ance. The watchword was thus given for the papal 
 campaign in the Bomagna. Caterina Sforza, regent 
 of Imola and Forli, received a summons to discharge 
 certain arrears long owing to her suzerain. Caesar Borgia 
 fullowed "with an army on the heels of the messenger, and 
 although the intrepid princess defended herself stoutly by 
 sword and poison, she was compelled to succumb to the 
 " Gonfalonier of the Church." The Borgias' enterprise 
 coincided fortunately^ with the commencement (according 
 to the then method of reckoning) of the new century 
 and the mighty concourse of pilgrims to Rome for the 
 jubilee, each representing some substantial contribution to 
 the papal exchequer. France and Spain, meanwhile, had 
 concerted their secret arrangement for the dispossession of 
 the King of Naples,- and Caesar Borgia prepared to remove 
 the only obstacle to his own participation in it. In July 
 1500 the Duke of Bisceglia, Lucretia's Neapolitan husband, 
 was attacked by assassins in broad day, and left desper- 
 ately wounded. The pope placed guards over the prince ; 
 
 Lucretia and her sister-in-law prepared his food to avoid 
 poison ; but none the less " quum ex vulneribua sihi 
 datis mori noluisset" — Alphonso of Bisceglia was strangled 
 by men in masks. " All Rome," writes the Venetiafi 
 ambassador, "trembles before the duke." The worst 
 times of the empire seemed returned, even to the amuse- 
 ments of the amphitheatre, where Caesar, whose tasttfl 
 were those of a Spaniard, despatched six bulls successively, 
 severing the head of one from the shoulders at a stroke. 
 The pope looked on helplessly at the Frankenstein of his 
 own creation; "he love3 and hugely fears his son," 
 reports the Venetian, who adds that Caesar had pursued 
 his father's favourite secretary to his arms, and there 
 butchered him, the pope's robe being saturated with the 
 gushing blood. Alexander's easy temper stood him in 
 good stead. " The pope," according to the same authority, 
 "grows younger every day, and is extremely cheerful; 
 his cares and troubles endure only for a night ; he thinks 
 continually of aggrandising his children — ne d'aitro ha 
 cura." In his conversations with foreign envoys he 
 excused his son's violence as the error of youth. " The 
 duke," he said, " is really a good fellow ; it is only a pity 
 that he cannot endure to be offended." Lucretia is 
 extolled by all as " lovely, discreet, and bountiful." 
 Rumour, indeed, imputed to her an incestuous connection 
 with her brother ; but this aspersion, like all others upon 
 her, is to this day utterly destitute of proof. 
 
 "These devils cannot be -cast out by holy water," 
 Cardinal Juan Borgia had formerly reported of the turbu- 
 lent occupants of the Romagna. The experiment of casting 
 out Satan by Beelzebub remained to be tried. In April 
 1501 Caesar entered upon his second campaign, and by 
 perfidy or force quickly added Pesaro, Rimind, and Faenza 
 to his former possessions. Attentive to the maxims of 
 sagacious tyranny, he governed with substantial justice. 
 If his coffers had to be nded by oppression, the odium 
 would . be cast on some subordinate agent, whose body, 
 his mission fulfilled, would be found dismembered in 
 the market-place. France and Spain, meanwhile, pro- 
 ceeded to the spoliation of the defenceless king of Naples, 
 and Ca?sar (July 1501) shared in the conquest and the 
 booty. In September Alexander himself undertook a 
 campaign against the Colonnas, and humbled those haughty 
 patricians by the capture of all their castles. Lucretia, to 
 the general scandal, represented him in his absence. Worse 
 scandals were in store, could we implicitly credit the con- 
 temporary diarist's account of the scenes enacted in the 
 apostolic palace after Alexander's return, but the passage 
 is probably interpolated. At this period the papal court 
 was engrossed with preparations for Lucretia's marriage to 
 Alphonso, son of the Duke of Ferrara, which was celebrated 
 by proxy in December. The pope's daughter, cardinals 
 and prelates in her train, undertook a stately progress 
 through Italy to Ferrara, where she was received with 
 extraordinary splendour. Piombino was reduced at this 
 time, and in July Caesar treacherously rendered himself 
 master of Urbino. Immediately afterwards his power 
 received a severe shock from the defection of his principal 
 condottieri. Caesar temporised until, to the admiration of 
 Machiavelli, then Florentine envoy at his camp, his adver- 
 saries were decoyed into his hands, seized, and executed 
 (31st December 1502). The news gave the signal at Rome 
 for the arrest of the Orsini and the occupation of their 
 castles ; thus was the humiliation of the Roman aristocracy 
 completed. Cardinal Orsino was committed to Saint 
 Angelo, where the- services of the papal master of the 
 ceremonies were soon required for 'his interment.- "But 
 I," remarks Burcardus with quaint naivete, " turned the 
 business over to my assistant, for I did not want to know 
 more than was good for me." It must be owned that in 
 
 1-17'
 
 490 
 
 ALEXANDER 
 
 that agb it would have Leon impossible to bring a cardinal 
 publicly to the block. This apology dues not apply to the 
 charges of secret poisoning which have mainly given the 
 Borgias their sinister celebrity, and which became fearfully 
 rife in Alexander's latter years. They are unproved as yet, 
 but are certainly countenanced by the opulence of the 
 supposed victims, and the avidity with which the pope 
 pounced upon their effects, especially in the case of his 
 rapacious datary, Cardinal Ferrari. 
 
 By May 1503 Spain had dispossessed France of her 
 share of ill-gotten Naples. A general war seemed imminent ; 
 Alexander and Caesar leaned to the side of Spain. The 
 Sacred College was already full of Spanish cardinals, docile 
 instruments of their countryman, and Alexander might well 
 deem that he had fettered the Church to the fortune of his 
 house. Men looked for the proclamation of Caesar as king 
 of Romagna, and the division of the temporal and the 
 spiritual power. The ancient mutual relations of pepe 
 and emperor would have been revived, but on the naiT ,w 
 area of Central Italy. But this was not to be. On the 
 morning of 12th August " Pope Alexander felt ill;" so did 
 Caesar Borgia. Every one knows the story of the supper 
 given to the ten cardinals in the villa, and the fatal 
 exchange of the poisoned flask. This picturesque tale is 
 almost certainly a fiction. An attempt to destroy ten 
 cardinals at once is inconceivable ; it would be easier to 
 believe Cardinal Castellesi's assertion that he was to have 
 been the victim, as his sickness at the tune is confirmed 
 from an independent source. But his character does not 
 stand high, and the symptoms of his disorder, as described 
 by himself, differ totally from Alexander's, which were those 
 of an ordinary Roman fever. The progress of the pope's 
 malady may be minutely traced in the diary of Burcardus 
 and the despatches of the Ferrarese envoy. He expired 
 on the evening of 18th August, duly provided with all the 
 needful sacraments of the Church. From his own point 
 of view his life probably appeared fortunate and glorious ; 
 but the vicissitude of human affairs is ever dramatically 
 illustrated by the death of a pope. Ere the corpse was 
 cold the pontifical apartments were pillaged by the 
 satellites of Caesar Borgia ; at the funeral a brawl between 
 priests and soldiers left it exposed in the body of the 
 church ; when placed before the altar, its shocking decom- 
 position confirmed the surmise of poison ; finally, stripped 
 of its cerements and WTapped in an old carpet, it was forced, 
 with blows and j( ers, into a narrow coffin, and flung into 
 an obscure vault. The remains were subsequently trans- 
 ferred to the Spanish church of St Mary of Montserrat, 
 where they repose at this day. 
 
 Alexander has become a myth, and his " acts" are in 
 some respects almost as legendary as those of the primitive 
 saints and martyrs. The peculiar odium attached to his 
 memory rests partly on the charge of incest, of which he 
 must be acquitted; partly on that of secret poisoning, 
 which is at least not established; partly on the confusion 
 between his actions and Caesar Borgia's. Nearly every- 
 thing actually criminal in his pontificate is subsequent to 
 the preponderance of the latter. Profligate alike in public 
 and private life, he was no malignant tyrant, — affable, 
 familiar, easy, he justly took credit for his moderation 
 towards notorious malcontents, and his indifference to 
 personal injuries. These virtues, however, as well as his 
 family affection, were merely constitutional with him, — as 
 the many beneficial acts of his administration were rather 
 prompted by a sense or policy than a sense of duty. His 
 ability as a ruler is evinced by the tranquillity he main- 
 tained in Rome, his effectual provision against dearth, the 
 regular discharge of financial obligations, the energetic 
 prosecution of useful public works. As a statesman he 
 ranks high in the second class. He was too destitute of 
 
 morality to have the least insight into the tendencies of 
 his tunes; but from the point of view of political expe- 
 diency, his policy was eminently sagacious and adroit. 
 He cannot be accused of preparing tho misfortunes of 
 Italy, but he did not disdain to profit by them. His 
 licentiousness and contempt of ecclesiastical decorum are 
 partly palliated by the circumstances of his initiation into 
 the Church. He was untrained to the ecclesiastical pro- 
 fession, never felt himself a priest, and was wholly regard- 
 less of the Church's interest as such. In this respect he 
 is almost unique among the successors of St Peter. Were 
 controversies regulated by reason rather than by con- 
 venience, the parties to this would change sides, — Alex- 
 ander's accusers would become his advocates, and his 
 advocates his accusers. The Church in her secret heart 
 must rate him the lowest of her chiefs; the world must 
 feel that he deserves much better of it than many much 
 better popes. 
 
 The principal contemporary authority for the reign of Alei 
 is the diary of the papal master of the ceremonies, Joanne.. Bur- 
 cardus, a record replete with trivialities and not exempt from inter- 
 polations, but containing indisputable evidence of perfect candour. 
 An excellent edition, commenced in 1855 by the Abbe Gemmn Hi, 
 was discontinued after the publication of a few parts. The un- 
 critical histories of Gordon and Tomasi are indebted to Bui 
 for any value they possess. The paltry productions of modern 
 fioman Catholic apologists (Jorry, Fave, Cerri, 4c.) are beneath 
 contempt. The Abb6 Ollivier (Alexandre VI. el Its Borgia, torn. 
 i., Paris, 1870) excites respect by his good faith and amusement by 
 his strange alliance of perverse ingenuity with infantine unsuspi- 
 ciousness. Of late years the archives of the Italian courts have 
 become accessible, and the transactions of Alexander'9 reign have 
 been sagaciously investigated from this -source by two German 
 scholars, Von Reumont (Die Siadt Rom, Bd. 3, Abth. 1, Berlin, 
 1868) and Gregorovius (Rom in MUtelaller, Bd. 7, Stuttgart, 1870). 
 The latter is the more copious, but his general estimate of Alex- 
 ander is much too low. By far the ablest English contribution 
 to the history of Alexander is a notice of Gregorovius in the 
 North British Review, voL lib, entitled The Borgias and lluAr Latest 
 Historian. (n. o.) 
 
 Alexander VEL (Fahio Chigi), was born at Siena on 
 the 13th February 1599, and occupied the papal chair 
 from the 7th April 1655 to the 22d May 1667. Before 
 his elevation he had filled successively the offices of 
 inquisitor at Malta, vice-legate at Ferrara, and nuncio to 
 Germany at the conference of Munster. The conclave 
 elected him in the belief that he was strongly opposed to 
 the nepotism and other abuses that had characterised the 
 reign of his immediate predecessor, Innocent X., and at 
 the beginning of his pontificate he went so far in this 
 direction as to forbid his relatives even to visit Rome. 
 In a year, however, all was changed, and nepotism pre- 
 vailed to as great an extent as under any lormer pontiff. 
 Alexander was a patron of learning, and himself wrote a 
 volume of Latin poems which appeared at Paris in 1656 
 under the title Philomathi Labores Juveniles. He also 
 encouraged architecture, and in particular constructed the 
 beautiful colonnade in the piazza of St Peter's. The most 
 noteworthy events of his pontificate were tho reception of 
 the ex-queen Christina of Sweden into the Catholic Church, 
 the promulgation of a bull against the Jansenists, and a 
 protracted dispute with Louis XIV. of France, during 
 which the papal see lost possession of Avignon (1662). 
 Alexander canonised Francis of Sales in 1665. 
 
 Alexander "VTLL (Pielro Otloboni), born at Venice 
 in 1610, was raised to the pontificate in October 1689 
 in succession to Innocent XI. He assisted his native state 
 in its wars with the Turks. Although an enemy of the 
 Jansenists, he condemned certain doctrinal errors of the 
 Jesuits as advanced by Professor Bougot of Dijon. He 
 carried nepotism to such an extent that the salaries and 
 gifts bestowed on his relatives during his reign, short 
 though it was, exhausted the papal treasury. He added
 
 ALEXANDER 
 
 491 
 
 by purchase the books and manuscripts of Queen Christina 
 to the Vatican library. He died in Feb. 1691. 
 
 ALEXANDER I, King of Scotland, son of Malcolm 
 Canmore, succeeded his brother Edgar in 1107, and died 
 in 1124. He was better educated than any of his prede- 
 cessors, owing to the care of his mother, the amiable Mar- 
 garet of England. All the qualities of his nature, both 
 good and bad, were strongly marked; from the terror he 
 inspired, he was styled by his subjects the Fierce. His reign 
 is distinguished by the determined opposition he offered 
 to any interference on the part of English bishops in the 
 affairs of the Scottish Church. He contrived by energy 
 and valour to subdue the turbulence of his kingdom; 
 specially noticeable are the promptness and vigour he dis- 
 played in suppressing the insurrection of Angus, grandson 
 of Lulach, a son of Macbeth's queen. He died at Stir- 
 ling, and, being childless, was succeeded by his brother 
 David L 
 
 Alexander IX, King of Scotland, was born at Had- 
 dington in 1198 (died 1219), and succeeded his father, 
 William the Lion, in 1214. Though still young, he exhi- 
 bited the same prudence and firmness which marked his 
 whole conduct in life. He was excommunicated in 1216 
 for associating with the EngUsh barons in their opposition 
 to King John; but his prudence enabled bim to recover 
 the good opinion of the pope, and placed him on the 
 best footing with the English king, Henry III., John's 
 successor. His fidelity to Henry was shown by the 
 assistance he rendered him in protecting, during Henry's 
 absence in France, the northern borders of England, and 
 the friendliness of the kings was strengthened by the 
 marriage of Alexander to Henry's sister Joan (1221). 
 Joan died in 1238, and in May 1239 Alexander married 
 Mary de Coucy. In 1244 Henry marched against Scot- 
 land to force from Alexander the homage due to him for 
 the lands he held in the north of England, but in August 
 a peace was concluded at Newcastle. Like Alexander I., 
 he was zealous in defence of the privileges of the Scottish 
 Church; and in 1222 he put to death 400 persons who 
 had been implicated in the murder of the bishop of 
 Caithness. While engaged in quelling an insurrection in 
 Argyleshire, he died of fever in the island of Kerrera in 
 1249. 
 
 Alexander III., King of Scotland, son of Alexander 
 IL by his second wife, Mary de Coucy, was born at Box- 
 burgh on the 4th September 1241 (died 1286), and suc- 
 ceded to the throne on the death of his father in 1249. 
 The fact that in this case the succession of a minor was 
 unopposed is noteworthy, as showing that the hereditary 
 principle had now established itself. By a provision of 
 the treaty of Newcastle Alexander had been betrothed. in 
 infancy to the daughter of the king of England, and it 
 suited Henry's policy to insist on an early fulfilment of 
 'he contract. Notwithstanding the extreme youth of the 
 parties, the marriage was celebrated at York on the 25th 
 December 1251. On this occasion Alexander is said by 
 Matthew Paris to have done homage for his estates in 
 England, and to have refused homage for his kingdom of 
 Scotland, on the ground that he had not consulted on the 
 matter with his proper advisers. The story, however, 
 seems inconsistent with Henry's policy at the time, and is 
 therefore questionable. With a king so young, in times 
 60 unsettled, the hopes and efforts of contending factions 
 were naturally stimulated. At the commencement of his 
 reign Alexander was under the power of the Comyns, the 
 most influcutial family among the Scottish nobility. A 
 rival party, under the leadership of Durftard the justiciar, 
 was supported by England, and in 1254 succeeded in seizing 
 Edinburgh castle, and freeing the king and queen from the 
 
 domination of the Comyns. Meanwhile Henry bad him- 
 self marched to Scotland with an army, and in September 
 he met Alexander at Boxburgh. There a regency was 
 arranged, from which the Comyns were entirely excluded. 
 In 1257, however, the latter regained their ascendancy, 
 and obtained possession of the person of the king, whom 
 they kept prisoner at Kinross and Stirling. In the fol- 
 lowing year a new regency was formed, in which both the 
 opposing parties were represented, and the king was 
 liberated. In 1260 he and hi3 queen paid a visit to the 
 court of England. While at Windsor the queen gave 
 birth to a daughter, Margaret, afterwards married to Eric 
 of Norway. An account of the invasion of Scotland in 
 1263 by Haco, king of Norway, and of the disastrous 
 defeat at Largs, belongs rather to the history of the 
 country than to the personal biography of the king. Three 
 years after the invasion, Magnus, king of Norway, ceded 
 to Alexander the Isle of Man and the Western Isles, 
 receiving in return a ransom of a thousand marks and an 
 annual rent of a hundred marks. The Orkney and Shet- 
 land islands still remained under the dominion of Norway. 
 Alexander was involved in a protracted and on the whole 
 successful struggle with the papal power for the independ- 
 ence of the Scottish Church. The chief matter in dispute 
 was the proper valuation of church lands for the purpose 
 of taxation. In connection with this, Boiamund or Bagi- 
 mond came from Borne in 1275 with a commission to draw 
 up the valution known as Bagimond's roll, which remained 
 the basis for the taxation of church lands down to the time 
 of the Beformation. The internal condition of the country 
 seems to have improved greatly during the latter years of 
 Alexander's reign. A wise and vigorous administration 
 ensured peace and consequent prosperity. The prospect of 
 Scotland was perhaps never brighter in all her early his- 
 tory than towards the close of his reign, but it was sud- 
 denly overcast. A series of calamities, following each other 
 in quick succession, left the nation at the mercy of its foes 
 within and without. In 1275 Alexander's wife died, and 
 a few years later he lost both his children. The succession 
 in the direct line was thus left to the precarious chance of 
 the single life of the infant princess known in history as 
 the "Maid of Norway." In 1285 Alexander married 
 Joletta, daughter of the Count of Dreux. Any hope of 
 strengthening the succession by this union was, however, 
 destroyed by the calamitous event of the following year. 
 On the 12th March 12S6 the king was killed by a fall 
 from his horse while riding on the coast of Fife opposite 
 Edinburgh. A spot near Kinghorn, known as the King's 
 Wud End, is pointed out as the scene of the tragical 
 event. The death of Alexander was a turning-point in 
 Scottish history. The national independence, which he 
 maintained so steadfastly against the insidious claims of 
 England, while avoiding an open rupture, was once more 
 placed in jeopardy. The popular estimate of the calamity 
 is well expressed in the following lines, believed to be the 
 earliest specimen of Scotch poetry extant : — 
 
 " Quhen Alysander our kyng was (kde, 
 That Scotland led in luve and le, 
 Awaye was sons of ale and brede, 
 Of wyne and wax, of gamvn ami gli. 
 Our gold was changyd into lede. 
 Cryst, born into virgynyte, 
 Succour Scotland and remede, 
 That stad is in perplexyte." 
 
 ALEXANDEB, Baulovich, Emperor of Russia — born 
 on 28th December 1777, died 1825 — was the son of Paul 
 afterwards emperor, by Maria, daughter of Prince Eugene 
 of Wiirtemberg. His early education was conducted under 
 his excellent mother, and afterwards was carefully directed 
 by his grandmother, the Empress Catherine II., who con-
 
 492 
 
 ALEXANDER 
 
 fided its general superintendence to Frederick Caesar, de 
 La Harpe. On the assassination of his father Paul in 
 1801, Alexander succeeded to the Russian throne. He 
 had been married in 1793 to the Princess Louisa Maria of 
 Baden, but the union proved an unhappy one, and had no 
 issue. 
 
 Tho policy of the young emperor was indicated by his 
 concluding a peace with Britain, against which his father 
 had declared war. In 1805 he joined Austria and Sweden 
 in a coalition with Great Britain against the pretensions 
 of France. The war that followed was disastrous to the 
 allies. The armies of Austria were totally defeated in a 
 succession of battles between the 6th and 13th October of 
 that year; and the combined Austrian and Russian armies, 
 under the two emperors, were defeated by Napoleon in the 
 great battle of Austerlitz on the 2d December. Austria 
 concluded a separate treaty of peace, and Alexander led 
 the remains of his army into his own dominions. Prussia, 
 which had injudiciously stood neutral while France was 
 humbling Austria and Russia, rashly engaged in hostilities 
 with Napoleon in 1806, while her allies, the Russians, 
 were still beyond the Vistula ; but the defeats at 
 Auerstadt and Jena laid Prussia prostrate ; and in the 
 succeeding year the battles of Eylau and Friedland, in 
 which the Russians were fairly beaten, led to the dis- 
 memberment of 'Prussia, and the treaty of Tilsit with 
 Russia. A few days after the last battle, Alexander and 
 Wapoleon met on a raft anchored in the river Niemen, and 
 agreed to the treaty, which was signed at Tilsit on July 7. 
 By a secret article of this treaty Alexander was not only 
 to withdraw from hi3 connection with Britain, but to 
 become her enemy; and he declared war against her on 
 the 26th October. 
 
 For nearly five years Alexander appeared "attached to 
 the alliance of France; but the privations of his subjects 
 by the interruption of the commerce with England, and 
 the intolerable load of Napoleon's " Continental System," 
 at length induced him to return to his old alliance, and to 
 declare war against France on March 19, 1812. On the 
 24th April he left St Petersburg to join his armies on the, 
 west frontier of Lithuania. Napoleon assembled the most 
 numerous and magnificent army that had ever been brought 
 together in modern times, augmented by the unwilling 
 levies of Prussia and Austria, and entered Russia on the 
 25th June 1812. The first encounter was at Borodino, 
 where there was a well-contested, action, in which each 
 army suffered the loss of 25,000 men. The burning of 
 Moscow, and the subsequent retreat of Napoleon, during 
 which his army was all but annihilated, are among the 
 best known events of modern history. 
 
 In 181 3 the advancing Russians were successively joined 
 by the forces of Prussia, Austria, and Sweden. Alexander 
 continued with the allied armies, and in particular was 
 present at the battles of Dresden and Leipsic. Napoleon 
 had made wonderful exertions to repair his losses in 
 the early part of 1814; but the victories of Wellington 
 in Spain, and his advance into the heart of France, 
 favoured the progress of the allies ; and on March 30, 
 1814, 150,000 men of the allied armies took possession of 
 Paris, which was entered next day by Alexander and the 
 king of Prussia. 
 
 After the deposition of Napoleon the allied sovereigns 
 visited England. By the treaty of Vienna, Alexander was 
 acknowledged king of Poland ; but before the congress 
 of Vienna broke up, Napoleon had escaped from Elba, 
 and was enthusiastically received at Paris. The two 
 eastern emperors and the king of Prussia remained to- 
 gether until the battle of Waterloo gave peace to Europe. 
 On the advance of the British and Prussians to Paris, the 
 three allied sovereigns again made their entry into that 
 
 capital, where they concluded, on September 26, the treaty 
 which has been designated the Holy Alliance. 
 
 Alexander was henceforward chiefly occupied in the 
 internal administration of his vast dominions, which cer- 
 tainly improved more during the twenty-five years of his 
 reign than under any of his predecessors from the time of 
 Peter L Tho gradual abolition of the feudal servitude of 
 the peasantry, begun by the most enlightened of his pre- 
 decessors, was continued under Alexander. Education, 
 agriculture, manufactures, commerce, were also greatly 
 extended ; while literature and the fine arts were liberally 
 encouraged. His disposition has been represented by his 
 subjects as mild and merciful ; yet his influence in the 
 affairs of Europe was not exerted in the cause of public 
 liberty. But this could hardly be expected from the 
 autocrat of an unmitigated despotism in his own terri- 
 tories. He will, however, bear very favourable comparison 
 with any Russian sovereign, or even with any contem- 
 porary monarch. 
 
 Early in the winter of 1825 he left St Petersburg for 
 the last time on a tour of inspection of his southern pro- 
 vinces. . About the middle of November he was attacked 
 by a violent intermittent fever, which proved fatal at 
 Taganrog on December 1, 1825. In foreign countries his 
 death has been attributed to poison ; but this is refuted 
 by the history of his disease, and is very improbable, from 
 his great popularity with his countrymen. He was suc- 
 ceeded, in accordance with a family compact, by his second 
 brother Nicholas. 
 
 ALEXANDER JAROSLAWITZ NEVSKI, Saint, 
 Grand Duke of Wladimir, second son of the Grand Duke 
 Jaroslaw H., was born' at Wladimir in 1219, and died 
 14th November 1263. He became prince of Novgorod 
 on the resignation of his father in 1239, his elder brother 
 having died. While Batu Khan was sweeping with his 
 Tatars over the south, the Swedes, Danes, and Livonian 
 knights took advantage of this to oppress the north of 
 Russia; Alexander accordingly directed his arms against 
 them, and gained a brilliant victory with his small army 
 on the 15th July 1240. His surname of Nevski was 
 derived from this event, which took place near the Neva, 
 and in the vicinity of the modern St Petersburg. In a 
 second campaign in 1241 he was no less successful, and 
 drove his enemies out of Pleskow in Kiew. In a third 
 campaign he defeated them near lake Peipus (1242), and 
 forced the Livonian knights to sue for peace and retire from 
 the district of Pskow, which they had conquered a short 
 time before. On his father's death in 1247, a younger 
 brother (Andrew) opposed Alexander, and seized the 
 duchy of Wladimir; but in 1251 the latter was estab- 
 lished in his rights by the khan of Kaptchak, the district 
 which the Mongolian Batu had taken under his immediate 
 authority. He firmly opposed the proposal of Pope Inno- 
 cent rV. to unite the Greek with the Roman church. He 
 died at Gorodetz, 14th November 1263, on his return from 
 a visit to Kassimcow. Towards the close of his life he is 
 said to have taken holy orders, but the tradition rests on 
 no sure basis. At his death the people universally spoke 
 of him as their father and protector, and afterwards 
 recorded his deeds in their songs, and honoured him as a 
 saint. Peter the Great, when founding St Petersburg, 
 erected a- magnificent monastery to the east of the city in 
 honour of the victory won there by bis great predecessor, 
 and created in 1722 one of the eight Russian orders, that 
 of Alexander Nevski. The monastery is now one of the 
 wealthiest in Russia, and has, according to Eckhardt, a 
 yearly revenue of half a million silver roubles. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Archibald, D.D., a Presbyterian divine 
 of America, was born of a family, originally Scotch, in 
 Rockbridge county, Virginia, on the 17th April 1772 (died
 
 A L E — A L E 
 
 193 
 
 1851). After completing his preliminary education at 
 Timber Ridge, lie came under the influence of the religious 
 movement known as the " great revival," and devoted 
 himself to the study of theology. Licensed to preach in 
 1791, he was engaged for seven years as an itinerant 
 missionary in his native state, and acquired during this 
 period the facility of extemporaneous speaking for which 
 he was remarkable. For a time president of Hampden 
 Sidney College, he resigned that position in 1807 to 
 become pastor of Pine Street church, Philadelphia. In 
 1810 the degree of doctor of divinity was conferred upon 
 him by the college of New Jersey, and in the following 
 year he was appointed first professor in the newly-estab- 
 lished Presbyterian theological seminary at Princeton. He 
 filled the chair until his death in 1851. Dr Alexander 
 wrote a considerable number of works in theology, which 
 have had a large circulation. Among these may be men- 
 tioned his Outlines of the Evidences of Christianity (1823), 
 which has passed through several editions, and been trans- 
 lated into various languages; and his Treatise on the Canon 
 of the Old and New Testament (1826). He was also a 
 frequent contributor to the Biblical Repertory, edited by 
 Professor Hodge. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Joseph Addison, D.D., third son of 
 the preceding, one of the most eminent biblical scholars 
 of America, was born in Philadelphia in 1809 (died 1860). 
 He studied at New Jersey, devoting himself specially to 
 Hebrew and other Oriental'languages. He graduated in 
 1826, and from 1830 to 1833 was adjunct professor of 
 ancient languages and literature in his alma mater. In 
 1838 he was appointed professor of biblical criticism and 
 ecclesiastical history in the theological seminary at Prince- 
 ton. He was transferred in 1852 to the chair of biblical 
 and ecclesiastical history, which he occupied till his death 
 in January 1860. Dr Alexander wrote several valuable 
 works in his own department, the most important being a 
 Translation of and Commentary on the Psalms, a Critical 
 Commentary on the Prophecies of Isaiah, and a treatise on 
 primitive church government. He also contributed nume- 
 rous articles to the Biblical Repertory and the Princeton 
 Review. At the time of his death he was engaged along 
 with Dr Hodge in the preparation of a commentary on the 
 New Testament. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Sir William, earl of Stirling, poet. 
 The family of Alexander of Menstrie — i.e., of the poet — 
 is of ancient lineage, "tracing its descent from Somerled, 
 lord of the Isles, in the reign of Malcolm TV., through a 
 misty Highland genealogy, to John, lord of the Isles, who 
 married the Princess Margaret, daughter of King Robert 
 II. Their son, Alexander, was father of Angus, who 
 founded the family of Macalister of Loup, and of Alex- 
 ander, who obtained from the Argyle family a grant of 
 the lands of Menstrie in Stirlingshire, and settled there — 
 his descendants assuming his christian name of Alexander 
 as their surname. The fifth in descent from this personage 
 was Alexander Alexander, whose successor was his son, 
 William Alexander, the poet " (Works : Introductory 
 Memoir, voL L p. ix., 1870). From his (rare) engraved 
 portrait, William was, it appears, aged 57 in 1637; so 
 that he must have been born (at Menstrie House, where 
 afterwards was born Sir Ralph Abercromby) in 1580. 
 The grammar school of neighbouring Stirling probably 
 furnished his early education ; of his later, it is simply 
 known that he attended the university of Glasgow. On 
 leaving it he proceeded on his travels with Archibald, 
 seventh earl of Argyle. It is supposed that it was during his 
 6ojourn on the Continent he composed his series of sonnets, 
 afterwards published under the title of Avrora (1604). 
 lie was tutor to the young earl Upon his return he pro- 
 ceeded to court, and won for himself speedily a name as 
 
 a gentleman of parts and learning. The first of hit 
 Monarchkke Tragedies had been published at Edinburgh 
 in 1603, viz., T/ie Tragedie of Darivs, which, like his 
 Parenesis to the Prince (1604), bore on the title-page 
 simply, "By William Alexander of Menstrie." In 1604 
 he reprinted Darivs along with a new tragedy of Ccuar, 
 giving the two the afterwards more celebrated title of 
 Monarchiche Tragedies — ultimately increased by Thi 
 Alexandraen and Julius C&sar (1607). In 1607 he 
 describes himself as " William Alexander, gentleman of 
 the prince's privy chamber." King James was much taken 
 with him. He held his office with the prince of Wales until 
 his lamented death in 1612, on which he published his 
 Elegie on the Death of Prince Henrie (Edinburgh, 1612). 
 In 1612 he was made master of bequests, and knighted; 
 his title-page of the Elegie bearing to be by " Sir William 
 Alexander of Menstrie." In 1614 appeared his Doomesday; 
 or, the Great Day of tlie Lord's Ivdgement (Edinburgh). 
 In 1621 (September 21) he received the most prodigious 
 "gift" ever bestowed on a subject, viz., "a gift and 
 grant" of Canada, inclusive of Nova Scotia, or Acadie, 
 and Newfoundland — a fact declarative of royal ignorance 
 of what the gift really -was. Yet was it subsequently 
 confirmed by Charles I. In 1624, Alexander, in relation 
 to his grant, published An Encouragement to Colonies — ; 
 twice at least reprinted (1625 and 1630). The gift and 
 grant belong to history rather than biography, and the : r 
 later results to the romance of the peerage and of lav . 
 In 1626 he was appointed Secretary of State for Scotland, 
 and in 1630 created a peer, as Lord Alexander of Tulli- 
 body, and Viscount Stirling. In 1631 he was made rm 
 extraordinary judge in the Court of Session. In 1632 he 
 built Argyle House, a quaint building, which remains 
 one of the "lions" of Stirling. In 1633 he was advanced 
 a step in the peerage, being created Earl of Stirling and 
 Viscount Canada; and in 1639 Earl of Dovan. In 1637 
 he collected his poetical works, and issued them as Recrea- 
 tions with the Muses, "by William, Earle of Sterline," with 
 his portrait engraved by Marshall This folio did not 
 include either Avrora or the Psalms of King David (Oxford, 
 1631), although there seems little doubt that he, rather 
 than Kin g James, was the main author of the latter. It, 
 however, first gave his second sacred poem (incomplete) of 
 Jonathan. He died in London on 12th February 1640, 
 and later his remains were transferred to Stirling. Lauded 
 by Sir Robert Ayton and William Drummond of Haw- 
 thornden, the Earl of Stirling, nevertheless, soon fell out of 
 men's memories. The recent careful and beautiful edition 
 of his Poetical Works (3 vols.) ought to revive his fame ; 
 for while there is too often a wearying wordiness, the 
 student-reader is rewarded with "full many a gem of 
 purest ray serene." His Doomesday has some grand things; 
 his Avrora suggests comparison with Sidney's Astrophel 
 and Stella. (Works a3 above; Laing's Baillie's Letters 
 and Journals, iii. 529 ; Drummond MSS., by Laing ; 
 Hunter's MSS., in Brit. Museum.) (a. b. o.} 
 
 ALEXANDRETTA. See Scajtderoon. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, a city of Lower Egypt, and for a long 
 time its capital, was situated on the Mediterranean, 12 
 miles west of the Canopic mouth of the Nile, in 31° 11' 
 N. lat, and 29° 52' E. long. The ancient city was oblong 
 in form, with a length from east to west of 3 to 4, a breadth 
 from north to south of 1, and, according to Pliny, a circum- 
 ference of 15 miles. Lake Mareotis bathed its walls on 
 the south, and the Mediterranean on the north ; on the 
 west was the Necropolis, and on the east the Hippodrome. 
 The city was laid out in straight parallel streets, one of 
 which, about 200 feet wide, ran westward from the Canopic 
 gate to the Necropolis. This street was decorated with 
 magnificent houses, temples, and public buildings, and
 
 49-4 
 
 ALEXANDRIA 
 
 was intersected by another of the same breadth and magni- 
 ficence, running from south to north. Ancient Alexandria 
 was divided into three regions : (1.) The Jiegio Judceorum, 
 or tho Jews' quarter, funning the north-east portion of 
 the city. (2.) lihacotis on the west, occupied chiefly by 
 iians. Its principal building was the Serapeum, or 
 temple of Serapis, containing an image <K the god, brought 
 probably from Pontus. A large part of the famous library 
 of Alexandria was placed in the Serapeum. (3.) Brucheuin, 
 the Royal or Greek quarter, forming the remaining and 
 most magnificent portion of the city In tho Brucheuin 
 were the chief pubii; buildings of Alexandria, the most 
 noted of which was the splendid palace of the Ptolemies, 
 on a peninsula called the Lochias, which stretched out 
 into tho Mediterranean towards the east of tho city ; the 
 library proper, and the museum, a sort of college, with a 
 dining -hall and lecture-rooms for the professors (see 
 Library); the Caesarium, or temple of the Cajsars, where 
 divino honours were paid to the emperors ; and the 
 Dicasterium, or court of justice. An artificial mole, called 
 the Ileptastadium, nearly a mile in length, stretched from 
 the continent to the isle of Pharos. Between this mole 
 and the peninsula of Lochias was the greater harbour ; on 
 the other side of the mole was the harbour called Eunostos, 
 or Safe Return. The two were connected with each 
 other by two breaks in the mole, crossed by two bridges, 
 which could be raised at pleasure. Within tho harbour of 
 Eunostos was an artificial basin called Kibolos, i.e., the 
 Chest, communicating with lake Mareotis by a canal, from 
 which a separate arm stretched eastward to the Canopic 
 mouth of the Nile. On the eastern point of the island of 
 Pharos was the famous lighthouse, said to have been 400 
 feet high. It was begun by Ptolemy Soter, and finished 
 by his successor, Philadelphus. It cost 800 talents, which, 
 if Alexandrian, is equivalent to .£248,000. In the time of 
 Diodorus Siculus (50 B.C.), the population of Alexandria 
 was estimated at 300,000 freemen, with probably at least 
 as many slaves. 
 
 The city was founded by Alexander tho Great 332 B.C. ; 
 but the island of Pharos was from an early period a refuge 
 of Greek and Phoenician sea-rovers, a fact commemorated 
 in the name " Pirates' Bay," given to a deep indentation 
 on the north side of the island ; and on the mainland 
 was the little town of Rhacotis, subsequently incorporated 
 in the quarter of that name. The architect employed by 
 Alexander was the celebrated Dinocrates, who had acquired 
 a high reputation by rebuilding the temple of Diana at 
 Ephesus. The new city prospered greatly as a centre both 
 of commerce and of learning, particularly during the reigns 
 of the earlier Ptolemies, to whose enlightened liberality, 
 indeed, its liteiary importance was largely due. But the 
 later monarchs of the house of Lagus were mostly weak 
 andviciou3 men, under whom the city declined in influence. 
 In 80 B.C. Ptolumy Alexander bequeathed his city to the 
 Romans ; but the bequest did not immediately take effect 
 owing to the civil convulsions in Italy, into which Alexandria 
 itself was eventually drawn, and it was not until 30 B.C. 
 that the city submitted to Augustus. It was by him made 
 an imperial city, governed by a prefect appointed by the 
 emperor, while the functions of the Alexandrian senate 
 were suspended, a state of matters which continued until 
 196 A.D., when Severus restored its municipality. 
 
 Alexandria seems from this time to have regained its 
 old prosperity, becoming an important granary of Rome, 
 which, doubtless, was one of tho chief reasons that induced 
 Augustus to place it directly under the imperial power. 
 In 215 a.d. the emperor Caracalla visited the city; and, 
 in order to repay some insulting satires that the inhabitants 
 bad made upon him, he commanded his troops to put to 
 death ?U youths capable of bearing arms. Thia brutal 
 
 order seems to have been carried out even beyond the 
 letter, t<>r a general massacre wa3 the result. Notwith- 
 standing this terrible disaster, Alexandria soon recovered 
 its former splendour, and fur a time was esteemed the 
 first city in the world after Rome. ' As the power of the 
 Caesars decreased, however, their holdover Alexandria was 
 weakened, and the city itself suffered from internal comr 
 motions and insurrections, which gradually destroyed its 
 importance. In 616 it was taken by Chosrocs, king of 
 Persia ; and in 640 by the Arabians, under Amru, after 
 a siege that lasted fourteen months, during which Ilerac- 
 lius, the emperor of Constantinople, did not send a singU 
 ship to its assistance. Notwithstanding the losses that the 
 city had sustained, Amru was able to write to his master, 
 tho caliph Omar, that he had taken a city contain in g "4000 
 palaces, 4000 bjths, 12,000 dealers in fresh oil, 12,000 
 gardeners, 40,000 Jews who pay tribute, 4U0 theatres or 
 places of amusement" The following story, relating to tho 
 destruction of the library, is told by Abulfaragius : — John 
 the Grammarian, a famous Peripatetic philosopher, being 
 in Alexandria at the time of its capture, and in high 
 favour with Amru, begged that he would give him tho 
 ruyal library. Amrutold him that it was not in his power 
 to grant such a request, but promised to write to the 
 caliph for his consent. Omar, on hearing the request of 
 his general, is said to have replied that if those books 
 contained the same doctrine witn the Koran, they could 
 be of no use, since the Koran contained all necessary 
 truths ; but if they contained anything contrary to that 
 book, they ought to be destroyed; and therefore, what- 
 ever their contents were, he ordered them to be burnt 
 Pursuant to this order, they were distributed among the 
 public baths, of which there was a large number in the city, 
 where, for six months, they served to supply the fires. 
 Shortly after its capture, Alexandria again fell into the 
 hands of the Greeks, who took advantage of Aniru's 
 absence with the greater portion of his army. On hearing 
 what had happened, however, Amru returned, and quickly 
 regained possession of tha city. About the year 646 
 Amru was deprired of his government by the caliph Oth- 
 man. The Egyptians, by whom Amru was greatly beloved, 
 were so much -dissatisfied by thi3 act, and even showed 
 such a tendency to revolt, that Constantine, the Greek 
 emperor, determined to make an effort to reduce Alex- 
 andria. The attempt proved perfectly successful, Manuel, 
 Constantine'3 general, capturing tho city with inconsider- 
 able loss. The caliph, perceiving his mistake, immediately 
 restored Amru, who, on his arrival in Egypt, drove the 
 Greeks within the walls of Alexandria, but was only able 
 to capture the city after a most obstinate resistance by tha 
 defenders. This so exasperated him that ho completely 
 demolished its fortifications, although he seems to have 
 spared the lives of the inhabitants as far a3 lay m hi» 
 power. Alexandria now rapidly declined in importance. 
 It was captured by Andalusian adventurers in 823 ; by 
 the Moghrebins in 924, and agp.in in 928. The building 
 of Cairo in 909, and, above all, the discovery of the routi 
 to the East by the Cape of Good Hope in 1497, nearly 
 ruined its commerce; and after this we hear little of the 
 city until the beginning of the present century. 
 
 Alexandria, the modern city, stands partly on what 
 was the island of Pharos, now a peninsula, but mostly on 
 the isthmus by which it is connected with the mainland. 
 This was originally an artificial dyke connecting the 
 island with the land opposite ; but, through the constant 
 accumulation of soil and nuns, it has attained its present 
 dimensions. The principal public and government build 
 ings are on the peninsula. Tho ancient city was situated 
 on the mainland, adjacent to the, modern town, and thf 
 extent of tha ruins thai still exist tnrnciuntly attests iu
 
 ALEXANDRIA 
 
 495 
 
 greatness. Tie general appearance of Alexandria is. by 
 do means striking; and from its situation its environs are 
 sandy, flat, and sterile. It was formerly surrounded by 
 fltrong turreted walls, with extensive outworks, but in 
 various parts the walls have lately been destroyed to make 
 way for improvements. In the Turkish quarter the 
 Streets are narrow, irregular, and filthy, and the houses 
 mean and ill-built. The Frank quarter, on the other 
 hand, presents the appearance of a European town, having 
 handsome streets and squares, and excellent shops. The 
 streets have been much improved lately by being nearly 
 all paved. The principal hotels, shops, and offices are 
 situated in the Great Square, the centre of which forms a 
 very agreeable promenade, being planted with trees, and 
 well provided with seats. It has also a fountain at each 
 end. In the suburbs are numerous handsome villas, with 
 pleasant gardens. Among the principal public buildings 
 are the palace of the pasha, the naval arsenal, the naval 
 and military hospitals, custom-house, bourse, two theatres, 
 several mosques, churches, convents, &c. There is an im- 
 portant naval school, and a number of other educational 
 
 institutions. Among the charities worthy of mention is 
 the hospital of the Deaconesses of Kaisersworth. Formerly 
 the town was supplied with water by means of the ancient 
 reservoirs formed under the old city, which are in many 
 cases as perfect now as when first made, 2000 years 
 ago These were annually filled with water by means of 
 the canal from the Nile, at the time of inundation; but a 
 system .of water-works has been formed by a public com- 
 pany, and a constant supply of water is now obtained from 
 the canak at some distance from the town. The principal 
 streets, squares, and railway stations, are lighted with gas. 
 Few of the remains of the ancient city are now visible. 
 Most of those that were to be seen a few years ago have 
 since disappeared, but frequently in making excavations 
 portions of ancient masonry, broken colu::. , j , 3, and frag- 
 ments of statuss are discovered. Among the best known 
 of the ancient relics are the two obelisks commonly called 
 " Cleopatra's Needles." They were originally brought 
 from Heliopolis to Alexandria in the reign of Tiberius, 
 and were set up in front of the temple of Caesar. They 
 are of. red granite, and covered with hieroglyphics. 
 One is still standing, and is 71 feet high and 7 feet 7 
 inches in diameter at the base. The other, which is fallen 
 
 and covered with debris, is in a less perfect state, and not 
 quite so long as the former. It was offered to the English, 
 government by Mehemet Ali, but after soma consideration 
 was declined. Near the obelisks are the ruins of an old 
 round tower, commonly called the " Roman Towar." >£ut 
 the most striking of the ancient monuments is the column 
 styled " Pompey's Pillar." It stands on a mound of earth 
 about 40 feet high, and has a height of 98 feet 9 inches. 
 The shaft consists of a single piece of red granite, and is 
 73 feet long and 29 feet 8 inches in circumference. The 
 capital is Corinthian, 9 feet high, and the base is a square 
 of about 15 feet on each side. From an inscription it 
 appears to have been erected in honour of the emperor 
 Diocletian, and it was formerly surmounted by a statue of 
 that monarch. To the S.W. of the city are the catacombs, 
 which served for the burial of the dead, and are formed by 
 excavations in the calcareous rock of which the shore i3 
 composed. They are of great extent, and one of the 
 chambers is remarkable for its elegance. The climate of 
 Alexandria is mild and salubrious. The heats of summer 
 are modified by the N.W. winds from the sea, which prevail 
 during nine months of the year, the thermometer seldom 
 rising above 85° Fahr. In winter a good deal of rain falls, 
 and throughout the year the atmosphere is generally moist, 
 being saturated with a saline vapour from the sea. 
 
 Alexandria has been mainly indebted for it3 prosperity 
 to the advantages of its position for trade. It was this 
 that first attracted the attention of its far-seeing founder 
 to the site, and its subsequent history in no way belied his 
 penetration. It soon rose to be the most important com- 
 mercial city in the world, and the great emporium of trade 
 between Europe and the East. Subsequently its fortunes 
 fluctuated with those of its possessors, but the great blow 
 to its prosperity was the discovery of the route to India by 
 the Cape of Good Hope, and under the Turks it sank into 
 insignificance, numbering only about 6000 inhabitants. 
 Soon after Mehemet Ali became ruler of Egypt he turned 
 his attention to the restoration of Alexandria. One of the 
 most important works that he effected with this view was 
 the opening of the Mahmoudieh Canal in 1820. This was 
 accomplished at a cost of about £300,000, and, for want of 
 proper management, at a melancholy loss of human life. 
 It is about 50 miles in length, with an average width of 
 about 100 feet, and communicates with the Rosetta branch 
 of the Nile at the village of Atfeh. Since Alexandria 
 became the centre of the steam communication between 
 Europe and Indo, and the principal station on the Over- 
 land Route, its progress has been rapid It has now regular 
 communication with England, Marseilles, Brindisi, Con- 
 stantinople, <fec. In 1851 Mr Stephenson was instructed 
 to form a railway between Alexandria and Cairo, which 
 was accomplished, and the line opened for traffic, in 1856. 
 This was shortly afterwards extended to Suez, and several 
 extensions have since been made to the cotton districts of 
 the Delta. A short line of railway (net belonging to the 
 government) connects the town with Ramleh, a sea-bathing 
 village about 7 miles distant. 
 
 Alexandria has two ports, an eastern and a western. 
 The latter, called also the Old Port, is by far the larger 
 and better of the two. It extends from the town west- 
 ward to Marabout, nearly 6 miles, and is about a mile and 
 a-half in width. It has three principal entrances. The 
 first, or that nearest the city, has about 17 feet of water, 
 but is narrow and difficult of access, and only used by 
 6mall vessels and boats. The second or middle, which is 
 also the principal entrance, is about a quarter of a mile 
 wide, and has, where shallowest, 27 feet of water. The 
 eastern side of this entrance is marked by buoys, and there 
 are landmarks for guiding to the channel. The third or 
 western entrance has its western boundary about three-
 
 496 
 
 A u E — A L E 
 
 eighths of a milt, from Marabout Island, is about half a 
 mile wide, and has from 25 to 27 feet of water where 
 shallowest Within the harbour ships may anchor close 
 to the town in from 22 to 40 feet of water. Further im- 
 provements, in course of construction by a firm of English 
 contractors (at a cost to the Egyptian government of little 
 short of two millions sterling), will eventually render this ' 
 one of the finest and most capacious harbours on the Medi- 
 terranean. Among these are the formation of a breakwater, 
 extending in a south-westerly direction parallel to the 
 shore for 2550 yards south-west of the lighthouse on Cape 
 Eunostos ; a mole, springing from the shore, and extending 
 in a northerly direction for 1 100 yards, and having a width 
 of about 100 feet; and the construction of nearly 3 miles 
 of quays and wharves, for vessels of the largest size, and 
 with railway connection. The foundation-stone of the 
 breakwater was laid by the viceroy on 15th May 1871. 
 The area of deep water, 30 feet and upwards, enclosed 
 within the outer breakwater, is 1400 acres; the area of 
 28 feet of water, enclosed by the harboul jnole, will be 
 177- acres. The workshops of the company -are at the 
 quarries of Mex, about 3 miles west of the town. In 
 the harbour is a magnificent floating dock, nearly 500 
 feet long and 100 feet broad. The old lighthouse, on 
 the site of the ancient Pharos, having been found insuffi- 
 cient, a new lighthouse has been erected on Eas-el-teen 
 (1842), bearing a one-minute revolving light, visible at a 
 distance of 20 miles. The eastern or new port, formerly 
 the only port open to Christians, is now little used, being 
 exposed to the northerly gales, and having very limited 
 space for anchorage. 
 
 In 1S61 the total value of the exports was £2,638,822; and in 
 1871 this had risen to £10,251,608, of which £7,706,442 was to 
 England. The value of the imports for the latter year was 
 £5,753,020, of which £2,469,026 was from England. The prin- 
 cipal articles of export were cotton (£6,402,756), cotton seed 
 (£1,008,278), heans (£753,462), corn (£573,766), sugar (£379, 456), 
 gums (£307,932), coffee (£122,110), ivory, wool, linseed, senna, 
 and other drugs. The principal articles of import were manufac- 
 tured goods (£1,695,870), wool (£307,495), oils (£251,158), wines 
 and liqueurs (£239,944), raw silk, fniita. During that year there 
 entered 1841 sailing vessels and 883 steam vessels with cargoes, 
 and 1 43 sailing vessels and 54 steam vessels in ballast ; and there 
 left 1085 sailing vessels and 843 steam vessels with cargoes, and 
 797 sailing vessels and 62 steam vessels in ballast. The total 
 tonnage of the vessels that entered was 1,262,602; and that left, 
 1,267,381. The opening of the Suez Canal will no doubt serve to 
 withdraw a portion of the traffic from Alexandria, but the improve- 
 ments that are now being made on its harbour, and its direct rail- 
 way communication with Suez, must still give it certain advantages 
 over the other route, while it must continue to be the great emporium 
 for the rapidly extending trade of Egypt itselt 
 
 The population of Alexandria is of a very mixed cha- 
 racter, consisting, besides the native Turks and Arabs, of 
 Armenians, Greeks, Syrians, Italians, French, English, 
 Germans, &c. At one time the ancient city is believed to 
 have contained 600,000 inhabitants; but at the beginning 
 of this century the number probably did not exceed 
 6000. In 1825 this had increased to 16,000, in 1840 to 
 60,000, and in 1871 to 219,602, of whom 53,829 were 
 foreigners. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, a town of Scotland, in the parish of 
 Bonhill, Dumbartonshire, pleasantly situated on the west 
 bank of the river Leven, about 3 miles from Dumbarton, 
 with which it is connected by a branch railway. It is a 
 place of comparatively recent growth, owing its origin 
 almost entirely to the cotton print and bleaching works of 
 the vicinity, for which there is an abundant supply of 
 excellent water. Population (1871). 4650. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, a town and port of entry of the United 
 States, capital of Alexandria county, Virginia, is beautifully 
 situated on the right bank of the Potomac, 7 miles below 
 Washington. It is neat and well-built, with a good har- 
 
 bour, and exports considerable quantities of grain and flour ; 
 but ita foreign trade has decreased. The Chesapeake and 
 Ohio canal begins here, and the town is connected with 
 Washington by railway. Population (1870), 13,570. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN MS. (Codex Alexandnnue), the name 
 given to a Greek manuscript of the Old and New Testa- 
 ments, now in the British Museum. This celebrated 
 MS. is known to biblical scholars as Codex A This 
 abbreviation of Alexandrinus was first employed by Bishop 
 Walton to indicate the various readings of this MS., ap- 
 pended to the text of the Septuagint and of the New 
 Testament in his great Polyglott Bible, and was adopted 
 by Wetstein in conformity with an arrangement, since fol- 
 lowed by all editons of the Septuagint and Greek Testa- 
 ment, by which the capital letters of the alphabet are 
 applied to designate the uncial MSS. of the Greek Bible. 
 The MS. was presented in the year 1628 to King Charles 
 L through his ambassador at the Porte, Sir Thomas Rowe, 
 by Cyrillus Lucaris, patriarch of Constantinople. There 
 seems no good reason to doubt that Cyrillus had brought 
 the document from Alexandria, where he had held the 
 office of patriarch, although Wetstein is of opinion, upon 
 what seems inadequate evidence, that he procured it from 
 the monastery of Mount Athos, where he had resided prior 
 to his coming to Alexandria. It was transferred in 1753 
 from the king's private library to that of our national 
 museum, where the volume containing the text of the New 
 Testament is now, or was lately, open to public inspection 
 under a glass case. The entire MS. consists of four small 
 folio volumes, three of which contain the text of the Old, 
 and one that of the New Testament. The portion, how- 
 ever, containing the Old Testament is more complete than 
 that which contains the ' New, the lacunce in the former 
 occurring chiefly in the book of Psalms ; while in the New 
 Testament the following portions are wanting — viz., the 
 whole of Matthew's Gospel up to chap. xxv. 6, from John 
 vi. 50 to viii. 52, and from 2 Cor. iv. 13 to xii. 6. Occa- 
 sionally, also, single letters, as well as the titles of certain 
 divisions, have been destroyed by the operations of the 
 bookbinder. The material of which the MS. is composed 
 is very thin vellum, the page being about 13 inches high 
 by 10 broad, containing from 50 to 52 lines in each page, 
 each line consisting of about 20 letters. The number of 
 pages is 773, of which 640 are occupied with the text of 
 the Old Testament, and 133 with that of the New. The 
 characters are uncial, but larger than in the Vatican MS. 
 B. There are no accents or breathings, no spaces between 
 the letters or words save at the end of a paragraph; and 
 the contractions, which are not numerous, are only such as 
 are found in the oldest MSS., and are indicated by a line 
 drawn over the word which is abbreviated, as 02 for 
 ®eos. "The punctuation consists of a pcint placed at the 
 end of a sentence, usually on a level with the top of the 
 preceding letter. As regards the date of the MS. very 
 opposite opinions have been held. One critic placed it as 
 low down as the 10th century, but this supposition has 
 been justly characterised by Tregelles as so opposed to all 
 that is known of palaeography as not to deserve a serious 
 refutation. From the circumstance that the MS. does not 
 exhibit any traces of stichomelry — a mode of arranging the 
 text in lines consisting of a larger or smaller number of 
 words, at the end of which the reader was to pause, 
 -which was applied to the Pauline epistles by Euthalius of 
 Alexandria in the year 458, and which soon came into 
 general use — it has been inferred that the MS. is not of 
 kt«r date than the middle of the 5th century. Again, the 
 presence, in the text of the Gospels of the Ammonian 
 sections and Eusebian canons, and of the epistle of 
 Athauasius (who died in 373) to Marcellinus, which is 
 prefixed to the Psalms, shows that it could not be older
 
 ALEXANDRIAN MS. 
 
 407 
 
 than the end of the 4th century. In addition to this 
 external testimony, palrcographic reasons, such as the 
 general style of the writing, and the formation of certain 
 letters, would seem to refer the MS. to about the middle of 
 the 5 th centtfry, and this date is now generally acquiesced 
 in by scholars. There is an Arabic inscription, indeed, 
 written on the page which contains the list of the various 
 books of the Old and New Testament, which states that 
 the MS. was written by the hand of the martyr Thecla, 
 while a Latin inscription by Cyril himself gives the tradi- 
 tion that the Thecla who wrote the MS. was a noble 
 Egyptian lady who lived shortly after the Council of Nice. 
 No reliance, however, can be placed on these statements, 
 for, according to Scrivener, 
 
 ''Tregelles explains the origin of the Arabic inscription on which 
 Cyril's statement appears to rest, by remarking that the New 
 Testament in our SIS. at present commences with Matt. xxv. 6, 
 tliis lesson (Matt, xxv. 1-13) being that appointed by the Greek 
 Church for the festival of St Thecla. The Egyptian, therefore, who 
 wrote this Arabic note, observing the nanio of Thecla in the now 
 mutilated upper margin of the codex, where such rubrical notes are 
 commonly placed by later hands, hastily concluded that she wrote 
 the book, and thus has perplexed our biblical critics. It is hardly 
 too much to say that Ticgcllcs's shrewd conjecture seems to be cer- 
 tain, almost to demonstration." 
 
 This MS. contains the last twelve verses of St Mark's 
 Gospel. It is defective in that part of St John's Gospel 
 where the pericope adulterce occurs in the ordinary text, 
 but Scrivener shows by an enumeration of the letters 
 in each page that the two missing leaves did not contain 
 the suspected passage. It is almost unnecessary to say 
 that 1 John v. 7 is not found in this or in any uncial MS. 
 of the New Testament. The reading of the MS. in 
 1 Tim. iii. 16 has given rise to a good deal of discussion. 
 Woide in his fac-simile edition gave the reading ©2 for 
 0EO2. The element of uncertainty was whether the cross 
 bar of the theta had not been added by a later hand, so that 
 the original reading may have been 02. Bishop Ellicott 
 carefully examined the passage with the aid of a strong 
 lens, and the result of his investigation, as given in a note 
 appended to his Critical Commentary on First Timothy, in 
 his edition of the Pastoral Epistles, was to satisfy him 
 that the original reading was 65, the cross bar of the theta 
 having arisen from the central line of e in the word 
 eJo-e/Jei'a, which is directly opposite, shining through the 
 leaf, and being mistaken by a scribe for part of the theta, 
 and being touched up accordingly, — a view which was 
 maintained by Wetstein. On the other hand, both Tregelles 
 and Scrivener, who made the same investigation, are of 
 opinion that the stroke of the epsilon cuts the theta much 
 too high to be mistaken by any ordinary scribe for the 
 cross bar of the theta. When critics of such distinguished 
 reputation differ, the question of the original reading will 
 probably remain for ever uncertain. 
 
 The first use that was made of the MS. for critical 
 purposes was by Bishop Walton, who had the various read- 
 ings which it presents inserted in his great Polyglott Bible, 
 under tho texts of the Septuagint and New Testament 
 respectively. It was collated by both Mill and Wetstein 
 for their editions of the Greek Testament. In 17S6 the 
 New Testament was published in a fac-simile edition by 
 Dr Woide, at that time librarian to the British Museum; 
 the types of this edition were cut so as to represent the 
 general appearance of the letters; and the edition exhibits 
 the MS. page for page, line for line, and letter for let'ter. 
 Tho work was accompanied by valuable prolegomena on 
 the history, age, &c, of the MS.; and is allowed to have 
 been executed with remarkable accuracy. In 1828 the 
 Ilev. H. II. Baber completed the publication of the Old 
 Testament portion in three large folio volumes (181G-1828) 
 also in fac-simile, with useful prolegomena and notes. 
 
 Tischendorf considers the editorial accuracy ol Baber as 
 inferior to that of Woide, and enumerates a number of 
 instances where the readings of the original have been 
 incorrectly given by Baber (Prolegomena to Tischendorf 's 
 4th ed. of the Septuagint, p. 69, sq.) In 1860 the text 
 of the New Testament was published in common type by 
 B. H. Cowper, the defective portions being supplied from 
 Kiister's edition of Mill's Greek Testament, and some 
 inaccuracies in Woide's edition corrected from the original. 
 In 1864 there was published at Oxford, under the editor- 
 ship of Mr Hansell, the text of the Codex Alexandrinus, 
 along with that of three of the most ancient MSS., viz., 
 Codd. B, C, D, with the Dublin Cod. Z, and a collation of 
 the Cod. Sinaiticus. The work is arranged in parallel 
 columns, and thus presents, at one view, the readings of 
 four of our earliest authorities for the text of the New 
 Testament. (f. c.) 
 
 For more minute information regarding this MS. wo refer to the 
 prolegomena of Woide and Baher; to Scrivener's Introduction to the 
 Criticism of the New Testament, Cambridge, 1861; to the fourth 
 volume of Horpe's Introduction to the New Testament by Tregelles, 
 London, 1866; and to Davidson's Biblical Criticism, vol. ii., Edin- 
 burgh, 1852. We subjoin a list of the books of the Old and New 
 Testament in the order in which they are found in the MS. : — 
 
 Tom. I. 
 
 TeKto-is Ko<r/iov..._. Genesis. 
 E{o8os AiyviTTOu ...Exodus. 
 
 AtvtTiKov Leviticus. 
 
 Aptdfioi Numbers. 
 
 bsurtpovoixiov Deuteronomy. 
 
 Irjcovs Naun Joshua, son of 
 
 Nun. 
 
 Kpirat... ..Judges. 
 
 Poufl v ...Ruth. 
 
 Bao-iAtcciin' Samuel I. (or 
 
 Kings I.) 
 
 Bao-iXtmv B' Samuel II. (or 
 
 Kings K.) 
 Bao-iAtiaii/ -/...Kings I. (or III.) 
 Ba<nAei«K 5'. ..Kings II. (or IV.) 
 Tlapa\enTOfifvajy a' Chronicles J 
 napa\einou.(vwv B 1 Chronicles II 
 
 Tom. II. 
 
 tlane Hosca. 
 
 Auu; Amos. 
 
 Mixoiat Micah. 
 
 IoiTjA Joel. 
 
 A/35eiov Obadiah. 
 
 I'x'iai Jonah. 
 
 Haovn Nahum. 
 
 AfiBaicovn. Habakkuk. 
 
 2o<f>ocias Zephaniah. 
 
 Ayyatos Haggai. 
 
 Zaxaptas Zechariah 
 
 MaAax'os Malachi. 
 
 HTamr Isaiah. 
 
 Iepe,uiay Jeremiah. 
 
 Bapoi/x Baruch. 
 
 &pnvoi ..Lamentations. 
 
 EnoroXr Itpe^'o" Epistle of Jere- 
 miah. 
 
 IffeKirjA Ezekiel. 
 
 Anvii) \ Daniel. 
 
 T.oBnp Esther. 
 
 TwSit. Tobit 
 
 IovSclS Judith. 
 
 EaSpas a Esdras I. 
 
 E<r5/>ns B' Esdras II., in- 
 cluding Neeiiia, and part of 
 the canonical Book of Ezra. 
 
 MaKKxBcuav a' Maccabees I. 
 
 MaKKadmoy Maccabees II. 
 
 MnnKiiSaiicj' ■/ Maccabees III 
 
 MoKKaflaiai' V Maccabees IV. 
 
 Tom. IH. 
 
 ABcu/airwu EiriffToXij Epistle of Athanasius to Marcclliaus on 
 
 the Psalms. 
 EvTejSiou TVoSeiJ-fit (sic) ...Hypothesis of Euscbius on the Fsalrns. 
 
 S'aATijpioi- /itT' HStuK Tsalms 151, Hymns 15. 
 
 ]uB Job. 
 
 Tlapoipaa Proverbs. 
 
 EKK\?)o-iai7T7)f Ecclesiastes* 
 
 Atrfia Aufiaruv Canticles. 
 
 So-pia 2o\ouwvros Wisdom of Solomon. 
 
 2o$>ia Itjo-ou uiou Sipax Ecclesiasticus, or Wisdom of Jesus, sod 
 
 of Sirach. 
 
 Evayy*\tov Kara NarQaiov 
 Euayye\iov Kara MapKov... 
 Eray/cAio* Kara AovKav.. 
 EvayyeKtov Kara Itsavvnv 
 
 rTpa£cis AttottoKuv 
 
 ETtOToAai KaOoKiKat £'... 
 
 EiriiTToAai ITai/Aoy (8* 
 
 AtokoAv^ij loiavvov 
 
 KA7)/xef TO* EtiotoXt) a'. . . 
 KAt)jU€jto* EjtictoAt) & .. 
 YaAiini 2cAu/j«jto5 tj' — 
 
 Tom. IV. 
 
 Matthew. 
 
 Mark. 
 
 Luke. 
 
 John. 
 
 Acts of the Apostles. 
 
 .Seven Catholic Epistles, viz., 1 of James, 
 
 2 of Peter, 8 of John, and 1 of Judc. 
 Fourteen Epistles of Paul. 
 Revelation of John. 
 
 1st Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians. 
 2d Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians. 
 Eight Psalms of Solomon.
 
 498 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL. ' Under this title are 
 generally iiicluded certain strongly-marked tendencies in 
 literature and science which took their rise in the city of 
 Alexandria. That city, founded by Alexander the 
 about the time when Greece, in losing her. national inde- 
 pendence, lost also her intellectual supremacy, was in every 
 way admirably adapted for becoming the new centre of the 
 world's activity and thought. Its situation brought it into 
 commercial relations' with all the nations lying around the 
 Mediterranean, and at the same time rendered it the one 
 communicating link with the wealth and civilisation of the 
 East. The great natural advantages it thus enjoyed 
 were artificially increased to an enormous extent by the 
 care of the sovereigns of Egypt Ptolemy Soter (reigned 
 306-285 B.C.), to whom, in the general distribution of 
 Alexander's conquests, this kingdom had fallen, began to 
 draw around him from various parts of Greece a circle of 
 men eminent in literature and philosophy. To these he 
 gave every facility for tho prosecution of their learned 
 researches. Under the inspiration of his friend Demetrius 
 Phalcreus, the Athenian orator, this Ptolemy laid the 
 foundations of the great library, and originated the keen 
 search for all written works, which resulted in the forma- 
 tion of a collection such cs the world has seldom seen. 
 Ho also built, for the convenience of his men of letters, 
 the Museum, in which, maintained by the royal bounty, 
 they resided, studied, and taught. This Museum or academy 
 of science was in many respects not unlike a modern univer- 
 sity. The work thus begun by Ptolemy Soter was carried 
 on vigorously by his descendants, in particular by his two 
 immediate successors, Ptolemy Philadelphia and Ptolemy 
 Euergetes. Philadelphus (283-247 B.C.), whose librarian 
 was the celebrated Callimachus, bought up all Aristotle's 
 collection of books, and also introduced a number of Jewish 
 and Egyptian works. Among these appears to have been 
 a portion of the Septuagint. Euergetes (247-222 B.C.) 
 largely increased the library by seizing on the original 
 editions of the dramatists laid up in the Athenian archives, 
 and by compelling all travellers who arrived in Alexandria 
 to leave a copy of any work they possessed. 
 
 Tho intellectual movement so originated extended over 
 a long period of years. If we date its rise from the 4th 
 century B.C., at the time of the fall of Greece and the 
 foundation of the Graecc-Macedonian empire, we must look 
 for its final dissolution in the 7th century of the Christian 
 era, at the time of the fall of Alexandria and the rise of 
 tho Mahometan power. But this very long period falls into 
 two divisions. The first, extending from about 306 B.C. 
 to about 30 B.C., includes the time from the foundation of 
 tho Ptolemaic dynasty to its final subjugation by the 
 Romans; tho second extends from 30 B.C. to 640 a.d. 
 The characteristic features of these divisions are very clearly 
 marked, and their difTerence affords an explanation of the 
 variety and vagueness of meaning attaching to the term 
 Alexandrian School. In the first of the two periods the 
 intellectual activity was of a purely literary and scientific 
 nature. It was an attempt to continue and develop, under 
 new conditions, the old Hellenic culture This direction 
 of effort was particularly noticeable under the early Ptole- 
 mies, Alexandria being then almost tho only home in the 
 world for puro literature. During tho last century and a 
 half before i)m Christian era, the school, as it might be 
 called, began to break up and to lose its individuality. 
 This was Jue partly to the state of government under some. 
 of the later Ptolemies, partly to the formation of new lite- 
 rary circles in Rhodes, Syria, &c, whose supporters, though 
 retaining the Alexandrian peculiarities, could scarcely be 
 included in the Alexandrian schooL The los3 of active 
 life, consequent on this gradual dissolution, was much in- 
 creased wbon Alexandria fell under Roman sway". Then 
 
 the influence of the school was extended over the whole 
 known world, but men of letters began to concentrate at 
 Rome rather than at Alexandria. In that city, however, 
 thero were new forces in operation which produced a 
 second grand outburst of intellectual life. Tho new move- 
 ment was not in the old direction — had, indeed, nothing 
 in common with it. 'With its character largely determined 
 by Jewish elements, and even more by contact with tho 
 dogmas of Christianity, this second Alexandrian school 
 resulted in tho speculative philosophy of the Neo-Platonists 
 and the religious philosophy of tho Gnostics and early 
 church fathers. 
 
 Thero appear, therefore, to be at least two definite signi- 
 fications of tho title Alexandrian School; or rather, there 
 are two Alexandrian schools, distinct both chronologically 
 and in substance. The one is the, Alexandrian school of 
 poetry and science, the other the Alexandrian school of 
 philosophy. As regards the use of the word " school" to 
 denote these movements, it must be observed that tho term 
 is misleading. It has not the same meaning as when 
 applied to the Academics or Peripatetics, the Stoics or 
 Epicureans. These consisted of a company united by 
 holding in common certain speculative principles, by having 
 the same theory of things. Thero was nothing at all cor- 
 responding to this among the Alexandrians. In literature 
 their activities were directed to the most diverse objects ; 
 they have only in common a certain spirit or form. 
 There was among them no definite system of philosophy. 
 Even in the later schools of philosophy proper there is 
 found a community rather of tendency than of definite 
 result or of fixed principles., 
 
 Alexandrian School of Literature. — Tho general character 
 of the literature of the school appears as the necessary con- 
 sequence of tho state of affairs brought about by the fall 
 of Greek nationality and independence. The great works 
 of the Greek mind had formerly been the products of a 
 fresh life of nature and perfect freedom of thought. All 
 their hymns, epics, and histories were Bound up with their 
 individuality as a free people. But the Macedonian con- 
 quest at Chseronea brought about a complete dissolution of 
 this Greek life in all its relations, private and political. 
 The full, genial spirit of Greek thought vanished when 
 freedom was lost, with which it was inseparably united. 
 A substitute for this originality was found at Alexandria in 
 learned research, extended and multifarious knowledge. 
 Amply provided with means for acquiring information, and 
 under the watchful care of a groat monarch, tho Alexan- 
 drians readily took this new direction in literature. With 
 all the great objects removed which could excite a truo 
 spirit of poetry, they devoted themselves to minuto 
 researches in all sciences subordinate to literature proper. 
 They studied criticism, grammar, prosody and metTe, 
 antiquities and mythology. The results of this study 
 constantly appear in their productions. Their works are 
 never national, never addressed to a people, but to a circle 
 of learned men. Moreover, tho very fact of being under 
 the protection, and, as it were, iu tho p>ay of an absolute 
 monarch, was damaging to the character of their literature. 
 There was introduced into it a courtly element, clear traces 
 of which, with all its accompaniments, are found in the 
 extant works of the schooL One other fact, not to be for- 
 gotten in forming a general estimate of the literary value 
 of their productions, is, that tho samo writer was frequently 
 or almost always distinguished in several special sciences. 
 The most renowned poets were at tho samo timo men of 
 culture and science, critics, archaeologists, astronomers, or 
 physicians. To such writers the poetical form was merely 
 a convenient vehicle for the exposition of science. 
 
 The forms of poetical composition chiefly cultivated by 
 the Alexandrians were epic and lyric ur elegiac. Grea
 
 ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL 
 
 499 
 
 epic3 arc wanting; but in their place, as might almost have 
 teen expected, are found the historical and the didactic or 
 expository enic3. The subjects of the historical epics were 
 generally some of the well-known myths, in the exposition 
 of which the writer could exhibit the full extent of his 
 learning and his perfect command of verse. These poems 
 are in a sense valuable as repertories of antiquities; but 
 their style is on the whole bad, and infinite patience is 
 required to clear np their numerous and obscure allusions. 
 The best extant specimen is the Argonavtica of Apollonius 
 Bhodius; the most characteristic is the Alexandra or Cas- 
 sandra of Lycophron, the obscurity of which is almost 
 proverbial. 
 
 The subjects of didactic epics were very numerous ; they 
 seem to have depended on the special knowledge possessed 
 by tie writers, who used verse as a form for nnfolding 
 their information. Some, e.g., the lost poem of CaUimacb.ua, 
 tailed Alria, were on the origin of myths and religious 
 observances; others were on special sciences. Thus we 
 have two poems of Aratus, who, though not resident at 
 Alexandria, was so thoroughly imbued with the Alexan- 
 drian spirit as to be with reason included in the school ; 
 the one is an essay on astronomy, the other an account of 
 the signs of the weather. Nicander of Colophon has also 
 left us two epics, one on remedies for poisons, the other on 
 the bites of venomous beasts. Of many other epic poets 
 only the names are known, as Dicsearchus, Euphorion, 
 Ehianus, Dionysius, Oppianus. The spirit of all their 
 productions is the same, that of learned research. They 
 are distinguished by artistic form, purity of expression, 
 and strict attention to the laws of metre and prosody, 
 qualities which, however good in themselves, do not com- 
 pensate for want of originality, freshness, and power. 
 
 In their lyric and elegiac poetry there is much worthy 
 of admiration. The specimens we possess are not devoid 
 of talent or of a certain happy art of expression; Yet, for 
 the most part they either relate to objects thoroughly 
 incapable of poetic treatment, where the writer's endeavour 
 is rather to expound the matter fully than to render it 
 poetically beautiful, or else expend themselves on short 
 isolated subjects, generally myths, and are erotic in cha- 
 racter. The earliest of the elegiac poets was Philetas, the 
 sweet singer of Cos. But the most distinguished was Oalli- 
 maehus, undoubtedly the greatest of the Alexandrian 
 poets. Of his numerous works there remain to us only 
 a few hymns, epigrams, and fragments of elegies. Other 
 lyric poets were Phanocles, Hermesianax, Alexander of 
 iEtolia, and Lycophron. 
 
 Some of the beat productions of the school were their 
 epigrams. Of these we have several specimens, and the 
 art of composing them seems to have been assiduously- 
 cultivated, as might uaturally be expected from the court 
 life of the poets, and their constant endeavours after terse- 
 ness and neatness of expression. Of kindred character 
 were the parodies and satirical poems, of which the best 
 examples we^e the 2i%W of Timon. 
 
 Dramatic poetryappears to have flourished to some extent. 
 There are still extant three or four varying lists of the seven 
 great dramatists who composed the Pleiad of Alexandria. 
 Their works, perhaps not unfortunately, have perished. A 
 ruder kind of drama, the amcebsean verse, or bucolic mime, 
 developed into the only pure stream of genial poetry found 
 in the Alexandrian School, the Idylls of Theocritus, fhe 
 name of these poems preserves their original idea; they 
 were pictures of fresh country life. 
 
 The most interesting fact connected with this Alexan- 
 drian poetry is the powerful influence it exercised on 
 Hoinan literature. That literature, especially in the 
 Augustan age, is not to be thoroughly understood without 
 due appreciation of the character of the Alexandrian School. 
 
 Before the Alexandrians had begun to produce original 
 works, their researches were directed towards the master- 
 pieces of ancient Greek literature. If that literatnre was 
 to be a power in the world, it must be handed down to 
 posterity in a form capable of being understood. This 
 •was the task begun and carried out by the Alexandrian 
 critics. These men did not merely collect work", but 
 sought to arrange them, to subject the texts to critLiiC:, 
 and to explain any allusion or reference in them winch at 
 a later date might become obscure. The complete philo-, 
 logical examination of any work consisted, according to 
 them, of the following processes :— Siop&ocris, arrangement 
 of the text; avdyvuxns, settlement of accents; rexvr], theory 
 of forms, syntax; t^yijcrt;, explanation either of words or 
 things ; and finally, »cp«ns, judgment on the author and hia 
 work, including all questions as to authenticity and integ- 
 rity. To perform their task adequately required from 
 the critics a wide circle of knowledge ; and from this 
 requirement sprang the sciences of grammar, prosody 
 lexicography, mythology, and archeology. The service 
 rendered by these critics is invaluable. To them we owe 
 not merely the possession of the greatest works of Greek 
 intellect, but the possession of them in a readable state. 
 The most celebrated critics were Zenodotus; Aristophanes 
 of Byzantium, to whom we owe the theory of Greek 
 accents; and Aristarchus of Samothrace, confessedly the 
 Coryphaaus of criticism. Others were Alexander of jEtolia, 
 Lycophron, Callimachus, Eratosthenes, and many of a later 
 age, for the critical school long survived the literary. 
 These philological labours were of great indirect import- 
 ance, for they led immediately to the study of the natural 
 sciences, and in particular to a more accurate knowledge 
 of geography and history. Considerable attention began 
 to be paid to the ancient history of Greece, and to all the 
 myths relating to the foundation of states and cities. A 
 large collection of such curious information is contained in 
 the Bibliotheca of Apollodorus, a pupil of Aristarchus, 
 who flourished in the 2d century b.c. Eratosthenes was 
 the first to write on mathematical and physical geography; 
 he also first attempted to draw up a chronological table 
 of the Egyptian kings, and of the historical events of 
 Greece. His Egyptian chronology, along with that of 
 ilanetho, is still of great interest to scholars ; and Bunsen 
 speaks with the highest admiration of his researches in 
 Greek history. The sciences of mathematics, astronomy, 
 and medicine were also cultivated with assiduity and 
 success at Alexandria, but they can scarcely be said to 
 have their origin there, or in any strict sense to form a 
 part of the peculiarly Alexandrian literature. The founder 
 of the mathematical school was the celebrated Euclid : 
 among its scholars were Archimedes : Apollonius of Perga, 
 author of a treatise on Conic Sections; Eratosthenes, to whom 
 we owe the first measurement of the earth ; and^pparchus, 
 the founder of the epicyclical theory of the heavens, after- 
 wards called the Ptolemaic system, from its most famous 
 expositor, Claudius Ptoleniajus. Alexandria continued 
 long after the Christian era to be celebrated as a school of 
 mathematics and science. 
 
 Alexandrian School of Philosophy. — Although it is not 
 possible to divide literatures with absolute rigidity by 
 centuries, and although the intellectual life of Alexandria, 
 particularly as applied to science, long survived the Bonian 
 conquest, yet at that period the school, which for some 
 time had been gradually breaking up, seems finally to have 
 succumbed. The later productions in the field of purr 
 literature bear the stamp of Borne rather than of Alexan- 
 dria. ' But in that city, for some time past, there had been 
 various forces secretly working, and these coming in con- 
 tact with great spiritual changes occurring in the world 
 around, produced a second outburst of intellectual activity.
 
 500 
 
 ALE-ALE 
 
 Among the natives of foreign countnes transplanted to 
 Alexandria by iis founder had been a few Jews. These 
 gradually increased in number, until, about the time of the 
 Christian era, they formed an influential part of the populace 
 of Egypt, inhabited two of the five quarters of the capital, 
 and held high offices in the state. They had been well 
 treated by the Ptolemies, and for some time experienced 
 similar treatment from the Romans. The new move- 
 ment of thought was in great measure due to the 
 presence of this Jewish element. The contact of free 
 Oreek speculation with the peculiar Jewish ideas of the 
 transcendence of God, of a special revelation, and of a 
 singular subjective ecstasy, the prophetic state, could not 
 fail to have a strong effect on the mode of thought of the 
 most highly cultured Jews. From many causes they were 
 more than ordinarily open to receive foreign ideas. Their 
 1 position had been broken in upon by their long 
 residence as a small minority in the midst of an atmo- 
 sphere of Greek custom and thought, and in the most 
 highly cultivated city in the world. Their separation from 
 their native countty had tended to broaden their views by 
 weakening the strong political convictions which united 
 their destiny and their sacred writings with a definite land. 
 It was a necessary consequence that they should endeavour 
 so far as possible to assimilate their principles to Greek 
 ideas. The two systems were not, they found, in total 
 contradiction ; they had several points in common. This 
 was specially the case with the Platonic writings. There 
 thus arose among the Jews a constantly increasing tendency 
 to modify or widen their doctrines so as to admit of 
 Greek conceptions, and then, with the aid of these concep- 
 tions, to systematise their own somewhat vague religious, 
 views. In this way philosophy and religion would be 
 united or identified. There is truth in all philosophy, for 
 philosophy is but a mangled reproduction of the sacred 
 record in which all truth is contained. The Scriptures 
 contain all philosophy, but not explicitly ; they require to 
 be interpreted. The system thus developed has a philo- 
 sophical aspect, yet never ceases to be essentially Jewish, 
 for the ultimate resort is always to a body of doctrine 
 expressly revealed. Progress in this direction was possible 
 in two ways. First, the pure Greek metaphysical thought 
 rejected a body of truth said to have been revealed to a 
 'special people, but retained the idea of revelation to the 
 individual thinker. A doctrine was thus evolved which 
 contained most of the oriental or Jewish theosophical 
 ideas, but in logical sequence and based for the most part 
 on the earlier works of Greek thinkers. Religion was 
 retained, but was explained or had a meaning given by 
 philosophy. To this powerful movement of thought the 
 name Neo-Platonism is given ; its chief representatives 
 ■were Ammonius Saccas, Plotinus, Porphyry, Jamblichus^ 
 and Proclus. Second, the introduction of the peculiar 
 Christian dogmas could not fail to produce a lively effect 
 on the Alexandrian thinkers. These dogmas had to be 
 reconciled with philosophy, or the one must yield to and 
 be absorbed by the other. The attempt to solve the pro- 
 blem of their mutual relation gave rise to Gnosticism in 
 all its phases, and was the cause of the speculative element 
 in the works of such fathers as Clement of Alexandria 
 and Origen. 
 
 To the whole of this great movement the title Alexan- 
 drian philosophy must be given, although that term is 
 sometimes identified with Neo-Platonism. Of the exact 
 historicil origin of it we have no certain notice. Some, 
 thinkers are of opinion that even in the Septuagint traces 
 of rationalism can be discovered. (See Frankel, Ilistorisck. 
 hritische Studien zur Septuaginta, 1841.) In AristobuTUS 
 (160 b.c.) is found a thoroughgoing attempt to show that 
 early Greek speculations were in harmony with the divine 
 
 record, because they had been borrowed from it. Traces 
 of allegorical interpretation are also found in him, but 
 no conception of a theosophical system. In the peculiar 
 tenets of the Therapeutx, so far as these can be known, may 
 perhaps be traced another stream of influence, the Neo- 
 Pythagorean. The complete representative of the Jewish 
 religious philosophy was Philo, surnamed Juda;us, who 
 lived at Alexandria during the Christian era. In him are 
 found a complete aud elaborate theosophy fusing together 
 religious and metaphysical ideas, a firm conviction that all 
 truth is to be found in the sacred writings, and a constant 
 application to these writings of the principle of allegorical 
 interpretation. His system is a syncretism of Oriental 
 mysticism and Greek metaphysics, and the effort at such 
 a combination from the Jewish side could go no further. 
 After Philo Judajus there remained as possible courses 
 either Neo-Platonism or Gnosticism. 
 
 Of Alexandrian literature there are notices in histories pi 
 Greek literature, as Miiller and Donaldson, or Bernhardy ; of 
 Alexandrian philosophy, in general histories of philosophy 
 and of early Christianity. Special works, which, however, 
 devote most attention to the Neo-Platonists, are — 
 
 Matter, Histoirt de I'Ecole <F Alexandrie, 2d ed.~3 vols. 
 1840-44 ; Simon, Histoire de I'Ecole d'Alexandrie, 2 vols. 
 1844—45 ; Vacherot, Histoire critique de I'Ecole d'Alex- 
 andrie, 3 vols. 1846-51; Kingsley, Alexandria and Iter 
 Schools, 1854; Gfrorer, Philo und die Alexandrinischg 
 Theosophie, 1835; Daehne, Geschic/tt - Darstellung dei 
 Jiidisch-AUxandrinischen Religionsphilosophie, 2 vols. 1834. 
 
 ALEXANDRINE VERSE, a name given to the leading 
 measure in French poetry. It is the heroic French verse, 
 used in epic narrative, in tragedy, and in the higher comedy. 
 There is some doubt as to the origin of the name; but 
 most probably it is derived from a collection of romances, 
 published early in the 1 3th century, of which Alexander of 
 Macedon was the hero, and in which he was represented, 
 somewhat like onr own Arthur, as the pride and crown of 
 chivalry. Before the publication of this work most of the 
 trouv&re romances appeared in octo-syllabic verse, j The 
 new work, which was henceforth to set the fashion to 
 French literature, was written in lines of twelve . syllables, 
 but with a freedom of pause which was afterwards greatly 
 curtailed. The new fashion, however, was not adopted all 
 at once. The metre fell into disuse until the reign of 
 Francis I., when it was revived by Jean Antoine de Boeuf, 
 one of the seven poets known as the Pleiades. - ' It was not 
 he, however, but Ronsard, who made the verse popular, 
 and gave it vogue in France. From his time it became 
 the recognised vehicle for all great poetry, and the regula- 
 tion of its pauses became more, and more strict. The fol- 
 lowing is an example of the verse as used by Racine — 
 
 11 Oil 8uis-je ? qu'ai-je fait ? || que dois-je faire encore 1 
 Quel transport me saisit 1 jj quel chagrin me devore J" 
 
 Two inexorable laws came tp be established with regard to 
 the pauses. The first is, that each line should be divided 
 into two equal parts, the sixth syllable always ending with 
 a word. '-, In the earlier use of this metre, on the contrary, 
 it frequently happened that the sixth and seventh syllables 
 belonged to the same word. The other is, that, except 
 under'the most. stringent conditions, there should be none 
 of what the French critics call enjambement, that is, the 
 overlapping of the sense from one line on to the next. 
 Ronsard completely ignored this rule, which was after his 
 time settled by tho authority of Malherbe. Such verses as 
 the following by Ronsard would be intolerable in modern 
 French poetry — ' 
 
 *' Cette nymphe royale est digne qu'on lui drcsse 
 Dcs autcls. . . . 
 
 Les Parques se disoient; Charles, qui doit venir 
 el ii monde. . .
 
 A L E — A L F 
 
 501 
 
 J e Tsux, s'il est possible, atteindre la lonague 
 De celle. . . . 
 
 JTichael Drayton, who was twenty-two years of age when 
 rlonsard died, seemed to think that the Alexandrine might be 
 is pleasing to English as it was to French ears, and in this 
 metre he wrote a long poem in twenty-four books called 
 the Polyolbion. The metre, however, failed to catch the 
 English ear. Our principal measure is a line of ten 
 syllables, and we use the Alexandrine only occasionally to 
 give it variety and weight. In our ordinary heroic verse 
 it is but rarely introduced; but in the favourite narrative 
 metre, known as the Spenserian, it comes in regularly 
 as the concluding line of each stanza. In Englis.li 
 usage, moreover, it is to be observed that there is no fixed 
 rule as to the position of the pause, though it is true that 
 most commonly the pause occurs at the end of the sixth 
 syllable. Spenser is very free in shifting the pause about; 
 and though the later poets who have used this stanza are 
 not so free, yet, with the exception of Shenstone and of 
 Byron, they do not scruple to obliterate all pause between 
 the sixth and seventh syllables. Thus Thomson {Castle oj 
 Indolence, i. 42): — 
 
 " And music lent new gladness to the morning air." 
 
 The danger in the use of the Alexandrine is that, in 
 attempting to give dignity to his line, the poet may only 
 produce heaviness, incurring the sneer of Pope — 
 
 " A needles3 Alexandrine ends the song. 
 That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along." 
 
 (E. S. D.) 
 
 ALEXIS, an ancient comic poet, born about 394 b.c. 
 at Thurii in Magna Graecia, the uncle and instructor of 
 Menander. Plutarch says that he lived to the age of 106 
 years, and according to Suidas he wrote 245 plays, of 
 which the titles of 113 are known. The fragments that 
 have been preserved by Athenaeus and Stobasus attest the 
 wit and elegance of the author. The plays were frequently 
 translated by the Latin comic writers. (See Meineke, 
 Fragm. Com. Grose, vol. i.) 
 
 ALEXIUS I., the nephew of Isaac Comnenus, and the 
 most distinguished member of the Comnenus family, was 
 born in 1048, and died in 1118. In early life he signalised 
 himself in the wars against theenemiesof hiscountry ; but the 
 mean jealousies of the ministers of the emperor Nicephorus 
 (surnamed Botaniates) drove him to take up arms against 
 a sovereign whose cause he had thrice gallantly defended 
 against powerful insurgent leaders; and he ascended the 
 throne of Constantinople in 1081. His character has been 
 too partially drawn by his favourite daughter, Anna Com- 
 nena, who has, however, justly remarked that the disorders 
 of the times were both the misfortune and glory of Alexius, 
 and that he paid the penalty for the vices of his pre- 
 decessor:. In his reign the Turks extended their conquests 
 from Persia to the Hellespont; on the north the empire 
 was assailed by hordes of barbarians from the Danube, and 
 on the west by the Normans; while Europe pressed on 
 Asia by way of Constantinople, in the excitement of 
 the first crusade. Amid these disturbances- Alexius 
 managed the affairs of the state with a dexterous and 
 courageous hand, though his policy was ascribed by 
 the Latins to cowardice or treachery. He was politic 
 enough to derive solid advantages from the romantic valour 
 of the crusaders. Alexius outlived the love of his sub- 
 jects, and their patience was all but exhausted in the latter 
 part of his long reign. The nobility were irritated by the 
 extravagance of his relations; the people by his severity 
 and exactions; and the clergy murmured at his appropria- 
 tion of the church funds to the defence of the stato. 
 
 ALFANI, Domenico, an Italian painter, born at Perugia 
 towards the close of the fifteenth century. The precise 
 
 date is uncertain, but he was a contemporary of .Raphael, 
 with whom he studied in the school of Perugino. The 
 two artists lived on terms of intimate friendship, and the 
 influence of the more distinguished of the two is so clearly 
 traceable in the works of the other, that these have fre- 
 quently been attributed to Raphael. Towards the close 
 of his life Alfani gradually changed his style, and approxi- 
 mated to that of the 'later Florentine school. The date of 
 his death, according to some, was 1540, while others say he 
 was alive iu 1553. Pictures by Alfani may be seen iu 
 collections at Florence, and in several churches in Perugia. 
 AL-FARABI, Abu Nasb Muhammad Lbn Taekhan, 
 one of the earliest Arabian philosophers, flourished during 
 the former half of the 10th century. Philosophy, among 
 the Arabs, was originally an extension of the related 
 sciences of astronomy and medicine, and the first philo- 
 sophers were physicians. The more eminent of them were 
 court physicians, and to this they doubtless owed theii 
 protection against the jealous suspicions of tlie Maho- 
 metan sects. Al-Farabi is supposed (for the detailed 
 accounts of his life are legendary) to have concerned him- 
 self more with the theory than the practice of mediciue ; 
 but he is known to have been a physician at the court of 
 Seif-Eddaula, and died when it was at Damascus in 950. 
 Unlike some of his successors, Dotably Avicenna, he was 
 an ascetic, and his philosophy, which has a slight Platonic 
 infusion, bears traces of the contrast. He was unsystematic, 
 and the sketches and aphorisms of his which have come 
 down to us (many of his treatises ?r» still in MS.) only 
 partially enable us to reconstruct his philosophy. In his 
 opusculum Be Scientiis he enumerates six orders of 
 sciences : — (1.) Language, by which he means little more 
 than grammar. (2.) Logic, which he'names as an art, 
 conceives generally as a science, and confounds in its details 
 with the corresponding art, with rhetoric, and with criticism. 
 (3.) The mathematical sciences, embracing geometry, 
 arithmetic, optics, the science of the stars, music, and the 
 sciences of weights and of capacities (ingenia). Arithmetic 
 is abstract and concrete ; geometry is active, passive, and 
 speculative; and the science of the stars includes astronomy, 
 astrology, the science of climates, and of dreams and 
 auguries. (4.) The natural sciences, ten in number, (o.) 
 Civil science, including judicial science and rhetoric. (6.) 
 Divine science, or metaphysics. This hierarchy has striking 
 approximations to the most modern classifications. Logic 
 and mathematics, the most abstract sciences, are near the 
 beginning, if not quite first ; what stands for social science 
 follows the physical concrete sciences ; and the distinction 
 between abstract and concrete, which Comte made one of the 
 basesof his classification, and which has been more accurately 
 discriminated by Spencer, is on the whole clearly seized. 
 But art is throughout confounded with science ; supersti- 
 tions are mixed up with facts ; physical and mental 
 phenomena are not always separated ; the subjective and 
 the objective (learning and science) are confused, as 
 they afterwards were by Bacon ; and there is no science of 
 man — man was not yet conceived, metaphysically, as an 
 individual. This agrees with Al-Farabi's science of politics 
 as expounded in another work, in which he follows his 
 master, Aristotle, in denying the permanence of the 
 individual soul, and anticipates the Averrhoistic doctrine 
 of the unity of souls. For his metaphysics is Peripatetic, 
 as Peripateticism was interpreted by the Neo-Platonist 
 commentators on Aristotle. Starting with the distinction 
 between the possible and the necessary, he assumes that 
 there must be some supreme necessary existence which 
 accounts for all actual existence. This supreme exist- 
 ence has infinite life, wisdom, power, beauty, goodness, 
 &c, but it is an absolute unity, and is without distinguish- 
 able attributes. How does the world, with its infinite
 
 502 
 
 A L Jb 1 — A L I 
 
 multi[>licity and diversity, issue from this absolutely one 
 and identical being 1 Hero Al-Farabi neo-platonises. It 
 proceeds by emanation. The absolute Being knows itself, 
 and in virtue of this knowledge the first intelligence exists. 
 He does not explain how eelf-consciousness comes to bo 
 inseparable from necessary existence, but his dynamic, at 
 this and all the lower stages, is self-knowledge; and indeed 
 the act of knowing and the resultant existence ap| 
 this height of abstraction to be all but-identical The first 
 intelligence, intrinsically a unity, contains multiplicity, 
 because it is no longer devoid of attributes. In so far as 
 it necessarily exists, it evolves the second intelligence ; in 
 so far as it is merely potential being, and knows itself, it 
 evolves the world-soul and the uppermost world-circle, 
 which is moved by that soul Similarly descending intel- 
 ligences, ever-wider world-circles and the corresponding 
 souls, are evolved by the same process of emanation, down 
 to tho active reason, which is most nearly related to tho 
 earthly elements and human souls. The active reason, 
 by its contact witb ii.atter, impresses on it forms, of which 
 the human soul is one, with greater or less permanence 
 according to the degree in which it is immersed in, or 
 rises above, matter. The forms decline in permanence tho 
 further we descend below the active reason, and tho matter 
 which has least form is the limit of emanation. There is 
 here nothing like what is now called evolution : the con- 
 ception of the universe is, as in all theories of emanation, 
 really statical, not dynamical, for the ideas of cause and 
 perpetual causation do not yet exist ; and of course the 
 process is the reverse of that implied in the modern 
 development theory. (For information on Al-Farabi, see 
 Munk, Melanges, pp. 341-52; and Steinschncider, Memoires 
 de F Acad*.' mie de St Petersbourg^ vii. serie, torn. xiii. Two 
 of his opusctda have "been translated by Schmolders, 
 Documenla Philosophies Arabum, and two are contained in 
 Alpharalii Opera Omnia, Parisiis, 1633.) 
 
 ALFIERI, Vittoeio, chiefly celebrated as the author 
 who raised the Italian tragic drama from its previous state 
 of degradation, was born on the 17th January 1749, at 
 the town of Asti, in Piedmont. Ho lost his father in. 
 early infancy ; but he continued to reside with his mother, 
 who married a second time, till his tenth year, when he 
 was placed at the academy of Turin., After he had passed 
 » twelvemonth at the academy, he went on a short visit 
 to a relation who dwelt at Coni ; and during his stay there 
 he made his first poetical attempt, & a sonnet chiefly 
 borrowed from lines in Ariosto and Metastasio, the only 
 poets he had at that time read. When thirteen years of 
 age he was induced to commence tho study of civil and 
 canonical law ; but the attempt only served to disgust him 
 with every species of application, and to increase his relish 
 for the perusal of French romances. By the death of his 
 uncle, who hod hitherto taken some charge of his education 
 and conduct, he was left, at the age of fourteen, to enjoy 
 without control his vast paternal inheritance, augmented 
 by the recent accession of his uncle's fortune. He now 
 began to attend the riding-school, where he acquired that 
 rage for horses and equestrian exercise which continued to be 
 one of his strongest passions till the close of his existence. 
 
 After some time 'spent in alternate fits of extravagant 
 dissipation tind ill-directed study, he was seized with a 
 desire of travelling ; and having obtained permission from 
 the king, he departed in 1766, under the care of an English 
 preceptor. Restless and unquiet, - he posted with the 
 utmost rapidity through the towns of Italy; and bis 
 improvement wassnch as was to be expected from his mode 
 of travelling and his previous habits. Hoping to find 
 in foreign countries some relief from the tedium and ennui 
 with which he was opprsssed^and being anxious to become 
 acquainted with the French theatre, he proceeded to Paris. 
 
 But he appears to have been completely dissatisfied 
 with everything he witnessed in France, and contracted a 
 dislike to its people, which his intercourse in future year* 
 rather contributed to augment than diminish. In llollan J 
 he became deeply enamoured of a married lady, whi> 
 returned his attachment, but who was soon obliged to 
 accompany her husband to Switzerland. Alfieri, whose 
 feelings were of the most impetuous description, was in 
 despair at this separation, and returned to his own country 
 in the utmost anguish and despondency of mind. While 
 under this depression of spirits he was induced to seek 
 alleviation from works of literature ; and the perusal of 
 Plutarch's Lives, which he read with profound emotion, 
 inspired him with an enthusiastic passion for freedom and 
 independence. Under the influence of this rage for liberty 
 he recommenced his travels ; and his only gratification, in 
 the absence of freedom among the Continental states, 
 appears to have been derived from contemplating the wild 
 and sterile regions of tho north of Sweden, where gloomy 
 forests, lakes, and precipices conspired to excite those 
 sublime and melancholy ideas which were congenial to bis 
 disposition. Everywhere his soul felt as if confined by 
 the bonds of society; he panted for something more free in 
 government, more elevated in sentiment, more devoted in 
 love, and more perfect in friendship. In search of this ideal 
 world he posted through various countries, more with the 
 rapidity- of a courier than of one who travels for amuse- 
 ment or instruction. During a journey to Loudon, he 
 engaged in an intrigue with a married lady of high rank ; 
 and having been detected, the publicity of a rencounter 
 with the injured husband, and of a divorce which followed, 
 rendered it expedient and desirable for him to quit 
 England. He then visited Spain and Portugal, where he 
 became acquainted with the AbbtS Caluso, who remained 
 through life the most attached and estimable friend ho 
 ever possessed. In 1772 Alfieri returned to Turin, where 
 he again became enamoured of a lady, whom he loved with 
 his usual ardour, and who seems to have been as undeserv- 
 ing of a sincere attachment as those.he had hitherto adored. 
 In the course of a long attendance on his mistress, during 
 a malady with which she was afflicted, he one day wrote a 
 dialogue or scene of a drama, which ho left at her house. 
 On a difference taking place between them, the piece was 
 returned to him, and being retouched and extended to 
 five acts, it was performed at Turin in 1775, under the 
 title of Cleopatra. 
 
 From this moment Alfieri was seized with an insatiable 
 thirst for theatrical fame, and the remainder of his hie 
 wa3 devoted to its attainment. His first two tragedies, 
 FUippo and Polinice, were originally written in French 
 prose ; and when he came to ver&ify them in Italian, ho 
 found that, from his Lombard origin, and Jong intercours"' 
 with foreigners, he expressed himself with feebleness and 
 inaccuracy. . Accordingly, with the view of improving hi.i 
 Italian style, he went to Tuscany, and, during an alternato 
 residence at Florence and Siena, he completed his FUippo 
 and Polinice, and conceived the plan of various other 
 dramas. While thus employed, he became acquainted with 
 the Countess of Albany, who then resided with her husband 
 at Florence. For her he formed an attachment which, if 
 less violent than his former loves, appears to have been 
 more permanent. With this motive to remain at Florence, 
 he could not endure the chains by which his vast posses- 
 sions bound him to Piedmont. He therefore resigned Lis 
 whole property to his sister, the Countess Cumiana, reserv- 
 ing an annuity which scarcely amounted to a half of his 
 original revenues. At this period the Countess of Albary. 
 urged by the ill-treatment she received from her husband, 
 sought refuge in Kome, where she at length received per- 
 mission from the pope to live apart from her tormentor
 
 ALF-ALF 
 
 503 
 
 Alfieri followed the countess to that capital, where he com- 
 pleted fourteen tragedies, four of which were now for the 
 first time printed at Sienna. 
 
 At length, however, it was thought proper that, by leav- 
 ing Rome, he should remove the aspersions which had 
 been thrown on the object of his affections. During the 
 year 1783 he therefore travelled through different states of 
 Italy, and published six additional tragedies. The interests 
 of his love and literary glory had not diminished his rage 
 for horses, which seems to have been at least the third 
 passion of his souL He came to England solely for the 
 purpose of purchasing a number of these animals, which 
 he carried with him to Italy. On his return he learned 
 that the Countess of Albany had gone to Colmar in Alsace, 
 crhere he joined her, and resided with her under the same 
 roof during the rest of his life. They chiefly passed their 
 time between Alsace and Paris, but at length took up 
 their abode entirely in that metropolis. While here, Alfieri 
 made arrangements with Didot for an edition of hi3 trage- 
 dies ; but was soon after forced to quit Paris by tho storms 
 of the Revolution. He recrossed the Alps with the 
 countess, and finally settled at Florence. The last ten 
 years of his life, which he spent in that city, seem to have 
 been the happiest of his existence. During that long 
 period his tranquillity was only interrupted by the entrance 
 of the Revolutionary armies into Florence in 1799. Though 
 an enemy of kings, the aristocratic feelings of Alfieri 
 rendered him also a decided foe to the principles and 
 •eaders of the French Revolution ; and he rejected with 
 the utmost contempt those advances which were made 
 with a view to bring him over to their cause. The con- 
 cluding years of his life were laudably employed in the 
 study of the Greek literature, and in perfecting a series of 
 comedies. His assiduous labour on this subject, which he 
 pursued with his characteristic impetuosity, exhausted his 
 strength, and brought on a malady for which he would 
 not adopt the prescriptions of his physicians, but obstinately 
 persisted in employing remedies of his own. His disorder 
 rapidly increased, and at length terminated his life on the 
 8th October 1803, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. 
 
 The character of Alfieri may be best appreciated from the 
 portrait which he has drawn of himself in his own Memoirs 
 of kis Life. He was evidently of an irritable, impetuous, 
 And almost ungovernable temper. Pride, which seems to 
 hava been a ruling sentiment, may account for many 
 apparent inconsistencies of his character. But his less 
 amiable qualities were greatly softened by the cultivation of 
 literature. His application to study gradually tranquillised 
 his temper and softened his manners, leaving him at the 
 same time in perfect possession of those good qualities 
 which he had inherited from nature, — a warm and dis- 
 interested attachment to his family and friends, united to 
 a generosity, vigour, and elevation of character, which 
 rendered him not unworthy to embody in his dramas the 
 actions and sentiments of Grecian heroes. 
 
 Jt is to his dramas that Al fieri is chiefly indebted for the high 
 reputation he has attained. Before his time the Italian language, so 
 harmonious in the Sonnets of Petrarch, and so energetic in the 
 Corn/media of Dante, had been invariably languid and prosaic in 
 dramatic dialogue. The pedantic and inanimate tragedies of the 
 16th century were followed, during the iron age of Italian litera- 
 ture, by dramas of which extravagance in the" sentiments and im- 
 probability in tho action were the chief characteristics. The pro- 
 digious success of the Mcrope of Maffei, which appeared in tho 
 commencement of the last oantury, may be attributed more to a 
 comparison with such productions than to intrinsic merit. In this 
 degradation of tragic taste the appearanco of the tragedies of Alfieri 
 iras perhaps the most important literary event that had occurred in 
 Italy during tho ISth century. On these tragedies it is difficult to 
 pronounce a judgment, as the taste and system of the author under- 
 went considerable change and modification during the intervals 
 which elapsed between the three periods of their publication. An 
 excessive harshness of style, an asperity of sentiment, and total 
 
 want of poetical ornament, are the characteristica of Mb first four 
 tragedies, Filippo, I'olinUx, Antigone, and Virginia. Theae faults 
 were in some measure corrected in the six tragedies which he gave 
 to the world some years after, and in those which he published along 
 with Saul, the dram \ which enjoyed the greatest TOccess of all his 
 productions ; a popularity which may be partly attributed to the 
 severe and unadorned manner of Alfieri being well adapted to the 
 patriarchal simplicity of the age in which the scene of the tragedy is 
 placed. But though there be a considerable difference in his dramas, 
 there are certain observations applicable to them all. None of the 
 plots are of his own invention. They are founded either on mytho- 
 logical fable or history ; most of them had been previously treated 
 by the Greek dramatists, or by Seneca. Rosmunda, the only one 
 which could be supposed of his own contrivance, and which is 
 certainly the least happy effusion of his genius, is partly founded 
 on the eighteenth novel of the third part of Bandello, and partly on 
 Prevost's Mimoires cVun Homme de Qualiti. But whatever subject 
 he chooses, his dramas are always formed on the Grecian model, and 
 breathe a freedom and independence worthy of an Athenian poet. 
 Indeed, his Agide and Bruto may rather be considered oratorical 
 declamations and dialogues on liberty than tragedies. The unities 
 of time and place are not so scrupulously observed in his as in the 
 ancient dramas ; but he has rigidly adhered to a unity of action and 
 interest. He occupies his scene with one great action and one 
 ruling passion, and removes from it every accessary event or feeling. 
 In this excessive zeal for the observance of unity he seems to have 
 forgotten that its charm consists in producing a common relation 
 between multiplied feelings, and not in the bare exhibition of one, 
 divested of those various accompaniments which give harmony to 
 tho whole. Consistently with that austere and simple mauncr 
 which he considered the chief excellence of dramatic composition, 
 he excluded from his scene all coups de thidlre, all philosophical 
 reflections, and that highly ornamented versification which had 
 been so assiduously cultivated by his predecessors. In his anxiety, 
 however, to avoid all superfluous 'ornament, he has stripped his 
 dramas of the embellishments of imagination ; and fcrr tho harmony 
 and flow of poetical language he has substituted, even in his best 
 performances, a styli which, though correct and pure, is generally 
 harsh, elaborate, and ibrupt ; often strained into unnatural energy, 
 or condensed into factitious conciseness. The chief excellence of 
 Alfieri consists in tiowerful delineation of dramatic character. In 
 his Filippo'he has ^presented, almost with tho masterly touches of 
 Tacitus, the sombre character, the dark mysterious counsels, the 
 suspensa semper et obscura verba, of the modern Tiberius. In 
 Polinice, the characters of the rival brothers are beautifully con- 
 trasted ; in Maria Stuarda, that unfortunate queen is represented 
 unsuspicious, impatient of contradiction, and violent in her attach- 
 ments. In Mirra, tho character of Ciniro is perfect as a father and 
 king, and Cecri is a model of a wife and mother. In the representa- 
 tion of that species of mental alienation where the judgment has 
 perished, but traces of character still remain, he is peculiarly 
 happy. The insanity of Saul is skilfully managed ; and the horrid 
 joy of Orestes in killing JSgisthus rises finely and naturally to mad- 
 ness, in finding that, at the same time, he had inadvertently slain 
 his mother. 
 
 Whatever may be the merit3 or defects of Alfieri, he may be con- 
 sidered as the founder of a new school in the Italian drama. His 
 country hailed him as her sole tragic poet ; and his successors in 
 the same path of literature have regarded his bold, austere, and 
 rapid manner, as the genuine model of tragic composition. 
 
 Besides his tragedies, Alfieri published during his life many 
 sonnets, five odes on American independence, and the poem of 
 Etruria, founded on the assassination of Alexander I., duke of 
 Florence. Of his prose works the most distinguished for animation 
 and eloquence is the Panegyric on. Trajan, composed in a transport 
 of indignation at the supposed feebleness of Pliny's eulogium. The. 
 two books entitled La Tirannidc and the Essays on Literature and 
 Government, are remarkable for elegance and vigour of style, but 
 are too evidently imitations of the manner of Machiavel. His 
 Anligallican, which was written at the same time with his Defence 
 is XVI., comprehends an historical and satirical view of the 
 French Revolution. Tho posthumous works of Alfieri consist of 
 satires, six political comedies, and the .'Jemoirs of his Life — a work 
 which will always be read with interest, in spite of the cold and 
 languid gravity with which he delineates the most interesting 
 adventures (id the strongest passions of his agitated life. See 
 Mem. di. Vit. Alfieri; Sismondi De la Lit. da Midi de V Europe: 
 Walker's Memoir on Italian Tragedy ; Giorn. dc Pisa. torn, ltiii. } 
 Life of Alfieri, by Centofanti (Florence, 1842) ; and Vila, Giornuli, 
 Letters di Alfieri, by Teza (Florence, 1S61). 
 
 ALF07?D, Henry, D.D., Dean of Canterbury, one of 
 the most variously-accomplished churchmen of his day — 
 poet, preacher, painter, musician, biblical scholar, critic, 
 and philologist— wac born at 25 Alfred Tlace, Bedford 
 Row, London, October 7th, 1810 (died 1S71) ITe oarae
 
 504 
 
 A L F It D 
 
 of a Somersctsnn-o family, fivo generations of which, in 
 direct succession, contributed clergymen of some distinction 
 to the English Church. The earliest of these, his great- 
 great-grandfather, Thomas Alford, who died in 1708, was 
 for many, years the vicar of Curry Rivell, near Taunton — a 
 living that passed from one to another of his descendants. 
 The father of Dean Alford studied for the bar, but after 
 practising for a' short time, followed the course of his 
 predecessors by taking holy orders; and, until his death at 
 a venerable age in 1852, had long been familiarly known 
 and revered in his part of the country as the rector of Aston 
 Sandford in Buckinghamshire. His first wife, the dean's 
 mother, whose ma : den name was Sarah Eliza Privet, was the 
 younger daughter of a well-to-do banker of Tamworth in 
 ■Staffordshire. A twelvemonth after their marriage, her 
 husband, then practising as a special pleader, was by her 
 premature death in childbed left a widower. The newly-born 
 infant, who remained to the last the bereaved parent's only 
 child, was confided in the first instance to the affectionate 
 care of the home-circle in the house of his maternal grand- 
 father. Towards the close of 181 3 he was taken back to the 
 lonely hearth of his father, who had now entered upon his 
 clerical duties as curate of Steeple Ashton, near Trowbridge 
 in Wiltshire. Being the only son of a secluded scholar, 
 the boy's education was from an unusually early period 
 sedulously cared for; his father being his first instructor, 
 and at the -outset his constant companion. So exceptional 
 was his precocity that at six he had already written a little 
 MS. volume entitled (in round hand) the Travels of St 
 Paul. Before he was eight he had penned a collection of 
 Latin odes in miniature. When he was scarcely nine 
 he had compiled, in the straggling characters of a school- 
 boy, a compendious History of the Jews; besides drawing 
 out a chronological scheme in which were tabulated the 
 events of the Old Testament. Prior to the completion 
 of his tenth year he actually produced a series of terse 
 sermons or laconically outlined homilies, the significant 
 title of which was Looking unto Jesus. During the absence 
 of his father, who had gone abroad as the travelling chaplain 
 of Lord Calthorpe, Henry, at seven years of age, began 
 the round of three academies, at Charinouth and Hammer- 
 smith ; the happiest time of all for him as a schoolboy 
 being three years and upwards passed in the grammar- 
 school at Dminster. His character was already displaying 
 a marked individuality. He could repeat not only readily 
 but appreciatively an astonishing number of lines in Greek, 
 Latin, and English, selected from what were then and always 
 afterwards his favourite classic authors. He indulged, too, 
 in those early days, in the luxury of original versification. 
 Then it was also that he first began to manifest that 
 singular capacity for ingenious contrivance and that sur- 
 prising* neatness and dexterity of manipulation for which 
 he 'was afterwards remarkable. It was said of him later 
 in life, that he could construct an organ and then play 
 upon it ; and when his reputation for profound scholarship 
 had been long established, hi3 constructiveness was 
 curiously manifested by bis adaptation to the purposes of 
 utility of the seemingly ordinary walking-stick he carried 
 when travelling on the Continent. In its upper joint he 
 secreted his surplus money and his drawing materials ; in 
 its lower joint, pens, ink, wax, and pencils. Strangely 
 contrasting- with this ineradicable passion for nicety and 
 precision was his delight at all time3 in giving himself up 
 to the most diversified occupations, and in yielding, often 
 at an instant's notice, as he sometimes notes with regret. 
 to the temptation of mere discursiveness. 
 
 It was in the October of 1827 that the university life 
 of Alford commenced. At seventeen he went up to Cam- 
 bridge, having won his scholarship, and had his name 
 entered at Trinity College. During the midsummer of his 
 
 fourth year at Cambridge, in the Juno of 1831, he hai! 
 obtained the second prize essay. As the autumn deepened 
 into winter he was nervously preparing to go in for 
 honours at the examinations. In the possibility of his 
 success he had not the slightest confidence, yet on tbo 
 21st January 1832 he appears as thirty-fourth wrangler; 
 while on tho 25th February his name comes out eighth on 
 the fi'st-class list of the classical tripos. He now began to 
 take pupils, and within tho interval which elapsed between 
 his taking his degree and giving himself up more completely 
 to the great work of his life — the elaboration of his edition 
 of the Greek New Testament — it is believed that he had 
 under his charge at least sixty. These included barristers, 
 clergymen, peers, and members of parliament; many of 
 whom afterwards attained positions of eminence, all of 
 them having their characters moulded more or less under 
 the inspiring influence of his. In his twenty-sixth year he 
 was united in marriage to his cousin Fanny, a daughter of 
 his uncle, the Rev. Samuel Alford, who was then, as his 
 father and his great-grandfather had been before him, vicar 
 of Curry Rivell. Surviving her husband after nearly thirty- 
 five years of wedded life, during which she had seen tho 
 development of his intellectual powers and the realisation 
 of some portions at least of his many-sided ambition, she 
 brought out in 1872 his journals and correspondence, care- 
 fully edited by herself. A curiously characteristic side-light 
 is thrown upon Alford's inner nature, both moral and intel- 
 lectual, by the circumstance there recorded — that, with a 
 view to enable his future wife to read the New Testament 
 in Greek, he wrote with his own hand, in the interval be- 
 tween betrothal and marriage, an elementary Greek gram- 
 mar of sixty folio pages. The incident is all the more 
 interesting as affording the earliest glimpse of what soor 
 proved to be his dominant aspiration. His researches in 
 secular scholarship were at this time becoming every year 
 more and more adventurous. He shrank not from proclaim- 
 ing even then that he regarded Niebuhr as " one of the 
 greatest men in this ignorant and obstinate world.". Mean- 
 while, in the midst of his excursive inquiries as a student 
 in tho mo3t opposite directions, he was indulging at every 
 available opportunity in the lotos-delight of his own day- 
 dreamings; and in February 1833, he published his maiden 
 work as a lyrist, Poems and Poetical Fragments. Simply as 
 an instructor lie was working steadily seven hours a-day ; 
 but tlia time came when, in furtherance of his favourite 
 researches, he was known to toil at the desk sometimes 
 twelve or fourteen. 
 
 Resolved from childhood to tread the path of life in 
 the footsteps of his forefathers, Alford was ordained deacon 
 on the 26th October 1833, and at once began active pro- 
 fessional work as curate of Ampton. So modest was his 
 own estimate of his intellectual capabilities, that it was with 
 unaffected surprise he found his name second on tho list ol 
 the six Fellows of Trinity who were elected on the 1st of 
 the following October. On the 6th November he was 
 admitted to priest's orders, and four months afterwards, 
 upon the 4th March 1835 — scarcely a week before bis 
 marriage — entered upon his parochial labours of eighteen 
 years' duration as vicar of Wymeswold in Leicestershire. 
 Twice during the interval of his scholarly seclusion in that 
 quiet vicarage he was vainly tempted with the offer of a 
 colonial bishopric, first in 1841 as bishop of New Zealand, 
 and again in 1844 as bishop of New Brunswick. He con- 
 tentedly drudged on for years together in comparative 
 obscurity among his pupils and parishioners. Although 
 a ripe scholar, and remarkable for his splendid versatility, 
 it was less by the brilliancy of his achievements than by 
 the sheer force of the most diligent perseverance that he 
 pushed his way eventually into the front rank, and com- 
 manded at last the recognition of his contemporarie.-.
 
 ALFORD 
 
 505 
 
 W>atcver he put his hand to he carried out with a zeal 
 that at times looked almost like dogged determination. 
 Thrown from hk horse in the February of 1847 when 
 going to deliver his first lecture, although very seriously 
 shaken and disfigured, he nevertheless punctually appeared 
 before his audience with his face and head covered with 
 surgical bandages and — resolutely lectured. His reputa- 
 tion as a lecturer of exceptional power was within a few 
 years from that time thoroughly established. Several of 
 his discourses, notably one on Saul of Tarsus, with others 
 on themes as varied as astronomy, music, scenery, and 
 Christianity, acquired in the end a certain amount of 
 celebrity. For two years together, in 1841 and 1842, he 
 held the chair at Cambridge of Hulsean lecturer. As the 
 result of his labours in that capacity, two substantial 
 volumes afterwards made their appearance. Meanwhile, in 
 the midst of his more serious avocations, he was at uncertain 
 intervals making good his claim to be regarded as one of 
 the more subtle and tender of the minor religious poets of 
 England. Adopting an old forgotten title of Quarles's, he 
 brought out, on his arrival at Wymeswold (1835), in two 
 volumes, his School of the Heart, coupled with a reissue 
 of his minor poems and sonnets. In 1838, he edited, in 
 3ix vols., the works of Donne, prefixing a luminous preface, 
 at once critical and biographical Throughout the year 1839 
 and part of 1840 he edited a monthly magazine called 
 Dearden's Miscellany. In 1841 he published, with other 
 new poems, his Ahbot of Muchelnaye. A collection of Psalms 
 and Hymns appeared from his hand in the spring of 1844. 
 A. couple of years before that, in 1842, he had first entered 
 upon his duties at Somerset House, where he acted for 
 many years as examiner in logic and moral and intellectual 
 philosophy in the university of London. So youthful was 
 his appearance at the date of his first receiving this appoint- 
 ment, that on his entering the apartment where he was 
 awaited by the candidates, he was mistaken for one of 
 themselves. 
 
 What eventually proved to be the noblest of all his 
 literary undertakings, his new edition, with running 
 commentary, of the Greek Testament, engrossed his atten- 
 tion for fully twenty years together, from 1841 to 
 1861. Originally designed for the use of students in 
 the universities, the work, from its modest first projec- 
 tion, grew in his hands to enormous proportions. He 
 fancied at starting that a single year might witness its. 
 completion, and that a couple, of thin octavos might embrace 
 both text and commentary. By the time the expanding 
 scheme was actually realised twenty years had elapsed, and 
 the' work had swollen into four ponderous tomes, the con- 
 tents of which were as weighty as they were comprehensive. 
 The idea of the work was suggested to Alford's mind as he 
 listened one day to a sermon at Cambridge. What he pro- 
 posed to himself at the outset was simply to adopt the 
 main text, and to combine with it the greater part of the 
 readings of Philipp Buttmann and Karl Lachmann. This, 
 however, led to a more extended plan of critical labour and 
 research, including a comprehensive digest of the various 
 readings founded on the latest collations of the principal 
 manuscripts, the Codex Vaticanus, the Codex Sinaiticus, 
 the Codex Alexandrinus, and others. With a view to 
 illustrate more clearly than ever the verbal and idiomatic 
 or constructional usages of the sacred text, an entirely new 
 collection of marginal references was compiled. Added to 
 this there was a copious abundance of English notes, both 
 exegetical and philological. Conscious of the vast stores of 
 learning that had been accumulating in Germany, Alford 
 from an early date determined to render himself as 
 thoroughly as possible a master of the German language 
 and at home in German literature. This intention was 
 (airly carried out at Bonn before the close of the summer 
 
 of 1847. Then, but hardly till then, b.9 felt himself at 
 last duly qualified to edit the Greek Testament. From 
 that time he prepared in earnest to open up systematically 
 to the contemplation of English readers the wealth of 
 German criticism, actually made plain for the first time in 
 our language through his Prolegomena and subsequent inci- 
 dental commentary. In November 1849 (the month the 
 author took his B.D. degree at Cambridge), voL i. of the 
 Greek Testament was published, containing the four Gospels. 
 Through it theological students in this country had placed 
 within their reach in an epitomised form the latest results 
 of the labours of continental critics on the Greek text, 
 including portions even of those of Constantino Tischendorf. 
 Issued from the press volume by volume, the work, as' 
 already remarked, was not completed till long afterwards. 
 In January 1861 the fourth or final volume, beginning with 
 the Epistle to the Hebrews and ending with the Book of 
 Revelation, made its appearance. What is chiefly notice- 
 able in regard to the work is its strictly critical character. 
 It is the production of a philologist rather than of a theo- 
 logian. Abbreviations, punctuations, elisions of ortho- 
 graphy, systematic ellipses, the merest turns of the pen in 
 this or that manuscript, are weighed against microscopic 
 scruples in the balance of his judgment. There can be little 
 question that the work appreciably increased the aggregate 
 amount of the biblical knowledge of Alford's immediato 
 contemporaries. So carefully matured were his researches 
 in the regions of exegesis, already crossed and recrossed 
 by the footprints of countless commentators, that the work 
 is regarded as in many respects authoritative even among 
 those who differ from him widely on many important 
 questions. 
 
 Early in 1853 Alford first preached in Quebec chapel, 
 London, the building in which his father had been ordained 
 deacon forty years before. Before the year was out, on the 
 26th September, he had removed from his picturesque 
 church in the wolds of Leicestershire to the plain con- 
 venticle in Tyburnia. There he remained for nearly four 
 years, toiling assiduously, preaching twice every Surday to 
 a- large and cultured congregation. Seven volumes, jssued 
 from the press at intervals, have, under the title of The 
 Quebec Chapel Sermons, preserved 153 of the more remark- 
 able of these discourses — those preached by him in the 
 morning — all of which were carefully prepared beforehand. 
 As a preacher his style was severe and earnest rather than 
 eloquent or impassioned. Perhaps the finest discourse he 
 ever delivered was the one on the text, " A great multitude 
 which no man could number." It was preached from tha 
 cathedral pulpit shortly after his advancement by Lord 
 Palmerston, in March 1857, to the deanery of Canterbury. 
 Throughout his life, but especially towards its cl<?se, his 
 chief delight intellectually appears to have been the rapid 
 alternation of his pursuits. While he was yet in the midst 
 of his biblical researches he was, simultaneously, at the 
 beginning of 1851, translating the Odyssey, arrarging his 
 poems, with additions for their American republication, and 
 preparing an article for the Edinburgh Review on the St 
 Paul of Conybeare and Howson. A series of ingenious 
 lectures, delivered by him in his capacity of phiblogist, on 
 being compacted into a manual of idiom and usa^e, entitled 
 The Queen's English, attained a high degree of popularity. 
 Nevertheless, in spite of their wholly unpretentious and 
 essentially humorous character, these mere 'casual notes 
 on spelling and speaking drew down upon their author 
 one of the sharpest criticisms he ever provoked, sarcas- 
 tically entitled The Dean's English. The Contemporary 
 Review was inaugurated under his editorship; and from 
 January 1866 to August 1870 was conducted by him as a 
 sort of neutral ground for religious criticism. Under the 
 title of The Year of Prayer, Alford in 1866 published a
 
 506 
 
 A L F — A L if 
 
 ! ok of family dovotion; and in 1867, a collection of 
 Original hymns called The Year of Praise, works of little 
 
 asion, but by which his name was widely popularised. 
 His latest poetic effusion of any considerable length was 
 The Children of the Lord's Prayer, which appeared in 
 18G9 as the letterpress accompaniment to designs by F. R. 
 Pickersgill, R.A. The miscellaneous papers he had con- 
 tributed to periodicals were, the same year, collected under 
 the name of Essay* and Addresses. He brought out, in 
 1SC5, his Letters from Abroad, eminently characteristic 
 records of travel, mainly descriptive of Italian cities and 
 scenery; and in 1S70, a collection of spirited pen and pencil 
 sketches of The Rivii r (, the latter being reproduced from 
 his water-colour drawings by the aid of chromo-litho- 
 graphy. The artist faculty, it has been observed, and 
 not extravagantly, "would have made him a great land- 
 scape painter had he not, either from preference or neces- 
 
 >>ecome a great Greek scholar and a dean." Such 
 wera the pliancy and the resilience of his nature that he 
 would turn with zest, after hours of severe study given to 
 the collation of a Hebrew manuscript or to the examination 
 of the exegctical subtleties of a German commentator on 
 the Greek Testament, to doctoring the hall clock and 
 making it strike the half-hours, to tuning the piano in 
 the drawing-room, or to playing games with his children 
 in the nursery. Tho wooden front of the organ (which 
 instrument ho could play with the hand of a master) was 
 carved according to his own ingenious design and by his 
 own dexterous chiselling. A Masque of the Seasons, per- 
 formed as a holiday pastime on Now Year's Day 1861, in 
 the deanery, owed to him both tho words and the music — 
 ho himself, besides, enacting in it the part of "Father 
 Christmas." A couple of years beforo his death he appeared 
 as a novelist, conjointly with his niece producing the story 
 
 lierton on Sea. The last work of any magnitude upon 
 which he adventured as a biblical scholar was his Com- 
 military on the Old Testament. In the diversity of his avoca- 
 tions, and the thoroughness with which they were, one and 
 all, carried to a successful issue, he was his own severest 
 taskmaster. Throughout life, until he was stretched upon 
 his deathbed, he never seemed to indulge in the luxury of 
 inaction. The end came at length to him calmly, on the 
 12th January 1871, and five days afterwards his remains 
 were interred under a yew tree in St Martin's churchyard, 
 within view of the towers of Canterbury Cathedral. Jt is 
 significant of the tender poetical quaintness of his whole 
 character, that there is inscribed above his tomb, in obedience 
 to his own directions, " Diversorium Viatoris Hierosolymam 
 Proficiscentis." A statue of the dean, by Pfyffers, was un- 
 veiled, before the year of his demise had run out, in a niche 
 on the west front of tho most ancient of our cathedrals. 
 Dean Alford was a man as variously accomplished as any of 
 his generation; and he would unquestionably have risen to 
 far greater eminence than he ever achieved in poetry, in 
 
 ry, in music, in painting, in theology, or in general 
 literature, if he had aimed at excelling in one or two alone 
 of those arts or sciences, instead of endeavouring to shine 
 in all of them alike. (c. k.) 
 
 ALFRED, or Mwkkd, the Geeat, the youngest son 
 of iEthelwulf, king of the West Saxons, was born at 
 Wantage in Berkshire in 849 a.d. At an early ago he 
 was summoned to the assistance t>f his brother iEthelred 
 against the Dane3. These formidable enemies, whose 
 object hitherto had been mere plunder, were now aiming 
 at a permanent-settlement in the country, and after ravag- 
 ing and subduing Northumbria, East Anglia, and the 
 greater part of Mereia, they fell with their united forces on 
 Wessex itself. A series of encounters took place, in which 
 Alfred greatly distinguished himself, especially at Ashdown, 
 • liar* the Danes were routed with great slaughter, and 
 
 left several of t^.eir most famous leaders dead on the field 
 of battle. .iEthelred dying in the midst of the struggle, 
 Alfred was unanimously elected king (871), in the twenty- 
 second year of his age. About a month after his accession 
 he met the enemy at Wilton, where, after a long and 
 doubtful struggle, he was defeated. Both parties were now 
 becoming tired of the war. Immense loss had been 
 suffered on both sides, and although the Danes on the 
 whole had been victorious, their victories had brought 
 them no substantial results. A treaty of peace was con- 
 cluded, and the Danes withdrew to London. 
 
 On the cessation of hostilities, Alfred was enabled to 
 turn his attention to naval affairs. The sea was swarming 
 with pirates, and their descents on the coast kept the 
 country in a state of perpetual alarm. To cope with them 
 successfully Alfred resolved to meet them on their own 
 element, and a naval victory which he gained over seven 
 Danish rovers in 875 is the first on record won by 
 Englishmen. In the following year the peaco of 871 was 
 broken. An army of Danes from East Anglia, under their 
 king, Guthrum, sailing along the south coast, landed in 
 Wessex, seized upon Warcham, and afterwards upon Exeter, 
 then the centre of a disaffected Celtic population, and it 
 was not till 877 that the country was once more free from 
 the invader. 
 
 The year 878 was the most eventful in the course of 
 Alfred's reign. At mid-winter, without any warning, the 
 Danes came pouring into Wessex from the north, seized 
 Chippenham, and making it the centre of their operations, 
 quickly overran the country. Many of the inhabitants, in 
 despair, fled into foreign lands, and Alfred, totally unpre- 
 pared to meet the storm, retired to tho marshes of Somerset. 
 Never at any other period, either before or after, were his 
 fortunes so low, and the national existence itself was at 
 stake. Had Alfred, like his kinsman Burhed of Mercia?/; 
 left his people in their hour of need, the heathen Dane 
 in all probability would have acted like the heathen / 
 Englishmen before him — a new race would have possessed 
 tho land, and the names of England and Englishmen would 
 have disappeared from the page of history. Alfred's mis- 
 fortunes only roused him to fresh exertions, and his 
 military skill and valour enabled him to carry his people 
 in safety through this momentous crisis. Fortifying him- 
 self at Athelney about Easter, he secretly matured his 
 plans for meeting the enemy, and seven weeks after, 
 having collected his forces at Brixton near Selwood, he 
 rapidly advanced in a north-easterly direction, and was 
 close upon the Danes before they had any intelligence of 
 his approach. A fierce conflict ensued at Ethandun, now 
 Ediiigton, in which the Danes were entirely defeated; and 
 about fourteen days after this they were compelled to sue 
 for peace. By the treaty of Wedmore, Watling Street (the 
 old road running across the island from London to Chester 
 and the Irish Channel) was to be tho boundary between 
 Alfred and the Danes, the latter were to be vassals to the 
 kings of Wessex, and their chiefs to receive baptism. This 
 treaty was observed by tho Danes with much greater fidelity 
 than those of an earlier date had been. G uthrum their king 
 and about thirty of their chiefs were baptised at Wedmore, 
 and Alfred, who stood sponsor for Guthrum, gave him the 
 name of iEthelstan. The Danish army after this slowly 
 withdrew, and eventually settled down peaceably in East 
 Anglia. The acceptance of Christianity by their chiefs 
 seems indeed to have broken for a time the fierce crusading 
 energy which gave a special animus to the piratical expedi- 
 tions of the heathen Danes. 
 
 As soon as peace had been concluded Alfred turned his 
 attention to the internal affairs of his kingdom. He 
 vigorously set to work to put the country in n. complete 
 state of defence. Old fortificatiots were repaired and new
 
 ALF-ALG 
 
 507 
 
 jncs raised in suitable localities. • The fleet was brought 
 into a state of greater efficiency, and it was Alfred indeed 
 that laid the foundation of England's naval greatness. He 
 «leared the land of the bands of robbers that infested it, 
 and took care that justice was impartially administered to 
 all his subjects, severely punishing any wilful perversion of 
 it on the part of the judges. In his code of laws, which 
 is a compilation from those of his predecessors, he wisely 
 abstained from introducing much of his own, giving as his 
 reason that he was afraid it might not be accepted by 
 posterity. He greatly encouraged commerce, and took a 
 lively interest in geographical discovery. We have from 
 his pen a minute account of two voyages of Ohthere, 
 especially of the one round the-North Cape into the YvTiite 
 Sea, and also of a voyage of Wulfstan to the Baltic. And 
 it is to Alfred that we are indebted for the best account that 
 has reached us of the Germany of the 9th century. 
 
 Alfred's devotion to learning, and his exertions in the 
 cause of education are among the most remarkable features 
 of his reign. So deep was the popular ignorance when 
 Alfred ascended the throne that, according to his own 
 testimony, hardly any one south of the Thames could under- 
 stand the ritual of the church or translate a Latin letter. 
 It was one of the strongest and most cherished of his 
 purposes that this state of matters should be entirely 
 changed, and that every free-born English youth who had 
 the means should qualify himself to read English correctly. 
 In order to accomplish this, he rebuilt the monasteries 
 which had been cast down in the late wars, and which 
 were the great- centres of education in those days, invited 
 learned men from all quarters to his court, and by their 
 assistance completed a number of works for the diffusion 
 of knowledge throughout his dominions. These were not 
 original compositions but free translations of Latin authors 
 that were held in much esteem at the time, and the fact 
 that Orosius and Bede are two of the works he selected, 
 shows the high value he set upon an acquaintance with 
 history and geography. A copy of his versioF of Gregory's! 
 Pastoral Care was sent to every diocese for tne benefit of 
 the clergy. It is in the preface "to that work that Alfred 
 gives his touching account of the decay of learning, and 
 expresses his desire for its revival. But the work which 
 seems to have had the greatest attraction for Mm was 
 The Consolations of Philosophy by Boethius. In his 
 translation of this work Alfred gives us more of his own 
 original composition, and a deeper insight into his thoughts 
 and feelings, than in any other of his works. His Manual 
 or Handbook, which is known to have been in existence in 
 the 12th century, is lost, and this is the more to be 
 regretted since, besides the extracts from Latin authors 
 which it contained, it is believed that he had inserted in it 
 not a few compositions of his own. 
 
 In occupations such as these fifteen years of comparative 
 tranquillity, disturbed now and then by troubles with the 
 Danes, passed away. A fresh swarm from abroad had landed 
 in Kent in 885 and besieged Rochester, but on the king's 
 approach they raised the siege and returned to their ships. 
 The next eight years were years of uninterrupted peace; 
 but the Danes, suffering a severe defeat at the hands of 
 Arnulf, king of the East Franks, sailed for England in two 
 divisions in 893. One of these divisions was under the 
 command of the terrible Hastings. Their arrival was a 
 signal' to the Danes of Northiunbria and East Anglia, 
 who rose in great numbers to aid their kinsmen. Alfred, 
 however, was, better prepared to meet the danger than he 
 had formerly been. His towns were so strong that the 
 Danes seem studiously to have avoided them. A body of 
 the enemy was routed by Alfred at Farnham in Surrey. 
 Anothtr great host, moving to the west in the line 
 of the Thames, was followed by three of Alfred's alder- 
 
 men to Buttington in Montgomeryshire and completely 
 defeated. Those who escaped made their way to Essex. 
 Leaving their wives-and children there, and receiving coa» 
 6iderable additions to their numbers, they crossed the 
 country once more and established themselves within the 
 fortifications of the old Boman town of Chester, which 
 was then uninhabited. There they remained for the 
 winter, when, provisions failing them, they removed to 
 Wales, and with the harvest of plunder they gathered there 
 they retreated into Essex by way of the friendly districts 
 of Northumbria and East Anglia. So rapid had their 
 movements been that Alfred's army was unable to keep 
 up with them. The same year (895), before winter set in, 
 the Danes sailed up the Thames into the Lea, and' selecting 
 an advantageous position on the banks of the latter stream, 
 constructed a fortress about 20 miles above London. As 
 this proved a considerable annoyance to the citizens, they 
 attacked it the following summer, but were repulsed with 
 great loss. During harvest the king was obliged to encamp 
 in the neighbourhood of the city to protect the reapers 
 while gathering in their crops. He afterwards raised two 
 forts on each side of the Lea, and so effectually blocked 
 up the passage of the river that the enemy abandoned then 
 vessels and proceeded to Bridgenorth on the Severn. Id 
 the summer of 897 the great Danish host broke up, and 
 part of them returned to the continent. The rest dis- 
 persed through Northumbria and East Anglia, and for 
 some time gave Alfred no little trouble by their piratical 
 excursions. By means of vessels formed after a model of 
 his own, of unusual length and speed, he succeeded at 
 last in curbing his Danish foes, but not till after a 
 desperate encounter wkh them on the south coast, in 
 which the advantage was not all on his side. The war was, 
 as usual, accompanied by pestilence, and great numbers 
 perished, many being persons of the highest rank in the 
 state. The rest of Alfred's reign, about which we know 
 almost nothing, seems to have been passed in peace. He 
 died in the year 901, at the age of fifty- two, and was 
 buried at Winchester. 
 
 The memory of Alfred has ever been gratefully cherished 
 by his countrymen. There never perhaps was a monarch 
 so highly esteemed ; and traditional stories of the most 
 fascinating description cluster around his name, in which 
 he appears almost to as much advantage as in real history. 
 Institutions that existed long before his time, but whose 
 origin it is impossible to trace,, have erroneously been 
 attributed to him; and in the times of Norman oppres- 
 sion, when the people were groaning under the burden of 
 slavery, they fondly called to mind the " Darling of the 
 English," to whom they ascribed all those rights and 
 privileges which they eo highly valued, and of which they 
 had been unjustly deprived. Time but adds to Alfred's 
 praises. With one consent our historians agree in char- 
 acterising him as the wisest, best, and greatest king that 
 ever reigned in England. 
 
 The following is a list of Alfred's works : — 
 
 1. Manual or Handbook, of which no copy is known to oxist 
 2. Laws (see Wilkin's leges Anglo-Saxonica:, 1721, and Thorpe'i 
 Ancient Laws and Institutes of England, London, 1840). Transla- 
 tions mto Old English (Anglo-Saxon) of tho following : — 3. Bede'a 
 Ecclesiastical History, edited by 'Wheloc, Cambridge, 1643-4, and 
 by Smith, Cambridge, 1722. 4. The Universal History of Orosius, 
 edited by Thorpe, London, 1857. E. Tlu Consolations of Philosophy, 
 by Boethius, edited by Fox, London, 1S64. 6. Gregory's Pastoral 
 Care, edited by" Sweet for the Early English Text Society, London, 
 1871-2. 
 
 For further information about Alfred see Pauli's Lift of Alfred and 
 Freeman's Old English History &niHis:ory ofOuNorman ConqiusL 
 
 KLQM,' or Hydrophyta, a large order of cellular, 
 fiowerless, cryptogamic plants, found in the sea (seaweeds), 
 in rivers, lakes, marshes, hot springs, and moist places, all 
 over the world. They insist of a brown, red. or gr«er>.
 
 608 
 
 A L G M 
 
 flattened, cellular, leaf-like expansion, called a tkallus, 
 sometimes stalked, which bears the organs of reproduction. 
 Some have root-like processes by which they are attached 
 to rocks. These do not act like the nourishing roots of 
 flowering plants ; they simply fix the plants and enable 
 them to sway about in the water. This is markedly the 
 caae with the Laminarias, or large tangles of our coasts. 
 The leafy appendages of seaweeds are called fronds. They 
 vary in size, colour, and consistence. Some of the red and 
 green delicate fronds form beautiful objects when carefully 
 dried and laid out on drawing-paper. In order to dry sea- 
 weeds they must be first washed carefully in fresh water 
 to separate saline matters, and then placed within drying- 
 paper and subjected to pressure. Very delicate seaweeds 
 should be floated out in water, drawing-paper being placed 
 under them, and their fronds being carefully arranged on 
 the paper before they are raised out of the water. They 
 must-then be dried partially in the air, and afterwards under 
 pressure between sheets of drying-paper. 
 
 Seaweeds are composed entirely of cells, which in some 
 instances become elongated so as to have the appearance of 
 tubes. Some Algae are uni-cellular, that is, are composed 
 of a single cell, as occurs in some. Desmidieae, as Closterium. 
 At other times they are composed of numerous cells, which 
 are kept together by a gelatinous matter, but separating 
 easily from each other so as to have an independent exist- 
 ence. This is observed in the red snow plant (Protococcus 
 or Palmella nivalis). The cells of seaweeds are sometimes 
 joined together so as to form a .linear series, and to give 
 them a thread-like appearance ; and in such a case, when 
 the divisions between the cells are marked, the whole 
 appears like a beaded necklace of cells. When the cells 
 are united both lengthwise and laterally they then form 
 an expanded flat frond. In some instances the frond is 
 gelatinous. 
 
 The germinating bodies or spores of seaweeds are cells 
 ofteu contained in cavities (Fig. 2). They vary in colour, 
 and the fronds have frequently the same colour as the 
 spores. In reference to their colour, Algae have been 
 divided into three sub-orders: 1. Melanospermeae, brown 
 coloured seaweeds (Fig. 1), with olive-brown spores; 2. 
 Rhodospermeae, rose-coloured seaweeds, with red spores ; 
 3. Chlorospermeae, green-coloured seaweeds, with green 
 »pores. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 /ig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Thallus, It, of Fucm ttstcuUnu, the common Bladder Seaweed, with 
 mir-rcside, v, and masses of conceptacles constituting the fructification fr fr 
 which Is sometimes called gleba. Fig. 2.— Fructification of a Seaweed, con- 
 taining spores, which are ultimately discharged at an opening, o. Fig. 8 — 
 Tctraaporc tf one of the rose-coloured Seaweeds. 
 
 Algae are multiplied by the division of cells and by 
 *pores. By cell-division there is a multiplication of cells, 
 »ud by separation from the parent plant these cells may 
 
 bear buds. True fertilisation b effected by means of 
 union of cells, or what is called conjugation. In this pro- 
 cess two kinds of cells unite by means of a tube, and the 
 contents of the one passes into the other, thus giving rise 
 to germinating spores. This is seen in Confervae, such a3 
 the green matter ofteu seen in ponds, and called tilk-wced. 
 There are also observed in Algae two kinds of fertilising 
 bodies, one set called Antheridia, containing moving fila- 
 ments or spermatozoids ; and the other called Archegdnia, 
 containing a rudimentary cell, which, afUr contact with 
 the spermatozoids, becomes a spore forming a new plant. 
 The spores produced by some Algae move about in 
 water, and have been called Zoospores. Their spontaneous 
 movements are effected by means of vibratilo slender 
 threads called cilia. These zoospores are contained in a 
 cell, which ultimately bursts and scatters them. The pro- 
 cess is well seen in a green Alga called Vaucheria. The zoo- 
 spores move about for a certain time, and ultimately the 
 spores get fixed to a rock or the wood of a pier, and then 
 the ciiia disappear. Cilia sometimes occur in pairs at one 
 end of a spore, numbering two or three ; at ether times 
 they are placed round the whole circumference of the spore. 
 
 Spores have a tendency to divide into four ; such com- 
 pound spores are called tetraspores (Fig. 3). They are 
 common in the sub-order Rhodospermeae. They seem to 
 differ from ordinary spores, and to be more of the nature of 
 buds. In some Algae, such as Corallines, there is a coating 
 of calcareous matter which conceals their tissue. This can 
 be removed by means of hydrochloric acid. Diatoms, a 
 subdivision of Algae, are so called from two Greek words 
 signifying to cut through, in allusion to the mode of divi- 
 sion into two valves. They are microscopic one-celled 
 bodies, covered externally by a siliceous or flinty coat. 
 They are on the confines of the animal and vegetable king- 
 doms, and have been referred sometimes to the one and 
 sometimes to the other. Their mode of reproduction by 
 conjugation and spores seems to indicate their alliance 
 with Algae, although some still place them among infusorial 
 animalcules. The siliceous markings of Diatoms are very 
 beautiful microscopic objects. After exposure, to the action 
 of fire or nitric acid, the silex remains unaltered, and in that 
 state the streaks of the covering are easily observed. 
 
 Many of the Algae supply nutritious food. Rltodymenia 
 palmata, one of the red seaweeds, is the dulse of the 
 Scotch, the dillesk of the Irish. Chondrus (Sphatrococcus) 
 crispus and C. mamrnillosus, two Rhodosperms, receive the 
 name of carrageen, or Irish moss. Their fronds consist in 
 part of a substance allied to starch, wluch is extracted by 
 putting them in water, and on cooling it forms a jelly. 
 Species of Ulva, one of the Chlorosperms, supply the green 
 laver. Species of Caulerpa furnish food to turtles. Lamin- 
 aria digilata, and Laminaria saccharina, under the name 
 of tangle, are eaten in the north of Europe. Dulse 
 and tangle was formerly a common cry in the streets of 
 Edinburgh. D'Urvillma utilis is used as food in Chili 
 Alaria esculenta, a British species, is also edible. Gigartina 
 speciosa is used for jelly in the Swan River settlement. 
 Gracilaria lichenoides, under the name of Ceylon moss, is 
 used for soups and. jellies. Gracilaria spinosa supplies 
 the Agar-Agar in China. Nosloc edule is a Chinese article 
 of diet. The edible nests of China are supposed to bo 
 formed from seaweeds. Plocaria tenax is used in China 
 to furnish glue. Iridaa edulis is edible. Laurencia pin- 
 natifida is called pepper- dulse on account of having 
 pungent qualities. Seaweeds form an excellent manure. 
 They are used on many farms situated near the sea-shore. 
 Seaweeds after burning yield barilla, an impure carbonate 
 of soda. Kelp was for many years prepared from sea- 
 weeds in Scotland, more especially in the Western anc* 
 Northern Islands.
 
 ALG-ALG 
 
 £09 
 
 As regards the distribution of seaweeds, some are cosmo- 
 politan or pelagic, as species of Ulva and Enteromorpha, 
 which are equally abundant in high northern and 
 southern latitudes, as they are under the equator and in 
 temperate regions. Many Diatomaeeaa are distributed 
 from pole to pole. In general, however, seaweeds are more 
 or less limited in their distribution, so that different marine 
 floras exist in various parts of the ocean. The marine 
 species have been estimated at about 6000, and they are 
 distributed in various regions. The Northern Ocean, from 
 the pole to the 40th degree, the sea of the Antilles, the 
 eastern coasts of South America, those of New Holland, 
 the Indian Archipelago, the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, 
 the Chinese and Japanese seas, all present very large 
 marine regions, each of which possesses a peculiar vegeta- 
 tion. The degree of exposure to light, and the greater or 
 less motion of the waves, are important in the distribution 
 of Algae. The intervention of great depths of the ocean 
 has an influence on sea plants similar to that of high moun- 
 tains on land plants. Melanospermeae increase as we 
 approach the tropics, where the maximum of the species is 
 found. Rhodospermeae chiefly abound in the temperate 
 zone ; while Chlorospermeae form* the chief marine 
 vegetation of the polar zone, and abound in the colder 
 temperate zone. The green colour is characteristic of 
 those Algae which grow either in fresh water or in the 
 shallower parts of the sea; the olive-coloured Algae are 
 abundant between the tide-marks ; while the red-coloured 
 species occur chiefly in the deeper and the darker parts of 
 the sea. 
 
 Some seaweeds are worthy of note on account of the 
 mode of their growth and distribution. Chorda Filum, a 
 long cord-like seaweed, lies in beds of 15 to 20 miles in 
 length, and only about 600 feet in breadth, in the North 
 Sea and the British Channel. Sargassum bacciferum con- 
 stitutes the Gulf-weed, which has been noticed by all who 
 have crossed the Atlantic. The Gulf-weed has never been 
 seen attached, but always floating. From the abundance 
 of this seaweed its locality is called the Sargasso Sea. 
 The most remarkable of the seaweeds, as regards size and 
 the extent of range, are Macrocyslis pyrifera and Zami- 
 ixaria radiaia. Masses of Macrocystis, like green meadows, 
 are found in every latitude. Many specimens have been 
 seen about 300 feet long ; some even extend to 700 feet 
 or upwards. A tree seaweed, Lessonia fuscescens, with a 
 stem 10 feet long, 12 inches in circumference, and its 
 fronds 2-3 feet loDg and 3 inches broad, is found in im- 
 mense masses off the Patagonian regions. D'Urvillcea 
 ulilis is another large Antarctic seaweed, which, along with 
 Lessoniae, occurs at the Falkland Islands, formed by the 
 surf into enormous vegetable cables, several hundred feet 
 long, and thicker than the human body. In Britain we 
 have a marked distribution of seaweeds as regards depth. 
 There is a littoral zone lying between high and low water 
 marks, divided into sub-regions characterised by the follow- 
 ing seaweeds : — 1. Fucus canaliculalus ; 2. Fucus vesicu- 
 lous ; 3. Fucus nodosus ; 4. Fucus scrralus. Secondly, 
 there is a laminarian zone, commencing at low-water 
 mark, and extending for a depth of 7 to 15 fathoms. 
 Here we meet with the great tangle seaweeds, such as 
 Laminaria digitata and L. saccharina, along with deep- 
 water Fuci. (j. h. B.) 
 
 ALGARDI, Alessandro, one of the most celebrated 
 sculptors of Italy, was born at Bologna in 1602, and died 
 in 1654. 'While he was attending the school of the Caracci 
 his preference for the plastic art became evident, and he 
 placed himself under the instruction of the sculptor Con- 
 venti. At the age of twenty he was brought under the 
 notice of Duke Ferdinand of Mantua, who gave him 
 fceveral commissions. He was also much employed about 
 
 the same period by jewellers and others in modelling in 
 gold, silver, and ivory. After a short residence in Venice, 
 he went to Rome in 1625 with an introduction from tho 
 Duke of Mantua to the pope's nephew, Cardinal Ludovisi, 
 who employed h im for- a time in the restoration of ancient 
 statues. The death of the Duke of Mantua left him to his 
 own resources, and for several years he earned a precarious 
 maintenance from these restorations and the commissions 
 of goldsmiths and jewellers. In 1640 he executed for 
 Pietro Buoncompagni his first work in marble, a colossal 
 statue of San FilippQ Neri, with kneeling angels. Imme- 
 diately after, he produced a similar group, representing the 
 execution of St Paul, for. the church of the Barnabite 
 Fathers in Bologna, These works, displaying great tech- 
 nical bMU, though with considerable exaggeration of 
 expression and attitude, at once established Algardi's 
 reputation, and other commissions followed in rapid suc- 
 cession. The turning-point in Algardi's fortune was the 
 accession of Innocent X., of the Bologuese house of Panfili, 
 to the papal throue in 1644. Ho was employed by 
 Camillo Panfili, nephew of the pontiff, to design the 
 Villa Doria Panfili outside the San Paucrazio gate. The 
 most important of Algardi's other works were the monu- 
 ment of Leo XL, a bronze statue of Innocent X. for the 
 Capitol, and, above all, La Fuega d'Attila, the largest 
 alto-rilievo in the world, the two principal figures being 
 about 10 feet high. The great technical excellence of 
 these works is considerably marred by an exaggeration of 
 expression resulting from the vain endeavour to produce 
 in marble effects which can only be legitimately brought 
 out on canvas. From an artistic point of view, he is most 
 successful in his portrait-statues and groups of children, 
 where he is obliged to follow nature most closely. In hi3 
 later years he became very avaricious, and amassed a great 
 fortune. 
 
 ALGAROTTI, Francesco, Cor/NT, was born at Venice 
 on the 11th December 1712. He went abroad in his 
 youth, and in 1733 visited Paris, where he issued his 
 Newtonian Philosophy for the Ladies, in the work entitled 
 The Plurality of Worlds. He was much honoured by 
 Frederick the Great, who, when crowned at Konigsberg in 
 1740, created him a count of Prussia. He died at Pisa on 
 the 23d of May 1764, and, by his own direction, the follow- 
 ing inscription was placed upon his tomb : — Hie jacel 
 Algarottus, sed non omnis. He is allowed to have been a 
 great connoisseur in painting, sculpture, and architecture; 
 and he contributed much to the reformation of the Italian 
 opera. His works (6 vols., Leghorn, 1764 ; 17 vols., 
 Venice, 1791-4) are numerous, and on a variety of sub- 
 jects, abounding with vivacity, elegance, and wit. 
 
 ALGARVE, the most southerly province of Portugal, is 
 bounded on the E. by the Spanish province of Seville, 
 from which it is separated by the river Gundiana ; on tho 
 N. by Alemtejo ; and on the W. and S. by the Atlantic 
 Ocean. Its length from east to west is 85 miles, the 
 average width is 22 miles, and the area, according to the 
 most recent measurement, 1865 square miles. In 1868 
 the population was 177,342, giving the small proportion 
 of 95 to the square mile. 
 
 The Sierra de Caldeiraon and the Sierra de Monchique 
 extend across the northern part of the province, and, 
 sweeping to the south-west, terminate in the lofty pro- 
 montory of Cape St Vincent, the south-west extremity of 
 Europe. Between the mountainous tracts in the north 
 and the southern coast stretches a narrow plain, watered 
 by numerous rivers flowing southward from the hills. In 
 the hilly districts the roads are bad, the soil unsuited for 
 cultivation, and the inhabitants few. Flocks of goats are 
 reared on tho mountain sides. The level country along 
 the southern coast is more fertile, and produces in abun-
 
 510 
 
 A L G — A L G 
 
 dance grapeB, figs, oranges, lemons, olives, almonds, and 
 aloes, and even the plantain and the date. The land is, 
 however, not well suited for the production of cereals ; 
 little wheat or other corn is grown in the province, and its 
 grain supplies are chiefly derived from Spain. . On the 
 coast the people derive their subsistence in great measure 
 from the fisheries, tunny and sardines being caught in 
 considerable quantities. Salt is also made from sea-water. 
 There is no manufacturing or mining industry of any 
 importance. The harbours are bad, and the whole foreign 
 trade is carried on by ships of other nations, although the 
 inhabitants of Algarve are reputed to be the best seamen 
 and fishermen of Portugal. The chief exports are dried 
 fruit, wine, salt, tunny, sardines, and anchovies. 
 
 The name of Algarve is derived from the Arabic, and 
 signifies a land lying to the west. The province was taken 
 from the Moors in 1253 by Alphonso ILL, king of Por- 
 tugal, who then assumed the additional title of king of 
 Algarve. It is sometimes designated the district of Faro, 
 and is subdivided into fifteen communes and sixty-two 
 parishes. The chief town is Faro, and among the other 
 towns are Castro Marino, Tavira, Portimao, Lagos, and 
 Sagres, all on the coast or on the estuaries of the rivers, 
 and Silves, on the river Portimao, the ancient Moorish 
 capital of Algarve. 
 
 ALGAU, or ALLOAtr, the name now given to a compara- 
 tively small district forming the south-western corner of 
 Bavaria, and belonging to the province of Swabia and Neu- 
 burg, but formerly applied to a much larger territory, which 
 extended as far as the Danube on the north, the Inn on 
 the south, and the Lech on the west. The Algau Alps 
 contain several lofty peaks, the highest of which is Madele- 
 Gabel, 8611 feet above the sea. The district is celebrated 
 for the cattle, milk, butter, and cheese that it produces. 
 
 AL-GAZALI, Abu Hamed Muhammad, usually described 
 as an Arabian philosopher, was really a Moslem theologian 
 who met the heretical philosophers on their own ground. 
 He was born in 1058, and belonged to the sect of the 
 Ascharites, or extreme right of the Motecallemin, who 
 (and not the philosophers) were the real Arabian school- 
 men. At thirty-three he became the head of a theological 
 college at Baghdad, where his professor's chair was sur- 
 rounded by eager crowds, including all the imams of the 
 country. It was a time of keen speculation, when philo- 
 sophic scepticism was encouraged in high places ; and the 
 premature convictions of Al-Gazali gave way under a 
 violent reaction against the orthodox creed. Driven by 
 mental inquietude, he escaped from Baghdad on the plea of 
 making a pilgrimage to Mecca, but went to Syria, and 
 (after visiting, though a Mahometan, the Holy Sepulchre 
 at Jerusalem) settled at Damascus, where he spent ten 
 years in seclusion and meditation. ' Recalled by his private 
 affairs as he was on his way to Egypt, he returned to 
 Baghdad, reluctantly resumed teaching (which he continued 
 for fifteen years), then retired to Tous, his native town, 
 and devoted his remaining years to the contemplative life 
 of the Sufis, who had been his earliest instructors. He 
 died in 1111. His outer life, so restless and unquiet, was 
 the reflex of a mental history disturbed by prolonged agita- 
 tion. Revolting, in the height of his success, against the 
 current creed, he began to examine the foundations of 
 knowledge. Where could certainty be found? In the 
 perceptions of the senses ? But these are contradicted by 
 one another, and disproved by reason. In the notions of 
 reason ? Reason, indeed, professes to furnish us with 
 necessary truths ; but what assurance have we that the 
 verdicts of reason may not be reversed by some higher 
 authority? Al-Gazali then interrogated all the sects in 
 succession to learn their criterion of truth. He first applied 
 to the theological schoolmen, who grounded their religion 
 
 on reason; but their aim was only to preserve tne laid: 
 from heresy. He turned to the philosophers, and examined 
 the accepted Aristoteliauism in a treatise which has come 
 down to us — The Destruction of the Philosophers. He 
 assails them on twenty points of their mixed physical and 
 metaphysical peripateticism, from the statement of which, 
 in spite of his pretended scepticism, we can deduce some 
 very positive metaphysical opinions of his own. He claims 
 to have shown that the dogmas of the eternity of matter 
 and the permanence of the world are false ; that their 
 description of the Deity as the' demiurgos is unspiritual ; 
 that they fail to prove the existence, the unity, the sim- 
 plicity, the incorporeality, or the knowledge (both of 
 species and accidents) of God ; that their ascription of 
 souls to the celestial spheres is unproved ; that their theory 
 of causation, which attributes effects to the very natures of 
 the causes; is false, for' that all actions and events are to 
 be ascribed to the Deity ; and, finally, that they cannot 
 establish the spirituality of the soul, nor prove its mortality. 
 These criticisms disclose nothing like a sceptical state of 
 mind, but rather a reversion from the metaphysical to the 
 theological stage of thought. He denies the intrinsic 
 tendencies, or souls, by which the Aristotelians explained 
 the motion of the spheres, because he ascribes their motion 
 to God. The sceptic would have denied both. Mr Lewes 
 rightly censures M. Renan for asserting of Al-Gazalii 
 theory of causation — "Hume ria rien dit plus." It is 
 true that Al-Gazali maintains that the natural law accord- 
 ing to which effects proceed inevitably from their causes 
 is only custom, and that there is no necessary connection, 
 between them. So far the Eastern and the European 
 sceptic are on the same ground. But while Hume abso- 
 lutely denies the necessity, Al-Gazali merely removes it 
 one stage further back, and plants it in the mind of the 
 Deity. This, of course, is not metaphysics, but theology. 
 Having, as he believed, refuted the opinions of the philo- 
 sophers, he next investigated the pretensions of the Alle- 
 gorists, who derived their doctrines from an imam. Thes,e 
 Arabian ultramontanes had no word for the doubter. Did 
 he ask for the proof of their doctrine, they could only 
 answer that " thus it was written." They could not, he 
 says, even understand the problems they sought to resolvo 
 by the assumption of infallibility, and he turned again, in 
 his despair, to the instructors of his youth — the Sufis. In 
 their mystical intuition of the laws of life, and absorption 
 in the immanent Deity, he at last found peace. This 
 pathetic close of his stormy career negatives the idea that 
 he ever wrote the philosophical work he once contem- 
 plated on Tlie Bases of Belief, and at the same time shows 
 the true character of the treatise which, alike in medieval 
 and modern times, has been quoted as containing an 
 exposition of his opinions. Tho work called T/ie Ten- 
 dencies of the Philosophers, and which was translated in 
 1506, with the title Logka et Philosophia Algazelis Arabis, 
 contains neither the logic nor the philosophy of Al-GazalL 
 It is a mere abstract or statement of the Peripatetic 
 'systems, and was made preliminary to that Destruction of 
 which we have already spoken. With this work Arabian 
 philosophy in the East came to an end ; but it revived 
 in the new Arabia which had been planted in the West — 
 in Mahometan Spain. If, therefore, Al-Gazali was the 
 Oriental Descartes in being the first destructive sceptic 
 of the old, he was its Descartes no less in being tho 
 initiator of the new philosophy. 
 
 For direct knowledge of Al-Cazali, see his Dcstruciio, &c, in the 
 ninth vol. of Averrhoes's works, but especially his spiritual auto 
 biography, translated by Schmoldcrs in his Essai sur les E.%y 
 Philosophiques chez Us Arabts. See also Von Hammer, introduf tv** 
 to Kind; Munk, Milnvga ; and Oosche in Abhundliimgen .w 
 Krmig. AkhtUker WissmiMlmJUn zu JSerlit^ 1858.
 
 511 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 ALGEBRA is that branch of the mathematical sciences 
 which has for its object the carrying on of operations 
 either in an order different from that which exists in arith- 
 metic, or of a nature not contemplated in fixing the bound- 
 aries of that science. The circumstance that algebra has 
 its origin in arithmetic, however widely it may in the end 
 differ from that science, led Sir Isaac Newton to designate 
 it " Universal Arithmetic," a designation which, vague as it 
 is, indicates its character better than any other by which it 
 has been attempted to express its functions — bettercertainly, 
 to ordinary minds, than the designation which has been 
 applied to it by Sir William Rowan Hamilton, one of the 
 greatest mathematicians the world has seen since the days 
 of Newton — "the Science of Pure Time;" or even than 
 the title by which De Morgan would paraphrase Hamilton's 
 words — "the Calculus of Succession." 
 
 To express in few words what it is which effects the 
 transition from the science of arithmetic into a new field is 
 not easy. It will serve, probably, to convey some notion 
 of the position of the boundary line, when it is stated that 
 the operations of arithmetic are all capable of direct inter- 
 pretation per se, whilst those of algebra are in many cases 
 interpretable only by comparison with the assumptions on 
 which they are based. For example, multiplication of 
 fractions — which the older writers on arithmetic, Lucas de 
 Burgo in Italy, and Robert Recorde in England, clearly 
 perceived to be a new application of the term multiplication, 
 scarcely at first sight reconcilable with its original definition 
 as the exponent of equal additions, — multiplication of 
 fractions becomes interpretable by the introduction of the 
 idea of multiplication into the definition of the fraction 
 itself. On the other hand, the independent use of the sign 
 minus, on which Diophantus, in the 4th century, laid the 
 foundation of the science of algebra in the West, by placing 
 in the forefront of his treatise, as one of his earliest defini- 
 tions, the rule of the sign minus, "that minus multiplied by 
 minus produces plus" — this independent use of the sign has 
 no originating operation of the same character as itself, and 
 might, if assumed in all its generality as existing side by 
 side with the laws of arithmetic, more especially with the 
 commutative law, have led to erroneous conclusions. As 
 it is, the unlimited applicability of this definition, in con- 
 nection with all the laws of arithmetic standing in their 
 integrity, pushes the dominion of algebra into a field on 
 which the oldest of the Greek arithmeticians, Euclid, in hi3 
 unbending march, could never have advanced a step with- 
 out doing violence to his convictions. 
 
 In asserting that the independent existence of the sign 
 minus, side by side with the laws of arithmetic, might have 
 led to anomalous results, had not the operations been subject 
 to some limitation, we are introducing no imaginary 
 hypothesis, but are referring to a fact actually existing. 
 The most recent advance beyond the boundaries of algebra, 
 as it existed fifty years ago, is that beautiful extension to 
 \ which Sir W. R. Hamilton has given the designation of Qua- 
 ternions, the very foundation of which requires the removal 
 of one of the ancient axioms of arithmetic, " that opera- 
 tions may be performed in any order." 
 
 HISTORY.. 
 
 At what period and in what country algebra was invented? 
 is a question that has been much discussed. Who were the 
 earliest writers on the lubject? What was the progress of 
 its improvement ? And lastly, by what means and at what 
 period was the science diffused over Europe? It was a 
 common opinion in the 17th century that the ancient Greek 
 
 mathematicians must have possessed an analysis of the 
 nature of modern algebra, by which they discovered the 
 theorems and solutions of the problems which we so much 
 admire in their writings ; but that they carefully concealed 
 their instruments of investigation, and gave only the re- 
 sults, with synthetic demonstrations. 
 
 This opinion is, however, now exploded. A more inti- 
 mate acquaintance with the writings of the ancient geo- 
 meters has shown that they had an analysis, but that it 
 was purely geometrical, and essentially different from oui 
 algebra. 
 
 Although there is no reason to suppose that the great 
 geometers of antiquity derived any aid in their discoveries 
 from the algebraic analysis, yet we find that at a consider- 
 ably later period it was known to a certain extent among 
 the Greeks. 
 
 About the middle of the 4th century of the Christian era, 
 a period when the mathematical sciences were on the decline, 
 and their cultivators, instead of producing original works of 
 genius, contented themselves with commentaries on the 
 works of their more illustrious predecessors, there was a 
 valuable addition made to the fabric of ancient learning. 
 
 This was the treatise of Diophantus on arithmetic, con- Diopter- 
 sisting originally of thirteen books, of which only the tU3 - 
 first six, and an incomplete book on- polygonal numbers, 
 supposed to be the thirteenth, have descended to our 
 times. 
 
 This precious fragment does not exhibit anything like a 
 complete treatise on algebra. It lays, however, an excellent 
 foundation of the science, and the author, after applying his 
 method to the solution of simple and quadratic equations, 
 such as to "find two numbers of which the sum and the 
 sum or difference of the squares are given," proceeds to 
 a peculiar class of arithmetical questions, which belong to 
 what is now called the indeterminate analysis. 
 
 Diophantus may hive been the inventor of the Greek 
 algebra, but it is more likely that its principles were not 
 unknown before his time ; and that, taking the science ir. 
 the state in which he found it as the basis of his labours, he 
 enriched it with new applications. The elegant solutions of 
 Diophantus show that; he possessed great address in the 
 particular branch of which he treated, and that he was able 
 to resolve determinate equations of the second degree. 
 Probably this was the greatest extent to which the science 
 had been carried amorig the Greeks. Indeed, in no country 
 did it pass this limit, until it had been transplanted into 
 Italy on the revival of learning. 
 
 The celebrated Hypatia, the daughter of Theon, com- 
 posed a commentary on the work of Diophantus. This, 
 however, is now lost, as well as a similar treatise, on 
 the Conies of Apollonius, by this illustrious and ill- 
 fated lady, who, ai is commonly known, fell a sacrifice 
 to the fury of a fanatical mob about the beginning of the 
 5th century. 
 
 About the rziiddle of the 16th century, the work of 
 Diophantus above referred to, written in the Greek lan- 
 guage, was discovered at Rome in the Vatican library, having 
 probably been brought there from Greece when the Turkr. 
 possessed themselves of Constantinople. A Latin transla- 
 tion, without the original text, was given to the world by 
 Xylander in 1575; and a more complete translation, by 
 Bachet de Mezeriac (one of the earliest members of the 
 French Academy), accompanied by a commentary, appeared 
 in 1621. Bachet was eminently skilful in the indeterminate 
 analysis, and therefore well qualified for the work he had 
 . undertaken ; but the text of Diophantus was so much in-
 
 512 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 (.HISTORY. 
 
 jurod, tliat he was frequently obliged to'gnoss the mean- 
 ing of the author, or supply the deficiency. At a later 
 period, the celebrated French mathematician Fermat supple- 
 mented the commentary of Bachet by notes of his own on 
 tho writings of the Greek algebraist. . These are extremely 
 valuable, on account of Fermat's profound knowledge of 
 this particular branch of analysis. This edition, the best 
 which exists, appeared in 1670. 
 
 Although the revival of tho writings of Diophantus was 
 an important event in the history of mathematics, yet it 
 was not from them that algebra becamo first known in 
 Europe. This important invention, as well as the numeral 
 characters and decimal arithmetic, was received from the 
 Arabians. That ingenious people fully appreciated the 
 value of the sciences; for at a period when all Europe was 
 enveloped in the darkness of ignorance, they preserved 
 from extinction the lamp of knowledge. They carefully 
 collected tho writings of tho Greek mathematicians ; they 
 translated them into their language, and illustrated them 
 with commentaries. It was through the medium of the 
 Arabic tongue that the elements of Euclid were first in- 
 troduced into Europo ; and a part of tho writings of 
 Apollonius are only known at the present day by a trans- 
 lation from the Arabic, the Greek original being lost. 
 
 Tho Arabians ascribe the invention of their algebra to one 
 of their mathematicians, Mahommed-ben-Musa, or Moses, 
 called also Mahommed of Buziana, who flourished about 
 the middle of the 9th century, in the reign of the Caliph 
 Almamoun. 
 
 It is certain that this person composed a treatise on this 
 subject, because an Italian translation was known at one 
 time to have existed in Europe, although it is now lost. 
 Fortunately, however, a copy of the Arabic original is 
 preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, bearing a date 
 of transcription corresponding to the year 1342. The title- 
 page identifies its author with the ancient Arabian. A 
 marginal note concurs in this testimony, and further 
 declares tho work to be the first treatise composed on 
 algebra among the faithful ; and the preface, besides in- 
 dicating the author, intimates that he was encouraged by 
 Almamoun, commander of the faithful, to compile a com- 
 pendious treatise of calculation by algebra. 
 
 The circumstance of this treatise professing to be only a 
 compilation, and, moreover, the first Arabian work of the 
 kind, has led to an opinion that it was collected from books 
 in some other language. As the author was intimately 
 acquainted with the astronomy and computations of the 
 Hindoos, he may have derived his knowledge of algebra 
 from the same quarter. The Hindoos, as we shall presently 
 eee, had a science of Algebra, and knew how to solve in- 
 determinate problems. Hence we may conclude, with some 
 probability, that the Arabian algebra was originally derived 
 from India. 
 
 The algebraic analysis, having been once introduced 
 «miong the Arabians, was cultivated by their own writers. 
 One of these, Mahommed Abulwafa, who flourished in the 
 last forty years of the 10th century, composed commentaries 
 on the writers who had preceded him. He also translated 
 the writings of Diophantus. 
 
 It is remarkable, that although the mathematical sciences 
 were received with avidity, and sedulously cultivated during 
 o long period by the Arabians, yet in their hands they 
 received hardly any improvement. It might have been 
 expected that an acquaintance with the writings of Dio- 
 phantus would have produced some change in their algebra. 
 This, however, -did not happen: their algebra continued 
 nearly in the same state, from their earliest writer on the 
 Bubject, to one of their latest, Behaudin, who lived between 
 the years 953 and 1031. 
 
 Writers on the history of algebra were long under : 
 
 mistake as to the time and manner of ita Introduction into 
 Europe. It has now, however, been ascertained that the 
 science was brought into Italy by Leonardo, a merchant of 
 Pisa, This ingenious man resided in his youth in Bavbary, 
 and there learned the Indian method of counting by the 
 nine numeral characters. Commercial affairs led him to 
 travel into Egypt, Syria, Greece, and Sicily, where wo may 
 suppose he made himself acquainted with everyth ; ng 
 known respecting numbers. The Indian mode of computa- 
 tion appeared to him to be by far the best. He accordingly 
 studied it carefully ; and, with this knowledge, and some 
 additions of his own, and also taking some things from 
 Euclid's Geometry, he composed a treatise on arithmetic 
 At that period algebra was regarded only as a part of arith- 
 metic. It was indeed the sublime doctrine of that science; 
 and under this' view the two branches were handled in 
 Leonardo's treatise, which was originally written in 1202, 
 and again brought forward under a revised form in 1228. 
 When it is considered that this work was composed two 
 centuries before the invention of printing, and' that the 
 subject was not such as generally to interest mankind, we 
 need not wonder that it was but little known ; hence it has 
 always remained in manuscript, as well as some other works 
 by the same author. Indeed it was not known to exist from 
 an early period until the middle of the last century, when 
 it was discovered in the Magliabccchian library at Florence. 
 The extent of Leonardo's knowledge was pretty much 
 the same as that of the preceding Arabian writers. He 
 could resolve equations of the first and second degrees, and 
 he was particularly skilful in the Diophantine analysis. 
 He was well acquainted with geometry, and ho employed 
 its doctrines in demonstrating his algebraic rules. Like 
 the Arabian writers, his reasoning was expressed in words 
 at length ; a mode highly unfavourable to the progress of 
 the art. The use of symbols, and the method of combin- 
 ing them so' as to convey to the mind at a single glance a 
 long process of reasoning, was a much later invention. 
 
 Considerable attention was given to tho cultivation of 
 algebra between the time of Leonardo and the invention of 
 printing. It was publicly taught by professors. Treatises 
 were composed on the subject ; and two works of the 
 oriental algebraists were translated from the Arabian 
 language into Italian. One was entitled the Rule of 
 Algebra, and the other was the oldest of all tho Arabian 
 treatises, that of Mahommed-ben-Musa of Corasan. 
 
 The earliest printed book on algebra was composed by' 
 Lucas Paciolus, or Lucas de Burgo, a minorite friar. It 
 was first printed in 1494, and again in 1523. The title 
 is Summa de Arithmetica, Geomclria, Propoitioni, et Pro 
 porlionalita. 
 
 This is a very complete treatise on arithmetic, algebra, 
 and geometry, for the time in whish it appeared. The 
 author followed close on the steps of Leonardo ; and, in- 
 deed, it is from this work that one of his lost treatises has 
 been restored. 
 
 Lucas de Burgo's work is interesting, inasmuch as it 
 shows the state of algebra in Europe about the year 
 1500 : probably the state of the science was nearly the same 
 in Arabia and Africa, from which it had been received. 
 
 ^The power of algebra as an instrument of research is in 
 a very great degree derived from its notation, by which all 
 the quantities under consideration are kept constantly in 
 view ; but in respect of convenience and brevity of expres- 
 sion, the algebraic analysis in the days of Lucas de Burgo 
 was very imperfect : the only symbols employed were a few 
 abbreviations of the words or names which occurred in 
 the processes of calculation, a kind of short-hand, which 
 formed a yery imperfect substitute for that compactness 
 of expression which: has been attained by 'the modem 
 notation.
 
 HISTORY.] 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 513 
 
 The application of algebra was also at this period very 
 limited ; it was confined almost entirely to .the resolution 
 of certain questions of no great interest about numbers. 
 No idea was then entertained of that extensive application 
 which it has received in modern times. 
 
 The knowledge -which the early algebraists had of their 
 Science was also circumscribed: it extended only to the 
 resolution of equations of the first and second degrees ; and 
 they divided the last into cases, each of which was resolved 
 by its own particular rule. The important analytical fact, 
 that the resolution of all the cases of a problem may be 
 comprehended in a single formula, which may be obtained 
 from the solution of one of its cases, merely by a change of 
 the signs, was not then known : indeed, it was long before 
 this principle was fully comprehended. Dr Halley ex- 
 presses surprise, that a formula, in optics which he had 
 found, should by a mere change of the signs give- the focus 
 of both converging and diverging rays, whether reflected 
 or refracted by convex or concave specula or lenses; and 
 Holyneux speaks of the universality of Bailey's formula 
 as something that resembled magic 
 
 The rules of algebra may be investigated by its own prin- 
 ciples, without any aid from geometry; and although in 
 some cases the two sciences may serve to illustrate each 
 'other, there is not now the least necessity in the more 
 elementary parts to call in the aid of the latter in expound- 
 ing the former. It was otherwise in former times. Lucas 
 de Burgo found it to be convenient, after the example of 
 Leonardo, to employ geometrical constructions to prove the 
 truth of his rules for resolving quadratic equations, the 
 nature of which he did not completely comprehend ; 
 and he was induced by the imperfect nature of his nota- 
 tion to express his rules in Latin verses, which will not 
 now be read with the kind of satisfaction we receive 
 from the perusal of the well-known poem, " the Loves of 
 the Triangles." 
 
 As Italy was the first European country where algebra 
 became known, it was there that it received its earliest im- 
 provements. The science had been nearly stationary from 
 the days of Leonardo to the time of Paciolus, a period of 
 three centuries ; but the invention of printing soon excited 
 a spirit of improvement in all the mathematical sciences. 
 Hitherto an imperfect theory of quadratic equations was 
 the limit to which it had been carried. At last this 
 boundary was passed, and about the year 1505 a particular 
 case of equations of the third degree was resolved by Scipio 
 Ferreus, a professor of mathematics in Bononia. This was 
 an important step, because it showed that the difficulty of 
 resolving equations of the higher orders, at least in the case 
 of the third degTee, was not insurmountable, and a new 
 field was opened for discovery. It was then the practice 
 among the cultivators of algebra, when they advanced a 
 step, to conceal it carefully from their contemporaries, and 
 to challenge them to resolve arithmetical ' questions, so 
 framed as to require for their solution a knowledge of their 
 own new-found rules. In this spirit did Ferreus make a 
 secret of his discovery : he communicated it, however, to a 
 favourite scholar, a Venetian named Florido. About the 
 year 1535 this person, having taken up his residence at 
 Venice, challenged Tartalea of Brescia, a man of great 
 ingenuity, to a trial of skill in the resolution of problems 
 by algebra. Florido framed ^is questions so as to require 
 for their solution a knowledge of the rule which he had 
 learned from his preceptor Ferreus ; but Tartalea had, five 
 years before this time, advanced further than Ferreus, and 
 was more than a match for Florido. He therefore accepted 
 the challenge, and a day was appointed when each was to 
 [propose to the other thirty questions. Before the time came, 
 Tartalea had resumed the study of cubic equations, and had 
 discovered the solution of two cases in addition to two which 
 
 he knew before. Florido's questions were such as could 
 be resolved by the single rule of Ferreus; while, on the 
 contrary, those of Tartalea could only be resolved by one Of 
 other of three rules, which he himself had found, but which 
 could not be resolved by the remaining rule, which was alsd 
 that known to Florido. The issue of the contest is easily 
 anticipated ; Tartalea resolved all his adversary's questions 
 in two hours, without receiving one answer from him in 
 return. 
 
 The celebrated Cardan was a contemporary of Tartalea. 
 This remarkable person was a professor of mathematics at 
 Milan, and a physician. He had studied algebra with great 
 assiduity, and had nearly finished the printing of a tiook 
 on arithmetic, algebra, and geometry ; but being desirous 
 of enriching his work with the discoveries of Tartalea, which 
 at that period must have been the object of considerable 
 attention among literary men in Italy, he endeavoured to 
 draw from him a disclosure of his rules. Tartalea resisted 
 for a time Cardan's entreaties. At last, overcome by his 
 importunity, and his offer to swear on the holy Evangelists, 
 and by the honour of a gentleman, never to publish them, 
 and on his promising on the faith of a Christian to commit 
 them to cypher, so that even after his death they would not 
 be intelligible to any one, he ventured with much hesitation 
 to reveal to him his practical rule3, which were expressed 
 by some very bad Italian verses, themselves in no small 
 degTee enigmatical. He reserved, however, the demonstra- 
 tions. Cardan was not long in discovering the reason of 
 the rules,, and he even greatly improved 1 ' them, so as to 
 make them in a manner his own. From the imperfect 
 essays of Tartalea he deduced an ingenious and systematic, 
 method of resolving all cubic equations whatsoever; but 
 with a remarkable disregard for the principles of honour, 
 and the oath he had taken, he published in 1545 Tartalea'a 
 discoveries, combined with his own, as a supplement to a 
 treatise on arithmetic and algebra, which he had published 
 six years before. This work is remarkable for being 
 the second printed book on algebra known to have 
 existed. 
 
 In the following year Tartalea also publi shed a work on 
 algebra, which he dedicated to Henry VUL, king of 
 England. 
 
 It is to be regretted that in many instances the authors 
 of important discoveries have been overlooked, while the 
 honours due to them have been transferred to others hav- 
 ing only secondary pretensions. The formulas for the 
 resolution of cubic equations are now called Cardan's rules, 
 notwithstanding the prior claim of Tartalea. It must be 
 confessed, however, that he evinced considerable selfishness 
 in concealing his discovery ; and although Cardan cannot 
 be absolved from the charge of bad faith, yet it must be 
 recollected that by his improvements in what Tartalea 
 communicated to him, he made the discovery in some 
 measure his own ; and he had moreover the high merit of 
 being the first to publish this important improvement in 
 algebra to the world. 
 
 The next step in the progress of algebra was the'di*. 
 covery of a method of resolving equations of the fourth 
 order. An Italian algebraist had proposed a question which 
 could not be resolved by the newly invented rules, because 
 it produced a biquadratic equation. Some supposed that 
 it could not be resolved at all; but Cardan was of a different 
 opinion. He had a pupil named Lewis Ferrari, a young man 
 of great genius, and an ardent student in the algebraic 
 analysis: to him Cardan committed the solution of this 
 difficult question, and he was not disappointed. Ferrari 
 not only resolved the question, but he also found a general 
 method of resolving equations of the fourth degree, bj 
 making them depend on the solution of equations of tin 
 third degree. 
 
 1-18
 
 514 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 [histoey. 
 
 This was another great improvement ; and although tho 
 procise naturo of an equation was not then fully under- 
 Htood, nor was it indeed until half a century later, yet, 
 in the general resolution of equations, a point of progress 
 was then reached which the utmost efforts of modern 
 analysis have never been able to pass. 
 
 There was another Italian mathematician of that period 
 who did something for the improvement ofalgebra. This 
 was Bombelli. Ho published a valuable work on the 
 subject in 1572, in which he brought into one view what 
 had been done by his predecessors. He explained the 
 nature of the irreducible case of cubic equations, which 
 had greatly perplexed Cardan, who could not resolve it by 
 his rule ; he showed that tho rule would apply sometimes 
 to particular examples, and that all equations of this case 
 admitted of a real solution ; and he made the important 
 remark, that the algebraic problem to be resolved in this 
 case corresponds to the ancient problem of the trieection 
 of an angle. 
 
 There were two German mathematicians contemporary 
 with Cardan and Tartalea, viz., Stifelius and Scheubelius. 
 Their writings appeared about the middle of the 16th 
 century, before they knew what had been done by the 
 Italians. Their improvements were chiefly in the notation. 
 Stifelius, in particular, introduced for the first time the 
 characters which indicate addition and subtraction, and 
 the symbol for the square root. 
 first The first treatise' on algebra in the English language was 
 
 English written by Robert Eecorde, teacher of mathematics and 
 jjwrfj ^ practitioner in physic at Cambridge. At this period it was 
 Cambridge. c°ninion for physicians to unite with the healing art the 
 6tudies of mathematics, astrology, alchemy, and chemistry. 
 This 'custom was derived from the Moors, who were equally 
 celebrated for their skill in medicine and calculation. In 
 Spain, where algebra was early known, the title of physician 
 and algebraist were nearly synonymous. Accordingly, in 
 tho romance of Don Quixote, when the bachelor Samson 
 Carasco was grievously wounded in his rencounter with 
 the knight, an algebrista was called in to heal his 
 bruises. 
 
 Eecorde published a treatise on arithmetic, which was 
 dedicated to Edward VL ; and another on algebra, with 
 the title, The Whetstone of Wit, &c Here, for the first 
 time, tho modern sign for equality was introduced. 
 
 By such gradual steps did algebra advance in improve- 
 ment from its first introduction by Leonardo, each succeeding 
 writer making some change for the better ; but with the 
 exception of Tartalea, Cardan, and Ferrari, hardly any one 
 rose to the rank of an inventor. At length came Vieta, to 
 whom this branch of mathematical learning, as well .as 
 others, is highly indebted. His improvements in algebra 
 were very considerable ; and some of his inventions, 
 although not then fully developed, have yet been the germs 
 of later discoveries. He was the first that employed 
 genera 1 characters to represent known as well as unknown 
 quantities. Simple as this step may appear, it has yet led to 
 important consequences. He must also be regarded as the 
 first that applied algebra- to the improvement of geometry. 
 The older algebraists had -indeed resolved geometrical pro- 
 blems, but each solution was particular;swhereas Vieta, by 
 Introducing general symbols, produced general formulas, 
 which were applicable to all problems of the same kind, 
 without tho trouble of going over the same process of 
 analysis for each. 
 
 This happy application of algebra ■ to geometry pro- 
 duced great improvements : it led Vieta to the doctrine of 
 angular sections, one of the most important of his dis-' 
 eoverics, which is now expanded into the arithmetic of sipes 
 or analytical trigonometry. He also improved the theory 
 of algebraic equations, and he was the first that gave a 
 
 general method of resolving them by approximation. As 
 he lived between the years 1540 and J 603, his writings 
 belong to the latter half of the 16th century. He printed 
 them at his own expense, and liberally bestowed them on 
 men of science. 
 
 The Flemish mathematician Albert Girard was one of Girari. 
 the improvers of algebra. He extended the theory of 
 equations somewhat further than Vieta, but he did not 
 completely unfold their composition ; he was the first that 
 showed the use of the negative sign in the resolution of 
 geometrical problems, and the first to speak of imaginary 
 quantities. He also inferred by induction that every equation 
 has precisely as many roots as there are units in the 
 number that expresses its degree. His algebra appeared 
 in 1629. 
 
 The next great improver of algebra was Thomas Harriot, 
 an Englishnwia. As an inventor he has been tho boast of 
 this country. The French mathematicians have accused the 
 British of giving discoveries to hini*which were really due 
 to Vieta. It is probable that some of these may be justly 
 claimed for both, because each may have made the discovery 
 for himself, without knowing what had been done by the 
 other. Harriot's principal discovery, and indeed tho most 
 important ever made in algebra, was, that every equation 
 may be regarded as formed by the product of as many sim- 
 ple equations as there are units in the number expressing 
 its order. This important doctrine, now familiar to every 
 student of algebra, developed itself slowly. It was quite 
 within the reach of Vieta, who unfolded it in part, but left 
 its complete discovery to Harriot. 
 
 We have se'fen the very inartificial form in which algebra 
 first appeared in Europe. The improvements of almost 
 400 years had not given its notation that compactness and 
 elegance of which it is susceptible. Harriot made several 
 changes in the notation, and added some new signs : he 
 thus gave to algebra greater symmetry of form. Indeed, 
 as it came from his hands, it differed but little from its 
 state at the present time. 
 
 Oughtreed, another early English algebraist, was a con- Oughtrei 
 temporary with Harriot, but lived long after him. He 
 wrote a treatise on the subject, which was long taught in 
 tho universities. 
 
 In tracing the history of algebra, we have seen, that in 
 the form under which it was received from the Arabs, 
 it was hardly distinguishable as a peculiar mode of reason- 
 ing, because of the want of a suitable notation ; and that, 
 poor in its resources, its applicability was limited to the 
 resolution of a small number of uninteresting numeral 
 questions. We have followed it through different stages of 
 improvement, and we aro now arrived at a period when it 
 was to acquire additional power as ■ an instrument of 
 analysis, and to admit of new and more extended applica- 
 tions. Vieta saw the great advantage that might be 
 derived from the application of algebra to geometry. The 
 essay he made in his theory of angular sections, and the 
 rich mine of discovery thus opened, proved the importance 
 of his labours. He did not fully explore it, but it has 
 seldom happened that one man began and completed a dis- 
 covery. He had, however, an able and illustrious successor 
 in Descartes, who, employing in the study of algebra that . 
 high power of intellect with which he was endowed; not 
 only improved it as an abstract science, but, more especially 
 by its application to geometry, laid the foundation of the 
 great discoveries which have since so much engaged mathe 
 maticians, and have made the last two centuries evei, 
 memorable in the history of the progress of the humar 
 mind. 
 
 Descartes' grand improvement was the application of 
 algebra to the doctrine of curve lines. As in geography we 
 refer every place on the earth's surface to the equator, and
 
 HISTORY ] 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 515 
 
 to a determinate meridian, so he referred every point of a 
 curve to some line given by position. For example, in a 
 circle, every point in the circumference might be referred 
 to the diameter. The perpendicular from any point in the 
 curve, and the distance of that perpendicular from the 
 centre or from .the extremity of a diameter, were lines which, 
 although varying with every change of position in the point 
 from which the perpendicular wa3 drawn, yet had a deter- 
 minate relation to each other, which was the same for all 
 points in the curve depending on its nature, and which, 
 therefore, served as a characteristic to distinguish it from 
 all other curves.' 
 
 The relations of lines drawn in this way could be readily 
 expressed in algebraic symbols ; and the expression of this 
 relation in general terms constituted what is called the 
 equation of the curve. 
 
 This might serve as its definition; and from the equation 
 by the processes of algebra, all the properties of the curve 
 could be investigated. 
 
 . Descartes' Geometry (or, as it might have been named, 
 the application of algebra to geometry) appeared first in 
 1637. This was six years after the publication of Harriot's 
 discoveries, which was a posthumous work. Descartes 
 availed himself of some of Harriot's views, particularly the 
 manner of generatingan equation, without acknowledgment; 
 and on this account Dr Wallis, in his algebra, has reflected 
 with considerable severity on the French algebraist. This 
 spirit has engendered a corresponding eagerness in the 
 French mathematicians to defend him. Montucla, in his 
 history of the mathematics, has evinced a strong national 
 prejudice in his favour ; and, as usually happens, in order 
 to exalt him, he hardly does justice to Harriot, the idol of 
 his adversaries. 
 
 The new views which the labours of Vieta, Harriot, and 
 Descartes opened in geometry and algebra were seized with 
 avidity by the powerful minds of men eager in the pursuit 
 of real knowledge. Accordingly, we find in the 17th 
 century a whole host of writers on algebra, or algebra com- 
 bined with geometry. 
 
 Our limits will not allow us to enter minutely into the 
 claims which each has on the gratitude of posterity. 
 Indeed, in pure algebra the new inventions were not so 
 conspicuous as the discoveries made by its applications to 
 geometry, and the new theories which were suggested by 
 their union. The curious speculations of Kepler concerning 
 the solids formed by the revolutions of curvilinear figures, 
 the Geometry of Indivisibles by Cavalerius, the Arithmetic 
 of Infinites of Wallis, and, above all, the Method of Fluxions 
 of Newton, and the Differential and Integral Calculus of 
 Leibnitz, are fruits of the happy union. All these were 
 agitated incessantly by their inventors and contemporaries; 
 by such men as Barrow, James Gregory, Wren, Cotes, Taylor, 
 Halley, De Moivre, Maclaurin, Stirling,' and others, in this 
 country ; and abroad by Roberval, Fermat. Huyghens, the 
 two Bernoullis, Pascal, and many others. 
 
 The first half of the 18th century produced little in the 
 way of addition either to pure algebra or to its applications. 
 Men were employed rather in elaborating and working out 
 what Newton, Leibnitz, and Descartes had originated, 
 than in exercising themselves in independent investigations. 
 There are, indeed, to be found some names of eminence 
 associated with the science of algebra, such as Maclaurin, 
 but their eminence will be found to depend on their con- 
 nection with the extensions of the science, rather than with 
 the science itself. It was reserved for Lagrange, in the latter 
 part of the century, to give a new impulse to extension in 
 pure algebra, in a direction which has led to most important 
 results. Not only did he, in his Traiti de la Resolution des 
 Equations Numeriques, lay the foundation on which Budan, 
 Fourier, Stunn, and others, have built a goodly fabric after 
 
 the pattern of the Universal Arithmetic of Newton, but in 
 his Theoriedesfonclions analytiques, and Calcul desfonctiont. 
 he endeavoured, and with a large amount of success, to 
 reduce the higher analysis (the Fluxions of Newton), to 
 the domain of pure algebra. Nor must the labours of a 
 fellow-workman, Euler, be forgotten. In his voluminous 
 and somewhat ponderous writings will be found a perfect 
 storehouse of investigations on every branch of algebraical 
 and mechanical science. Especially pertinent to our present 
 subject is his demonstration of the Binomial Theorem in 
 the Novi Commentarii, voL xix., which is probably the 
 original of the development that Lagrange makes the 
 basis of his analysis (Calcul des fonctions, lecon seconde), 
 and which for simplicity and generality leaves nothing to 
 be desired. 
 
 This brings the history down to the close of the last 
 century. We have been as copious as our limits would 
 permit on the early history, because it presents the interest- 
 ing -spectacle of the progress of a science from an almost 
 imperceptible beginning, until it has attained -a mag- 
 nitude too great to be fully grasped by the. hnmao 
 mind. 
 
 It will be seen from what precedes, that we have not 
 limited "algebra" to the pure science, but have retained 
 the name when it has encroached on the territories of 
 geometry, trigonometry, and the higher analysis. To 
 continue to trace its course through all these branches dur- 
 ing the present century, when it has extended into new 
 directions within its own borders, would far exceed the 
 limits of an introductory sketch like the present. We 
 must, therefore, necessarily limit ourselves to what has 
 been done in the Theory of Equations (which may be 
 termed algebra proper), and in Determinants. 
 
 Theory of Equations, — That every numerical equation Theory of 
 has a root — that is, some quantity in a numerical form, real Equation*? 
 or imaginary, which, when substituted for the unknown 
 quantity in the equation, shall render the equation a 
 numerical identity — appears to have been taken for granted 
 by all writers down to the time of Lagrange. It is by no 
 means self-evident, nor is it easy to afford evidence for it 
 which shall be at the same time convincing and free from 
 limitations. ' The demonstrations of Lagrange, Gauss, and 
 Ivory, have for simplicity and completeness given way to 
 that of Cauchy, published first in the Journal de VEcole 
 Poly technique, and subsequently in his Cours d'Analyse 
 Algibrique. 
 
 The demonstration of Cauchy (which had previous! aucltf 
 been given by Argand, though in an imperfect form, k. 
 Gergonne's Annates des Matliematiqucs, vol v.). consist in 
 showing that the quantity which it is wished to prove 
 capable of being reduced to zero, can be exhibited as the 
 produ6t of two factors, one of which is incapable of assum- 
 ing a minimum value, or, in other words, that a less value 
 than one assigned 'can always be found, and therefore 
 that it is capable of acquiring the value zero. This 
 argument, if not absolutely free from objection, is less 
 objectionable than any of the others. The reader may 
 consult papers by Airy and De Morgan, in the tenth 
 volume of the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical 
 Society. 
 
 Admitting, then, that every equation has a root, it be- 
 comes a question to what extent are Vfe in possession of 
 an analysis by which the root can be ascertained. If the 
 question be put absolutely, we fear the answer must be, 
 that in this matter we are in the same position that we 
 have held for the last three centuries. Cubic and biquad- 
 ratic equations can be solved, whatever they may be; but 
 equations of higher orders, in which there exists no relation 
 amongst the several coefficients, and no known or assumed 
 connection between the different roots, have baffled a 1 '
 
 51G 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 [history. 
 
 attempts at their solution. Much skill and ingenuity have 
 been displayed by writers of more or less eminence in the 
 attempt to elaborate a method of solution applicable to 
 equations of the fifth degree, but they have failed; whether 
 it be that, like the ancient problems of the quadrature of the 
 circle, and the duplication of the cube, an absolute solution 
 h an impossibility, or whether it is reserved for future 
 mathematicians to start in the research in some new path, 
 and reach the goal by avoiding the old tracks which appear 
 to have been thoroughly traversed in vain. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to refer to such writers as Hoene 
 de Wronski, who, in 1811, announced a general method of 
 eolving all equations, giving formulae without demonstra- 
 tion. In 1 8 1 7, the Academy of Sciences of Lisbon proposed 
 as the subject of a prize, the demonstration of Wronski's 
 formulae. The prize was in the following year awarded to 
 M. Torriani for the refutation of them. 
 
 The reader will find in the fifth volume of the Reports of 
 the British Association, an elaborate report by Sir W. R. 
 Hamilton on a Method of Decomposition, proposed by Mr 
 O. B. Jerrard in his Mathematical Researches, published at 
 Bristol in a work of great beauty and originality, but 
 which Hamilton is compelled to conclude fails to effect the 
 desired object. In fact, the method which is valid when 
 the proposed equation is itself of a sufficiently elevated 
 degree, fails to reduce the solution of the equation of the 
 fifth degree to that of. the f-urth. 
 
 But although the absolute Solution of equations of higher 
 orders than the fourth remains amongst the things un- 
 effected, and rather to be hoped for than expected, a very 
 great deal has been done towards preparing the way for 
 approximate, if not for absolute solutions. 
 
 In the first place, equations of the higher orders, when 
 they assume certain forms, have been shown to be capable 
 of solution. An equation of this kind, to all appearance 
 of a very general and comprehensive form, had been solved 
 by De" Moivre in the Philosophical Transactions for 1737. 
 Binomial equations had advanced under the skilful hands 
 of Gauss, who, in his Disquisitiones Arilhmeticae, which 
 appeared in 1801, added largely to what had been done by 
 Vandermonde in the classification _and solution of such 
 equations ; and subsequently, Abel, a mathematician of 
 Norwegian birth, who died too early for science, completed 
 and oxtendsd what Gauss had left imperfect. The collected 
 writings of Abel published at Christiania in 1839, contain 
 original and valuable contributions to this and many 
 other branches of mathematics. 
 
 But it is not in the solution of equations of certain 
 forms that the greatest advance has been made during the 
 present century. The basis of all methods of solution 
 must evidently be found in the previous separation of the 
 roots, and the efforts of mathematicians have been directed 
 to the discovery of methods of effecting this. The object 
 is not so much to classify the roots into positive and 
 negative, real and imaginary, as to determine the situation 
 »nd number of the real roots of the equation. The first 
 writer on the subject whose methods appeared in print is 
 Budan, whose treatise, entitled Nouvelle mUhod' pour la 
 resolution del Equations hume'riques, appeared in 1807. 
 But there is evidence that Fourier had delivered lectures 
 on the subject prior to the publication of Budan's work, 
 and consequently, without detriment to the claims of 
 Budan, we may admit that the most valuable and original 
 contribution to the science is to be found in Fourier's 
 posthumous work, published by Navier in 1831, entitled 
 Analyse des Equations determinees. The theorem which 
 Fourier gave for the discovery of the position, within narrow 
 limits, of a root of an equation, is one of two theorems, 
 each of which is known £y mathematicians as "Fourier's 
 Theorem." The other is a theorem of integration, and occurs 
 
 in the author's magnificent work Theorie de la Chaleur. 
 During the interval between the publication of Budan'a 
 work and that of Fourier, there appeared a paper in the 
 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society for 1819, by 
 W. G. Horner, upon a new method of solving arithmetical 
 equations. From its being somewhat obscurely expressed, 
 the great originality of the memoir did not at once app-mr. 
 Gradually, however, Mr Horner's method came to be appre- 
 ciated, and it now ranks as one of the best processes, 
 approaching, in some points, to Fourier's. In the Mimoiret 
 des savans etrangers for 18b5, appears a memoir, which, 
 if it does not absolutely supersede all that had been 
 previously done in assigning the positions of the real roots 
 of equations, yet in simplicity, completeness, and uni- 1 
 versality of application, surpasses them alL The author, 
 M. Sturm, of French extraction, but born at Geneva, has Sturm, 
 in this memoir linked his name to a theorem which is likely to 
 retain its place amongst the permanent extensions of the 
 domain of analysis as long as the -study of algebra shall 
 last It was presented to the Academy in 1829. 
 
 Determinants. — The solution of simultaneous equations Detemum 
 of the first degree may be presented under the form of a "its- 
 set of tractions, the numerators and denominators of which 
 are symmetric products of the coefficients of the unknown 
 quantities in the equations. These products were originally 
 known as resultants, a name applied to them by Laplace, 
 and retained as late as 1841 by Cauchy in his Exercices 
 d'analyse et de physique mathtmatique, vol. ii. p. 161, but 
 now replaced by the title determinants, a name first applied 
 to certain forms of them by Gauss. In his Cours 
 d'analyse algebrique, Cauchy terms them alternate func- 
 tions. The germ of the theory of determinants is to be 
 found in the writings of Leibnitz, who, indeed, was far- Leibnii 
 seeing enough to anticipate for it some of the power which, 
 about a century aiter his time, it began to attain. Mora 
 than half that period had indeed elapsed bofore any trace 
 of its existence can be found in the writings of the 
 mathematicians who succeeded Leibnitz. The revival of 
 the method is due to Cramer, who, in a note to his Cramat 
 Analyse des lignes courbes algebriques, published at Geneva 
 in 1750, gave the rule which establishes the sign of a 
 product as plus or minus, according as the number of dis- 
 placements from the typical form has been even or odd. 
 Cramer was followed in the last century by Bdzout, Laplace, 
 Lagrange, and Vandermonde. In 1801 appeared the 
 Disquisitiones Arilhmeticae of Gauss, of which a French C uus 
 translation by M. Poullet-Delisle was given in 1807. Not- 
 withstanding the somewhat obscure form in which this 
 work was presented, its originality gave a new impetus 
 to investigations on this and kindred subjects. To Gauss 
 is due the establishment of the important theorem, that tlio 
 product of two determinants both of the second and third 
 orders is a determinant. Binet, Cauchy, and others followed, 
 end applied the results to geometrical problems. In 1826, 
 Jacobi commenced a series of papers on the subject in 
 Crelle's Journal. In these papers, which extended over a 
 space of nearly twenty years, the subject was recast and 
 made available for ordinary readers; and at the same 
 time it was enriched by new and important theorems, 
 through which the name of Jacobi is indissolubly asso- 
 ciated with this branch of science. Following the steps of 
 Jacobi, a number of mathematicians of no mean power 
 have entered the field. Pre-eminent above all others are 
 two British names, those of Sylvester and Cayley. By 
 their originality, by their fecundity, by their grasp of all 
 the resources of analysis, these two powerful mathematicians 
 have enriched the Transactions of the Royal Society, Crelle's 
 Journal, the Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal, 
 and the Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, with papers on 
 this and on kindred branches of science of such value >u>
 
 HISTORY.] 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 517 
 
 to have placed their aathors at the head of living mathe- 
 maticians. The reader will find the subject admirably 
 treated in Baltzer's Theorie und Anwendung der Deter- 
 minenten; and more briefly in Salmon's Higher Algebra. 
 ELmentary treatises have also been published by Spottis- 
 woode in 1851, by Brioschi in 1854, by Todhunter in his 
 Theory of Equations in 1861, and by Dodgson in 
 1867. 
 
 The attention of the learned has, during the present 
 century, been called to a branch of the history of algebra, 
 in no small degree interesting ; we mean the cultivation of 
 the science to a considerable extent, and at a remote period, 
 in India. 
 
 J We are indebted, we believe, to Mr Reuben Burrow for 
 some of the earliest notices which reached Europe on this 
 very curious subject. His eagerness to illustrate the history 
 of the mathematical sciences led him to collect oriental 
 manuscripts, some of which, in the Persian language, with 
 partial translations, were bequeathed to his friend Mr 
 Dalby of the Koyal Military College, who communicated 
 them to such as took an interest in the subject, about the 
 year 1800. 
 
 In the year 1813, Mr Edward Strachey published in this 
 country a translation from the Persian of the Bija Ganita 
 (or Vija Ganita), a Hindoo treatise on algebra; and in 
 1816 Dr John Taylor published at Bombay a translation 
 of Lelawati (or Lilavati), from the Sanscrit original. This 
 last is a treatise on arithmetic and geometry, and both are 
 the production of an oriental algebraist, Bhascara Acharya. 
 Lastly, in 1817, there came out a work entitled Algebra, 
 Arithmetic, and Mensuration, from the Sanscrit of Brahme- 
 gupta and Bhascara, translated by Henry Thomas Cole- 
 brooke, Esq. This contains four different treatises, origi- 
 nally written in Sanscrit verse, viz., the Vija Ganita and 
 Lilavati of Bhascara Acharya, and the Ganitad'haya and 
 Cuttaoad'hyaya of Brahmegupta. The first two form the 
 preliminary portion of Bhascara's Course of Astronomy, 
 entitled Sidd'hanta Siromani, and the last two are the 
 twelfth and eighteenth chapters of a similar course of 
 astronomy, entitled Brahma-sidd'hanta. 
 
 The time when Bhascara wrote is fixed with great pre- 
 cision, by his own testimony and other circumstances, to 
 a date that answers to about the year 1150 of the Chris- 
 tian era. . The works of Brahmegupta are extremely rare, 
 and the age in which he lived is less certain. Mr Davis, 
 an oriental scholar, who first gave the public a correct 
 riew of the astronomical computations of the Hindoos, is 
 of opinion that he lived in the 7th century ; and Dr 
 William Hunter, another diligent inquirer into Indian 
 science, assigns the year 628 of the Christian era as about 
 the time he flourished. From various arguments, Mr 
 Colebrooke concludes that the age of Brahmegupta was 
 antecedent to the earliest dawn of the culture of . the 
 sciences among the Arabians, so that the Hindoos must 
 have possessed algebra before it was known to that 
 nation. 
 
 Brahmegupta's treatise is not, however, the earliest 
 work known to have been, written on this subject. Ganessa, 
 ,a distinguished astronomer and mathematician, and the 
 injst eminent scholiast of Bhascara, quotes a passage from 
 a much older writer, Arya-Bhatta, specifying algebra under 
 the designation of Vija, and making" separate mention of 
 Outtaca, a problem subservient to the resolution of inde- 
 terminate problems of the first degree. He is understood 
 by another of Bhascara's commentators to be at the head 
 of the older writers. They appear to have been able to 
 resolve quadratic equations by the process of completing 
 the square; and hence Mr Colebrooke presumes that the 
 treatise of Arya-Bhatta then extant extended to quadratic 
 Wjuations in the determinate analvsis. and to indeterminate 
 
 equations of the first degree, and probably to those of the 
 second 
 
 The exact period when Arya-Bhatta lived cannot be 
 determined with certainty; but Mr Colebrooke thinks it 
 probable that this earliest of known Hindoo algebraists 
 wrote as far back as the fifth century of the Christian era, 
 and perhaps earlier. He lived therefore nearly as early 
 as the Grecian algebraist Diophantus, who is reckoned to 
 have flourished in the time of the emperor Julian, or 
 about a.d. 360. 
 
 Mr Colebrooke has instituted a comparison between the 
 Indian algebraist atfd Diophantus, and found reason to 
 conclude that in the whole science the latter is very far 
 behind the former. He says the points in which the 
 Hindoo algebra appears particularly distinguished from the 
 Greek are, besides a better and more convenient algo- 
 rithm, 1st, the management of equations of more than one 
 unknown quantity; 2c?, the resolution of equations of a 
 higher order, in which, if they achieved little, they had 
 at least the merit of the attempt, and anticipated a 
 modern discovery in the resolution of biquadratics; 3c?, 
 general methods for the resolution of indeterminate pro- 
 blems of the first and second degrees, in which they went 
 far indeed beyond Diophantus, and anticipated discoveries 
 of modern algebraists; and ith, the application of algebra to 
 astronomical investigations and geometrical demonstration, 
 in which also they hit upon some matters which have been 
 re-invented in modern times. 
 
 When we consider that algebra made little or no pro- 
 gress among the Arabians, a most ingenious people, and 
 particularly devoted to the study of the sciences, and that 
 centuries elapsed from its first introduction into Europe 
 until it reached any considerable degree of perfection, we 
 may reasonably conjecture that it may have existed in 
 one shape or other in India long before the time of Arya- 
 Bhatta; indeed, from its close connection with, their doc- 
 trines of astronomy, it may be supposed to have descended 
 from a very remote period along with that science. Pro- 
 fessor Playfair, adopting the opinion of Bailly, the eloquent 
 author of the Astronomie Indienne, with great ingenuity 
 attempted to prove, in a Memoir on the Astronomy of the 
 Brahmins, that the observations on which the Indian 
 astronomy is founded were of great antiquity, indeed more 
 than 3000 years before the Christian era. The very remote 
 origin of the Indian astronomy- had been strongly ques- 
 tioned by many in this country, and also on the Continent; 
 particularly by Laplace, and by Delambre in his Histoirt 
 de V Astronomie Ancienne, tome i. p. 400, <fcc, and again in 
 Histoire de I' Astronomie du Moyen Age, Discours Pre'lirm- 
 naire, p. 18, &c, where he speaks slightingly of their 
 algebra; and in this country, Professor Leslie, in his 
 Philosophy of Arithmetic, pp. 225 and 226, calls the Lilavati 
 " a very poor performance, containing merely a few scanty 
 precepts couched in obscure memorial verses." We are 
 disposed to agree with Professor Leslie as to the value, 
 and with Professor Playfair as to the antiquity of this 
 Hindoo algebra. That it should have remained in a state 
 of infancy for so many centuries is accounted for by the latter 
 author in the following passage : — " In India everything [as 
 well as algebra] seems equally insurmountable, and truth and 
 error are equally assured of permanence in the stations they 
 have once occupied. The politics, the laws, the religion, 
 the science, and the manners, seem all nearly the same as 
 at the remotest period to which history extends. Is it 
 because the power which brought about a certain degree 
 of civilisation, and advanced science to a certain height, 
 has either ceased to act, or has met with such a resistance 
 as it is barely able to overcome 1 or is it because the dis- 
 coveries which the Hindoos are in possession of are ar> 
 inheritance from some more inventive and more aD' : '" ,
 
 518 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 people, of whom no memorial remains but some of their 
 attainments in science V 
 
 Writers on Algebra. 
 
 DiopUantus, Arilh metico- 
 rum Libri sex, about A. D. 360 
 (First edition of his writ- 
 ings, 1575; the best, 
 1670.) 
 Leonardo Bonacci fhisworks 
 
 described in Cossali) 1202 
 
 Lucas Pacidhrs, or De Burgo, 
 Summa de Arithmetic/*, 
 
 tc 1494 
 
 Rodolff, Algebra 1622 
 
 Stiiclius, Arilhmctica In- 
 tegra, &c 1544 
 
 Cardan, Ars Magna quam 
 
 vulgo Cossam vocant 1545 
 
 Fcrreus 1545 
 
 Ferrari (first resolved bi- 
 quadratic equations) 1545 
 
 Tartalea, Quesiti ed Inven- 
 
 tioni diverse 1546 
 
 Scheubelius, Algebra Com- 
 
 pendiosa 1651 
 
 Recorde, lylietslone of Wit 1557 
 Peletarius, De Occulta parte 
 
 Numerorum 1553 
 
 Buteo, De Logistica 1559 
 
 Ramus, Arithmeticae Libri 
 
 duo el totidem Algcbrae... 1560 
 Tedro Nuguez or Nonnius, 
 
 Iabro de A Igcbra, kc. ... 1 567 
 Joeaalin, De Occulta parte 
 
 Mathemalicorum 1576 
 
 Bombelli 1579 
 
 Clavius 1580 
 
 Bernard Solignac, Arith. 
 Libri ii. et Algcbtae toti- 
 dem 1580 
 
 Stevinus, A rithmilique, &c. 
 
 aussi V Algtbre 1585 
 
 Vieta, Opera Matltemalica, 1600 
 Folinus, Algebra, sive Liber 
 
 de Rebus Occullis 1619 
 
 Tan Ceulen 1619 
 
 Bachet, Diophantus cum 
 
 Commentariit 1621 
 
 Albert Girard, Invention 
 
 Nowvelle en Algibre 1629 
 
 Ghetaldus, De Resolutions ct 
 Compositions Mathema- 
 
 tica 1630 
 
 Harriot, Artis Analytical 
 
 Praxis 1631 
 
 Oughtreed, Clavis Mathe- 
 
 malica 1631 
 
 Herigonius, Cursus Mathe- 
 
 maticus 1634 
 
 Cavalerius, Gcometria In- 
 divisibilibus Continue- 
 
 rum, 4c 16-35 
 
 Descartes, Qcomelria 1637 
 
 Franciscus a Schooten, 
 Florimond de Beaune, 
 Erasmus Bertliolinus.Joh. 
 Hudde, F. Rabuel, James 
 Bernoulli, John de Witt, 
 4c. — Commentators on 
 Descartes. 
 Roberval, De Recognitione 
 
 Aequalionwm, kc 1640 
 
 De Billy, Nova Oeometricae 
 
 Clavis Algebra 1643 
 
 Benaldinus, Opus Algebrai- 
 
 aim 1644 
 
 Pascal 1654 
 
 Wallis, Arithmetica Infini- 
 torum, 1655 ; Algebra, 1685 
 
 Sliwiug, Mcsolabum 1659 
 
 Khonius, Algebra (trans- 
 lated into English) 1659 
 
 Kinckhauscn, used as a text- 
 book by Sir I. Newton. ..1661. 
 
 Sir Isaac Newton, The Bi- 
 nomial Theorem 1666 
 
 Freniclo, Various papers in 
 
 Mem. of French Acad. ...1666 
 Pell (translated and im- 
 proved Khonius' Algebra) 1668 
 James Gregory, Exercita- 
 
 tiones Gcomelricae 1668 
 
 Mercator, Logarithmotech- 
 
 nt« 1668 
 
 Barrow, in Lcctiones Oeo- 
 metricae 1669 
 
 Kersey, Elements of Algebral673 
 Prescot, Nouveaux Elimens 
 
 de Matliimatxques 1675 
 
 Leibnitz, in Leipsic Acts, 
 
 &.c 1677 
 
 Fermat, in Varia Opera 
 
 Mathematiea 1679 
 
 Bulliald, Opus Novum ad 
 Arilhmeticam Infinito- 
 
 rum 1682 
 
 Tschirnhausen, in the Leip- 
 
 sicActs 1683 
 
 Baker, Oeometrical Key, 4c. 1684 
 Dr Halley, in Philosophical 
 
 Transactions ...1687 and 1694 
 Bolle, Une Mlthode pour la 
 Resolution des Equations 
 
 Indilerminies 1690 
 
 Raphson, Analysis Acqua- 
 
 tionum Universalis 1690 
 
 Dechales, Cursus seu Mun- 
 
 dus Mathcmaticus 1690 
 
 De Lagny, various pieces on 
 
 Equations 1692 
 
 Alexander, Synopsis Alge- 
 
 braica 1693 
 
 Ward, Compendium of 
 Algebra, 1695 ; Young 
 .Mathematician's O-uide 1706 
 De MoivTe, various Memoirs 
 
 in Phil. Trans ...1697-1730 
 Sault, New Treatise of 
 
 Algebra 1698 
 
 Christopher, De Construct 
 
 tione Aequationum 
 
 Ozanam, Nouveaux Elimens 
 
 d'Algebre 1702 
 
 Harris, Lexicon Technicum 1704 
 Guisnee, Application de 
 
 I'Algibre.d, la Oiomilrie.. 1705 
 Jones, Synopsis Palmari- 
 
 orum Matheseos 1706 
 
 Newton, Arithmetica Uni- 
 versalis 1707 
 
 L'Hopital, Traiti Analy- 
 
 tique des Sections Coniques 1707 
 Reyne&u, AnalyseDimontriellQS 
 Brooke Taylor, Melhodus 
 
 Incrementorum 1715 
 
 Stirling, Lineae Terlii 
 Ordinis, 1717 ; Melhodus 
 
 Differcnlialis 1730 
 
 Nicole, On Cubic Equations, 
 in Mtm. Acad. des Scienccs\717 
 
 S'Gravesande, Algebra 1727 
 
 Wolfius, Algebra: Cursus 
 
 Mallumaticus 1732 
 
 Kirby, A rithmelic and 
 
 Algebra 1735 
 
 James Gregory 1736 
 
 Simpson, Algebra, and 
 
 various works 1740, 1742 
 
 Saunderson, Algebra, 2 vols. 
 
 4to 1740 
 
 La Caillc, Algebra ii. Lecota 
 
 de Mathimatiques 1741 
 
 De Gua, On the Roots of 
 Equations, in Mem. Acad, 
 des Sciences 1741 
 
 Clairaut, Elimens d' Al- 
 gtbre 1746 
 
 Maclaurin, Algebra 1747 
 
 Fontaine, L'Artde Rlsoudre 
 
 les Equations 1747 
 
 Donna Maria Gat-tana Ag- 
 nesi, In3tiluiioni Anali- 
 
 tichi 1748 
 
 Boscovich, in Elemcnta 
 
 Universae Matheseos 1754 
 
 Segner, Berlin Mem 1766 
 
 Castillon, Arithmetica Uni- 
 versalis Newtoni cum 
 
 Commentario 1761 
 
 Emerson, Algebra, <tc 1763 
 
 Landen, Residual Analysis, 
 
 kc 1764 
 
 Lagrange, Traiti dfi la Re- 
 solution des Equations 
 Numiriques, Recueil des 
 Mem. de VAcad. de 
 
 Berlin 1767 
 
 Do. republished with 
 
 Notes, Paris 1707 
 
 Euler, Algebra 1770 
 
 Waring, Meditationts Alge- 
 
 braicae, kc 1770, 1776 
 
 Soladini, Compendio d'Ana- 
 
 lisi 1775 
 
 Paoli, Elementi oV Algebra ..1791 
 Ruilini, Teoria delle Equa- 
 zione Algeb - 1799 
 
 [history. 
 
 Budan, Nouvelle ilithode 
 pour la Resolution de* 
 Equations Numiriques ...1807 
 
 Gonipertz, Principles and 
 Application of Imaginary 
 Quantities 1817 and 1818 
 
 Biot, Qergonne's Annates, voL vi. 
 
 Horner, Philos. Trans :.181» 
 
 Dandelin, Mem. de VAcad. 
 Roy. de Bruxcllcs 1826 
 
 Swinburne and Tylecote, 
 on the Binomial Theorem 1827 
 
 Warren, on the Geometric 
 Representation of the 
 Square Roots of Negative 
 Qualities 1828 
 
 AbtL, Mtmoire sur les 
 Equations Algtbriques, 
 
 Christiania 1829 
 
 and in Crclle, vol. i. 4. 
 
 Fourier, Analyse des Equa- 
 tions Dtterminics (post- 
 humous), with preface by 
 Navier 1831 
 
 Malfatti, Mem. delta Soc. 
 Ital., vul, xi. 
 
 Davies Gilbert, Philos. 
 Trans 1831 
 
 Sturm, Mi/rn. prtsenlts par 
 les Savans Elrangers 1831 
 
 Lockhart, Resolution of 
 Equations 1837 
 
 To the preceding list of writers, which contains almost ult 
 of an early date, the following are to be added: — 
 
 Arbogast, Calcul des Derivations. 
 
 The Bemoullis, Begnalt, Ber- 
 trand, Bezout (CoursdesMatlU- 
 matiques), Bossuet, Burja, 
 Brunacci, Babbage, Bridges, 
 Bland, Budan, lionnycastle, 
 Bourdon, Barlow (on the 
 Theory of Numbers), Baltzer 
 (on Determinants). 
 
 Cousin, Cauchy, Coignet, Car- 
 not, Cayley, Cockle. 
 
 Degraave, Ditton, Dodgson (on 
 Determinants). 
 
 Frisias, Francoeur, Frend. 
 
 Gauss, Disquisitioties Arithme- 
 ticae, 1801. 
 
 Hemischius, nales, Hirsch, 
 Hutton, Holdred, Horner, 
 Hargreaves. 
 
 Kuhnius, Kramp, Kaestner. 
 
 Laloubre, Lorgna, Le Blonde, 
 Lee, Lacioix, Ludlam, Le- 
 
 gendre (on the Theory of 
 Numbers), L'Huillier, Leroy. 
 
 Mescher, Malebrauche, Maufredi, 
 Maseres, Murphy. 
 
 Nicholson, Nieuwentijdt, (Ana- 
 lysis Infinilorum). 
 
 Polleti, Poignard (on Magie 
 Squares), Playfair. 
 
 Rowning, Reiiner. 
 
 Suremain-Missery (on Impossible 
 Quantities), Schonerus, Salijj- 
 nut, Sturm, Serret, Salmon, 
 Sylvester. 
 
 Trail, Tedenat, Tb acker. 
 
 Vileut, Vandermonde. 
 
 Warren, Wells, WUsod, Wood, 
 Woodhouse. 
 
 Young. 
 
 Elementary Treatises of Bryce, 
 Colenso, De Morgan, Hind, 
 Kelland, Peacock, fodhunter. 
 
 Writers on the History of Algebra. 
 
 Wallis, in his Algebra; Maseres, 
 Scriptores Logarithm) ci, 1791, 
 Montucla, in Histoire des 
 Mathimatiques; Bossuet, His- 
 toire des Mat/iimatiques; 
 Cossali, Origine, Trasporlo in 
 Italia, e Primi Progressi in 
 Essa dell' Algebra, 2 vols, 
 printed in 1797; Hutton, in 
 
 his Dictionary, and more 
 diffuselyin his Tracts, vol. ii.; 
 Libri Histoire des Sciences 
 Mathimatiques en Italic, Paris 
 1838. 
 
 Terquem, Bulletin de Biblio- 
 graphic. 
 
 Peacock, Report of British 
 Association, 1833. 
 
 For the titles of works on Algebra, consult Murhard, 
 Bibliotheca Mathematiea; and for Memoirs on Algebra, in I 
 Academical Collections, see Reuss, Iiepertorium Commen- 
 tationum, torn. vii. ; Smith (on the Theory of Numbers), 
 Brit. Assoc. 1859-60, 1862-63. 
 
 NOTATION AND FIRST PRINCIPLES. 
 
 1. In arithmetic there are ten characters, which being 
 variously combined, according to certain rules, serve to 
 denote all numerical magnitudes whatever. But this me- 
 thod of expressing quantities (a phrase used to designate
 
 FIRST PRINCIPLES.] 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 519 
 
 ■omething more than mere numbers), is found to be inade- 
 quate, taken by itself, to the more difficult cases of mathe- 
 matical investigation; and it is therefore necessary, in 
 many inquiries concerning the relations of magnitude, to 
 have recourse to that moTe general mode of notation, and 
 more extensive system of operations, which constitute the 
 science of algebra. 
 
 In algebra quantities of every kind may be denoted by 
 any characters whatever, but those commonly used are the 
 letters of the alphabet; and as in the simplest mathe- 
 matical problems there are certain magnitudes given, in 
 order to determine other magnitudes which are unknown, 
 the first letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, &c, are used to 
 denote known quantities, while those to be found are 
 represented by v, x, y, &c, the last letters of the alphabet. 
 
 2. The sign + (plus) denotes, in arithmetic, that the 
 quantity before which it is placed is to be added to some 
 other quantity. Thus, a + b denotes the sum of a and b ; 
 3 + 5 denotes the sum of 3 and 5, or 8. 
 
 The sign — (minus) signifies that the quantity before 
 ■which it is placed is to be subtracted. Thus, a - b de- 
 notes the excess of a above b; 6-2 is the excess of 6 
 above 2, or 4. 
 
 Quantities which have the sign + prefixed to them are 
 called positive, and such as have the sign - are called 
 negative. 
 
 When no sign is prefixed to a quantity, + is always 
 understood, or the quantity is to be considered as posi- 
 tive. 
 
 Quantities which have the same sign, either + or - , 
 are said to have like signs. Thus, + a and + 6 have lite 
 signs, but + a and - c have unlike signs. 
 
 3. A quantity which consists of one term is said to be 
 timple; tut if it consist of several terms, connected by the 
 signs +_ or - , it is then said to be compound. Thus, + a 
 and -c are simple quantities; and 6 + e, and a + b-d, 
 are compound quantities. 
 
 4. To denote the product arising from the multiplica- 
 tion of quantities, they are either joined together, as if 
 intended to form a word, or else they are connected to- 
 gether, with the sign x or . interposed between every 
 two of them. Thus, ab, or a x b, or a . b, denotes the pro- 
 duct of a and ,b; also abc, or a x b x c, or a.b.c, denotes 
 the product of a, b, and c. If some of the quantities to 
 be multiplied be compound, each of these has a line drawn 
 over it called a vinculum, and the sign x is interposed, as 
 before. Thus, axc + dxe -/ denotes that a is to be con- 
 sidered as one quantity, the sum of c and d as a second, 
 and the difference between e and/ as a third; and that 
 these three quantities are to be multiplied into one another. 
 Instead of placing a line over such compound quantities as 
 enter a product, we may enclose each of them between two 
 parentheses, so that the last product may be otherwise 
 expressed thus, a(c + d)(e-f); or thus, ax(c + d)x (e-f) K 
 
 A number prefixed to a letter is called a numerical co- 
 efficient, and denotes how often that quantity is to be 
 taken. Thus, 3a signifies that a is to be taken three 
 times. When no number is prefixed, the coefficient is 
 understood to bo unity. 
 
 5. The quotient arising from the division of one quan- 
 tity by another is often expressed by placing the dividend 
 
 12 
 
 above a line, and the divisor below it. Thus, — denotes 
 
 o 
 
 the quotient arising from the division of 12 by 3, or 4; - 
 
 denotes the quotient arising from the division of b by a. 
 
 6. The equality of two quantities is expressed by putting 
 the sign = between them. Thus, a + b = c — d denotes 
 that the sum of o and 6 is equal to the excess of c 
 above d. I 
 
 7. Simple quantities, or the terms of compound quanti- 
 ties, are said to be like, which consist of the same letter 
 or letters taken together in the same way. Thus, + ab and 
 
 - 5ab are like quantities, but +ab and +alb are unlike. 
 There are some other characters, such as > for greater 
 
 than, < for less than, .: for therefore, which will be" 
 explained when we have occasion to use them; and in 
 what follows we shall suppose that the operations and no- 
 tation of common arithmetic are sufficiently understood. 
 
 8. As the science extends itself beyond its original 
 boundaries, it begins gradually to appear that the limits 
 imposed by these definitions have been transgressed, so 
 that almost insensibly the symbols have acquired for them- 
 selves significations much more comprehensive than those 
 originally attached to them. Thus, were + a to signify a 
 gain of £a, - a would signify a loss of the same sum ; 
 were + a to signify motion forwards through a feet, — a 
 would signify motion backwards through the same space. 
 The extended definitions of + and — may now be such 
 as the following : + and - are collective symbols of 
 
 r operations the reverse of each other. From s imila r con- 
 siderations to those by which the signification of + and 
 
 - has. been extended, we extend that of x and -f- to 
 something like the following : x and 4- are cumulative 
 symbols of operations the inverse of each other. We may 
 now exhibit the most general definition of the four sym- 
 bols in the following form : + and - are symbols of 
 operations prefixed to algebraical symbols of quantity, and 
 are such that + a - a = + or -0, where + means 
 simply or very nearly increased by ; — 0, diminished by 
 0. x and + are symbols of operations prefixed to alge- 
 braical symbols of quantity, and are such that xa-i-a = 
 x 1 or + 1, where x 1 means simply or very nearly multi- 
 plied by 1 ; + 1, divided by 1. 
 
 9. The laws i*y which the symbols are combined are the Laws or 
 same as in arithmetic. It is desirable, however, to exhibit combia* 
 them. They are three, — - * 
 
 Law I." Quantities affected by the signs + and - are 
 in no way influenced by the quantities to which they are 
 united by these signs. 
 
 Law LL The Distributive Law. — Additions and subtrac- 
 tions may be performed in any order. 
 
 Law III. The Commutative Law. — Multiplications and 
 divisions may be performed in any order. 
 
 We may remark that these laws are assumed for algebra, 
 so that the science is limited by their applicability. Algebra 
 has been extended into the science of quaternions by freeing 
 it from part of the limitation imposed by the third of these 
 laws. In this new science ab is not the same thing as ba. 
 
 We add a few examples of the substitution of numbers Example 
 for letters. (Ex. 3 and 4 involve processes that will be 
 explained later.) 
 
 Ex. 1. If n = l, 6 = 2,c = 3, find the value of (a + b + c). 
 (a + 2b-c).(b + 2c-a). 
 
 It is (1 + 2 + 3). (1 + 4- 3). (2 + 6 -1) = 84. 
 
 Ex. 2. If a = £, 5 = £, e<={, x = find the value of 
 
 5- + - + - + X 9 
 b c a 
 
 Itisf + $+i + = 3^ 
 
 Ex. 3. With the same data as in example 2, find the 
 
 , , o 2 -i 2 b 2 -c 2 
 
 value of j- 
 
 x x 3 
 
 The first term is infinite, and the second is infinitely 
 
 greater than the first, because x 2 = xxx .: the answer is 
 
 Ex. 4. If x = - = -=C; find the value of 
 
 V » 
 
 »»-B<;+?:!(He?>
 
 520 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 [fundamental 
 
 Write down the expression in x by putting - for y, 4c. 
 Tt becomes 
 
 »-£+~S-i(-S(*+-3 
 
 = 2 • because x = 0. 
 
 Sect. I. — Fundamental Operations. 
 
 The primary operations in algebra are the same as In 
 common arithmetic — namely, addition, subtraction, multi- 
 plication, and division ; and from the various combinations 
 of these four, all the others are derived. 
 
 I. Addition. 
 
 10. In addition there maybe three cases: the quanti- 
 ties to be added may be like, and have like signs ; or they 
 may be like, and have unlike signs; or, lastly, they may 
 be unlike. 
 
 Case 1. To add quantities which are like, and have like 
 signs. 
 
 Rule. Add together the coefficients of the quantities, pre- 
 fix the common sign to the sum, and annex the letter or 
 letters common to each term. 
 
 Add together 
 
 Add together 
 
 — 2ax 
 
 — ax 
 
 — 5ax 
 -12ax 
 
 Sum, + 13a Sum, - 20ax 
 
 ijase 2. To add quantities which are like, but have unlike 
 signs. 
 
 Rule. Add the positive coefficients into one sum, and the 
 negative ones into another; then subtract the less of 
 these sums from the greater, prefix the sign of the 
 greater to the remainder and annex the common letter 
 or letters as before 
 
 Exampijss. 
 
 {+ 2ax ( + 6a5 + 7 
 
 „ Add -together^ "' a , _ fi 
 
 + 9ax ( + 7a6-13 
 
 Bum of the pos. 
 Bum of the neg. 
 
 -fllax Sum of the pos. + 14a6 + 16 
 — Aax Sum of the neg. - 4a6- 18 
 
 8am required, + 7 ax Sum required, +10ab- 2 
 
 Case 3. To add unlike quantities. 
 
 Rule. Put down the quantities, one after another, in any 
 
 order, with their signs and coefficients prefixed. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 2a 
 
 36 
 
 -4c 
 
 ax + 2ay 
 bb-obz 
 
 Sum. ax + 2ay + 66 - 36f 
 
 Sum, 2a + 36 -4c 
 
 IX Subtraction. 
 
 1. General Rule. — Change the signs of the quantities to 
 be subtracted, or suppose them changed, and then add 
 them to the other quantities, agreeably to the rules of 
 addition. 
 
 Examples 
 
 From 6a -126 From 6s- 8y + 3 
 
 Subtract 2a- 56 Subtract 2x+ 9y-2 
 
 Remainder 3a- 76 
 
 5xy-2 + 8x- y 
 3yy-8- Sx- oy 
 
 Remainder 4x-17j/ + 6 
 
 aa-ax- yy 
 66 —by + zz 
 
 2xy + 6 + 16s + 2y aa-ax-yy-bb + by-ts 
 The reason of the rule for subtraction may be explained 
 thus. Let it be required to subtract 2/> - 3q from m + n. 
 If we subtract 2/> from m + n, there will remain m + n-2p, 
 but if we aro to subtract 2p - 3q, which is less than 2/>, it 
 is evident that the remainder will be greater by a quantity 
 equal to 3q; that is, the remainder will be m + n - 2v + Zq, 
 hence the reason of the rule is evident 
 
 III. Multiplication. 
 
 12. General Rule for the Signs. — If the quantities to be Rule o( 
 
 multiplied have like signs, the sign of the product is + ; signs. 
 
 but if they have unlike signs, the sign of the product 
 
 is-. 
 
 This rulo, which is given by Diophantus 1 as the defini- 
 tion of + and - , may be said to constitute the basis of 
 algebra as distinct from arithmetic. 
 
 If we admit the definitions given above, the rule may 
 be demonstrated in the following way : — 
 
 (1.) + a x + 6 = + a6 is assumed. 
 
 (2.) +ax -6 will have the same value, whatever -b 
 may be connected with, as it has when - 6 is connected 
 with +6 (Law 1). 
 
 Now +ax(+J-M=+ax +0 = (Def.) 
 
 But + ax( + 6-6> = + ax +6, and + ax -6 
 (Law 2). 
 
 .% +a x +6 and +ax - 6 make up 0' 
 i.e., + ab and + a x - 6 make up 0. 
 Now +a6-a6 = 0, .-. + ax -6= -a6. 
 
 (3.) Similarly -ax -6= +a&. 
 
 The examples of multiplication may be referred to two 
 cases ; the first is when both the quantities are simple, 
 and the second when one or both of them are compound. 
 
 Case 1. To multiply simple quantities 
 
 Rule. Find the sign of the product by the general rule, 
 and annex to it the product of the numeral coefficients; 
 then set down all the letters, one after another, as in 
 one word. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 /'Multiply +a (+56 ( - 3a* 
 
 By +c „ 1 - 4a „ I + 7a& 
 
 1. 
 
 (.Product +ac (-2005 { T 2laahx 
 
 Case 2. To multiply compound quantities. 
 
 Rule. Multiply every term of the multiplicand by all the 
 terms of the multiplier, one after another, according to 
 the preceding rule, and collect their products into one 
 sura, which will be the product required. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 1. Mult. 2x +y 2. a -6 +c 
 
 By x -2y a +6 -c 
 
 Prod. 2xx + xy 
 
 - ixy - 2yy 
 
 2xx - 3xy - 2yy 
 
 aa — ab + ac 
 
 + ab -bb + be 
 -ac +bc 
 
 aa 
 
 * *-bb + 2bc-ee 
 
 Crtfltt mil XtT^n. — Diophmtaa, Ed. Fermat, Tolosoc, 1670, p. 7. 
 T)of. 9.
 
 OPERATIONS.] 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 521 
 
 When several quantities are multipiieu together so as to 
 constitute a product, each of them is called a factor of that 
 product : thus a,, b, and c are factors of the product abc ; 
 also, a+« and b-x are factors of the product (a + a) . 
 (b-x). 
 
 The products arising from the continual multiplication 
 of the same quantity are called powers of that quantity, 
 which is called the root. Thus aa, aaa, aaaa, &c, are 
 powers of the . root a. These powers are commonly ex- 
 pressed by placing above the root, towards the right hand, 
 a figure, denoting how often the root is repeated. This 
 figure serves to denominate the power, and is called its 
 index or exponent. Thus, the quantity a being considered 
 as the root, or as the first power of a, we have aa or a 2 for 
 its second power, aaa or a 3 for its third power, aaaa or a 4 
 for its fourth power, and so on. 
 
 The second and third powers of a quantity are generally 
 called its square and cube. 
 
 By considering the notation of powers, and the rales for 
 multiplication, it appears that powers of the same root are 
 multiplied by adding their exponents. Thus axa? = a*, 
 also x 3 xx* = x 7 ; and in general a" x a" = a m+ \ 
 
 When the quantities to be multiplied appear under a 
 symmetrical form, the operation of multiplying them may 
 sometimes be shortened by detached coefficients, by symmetry, 
 and by general considerations suggested by the particular 
 ^examples under consideration. 
 
 13. Detached Coefficients. 
 
 Ex7 1. Multiply x* - 3r> + 2x 2 - 7x + 3 by a 2 - 5x + 4. 
 Here the powers of x occur in regular order, so that we 
 need only write down the coefficients of the several terms 
 during the operation, having it in our power to supply the 
 ir 1 * whenever we require them ; we write, therefore, — 
 
 1_3+ 2- 7+ 3 
 1-5+ 4 
 
 
 1-3+ 2- 7+ 3 
 -5 + 15-10 + 35- 
 + 4-12+ 8- 
 
 -15 
 
 -28 + 12 
 
 1-8 + 21-29 + 46-43 + 12 
 
 The last line (for which the result might have been 
 written down in full at once) is equivalent to 
 
 x t -8x 5 + Six* _ 29a; s + 46a; 2 - 43a; + 12 
 
 When any terms are wanting, they may be supplied by 
 Beros ; thus, 
 
 Ex. 2. Multiply x i ~7x 3 + x- i by x 3 -x + 2. 
 We write 
 
 1 _r +0+ 1 - 1 
 
 1+0 -1 +2 
 
 1 -7 +0+ 1 - 1 
 
 -1+7 - -1+1 
 
 +2 -14 +0+2 -2 
 
 a? - 7a; 6 - x> + 10a^ - 15ar» - a; 2 + 3a: - 2 
 ftp product required. 
 
 14. Symmetry. 
 
 We may take advantage of symmetry by two considera- 
 tions either separately or combined. 
 
 (1.) Symmetry of a Symbol. 
 
 Ex. Find the sum of (a + b - 2c) 2 + (a + c- 2M* + 
 (o + e-2a) 2 . 
 
 Here a 2 occurs with 1 as a multiplier in the first square, 
 with 1 as a multiplier in the second square, and with 4 as 
 k multiplier in the third square, 
 
 ,% 6a 2 is part of the result : 
 
 ab occurs with 2 as a multiplier in the first square with 
 - 4 in the Becond. and with - 4 in the third 
 
 .*. — 6ab is part of the result. 
 
 But a 2 , &*, c 2 , are similarly circumstanced, as also db 'ae, 
 be ; hence the whole result must be 6(a 2 + 1 2 + ^ 2 -ab-ae 
 -be). 
 
 (2.) Symmetry of an, Expression. 
 
 Ex. Find the sum of (a + b + c)(x + y + z) + (a-fb- c) 
 (x + y-z) + (a-b + c)(x-y + z)+(-a + b + c)(-x + y + z). 
 
 First, the product of (a + b + c) by x + y + z is to be. 
 found by multiplyiug out term by term. 
 
 It is ax + ay + az + bx + by + bz + ex + cy + cz. 
 
 The product of (a + b-c) (x + y-z) is nOw simply 
 written down from the above, by changing the sign of every 
 term which contains one only of the two Quantities affected 
 with a -/sign, i.e., in this case c and z. 
 
 Lastly, the four products may be arranged below eaob 
 other, the signs alone being written down ; thus, 
 
 ax + ay + az + bx + by + bz + ex + cy + a 
 + + -+ + --- + 
 + - +- + - + - + 
 o._ __ + + _ + + 
 
 and the sum required is therefore 4ax + 4by + ic\ 
 
 15. General Considerations.' 
 
 Ex. Find (a + 6 + c) 8 . 
 
 By multiplying out we get 
 
 (a + 6) 3 = a 3 + 3a 2 6 + 
 
 Now a, b, c are similarly involved in (a + b + c) 3 ; .•. b* 
 and c 3 must appear along with a 3 , 3a 2 c, 3b 2 a, <tc, along 
 with 3a 2 b, and hence we can at once write down all the 
 terms except that which contains abc. To obtain the co- 
 efficient of abc, we observe that if a, b, and c, are each equal 
 to 1, (a + 6 + c)3 is reduced to 3 3 or 27. In other words, 
 there are 27 terms, if we consider 3a-b and every similar 
 expression as thiee terms; and as the terms preceding ahc 
 are in this way found to be 21 in number, we require 6abc 
 to make up the full number 27; 
 
 . •. (a + b + c) 3 = a 3 + 4 3 + c 3 + 3a-b + 3a 2 c + 3Z/ 2 a + 36 2 c + 
 3c 2 a + 3c 2 6 + 6a&c 
 
 It is desirable to introduce here some examples of the 
 application of the process of the substitution of a letter 
 for any number or fraction to the properties of numbers, 
 inequalities, <fec. 
 
 16. Properties of Numbers. 
 
 Ex. 1. If unity is divided into any two. parts, the dif- 
 ference of their squares is equal to the difference of. the 
 parts themselves. 
 
 Let x stand for one part ; 1 - x for the otner. 
 
 Now<l_- xf - x 2 = 1 - 2a; + u? - x"- = 1 - 2a; = (1 f x) - x. 
 
 i.e., the difference of the squares of the parts is equal to 
 the difference of the parts. 
 
 Ex. 2. The product of three consecutive even numbers 
 is divisible by 48. 
 
 Let 2n, In + 2, 2n + 4, be the three numoers ,\ their pro- 
 duct is 8n(n + l)(n + 2). Now, of three consecutive 
 numbers, n, n + \, n + 2, one must be divisible by 2, and 
 one by 3, .". »(»+ l)(n + 2) is divisible by 6, whence the pro- 
 position. 
 
 Ex. 3. The sum of the squares of three consecutive 
 odd numbers, when increased by 1. is divisible by 12, but 
 never by 24. 
 
 Let 2» - 1, 2n + 1, 2» + 3, be the three odd numbers 
 
 1-18*
 
 522 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 [fundamental 
 
 The sum of their squares when increased by 1 is 
 12n ! + 12* + 12 = 12(rt 2 + n + l) = 12(ti. n + 1 + 1). 
 
 Now, either n or ri+1 is even, .'. 7i(»+l)+l is odd ; 
 hence the sum under consideration is 12 times an odd 
 number, whence the proposition. 
 
 Additional Examples in Symmetry, &t. 
 
 ExA.(a + b + c) 2 + (a + b-e) 2 + (a+e-b) 2 + (b + e-af 
 «4(a' + i 2 + c 2 ). 
 
 This is written down at once, from observing that a 3 
 . occurs in each of the four expressions, and that 2ab occurs 
 with a + sign in two, and with a - sign in the other two. 
 There is no other form. 
 
 Ex. 2.(a+b + cf + (a + b-cy + (a + c-b) 3 + (b + c-a) 3 
 -= 2(a 3 + ft 3 + c 3 ) + G(a 2 6 + a-c + Pa + b 2 c + c-a + (~b)-l 2abc. 
 
 1st, a 3 occurs + in three, and - in one term. 
 
 2d, 3a-b occurs + in three, and - in one term. 
 
 3d, When a, b, c are all units, the number resulting is 
 30; .-. there are 30 terms, and as (1st) and (2d) make up 
 42, there fall to be subtracted 12, i.e., the coefficient of 
 abc is - 12. 
 
 Ex. 3. (ax + by + cz) 2 + (ax + cy + bz) 2 + (bx + ay + cz) 2 + 
 (bx + cy + az) 2 + (ex +ay + bz) 2 + (ex + by + az) 2 - 2(a 2 + b 2 
 + e 2 ) (x 2 + y 2 + z-) + i(ab + ac + be) (ry + xz + yz). 
 
 Ex. 4. The difference of the squares of two consecutive 
 numbers is equal to the sum of the numbers. 
 
 Ex. 5. The sum of the cubes of three consecutive num- 
 bers is divisible by the sum of the numbers. 
 
 Ex. 6. If x is an odd number, ap-x is divisible by 24, 
 and(x 2 + 3)(z 2 + 7)by32. 
 
 Ex. 7. If (pq - r)- + i(p 2 - q)(pr - q)- = 0, then will 
 4(/> 2 -< ? ) 3 = 3 -3/* Z + r) 2 , 
 and i(q 2 -prf = (2<f-3pqr + r it f. 
 
 Ex. 8. Given x + y + z-Q, X + Y + Z = 0, to prove that 
 
 (x 2 + XV + (y 2 + Y 2 )zx + (z 2 + Z 2 )zy = (x 2 + X 2 )YZ + 
 (y 2 + Y 2 )ZX + ( 2 2 + Z 2 )XY. 
 
 Let the left hand side equal the right + u ; then multi- 
 plying out, 
 
 xyz(x + y + z) + XV + Y 2 zx + Z e ry = 
 XYZ(X + Y + Z) + z 2 YZ + y 5 ZX + z 2 XY + «, 
 «.<;., X 2 y 2 + Y 2 zz + (X + Y) 2 2:y = 
 
 * 2 YZ + y 2 ZX + (.e + y) 2 XY + u, 
 
 or, . XV; + a-) + YM 2 + y) = 
 
 a; 2 Y(Z + X) + y 2 X(Z + Y) + u, 
 
 or, _ xy - Y V- = - a: 2 Y 2 - y 2 X 2 + u 
 
 .: « = 0. 
 
 Ex. 9. If 4o*6 s e*(a? + y 5 + z 2 ) (aV + 6 2 y 2 + A 2 ) = 
 
 {(& 2 + ^A' +.(c 2 + a 2 )6 2 y 2 + (a 2 + & 2 )A)}», 
 
 *hen~a is greater than 6, and b greater than c; then is y 
 
 ■=0. A3 the argument' concerns y, multiply out, and 
 
 arrange in order of powers of y. After reduction this 
 
 results in 
 
 (a 2 - c*)b V + 2 { (a 2 - c 2 )(& 2 - e'Ja 2 * 2 +'(a 2 - c 2 Xa 2 - b^A?} J V 
 
 + { (&» - c*)ah? - (a 2 - 5 2 )cV } 2 = 0. 
 
 Now each of these three terms is a positive quantity, if it 
 be not zero, and as the sum of three positive quantities 
 cannot be equal to zero, it follows that each term must be 
 separately equal to zero, 
 
 i.e., y = 0, and (6 8 - c 2 )a 2 x 2 = (a 2 - & s )eV. 
 
 17. Inequalities. 
 
 The demonstrations of inequalities are of so simple and 
 instructive a character, that a somewhat lengthened exhibi- 
 tion of them forms a valuable introduction to the higher 
 processes of the science. In all that follows under this 
 head, the symbols x, y, z stand for positive numbers or 
 fractions, usually unequal. 
 
 Ex. 1. x t + y t >2ry. 
 
 Because (x - y) 2 is + , whether x be greater or less than 
 y, it follows that x 2 — 2xy + y 2 is +, i.e., ia some positive 
 number or fraction, 
 
 .•. x 2 + y 2 >2xy. 
 
 It will bo remarked that when x and y are equal, the in- 
 equality rises into an equality, and this is common to all 
 inequalities of the character under discussion. 
 
 Cor. - + ->2; i.e., the sum of a fraction and its recipro- 
 cal i3 greater than 2. 
 
 Ex. 2. x 2 + y 2 + z 2 >xy + xz + yz. 
 
 For x 2 + y 2 >2xy, x 2 + z 2 >2xz, y 2 + z 2 >2yz; which 
 boing added and divided by 2, gives the result required. 
 
 Ex. 3. x"** + y~+'>x~y" + x"y~. 
 
 For (x m - y") (x" - y") is + , whether x be greater or leas 
 than y. 
 
 As a particular case x s + y 3 >x 2 y + xy 2 . 
 
 Ex. 4. x*"+l>x i -°' + x lr . 
 
 For (x 2 — 1 ' - 1) (X* - 1) is positive. 
 
 Cor.1. x* + -.>x- , ' + ^-t. 
 
 X X"" 1 ' 
 
 Cor. 2. Similarly, af + -. >z— 1 + -_, , 
 i.e., as n increases x* + -„ increases, .\ as a particular caaw 
 *" + -„>«+-• 
 
 X X 
 
 Ex. 5. If a, b, c are the sides of a triangle, a 2 + b 2 + c* 
 >ab + ac + bc<2(ab + ac + bc). The former inequality ia 
 proved in example 2. For the latter we have 
 
 (Euelid, I. 20), a<b + c .: a 2 <ab + ac. 
 Similarly, b 2 < ab + be, c 2 < ae + bc . 
 .: a 2 + b 2 + c 2 <2(ab + ac + bc). 
 
 Ex. 6. The arithmetic mean of any number of quantities 
 (all positive) is greater than the geometric. ■ 
 
 (The arithmetic mean is the sum of the quantities 
 divided by their number ; the geometric is. that root of 
 their product which is represented by their number.) Let 
 the quantities be denoted by x u x 2 , x 3 , . . . x„ the num- 
 bers 1, 2, 3, placed under the x, indicating order only, so 
 that x x may be read the first x, x^ the second x, Ac. Ex- 
 
 ample 1 gives 
 
 2 > sfxfa, if we suppose tho x and y 
 
 of that example to be Jx lt Jxa of the present 
 It also gives &+3+5LJ-3 
 
 . ,A+ 3 
 V 2 
 
 x,+x. 
 
 > V Jxfo Jxp t 
 
 > Uzppfr 
 
 In the same way we prove the proposition for 8, 16, or any 
 number of quantities which is a power of 2. 
 
 For any other number, such, for instance, as 5, the 
 following process is employed : — The number is made up 
 to 8 by the insertion of three quantities, each equal to the 
 
 ... , ., ^ rt ■ x.+x 2 + x, + x. + x. 
 
 arithmetic mean of the other five, viz., -* — ' — -r — * — * 
 
 Call this quantity y; then 
 
 gi + *i+ 
 
 ,'fc+J 
 
 .8 
 
 ■ > Z/z^ , 
 
 xjjyy 
 
 'Jf* 
 
 or, y 8 >x.ar 9 . . . xjf
 
 OPERATIONS.] 
 
 ALGEBEA 
 
 523 
 
 y or 
 
 • y'>*, x , >••*» 
 
 x l + x 1 +...x f > y- 
 
 Cor. Aa a particular case, x* + y 3 + z 3 > 3xyz. 
 
 Ex. 7. Given x& . . . x n = y", to prove that (1+*,) 
 (1 +*,)... (l+*.)>(l+y)". 
 
 The demonstration will be perfectly general in fact, 
 though limited in form, if we suppose the number of 
 quantities to be 5 ; in which case, 
 
 *A-- -x^y 5 - 
 Make the number up to 8 by introducing three y's ; then 
 
 (1 +#)) (1 + x 2 ) >(1 + >Jx^) 2 by example 1, 
 
 (1+j; j )(1+ Ii )>(1Wv 1 ) 2 
 
 0+*.) (i+y) >(i+^) 2 
 (i+y)(i+y) =(i+ Jyy? 
 
 .', Multiplying these products together, and combining the 
 right hand factors two and two, 
 
 (1+^(1+*,) (l+*.)(l+y)» 
 
 >{(!+ Vx A )(l + ^ )(1 + ^)(l+y)}» 
 
 >f(l+ j/x l xji ^{\+ il x b tf)}* 
 
 >(1+ Zlxp.Fpptff 
 
 >(l+y)8 
 
 .-. (1+^(1+^.... (l+*,)>(l + y)». 
 
 .£z. 8. If the sum of n. fractions makes up 1, the sum of 
 their reciprocals is greater than the square of their 
 ■limber. 
 
 Let x i + x,+ . . . x, = l, 
 
 1 1 
 then, - + _ + 
 
 + - >n$ 
 
 (example 6). 
 
 But Z/xfa . . . 2T„< 
 
 X. +I,+ , 
 
 V * 
 
 >n, 
 
 whence 
 
 1 1 
 
 Ex. 9, 
 
 l + z 2 + x 4 + . 
 
 n + 1 
 
 — - (example 6) < - 
 
 + — >tt a . 
 
 a + x 3 + . . . x 2 "- 1 2n 
 
 Let tha numerator and denominator of this fraction be 
 designated by N and D. N may be divided into pairs of 
 terms, at the same distance from either end, viz., 1 + x", 
 r l + x^~ 2 , <fec, with or without a middle term, each of 
 wfcich (after 1 + x 1 ") is, by example 4, less than that 
 quantity ; the middle term, if there be one, being less than 
 
 4(1 +***), 
 
 71+1 
 
 in either case N<— — (1 +X 2 ") 
 
 . . . (i.) 
 
 >nx* . (2.) 
 
 Again (example 6), D >n "Jxx$ . . . x 2 " 
 
 ± . , . N n + 1/ 1\ 
 
 .'. the fraction =r < — — («+-;)• 
 D 2n \ xf ) 
 
 To prove the second proposition, that the fraction is 
 
 yrcater than -r— ( x + - ), it is only necessary to multi- 
 
 jjy up and reduce the result ; thus, 
 
 <N. 
 Whence the proposition. 
 
 Ex. 1. 
 
 Additional Examples. 
 
 (x + y + z) 2 < 3(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ), and generally, 
 
 (x + y + z)"<3'-'(x* + y" + z"). (See Induction.) 
 
 Ex. 2. (x + y)(y + z)(z + x)>8xyz<^ + f + ^). 
 
 Ex. 3. (z i + y i + z*)>xyz(x + y + z). 
 
 Ex.4. (a 2 + b 2 + c 2 )(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )>(ax + by + cz) 2 . 
 
 Ex. 5. The arithmetic mean of the pth. powers of n 
 positive quantities is greater than the pih power of their 
 mean, and also greater than the mean of their combina- 
 tions p together. 
 
 Ex. 6. (ax + by + cz) 2 + (ax + cy + bz) 2 + (bx + ay + cz) 2 
 + (bx + cy + az) 2 + (ex + ay + bz) 2 + (ex + by + az) % 
 
 > 6(ab + ae + be) (xy + xz + yz y 
 <G(a 2 + r 
 
 ■b 2 + z 2 )(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ). 
 
 18. Induction. 
 
 It will be noted that the numerical multiplier of the 
 second term of the powers of a + x already obtained is the 
 same as the index. It is easy to see that this law is 
 general. To demonstrate the fact formally we employ the 
 method of induction. 
 
 The argument may be divided into four distinct steps — 
 1. Inference; 2. Hypothesis; 3. Comparison; 4. Conclusion. 
 
 The first step, inference, is the discovery of the pro- 
 bable existence of a law. 
 
 The second step, hypothesis, is the assumption that that 
 law holds to a certain point, up to which the opponent to 
 the argument may be presumed to admit it. 
 
 The third step consists in basing on this assumption the 
 demonstration of the law to a stage beyond what the 
 opponent was prepared to admit. 
 
 The fourth step argues that as the law starts fair, and 
 advances beyond a point at which any opponent is prepared 
 to admit its existence, it is necessarily true. 
 
 Ex. 1. To prove that (a + xf = a" + na'^x -t- , &C. 
 
 L By multiplication we get 
 
 (a + x)* = a 4 + 4a 3 x + , <Ea 
 
 II. Let it be granted that (a + x) m = a" + ma'~' i x + , <tc, 
 where m is the extreme limit to which the opponent will 
 admit of its truth. 
 
 HI. By multiplying the equals by a + x, we get 
 
 (a + x)* +1 = a* +1 + ma'x + , <!rc., 
 + a'x + , ic, 
 = a" +I + (m + \)a"x + , &c, 
 
 i.e., if the law be admitted true for m it is proved true for 
 m + 1 ; in other words, at whatever point the opponent 
 compeb us to limi t, our assumption, we can advance one 
 step higher by argument. 
 
 IV. Now, the law is true for 4, .\ it is proved true for 5 ; 
 and being true for 5, it is proved true for 6, and so on, ad 
 infinitum. 
 
 Ex. 2. The sum of the cubes of the natural numbore ia 
 the squaie of the sum of the numbers, 
 
 l 3 +2 3 = 9 = (l + 2) 2 =^y 
 I. Let us assume that 
 
 13 + 2' + ,*C., + *3=(^) 2 . 
 
 IL If this be so, then by adding (x + 1 ) 3 we get 
 
 l' + 2 3 +... +(x+iy = (j^y + (x+i)* 
 
 _/ (*+!) (s+g) \i 
 
 HI. Hence, if the law be true for any one number .r, it 
 j is also true for x+ 1.
 
 524 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 [fuitdambntal 
 
 IV. But it is true for 2, .-. for 3, .-. for 4, 4c 
 Ex. 3. To prove the inequality, 
 
 (x + y + f)»< 3-'(i" + y* + 3") . 
 
 i.om the second example of inequalities we get at once 
 (*+*+•)•< S(**+y»+»»). 
 
 Let us assume that (x + y + z)"< 3* _1 (x" + y" + z"), then 
 by multiplication we get 
 
 (z + y + *)"+'< 3— , (x"+ l + y-+\ + r+ l +x"y + y m x + 
 x'z + z'x + y'z + z"y). 
 
 Now, inequality, example 3, gives 
 
 x*y + y'x< x m+1 + y" +1 , <fcc. 
 .*. x"y + y"x + x~z + z"x + y~t + z'y< 2(x"+> + y~ +1 + z"*'), 
 and (x + y + z)' +i < 3"( ■£-+' + y* +1 + zT+ l ), 
 
 i.e., the law is true for m + 1, if true for m; but it is true 
 for 2, .". it is always true. 
 
 IV. Division. 
 
 19. General Rule for the Signs. — If the signs of the 
 divisor and dividend be like, the sign of the quotient is + ; 
 but if they be unlike, the sign of the quotient is 
 
 This rule is derived from the general rule for the signs 
 in multiplication, by considering that the quotient must be 
 such a quantity as, when multiplied by the divisor, shall 
 produce the dividend, with its proper sign. 
 
 This definition of division is the same as that of a 
 fraction; hence the quotient arising from the division of 
 one quantity by another may be expressed by placing the 
 dividend above a line, and the divisor below it ; but it may 
 also be often reduced to a more simple form by the follow- 
 ing rules. 
 
 Case 1. When the divisor is simple, and a factor of every 
 term of the dividend. 
 
 Rule. Divide the coefficient of each terra of the dividend 
 by the coefficient of the divisor, and expunge out of 
 each term the letter or letters in the divisor : the result 
 is the quotient. 
 
 Ex. Divide 16a'xy- 28a 2 *z 2 + 4a 2 r 3 by ia'x. 
 
 The process requires no explanation. It is founded on 
 Jaws II. and III., together with the rule of signs. 
 
 The quotient is iay — 7^ + x 2 . 
 
 If the divisor and dividend be powers of the same quan- 
 tity, the division will ■evidently be performed by subtract- 
 ing the exponent of the divisor from that of the dividend. 
 Thus a 6 , divided by a 3 , has for a quotient a 5-3 = a s . 
 
 Case 2. When the divisor is simple, but not a factor of 
 the dividend. 
 
 Rule. The quotient is expressed by a fraction, of which 
 the numerator is the dividend, and the denominator the 
 divisor. 
 
 Thus the quotient of Zab*, divided by 2mbc, is the frac- 
 3a&> 
 2mbc 
 It will sometimes happen that the quotient found thu3 ■ 
 may be reduced to a more simple form, as shall be ex- 
 plained when we come to treat of fractions. 
 
 Case 3. When the divisor is compound. 
 
 Rule. The terms of the dividend are to be arranged 
 in the order of the powers of some one of its letters, and 
 those of the divisor according to the powers of the same 
 letter. The operation is then carried on precisely as fur 
 division of numbers. 
 
 To illustrate this rule, let it be required to divide 8a 2 + 
 2a6 - 156^ by 2u + 36, the operation will stand thus : 
 
 2a + 36)8a 2 + 2ab- 15& 2 (4a-5* 
 8a 2 +12a6 
 
 -10a&-156 2 
 -10a6-156 2 
 
 Here the terms of the divisor and dividend are arranged 
 according to the powers of the quantity a. We now 
 divide 8a 2 , the first term of the dividend, by 2a, the first 
 term of the divisor ; and thus get 4a for the first term of 
 the quotient. We next multiply the divisor by 4a, am 
 subtract the product 8a 2 + 1 2a6 from the dividend ; we 
 get - 10a6 - 156 2 for a new dividend. 
 
 By proceeding in all respects as before, we find - 56 for 
 the second term of the quotient, and no remainder: the opera- 
 tion is therefore finished, and the whole quotient is 4a - 56. 
 
 The following examples will also serve to illustrate the 
 manner of applying the rule. 
 
 Ex. 1. 
 3a- 6)3a 3 - 12a 2 - a 2 6 + 10a& - 26 2 (a 2 - 4a + 26 
 3a 3 - a 2 6 
 
 -12a 2 
 -12a 2 
 
 + 10a6 
 + 4a6 
 
 
 + 6a6-26* 
 + 6a6-26 2 
 
 1-*)1 
 1 
 
 Ex. 2. 
 
 (l+x + x 2 + <tc, 
 
 - X 
 
 Tx 
 
 
 ■yx-x 
 
 + x 2 -x s 
 
 + x> 
 
 Sometimes, as in this last example, the quotient will 
 never terminate ; in such a case it may either be considered 
 as an infinite series, the law according to which the terms 
 are formed being in general sufficiently obvious; or the 
 quotient may be completed as in arithmetical division, by 
 annexing to it a fraction (with its proper sign), the numer- 
 ator of which is the remainder, and denominator the divisor 
 Thus the completed quotient, in last example, is — 
 
 x 3 
 1 —x 
 
 If x be small compared with unity, the remainders, as wa 
 advance, continually become smaller and smaller. If, on 
 the other hand, x be large compared with unity, the re- 
 mainders continually become larger and larger. In this 
 case the quotient is worthless. To obtain a quotient which 
 shall be of any practical value, we must reverse the order 
 of arrangement, putting - x + 1 in place of 1 - x. The 
 division then becomes 
 
 -">> H-r 
 
 ic. 
 
 1-i 
 x 
 
 i 
 + i 
 
 i 
 
 + -- 
 
 z 
 
 1 
 
 + ^ 
 
 As it is generally the largest of the quantities that we 
 desire to divide out, we observe that, in order to effect 
 this, we have had to begin with that quantity. Hence the 
 Rule— 
 
 The terms of the divisor and dividend are to be arranged 
 according to the powers of that letter which it is wished 
 (if possible) to divide out.
 
 OPERATIONS.] 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 525 
 
 Ex. 3. Divide a* + b* + b(a + b) 3 by a 2 + 6* - at>, where a 
 is large compared with b. 
 
 We must arrange according to powers of a. 
 
 V - ab + b 2 )a* + a?b + 3a 2 6 2 + 3a6 3 + 26 4 (a 2 + 2a6 + 46 2 
 a 4 -a 3 i + a 2 t 2 
 
 + 2a 3 6 + 2o 2 6 2 + 3a6 3 
 + 2a 3 6-2a 2 6 2 + 2a6 3 
 
 + 4\z 2 6 2 + a& 3 + 26 4 
 
 + iaW - Job 3 + 4 b* 
 
 + 5aA 3 - 26 4 
 
 We have spoken as if magnitude alone was the circum- 
 IsUnte which should determine the precedence of the letters 
 (in a division. In the more advanced processes of algebra 
 there are other circumstances which give precedence to 
 certain tatters, such, for example, as the fact that x may and 
 often does stand for the phrase " quantity," whilst a stands 
 for some determinate numerical quantity. This leads us 
 to exhibit a proposition in division of the greatest value and 
 most extensive application. It is as follows : — 
 
 20. Proportion. — If any function of x, consisting of 
 powers of that letter with numerical multipliers, is divided 
 by x - a, the remainder, when all the x'a are divided out, is 
 the same function of a that the dividend is of x; in 
 other words, the remainder is the dividend altered by writ- 
 ing a in place of x. 
 
 To prove this proposition we shall employ the following 
 
 Axiom : — If two expressions in x are identical in form 
 and value, but one multiplied out farther than the other, 
 we may write any numerical quantity we please in place 
 of x in both, and the results will be equal. 
 
 For example, (x- 1) 2 + (x- 1)- 3 is identical with 
 sc 2 -2(x4-l) -t-x- 1 ; and it is evident that if we write 
 any number (say 1) for x, the results are the same in both. 
 
 We now proceed to prove the proposition. 
 
 Let the dividend be x"+px"~ x + qx*~ 2 , &c, where n is 
 a whole number, and p, q, &c, positive or negative 
 numerical quantities. 
 
 Let the quotient, when this is divided by x - a, be Q, 
 the remainder, which does not contain x, R ; then 
 a* +px~~ '.+ qxT- 1 + , &c. = Q(x - a) + R 
 
 b) the definition of Division. 
 
 Now this equality is in reality an identity in terms of 
 the axiom. If then we write o in place of x, the results 
 will be equal ; this gives 
 
 a'+pa"- 1 + qa m ~*+ «fcc. =Q.0 + R 
 = R, 
 
 which is the proposition to be proved. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 Ex. 1. If n be any whole number, x" - a" is divisible by 
 *- a without remainder. 
 
 For the remainder, by the proposition, is a" - a" = . 
 
 Ex. 2. If n be an even number, x" - a" is divisible by 
 X + a without remainder. 
 
 For the remainder is ( - a)" - a" = 0, since n is even. 
 
 Observe that the divisor here has to be changed to 
 x-(-a), so that - a stands in place of the a of the pro- 
 position. 
 
 Ex. 3. If n be an odd number, x" + a" is divisible by 
 x + a without remainder. 
 
 For the remainder is ( - a)" + a" = 0, because n is odd. 
 
 Ex. 4. To prove that 46V - (b- + c 3 - a 2 ) 2 is divisible by 
 — a + b + c; and hence to resolve it into simple factors. 
 Here the x - a of the proposition is replaced by a - (b + c) 
 (the negative sign of the whole divisor being of no conse- 
 quence). 
 
 To determine the remainder, therefore, we write 6 + c in 
 
 place of o in the dividend, or thing to be divided ; the 
 result is, 
 
 46 ? <: 2 -(6 2 + c 2 -6+lj 2 = 0, 
 hence 46V- - (6 2 + c 2 - a 2 ) 2 is divisible by -a + b + c. 
 
 Now, since the dividend contains only squares of a, and 
 6, and c, any change in the sign of a. or 6, or c, produces 
 no change in the dividend. What we have just proved 
 then becomes (putting — a for a) the following : — 
 
 46^ - (6 2 + c 2 - a 2 ) 2 is divisible by a + b + c. 
 
 This last becomes (putting - 6 for b, and then - c for c) : — 
 46 2 c 2 - ( '•- - 1 - c 2 - a 2 ) is divisible by a - 6 + c, and by a + b - c 
 Hence u nally, 46 2 c 2 - (ft 2 + c 2 - a 2 ) 2 = (a + b + c) 
 (~a + b + c)(a-b + c)(a + b-c). 
 
 The above example is a good exercise for the student. 
 ■ The result may be more simply arrived at by employing a 
 proposition of very great value and frequent use — that the 
 difference of the squares of two quantities is the product of 
 the sum and difference of the quantities. 
 
 Ex. 5. To prove that (1 -a 2 ) (1 -6 2 )(1 -<?)-(c + ab) 
 (b + ac) (a + be) is divisible by 1 + abc. 
 
 It is simpler here to write a single letter x for ale, 
 whereby. the given quantity becomes 
 
 (1 -a 2 )(l -6 2 )(1 - c 2 )-\{x + a 2 )(x + b 2 ){x + <?), 
 
 which is obviously under the form p-p, when - 1 is 
 written for r, and . \ is divisible by 1 + x. 
 
 Ex. 6. Prove that (a* -*+l) (**-**+ l)(x s -x i + 1) 
 (x™-x* + \). . . (.**•- a;" + 1) is the quotient of x 4 " + x*+ 1 
 by x 2 + x + 1 ; n being any power of 2. 
 
 The divisor (x 2 + x+l) being multiplied by x 2 - c+ I 
 gives x* + x 2 +\; which, being again multiplied by 
 x*- - x 2 + 1, gives X s + x* + 1 ; and so on to the end. 
 
 Additional Examples in Division. 
 
 Ex. 1. Divide 1-10^ + 15^-6^ by (1 - x)>. 
 
 We must first multiply out (1 -x) 3 , and then divide the 
 given expression by the product, 1 - 3x + 3s 2 — x 3 . The 
 quotient is 1 + 3x + 6x 2 . 
 
 Ex. 2. Divide 65zV - (x* + 64^) by x 2 - txy - 8y 2 . 
 
 We must arrange dividend and divisor in terms of powers 
 of one of the letters, say x ; the division will then assume 
 the form 
 
 x 2 - Ixy - 8y 2 ) - x* + 65x 2 y 2 - 64/( 
 giving - x 2 - Ixy + 8y 2 . 
 
 Ex. 3. Divide x 3 + y 3 + z 3 - 3xyz by x + y" + z. 
 We must give exclusive attention tn some one letter, say 
 x, in dividing out ; thus 
 
 x + y + z)x 3 + y 3 + z 3 -3xyz(x 2 -x(y + z) + (y 2 + z 2 -yz) 
 
 x 3 + x 2 (y + z) 
 
 — x?(y + z) 
 
 - x 2 (y + z ) - x(y + z) 2 
 
 x(y 2 - yz + z^ + yt + z 3 ' 
 
 the quotient being x 2 + y 2 + z 2 - xy - xz - yz. 
 Ex. 4. Divide the product of 
 
 x i + 3x + 2,x 2 -5x + i, z* + 5x>-U, 
 
 by the product-of x 2 -!, x 2 -2. Here we observe thai 
 x 2 - 1 is the product of x + 1, x - 1. 
 
 Now (Art. 20), x 2 + 3x + 2 is divisible by x + 1, and 
 x 2 - 5x + i by x - 1. Hence, if the pioduct is divisible by 
 x 2 - 1, x 2 - 2, without remainder, the third factor, x 4 + C-c 1 
 - 14 must be divisible by x 2 - 2, which is found to be the 
 i-ase. The quotient required is therefore the product of 
 (ai + ^ / (x-4)(x 2 + 7)=x 4 -2x 3 -x 2 -14x-66.
 
 526 
 
 Ex. 5. Divide 12**- lOx^y-Z^y* + 30xy s - 25^ by 
 Sx*-4.ry + 5y 2 . 
 
 We will employ tliij example to indicate^ Homer's 
 method of synthetic division. 
 
 Let the dividend be represented by 
 
 Aj* + Bx* + Cx 3 + Dx + E, 
 the divisor by ax 3 + bx + c, 
 
 and the quotient by ax 2 + fix + y + (fee 
 
 Then, multiplying the quotient by the divisor, we produce 
 the dividend, which, exhibited by the method of detached 
 coefficients, stands thus — 
 
 aa + a/3 + ay + &c 
 
 + ba + bfi + kc. 
 
 + ca + &C. 
 
 A+B + C+&C. 
 
 The last line being the sum column by column of the 
 three preceding lines. Now, as the upper of these three 
 lines contains term by term the quantities required, we 
 convert this addition into subtraction ; thus, 
 
 A +B +C +D+E 
 
 - 6a - t/3 - by - <fec. 
 — Ca - c/3 - (fee. 
 
 A L (j E B R A [involution and 
 
 divided by subtracting the exponent of the divisor from 
 
 -b 
 — c 
 
 a aa + a/3 + ay + a8 + ic 
 The first vertical column gives a ; the second /?, and so 
 
 on. 
 
 In the example before us we write, — 
 12-10-3 +30-25 
 
 + 4a + 4/J + 4y + &C. 
 — 5a - 5/3 - (fee. 
 
 + 4 
 -5 
 
 3 3a + 3/3+3y + (fec, 
 
 whence 3a = 12 give* a-4; 3/9- -10 + 4a gives /?— 2; 
 
 3y = - 3 + 4/3 -r 5a gives y = - 5. 
 
 Therefore the quotient required is 42* + 2z - 6. 
 
 Sect. II. — Involution and Evolution. 
 
 21. In treating of multiplication, we have observed, that 
 when a quantity is multiplied by itself any number of 
 times, the product is called a power of that quantity, while 
 the quantity itself, from which the powers are formed, is 
 called the root. Thus, a, a 2 , and a 3 are the first, second, 
 
 and tlurd powers of the root a: and in like manner -, —x, 
 
 and — denote the same powers of the root - . 
 
 But before considering more particularly what relates to 
 powers and roots, it will be proper to observe, that the 
 
 quantities -, —^ -5, (fee, admit of being expressed under a 
 
 different form; for, just as the quantities a, a 2 , a 3 , (fee, 
 are expressed as positive powers of the root o, so the 
 
 quantities -, — v — v (fee, may bo respectively expressed 
 
 thus o -1 , a -2 , a -3 , (fee, and considered as negative powers 
 of the root a. 
 
 1 
 
 — ;, as 
 a? 
 
 This method of expressing the fractions -, 
 
 powers of the root a, but with negative indices, is a conse- 
 quence of the rule which has been given for the division 
 
 of powers ; for we consider - as the quo'tient arising from 
 
 the division of any power of a by the next higher power ; 
 for example, from the division of the 2d by the 3d, and so 
 
 1 u 1 
 we have - »-j J but skice powers of the same quantity are 
 
 that of the dividend (Art. 19), it follows that 
 
 thus, 
 
 therefore the fraction - may also be expressed 
 
 la' 
 "*. By considering — as equal to -j , it will appear 
 
 a J 
 1 a' 
 
 in the same manner that — = — = a~° ; and proceeding in 
 
 ... . 1 a« , 1 a? 
 
 this way, we get -j = -j = a' 3 , — = — = a -4 , (fee, and so on, 
 
 as far as we please. It also appears that unity or 1 may 
 be represented by a , where the exponent is a cypher, for 
 
 l=^ = a 2 - 2 = a». 
 
 The rules which have been given for the multiplication DeMtiro 
 and division of powers with positive integral exponents of *■** 
 will apply in every case, whether the exponents be positive 
 or negative, integral or fractional, provided wo assume as 
 the definition of the index in such cases, the law of com- 
 bination a"xa" = a*+*. 
 
 * 
 Involution. 
 
 22. Involution is the method of finding any power of 
 any assigned quantity, whether it be simple or compound : 
 hence its rules are easily derived from the operation of 
 multiplication. 
 
 Case 1. When the quantity is simple. 
 
 Rule. Multiply the exponents of the letters by the index 
 of the power required, and raise the coefficient to the 
 same power. 
 
 Note. If the sign of the quantity be + , all its powers will 
 be positive ; but if it be — , then all its powers whose 
 exponents are even numbers are positive, and all its 
 powers whose exponents are odd numbers are nega^ 
 tive. 
 
 Ex. 1. Required the cube, or third power, of 2a*x. 
 (2a 2 *) 3 = 2 x 2 x 2a 2x3 x lx3 = So 6 * 3 , the answer. 
 
 Ex. 2. Required the fifth power of - 3a 2 * 3 . 
 
 ( - 3aV) 5 = - 243a 10 x 16 , the answer. 
 
 2ax* 
 Ex. 3. Required the fourth power of - Trr- • 
 
 /-2axV 16a*! 8 .. 
 
 'w;r8i6y' tliean3wer ' 
 
 Case 2. When the quantity is compound. 
 
 Rule. The powers must be found by a continual multipli- 
 cation of the quantity by itself. 
 
 Ex. 4. Required the first four powers of tho binomial 
 quantity a + x. 
 
 a + x the root, or first, power. 
 a + x 
 a 2 + ax 
 + ax + x 2 
 
 a 2 + 2ax + x 2 the square, or second power. 
 a +x 
 
 a 3 +2a 2 x + cu 2 
 + a 2 x + 2ax 2 + x 3 
 
 a 3 + 3a 2 x + 3qj 2 + x 3 the cube, or third power. 
 a 4 + 3a 3 x+3a 2 x 2 + ox > 
 
 + a 3 x + 3a 2 x 2 + 3ax 3 + x* 
 a 4 + 4a 3 x+6a 2 x 2 + 4ax 3 + x 4 the fourth power. 
 
 If it be required to find the same powers of a - x, 
 will be found, writing - x for x, that
 
 EVOLUTION.] 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 527 
 
 a - z being the root, or firat power ; then 
 a 2 - 2ax + x 2 is the square, or second power ; 
 a 3 - 3a?x + Zax 2 - x 3 , the cube, or third power ; 
 a « _ 4a3 x + 6a 2 .z 2 - lax 3 + x 4 , th« fourth power. 
 
 Hence it appears that the powers of a + x differ from the 
 powers of a — x only in this respect, that in the former 
 the signs of the terms are all positive, but in the latter 
 they are positive and negative alternately. 
 
 Besides the method of finding the powers of a compound 
 quantity by multiplication, which we have just now ex- 
 plained, there is another more general, as well as more 
 ' expeditious, by which a quantity may be raised to any 
 i power whatever without the trouble of finding any of the 
 inferior powers, namely, by means of what is commonly 
 called the binomial theorem, to be proved hereafter. This 
 theorem may be expressed as follows : — Let a + x be a 
 binomial quantity, which is to be raised to any power 
 denoted by the number re, then (a + x)" = 
 
 . « _i . «(»-l) _» , , n(n-l)(n-2) , « 
 
 * + 1 a * + f7T a x + 1 . 2 . 3 a V 
 
 n(n-lX»-2)(n-3) , 
 
 + 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 
 
 n(n-l)(n-2X»-3Xn-4) 
 + 1 .2 . 3 . 4 . 6 a ^ + iC - 
 
 This series will always terminate when re is any whole 
 positive number, by reason of some one of the factors 
 n — 1, re - 2, <tc, becoming = ; but if re be either a nega- 
 tive or fractional number, the series will consist of an 
 infinite number of terms. As, however, we mean to treat 
 in this section only of the powers of quantities when their 
 exponents are whole positive numbers, we shall make no 
 further remarks upon any other. The reth power of a — x 
 will not differ from the same power of a + x, except 
 in the signs of the terms which compose it, for it will 
 etand thus : (a - x)" = 
 
 re . , n(n-l) _. „ ra(re -lVn-2) ... 
 
 a* - - a" -1 x + — 'a*~ 2 x 2 a"" 3 ! 3 
 
 1 T l .2 12 3 
 
 n(n-l)(n-2Xn-3) _. , , , .. . 
 
 + — ' d-^x* - &c, where the signs are + 
 
 and — alternately. 
 
 Let it be required, for instance, to raise a + x to the fifth 
 power. 
 
 Here re, the exponent of the power, being 5, the first 
 term a" of the general theorem will be equal to a 5 , the 
 
 second na"~~ l x = 5a*x, the third p — — a* -2 * 2 = 7— -a 3 x 2 = 
 
 1 a ss 
 
 n(n-r-l) (re 
 
 lOa'.r 2 the fourth 
 
 2) _. 
 — a : 
 
 12 3 
 
 n(n-l')(re-*2)(re-3) 
 
 -2.^2 = ^1^,2. 
 
 1x2 
 5X4X3 «V 
 
 a*~*ir* 
 
 1x2x3 
 5x4x3x2 
 
 = 1x2x3x4 
 
 ax 4 
 
 lOaV, the fifth - 
 
 1 . 2. • o ■ 4 
 — Sax 4 , and the sixth and last 
 
 ti(n - 1) (re - 2) (re - 3) (n - 4) ■ = 5x4x3x2x1 = 
 
 1.2.3.4.5 1x2x3x4x5 
 
 the remaining terms of the general theorem all vanish, by 
 reason of the factor re - 5 = by which each of them is 
 multiplied, so that we get (a + x) b = a b + 5a 4 x + 10a 3 .r 2 + 
 lOaV-f 5ax 4 + x i . 
 
 U the quantity to be involved consists of more than 
 two terms, as, if p + q - r were to be raised to the second 
 power, put p = a and q — r = b, then (p + q — r) 2 = (a + b) 2 
 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 =p 2 + 2p(q-r) + (q-r) 2 , but 2p(q-r) = 
 2pq - 2pr, and by the general theorem (q — r) 2 = q 3 — 2qr 
 H-r 2 , therefore we get (p + q-- r) 2 *=p 2 + 2pq- 2pr + q 2 - 
 2qr + r 2 ; and by a similar method of proceeding a quantity 
 consisting of four or more terms may be raised to any 
 power. 
 
 Additional Examples. 
 
 Ex. I. 1 rom the value of (a + x) 4 found in example 4, 
 to find that of (a + b + c) 4 . From example 4 we write at 
 once, by symmetry, 
 
 (a + 6 + c)« = a 4 + ia 3 b + 6a 2 6* + R 
 + b 4 + 4a 3 c + 6a 2 c* 
 + c 4 + ib 3 a + 66 V 
 + 46*c 
 + 4^ 
 + 4c*6 
 where R is the series of remaining terms denoting the three 
 following forms, a 2 bc, b 2 ac, c 2 ab. Now when a, b, c are 
 each unity, there are 81 terms (viz. 3 4 ). But the number 
 of terms already written down (la 3 b being considered as 4 
 terms, &c.) is 45. The quantity R must consequently 
 make up the other 36 terms, .\ it can be nothing else than 
 12a 2 be + 12b 2 ac + 12c 2 ab. 
 
 Ex. 2. (p-\-q + r) 2 =p 2 + q 2 + r 2 + 2(pq + qr + rp). 
 Cor. lip + g + r = ; thenp^-H q 2 + r 2 + 2{pq + qr + rp) = 0, 
 Case 1. a-b + b-c + c-a = Q, gives 
 
 (a-b) 2 + {b-c) 2 + (c-a) 2 + 2{(a-b)(b-c) + (b-c){c-a) 
 + {c-a)(a-b)}=0. 
 
 Case 2. a(b ~c) + b(c - a) + c(a - b) - 0, gire3 
 
 a 2 (b - c) 2 + b 2 (c - a) 2 + c\a -bf + 2 {ab(b - c)(c -a) + 
 bc(c - a)(a -b) + ca(a - b)(b - c)} = 
 
 Ex. 3. Prove that (x 3 - yz) 3 + (f - xz) 3 + (2* - xy)> - 
 3(ar 2 — yz){y 2 - xz){£ — xy) is a complete square. 
 
 The expression will assume symmetry if (x 2 - yz)(y 2 - xz) 
 (z 2 —-xy), instead of being multiplied by 3, be repeated 
 three times, each being connected with one of the cubes 
 in turn; this gives — 
 
 * 2 - y z ) K* 2 - y z f - (y 2 - ^X* 2 - x v)} 
 
 + (y 2 — xz) { (y 2 — xz) 2 — (xr — yz)(z 2 — xy)\ 
 + u 2 - xy) { (z 2 - xy) 2 - (x 2 - yz)(y 2 - xz)) 
 «= (x 2 - yz)x{x 3 + y 3 + z 3 - 3xyz) 
 
 + &c, etc. 
 = (x 3 + f + z 3 - Zxyz^x 3 + y 3 + z> - Zxyz) . 
 
 Ex. 4. Prove that (a? + b 2 + c 2 )' + 2(ab + bc + ca)> 
 
 - 3(a 2 + b 2 + c?)(ab + bc + caf = (a 3 + b 3 + c s - 3abc)* . 
 
 Combine each of the cubes with each of the products in 
 succession, and reduce, as in the last example. 
 
 Ex. 5. To find the condition that px 2 + -qxy + ry 2 may 
 be incapable of changing its sign through any change of 
 sign or value of x and y. It is evident that p and r must 
 have the same sign. Suppose it positive. By multiply- 
 ing by p, the quantity may be thrown into the form 
 (px + qy) 2 + (pr - q 2 )y 2 , which is the sum of two positive 
 quantities provided pr>q 2 . The condition required is, 
 therefore, pr>q 2 ; or as a particular case pr = q 2 . 
 
 Ex. 6. To find the condition that ax 2 + by 2 + cz? + 
 2T , yz + 2Qzx+2Rxy may be incapable of changing its sign 
 through any change of sign or value of x, y, z. 
 
 We will suppose a, b, c to be all positive, in which case 
 the whole result is also positive. 
 
 li we multiply the whole by a, we may write it under 
 the form of a square and a supplement, 
 
 viz., (ax + Qz + By) 2 + (ac- Q 2 )* 2 + 
 (ab - Br)y 2 + 2(aP - QR)i«. 
 
 Now as the first term of this expression is a square, h 
 is essentially positive. Hence the required condition can 
 be satisfied only by rendering the remainder positive. 
 
 It follows that ac>Q 2 , ab>B. 2 , and 
 
 (Example 5) (ac- Q 2 )(ab - R 2 ) > (aP - QR)», 
 ie., aic4-2PQR>aP 2 +iQ 2 + cR s .
 
 528 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 [involution a» 
 
 If we had begun by throwing the expression into the 
 form of (6y+Pi + Iit)' +■ &c, a resulting condition 
 would have been bc> xn The four conditions nm con- 
 »equently 
 
 «J>R , ,<k>Q j ,Jc>P ! ) 
 a6c+2PQR>aF + AQ s + eR». 
 
 Results of this kind are of the utmost value in the 
 higher analysis. 
 
 Evolution, 
 
 23. Evolution is the reverse of involution, or it is the 
 method of finding the root of any quantity, whether simple 
 or compound, which is considered as a power vi that root: 
 hence it follows that its operations, generally speaking, 
 must be the reverse of those of involution. 
 
 To denote that the root of any quantity is to be taken, 
 the sign J (called the radical sfgn) is placed before it, 
 and a small number placed over the sign to express the 
 denomination of the root. Thus Z/a denotes the square 
 root of a, fja its cube root, i/a its fourth root, and in 
 general, f/a its nth root. The number placed over the 
 radical sign is called the index or exponent of the root, and 
 is usually omitted in expressing the square root: thus, 
 either fja or Ja denotes the square root of a. 
 
 Case 1. When roots of simple quantities are to be found. 
 
 Rule. Divide the exponents of -the letters by the index 
 of the root required, and prefix the root of tho numeral 
 coefficient; the result will be the root required. 
 
 Note 1. The root of any positive quantity may be either 
 positive or negative, if the index of the root be an even 
 number; but if it be an odd number, the root can be 
 positive only. 
 
 8. The root of a negative quantity is also negative when 
 the index of the root is an odd number. 
 
 3. But if the quantity be negative, and the index of the 
 root even, then no root can be assigned. 
 
 Ex. Required the cube root of 125a 6 * 9 . 
 
 Here the index of the root is 3, and the root of the co- 
 efficient 5, therefore t/125a 6 x 9 = 5a-x 3 , the root required; 
 and in like manner the cube root of- 125a 6 * 9 is found to 
 be - 6a 2 * 3 . 
 
 The root of a fraction is found by extracting the root 
 of both numerator and denominator. Thus the square 
 
 , 4a J i* . . 2az» 
 r0Ot ° f 9iY 1S 3V- 
 
 Case 2. When the quantity of which the root is to be 
 extracted is compound. 
 
 I. To extract the square root. 
 
 Range the terms of the quantity according to the powers 
 of one of the letters, as in division. 
 
 Find the square root of the first term for the first part 
 of the root sought, subtract its square from the given 
 quantity, and divide the remainder by double the part 
 already found, and the quotient is the second term of the 
 root 
 
 Add the second part to double the first, and multiply 
 their sum by the second part ; subtract this product from 
 the remainder, and if nothing remain, the square root is 
 obtained. But if there is a remainder, it must be divided 
 by the double of the parts already found, and the quotient 
 will give the third term of the root, and so on. 
 
 ■» «r I 
 
 3& Required the square root of a* - 2x* + _ar 2 - - "+ — • 
 
 * S 16 
 
 a*- 2* 3 4- -x 2 -%- f*»-« + - 
 2 2 10\ J 
 
 2**- 
 
 :): 
 
 -2*» + f*« 
 
 -2**+ x 3 
 
 
 
 2**- 
 
 1 
 x 5 
 
 x t 
 2 ' 
 
 X 
 
 "2 + 
 
 X 
 
 "2 + 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 To 
 
 To understand the reason of the rule for finding the 
 square root of a compound quantity, it is only necessary 
 to involve any quantity, as a + 6 + c, to the second power, 
 and observe the composition of its square; for we have 
 (a4-6 4-r) 2 = a 2 4-2a6 4-6 2 4-2ac4-26c4-c 2 ; but 2a64-6 2 = 
 (2a + 6)6 and 2oc + 26c + c 2 = (2a + 26 + c)c, therefore, 
 
 (a + 6 + c) 2 = a 2 + (2a + 6)6 -1- (2a + 26 + c)c ; 
 
 and from this expression the manner of deriving the rule 
 is obvious. 
 
 As an illustration of the common rule for extracting the 
 square root of any proposed number, we shall suppose that 
 the root of 59049 is required. 
 
 Accordingly we have (a + 6 + cf = 59049, and from 
 hence we are to find the values of a. 6. and c. 
 
 a 2 = 200x200 = 4o2of4 0°:6l Hence 243 is the roc, 
 
 3 = cj required. 
 
 2a = 400 19049 
 6= 40 
 
 2a + 6 = 440 
 
 17600 = (2a 4- 6)6 
 
 2a + 26 = 480 
 c= 3 
 
 2a + 26 + c = 483 
 
 1449 
 
 1449 = (2a + 26 + c)e 
 
 LL To extract the cube root. 
 
 Range the terms of the quantity according to the powers 
 of some one of the letters. 
 
 Find the roof of the first term, for the first part of the 
 root sought ; subtract its cube from the whole quantity, 
 and divide the remainder by three times the square of tlio 
 part already found, and the quotient is the second part ol 
 the root. 
 
 Add together three times the square of the part of the 
 root already found, three times the product of that part 
 and the second part of the root, and the square of the 
 second part; multiply the sum by the second part, and sub- 
 tract the product from tho first remainder, and if nothing 
 remain, the root is obtained ; but if there is a remainder, 
 it must be divided by three times the square of the sum, 
 of the parts already found, and the quotient is a third term 
 of the root, and so on, till the whole root is obtained. 
 
 Ex. Required the cube root of a 3 +' 3a 2 * + 3a* 2 4- X s 
 
 a 3 + 3a 5 * + 3a* 2 4- ^(a 4- x, ihb root required. 
 
 3a 2 4- 3a* 4- * 2 )3a 2 * 4- 3a* 2 4- x 3 
 3a 2 * 4- 3a* 2 -)-* 3 
 
 The reason of the preceding rule is evident from the 
 composition of a cube ; for if any quantity, as a + b + c, be 
 raised to the third power, we have (a + b + c)' = a 9 4- (3a* 
 4- 3a6 4- 6 2 )6 4- {3(a 4- 6) 2 4- 3(a 4- b)e + c*}c, and by consider-
 
 BVOLUTION.] 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 529 
 
 m^ ia what manner the terms a, b, and c are deduced 
 from this expression for the cube of their sum, we also see 
 the reason for the common rule for extracting the cube 
 root in numbers. Let it be required to find the cube root 
 
 of 1331205^, where the root will evidently oensist'of three 
 figures ; let us suppose it to be represented by o + 6 + c, 
 and the operation for finding the numerical values of these 
 quantities may stand as follows : — 
 
 13312053(200 = a 
 a 3 = 8000000 30 = 6 
 7 = e 
 
 3a 2 =120000 
 
 3o6= 18000 
 
 6 2 = 900 
 
 3a l +3ab + J 2 = 138900 
 
 3(a + 6) 2 = 
 3(a + b)c = 
 
 3(a + 6) 2 = 158700 
 330 
 
 4 'J 
 
 5312053 
 
 .•. 237 is the root required. 
 
 4167000 = (3a 2 + 3a& + & 2 )6 
 
 1145053 
 
 3(a + b) 2 + 3(a + b)c + c 2 = 1635791 145053 = [3(a + b)' i + 3(a + b)c + c 2 ]e 
 
 HI. To extract any other root. 
 Range the quantity of which the root is to be found, 
 according to the powers of one of its letters, and extract 
 the root of the first term; that will be the first member 
 of the root required. 
 T nvolve the first member of the root to a power less by 
 inity than the number that denominates the root re- 
 quired, and multiply the power that arises by the num- 
 ber itself ; divide the second term of the given quantity 
 by the product, and the quotient shall give the second 
 member of the root required. 
 Find the remaining members of the root in the same 
 manner by considering those already found as making 
 one term. 
 
 24. In the preceding examples, the quantities whose 
 roots were to be found have been all such a3 could have 
 their roots expressed by a finite number of terras ; but it 
 will frequently happen that the root cannot be otherwise 
 assigned than ^by a series consisting of an infinite number 
 of terms. The preceding rules, however, will serve to de- 
 termine any number of terms of the series. Thus, the 
 
 X 2 X* 
 
 square root of a 2 + x- will be found to bea+r — —, + 
 
 S 8 
 
 16a 6 " 
 thus. 
 
 : + &c. But as the ex- 
 
 Bz 8 
 ,„„ , + <fec, and the cube root of a 5 + x? will stand 
 128a 7 
 
 a + 3a 2 ~ 9a 6 + 81a 8 ~ 243a 11 
 traction of roots in the form of series can be more easily 
 performed by the aid of the binomial theorem, we shall 
 refer the reader to the section where this subject is resumed. 
 
 Additional Examples. 
 
 Ex. 1. Write down the square root of x 4 - Zx 3 + - x 2 - 
 
 -x + — , which is given as a perfect square. 
 
 Since the square contains 5 terms, the root must con- 
 tain 3. Of these the first is x 2 on account of x*, the second 
 
 - x on account of 2a; 3 , and'the third =•= - on account of — . 
 
 4 16 
 
 But as the last term but one of the square is - , and the 
 
 List term but one of the root also - , the last term of the 
 
 root must be + . 
 
 .'. x 2 - x + - is the root required. 
 
 Ex. 2. Extract the square root of 25ar» + 16y* - Cry (5a; 2 
 + 4y 2 ) + 49x 2 y 2 . We must first arrange the square in terms 
 of some one quantity (say x). 
 
 The first term of the square is 25x*, which gives 5x* as 
 the first term of the root The second term of the square, 
 
 - 30x s y gives - 3xy as the second term ol the root. He 
 last term 16y* gives ± 4y 2 ; which, since the last term but 
 one is - , leads to the root 5a; 2 - 3xy + iy 2 . 
 Ex. 3. Extract the cube root of 
 
 8x* - 36x* + 66X 4 - 63a? + 33a; 2 - 9x+ 1 . 
 
 Since there are seven terms in the cube, there must be 
 three ierms in the root. The first is 2a; 2 , the second - 3x, 
 the third 1, as will be seen at once by examining the 
 cube of p - q + 1, viz., p 3 - 3p 2 q + ... - 3q + 1 . 
 
 These examples have been solved by the assumption 
 that the root is capable of extraction without leaving a 
 remainder. When this is not the case, or when there is no 
 certainty that it is so, the only resource is to work the 
 example through, abbreviating the process by the aid of 
 detached coefficients. 
 
 Ex. 4. Extract the sa'uare root of 4a; 6 +12^ + 5x*y 2 - 
 2x s y 3 + 7x 2 y* - 2xy i + y°. The work is written thus : 
 
 4 + 12 + 5 - 2 + 7 - 2 + l(2.r» + 3ar.2-*i/ 2 +jr» 
 4_ 
 
 4 + 3) 12 + 5 
 12 + 9 
 
 4 + 6-1) 
 
 ■4-2 + 7 
 ■4-6+1 
 
 4 + 6-2 + 1 ) 4 + 6-2 + 1 
 Ex. 5. Extract the cube foot of 
 
 i5x*t/ 2 + 35ary + 30a~y - 12xy s - H/ 
 
 27a; 6 -27afy 
 We have 
 
 27 - 27 - 45 + 35 + 30 - 12 - 8(3x 2 
 27 
 
 27 ) 
 
 -27-45 + 35 
 -27+ 9- 1 
 
 27 -18 + 3) -54 + 36 + 30 -12 -8 
 ■-54 + 36- 6 
 
 + 36-12 
 
 -8 
 
 [" 
 
 ] 
 
 Sect. LTI. — Fractions: 
 
 25. In the operation of division, the divisor may be some- 
 times greater than the dividend, or may not be contained 
 in it an exact number of times : in either case the quotient 
 is expressed by means of a fraction. There can be no 
 difficulty, however, in estimating the magnitude of such a 
 quotient ; if, for example, it were the fraction f , We may 
 consider it as denoting either that some unit is divided 
 into 7 equal parts, and that 5 of these are taken, or thai
 
 530 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 [fuaotioks. 
 
 5 times the same unit is dividet into 7 equal parts, and 
 one of them taken. 
 
 In any fraction tlio upper number, or. the dividend, is 
 called the numerator, and the lower number or divisor is 
 
 called the denominator. Thus, in tho fraction .-, a is the 
 
 numerator, and b the denominator. 
 
 If the numerator be less than the denominator, such a 
 fraction is called a proper fraction ; but if the numerator 
 be either equal to or greater than the denominator, it is 
 called an improper fraction ; and if a quantity be made up 
 of an integer and a fraction, it is called a mixed quantity. 
 
 Thus, is a proper fraction ; - and are both im- 
 
 o+x r r 'a a 
 
 proper fractions ; and b + - is a mixed quantity. 
 
 The reciprocal of a fraction is another fraction, having 
 its numerator and denominator respectively equal to the 
 denominator and numerator of the former. 
 
 Thus, - 13 the reciprocal of the fraction r • 
 
 26. The following proposition is the foundation of the 
 operations relating to fractions. 
 
 If the numerator and denominator of a fraction be 
 either both multiplied or both divided by the same quan- 
 tity, the value of the resulting fraction is the same as before. 
 
 To demonstrate this proposition we shall throw the 
 definition of a fraction into a categorical form. We shall 
 
 accordingly define tho fraction r as such a magnitude, that 
 
 when it is multiplied by b, the product is a. 
 
 Then since 
 
 ■xb = a. 
 
 n x r xb = na 
 o 
 
 i.e. (Art. 9, Law 3), rx.nb = na 
 
 But 
 
 -7 xnb = na (Def.) 
 
 7,/, 
 
 6 nb 
 
 From this proposition, it is obvious that a fraction may 
 be very differently expressed without changing its value, 
 and that any integer may be reduced to the form of a 
 fraction, by placing the product arising from its* multipli- 
 cation by any assumed quantity's the numerator, and the 
 assumed quantity as the denominator of the fraction. It 
 also appears that a fraction very complex in its form may 
 often be reduced to another of the same value, but more 
 simple, by finding a quantity which will divide both the 
 numerator and denominator, without leaving a remainder. 
 Such a common divisor, or common measure, may be 
 either simple or compound ; if it bo simple, it is readily 
 found by inspection, but if it be compound, it may be 
 found as in the following problem. 
 
 27. Peob. L — To find the greatest common Measure of two 
 Quantities. 
 
 Rule 1. Range the quantities according to the power of 
 some one of the letters, as in division, leaving out the 
 simple divisors of each quantity. 
 
 3. Divide that quantity which is of most dimensions by 
 the other one, and if there be a remainder, divide it by 
 its greatest simple divisor; and then divide the last 
 compound divisor by the resulting quantity, and if any- 
 thing yet remain, divide it also by its greatest simple 
 divisor, and the last compound divisor by the resulting 
 quantity. Proceed in this way till nothing remain, 
 
 and the last divisor shall bo the common measure n> 
 quired. 
 Note. — It will sometimes be necessary to multiply the 
 dividends by simple quantities in order to make the 
 divisions succeed. 
 
 The damonstration of this proposition depends on the 
 Axiom, that whatever divides a number divides any mul- 
 tiple of tho number ; and whatever divides two numbers 
 divides their sum or difference. It was given by Euclid 
 in Prop. 2, Book vii., very much as follows : — 
 , Let a, b be tho quantities, the smaller of which is b. 
 
 Let a be divided by b, with a remainder c, 
 
 b by c, with a remainder d, 
 c by d, with no remainder, 
 
 d is tho greatest common measure of a and b. 
 
 We havo a-pb — c, b-qc = d, c = rd. 
 
 Now, (1.) d is a common measure of a and b ; for d 
 divides c .: qc .: qc + d .'. b .: pb .*. pb + c .: a; i.e., d 
 divides a and b. 
 
 (2.) It is the greatest common divisor. For if not, lot e 
 be the greatest; then, since e divides a and b, it divides a 
 and pb, .: a—pb .: c .: qc .: b-qc .: d; i.e., e is less 
 than d, and not greater. 
 
 Cor. Every other divisor of a and b divides their greatest 
 common measure. 
 
 Observe that no fraction is in a form to be interpreted 
 until it is reduced to its lowest terms. 
 
 Ex. 1. .Required the greatest common measure of the 
 quantities a-x - x 3 and a 3 - 2a 2 x + ax 1 . The simple di- 
 visor x being taken out of the former of these quantities, 
 and a out of tho latter, they are reduced to a- - x 2 and 
 a 2 - 2ax + a: 2 ; and as the quantity a rises to the same 
 dimensions in both, we may take either of them as tho 
 first • divisor : let us take that which consists of fewest 
 terms, and the operation will stand thuc : 
 
 a 2 -x 2 )a 2 -2a.r + a; 2 (l 
 a 2 -x 2 
 
 - lax + 2x- remainder, 
 
 which, divided by - 2x, is a - x)a 2 - x-(a + x 
 
 a 2 -ax 
 
 + OJC-X* 
 + OX-X 1 
 
 Hence it appears that a-x is the greatest common 
 measure required. 
 
 Ex. 2. Required the greatest common measure of 
 8a 2 6 2 - 1 Oab 3 + 2b\ and 9a 4 6 - 9a 3 4 2 .+ 3a 2 6 3 - Sab*. 
 
 It is evident, from inspection, that b is a simple divisor 
 of both quantities; it "will therefore be a factor of the 
 common measure required. Let the simple divisors be now 
 left out of both quantities, and they are reduced to 4a 2 - 
 5ab + b 2 , and 3a 3 - 3a 2 6 + ab 2 - b 3 ; but as the second of 
 these is to be divided by the first, it must be multiplied 
 by 4 to make the division succeed, and the operation will 
 stand thus : 
 
 4a 2 - 5a J + 6 2 )1 2a 3 -1 2a 2 6 + iab 2 - 4b s (3a 
 12a 3 -15a 2 b+3ab 2 
 
 + 3a 2 b + ab 2 -ib 3 
 
 This remainder i3- to be divided by b, and the new divi- 
 dend multiplied by 3, to make the division again succeed, 
 and the work will stand thus : 
 
 Sa 2 + ab- 46 2 )1 2a 2 -15a5+ 35 2 (4 
 12a 2 + 4ab- 16b 2 
 
 -lQab+lW
 
 FRAfTroN i ' 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 531 
 
 This reinii.ukr is V V divided by — 196, which being 
 done, and the last divisor taken as a dividend as befoiv, 
 the rest of the operation will be is follows : — 
 
 • a-6)3« 2 + a6-40 2 (3a + 46 
 3a 2 — 3ab 
 
 + 4ab-4b"' 
 + 4ab - 4i 2 
 
 from which it appears that the common divisor sought is 
 a - b, and remarking that the quantities proposed have 
 also a simple divisor b, the greatest common measure 
 which is required will be b(a - b). 
 
 ■It will be seen that the examples we have given are not 
 ou liumbers, but on algebraic quantities. In fact, the 
 axiom and the demonstration founded on it apply, with 
 some restrictions and modifications, to such quantities. 
 The most important of the modifications is this : that the 
 divisor, instead of being a whole number, is an expression 
 of the form x + in, where m is of the nature of a numerical 
 quantity, and does not depend on x. 
 
 The application of this modified form of the axiom has 
 a wide range in the higher analysis. We offer two addi- 
 tional examples for advanced students. 
 
 Ex. 1. If ax* + bx + c , a'x^ + b'x + d have a common 
 divisor of the form x + m, prove that 
 
 (a'b - ab') (b'c - be) = (a'c — ac'f . 
 
 Multiply the first expression by a', and the second by o, 
 and subtract the products, the difference {a'b - ab')x + a'c 
 - ad, is by the axiom divisible by x + m, 
 
 x + 
 
 a'b - ab' 
 
 is x + vi . 
 
 Again, multiply the first expression by c, and the 
 
 second by c, and subtract them ; the difference (a'c — ac')x' ! 
 
 ,,, , i\ • •■■ - 1 1 i • b'c-bd . 
 
 + (bc-bc)x is divisible by x + m, .: x + — , ux + m. 
 
 a c -™ ac 
 
 b't - be' a'c - ad 
 
 Consequently, 
 
 ^ ac — uc ab — ao 
 
 the condition required. 
 
 Ex. 2. If ax 3 + Zbx 2 + d, bx 3 + 3dx + e, have a commou 
 
 divisor; theu 
 
 (4bd-aef+21(ad? + b 2 ef = 0. 
 
 Treating this- question exactly as the last, viz., multiplying 
 first by b and a, and then by e and rf,.and subtracting, 
 it appears (if u be written instead of bd - ae for brevity) 
 that the two following expressions have a common 
 divisor, 
 
 36V - 3adx + u and ux- - Zbex + 3d 2 , 
 
 whence, by the last example, the condition is 
 
 (3beu - 9ad 3 ) (Zadu - We) = (u* - 9 W) 2 , 
 
 from which u divides out as a common factor, and the 
 
 result reduces to that enunciated. 
 
 28. Prob. II. — To Reduce a Fraction to its Lowest Terms. 
 
 Rule. Divide both numerator and denominator by their 
 greatest common measure, which inay be found by 
 Prob. I. 
 
 Ex. 1. Keduce . "J" 7 , — i to its lowest terms. 
 a 3 — 2a-x+ax' 
 
 We have already found in the first example of Prob. I. 
 that the greatest common measure of the numerator and 
 denominator is a. - x ; and dividing both by this quantity, 
 
 ah: - X s ax + x 2 
 
 we have jugate + ox 2 = a^ax ' 
 
 In like manner we find 
 
 datb-QaW + ZaW-Zab* 
 
 9a 3 + Zatfi 
 
 8a-'6 2 -10aA 3 +24« 804-2& 2 
 
 the common measure being b(a - b), as was shown in Ex- 
 ample 2, Problem I. 
 
 a 2 -b 2 -c 2 + 2bc 
 
 Ex. 2. Reduce 
 2 -b 2 -c 2 + 2bc 
 
 a 2 +b 2 -c 2 - 
 a?-(b-cf 
 
 to its lowest terms. 
 
 a i + b 2 ~c 2 + 2ab (a + bf-c 2 
 
 ■2ab 
 
 (a+b- c ) (a-b-c) 
 ~(a + b + c)(a + b-c)~ 
 (x+l) 2 -3x.-3 
 
 -6 + e 
 a+b+c 
 
 Ex. 3. To find the value of *-*- £-=-*— when * = 2. 
 
 x 2 -2x 
 
 Here the substitution of ? in place of x renders the 
 
 numerator and denominator separately 'equal to 0. This 
 
 shows (Art. 20) that x -2 is a divisor of each of them. 
 
 We get, therefore, 
 
 (s+l) 2 -3s-3 
 
 . . r . ,,. , , x 3 -4x 2 + 2x+\ 
 
 Ex. 4. r lnd the value of ._-3, ( -_2_ 4 , when x = 1. 
 
 Dividing numerator and denominator by * — 1, the 
 
 — i which, when 1 is written hi place 
 
 = > which when x = 2 becomes -• 
 
 x 2 
 
 result is -,- , 
 
 x 3 - 3x 2 + 3x 
 3 
 of x, becomes - > or infinity. 
 
 29. Peob. HI. — To Reduce a Mixed Quantity to an 
 Improper Fraction. 
 
 Rule. Multiply the integer by the denominator of the 
 fraction, .aud to the product add the numerator; and 
 the denominator being placed under this sum, the result 
 will be the improper fraction required. 
 
 x 2 
 Ex. 1. Eeduce a-x-i to an improper fraction. 
 
 ■x+- 
 
 a + x 
 
 (a + x) (a-x) + x 2 
 a+x 
 
 a' 
 a+x 
 
 Ana. 
 
 30. Pkob. TV. — To Reduce an Improper Fraction to a Whole 
 
 or Mixed dumber. 
 
 Rule. Divide the numerator by the denominator for the 
 integral part, and place the remainder, if any, over 
 the denominator; it will be the mixed quantity re- 
 quired. 
 
 ax + Sx 3 x 2 — y* , , . . 
 
 Ex. 1. Keduce and - to whole or mixed 
 
 a+x x-y 
 
 quantities. 
 
 ^. ax+2x* X s j 
 
 First = x H > the answer. 
 
 a + x a + x 
 
 And = x + y a whole quantity, which is the 
 
 x-y 
 
 answer. 
 
 31. Prob. V. — To Reduce Fractions liaving different De- 
 nominators to others of the same value which sliall have a 
 common. Denominator. 
 
 Rule. Multiply each numerator separately into all the 
 denominators except its own for the new numerators, 
 and all the denominators together for the common de- 
 nominator. 
 
 (IX Or "~ X^ 
 
 Ex. 1. Reduce — — and -rr^r to tractions of equal value, 
 
 o-x a+x 
 
 having a common denominator. 
 
 ax(a + x) = a-x + ax 2 1 
 
 (d 2 -x*)(a-x) = a'-a"-x-ax 2 + x3 J 
 
 (a - x)(a + x) = a 2 - x 2 , the common denominator. 
 ax a 2 ! + ax 2 . a'-x 2 a. 3 - a 2 x - ox 3 
 
 the new numerator* 
 
 
 Hence 
 
 ar-x 2 
 
 aud ■ 
 
 ax>+x* 
 
 a+x 
 
 u 2 -s*
 
 532 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 [FRACTIONS, 
 
 32. Peob. VI.— To Add or Subtract Fractions. 
 
 Rule. Reduce the fractions to a common denominator, and 
 add or subtract their numerators ; and the sum or 
 difference placed over the common denominator is the 
 sum or remainder required. 
 
 In practice, however, it is generally better to separate 
 the process into two or more parts analogous to the addi- 
 tion or subtraction of sums of money, where the pounds 
 are added to the pounds, the shillings to the shillings, <fec, 
 and the result afterwards combined. 
 
 Ex. 1. Add together 
 
 r b ***- b . 
 
 'The latter fraction is — • 
 
 a-b 
 
 »\ the sum required is — , = ^- = 1 
 
 a-b 
 
 Similarly. 1 ■ 
 
 ' J " im '"- y ' a--l a— -1 
 
 a-t 
 1 
 
 ■i + r^. 
 
 l-a« 
 = a»-l 
 
 = -1, 
 
 Ex % 2. Collect into a single fraction 
 1 1 2a 
 
 a-b a + b a 2 — 6 3 
 1 1 2i 
 
 a-b a + b~a i -V 
 1 1 2a S(b + a) 
 
 '''a-b a + b a 2 -P~<0-b*~~ 
 
 Km. 3. 'Collect 
 
 Since 
 
 I 
 
 0-6' 
 
 4x-8 3*-6 24-12s 
 We observe that x — 2 is common to all the denominators ; 
 the question may therefore be written, 
 
 111 
 
 12 ;-0 
 
 Ex. 4. Collect 
 
 ■2 x-2 
 1 
 
 25x+4y 
 i 2 - lOy 8 ' 
 
 3x + 2y x»-4y 3x-2y . 
 Here w« commence by adding tho 1st and 3d together, 
 and the 2d and 4th together ; which results in f 
 
 6x 
 
 24x 
 
 9x 2 -4y 2 x 2 -16y a 
 
 -35i' 
 
 210* 3 
 
 4y 2 )(x 2 -16y 2 ) 
 
 (93?-4y 2 )(x 2 -16y 2 ) 
 
 Ex. 5. Find the sum of 
 
 1+X + X S + X 3 1-X + X*-X* 
 
 l-x+x 2 -* 3 ' 1+X+V + X 3 
 
 The numerator will consist of the sum of two products, 
 the one containing +x, exactly in the same way that the 
 other contains — x. If, then, vo write down one of these 
 products, and double the even powers of a; in it, omitting 
 the odd powers, we shall obtain the required result. The 
 product of the denominators again may be readily obtained 
 by regarding it as that of the difference and sum of 1 + x 2 
 aud x + x 3 . As such processes are of constant occurrence, 
 we will indicate the work in full. 
 
 Numerator, 
 
 Double of 
 
 1+1+1+1 
 1+1+1+1 
 
 1+1+1+1 
 +1+1+1+1 
 +1+1+1+1 
 +1+1+1+1 
 
 1 + 3x 2 + 3x* +1 
 
 Denominator, f 1 + x*-(x + x 3 )} {1 + x 2 + (x + x 3 )} = 
 (1 -1 «*)' - (x + r 1 )- = 1 + 2-r 2 + x* - x 2 - 2x* -a* = 1 + x 2 
 
 And the result is 
 
 2 + 6x ! + 6x« + 2r« 
 
 l+X 2 -!--!* 
 
 Ex. 6. Collect into one fraction 
 1 1 
 
 l+X~-" + XT-' 
 
 1 + x— " + x*-» l+xr-~ + xr- m 
 
 Multiply numerator and denominator of the first frao- 
 
 tion by x - ", <fec, and the given quantity becomes 
 
 x - " x - " x-» , 
 
 + _ . _ . = 1 
 
 Ex. 7 
 
 1 + l+ln 1+m + ml ' 1 + n + nm 
 
 none of the denominators being zero, then l = m = n. 
 Multiply the first quantity by /, and subtract, there 
 
 which, when substituted, in the first 
 
 results I = n 
 
 1+71 ' 
 
 quantity, gives m. = n, whence the proposition. 
 
 33. The converse problem to collecting many fractions 1 
 
 into one is frequently as important as the direct — the pro- ' 
 
 blem, namely, of resolving a compound fraction into its 
 
 components or partial fractions. For a first example, if it 
 
 be required to find what simple fractions make up the 
 
 2x 
 compound fraction —„ — 2 , we commence by observing that 
 
 the denominator x 2 - a 2 is the product of x + a and x - a. 
 
 2x 
 Hence, -= — ; i3 the sum of the fractions whose denomina- 
 ' a 2 - o 2 
 
 tors are x + a and x - a. 
 
 2x A 6 
 
 Let -= — _ = 1 . where A and B are quantities 
 
 x 2 -a 2 x+a x-a 
 
 which involve a only, not x, since x 2 does not appear in th* 
 
 numerator of the sum. 
 
 2x A(x-o)+B(x+a) _ 
 
 : 2 -a 2 
 
 By addition, 
 
 .'. 2x = A(x-a) + B(x + a). 
 
 To obtain A and B from this equality, we remark that tie 
 equality is an identity, as in Art. 20. We may, therefore,- 
 deal with it in either of two woys : 1. Make the x's on the 
 left hand side to coincide with the x's on the right, and 
 the o's in like manner. 2. As in Art. 20, write wiy- 
 thing we pleaso in place of x on both sides. We will in 
 this example taka, the first method, and illustrate the 
 second method by the subsequent examples. We get 
 2 = A + B,0 = A-B; .-. A = B*= 1, and the result is 
 
 2x 1 1 
 
 + - 
 
 Ex. 2. 
 
 1 
 
 a 2 
 
 A 
 x — a 
 
 x-a x-a 
 
 a 
 
 x-b 
 
 (x-a) (x-b) 
 
 .: l=A(x-J) + B(x-a). 
 
 a-6' 
 
 Write a for x, then 1—A(a- b) .: A = — r' 
 Write Jfor x,thcn 1 = B(6 - a) = - (a - b) .: B = - 
 
 henCe ' (x-a)(x-6) = a~^b \x~^ " x~^b ) ' 
 
 The reader will observe that we have treated — r as if 
 
 a — o 
 
 it were not itself a fraction. In fact, in the application of 
 the subject before us, the letters a and b stand for arith- 
 metical quantities, and the fraction — — r is simply an arith- 
 metical fraction, as contradistinguished from an algebrai«a 
 
 1 fraction like • 
 x-a
 
 fRACTIONS.] 
 
 Ex. 3 
 gives 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 533 
 
 px + q 
 
 ]'. 
 
 
 
 -6 + x-c 
 
 (x-u)(x-6)(x-c) x-a 
 px +.q = A(x - 6) (x - c) + B(x - a) (x - 
 + C(x-a)(x-b), 
 .-. pa + q = ACa - b) (a - c), &c, 
 
 numerator of tlie second are both divisible by * + L 
 Hence, 
 
 and 
 
 px+q 
 
 pa + q 
 
 (x - a) (i - b) (x - c) 
 
 pb + q 1 
 
 (6-a)(6-c) ' x-b 
 
 Ex. 4. Find the sum of 
 
 (a - b) (u. - c) 
 pc + q 
 
 x-a 
 
 1 
 
 (c-n)(c-6) a-c 
 a + 6 6+e 
 
 (b-c)(c-a,y (c-a)(a-b) 
 e+a 
 
 f-i-6)(6-c) 
 
 Let a + 6 + c = s- and write in alphabetical order; it 
 gives 
 
 : + ; 
 
 (a-4)(<i-c) (4-o)(4-c> (c-a)(a-b) 
 i.e. (Ex. 3), the A, B, C of the resolved fraction, 
 
 x-s A_ j _B_ _C_ 
 
 (x-a)(x-b)(x-c)~ x-a x-b x-c 
 
 and since x - s = A (x - b) (x - c) + B(x - a) (x - c) + 
 
 C(x - c.) (:• - b), the sum required, being the coefficient 
 
 of x"*, is equal to 0. 
 
 The reader will easily extend this process to other 
 
 cases, as, for instance, to prove 
 
 _ _ bed cda 
 
 ■Fx. 5. , — — w Js + „ - , ,. „ ,. _v + 
 
 (a-b)(fl-c)(a-d) (b - c) {b - d) (b -a) 
 
 dab abc 
 
 (c-d){c-a^(c-b') + (d-a)(d-b)(d-c\ 
 
 = 1, 
 
 34. Pkob. VII. — To Multiply Fractions. 
 
 little. Multiply the numerators of the fractions for the 
 numerator of the product, and the denominators for the 
 denominator of the product. 
 The demonstration follows at once from the definition 
 
 of a fraction given in Art. 26 ; thus since t x b = a,-jX.d — c, 
 
 u e have 7 x b x 3 x d = ac, Le., by the commutative law 
 
 1 x-.xbd = ac . 
 a 
 
 But 
 
 bd 
 
 a 
 
 xbd = ac 
 
 c ac 
 b X d~bd' 
 
 35. Peob. VIII. — To Divide Fractions. 
 
 Rule. Multiply the dividend by the reciprocal of the 
 divisor, the product will be the quotient required. 
 This rule requires no demonstration. 
 
 Examples in Multiplication and Division of Fractions. 
 
 Ex. 1. Multiply 
 , tho product is 
 
 by 
 
 a 2 -6 2 
 
 - Since r — = - 
 6 a 
 
 -4 2 
 
 Ex. 2. Multiply 
 
 a 2 -4 2 a 1 a 2 _ a 
 ab a 3 — 6 s ab b 
 
 x 3 -3x + 2 x l±l^+} , 
 
 z 3 +2x 2 +2i + l y x 2 -5x + 4' 
 
 x 3 -3x + 2 
 
 X2 + 2X+1 
 
 x 3 + 2x 2 + 2x+l"i 2 -5x+4 
 x 2 + x-2 x+l 
 
 gJ-3x + 2 x* + 2z+\ 
 
 V-5x + 4*x 3 + 2x 2 +23B+l 
 x 3 + 2x 2 -x-2 
 
 " x-4 x ! + x+l K 3 -3x 2 -3x-4 
 
 a b a 2 6 2 
 Ex.3. Divido^-by^-^. 
 
 . a 2 -6 2 a 2 !) 2 ab 
 
 The quotient is -^- x ^-^ = ^5 • 
 
 Ex. 4. Reduce ,1 - ( — ^— J to factorials. 
 
 /62 + c 2_a 2 \2 /, , 4 2 + c 2 -a 2 \ /, SN-c'-q^ 
 1_ r~Sk/ \ "^iT-J V 1 " 26c ; 
 
 ' -(6-c) 2 
 
 (6 + c + a) (4 + c-a) (a+6-c) (a-6 + c) 
 ~~ 46 2 c 2 
 
 ( a 24.W_ c 2_(p\2 
 - 2 { ab + cd) -) t0fact0nal3 - 
 
 (4 + c) 2 -a 2 „ <*" 
 = 26c~* 
 
 _ / a 2 + 6 2 -c 2 - cf\ 2 f , . o 2 +o 2 -c 2 -d 2 I 
 1 V <2(ab + cd) J \ 2(ab + cd) j 
 
 ' j 2(u6 + 
 
 a 2 + J2_ c 2_d2 
 
 ,(c + d) 2 
 
 X 
 
 (a -4)' 
 
 2(a6 + cd) j 2(ii6 + cd) 2(a6 + cd) 
 
 = 4{ab + cdf 
 
 Miscellaneous Examples in Fractions. 
 
 Ex. 1. Find the value of ^r^" 6x^6 + (x-a) (6c- ex) » 
 Writing down every term with x 
 
 when x= i 
 
 ab + ac + oc 
 
 first, there results — 
 
 abc _^_ 
 
 (x-a)(x-6) 
 
 1 1 
 
 — + . 4. , . when 
 
 3a x-36 x+3c' 
 
 Because the numerator of the first fraction, and the 
 denominator of the second both become 0, when 1 is 
 written for x, each is divisible by x - 1 (Art. 20). In the 
 «une way tho denominator of the first fraction, and the 
 
 o(x-6) 6(x-a) c(x-a)(x-b) 
 Ex. 2. Find the value of 
 
 - + 7 = - and x = 2(a + b-c). 
 abc 
 
 Bestore symmetry by writing - c for c ; the numerator 
 of the sum is (x - 36) (x - 3c) + (x - 3a) (x - 3c) + (x - 3a) 
 i x - 36) = 3{x 2 - 2(a + b + c)x + 3(a6 + ac + be)}. But 
 x = 2(a + 6 + c), whence the first and second terms make 
 
 up : and - + 7 + - = 0, is the third term divided by abc, 
 r ' abc 
 
 .: the sum required is 0. 
 
 Ex. 3. Given that (a 2 + be) (6 J + ac) (c 2 + ab) + (a 2 - 6c) 
 
 (6 2 - ac) (c 2 - a6) = 0, when multiplied out and reduced, 
 
 may be written a 3 + 6 3 + c 3 + a6c = 0, prove that (a J + 6c) 
 
 (6 2 + ac) (c 2 + ab) - (a 2 - 6c) (6 2 - ac) (c 2 - a6) = 0, may bo 
 
 reduced to^ + T r + -3+- r =0. The latter given equality, 
 a 4 b* c abc 
 
 by dividing it by a 2 6c x 6 2 ac x c 2 u6, becomes. 
 {fc + a*) W + V) \ab + ~c*) ~ 
 \6c WW V)\ab Wj 
 
 tft {tc + h)Qc- + h)Qb + i) + 
 
 W~fo)\jP~a~c)\l?~al>) =Mi ' 
 
 which is identical with the first given equality, but with 
 
 -. r, -, written in place of a, 6, c The result therefore of 
 abc
 
 534 
 
 A L G E 13 11 A 
 
 [SOTO*, 
 
 reducing the second equality will be identical with that of 
 
 reducing the first, when -, -, -, are written in place of a, 
 
 6, c Now the former result is a 3 + 4 3 + c 3 + abc — 0, .\ the 
 
 latter is -7+Tj + -r + -r = 0. 
 a 3 6 5 c 3 abc 
 
 Ex. 4. Prove that 
 
 (o,-o^(o,-Oj) . . . (0,-0.) 
 
 ; T-. *— r ; r+ &c, is equal to if m>n, 
 
 («j-°i)( a *- a 3)v • ( a 3-a.) _ ^ 
 
 and equal to 1 if »i = n. This is easily proved by resolv- 
 
 ing , - : : . into partial fractions (Art. 33). 
 
 "(x-o^x-Oj).. . (x-a„) r v ' 
 
 Wo have 
 
 x— » 
 
 (x-o,) .. 
 
 _ A, 
 
 + &c, 
 
 . (x-a.) x-a, 
 
 = AJx - a t ) . . (x - a.) + <fec. . . ( 1 ), 
 
 whence, writing a„ a.^ &c., successively for x, we get A„ 
 A„ <kc. 
 
 The given quantity is A, + A, + ... + A., and the 
 equation marked ( 1 ), gives, by equating coefficients of like 
 powers of x, the result required. 
 
 r+s 
 3 «' p-q r-i 
 
 c + 1 = - + 1 gives - — * = , and - - 1 
 
 Ex.b. If l- r - t then £±3. 
 
 For 
 
 gives 
 
 1 
 
 Ex. 6. If -+U- = 
 
 a c a+o+c 
 
 { 8 g s 
 
 Divide the former by the latter. 
 
 1 
 
 - 1 
 
 , then a 2 = 6 2 = c 3 
 
 For ——=- + -: 
 ab a 
 
 I 
 
 either a + b ■■ 
 
 1 
 
 a + 6 + c- c 
 1 
 
 °'° r ol = 
 
 a+6 
 c(o-p6+c) 
 
 J-_-L_i- 
 
 ac ic e 3 
 
 T *!_ 1 1111 
 
 In the latter case, rr«>-r ■?, 1- r- > 
 
 e* 00 oc w 
 
 which is not changed by interchanging c and 6 or c. and a, 
 
 Jl 1 1_ 
 
 '*' c a- 6»~o 2 ' 
 so that on either alternative the proposition is true. 
 
 ad — be ac — bd 
 
 Ex. 7. Given that 
 
 and a not 
 
 a-b — c + d a-b + c-d' 
 equal to b, nor c equal to d ; to prove that « + b = c + d ; 
 
 and that either of the fractions equals 
 
 Write the equality thus, — 
 
 ac — bd a — b + ( c-d) 
 ad — be a-b — (c — d) 
 Apply Example 5, and thero results, 
 
 ac-bd + ad-bc _a-b 
 
 ac — bd — ad + be c — d 
 . (a-b)(c + d) a-b . . 
 
 U (c-d)(a + 6) = ^' whenCea + 6 = <; + i 
 
 If now a - c or d - 6 be written by a single symbol x, 
 the first fraction becomes 
 
 (c+x)(b + x)-cb b + c + x _ a + b a + b + c + d 
 2 2 -1 
 
 1 
 
 2x 
 fcc. 8. If * = 
 
 Vi + ^e-v'a'*' Ve+Va-V6' 
 
 J- ' «. -' — • 
 
 Va+Vi-Ve' Va+V6-rv , c' 
 
 prove that 
 
 (y+b-x + u)(3 + x-y + u)(x+y-«+M) - 
 
 (x + y+z-u) 3 
 
 ( b + c-a)(c + a-b){a + b-c) 
 
 Babe 
 
 Deal with the reciprocals of x, y, z, u\ thus, 
 y + z - x + u = y + 2 - (a: - «) 
 
 ~ ^C 1 + y ) - X "(u _ x) = 2 V«(^-^ 
 
 = 4 J<iy:xu(c + b - a). 
 
 Hence, by symmetry, the numerator of the left hand frac- 
 tion becomes 
 
 ■C 1 ^ r a~bc'fz s x i a\b + c-,t)(c + a-b)(n + b-c). 
 
 Also, x -*- y + z - u = xy(- + -) + zv( --- J 
 
 = 2 ,/c(.ry + *u) = 2 Jcxyzul — + — 
 v v * \2U xy, 
 
 = 8 J abc xyzu, 
 Hence the result 
 
 Sect. IV. — Sueds. 
 
 36. It has been already observed (Art. 28), that the root 
 of any proposed quantity is found by dividing the exponent 
 cf the quantity by the index of the root ; and the rule has 
 been illustrated by examples, in all of which, however, the 
 quotient expressing the exponent of the result is a whole 
 number; but there may be cases in which the quotient is a 
 fraction. Thus, if the cube root of a 2 were required, it 
 might be expressed, agreeably to the method of notation 
 
 already explained, either thus, $/a 2 , or thus, a . 
 
 Quantities which have fractional exponents are called 
 surds, or imperfect powers, and are said to be irrational, 
 in opposition to others with integral exponents, which are 
 called rational. 
 
 Surds may be denoted by means of the radical siga, but 
 it will be often more convenient to use the notation of 
 fractional exponents. The following examples will show 
 how they may be expressed either way. 
 
 i/"a='<A Jia~U*~'Zba*, ^/a^=a^b i , 
 
 JaUT^(a^ + b')K y(a~=bji = {a-b)$, 
 
 Jab 
 The operations concerning surds depend on the following 
 principles : — 
 
 1. If the numerator and denominator of a fractional 
 exponent be either both multiplied or both divided by the 
 same quantity, the value of the power is the same Thus, 
 
 ft CN 
 
 a =a . 
 
 2. The product of like powers (integral or fractional) is 
 
 the same uower of the product. Thus a* b* = fab)*. 
 
 37. I. — Reduction of a Rational Quantity to the form of a 
 Surd of any given denomination. 
 
 Rule. Reduce the exponent of the quantity to the form of 
 a fraction of the same denomination as the given surd 
 
 Ex. Reduce «* to the form of the cube root. 
 
 Here the exponent 2 must be reduced to the form of %
 
 sfeds.] ALGEBE A 
 
 fraction having 3 for a denominator, which will be the 
 fraction $; therefore a i = a?= 'Ja 9 . 
 
 38. H. — Reduction of Surds of different denominations to 
 others of the same value and of the same denomination. 
 
 Rule. Reduce the fractional exponents to others of the 
 same value, and having the same common denominator. 
 
 3_ 1 3 
 
 Ex. Reduce Ja and Jb 2 , or a s and 6' to other equi- 
 valent surds of the same denomination. 
 
 The exponents I, §, when reduced to a common deno- 
 minator, are f and £ ; therefore the surds required are 
 
 a * « s — 
 
 u ff and 6% or Ja 3 and Jb*. 
 
 39. III. — Reduction of Surds to their most simple terms. 
 
 Rule. Reduce the surd into two factors, so that one of 
 them may be a complete power, having its exponent divi- 
 sible by the index of the surd. Extract the root of that 
 power, and place it before the remaining quantities, with 
 the proper radical sign between them. 
 
 Ex. 1. Reduce ^/48 to its most simple terms. 
 The number 48 may be resolved into the two factors 16 
 and 3, of which the first is a complete square ; therefore 
 
 s /48 = (4 2 x3)^ = 4x3^ = 4 x /3T 
 
 3 . 
 
 Ex. 2. Reduce J98a*x, and J24a 3 x + 40aV, each to 
 its most simple terms. 
 
 First, ^980^ = (7 2 a 4 x 2xft = 7o 2 x (2s)* = 7a 2 jTx . 
 s 1 3 
 
 535 
 
 3 6 
 
 Ex. 1. Required the product of Ja? and J a 3 . 
 
 ja? x J a 3 = u? x a 
 
 5 = , 
 
 3 
 
 a' 
 
 '= ja 1 *, Ana. 
 
 Ex. 2. Divide Ju l - 6 2 by ja + b . 
 
 These surds, when reduced to the 6ame denomination, 
 
 are (a 2 - 6 2 )* and la + bf. Hence _»/g_rJ 2 = /("'-^Al 
 V ' K ' 3 ja+b \(a+b)*J 
 
 Also J2ia 3 x + 40aV = (2 3 a 3 (3s + 5x 2 )) ar =2a J3x + 5x*. 
 
 40. rV. — Addition and Subtraction of Surds. 
 
 Rule. If the surds are of different denominations, reduce 
 them to others of the same denomination, by prob. 2, 
 and then reduce them to their simplest terms by last pro- 
 blem. Then, if the suid part be the same in them all, 
 annex it to the sum or difference of the rational parts, 
 with the sign of multiplication, and it will give the sum 
 or difference required. But if the surd part be not the 
 same in all the quantities, they can only be added or 
 subtracted by placing the signs + or — between them. 
 
 Ex. 1. Required the sum of J27 and JiS. 
 By prob. 3 we find ^27 = 3 ^3 and ^48 = 4 ^3, there- 
 fore J27 + JiS = 3J3 + iJ3 = 7J3. 
 
 3 - s — 
 
 Ex. 2. Required the sum of 3 j\ and 5 J-J v . 
 
 3Ji=3Ji = iJ2B.nd5j^ = 5j^ = iJ2~; 
 
 therefore 3 ji + 5 V^=f j~ 2 + i j% = V *J2 . 
 Ex. 3. Required the difference between JS0a*x and 
 J20o?x 3 . 
 
 J80a*x-- 
 
 ■■ (4V x 5x)* = 4a 2 J5x, and J20a-x 3 ■■ 
 1 
 
 (2W x 5x)?=2ax J5x; therefore ^80 a 4 x-^ 
 j20aV = (4a 2 - 2ax) J5x~ . 
 
 41. V. — Multiplication and Division of Surds. 
 
 Rule. If they' are surds of the same rational quantity, add 
 or subtract their exponents. 
 
 But if they are 'surds of different rational quantities, let 
 them be brought to others of the same denomination, by 
 prob. 2. Then, by multiplying or dividing these rational 
 quantities, their product or quotient may be set under 
 the common radical sign. 
 
 Note. If the surds have any rational coefficients, their pro- 
 duct or quotient must be prefixed. 
 
 42. VI. — Involution and Euolution of Surds. 
 The powers and roots of surds are found in the same 
 manner as any other quantities, namely, by multiplying or 
 dividing their exponents by the index of the power or root 
 
 3 — 2 
 
 required. Thus, the square of 3 J3 is 3 x 3 x (3)* = 
 
 i. - 
 The nth power of a;* is x m . The cube root of 
 
 1 -? — 
 
 s %/2~, aud the nth root of ar is x". 
 
 9^9. 
 
 43. The reduction of quadratic surds is facilitated by 
 the following considerations, which appear hardly to require 
 demonstration : 
 
 1. Ja cannot = 6 + Jc, when Jc is a surd. 
 
 2. a+ Jb cannot = c+ Jd when jb, Jd are unequal 
 surds. 
 
 3. a cannot = Jb Jc when Jb, Jc are surds not involv- 
 ing the same irrational part, J2d.nd J3(or example. 
 
 4. Ja cannot equal Jb + Jc when all are surds not in- 
 
 volving the same irrational part. 
 Note. The irrational part of J9>, for instance, : jJ J2, for J8 
 = 2J2. 
 
 44. For example, we extract the square root of a binomial 
 surd such as 28 + 10 ,^3 in the following way : 
 
 Let ^28+10 J3 = x + y, where one or both of * and jr 
 must be a surd. 
 
 Then 28 + 10 J3 = x- + y- + 2xy, 
 
 28=^ + ^, 
 10 J3 = 2xy, 
 or No. 2 above would be violated. 
 
 Hence J28-10J3 
 And 
 or 
 
 Jx 2 + y*-2xy = x-y, 
 
 J7$i - 300 
 a^ + y 2 = 28 
 s 2 -y 2 = 22 
 
 x=5, y= J3 
 
 and 5 + J3 is the root required. 
 
 Additional Examples in Surds. 
 
 Ex. 1. Add together ^ , ^ , -^ , 
 
 1 1 2 
 
 l + V2 + l-V2~l-2~ 
 1 1 2V3 
 
 and 
 
 V3 -1 
 
 .= -2 
 
 V3+1 ' V3-1 3-1 * 3 ' 
 J3 - 2 is the svim required. 
 Ex. 2. Find the difference between 
 
 a+3+,'(g + i) J (a.+x)-*/(a+x) \ 
 
 ^{(a + x^-^a+x) 3 ) 
 V(a + a;)-H 1 
 
 l + V(a+x) - V(a+xr 
 
 (a+x) + V(a+x) 
 The former is 
 
 V(a + :r) 
 The latter is the square root of 
 
 1 VQz-t-s)-l . . _1_ 
 
 V(a+*)-l' **' M «+*' 
 
 a + x 
 the difference reouired is 0.
 
 536 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 [proportion AND 
 
 Ex. 3. Find the value of^ <J ^ ±? 
 
 when 
 
 (h 
 
 -i 2 )- 
 ■c) a 
 
 X 2Vic 
 
 At the first reduction o divides out, and, the fraction ia 
 reduced to 
 
 1 + 
 
 46c 
 Jb^cJ 
 
 ) 2-Jbc 
 
 A 1 ' 4tc 
 Ex. 4. Find the value of : 
 
 b+e+(b-c) 
 b + c-{b-e)' 
 
 J 2</bc 
 
 ■ z + V(2a-i ) 
 [ x-*/(2a-x)' 
 when x= Jitf + iaty-b. 
 
 By the process explained in this article 
 
 J(2a + b- ^ s + 4a6)= s l 
 V26+1 
 
 ,/2a-z 
 whence the fraction reduces to 
 
 4a +b b 
 
 I ~ ^2' 
 
 V26-1 
 
 45. In arithmetic the square root of a number is another 
 number, which, when multiplied by itself, shall produce 
 the first number. In algebra, where quantity takes the 
 place of number, the definition leads to a less limited 
 result than in arithmetic. In the latter science there can- 
 not be two square roots of the same thing ; in the former, 
 there will necessarily be two. For both + 2 x + 2 gives 
 4, and - 2 x - 2 gives 4 ; hence the square root of 4 i3 - 2 
 as well as + 2. 
 
 And, further, as in algebra, -2. is a quantity subject to 
 all the operations and definitions of the science, it is clearly 
 competent to express, in some form or other, the result of 
 extracting its square root. That form must of necessity 
 be something very different in character from J2, 'whether 
 J2 be -}- or - . For the definition requires that the square 
 root of - 2 shall be such a quantity as when multiplied by 
 itself shall produce - 2. It is then clearly no arith- 
 metical quantity either + or - , but some quantity con- 
 nected with numerical quantities by its properties, but not. 
 by its nature. It is termed an impossible or im aginary 
 quantity, and may be written J - 2 or J2 J - 1, and the 
 same notation applies to the square roots of all negative 
 quantities. 
 
 The properties of imaginary quantities are almost iden- 
 tical with those of surds, and we need not stop to consider 
 them. One example of their application will suffice. It 
 affords strong confirmation of the safety of assuming the 
 commutative law to exist in every branch of pure algebra. 
 
 Ex. The product of the sum of two squares by the sum 
 of two squares can always be represented under the form 
 of the sum of two squares. 
 
 For (a* + 6 2 ) {<? + d?) = (a + 6 J^l) (a - 6 J~l) 
 
 x(c + dj-l)(c-dj-l) 
 = (a + bj-l)(c + dj-l )x(a- bj-l)(c-dj-l) 
 "{ac-bd + ad + bc J -1) (ac-bd-ad + bc J - 1) 
 ^(at-bdf + iad + bcY. 
 
 Cor. (a s + 6 s ) {<? + d?) = {ac + bdf + (ad- bcf, or the pro- 
 duct may be represented in two different wajs, under the 
 form of the sum of two squares. 
 
 Sect. V. — Proportion and Progression. 
 
 46. In Comparing together any two quantities of the 
 same kind in respect" of magnitude, we may consider how 
 much the one is greater than the other, or else how many 
 times the one contains either the whole or some part of the 
 Other; or, which h the tame thing, we may consider either 
 
 what is the difference between the quantities, or what is 
 the quotient arising from the division of the one quantity 
 by the other : the former of thesans called their arithmetical 
 ratio, and the latter their geometrical ratio. These deno- 
 minations, however, have been assumed arbitrarily, and 
 have little or no connection with the relations they are 
 intended to express. 
 
 I. Arithmetical Proportion and Progression, 
 
 47. When of four quantities the difference between the 
 first and second is equal to the difference between the third 
 and fourth, the quantities ate called arithmetical propor- 
 tionals. Such, for example, are the" numbers 2, 5, 9, 12; 
 and, in general, the quantities a, a + d, b, b + d. 
 
 48. The principal property of four arithmetical propor« 
 tionals is this : — If four quantities be arithmetically pro- 
 portional, the cum of the extreme terms is equal to the 
 sum of the means. Let the quantities be a, a + d, b, b + d; 
 where d is the difference between the first and second, and 
 also between the third and fourth, the sum of the extremes 
 is a + b + d, and that of the means a + d + h; so that the 
 truth of the proposition is evident. 
 
 49. If a series of quantities be such, that the difference 
 between any two adjacent terms is always the same, these 
 terms form an arithmetical progression. Thus, the num- 
 bers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, &c, form a series in arithmetical pro- 
 gression, and, in general, such a series may bo represented 
 thus: 
 
 a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, a + id, a + 5d, a + 6d, <fec, where 
 a denotes the first term, and d the common difference. 
 
 By a little attention to this series, we readily discover 
 that it has the following properties : 
 
 1. The last term of the series is equal to the first term, 
 together with the common difference taken as often as 
 there are terms after the first. Thus, when the number 
 of terms is 7, the last term is a + Gd; and so on. Hence 
 if « denote the last term, n the number of terms, and a and 
 d express the first term and common difference, we have 
 z = a + (n — l)d. 
 
 2. The sum of the first and last term is equal to the 
 sum of any two terms at the same distance from them. 
 Thus, suppose the number of terms to be 7, then the last 
 term is a + 6d, and the sum of the first and last 2a + 6d; 
 but the same is also the sum of the 6econd and last but 
 one, of the third and last but two, and so on till we cme 
 to the middle term, which, because it is equally distant 
 from the extremes, must be added to itself. 
 
 3. To find the sum of the series, it is only necessary to 
 observe that, if the progression is written down twice, 1° 
 from the beginning, 2° from the end, the terms of the former 
 increase by the same amount as that by which the terms of 
 the latter diminish ; so that the sum of any two terms which 
 stand under each other is always the same, viz., the same 
 as the sum of the first and last terms; hence the double 
 series converts addition into multiplication; so that if » 
 denote the sum of the series, we have 2« = n(a + z), and 
 
 n. . 
 
 Ex. The sum of the odd numbers 1,3, 5, 7, 9, <tc, con- 
 tinued to n terms, is equal to the square of the number of 
 terms. For in this case a=\, d=2, 2 = 1 + (n — 1) d = 2n 
 
 — 1, therefore « = 5 x2ra = n 2 . 
 
 LL Geometrical Proportion and Progression. 
 
 50. When, of four quantities, the quotient arising from 
 the division of the first by the second is equal to that 
 arising from the division of the third by/ the fourth, these 
 quantities are said to be in geometrical proportion, cr arr
 
 PROGRESSION. J 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 537 
 
 general na, a, - . 
 
 called simply proportionals. Thus, 12, 4, 15, 5, are four 
 numbers iu geometrical proportion; and, in general, na, a, 
 
 nb, b, may express any four proportionals, for — = n, and 
 
 , nb 
 also -r- = n . 
 o 
 
 To denote that any four quantities a, b, c, d, are pro- 
 portionals, it is common to place them thus, a : b : : c : d ; 
 or thus, a : b = c : d ; -which notation, when expressed in 
 words, is read thus, a is to b as c to d, or the ratio of a to 
 b is equal to the ratio of c to d. 
 
 The first and third terms of a proportion are called the 
 antecedents, and the second and fourth the consequents. 
 
 When the two middle terms of a proportion are the 
 same, the remaining terms, and that quantity, constitute 
 three geometrical proportionals; such as 4, 6, 9, and in 
 
 In this case the middle quantity is called 
 
 a mean proportional between the other two. 
 
 61. The principal properties of four proportionals are 
 the following : 
 
 1. If four quantities be proportionals, the product of 
 the extremes is equal to the product of the means. Let 
 a, b, c, d, be four quantities, such that a : b : : c : d; then, 
 
 from the nature of proportionals, t = ^: let these equal 
 
 quotients be multiplied by h d, and we have ad = be. It 
 
 follows, that if any three of four proportionals be given, 
 
 the remaining one may be found. Thus, let a, b, c, the 
 
 first three, bo given, and let it be required to find x, tho 
 
 fourth term; because a : b : : c : r, ax = bc, and dividing 
 
 , be 
 
 by a. x = — . 
 a 
 
 The converse is obviously true, viz., if four quantities be 
 such that the product of two of them is equal to the pro- 
 duct of the other two, these quantities are proportionals.. 
 
 2. If four quantities are proportional, that is, if a : b : : 
 c : d, then will each of the following combinations or arrange- 
 ments of the quantities be also four proportionals. 
 
 1 st, By inversion, b :a::d :c. 
 
 2d, By alternation, a : c : : b : d . 
 
 Note. — The quantities in the second case must be all of 
 
 tho same kind. 
 
 3d, By composition, a + b :a ::c + d:c, 
 
 or, a + b :b ::c + d : d. 
 
 ith, By division, a-b :a::c-d :c , 
 
 or, a — b :b ::c — d :d . 
 
 5th, By mixing, a + b :a-b ::c + d :c-d. 
 
 6th, By taking any equimultiples of the antecedents, and 
 
 also any equimultiples of the consequents, 
 
 na : pb : : nc : pd . 
 
 7th, Or, by taking any parts of the antecedents and con- 
 
 a b c d 
 sequents, -:-::-:-• 
 
 * n p n p 
 
 That the preceding combinations of the quantities a, I, 
 
 c, d, are proportionals, may be readily proved, by taking 
 
 the products of the extremes and means ; for from each of 
 
 them we derive this conclusion, that ad=bc, which is 
 
 known to be true, from the original assumption of the 
 
 quantities. 
 
 8th, H four quantities be proportional, and also other four. 
 
 the product of the corresponding terms will be proportional. 
 
 Let a : b ::c :d, 
 
 And e :/ : :g :h; 
 
 Then ae : bf : : eg : dh . 
 For ad=bc, and eh =fg, as before, therefore, multiplying 
 together these equal quantities, adeh = bc/g, oc aexdh = bf 
 x eg; therefore, by the converse of the first property, ae : 
 lf::cg:dh. 
 
 Hence it follows, that if there be any number of pro- 
 portions whatever, the products of tho coiTosponding terms 
 will still be proportional 
 
 52. If a series of quantities bo so related to ea;h other, 
 that the quotient arising from the division of any term by 
 that which precedes it i3 always the same quantity, theso 
 are said to be in geometrical progression; such are tho 
 numbers 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, &c, also £, \, \, x^, &c, and in 
 general, a series of such quantities may be represented 
 thus, a, ar, ar 2 , a? -3 , a?" 1 , ar", &c. Hero a is the first tenn, 
 and r the quotient of any two adjoining terms, which i3 
 also called the common ratio. 
 
 By inspecting this series, we find that it has the follow- 
 ing properties: 
 
 1. The last term is equal to the first, multiplied by the 
 common ratio raised to a power, the index of which is one 
 less than the number of terras. Therefore, if z denote the 
 last term, and n the number of terms, z = a?'* -1 . 
 
 2. The product of the first and last term is equal to the 
 product of any two terms equally distant from them : 
 thus, supposing ar 5 the last term, it is evident that 
 a x ar 6 = arx ar* = ar 2 x ar 3 , &c. 
 
 The sum of n terms of a geometrical series may be 
 found thus : 
 
 3 ...+ar"~ 1 
 + ar'~ l +1 
 
 Let 
 
 s = a + ar -»- ar 2 + at 
 
 Then 
 
 rs = ar + ar 2 + ar 3 ... 
 
 Subtract, 
 
 rs-s = ar' - a . 
 
 That is, 
 
 (r-l)s = o(r"-.l). 
 
 Hence 
 
 r--l 
 
 Cor. Tho sum to infinity = i— - . 
 
 Additional Examples in retortion and Progression. 
 Ex. 1. How many strokes docs a clock strike iu twelve 
 hours'! 
 
 If s denote the number 
 
 «= 1+ 2 + .. .12 
 «=12 + 11 + ... 1 
 .-. 2s=13 + 13+ ..13 = 13x12; « = 78. 
 Ex. 2. Find the number of shot lying close together in 
 the shape of an equilateral triangle. 
 
 Let n be the number of shot in a' side of the triangle. 
 Counting from one angle, and taking in successive rows 
 parallel to tho opposite side, we get aa the number ns 
 
 quired 
 
 n(n+l) 
 L + 2 + ...n= » 
 
 Ex. 3. To find the numbei of shot in a pile of tho form 
 of a triangular pyramid. 
 
 As each shot lies in the hollow formed by those below 
 it, the number of shot in the successive sides from the base 
 upwards will evidently be 
 
 n.-l,n-2,...l. 
 Hence tho number of shot in the pile will bo 
 
 L? 
 
 2 ' 
 
 To sum this series induction may be employea. Tho 
 result is 
 
 n()t-H )(n + 2) < 
 6 
 Ex. 4. A ratio of greater inequality fs diminishod, and 
 of less inequality increased, by adding tho same quantity 
 to each of its terms. 
 
 Let a>b; then t — < r . 
 
 By multiplying out, this i.« evident. 
 
 «(n+l) (n 
 
 -2 
 
 •l)ii | (n-2)(n- l) t
 
 538 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 fsiMrLE E0.UATION3 
 
 Ex. 5. Find the vulgar fraction which ia equivalent to 
 tlie recurring decimal. 
 
 
 •3142 
 
 
 
 let 
 
 Jt=-3i42, 
 
 
 
 then 
 
 10^ = 3-142^ 
 
 
 
 
 10,000*= 3142-] 
 
 
 .'. subtracting 
 
 
 9990.r = 
 
 = 3T39 
 ol39 
 
 9990 , 
 Ex. 6. A si m ot money doubles itself in fifteen years 
 at a rate a little below 5 per ccut. A noble Scotch family 
 have retained in their possession gold coins of the value of 
 £500 since the days of Mary Stuart (300 years) ; what 
 have they lost by not allowing the money to accumulate at 
 the above rate ? 
 
 Every pound would have amounted to £2*° ; '.', 
 £500 (2-°-l) is the loss. It amounts to upward? of 
 £524,000,000. 
 
 Ex. 7. The sum of the mixed series 
 
 a + (a + l)r + (a + 25)r* £_. . . . r 
 a ir(l-r~') (a + n- U)r» . 
 " 1-r"*" {l- r y 1-t 
 
 Sect, VI. — Resolution of Equations involving one 
 Unknown Quantity. 
 
 53. TJie primary object of algebraic investigation is to 
 discover certain unknown quantities, by comparing them 
 with other quantities which axe given, or supposed to be 
 known. The relation between the known and unknown 
 quantities is either that of equality, or else such as may 
 be reduced to equality; and a proposition which affirms 
 that certain combinations of quantities are equal to one 
 another u colled an equation. Such are the following: — 
 
 x , x 24 
 
 2 + 3 = 7' 
 
 2x + 3y = xy , 
 
 The first of these equations expresses \he> relation between 
 an unknown quantity x and certain known numbers ; and 
 the second expresses the relation which the two indefinite 
 quantities x and y have to each other. 
 
 The conditions of a problem may be mien as to require 
 several equations and symbols of unknown quantities for 
 their complete expression. These, however, by rules here- 
 after to be explained, may be reduced to one equation, 
 involving only one unknown quantity and its powers, be- 
 sides the known quantities; and the method of expressing 
 that quantity by means of the known quantities consti- 
 tutes the theory of equations, one of the most important 
 as well as most intricate branches of algebraic analysis. 
 
 An equation is said to be resolved when the unknown 
 quantity is made id stand alone on one side, and only 
 known quantities on the other side; and the value of the un- 
 known quantity is called a root of the equation. The general 
 definition of a root of an equation is, that it is a numerical 
 quantity (i.e., some combination of numbers) which, when 
 written in place of the unknown quantity, renders the 
 equation a numerical ideality; thus 1 is the root of the 
 equation ar= 1,1 and - 1 are both roots of the equation 
 
 «^=lj lj «/-l.- J -I and -1 are all roots of the 
 equation a 4 - 1. 
 
 54. Equations containing only one unknown quantity 
 and its powers, are divided into different orders, according 
 to the highest power of that quantity contained in any one 
 of its terms. The equation, however, is supposed to be 
 reduced to such a form that the unknown quantity is found 
 only in the numerators of the terms, and that the exponents 
 of its powers are expressed by positive integers, 
 
 If an equation contains only the tirst power of the 
 unknown quantity, it is called a sbnjyle equation, or an 
 equation of the first order. Such is ax + b = e, where x 
 denotes an unknown, and a, b, c, known quantities. 
 
 If the equation contains tho second power of tfie un- 
 known quantity, it is said to bo of tho second degree, 
 or is called a quadratic equation; such is 4r J + 3j;=12, 
 and in general ax- + Ix =■- c. If it contains the third power 
 of the unknown quantity, it is of tho third degree, or 
 is a culic equation ; such are x 3 + 2x 2 + ix = 10, and 
 ax 3 + Lx- + c.r = d ; aud so on with respect to equations of 
 tho higher orders. A simple equation is sometimes said to 
 bo linear, or of one dimension. In like manner, quadratic 
 equations are said to be of two dimensions, .and cubic 
 equations of three dimensions. 
 
 When in the course of an algebraic investigation wr 
 arrive at an equation involving only one unknown quantity, 
 that quantity will often be so entangled in tho different 
 terms as to render several previous reductions necessary 
 before tho equation can bo expressed under its character- 
 istic form, so as to be resolved by the rules which belong 
 to that form. 
 
 These reductions depend upon tho operations which 
 have been explained in the former part of this treatise, 
 and the application of a few self-evident principles, namely, 
 that if equal quantities be added to or subtracted from 
 equal quantities, the sums or remainders will be equal; if 
 equal quantities be multiplied or divided by the same 
 quantity, the products or quotients will be equal , and, 
 lastly, if equal quantities be raised to tho same Dower, or 
 have the same root extracted out of each, the Jesuits will 
 still be equal. 
 
 From these considerations are derived ^ho following 
 rules, which apply alike to equations of all orders, and are 
 alone sufficient for the resolution of simple equations. 
 
 55. Jiule 1. Any quantity may be transposed from one 
 side of an equation to the other, by changing its sign. 
 
 Thus, if 3*-10 = 2* + 5, 
 Then s 3x- 2x= 5 + 10, 
 
 Or _ *=15. 
 
 Again, if ax + b = ex - ax + e ,■ 
 
 Then ax - ex + dx = e - b , 
 
 Or (a-c-r d)x = e - b . 
 
 Tho reason of this rule is evident, for tho transposing of 
 a quantity from one side of an equation to the other is 
 nothing more than adding tie same quantity to each side 
 of the equation, if the sign of the quantity transposed wa§ 
 — ; or subtracting it, if the sign was + . 
 
 From this rule wo may infer, that if any quantity be 
 found on each side of the equation with the same sign, it 
 may be left out of both. Also, that the signs of all the 
 terms of an equation may be changed into the contrary, 
 without affecting the truth of the equation. ' 
 
 Tims, if a + x = l + a + c, 
 Then x = b + c; 
 
 And if a — x = b-d, 
 
 Then x - a = d - b . 
 
 56. Ruh 2. If the unknown quantity in an equation be 
 multiplied by any quantity, that quantity may be taken 
 away, by dividing all the other terms of the equatioj 
 by it. 
 
 If 3*- 24. 
 
 Then 
 
 If 
 
 Then 
 
 * 24 -R 
 
 ax =-&-<?*, 
 
 b-c 8 b 
 
 x = = 1 
 
 a. a a
 
 aiSIPi-E EQUATIONS.] 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 539 
 
 Here equal quantities are divided by the same quantity, 
 
 and therefore the quotients are equal 
 
 67. Rule 3. If any term of an equation be a fraction, its 
 denominator may be taken away, by multiplying all the 
 other terms of the equation by that denominator. 
 
 If 
 
 The- 
 
 i= 7 > 
 
 x = 35 . 
 
 If 
 
 -=b-c+d , 
 
 Then 
 If 
 
 x=ab — ac + ad 
 
 b 
 a-- = c 
 
 We have 
 
 ax — b = cx and x = ■ 
 
 In these examples, equal quantities are multiplied by 
 the same quantity, and therefore the products are equaL 
 58. Rule 4. If the unknown quantity is found in any term 
 which is a surd, let that surd be made to stand alone 
 on one side of the equation, and the remaining terms 
 on the opposite side; then involve each side to a power 
 denoted by the index of the surd, and thus the unknown 
 quantity shall be freed from the surd expression. 
 
 If ^ + 6 = 10, _ 
 
 Then, by transposition, ,/r = 10 - 6 = 4; 
 And, squaring both sides, Jx x Jx = 4xi , 
 
 Or 
 
 Also, if 
 By trans. 
 Aid, squaring, 
 
 Hence 
 
 *=16. 
 
 Jar + x 2 - b = x , 
 
 ar + x' i = (b + xf = b' 1 + 1hx + x i 
 
 a?-b 2 
 a 2 = b i + 2bx,x = -y--- 
 
 69. Rule 5. If the side of the equation which contains the 
 unknown quantity be a perfect power, the equation may 
 be reduced to another of a lower order, by extracting 
 the root of that power out of each side of the equation. 
 
 Thus, if x s =6ia 3 , 
 
 Then, by extracting the cube root, x = 4a ; 
 And if (a + xf^ tf-a?, 
 
 Then a + z = Jb--a 2 . 
 
 60. In these examples we have been able to determine 
 the value of the unknown quantity by the rules already 
 delivered, because in every case the first, or at most the 
 second power of that quantity, has been made to stand 
 alone on one side of the equation, while the other con- 
 sisted only of known quantities; but the same methods of 
 reduction serve to bring equations of all degrees to a pro- 
 
 1 — p 4- + T 
 
 per form for solution. Thus, if — - — ; — =1 -p-x + 
 r ' x+l 
 
 - ; by proper reduction, we have X s +px 2 + qx = r, a cubic 
 
 equation which may be resolved by rules to be afterwards 
 explained. 
 
 Sect. VH. — Reduction of Equations involving; more 
 than one Unknown Quantity. 
 
 61. Having shown in the last section in what manner 
 an equation involving one unknown quantity may be 
 resolved, or at least fitted for a final solution, we are next 
 to explain-the methods by which two or more equations, 
 involving as many unknown quantities, may at last be 
 reduced to one equation and one unknown quantity. 
 
 As the unknown quantities, may be combined together 
 in very different ways, so as to constitute an equation, the 
 methods most proper for their elimination must therefore 
 be various.. The three following, however, are of general 
 application, and the last of them may be used with 
 
 advantage, not only when the unknown quantity to be 
 eliminated rises to the same power in all the equations, 
 but also when the equations contain different powers of 
 that quantity. 
 
 62. Method 1. Observe which of the unknown quantities 
 is the least involved, and let its value be found from each 
 equation, by the rules of last section. 
 
 Let the values thus found be put equal to each other, 
 and hence new equations will arise, from which that quan- 
 tity is wholly excluded. Let this operation be now re 
 peated with these equations, thus eliminating the unknown 
 quantities one by one, till at last an equation be found 
 which contains only one unknown quantity. 
 
 Ex. Let it be required to determine x and y from these 
 two equations. 
 
 2s + 3y = 23. 
 
 5:e-2y = 10. 
 
 From the first equation, x ■■ 
 From the second equation, x ■ 
 
 23-3;/ 
 
 2 
 
 10 + 2y 
 
 5 
 
 Let these values of x be now put equal to each other, 
 10 + 2;/ 23-3i/ 
 
 And we have 
 Or 
 
 And 
 And since 
 
 x = 
 
 23 -3y 
 
 5 2 
 
 20 + 4y=115-15y; 
 19^ = 95, 
 y=5: 
 
 10+ 2y 
 
 from either of 
 
 2 ' 5 
 
 these values we find x = 4. 
 
 63. Method 2. Let the value of the unknown quantity 
 which is to be eliminated be found from that equation 
 wherein it is least involved. Let this value and its 
 powers be substituted for that quantity, and its respec- 
 tive powers in the other equations ; and with the new 
 equations thus arising, let the operation be repeated till 
 there remain only one equation and one unknown quantity. 
 
 Ex. Let the given equations, as in last method, be 
 
 2x + 3y = 23, 
 5x-2y=10. 
 
 23 — 3v 
 From the first equation, x = — r — ; 
 
 And this value of x being substituted in the second 
 
 , _ 23-3y „ 
 equation, we have 5 x — ^ ly ■ 
 
 Or 
 
 :10 
 
 115-15y-4y = 20; 
 95 = 19y, 
 And y = 5 
 
 23 -3u , , r 
 
 And hence x = — — - = 4, as before. 
 
 64. Method 3. Let the given equations be multiplied 
 or divided by such numbers or quantities, whether known 
 or unknown, that the term which involves the highest 
 power of the unknown quantity may be the same in each 
 equation. 
 
 Then, by adding or subtracting the equations, as occa- 
 sion may require, that term will vanish, and a new equa- 
 tion emerge, wherein the number of dimensions of the 
 unknown quantity in some cases, and in others the number 
 of unknown quantities will be diminished ; and by a repeti- 
 tion of the same or similar operations, a final equation 
 may be at last obtained, involving only one unknown 
 quantity. 
 
 Ex. Let the same example be taken, as in the illustra- 
 tion of the former methods, namely, 
 2x+3y = 23, 
 6^-2^ = 10.
 
 540 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 ^SIMPLE EQUATIONS. 
 
 To eliminate x, let the first equation be multiplied by 5, 
 and the second by 2 ; thus we have 
 
 10*+15y=115, 
 
 10* - 4y = 20. 
 
 Hare the term involving * is the same in both equations ; 
 and it is obvious, that by subtracting the one from the 
 other, the resulting equation will contain only y, and known 
 numbers; for by such subtraction we find 19y = 95, and 
 therefore y = 5. 
 
 Having got the value of y, it is easy to see how x may 
 be found from either of the given equations ; but it may 
 also be found in the same manner as we found y. For let 
 the first of the given equations be multiplied by 2, and the 
 second by 3, we have 
 
 ix+ 6y = 46 , 
 15«-6y=30. 
 
 By adding these equations, we find 
 
 19* =76, and x = i. 
 
 65. The following examples will serve further to illus- 
 trate these different methods of eliminating the unknown 
 quantities from equations. 
 
 Ex. 1. Given ( °f + h , y = C \ to determine * and y. 
 . \dx+fy=g j < *. 
 
 To eliminate y, let the first equation be multiplied 'by 
 
 /, and the second by b, and we have 
 
 afx + bfy^cj , 
 
 bdx + bfy = bg . - 
 
 Taking now the difference between these equations, 
 
 afx — bdx = cf—bg, 
 Or (af - bd)x = cf - bg , 
 
 And therefore x = , , , . 
 
 af-od 
 
 In the same manner may y be determined, by multiplying 
 the first of the given equations by d, and the second by "a ; 
 for we find 
 
 adx + bdy =■ cd , 
 
 adx + afy = ag . 
 
 And taking the difference as' before, we get 
 
 bdy — afy = cd - ag , 
 cd-ag 
 
 And therefore 
 
 y=; 
 
 bd — qf •• 
 
 66. This example may be considered as a general solu- 
 tion of the following problem Two equations expressing 
 the relation between the first powers of two unknown 
 quantities being given, to determine those quantities ; for 
 whatever be the number of terms in each equation, it will 
 readily appear, as in Art. 55, that by proper reduction 
 they may be brought to the same form as those given in 
 the above example. 
 
 67. Let us next consider such equations as involve 
 three unknown quantities. 
 
 Ex. 2. Given 
 
 - + - + - = 47 
 -+-^ + - = 38 
 
 4 5 T 6 
 
 to find c, ;/, and r. 
 
 tiun be multiplied by 10, the second bv 5, and the third 
 by S, the results will be these : 
 
 120x + 80y + 60z= 14880, 
 
 100r + 75i/ + 60j=14100, 
 
 90x + 72y + 60: =13680. 
 
 Let the second equation be now subtracted from the first , 
 and the third from the second, and we have 
 
 20*-r5y = 780, 
 
 10* + 3y = 420. 
 
 Next, to eliminate y, let the first of these aquations be 
 multiplied by 3, and the second by 5 ; hence, 
 60x+15y = 2340, 
 •50x+15y = 2100. 
 
 Subtracting now the latter equation from the forme 
 
 10x = 240andx = 24, 
 420 -10i 
 
 y t— = 60, 
 
 And 
 
 1448-12£-8i/ 
 6 
 
 120. 
 
 Ex. 3. Given X s - y: = a 2 , y i -xz = 6 2 , z 3 - ry - e 3 , te 
 find x, y, and ». 
 
 By subtraction, we have 
 
 Squaring, adding, and dividing by 2, we get 
 
 (x 2 + y- + z 2 - xy - xz - yz) (x + y + z) 2 =•' 
 a* + b* + c* - atb 2 - aV - 6 2 c? . 
 
 But x i + y i + z 2 ~xy-xz-yz\& the sum of the three given 
 expressions, and . ". equal to a 2 + b 2 + c 2 . 
 
 Hence (a s + b 2 + c 2 ) (x + y + zf = a* + b* + <* 
 
 - a 2 © 2 - aV - b 2 <?, which gives x + y + z. 
 
 Equations (1) and (2) are now two simple equations, 
 which, combined with the value of x + y + z as determined, 
 give x, y, and z. 
 
 Ex. 4. Given Jz-> «/l«(-J + - + ^) 
 
 ■J'y-H H + p 
 
 Here the given equations, when cleared from fractions.* 
 become 
 
 12x + 8y+ 6«-1488, 
 20x + 15y + 12: = 2820, 
 30x + 24y + 20z = 4560. 
 
 To eliminate z by the third method, let the first equa- 
 
 Multiply the first by Jx r the second by Jy, and tke 
 third by Jz, and add two and two. There results 
 
 , — 2c 
 x + y = -Jxyz — 
 
 . — 26 
 x + z = Jxyz — 
 
 y + z = Jxyz — 
 
 i.e. xz + yz = Jxyzlc 
 
 xy + yz — Jxyz 26 
 xy + xz=> Jxyz 2a 
 
 yz= Jxyz(b + c-a) 
 xz= J.xyz (a + c-bj 
 xy = Jxyz(a + b-c) 
 Multiplying any two of these we get one of the unknown 
 quantities : 
 
 x = (a + e - 6) (a + 6 -i c), &c. 
 
 Sect. VilL — Questions peoduclno Simple Equations. 
 68. When the conditions of a problem have been ex-
 
 SIMPLE EQUATIONS.] 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 541 
 
 pressed by equations, or translated . from the common 
 language into that of algebra, we must consider whether 
 the problem be properly limited; for in some cases the 
 conditions may be such as to admit of innumerable solu- 
 tions, and in others they may involve an absurdity, and 
 thus render the problem altogether impossible. 
 
 Now, by considering the examples of last section, it 
 will appear, that to determine any number of unknown 
 quantities, there must be given as many equations as there 
 are unknown quantities. These, however, must be such 
 as cannot be derived from each other, and they must not 
 involve any contradiction ; for in the one case the problem 
 would admit of an unlimited number of answers, and in 
 the other case it would be impossible. For example, if it 
 were required to determine s and y from these two equa- 
 tions, 2s - Zy = 13, 4s - 6y = 26; as the latter equation 
 is a consequence of the former (for each term of the one 
 is the half of the corresponding term of the other), it is 
 evident that innumerable values of x and y might be found 
 to satisfy both equations. Again, if x and y were to be 
 determined from these equations, s+2y = 8, 3s + 6y = 26, 
 it is easy to see that it i3 impossible to find such values of 
 x and y as will satisfy both ; for, from the first, we find 
 3s = 24 - Gy ; and from the second, 3s = 26 - 6y; and 
 therefore 24 - 6y = 26 - Gy, or 24 = 26, which is absurd; 
 and so also must have been the conditions from which this 
 conclusion is drawn. 
 
 69. But there is yet another case in which a problem 
 may be impossible ; and that is, when there are more 
 equations than unknown quantities ; for it appears, that 
 in this case, by the rules of last section, we should at last 
 find two equations, each involving the same unknown 
 quantity. Now, unless these happened to agree, the pro- 
 blem would admit of no solution. On the whole, therefore, 
 it appears that a problem is limited when the conditions 
 furnish just as many independent equations as there are 
 unknown quantities to be determined : if there be fewer, 
 the problem is indeterminate; but if there be more, the 
 problem in general admits of no solution whatever. 
 
 70. We shall now apply the preceding observations to 
 some examples, which are so chosen as to admit of being, 
 resolved by simple equations. 
 
 Ex. 1. What is that number, to which if there be 
 added its half, its third, and its fourth parts, the sum will 
 be 50? 
 
 Let x denote the number sought ; then its half will be 
 
 - , its third - , and its fourth - ; 
 2 3 4 
 
 XXX _. 
 
 * + i + 3 + 4 = 5 °- 
 Hence 24*+ 1 2s + 8s + 6s = 1200, 
 
 Or 50s =1200; 
 
 s = 24. 
 
 Thus it appears that the numoer sought is 24, which 
 upon trial will be found to answer the conditions of the 
 question. 
 
 Ex. 2. A post is \ of its length in the mud, £ in the 
 water, and 10 feet above the water; what is its whole 
 length? 
 
 Let its length be x feet, then the part in the mud is 
 
 -, and that in the water -; therefore, from the nature of 
 the question, 
 
 - + - + 10 = s. 
 4 3 
 
 From this equation we find 7x' + 120 = 12s, and s=24. 
 
 Ex. 3. A market-woman bought a certain number of, 
 eggs at 2 a penny, and as many at 3 a penny, and sold them 
 all oat again at 5 for 2d. ; but, instead of getting her own 
 
 money for them, as sne expected, she lost 4d. : what num- 
 ber of eggs did she buy ? 
 
 Let x be the number of eggs of each sort; 
 
 Then .will - be the price of the first sort; 
 
 And - = the price of the second sort. 
 
 Now, the whole number being 2x, we hav« 
 
 4x 
 5 : 2x : : 2 : — = price of both sorts at 5 fur 2d. • 
 
 Z X 
 
 2 + 3 
 
 4x 
 
 = 4, by the question. 
 
 Hence 15s + 10s- 24s = 120, 
 
 And s= 120, the number of each sort. 
 
 Ex. 4. A person .at play lost J of his money, and then 
 won 3s. ; after which he lost ^ of what he then had, and 
 then won 2s. ; lastly he lost | of what he then had, and, 
 this done, found he had only 12s. left : what had he at first? 
 
 Suppose he began to play with s shillings. 
 
 He lost i of his money, or -, and had left z - - = — . 
 
 He won 3s. and had then — + 3 = . 
 
 4 4 
 
 He lost i of — - — , or — — . and had left 
 
 « 4 4 
 
 3x.+ 12 * s+4 2x + 8 
 4 4 4 
 
 He won 2s. and had then f- 2 = 
 
 4 4 
 
 He lost \ of 
 2x + 16 2x+16 
 
 2x + 16 
 
 4 ' 
 12x+96 
 
 2x + 16 ...,«. 
 
 or , and had left 
 
 4 28 28 
 
 And because he had now 12s. left, we have this equation, 
 12x+96 
 
 28 
 
 = 12. 
 
 Hence 12s = 240, ands = 20. 
 
 Ex. 5. To divide the number 90 into 4 such parts, that 
 if the first be increased by 2, the second diminished by 2, 
 the third multiplied by 2, and the fourth -divided by 2, the 
 sum, difference, product and quotient shall be all equal to 
 each other. 
 
 In this question there are four quantities to be deter- 
 mined; but instead of introducing several letters, having 
 put s to denote the first of them, we may find an expres- 
 sion for each of the remaining ones, as follows 
 
 Because s + 2 = second quantity - 2, 
 
 s + 4 = the second quantity; 
 
 And because s + 2 = third x 2 ; 
 
 x + 2 
 
 —— = the third quantity. 
 
 And in like manner 2(s + 2) = the fourth quantity. 
 Now by the question, the sum of all the four = 90; 
 
 s + s + 4 + ^ + 2(s + 2) = 90 
 
 Hence 9s = 162, and s= 18; 
 
 Therefore the numbers, required are 18, 22, 10, and 40. 
 
 Ex. 6. A and B together can perform a piece of wore 
 in 12 hours, A and C in 20, and B and C in 15 hours; in 
 what time will each be able to oerform it when working 
 separately? 
 
 That we may have a general solution, let us suppose A 
 and B can perform the work in a hours, A and O in b 
 hours, and B and C in c hours. • Let s, y, and t, denote 
 the times in which A, B, and C, could perform it respec- 
 tively, if each worked alone; and let the whole work be 
 represented by 1. The question gives at once —
 
 542 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 [quadratic equations. 
 
 1111 11 
 
 y z v c 
 
 x y a ' x ' z b 
 if these "be added, and their sum divided by 2, we find 
 
 1,11 1 1 1 
 
 _ + _ + _ = _+ + 
 
 x y z 2a M 2c 
 
 From this equation let each of the three preceding be 
 subtracted in its turn : thus we get 
 
 1 111 +ab+ac-bc 
 
 Z= -ZZ + Zi + 7T = 
 
 2a 26 2c 
 
 = 1-1+1= 
 2ct 26 2c 
 
 = 1+1-1= 
 
 2a 26 2c 
 
 2a6c ' 
 + ab - ac + 6e 
 
 2a6c » 
 — ai+ar + ic 
 
 Ilence 
 
 2a6c 
 
 y = 
 
 + a6 + ac — 6c 
 
 2a6c 
 + o6-ac + 6c 
 
 2o6c 
 — a6 + ac + 6c 
 
 2a6c 
 7200 
 
 120 
 
 7200 
 : 3C0 
 
 7200 
 : 240 
 
 = 60, 
 = 20. 
 = 30. 
 
 Sect. IX. — Solution of Quadratic Equations. 
 
 71. We are next to explain the resolution cf equations 
 of the second degree, or quadratic equations. These in- 
 volve the second power of the unknown quantity, and may 
 be divided into two kinds, pure and adjected. 
 
 L Pure quadratic equations are such as after proper 
 reduction have the square of the unknown quantity in 
 one term, while tho remaining terms contain only known 
 quantities. Thus, x 2 = 64, and ax- + b = c, are examples of 
 pure quadratics. 
 
 II. Ad/ectod quadratic equations contain the square of 
 the unknown quantity in one term, aDd its first or simple 
 power in another; tho remaining terms consisting entirely 
 of known quantities. Such are the following, x 2 + 3x 
 «=28, 2x 2 = 33-5ar, ax 2 + bx-c = d. 
 
 The manner of resolving a pure quadratic equation is 
 sufficiently evident. If tho unknown quantity be made to 
 etand alone on one side, with unity as a coefficient, while 
 the other side consists entirely of known quantities, and 
 the square root of each side be taken, we immediately ob- 
 tain the value of tho simple power of the unknown quan- 
 tity as directed by rule 5th of Sect. VL 
 
 In extracting the square root of any quantity, it is 
 necessary to observe, that the sign of the root may be 
 either + or - , and that consequently a quadratic must 
 always have two solutions. 
 
 72. When an adfected quadratic equation is to be re- 
 solved, it may always, by proper reduction, be brought to 
 the following form : 
 
 x 2 + px = q; 
 where p and q are numerical quantities, + or — . 
 
 Let us compare the sido of it which involves the un- 
 known quantity x with the square of a binomial x + a ;. that 
 is, let us compare x 2 +px with x 2 + 2ax + a? = (x + a) 2 , and 
 
 v 
 it will presently appear, that if we suppose p = 2a, or - = a, 
 
 the quantities x 2 +px and x 2 + 2ax will be equal; and as 
 x 2 + 2ax is rendered a complete square, by adding to it a", 
 so also may x- +px be completed into a square by adding 
 
 to it ~ , which is equal to a 2 ; therefore, let ^ be added to 
 
 both sides of the equation x-+px = q, and we have 
 
 * 2 +^+j = f J +?,or(z+|) 2 = ^+ !? ; 
 
 and, extracting the square root of each side,- 
 
 •+ws 
 
 + q\ heuce ar= — ?* 
 
 V 4 
 
 + 2. 
 
 73. From these observations we derive the following 
 general rides for resolving adfected quadratic equations. 
 
 1. Bring all tho terms involving the unknown quantity 
 to one side, and the known quantities to the other side, 
 and so that the term involving the square of the unknowu 
 quantity may be positive. 
 
 2. If the square of the unknown quantity be midtiplied 
 by a coefficient, let the other terms be divided by-it, so 
 that the coefficient of the square of the unknown quantity 
 may be 1. 
 
 3. Add to both sides the square of half the coefficient 
 of the unknown quantity itself, and tho side of the equa- 
 tion involving the unknown quantity will now be a com- 
 plete square. 
 
 4. Extract the square root of both sides of tho equation, 
 by which it becomes simple with respect to the unknown 
 quantity; and, by transposition, that quantity may be made 
 to stand alone on one side of the equation, while the other 
 sido consists of known quantities; and therefore the equa- 
 tion is resolved. 
 
 Ex. 1. Given x 2 + 2x= 35, to determine x . 
 Here the coefficient of the second term is 2; therefore, 
 adding the square of its half to each side, we have 
 
 x : + 2x+l = 35 + l = 36, 
 
 And, extracting the square root, x + 1 = >j2i6 = ± 6 . 
 
 Hence x = ±6-1, that is, x= - 1 5, or*= -7, and either 
 of these numbers will be found to satisfy the equation, for 
 5x5 + 2x5 = 35, also -7x -7 + 2x-7 = 35. 
 
 Ex. 2. Given ~ - 12 = *, to find a:. 
 
 This equation, when reduced, becomes x 2 - Gx = 72 , 
 And, by completing the square, x 2 -6x + 9 = 72 + 9 = 81 . 
 Hence, by extracting the square root, x - 3 = ±9, and 
 x= ±9 + 3; 
 
 Therefore x = + 1 2, or x = - 6 ; and upon trial we find that 
 each of these values satisfies the original equation, for 
 
 12x12 .. 1t> , -6x-6 10 c 
 
 — 12 = 12, also — 12= -6. 
 
 D O 
 
 Ex. 3. Given x 2 + 28 = 1 \x, to find ' x. 
 Then. * 2 -lLr= -28. 
 
 And, by completing the square, 
 
 4 4 
 
 11 3 
 
 Therefore, by extracting the root, x - — = ± - • 
 
 Hence x = — ± - ; that is, x = + 7, or x = + 4 , 
 
 In the first two examples, we found one positive value 
 for x in each, and also one negative value; but in this 
 example both tho values of x are positive, and, upon 
 trial, each of them is found to satisfy the equation; for 
 7x7 + 28 = 11x7, also 4x4 + 28 = 11x4. 
 
 74. As at first sight it appears remarkable, that in 
 every quadratic equation the unknown quantity admits 
 always of two distinct values or roots, it will be proper to 
 consider a little further the circumstances upon which this 
 peculiarity depends. 
 
 To do this, let u3 re-examine the equation x 2 + 2x = 35 . 
 By bringing all the terms to one side, the equation may 
 be expressed thus, x 2 + 2x — 35 = ; so that we shall have » 
 determined x, when we have found such a number as, when 
 substituted for it in the quantity x 2 + 2x - 35, will render 
 the result equal to 0. But x 2 + 2x - 35 is the product of 
 these two factors x - 5 and x + 7, as may be proved by 
 actual multiplication; therefore, to find x, we have (x-5) 
 (i + 7) = 0; and as a product can only become =0 when 
 one of its factors is reduced to 0, it follows that either of 
 the 'two factors x - 5 and x + 7 may be assumed =0. If
 
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS. J 
 
 x-5 = 0, then x = 5 ; but if x + 7 = 0, then x — - 7 ; so 
 that the two values of x, or two roots of the equation 
 z 2 + 2r=35, are +5 and -7, as vre hare already found 
 in a different manner. 
 
 75. What has been shown in a particular case is true of 
 any quadratic equation whatever; that is, if x-+px = q, or, 
 by bringing all the terms to one side, x- +pix - q = 0, it 
 is always possible to find two factors x - a, and x + b, 
 such, that 
 
 a: 2 +px -q=(x-a) (x + o), 
 
 T.here a and b are known quantities, which depend only 
 upon p and q, the given numbers in the equation; and 
 since that to have (x — a) (x + b) = 0, we may either assume 
 x — a = Q or x + b = 0, it evidently follows that the condi- 
 tions of the equation x 2 +px -q = 0,OTx 2 +]>x =q, are alik»s 
 satisfied by taking x=+aoTx=-b. 
 
 From these considerations it follows, that x can have 
 only two values in a quadratic equation ; for if it could be 
 supposed to have three or more values, then it would 
 be possible to resolve x 2 +px-q into as many factors, 
 x — c,x-d, &c. ; but the product of more than two factors 
 must necessarily contain the third or higher powers of x, 
 and as x- +px - q contains no higher power than the second, 
 therefore no such resolution can take place. 
 
 7G. Solution of Questions winch produce Quadratic 
 Equations. 
 
 Ex. 1. It is required to divide the number 10 into two 
 such parts that the sum of their squares may be 58. 
 
 Let x be the one part; 
 
 Then, since their sum is 10, the other is 10 -x; 
 
 . : by the question, z 2 + ( 1 - #) 2 = 5 8 ; 
 
 That is, ar 2 + 100-20x + x 2 = 5S\ 
 
 Or 2x 2 -20j; = 58-10a"= -42: 
 
 Hence a; 2 -10x= -21 . 
 
 And completing the square, x 1 - 10x + 25 = 25 - 21 = 4 ; 
 Hence, by extracting the root, a;-5=± v /4=±2 
 
 And a; = 5±2, 
 
 That is, x — 7, or x = 3 . 
 
 Tf we take the greater value of x, viz. 7, the other 
 number 10 - x will be 3 ; and if we take the less value of 
 x, viz. 3, then the other number is 7. Thus it appears, 
 that the greater value of the one number corresponds to 
 the less value of the other ; and indeed this must neces- 
 sarily be the case, seeing that both are alike concerned in 
 the question. Hence, the only numbers that will answer 
 the conditions of the question are 7 and 3. 
 
 Ex. 2. A grazier bought as many sheep as cost him 
 £60, out cf which he reserved 15, and sold the remainder 
 for £54, gaining 2s. each upon them. How many sheep 
 did he buy, and what did each cost him 1 
 
 Suppose that he bought x sheep. 
 
 Then each would cost him — — r shillings. 
 x- ° 
 
 Therefore, since after reserving 15, he sold each of the 
 
 remaining x - 15 for 1- 2 shillings, he would receive 
 
 x 
 
 for them (x - 1 5) ( h 2 ) shillings. And, because £54 
 
 m 1080 shillings, we have by the question. 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 543 
 
 («■ 
 
 ■»>0?t»> 
 
 10SO; 
 
 which, by proper reduction, becomes x- + 45 x =9000; 
 
 195 45 
 whence x = ± — — — . And, taking the positive root, 
 
 1 = 75, the number of sheep; and consequently -rr- = 16 
 
 shillings, the price of each. 
 
 To 
 
 Ex. 3. It is required to find two numbers, of which the 
 product shall be 6, and the sum of their cubes 35. 
 
 c 
 
 Let x be the one number; then - will be the other. 
 
 x 
 
 216 
 Therefore, by the question, x* + — = 35 ; 
 
 Hence x n + 216 = 35*3 , 
 
 Or a-«-35x 3 = -210. 
 
 This equation, by putting a~ = y, becomes 
 y 2 -35y=.-216; 
 
 Hence we find y = 27, ory = 8. 
 
 And since x s = y, .: x=3, orx-2, 
 
 H x = 3, then the other number is 2, and if x = 2, the 
 other number ; s 3; so that 2 and 3 are the numbers re- 
 quired. 
 
 In general, if it be required to find two numbers which 
 are exactly alike concerned in a question that produces a 
 quadratic equation, they will be the roots of that equation. 
 A similar observation applies to any number of quantities 
 which require for their determination the resolution of an 
 equation of any degree whatever. 
 
 1 7. On some Anomalies in the Solution of a Problem which 
 results in an Equation. 
 
 From what has preceded, it will be evident that a root of 
 an equation may be a very different thing from the solution 
 of the problem on which the equation is based. It will be 
 proper to give a few illustrations of this difference before 
 passing on to consider equations in general. 
 
 (1.) A solution may be inapplicable to the problem as a 
 problem of arithmetic, applying only to the algebraic pro- 
 blem. 
 
 Ex. Find a number such that if it be first increased by 
 10, and then diminished by 10, the difference of the squaro 
 roots of the results shall be equal to 1 0. 
 
 Let x be the number; then the problem requires that 
 
 Vtf+10- -s/z-10 = 10. 
 
 Transposing and squaring, we get 
 
 x+ 10 = 100 + 20 .y^lO + x - 10 . 
 
 Transposing and squaring again, there results x - 10 = 
 16, a; = 26. 
 
 Now, it is obvious that 26 does not satisfy the condi- 
 tions of the problem, but that it is the solution of another 
 problem, viz., that which substitutes "sum" for "differ- 
 ence" in the enunciation. Generally we may remark that 
 an algebraic statement is not definite like an arithmetical 
 one. The algebraic square root of a quantity being + or 
 — , algebra cannot, as arithmetic does, distinguish between 
 the two. The equation nfx + Til- Vx- lu = 10 is alge- 
 braically the same as Jx + 10 + -Jx - 10 = 10, <tc 
 
 (2.) A solution may be inverted, or rather may invert 
 the statement. 
 
 Ex. Divide 15 into two such part3 that the greater shall 
 exceed three times the less by as much as half the less 
 exceeds 3. 
 
 Let x be the greater, and .\ 15 - x the less. The state- 
 ment produces the equation, 
 
 «-3 (15 -«)=>} (15-«)-3, 
 
 which gives at once x = 11, so that 11 is the greater, 4 the 
 less part. But, on trying the solution, we find it is not 
 that of the problem given, but of another problem, in which 
 " exceeds" is replaced by " falls short of." Algebra cannot, 
 in every case, as arithmetic does, distinguish/the order of 
 subtraction in stating a difference. 
 
 Ex. 2. Find a number such that the square root of the 
 difference between its fourth power and its square being
 
 544 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 [equations in general. 
 
 found and increased by 1, the square root of the sum shall 
 be equal to the given number diminished by 1. 
 Let x be the number, then 
 
 J(\ + s/^?) = z-l, 
 
 Jx* -x"- = x 2 - 2x, whence x = 0, x = - , 
 
 neither of which solves the problem (is stated. 
 
 (3.) A solution may bo illusory — that is, it may assume 
 
 the form -. 
 
 Ex. 1. There are two pieces of cloth of a and a' yards 
 respectively. The owner sells the same number of yards 
 of each at 6 and 6' shillings per yard respectively, he then 
 sells the remainder at c and c' shillings a yard, and finds that 
 the prices received for both pieces are the same. Required 
 the number of yards first sold. 
 
 „ , . ac — a'c' 
 
 Tho number is -r, — r- , . 
 
 b -b + c-c' 
 
 As a particular case, if a and a' are 60 and 80; 6 and b' 
 10 shillings and 9 shillings ; and c and c' 4 shillings and 3 
 
 shillings, the answer assumes the form - . 
 
 The answer is in this case indeterminate ; in other words, 
 the conditions of tho problem are satisfied independently 
 of the number of yards first sold ; any number will do. 
 
 It is not, however, a necessary interpretation of tho form 
 
 -, that it may be replaced by any number whatever. Most 
 
 frequentlythis form results from tho fact that some frac- 
 tion is not in its lowest terms. Solutions of this kind fre- 
 quently occur — in ordinary equations they maybe avoided; 
 and we offer an example simply to show the method appli- 
 cable to cases in which they cannot be avoided. 
 
 Ex. 2. Find two numbers such that the sum of their 
 products by a and 6 respectively is c, and tho difference of 
 their squares d. 
 
 We have ax + by = c 
 
 x 2 -y 2 = d 
 
 x>-(^ff = d 
 
 (a 2 - 6 2 ) x 3 - 2acx = - (c 2 + b* d) 
 
 r _ ae ± Jo?c 2 - (a 2 - fr 2 ) (c a + b 2 j) 
 
 To find the solution when a = b, we observe that (taking 
 the negative sign of the square root) x = - . 
 
 This arises from the fact that some power or root of a - b 
 is common to the numerator and denominator of the frac- 
 tion. 
 
 To divide this out, we may put a 2 - b 2 =pa 2 , and we 
 shall get 
 
 l - acV 1 - 
 
 c 2 +bU 
 
 pa' 
 1 
 
 V 
 
 P + V-d 
 
 pa? 
 1 t 2 +bU I c'+aH 
 '2 
 
 ac 2 ac 
 when a is written for 6, and for p. 
 
 (4.) A solution may be introduced by the operation. 
 
 In the example last given, the positive sign presents us 
 with a solution introduced by the operation, which, when 
 o •» b, is not a solution of the problem at alL 
 
 For in that case the two equations become * + y=-> 
 
 t* - y* = d; the latter of which is at once reduced to the 
 
 simple equation x - y = — by means ol tno formor. Accord- 
 ingly, both equations are in this case simple equations, and 
 can admit of only one solution. 
 
 (5.) As a solution may bo introduced by tho operation, 
 so may it be dropped out, even when the operation is a 
 perfectly legitimate one. 
 
 Ex. J(2x + 1 ) - J(x + 4) = J(ix + 4) - vT3x + 7) . 
 Taking reciprocals, we have 
 
 1 1 
 
 V(-2.s+ 1) - V(i + 4) ~ V(4* + 4)- V(3.t + 7) 
 
 V (2x-H)+V( J :+4) _ V(4x + 4)-t-V(33;+7) 
 
 •ac-3 i-3 
 
 or V( 2 *+l)+ V(* + 4)= J(4x + 4)+ „/(3* + 7), 
 
 which either added to the original equation, or subtracted 
 
 from it, produces x = - - . 
 ji 
 
 But x = 3 is a solution of the equation which has been 
 dropped out by the omission of the common denominator 
 x- 3. 
 
 It is not necessary to point out that a solution may 
 appear under the form «,/ -a or oo . 
 
 In neither case can the problem be solved arithmetically. 
 
 Sect. X. — Equations in general. 
 
 78. Before we proceed to the resolution of cubic and tho 
 higher orders of equations, it will bo proper to explain some 
 general properties which belong to equations of every degree, 
 and also certain transformations which must frequently bo 
 performed upon equations in order to prepare them for 
 solution. 
 
 In treating of equations in general, wo shall supposo all 
 the terms brought to one side, and put equal to 0; so that 
 an equation of the fourth degree will stand thus: 
 
 x* +PX 3 + qx- + rx + s = , 
 
 .where x denotes an unknown quantity, and p, q, r, n, num- 
 bers or fractions, either positive or negative. Hero tho 
 coefficient of the highest power of x is unity, but had it 
 been any other quantity, that quantity might have been 
 taken away, and the equation reduced to the above form by 
 rules already explained (Sect. VI). 
 
 The terms being thus arranged, if such a quantity be 
 found as, when substituted for x, will render both sides = 0, 
 and therefore satisfy the' equation, that quantity, whether 
 it be positive or negative, or even imaginary, is defined to 
 be a root of the equation. But we have seen that every 
 quadratic equation has always two roots, real or imaginary; 
 we may therefore assume that a similar diversity will take 
 place in all equations of a higher degree; and this assump- 
 tion appears to be well founded, by the following proposi- 
 tion, which is of great importance in the theory of equa- 
 tions. • 
 
 If a root of any equation, as x*+px 3 + qx i + rx + s = 0, 
 be represented by a, the first side of that equation is divi- 
 sible by x -a; 
 
 For since x* + px 3 + gx 2 + rx + s - 0, 
 
 And also a 4 +pa 3 + qa? + ra + s = 0; 
 
 Therefore, by subtraction, 
 
 x*-a*+p (x 3 - a 3 ) + q (x 2 -a 2 ) + r(x - a) = . 
 But any quantity of this form x" - a", where » denotes a 
 whole positive number, is divisible by x - a (Ait. 20, 
 Ex. \). 
 
 ilence, since every term contains a factor of this form, 
 the equation may be written under the form 
 (x -a) (x 3 + p'x 2 + q'x + r) =■ . 
 i.e., the expression x* +px* + q.> 2 + rx + s is divisible by
 
 EQUATIONS IN GENEHAL.J 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 545 
 
 x-a; and since tlie same mock of reasoning will apply to 
 any equation whatever, the truth of the proposition is 
 evident. 
 
 We have found that (x - a) (x 3 +p'x 2 + qx + r r ) = 0; and 
 as a product becomes = when any one of its factors = 0, 
 therefore the equation will have its conditions fulfilled, not 
 only when x - a = 0, but also when x 3 +p'x 2 + q'x + r' = 0. 
 
 Let us now suppose that b is a root of this equation; 
 then, by reasoning exactly as before, 
 
 x 3 +p'x 2 + q'x + r = (x - b) (x ! + f"-x + 7") . 
 By proceeding in the same manner with the quadratic 
 equation x 2 +p"x + q" = 0, we shall find that if c denote one 
 of its roots, then 
 
 x 2 +p" x + q" = (x - c) (x + c +p") . 
 
 So that if we put d — - (c + p"), we at last find x 4 +px* + 
 qx 2 + rx + s = (x- a) (x- b) (x -c) (x-d); a, b, c, d, being 
 the roots of the equation, x* +px? + qx 2 + rx + s = . 
 
 The mode of reasoning which has been just now employed 
 in a particular case, may be applied to an equation of any 
 order whatever; we may therefore conclude, that every 
 equation may be considered as the product of as many 
 simple factors as the number denoting its order contains 
 unity, and therefore, that the number of roots in any equa- 
 tion is precisely equal to the exponent of the highest power 
 of the unknown quantity contained in that equation. 
 
 79. By considering equations of all degrees as formed 
 from the products of factors x - a, x - b, x-c, &c, we dis- 
 cover certain relations subsisting between the roots of any 
 equation and its coefficients. Thus, if we limit the num- 
 ber of factors to four, and suppose that a, b, c, d, are the 
 roots of this equation of the fourth degree, 
 x* +px 3 + qx 2 + rx + s = , 
 we shall also have (x - a) (x - b) (x-c) (x~d) = 0; and 
 therefore, by actual multiplication. 
 + ab 
 
 — abc 1 
 
 — abd I 
 -acd f 
 -bed J 
 
 ■ x + abed = . 
 
 If we compare together the coefficients of the same 
 powers of x, we find the following series of equations : 
 a + b+c + d= —p , 
 ab + ae + ad -J- be + bd + cd = + q , 
 abc + abd + acd + bed = - r , 
 abcd= +$; 
 and as similar results will be obtained for equations of all 
 degrees, we hence derive the following propositions, which 
 are of great importance in the theory of equations. 
 
 1. The coefficient of the second term of any equation, 
 taken with a contrary sign, is equal to the sum of all the 
 roots. 
 
 2. The coefficient of the third term is equal to the sum 
 of the products of the roots multiplied together two and 
 two. 
 
 3. The coefficient of the fourth term, taken with a con- 
 trary sign, is equal to the sum of the roots multiplied toge- 
 ther three and three; and so on for the remaining coeffi- 
 cients, till we come to the last term of the equation, which 
 is equal to the product of all the roots having their signs 
 changed. 
 
 Instead of supposing an equation to be produced by mul- 
 tiplying together simple equations, we may consider it as 
 formed by the product of equations of any degree, provided 
 that the sum of their dimensions be equal to that of the 
 proposed equation. Thus, an equation of the fourth degree 
 may be formed cither from a simple and cubic equation, or 
 from two quadratic equations 
 
 80. When the roots of an equation are all positive, itt 
 simple factors will have this form, x-a, x-b, x-c, tic, 
 and if, for the sake of brevity, we take only these three, 
 the cubic equation whioh results from their product will 
 ^ave this form, 
 
 x 3 - px 2 + qx - r = , 
 where p = a + 6 + c, q = ab + ac + bc, r = abc; 
 
 and here it appears that the signs of the terms are + and 
 - alternately. 
 
 Hence we infer, that when the roots of an equation are 
 all positive, the signs of its terms are positive and negative 
 alternate)/. 
 
 If again the roots of the equation be all negative, and 
 therefore its factors x + a, x + b, x + c, then p, q, and r 
 being as before, the resulting equation will stand thus: 
 
 x 3 +px 2 + qx + r = . 
 And hence we conclude, that when the roots are all nega- 
 tive, there is no change whatever in the signs. 
 
 In general, if the roots of an equation be all real, that 
 equation will have as many positive roots as there are 
 changes of the signs from + to - , or from - to + ; and 
 the remaining roots are negative. This rule, however, does 
 not apply when the equation has impossible roots, unless 
 such roots be considered as either positive or negative. 
 
 The connection between the signs of the roots and the 
 signs of the terms of an equation can be deduced from the 
 proposition, that the introduction of a new positive root 
 introduces a new change of signs amongst the terms of the 
 equation. 
 
 The demonstration of this proposition depends on the Kule a 
 fact already established, that an equation may be resolved s 'g°* 
 into the product of simple factqrs, so that, for example, 
 every equation of the fifth degree may be derived from 
 some equation of the fourth, by multiplying the latter by 
 x-a where a is the additional root. We shall show that 
 the introduction of a new positive root produces an equa- 
 tion with at least one more change of signs than the origi- 
 nal, and the introduction of a new negative root produces 
 an equation with at least one more continuation of the 
 same sign. To save space, it will suffice if we write the 
 signs without the letters ; thus, x 2 +px - q may be written 
 + -I — . Let, then, any equation be written down (of the 
 
 sixth degree, for instance), + -\ + — + ; multiply by 
 
 x-a, and write the multiplication in the usual form, 
 
 The signs of the product are all determinate except two, 
 which we have marked with a (1). Now the changes of 
 sign in the original equation are three — one between tne 
 1st and 3d terms, one between the 3d and 5 th, and one 
 between the 5th and 6th; and it is evident that whatever 
 be the signs marked (1), the produced equation has as 
 many changes of sign as the original between the same 
 limits, and one change beyond those limits, viz., between 
 the 7th and 8th terms. This proposition is perfectly 
 general, that the introduction of a positive root causes the 
 introduction of at least all the original changes of sign 
 within their limits, and one more change beyond those 
 limits. In the same manner we may prove that the intro- 
 duction of a negative root introduces at least one more 
 continuation of the same sign. Hence the conclusion, 
 that an equation cannot have more positive roots than it hoc 
 clmnges of sign, nor more negative roots than it has cor* 
 tinuations of the same sign. This proposition is known at 
 Descartes' Rule of Signs. 
 
 81. Surd and impossible roots enter equations by pairi 
 Let a + *Jb be a root, where 6 is ft positive or negative 
 number or fraction ; then a - ,Jh is also a root 
 
 1-19
 
 54G 
 
 A L G E B li A 
 
 (.EQUATIONS IN QZHKOAXm 
 
 If a + fl bo written fur x iu tin; quantity x" f j)** -1 + 
 <tc, the result is composed of a series of powera of a aud 
 V*- Of these all but tho odd powers of Jb are numerical, 
 whilst odd powers of Jb may be written as num 
 products of Jb itself. Tho result of the substitution is 
 therefore of the form A + B Jb. But sinco a + Jb is 
 a root of the equation x"+px"~' + <fcc. = 0. we must have 
 A + B^ = 0, aud.-. A = 0, B = 0. 
 
 Now if a - </b be substituted for x, tho result will bo 
 A.-BJb, because even powers of - Jb are the samo as 
 those of + Jb. But A = 0, B = 0.-. A- B Jb = Q; con- 
 sequently a - Jbisa root of the equation. 
 
 From this proposition it appears that every equation 
 whose degree is denoted by an odd number, must have at 
 least one real root. 
 
 •82. We shall now explain some transformations which 
 are frequently necessary to prepare the higher orders of 
 equations for solution. 
 
 Any equation may have its positive roots changed into 
 negative roots of the same value, and its negative roots into 
 such as aro positive, by changing the signs of the terms 
 alternately, beginning with the second, the truth of this 
 remark will be evident if we take the equation 
 
 (x - a) (x - b) (x + c) = X s +px 2 + qx + r = , 
 
 and write - x in place of x, producing 
 
 -(x + a).-(x + b).(-x + c) = -x 3 +px 2 -qx + r = 0, 
 ie., (x + a) (x + b) (x- c) = x 3 -px 2 + qx - r = , 
 where it appears that the signs of the first and third terms 
 are the same as in the original equation, but the signs of 
 the second and fourth are the opposite. And this will be 
 found to hold true of all equations, to whatever order they 
 belong. 
 
 83. It will sometimes be useful to transform an equa- 
 tion into another that shall have each of its roots greater 
 or less than the corresponding roots of the other equation, 
 by some given quantity. 
 
 Let (x - a) (x - b) (x +_i) ■ be any proposed equation 
 which is to bo transformed into another, having its roots 
 greater or less than those of the proposed equation by the 
 (liven quantity n; then, because the roots of the trans- 
 formed equation are to be + a ± n, + 6 ± n, and - c ± n, 
 the equation itself will be 
 
 (y t n - a) (y T n - b) (y t n + c) = . 
 Hence the reason of the following rule is evident. 
 
 If the new equation is to have its roots greater than 
 those of the proposed equation, for x and its powers substi- 
 tute y - n and its powers; but if the roots are to be less, 
 then, for x substitute y + n ; and, in either case, a new equa- 
 tion will be produced, the roots of which shall have the 
 property required. 
 
 84. By the preceding rule, an equation may be changed 
 into another, which has its- roots either all positive or all 
 negative; but it is chiefly used in preparing cubic and bi- 
 quadratic equations tor solution, by transforming them 
 into others of the same degree, but which want their 
 second term. 
 
 Let x 3 + px 2 + qx +■ r — be any cubic equation; if we 
 substitute y-f ?t for x, the equation is changed into the 
 following :' 
 
 f + 3n\ „+ 3n 2 \ + n 3 "J 
 + p I y + 2»» \ y +pn 2 \ 
 
 p\ " + 2/>»S y +pn--y =Q 
 
 + r ■ ) 
 Now, that this equation may want its second term, it is 
 evident that we have only to suppose Zn +p = 0, or n = 
 
 -^; for this assumption being made, and the value of n 
 
 ■mbstituted in the remaining terms, the equation becomes 
 
 7>' 2p 3 pa 
 
 or, putting --^ + q = q', and+ -;r - — + r = r', the same 
 
 equation may stand thus, 
 
 y 3 + q'y + r = . 
 
 85. In general, any equation whatever may bo trans- 
 formed into another, which shall want its second term, by 
 the following rule. 
 
 Divido the coefficient of the second term of the pro- 
 posed equation by the exponent of the first term, and add 
 the quotient, with its sign changed, to a new unknown 
 quantity; the sum being substituted for the unknown 
 quantity in the proposed equation, a new equation will be 
 produced, which will want the second term, as required. 
 
 By this rule any adfected quadratic equation may be 
 readily resolved; for by transforming it into another equa- 
 tion which wants the second term, we thus reduce its solu- 
 tion to that of a pure quadratic. Thus, if the quadratic 
 equation x 2 - 5x + 6 = be proposed; by substituting y + J 
 for x, we find 
 
 -5y-¥> =0,ory*-i = 0. 
 + 6j 
 
 Hence y = ± f , and since * = y + |, therefore x = ± ' + J = 
 + 3, or + 2 . 
 
 86. Instead of taking away the second term from an 
 equation, any other term may be made to vanish, by an 
 assumption similar to that which has been employed to 
 take away the second term. Tims, if in Art. 84 we assume 
 3n 2 + 2pn + q = 0, by resolving this quadratic equation, a 
 value of ri will be found which, when substituted in tho 
 equation, will cause the third term to vanish; and, by the 
 resolution of a cubic equation, the fourth term may be 
 taken away; and so on. 
 
 87. Another species of transformation, of use in tho 
 resolution of equations, is that by which an equation, hav- 
 ing the coefficients of some of its terms expressed by frac- 
 tional quantities, is changed into another, the coefficients 
 of which are all integers. 
 
 Let x 3 + -x 2 + \x + -= denote an equation to be so 
 a b o 
 
 transformed, and let us assume y=>abcx, and therefore 
 
 x = -4- ; then, by substitution, our equation becomes 
 abc 
 
 V 3 V o Q r 
 
 - 2 + -~y + --- 
 
 ■0j 
 
 and multiplying the whole equation by aWc 3 , we have 
 y 3 + bepy 2 + a 2 bc 2 qy + a 3 b 3 c 2 r = . 
 Thus we have an equation free from fractions, while at 
 the same time the coefficient of the highest power of the 
 unknown quantity is unity, as before. 
 
 Examples of the Transformation and Solution of Equations 
 when certain relations artujngst the roots are hwivn. 
 
 Ex. 1. IS a,b,c aro the roots of the equation x 3 - x 2 + 
 1x - 3 = 0, to form tho equation of which the roots are 
 
 (1.) a + b,b + c,c + a. 
 
 Let y be any one root of the required equation; put 
 y = a+b + c-x=l-x (Art. 79), and the values of y will 
 be the roots of the equation required, which is therefore 
 
 (l_y)3_(l_y)2 +2 (l-y)_3 = 0, 
 
 or y 3 -2y 2 + 3y+l = 0. 
 
 abc 
 
 (2.) 
 
 b+c-a' a+c-b' a+b-e'
 
 CUBIC EQUATIONS.] 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 547 
 
 Let 
 
 a + b+c-2x l-2x' 
 . 29 ,16 3 - 
 
 ^ + n y + l7^ + r7 =0 
 
 y{y + 2f = {y + 3f, 
 
 is the equation required. 
 
 (3.) a 2 , 6 2 , <?. 
 
 If y = x 2 , the values of y are a 2 , ft 2 , e*. Accordingly we 
 require to throw the given equation into a form which 
 involves no odd powers of x. This is done a3 follows: 
 z i -x*+2x-3 = x(x 2 + 2)-(a*+3) = 0; 
 x(x 2 + 2) = « 2 + 3 
 squaring, 
 or- 
 or y 3 + 3y 2 -2y'-9=0. 
 
 (4) - - - 
 
 1 ' ^bc' ac' of 
 
 Let y = £=l' and ^ + y 2 -iy-i-° 
 
 is the equation required. 
 
 Ex. 2. Two roots of the equation 
 
 * 4 -16z 3 + 86z 2 -176z + 105 = 
 are 1 and 5. Find the other roots. 
 
 The quantity on the left hand side of the equation is 
 (Art. 78) divisible by (x - l)(x - 5), or by x 2 - Gx + 5. 
 
 The quotient is ^-lO-s + 21, which, being put =0, 
 gives 3 and 7, the roots required. 
 
 Ex. 3. Tho equation x 3 -ix 2 + x + r = has one root, 
 3; find r and the other roots. 
 
 Write 3 for x, then r — G, and the equation may be 
 written 
 
 (x-3)(x 2 -x-2) = 0, 
 which gives ' x = 2 , * = - 1 . 
 
 Ex. 4. The equation x 3 + a; 2 -l6a;-16 = ha3 two roots 
 of the form + a , -a; find them. 
 
 If we write - x for x, we get the equation 
 x 3 -x 2 -\Gx + \G = 0, 
 which has also two roots, - a, + a, . \ x 2 - a 2 is a common 
 measure of the two quantities. But x 2 - 1 6 is easily found 
 to be a common measure of the two quantities, . . a = 4 . 
 
 Ex. 5. The roots of the equation 
 
 X s - 6x2 + 11* -6 = 
 are in arithmetical progression; find them. 
 
 If a, a + b, a + 2b be the roots, their sum is 3(a + 6), 
 i. e., three times the middle root But (Art. 79) their sum 
 is 6, V. a + b = 2, 
 
 also a(a + b) (a + 26) = 6 , 
 
 £«., a(4-a) = 3, a 2 -4a + 3 = 0, 
 
 « = l,a = 3. 
 
 Ex. 6. The three roots of the equation a 8 -7*'+ 16a 
 — 8 = are in geometrical progression ; find them. 
 
 Let a, ar, a* 2 be the roots; then their product is (ar) 3 , 
 .'. (ar) 3 = 8, and ar = 2, .: their sum a + ar + ar £ = 7, 
 which gives a=l,r=2, 
 
 and 1 2, 4 are the roots. 
 
 Seot.' XL — Solution of Cubic Equations. 
 
 88. Cubic equations, like all equations above the first 
 degree, are divided into two classes: they are said to be 
 pure when they contain only one power of the unknown 
 quantity; and adfected when they contain two or more 
 powers of that quantity. 
 
 Pure cubic equations are therefore of this form, x 3 = 125, 
 or X s = - 27, or, in general, x i = r; and hence it appears 
 .hat a value of the simple power of the unknown quantity 
 may always be found without difficulty, by extracting tho 
 cube root of each side of the equation ; thus, from the first 
 of the three preceding examples we find x ■— + 5, from the 
 second x = - 3, and from the third, x = \/r. 
 
 It would seem at first sight that the only value which 
 x can have in the cubic equation X s . = r, or putting r = e 3 , 
 a 3 - c 3 = 0, is this one, x = c; but since x 3 - c 3 may be re- 
 solved into these two factors, x-c and xP + ex + c 2 , it fol- 
 lows, that besides the value of x already found, which 
 results from making the factor x - e— 0, it has yet other 
 two values, which may be found by making the other fac- 
 tor x 2 + cx + c 2 = 0; and accordingly, by resolving the qua- 
 dratic equa tion x 2 + cz~ -c 2 , we find these values to be 
 
 -c+V-3c 3 
 
 and 
 
 -c-d-Zc* 
 
 -l + v^-3 ,-1-V- 
 
 or c and - — 
 
 Thus it appears, 
 x 3 = e 3 , or x 3 - c 3 ■ 
 
 2 '•" 2 
 that any cubic equation of this form, 
 » 0, has these three roots, 
 
 -\ + i/- 
 
 -3 -l-VT-j 
 -c,x = e; 
 
 the first of which is real, but the two last are imaginary. 
 If, however, each of the imaginary values of x be raised 
 to the third power, the same results will be obtained as 
 from the real Value of x,; the original equation z? - e 3 = 
 may also be reproduced, by multiplying together the three 
 
 factors x-c, x c, and x - —~ — — e . 
 
 89. Let U3 now consider such cubic eguations as have 
 all their terms, and which are therefore of tnte form, 
 
 x 3 + Ax 2 + Bx + G = 0, 
 where A, B, and C denote known quantities; either poai 
 tive or negative. 
 
 It has been shown (Art. 84) how an equation having 
 all its terms may be transformed into another which wants 
 
 the second term therefore, assume x = y - — , as directed 
 
 3 
 
 in that article; then, by proper substitution, the abore 
 equation will be changed into another of this form, 
 
 y 3 + q y + r = , 
 
 where q and r denote known quantities, whether positive 
 or negative ; now the roots of this equation being found, 
 it is evident that those of the former may be readily 
 
 A 
 
 obtained by means of the assumed equation «=y- — . 
 
 3 
 
 Resuming, therefore, the equation y 3 + qy + r = 0, let us 
 
 suppose y = v + z, and it becomes 
 
 i? + 3v 2 z + 3vz 2 + z 3 
 
 + qv + qz )■ = 0. 
 
 ! + 2M 
 
 > + qz>=( 
 + r ) 
 
 Thus we have a new equation, which, as it involves 
 two unknown quantities, o und t, may be resolved into any 
 two others, which will simplify the determination of those 
 quantities. 
 
 Now, it appears, that the only way in which we can 
 divide that equation into two othere, so as to simplify tho 
 question, is the following : 
 
 3v*z + 3vz 2 + qv + qz = 0, 
 ^ + jS + r=0. 
 
 The first of these may also be expressed thus, 
 
 (3vz + q)(v + z) = 0. 
 Hence, we must either suppose that v + z = 0, or that 
 3vz + q = ; but the former supposition cannot be admitted 
 without supposing also that y = ; therefore we must 
 adopt the latter. So that to determine v and z we have 
 these two equations, 
 
 3vz + q = 0, ti 3 + z s + r = 0. 
 
 This 
 
 From the first, we find vz m -|, and.'. 1^2?= — sb* 
 
 reduces the second equation to a quadratic in V s , vii 
 y 6 + rv 3 - |c = 0, the solution of which equation is
 
 548 
 
 t>=\/ 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 ^/iV?+P; ««= -ir- J&f + p: 
 
 aud y = n + 3 
 
 «-V -Jr- VAs»+ir»i 
 
 Thus we have obtained a value of the unknown quantity 
 y, in terms of the known quantities q and r; therefore the 
 equation is resolved. 
 
 90. But this is only one of three values which y may 
 have. Let us, for the sake of brevity, put 
 
 A- -;r+ Jjrf + l**, B- -\r- J&>+i*, 
 
 and put 
 
 -l + V-3 
 
 P = 
 
 -1-V/-3 
 
 Then, from what has been shown (Art. 88), it is evident 
 that v and t have each these three values, 
 
 z = »/B, z = al/B, 2 = /3Z/B. 
 To determine the corresponding values of v and z, we 
 
 must consider that vz= - z = ^/AB . 
 
 Now if we observe 
 
 that a/3 = 1, it will immediate^- appear that v + z has these 
 three values, 
 
 v + z= 1/1+ ljB,~ 
 « + z = ai/X + Pl/B 
 v + z = pi/&. + a>/B, 
 which are therefore the three "values of y. 
 
 The first of these formulas is commonly known by the 
 name of Cardan's rule; but it is well known that Cardan 
 was not the inventor, and that it ought to be attributed to 
 Nicholas Tartalea and Scipio Ferreus, who discovered it 
 much about the same time, and independently of each 
 other. (See the Historical Introduction.) 
 
 The formulae given above for the roots of a cubic equa- 
 tion may be put under a different form, better adapted to 
 the purposes of arithmetical calculation, as follows : — 
 
 -\, therefoio 
 
 o o 
 
 U~K.--f-= : thus it appears that the three values 
 vA 
 
 of y may also be expressed thus : 
 
 v-ayx-M 
 
 Because 
 
 <+*= 
 
 ? 1 h , 
 
 y=W\- 
 
 
 91. To show the manner of applying these formulae, let 
 It be required to determine x from the cubic equation ' 
 z 3 + 3:r ! + 9s-13 = 0. 
 As this equation has all its terms, the first step towards 
 its resolution is to transform it into another which shall 
 want the second term, by substituting y - 1 for a; as 
 directed (Art. 84). The operation will stand thus : 
 a? = y*-3y* + 3y- 1 
 + 3x"-= + 3y 2 -6y + 3 
 + 9a; = + 9y - 9 
 
 -13= -13 
 
 ,*. adding these, the transformed equation is 
 
 3^ + 6^-20 = 0, 
 which being compared with the general equation, 
 
 y 3 + qy + r = 0, 
 jives q - 6, r = - 20 ; hence 
 
 A = V -i r + ^/jl^+uj^ \V 10+ JlW. 
 
 [cubic EQUATIONS. 
 
 second formula of last article gives y- 
 2 
 
 but as this expression in- 
 
 therefore the 
 
 volves a radical quantity, let the square root of 108 be 
 taken and added to 10, and the cube root of the sum 
 
 found; thus we have Z/1Q+ ^108 = 2732 nearly, aud 
 
 2 2 
 
 therefore ,, _ == r-rr^° '732; hence we at last find 
 
 V10+V108 2733 
 one of the values of y to be 2732 - 732 = 2 . 
 In finding the cube root of the radical quantity 
 
 V 10+ ^/lOS, we have taken only its approximate value, 
 so as to have the, expression for the root under a rational 
 form, and in this way we can always find, as near as we 
 please, the cube root of any surd of the form a+ Jb, 
 where b is a positive number. But it will sometimes 
 happen that the cube root of such a surd can be expressed 
 exactly by another surd of the same form; and accord- 
 ingly, in the present case, it appears that the cube root 
 of 10+ .yiOS is 1+ ^3, as may be proved by actually 
 raising 1 + J 3 to the third power. Hence we find 
 2 2(1 -V3) 
 
 4/10+^108 1 + V3 
 that y=l+ ^/3 + l 
 
 :--(!- J3)i 
 
 (1-V3)(1 + V3) 
 ^3 = 2, as before. 
 The other two values of y will be had by substituting 
 
 1+^3 and 1 
 
 n 
 
 J3 for if A. and J£= in 
 
 v'A 
 
 the second ana 
 
 third formulae of last article, and restoring the values of a 
 and /?. We thus have 
 
 V 
 
 + 
 
 - l+V-3 
 
 x (i + Jb) + 
 
 -l-V-3 
 
 1 x (1 + V3") + 
 
 -l+V-3 
 
 x(l-V3)=-l 
 
 (1-V3)~-1 
 
 _2 
 
 -V-9. 
 So that the three values of y are 
 
 + 2, -l+J^d, _l_^T9; 
 
 and since x = y - 1, the corresponding values of x are 
 
 + 1, -2+7^9, -2- J^~9. 
 
 Thus.it appears that one of the roots of the proposed 
 equation is real, and the other two imaginary. 
 
 The two imaginary roots might have been found other- 
 wise, by considering that since one root of the equation is 
 1, the equation must be divisible by x-1 (Art. 78), 
 Accordingly, the division being actually performed, and 
 the quotient put = 0, we have the quadratic equation, 
 
 x 2 + 4ar+13 = 0; 
 
 which gives x = - 2 ± J - 9, the same imaginary values 
 as before. 
 
 92. In the application of the preceding formulae to the 
 resolution of the equation y 3 + qy + r = 0, it is necessary to 
 find the square root of ^g 3 + Ir 2 ; now, when that quantity 
 is positive, as in the equation y 3 + 6y - 20 = 0, which was 
 resolved in last article, no difficulty occurs, for its root may 
 be found either exactly or to as great a degree of accuracy 
 as we please. 
 
 As, however, the coefficients q and r are independent of 
 each other, it is evident that q may be negative, and such 
 that -~g^ is greater than Jr 2 . In this case, the expression 
 ■frf + fr 2 will be negative, and therefore its square root an 
 imaginary quantity ; 60 that all the roots appear under an 
 imaginary form. But we are certain (Art. 81) that every 
 cubic equation must have at least one real root The truth 
 is that roots are frequently real, though they appear nnd.-i
 
 BIQUADRATIC ZQUAH OXS.T 
 
 an imaginary form. Take, for instance, the equation 
 y* - 6y + 4 = 0, of which the roots are found to be 
 
 y = Z/-2 + 2j^l + 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 540 
 
 v 
 
 i^2+2 J 
 
 1/ 2 -Z J~- 
 
 1+PJ/2-2J'- 
 
 --Pl/2 + 2J-\ + aU2-2J-\ 
 
 It will be found by actual involution that the imaginary 
 
 expressions 2 + 2 ,/ -I and 2 - 2 ,/ - 1 are the cubes of 
 
 - 1 + J - 1 and - 1 - J-~l respectively, whence by 
 
 substitution we find 
 
 y = 2, y=l+ J3, andy=l- J3. 
 
 93. We shall now prove, that as often as the roots of 
 the equation x 3 + qx + r = are real, q is negative, and 
 ^q 3 greater than jr 2 ; and, conversely, that if —q 3 be 
 greater than ^r 2 , the roots are all real. 
 
 Let us suppose a to be a real root of the proposed 
 equation 
 
 Then x 3 + qx + r = , 
 
 And o 3 + ja + r = 0. 
 
 And therefore, by subtraction, x 3 - a 3 + q(x - a) = ; 
 hence, dividing by x - a, we have 
 
 x 2 + ax + a 2 + q = 0. 
 
 This quadratic equation is formed from the two remain- 
 ing roots of the proposed eouation, and by resolving it we 
 find 
 
 x= -|a± J-W-q- 
 
 And as, by hypothesis, all the roots are real, it is 
 evident that q must necessarily be negative, and greater 
 than {a 2 ; for otherwise the expression J - |a 2 - q would 
 be imaginary. Let us change the sign of q, and put 
 q = {a 2 + d ; thus the roots of the equation x 3 - qx + r = 
 will be 
 
 a, -\a+ Jd, -\a- Jd, 
 
 and here d is a positive quantity. 
 
 To find an expression for r in terms of a and d, let 
 fa 2 + d be substituted for q in the equation a 3 - qa + r = 0; 
 we thence find r = -\a 3 + ad; so that to compare together 
 the quantities q and r, we have these equations, 
 
 q = \a 2 + d, r= -\a 3 + ad. 
 In order to make this comparison, let the cube of §# be 
 taken, also the square of \r, the results are 
 
 and therefore, by subtraction, 
 
 = Zd(±a>--frH+i T cP) 
 = 3d(^a 2 -$d) 2 . 
 Now the square of any real quantity being always positive, 
 it follows that 3d(~a 2 - \df will be positive when d is posi- 
 tive; hence it is evident that in this case -^q 3 must be 
 greater than ir 2 , and that -^q 3 cannot be less than j-r 2 , un- 
 less d be negative, that is, unless" - \a + *Jd, - \a - Jd, 
 the two other roots of the equation are imaginary. If we 
 suppose d = 0, then jjq 3 = \r 2 ; aiid the roots of the equa- 
 tions, which in this case are also real, two of them being 
 equal. 
 
 Upon the whole, therefore, we infer, that since a cubic 
 equation has always one real root, its roots will be all real 
 as often as q is negative, and ^ 3 greater than Jr 2 ; and 
 consequently, that in this case the formulas for the roots 
 must express real quantities, notwithstanding their imagin- 
 ary form. 
 
 94. Let y 3 - qy + r = denote any equation of the 
 form which has been considered in last article, namely,- 
 that which has its roots all real; then, if we put a= -\r, 
 
 tf^^-Ljp - ir*, one of the roots, as expressed by the first 
 formaia (Art. 90) will be. 
 
 y= Z/a + b s /~l+ l/a-bj^l. 
 This expression, although under an imaginary form, nmst 
 (as we have shown in last article) represent a real quantity, 
 although we cannot obtain it by the ordinary process of 
 arithmetic. 
 
 The case of cubic equations, in which the roots arc all 
 real, is now called the irreducible case. 
 
 It is remarkable that the expression 
 
 s/a + b J^l+ Ja-b J -I, 
 and in general, 
 
 i/a + b J~^l + i/a-b J~l , 
 where n is any power of 2, admits of being reduced to 
 another form, in which no impossible quantity is found. 
 
 Thus, J a + b V^l + 'Ja - b J^l = J 2a + 2 J^b~\ 
 and j/ a + bj~l+ 1/ a - b J~l = 
 
 j( J 2a + 2 jtf + & + 2 1/aT+i?) , 
 as is easily proved by first squaring and then taking the 
 square root of the imaginary formulae. But when n is 3, 
 it does not seem that such reduction can possibly take place. 
 If each of the surds be expanded into an infinite series, 
 and their sum be taken, the imaginary quantity J - I 
 will vanish, and thus the root may be found by a direct 
 process. 
 
 Sect. XLT. — Solution of Biquadratic Equations. 
 
 95. When a biquadratic equation contains all its terms, 
 it has this form, 
 
 x i + Ax 3 + Bx- + Cx + B = 
 
 where A, B, C, D denote any known quantities whatever. 
 We shall first consider pure biquadratics, or such as" con- 
 tain only the first and last terms, and therefore are of this 
 form, x i = b i . In this case it is evident that x may be 
 readily had by two extractions of the square root; by the 
 first we find x 2 = b 2 , and by the second x = b. This, how- 
 ever, is only one of the values which x may have; for since 
 r< = & 4 , therefore x i -b , = 0; but x* -6* may be resolved 
 into two factors x 2 - b- and x 2 + b 2 , each of which admits of 
 a similar resolution; for x 2 - b 2 = (x - b)(x + 6) and x 2 + l l 
 = (x-b J^l)(x + b J~l). Hence it appears that the 
 equation x i -b i = may also be expressed thus 
 
 (* - b) (x + b) (x - b j-1) (x + b V~l) = 0; 
 so that x may have these four values, 
 
 + 6, -b, +bj~l, -5V~1, 
 
 two of which are real, and the others imaginary. 
 
 96. Next to pure biquadratic equations, in respect of 
 easiness of resolution, are such as want the second aud 
 fourth terms, and therefore have this form, 
 
 x* + qx 2 + « = . 
 These may be resolved in the manner of quadratic equa- 
 tions; for if we put y = x 2 , we have 
 
 y 2 + qy + s=Q, 
 
 — , and therefore 
 
 froim which we find y =^ — - — ^— 
 
 7 
 
 q ± -Jtf - is 
 
 97. When a biquadratic equation has all its terms, the 
 manner of resolving it is not so obvious as in the two for- 
 mer cases, but its resolution may be always reduced to that 
 of a cubic equation. There are various methods by which
 
 550 
 
 A L G E li II A 
 
 [.DIO.U U1HAT10 EQUATIONS 
 
 such a reduction may bo effected. Tho following, which 
 wo select as cno of tho most ingenious, was first given by 
 Euler in the Petersburg Commentaries, and afterwards ex- 
 plained more fully in his Elements of Algebra. 
 
 We have already explained, Art. 92, how an equation 
 which is complete in its terms may be transformed into 
 another of the samo degree, but which wants the second 
 term; therefore any biquadratic equation may be reduced 
 to this form, 
 
 whero tho second term is wanting, and where p, q, r, de- 
 noto any known quantities whatever. 
 
 That we may form an equation similar to tho above, let 
 us assume y = Ja + Jb + Jc, and also suppose that the 
 letters a, b, c denoto the roots of tho cubic equation 
 
 2 3 + P2 2 + Q;-R=0; 
 then, from tho- theory of equations we havo 
 
 a + b + c = - P, ab + ac + be = Q, ahe = It . 
 We square the assumed formula 
 
 y = Ja + Jb + ($,__ 
 and obtain jr = a + 6 + c + 2( Jab + Jae + J~bc), 
 or, substituting - P for a + b + c, and transposing; 
 
 f- + P = 2( Jab + Ja~~c + Jbc) . 
 Let this equation be also squared, and we have 
 
 y* + 2Pt/ 2 + P 2 = 4(a6'+ ac + be) + 8(Vo^c + VaPc + Vajc ! ) ; 
 mid since . ab + ac + be = Q, 
 
 mid Vii'fcc + *Jab I c~+ \fabc' = */abc{>Ja + Jb + Vc) = v'R . y, 
 the same equation may be expressed thus : 
 
 ^ + 2Py2 + P2 = 4Q + 8 v /R-y. 
 Thus we have the biquadratic equation 
 
 y 4 + 2P/-8 v /S.y + P 2 -4Q = 0, 
 
 one of the roots of which is y = Ja + Jb + Jc, while a, b, c 
 are the roots of the cubic equation z 3 + Pz 2 + Qz - R = 0. 
 
 98. In order to apply this resolution to the proposed 
 equation y* +py 2 + qy + r = 0, we must express" the assumed 
 coefficients P, Q, II by means of p, q, r, tho coefficients of 
 that equation. For this purpose, let us compare the equa- 
 tions 
 
 y*+py- + qy±r = Q, 
 ^ + 2Py2_8VRy+P 2 -4Q = 0, 
 and it immediately appears that 
 
 2P=p, -8JR = q, P2-4Q = r 
 and from these equations we find 
 
 P = 
 
 Q 
 
 ;> 2 -4r 
 
 '-&■ 
 
 2' ^ 16 
 
 Hence it follows that the roots of the proposed equation 
 are generally expressed by tho formula 
 
 y Ja+ Jb + Jc; 
 
 whero a, b, c denote the roots of this cubic equation,' 
 
 j3 + ? 2 
 
 2 , P ! ~4r 
 
 3 + .„■ z ■ 
 
 r 
 
 = 0. 
 
 10 64 
 
 But to find each particular root, we must consider, that as 
 the square root of a number may be either positive or nega- 
 tive, eo each of the quantities Ja, Jb, Jc may have 
 either the sign + or - prefixed to it; and hence' our 
 formula will give eight different expressions for the root. 
 It is, however, to be observed, that as the product of the 
 three quantities Ja, Jb, Jc must be equal to JB, or to 
 
 - r ; when q is positive, tbeir product "must be a negative 
 
 quantity, and this can only be effected by making either 
 one or three of them negative; again, when q is negative, 
 
 .their product must be a positive quantity ; so that in this 
 case they must either bo all positive, or two of them must 
 itiw. These considerations enable. us to determine, 
 that four of the tight expressions for the root belong to the 
 case in which q is positive, and tho other four to that in 
 which it is negative. 
 
 99. We shall now give tho result of the preceding in- 
 
 ition in tho form of a practical rule; and as tho 
 
 coefficients of the cubic equation which has bucn found 
 
 involve fractions, wo shall transform it into another, in 
 
 which the coefficients aro integers, by supposing z = Z' 
 
 Thus the equation 
 
 ^ 
 
 p*-4r 
 
 ■*-0 
 
 10' 04 
 
 becomes, after reduction, 
 
 t/ 3 + 2pv- + (^ - h)v -q- = 0, 
 it also follows, that if the roots of the latter equation 
 
 arc a, b, c, the roots of tho former are - , 
 
 that 
 
 c 
 4' 4' 4 ' 
 our rulo may now bo expressed thus: 
 
 Let y i +py 2 + qy + r = be any biquadratic equation 
 wanting its second term. Form this cubic equation 
 
 * 3 + 2pv- + (p 2 - ir)v - q- = , 
 
 and find its roots, which, let us denote by a, 6, c. 
 
 Then the roots of the proposed biquadratic equation aro, 
 
 when q is negative, 
 y = l(Ja + Jh + <J~c), 
 y = l (Vu - V6 - Vc) , 
 
 y = % (_Va-V4 + Vc). 
 
 when q is positive, 
 y=£(-Va-VJ-V«)- 
 y=I(-_V»+V , 6+Vc), 
 
 2/ = i(Va-V6 + \/c_), 
 y = l(\/a + »/b->Jc). 
 
 100. As an example of the method of resolving a bi 
 quadratic equation, let it be required to determine, tho 
 roots of the following, 
 
 ^-25x' 2 + C0x-3C = 0. 
 Ily comparing this equation with the general formula, wo 
 have p = - 25, q = + CO, r = - 3C ; hence 
 
 2p = - 50, i? - ir = 769, q- = 3000 , 
 and the cubic equation to be resolved is 
 
 t?-50v > +769v-3600-0j 
 tho roots of which aro found, by the rules for cubics, to 
 bo 9, 16, and 25, so that Ja = 3, Jb = 4, c = 5. Now 
 in this case q is positive, therefore 
 
 s = |(-3-4-5)=-0, 
 x = tt-3 + 4 + S)=+3, 
 a = I{+3-4 + 5)=+2, 
 a = |( + 3 + 4-5)= + l. 
 
 101. We have now explained the particular rules by 
 which the roots of equations belonging to each of the first 
 four orders may be determined; and this is the greatest 
 length mathematicians have been ablo to go in tho direct 
 resolution of equations; for as to those of the fifth, and all 
 higher degrees, no general method has hitherto been fouin\ 
 either for resolving them directly, or reducing them to 
 others of an inferior degree. 
 
 It even appears that tho formulae which express the roots 
 of cubic equations are not of universal application; for in 
 one case, that is, when tho roots are all real, they become 
 illusory, so that no conclusion can be drawn from them. 
 The samo observation will -also apply to the formulae for 
 the roots of biquadratic equations, because, before they can 
 bo applied, it is always necessary to find the roots of a 
 cubic equation. But both in cubics and in b : adratic 
 equations, even when the formula: involvo no imaginary 
 quantities, and therefore can be always applied, it is more 
 convenient in practice to employ other methods, which we 
 are hereafter to explain.
 
 RECIPROCAL EQUATIONS.] 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 55 \ 
 
 Sect. XTLI. — Solution oe Equations in which certain 
 
 BELATIONS AEE KNOWN TO EXIST AMONGST THE ROOTS. 
 
 102. When the coefficients of the terms of an equation 
 form the same numerical series, whether taken in a direct 
 or an inverted order, as in this example, 
 
 x 4 +PX 3 + qx 2 +px +1 = 0, 
 it may always be transformed into another of a degree de- 
 noted by half the exponent of the highest power of the 
 unknown quantity, if that exponent be an even number; 
 or half the exponent diminished by unity, if it be an odd 
 number. 
 
 The same observation will also apply to any equation of 
 this form, 
 
 x* +POX 3 + qa 2 x 2 +pa 3 x + a 4 = . 
 
 103. That we may effect the proposed transformation 
 upon the equation 
 
 ■x 4 +px 3 + qx 2 +px +1=0, 
 let every two terms which are equally distant from the 
 extremes be collected into one. and the whole be divided 
 fcy x 2 , then 
 
 Let us assume 
 
 *s + i+p(*+i) + 2 .=0 
 
 x + - 
 
 then 
 
 x 2 + 2 + \ = z 2 , and x 2 '+\=z 2 -2. 
 
 3? X* 
 
 Z 2 +pZ + q-2 = 
 
 x + - = z, therefore x 2 - zx + 1 = . 
 
 Thus the equation x 2 + — +p(x + -) + q = 0, 
 
 becomes 
 
 and since 
 
 Hence, to determine the roots of the biquadratic equation 
 
 x 4 + px 3 + qx 2 +px + 1 = , 
 we form the quadratic 
 
 z 2 +pz + q-2 = 0, 
 
 and find its roots, which, let us suppose denoted by z' and 
 
 d' ; then the four roots of the proposed equation wifli be 
 
 found by resolving two quadratic equations, viz. 
 
 x 2 -z'x+l=0, x 2 -z"x + l=0. 
 
 104. It may be observed, respecting these two quadratic 
 equations, that since the last term of each is unity, if we 
 put a, a' to denote the roots of the bne, and b, b' those of 
 the other, we have from the theory of equations, aa' = l, 
 
 and therefore a' = - ; also bb' = 1, and 6' = 7 : now a, a', b, 
 a ■ b 
 
 I' are also the roots of the equation 
 
 x 4 +px? + qx 2 +px +1 = 0. 
 
 Hence it appears that the proposed equation has this 
 
 property, that one-half of its roots are the reciprocals of 
 
 the other half; and to that circumstance we are indebted 
 
 for the simplicity of its resolution. 
 
 105. If the greatest exponent of the unknown quantity 
 in a reciprocal equation is an odd number, as in this 
 example, 
 
 x 5 +px* + qx 3 + qx 2 +px + 1 = 0, 
 the equation will always be satisfied by substituting - 1 
 for x; hence, — 1 must be a root of the equation, and 
 therefore the equation must be divisible byar + l. Ac- 
 cordingly, if the division be actually performed, we shall 
 have in the present case 
 
 x 4 + (p-l)x 3 -(p-q-l)x 2 + (p-\)x + l=0, 
 another reciprocal equation, in which the greatest exponent 
 of a: is an even number, and therefore resolvable in the 
 manner we have already explained. 
 
 106. As an application of the theory of reciprocal equa- 
 tions, let it be proposed to find x from this equation, 
 
 3? : 1 
 
 (x+\y ' 
 where a denotes a given number. 
 
 Every expression of the form x" + 1 is divisible by x + 1 
 when n is an odd number. In the present case, the 
 numerator and denominator being divided by * + 1 , the 
 equation becomes 
 
 &-X? + 7?-X+\ 
 
 x i + 4x s +Gx 2 +4x+l~ a ' 
 and this again, by proper reduction, becomes 
 
 (a-l)^ + (4a + l)x 3 ^(6a-l)x 5 + (4a+l)x + a-l=0j 
 
 , „. 4o + l 6a- 1 
 
 and, putting p =*-—£, 1 = ~~i » 
 
 x 4 +PX 3 + qx 2 +px + 1=0; 
 a reciprocal equation, resolvable into two quadratics. 
 
 Equations which have Equal Roots. 
 107. When an equation has two or more equal roots, 
 these may always be discovered, and the equation reduced 
 to another of an inferior degree, by a method of resolution 
 which is peculiar to this class of equations. 
 
 Although the method of resolution we are to employ 
 will apply alike to equations of every degree, having equal 
 roots, yet, for the sake of brevity, we shall take a biqua- 
 dratic equation, 
 
 x 4 +px? + qx 2 + rx + s = , 
 the roots of which may be generally denoted by a, I, r, 
 and d. Thus we have, from the theory of equations, 
 (x ■- a)(x - b)(x - c)(x - d) = X 4 +p3? + qx 2 + rx + s. 
 Let us put 
 
 A = (x - a)(x - b)(x - c), A" = (x - a)(x - c)(x - <1) , 
 A' = (x - a)(x - b)(x - d), A'" = (* - b)(x - c)l 
 then, by actual multiplication, we have 
 
 J): 
 
 A' 
 
 A' 
 
 3?-a 
 -b 
 — c 
 
 = x 3 -a 
 -b 
 -d 
 
 =3? 
 
 + a6) 
 x 2 + ac > x - abc , 
 
 + bc ) 
 
 + ab) 
 x 2 +ad > x-ahd, 
 
 + bd) 
 
 -c > x?+ad \ x — 
 -d ) +cd ) 
 
 acd. 
 
 A^^-i) +bc- 
 
 -c > x 2 + bd\x- bed : 
 -d) +cd ) 
 and taking the sum of these four equations ; 
 
 A + A'+A" + A'" = 4x 3 -3a' 
 -36 I 
 -3c 
 -3d, 
 
 x 2 
 
 + 2ab 
 + 2ac 
 + 2ad 
 + 2bc 
 + 2bd 
 + 2cd 
 
 -abe 
 -nbd 
 — acd 
 -bed. 
 
 But since a, b, c, d are the roots of the equation 
 x i +px 3 + qx 2 +rx+s = 0, 
 we have -3(a + b + c + d) = 3p, 
 2(ab + ac + ad + bc + bd+cd) = 2q, 
 — (abe + abd + acd+bed) = r ; 
 A + A'+A"+A'"=4z s +3^i 2 +'22x+r. 
 This result expressed in its most general form is e>. 
 follows : — Let A represent the product of all the differences 
 x — a, etc., except one, 2A, the sum of all such products ; 
 then 2A = nx"' + (re - 1 )px"- l> + (n- 2)qx~-* -i &c. 
 
 10S. Let us now suppose that the proposed biquadratic 
 equation, has two equal roots, or a =6; then x-a = x-b t 
 and since one or other of these equal factors enters each 
 of the four products A, A', A", A'", it is evident that 
 A + A' + A" + A", or ix* + 3/j.r 2 + 2qx + r must be divisible 
 by x - a, or x - b. Thus it appears that if the proposed 
 equation
 
 552 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 & + px* + qr ! + rx + s = 
 have two equal roots, each of them must also bo if root of 
 this equation, 
 
 4-r 3 + Zpx 2 +^qx + r = ; 
 for when the first of these equations is divisible by (x - a) 2 , 
 the latter is necessarily divisible by x - a. 
 
 Let us next suppose that the proposed equation has 
 three equal roots, or a = b = c; then, two at least of the 
 three equal factors x - a, x - b, x - c, must enter each of 
 the four products A, A', A", A'", it is evident that 
 A + A' + A" + A'", or 4r> + 3px- + 2qx + r must be twice 
 divisible by x - a. Hence it follows that as often as the 
 proposed equation has three equal roots, two of them must 
 also be equal roots of the equation 
 
 4x 3 + 3px' ! + 2qx + r = 0. 
 II 3^ Proceeding in the same manner, it may be shown, 
 that whatever number of equal roots are in the proposed 
 equation 
 
 x* +px* + qx 2 + rx + s = 0, 
 they will remain, except one, in this equation 
 4x 3 + 3px 2 + 2qx + r = 0, 
 
 which may be derived from the former, by multiplying 
 each of its terms by the exponent of a: in that terra, and 
 then diminishing the exponent by unity. 
 
 110. If wo suppose that the proposed equation has two 
 equal roots,. or a = b, and also two other equal roote, or c = d, 
 then, by reasoning as before, it will appear that the equa- 
 tion derived from it must have one root equal to a or b, 
 and another equal to c or d ; so that when the former is 
 divisible both by (x-a) 2 and (x-c) 2 , the latter will be 
 divisible by (x -a) (x-c). 
 
 111. As a particular example, let us take this" equation, 
 
 3?- 13^ + 67^- 171x 2 + 216x- 108 = 0, 
 
 jnd apply to it the method we have explained, in order to 
 discover whether it has equal roots, and if so, what they 
 are. We must seek the greatest common measure of the 
 proposed equation and this other Equation, which is formed 
 agreeably to what has been shown (Art. 109), 
 
 5x* - 52x» + 201s 2 - 342x + 216 = ; 
 
 and the operation being performed, we find that they have 
 a common divisor, s 3 -8x 2 + 21x- 18, which is of the 
 third degree, and consequently may have several factors. 
 Let us therefore try whether the last equation, and the 
 following, 
 
 20.1 s - 156x 2 + 402* -042 = 0, 
 
 which is derived from it by the same process, have any 
 common divisor ; and, by proceeding as before, we find 
 that they admit of this divisor, x - 3, which is also a 
 factor of the last divisor, x 3 - 8X 2 + 2\x - 18 ; and therefore 
 the product of the remaining factors is immediately found 
 by division to be X* - 5x + 6, which is evidently resolvable 
 into x- 2 and x- 3 . 
 
 Thus it appears that the common divisor of the original 
 equation, and that which is immediately derived from it, 
 is (x-2) (x-3) 2 ; and that the common divisor of the 
 lecond and third equations is x-3. Hence it follows 
 that the proposed equation has (x - 2) 2 for one factor, and 
 [x - 3) 3 for another factor, and may therefore be expressed 
 thus, (x-2f (x-3) 3 = 0. The truth of this conclusion 
 may be easily verified by multiplication. The five roots 
 are 2, 2, 3, 3, and 3. 
 
 112. The property proved in Art. 107 enables us to 
 establish numerous relations between the coefficients and 
 roots of an equation, in addition to the fundamental one 
 sstablished in Art. 79, such as the following:— 
 
 Since ** + px*-' + gx— , + &c. = (x-a) (x-b) (x-c) itc 
 
 LEOUATIONS WITH 
 
 and nx— 1 + (n - 1 )/>**-* + (n - 2)qx— i + 4c. » 
 (x - l)(x - c) . . . +(x- a)lx - c) . . . + .... 
 by division 
 
 ns— '.+ (x - l)pi— ' + (n - 2)qx— 3 + &c 
 &+px"-' + qz"- 1 + &c. 
 
 •^- + -^- T + —+ 4c. 
 x — a x-b x — c 
 
 x x- X' V 
 
 where S„ S 2 , S 3 , 4c, are the sums of the first, secono\ 
 third, &c, powers of the roots of the equation. 
 
 Multiplying out and equating coefficients, we get— 
 
 (n-l)p = S 1 + np 
 (n-2)q = S 1 +pS l + nq 
 
 &c. = &c. 
 Or S!+p = 
 
 S 2 +yS, + 2o = 
 S i +pS 2 + qS l + Zr = 
 &c. &c. 
 
 Ex. 1. As a particular case take the cubic equation 
 x 3 + qx + r = . 
 
 Here S, = 
 
 S 2 +2j = 
 S, + 3r = 
 S; + }Sj = 
 
 2S 4 =S,', S 6 = 5 2 r. 
 The last may be written — 
 
 S* _ ™ _ ^3 
 
 i.e., if a + b + c = 0, then will 
 
 aHf + c 1 a 3 +b 3 + c 3 
 5 ~ 3 ' 
 From S 7 + qS* + rS, = 0, we get 
 
 h 
 
 2* 
 
 Or 
 
 s 7 =s s . 
 
 + Sj 
 
 §.. 
 
 , 4c. 4a 
 
 7 2' 
 
 Ex. 2. Take the biquadratic equation 
 x t +qx 2 +rx+s=0 
 
 Here 
 
 S 1 = 
 S 2 +2$r = 
 
 5 3 + 3r = 0. 
 
 5 4 + gS 2 + 4» = 
 S 6 + 2 S 3 +rS 2 = 
 
 6 3*2' 
 
 i.e., if a + b + c + d = 0, 
 
 , cfi+V + tf + d* o'+M + c' + i 3 
 then : =* ^ 
 
 a* + V + c>+& 
 
 Equations whose Roots aee Rational 
 
 113. It has been shown in Art. 79, that the last term 
 of any equation is always the product of its roots taken 
 with contrary signs. Hence, when the roots are rational, 
 they may be discovered by the following rule : 
 
 Bring all the terms of the equation to one side; find 
 all the divisors of the last term, and substitute them suc- 
 cessively for the unknown quantity. Then each divisor, 
 which produces a result equal to 0. is a root of the 
 equation. 
 
 Ex. Leta 9 -4x 2 -7x+10 = 0.
 
 EQUAL ROOTS.] 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 . r >53 
 
 The divisors of 10, the last term, are 1, 2, 5, 10, each 
 of which may be taken either positively or negatively; and 
 these being substituted successively for x we obtain the 
 following results: 
 
 By putting + lforz, 1- 4- 7 + 10= 0, 
 -1, -1 - 4+ 7 + 10= 12, 
 
 + 2, 8- 16-14+H>=-12, 
 
 -2, -8- 16+14 + 10= 0, 
 
 + 5, 125-100-35 + 10= 0. 
 
 Hero the divisors which produce results equal to are 
 + 1, -2, aud +5; therefore these are the three roots of 
 the proposed equation 
 
 Sect. XIV. Solution op Equations by Approxi- 
 mation 
 
 114. When the roots of an equation cannot be accu- 
 rately expressed by rational numbers, it is necessary to have 
 recourse to methods of approximation ; and by these we 
 can always determine the numerical values of the roots to 
 as great a degree of accuracy as we please. 
 
 The application of methods of approximation is rendered 
 easy by means of the following proposition : 
 
 If two numbers, either whole or fractional, be found, 
 which, when substituted for the unknown quantity in any 
 equation, produce results with contrary signs, we may 
 conclude that at least one root of the proposed equation 
 is between those numbers, and is consequently real 
 
 Let the proposed equation be 
 
 a 3 -5x 2 + 10* -15 = 0, 
 
 which, by collecting the positivo terms into one sum, and 
 the negative into another, may also be expressed thus, 
 
 a 3 +10x-(5^ + 15) = 0; 
 then, to determine a root of the equation, we must find 
 such a number as, wheu substituted for x, will render 
 
 a? + 10a: = 5** + 15. 
 
 .Let us suppose x to increase and to have every degree 
 of magnitude from upwards in the scale of number ; 
 then a^ + 10x and 5x 2 +15 will both continually increase, 
 but with different degrees of quickness, as appears from 
 the following table : — 
 
 Successive values of x ; 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c. 
 
 of x 3 + ^Qx; 0, 11, 28, 57, 104, 175, 276, &c. 
 
 of 5x 2 + 15; 15, 20, 35, 60, 95, 140, 195, &c. 
 
 By inspecting this table, it appears that while x increases 
 from to a certuin numerical value, which exceeds 3, the 
 positive part of the equation, or x 3 + 10.r, is always less than 
 the negative' part, or 5x 2 + 15; so that the expression 
 
 x 3 + 10a - (5x 2 + 15) or x 3 - 5x 2 + 10* - 15 
 must necessarily be negative. 
 
 It also appears, that when x has increased beyond that 
 
 numerical value, and which is evidently less than 4, the 
 
 positive part of the equation, instead of being less than the 
 
 negative part, is now greater, and therefore the expression 
 
 ar>-5x 2 + 10x-15 
 
 is changed from a negative to a positive quantity. 
 
 Hence we may conclude that there is some real and 
 determinate value of x, which is greater than 3, but less 
 than 4, and which will render the positive and negative 
 parts of the equation equal to one another ; therefore that 
 value of x must be a root of the proposed equation ; and 
 as what has been just now shown in a particidar case will 
 readily apply to any equation whatever, the truth of the 
 proposition is obvious. 
 
 115. From the preceding proposition it will not be 
 difficult to discover, by means of a few trials, the nearest 
 integers to the roots of any proposed numerical equation ; 
 
 aud those being found, we may approximate to the roota 
 continually, as in the following example : 
 
 To determine the limits of the roots, let 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 
 be substituted successively for x; thus we obtain the fol- 
 lowing corresponding results T 
 
 Substitutions for x, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 
 Hqsults, +27, + 21, + 5, -9, + 15. 
 
 Hence it appears that the equation has two real roots, 
 one between 2 and 3, and another between 3 and 4. 
 
 That we may approximate to the first root, let us sup- 
 pose x = 2 + y> where y is a fraction less than uuity, and 
 therefore its second and higher powers small in com- 
 parison to its first power : hence, in finding an approxi- 
 mate value of y, they may be rejected. Thus we have 
 
 i 4 = +16 + 32i/, &c 
 -43-== -32-48;/, &c 
 -3x = - 6-3" 
 + 27 =+27 
 
 Hence = 5 - 19i/ nearly, 
 
 and y = r^='26; therefore, for a first approximation we 
 
 have x = 2 - 26. 
 
 Let us next suppose x = 2'26 + y'; then, rejecting as 
 before the second and higher powers of y on account of 
 their smallness, and retaining three decimal places, we have 
 135 
 
 V 
 
 18-119 
 
 . -0075, and x = 2'26 + y' = 22G75. This value 
 
 of x is true to the last figure, but a more accurate value 
 maybe obtained by supposing x = 2 2675 + y", and pro- 
 ceeding as before. 
 
 116. The method we have hitherto employed for approxi- 
 mating to the roots of equations is known by the name 
 of the method of successive substitutions, and was first 
 proposed by Newton. It has been since improved by 
 Lagrange, who has given it a form which has the advan- 
 tage of showing the progress made in the approximation 
 by each operation. This improved form we now proceed 
 to explain. 
 
 Let a denote the whole number next less to the root 
 
 sought, and - the fraction, ^"jich, when added to a, com- 
 pletes the root ; then x = a + - . H this value of x be sub- 
 stituted in the proposed equation, a new equation involving 
 y will be had, which, when cleared of fractions, will neces- 
 sarily have a root greater than unity. 
 
 Let b be the whole number which is next less than that 
 
 root ; then, for the first approximation, we havo x = a + r . 
 
 But b being only an approximate value of y, in the same 
 manner as a is an approximate value of x, we may suppose 
 
 y = J + - • then, by substituting 6 + -, for y, we shall have 
 
 a new equation, involving only y', which must be greater 
 than unity. Putting therefore V to denote the next whole 
 number less than the root of the equation involving y ', wo 
 
 have y = b + r>; and substituting this value in that of x. 
 
 b" 
 
 the result is 
 
 a. = a + - 
 
 6 + 
 
 for a second approximate value of x. 
 
 To find a third value, we may take y 1 = V + — , and so 
 on, to obtain mors accurate approximations. 
 
 1 -1 9*
 
 554 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 [INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS. 
 
 Sect. XV. — Indeterminate Problems. 
 
 117. When the conditions of a question are such that 
 the number of unknown quantities exceeds the number of 
 equations, that question will admit of innumerable solu- 
 tions, and is therefore said to be indeterminate. Thus, if 
 it be required to find two numbers subject to no other limi- 
 tation than that their sum be 10, we have two unknown 
 quantities x and y, and only one equation, viz. x + y = 10, 
 which may evidently be satisfied by innumerable different 
 values of x and y, if fractional solutions be admitted. It 
 is, however, usual, in such questions as this, to restrict 
 values of the numbers sought to positive integers, and 
 therefore, in this case, wo can have only these nine solu- 
 tions, 
 
 a;=l, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; 
 
 y = 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2,1; 
 which indeed may be reduced to five ; for the first four be- 
 come the same as the last four, by simply changing x into 
 y, and the contrary. 
 
 118. Indeterminate problems are of different . orders, 
 according to the dimensions of the equation which is 
 obtained after all tho unknown quantities but two have 
 been eliminated by means of the given equations. Those 
 of the first order lead always to equations of this form, 
 
 ex + ly = c, 
 
 where a, 6, e, denote given whole numbers, and x, y, two 
 numbers to be found, so that both may be integers. That 
 this condition may be fulfilled, it is necessary that the 
 coefficients a, 6, have no common divisor which is not also 
 a divisor of c; for if a = Jitdand 6 = me, then ax + by = mdx 
 
 + nw:y 
 
 --c, and dx + ey = — ; but d, e, x, y, are supposed to 
 
 lie whole numbers, therefore — is a whole number; hence 
 m 
 
 m must be a divisor of c. 
 
 We proceed to illustrate the manner of resolving inde- 
 terminate equations of the first order, by some numerical 
 examples. 
 
 Ex. 1. Given 2x + 3y = 25, to determine x and y in whole 
 positive numbers. 
 
 25 — 3u 
 From the given equation we have x = — — - = 1 2 - y - 
 
 *-r— . Npw, sinco x must be a whole number, it follows 
 
 that 
 
 y-i 
 
 must be a whole number. Let us assume 
 
 y-i 
 
 Then^ 
 
 *=3; 
 x=2, 
 jr=7. 
 
 2 _.. 2 
 
 = z, then y = 1 + 2z ; and x — 1 1 - 3z, where z might be 
 any whole number whatever, if there were no limitation as 
 to the signs of x and y. But since these" quantities are 
 required to bo positive, it is evident, from the value of y, 
 that z must bo oithcr or positive, and from the value of 
 r, that it must bo less than 4; hence z may have these 
 three values, 0, 1, 2, 3. 
 
 If *= 0, 2=1, 2 = 2, 
 
 s .j* = ll, * = 8, *=6, 
 
 ly= 1» ^ = 3, y = 5, 
 
 Ex. 2. It is required to find all the possible ways in 
 which £G0 can be paid in guineas and moidores only. 
 
 Let x be the number of guineas, and y the number of 
 moidores. Then the value of the guineas, expressed in 
 "hillings, is 21a:, and that of the moidores 27y; therefore, 
 from the nature of the question, 21x + 27y = 1200, or, 
 dividing the equation by 3, 7x + $y = 400; hence, proceed- 
 ing as before, we obtain 
 
 y = 7v-3, 
 tf=Gl-9n. 
 ifrom the value of x, it appears that v cannot exceed 6, 
 and from the value of y, that it cannot be less than 1 
 
 Hencoifv = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 
 
 we have a; = 62, 43, 34, 25, 16, 7. 
 
 y= 4, 11, 18, 25,32,39. 
 
 110. In the foregoing examples the unknown quantities 
 z and y have each a determinate number of positive values; 
 and this will evidently be the case as often as the proposed 
 equation is of this form, ax + by = c. If, however, b be 
 negative, that is, if the equation be of this form, ax -by 
 = c, or ax = by + c, we shall have questions of a different 
 kind, admitting each of an infinite number of solutions; 
 these, however, may be resolved in the same manner as the 
 preceding. 
 
 120. Lf an equation were proposed involving three 
 unknown quantities, as ax + by + cz = d, by transposition we 
 have ax + by = d-cz, and, putting d - c: = c', ax + by — c. 
 From this last equation we may find values of x and y of 
 this form, 
 
 x — mr + tic', y — m r + u'c, 
 or x = mr + n(d- cz), y = mr + n'{d - cz) ; 
 
 where z and r may be taken at pleasure, except in so far 
 as the values of x, y, z, may be required to be all positive ; 
 for from such restriction the values of z and r may be con- 
 fined within certain limits to be determined from flic given 
 equation. 
 
 121. We proceed to indeterminate problems of the second 
 degree : limiting ourselves to the consideration of the for- 
 mula y 1 = a + bx + ex 2 , where x is to be found, so that y 
 may be a rational quantity. The possibility of rendering 
 the proposed formula a square depends altogether upon the 
 coefficients a, b, c; and there are four cases of the problem, 
 the solution of each of which is connected with some pecu- 
 liarity in its nature. 
 
 Case 1. Let a be a square number; the n, putting g 2 foi 
 a, we have y 2 = g 2 + bx + ex 2 . Suppose Jg 2 + bx + ex 2 -= <i + 
 mx; then g 2 + bx + ex 2 = g 2 + 2gmx + nv'x 2 , or bx + ex- =- 
 •2ymx + m 2 x 2 , that is, b + cx = 2gm + m 2 x; hence 
 
 xJ-3^,y= J g 2 + bx + c* 2 = e! >- bm+ r\ 
 
 Case 2. Let c be a square nuniber=$r; then, putting 
 
 ■Ja + b& + g-x 2 = m+gx, we find a + bz + g 2 x 2 = m 2 + - 
 
 +g 2 x 2 , or a + bx = m 2 + 2mgx; hence we find 
 
 m 3 -o / — -7 — ; — 5— 2 bm-g m'-ag 
 
 x = , „ ,y= */a + bx + g~x 2 = — , c . • 
 
 o — 2r,ig o — 2mg 
 
 Case 3. Wiien neither a nor c is a square number, yet if 
 the expression a + bx + cx 2 can be resolved into twe simple 
 factors, as f+gx and h + kx, the irrationality may bo taken 
 away as follows : 
 
 Assume J a + bx + ex 2 = >J{f + gx)(h +kx) = m(f+ <jx), 
 then (f+gx)(k + kx) = m 2 (f+gx) 2 , or h + kx = m 2 (f+yx) ; 
 hence we find 
 
 fm? 
 
 \,y=Af+9*){k+te)=y^r-, 
 
 k-gm-' 
 
 and in all these formulae m may be taken at pleasure. 
 
 Case 4. The expression a + bx + cx 2 may be transformed 
 into a square as often as it can be resolved into two parts, 
 one of which is a complete square, and the other a product 
 of two simple factors; for then it has this form, p 2 + qr, 
 where p, q, and r are' quantities which contain no power 
 of x higher than the first. Let us assume •Jp 2 + qr=p + 
 mq; thus we have p 2 + qr=p 2 + 2mpq + m 2 q 2 and r = 2mp 
 + m 2 q, and as this equation involves only the first power 
 of x, we may by proper reduction obtain from it rational 
 values of x and y, as in the three foregoing cases. 
 
 Tho application of the preceding general methods of reso- 
 lution to any particular case is very easy; we shall there 
 foro conclude with a single example.
 
 BINOMIAL THEOREM.] 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 555 
 
 Ex. It is required to find two square numbers whose 
 6um is a given square number. 
 
 Let a 2 be the given square number, and x 2 , y 2 , the num- 
 bers required; then, by the question, x 2 + y 2 = a 2 , and y = 
 J a 2 - x 2 . This equation is evidently of such a form as to 
 be resolvable by the method employed in case 1. Accord- 
 ingly, by comparing -J a 2 -x 2 with the general expression 
 Jg 2 + bx + ex 2 , we have </ = o, 6 = 0, c= — 1, and substi- 
 tuting these values in tho formulae, and also - n for + m, 
 we find 
 
 San a(n 2 -l) 
 
 n 2 +l 
 
 ,y = 
 
 n e +l 
 
 [f a=n t ±\; there results x=2n, y f —n 2 -\, a = rc 2 + 1. 
 Hence if r be an even number, the three sides of a rational 
 
 right-angled triangle are r, (-)-!,(-) +1. If r be an 
 
 odd number, they become (dividing by 2) r, —=— , —~— 
 
 For example, if r = 4j 4, 4- 1, 4 + 1, or 4, 3, 5 are the 
 sides of a right-angled triangle; if r = 7, 7, 24, 25 are the 
 sides of a ri^ht-angled triangle. 
 
 Sect. XVI. — Theorems of Expansion. 
 
 1. Binomial Theorem. 
 
 122. To demonstrate this theorem, which has for its 
 object the expansion of (a + x)* in the form P + Qx-f- Ax 2 
 + Bx 3 + &c, we shall first find P and Q; and then de- 
 termine the other coefficients A, B, &c. in terms of P 
 andQ. 
 
 (!.)(«+*).= {«(i+3 , J'-e(i+3T. 
 
 it being assumed that the power of a product is the pro- 
 duct of the powers of the factors, whatever be the 
 index. 
 
 (2.) Let n be a whole number. Since 
 
 (1+x^l+x 
 
 (l+x) 2 = l + 2x + x 2 
 
 (l+x) 3 =l + 3x + &c. ; 
 
 if we assume- (1 +x)* _1 = l + (w-1) x + &c, and multiply 
 both sides by 1 + x, we shall obtain (1+x)*=1+tz4; + &c. ; 
 whence our induction is complete to prove that the 
 numerical of coefficient x is the same as the index. 
 
 (3.) Let n be a positive fraction - • We may take 
 
 (1+ x)| = 1 + Qx +&c. 
 (1+ x)r=(l + Qx +A.-C.)', 
 or, l+px + &c.= l+qQx + &c. (Case 2.) 
 
 (4.) If n be negative = - m. 
 <\+x)'r--{\+x)- 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 (i+*r 
 
 (Case3.) 
 
 l + mx+&c. 
 = 1 - mx + &c. by division. 
 
 Hence, generally the numerical coefficient of x is the same 
 )& the index. 
 
 To obtain A, B, &c, in terms of the first and second 
 terms, we break up x into two parts, y, z, which enables 
 us to write the expression 1 + x in two different ways : 
 \st, retaining the part3 of x in connection; 2d, dissevering 
 them. In the first form we simply multiply out, and 
 thus exhibit a result not dependent on the properties of 
 an index, except in so far as relates to the first and second 
 terms. _ Tn the second form we apply the properties of an 
 
 index to every term. The consequence is, that the latter 
 form, bearing a more intimate connection with the pro- 
 perty of an index than the former, is more determinate 
 than the other. The comparison of the two results com- 
 pletes the demonstration. 
 
 L a + i)»=(l+i/+a)» 
 
 = l + n(y+z) +A(y+zY + B{y+z) 3 +&x 
 = l + ny + Ay* +By 3 +&c 
 + 713 + 2 AyV+ 3By 2 z+ &c 
 + &c +&c. 
 
 II. a + x)" = (l + y+2)- = (T+l+!/)» 
 
 = a +2r (i +T y* 
 
 = (I + »" {l +T ^ 
 
 + B, 
 
 (1 + z) 2 ' ~(l+s)' +& M 
 = (l + z)"+n(l+z)~ l y + A(l+z)"-h l 2 +&e. 
 = 1 + ny +A;/ 2 + &c. 
 
 + nz+n(n — l)zy+A(n-2)zy 2 +&c. 
 + &C. + &C -f&c 
 
 Now, as these two expansions are the expansions of the 
 same thing in the same form, the coefficients of z, zy, zy 2 , 
 &c, must be the same in both. Comparing them, we get 
 
 n = n, 2A = n(n-\), 3B = A(m-2)&c 
 n(n-l) t, A(n-2) n(n-l) (ra-2) 
 
 — ■ ■- » ■ 
 
 1.2.3 
 
 A.-' 
 
 B< 
 
 1.2 ' 3 
 
 &c. =&c; and finally, whatever n be, 
 
 /i \. i n(n-l) „ n(n-l) (n-2) , 
 
 (l-fx) , = l+7tx-f--Y-^x 2 + '^ . V + ccc 
 
 Cor. 1. If n is a positive whole number, the series is 
 finite, since every term after the (n + 1 jth will involve n - n 
 as a factor. 
 
 Cor. 2. Since the coefficients, when the index is a whole 
 number, are the results of simple multiplication, they are 
 necessarily whole numbers, i.e., any such expression as 
 
 ™ — is a whole number when n is such 
 
 1.2.3 
 
 Cor. 3. The sum of the numerical coefficients is 2", for 
 it is equal to (1 + 1)*, as will appear if we write 1 for x. 
 
 Cor. 4. The sum of the coefficients in the even places 
 is equal to the sum of the coefficients in the odd. This 
 will appear if we write - 1 in place of x. 
 
 Cor. 5. If the index is a whole number, the coefficients 
 from the end are the same as those from the beginning; for 
 they occur at the beginning of (x + 1 )* in the same positions 
 as at the end of (1 +x)». 
 
 Cor. 6. The product 1.2.3 r ia sometimes expressed 
 
 by the abbreviated form |n_ With this notation the coefti- 
 
 |n 
 
 cient of x' in (1 +x)* may be written — = — • 
 x ' * lr . k — r 
 
 Cor. 7. The sum of the squares of the coefficients of 
 (1 +x)* is the coefficient of x" in the expansion of (1 + x)'-', 
 
 |2n 
 and is equal to t^=t<, • 
 
 Examyles. 
 
 Ex. L<i+.y*-.i+^, + ^£^*+^J~*i 
 
 + &C 
 
 = l-2x + 3x 2 -4x 3 + &c. 
 generally (1 + x) "* = 1 -nx+ — — — x 2 -&c 
 
 and (1-*)-* =l+*x+ ! ^ L+ ^ ) x 2 + &c 
 
 l . & 
 
 Ex. 2. Find the coefficient of x 1 in (x + x 2 + X s f t 
 + x 5 + x«) 2 . 
 The expression may be written
 
 556 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 [theorems of expansion. 
 
 Hi5?)r=* 
 
 -x) ) 
 «=*-(l-2.r* + * 1!! )(l + 2.r+3x J + 4* 3 + &c.) 
 
 The coefficient required is therefore that of it 8 in the 
 lust factor, via. 6. 
 
 ___.,.< ., , „n(n^l) . n(n-l)(n-2) 
 
 Ex. 3. Findthesumof 1 + 2ra + 3 \-^ + 4 \ . A , — ' 
 
 + &C. 
 
 By writing 1+1 for 2, 1+2 for 3, &c, this series may 
 be broken up into the sum of 1 + n + + &c. 
 
 and 
 
 n+a^+a, 
 
 on. i u • ft ™-l (n-l)(n-2) p ) 
 The latter is n< 1 + — + * p^ — '- + &.C. > 
 
 . the sum required is 2* + rc2*~'. 
 
 .Ex. 4. Find the sum of 1 + - n + - ,~~ ' + &c. 
 
 Multiply by n + 1 ; the product is 
 
 1.2 1.2.3 
 
 2"+'-l 
 
 n+1 
 
 »*. the sum required is 
 
 Ex. 6. If jr r denote the product x(x — 1)(* — 2) . . . 
 
 (e-r+ 1) whatever be r, and a similar notation be applied 
 to y, and (% + y), then 
 
 (x + y) r = x r + rx r _ l y l + 
 
 <r-l). 
 
 
 ^^5^3 + &C 
 
 We have (1 +a)*= 1 + x,a + y \ a 2 + 7-f-, a 3 + <fec. 
 (l+a)'=l+y 1 a + A a 2 + &c 
 (1 + a)* + » = their product. 
 But (1 + *Y** = 1 + (* + y),a + ^J- 2 a 2 + &C. 
 
 Equating coefficients of a" in the two expressions for 
 (1 +a)* + », and multiplying by 1 . 2 ... re, the required 
 result is obtained. 
 
 Ex. 6. If x and n be less than 1, then (1 + x)"< (1 + nx). 
 
 For(l+*)" = l+n* + '-^^W 
 
 -l+«*-^(l-^)- & c. 
 
 Ex. 7. On the same hypothesis (1 +*)*< - — 
 
 Prove that (1 + x)~" > 1 - nx exactly as in the last 
 example. 
 
 Ex. 8. If x<l; ra>r<r+l; then (l+a;)">the sum 
 ff the first r+1 terms of the expansion; and < the sum 
 of the first r + 2 terms. 
 
 Ex. 9. The difference between the sums of the squares 
 of the even coefficients of the expansion of (1 +x)", when 
 n is an even whole number, and the sum of the squares 
 
 • JL 
 of the odd coefficients is f — 1 ) a / »»\* 
 
 (J) 
 
 2. Logarithmic Theorem. 
 123. The definition of a logarithm is precisely the same 
 as that of an index or exponent (Art. 21) viz. — the logarithm 
 of a product is equal to the sum of the logarithms of the 
 factors. Such being the case, we are at liberty to employ 
 the definition, either in the form first given, or in the 
 algebraic form a' — y. In this last form x is called the 
 "logarithm of y to the index or base a. The base of the 
 common or tabular logarithms is 10. 
 
 124. Before proceeding to the demonstration of the 
 theorem by which a logarithm is expressed in the form of 
 a series, it may be as well to illustrate the definition as 
 applied to common logarithms. 
 
 1st, Since 1 is the logarithm of 10, we may inquire of 
 what is I the logarithm; if we resume the form 10* ~y, 
 and write £ for x, we have to inquire what is y. 
 
 10*-y,10*xl0*-jr*. 
 
 Sinco 
 But 
 
 10^x10* = 
 
 10 
 
 * + » (def.) = 10, 
 
 2/ 2 =10 and y= J 10 = 3 . 1622777, 
 
 so that the nunAjr of which £ is the logarithm is not a 
 whole number," but a fraction lying between 3 and 3 J. 
 
 In the same way, we may, but with great labour, ascer- 
 tain the numbers of which any given fraction is the 
 logarithm, 
 
 2d, The definition will evidently enable us to obtain ft 
 large number of logarithms, when a few have becoini 
 known. For example: Given log 2 = .30 103 to find 
 log 4 and log 5. 
 
 Log 4 = log (2x2) = log 2+ log 2 (def.) 
 = 2 log 2 = . 60206; 
 
 Log 5 = log — = log 10 - log 2 
 
 -1 -log 2-. 69897. 
 
 If in addition to log 2, log 3 be knovm, we can finil a 
 vast number of others. For example : Giwn— 
 Log 3 = . 47712 to find log 6 and log 72. 
 Log 6 = log2x3 = log 2 + Iog3 = .77815, 
 Log 72 = log 8 x 9 = 3 log 2 + 2 log 3 = 1 . 85733 . 
 
 125. To expand log (1 +x) in terms of x. 
 
 Since log 1=0; the expansion must commence with the 
 first power of x, the coefficient of which will depend ou 
 the radix or base. This coefficient we shall determine 
 afterwards for the common logarithms. In the meantime 
 we shall denote it by A. 
 
 Let then log (1 + x) = Ax + B* 2 + Cx 3 J- &c 
 
 Put y + z for x ; then 
 
 I. Log (l + y+z) = A(y+z) +B(w+s)« + &r 
 =Ay +By J +<V+&c. 
 + Az +2Bi/z + 3Cy2+&c 
 + &c. +&c. 
 
 IL Log(i +2 , +z ) = log(i+2,)^+ I ±-) 
 
 =log(i+y)+log(i+ji-) 
 
 =Ay+By J + &c. 
 
 + Al 
 
 l+y 
 +&c. 
 
 = Ay + By>+&c 
 + Az(l-y+y'-&c) 
 + &c - 
 
 Equating coefficients of z, yz, yh, &c, in the two ex- 
 pansions, there results 
 
 A = A, 2B= -A, 30= -A 
 log(l+*) = A(*-| + |-<fcc.) 
 
 126. Cor. If x = a - 1 , where a is the base of the system, 
 
 we have 1 = A j a - 1 - - (a - l) 2 + &c. | 
 
 This expansion of log (1+x) is not convergent, i.e., 
 the terms do not diminish as we advance, but the contrary, 
 when x is any whole number greater than 1. We can, how 
 ever, readily obtain from it a converging series for the dif- 
 ference between the logarithms of the consecutive numbers
 
 THEOREMS OF EXPANSION.] A Li (j -Ci X> K A 
 
 For log (!+*) = A fa;- -g- -I :c.J 
 
 557 
 
 log(l-x) = A(-*-'-- &c.J 
 log (1 + x) - log (1 - *) =HA(x + y + j + &c.) 
 
 log (1 +z)-log (1 -z) = log - 
 1+x 
 
 Now 
 and x has to be found, so that 
 
 1+x 
 — t 
 x 
 
 1 + x 
 
 shall be the quotient of 
 
 consecutive numbers = 
 
 This gives 
 
 1+M 
 
 °!4+l' 
 
 1. 
 
 and log— = 2A{-i- + ^— ^— 3 + &C 1 
 ° u [ 2u+l 3 (2u + ly J 
 
 127. To apply this formula to the calculation of com- 
 mon logarithms, we will commence by finding from it 
 a few logarithms of the system for which A= 1. In this 
 Bystem 
 
 If« = l,log2 = 2{i + i.i+&c.J 
 
 = .693, 147, 2. 
 
 2. If n-4.log 6 = log4 + 2_{ J + J. ^+&&} 
 
 = 1.609, 437, 9. 
 Hence log 10 = log 2 + log 5 
 
 = 2.302,585, 1. 
 
 This system, for which A = 1 is the so-called Napierian 
 system, which assumes no base, but defines a logarithm to 
 be such that the increment of the number shall be the 
 product of the number by the increment of the logarithm. 
 In this system the number of which the logarithm is 1 is 
 2 . 718 ... . and is generally designated by the letter e. 
 
 To. pass from Napierian logarithms to common, we 
 observe that if e" = 10 v = re; sis the logarithm of n to the 
 base e, and y to the base 10. Now, taking the Napierian 
 logarithm of each side of this equation, we obtain x = 
 y Nap. log 10. 
 
 V Nap. log 10 2 . 202, 585, 1 * 
 = xx .4342944819 
 = x x . 4343 very nearly. 
 
 This multiplier,, which was previously denoted by A, is 
 called the modulus of the common system of logarithms. 
 A celebrated calculator of the last century, Mr A. Sharp, 
 found it to be 
 
 43429448190325182765112891891660508229439700 
 
 5803666566114454. 
 For further details on the construction and use of loga- 
 rithmic tables, the reader is referred to the Article on 
 Logarithms. 
 
 3. Exponential Theorem. 
 
 128. It is now required to expand a" in terms of x. 
 1. Write 1 + a - 1 for a, and apply the binomial theorem ; 
 the result is 
 
 sQc-1) 
 
 modulus ot the system of logarithms whose base is a 
 call it r. We have now to determine B, C, &c, in term* 
 of r, from the form of expansion 
 
 0*= 1 +rx + Bx 3 + Cx 3 + &C 
 Write y + zis place of x ; then 
 
 L o»+« = l + r(i/+s) +B(y+2)'+&<J. 
 
 = l+ry + Bt/ 3 +&c 
 + rz + 2Byz + &c 
 + &c 
 
 EL &+• = <!* x«' = (l + ry + Bi/»+&c) 
 
 x(l+rz +BZ 2 +&c) 
 = 1 +ry + By 2 +&c 
 
 +73 + r 2 yz+rBy 2 z +Ac 
 + &c 
 
 Equating coefficients of z, yz, y\ &c, in L and 1L 
 we "et 
 
 t = r, 2B = r*, 3C = rB, &<5. 
 
 and 
 
 1.2.3 
 a- = l+r* + — + r - ¥ -3 
 
 + &c 
 
 129. Now, since e is such (Art 127) that e- 1 - 
 
 i(e-l) 2 + &c. = 1, and r = a- 1 -\ (a- l) 2 + &c, what- 
 
 ever a be, it follows that when e takes the place of o, r 
 becomes 1. 
 
 and putting x=l, e= 1 + I + -=r- - + &c 
 
 = 2.718281828459040.. 
 
 Again 
 
 «'=l+r +— + 4o. 
 
 bu f since, 
 
 rh? . 
 aT = \+rx + — 2 + &0m 
 
 we nave . 
 
 a=l+r + — + &0. 
 
 {l-r(a-l)}* = l+*( a -l)+- 
 
 1 2 
 
 (a-l) 2 + &c 
 
 Here the only term which does not contain x is 1 ; and 
 the coefficient of x being traced through the different terms, 
 is easily seen to be 
 
 a - 1 - 1 (a - 1) 2 + ^ (a - l) 3 - &a 
 
 Thus will seem (Art.' 126) to be the reciprocal of the 
 
 From this equation we have r = Nap. log a, a result 
 obtained before. 
 
 130. We may approximate directly to the value of > 
 
 when a = 10, thus 
 
 G)" =a ~" =i - rj;+ i-i- <u 
 
 so that the coefficient of x in f -1 is -r. 
 
 Now (-Y = (l + - - lY, whence (Art 128) the a^ffl 
 cient of a; in (-J is 
 
 ■ ^-le-OHa 11 )'-* 
 
 = 2.302...' 
 
 Additional. Jixampiet. 
 
 Ex. 1. To find the value to which (1 +'~ J avrvioachci" 
 as m becomes larger and larger. 
 By the binotelil theorem
 
 558 ALGEBRA 
 
 v mj m 1.2 \mj 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.2.3 
 
 ■l+* + 
 
 i 3 
 
 1.2 1.2.3 
 + -+-.+ &c. 
 
 lH — ) approaches the value l+a; + - + & 
 
 ur e*, as m becomes larger and larger. 
 
 ;c. 
 
 asm increases. 
 
 Ex.2. flH — \ approaches to e' (I-5-) 
 
 Ex. 3. „"-5( re -l)" + ^JlD( n _2)--&c. 
 
 = 1.2...™ 
 
 when n is a whole number. 
 
 n*x* 
 e" = 1 + n.r + — - &c 
 
 «--"* = 1 + (n - \)x + &j^? + &C. 
 Now r. («*-l)" = «"-n«<- 1 >*+'^ 1 - ) e <*-«>*-&c. 
 
 X * — 
 
 But e*-l = l+a: + ^2+&c.-l=a; + ^ + &c. 
 
 .-. II. (e*-l)"=j;"+pa:"+ , + &c. 
 
 Equating coefficients of x" in I. and II., we get 
 n* n(n-l)" n(n-V) (n-2)" . 
 
 1.2...n~r.2...ji + 1.2 1.2...n~ = 
 •vhich is the required result. 
 Cor. When r is less than re, 
 
 n' -n(n-l)' + - ( "-^- (re - 2)' - &c. = . 
 
 Ex. 4. The logarithm of a number to the base o* is 
 a mean proportional between its logarithms to the bases 
 a and a" 2 . 
 
 Jf x. y, z, are the logarithms to the three bases in order, 
 we have 
 
 (a")* = a» = (a"^' 
 nx = y 
 nx = n-z 
 consequently x 2 = yz. 
 
 Ex. 5. e* >1 +x, whatever be x. 
 If a; be positive, or if it be negative and less than unity. 
 *he expansion may be tkrowi; into the form 
 
 o.ery term of which after 1 +x ia positive. 
 
 £a 6 . ?>&=£■. 
 
 •re 
 
 For e"> 1 + x .: e» >1 + - 
 
 n 
 
 en">(\+n)" 
 Hence e.1^2 1 
 
 e.2 2 >3 2 
 
 en">(\.+n)' 
 
 and, by multiplication, e"|re>(l +n)'. 
 
 Ex. 7. If re be a whole number > e, n" +1 > (re + 1 )* 
 yy *ha demonstration of Ex. 6, 
 
 ere">(l+re)* 
 But n >e .-. n" +1 >(l+m)*. 
 
 £*. B If »"" = («+ 1)-, then n>I< <: 
 
 [CONTIXCED FRACTIONa 
 
 For re is evident] > 1. If then we supposo n > 1 < 2, 
 
 * i+ S#G+t)* 
 
 Ac 
 
 = 2+a series of positive terms by the hypo- 
 thesis n< 2, which is absurd, .-. 71 > 2. 
 
 Taking the Napierian logarithms of each side of the 
 
 equation re = ( 1 + - ] . we get 
 2re 
 
 l(l-£)- &c - 
 
 lo^re = l-l + i-&c. 
 
 = 1 
 
 <1 
 n<e. 
 
 Ex. 9. Nap. log x>\~- <x-\. 
 
 X 
 
 Because log x= -log-=l --+- (1 - - ) 
 x x 2 \ x) 
 
 log x>\-~- 
 
 + &<x 
 
 And because when x > I, x< 1 + (x - 1) + -— (x - l) f + 
 
 1 . 2 
 
 Sic 
 
 when x< 1, 
 
 <e-> 
 log x<x-] ; 
 log x — log (1 - 1 -x) 
 
 - - jl-z + ^l-xV + Jic. I 
 
 <x-h 
 
 Ex. 10. Nap. log .r approaches to 2" (j-»"- Dm 3 
 increases. 
 
 Sect. XVII. — Continued Fractions. 
 
 131. Every quantity which admits of being expressed 
 
 by a common fraction may also be expressed in the form of 
 
 what is called a continued fraction. The nature of such 
 
 fractions will bo easily understood by the following example : 
 
 Let the fraction be , or, which is the same, 3 + ' 
 
 1 \}\'U\J\J 
 
 Since 100000 = 7 x 14159 + 887, therefore 
 
 l linn 
 tooooo 
 
 14159 14159 1 , 314159 
 
 1 100000 7xl416»-i-887 
 
 1 
 
 a,ld fb^uij = 3 + 
 
 7 + i1ir. 
 
 14159 
 
 7 + 
 
 887 
 14159* 
 
 B87 
 
 By treating the fraction - - in the same way, and cotv 
 
 tinuing the process, we readily obtain 
 314169 1 j 
 
 100000 v + - 1 1 
 
 25 + T + ? + l 
 7 4 
 By an operation in all respects the same as has been 
 just now performed, may any proper fraction whatever be 
 reduced to the form 
 
 . " 3 
 and it is then called a continued fraction. 
 
 ( 132. When the root of any equation is found by the
 
 CON! DOTED FRACTIONS,] 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 359 
 
 method explained in Art. 116, the value of the unknown 
 quantity ia evidently expressed by a continued fraction. 
 
 For if * be the root sought, we have x = a + -, y = b + —; 
 
 y a V + -r„ y" =b" + -p, &c. where a, b, b', b", &c. denote 
 
 the whole numbers, which are next less than the true 
 values of x, y, y", y", &c. If, therefore, in the value of x 
 
 we substitute b + — 7 for y, it becomes 
 
 y 
 
 1 
 x = a + - 
 
 5 + 
 
 t 
 
 Again, if in this second value of x we substitute 6' + - 
 for y, it become 
 
 x = a + 
 
 i + 
 
 "*y 
 
 And so on continually, 
 
 133. It is easy to see in what manner the inverse of the 
 preceding operation ia to be performed, or a continued frac- 
 tion reduced to a common fraction. 
 
 The fractions which result from omitting portions of a 
 continued fraction are termed the convergents to that f rac- 
 
 1 
 
 tion. 
 
 Thus, if the fraction be o, H , 1 
 
 °2 + Z 
 
 1 
 
 is the first 
 
 convergent, % —r the second, &c. 
 
 134. The principal practical application of the properties 
 of continued' fractions is to approximate to the value of a 
 given fraction. The proposition on which this application 
 depends is the following : — 
 
 No fraction, in terms equally low can give so good an ap- 
 proximation to the value of a fraction as a convergent to the 
 continued fraction which expresses it does. 
 
 To demonstrate this proposition, it is requisite to estab- 
 lish three preliminary propositions, which we shall do very 
 briefly. 
 
 135. (1.) If — denote the nth convergent, or the re- 
 
 duced fraction which results from stopping at a., and reduc- 
 ing, then p. +l = a, +s p. +p_, , q n+i = a, +l q. + ? _, . 
 
 Since no denominator can be multiplied by itself, the re- 
 duced fraction must give p, = a„A + B. 
 
 Now p, H is obtained by writing a. -1 '■ for a„, and 
 
 reducing, 
 
 • '- . P*+i = <Vn(a„A + B) + A = a n+1 p, + A; 
 i.e., the multiplier of any a is the previous p, and the other 
 term is the* multiplier of a in the previous convergent, 
 henca the proposition. 
 
 136. (2.) Pn+l q„-q n+1 p, = (-1)'. 
 
 This is at once obtained by eliminating a. +1 from the two 
 equations of last article. 
 
 1 37. (3.) The successive convergents are alternatelygreater 
 and less than the complete fraction, and each convergent 
 approaches nearer in value to it than the pro-oding. 
 
 If A denote the complete denominator a m+l + Sec. ; u the 
 
 complete fraction: then u = -~ — ^^ ; and by subtract- 
 
 ing successively — and *2-2- from u in this form, it will be 
 
 2» 9—i 
 
 oce'u at once that the results have different signs, and that 
 the latter difference is the larger. 
 
 138. We are now able to prove the proposition enun- 
 ciated. > 
 
 Let - tea fraction nearer to u than -— ; then since 
 
 2 SlH-l . 
 
 the convergents are alternately too great and too small; 
 — , - , — , must be in order of magnitude. 
 • T * the first be the greatest, 
 
 P-+i 
 2.+i" 
 
 2- 9 ,2» 
 
 Reducing and applying Prop. 2, there results q>q. +x . 
 
 Similarly by inverting the fractions, it may be proved 
 that p>p, +l . 
 
 Ex. 1. To determine when a transit of Venus may be 
 expected. 
 
 The relative sidereal periods of Venus and the earth are 
 224,700 days and 365,256 days. The continued fraction 
 which expresses the quotient of these numbers is 
 
 1 i + s+* 
 
 The fifth convergent is 
 
 8 .1, --a 235 
 -j the sixth — . 
 
 On account of the smallness of — , the former is a very 
 
 close approximation, i.e., 8 yeare and 13 sidereal periods 
 of Venus are very nearly equal. 
 
 In consequence of this, a transit occurs after one period 
 of 8 years, and then again not till after 235 years have 
 been completed. 
 
 The last pair of transits at the descending node occurred 
 in 1769, 1777 ; and at the ascending node in 1639, 1647. 
 
 The next pair, will accordingly occur at the latter nodu 
 in 1874 and 1882. The days of transit will be December 
 8 and December 6, respectively. 
 
 Ex. 2. To find the periods of prooable recurrence of 
 eclipses of the sun. 
 
 An eclipse of the sun will occur whenever the place of 
 
 the new moon is within about 13° of the line of nodes. 
 
 Now, the interval between two new moons ia 295306 
 
 days ; and the mean synodic period of the earth and the 
 
 line of nodes is 3466196 days. The proportion of the 
 
 latter of these numbers to the former, reduced to a con- 
 
 , , • - 47 223 ,, 
 
 turned fraction, gives as convergents — , — , &c. 
 
 Hence, after 47 lunar months, things have come nearly 
 to their original position, and after 223 lunar months, tery 
 nearly. This latter period, termed the saros, has been 
 known from the remotest antiquity. It enabled the Chal- 
 dean shepherds to predict the return of eclipses. It amounts 
 to 18 years and 10 or 11 days. Thus, there was a total 
 eclipse on the 18th July 1860 ; adding 18 years 11 days, 
 we get for an eclipse 29th July 1878. If we add 47 
 lunations or 1388 days, we get 6th March 1864, on which 
 day there was an eclipse. 
 
 This period of 1388 days, multiplied by 5, makes exactly 
 19 years — a period which is designated as the cycle nf 
 Mdon, giving eclipses which occur on the same day of tL> 
 month. Thus, eclipses happened 18th July 1841 and 
 18th July 1860, and another will happen 18th July 1879. 
 
 Ex. 3. The fraction given (Art. 131) represents the 
 ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. By 
 taking the first two terms we have ir=3 + f= ! T 2 nearly; 
 and this is the proportion which was found by Archim?dft3. 
 
 Again, by taking the first three ttrms, we hav? 
 
 ,-J+J. 1 =3 + < 15 333 
 
 7 + 
 
 1 
 15 
 
 i06 106 
 
 which is nearer the truth than the former. 
 And, by taking the first four terms, we have
 
 560 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 (permutations, etc 
 
 — 3+5+1 
 
 355 
 ' 113 
 
 which is the proportion assigned by Metius. 
 
 Ex. 4. The mean tropical year consists of 365-2422642 
 days. 
 
 Tho fraction -2422642, reduced to a continued fraction, 
 gives as successive convergents 
 
 4* 99' 33' Nil ' 194' 1325' °" 
 
 To make the civil year approximate to the tropical, 1 
 leap year in 4 (the Julian Calendar) serves but imperfectly. 
 7 leap years in 29 would be inconvenient. The Gregorian 
 Calendar, now in use, is based on combining the fractions 
 
 .17 1 
 
 — and - . by doubling the numerator and denominator 
 
 194 4' ' ° 
 
 of the former, and trebling those of the latter, and adding 
 
 97 
 them respectively. The resulting fraction is — , giving 
 
 97 leap years in 400 years, instead of 100 as the Julian 
 does. This diminution of 3 leap years in 400 years is 
 produced periodically, by causing years which indicate the 
 completion of centuries not to be leap years unless the 
 number of centuries is divisible by 4. Thus, 1900 will 
 not be a leap year. 
 
 Sect. XVTII. — Permutations, Combinations, and 
 Probabilities. 
 
 139. Hitherto we have supposed the letters of the alphabet, 
 a, b, c, &c, to stand for arithmetical quantities of some kind 
 or other. Now we have to employ them, as in geometry, 
 to represent magnitudes or objects, such as pens, pencils, 
 &c, and to investigate the numbers of different ways in 
 which a given set of them can be grouped according to a 
 certain law. 
 
 Permutations are their arrangements in a line, reference 
 being had to the order of sequence ; thus ab and ba are 
 the two permutations of a and 6; combinations are 
 their arrangements in groups, without reference to the 
 order of sequence ; thus abc is a combination involving 
 a, b, and c ; and bac is the same combination, both con- 
 sisting simply of a, b, and c grouped together. 
 
 Prop. 1. To find the number of permutations of re things 
 (1), two and two (2), three and three, <tc, together. 
 
 Set aside a, and lay down the other things in a line ; 
 place a before each of them in succession, and you obtain 
 ab, ac, ad, ike, i.e., re - 1 arrangements, each containing 
 two things", with a first. 
 
 In the same way you can form n - 1 arrangements, 
 each containing two things, with b first. The same is true 
 of each of the other letters, and as there are n of them, the 
 total number of arrangements of the n things, two together, 
 is n(n— 1). 
 
 Again, lay aside o, and group the other re - 1 things, 
 two together; as we have just shown, there are (re- l)(re- 2) 
 such groups. Place a before each of them, and there will 
 be formed (re — 1 ) (re - 2) arrangements, each containing 
 three things, with o first; and there can be no more 
 arrangements with a first. 
 
 Treat 6, c, itc, in the same manner, and it will appear 
 that there are (re- 1) (re -2) groups of things, three to- 
 gether, in which every separate thing in succession stands 
 first. Hence, the total number of arrangements, three and 
 I hree, is n(re - 1 ) (re - 2). 
 
 By proceeding in the same manner we shall find the 
 total number of permutations of a things, r together, to be 
 niu - 1) (n-r+ I). 
 
 Cor. The number of permutations of n things, all to- 
 gether, is n(re -1). ...3.2.1. 
 
 Prop. 2. To find the number of combinations of re things, 
 r together. 
 
 Let x be the number required. 
 
 Take any one of the x groups of r things. The number 
 of permutations which can be formed with it will be 
 (Prop. 1. Cor.)r(r-l) 1, or 1.2... r. 
 
 Now, since each of the x groups is different from all 
 the others, if we treat each of the x groups separately in 
 
 this way, we shall form 1.2 r x x permutations, all 
 
 different. Also, since the x groups contain every possibl« 
 combination of the re things, r together, we shall thus have 
 formed all the permutations which can be formed; and conse- 
 quently (Prop. 1) tho number is n(n - 1). . . (re-r + 1). 
 
 n(ra-l) (n-r + 1) 
 
 * X = ■■ ■ ■ - 
 
 1.2....r 
 
 Prop. 3. To find the number of combinations which caa 
 bo formed of n sets of things, containing respectively r, *, t, 
 &c. things, by taking one from each set to form a com- 
 bination. 
 
 1. Let there be two sets, one containing r and the other 
 s things. 
 
 Any one (say a) of the r things may be placed succes- 
 sively with each of the s things, and thus form s groups, 
 in each of which a appears. The same is true of 6, c, <fec. ; 
 i.e., each of the r things gives rise to a groups, .". the 
 number required is rs. 
 
 2. Any one of the t things may be placed in succession 
 with each of the groups of two things referred to in Case 1, 
 so that every one of the t things will give rise to rs com- 
 binations of three things; .". the number required is rst. 
 The same may be indefinitely extended. 
 
 140. The first and most obvious application of the 
 theory of combinations is to the doctrine of chances. As, 
 however, this application will form the subject of a separate 
 article, all that is requisite for us now to do is to indicate 
 the connecting link between the two subjects. 
 
 If we agree to designate certainty by unity, then tho 
 chance of an event happening, when it is less than cer- 
 tainty, will be designated by a proper fraction. Tims if 
 the average number of wet days and of dry is the same, 
 the chance of any day named at random turning out wet 
 
 will be represented by the fraction - ; that is, if the num- 
 ber of days under consideration be 100, the chance is 
 _60 number of wet days _ Chance is according ly d e- 
 
 100 ' total number of days 
 
 number of fa vourable events 
 fined by the fraction total nU]uber of events. / 
 
 The only proposition by which chances are combined that 
 we shall offer is this. 
 
 If there are two events, and the probability of one of 
 
 them happening to be £ , and of the ether ^ ; then the pro- 
 
 . ac 
 bability that both will happen is ^ • 
 
 For o and c may be taken to represent the favourable 
 events respectively, and be combined (Art. 139, Prop. 3) 
 so as to give ac ways in which they may happen together. 
 And in the same way 6 and d may be combined to give 
 the total number of events. 
 
 Ex. A bag contains 3 white and 4 black balls. Find 
 the chance of drawing (1) two white balls; (2) a white and 
 a black; (3) one white at least, when two balls are drawn. 
 
 The chance of drawing two wliite balls is the fraction. 
 Number of combinations of 3 ■ thinRa, 2 together 
 Number of combinations of 7 things, 2 together.
 
 series, i 
 
 3.2 
 
 1.2 
 7.6 
 1.2 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 Ex. 3. 
 
 561 
 
 The chance of drawing a white and a black is (Art. 139 
 Prop 3), 
 
 3 j_i ■ 4 
 
 7Ji ~7 * 
 
 1.2 
 
 To find the chance of drawing at least a white ball, we 
 may remark that it is the same as the chance of not draw- 
 ing two black balls, i.e.. certainty — the chance of drawing 
 two black balls. 
 
 Now the chance of drawing two black balls is 
 
 4_._8 
 
 1.2 2 
 
 7.6 ~ 7 
 1.2 
 
 . '. the chance of drawing at least one white ball is 
 2 5 
 
 1- 
 
 7~7- 
 
 Sect. XIX. — On Series in General; their Summation 
 and Convergence. 
 
 141. Certain series, from their very appearance, indicate 
 that they are really the sums or differences of two other 
 scries. From this circumstance their sum may frequently 
 be determined, as in the following examples : — 
 
 Ex .\ -L + ^L + -L- 
 
 1.2^2.3 T n(n+l) 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 Let * = I + «j + ..... - 
 
 _i+_L_M+ _L 
 
 n+1 2 X 3 »+l 
 
 .*. by subtraction, 
 
 n+1 Vl V \2 ZJ * ' - \n n+1/ 
 
 1 I 1 
 
 ' 1.2 + 2.3 + " ' " nfa+l) 
 
 1 n 
 
 and the sum is 1 , that is, . 
 
 n+1 ' ' ji+1 
 
 142. The sum of a series may often be easily found by 
 the method of increments or differences, and this method is 
 especially adapted to the summation of integral series, 
 such as the squares of the natural numbers. We shall 
 exhibit one or two illustrations only. 
 
 If we write S„ = n(re + 1), we have 
 
 S.+,= (»+l)0 + 2), .-. S, +1 -S„-2(» + l). 
 
 Hence conversely, and dividing by 2 ; if 
 
 S.+i - S. = n + 1 , 
 then will S„ = *-M. 
 
 Similarly, if 
 
 S» tl -S. = (»+l)(» + 2) . . . (n + r-1), 
 
 then will S. = *(" + !) ■ ■ • (» + »•.- 1) 
 
 r 
 
 This last conclusion, of course, assumes that S, is when 
 n is 0. If it be otherwise, some numerical constant, easy 
 of determination, will have to be added. 
 
 Ex. 2. l 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 + . . .ifi. 
 
 HereS. +1 -S. = (n + l) 2 =(re+l)(n + 2)-(n+I). 
 n(n+l)(» + 2) n(n+l) n(n + l)(2n+l) 
 •• ?«" 3 " 2 "~~ e 
 
 l«+2* + 3< + . .. n* 
 S.„-S. = («+l)* 
 
 Let 
 
 .(n+l) 4 = (n+l)(n + 2)(rc + 3)(n + 4) + A{n + l)(n + 2)(n + 3) 
 + B(n+l)(n + 2) + C(n+l). 
 
 Dividing by n+1, and proceeding as in Art. 33, we get 
 A= -6, B = 7, C= -1. 
 
 S„ = ^i(n + l)(re + 2)(re + 3)(» + 4)- 
 
 3 ** 1 
 
 ^v(n + l)(n + 2)(n + 3) + ^i(n+l)(n + 2)-^n{n + \) 
 
 * | 3«(« + 1)- 1 | 
 
 n(n+l ) (2n+l) 
 30 
 
 On the Convergence mid Divergency of Infinite Series. 
 
 143. Be/. If the limit to which the sum of a series 
 
 approaches, as the number of terms increases, is finite, the 
 
 series is a converging series; if otherwise, diverging. For 
 
 example, the sum of the series 1 + r + r- + . . . to n 
 
 1 -r* 
 terms is (Art. 52), which, when r is less than 1, 
 
 approaches to - — , in which case the series is a con- 
 verging series. 
 
 Prop. 1. It is necessary and sufficient for convergency 
 that the remaining terms after the reth have zero for their 
 limit, both individually and collectively, as n increases. 
 
 It is obviously necessary and sufficient for convergency 
 that the sum of the series after the nth term shall have 
 as its limit; and consequently, when all the terms of the 
 series are positive, the same must be true of each indi- 
 vidual term. But when the terms are alternately positive 
 and negative, though it is necessary for convergency that 
 the sum of the consecutive terms with their proper signs 
 should have as its limit, this is not sufficient; for, were 
 it so, the sum to n terms would depend on whether n is 
 even or odd. 
 
 Ex. 1. 
 
 ! 1 1 
 
 1+ 2 + 3 + 
 
 , is not a converging series ; for 
 
 although each term after the nth tends to as its limit — 
 
 the sum of n terms after the nth, viz., 1- h . . . 
 
 n+1 n+2 
 
 , which is greater than — + — + . ... — to re terms. 
 
 Sin 
 
 2n 2»i 
 
 2» 
 
 i.e., greater than - , does not tend to as its limit. 
 
 Ex.2. 1+1 + -^ + ^+. 
 
 e (Art. 129), is convergent. 
 
 The sum of the terms after the nth is 
 
 the expression for 
 
 rfO+n+y-) 
 
 i{ l+ n + ^ + --) 
 
 < !i 'i_i 
 
 '(n-l)|n-l 
 
 the limit of which as n increases is 0. 
 
 Prop. 2. If the limit of the nth term is 0, and the 
 terms continually diminish ; then when the signs of the 
 terms are alternately + and - , the series is convergent. 
 
 Let u, - u„ + !< 3 - &c, be the series ; the terms after the 
 nth ( + or - ) make up the series of positive groups 
 
 (u. +l - u n+1 ) + (u^t - «.+,) + i-c. 
 
 But these terms may also be written «. + , - (m« +3 - ««+j) - 
 <kc, which, since the whole group is positive, must
 
 r>G2 
 
 A L G — A L G 
 
 [series 
 
 bo loss than w„ + „ the only positive term in it But i/. +1 
 has for its limit, therefore the series is convergent. 
 
 . is convergent, for the sum of 
 
 fc&i-£+{ r 
 
 the series after the nth term is less than — - , which has 
 
 n+1 
 
 as its limit. 
 
 Prop. 3. If the terms of the series are all positive, and 
 
 the limit of tho ?ith term is 0; then if the limit of tlic 
 
 quotient of the (» + l)th term by tho nth be less than 1, 
 
 the series is convergent ; but if the limit be greater than 1, 
 
 the sum is divergent, 
 
 1. Let h be the greatest value of -™ , after a certain 
 
 value of n, and k < 1 ; then, 
 
 «.+l + «„+!+• • . <"„+i(l+£ + * 2 +. . •). 
 «.+i • 
 < \~b' 
 ■which has for its limit. Hence the series is convergent 
 (Prop. 1). 
 
 2. Let Jc, the least value of -^ after a certain finito 
 
 i(. 
 value of n, be greater than 1 ; then 
 
 «.+, = or >hi„ 
 "»+a *= or >k-u. 
 &c. &c. 
 
 w. +1 + 1!. +5 + <fec. = or >kn n (l -r I- + Jc 2 + &c), 
 
 which is infinite. Hence the series is divergent 
 
 Prop. 4. H — — be less than 1 ; then the two series 
 
 r v. ' 
 
 «(+ « a + u 3 + u 4 + .... (1) 
 u 1 + 2u, + iu i + 8u a + .... (2) 
 
 are both convergent, or both divergent together. 
 
 Series (2) + k,= 2(« 1 + m, + 2?< 1 + 4?« s + . . .), which is 
 ccmal to or less than the following, term by term, via. : — 
 
 2 {«, + « J + («, + « 4 ) + (« 4 + «, + «, + «„)+• • •}. 
 i.e., twice series (1). 
 
 Hence if the one series be convergent, the other will be 
 also convergent; and if series (2) be divergent, series (1) 
 is also divergent. 
 
 Again, scries (2) is equal to or greater than the follow- 
 ing, term by term, 
 
 «. + (;/, + w 3 ) + (m 4 + «, + « d + «,)+. . . 
 
 which is series (1). 
 
 Hence if series (1) be divergent, series (2) is also 
 divergent 
 
 Ex. 1. The series — + — + — + . . . is convergent if 
 
 r>l, but divergent if r= or<l. 
 
 The two series (I) and (2) now become 
 
 L L L 
 
 1» + 2' + 3' + ' ' ' 
 
 JL 1 i. 
 l' + 2' + 4' + ' ' ' 
 
 the latter of which is the geometric series 
 
 *■ + 2^1 + 4^"! + • • • > 
 
 which is convergent or divergent according as r> 1 or the 
 contrary. Hence the same is true of the given series. 
 
 Ex. 2. The binomial series 1 + nx + <tc, is convergent 
 when x< 1, divergent when x> 1 . 
 
 Ex. 3. To find when the binomial series 1 - n + -^-~ ■ - 
 
 <tc, is convergent. 
 Let 7i< 1 ;, the (r + 1) term may be written 
 
 n r-n-1 r-n-2 
 
 ; • r _i ~t^2~ • • • 
 
 '"( u ,4ir('*,-!i)"-(«K^>i 
 
 n{ r \~" fr-\\— 
 
 <ih=0 • (vzi) • • < 
 
 n 
 
 < ^Ti > 
 
 whence (Prop. 4, Ex. 1) the scries is convergent Similarly 
 in uther cases. (p. k.) 
 
 ALGECTRAS, or Axgeztras, a seaport of Spain, in the 
 province of Cadiz, 6 miles W. of Gibraltar, on the opposite 
 side of the bay. The town is picturesquely situated, and 
 its name, which signifies in Arabic the island, is derived 
 from a small islet which forms one side of the harbour. It 
 is supplied with water by means of a beautiful aqueduct. 
 It has a dilapidated fortress, and also a military hospital. 
 Though the harbour is bad, and the commerce of the town 
 has considerably declined, there is still a good coasting 
 trade; the exports and imports averaging about £60,000 
 annually. Charcoal and tanned leather are the chief articles 
 of export, Algeciras was the Portus Albus of the Romans, 
 and the first place in Spain taken by the Moors. It 
 remained in their possession from 713 till 1344, when it 
 was taken by Alphonso XI. of Castile after a celebrated 
 siege of twenty months, which attracted crusaders from all 
 parts of Europe, among whom was the English earl of 
 Derby, grandson of Edward ILL It is said that during 
 this siege gunpowder was first used by the Moors in 
 vfv™ 13 ° f Ellro P e - The Moorish city was destroyed by 
 Alphonso, and the modern town was not erected till 1760. 
 During the siege of Gibraltar in 1780-82, Algeciras was 
 the station of the Spanish fleet and floating batteries. 
 Near Algeciras, on 0th July 1801, the English admiral 
 Saumarez attacked a Franco-Spanish fleet, and sustained a 
 
 reverse; but on the 12th he again attacked the enemy, 
 whose fleet was double his own strength, and inflicted on 
 them a complete defeat. Population, 14,000. 
 
 ALGER of Liege, known also as Alger of Clugny 
 and Aloerus Magister, a learned French priest who 
 lived in the first half of the 12th century. He was first 
 a deacon of the church of St Bartholomew at Liege, his 
 native town, was afterwards translated to the cathedral 
 church of St Lambert, and finally retired to tin monastery 
 of Clugny, where he died not later than 1145, though the 
 precise date is uncertain. His History of the Church of 
 Liege, and many of his other works are lost. The most im- 
 portant of his still extant wwks are: — 1. Be Misericordia 
 et Justitia, a collection of extracts from Fathers, with 
 reflections, which is to be found in the Anecdota of 
 Martenj, vol. v. 2. De Sacramento Corporis et Sanguinis 
 Domini; a treatise, in three books, against the Berengarian 
 heresy, highly commended by Peter of Clugny and Erasmus. 
 
 3. De Libero Arbitrio; given in Pez's Anecdoia, voL iv. 
 
 4. De Saerificio Misses; given in the Collectio Scriptor. 
 Vet. of Angelo Mai, voL ix. 
 
 ALGERIA, or Algiers (French, L'Algerie), the largest 
 and most important of the French colonial possessions, ia 
 a country of Northern Africa, bounded on the N. by the 
 Mediterranean, W. by the state of Marocco, S. by the
 
 ALGERIA 
 
 563 
 
 desert of the Sahara, and E. by Tunis. The boundaries, 
 however, are in many parts not accurately determined. It 
 extends for about 550 miles along the coast, and stretches 
 inland from 320 to 380 miles; lying between 2° 10' W. 
 and 8° 50' E. long., and 32° and 37° N. lat. The area is 
 estimated at about 150,500 English square miles. 
 
 Surface. The country is generally mountainous, being traversed 
 
 by lofty ranges of the Atlas system, which run nearly 
 parallel to the coast, and rise in some places to the height 
 of upwards of 7000 feet. These are commonly divided 
 into two leading chains, which are distinguished as the 
 Great and Little Atlas. The former, which is the more 
 southern- and bordering on the Sahara, contains some of 
 the highest points in the country. The Little Atlas or 
 Maritime AtlaSj as it is sometimes called, lies between the 
 sea and the Great Atlas, and is composed of numerous 
 •diversified ranges generally of no great elevation. A 
 number of smaller chains lie between these principal ones, 
 and also between the latter and the sea, forming so many 
 ascending steps or degrees. These principal ranges are 
 connected by numerous transverse ones, thus forming 
 ■extensive table-lands and elevated valleys, with no connec- 
 tion between them but the intervening heights. Occasion- 
 ally the principal ranges are broken by deep defiles and 
 narrow vdleys. The maritime region presents numerous 
 narrow valleys, each carrying down to the sea its mountain 
 stream. In some parts the mountains rise abruptly from 
 the sea, in others a tract of flat laud intervenes between 
 the mountains and the coast, and this is usual'y marshy, 
 but sometimes fertile and well cultivated. There are a 
 number of extensive plains near the coast, one of the most 
 important of which is that of Metidja, commencing on the 
 •eastern side of the bay of Algiers, and stretching thence 
 inland to the south and west. It is about 60 miles in 
 length by 10 or 12 in breadth. Another great alluvial 
 plain extends south and west for many miles from the 
 vicinity of Bona. A third similar plain lies to the south- 
 east and south-west of Oran, and south of Mostaganem is 
 the plain of Shellif. The coast is generally steep and 
 rocky, abounding in capes and gulfs, but very deficient 
 in good harbours, and even in secure roadsteads, in conse- 
 quence of its exposure to the north winds. 
 
 Havers. The rivers are numerous, but the majority of them have 
 
 short courses. They mostly rise in the mountains near the 
 coast, and rush down with great impetuosity through deep 
 and rocky channels, presenting the character of mountain 
 torrents. During the rainy season they are much swollen, 
 so as to render communication with different parts of the 
 country extremely difficult. The most important river, 
 both from the length of its course and the volume of its 
 waters, is the Shellif, which, rising in the. northern slopes 
 of the Djebel Amur, flows first north and then west till it 
 empties itself into the Mediterranean near Mostaganem after 
 a course of 370 miles, during which it receives numerous 
 tributary streams. The Seybouse is formed by the union 
 of several small streams in the interior of the province of 
 Constantine, south-east of the town of that name, and after 
 a course of about 120 miles falls into the Mediterranean 
 near Bona. The Sunimam, which contains the greatest 
 body of water after the Shellif, rises in the interior of the 
 province of Algiers near Aumale, and pursues a generally 
 north-east direction to its mouth near Bougie. The Bum- 
 inel, formed of several small streams south of the town 
 of Constantine, passes that town and pursues a north-west 
 direction to the sea. Among the less important rivers whicn 
 empty themselves into the Mediterranean are the Harrach, 
 lsser, Mazefran, Tafna, and Macta. Besides these, there 
 are a number of streams in the interior, but they are less 
 known and are generally dry except in the rainy season. 
 Algeria abounds in extensive lakes and marshes. Of 
 
 the lakes in the northern part of the country, near the 
 coast, the principal are, — the Fezara 14 miles south-west of 
 Buna; the two lakes Sebkha and El Melah south of Oran; 
 the three small lakes in the immediate vicinity of Calle, and 
 several others. In the southern parts of the country aro 
 the extensive lake3 of Chott-el-Harbi or Western Chott ; 
 the Chott-el-Chergui or Eastern Chott; the Zarhez-Ghcrbi 
 and the Zarhez-Chergui; the Grand Sebkha-el-Chott, and a 
 number of others. These are mostly dried up in summer, 
 leaving a thick stratum of salt. Many of the marshes, 
 especially in the neighbourhood of the larger towns, have 
 been drained by the French, and the climate has thus been 
 rendered more salubrious. There are also a number of 
 warm mineral springs, containing principally salts of lime, 
 which are used with success by the Arabs in several kinds 
 of disease. Some of these are in the vicinity of Calle 
 Bougie, Milianah, ifcc. 
 
 Algeria is divided by a line running nearly east and Natui»i 
 west into two distinct zones, called by the natives the TM Divum* 
 and Sahara. The Tell constitutes the zone bordering ujjon 
 the Mediterranean, and is the cultivated land — the land 
 of corn. It consists of a series of fertile basins, yielding 
 almost exclusively corn of different kinds, especially wheat 
 and barley. Some parts of it are extremely fertile, but at 
 the same time flat and uniform. The chains separating 
 the basins are clothed with timber, and peopled by the 
 Kabyles. The Sahara lies to the south of the Tell, and 
 is the region of pastures and of fruits. Hence, while the 
 inhabitants of the Tell are agriculturists, those of the 
 Sahara are shepherds and gardeners. The Sahara is some- 
 times spoken of as a desert, at other times as the country 
 of dates. It may properly be divided into two regions; 
 the northern is mountainous, but at the same time moro 
 fertile, better watered, and more populous than the other, 
 which, bordering on the Great Desert, consists chiefly of 
 oases of greater or less extent. The villages of the Sahara 
 are surrounded by belts of fruit trees, of which the palm is 
 the chief, though there are also pomegranate, fig, apricot, 
 peach, and other trees, and vines. On the mountain ranges 
 near the coast are extensive forests of various species of 
 oak, pine, cedar, elm, ash, maple, olive, &c. The cork tree 
 is also very common. The trees, especially the cedars and 
 oaks, are frequently of gigantic size. Great injury is often 
 done to the forests by the people annually burning up the 
 grass of their fields. In this way extensive forests are 
 sometimes consumed. The want of roads and navigable 
 rivers has prevented the French from deriving much benefit 
 as yet from the forests. Besides wheat and barley, the cotton 
 plant, sugar-cane, and tobacco are extensively cultivated. 
 
 The animal kingdom presents little calling for notice. 
 Lions, formerly very plentiful, are now extremely rare; 
 leopards, panthers, jackals, and hyaenas are still common ; 
 and monkeys and apes are numerous. The wild boar is 
 found in the oak forests, and the brown bear in the higher 
 parts of the country. There are also various species of 
 antelope. Of the feathered tribes, eagles, vultures, hawks, 
 and owls are common ; snipes, curlews, plovers, storks, and 
 herons frequent the marshy parts; and the ostrich has its 
 habitat in the desert. Among the reptiles are various 
 species of serpents, tortoises, turtles, K zards, &c. Locusts are 
 common, and sometimes do great damage to the. crops. One 
 of the severest invasions of these pests ever known occurred 
 in 1866, when the crops were nearly all destroyed, and the 
 loss sustained by the colonists was estimated at £800,000. 
 The coast is rich in coral and sponges, and the obtaining 
 of these forms a considerable branch of industry. The 
 chief wealth of most of the Arab tribes consists in their 
 sheep, of which they frequently possess immense flocks; 
 camels are also common, but the horses and mules are 
 more esteemed, and are noted for their excellence.
 
 564 
 
 ALGERIA 
 
 From its position, Algeria might be supposed to enjoy a 
 ■warm climate; but the temperature varies considerably in 
 different parts, according to the elevation and configuration 
 of the country. In the northern districts the climate very 
 much resembles that of the south of Spain, while in the 
 Sahara the heat is often excessive. In the more elevated 
 regions the winter is frequently very severe ; but along 
 the coast the temperature is mild, very rarely sinking to 
 the freezing-point even in winter, when heavy rains are 
 of frequent occurrence. Dr Shaw knew the thermometer 
 ?each the freezing-point only twice during twelve years' 
 ■esidence at Algiers. The coldest month is January, the 
 hottest August. The >ains prevail from December to 
 February; the temperate season continues from March to 
 June, and the hot seascn lasts from July to November. 
 The mean annual temperature of the town of Algiers is 
 about 66-5° Fahr.; being for the coldest month 48°, and for 
 the hottest 83°. During summer there is a great difference 
 between the day and night temperature, especially in the 
 inland districts. The simoom or hot wind of the desert 
 sweeps at intervals over the country, between May and 
 September, impregnating the air with fine sand from the 
 desert. In general, with the exception of places in the 
 vicinity of the marshes, lUgeria possesses a healthy climate. 
 Ophthalmia, however, is very common, and elephantiasis 
 is by no means an unusual disease, owing to the want of 
 cleanliness among the country people. 1 
 taiabil- Besides the Europeans there are eight distinct races of 
 
 inhabitants in Algeria — (1.) The Kabyles or Berbers, the 
 descendants of the aboriginal inhabitants of the country, 
 constitute a large portion of the entire population. They 
 occupy chiefly the more elevated and mountainous parts, 
 but numbers of them also inhabit the plains and valleys. 
 They are described as an active, industrious race, living in 
 villages, and principally engaged in agriculture and the 
 cultivation of fruit trees. They also make their own 
 agricultuifcl implements, guns, gunpowder, leather, carpets, 
 Ac (2.) The Arabs are a very numerous class, and inhabit 
 principally the southern parts of the country. Some of them 
 are cultivators of the soil, and live in villages in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the towns; but the majority of them have no 
 fixed habitation, dwelling in tents and moving about from 
 place to place. These are the Bedouins or nomadic Arabs, 
 and are the most unsettled and turbulent of the Algerine 
 population. (3.) The Moors, a mixed, race, inhabit the 
 towns and villages chiefly on or near the sea-coast (4.) 
 The Jews are also to be found in the towns, and are 
 engaged in mercantile pursuits. (5.) The Turks, though 
 long the dominant race, were nev^r very numerous, and 
 6ince the French conquest they have nearly disappeared. 
 (6.) The Kolougis are the descendants of Turks by native 
 women, and constitute a considerable proportion of the 
 inhabitants of Algiers and other towns. (7.) The Negroes 
 were originally brought from the interior and sold as slaves, 
 but slavery now no longer exists. (8.) The Mozabites are 
 an African race, to be found inhabiting the coast towns, and 
 chiefly engaged in manual labour. They are described as 
 an honest, industrious, and peaceable people. 
 
 1 A Parliamentary Report on the climate of Algeria published in 
 1 867 is of great interest, particularly as investigating the causes of the 
 great reduction in the mortality of the French troops serving there. 
 The death-rate in Algerian hospitals for the first five years succeeding 
 the conquest amounted to nearly 79 per 1000; and for the period from 
 1831 to 1S4G it is given as high as 80 per 1000. In 1860 the death- 
 rate per 1000 was only 178; in 1861, 11-3; in 1862, 1221; in 
 1863, 1229; and in 1864, 14-48. The causes of this remarkable 
 difference are stated to be — the former existence of certain unhealthy 
 conditions in the country itself, and in the mode of life of both troops 
 and colonists, which were accompanied by a high death-rate ; and the 
 subsequent removal to a certain extent of these conditions, together with 
 the introduction of improved habits and modes of life, accompanied 
 by improved health and lower death-rates. 
 
 Tho Europea* civil population of Algeria amounted » only 46,000 
 persons in 1840, and in 1845 it had increased to 75,867. In Dec 
 1849 it had risen to 112,607, of whom 58,006 were French, 6943 
 Maltese, 33,659 Spaniards, 6986 Italians, 2515 Germans, 1253 
 Swiss, and 3240 of other nations. According to the census of 1861 
 the entire population of Algeria was 2,966,836, of whom 2,374,091 
 were nomadic native races, 112,229 French, and 80,517 other 
 Europeans. In 1866 the entire population was 2,921,246, of whom 
 2,434,974 were of indigenous wandering tnbes, 217,990 Europeans, 
 and 251,050 natives settled in towns. Of the Europeans, 122,119 
 were French, 58,610 Spaniards, 16,655 Italians, 10,627 Maltese, 
 and 5636 Germans. In the civil territory the entire population in 
 1870 is given as 478,342, of which 121,629 were French, 97,918 
 other Europeans, 33,117 Jews, and 225,693 Mahometans. 
 
 When under the dominion of the Turks, this country 
 was governed by a dey, and divided into four provinces — 
 Algiers and Titterie in the centre, Tlemcen in the west, 
 and Constantine in the east. The last three were governed 
 by beys under the dey. At present it is divided into three 
 provinces — Algiers in the centre, Oran in the west, and 
 Constantine in the east. Till 1871 the country was 
 entirely under military rule, but in that year various 
 important reforms were introduced; and in place of the 
 former military governor a civil governor-general was 
 appointed to administer the affairs of the colony, and to 
 direct the action of both civil and military authorities. 
 He is invested with legislative powers in civil matters; but 
 in all important cases he has to take the advice of a 
 colonial council, the members of which are appointed by 
 the French government. The power of the governor- 
 general, however, extends only over the settled districts. 
 In the thinly-populated parts, and the districts where the 
 nomadic tribes are chiefly found, military rule still prevails. 
 The three provinces are subdivided into twelve departments, 
 at the head of each of which is a prefect, and under him 
 are sub-prefects who rule over smaller divisions. By an 
 Act of 14th July 1865, the natives, both Mahometan and 
 Jewish, were declared entitled to the lank and prerogatives 
 of French citizens, on placing themselves completely and 
 absolutely under the civil and political laws of France, 
 and thus were made admissible to all the grades in the 
 army and navy, and to many posts in the civil service of 
 the state. 
 
 In 1840 the revenue amounted to 5,610,706 frs. and the expendi- Revea » 
 ture to 7,206,372 frs.; in 1850 these were respectively 19,632,271 
 frs. and 27,959,358 frs.; in 1860, 38,908,900 frs. and 39.471,372 
 frs.; and in 1870, 45,360,859 frs. and 51,762,316 fra. or £r,814,434 
 and £2,070,492. This expenditure does not include the cost of the 
 maintenance of the army, the expenditure for public works, and 
 other large sums disbursed by the home government. In th« 
 French financial estimates for 1873 the home expenditure for 
 Algeria was set down at 24,496,109 frs. or £979,844, and tho 
 revenue derived from the colony at 19,008,584 frs. or £760,343. 
 According to a statement made in the French legislative assembly 
 in 1864, Algeria had cost the mother country three milliards of 
 francs, or £120,000,000 in money and 150,000 lives. The French 
 army in Algeria numbers about 60,000 men, and consists of two 
 classes, namely, French troops, who remain there for a certain 
 number of years, and then return to France ; and native trooos, who 
 never quit the country except for fighting purposes. 
 
 Algeria in the time of the Romans was noted for its fertility, and 
 this is still the character of the cultivated parts of the country. 
 Many parts only want water to render them fertile, and the govern- 
 ment has lately sunk a number of Artesian wells with the most 
 beneficial results. The principal grain crops are wheat and barley. 
 In 1866 there were in the three provinces 4,163,367 acres of land 
 under different kinds of groin, and the produce amounted to 
 2,802,208 quarters; 28,132 ncree of vineyards, 14,266 acres under 
 cotton, 5967 under flax, and 9793 under tobacco. In the province 
 of Algiers the total area of land under cultivation with cereals in 
 1868 was, in the civil portion, 178,642 acres, of which 120,286 were 
 cultivated by Europeans; and in the military portion, 808, 89C 
 acres. The total yield in the former case was 266,578, and in the 
 latter 668,666 quarters. These figures do not include other agri- 
 cultural produce, such as beans, maize, &c, of which about 277,062 
 quarters were produced by 99,603 acres. The produce of tobacco 
 throughout the country was estimated at 6,845,000 lb. Olives are 
 grown largely and - almost exclusively in the mountains of Kabylm.
 
 ALGERIA 
 
 565 
 
 In that portion of the district included in the province of Algiers 
 the quantity of fruit gathered is estimated at over 100,000,000 lb. 
 At present not much attention is given to this article of produc- 
 tion ; but there can be no doubt that with more care and attention 
 Algeria might become one of the best olive-producing countries in 
 the world. Oranges are grown to a considerable extent, and the 
 trade in this article is increasing. The vine is cultivated ; but the 
 produce is chiefly for home consumption, and it has scarcely yet 
 become an article of export. In the province of Algiers in 1868 
 about 1,350,000 gallons of wine were produced. During the same 
 year the exportation of cork from the colony amounted to £63,932. 
 The most important fibre is the crin vegetal, or vegetable horse hair, 
 produced from the dwarf palm (Chaijwerqps humilis), with which a 
 vast proportion of the uncultivated parts of the country is covered. 
 Throughout the entire colony, fibre to the value of £89,332 was 
 exported in 1868. The alpha fibre or esparto grass of Oran ranks 
 next in importance, and is largely used in the manufacture of paper. 
 During the American war the cultivation of cotton was extensively 
 carried on, but since the close of the war it has very much fallen off. 
 Flax is cultivated to a considerable extent in some parts. The rear- 
 ing of the silk-worm is also prosecuted. 
 
 Although the mineral wealth of Algeria is enormous, mining 
 operations have not hitherto been carried on very extensively. The 
 most important mineral products are iron, copper, lead, mercury, 
 and antimony. During 1868 the iron mines in the province of 
 Constantine turned out about 240,000 tons of ore, valued at 
 £486,C72, beinj' an increase of £185,532 as compared with the pre- 
 ceding year. Nearly the whole of this was from the mine of Ain 
 Mokra or Mokhta-el-Hadid, which yields on an average 200,000 
 tons of ore per annum. The ore contains 65 per cent, of the metal.' 
 Lead ore to the value of £125,745 was exported during that year. 
 A»de 'Th e trade of Algeria has very much increased since it became a 
 
 French colony. The imports, which in 1831 amounted to only 
 £280,000, rose to £1,600,000 in 1844, to £3,249,377 in 1854, and 
 to nearly £4,500,000 in 1863.- The- exports, however, have not 
 grown in proportion; and during the ten years preceding 1863 
 they never exceeded from 14 to 2 millions sterling. In 1865 an 
 Act declared the navigation not only between France and Algeria but 
 also between Algeria and foreign countries open to all nations, and 
 abolished various oppressive taxes affecting foreign shipping. The 
 following year these privileges were extended: the coasting trade 
 was thrown open and free navigation permitted, tonnage duties on 
 foreign shipping were abolished, and raw manufactured goods enter- 
 ing France free of duty had the same advantage conceded to them 
 in Algeria. Algerian products might enter France free of duty, and 
 the same privilege was accorded to French products in Algeria, 
 sugar excepted. In 1868 the imports amounted to £7,706,574, 
 which was an increase of £199,494 over the previous year. The 
 proportions received from the different countries were — France, 75 
 percent; Turkey, 8-44; Kussia, 4 '29; Spain, 3 -99; Great Britain, 
 3'54 ; Italy, 2-56 ; Barbary States, 1'40. The imports from Turkey 
 and Russia are exceptionally high, owing to the necessity of obtain- 
 ing grain supplies from these countries in consequence of a failure 
 in the crops. The principal ports of import were— Algiers, 40 43 
 per cent.i Oran, 33 '33; Philippeville, 15 '04; Bona, 7 '01; Mosta- 
 ganem, 2-33. In 1869 the imports amounted to £7,332,192, arid 
 in 1870 to £6,907,628. The principal imports are cotton goods, 
 wines, spirits, sugar, glass, crystal, cheese, salt-fish, soap, &c. The 
 total value of the exports during 1868 amounted to £4,122,772, 
 being an increase of £236,293 as compared with 1867. The propor- 
 tions sent to the different countries were — France, 79'20 per cent. ; 
 Spain, 11-68; Great Britain, 5 84; Italy, T80. The principal 
 exports are sheep, oxen, skins, wool, tobacco, flour, fresh -and. dried 
 vegetables,' olive-oil, flax, cotton, ores, crin vegetal. In 1869 the 
 total exports amounted to £4,438,045, and in 1870 to £4,978,250. 
 The overland trade between Algeria and its neighbours, Marocco 
 and Tunis, now begins to assume some importance. The number of 
 vessels that entered an<*. left the various ports in 1868 was 8740, of 
 an aggregate burden of 1,664,513 tons, and manned by 16,173 men. 
 This is an increase over the previous year of 18"40 per cent, as 
 regards the number of ships, and of 12 63 per cent, as regards the 
 tonnage. As engaged in the direct trade with Britain, there entered 
 99 British vessels with an aggregate of 17,940 tons, and cleared 109 
 British vessels with an aggregate of 12,523 tons. Besides these 
 there were British vessels engaged in the direct or carrying trade 
 with other countries, of which entered 125 with an aggregate burden 
 of 14,972 tons, and cleared 106 with an aggregate of 19,960 tons. 
 The number of British vessels trading at the four principal ports, 
 namely, Algiers, Oran, Bona, and Philippeville in 1872 was as 
 follows :— direct, entered, 171— tonnage, 60,285 ; left, 251— tonnage, 
 76,973; indirect, entered, 170— tonnage, 79,454; left, 125— 
 tonnage, 63,646. Daring that year 1595 vessels of 3,746,130 tons 
 entered, and 1587 vessels of 376,402 tons cleared, at the port of 
 Algiers. The most important articles of export, as far as British 
 trade is concerned, are crin vegetal and alpha fibre. During the 
 first nine months of .1872 about 6000 tons of the former were 
 exported from the Dort uf Algiers alone ; and about 60,000 tons of 
 
 the latter from the whole colony, chiefly from Oran. Some idea of tn« 
 rapidly advancing commercial prosperity of Algeria may be gathered, 
 from the fact that the amount of sums discounted at the Bank of 
 Algeria (which was established in 1851) had risen from £3,900,130 
 in 1866-7 to £8,131,535 in 1871-2. Much has been done, particu- 
 larly of late years, in the way of opening up the country and de- 
 veloping its resources. Roads have been formed and bridges built 
 in various parts, harbours have been improved, and lighthouses 
 erected. There are now 374 miles of railway open for traffic, 
 forming a line from Algiers to Oran and one from Philippeville to 
 Constantine. 
 
 In early times this country was inhabited by two nations, 
 the Massyli and the Massaesyli. During the struggle be- 
 tween Hannibal and the Romans, Syphax, the prince of 
 the Massaesyli, espoused the cause of the former, and 
 Massinissa, the prince of the Massyli, that of the latter. 
 On the defeat of the Carthaginians the territories of Syphax 
 were annexed to those of Masinissa, who received the title 
 of King of Numidia. During the Roman civil war, Juba, 
 king of Numidia, sided with Pompey, and being defeated 
 by Caesar, his kingdom became a Roman province. Under 
 the Romans the country enjoyed a great degree of pros- 
 perity. Agriculture was encouraged, commerce extended, 
 roads were formed, and towns sprang up. Christianity, too, 
 was early introduced and flourished. This state of things, 
 however, received a severe check when tiki Romans were 
 driven out of Africa by the Vandals about the middle of the 
 5th century. These in turn were expelled by Belisarius, 
 Justinian's general, in 533. About the middle of the 7th 
 century the Saracens made themselves masters of the 
 country, which came afterwards to be divided into a num- 
 ber of petty states under independent chiefs, and the people 
 sank into a state of barbarism. About the middle of the 
 11th century Abdallah-ben-Yazim, a learned Arab, formed 
 a numerous sect of religionists, known as Morabites, who 
 overran the country, subdued many of the petty chiefs, 
 and laid the foundation of the dynasty of the Almoravidea. 
 That dynasty reigned for nearly a hundred years, and at 
 one time nearly the whole of Barbary and a great part of 
 Spain were under their government. They were succeeded 
 by the dynasty of the Almohades, who reigned over the 
 region till 1273, when it was again split up into a number 
 of small states. In 1505, Ferdinand, king of Spain, sent a 
 powerful fleet and army against the country, under the 
 Count of Navarre, who soon made himself master of Oran, 
 Bugia, and other towns, and finally, in 1509, took the town 
 of Algiers. The Spanish rule, however, was very distasteful 
 to the Algerines ; and on hearing of the death of Ferdinand, 
 in 1516, one of the native princes sent an embassy to 
 Aruch Barbarossa, the famous Turkish pirate, requesting 
 his aid against the invaders. This was readily granted ; 
 and no sooner had he established himself in the country 
 than he murdered the prince and caused hims elf to be 
 proclaimed king in his room. He introduced that system 
 of piracy for which Algeria was afterwards noted down to 
 1830. By force and treachery he extended his dominion 
 over other parts of the country, till at length the Spaniards 
 marched a large army against him from Oran, and being 
 joined by many of the natives, defeated him in various 
 engagements, took him prisoner, and beheaded him, His 
 brother Hayradin was then chosen sultan ; and he feeling 
 himself unable to cope with the Spaniards, sought the 
 assistance of Turkey, and put himself under the protection 
 of the Grand Seignior. Aid was readily granted, and he 
 himself was appointed pasha or viceroy of Algiers. Having 
 thus got rid of his enemies the Spaniards, he turned his 
 attention to the extension of his piratical enterprises; and 
 in order to do this with the greater security, he fortified 
 the port of Algiers and built a strong mole for the protec- 
 tion of his ships. He is said to have employed' 30,000 
 Christian slaves for three years in the construction of the 
 mole. The Algerine pirates sood became dreaded, uot
 
 566 
 
 ALGERIA 
 
 only by tho Arabs and Moors, but also by the maritime 
 Christian powers, particularly the Spaniards. At length 
 Pope Paul IIL induced Charles V. to undertake an expedi- 
 tion to suppress these depredations, and issued a bull offer- 
 ing remission of sins and the crown of martyrdom to all 
 ■who either fell in battle or were made slaves. The emperor 
 Bet sail with 120 ships and 20 galleys, having on board 
 30,000 chosen men. They landed in safety, and were 
 proceeding to attack the town of Algiers when a fearful 
 storm arose, and in one night (28th Oct. 1541) destroyed 
 86 ships and 15 galleys with all their crews and military 
 stores, so that the army on shore was deprived of the 
 means of subsistence. This was then fallen upon by tho 
 Algerines, when many were killed and a great number 
 taken prisoners, Charles himself and the remains of his 
 army escaping with difficulty. 
 
 Algiers continued to be governed by viceroys or pashas 
 appointed by the Porte till the beginning of the 17th 
 century, when the janissaries solicited and obtained the 
 right to choose their own dey or governor from among them- 
 selves. This subsequently led to frequent altercations 
 between the pashas and the deys, the former seeking to 
 recover their lost power, the latter to reduce it. In 1609, 
 the Moors being expelled from Spain, flocked in great num- 
 bers to Algiers, and, as many of them were very able sailors, 
 they contributed to raise the power of the Algerine fleet. 
 In 1616 it consisted of forty sail of ships, of between 200 
 and 400 tons, their flagship having 500 tons. The Algerine 
 pirates now became so formidable to the European powers, 
 that in 1617 the French sent against them a fleet of fifty 
 "Bail, under Beaulieu, who defeated their fleet and took two 
 of their vessels. In 1620 the English sent out a squadron 
 Tinder the command of Sir Robert Mansel on the same 
 errand, but it returned without effecting anything. Then- 
 depredations becoming still more frequent and trouble- 
 some, the Venetians equipped a fleet of twenty-eight sail, 
 under the command of Admiral Capello, with orders to 
 bum, sink, or take all the Barbary corsairs he should meet. 
 In an engagement which speedily took place he signally 
 defeated them, and took and destroyed sixteen of their 
 galleys. They soon, however, regained their former 
 strength; and at length Louis XIV., provoked by the 
 outrages committed by them on the coasts of Provence and 
 Languedoc, ordered, in 1681, a considerable fleet to be 
 fitted out against them, under the command of Vice-admiral 
 Duquesne. He attacked them near the island of Scios, 
 and destroyed fourteen of their ships. This, however, had 
 little effect upon them, and the following year he bom- 
 barded the town of Algiers and nearly reduced it to ashes. 
 The Algerines, by way of reprisal, sent a number of galleys 
 to the coast of Provence, where they committed great 
 ravages. In May 1683, Duquesne with his fleet again 
 cast anchor before Algiers, and proceeded to bombard the 
 town. The dey and the people sued for peace ; but Mezo- 
 morto, the Algerine admiral, who was to have been delivered 
 up as one of the hostages, violently opposed coming to 
 terms, stirred up the soldiery against the dey, and caused 
 him to be murdered, and was himself chosen as his suc- 
 cessor. The bombardment was renewed, and Mezomorto, 
 reduced to extremities, caused all the French in the city to 
 be cruelly murdered, and the French consul to be tied 
 to the mouth of a mortar and shot off in the direction of 
 the bombarding fleet. Duquesne was so exasperated by 
 this piece of cruelty that he did not leave Algiers till he 
 had utterly destroyed the fortifications, shipping, almost all 
 the lower, and about two-thirds of the upper part of the 
 to^vn. The Algerines, now thoroughly humbled, sent an 
 embassy to France to sue for peace, which was readily 
 granted them. In 1686 the English concluded a treaty 
 with the Algerines on favourable terms, and this was 
 
 several times subsequently renewed; but it was not till 
 the taking of Gibraltar and Port Mahon that England had 
 sufficient check upon them to enforce the observance of 
 treaties. From that time England was treated with greater- 
 deference than any other European power. In 1710 the 
 Turkish pasha was expelled and his office united to that 
 of dey. The dey thus became the supreme ruler in the- 
 country. Ho had the charge of the Turkish militia, 
 recruited from Constantinople and Smyrra, because their 
 children by native mothers could not be allowed to enjoy 
 the same privileges as themselves in consequence of former 
 rebellions against the government. Under the dey there 
 was a divan or council of state, chosen from the principal 
 civic functionaries. 
 
 Matters continued very much in the same state, and the 
 history of Algiers presents little calling for special ■ notice' 
 down to the expedition of Lord Exmouth. The principal 
 States of Europe had had their attention taken up with 
 weightier matters; but on the establishment of the peace 
 of 1815 tho English sent a squadron of ships, under 
 Lord Exmouth, to Algiers, to demand the liberation of all 
 slaves then in bondage there, and the entire discontinuance 
 of piratical depredations. Afraid to refuse, the Algerine* 
 returned a conciliatory answer, and released a number of 
 their slaves; but no sooner had the ships left than they 
 redoubled their activity and perpetrated every sort of 
 cruelty against the Christians. Among other acts of 
 cruelty, they attacked and massacred a number of Neapo- 
 litan fishermen who were engaged in the pearl-fishery at 
 Bona. The news of this excited great indignation in 
 England, and Lord Exmouth was again despatched with 
 five ships of the line and eight smaller vessels, and at 
 Gibraltar he was joined by a Dutch fleet of six frigates, 
 under Admiral Capellen. They anchored in front of Algiers 
 on the 26th August 1816. Certain terms, which were 
 extremely moderate, were proposed to the dey; but these 
 not meeting with acceptance, a fierce bombardment was at 
 once commenced. At first the assailants were subjected to 
 a heavy fire from the enemy's batteries; but after a time 
 these were one by one silenced, and ship after ship caught 
 fire, till the destruction of the Algerine naval force was 
 complete. Next day the terms proposed to the dey were 
 accepted; Christian slaves to the number of 1211 were 
 set at liberty, and a promise was given that piracy and 
 Christian slavery should cease for ever. The Algerines, 
 however, did not long adhere to the terms of the treaty. 
 They lost no time in putting their city in a more formid- 
 able state of defence than before, and this done, they 
 considered themselves in a condition to set the great powers 
 of Europe at defiance. 
 
 Various injuries had from time to time been inflicted on 
 the French shipping, but that which more directly led to 
 a declaration of war was an insult offered to the French 
 consul by the dey. A debt had been contracted by the 
 French government to two Jewish merchants of Algiers at 
 the time of the expedition to Egypt, and the dey having a 
 direct interest in thj matter, had made repeated applications 
 for payment, but without success Annoyed at this and 
 at what he considered insulting language on the part of 
 the consul, he struck the latter on the face in public. In 
 consequence of this, a French squadron was sent to Algiers 
 which took the consul on board, and for three years main- 
 tained an ineffective blockade. At length war on a great 
 scale was resolved on, and a fleet was equipped at Toulon 
 in May 1830 under the command of A Hrnira l Duperre. 
 It had also on board a land force, under the command 
 of General Bourmont, consisting of 37,000 infantry, 4000 
 cavalry, and a proportionate number of artillery. The 
 troops began to land on the 1 4th June upon the western 
 side of the peninsula of Sidi Ferruch, in the b»y of Tcte-
 
 ALGERIA 
 
 56? 
 
 Cliica. They did ncA meet with much opposition till the 
 19th, when a general attack was made upon them by 
 a force of from 40,000 to 50,000 men. These, after a 
 ii jrco conflict, were completely routed. They renewed their 
 attack on the 24th and 25th, but were on both occasions 
 repulsed. The French then advanced upon Algiers, and 
 on the 29th the trenches were opened. On the morning 
 of the 4th of July the bombardment commenced, and before 
 night a treaty was concluded for the eutire surrender of 
 Algiers. The next day the French took possession of the 
 town; and 12 ships of war, 1500 brass cannon, and over 
 .£2,000,000 sterling came into their hands as conquerors. 
 The Turkish troops were permitted to go wherever they 
 pleased, provided they left Algiers, and most of them were 
 conveyed to Asia Minor. The dey himself, with his private 
 property and a large body of attendants, retired to Naples. 
 
 When the French undertook the expedition against 
 Algiers a pledge was given to the English government, 
 that they did not aim at the permanent possession of the 
 country, but only at obtaining satisfaction for the injuries 
 and insults that they had received, and putting down that 
 system of piracy which had so long outraged Europe. The 
 French government engaged that these objects being accom- 
 plished, the final settlement and government of the country 
 should be arranged in concert with the other European 
 powers for the general advantage. Notwithstanding this, 
 the French ministry in 1833 publicly declared that it was 
 the intention of their government to retain possession of 
 Algiers and to colonise it. Subsequently, the English 
 government acquiesced in this, on receiving an engagement 
 that the French would not extend their conquests beyond 
 Algeria either on the side of Tunis or of Marocco. 
 
 The capture of Algiers was celebrated in France with 
 great demonstrations of joy. General Bourmont was raised 
 to the rank of marshal, and Admiral Duperre was promoted 
 to the peerage. The revolution of 1830 followed, when 
 Bourmont was deposed, and General Clausel appointed to 
 succeed him. The conquerors, instead of attempting to 
 gain the good-will of the natives, destroyed a number of 
 their mosques, seized upon lands set apart for religious pur- 
 poses, and attempted to introduce their own laws and usages 
 in place of those of the country, the consequence of which 
 was that the natives entertained the greatest abhorrence 
 for their oppressors, whom they regarded as the enemies of 
 God and their prophet. General Clausel incensed them 
 still more by seizing upon the possessions of the dey, 
 the beys, and the expelled Turks in direct opposition to 
 the conditions on which the capital had been surrendered. 
 Bona was taken possession of, and an incursion was made 
 into the southern province of Titterie, when the troops of 
 the bey were defeated and Mediah taken. The beys of 
 Titterie and Oran were deposed, and tributary rulers set 
 up in their room. Still the war continued. The French 
 were incessantly harassed by irruptions of hordes of the 
 Arabs, so that no Frenchman was safe, even in the vicinity 
 of the town ; and little reliance could be placed on the 
 fidelity of the beys who governed the provinces. Mediah 
 •was evacuated, and Oran abandoned. In February 1831 
 General Berthezene was appointed commander-in-chief, and 
 undertook several expeditions into the interior to chastise 
 the hostile tribes, but met with little success. In October 
 Bona was surrounded and taken by the Kabyles. There was 
 now no safety but in the town of Algiers; agriculture was 
 consequently neglected, and it was necessary to send to 
 France for supplies of provisions and for fresh troops. In 
 November 1831 General Savary, Due de Rovigo, was sent 
 out with an additional force of 16,000 men. The new 
 governor sought to accomplish his ends by the grossest 
 acts of cruelty and treachery. One of his exploits was the 
 massacre of a whole Arab tribe, including old men, women, 
 
 and children, during night, on account of a robbery com- 
 mitted by some of them. lie also treacherously murdered 
 two Arab chiefs whom he had enticed into his power by a 
 .written assurance of safety. These proceedings exasperated 
 the natives still further against the French, and those 
 tribes that had hitherto remained quiet took up arms 
 against them. 
 
 About this time Abd-el-Kader first appears upon the field. 
 His father, a Marabout, had collected a few followers, and 
 attacked and taken possession of the town of Oran. On 
 this they wished to elect him as their chief, but he declined 
 the honour on account of his great age; and recommended 
 his son who, he said, was endowed with all the qualities 
 necessary to success. Abd-el-Kader was born about the 
 beginning of 1807, and had early acquired a great reputa- 
 tion among his countrymen for learning and piety, as 
 he was also distinguished among thein for skill in horses 
 manship and other manly exercises. He had made two 
 pilgrimages to Mecca in company with his father, once 
 when a child and again in 1828, by which he obtained the 
 title of Hadji. At this time he was living in obscurity, 
 distinguished by the austerity of his manners, his piety, 
 and his zeal in observing the precepts of the Koran. He 
 collected an army of 10,000 horsemen, and, accompanied 
 by hi3 father, marched to attack Oran, which had been 
 taken possession of by the French. They arrived before 
 the town about the middle of May 1832, but after con- 
 tinuing their attack for three days with great bravery they 
 were repulsed with considerable loss. This was followed 
 by a series of conflicts, more or less severe, between the 
 parties, but without any permanent or decided advantage 
 to either side. In March 1833 the Due de Rovigo was 
 obliged, on account of his health, to return to France, and 
 General Avizard was appointed interim governor; but the 
 latter dying soon after, General Voirol was nominated his 
 successor. Abd-el-Kader was still extending his influence 
 more and more widely among the Arab tribes; and the 
 French at last considered it to be their interest to offer 
 him terms of peace. A treaty was accordingly concluded 
 with him by General Desmichels, governor of Oran, in 
 February 1834, in which he acknowledged the supremacy 
 of France, and was recognised by them as emir of the 
 province of Mascara. One of the conditions of the treaty 
 was that the emir was to have a monopoly of the trade 
 with the French in corn. This part of the treaty was 
 regarded with great dissatisfaction at home, and the general 
 was removed from his post. In July General Drouct 
 d'Erlon was sent out as governor-general of the colony. 
 An intendaut or head of the civil department was also 
 appointed, as well as a commissary of justice at the head 
 of the judicature. Tribunals of justice wore also estab- 
 lished, by which both French and natives were allowed to 
 enjoy their respective laws. From the tranquil state of 
 the country at this time the new governor was enabled to 
 devote his attention to its improvement. The French, 
 however, soon became jealous of the power of the emir, 
 and on the pretence that he had been encroaching on their 
 territory, General Trczel, who had succeeded Desmichels 
 in the governorship of Oran, was sent against him with a 
 considerable force. The armies met at the river Makti, 
 and the French were routed with great slaughter on the 
 28th of June 1835. On the news of this, defeat Marshal 
 Clausel was sent to Algiers to succeed Count d'Erlon. In 
 order effectually to humble the emir, he set out for his 
 capital, Mascara, accompanied by the Duke of Orleans, 
 at the head of 11,000 men. On reaching the town the 
 French found it deserted, and, having set it on fire, they 
 returned without having effected anything of consequence. 
 In January 1836 Marshal Clausel undertook an expedition 
 against Tlemcen, which he took and garrisuued. Soon
 
 568 
 
 ALGERIA 
 
 after this the emir attacked and put to flight a body of 
 3000 men under Count d'Arlanges on the Tafna. General 
 Bugeaud, who had succeeded Marshal Clause], attacked 
 the Arabs under Abd-el-Kader on the Sikak river, 6th 
 July 1836, and gained a complete victory over them. An 
 expedition against the bey of Constantino was next resolved 
 on, and Marshal Clausel, at the head of 8000 men, set out 
 from Bona for this purpose in November 1836. They 
 encountered on their march a severe storm of hail and 
 snow, followed by a sharp frost, so that many of them 
 died; and when they arrived before the walls of the town 
 they were unable to undertake the siege, and effected their 
 retreat with difficulty. The French were now anxious to 
 conclude a peace with Abd-el-Kader, and with this view 
 General Bugeaud arranged a meeting with him on the 
 banks of the Tafna, and a treaty was signed, 30th May 
 1 837. They were then free to turn their strength against 
 the bey of Constantine, and an army of 20,000 men set' 
 out from Bona with this object under the command of 
 General Damremont early in October. The town was, 
 after a very gallant defence, taken by storm on the 1 2th 
 of that month by General Valee, General Damremont 
 having been killed by a cannon-ball the previous day. 
 On the capture of the city the neighbouring tribes hastened 
 to make their submission to the conquerors, and a strong 
 garrison being left to defend the town, the army returned 
 to Bona. As a reward for his services, General Valee was 
 made a marshal and appointed governor-general of the 
 colony. Disputes with the emir as to the boundaries of 
 his territory were frequent, and at length war was again 
 declared between the parties. The immediate cause of 
 war on this occasion was the marching of an armed force 
 of French troops through the emir's territory. This the 
 latter looked upon as an infringement of the treaty, and 
 consequently declared war. In October 1839, he suddenly 
 fell upon the French troops in the plain of Metidja, and 
 routed them with great slaughter, destroying and laying 
 waste the European settlements. He surprised and cut to 
 pieces bodies of troops on their march ; outposts and encamp- 
 ments were taken by sudden assault; and at length the 
 possessions of the French were reduced to the fortified places 
 which they occupied. On the news of these events reach- 
 ing France, reinforcements to the amount of 20,000 men 
 were sent out. The spring campaign was vigorously opened 
 on both sides, and numerous skirmishes took place, but 
 without decisive results to either party. The French were, 
 indeed, everywhere successful in the field, but the scattered 
 troops of the enemy would speedily reassemble and sweep 
 the plains, so that there was no safety beyond the camp 
 and the walls of the towns. The fort of Masagran, near 
 Mostaganem, with a garrison of only 123 men, gallantly 
 withstood a fierce attack by 12,000 to 15,000 Arabs, which 
 lasted for three days. Marshal Val^e was now recalled, 
 and General Bugeaud appointed to succeed him. The 
 latter arrived at Algiers on the 22d of February 1841, and 
 adopted a new system, which was completely successful 
 He made use of movable columns radiating from Algiers, 
 Oran, and Constantine, and having from 80,000 to 100,000 
 troops at his disposal, the result soon told against the emir. 
 Many of the Arab tribes were thus intimidated or brought 
 under subjection, hard pressed garrisons were relieved and 
 victualled, and town after town taken. Tekedemt, the 
 principal stronghold of Abd-el-Kader, was destroyed, and 
 the citadel blown up ; Mascara was taken ; and Saida, 
 the only remaining fortress in the possession of the emir, 
 ■was entirely demolished. In January 1842 the town of 
 Tlemcen was taken, and ten days afterwards the fort of 
 Tafna, which was demolished. The terrified Arabs sub- 
 mitted on all sides, and now almost the entire country was 
 subdued. The emir himself, driven to extremities, was 
 
 compelled to take refuge in Marocco. Here he succeeded 
 in raising a considerable force, and returned to Algeria. 
 He made up for the want of troops by the rapidity of his 
 movements, and would suddenly make an attack on one 
 place when he was supposed to be in quite an opposite 
 quarter. In November 1842 the Duke of Aumale arrived 
 in Algiers to take part in the operations against the emir ; 
 and in the spring of the following year he suddenly fell 
 upon the camp of Abd-el-Kader while the great body of 
 his troops were absent, and took several thousand prisoners 
 and a largo booty, the emir himself making his escape 
 with difficulty. Not long afterwards the latter again took 
 refuge in Marocco, and so excited the fanatical passions of 
 the people of that country that their ruler was forced into 
 a war with France. The army which was sent into Algeria 
 was attacked and defeated by Bugeaud at the river Isly, 
 14th August 1844. The emperor of Marocco soon after- 
 wards sued for peace, which was granted him on condition 
 that he should no longer succour or shelter the emir, but 
 aid in pursuing him. Abd-el-Kader was now reduced to 
 great extremities, and obliged Jo take refuge in the moun- 
 tain fastnesses, whence he would from time to time come 
 down to annoy the French. In June 1845 a tribe of 
 Arabs, who were being pursued by a body of -French troops 
 under General Pelissier, took refuge in a cava As they 
 refused to surrender, the general ordered a fire to be kindled 
 at the mouth of the cave, and the whole of those within, 
 men,- women, and children, to the number of 600, were 
 suffocated. The emir at length was brought to such straits 
 that he agreed to deliver himself up to the Fronch on being 
 allowed to retire to Alexandria or St Jean d'Acre. Not- 
 withstanding this promise, which was given by General 
 Lamoricicre, and ratified by the governor-general, he was 
 taken to France, where he arrived on the 29th of January 
 1848; and was imprisoned first in the castle ef Pau, and 
 afterwards in that of Amboise, near Blois. In October 
 1852 Louis Napoleon, then president of the French Re- 
 public, gave him his liberty on condition that he should 
 not return to Algeria, but reside at Brousso in Asia Minor. 
 Here he remained till 1855 when, in consequence of the 
 destruction of that town by an earthquake, he obtained 
 permission to remove to Constantinople, and afterwards to 
 Damascus. At the latter place he rendered valuable aid 
 to the Christians by protecting them during the massacre 
 by the Turks in Syria in 1860. 
 
 On the revolution in France of 1848, General Cavaignao 
 was appointed governor-general of the colony; and the 
 National Assembly, wishing to establish a closer connection 
 between the country and France, offered to incorporate it 
 with the republic. This proposal, however, met with con- 
 siderable opposition, and Algeria was simply declared a 
 permanent possession, with the right to send four deputies 
 to the National Assembly, to be heard on all matters 
 affecting the interests of the colony. Colonists were also 
 sent out to settle there, and other means taken to further 
 its prosperity. Still the republic did not seem to be more 
 successful in the administration of affairs than the monarchy 
 had been. The colonists died off or left in disgust, the 
 natives were not more reconciled to the French yoke, and 
 many of them rose in open rebellion. The Kabyles, in 
 particular, the most intelligent and industrious of the native 
 population, manifested the greatest repugnance to the im- 
 position of taxes and of the usages of civilisation. In 1849 
 General Pelissier marched against several of the rebellious 
 tribes, and reduced them to subjection. Generals Canrobert 
 and Herbillon were sent into the district of Zaab to quell an 
 insurrection excited by the Marabout Bon-Zian. The latter 
 was driven to take refuge in Zaatcha, which resisted the 
 utmost efforts of the French to take it for fifty-one days, 
 but at last it was carried by storm. In 1850 there
 
 A L G — A L G 
 
 569 
 
 ■were several expeditions Bent out against tlic natives, and 
 in 1851 General St Arnaud succeeded in reducing to sub- 
 jection Little Kabylia. In 1852 General M'Mahon set 
 out against Eastern Kabylia, and Pelissier, in the south, 
 took Laghouat by storm. The next few years present 
 us with several expeditions against the Kabyles, but these 
 were not productive of very marked results. In 1854 
 there was an expedition against certain Arab tribes in the 
 .°outh, who were reduced to subjection. In 1856 a great 
 expedition, under the command of General Kandon, was 
 organised against the tribes of Great Kabylia that had not 
 yet submitted to the French ; and after many months' 
 lighting they were brought under subjection. The autho- 
 rity of France was now undisputed over the country, and 
 peace for a time was established. 
 
 In 1858 the administration of the colony was confided 
 to a special minister, the first nominated being Prince 
 Napoleon ; but he only held office for a short time ; and 
 soon after, the special ministry was abolished. In October 
 1859 certain Arab tribes rose in rebellion, but were speedily 
 subdued. In 1860 Marshal Pelissier was made governor- 
 general, with a vice-governor, a director-general of civil 
 affairs, and a council of thirty members. In the beginning 
 of 1863 the emperor promised to Algeria a constitution, 
 with a representative assembly for provincial matters ; and 
 said that it was not a colony properly so called, but an 
 Arab kingdom, and that the natives had an equal right to 
 his protection with the colonists. In April 1864 a for- 
 midable insurrection of the Arabs broke out in the south, 
 in consequence of an insult offered to one of their chiefs in 
 a court of justice, and they suddenly fell upon and cut to 
 pieces a detachment of French troops. A large force was 
 speedily assembled and eent against them, and after they 
 had been beaten in several encounters tho insurrection was 
 at length put down. Marshal Pelissier died in May, and 
 Marshal M'Mahon was appointed to succeed him. A fresh 
 insurrection of the Arabs broke out in October, but after 
 several defeats they were brought to subjection. In May 
 1865 the Emperor Napoleon visited Algeria, and was 
 everywhere received with the greatest demonstrations of 
 joy. After his return to France he wrote a letter to 
 Marshal M'Mahon respecting the future government of 
 the colony. He particularly pointed out the necessity of 
 seeking to gain the good-will of the natives by permitting 
 them to enjoy their territories unmolested, and to maintain 
 their own customs, and that they should be held as equal 
 with the colonists before the law. He further directed 
 him to seek to stimulate the industry of the colonists, and 
 to strive to develop the resources of the country. In 
 October a fresh insurrection broke out in the province of 
 Oran. It commenced with an attack upon a friendly tribe, 
 but was at length put down by a body of troops under the 
 command of Colonel de Colomb. It again broke out in 
 March 1866, and Colonel de Colomb was a second time 
 sent out against the insurgents. He encountered them on 
 the 1 6th, and, after a fierce engagement, put them to flight 
 with great loss. In the beginning of 1867 a new expedi- 
 tion was organised against the refractory Arabs in the 
 south, and these being effectually put down, a period of 
 comparative peace followed. The crops in 1866 were 
 almost entirely destroyed by an invasion of locusts, and 
 in January 1867 a violent earthquake destroyed several 
 villages in the vicinity of Blidah. A prolonged drought 
 followed, which dried up the sources of the springs and 
 produced a fa mi ne, from which the natives suffered much. 
 A visitation of cholera succeeded, which is estimated to 
 have carried off not less than 50,000 persons. In January 
 1868 a fresh revolt broke out among the Arabs, instigated 
 by Si-Hamed, who had led on more than one of the pre- 
 vious revolts. They assailed and plundered some of the 
 
 friendly tribes, and being pursued and attacked by a 
 body of French troops, a fierce engagement took place, 
 in which Si-Hamed was killed and his followers put to 
 Might. Peace was enjoyed for the rest of that year ; but 
 towards the end of January 1869 several large bands of 
 insurgent Arabs in the extreme south marched northward, 
 took by surprise Tagguin, and being joined by others, in a 
 short time they numbered 3000 horse. A body of French, 
 troops was sent out against them from Laghouat, under 
 the command of Colonel Sonis, and after two and a half 
 hours' hard fighting the insurgents were put to flight with 
 great slaughter. In 1871 a widespread insurrection of 
 Arab and Kabyle tribes broke out, stimulated no doubt 
 by a knowledge of the weakened condition of France at 
 home. It commenced with El-Mokrani, the hereditary 
 bach-agha of the Medjana, attacking and burning the 
 village of Brody-Bon-Arreredy, destroying isolated houses 
 and posts throughout the district subject to his influence, 
 the colonists who did not succeed in reaching a place of 
 safety being massacred. All his attacks against the forti- 
 fied places, however, failed ; and as soon as the French 
 were able to assume the offensive he was beaten in every 
 engagement, and subsequently killed in action. When 
 this rebellion appeared almost overcome, the whole or 
 Kabylia rose in arms at the command of the sheikh El- 
 Haddad, one of the most powerful chiefs in Kabylia, and 
 head of an influential religious confraternity. The Kabyles, 
 for the first time in history, descended from their mountain 
 fastnesses, and attempted to invade the plains of the 
 Metidja. The most horrible massacres were perpetrated, 
 and all the principal ports on the coast were strictly 
 blockaded on the landward side. It was not till after the 
 fall of the commune in Paris that troops could be spared 
 in sufficient numbers to suppress the insurrection. But 
 this was at length effected, and a war contribution of 
 £1,200,000 imposed upon the rebels, whose lands were also 
 sequestrated, but the owners were permitted to resume 
 possession on comparatively easy terms. The greater part 
 of the sum recovered was distributed among the colonist* 
 who had suffered during the insurrection, and a consider- 
 able portion of it has been allotted for public works The 
 sequestration has also opened up much valuable territory 
 for European colonisation. Since the insurrection many 
 new colonists have arrived here, and among them many 
 from Alsace and Lorraine. A law passed by the French 
 Chamber, 15th September 1871, authorises, on certain 
 conditions, the gratuitous concession of 247,000 acres of 
 land to such natives of Alsace &nd Lorraine as might 
 desire to preserve their French nationality. A more 
 favourable era, it is believed, has now dawned for the 
 colony. Down to 1871 it had continued under military 
 rule, and this, it was thought, had had not a little to do 
 with the frequent insurrections that had broken out in 
 the country. Accordingly, in October of that year, a civil 
 government was established, as has been already noticed, 
 and since that time the colony has continued . in a more 
 peaceable and flourishing condition. (d. k.) 
 
 ALGHERO, a seaport of Italy, in the province of 
 Sassari, Sardinia, situated on the west coast of the island, 
 14 miles S.W. of Sassari. It was founded by the Genoese, 
 and was afterwards taken by the Catalonians, *hose 
 language is still spoken. Though strongly fortified towards 
 the sea, the landward side of the town is commanded by 
 the overhanging hills. Alghero is an episcopal see, and 
 has a cathedral, erected in 1517, several monasteries, 
 convents, and public schools. Many of the houses are of 
 antique architecture. Near the town are some fine 
 stalactite grottoes. The neighbourhood produces oil and 
 fruit, and the best wine of the island ; and the corals of 
 Alghero are the most beautiful found in the Mediterranean.
 
 570 
 
 A L G — A L H 
 
 The other exports n an, 'wool, tobacco, bones, 
 
 skins, and anchovies. Porte Conte, 9 miles to the N.W., 
 is the roadstead frequented b)' the largest vessels, and is a 
 secure and fortified anchorage, capable of accommodating 
 a large fleet. Population of commune (1865), 8419. 
 
 ALGIERS (Fr. Alger, Arab. AUezair, i.e., The Islands), 
 a city and seaport of Northern Africa, and capital of 
 Algeria, is situated on the west side of a bay of the same 
 name in the Mediterranean. Lat. (of lighthouse), 36° 47' 
 20* N., long. 3° 4' 32' E. It is built, in the form of an 
 amphitheatre, on the northern slope of a steep hill rising 
 abruptly from the coast. It ascends the side of the hill in the 
 form of an irregular triangle, the apex of which is occupied 
 by the Casbah, or ancient fortress of the deys>, -which is 
 about 500 feet above the level of the sea. As seen from a 
 distance, the city presents a very imposing and picturesque 
 appearance ; and the houses rising one above the other, and 
 being all built of white stone, it has been compared to a 
 ship under sail. It consists of two towns — the new, which 
 is entirely European in its character, and i3 built on the 
 lower part of the slope and along the shore ; and the old 
 town, which occupies the higher region, and is entirely 
 Oriental in its character. The new town consists of hand- 
 some streets and squares, and contains the government 
 houses, hotels, warehouses, barracks, <fcc. In the centre of 
 the new town is the Place du Gouvernement, a large and 
 handsome square in the European style, with a fountain, 
 and planted with orange and lime trees. The streets are 
 regular, spacious, and handsome, and adorned with arcades. 
 In the Arab or old town the streets are narrow, winding, 
 and dirty. The houses are square substantial-looking 
 buildings, presenting to the street bare walls, with only a 
 few slits protected by iron gratings in place of windows. 
 Each house has a quadrangle in the centre, into which it 
 looks, and which is entered by a low narrow doorway. 
 Algiers is surrounded by walls and otherwise fortified, but 
 its landward defences are weak and exposed, while the 
 batteries which defend it towards the sea are very strong. 
 It has two handsome suburbs, and numerous elegant villas 
 are scattered over the vicinity. The town is the residence 
 of the governor-general of Algeria, of the prefect of the 
 department of Algiers, and of the chiefs of the different 
 administrative services. It is also the seat of a bishop 
 and of the supreme courts of justice, and has a chamber 
 and tribunal of commerce, a royal college, various schools, 
 a bank, public library, and museum. Among the principal 
 buildings are a cathedral and several Roman Catholic 
 churches, a Protestant church, several synagogues, and a 
 number of mosques. The town is well supplied with 
 ■rater, and there are numerous public arid private foun- 
 tains and baths. Various markets are held here, and 
 horse-racing is a favourite amusement: Algiers has of 
 late come to be noted as a winter residence for invalids. 
 The French have spent large sums of money in the improve- 
 ment of the port of Algiers. It has an area of 220 acres, 
 and it is calculated that when a rock near the centre, 
 called Hocfie Sans Nom, is removed, it will be capable of 
 accommodating 40 vessels of war and 300 trading vessels. 
 It has two docks, capable of containing the largest vessels. 
 The lighthouse has a revolving light visible at the distance 
 of 15 miles. Population (1866), 52,614. (For the trade 
 and climate of Algiers, see Algeria.) 
 
 ALGOA BAY, an inlet in Cape Colony, on the S.E. 
 coast of Africa, 425 miles east from the Cape' of Good 
 Hope. Lat of Croix Island, in the bay, 30° 47' N., and 
 long. 25° 46'. Algoa Bay lies between capes Recife and 
 Padrone, on the former of which there is a lighthouse. It 
 receives the rivers Sunday and Baasher. The best 
 anchorage is on the west side of the inlet, near Port 
 Elizabeth, which is the most imnortant seaport on the 
 
 south coast of Africa. TIere the holding ground is good, 
 and the anchorage is sheltered, except from the south-east 
 winds. Fort Frederick stands on a hill overlooking Port 
 Elizabeth. Algoa Bay was the first landing-place of the 
 British emigrants to the eastern ° province of the Cape 
 Colony, and as the harbour of that province it enjoys a 
 rapidly increasing trade 
 
 ALHAMA, a city of Spain, in the province of Granada, 
 24 miles S.W. of Granada. It is very picturesquely situated 
 on the edge of a gorge in the hills of the Sierra de 
 Alhnma, the streets rising in terraces one above another. 
 The river Marchan flows through the chasm, and the 
 mountains behind the town reach a height of 8000 feet. 
 The name Alhnma signifies in Arabic " the bath," and is 
 derived from the hot mineral springs in the neighbour- 
 hood. These springs, which have a temperature of 118° 
 Fahr., are considered beneficial in cases of dyspepsia and 
 rheumatism, and in former times had as many as 14,000 
 visitors annually. Alhama was a most important fortress 
 while the Moors ruled in Granada, and its capture by the 
 Marquis of Cadiz in 1482 was the most decisive step in 
 the reduction of their power. Remains of the Moorish 
 castle and walls are still to be seen, as well as an aqueduct 
 of Roman or Moorish origin. Many of the houses are of 
 Moorish architecture, and the antiquities of the town, the 
 mineral springs, and the wild scenery of the environs 
 attract numerous visitors. Population, about 7000. 
 
 ALHAMA, a town in Spain, in the province of Murcia, 
 13 miles S.W. of the town of that name. It is celebrated 
 for its sulphur springs, which have a temperature ranging 
 from 91° to 113° Fahr., and attract numerous visitors. 
 The town has a hospital and the ruins of an ancient castle. 
 Population, about 6500. 
 
 ALHAMBRA, the ancient fortress and residence of the 
 Moorish monarchs of Granada, lies on a bill overlooking 
 the city of Granada, on the north. The name, signifying 
 in Arabic " the red," is derived from the colo\\y of the sun- 
 dried lapia, or bricks made of fine gravel and clay, of 
 which the outer walls are built. This famous Moorisl 1 
 palace was erected at various dates, chiefly between 124$ 
 and 1354, under the reigns of Ibn-1-Ahmar and his suc- 
 cessors. The splendid decorations, and in particular the 
 exquisite painting of the interior, are ascribed to Yusuf I., 
 who died in 1354. Immediately after the expulsion of 
 the Moors in 1492, their conquerors began, by innumer- 
 able acts of vandalism, to spoil the marvellous beauty of 
 the Alhambra. The open work was filled up with white- 
 wash, the painting and gilding effaced, the furniture soiled, 
 torn, or removed. Charles V. rebuilt portions in the 
 modern style of the period, and destroyed the greater part 
 of the Winter Palace to make room for a modern structure 
 which has never been completed. Philip V. Italianised 
 the rooms, and completed the degradation by running up 
 partitions which blocked up whole apartments, gems of 
 taste and patient ingenuity. In subsequent centuries the 
 carelessness of the Spanish authorities permitted this pearl 
 of Moorish art to be still further defaced; and in 1812 
 some of the towers were blown up by the French under 
 Sebastiani, while the whole buildings narrowly escaped the 
 same fate. In 1821 the ancient pile was shattered by 
 an earthquake. Directions were given in 1862, by Isabella, 
 then queen of Spain, for the restoration of the Alhambra 
 to its original condition. The work has been carried on 
 with considerable skill, but the sums devoted to it have 
 been too small for its satisfactory accomplishment. 
 
 The hilly terrace on which the Alhambra stands is about 
 2430 feet in length by 674 in breadth at the widest part. 
 A strongly-fortified wall, flanked by thirteen square towers, 
 encloses an area of 35 acres, within which the palace k 
 built. Approaching from the city, the viator pssses
 
 ALHAMBRA 
 
 571 
 
 through the Gate of Pomegranates and enters the grounds 
 of the Alhambra, which are well wooded, and in spring 
 are covered by sweet-scented wild flowers. The gardens, 
 though weedy and ravined, are a charming resort, adorned 
 by beautiful waterfalls and sparkling fountains, and en- 
 livened by the song of the nightingale. Passing the pillars 
 of Charles V., a steep ascent leads to the chief entrance 
 to the Alhambra, the Gate of Judgment — a massive arch- 
 way, surmounted by a square tower 62 feet high, which, 
 while serving as an outwork of the fortress and as an 
 entrance-hall to the palace, was principally used as an 
 open-air court of justice, according to the patriarchal 
 custom of the east The pillars of the gate are of sculp- 
 tured marble, and the horse-shoe arch is 28 feet high. A 
 narrow passage leads to the Plaza de los Algibes, the Place 
 of the Cisterns, so called from the tanks underneath filled 
 with water from the Darro, which foams through the 
 ravine to the north of the hill. The Plaza is about 225 
 feet long by 187 wide. To the left rises Alcazaba, the 
 ruined fortress of the Alhambra, with the Torre de la Vela 
 or Watch Tower, where the Christian flag was first hoisted 
 on the expulsion of the Moors in 1492. It commands a 
 noble prospect. Below lies the city of Granada, with its 
 hundred churches; and above rise overhanging heights, 
 with white houses glancing out from the green foliage, 
 reminding one of the saying of the Arabic poet, that 
 Granada is like a pearl set round with emerald. In the 
 Place of the Cisterns stands an isolated Moorish tower, 
 the Torre del Vino, erected in 1345 ; and to the right lies 
 the palace of Charles V., displacing so much that was 
 curious in Moorish art. It is a majestic but cold-looking 
 structure in the Renaissance style, unfinished and roofless, 
 and presenting a desolate and ruinous aspect. Behind 
 tkis edifice lies the Moorish palace, the exterior being 
 severe, plain, and almost forbidding in appearance, accord- 
 ing to the peculiarity of Moorish architecture, by which 
 they contrived to heighten the splendour of the interior 
 1>y contrast with the bare and unadorned structure of the 
 outer walls. But within, the palace stands unrivalled in 
 the gorgeous splendour of its halls and the exquisite 
 beauty of its decorations. Everywhere are seen evidences 
 of the delicate taste and the artistic luxury of the Moors. 
 Spacious courts, with marble pillars and fretted ceilings, 
 partitions coloured and gilt like the sides of a Stamboul 
 casket, and filagree stuccos of veil-like transparency, all 
 distinguished by airy lightness and grace, are among the 
 main features of this palace of the voluptuous caliphs of 
 Granada, who held dominion over that sunny land which 
 their poets described as a terrestrial paradise. The colours 
 chiefly employed are blue, red, and a golden yellow. In 
 the hey-day of Moorish prosperity the palace must have 
 been the most delicious of royal residences. Odoriferous 
 gardens, in which the orange and the myrtle bloomed, 
 alternated with sparkling fountains and soft couches, 
 inviting to a luxurious repose. Everything contributed 
 to render the whole the most splendid abode of Oriental 
 magnificence, to which only the fantastic creations of the 
 Arabian Nights can be fitly compared. 
 
 The present entrance is by a small insignificant door, 
 from which a corridor conducts to the Patio de la Berkah, 
 the Court of the Blessing. This court is 140 feet long by 
 74 broad ; and in the centre there is a large pond set in 
 the marble pavement, full of gold-fish, from which some 
 have called this the Court of the Pond. It is also known 
 as the Court of the Myrtles, from the myrtles which grow 
 along its sides. There are galleries on the north and 
 south sides; that on the south 27 feet high, and supported 
 by a marble colonnade. Underneath it, to the right, was 
 the principal entrance, and over it are three elegant 
 windows with arches and miniature pillars. The columns 
 
 supporting the galleries are light in structure, and arches, 
 slender and bending gracefully like palms, spring from 
 the capitals and meet overhead. From this court the 
 walls of the Torre de Comares are seen rising over the 
 roof to the north, and its tower and colonnades are reflected 
 in the crystal mirror of the pond. 
 
 The Hall of Ambassadors (Sala de Anibajadores) is the 
 largest in the Alhambra, and occupies all the Tower of 
 Comares. It is a square room, the sides being 37 feet in 
 leugth, while the centre of the dome is 75 feet high. 
 This was the grand reception-room, and the throne of the 
 sultan was placed opposite the entrance. The azulejos are 
 nearly 4 feet high all round, and the colours vary at inter- 
 vals. Over them is a series of oval medallions with in- 
 scriptions, interwoven with flowers and leaves. There are 
 nine windows, three on each facade, and the ceiling is 
 admirably diversified with inlaid work of white, blue, and 
 gold, in the shape of circles, crowns, and stars — a kind of 
 imitation of the vault of heaven. The walls are covered 
 with varied stucco-work of most delicate pattern, surround- 
 ing many ancient escutcheons. 
 
 Another of the more celebrated courts of the palace ia 
 the Patio de los Leones, the Court of the Lions. This is 
 an oblong court, 116 feet in length by 66 in breadth, sur- 
 rounded by a low gallery supported on 124 white marble 
 columns. A pavilion projects into the court at each 
 extremity, with filigree walls and light-domed roof, elabor- 
 ately ornamented. The square is paved with coloured 
 tiles, and the colonnade with white marble ; while the 
 walls are covered 5 feet up from the ground with blue 
 and yellow tiles, with a border above and below enamelled 
 blue and gold. The columns supporting the roof and 
 gallery are irregularly placed, with a view to artistic effect ; 
 and the general form of the piers, arches, and pillars is 
 most graceful They are adorned by varieties of foliage, 
 <fec; about each arch there is a large square of arabesques; 
 and over the pillars is another square of exquisite filigree 
 work. In the centre of the court is the celebrated Fountain 
 of Lions, a magnificent alabaster basin supported by the 
 figures of twelve lions in white marble, not designed with 
 sculptural accuracy, but as emblems of strength and 
 courage. When the fountain was in good order a great 
 volume of water was thrown up, which fell into the basin, 
 passed through the lions, and issued from their mouths. 
 
 The Hall of the Abencerrage3 derives its name from a 
 legend according to which Boabdil, the last king of 
 Granada, having invited the chiefs of that illustrious line 
 to a banquet, massacred them here. This room is a perfect 
 square, with a lofty dome, and trellised windows at its 
 base. The roof is exquisitely decorated in blue, brown, 
 red, and gold, and the columns supporting it spring out 
 into the arch form in a remarkably beautiful manner. 
 Opposite to this hall is the Hall of the Two Sisters, so 
 called from two very beautiful white marble slabs laid as 
 part of the pavement. These slabs measure 15 feet by 7i, 
 and are without flaw or stain. There is a fountain in the 
 middle of this hall, and the roof is composed of stalactites, 
 nearly '5000 pieces entering into its construction. The 
 whole decorations here are of the most exquisite description. 
 Among the other wonders of the Alhambra are the Hall 
 of Justice ; the mosque ; the Mirador de Lindaraja, or 
 boudoir of the sultana; the Patitfde la Reja ; the Tocador 
 de la Reina, or queen's boudoir; and the Sala de los Banos, 
 in all which are to be seen the same delicate and beautiful 
 architecture, the same costly and elegant decorations. 
 There must also be noticed the celebrated vase of the 
 Alhambra, a splendid specimen of Moorish ceramic art, 
 dating from 1320, and belonging to the first period of 
 Moorish porcelain. It is 4 feet 3 inches high ; the ground 
 is white, and the enamelling is in blue, white, and gold.
 
 572 
 
 UH-ALI 
 
 A new hall, called the Hall of the Shields or Escutcheons, 
 has recently been discovered ; and the palace contains, 
 besides the more important halls already mentioned, ranges 
 of bed-jooms and summer-rooms, a whispering gallery and 
 labyrinth, and vaulted sepulcln 
 
 The towers of the fortress havo abo much of the orna- 
 mented character of the palace. Separated from the 
 Alhambra by a ravine lies Gencralife, the Garden of the 
 Architect, probably in the first instance an outwork of the 
 fortress, afterwards the summer villa of the sultans of 
 Granada. It is impossible to conclude the description of 
 tho Alhambra without remarking now admirably every 
 thing wa3 planned to render thia palace the most voluptu- 
 ous of all retreats — the numerous fountains which cooled 
 the air, the judicious disposition of doors and windows 
 securing a free ventilation, tho • Bhady gardens, and the 
 noble views of the hills and plains around.' Some idea of 
 the beauty of the original is afforded by the Alhambra 
 Court in tho Crystal Palace at Sydenham, imitating the 
 Moorish palace in gorgeousness of colouring, elaborateness 
 of ornamentation, and quaint grace of architectural style. 
 
 One of the most striking features of the Alhambra is 
 the appliance of poetical conceits and passages from the 
 Koran to enhance and form part .of the ornamentation. 
 " There ia no God but Allah," " There is no conqueror 
 but God," " Glory be given to our Lord," and other similar 
 inscriptions are everywhere to be observed. 
 
 (See Mr Owen Jones's Plans, Elevations, and Sections of 
 the Alhambra, 2 vols. foL, 1818.) 
 
 ALHAZK>T (full name, Abu Ali al-Hasan Ibn Al- 
 hasa_n), a mathematician of tho 11th century, was born 
 at Bassora, and died at Cairo in 1038. He is to be dis- 
 tinguished from another Alhazen who translated Ptolemy's 
 Almagest in the 10th century. Alhazen having boasted that 
 he could construct a machine for regulating the inundations 
 btthe Nile, was summoned to Egypt by the caliph Hakem; 
 but, aware of the impracticability of his scheme, and fearing 
 the caliph'sanger, he feigned madness until Hakem's death 
 in 1021. Alhazen was, nevertheless, a diligent and success- 
 ful student, being the first great discoverer in optics after 
 the time of Ptolemy. His researches were prosecuted under 
 the greatest disadvantages, as he was compelled to eke out 
 a livelihood by copying his own works and selling them. 
 To him, and not to Ptolemy, is due the explanation of the 
 apparent increase of heavenly bodies near the horizon. He 
 correctly attributed the phenomenon to the fact that the eye 
 compares these bodies with intervening terrestrial objects. 
 He taught, previous to Vitello, that vision does not result 
 from the emission of rays from tho eye, and wrote also on 
 the refraction of light, especially on atmospheric refraction, 
 showing, e.g., the cause of morning and evening twilight. 
 He solved the problem of finding the point in a convex 
 mirror at which a ray coming from one given point shall be 
 reflected to another given point. As a writer, Alhazen is 
 remarkable for prolixity and scholastic subtilty. Only two 
 of his works have been printed — his Treatise on Twilight, 
 and his Thesaurus Optica;. (See Casiri, Bill. Arab, llisp. 
 Escur.) 
 
 ALI, the fourth in order of the caliphs or successors of 
 Mahomet, was born at Mecca, about the year 600 A.D. 
 His father, Abu Taleb, was an uncle of the prophet, and 
 Ali himself was adopted by Mahomet and educated 
 under his care. While he was still a mere boy he dis- 
 tinguished himself by being the first to declare his adhesion 
 to the cause of Mahomet, who in return made him his 
 vicegerent, and some years after gave M m his daughter 
 Fatima in marriage. Ali proved himself to be a bravo and 
 faithful soldier ; and when Mahomet died without male 
 issue, he seemed to Lave the best claims to become the 
 recognised head of Lslamism. Three other companions of 
 
 Mahomet, however, Abubckr, Omar, and Othmau, oc*...picd 
 this position before him, and it was not until C5G, after 
 the murder of Othman, that he assumed tho title of 
 caliph. Almost tliu first act of his reign was the suppres- 
 sion of a rebellion under Telha and Zobcir, who were 
 instigated by Ayi ba, tho widow of Mahomet, a bitter 
 enemy of Ali, and hitherto one of the chief hindrances to 
 his advancement to tho caliphate. The rebel army was 
 defeated at Kharibah, near Bassorah, tho two generals 
 being killed, and Aycsha taken prisoner. "All's next caro 
 was to get rid of tho opposition of Moawyah, who had 
 i iked himself in Syria at the head of a numerous 
 army. A bloody battle took place in the plain of Suffein, 
 near the Euphrates, which seemed at first to be going in 
 favour of Ali ; when suddenly a number of the enemy, 
 fixing copies of the Koran to tho points of their .spears, 
 exclaimed that " the matter ought to be settled by refer- 
 ence to this book, which forbids Mussulmans to shed each 
 other's blood." On hearing this the superstitious soldicis 
 of Ali refused to fight any longer, and demanded that the 
 matter should be referred to arbitration. Abu Musa was 
 appointed umpire on the part of Ali, and Ainru, ono of 
 the shrewdest men in the kingdom, on the part of Moawyah. 
 Amru persuaded Abu Musa that it would bo for the 
 advantage of Moslemism that neither candidate should 
 reign ; and also, with a pretence of deference, asked hiin 
 to give his decision first. Abu Musa, falling into tho 
 snare, proclaimed that ho deposed both Ali and Moawyah; 
 thereupon Amru declared that he also deposed Ali, but 
 that he invested Moawyah with the caliphate. This 
 treacherous decision greatly injured the cause of Ali, 
 which was still further weakened by the loss of Egypt, 
 Syria, and Persia, including tho sacred cities of Mecca and 
 Medina. Ali, however, resolved to make a final effort, 
 and collected a large- army for that purpose. He was not 
 destined to see the result of his plans. / Three of the 
 fanatic sect of the Karigites made an agreement to assas- 
 sinate Ali, Moawyah, and Amru as tho authors of dis- 
 astrous feuds among the faithful The only victim of this 
 plot was Ali, who died at Kufa in CGI, of the wound in- 
 flicted by a poisoned weapon. Ho had eight wives besides 
 Fatima, and in all, it is said, thirty-three children, one of 
 whom, Hassan, a son of Fatima, succeeded him in the 
 caliphate. Ali is described as a bold, noble, and generous 
 man, " the last and worthiest of the primitive Moslems, 
 who imbibed his religious enthusiasm from companionship 
 with the prophet himself, and who followed to the last the 
 simplicity of his example." He was also remarkable for 
 learning and wisdom, and there are still extant collections 
 of proverbs, verses, &c, which bear his name, especially 
 tho Sentences of Ali, an English translation of which, by 
 William Yule, was published at Edinburgh in 1832. Tho 
 question of Ali's right to succeed to the caliphato is an 
 article of faith which dirided the Mahometan world into 
 two great sects, the Sunnis and the Shiahs, the former 
 denying and the latter affirming his right.. The Turks, 
 consequently, who aro usually Sunnis,' hold his memory 
 in abhorrence ; whereas the Persians, who are generally 
 Shiahs, venerate him as second only to the prophet, and 
 celebrate the anniversary of his martyrdom. 
 
 ALI BEY (1728-73), an adventurer, said to have been a 
 native of the Caucasus, and to have been sold about tho 
 ago of twelve or fourteen for a slave in Cairo. The two 
 Jews who became his masters presented him to Ibrahim, 
 then one of tho most influential men in the kingdom. In 
 the family of Ibrahim he received the rudiments of a 
 literary education, and was also instructed in tho military 
 art He gradually gained the affection of his patron to 
 such a degree that he gave him his freedom, permitted him 
 to marry, and promoted him to the rank of governor of a
 
 A L I — A L I 
 
 573 
 
 district. Afterwards lie was elected to the elevated station 
 of ono of the governors of provinces. Deprived of his 
 protector by death, and engaging in the dangerous intrigues 
 that pave the way to power in an unstable government, he 
 procured his own banishment to Upper Egypt. Here he 
 spent two years in maturing his schemes for future great- 
 ness ; and in 1766, returning to Cairo, he either slew or 
 expelled the beys, and seized the reigns of government. 
 Emboldened by success, he rescued himself from the power 
 of the Porte, coined money in his own name, and assumed 
 the rank of sultan of Egypt. Occupied in more important 
 concerns, the Porte made no vigorous opposition to his 
 measures, and Ali seized the opportunity to recover a part 
 of the Said, or Upper Egypt, which had been taken pos- 
 session of by an Arab sheik. He next sent out a fleet 
 from Suez, which, seizing upon Djedda, entered the port of 
 Mecca; -while a body of cavalry, commanded by Mahomet 
 Bey, his favourite, took and plundered Mecca itself. Hav- 
 ing formed an alliance in 1770 with the Sheik Daher, a 
 rebel against the Porte in Syria, he aimed at the conquest 
 of all Syria and Palestine. He first endeavoured to secure 
 Gaza ; then his army, forming a junction with that of 
 Daher at Acre, advanced to Damascus. There, on the 6th 
 of June 1771, a battle was fought with the Turkish 
 pashas, and Mahomet and Daher, All's generals, routed 
 them with great slaughter. The latter instantly took pos- 
 session of Damascus, and the castle itself had also capitu- 
 lated, when Mahomet unexpectedly hastened back to 
 Egypt with all his Mamelukes. Some ascribe this strange 
 conduct to an impression made upon Mahomet by the 
 Turkish agents, and others to a report of the death of 
 Ali Bey. 
 
 Although unsuccessful, Ali never lost sight of his 
 favourite object; and Mahomet, losing his confidence, 
 was forced to save his life by exile. Mahomet, however, 
 quickly returned with an army, and drove Ali Bey from 
 Cairo. In this unfortunate state of affairs Ali fled to 
 Daher, and, combining their forces, they attacked the 
 Turkish commander at Sidon, and came off victorious, 
 although the Turkish army was three times their number. 
 After a siege of eight months, they next took the town of 
 Jaffa. Deceived by letters from Cairo, which were only 
 intended to ensnare him, and stimulated by his recent 
 victories, Ali returned to Cairo. Entering the deserts 
 which divide Gaza from Egypt he was furiously attacked 
 by a thousand chosen Mamelukes led on by Murad Bey, 
 who was enamoured of Ali's wife, and had obtained the 
 promise of her, provided that he could take Ali captive. 
 Ali was wounded, made prisoner, and carried to Mahomet. 
 He died three days after, from the effects either of poison 
 or of his wounds. 
 
 ALI PASHA, surnamed Arslan or " The Lion," was born 
 at Tepelini, a village of Albania, on the Voyutza, at the 
 foot of the Klissoura Mountains, in 1741. He belonged 
 to the Toske tribe, and his ancestors had for some years 
 held the title of Boy of Tepelini, this dignity having 
 become hereditary in his family. His grandfather fell in 
 1716 at the siege of Corfu, which was then held by the 
 Venetians. His father, who died when Ali was in his 
 fourteenth year, is represented by most authorities aa a 
 man of amiable character and peaceful habits, who was 
 despoiled of his territories by the chiefs that lived around 
 him ; but his mother was a woman of fierce and unyield- 
 ing disposition. Inciting her son to recover the posses- 
 sions of his father, she roused in him a spirit of cruelty and 
 aggression, tempered, however, by a considerable amount 
 of cunning and foresight, which bore bitter fruit in his 
 riper years. Many romantic stories are told of Ali's 
 adventures at the outset of his career, but the only fact3 
 that are known with certainty are, that after living in the 
 
 mountains as a robber for some years, and enduring great 
 privations, he made himself master of his beylik of Tepe- 
 lini by the aid of his associates. He is said to have then 
 murdered his brother and imprisoned his mother, who 
 died shortly after, on a charge of attempting to poison 
 him. In order to increase and establish his power, he 
 then made overtures to tho Turkish government, by whose 
 orders he attacked and defeated the pasha of Scutari, then 
 in rebellion against the sultan, and put to death Selim. 
 pasha of Delvino. For these acts he was rewarded by 
 being placed in possession of the whole of his father's 
 territories, and he was appointed lieutenant to the Derwend- 
 pacha of Rum-ili, an officer who was charged with tho 
 suppression of brigandage and highway robbery in tho 
 district. Ali, however, by permitting the robbers to go 
 unchecked in return for a share of the spoil, brought his 
 superior to disgrace and death, but escaped himself by 
 sending bribes to the ministers of the sultan. For his 
 services in the field in the war between Prussia and Turkey 
 in 1787 he was appointed pasha of Trikala in Thessaly, 
 and Derwend-pasha of Rum-ili. He soon cleared the 
 country of robbers, mainly by summoning to his standard 
 all who were willing to serve under him, and by their aid 
 he took forcible possession of Joannina in 1788. By 
 means of the powerful body of troops at his command, 
 and the wise measures that he introduced, he wrought 
 considerable amelioration in the districts under his charge, 
 and the Porte seeing this, confirmed him in the pashalik 
 of Joannina. His whole attention was now turned to the 
 aggrandisement of his territory and personal power. He 
 obtained possession of the western part of Northern Greece, 
 or Livadia as it was then called ; but was baffled for many 
 years in his attempts to occupy the country of the Suliotoa 
 in the south-west of Epirus. These brave and hardy 
 mountaineers at last, in 1803, agreed to evacuate theii 
 country, and were treacherously massacred by Ali whi'e on 
 their way to the coast to embark for Corfu. When the 
 French took Venice in 1797, Ali, by pretending admiration 
 for the principles of the revolution, induced Napoleon to 
 send him engineers, by whose aid he fortified Joannina ; 
 but failing to obtain from him, as he had hoped, the 
 Venetian ports on the seaboard of Epirus, he took occasion, 
 after the defeat of Napoleon in Egypt, to lay siege to 
 Prevesa, which was surrendered by the French troops. 
 Ali had now a difficult part to play, but he succeeded so 
 well with his master the sultan, that ho was confirmed in 
 the possession of the whole of Albania northwards from 
 Epirus to Montenegro, over which he had asserted his author 
 rity, partly by intrigue and partly by force of arms. He 
 also held the high position of governor of Rum-ili for a 
 brief period (1799), during which he amassed a large 
 sum of money by his extortions. The cruel massacre of 
 the inhabitants of Gardiki, for an alleged insult to his 
 mother and sister about forty years previously, was perpe- 
 trated about this time. He contrived to make his peace 
 with the French in spite of the capture of Prevesa, ami 
 in 1807 once more entered into alliance with them, with 
 the view of obtaining Parga, which he had attempted to 
 capture, but without success, in 1800. Napoleon, however, 
 neglected to secure Parga for him at the peace of Tilsit, 
 and the fortress remained in the hands of the French 
 until it was taken in 1814 by the English, who gave it up 
 in 1817, ostensibly to the sultan, but in reality to Ali. 
 Ali was now at the height of his power : he was almost 
 supreme over Albania, Epirus, part of Thessaly, and tho 
 western part of Northern Greece; while one of his sons 
 held the pashalik of the Morca. So powerful was ho 
 that, though he was nearly eighty years of age, the Porto 
 feared and hated him, and desired his death, but could 
 find no good pretext for taking measures against him until
 
 574 
 
 ALI-aLI 
 
 1820, n-Len Ali procured the assassination of an officer who 
 had left him and taken service under the sultan at Con- 
 stantinople. For this daring act the .sultan proscribed 
 Ali, and ordered all the European pashas to inarch : 
 him. He resisted every effort to capturo him, but was at 
 ]ast induced by Kourschid Fasha to surrender in January 
 1822 on promise of a pardon from the sultan. On 
 5th Februar;', on pretence of handing him the necessary 
 document, Kourschid Pasha procured an interview with 
 him, and then produced the firman authorising his execu- 
 ti on. The brave old despot defended himself with his 
 usual resolution and courage, but was overpowered by 
 numbers, and his head wa3 struck from his body and sent 
 to Constantinople. 
 
 ALIAS, signifying at another time, is used in judicial 
 proceedings to connect the several names of a person who 
 attempts to conceal his true name, or to pass under a 
 feigned one ; as Smith alias Jones, James alias John. 
 
 ALIBI, in Law, denotes the absence of the accused from 
 the placa where he is charged with having committed a 
 crime ; or his being elsewhere, as the word imports, at the 
 time specified. 
 
 ALICANTE, a province of Spain, bounded on the N. 
 by Valencia, on the W. by Albaceto and Murcia, on the S. 
 by Murcia, and on the S.E. and E. by the Mediterranean 
 Sea. It was formed in 1834 of districts taken from the 
 ancient provinces of Valencia and Murcia, the former con- 
 tributing by far the larger portion. Its length is about 73 
 miles, its breadth 68 miles, and the area 2090 square miles. 
 The surface of the province is extremely diversified. In 
 the north and west there are extensive mountain ranges 
 of calcareous formation, intersected by deep ravines ; while 
 farther south the land is more level, and there are many 
 fertile valleys. On the Mediterranean coast, salt marshes, 
 exhaling an insalubrious miasma, alternate with rich plains 
 and pleasant and productive huertas or gardens, such as 
 those of Alicante and Denia. There is no considerable 
 river in the province, but a few rivulets flow cast through 
 the valleys into the Mediterranean. The sky is clear, the 
 climate temperate, and the rainfall very slight. Notwith- 
 standing the want of rivers and of rain, agriculture is in a 
 very flourishing condition. The inhabitants possess a 
 spirit of steady industry uncommon in Spain, and by 
 inean3 of wells and canals they have to a large esteut suc- 
 ceeded in overcoming the disadvantages of nature. Many 
 tracts originally rocky and sterile have been levelled, and 
 now present terraces covered with the vine and with use- 
 ful trees. Cereals are grown, but the inhabitants prefer 
 to raise such articles of produce as are in demand for 
 export, and consequently part of the grain supply of the 
 province has to be imported. Esparto grass, rice, the 
 sugar-cane, and tropical fruits and vegetables are largely 
 produced. Great attention is given to the rearing of bees 
 and silk-worms ; and the wine of the province i3 held in 
 high repute throughout Spain, while some inferior kinds 
 are sent to France to be mixed with claret. Cattle are 
 not extensively reared. The most important minerals of 
 the province are lead, copper, iron, and coaL There are 
 about twenty lead and copper mines ; and mineral springs 
 are found at various places. The manufactures consist of 
 fine cloths, silk, cotton, woollen and linen fabrics, girdles 
 and lace, paper, hats, leather, earthenware,- and soap. 
 There are nume-ous oil-mills and brandy distilleries. 
 Many of the inhabitants are engaged in the carrying trade, 
 while the fisheries on the coast are also actively prosecuted, 
 tunny and anchovies being caught in great numbers. 
 Barilla is obtained from the sea-weed on the shores, and 
 Borne of the saline marshes yield large supplies of salt 
 Dy spontaneous evaporation. The province is divided into 
 16 judicial divisions »ud 206 parishes. Alicante is the 
 
 chief town, and the other piacca of importance are Denis* 
 and Villajoyosa on the coast; and Orihuela, Elche, Villena, 
 and Alcoy in the interior. Education is in a low stato ; 
 of the criminals arrested it is found that 14 in 15 can 
 neither read nor write. The peoplo aro of a lively and 
 irascible temperament, and offences against the person are 
 frequent. Population (1870), estimated at 4-10,000. 
 
 Alicante, the capital of the above province, and, after 
 Cadiz and Barcelona, tho most considerable seaport of 
 Spain. It is situated at the head of the bay of Alicante, 
 in the Mediterranean Sea, in 38° 20' N. lat., and 0° 30' 
 W. long. The city is built on tho bay in the form of 
 a half -moon, and is overlooked by a rock 400 feet high, 
 surmounted by a castle, which has been suffered to fal] 
 into decay. There is good anchoring-ground in the bay, 
 but only tho smaller vessels can come up to the mole or 
 pier. Tho bay is protected by batteries, and there is a 
 fixed light on the mole, 95 feet high, and visible for a 
 distance of 15 miles. Alicante was the Lucenlum of the 
 Romans ; but notwithstanding its antiquity, the town pre- 
 sents a modern appearance, and has few remains of Roman, 
 medkcval, or Moorish times. It is the seat of a bishop, 
 and has a cathearal and episcopal palaco. It has also a- 
 good town-house, an orphanage, a lyceum, a public libran', 
 and a school of navigation. Cotton, linen, and woollen 
 goods, cigars, and confections are manufactured. There 
 is a considerable trado in tho fruit and other produce of 
 the surrounding plain ; and the vino tinto, or dark red 
 wine, produced in the vicinity, is sent to Franco for mixing 
 purposes. At the island of Plana, on the coast, very 
 beautiful marble is procured. The foreign trade of the 
 port, though still considerable, has greatly declined on 
 account of tho imposition of an excessive import tariff. 
 In 1871, besides coasting traders, 372 Spanish and foreign 
 vessels, with a tonnage of 62,546, entered tho port. Of 
 these vessels, 78 were British, measuring 29,021 tons. 
 The value of tho imports under foreign and native flags 
 was £542,526, and the duties paid were £90,421, without 
 reckoning duties corresponding to material and fuei io» 
 railways, which are admitted free. The chief imports are 
 coals, iron, machinery, and guano ; and the chief exports 
 esparto — of which 11,000 tons were shipped in 1871 — • 
 raisins, almonds, oranges, olive oil, silk, saffron, wine, lead, 
 salt, and soda. There are here English and other European 
 consuls. Alicante was besieged by the Moors in 1331, 
 and again by the French in 1709, when the English com- 
 mandant and his staff were killed by tho explosion of a- 
 mine. Population, 31,500. 
 
 ALICATA, or Licata, a seaport of Italy, in the pro- 
 vince of Girgenti, Sicily, situated on the south coast, at 
 the mouth of the Salso, the largest river in the island. It 
 is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient J'hintias, 
 built by Phintias, tyrant of Agrigentum, in 280 B.C., after 
 the destruction of Gela. The neighbourhood was the scene 
 of many of the most memorable events of the Punic wars. 
 On the hill overlooking the modern town there are extensive 
 ancient remains. Alicata is now tho most iniyortan* com- 
 mercial town on the south coast of Sicily, though the port 
 is only an open shallow roadstead. The larger vessels He 
 a mile off shore, and are laden and discharged by means of 
 barges. The chief trade is in sulphur, and the other 
 exports include corn, fruit, macaroni, soda, and excellent 
 Population, 16,000. 
 
 ALICUDI, one of the Lipari Islands, fee Lzpaei 
 Islands. 
 
 ALIEN, obviously derived from tho Latin c'itnus, is 
 the technical term applied by British constitutional law to 
 any one who does not enjoy the privileges of a British 
 subject. The jealousy which has generally existed against 
 COEin Uiicatiiig the privileges of citizenship to foreigners."
 
 ALIEN 
 
 575 
 
 has its foundation in mistaken views of political economy. 
 It arose from the impression that the produce of the energy 
 and enterprise of any community is a limited quantity, 
 of which each man's share will be the less the more com- 
 petitors there are ; superseding the just view that the 
 wealth of a state depends on the number and energy of the 
 producers. Thus the skilled workmen who would increase 
 its riches have often been jealously kept out of a country. 
 But, on the other hand, special temptations, including the 
 gift of citizenship, have often been offered to skilled 
 foreigners by states desiring to acquire them as citizens. 
 Britain has occasionally received industrious and valuable 
 citizens, driven forth by the folly or tyranny of other 
 powers, as in the memorable instance of the revocation of 
 the edict of Nantes, which sent the Spitalfields colony and 
 many other Frenchmen to this country. Looking on the 
 full benefit of British citizenship as a transcendent boon, 
 the principle of our older legislation on the subject has 
 been to allow friendly aliens to possess at least a portion 
 of it. There never existed in Britain a law so harsh as 
 the Droit oVAubaine of France, which confiscated to the 
 crown all the property of a deceased alien. The courts of 
 justice have ever been opened to them, and they have thus 
 been entitled to protect themselves from any inequalities 
 which do not apply to them by special law. It seems to 
 be a rule of the general public law that an alien can be 
 sent out of the realm by exercise of the crown's prero- 
 gative ; but in modern practice, whenever it has seemed 
 necessary to extrude foreigners, a special Act of Parliament 
 has been obtained for the purpose. (See Phillimore's 
 Iniernat. Law, voL i., p. 133; Forsyth's Cases and 
 Opinions on Const. Law, p. 181.) 
 
 Our law, save with the special exceptions mentioned 
 afterwards, admits to the privileges of subjects all who are 
 born within the British dominions. In the celebrated 
 question of the post^nati in the reign of James I. of 
 England, it was found, after solemn trial, that natives of 
 Scotland born before the union of the crowns were aliens 
 in England, but that those born subsequently enjoyed the 
 privileges of English subjects. A child born abroad, 
 whose father or whose grandfather on the father's side 
 was a British subject, may claim the same privilege, unless 
 at the time of his birth his father was a traitor or felon, or 
 engaged in war against the British empire (4th Geo. II. 
 c. 22). Owing to this exceptional provision, some sons of 
 Jacobite refugees, born abroad, who joined in the rebellion 
 of 1745, were admitted to the privilege of prisoners of 
 war, because, as the conduct of their fathers deprived them 
 of the privileges of citizenship, they were held not to be 
 liable to its burdens. 
 
 It has been enacted with regard to the national status 
 of women and children that a married woman is held to 
 be a citizen of the state of which her husband is for the 
 time being a subject ; that a natural-born British woman, 
 having become an alien by marriage, and thereafter being 
 a widow, may be rehabilitated by certificate of the Secretary 
 of State ; that where a father or a widow becomes an alien, 
 the children in infancy becoming resident in the country 
 where the parent is naturalised, and being naturalised by 
 the local law, are held to be subjects of that country ; 
 that those of a father or of a widow readmitted to 
 British nationality become British subjects also; and that 
 the children of a father or of a widow who obtains a 
 certificate of naturalisation, becoming resident with such 
 parent in the United Kingdom, become naturalised (33 and 
 34 Vict. c. 14, s. 10). The same statute provides that a 
 declaration of alienage before a justice of peace or other 
 competent judge, having the effect of divesting the declarant 
 of the character of a British subject, may be made by a 
 naturalised British subject desiring to resume the nationality 
 
 of the country to which he originally belonged, if there ds 
 a convention to that effect with that country ; by natural- 
 born subjects who were also born subjects of another state 
 according to its law ; or by persons born abroad having 
 British fathers. 
 
 The main characteristic disabilities to which aliens have 
 been subjected are incompetency to exercise political pri- 
 vileges, such as that of electing or being elected to sit 
 in Parliament, and incapacity to hold landed property. 
 The privilege of sitting on a jury was also counted among 
 the political rights from which they are excluded; but 
 when a foreigner is en trial, he had in England the 
 privilege of the jury de medietate lingua, in which half 
 the panel consisted of foreigners, a privilege which was 
 taken away in 1870, and never existed in Scotland. An 
 alien enemy can neither by himself nor assignee sue for 
 the recovery of a debt due to him in this country, unless 
 by the Queen's special licence. But his right to do so 
 revives when the War is terminated. (See Mr Justice Story's 
 judgment in Society for Propagation of the Gospel v. 
 Wheeler, 2 Gallison's Reports, 127, and Phillimore's Inter- 
 national Law, hi. 121). 
 
 Many of the special disabilities to which aliens were 
 subject under the Navigation Act and other laws connected 
 with our old restrictive commercial policy, have been 
 removed or neutralised by the free trade measures of later 
 years ; but it is still impossible for an alien to be the 
 owner of a British ship. In other respects the tendency 
 has been to communicate some of the right3 of citizenship 
 to aliens, and to widen the definition of subjects. 
 
 Most of the acts of Parliament passed with regard to 
 aliens during the last and the present centuries have been 
 repealed by 33 &. 34 Vict. c. 14 — the Naturalisation Act, 
 1870. It enables aliens to take, acquire, hold, and dispose 
 of real and personal property of every description (except 
 British ships), and to transmit a title to land, in all respects 
 as natural-born British subjects. But the act expressly 
 declares that this relaxation, of the law does not qualify 
 aliens for any office or any municipal, parliamentary, or 
 other franchise, or confer any right of a British subject 
 other than those above expressed in regard to property, 
 not does it affect interests vested in possession or expect- 
 ancy under dispositions made before the act, or by devolu- 
 tion of law on the death of any one dying before the act. 
 
 The Act 6 <fc 7 Will. IV. ell has not been repealed by 
 the Act of 1870. It requires masters of vessels to intimate 
 the arrival of all aliens, who are thereby bound to have 
 their names registered and to obtain certificates of regis- 
 tration. It is believed that these conditions have seldom 
 been complied with or enforced. 
 
 , It may be remarked that the repealed Act of 1864 
 (7 & 8 Vict. c. 66) was the first considerable relaxation of 
 the alien law. It communicated to the children born 
 abroad of a British mother the privilege of acquiring land 
 by purchase or succession. It gave friendly aliens the 
 privilege of holding leases for any time not exceeding 
 twenty-one years. Before this act the rights of citizenship 
 could only be conferred on aliens by statute ; and it was 
 enacted at the commencement of the Hanover succession, 
 that no private naturalisation bill should be brought in 
 unless it contained a clause disqualifying the person it 
 applied to from being a privy councillor or a member of 
 Parliament, and from holding any office, civil or military, 
 and from being a freeholder; but this restriction is repealed 
 by the act of 1844. Limited privileges could formerly be 
 given by the sovereign's letters of denization ; but by the 
 act of 1844 an alien intending to reside and settle in 
 Britain was enabled, by application to the Home Secretary, 
 to obtain a certificate giving him all the rights of a natural- 
 born subject, with certain exceptions. Naturalisation.
 
 :>76 
 
 ALl-ALI 
 
 which is accompanied by political and other rights, 
 privileges, and obligations, may now, under the- act of 
 1870, bo obtained by applying to tho Home Secretary and 
 producing evidence of having resided for not less than five 
 years in tho United Kingdom, or of having been in tho 
 service of the crown for not less than five years, and of 
 intention to reside in the United Kingdom or serve under 
 the crown. Such a certificate may be granted by the 
 Secretary of State to one naturalised previously to the 
 passing of the act, or to a British subject as to whose 
 nationality a doubt exists, or to a statutory alien, i.e., one 
 who has become an alien by declaration in pursuance of 
 tho act 1870. The laws of a British colony with regard to 
 naturalisation have effect only within tho limits of that 
 colony. Naturalisation is also effected by the operation 
 of the law upon tho acts of individuals, as a woman by 
 marriage acquires the nationality of her husband. The 
 naturalisation of a father carries with it that of his children 
 in minority ; and Fcelix holds that that of a widow has the 
 eame effect upon her minor children. (See Fcelix, Traitr 
 de Droit Internal. Priv., 1. i. t. 2, s. 2 ; Savigny, Frio. 
 Inlernat. Law, translated by Guthrie, pp. 26, 31, 32; 
 Phillimore's Internat. Law, vol. i. ; Bar, Das Internal. 
 Privat mid Strafrccht, § 30; Gand, Code des Etrangers ; 
 llansard on Aliens; Heffter, Europ. Volkerrecht, § 59 sqq. ; 
 Sir A. E. Cockburn on Nationality, Lond. 1869; Cutler 
 on Naturalisation, Lond. 1871). 
 
 In the United States an alien desiring' to be naturalised 
 must declare on oath his intention to become a citizen of 
 tho United States ; two years afterwards must declare on 
 oath his intention to support the constitution of tho United 
 States and renounce allegiance to every foreign power, 
 including that of which he was before a subject; must 
 prove residence in tho United States {or five years, and in 
 the state where his application is macVe for one year, as a 
 good citizen ; and must renounce any title of nobility. In 
 France an alien desiring naturalisation must obtain per- 
 mission to establish his domicilo in France ; three years 
 after (in special cases one year) he is entitled to apply for 
 naturalisation, which involves the renunciation of any 
 existing allegiance. (See further, Allegiance and 
 International Law.) 
 
 ALIGARH, a district of British India, in the Mecrut 
 division, and under tho jurisdiction of tho Lieutenant- 
 Governor of tho North-West Provinces, lies between lat. 
 27° 29' and 28° 10' 30" N., and between long. 77° 
 32' 30" and 78° 42' 30" E. It contains an area of 1954 
 square miles, of which upwards of two-thirds, or 884,060 
 acres, are under cultivation. Population in 1 865 returned 
 at 925,538 souls, and by the census of 1872 ascertained 
 to be 1,073,108. Alfgarh is bounded on the N. by 
 the Bulandshahr district and a portion of Budaon; on 
 the E. by Etah district; on the S. by Mathura district; 
 and on the W. by Gurgaon and Mathura districts. Tho 
 district is nearly a level plain, but with a slight elevation 
 in the centre, between the two great rivers, the Ganges and 
 Jamna. The only other important river is the Kali Nadf, 
 ■which traverses the entire length of the district from 
 north-west to south-east. 
 
 The civil station and principal town is Koel, situated a short 
 distance to the south of Aligarh Fort. The chief products are 
 wheat, barley, joar, bajra, pulses, oil-seeds, gram, and indigo. 
 There are no manufactures. In 1870-71 the total net revenue of 
 the district was returned at £233,709, and tho erpenditure at 
 £45,433; the land revenue in the same year amounted to £190,655, 
 or 84 per cent, of the total net revenue. Nine towns are returned 
 as containing a population of upwards of 5000 souls, as follows : — 
 Koel, the civil station and principal city, population within muni- 
 cipal limits, 65,228; Hatris, population, 33,100; Atraulf, popula- 
 tion within municipal limits, 15,895 ; Sikandra Rao, population 
 withra municipal limits, 11,988 ; JaHli, population, 7616; Mursito, 
 population. 6113; Topal, population, 6031; Bfjaigarh, population, 
 
 6779 ; and Hardcoganj, population, 6202. There are five municipal 
 towns in the district, the revenue raised being derived from octroi 
 duties. The following was tho municipal revenuo and its incidence 
 per head in 1871 -72 :— Koel (Aligarh), municipal revenue, £5407 ; 
 incidence, Is. 11JJ. per head of the municipal population. Hatris, 
 iniiTiii ipol revenue, £5221, 10s. ; incidence per head, 3s. 1 jd. Sik- 
 andra Rao, municipal income, £505, 12s. ; incidence, lOd. per head. 
 ArxauK, municipal income, £709 ; incidence, 10Jd. per head. 
 Hardeoganj, municipal income, £462, 18s. ; incidence, Is. fl^d. 
 per head, in 1371—72, the district contained 370 schools, attended 
 by a total of 7939 pupils, of whom 6706 were Hindus and 1173 
 Mahometans. For tho protection of person and property, a regular 
 police force is maintained, consisting of 1056 men of all grades, 
 equal to one man to every 1'85 square mile of area, or one to every 
 1016 of the population. The Village Watch or rural police numbered 
 2000 in 1871, equal lo one man to every '67 square miles, or one to 
 every 536 inhabitants. 
 
 ALfcAEH Fort, in the district of tho same name, ia 
 situated on the Grand Trunk Road, in lat. 27° 56' N., 
 and long. 78° 8' E. The fort consists of a regular poly- 
 gon, surrounded by a very broad and deep ditch. It was 
 captured from the Marhattas under the leadership of Tcrron, 
 a French officer, by Lord Lake's army, in September 1803, 
 since which time it has been much strengthened and im- 
 proved. In the rebellion of 1857 the troops stationed at 
 Aligarh mutinied, but abstained from murdering their 
 officers, who, with the other residents and ladies and 
 children, succeeded in reaching Hatras. 
 
 ALIMENT, in the Law of Scotland, is the sum paid or 
 allowance given in respect of tho reciprocal obligation of 
 parents and children, husband and wife, grandparents and 
 grandchildren, to contribute to each other's maintenance. 
 Tho term is also used in regard to a similar obligation of 
 other parties, as of creditors to imprisoned debtors, tho 
 payments by parishes to paupers, kc. Alimentary funds, 
 whether of the kind above mentioned, or set apart as such 
 by the deed of a testator, are intended for the mere support 
 of the recipient, and are not attachable by creditors. 
 
 ALIMONY is, in English Law, the allowance for main- 
 tenance to which a wife is entitled out of her husband's 
 estate on a decree, obtained at the wife's instance, for 
 judicial separation or for the dissolution of the marriage. 
 It ia settled by the judge of tho Divorce Court on a con- 
 sideration of all the circumstances of the case. 
 
 ALISON, Rev. Archibald, an author of great reputa- 
 tion in his own day, was born on the 13th Novembei 
 1757 at Edinburgh, of which his father was for a timt 
 lord provost After studying at the university of Glasgow 
 and at Balliol college, Oxford, he took orders in the Churcl 
 of England, and was appointed in 1778 to the curacy oi 
 Brancepeth, near Durham. In 1780 he married Dorothea, 
 youngest daughter of Professor Gregory of Edinburgh. 
 The next twenty years of his life were spent in Shropshire, 
 where he held in succession the livings of High Ercall, 
 Roddington, and Kenley. In 1800 ho removed to Edin- 
 burgh, having been appointed senior incumbent of St 
 Paul's chapel in the Cowgate. For thirty-four years he 
 filled this position with great acceptance, his preaching 
 attracting so many hearers that a new and larger church 
 was built for him. His last years were spent at Colinton, 
 near Edinburgh, where he died on the 17th May 1839. 
 Mr Alison published, besides a Life of Lord Woodhouselee, 
 a volume of sermons, which passed through several editions, 
 and a work entitled Essays on the Nature and Principles 
 of Taste, which received a very laudatory criticism from 
 Lord Jeffrey in the Edinburgh Review for May 181 1. His 
 theory of the beautiful, which is based on the principle 
 of association, is incomplete and unsatisfactory, and his 
 work is now only of historical importance. Two sons 
 of Mr Alison attained distinction. The elder, Dr Wil- 
 liam Pulteney Alison, born in 1790, was from 1820 
 •until within a few years of his death, in 1859, a pro- 
 minent member of the medical faculty in the university
 
 A L I - A L I 
 
 577 
 
 of Edinburgh. The younger son is the subject of the 
 following notice. 
 
 ALISON, Sua Archibald, Bart, the celebrated his- 
 torian, younger son of the preceding, was born at Kenley, 
 Shropshire, on the 29th December- 1792. He studied at 
 the university of Edinburgh, distinguishing himself espe- 
 cially in the classes of Greek and mathematics. In 1814 
 he passed at the Scotch bar, but he did not at once enter 
 on the regular practice of his profession. The close of the 
 war had opened up the Continent, and Alison, sharing with 
 many of his countrymen the desire to witness the scene of 
 the stirring events of the previous twenty years, set out in 
 the autumn of 1814 for a lengthened tour in Franca It 
 was during this period, as he tells us in a characteristic 
 passage of the work itself, that he "conceived the first 
 idea" of writing his History, and "inhaled- that ardent 
 spirit, that deep enthusiasm," which enabled him to accom- 
 plish his self-imposed task. A more immediate result of the 
 tour was his first literary work of any importance, Travels 
 in France during the Years 1814—15, which appeared in 
 the latter year. On his return to Edinburgh, Mr Alison 
 practised at the bar for some years with but very moderate 
 success. In 1822, however, he became one of the four 
 advocates-depute for Scotland. The extensive and varied 
 experience gained in this office, which he held until 1830, 
 gave him the necessary qualifications for writing his Prin- 
 ciples of the Criminal Law of Scotland (1832), and Practice 
 of the Criminal Law of 'Scotland (1833), works that are 
 still of standard authority. It was the acknowledged merit 
 of these treatises that chieffy induced Sir Robert Peel, 
 during his brief administration of 1834, to confer on Mr 
 Alison the important judicial office of sheriff of . Lanark- 
 shire, which ranks next in dignity and emolument to a 
 judgeship in the supreme court. The office, though by no 
 means a sinecure, afforded considerable leisure, which Mr 
 Alison employed in not only making frequent contribu- 
 tions to periodical literature, but also writing the long- 
 projected History of Europe, for which he had been collect- 
 ing materials for more than fifteen years. The history of ! 
 the period from the commencement of the French revolu- 
 tion till the restoration of the Bourbons in 1815 was 
 completed in ten volumes in 1842, and met with a success 
 almost unexampled in works of its class. Within a few 
 years it ran through ten editions, and was translated into 
 most of the languages of Europe, as well as into Arabic 
 and Hindustani. At the time of the author's death it was 
 stated that 108,000 volumes of the library edition and 
 439,000 volumes of the popular edition had been sold. A 
 popularity so wide-spread must almost of necessity have 
 had some basis of real merit on which to rest, and the 
 good qualities of Mr Alison's work lay upon the surface. 
 It brought together, though not always in a well-arranged 
 form, an immense amount of information that had before 
 been practically inaccessible to the general public. It 
 made an attempt at least to show the organic connection 
 in the policy and progress of the different nations of 
 Europe ; and its descriptions of what may be called ex- 
 ternal history — of battles, sieges, and state pageants — were 
 always spirited and interesting. On the other hand, the 
 faults of the work were so numerous and glaring as to 
 preventjt from ever taking rank as a classic The general 
 style was prolix, involved, and vicious; inaccurate state- 
 ments and fallacious arguments were to be found in almost 
 every page; and the constant repetition of trite moral 
 reflections and egotistical references seriously detracted 
 from its dignity. A more grave defect resulted from the 
 luthor's strong political partisanship, which entirely un- 
 fitted, him for dealing with the problems of history in a 
 philosophical spirit. In the position of unbending Toryism 
 which he occupied, it was impossible for him to give any 
 
 1-2U 
 
 explanation! of so complex a fact as the French revolution 
 that would be satisfactory to reflective minda Accordingly, 
 his treatment of what may be called the inner history of 
 those forces hidden in the French revolution which have 
 made modern Europe what it is, was meagre and incomplete 
 in the last degree. 
 
 A continuation of the History, embracing the period from 
 1815 to 1852, which was completed in four volumes in 
 1856, did not meet with the same success as the earlier 
 work. The course of events did not afford the same 
 material for the exercise of the author's powers of descrip- 
 tion, and the period being so near as to be almost contem- 
 porary, there was a stronger temptation, which he seems 
 to h?.ve found it impossible to resist, to yield to political 
 prejudice. Three great measures of English legislation — 
 the Act restricting the paper currency, the Reform Act of 
 1832, and the Act abolishing the corn laws — were the 
 object of his special aversion ; and, with little regard for 
 consistency, he was in the habit of tracing, now to one and 
 now to another of these measures, all the real and many 
 imaginary evils in the state of the nation. On the currency 
 question, in regard to which he stood from the first almost 
 alone in opinion, he has inserted several tedious disserta- 
 tions in the continuation of his History, besides publishing 
 a separate pamphlet in 1847. On the two other great 
 measures he clung tenaciously to his opinion long after the 
 more intelligent of his party had admitted the necessity, if 
 not the justice, of the concessions that had been made. 
 The use which Mr Alison made of statistics in the .con- 
 tinuation of his History to support his peculiar political 
 and economic theories was little short of astounding. He 
 will be acquitted of intentional unfairness only by those 
 who are aware, not merely how easy it is to make figures 
 yield any result that may be wished, but also how difficult 
 it is to bring out the correct result, even with the most 
 honest purpose, unless there be special aptitude and special 
 training. on the part of the investigator. 
 
 Mr Alison's successful literary career received from time 
 to time due recognition in the form of public honours. 
 In 1845 he was chosen rector of Marischal College, Aber- 
 deen, and in 1851 he was raised to the same honourable 
 position by the students of Glasgow University. In 1852 
 the dignity of baronet was conferred upon him by Lord 
 Derby, and in the following year he was made a D.C.L. of 
 Oxford. His literary activity continued till within a short 
 time of his death, the chief works he published in addition 
 to his History being the Principles of Population (1840), 
 in answer to Mai thus ; a Life of Marlborough (1847); and 
 the Lives of Lord Castlereagh and Sir C. Stewart (1861). 
 Three volumes of his political, historical, and miscellaneous 
 essays were reprinted in 1850. Sir Archibald died at 
 Possil House, Glasgow, on the 23d May 1867. 
 
 ALIZARIN, the principal colouring matter of madder, 
 may be obtained by subliming on paper an alcoholic extract 
 of madder, or by exhausting the root with water, precipi- 
 tating with sulphuric acid, dissolving the moist precipitate 
 in a solution of chloride of alumina, and separating the 
 impure alizarin by the addition of hydrochloric acid. The 
 impure alizarin is dissolved in alcohol, and separated as a 
 lake on treating with hydrate of alumina, which is now 
 boiled with carbonate of soda to separate another colouring 
 matter called purpurin, and is finally treated with hydro- 
 chloric acid, which dissolves the alumina and leaves the 
 pure substance. 
 
 Alizarin in the anhydrous state forms red prisms", and 
 in the hydrated condition, cryscals like mosaic gold. It 
 dissolves sparingly in water even at the -boiling point, but 
 is soluble in alcohol or ether. Mineral acids do not de- 
 compose the colouring matter at ordinary temperatures. 
 Caustic alkalis or alkaline carbonates dissolve alizarin.
 
 578 
 
 ALK-ALL 
 
 forming deep purple solutions, from which acids precipitate 
 in orange-coloured flakes. Alizarin has the atomic com- 
 position C 14 H,0 4 , and has recently been made synthetically 
 from the hydrocarbon C 14 H 10 called anthracene, which 
 occurs amor.g the products of the destructive distillation 
 of coaL This is the first example of the artificial forma- 
 tion of a natural colouring matter. For further details 
 see Chemistry. 
 
 ALKALI, a term originally applied to the ashes of 
 plants, now employed in inorganic chemistry as a generic 
 name given to the group of compounds that have the pro- 
 perty of neutralising acids. The use of the term is, 
 however, generally confined to such members of the group 
 as aro solublo in water. The most solublo alkaline bodies 
 aro the oxides of potassium (potash), sodium (soda), lithium 
 (lithia), and ammonium (aqueous ammonia); and next in 
 order the oxides of calcium (lime), barium (baryta), and 
 strontium (strontia). The solutions of these bodies exert 
 a caustic or corrosive action on vegetable and animal sub- 
 stances, and precipitate the oxides of the heavy metals from 
 solutions of their salts. Many vegetable colouring matters 
 aro changed in tint by alkaline solutions — for instance, 
 reddoned litmus becomes blue, yellow turmeric brown, and 
 syrup of violets and infusions of red cabbage green. 
 
 ALKALOIDS, the name of a group of organic bodies that 
 possess alkaline properties. They are characterised by the 
 property of combining with acids to form salts, and many 
 have the power of giving an alkaline reaction with vege- 
 table colours. All the natural alkaloids contain nitrogen 
 as an essential constituent, and they are especially marked 
 by possessing great medicinal power. Many artificial 
 alkaloids have been made of recent years in which phos- 
 phorus, arsenic, and antimony occupy the place of nitrogen. 
 For the individual properties, tests, &c, of different alka- 
 loids, see Chemistry. 
 
 AT.K A NET (Alkanna tinctoria, or Aur/msa tinctoria), 
 a plant of the order Boraginaceae, indigenous to the south 
 of France and the shores of the Levant. It is extensively 
 cultivated on the Continent for the sake of the root, which 
 yields a fine colouring matter, imparting a beautiful car- 
 mine tint to oils, wines, wax, and all unctuous substances. 
 Being perfectly harmless, alkanet is much used for colour- 
 ing in pharmacy. Some of the mixtures styled port wine 
 owe their colour to this dye, and it is also employed in 
 staining furniture. 
 
 AL-KINDI, Abu Yusuf, &c.,. styled by pre eminence 
 " The Philosopher of the Arabs," flourished during the first 
 half of the 10th century, and died at some unknown date 
 posterior to 961. His literary activity was encyclopedic, and 
 spread itself over all the sciences. The titles of his works 
 number nearly 200 in the catalogue of Casiri, and amount to 
 265 in that of Fliigel; but the latter appears in aome cases to 
 have enumerated the same works under two diviiions, and it 
 is doubtful whether the philosopher has not been confounded 
 ■with another writer of the same name. His treatises are 
 arranged under the following heads, which throw some 
 light on his classification of the sciences : — Philosophy in 
 general, logic, politics, ethics, arithmetic (under which he 
 discusses the unity of God), spherology, theory of music 
 (which was closely connected with all primitive speculation 
 from its religious character), astronomy, meteorology, geo- 
 metry, cosmology (the form, &c, of the heavens), astrology, 
 medicine, and on various arts, besides his commentaries 
 and controversial writings. Of all these, none except some 
 treatises on medicine and astrology remain. Others of 
 them must have been known in the Middle Ages, for 
 Al-Kindi is placed by Roger Bacon, along with Alhazen, 
 in the first rank after Ptolemy as a writer on perspective 
 (optics). Some of them were certainly translated by 
 Gerard of Cremona. Whatever his influence may have been 
 
 on the BcLoolmen, he was undoubtedly a great initiutut 
 as regards his countrymen. Ho was one of the earliest 
 translators and commentators of Aristotle, but he appears 
 to have been, like Al-Farabi, superseded by Avicennu 
 He marks the first philosophic revolt against Islamisn, 
 and his doctrine on the simplicity and unity of the Deitj 
 was apparently equally Aristotelian and un-Mohometan 
 See Fliigel, Abhandlungen fur die Kunde du Morgen- 
 landes, erster Band, 1859.) 
 
 ALKMAAR, a town of the Netherlands, in the province 
 of North Holland, situated on the Helder canal and on 
 the railway between Haarlem and the Helder, about 20 
 miles N.N.W. of Amsterdam. The streets of Alkmaar 
 are extremely neat and regular, and are intersected by 
 canals lined with trees, while the ramparts of the town 
 have been converted into beautiful boulevards. Many of 
 the public buildings are elegant, especially tho church of 
 St Lawrence, a Gothk edifice of the 15th century. Alk- 
 maar is the seat of a court of primary jurisdiction and of 
 a tribunal of commerce, and possesses good schools as well 
 as several literary and scientific societies. Its principal 
 article of commerce is cheese, for which it is said to be the 
 chief market in the kingdom, if not in the world. Besides 
 cheese, it has a good trade in butter, corn, and cattle, and 
 manufactures of salt, sailcloth, soap, vinegar, and leather. 
 Alkmaar successfully sustained a siege by the "Duke of 
 Alba in 1573, and in 1799 gave its name to a convention 
 signed by the Duke of York and the French general 
 Brune, in accordance with which the Russo-British army 
 evacuated Holland. Population, 12,000. 
 
 ALKMAAR, Heinrik von, the German translator of 
 the celebrated satirical poem Reineke de Vos, flourished in 
 the latter half of the 15th century. In the preface to his 
 work, which is the only source of information as to his life, 
 he states that he was tutor to the Duke of Lorraine, and 
 that he translated the poem from the Walsch. In spite of 
 the latter statement, many have attributed the authorship 
 to him ; but it is now known that the story had a much 
 earlier origin. Some have supposed the name Alkmaar to 
 be a pseudonym. 
 
 ALL-SAINTS DAY, All-Hallows, or Hallowmas, a 
 festival, first instituted about 610 a.d., on the 1st of May, 
 in memory of the martyrs, and celebrated since 834 on the 
 1st of November, as a general commemoration of all the 
 saints. A3 the number of saints increased, it became im- 
 possible to dedicate a feast-day to each. Hence it was 
 found expedient to have an annual aggregate commemora- 
 tion of such as had not special days for themselves. The 
 festival is common to the Roman Catholic, English, and 
 Lutheran churches. See Beltane. 
 
 ALLAH, the Arabic name for the one true God which 
 is employed in the Koran, and has been adopted into the 
 language of all Mahometan nations. It is compounded of 
 al, the definite article, and ilah, meaning worthy to be 
 adored. See Mahometanism. 
 
 ALLAHABAD, a division, district, and city of British 
 India, under the jurisdiction of the lieutenant-governor of 
 the North-Western Provinces. The Allahabad Division 
 comprises the six districts of Allahabad, Cawnpur, Fatlii- 
 pur, Hamfrpur, Banda, and Jaunpur. It is bounded on 
 the north and east by the Etawah and Farrakhabad 
 districts and the province of Oudh; on the south by the 
 Benares division and the Rewah state; and on tho west 
 by the states of Bandelkhand and the Jhansi division. 
 Total population (1872), 5,466,116. 
 
 Allahabad District lies between 24° 49' and 25° 44' 
 N. lat, and between 81° 1 4' and 82° 26' E. long. In shepe 
 the district is that of an irregular oblong; and it is diffi- 
 cult accurately to describe its boundaries, as at one extre- 
 mity it wanders into Oudh, while on the south the villages
 
 A L 1j - A L L 
 
 579 
 
 of the state of Rewah and those of this district are hope- 
 lessly intermingled. Roughly speaking, however, the boun- 
 daries may be described as follows : — On the north by the 
 district of Jaunpur and by the Ganges; on the west by the 
 districts of Fathipur and B&nda; on the south by the inde- 
 pendent state of Rewah;, and on the east by the districts 
 of Mirzipur and Jaunpur. The settlement of the district 
 is at present undergoing revision; and as the measurements 
 are still incomplete, it is impossible to state the exact area. 
 For practical purposes, it may be estimated at 2802 square 
 miles, or 1,793,906 acres, of which 1,065,990 acres are 
 cultivated, and 727,916 acres are uncultivated; of this 
 latter, however, there are about 250,000 acres capable of 
 being brought under tillage, although not actually culti- 
 vated. The census of 1872 returned the population of the 
 district at 1,394,245 souls, of whom 1,211,778 are Hindus, 
 181,574 Mussulmans, and 893 Christians. There is, how- 
 ever, a manifest error in these figures, as the European and 
 Eurasian population of Allahabad city alone cannot be set 
 at a lower figure than 3500. The census returns are in 
 consequence undergoing revision. Of the Hindu popula- 
 tion, 173,916 are returned as Brahmans. 
 
 The Jamni and the Ganges meet at Allahabad city, and enclose 
 within their angle a fertile tract, well irrigated by mean3 of tanks 
 and wells. The East Indian Railway and the Grand Trunk road 
 afford the principal means of land communication. The former 
 enters the district from the east, crosses the Jamni at Allahabad 
 city, and- travels westward, leaving the district near Khiga station. 
 The Grand Trunk road enters Allahabad from the north-east, meets 
 the railway at Allahabad city, and thence runs almost parallel with 
 it till it leaves the district. Only three towns are returned as" con- 
 taining a population of over (5000 souls — viz., Allahabad, population 
 144,164 ; ilanaima, population 6146 ; and Chizwi, population 5791. 
 Rice is the principal crop, the area under it being returned at 
 139,000 acres, and the average produce at 5 l cwt. per acre. A 
 little more than half of the total rice crop is retained for local con- 
 sumption, and the remainder exported. The average price of com- 
 mon rice in February 1873 was 6s. 9d. per cwt. Pulses are also 
 grown in large quantities, the area under the various sorts being 
 about the same as rice, and the yield also about the same. Joar 
 and bajra cover as large an area as either rice or pulses, but the 
 yield is neither so large nor of such value. About half the crop 
 is said to be annually exported. Wheat is cultivated to the extent 
 of about 150,000 cwt. per annum, of which about one-half is 
 exported; the average yield is said to be about 6J cwt. per acre, 
 and the average price from 6s. 2d. to 6s. 9d- per cwt. Mustard, 
 tobacco, opium, linseed, and indigo are also cultivated largely, with 
 cotton and sugar-cane in small quantities. Indigo stands first among 
 the manufactures of the district, and large factories exist at Alam- 
 chind, Sarai Salem, Gadupur, Kansaridh, Thardai, and Dum-duma. 
 These are generally under the supervision of European managers, 
 and the produce is forwarded direct to the Calcutta market. Next 
 to indigo, the most important industry is stone-cutting. The stone 
 is chiefly quarried from a low range of hills neai Shiorajpur, whence 
 it is carried in country carts to the Jamna river ; and after crossing 
 it in flat-bottomed boats, it is finally landed at Balwa. Ghat. Here 
 the stone-masons take it in hand. The gross income of the Balwi 
 Ghat stone traders is estimated at £2000 per annum. A brisk 
 trade is also carried on in hides, the principal mart being the village 
 of Karwi, in Arail fiscal division, where it is estimated that the 
 sale of skins amounts to upwards of £10,000 per annum for the 
 Mirzipur and Calcutta hide markets. Paper is manufactured in 
 the fiscal division of Karri, and a considerable quantity exported to 
 Oudh. Several villages in the fiscal divisions of Karri and Chail 
 are noted for the manufacture of brass and copper vessels ; and iron 
 vessels are largely manufactured in Khairdgarh, Karri, andPhulpur. 
 The East India Railway Company have a large castor-oil manufac- 
 tory at the village of Manauri. The total net revenue of the district 
 in 1871 -72 is returned at £244,537, and the total net civil expenditure 
 at £51,770. . The district passed into the hands of the English in 
 1801, by a treaty between the Vazir of Oudh and the East India 
 Company. 
 
 AtxahXbId- City, the capital of the North-Western 
 Provinces, is also the administrative headquarters of 
 the Allahabad division and of the district of the same 
 name. It is situated at the confluence of the Ganges and 
 Jamna rivers, in 25° 26' N. lat, and 81° 55' E. long. 
 Its most conspicuous feature is the fort, which rises 
 directly from the banks of the confluent rivers, and com- 
 
 pletely commands the navigation of both streams. Within 
 the fort are the remains of a splendid palace, erected by 
 the Emperor Akbar, and once a favourite residence of his. 
 A great portion of it has been destroyed, and its .hall ifl 
 converted into an arsenal. Outside the fort, the places 
 most of importance are the Sarai and garden of Khasru, 
 the son of the Emperor Jahangir, and the Juma Masjid, 
 or great mosque. When the town first came into the 
 hands of the English this mosque was used as a residence 
 by the military officer commanding the station, and after- 
 wards as an- assembly-room. Ultimately it was returned 
 to its former owners, but the Mahometans considered it 
 desecrated, and it has never since been used as a place of 
 worship. Allahabad is one of the most noted resorts of 
 Hindu pilgrimage. It owes its sanctity to its being the 
 reputed confluence of three sacred streams — the Ganges, 
 the Jamna, and the Saraswati This last stream, however, 
 is not visible. It leaves the Himalayas to the west of the 
 Jamna, passes close to Thaneswar in the Panjab, 'and 
 loses itself in the sands of Sirhind, 400 miles north-west 
 of Allahabad. The Hindus, however, assert that the stream 
 joins the other two rivers under ground, and in a subter- 
 raneous temple below the fort a little moisture trickling 
 from the rocky walls is pointed out as the waters of tha 
 Saraswati. An annual fair is held at Allahabad, at tha 
 confluence of the streams, on the occasion of the great 
 bathing festival, at the full moon of the Hindu . month of 
 Magh. Allahabad was taken by the British, in the year 
 1765, from the Vazir of Oudh, and assigned as a residence 
 for Shah Alam, the titular Emperor of Dehli. Upon that 
 prince throwing himself into the hands of the Marhattas, 
 the place was resumed by us in 1771, and again trans- 
 ferred to 'the Nawdb of Oudh, by whom it was finally 
 ceded, together with the district, to the British in 1801, 
 in commutation of the subsidy which the Vazir had agreed 
 to pay for British protection. The population and trade 
 of Allahabad city have rapidly increased of late years. 
 According to the census of 1853, the city and suburbs 
 contained 72,098 inhabitants. Before 1872 the popula- 
 tion had exactly doubled, the census returns for that year 
 exhibiting a total population of 144,464. The municipal 
 income and expenditure of Allahabad city in 1871-72 were 
 as follows: — Income — Octroi duties, £13,676, 14s.; tax on 
 professions, £220, 10s.; carriage tax, £1264, 4s.; proceeds 
 of the Hindu fair and ground rents, £5364: total municipal 
 income, £20,525, 8s.; incidence of taxation, 2s. lid. per 
 head of the population. Expenditure — Establishment, in- 
 cluding cost of collection, police, conservancy, and b'ghting, 
 £9906, 4s. ; street watering, £1002, 12s. ; new works, £7677 
 16s.; repairs, £1088, 2s.; vaccination, £20; dispensary 
 £330; charities, £250; Alfred Park, £800; other items' 
 £223, 2s. : total, £21,297, 16s. Allahabad forms the June 
 tion of the great railway system which unites Bengal with 
 Central India and Bombay, and it is rapidly developing 
 into a great centre of inland and export trade. 
 
 ALLAMAND, Jean Nicolas Sebastian, natural philo- 
 sopher, born at Lausanne in 1713, was educated for the 
 church, and held for a short time a clerical appointment 
 at Leyden. Here he enjoyed the patronage and friendship 
 of the celebrated S'Gravesende, who made him his 
 literary executor. In 1747 he was appointed professor of 
 philosophy and natural history at Franekor, and two years 
 later he was transferred to a similar chair at Leyden, which 
 he occupied until his death in 1787. Allamand's chief 
 service to science consisted in translating and editing the 
 scientific works of others, but he also made some original 
 discoveries of importance, especially in connection with 
 electricity. He was the first to explain fully the pheno- 
 mena of the Leyden jar, and he made a near approach to 
 the discovery of negative electricity. He greatly enriched
 
 ;„so 
 
 A L L — A L L 
 
 the botanical garden and natural history museum at 
 Leyden by specimens from all quarters of the globe. His 
 translation of Buffon's works was published at Amsterdam, 
 in thirty-eight quarto volumes, between 1766 and 1779. 
 AHamand was a member of the Royal Society of London 
 and of the Academy of Sciences at Haarlem. 
 
 ALLAN, David, a Scottish historical painter of consider- 
 able celebrity, was born at Alloa on the 13thFebruary 1744. 
 At a very early age he gave such proofs of natural artistic 
 talent as led to his being placed under the care of the Messrs 
 Foulis, who some time before had instituted an academy 
 in Glasgow for painting and engraving. On leaving the ) 
 academy (1762), after seven years' successful study, he 
 obtained the patronage of Lord Cathcart and of Erskine of 
 Mar, on whose estate he had been born. The latter furnished 
 him with the means of proceeding to Eome (1764), where 
 he remained for a number of years engaged principally in 
 copying the old masters. Among the original works which he 
 then painted was the "Origin of Portraiture" — represent- 
 ing a Corinthian maid drawing her lover's shadow — well 
 known through Cunego's excellent engraving. This gained 
 for him the gold medal given by the Academy of St Luke 
 in the year 1773 for tho best specimen of historical com- 
 position. Returning from Rome in 1777, he resided for a 
 time in London, and occupied himself in portrait-painting. 
 In 1780 he removed to Edinburgh, where, on the death of 
 Alexander Runciman in 1786, he was appointed director 
 and master of the Academy of Arts. There he painted and 
 etched in aquatint a variety of works, those by which he is 
 best known — as the Scotch Wedding, the Highland Dance, 
 the Repentance Stool, and his Illustrations of the Gentle 
 Shepherd — being remarkable for their comic humour. He 
 has had frequently applied to him the name of the " Scottish 
 Hogarth ;" but his drolleries are not to be compared for a 
 moment with the productions of the great English satirist. 
 Allan died at Edinburgh on the 6th August 1796. 
 
 ALLAN, Sir William, R.A., and president of the 
 Royal Scottish Academy, was born at Edinburgh in 1782. 
 At an early age he was entered as a pupil in the School 
 of Design established in Edinburgh by the Board of 
 Trustees for Arts and Manufactures, where he had as 
 companions, Wilkie, Burnet the engraver, and others 
 who afterwards distinguished themselves as artists. Here 
 Allan and Wilkie were placed at the same table, studied 
 the same designs, and contracted a friendship which termi- 
 nated only with their lives. Leaving the Edinburgh 
 school, Allan prosecuted his studies for some time in 
 London ; but his attempt to establish himself there was 
 unsuccessful, and after exhibiting at the Royal Academy 
 (1805) his first picture, A Gipsy Boy and Ass, an imitation 
 in style of Opie, he determined, in spite of his scanty 
 resources, to seek his fortune abroad. He accordingly set 
 out the same year for Russia, but was carried by stress of 
 weather to Memel, where he remained for some time, sup 
 porting himself by his pencil. At last, however, he reached 
 St Petersburg, where the kindness of Sir Alexander Crichton, 
 £he court physician, and other friends procured him abundant 
 employment. The emoluments of his profession enabled 
 him by and by to make excursions into southern Russia, 
 Turkey, the Crimea, and Circassia, where he filled his 
 portfolio with vivid sketches, of which he made admirable 
 use in his subsequent pictures. In 1814 he returned to 
 Edinburgh, and in the two following years exhibited at 
 the Royal Academy The Circassian Captives and Bashkirs 
 conducting Convicts to Siberia. The former composition, 
 which united graceful forms and powerful expression with 
 novel and picturesque costumes, established his reputation 
 as a master in the highest walk of art ; but the picture 
 remained bo long unsold in the studio of the artist, that, 
 thoroughly disheartened, he threatened to retire to Circassia 
 
 when, througn the kindness of Sir Walter Scott, a sub- 
 scription of 1000 guineas was obtained for tho picture, 
 which fell by lot into the possession of the Earl of Wemyss. 
 About the same time the Grand Duke Nicholas, after- 
 wards emperor of Russia, visited Edinburgh, and purchased 
 his Siberian Exiles and Haslan Gheray crossing the River 
 Kuban, giving a very favourable turn to the fortunes of 
 the painter, \^hose pictures were now sought for by col- 
 lectors. From this time to 1834 we find him pursuing 
 his art in the sphere in which he achieved his greatest 
 success and firmly established his fame, the illustration of 
 Scottish history. His most important works of this class 
 were Archbishop Sharpe on Magus Moor; John Knox 
 admonishing Mary Queen of Scots (1823), engraved by 
 Burnet; Mary Queen oj Scots signing her Abdication 
 (1824); and Regent Murray shot by Hamilton of Bothwell- 
 haugh. The last procured his election as an associate of 
 the Royal Academy (1825). Later Scottish subjects were 
 Lord Byron (1831), portraits of Scott, and The Orphan 
 (1834), which represented Anne Scott seated near the chair 
 of her deceased father. In 1830 he was compelled, on 
 account of an attack of ophthalmia, to seek a milder cli- 
 mate, and visited Rome, Naples, and Constantinople. He 
 returned with a rich store of materials, of which he made 
 excellent use in his Constantinople Slave Market and other 
 productions. In 1834 he visited Spain and Morocco, and 
 in 1841 went again to St Petersburg, when he undertook, 
 at the request of the Czar, his Peter the Great teaching his 
 Subjects the Art of Shipbuilding, exhibited in London in 
 1845, and now in the Winter Palace of St Petersburg. 
 His Polish Exiles and Moorish Love-letter, be, had secured 
 his election as a Royal Academician in 1835; he was 
 appointed president of the Royal Scottish Academy (1838), 
 and limner to Her Majesty for Scotland, after Wilkie's 
 death (1841); and in 1842 received the honour of knight- 
 hood. His later years were occupied with battle-pieces, 
 the last he finished being the second of his two companion 
 pictures of the Battle of Waterloo. He died on the 22d 
 February 1850, leaving a large picture unfinished — Bruce at 
 Bannockburn — which exhibits no traces of impaired power. 
 
 ALLEGHANY, Allegheny, or Allegany Moun- 
 tains, is the name often given to the Appalachian Moun- 
 tains in the United States. A more exact use of the name 
 restricts it to the portion of the system that lies west of the 
 Hudson river, and forms the watershed of the Mississippi 
 basin on the south-east. See Appalachian Mountains. 
 
 ALLEGHANY, a river of the United States, which 
 rises in the north of Pennsylvania, and after flowing about 
 300 miles, first in a northerly, but for the greater part of 
 its course in a westerly direction, during which it passes 
 for a short distance into the state of New York, unites 
 with the Monongahela at Pittsburg to form the Ohio. 
 The country through which it flows is mostly hilly, and 
 large numbers of pines, white oaks, and chestnuts grow 
 upon its banks. It is navigable for small steamers for 
 about 200 miles above Pittsburg. 
 
 ALLEGHENY, a large suburb of Pittsbubg (q.v.) In 
 1870 it contained 53,180 inhabitants. 
 
 ALLEGIANCE, either derived from the French alle- 
 geance or taken from the same Latin source, has been used 
 to express that duty which a person possessing the privi- 
 leges of a citizen owes to the state to which he. belongs, 
 and is technically applied in law to the duty which a 
 British subject owes to the sovereign as representing the 
 state. It has been divided by ths English legal com- 
 mentators into natural and local ; the latter applying only 
 to the deference which a foreigner must pay to the institu- 
 tions of the country in which he happens to live; but it 
 is in its wider sense that (lie word is important, as repre- 
 senting a condition attached to mankind of which it is
 
 A L L — A L L 
 
 581 
 
 /cry difficult in theory, ana still more in practice, to adjust 
 the true character and limits. For a state to decide what 
 persons a're bound to it by allegiance may- be easy, but for 
 a man to know where his allegiance lies when two or more 
 states claim him — and hence for jurists to decide what is 
 che reasonable. extent to which any state ought to make 
 such a claim — is often involved in difficulty. The English 
 doctrine, which was also adopted in the United States, 
 asserted that allegiance was indelible; Nemo potest exuere 
 patriam (Forsyth's Cases and Opinions in Constitutional 
 Law, jp. 257, sqq., 333, sq.) Accordingly, as the law 
 stood before 1870, every person born within the British 
 dominions, though he should be removed in infancy to 
 another countrywhere his family resides, owes an allegiance 
 co the British crown which he could never resign or lose, 
 except by Act of Parliament or by the recognition of the 
 independence or the cession of the portion of British terri- 
 tory in which he resided. By the Naturalisation Act, 1870, 
 33 & 31 Vict, c. 14 (see Alien),' it was made possible for 
 British subject's to renounce their nationality and allegiance, 
 and the ways in which that nationality is lost are defined. 
 So British subjects voluntarily naturalised in a foreign state 
 are deemed aliens from the time of such naturalisation, 
 unless, in the case of persons naturalised before the passing 
 of the Act, they have declared theit desire to remain British 
 subjects within two years from the passing of the Act. 
 Persons who, from having been born within British territory 
 are British subjects, but who at birth became under the 
 law of any foreign state subjects of such state, and also 
 persons who, though born abroad are British subjects by 
 reason of parentage, may by declarations of alienage get rid 
 of British nationality.. ' 
 
 Allegiance, Oath of, an 'oath of fidelity to the sove- 
 reign taken by all persons holding .public office. By 
 ancient common law it might be required of all persons 
 above the age of twelve, and it has repeatedly been used 
 as a test for the disaffected. It was first imposed by 
 statute in the reign of Elizabeth (L c. 1), and its form has 
 more than once been altered since. Up to the time of the 
 Revolution the promise was " to be true and faithful to 
 the king and his heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life 
 and limb and terrene honour, and not to know or hear of 
 any ill or damage intended him without defending him 
 therefrom." This was thought to favour the doctrine of 
 absolute non-resistance, and accordingly the Convention 
 Parliament enacted the form that has been in use since 
 that time — " I do sincerely promise and swear that I will 
 be faithful and bear true allegiance to Her Majesty Queen 
 Victoria." These words are included in the form pre- 
 scribed by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 48, which substitutes- one oath 
 for the oaths of allegiance, supremacy, and' abjuration. 
 
 ALLEGORY. (dAAos, other, and dyopevw, to speak), a 
 figurative representation conveying a meaning other than 
 and in addition to the literal It is generally treated as a 
 figure of ^h'etorjc, but the medium of representation is 
 not necessarily language. An allegory may be addressed 
 to the eye, and is often embodied in painting, sculpture, 
 or some form of mimetic art. The etymological meaning 
 of the word is wider than that which it bears in actual 
 use. An 'allegory is distinguished from a metaphor by 
 being longer sustained and more fully carried out in its 
 details, and from an analogy by the fact that the one 
 appeals to the imagination and the other to the reason. 
 The fable or parable is a short allegory with one definite 
 moral. The allegory has been a favourite form in the 
 literature of nearly every nation. The Hebrew scrip- 
 tures present frequent instance's of it, one of the most 
 Beautiful • being the comparison of the history of Israel 
 to the growth of a vine, in the 80th psalm. ■ In classical 
 Sfferature one of the best known allegories is the 
 
 story of the stomach and its members in the speech oJ 
 Menenius Agrippa (Livy, ii. 32); and several occur in 
 Ovid's Metamorphoses. Perhaps the most elaborate and 
 the most successful specimens of allegory are to be found 
 in the works of English authors. Spencer's Faerie Queine, 
 Swift's Tale of a Tub, Addison's Vision of Mirzn, and, 
 above all, Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, are examples that 
 it would be impossible to-match in elaboration, beauty, and 
 fitness, from the literature of any other nation. 
 
 ALLEGRI, Antonio. See Coebeggio. 
 
 ALLEGRI, Geeooeio, musical composer, probably of 
 the Correggio family, was born at Rome about 1580. He 
 studied music under Nanini, the intimate friend of Pales- 
 trina. Being intended for the church, he obtained a 
 •benefice in the cathedral of Fermo. Here he composed a 
 large number of motetts and sacred pieces, which, being 
 brought under the notice of Pope Urban VIII., obtained 
 for him an appointment in the choir of the Sistine chapel 
 at Rome. He held this from Dec. 1629 till his death on 
 the 18th Feb, 1652. His character seems, to have been 
 singularly pure and benevolent. Among the musical 
 compositions of Allegri were two volumes of • Concerti, 
 published in 1618 and 1619; two volumes of Motetts, 
 published in 1620 and 1621 ; besides a number of worka 
 still in manuscript. He was one of the earliest .composers 
 for stringed instruments, and Kircher has given one speci- 
 men of this class of his works in the Musurgia. But' the 
 most celebrated composition of Allegri is the Miserere, 
 still annually, performed in the Sistine chapel at Rome. 
 It is ■written for two choirs, the one of five and the other 
 of four voices, and has obtained a celebrity which, if not 
 entirely factitious, is certainly not due to its intrinsic 
 •merics alone. . The mystery in which the composition was 
 long enshrouded, no single copy being allowed to reach the 
 public, the place and circumstances of the performance, 
 and the added embellishments of the singers, account to a 
 great degree for much of the impressive effect of which aH 
 who have heard the music speak. This view is confirmed 
 by the fact, that when the music was performed at Venice 
 by permission of the pope, it produced so little effect that 
 the Emperor Leopold I., at whose request the manuscript 
 had been sent, thought that something else had been sub- 
 stituted. In spite of the precautions of the popes, the 
 Miserere has long been public property. In 1769 Mozart 
 was able to write it down after hearing it twice ; and in 
 1771 a copy was procured and published in England by 
 Dr Burney. The entire music performed at Rome in Holy 
 Week, Allegri's Miserere included, has been' issued at 
 Leipsic by Breitkopf and HarteL Interesting accounts of 
 the impression produced by the performance at Rome may 
 ba found in the first volume of Mendelssohn's letters, and 
 in Miss Taylor's Letters from Italy. 
 
 ALLEINE, Joseph, Nonconformist divine, the author 
 of An Alarm to t/ie Unconverted — a book which remains 
 as potential as when first modestly sent forth, scarcely 
 second to Richard Baxter's Call to the Unconverted — was 
 otherwise noticeable. Baxter himself wrote a characteristic 
 introduction to his Life fully two centuries ago (1672); 
 while recently (1861) the Rev. Charles Stanford has retold 
 his story and the story of his age with great fulness of 
 knowledge and historical fidelity. The Alleines came out 
 of Suffolk, and as early as 1430 some of them^sprung of 
 Alan, lord of Buckenhall — settled in the neighbourhood of 
 Calne and Devizes, whence descended the immediate ances- 
 tors of " worthy Mr Tobie AUeine of Devizes," father of our 
 worthy. Joseph AUeine, fourth of a large family, .was born 
 at Devices early in 1634. 1645 is marked in the title-page 
 of a quaint old tractate, by an eye-witness, as his " setting 
 forth in the Christian race." His eldest brother Edward 
 had been a clergyman, but in this year died, in his twenty
 
 582 
 
 ALL-ALL 
 
 seventh year ; and Joseph entreated Lis father that he 
 might be educated to succeed his brother iu the work 
 of the ministry. His father consented, and ho was 
 immediately sent to Poolshot, then under a fellow of 
 Exeter College, Oxford (William Spiuage). Iu April 
 164'J ho set out for Lincoln College, Oxford, iu the pre- 
 sidency of Dr Paul Hood, with Dr John Owen as the 
 vice-chaucellor of the university. A Wiltshire place be- 
 coming vacant in Corpus Christi College, on the 3d Nov. 
 1651 he was chosen scholar of that house. Of his student 
 life it was \mtten contemporaneously, "lie could toil 
 terribly." On 6th July 1653 he took the degreo of B.D., 
 and thereupon became a tutor of his college Ho became 
 also chaplain of Corpus Christi, preferring this to a fellow- 
 ship. In 1654 he had offers of high preferment in the 
 state, which he declined. Tho succeeding year (1655) 
 brought him another offer, which he did not decline. 
 George Newton, of the great church of St Maiy Magdalene, 
 Taunton, sought hiui for assistant ; and putting from hini 
 all other things, even forsaking further academical honours 
 within his immediate grasp, he accepted the invitation by 
 proceeding at once to Taunton, undergoing the accustomed 
 probation, and at last being ordained as the associate 
 of one of tho most venerable of the later Puritan fathers. 
 Tho ministry that resulted stauds out lustrous and noble 
 in the history of historical Taunton, and in the Life of tho 
 junior pastor, as told by Baxter and Stanford. Almost 
 coincident with ordination came the marriage of the 
 associate -pastor with Theodosia Alleine, daughter of 
 Richard Alleine. Friendships among "gentle and simple" 
 —of the former, with Lady Farewell, grand-daughter of Pro- 
 tector Somerset — hear witness to the attraction of AUeine's 
 private life. His public life — in preaching after the in- 
 tense, awakening, wLstfid type; in catechising with all 
 diligence and fidelity; in visitation among the poor and 
 mean and sad ; in letter-writing, tender and sympa- 
 thetic; in devotional intercession through long consecrated 
 hours of day and night— was a model of pastoral devo- 
 tion. This is all the more remarkable as the pastor 
 continued the student-toil of Coqnts Christi, one monu- 
 ment of which was his Tluologia Philosophica, a lost 
 MS., establishing tho harmony between revelation and 
 nature, and whose learning — classical, patristic, and 
 recondite— drew forth tho wonder of Baxter. Alleine- 
 was no mere scholar or divine, but a man who asso- 
 ciated on equal terms with the patriarchs of the Eoyal 
 Society, then laying those broad and deep foundations on 
 which rests England's present scientific renown. These 
 scientific studies and experiments, nevertheless, were ever 
 kept in subordination to his proper work. The extent of his 
 influence was, iu so young a man, unique, resting fundament- 
 ally on the earnestness of his nature and the manifest power 
 of his ministry. The year 1662 found senior and junior 
 pastors like-minded, and both were of the Two Thousand. 
 Alleine, when the Ejection blow fell, with John Wesley 
 (grandfather of the celebrated John Wesley) for fellow^ 
 labourer, also ejected, carried on a kind of itineracy where- 
 cver opportunity was found for preaching the gospeL For 
 this he was cast into prison, indicted at sessions, and 
 suffered as hundreds of England's noblest men have suf- 
 fered. His Letters from, Prison were an earlier Cardi- 
 phonia. He was released on 26th May 1664; and spite 
 of the Conventicle Act (Five Mile Act), he returned to 
 his beloved work as a preacher of the gospeL Se found 
 lumself again in prison, and again and again a sufferer. 
 Tempestuous and troubled were his remaining years. Now 
 in hiding, now in great bodily weakness, now coining to 
 the front in some act of charity or patriotism, now at the 
 waters of Bath, slowly but serenely wearing out He 
 died November 17, 1668; and the mourners, remember- 
 
 ing their beloved minister's words while yet with them, 
 "HI should die fifty miles away, let me be buried at 
 Taunton." found a grave for him in St Mary's chancel 
 Pilgrims from over the sea read with dim eyes the brief 
 Latin inscription on his stone. No Puritan-Nonconformist 
 name is 60 affectionately cherished as is that of Joseph 
 Alleine. " Being dead he yet speaketh" through his im- 
 perishable practical books. (Life, edited b}' Baxter; Joseph 
 Alleine: his Companions and Times, by Charles Stanford, 
 1861; Wood's Athena;; Palmer's None. Ifcm.,s.v.; Har- 
 leian MSS., and Williams MSS.) (a. b. o.) 
 
 ALLEINE, BicnAED, M.A., author of Yindicice Pictaiu, 
 was educated at St Albans Hall, Oxford, where Anthony 
 a Wood states ho was entered commoner in 1627, aged 
 sixteen ; and where, having taken the degree of B.A., he 
 transferred himself to New Inn, and continued there until 
 he proceeded M.A. He and the like-minded William 
 Alleine were sons of Richard Alleine, rector for upwardfe 
 of fifty years of Diehet, Somerset. The younger Richard 
 being ordained; became assistant to his venerable father, 
 and immediately stirred the entire county by his burning 
 eloquence. In March 1641 he succeeded to many-sided 
 Richard Bernard as rector of Batcomb (Somerset). He 
 declared himself on the side of the Puritans by subscribing 
 " The testimony of the ministers in Somersetshire to the 
 truth of Jesus Christ " and " The Solemn League and 
 Covenant." He continued for twenty years rector of 
 Batcomb. On the Act of Uniformity being passed, he cast 
 in his lot with the Two Thousand of the ejected. Upon 
 the Five-ftlile Act he removed to Frome Selwood, and 
 preached there and around until his death on December 
 22, 1681. His works are all of the lichest spiritual cha- 
 racter, with a wistfulness of appeal that goes right to the 
 heart. His Yindicim Fietatis (which appeared succes- 
 sively in 1660, 1663, and 1665) was refused licence by 
 Sheldon, and was published, in common with other Non- 
 conformist books, without it. It was rapidly bought up, 
 and " did much to mend this bad world." Roger Norton, 
 the king's printer, caused a large part of the first impres- 
 sion to be seized, on the ground of not being licensed, and 
 to be sent to the royal kitchen. Glancing over its pages, 
 he was struck with what he read, and on second thoughts 
 it seemed to him a sin that a book so holy — and so sale- 
 able — should be destroyed. He therefore bought back the 
 sheets, says Calamy, for an old song, bound them, and 
 sold them in his own shop. This in turn was complained 
 of against him, and the shrewd publisher had to beg pardon 
 on his knees before the council-table ; and the remai nin g 
 copies were sentenced to be " bisk'd," or rubbed over with 
 an inky brush, and sent back to the kitchen for lighting 
 fires. Such " bisk'd " copies occasionally occur still. The 
 book was not killed. It was reissued, with additions, 
 and a contribution by Joseph Alleine, and went forth on 
 a mission which has endured to our day. (Calamy, s.v. ; 
 Palmer's Nonconf. Mem. m. pp. 167-8; C. Stanford's 
 Joseph Alleine; Researches at Batcomb an! Frome Selwood; 
 Wood's Athena:, s.v.) (a. b. o.) 
 
 ALLEN, Boa or, the namo given to a congeries of 
 morasses in Kildare and King's County, Ireland. Clane 
 Bog, the eastern extremity, is within 17 miles of Dublin, 
 and the morasses extend westward almost to the Shannon. 
 Their total area is about 238,500 acres. They do not 
 form one continuous bog, the tract of the country to 
 which the name is given being intersected by strips of dry 
 cultivated land. The rivers Brosna; Barrow, and Boyne 
 take their rise in these morasses ; and the Grand Canal 
 crosses them. The Bog of Allen has a general elevation 
 of 250 feet above the level of the sea, and the average 
 thickness of the peat of which it consists i£ 25 feet It 
 rests on a subsoil of clay and marl
 
 ALL-ALL 
 
 583 
 
 ALLEN, John (1770-1843), was born Dear Edinburgh, 
 and educated at the university of that city, where he took 
 the degree of M.D. in 1791. With youthful enthusiasm, 
 Allen joined the Scottish movement of that period for 
 parliamentary reform. He was an acute metaphysician, 
 and the prelections on physiology which he delivered in 
 Edinburgh are distinguished by clearness and precise 
 philosophical views. Leaving Edinburgh, he took up his 
 abode at Holland House as the friend and private secre- 
 tary of the late Lord Holland. In 181.1 he was elected 
 warden of Dulwich College; and in 1820 obtained the 
 :omfortable sinecure of master of that institution, where 
 he died in 1843. Allen's detached publications, though 
 well written, are not very important, if we except his 
 valuable- Inquiry into the Growth of the Royal Prerogative 
 (1830), "a learned and luminous work;" but he was an 
 able contributor to the Edinburgh Review, to which he is 
 said to have furnished no less than forty articles, chiefly 
 on physiological, metaphysical, and political subjects; and 
 eomo of his contributions on French and Spanish history 
 are very interesting. For this last department he was 
 peculiarly fitted by his. residence with Lord Holland in 
 France and Spain ; he had even collected materials for a 
 history of Spain, but was hindered from fulfilling his pur- 
 pose by his deep interest in politics. The latter portion 
 of his life was divided between politics and the study of 
 the history of the British constitution. Brougham, in his 
 eloge of Allen ( Works, vol. iv., 1 872), has highly commended 
 him for extensive learning and philosophical talent. 
 
 ALLEN, or Alleyn, Thomas (1542-1632), a famous 
 English mathematician, was born at Uttoxeter in Stafford- 
 shire, 21st December 1542. He was admitted scholar 
 of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1561 ; and in 1567 took 
 his degree of master of arts: In 1580 he quitted his 
 college and fellowship, and retired to Gloucester Hall, 
 where he studied very closely, and became famous for his 
 knowledge of antiquity, philosophy, and mathematics. 
 Having received an invitation from Henry, Earl of Nor- 
 thumberland, a great- friend and patron of men of science, 
 he spent some time at the earl's house, where he became 
 acquainted with Thomas Harriot, John Dee, and other 
 famous mathematicians. He wa3 also intimate with 
 Cotton, Camden, and their antiquarian associates. Robert, 
 Earl of Leicester, had a particular esteem for Allen, and 
 would have conferred a bishopric upon him, but his love 
 of solitude made him decline the offer. His great skill in 
 mathematics earned him, as was usual in those times, the 
 credit of being a magician ; and the author of Leicester's 
 Commonwealth accuses him of employing the art of 
 " figuring " to further the Earl of Leicester's unlawful 
 designs, and of endeavouring by the black art to bring 
 about a match between his patron and Queen Elizabeth. 
 Allen was ihdefatiga-ble in Collecting scattered "manuscripts 
 relating -to history, antiquity,- astronomy, philosophy, and 
 mathematics. A considerable part of his collection was 
 presented to the Bodleian library by Sir Kenelm Digby. 
 He published in Latin the second and third books of 
 Claudius Ptolemy of Pelusium, Concerning the Judgment 
 of the Stars, or, as it is commonly called, of the Quadri- 
 partite Construction, with an exposition. He wrote also 
 notes on some of Lilly's books, aird on Bale's Be Scrip- 
 toribus M. Britannia. 
 
 ALLENTOWN, formerly called Northampton, a thriv- 
 ing town of the United States, capital of Lehigh county. 
 Pennsylvania, is" pleasantly situated on a height on the 
 western bank of the Lehigh River, 85 miles EN.E. of 
 Harrisburg. It is a well-built place, and contains a good 
 court-house, a military institute, an academy, and a theo- 
 logical seminary. Most of fhe inhabitants are of German 
 descent ; the German language is commonly spoken, and 
 
 is used along with English both iu the newspapers and in 
 the courts of law. The valley of the Lehigh i3 very rich 
 in iron ore and anthracite, and in the town and, neigh- 
 bourhood extensive iron-works and anthracite furnaces are 
 in operation. This trade is being rapidly developed, and 
 is favoured by good railway communication, New York 
 and Philadelphia being both within 100 miles of Allentown 
 by rail. A tenth of the whole iron manufactured in the 
 United States is said to be produced here. Population 
 (1870), 13,884. 
 
 ALLESTRY, or Axlestree, Richard, D.D., was 
 born at Uppingtown in Shropshire in 1619, and educated 
 in the grammar school of Coventry, and afterwards at 
 Christ Church, Oxford. After passing as bachelor of 
 arts he was made successively moderator in philosophy, 
 canon of Christ Church, doctor of divinity, chaplain in 
 ordinary to the king, and regius professor of divinity. 
 His early studies, however, were interrupted by the hos- 
 tilities of the times. In the year 1641 he and many other 
 students of Oxford entered the royal service, and gave 
 signal proofs of their courage and loyalty. A short 
 interval of hostilities permitted Allestry to return to his 
 literary pursuits ; but soon after, he again took up arms, 
 and was present at the battle of Keintonfield. On his 
 way to Oxford to prepare for the reception of the king he 
 was taken prisoner, but was released by the king's forces. 
 A violent disease which then prevailed in the garrison of 
 Oxford brought Allestry to the brink of the grave ; but 
 recovering, he again joined a regiment of volunteers, 
 chiefly consisting of Oxford students. Here he served as 
 a common soldier, and was often seen with the musket in 
 one hand and a book in the other. At the close of tho 
 revolutionary struggle he returned to his favourite studies, 
 but still continued true to his party. This occasioned his 
 expulsion from the college ; but he was provided with a 
 comfortable retreat in the families of the Honourable 
 Francis Newport and Sir Anthony Cope. Such was the 
 confidence reposed in him that when the friends of Charles 
 IX were secretly preparing the way for his restoration, 
 they entrusted him with personal messages to the king. 
 In returning from one of these interviews he was seized at 
 Dover, and upon examination committed a prisoner to 
 Lambeth House. The Earl of Shaftesbury obtained his 
 release in a few weeks. His valuable library was be- 
 queathed to the university. He died in January 1681. 
 He erected at his own private expense the west side of' the 
 outward court of Eton College, and the grammar school 
 in Christ Church College J besides settling several liberal 
 pensions upon individual, persons and families. His only 
 extant work is a volume of sermons, printed at Oxford 
 in 1684. 
 
 ALLEYN, Edward, eminent as a stage-player in the 
 reigns of Elizabeth and James I., but better remembered 
 in after-times as the founder of Dulwich eollege, was born 
 in London, in tho parish -of St Botolph, Bishopsgate, on 
 the 1st of September 1566. When he was only four years 
 old, his father, an innkeeper, died, and his mother soon 
 afterwards married an actor named Browne. This change 
 in lus domestic surroundings brought young Alleyn into 
 early and close association with the stage, for which he 
 possessed great natural aptitude. Thus it chanced that 
 "he was bred a stage-player," as stated by Fuller ( Worthies) 
 A tenacious memory, a polished elocution, a stateliness o 
 figure and countenance, and a genial temperament, were 
 among the natural and acquired accomplishments that b« 
 brought to bear on his chosen pursuit. He gained distino 
 tion in his calling while yet quite a young man, asd by 
 common consent was eventually rated as the foremost 
 actor of his time. Several prominent dramatists and other 
 writers of the period have left forcible testimony to his
 
 584- 
 
 A L L E Y N 
 
 rare excellence in the histrionic art. Ren Jonson, a critic 
 nowise prone to exalt the merits of nieu of mark among 
 his contemporaries, but addicted rather to disparagement, 
 and even, as Drummond of Hawtbornden tells, to bitterest 
 detraction, bestowed, nevertheless, unstinted praise on 
 Alleyn's acting (see Jonson's Epigrams, No. 89). Nash, 
 in Pierce Pennyless, his Supplication to the Devil, expresses 
 in prose the same eulogy that Jonson renders in verse. Hey- 
 wood calls Alleyn " inimitable," "the best of actors," and 
 " Proteus for ahspes and Roscius f :>r a tongue." 
 
 — (Prologue to Marlowe's Jew of Malta.) 
 
 Peele's letter to Marlowe, quoted by Beveral of Alleyn's 
 biographers, telling of a merry meeting at which Shake- 
 speare, Ben Jonson, and Alleyn figure in the front rank of 
 a group of choice spirits, has long been numbered among 
 literary forgeries. (See the Life prefixed to Dyce's Peele's 
 Works, 1829.) 
 
 But ample and clear evidence remains to show his great 
 celebrity as an actor. His professional earnings as a player 
 formed, however, one only, and not the chief, among several 
 sources from which he drew the wealth that afterwards 
 sustained his great foundation ; and his fame as an actor 
 must long since have faded into a dim tradition, of little or 
 no concern to present times, but for the association of his 
 name with an institution around which cluster interesting 
 historic reminiscences, and whose future is fraught with 
 high promise. He inherited house property in Bishops- 
 gate from his father. His marriage, in 1592, with Joan 
 Woodward, stepdaughter to Henslowe, a successful specu- 
 lator in theatrical and kindred enterprises, brought him 
 eventually much wealth. He became successively part 
 owner in Henslowe's ventures, and in the end sole pro- 
 prietor of sundry play-houses and other resorts for the 
 diversion of plea°ure-scekers. Among these were the Rose 
 Theatre at Bankside, in close contiguity to Shakespeare's 
 Globe Tbeitre ; the Paris Garden, in the same vicinage, 
 where were enacted such pastimes as bear-baiting, bull- 
 baiting, and other sports of the period ; and the Fortune 
 Theatre in St Luke's. H«j filled, too, in conjunction with 
 Henslowe, the post of "macter of the king's games of bears, 
 bulls, and dogs." He continued to discharge the duties of 
 this office long after he had relinquished his other profes- 
 sional work. 
 
 Alleyn's ownership in Dulwich lands began in 1606, and 
 further acquisitions, made in the course of the next five 
 years, during which he was gradually breaking away from 
 the actual practice of the histrionic art, though not from 
 theatrical speculations or kindred enterprises, increased 
 his holding to more than 1300 acres. His residential con- 
 nection with Dulwich began in 1607. He occupied the 
 manor-house, a mansion even then very ancient, but which 
 is still tenanted, after many additions and alterations. 
 The priors and abbots of Bennondsey owned and occupied 
 it through the four centuries preceding their expulsion 
 in 1537, when Henry VIIL assigned their house and 
 adjacent church lands to Thomas Calton, grandfather to 
 the Calton who sold his heritage to Alleyn. Some details 
 respecting this and other purchases of neighbouring estates 
 are set forth in Alleyn's own writing, in a small thick 
 memorandum-book which, with other Alleyn papers pre- 
 served at Dulwich, has been carefully scrutinised by the 
 writer of this notice. 
 
 The landed property stretches from the crest of that 
 range of Surrey hills on whose summit rests the Crystal 
 Palace, to the crest of the parallel ridge, three miles nearer 
 London, known in its several portions as Heruo Hill, 
 Denmark Hill, and Champion HilL Alleyn acquired this 
 largo suburban property for little more than £10,000, 
 which may be estimated as equivalent to £50,000 in the 
 present day. But the present value of the lands which he 
 
 bought for such a price is hardly under a million and 
 a-half sterling, so enormous has been the rise in the 
 value of land in and near Loudon. Alleyn had barely got 
 full possession of this property before the question how 
 to dispose of it began to press upon him. He was still 
 childless, after twenty years of wedded life. Then it was 
 that the prosperous player — the man "so acting to tho 
 life that he made any part to become him " (Fuller, 
 Worthies) — began "playing the last net of his life so well' 
 (Bacon's Letter to the Marquis of Buckingham, dated 18th 
 August 1618), as to gain the general applause of his own 
 age, and a large measure of admiration in after times. He 
 built and endowed in his own lifetime the College of God'e 
 Gift at Dulwich. All was completed in 1617, except the 
 charter or deed of incorporation for setting his lands in 
 mortmaia Tedious delays occurred in the Star Chamber, 
 where Lord Chancellor Bacon was scheming to bring the 
 pressure of kingly authority to bear on Alleyn with the 
 aim of securing a large portion of the proposed endow- 
 ment for the maintenance of lectureships at Oxford and 
 Cambridge. Alleyn finally carried his point, and the 
 College of God's Gift at Dulwich was founded, and 
 endowed under letters patent of James I. dated 21st of 
 June 1619. The college, as thus incorporated, consisted 
 of twelve "poor scholars" and as many pensioners, the 
 latter comprising equal numbers of men and women — 
 " poor brethren " and " poor sisters," — together with a 
 teaching and governing staff of six higher officials. These 
 latter included a master and a warden, whe were always to 
 be of the founder's surname, and four fellows, all "graduates 
 and divines," among whom weie apportioned the ministerial 
 work of the chapel, the instruction of the boys, and the 
 supervision of the almspeople or pensioners. The scholars 
 and pensioners were to be drawn in equal numbers from 
 the four London parishes out of which the founder drew 
 his wealth. A curious legend, dating from the time of the 
 founder, and always current afterwards among the pen- 
 sioners on his bounty, tells that he was scared into his 
 generous and charitable scheme by an apparition of the 
 devil, in propria persona, among some theatrical demons 
 in a drama in which he was acting. In the fright thus 
 occasioned he was said to have made a vow, which ho 
 redeemed in the founding of Dulwich College. 
 
 Alleyn was never a member of his own foundation, as 
 stated by Heywood, and copied by succeeding writers. 
 The college records clearly set this point at rest. But h<> 
 continued to the close of his life to guide and control the 
 affairs of his foundation, under powers reserved to himself 
 in the letters patent. His diary shows that he mixed 
 much and intimately in the daily life of the college. Many 
 of the jottings in that curious record of daily doings and 
 incidents favour the inference that he was genial, kind, 
 amiable, and withal a religious man. His fondness for 
 his old professional work is indicated by the fact that he 
 engaged the boys in occasional theatrical performances. 
 At a festive gathering on the 6th of January 1622 "tie 
 boyes play*d a playe." 
 
 Shakespeare's name is interwoven with local traditions 
 bearing on Alleyn's life at Dulwich, and the links of 
 association between these famous contemporaries afford 
 strong antecedent probability that the tradition sprang 
 from something more solid than " such stuff as dreams are 
 made of." Each began and closed his professional career 
 as a stage-player in nearly the self-same period and in 
 neighbouring theatres. During several years they were 
 near neighbours in their homes at Bankside, then the 
 headquarters of players and play-houses. Leading actors 
 then, as afterwards, came much in contact with the living 
 authors whose creations they personated. Alleyn per- 
 formed in 5'Leir," the "Moore of Venis," "Romeo,"
 
 A L L.— ALL 
 
 585 
 
 "Pericles," and "Henry VITL." as appears from his 
 inventory of his own theatrical wardrobe. Among the 
 intimate friends of both were Ben Jonson, Michael Dray- 
 ton, and other members of the goodly company of poets 
 and dramatists whose genius shed a lustre on their day. 
 Shakespeare had not finally betaken himself to the retire- 
 ment of Stratford-on-Avon until seven years after 
 AUeyn took up his abode at Dulwich. In the face of all 
 these facts, it can hardly be said the local tradition is 
 groundless, though no direct proof has yet been brought 
 to bear on the point. 
 
 Alleyn's first wife died in the summer of 1623. In 
 December of the same year he married Constance Donne, 
 who, 'survived him. This lady was a daughter of Dr 
 Donne, dean of St Paul's. Her maiden name was mis- 
 quoted by an early biographer. This mistake gave rise to 
 the further error which attributes to Alleyn a third wife. 
 He died in November 1626, in the sixty-first year of his 
 age. His gravestone at Dulwich fixes the date of his 
 death on 21st November, but there are grounds for the 
 belief that the true date is the 25 th of the same month. 
 
 Besides dispensing bounties within the bounds of his 
 college, Alleyn provided, by an after-thought, some years 
 later than his deed of foundation, for certain extensions of 
 the benefits of his endowment. But successive actions at 
 law, carried on at various periods, resulted in the ruling 
 that it was not within the competence of the founder to 
 divert any portion of the revenues of his foundation to 
 the use of others than the members thereof, as specified in 
 the letters patent. Chief among the good intents on the 
 part of the founder that were thus frustrated was his 
 scheme for embracing in the school work within the 
 college as many outsiders as would bring the total number 
 to eighty boys, inclusive of the twelve foundationers. But 
 as this was not within the bond, his successors in the 
 administration of the trust, for more than two centuries 
 after his death, declined the work. In the latter part of 
 that period, decay, and not development, fixed on the 
 time-honoured memorial of Alleyn's high but thwarted 
 purposes the stigma of a public scandaL Then came, in 
 1842, a grudging and partial, rather than a full and loyal, 
 concession towards the realisation of the founder's aims. 
 Finally, however, an Act of Parliament, in 1857, ex- 
 tinguished the stagnant and unprogressive corporation. 
 Alleyn's College of God's Gift at Dulwich entered thence- 
 forward on that prosperous career which already links its 
 name with the front rank of institutions doing good ser- 
 vice in the educational work of the day. (j. go.) 
 
 ALLIANCE, a league between independent states for 
 the purpose of combined action, defensive or offensive, or 
 both — a subject which falls to be treated under the heading 
 Law of Nations. The alliances of greatest historical 
 importance are the Triple Alliance (1688) of Great Britain, 
 Sweden, and the Netherlands against France ; the Grand 
 Alliance (1689) of the Emperor Leopold I. and Holland, 
 subsequently joined by England, Spain, and Saxony, against 
 Louis XIV; the Quadruple Alliance (1718) of Great 
 Britain, France, Austria, and Holland, against Spain ; the 
 Holy Alliance (1815) of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, for 
 the maintenance of peace and the establishment of the 
 existing dynasties; and the alliance (1854) of Great 
 Britain, France, and Turkey, against Russia. ■ 
 
 ALLIER, a department in the centre of France, so 
 called from the river of the same name ; bounded on the 
 N. by the department of Cher and Nievre, on the E by 
 those of Saone-et-Loire and Loire, on the S. by that of 
 Puys de Dome, and on the W. by those of Creuse and 
 Cher; extending at the widest points 82 miles from E. to 
 W., and 55 from N. to S. ; and containing an area of 
 5821 square miles. Its surface is in general undulating, 
 
 1-20* 
 
 rising to considerable elevations among the mountains of 
 Forez on the south-east, and among those of Auvcrgne 
 towards the west The river Allier,, £ows northward 
 between these rauges, receiving the Andelot, the Sioule, 
 and the Bioudre, all from the left ; cast of the Allier is 
 the Bebre, which joins the Loire within the limite of the 
 department ; and on the west the Cher, with its tributary 
 the Aumance. The soil is for the most part fertile, espe- 
 cially in the valleys of the Allier, the Sioule, and the Bebre, 
 yielding wheat, oats, barley, rye, fruits, and potatoes, in 
 quantities exceeding what is required for home consump- 
 tion, as well_ as some red and white wines. Good timber is 
 grown, and cattle, sheep, goats, and horses are reared in 
 large numbers; but agriculture is on the whole in a back- 
 ward condition, owing to the inhabitants' aversion to 
 change. The mineral wealth of the department is very 
 considerable, including iron, coal, antimony, marble, and 
 manganese — the coal mines of Commentry being among the 
 most important. The chief manufactures are of cutlery, 
 earthenware, glass, cloth, leather, and paper. The climate 
 is healthy, but is liable to sudden. variations of tempera- 
 ture. The mineral waters at Vichy, Neris, and Bourbon 
 1'Archambault, in the department, are in much repute. 
 Allier comprehends the greater portion of the old province 
 of Bourbonnais, and is at present divided into four arron- 
 dissements — Moulins, Gannat, La Palisse, and Montluyon, 
 which are subdivided into 28 cantons and 317 communes. 
 Moulins is the capital, and the seat of a bishop whose 
 diocese is co-extensive with the department. The other 
 important towns are La Palisse, Cusset, Vichy, Gannat, 
 Saint Pourcain, Montlucon, and Commentry. Population 
 in 1871, 390,812; of whom 196,831 were males, and 
 193,981 females. Of the total population, 223,374 could 
 neither read nor write, and 36,786 could read but could 
 not write. 
 
 Allier, the ancient Slaver, a river of France, which 
 rises in the department of Lozere, among the Margerida 
 mountains, a few miles east of the town of Mende, and, 
 after traversing Haute Loire, Puys de Dome, and Allier, 
 forms the boundary between Cher and Nievre, until it 
 falls into the Loire four miles west of Nevers. Its length is 
 200 miles, for a considerable portion of which it is navi- 
 gable, and its chief tributaries are the Dore and the Sioule. 
 
 ALLIGATOR, (probably derived from the Spanish el 
 lagarto, the lizard), an animal so closely allied to the 
 crocodile that some naturalists have classed them together 
 as forming one genus. It differs from the true crocodile 
 principally in having the head broader and shorter, and 
 the snout more obtuse ; in having a large canine tooth of 
 tho under jaw received, not into an external furrow, but 
 into a pit formed for it within the upper one ; in wanting 
 a jagged fringe which appears on the hind legs and feet of 
 the crocodile; and in having the toes of the hind feet 
 webbed not more than half-way to the tips. The principal 
 species, all found in America only, are the common alligator 
 (Alligator Mississippiensis or Crocodilus Lucius), occurring 
 in the southern United States; the caiman or cayman 
 (A. palpebrosus), in Surinam and Guiana ; and the spec- 
 tacled alligator or jacare (A. sclerops), -principally in 
 Brazil, The names alligator and crocodile are often con- 
 founded in popular speech ; and the structure and habits 
 of the two animnla are so similar that both may be con- 
 veniently considered under the heading Cbocodlle. 
 
 ALLITERATION. As Milton defined rhyme to De 
 " the jingling sound of like endings," so alliteration is the 
 jingle of like beginnings. All language has a tendency to 
 jingle in both ways, even in prose. Thus in prose we 
 speak of " near and dear," " high and dry," " health and 
 wealth." But the initial form of jingle is much more 
 common — " safe and sound." " thick and thin," " weal or
 
 586 
 
 A L L - A L L 
 
 wee," "fair or foul," Spick and span," "fish, flesh, or 
 fowl," "kith and kin." The poets of nearly all times and 
 tongues have not been slow to seize upon the emphasis 
 which could thus be . produced. Accordingly wo read in 
 Shakespeare : — 
 
 "Full fathom five thy father lies: 
 Of his bones are corals made." 
 
 In Pope : — 
 
 "Here files of pins extend their shining rows 
 Polls, powders, patches, bibles, billet-doux 
 
 In Gray : — 
 
 '" Weave the warp and weave the woof, 
 The winding-sheet of Edward's race." 
 
 In Coleridge « — 
 
 " The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew. 
 The furrow followed free ; 
 We were the first that ever burst 
 Into that silent sea." 
 
 Churchill describes himself as one 
 
 " Who often, but without success, had prayed 
 For apt alliteration's artful aid, — " 
 
 an example which is itself a proof of his failure; for allitera- 
 tion is never effective unless it runs upon consonants. 
 
 As thus far considered, alliteration is a device wholly 
 dependent on the poet's fancy. He may use it or not, 
 or use it much or little, at his pleasure. 'But there. is 
 an extensive range 'of poetry whose metrical laws are 
 entirely based on alliteration. This, for example, is the 
 principle on which Icelandic verse is founded ; and we 
 have a yet nearer interest in it, because it furnishes the 
 key to Anglo-Saxon and a large portion of early English 
 verse. For a specimen take the following lines, the spelling 
 modernised, from the beginning of Piers the Ploughman: — 
 
 "But in a May morning | on .Valvern hills, 
 He be/el a/erly | of /airy methought; 
 'I was weary of wandering | and went me to rest 
 Under a Jroad &ank | by a turn-side.; 
 'And as I /ay and leaned | and looked on the waters, 
 I slumbered in a sleeping | it sounded so merry." 
 
 The rule of this verse is indifferent as to the number of 
 syllables it may contain, but imperative as to the camber 
 rif accented ones. The lino is divided in the middle by a 
 pause, and each half ought to contain two accented.syllables. 
 Of the four .accented syllables, the first three should begin 
 -with the same letter ; tho fourth is free, and may start 
 with any letter. Those who wish- for a more minute 
 analysis of the laws of alliterative verse, as practised by 
 the Anglo-Saxon and early English poets, may consult 
 an exhaustive essay. on the subject by the Rev. W. \7. 
 Skeat, prefixed to voL iii. of Bishop Percy's. Folio Manu- 
 tcript; only the reader must bo on his guard against an 
 error which pervades it, and which this "able writer seems 
 to have derived frcm Bask. Tho question arises— What 
 is the nature of tho cadence in alliterative verse \ Now 
 all metrical movement is of two kinds, according as the 
 beat or emphasis begins the movement or ends it. If the 
 beat is initial, we say in classical language that the move- 
 ment is trochaic or dactylic, according to the number of its 
 syllables ; and if the beat is final, we in like manner say 
 that the movement is iambic or anapaestic. Mr Skeat and 
 many others object with some reason to use the classical 
 terms, and therefore brushing them aside, let us put the 
 question in the simplest form — Has the movement of 
 alliterative verse got the initial or the final beat? In the 
 middle of last century Bishop Percy decided this question' 
 with sufficient accuracy, though he mixed up his statement 
 with a blunder which it is not easy to account for. He 
 joints out how the poets began to introduce rhyme into 
 alliterative yerse, until at length rhyme came to pre- 
 dominate over alliteration, and "thus was this kind of 
 
 metre at length swallowed up and lost in our common 
 burlesque Alexandrine or anapaestic verse, as 
 
 A cobbler there was, and he lived in a stall." 
 
 Percy made a serious mistake when he gave the name of 
 Alexandrine to anapaestic verse ; but ho is quite right in 
 his general statement that alliterative verse became lost in 
 a measure, the movement of which had the final beat. 
 Conybeare has stated the- fact still more accurately. "In 
 the Saxon poetry a trochaic character is predominant. In 
 Piers Plowman there is a prevailing tendency to an 
 anapaestic cadence." It is the result of a change in the 
 language — the loss of inflection. Take tho word man. 
 Tho genitive in Saxon would be mannes, a trochee; in 
 English, of man, an iambus. The. tendency of the language 
 was thus to pass from a metrical movement, in which the 
 beat was initial, to one in which it was final. It may 
 therefore bo quite right to speak of Anglo-Saxon alliterative 
 poetry as trochaic or dactylic, and quite wrong to apply tho 
 same terms to tho cadence of •our later alliterative verse. 
 And this is precisely the error into which Mr Skeat has 
 fallen. He says — "Lines do not always begin with a loud 
 syllable, but often one or two and sometimes (in early 
 English .especially) even three soft syllables precede it 
 These syllables are necessary to the sense, but not to the 
 scansion of the line." That is just the point at issue. 
 By leaving out of account the light syllable or syllables at 
 the beginning of a line, and taking his start from the first 
 syllable that has the alliterative beat, Mr Skeat may certainly 
 prove that all the later alliterative poetry has a movement 
 of initial beat. But English ears will not submit to this 
 rule. It is those light syllables of no account which have 
 altered the rhythm of English descant from one of initial 
 to one of final beat (e. s. d.). 
 
 ALLIX, Plek.ee, a distinguished divine of the French 
 Reformed Church, was born at Alencon in 1641. He was 
 pastor first at St Agobile in Champagne, and -then at 
 Charenton, 'near Paris. The revocation of the Edict of 
 Nantes in 1685 compelled him to take refuge in London, 
 where, under, the sanction of James H., he opened a church 
 for the French exiles. His reputation for learning wa9 
 such ais to obtain for him, soon after his arrival, the degree 
 of doctor of divinity from both universities, and in 1690 ha 
 received from Bishop Burnet the more substantial honour 
 of the treasurership and a canonry in Salisbury cathedral. 
 He died at London in March 1717. 
 
 The works of ALLLx, which are very numerous, aro 
 chiefly of a controversial and apologetic character, and, like 
 most works of that class, are not thoroughly trustworthy. 
 At the invitation of a number of .English ministers, he is 
 said to have written a history of the councils of the church, 
 which, however, owing to want of support, never was 
 published. In opposition to Bossuet he issued Some 
 Remarks upon the Ecclesiastical History of the Ancient 
 Churches of Piedmont (1690), and Remarks upon the Eccle- 
 siastical History of. the Ancient Churches of the Albigenses 
 (1692), wilh tho view of showing that the Albigenses were 
 not Manichaeans, but historically identical with the Wal- 
 deuses. His Dissertation on the First Rise of the Trisagium 
 or Doxology (1674), and Reflections upon the Books of Holy 
 Scripture (1688), are of little present value. 
 
 ALLOA, a seaport town of Scotland, in the county of 
 Clackmannan, situated on the north side of the Firth of 
 Forth, 25 miles from Edinburgh, and 6 below Stirling, with 
 which it is connected by railway. The town, as a whole is 
 irregularly built, although in the modern portions there 
 are several spacious streets, with good shops and houses. 
 The parish church, opened in 1819, is a fino Gothio 
 edifice, with a handsome spire 200. feet high; there are 
 also piaces of worship belonging to the other denomina-
 
 ALL-ALL 
 
 587 
 
 tions, as well as the county court-house, a corn exchange, 
 and schools of various grades. In the immediate vicinity 
 of the town is an ancient tower, 89 feet high, with walls 1 1 
 feet in thickness, said to have been built about the year 
 1315, formerly the residence of the powerful family of 
 Erskine, descendants of the Earls of Mar. Here many of 
 the Scottish princes received their education as wards of 
 the' Lords Erskine and the Earls of Mar, the last of these 
 educated here being Henry, the eldest son of James VL 
 Among the manufactures of Alloa are ale, whisky, iren 
 goods, glass (especially bottles), bricks, yarns, shawls, and 
 blankets. Shipbuilding is also carried on to some extent, 
 and in the neighbourhood there are several collieries. The 
 harbour is safe and commodious, having a depth of 16 
 feet at neap, and 22 at spring tides; adjoining it is an 
 excellent dry dock, and a capacious wet dock was con- 
 structed in 1863. In 1872, 446 vessels of 49,941 tons 
 entered, and 533 of 70,499 cleared the port of Alloa, in 
 addition to coasting vessels in ballast; and in the same 
 year £453 were derived from customs duties. The chief 
 exports were p:g-iron, ale, glass, and coals; the imports, 
 timber, grain, iron, linseed, and flax. There is a ferry 
 here across tho Forth. Population in 1871, 9362. 
 
 ALLODIUM or ALODIUM denotes lands which are 
 the absolute property of their owner, and not subject to 
 any service or acknowledgement to a superior. It is thus 
 the opposite of feodum, or fief. The proper derivation of 
 the word has been much discussed and is still doubtful, 
 though it is probably compounded of all, whole or entire, 
 and odh, property. Allodial tenure seems to have been 
 common throughout northern Europe. It exists in Orkney 
 and Shetland, where the proprietor of an allodial estate 
 was known until recently as an udaller. (See Sir Walter 
 Scott's Pirate.) In England allodial tenure is unknown, 
 the feudal system having been made universal by William 
 the Conqueror. 
 
 ALLORI, Alsssanteo, a painter of the Florentine 
 school, was born at Florence in 1535, and died in 1607. 
 Having lost his father in his fifth year, he was brought 
 up and trained in art by his uncle, Angelo Bronzino, whose 
 name he sometimes assumed in his pictures. Visiting 
 Rome in his nineteenth year, he carefully studied the 
 works of Michael Angelo; but having himself little genius 
 and no originality, the influence of that great master can 
 only be traced in the anatomical correctness of his draw- 
 ing of nude figures. He was very successful as a portrait- 
 painter. 
 
 ALLORI, Ckistofajto, son of the preceding, was born 
 at Florence on the 17th October 1577, and died in 1621. 
 He received his first lessons in painting from his father, 
 but becoming dissatisfied with the hard anatomical drawing 
 and cold colouring of the latter, he entered the studio of 
 Pagani, who was one of the leaders of that later Florentine 
 school which endeavoured to unite the rich colouring of 
 the Venetians with the correct drawing of Michael Angelo's 
 disciples. Allori became one of the foremost of this school. 
 His pictures are distinguished by their close adherence to 
 nature and the delicacy and technical perfection of their 
 execution. His technical skill is proved by the fact that 
 several copies he made after Correggio have been taken 
 to be duplicates by Correggio himself. His extreme 
 fastidiousness limited his power of production, though the 
 number of his works is not so small as is sometimes 
 asserted. Several specimens are to be seen at Florence 
 2nd elsewhere. The finest of all his works is his ".Judith 
 and Holofernes," in the Pitti palace. The model for the 
 Judith was his mistress, the beautiful Mazzafirra, who is 
 also represented in his Magdalene ; and the head of Holo- 
 fernes is generally supposed to represent himself, though 
 Clin is questioned by the best authorities. 
 
 ALLOTROPY (from oXAos, other, and Tpoa-os, manner), 
 a name applied to a property, whereby certain substances, 
 chemically simple, assume different forms and conditions 
 without undergoing chemical change. Sulphur and phos- 
 phorus, for instance, occur sometimes in crystals and 
 sometimes in an amorphous state, being in the latter case 
 sometimes translucent and sometimes opaque, and present 
 very different properties under these different conditions. 
 Ozone is an allotropic form of oxygen. The name 
 isomerism is given to the similar by no means uncommon 
 property whereby compound bodies, although entirely 
 distinct, are made up of the same chemical elements in 
 precisely the same proportions. 
 
 ALLOXAN, a product of the action of oxidising agenta 
 on uric acid r obtained by adding slowly, in small quantities, 
 uric acid to strong nitric acid of specific gravity 1 '4, kept 
 cool, and stirring constantly. Carbonic acid and nitrogen 
 are evolved during the action, and the alloxan crystallises 
 out on standing. It is purified by recrystallisation from 
 water, and then has the composition CjHJs'.Oj + aq. The 
 crystals of this compound °xe large and colourless, and 
 wheD heated to a temperature of 150° C, lose the water of 
 crystallisation, and acquire a red colour. Alloxan is readily 
 soluble in water and alcohol, and its aqueous solution 
 reddens litmus, has an astringent taste, and colours the 
 skin purple after some time. It produces a great number 
 of derivatives, for which see Ueic Acid. 
 
 ALLOY, the name given to a combination obtained by 
 fusing metals with each other. Few metals are employed 
 in the pure state, with the exception of iron, copper, lead, tin, 
 zinc, platinum, aluminium ; metals are more frequently used 
 in the forms of alloys for technical purposes. Every indus- 
 trial application necessitates special qualities that may not 
 occur in any isolated metal, but which may be produced 
 by the proper mixture of two or more of these substances. 
 Thus gold and silver, which in their pure state are too soft 
 and flexible for the manufacture of plate, coin, trinkets, <fcc, 
 are hardened by the addition of a tenth part of copper, 
 while the colour and other valuable qualities are not mate- 
 rially impaired. Similarly copper is rendered hard by 
 mixture with zinc, when we obtain brass, an alloy of a 
 beautiful yellow colour, easier to work than the pure metaL 
 H brass has to be used in turning operations it is found to 
 tear under the action of the chisel, unless a small quantity 
 of lead has been added. These examples are sufficient to 
 show that an alloy is really an industrial metal, often oi 
 greater importance than the metals which compose it. 
 
 Alloys are equally interesting from a purely scientific 
 point of view. They are not only mixtures of metals 
 having certain particular qualities, but in reality are true 
 chemical compounds, generally dissolved in au excess of 
 one of the constituent metals. In the appearances which 
 accompany the union of the metals, and in the properties 
 of the resulting products, we observe that which charac- 
 terises the manifestation of affinity, that is, an evolution 
 of heat and light, resulting in the formation of substances 
 having a definite composition, distinct crystalline form, and a 
 variety of properties different from those of the constituents. 
 li a piece of clean sodium is rubbed in a mortar with a 
 quantity of dry mercury, the metal dissolves, producing a 
 harsh sound resembling the immersion of red hot iron in 
 water. This phenomenon is due to the large evolution of 
 heat which accompanies the combination, as the mercury 
 rises rapidly in temperature on the addition of each succes- 
 sive piece of sodium. If the mass is allowed to cool after 
 the action, long needles of a white brilliant alloy of definite 
 composition crystallise from the middle of the liquid, from 
 which the excess of mercury may be separated by decant*- 
 tion. Platinum, iridium, gold, rhodium, ruthenium, and 
 silver unite with tin, producing an evolution of heat : if
 
 o8S 
 
 A L L- A L L 
 
 the tin is in excess after cooling, a metallic ingot is 
 obtained resembling closely tho original substance ; but if 
 the mass is treated with strong hydrochloric- acid, tho 
 excess of tin is dissolved and crystals remain of a definite 
 alloy of tin and the precious metaL -These alloys are in- 
 soluble in strong hydrochloric acid, which dissolves tin so 
 easily ; but they are soluble in aqua regia, even when the 
 precious metal contained therein (rhodium, ruthenium, 
 iridium) is in the free state absolutely insoluble. This is 
 no proof that tho industrial alloys are always tho result of 
 one definite combination dissolved in excess of one of the 
 metals, as many combinations are able to. co-exist in -the 
 same alloy. This may be proved by taking an alloy of tin, 
 lead, and bismuth, which melts below the boiling point of 
 water, heating to a temperature of 25° C, and observing 
 the rate of .cooling by means of a thermometer. The 
 thermometer falls at first regularly as far as a certain 
 degree, where it remains stationary for some time, after 
 which it descends to a lower temperature, where it is again 
 similarly arrested. These two stoppages in the rate of 
 tooling can only bo explained by admitting the production 
 of a less fusible alloy in the fluid mass, which solidifies 
 with' an evolution of 'heat, rendering the thermometer 
 stationary for a timo. Each successive arrest will therefore 
 correspond to the formation of more fusible combinations. 
 Thus the metals form amongst themselves true chemical 
 combinations ; and alloys are often formed by the mixture 
 of one or more of these compoifnds with excess of one of 
 the- constituents. 
 
 Recently hydrogen, which, although a gaseous substance, 
 has chemical properties resembling' those of the true metals, 
 has been combined with palladium, sodium, and potassium, 
 producing compounds similar in properties to the recognised 
 alloys. 
 
 Properties op Alloys. Density. — If the density of 
 any alloy is calculated from that of the components — assum- 
 ing that there is no condensation of volume — the resulting 
 number is sometimes greater than, equal to, or less than, 
 the experimental result. Thus the alloys of gold and silver 
 are less dense than the theoretical- mean density ;. whereas 
 brass and the alloys of lead and antimony vary in the 
 opposite direction. The former are therefore produced 
 through an expansion, the latter through a condensation of 
 their constituents. In the formation of many alloys there 
 is no alteration of volume, and then the calculated density 
 is correct. Colour. — This is generally grey, unless when 
 we have a coloured metal like copper' or gold present in 
 sufficient quantity. Hardness, Ductility, and Tenacity. — 
 Alloys are for the most part harder and more brittle, and 
 are generally less ductile and possess less tenacity than the 
 constituent metal that has these properties in excess. 
 Aluminium bronze is an exception, as its tenacity is 
 greater than that of either of the components. Fusibility. 
 — This is always . greater than that of tho least fusible 
 metal entering into tho composition of the alloy, and is 
 sometimes greater than in any of the components. Thus an 
 alloy, composed of 5 parts of bismuth, 3 of lead, and 2 of 
 tin, melts at 91° C. Alloys of lead and silver, containing 
 a small quantity of the latter, are more fusible than lead, 
 and potassium and sodium form an alloy fluid at the ordi- 
 nary temperature of the air. Liquation. — The constituents 
 of an alloy heated gradually to near its point of liquefication 
 frequently unite anew in such proportions as to form a mass 
 that is fusible at the given temperature. If the fluid por- 
 tion is poured off, there, remains a solid alloy less fusible 
 than the original. Copper is separated from silver -by this 
 process. Decomposition. — When the alloy contains a vola- 
 e metal like zinc or mercury, heat decomposes it, but 
 the temperature- required to expel the. last trace of tho 
 volatile metal must be considerably higher than that 
 
 metal's normal temperature of ebullition. Temper. The 
 
 alloy of 94 parts of copper and 6 parts of tin forms a 
 bronze so brittle that it may be pulverised with a hammer 
 when it has been slowly cooled; but if, on the contrary, it 
 is cooled rapidly by tempering it in cold water, it becomes 
 malleable. _ Influence of the Constituent Metals.^-llcrcuTj, 
 bismuth, tin, and cadmium give fusibility to alloys into 
 which they enter; tin also gives hardness and tenacity if 
 present in considerable quantity; lead and iron give hard- 
 ness; arsenic and antimony render alloys brittle. 
 
 Composition of Alloys. — A statement of the average 
 proportions in which the metals enter into the best known 
 alloys, the composition of which is generally very variable, 
 is given in the following table : — 
 
 Coinage of gold,, 
 
 I! 
 
 Gold, 90. 
 
 Copper, 10. 
 
 Gold Jewellery j Gold, 75 to 35. 
 
 and plate, 1 Copper, 25 to 8. 
 
 c, ' , ( Silver, 90. 
 
 Silver coinage, j Coppc ' r| 10 . 
 
 Silver veasela, 
 
 Sliver Jewellery,.. 
 
 Aluminium 
 Bronze, 
 
 Bronze. — Coins, 
 Medals, 
 
 Bronze. — Cannon, 
 
 Bronze.— Bells,.... 
 Bronze. — Cym- 
 
 bals,.. 
 
 Silver, 93. 
 Copper, C. 
 Silver, 80. 
 Copper, 20. 
 Copper, 90 "to 93. 
 Aluminium, 10 to 5. 
 Copper, 94 to 90. 
 Tin, * to 6. 
 Zinc, I to S. 
 Copper, 90. 
 Tin, 10. 
 Copper, 78.* 
 Tin, 22. * 
 Copper, 80. 
 Tin, 20. 
 
 Specula of tele- ( Copper, 87. 
 •copes, ( Tin, 33. 
 
 Pinchbeck, j ^PJ*;-- 90 - 
 
 I Zinc, 10. 
 
 Brass, I Co W er ' e7 ** •* 
 
 t Zinc, 33 to 28. 
 
 {Coppei, GO. 
 Zinc, 25. 
 Nickel, 2«, 
 
 T ^™" J . {£££.-*» 
 
 | Tin, 100. 
 
 i Bismuth, 1. 
 Copper, 4. 
 
 rnrt-r. j T " 
 
 Liquid measures, J 
 
 Plumbers' solder, { 
 
 Lead, 8. 
 Tin, 8S. 
 Lead, 18. 
 Tin, 07. 
 Lead, 33. 
 
 Preparation of Alloys. — The metals are generallj 
 fused together under a layer of charcoal to prevent oxida- 
 tion, thoroughly mixed by agitating, and the mass left to 
 Cool slowly. This process can only be employed when the 
 constituent metals are all non-volatile at the temperature 
 required for combination. If the mixture contains volatile 
 metals, like sodium, potassium, magnesium, or zinc, they 
 are added after the more refractory metal is fused. 
 
 ALLSTON, Washington, an eminent American .his- 
 torical painter and poet, was born 5th November 1779, at 
 Waccamaw, in South Carolina^ where his father was a 
 planter. He early -displayed a taste for the art to' which 
 he afterwards devoted himself. He graduated at Harvard 
 in 1 800, and for a short time pursued his artistic studies 
 at Charleston with Malbone and Charles Fraser. He then 
 removed to London, and entered the Royal Academy as a 
 student of Benjamin West,' with whom he formed a life- 
 long friendship. In .1804 he repaired to Paris, and from 
 that city, after a few months' residence,, to Rome, where he 
 spent the greater part of the' next four years studying 
 Italian art and Italian scenery. During this period he 
 became intimate with Coleridge and Thorwaldsen. From 
 1809 to 1811 he resided in his native couLtry, and from 
 this latter' date to 1817 he painted in England. After 
 visiting Paris for a second time, he returned to the United 
 States, and practised his- profession at Boston (i818-30), 
 and . afterwards at Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he 
 died on the 9th July 1843. He was elected an associate 
 of the Royal Academy in 1819. The paintings of Allston 
 are characterised rathtrr by grandeur of conception than by 
 skilful execution. In colour, and the management of light 
 and shade he closely imitated the Venetian school, and he 
 has hence been styled " the American Titian." Many of his 
 pictures have biblical subjects, and Allston himself had a 
 profoundly religious nature. His first great painting, "The 
 Dead Man Revived," executed shortly after his second 
 visit to England, gained a prize of 200 guineas from the 
 British Institution; in England he also prepared his "St 
 Peter Liberated by the Angel," " Uriel in the Sun," "Jacob'* 
 Dream," and "Elijah in the Wilderness." To the period o/
 
 A L L — A L M 
 
 589 
 
 his residence in America belong " The Prophet Jeremiah," 
 " Saul and the Witch of Endor," " Miriam," " Beatrice," 
 "Rosalie," "Spalatro's Vision of the Bloody Hand," and the 
 vast but unfinished " Belshazzar's Feast," at which he was 
 working at the time of his death As a writer, AUston 
 shows great facility of expression and imaginative power. 
 Ilis friend Coleridge said of him that he was surpassed by 
 no man of his age in artistic and poetic genius. His literary 
 works are — The Sylplix of the Seasons and other Poems 
 (1813), where he displays true sympathy with nature and 
 deep knowledge of the human heart; Monaldi (1841), a 
 tragical romance, the scene of which is laid in Italy ; and 
 Lectures on Art, edited by his brother-in-law, R. H. Dana 
 the novelist (1850). 
 
 ALLUVIUM, soil or land made up of the sediment 
 deposited by running water. Rivers act on the rocks in 
 their course both mechanically and chemically, and are in 
 consequence always more or less loaded with detritus, 
 which in its turn again aids the water in abrading other 
 rocks. A great proportion of the matter with which rivers 
 are thus charged is carried out to sea. But in level tracts, 
 where the motion of a river is slow, it frequently overflows 
 its banks, and leaves a sediment of earth, mud, gravel, &c, 
 when it returns to its ordinary channel The principal 
 alluvial tracts are the deltas or deltoid formations at the 
 mouths of large rivers. These vary in character very con- 
 siderably. The Delta of the Nile is the best-marked speci- 
 men ; the waters of the Rhine, Ganges, &c., arrested by 
 the solid matter they have washed down, force their way 
 through it in numerous smaller channels ; the Mississippi 
 has carried the solid matter it holds in suspension far into 
 the Gulf of Mexico, forming long spits of land on the 
 banks of the stream. The cognate term diluvium (now 
 little used) has been applied to formations produced by 
 extraordinary aqueous agencies. 1 
 
 ALMA, a river of Russia, in the S.W. of the Crimea, 
 which falls into the sea about L6 miles N. of Sebas- 
 topol. It gives its name to a battle gained over the 
 Russians, on the 20th September 1854, by the allied 
 British, French, and Turkish armies. The British num- 
 bered 25,000 men, with 60 guns, and were commanded 
 by Lord Raglan ; the French force consisted of 30,000 
 men and G8 guns, to which were added 7000 Turkish 
 infantry — all under the command of Marshal St Arnaud. 
 To these were opposed 36,000 Russians, with 122 guns, 
 tinder Prince Menschikoff, strongly posted on the heights 
 on the left bank of the river. The victory was largely due 
 to the determined advance of the British in face of the 
 Russian fire. 
 
 ALMADEN, or Almaden del Azogue (in Arabic, the 
 "Mine of Quicksilver"), a town of Spain, in the province of 
 Ciudad Real, lies in the Sierra Morena, 55 miles S.W. of 
 the town of Ciudad ReaL It is the Sisapon of the Romans, 
 and is famous for its quicksilver mines, which have been 
 wrought extensively both in ancient and in modern times. 
 They were the richest and most productive in the world 
 until the discovery of quicksilver at New Almaden in 
 California. The annual yield is about 1,400,000 lb, and 
 4000 workpeople are employed. The principal vein is 25 
 feet thick ; a depth of 1000 feet has been reached, and the 
 ore increases in richness with the depth of the descent. 
 These mines belong to the Spanish Government, and yield 
 a large revenue. At various periods they have been leased 
 to private speculators. The town has a good hospital and 
 mining schools. Population, 9000. 
 
 ALMAGEST, compounded of the Arabic al and /uryiirn/, 
 the name applied by the Arabians to their translation of 
 the ^UyaX-q 2wra£is of Claudius Ptolemy, which contains a 
 large collection of problems in geometry and astronomy. 
 The translation was made about the year 827 A.D. by order 
 
 of the caliph Al-Maaaun. The name is also applied to 
 other editions and translations of the work, as well as to 
 other scientific compilations. Thus Riccioli published a 
 book of astronomy, the New Almagest, and Plukenet au 
 Almagestum Botanicum. 
 
 ALMAGRO, a town of Spain, in the province of Ciudad 
 Real, 12 miles E.S.E. of the town of that name. It stands 
 in a fertile plain, and is a well-built town, with spacious 
 streets acd a fine square. It was once almost exclusively 
 inhabited by monks and the Knights of Calatrava, aud 
 contains several ruined churches, monasteries, and con- 
 vents. In the town and neighbourhood lace is extensively 
 manufactured, as many as 9000 workmen being employed. 
 Brandy, soap, earthenware, and leather are also made; and 
 the surrounding district is famous for its breed of asses and 
 mules, for the sale of which two great fairs are annually 
 held. Excellent red wine is produced in the district. 
 Population, 14,000. 
 
 ALMAGRO, Diego de, a Spanish commander, the com- 
 panion and rival of Pizarro, was born at Aldea del Rey in 
 1475. According to another account he was a foundling 
 in the village from which he derived his name. Nothing 
 is known of his life until 1525, when he joined Pizarro 
 and Hernando de Luque at Panama in a scheme for the 
 conquest of Peru. The details of his subsequent career 
 are given at length in the article Peru. He was executed 
 by order of his former associate Pizarro in 1538. 
 
 ALMALI, a prosperous town of Asiatic Turkey, situated 
 on the river Myra, 25 miles from its mouth, and 50 miles 
 W.S.W. of Adalia. It lies 5000 feet above the sea, in a 
 valley at the extremity of an extensive plain, the neigh- 
 bouring mountains rising to a height of 10,000 feet. The 
 town is well built, with handsome houses, several mosques, 
 and a bazaar; and its appearance is rendered very attractive 
 by the lofty trees interspersed through the streets, and by 
 the gardens of the environs. There are numerous mills 
 and factories, tanyards and dyeworks; and the inhabitants 
 are exceedingly industrious. The town is much frequented 
 by merchants from Smyrna and other places, who purchase 
 the produce of the district and send it to the coast for ship- 
 ment. Population, 8000. 
 
 AL-MAMUN (also written Al-Majiotjn, Al-Masion, 
 and simply Mamun), one of the most renowned of the 
 Abbasside dynasty of caliphs, was born in 786 a.d. ' He 
 was the son of Harun-al-Raschid, whose caliphate is the 
 golden age of Mahometan history. Harun, dying in 808, 
 left the supremacy to his son Al-Amin, Al-Mamun being at 
 the time governor of Khorassan, and favourable to the 
 succession of his brother. Irritated, however, by the treat- 
 ment he received at the hands of Amin, and supported by 
 a portion of the army, Mamun speedily betook himself to 
 arms. The result was a five years' struggle between the 
 two brothers, ending in the death of, Amin, 4th October 
 813, and the proclamation of Al-Mamun as caliph at 
 Baghdad. Various factions and revolts, which disturbed 
 the first years of his reign, were readily quelled by 
 his prudent and energetic measures. But a much more 
 serious rebellion, stirred up by his countenancing the here- 
 tical sect of Ali and adopting their colours, soon after 
 threatened his throne. His crown was actually on the 
 head of his uncle Ibrahim ben Mahdi (surnamed Mobarek) 
 for a short time, and a civil war with the orthodox Mussul- 
 mans was imminent, when the timely death of Mamun's 
 vizier and of the imam Rizza removed his principal here- 
 tical advisers, and restored the people to their allegiance. 
 This inaugurated a period' of tranquillity, which Al-Mamun 
 employed in patronising and fostering the cultivation of 
 literature and science throughout his empire. He had 
 already, while governor of Khorassan, founded a college 
 there, and attracted to it the most eminent men of the
 
 590 
 
 A L MI— A L M 
 
 day; end now Baghdad became, tinder his auspices, the 
 seat of academical instruction and the centre of intelli- 
 gence. At his own expense ho caused to be translated 
 into Arabic many valuable books from the Greek, Persian, 
 Chaldean, and Coptic languages; and he was himself an 
 ardent student of mathematics and astronomy. The first 
 Arabic translation of Euclid was dedicated to him in 813. 
 Mamun founded observatories at Baghdad and Kassiun 
 (near Damascus) for astronomical purposes, and he- suc- 
 ceeded in determining the inclination of the ecliptic. He 
 also caused a degree of the meridian to be measured on the 
 plain of Shinar; and he constructed astronomical tables, 
 which are said to be wonderfully accurate. The supposed 
 antagonism of orthodoxy and science receives some support 
 from the conduct of Mamun. A lover. of philosophy and 
 letters, he did not concern himself about the creed of the 
 piofessors he appointed to his colleges, or the physicians he 
 employed at hi 3 court; and on the occasion of his marriage 
 he distributed largesses to Mussulmans, Jews, and Chris- 
 tians indiscandnately. These liberal measures culminated, 
 however, in his becoming a convert in 827 to the heterodox 
 faith of the Motasali, who asserted the free-will of man 
 and denied the eternity of the Koran. The later years 
 (829-830) of his reign were distracted by hostilities with 
 the Greek emperor Theophilus, occasioned, it is said, by a 
 dispute about an eminent Greek priest whom the caliph 
 wished to attach to his college at Baghdad. A series 
 of revolts in different parts' of the Arabian empire be- 
 tokened the decline of the military glory of the caliphs. 
 Already had Spain and part of Africa asserted their inde- 
 pendence, and Egypt and Syria were now inclined to follow. 
 In 833, after quelling Egypt, at least nominally, Mamun 
 marched into Cilicia to prosecute the war with the Greeks; 
 but with this expedition the career of one of the most 
 famous of the caliphs, was to terminate. He died near 
 Tarsus, leaving his crown to a younger brother, Motassem. 
 The death of -Al-Mamun ended an important epoch in 
 the history of science and letters, and the period of Arabian 
 prosperity which his father's reign had begun. The in- 
 fluence of these two sovereigns is sometimes exaggerated; 
 but there can be no doubt we owe much to their exertions 
 at a time when Europe was sunk in barbarism. Mamun 
 was the author of Inquiries into the Koran, of a tract on 
 the Signs of Prophecy, and of one on the Rhetoric of the 
 Priests and Panegyrists of the Caliphs. 
 
 ALMANAC, a book or table, published from year to 
 year, containing a calendar of the days, weeks, and months 
 of the year, a register of ecclesiastical festivals and saints' 
 days, and a record of various astronomical phenomena, 
 particularly the -rising and setting of the sun, the changes 
 and phases of the moon, eclipses of the sun and moon, the 
 times of high water at particular ports, <kc In additipn 
 to these contents, which may be regarded as essential to' 
 the almanac, it generally presents additional information, 
 which is more or less extensive and varied according to 
 the many different special objects contemplated in works 
 of this kind. The derivation of tho word is doubtful 
 The first syllablo is the Arabic definite article; the rest of 
 tho word has beeri variously derived from the Greek nty, 
 a month; the Anglo-Saxon mona, the moon; and (which 
 appears the most probable derivation) the Arabic manah, 
 to reckon. 
 
 The Calendar will be treated of in a separate article 
 (which see). Here we have to do with the publication 
 which contains the calendar of any particular year, along 
 with other matter, astronomical, statistical, political, &c. 
 The Ephemeris again, it is to be observed, is a strict 
 astronomical term, being a register from day to day of tho 
 places and motions of the heavenly bodies. • 
 
 The attention given to astronomy by Eastern nations, 
 
 a"nd tho practice that prevailed among tnem of divination 
 by means of tho stars, must have led to tho early con- 
 struction of such tables as are comprised in our almanacs. 
 Our information respecting these is extremely scanty; but 
 we are not left in the same ignorance with regard to the 
 practice of the ancient Romans. The peculiar arrangement 
 of their calendar is well known, and their fasti sacri or 
 halendaru were very similar to modern almanacs. Origin- 
 ally knowledge of the calendar was confined to the. class of 
 poiitilices or priests, whom the people had to consult not 
 only about tho dates of the festivals) but also regarding 
 tho proper times of instituting various legal proceedings. 
 But about 300 B.C. one Cn. Flavius, the secretary of 
 Appius Claudius, possessed himself of the secret, either by 
 tho stealthy use of documents in the possession of his 
 master, or, according to Pliny, by repeatedly consulting 
 the pontifices and jurists, and collating the particulars of 
 the information he obtained from them. It was neither 
 more nor less than publishing an almanac when, as Livy 1 
 relates, "he exhibited the fasti on white tablets round the 
 forum. From this time tablets containing the calendar, 
 the festivals, astronomical phenomena, and sometimes 
 historical notices, seem to have been common. The Fasti 
 of Ovid is a poetical relation of incidents and traditions 
 connected with the calendar. Tho researches- of anti- 
 quaries have brought to light numerous fasti or calendaria 
 cut on marble and other kinds of stone. Representations 
 of several of these will be found in Grater's Inscripliones. 
 One figured there, the Farncse rustic calendar, is a cubical 
 block of stone, on each of tho four vertical faces of which 
 three columns are engraved, detailing for each different 
 month tho number of days, the date of the nones, the 
 lengths of the day and night, the sun's place in the zodiac 
 (which is also indicated by a representation of the sign at 
 the top of the column), the tutelary deity of the month, 
 the rural operations' of the season, and the chief festivals. 
 
 Almanacs of a ruder kind, known as clogg almanacs, 
 were in use in some parts of England as late as the end of 
 the 1 7th century. ' Dr Robert; Plot, keeper of the Ashmolean 
 Museum and professor of chemistry at Oxford, gives a 
 figure of one of these, with a very minute description, 111 
 his Natural History of Staffordshire (Oxford, 1686); and 
 another is represented in Gough's edition of Camden's 
 Britannia (1806, voL ii. p..499). The cloggs were squarj 
 blocks of hard wood, about 8 inches in length, with! 
 notches along the four angles corresponding to the days of 
 the year. The accompanying illustration shows the angle 
 
 on which is registered the almanac for the months of 
 January, February, and March, taking it from left to right. 
 The marks on the under side in the figure exhibit the 
 primes or golden numbers of a cycle, which ia fully 
 described in Plot's work. They generally increase by 8, 
 19 being struck off when that number is exceeded; and 
 tho same number will be found to stand against all tha 
 dates (approximately) of new moon throughout the year. 
 Tho cross mark is for X, and the hook at the end of a line 
 fo~ V. The weeks are indicated by a deeper notch for 
 evr*y seventh day, and a broadening stroke on the upper 
 aid'' in the figure -represents the first day of eoahmooUi 
 
 1 «« ^astcra circa forum in albo 
 sciretuo" (ix. 46). 
 
 v* *- — .'- wt «uAoa« i*c* up
 
 ALMANAC 
 
 591 
 
 The other characters on the upper side are for saints' days 
 and festivals. Thus Epiphany (Jan. 6) is indicated by a 
 star, St Hilary (Jan. 13) by a bishop's double cross, the con- 
 version of St Paul (Jan. 25) by an axe, St Valentine (Feb. 
 14) by a true lover's knot, St Matthias (Feb. 24) by a 
 battle-axe, &c. All the feasts of the Virgin, as the Puri- 
 fication (Feb. 2) and the Annunciation (March 25), are 
 denoted by a heart^Dr Plot was greauy puzzled to know 
 why. St Blaise (Feb. 3), St Agatha (Feb. 5), and otners 
 were indicated by their initials; and opposite the day 
 (March 1) consecrated to David, the patron saint of 
 Wales, is a svmbol which some consider a harp and others 
 a leek. 
 
 The earliest almanac regarding which Lalande (whose 
 Bibliographie Astronomique, Paris, 1803, is the best autho- 
 rity on publications of this kind) could obtain any definite 
 information belongs to the 12th century. Manuscript 
 almanacs of considerable antiquity are preserved in the 
 British Museum and in the libraries of Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge. Of these the most remarkable are a calendar 
 ascribed to Roger Bacon (1292), and those of Peter de 
 Dacia (about 1300), Walter de Elvendene (1327), John 
 Somers (1380), &c. It is to be remembered that early 
 calendars (such as the Kalendarium Lincolniense of Bishop 
 Robert Grosseteste) frequently bear the names, not of 
 their compilers, but of the writers of the treatises on 
 ecclesiastical computation on which the calendars are 
 based. In 1812 there was printed at Hackney what pur- 
 ported to be a transcription of the greater part of an 
 almanac for 1386. This, if it exists, must be one of the 
 earliest, perhaps the earliest, in the English language that 
 has been preserved. The earliest English calendar in the 
 British Museum is one for the year 1431. The first 
 printed almanac known is one for the year 1457; the 
 first of importance is that of Joannes de Monte-Regio, 
 better known as Eegiomontanus, which appears to have 
 been printed at Nuremberg in 1472. In this work the 
 almanacs for the different months embrace three Metonic 
 cycles, or the 57 years from 1475 to 1531 inclusive. The 
 Ephemerides of Eegiomontanus, which are to be distin- 
 guished from his almanac, were sold, if is said, for ten 
 crowns of gold, considerably more than their own weight. 
 The earliest almanac printed in England was The Kalendar 
 of Shepardes, a translation from the French, printed by 
 Richard Pynson about 1497. 
 
 The exclusive right to sell " almanacs and prognostica- 
 tions," enjoyed in the time of Elizabeth by two members 
 of the Company of Stationers, was extended by James I. 
 to the two universities and the Stationers' Company jointly; 
 but the universities commuted their privilege for an annuity 
 from the company. About a century ago one Thomas 
 Carnan, a bookseller, conceiving that the company had no 
 just title to its monopoly, published an almanac for three 
 successive years, and was thrice imprisoned on that account 
 by the company. In 1775 the case came before the Court 
 of Common Pleas, and was decided in Carnan's favour. 
 The question argued was, " Whether almanacs were such 
 public ordinances, such matters of state, as belonged to the 
 king by his prerogative, so as to enable him to communi- 
 cate an exclusive right of printing them to a grantee of the 
 crown 1" and the judges were unanimously of the opinion 
 that the crown had no such right. The minister, Lord 
 North, made an attempt in 1779 to put the company in 
 possession, by a parliamentary enactment, of what the 
 judges had denied it; but the proposed monopoly was 
 denounced by Erskine and others with such ability and 
 severity that the bill was thrown out by a majority of 
 forty-five. In consequence of this loss to the company of 
 its exclusive right to issue almanacs, the universities lost 
 their title to their annuity, and in lieu of it they received 
 
 a parliamentary grant. The company continued, however, 
 virtually to retain its monopoly by buying up as much aa 
 possible all the almanacs issued by other publishers, and 
 by means of the great influence it possessed over the book 
 trade. In more recent times the power to control the sale 
 of this class of publications has altogether ceased, but a 
 considerable proportion of the almanacs published in this 
 country still issue from the hall of the Stationers' Company. 
 A lively description of "Almanac Day" at Stationers' 
 Hall will be found in Knight's Cyclopaedia of London 
 (1851), p. 588. 
 
 The influence of the heavenly bodies on the conditions 
 and affairs of men has beer believed in, and a superstitious 
 importance has been attached to particular times and 
 seasons by the credulous from the remotest times. As 
 might be imagined, therefore, since the bases on which the 
 whole system -of judicial astrology rested all fall ■Within 
 the field of the almanac-makers' labours, great prominence 
 was given to omens and predictions in many of these 
 publications. The early almanacs had commonly the name 
 of "prognostications" in addition, and what they pro- 
 fessed to show may be gathered from titles like the fol- 
 lowing, which is quoted by Mr Halliwell : — " Pronosty- 
 cacyon of Mayster John Thybault, medycyner and astro- 
 nomer of the Emperyall Majestie, of the year of our Lorde 
 God mcccccxxxiij., comprehending the iiij. partes of this 
 yere, and of the influence of the mone, of peas and warre, 
 and of the sykenesses of this yere, with the constellacioos 
 of them that be under the vij. pianettes, and the revolu- 
 cions of kynges and princes, and of the eclipses and 
 comets." In 1579 Henry III. of France deemed it neces- 
 sary to prohibit all almanac-makers from indulging in 
 predictions. No such restriction, however, existed in this 
 country; and it was to their prophesyings that the almanacs 
 of the Stationers' Company were long indebted for much 
 of their popularity. Among almanacs of this class pub- 
 lished in England, and principally by the Stationers' Com- 
 pany, are Leonard Digges's Prognostication Everlasting of 
 Right Good Effect, for 1553, 1555, <tc; William Lilly's 
 Merlinus Anglicus Junior, for 1644, <fcc, and other al- 
 manacs and "prognostications;" Booker's Bloody Almanac 
 and Bloody Irish Almanac, for 1643, 1647, <tc. — the last 
 attributed erroneously to Napier ; Partridge's Ma-curius 
 Coslestis, for 1681, Merlinus Redivivus, <fcc. The name 
 of Partridge has been immortalised in Pope's Rape of lite 
 Lock; and his almanacs were very cleverly burlesqued by 
 Swift, who predicted Partridge's own death, with all details 
 of time and circumstance, in genuine prognosticator's style. 
 The most famous of all the Stationers' Company's predict- 
 ing almanacs was the Vox Stellarum of Francis Moore, 
 dating from about 1680. Of a different but not a better 
 sort was Poor Robin, dating from 1663, and published by 
 the company down to 1828, which abounded in coarse, 
 sometimes extremely coarse, humour. 
 
 On the 1st of January 1828 the Society for the Diffu- 
 sion of Useful Knowledge issued the British Almanac for 
 that year — a publication greatly superior in every way to 
 the almanacs of the time. To qtfote the society's Almanav 
 for 1829— 
 
 " This was almost the 6rst attempt in this country to produce aD 
 almanac that should not only be useful to all classes, and of which 
 the information should be wholly of a popular character, but which 
 should be purified from the superstitions, prejudices, and indecencies 
 which have characterised some of the almanacs of whicil the circula- 
 tion has been the most extensive. By a parliamentary return of tho 
 year 1828 we find that the stamp duty paid upon the almanacs ot 
 England exhibits a circulation of 451,593 annually, it may be 
 safely asserted that two-thirds of these publications contain some 
 large portion of the matter just described ; and they thus keep alive 
 a spirit of ignorance utterly opposed to the desire for sound and 
 practical information which distinguishes our own times." 
 The success of the British Almanac, with its valuable
 
 592 
 
 ALM-ALM 
 
 supplement, the Companion to the Almanac, led to a great 
 improvement in this class of publications. The Stationers' 
 Company issued the English Almanac, a 'work of a similar 
 kind. The entiro repeal in 1834, by the 3d and 4th Will. 
 IV., o. 57, of the heavy stamp duty on all almanacs of 
 fifteenpence per copy, gave an additional stimulus to the 
 publication of almanacs of a better class, and from that 
 time the number has greatly increased. It is interesting 
 to remark that the British Almanac and Companion still 
 exist, and retain their original form and character, and 
 that this has from 1870 been the principal almanac pub- 
 lished by the Stationers' Company. 
 
 The variety of extraneous matter included in almanacs, 
 corresponding to the very numerous other objects to -which 
 the almanac proper is often only secondary, can be merely 
 alluded to here. A number of publications, issued in Ger- 
 many from the middle of the 18th to the middle of the 19th 
 century, under such titles as Musenalmanack, or A Imanach des 
 Muses, contain some of the best works of some of the most 
 celebrated German poets. The Almanack de Gotha, which 
 has existed since 1764, and is published at present both in 
 French and German, gives a particular account of all the 
 royal and princely families of Europe, and ample details, 
 compressed into little space, concerning the administration 
 and the statistics of the different states of the world. As 
 works of general statistical reference, the two national 
 almanacs, Oliver and Boyd's New Edinburgh Almanac 
 (from 1837) and Thorn's Irith Almanac (from 1843), are of 
 very great value. 
 
 The Nautical Almanac is a publication the object of 
 which is to supply information that is indispensable to the 
 navigator and the astronomer. It gives with the utmost 
 precision the positions of the principal heavenly bodies at 
 short intervals of time, and other important details of 
 celestial phenomena. The moon's exact position is regis- 
 tered for every hour, and also the angular distances at 
 noon and midnight daily of the moon from the sun and 
 several fixed stars. By means of the data thus supplied, in 
 connection with observations of the heavenly bodies, time, 
 latitude, and longitude can be determined. The Nautical 
 Almanac has been published regularly since the issue in 
 1766 of the Almanac for 1767. It was originated by Dr 
 Maskelyne, the astronomer-royal, who conducted it for 
 many years. About 1830 the Lords of the Admiralty 
 were induced by complaints of its defects to bring the 
 subject under the notice of the Royal Astronomical Society. 
 The society appointed a committee to consider what changes 
 seemed necessary, and, on the committee's recommendation, 
 the' form was adopted which has continued with little 
 change from 1834 to the present time. During that period 
 the Almanac has been published under the superintendence 
 of the Admiralty. It is issued generally three years at least 
 before it comes into use. The Connaissance des Temps 
 (from 1679), the Berliner Jahrbuch (from 1776), and the 
 American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanack (from 1855) 
 are publications of a similar kind. 
 
 (See, in addition to works referred to above, interesting 
 papers by Sir J. O. Halliwell and Professor De Morgan in 
 the Companion to the Almanac for 1839, 1840, 1845, 
 1846.) 
 
 ALMANSA, a town of Spain, in the province of Al- 
 bacete, 35 miles E.S.E. of the town of that name, on the 
 Madrid and Alicante railway. Tho surrounding plain is 
 very fertile, and irrigated by means of a large reservoir. 
 There are manufactures of linen and cotton fabrics, and 
 also' of brandy, leather, and soap. A Moorish castle is to 
 be seen on a hill to the north-west of the town. About a 
 milo from Almansa stands an obelisk commemorating the 
 decisive battle fought here on 25th April 1707, in which 
 the French, under the-Duko of Berwick, the natural son 
 
 of James II. of England, completely defeated the allkd 
 English and Spanish armies. Tho French greatly ou> 
 numbered the opposing force. This battle hastened thB 
 conclusion of tho war of the Spanish succession. Popula- 
 tion of the town, about 8000. 
 
 ALME, or Almai (from Alim, wise, learned), the nam* 
 of a distinct class of singing girls in Egypt To be received 
 into it, according to M. Savary, it is necessary to have a 
 good voice, to understand the language well, to know the 
 rules of poetry, and be able to composo and dng impromptu 
 couplets adapted to the circumstances. The almai aro 
 present at all festivals and entertainments, and also at 
 funerals, where they act the part of hired mourners. They 
 are to be distinguished from the ghawazce, or dancing 
 girls, who perform in the public streets, and are of a lower 
 order. 
 
 ALMEIDA, a strongly-fortified town of Portugal, in the 
 province of Beira, situated between the Coa and the Duas 
 Casas, a branch of the Agueda, 95 miles N.E. of Coimbra, 
 and 25 miles from the Spanish fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo. 
 It was taken by the Spaniards in 1762, and again by the 
 French in 1810. The recapture of it by the Duke of 
 Wellington in 1811 was deemed one of the most brilliant 
 exploits of the Peninsidar war. It is well fortified, and 
 contains an ancient church "nd two hospitals. Popula- 
 tion, 6580. 
 
 ALMEIDA, Don Francisco de, the first viceroy of 
 Portuguese India, was born at Lisbon about the middle of 
 the 15th century. He was the seventh son of the second 
 Count of Abrantes, and thus belonged to one of the most 
 distinguished families in Portugal. In his youth he took 
 part under Ferdinand of Aragon in the wars against the 
 Moors (1485-92). In March 1505, having received from 
 Emmanuel I. the appointment of viceroy of the newly-con- 
 quered territory in India, he set sail from Lisbon in com- 
 mand of a large and powerful fleet, and arrived in July at 
 Quiloa, which yielded to him almost without a struggle. 
 A much more vigorous resistance was offered by the Moors 
 of Mombaza, but the town was taken and destroyed, and 
 its large treasures went to strengthen the resources of 
 Almeida. At other places on his way, such as the island 
 of Angediva, near Goa, and Cananore, he built forts, and 
 adopted measures to secure the Portuguese supremacy. 
 On his arrival in India he took up his residence at Cochin, 
 where a Portuguese fort had been built by Albuquerque 
 in 1503. The most important events of Almeida's brief 
 but vigorous administration were the conclusion of a com- 
 mercial treaty with Malacca, and the discoveries made by 
 his son Lorenzo, who acted as his lieutenant. The latter 
 was probably the first Portuguese who visited Ceylon, 
 where he established a settlement, and is also celebrated as 
 the discoverer of Madagascar and the Maldive islands. In 
 1508 he was killed at Dabul in a naval engagement with 
 the Moors. His father was preparing signally to avenge 
 his death when Albuquerque arrived in Cochin, and pre- 
 sented a commission empowering him to supersede Almeida 
 in the government. It was probably Almeida's unwilling- 
 ness to be thwarted in his scheme of vengeance that chiefly 
 induced him to refuse to recognise Albuquerque's com- 
 mission, and to cast bim into prison. (See Albuqueko.ue.) 
 The punishment he inflicted on the Moors was speedy 
 and terrible. Selling along the coast, he pillaged and 
 burned various ports, including Goa and Dabul, and 
 finally encountering the enemy's combined fleet off Diu 
 early in 1509, he completely destroyed it. Returning 
 immediately to Cochin, he held out for a few months 
 against the claims of Albuquerque, but in November 1509 
 he was compelled to yield. On the 1st December he set 
 sail for Europe with an escort of three vessels. On tht 
 voyage the fleet called at Saldanha Bay, in South Africa, t(
 
 A LI-ALM 
 
 593 
 
 procure water, and here Almeida was killed (March 1, 
 1510) in an unprovoked attack upon the Caffre natives, 
 during which he showed great personal courage. ?- His body 
 was recovered on the following day, frightfully mutilated, 
 and received a hasty buriaL 
 
 ALMERIA, a modern province of Sp"aTn, comprehending 
 the eastern portion of the ancient kingdom of Granada. 
 It is bounded on the N. by Jaen and Murcia, on the R 
 and S. by Murcia and the Mediterranean, and on the W. 
 by Granada; with an area of about 3300 square miles. 
 The province is traversed by mountain ridges, some of 
 them of considerable elevation, with corresponding valleys 
 and plains of great fertility. The principal sierras are 
 those of Maria, Almahilla, Cabrera, Aimagrera, Gata, and 
 Gador, and in the W. some offshoots of the Sierra Nevada. 
 The most considerable rivers are the Almanzora, running 
 from west to east, with a course of about 50 miles ; the 
 Almeria, flowing from north-west to south-east ; and the 
 Adra from north to south, watering the fertile district 
 between the Sierra de Gador and the Alpujarras. On the 
 S. coast is the Gulf of Almeria, a spacious bay, 25 miles 
 wide at the entrance, and about 10 miles in depth. The 
 climate of the province is mild, except in the interior, 
 where the winter is cold. On the coast rain seldom falls, 
 and south-west winds prevail The inhabitants are prin- 
 cipally engaged in mining and agriculture. Many of the pro- 
 prietors farm their own land, the number of landed pro- 
 perties being 44,858, while the tenants are only 7365. Of 
 the area of the province, 376,698 acres are arable and pasture 
 land; 13,538 acres vineyards; 5360 acres olive plantations; 
 30,797 acres cultivated mountain and wood lands ; and 
 1,686,738 acres uncultivated. There are 438,357 head of 
 live stock. All kinds of grain are raised in abundance. 
 The common fruits are plentiful, as well as oranges, lemons, 
 and vines. Much excellent silk is produced in the western 
 districts ; cotton is raised to some extent along the coast, 
 and the sugar-cane is also cultivated. Cattle are extensively 
 bred ; those of the valley of the Almeria are especially 
 remarkable for their size and beauty. The province is one 
 of the richest in minerals of all Spain, the mountains 
 yielding silver, mercury, lead, antimony, copper, and iron. 
 The silver mines of the Sierra de Aimagrera, opened in 
 1839, produced in 1843 nearly 1,700,000 ounces ; while 
 the lead mines of the Sierra de Gador are computed to 
 have yielded, from 1795 to 1841 inclusive, 11,000,000 
 quintals of lead, and the present annual output is from 
 30,000 to 40,000 tons of ore. In the Sierra de Gata, 
 jaspers and agates are found ; in the Sierra Nevada, to the 
 west, are the celebrated quarries of Macael marble; and the 
 Sierra Cabrera yields antimony, malachite, gypsum, 
 magnetic iron, <tc. The manufactures of the province 
 consist chiefly of esparto cordage, white-lead, shot, salt- 
 petre, soap, leather, and earthenware. The principal 
 exports are lead, esparto, barilla, and soap ; while the 
 imports include coal and machinery from England, woollen 
 and cotton stuffs from Catalonia, silk from Valencia and 
 Malaga, and linen from Marseilles and Gibraltar. From 
 the want of adequate facilities for communication, the 
 development of the agricultural and mining resources "of 
 Almeria has not been so rapid as might have been expected. 
 The disturbances attending the revolution of 1868 1 we 
 also had a prejudicial effect Education is in a back 1 ard 
 state, the proportion of the population at school being 
 only fifteen in the thousand. Crime, although great, is 
 not excessive, offences against the person forming the 
 gr'iter number of the cases tried. The people generally 
 are simple, sober, and religious. Population in 1870, 
 estimated at 361,553. 
 
 Axmeeia, the capital of the above provinpe, lies on 
 the Gulf of Almeria, on the Mediterranean, 72 miles E.S.E. 
 
 of Granada. From the strength of the port it was deemed 
 by the Moorish kings of Granada one of the most valuable 
 of their fortresses and their best commercial harbour. 
 Sailing hence, their cruisers overawed the Catalans and 
 Italians, and their merchant ships conveyed the produce 
 of the country to Africa, Egypt, and Syria. In the time 
 of the Moors Almeria was the seat of hordes of pirates. 
 The walls of the town, and the Moorish fortress, or 
 Alcazaba, overlooking it, as well as the architecture of 
 many of the houses, still attest it3 Moorish origin. It is 
 pretty well built, and has several handsome squares, 
 although the streets are generally narrow. Almeria is the 
 seat of a bishop, and has a cathedral and theological 
 seminaries. Off the port there is good anchorage in 12 
 and 14 fathoms water; and in addition to its landward 
 defences the place is' protected towards the sea by the 
 forts of Trinidad and Tiro. In 1866, 46 vessels, of 21,603 
 tons, with cargoes, entered and cleared the port; and 
 the annual value of the exports is about £50,000; The 
 manufactures are trifling, but there is a good export trade 
 in wine, soda, esparto, silk, and lead; while the imports 
 consist chiefly of coal and manufactured goods. Here 
 there are also some mineral springs. Population (1857), 
 27,036. 
 
 ALMOHADES (Almoahedun, Unitarian), a Mahometan 
 dynasty that flourished in Africa and in Spain during the 
 12th and 13th centuries. Mohammed-Ibn-Abdallah, the 
 founder of the Almoahedun sect, was the son of a lamp- 
 lighter in the great mosque at Sous-el-Aksa. He studied 
 at Cordova, and afterwards visited Cairo and Baghdad, 
 where he became the disciple of the famous philosopher 
 AlgazalL In order to establish his power with his country- 
 men, he connected himself with Abd-el-Mumen, a young 
 Mussulman of great abilities, whom he sent forth as his 
 apostle to propagate the new doctrine (1116-17); while 
 in his own person he affected an unusual degree of piety 
 and mortification, appearing in tattered garments, and 
 interdicting the use of wine and music and every gratifica- 
 tion of the senses. His fame spread rapidly among the 
 mountain tribes of Mahgreb, and the ignorant multitude 
 adopted his opinions with eager zeaL His followers saluted 
 him as the Al-Mehedi on the 28th November 1121. 
 Entering the city of Marocco, this new prophet foretold 
 the downfall of the existing dynasty, and mocked the 
 authority of the feigning prince Ali-Ibn-Yussef. Ali, lulled 
 in security, despised his predictions as the mere ravings of 
 a fanatic ; and it was not without some difficulty that he 
 was at length prevailed on to banish him from the city. 
 Mohammed retired to tho mountains, and fortified the 
 town of Tinmal, which he defended against every assault 
 of his enemies (1123). His retreat became the rendezvous 
 of a numerous sect, who assumed the title of Almoahedi, 
 or Almohades, and asserted that they alone of all the 
 Mussulmans maintained the religion of Islam in its original 
 purity. Many Arab and Berber tribes acknowledged him 
 as their political chief, and 20,000 soldiers rallied around 
 his standard. Ali only perceived the error he had com- 
 mitted when it was too late : his armies, at each encounter, 
 were panic-struck, and fled. Yet notwithstanding the 
 great success of the Almohades, the vast empire of the 
 Almoravides was not at once subdued : and Mohammed, 
 after an ineffectual attempt to reduce the city of Marocco, 
 died in the year 1130, having failed to pccomplish the 
 object of his ambition, the possession of a throne. He 
 was succeeded by Abd-el-Mumen, who assumed the title of 
 Emir-d-Mumenin, or Commander of the Faithful During 
 the thirty years that he reigned, and under his descendants, 
 Yussef and Yakub, called Almanzor-Biliah, the dynasty of 
 the Almohades was exceedingly illustrious, and the arts 
 flourished greatly. They rendered themselves masters of
 
 594 
 
 ALM-ALM 
 
 the provinces of Fez, Marocco, Tlcmcen, Oran, and Tunis; 
 and passing into Spain, thoy overran Andalusia, Valencia, 
 end a part of Aragon and Portugal, as far the Ebro on one 
 side and the Tagua on the other. But this vast empire 
 was not of long continuance; for in the year 1212, when 
 the Moslems under Mohammed were defeated by tho 
 Christian princes of Spain in the great battle of Las Navas, 
 near Tolosa, the governors of the several provinces took 
 advantage of that disaster to throw off their allegiance, and 
 declared themselves independent — an example that was the 
 signal for a general revolt. The dynasty of the Almohades 
 became extinct in Spain in the year 1 257, and in Africa in 
 1269. The last sovereign of this race, Abu Dabus Edris, 
 who had with difficulty maintained a shadow of power in 
 the city of Marocco, was assassinated by a slave. They 
 were succeeded by the dynasties of the Hafsides, the 
 Mevanides, and the Merinides. See Almoeavtdes. 
 
 ALMON, John, a political pamphleteer and publisher 
 of considerable note, was born at Liverpool about 1738. 
 In early life he was apprentice to a printer in his native 
 town, and he subsequently spent two years at sea. He 
 came to London in 1758, and at once commenced a career 
 which, if not important in itself, had a very important 
 influence on the political history of the country.' The 
 opposition, hampered and harassed by the government to an 
 extent that threatened the total suppression of independent 
 opinion, were in great need of a channel of communication 
 with the public, and they found what they wanted in 
 Almon. He had become personally known to the leaders 
 through various publications of his own which had a gTeat 
 though transient popularity; the more important of these 
 being The Conduct of a late Noble Commander [Lord 
 Gecrge Sackville] Examined (1759); a Review of the Reign 
 of George II, published on the death of that monarch; a 
 Review of Mr Pitt's Administration (1761); and a collec- 
 tion of letters on political subjects. The review of Pitt's 
 administration passed through four editions, and secured 
 for its author the friendship of Lord Temple, to whom it 
 was dedicated. Being thus in the counsels of the party, 
 he was persuaded in 1763 to open a bookseller's shop in 
 Piccadilly, chiefly for the publication and sale of political 
 pamphlets. As he generally received with every pamphlet 
 a sum sufficient to secure him against all contingencies, it 
 cannot be said that he acted entirely from disinterested or 
 patriotic motives. At the same time, he deserves the credit 
 of intrepidity; and it cannot be denied that, whether he 
 knew the full value of the principle for which he was con-, 
 tending or not, he did very much to secure the freedom of 
 the press. The government of course were not unobservant 
 of Almon'8 proceedings, and, as has often been the case, 
 strengthened his influence by the very measures they took 
 to repress it. In 1765 the Attorney-General moved to have 
 him tried for the publication of the pamphlet entitled 
 Juries and Libels, but the prosecution failed; and in 1770, 
 for merely selling a copy of the London Museum con- 
 taining Jonius's celebrated "Letter to the King,' he was 
 sentenced by Lord Mansfield to pay a fine of ten marks, 
 and give security for his good behaviour. It was this trial 
 that called forth the letter to Lord Mansfield, one of the 
 most bitter of the Junius series. Almon himself published 
 an account of the trial, and of course did not let slip the 
 opportunity of reprinting the matter that had been the 
 ground of indictment, but no further proceedings were 
 taken against him. In 1774 Almon commenced the pub- 
 lication of his Parliamentary Register, and he also issued 
 an abstract of the debates from 1742, when Chandler's 
 Reports ceased, to 1774. About the same time, having 
 earned a competency, he retired to Boxmoor in Hertford- 
 shire, though he still continued to write on political subjects. 
 He afterwards became proprietor of the General Advertiser, 
 
 in the management of which he lost his fortune, and was 
 declared insolvent. To these calamities was added an 
 imprisonment for libel and a sentence of outlawry. Being 
 enabled at last to return to Boxmoor, he continued for 
 some years a career of undiminished literary activity. Hia 
 last work, a Life of Wilkes, in five volumes (1805), was 
 perhaps his worst, being entirely wanting in proportion 
 and arrangement. He died on the 12th December 1805. 
 A complete list of Almon's works, most of which appeared 
 anonymously, is given in Watt's Bibiiotheca Britannica. 
 Though their literary merit is not great, they are of very 
 considerable value to the student of the political history 
 of the period. 
 
 ALMOND. This is the fruit of Amygdalut communis, 
 a plant belonging to the natural order Rosacese, sub-order 
 Amygdaleae or Drupiferae. The tree appears to be a native 
 of Asia, Barbary, and Marocco; but it has been extensively 
 distributed over the warm temperate region of the Old 
 World. It is a tree 
 of moderate size ; the 
 leaves are oblong- 
 lanceolate, and ser- 
 rated at the edges; 
 and the flowers, 
 which appear early in 
 spring, are of a pink 
 colour. The fruit. is 
 a drupe, having a 
 downy outer coat, 
 called the epicarp, 
 covering a tough 
 portion called the 
 mesocarp, which en- 
 closes the reticulated 
 hard stony shell or 
 endocarp. The seed 
 is the kernel which 
 is contained within 
 these coverings. The 
 
 bVipII -jlmnnHo r\f The Almond-tree {.Amygdaliu communis), tbc frait of 
 
 snen-aimonas OI which is a drupe with a tough metocarp. The 
 
 trade consist of the Hebrew word S/mktd Is generally translated Al- 
 
 , , . mond (Gen. xllli. 11; E-od.xxv. 33, 84; xixvil.lgj 
 
 endOCarpS enclosing Numb. xvil. 8). The word liu, which occurs In 
 
 thfi spprlq TVia trpp. Gencsla xxx. 87, and Is there translated Hazel 
 
 uie seeos. ine wee appcar8 10 be „„ n , me , , hc Almond-tree, while 
 
 grows in Syria and Shaked Is the name of the fruit. 
 
 Palestine ; and i3 referred to in the Bible under the name 
 of Shaked, meaning " hasten.'" The word Luz, which occurs 
 in Genesis xxx. 37, and which has been translated hazel, 
 is .supposed to be another name for the almond. In Pales- 
 tine the tree" flowers in January, and this hastening of the 
 period of flowering seems to be alluded to in Jeremiah i. 
 11, 12, where the Lord asks the prophet, "What seest 
 thou 1" and he replies, "The rod of an almond-tree;" and 
 the Lord says, " Thou hast well seen, for I will hasten my 
 word to perform it." In Ecclesiastes xii 5 it is said the 
 " almond-tree shall flourish." This has often been supposed 
 to refer to the resemblance of the hoary locks of age to 
 the flowers of the almond; but this exposition is not borne 
 out by the facts of the case, inasmuch as the flowers 
 of the almond are not white but pink. The passage is 
 more probably intended to allude to the hastening or rapid 
 aj >roach of old age. The application of Shaked or hasten 
 to the almond is similar to tie use of the name " May" 
 for the hawthorn, which usually flowers in that month in 
 Britain. The rod of Aaron, mentioned in Numbers xviL, 
 was taken from an almond-tree; and the Jews still carry 
 rods of almond-blossom to the synagogues on great festival 
 days. The fruit of the almond supplied a model for certain 
 kinds of ornamental carved work^ (Exodus xxv. 33, 34; 
 xxxvii. 19, 20). Dr Tristram remarks: " The blossom of 
 the almond is a very pale pink, but where, as in the
 
 ALM-ALM 
 
 595 
 
 orchards near Nablous (Shecliem), the peach and almond 
 trees are intermingled, the almond looks white by com- 
 parison. In early spring it forms a beautiful feature in the 
 landscape there, as the lower slopes of Gerizim, as well as 
 the valley, are studded with almonds and peaches, in lively 
 contrast with the deep green foliage of the orange-trees, 
 and rivalling an apple orchard in splendour of colour. 
 There are also many wild almond-trees on Mount CarmeL 
 The tree seldom exceeds 12 to 16 feet in height." Thero 
 are two varieties of the plant, the one producing sweet, the 
 other bitter almonds. The kernel of the former contains a 
 fixed oil and emulsin ; while that of the latter has in addi- 
 tion a nitrogenous substance called amygdalin, which, by 
 combination with emulsin, produces' a volatile oil and prus- 
 8ic acid. The flowers of the bitter almond-tree (Amygdalus 
 communis, variety amara) are larger and whiter than those 
 of the sweet almond-tree (Amygdalus communis, variety 
 dulcis). The sweet almond is bland and inodorous. There 
 are numerous commercial varieties, of which the most 
 esteemed is the Jordan almond, imported from Malaga. 
 Valentia almonds are also valued. Fresh sweet almonds 
 are nutritive and demulcent, but as the outer brown skin 
 or episperm sometimes causes irritation of the alimentary 
 canal, they are blanched by removal of this skin when used 
 at dessert. When bitter almonds are pounded in water 
 a ratafia odour is produced, on account of the formation of 
 prussic acid. The essential oil or essence of almonds, so 
 much employed for flavouring dishes, requires to be used 
 with caution, as it possesses marked poisonous qualities. 
 In some cases the oil, even when taken in small quantities, 
 produces nettle-rash. The import of sweet almonds into 
 Britain in 1870 amounted to 36,189 cwt.; of bitter almonds, 
 7618 cwt. 
 
 ALMONDBURY, au extensive parish and township of 
 Yorkshire in England, lying to the S.E. of Huddersfield 
 As the manufactures of Huddersfield have increased, 
 various outlying districts have been built on, so that the 
 parish of Almondbury now includes a considerable part of 
 that important and flourishing town. The parish contains 
 28,092 acres. The town lies on the river Calder, 2 miles 
 S.E. of Huddersfield, and had formerly a cathedral and a 
 strong castle. By some writers it is supposed to occupy 
 the site of the Roman . Campodunum mentioned by 
 Antoninus; but whether or not, the place can boast a 
 Roman origin — it was at least a town of importance in 
 Saxon times, and a seat of the kings of Northumbria. It 
 has a free grammar school founded by James I., a good 
 church, and several other public buildings. The inhabitants 
 of the town and parish are chiefly engaged in the manu- 
 facture of fine cloths, and woollen, cotton, and silk goods. 
 In 1871 the population of the parish was 46,299; of the 
 township, 11,669. 
 
 ALMONER, in its primitive sense, denotes an officer in 
 Teligious houses, to whom belonged the management and 
 distribution of the alms of the house. By the ancient 
 canons, all monasteries were to spend at least a tenth 
 part of their income in alms to the poor, and all bishops 
 were required to keep almoners. 
 
 Lord Almoner, or Lord High Almoner of England, 
 is an ecclesiastical officer, generally a bishop, who has a 
 right to the forfeiture of all deodauds and the goods of a 
 feio de se, which he is to distribute among the poor. He 
 has also, by virtue of an ancient custom, the power of 
 giving the first dish from the king's table to whatever poor 
 person he pleases, or, instead of it, an aims in money. 
 See Maunday Thursday. 
 
 ALMORA, the principal town in the British district of 
 Rumaon, within the lieutenant-governorship of the North- 
 Western Provinces, is situated in 29° 35' N. lat., and 79° 
 42' E. long. The town is built on the crest of a ridge of 
 
 the Himalayas, running east and west, and 5337 feet above 
 sea-level. It consists chiefly of a single street, about 50 
 feet wide and three-quarters of a mile long, closed by a 
 gate at each end. A few detached houses, inhabited by 
 Europeans, are scattered along the face of the mountain 
 below the town. The town was captured by the Gurkhas 
 in 1790, who constructed a fort on the eastern extremity 
 of the ridge. Another citadel, Fort Moira, is situated on 
 the other extremity of the ridge. Almora is also celebrated 
 as the scene of the British victory which terminated the 
 war with Nepal in April 1815, and which resulted in the 
 evacuation of Kumaon by the Gurkhas, and the annexa- 
 tion of the province by the British. According to the 
 census of 1872, the town contains a population of 5900 
 souls. It has been constituted a municipality, the revenue 
 and expenditure of which in 1871-72 is returned as fol- 
 lows : — Revenue — Receipts from octroi, £29, Ms.; house- 
 tax, £211, 8s.; other sources of income, £30, 14s.: total, 
 £271, 18s. Expenditure — Establishment, including cost 
 of collection, police, and conservancy, £182; repairs. £90, 
 16s.; other items, £3, 16s. : total, £276, 12s. 
 
 ALMORAVIDES, a family of Mahometan princes who 
 reigned in Africa and in Spain between 1073 and 1147 
 A.D. This appellation was derived from the sect of AU 
 Morabethun (Dedicated to the service of God), which arose 
 about the middle of the 11th century, among a poor 
 ignorant tribe of Berbers inhabiting the mountains of 
 Atlas, on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean. At the" request 
 of a sheik of Lamtouna, who had acquired some taste for 
 learning by travelling in the East, Abdallah-ben-Yazim, 
 an Arabian of extraordinary erudition, consented to instruct 
 the people in the truths of Islam. The enthusiasm of 
 Abdallah created a like zeal in the hearts of his ignorant 
 hearers ; and by the energy and novelty of his discourses 
 he so inflamed the minds of his disciples that they com- 
 pelled those whom persuasion could not move to embrace 
 the new religion. Thu3 Abdallah found himself at the 
 head of a numerous sect, who soon began to regard him as 
 their leader both in temporal and spiritual matters. Under 
 the name of Almorabethun or Almoravides, they overran 
 the country of Daza, lying between the desert of Sahara 
 and the ancient Getulia, and ultimately extended their 
 conquests from the shores of the Mediterranean to the 
 frontiers of Nigritia. Abdallah died on the field of battle in 
 the year 1058. He was succeeded by Abu-Bekr-Ibn-Omar, 
 a man whose abilities were scarcely equal to the difficulties 
 of the position in which he was placed. In 1072 he 
 was supplanted by Yussef-Ibn-Tashf3-n, to whom he had 
 entrusted the government on setting out for Atlas to 
 quell an insurrection of the Berbers. Yussef completely 
 established the Almoravide power in Al-Magreb in 1073. 
 On the invitation of Mohammed of Seville, he crossed to 
 Algeciras in 1086, and at once marched against Alphonso 
 VI., the most powerful prince in Christendom. They met in 
 the plains of Zalaca (23d Oct. 1086), and Alphonso was 
 defeated with terrible slaughter. The news of Yussefs 
 success induced many of the Arabs of Spain to enlist 
 under his victorious banner. In a third expedition to 
 Spain (1091), he attacked Mohammed, and after a protracted 
 siege became master of Seville. This conquest was followed 
 by the subjugation of Alincria, Denia, Xativa, and Valen- 
 cia. The acquisition of the Balearic Isles was the com- 
 pletion of this vast empire, which extended from the Ebro 
 and the Tagus to the frontiers of Soudan. Although 
 Marocco was his capital, he frequently visited his Spanish 
 dominions ; and on the last occasion, having assembled the 
 governors of the province at Cordova, he appointed Ali, 
 the youngest of has sous, as his successor. He then re- 
 turned to Marocco, where he died at a very advanced age, 
 1106 a.d. (500 of the Hegira), after a reign of forty years.
 
 596 
 
 ALM-ALN 
 
 Few kings have received so noble a heritage as that to 
 which AU succeeded. The first years of his reign were 
 prosperous, though disturbed by the Almohades, who were 
 preparing the way for the destruction of the Alinoravides. 
 Ali was at last obliged to recall from Spain his son Tashfyn, 
 who was using his utmost endeavours to oppose the victo- 
 rious career of Alphonso of Aragon, surnamed the Fighter. 
 But the valour of Tashfyn was of little avail against the 
 rising power of the Almohades: disaster followed disaster ; 
 and when, in 1143, he succeeded to the throne, but a 
 moiety of the kingdom remained. It was in vain that he 
 received succours from Spain, the troops from that soft 
 climate being Little fitted for service in the wild regions of 
 Atlas. Driven from Tlemecen, he sought refuge in Oran ; 
 but Abd-el-Mumen appeared before its walls, and by threats 
 so intimidated the inhabitants that Tashfyn was compelled 
 to attempt escape on horseback, with his favourite wife 
 behind him ; but being closely pursued, he urged his horse 
 over a precipice, and with his wife was dashed to pieces. 
 With Tashfyn expired the domination of the Almoravides ; 
 for although they still remained in possession of the city 
 of Marocco, their power was completely broken. Ishak- 
 Ibrahim, the son of Tashfyn, was taken and put to death 
 at Alcazar in 1147, on the surrender of Marocco by 
 treachery, and with him the dynasty of the Almoravides 
 became extinct. The remnant of the sect, driven from Spain, 
 took refuge in the Balearic Islands, but it was finally sup- 
 pressed in 1208. (For the history of the Arabians in Spain, 
 see the works of Cardonne, Conde, St Hilaire, D'Herbelot, 
 Al-Makkari, and Dozy.) 
 
 ALMQVIST, Kael Jonas Ludwig, one of the most 
 extraordinary figures that the history of literature can 
 produce, was born at Stockholm in 1793. He began life 
 under highly favourable auspices ; but becoming tired of a 
 university career, ho threw up the position he held in the 
 capital to lead a colony of friends to the wilds of Werm- 
 land. This ideal Scandinavian life soon proved a failure ; 
 Almqvist found the pen easier to wield than the plough, 
 and in 1829 we find him once more settled in Stockholm. 
 Now began his literary life; and after bringing out several 
 educational works, he made himself suddenly famous by the 
 publication of his great novel, The Book of the Thorn-Rose. 
 The career so begun developed with extraordinary rapidity; 
 few writers have equalled Almqvist in productiveness and 
 versatility ; lyrical, epic, and dramatic poems ; romances ; 
 lectures ; philosophical, sesthetical, moral, political, . and 
 educational treatises; works of religious edification, studies 
 in lexicography and history, in mathematics and philology, 
 form the most prominent of his countless contributions to 
 modern Swedish literature. So excellent was his style, 
 that in this respect he has been considered the first of 
 Swedish writers. His life was as varied as his work. 
 Unsettled, unstable in all his doings, he passed from one 
 lucrative post to another, at last subsisting entirely on the 
 proceeds of literary and journalistic labour. More and more 
 vehemently he espoused the cause of socialism in his 
 brilliant novels and pamphlets ; friends were beginning to 
 leave him, foes beginning to triumph, when suddenly all 
 minor criticism was silenced by the astounding news that 
 Almqvist, convicted of forgery and charged with murder, 
 had fled from Sweden. This occurred in 1851. For many 
 years no more was heard of him; but it is now known 
 that he went over to America, and settled at St. Louis. 
 During a journey in Texas he was robbed of all his manu- 
 scripts, among which are said to have been several unprinted 
 novels, lie appealed in person to President Lincoln, but the 
 robbers could not be traced. In L86S he returned to Europe, 
 »nd hi . strange ami sinister existence came to a close at Bre- 
 men on the ! Itisby his romances, un- 
 
 doubtedly the ocst in Swedish, that his literary fame will 
 mainly be supported ; but his singular history will always 
 point him out as a remarkable figure even when his works 
 are no longer read. He was another Eugene Aram, but of 
 greater genius, and so far more successful that he escapee 
 the judicial penalty of his crimes. (e. w. o.) 
 
 ALMUO or ALGUM TREE. The Hebrew words 
 Almuggivi or Algummim are translated Almug or Algum 
 trees in pur version of the Bible (see 1 Kings x. 11, 12; 
 2 Chron. u. 8, and ix. 10, 11). The wood of the tree was 
 very precious, and was brought from Ophir (probably some 
 part of India), along with gold and precious stones, by 
 Hiram, and was used in the formation of pillars for the 
 temple at Jerusalem, and for the king's house; also for the 
 inlaying of stairs, as well as for harps and psalteries. It is 
 probably the red sandal-wood of India (Pterocarpus santa- 
 linus). This tree belongs to the natural order Leguminosa:, 
 sub-order Papilionacese. The wood is hard, heavy, close- 
 grained, and of a fine red colour. It is different from the 
 white fragrant sandal-wood, which is the produce of San- 
 talum album, a tree belonging to a distinct natural order. 
 
 ALMUNECAR, a small seaport town of Spain, in the 
 province of Granada, about 33 miles south of the town of 
 that name. It is a place of Moorish origin, and is toler- 
 ably well built The harbour is fit for small vessels only, 
 and is much exposed to gales from the east. Sugar, 
 cotton, and fruits are the chief products of Almunecar and 
 the surrounding country, which is naturally very fertile, 
 but the trade is small compared with that of former times. 
 Population, 5000. 
 
 ALNWICK, the county town of Northumberland, 13 
 situated on the south bank of the river Alne, 310 miles N. 
 of London, 34 N. of Newcastle, and 29 S. of Berwick. 
 There are remains of the old wall which surrounded the 
 town, and one of the four gates still exists; but most of the 
 houses are comparatively, modern, and are laid out in well- 
 paved spacious streets. In the market-place there is a 
 large town-hall, and a handsome building containing an 
 assembly-room and a reading-room. Besides the parish 
 church, Alnwick possesses a beautiful district church, a 
 Roman Catholic chapel, and several Protestant dissenting 
 places of worship. The chief employments are brewing, 
 tanning, and brickmaking, but these manufactures are 
 here of little importance. A small export trade is carried 
 on through Alnmouth in corn, pork, and eggs, and a 
 market is held every Saturday chiefly for these articles. 
 The local government consists of a bailiff, nominated by the 
 Duke of Northumberland, and twenty-four common coun- 
 cilmen, four of whom are elected annually as chamberlains; 
 the councilmen fill up vacancies in their body from the 
 freemen, who usually are about 300 in number. The 
 ceremony of making freemen is of a very peculiar kind. 
 The candidates, mounted on horseback, assemble in the 
 market-place very early in the morning of St Mark's day — 
 the 25th April — clad in white from head to foot, with 
 swords by their sides, and attended by the bailiff and 
 chamberlains, who are mounted and armed in the same 
 manner. From the market-place they proceed, with music 
 playing before them, to a large pool called Freeman's Well, 
 where they dismount and draw up in a body at some dis 
 tance from the water, and, on a given signal from the 
 bailiff, rush into the pool, and scramble through the mud 
 as fast as they can. As the water is generally very foul, 
 they come out in a dirty condition; but they put on dry 
 clothes, remount their horses, and ride at full gallop round 
 the boundaries of the town. According to tradition, the 
 observance of this custom was enjoined by King John to 
 punish the inhabitants for their carelessness, the king 
 having, it is said, lost his way, and been bemired in a bog, 
 from their neglect of the roads near the town. To the
 
 ALO-ALP 
 
 597 
 
 north west of the town is Alnwick Castle, which has 
 belonged to the Northumberland family Bince 1310. In 
 early times this fortress was an important defence against 
 the Scotch, and was besieged by them on several occasions, 
 most memorably in 1093, when Malcolm Canmore and his 
 son Edward were slain under its walls; and in 1174, when 
 William the Lion was defeated and taken prisoner. For 
 a long time it was permitted to fall into decay, but it has 
 recently been restored, and to some extent remodelled, and 
 ia now one of the most magnificent specimens of a baronial 
 residence in England. The grounds are extensive, and 
 contain the remains of two abbeys, Alnwick and Hulme. 
 The population of Alnwick in 1871 was 5822. 
 
 ALOE Aloes is a medicinal substance used as a 
 purgative, and produced from various species of aloe, such 
 as A. spicata, vulgaris, socotrina, indica, and purpurascens, 
 all belonging to the natural order Liliacese. Several kinds 
 of aloes are distinguished in commerce — Barbadoes, soco- 
 trine, hepatic, Indian, and Cape aloes. The first two are 
 those commonly used for medicinal purposes. Aloes is the 
 inspissated juice of the leaves of the plant. When the 
 leaves 'are cut the juice flows out, and is collected and 
 evaporated. After the juice has been obtained, the leaves 
 are sometimes boiled, so as to yield an inferior kind of 
 aloes. The active principle is called aloein. Aloes is used 
 in the form of extract, pill, tincture, and wine. It is 
 irritant, and requires to be used with caution. 
 
 The plant called American aloe belongs to a different 
 order, viz., Amaryllidaceae. The plant is called Agave 
 Americana. The juice of the plant, taken immediately 
 before flowering, is used in America for the manufacture 
 of an intoxicating beverage. In Ecuador the spongy 
 substance of the flower stem is used instead of tinder, and 
 in the schools the green leaves serve as paper. A punish- 
 ment among the Aztecs was introducing the spiny points 
 of the leaves into the skin. The plant often delays flower- 
 ing for many years, and then pushes up a flowering stalk 
 with great rapidity, sometimes at the rate of 1 foot or even 
 2 feet in twenty-four hours. The fibrous matter procured 
 from the agave by maceration supplies pita flax , 
 
 The aloes or lign aloes of the Bible (Numb. xxiv. 6, and 
 Psalm xlv. 8) is quite different from the medicinal aloes. 
 The Hebrew words ahalim and ahaloth, and the Greek 
 word aloe, are rendered aloes in our version of the Scrip- 
 tures. The substance is supposed by some to be the 
 fragrant wood of A quilaria Agallochum, a plant belonging 
 to the natural order Aquilariaceae. There are, however, 
 considerable doubts as to the correctness of this view, more 
 especially as the tree is a native of Cochin China, Silhet, 
 and Northern India, and is not found in Chaldea or Syria. 
 From the allusion made to the trees of lign aloes by Balaam, 
 it seems probable that they were known as growing in 
 Syria. It i3 quite possible, however, that the precious 
 fragrant substance called aloes, and mentioned in Scripture 
 along with cinnamon, cassia, myrrh, and spices, may have 
 been brought from India. As a perfume it is noted in 
 Psalm xlv. 8; Prov. vii. 17; Song of SoL iv. 14. The 
 use of aloes in perfuming the coverings of the dead is 
 referred to in John xix. 39, 40. 
 
 ALOIDjE, or Aloiad2B, the designation of Otus and 
 Ephialtes, sons of Poseidon by Iphimedea, wife of Aloeus. 
 They are celebrated for their extraordinary stature, being 
 27 cubits in height and 9 in breadth when only nine years 
 old. The story of their piling Pelion upon Ossa in then- 
 war with the Olympian gods is one of the best known of 
 the early Greek myths. According .to Homer's account, 
 they were destroyed by Apollo ere their beards began to 
 grow. (Odyssey, xi. 305; Iliad, v. 385.) 
 
 ALOMPRA, Aloung Phouea, lounder of the reigning 
 dynasty in Burmah, was born vn 17 VI at Monohaboo, a 
 
 small village 50 miles north-west of Ava. Of humble 
 origin, he had risen to be chief of his native village when 
 the invasion of Birmah by the king of Pegu in 1752 gave 
 him the opportunity of attaining to the highest distinction. 
 The whole country had tamely submitted to the invader, 
 and the leading chiefs had taken the oaths of allegiance. 
 Alompra, however, with a more independent spirit, not 
 only contrived to regain possession of his village, but was 
 able to defeat a body of Peguan troops that had been sent 
 to punish him. Upon this the Birmese, to the number ef 
 a thousand, rallied to his standard, and marched with him 
 upon Ava, which was recovered from the invaders before 
 the close of 1753. For several years he prosecuted the 
 war with uniform success. In 1754 the Peguans, to 
 avenge themselves for a severe defeat at Keoum-nuoum, 
 slew the king of Birmah, who was their prisoner. The son 
 of the latter claimed the throne, and was supported by the 
 tribe of Quois; but Alompra resisted, being determined to 
 maintain his own supremacy. La 1755 Alompra founded 
 the city of Rangoon. In 1757 he had established his 
 position as one of the most powerful monarchs of the 
 East by the invasion and conquest of Pegu. Ere a year 
 elapsed the Peguans revolted- but Alompra, with his usual 
 promptitude, at once quelled the insurrection. The Euro- 
 peans were suspected of having instigated the rising, and 
 the massacre of the English at Negrais in October 1759 is 
 supposed to have been approved by Alompra after the event, 
 though there is no evidence that he ordered it. Against 
 the Siamese, who were also suspected of having abetted 
 the Peguan rebels, he proceeded more openly and severely. 
 Entering their territory, he was just about to invest the 
 capital when he was seized with an illness which proved 
 fatal on the 15th May 1760. Alompra is certainly one of 
 the most remarkable figures in modern Oriental history. 
 To undoubted military genius he added considerable poli- 
 tical sagacity, and he deserves particular credit for his 
 efforts to improve the administration of justice. His 
 cruelty and deceitfulness are faults common to all Eastern 
 despots. 
 
 ALOST, or Aaxst, a town of Belgium, on the eastern 
 frontier of the province of East Flanders, about midway 
 between Ghent and Brussels. The Dender, a navigable 
 tributary of the Scheldt, passes through the town, which is 
 a clean, well-built place, surrounded by a wall with five 
 gates. The church of St Martin, a fine edifice, although 
 unfinished, contains a celebrated picture by Rubens, "St 
 Roche Praying for the Cessation of the Plague." Among 
 the other public buildings are a town-hall, which was 
 founded about 1200 A.D., a college, and an hospital The 
 trade is extensive, chiefly in corn, oil, hops, and beer; and 
 there are linen, lace, and cotton manufactories, and iron 
 foundries of considerable importance. Alost was formerly 
 the capital of imperial Flanders. The French under 
 Turenne took it in 1667, but were obliged to abandon it 
 after the battle of Ramillies in 1706. Population, 19,000. 
 
 ALPACA is a name applied generally to several, allied 
 South American wool-bearing animals, but more properly 
 restricted to one of the species. It is further used to dis- 
 tinguish the wool obtained from these animals, and the 
 woven textures manufactured from the wool are also known 
 as alpacas. The alpacas or llamas are natives of the lofty 
 table-lands and mountain range of the Andes in Peru and 
 Chili, and in that region of the globe they long occupied the 
 position held in the Old World by their congeners of 
 larger size, the camels. To the ancient Peruvians the llamas 
 were the only available beasts of burden and wool-bearing 
 creatures, just as to the present day the camel is to the tribes 
 of the Asiatic deserts. The camel (Camelus) and the llama 
 (Auchenia) form the two existing genera of the family 
 Camelida?; and thus ia a zoological sense also the one
 
 598 
 
 A L P — A L P 
 
 represents the other in different regions of the earth. A 
 great deal of doubt and confusion has existed as to the 
 number of species into which the llamas can be divided — a 
 very common occurrence in dealing with domesticated or 
 semi-domesticated creatures. Most authorities now, how- 
 ever, agree in regarding them as separable into four 
 species, following the classification of Von Tschudi, who 
 has given much careful . consideration to the subject. The 
 species, according to that naturalist, are the llama {Auchenia 
 lama), the huanaco or guanaco (A. huanaco), the alpaca or 
 paco (A. paco), and the vicugna (A. vicunna.) The two 
 first-named species are, or rather were, more valued as 
 beasts of burden, and for their flesh, than as sources of 
 wool, being able to bear from 120 to 150 lb burden over 
 long distances daily. The guanaco attains a size not much 
 less than our red deer; and is the largest and moat widely 
 spread of all the species, being found from the equator 
 southward to Patagonia. The llama is next in size, but 
 its habitat is limited to the loftier mountains of North 
 Peru. Although both species yield a serviceable quality of 
 wool, which is used by the Peruvians and found in com- 
 merce, it is chiefly to the alpaca we owe the supply of 
 wool imported into this coi ntry under that name. The 
 alpaca is considerably smaller than either the llama or the 
 guanaco, but in general outline all the species resemble 
 each other. In its native condition tho alpaca ranges 
 between 10° and 20° S. lat, from the centre of Peru into 
 Bolivia, not coming lower down in vertical distribution 
 than between 8000 and 9000 feet above the sea-level. 
 At and above these heights it lives in herds in a semi- 
 domesticated condition, being only driven into the villages 
 to be shorn. The wool, which varies in length from 2 to 
 6 inches, is of a very lustrous and fine quality, and is 
 mostly white, black, or gray, shades of brown or fawn 
 being rarer. The vicugna is a much rarer animal than 
 the alpaca, being found sparsely scattered from Ecuador, 
 throughout Peru, into Bolivia, but seldom descending 
 under 13,000 feet above the sea-level. It is about the 
 same size cs the alpaca, and yields an exceedingly delicate 
 wool, varying in colour from a reddish yellow to a dull 
 white. It is usually worth about twice as much as 
 alpaca, and is greatly valued for fine felts. 
 
 There is evidence of these animals having been held 
 domesticated and used for their wool in their native regions 
 from remote antiquity. Remains of clothing made from 
 alpaca wools have been found in the graves of the Incas; 
 and when, in the early part of the 1 6th century, Europeans 
 first visited Peru, these animals formed the chief wealth of 
 the natives, being the carriers of their commerce as well as 
 the main source of their food and clothing. Small quan- 
 tities of the wool were occasionally met with in English com- 
 merce; but it was not till 1836 that it became established 
 as a regular trading commodity with Europe. In that year 
 Mr (now Sir) Titus Salt, a wool-broker and manufacturer 
 in Bradford, purchased a quantity he met with in a Liver- 
 pool warehouse at 8d. per ft, and set himself to discover 
 its capabilities. The amount and manner of his success 
 will be described in the articles Wool and Worsted 
 Manufactures; it need only be remarked here that his 
 experiments have resulted in making alpaca a staple second 
 in importance to wool, and so creating an industry of 
 great and rapidly increasing dimensions. The success of 
 bis experiments led to the erection of his great manu- 
 facturing establishment of Saltaire, in which upwards of 
 3000 hands are employed in the alpaca manufacture. The 
 quantity of alpaca imported into England from 1836 — the 
 year of Sir Titus Salt's first experimental purchase — to 
 1840, averaged 560,800 ft yearly, which sold at about 
 10d. per lb. In 1852 the imports had risen to 2,186,480 
 ft, and the price advanced to 2s. 6d. per ft. In 1864 the 
 
 imports amounted to 2,664,027 lb, and in 1872 they wew 
 3,878,739 ft; the value of average qualities being from 
 2s. 6d. to 2s. 10d. per lb. The introduction of the various 
 species of llama into Eulope has been frequently urged. 
 Geoffrey St Hilaire and other French naturalists having 
 specially pointed out the desirability of their introduction 
 into France, and at one time a herd existed in the 
 Pyrenees; but in Europe the creatures must be still re- 
 garded as curiosities of zoological collections. In 1859 
 systematic and costly attempts weie made to acclimatise 
 the alpaca in our Australian colonies by Mr Ledger, a gen- 
 tleman who had devoted many years to observation of the 
 conditions of life of the animal At first the experiment 
 presented most encouraging prospects; the herds continued 
 healthy and increased in numbers; but gradually the subtle 
 influences of the loss of their native mountain climate 
 became apparent, — the creatures drooped, their numbers 
 dwindled, and for the present the undertaking must be 
 regarded as a complete failure. 
 
 ALP ARSLAN or AXAN; Mohammed Ben Daoud, tho 
 second sultan of the dynasty of Seljuk, in Persia, and great- 
 grandson of Seljuk, the founder of the dynasty. He wan 
 born in the year 1029 a. d., 421 of the Hegira. Heassumed 
 the name of Mohammed when he embraced the Mussulman 
 faith; and on account of his military prowess he obtained 
 the surname Alp Arslan, which signifies "a valiant lion." 
 He succeeded his father Daoud as ruler of Kborassan in 
 1059, and his uncle Togrul Bey as sultan of Oran in 1063, 
 and thus became sole monarch of Persia, from the river 
 Oxus to the Tigris. In consolidating his empire and sub- 
 duing contending factions he was ably assisted by Nizani- 
 al-Mulk, his vizier, one of the most eminent statesmen 
 in early Mahometan history. Peace and security being 
 established in his dominions, he convoked an assembly of 
 the states, and declared his son Malik Shah his heir and 
 successor. With the hope of acquiring immense booty in 
 the rich temple of St Basil in Caesarea, the capital of 
 Cappadocia, he placed himself at the head of the Turkish 
 cavalry, crossed the Euphrates, and entered and plundered 
 that city. He then marched into Armenia and Georgia, 
 which, in the year 1064, he finally subdued. To punish 
 the Georgians for the brave defence which they had made, 
 and as a badge of their humiliating condition, the conqueror 
 obliged them to wear at their ears horse-shoes of iron. In 
 the year 1068 Alp Arslan invaded the Roman empire, 
 the seat of which was then at Constantinople. The Emperor 
 Romanus Diogenes, assuming tho command in person, 
 met the invaders in Cilicia. In three several campaigns 
 his arms were victorious, and the Turks were forced to 
 retreat beyond the Euphrates. In the fourth he advanced 
 with an army of 100,000 men into the Armenian territory, 
 for the relief of that country. Here he was met by Alp 
 Arslan; and the sultan having proposed terms of peace, 
 which were insultingly rejected by tho emperor, a bloody 
 and decisive engagement took place near Malazkurd, in 
 which the Greeks, after a terrible slaughter, were totally 
 routed. Romanus was taken prisoner and conducted into 
 the presence of Alp Arslan, who treated him with a noble 
 generosity. A ransom of a million and an annual tribute of 
 3000 pieces of gold, an intermarriage between the families, 
 and the deliverance of all the captive Mussulmans in the 
 power of the Greeks, having been agreed to as the terms 
 of peace and the liberty of the emperor, Romanus was 
 dismissed, loaded with presents and respectfully attended 
 by a military guard. He was unable, however, to fulfil 
 the terms of the treaty, and the war was accordingly 
 renewed. At this time the dominion of Alp Arslan 
 extended over the fairest part of Asia: 1200 princes or 
 sons of princes surrounded his throne, and 200,000 soldiers 
 ware ready to execute his commands. Ho now decL
 
 ALF-ALP 
 
 5W> 
 
 hla purpose of attempting the e-.nquest-of Turkestan, the 
 original seat of his ancestors. After great preparations 
 for the expedition, he marched with a powerful army, and 
 arrived at the banks of the Oxus. Before he could pass 
 the "river with safety, it was necessary to gain possession 
 of some fortresses in its vicinity, one of which was for 
 several days vigorously defended by the governor, Yussuf 
 Kpthual, a Kharizrnian. He was, however, obliged to sur- 
 render, and was carried a prisoner before the sultan. 
 Being condemned to suffer a cruel death, Yussuf became 
 incensed, Tushed upon the sultan, and stabbed him 
 in the breast. The wound proved mortal, and Alp Arslan 
 expired a few hours after he received it, on the 15th Dec. 
 1072. 
 
 ALPES, the name of three departments in the south- 
 east of France, — Basses Alpes, Hautes Alpes, and Alpes 
 Maritime*. 
 
 Basses Alpes is bounded on the N. by the department 
 of Hautes Alpes; on the E. by the kingdom of Italy and 
 the department of Alpes Maritimes; on the S. by the 
 departments of Var and Bouches du Rhone; and on the 
 W. by those of Vaucluse and Drome. It extends at the 
 widest points 90 miles from N.E. to S.W., and 70 from 
 E. to W., and contains an area of 2680 square miles. Its 
 surface is mountainous, especially on the north-east, where 
 offshoots of the Maritime Alps penetrate into the country, 
 rising near the river Ubaye to an elevation of over 
 9000 feet above the level of the sea. With the excep- 
 tion of the south-eastern corner, which is drained by 
 the Var, the whole department is in the basin of the 
 Durance, which for a considerable distance separates 
 Basses from Hautes Alpes, but eventually strikes south- 
 ward through the former. Its chief tributaries are the 
 Buech and tke Jabron on the right, and the Ubaye, the 
 Ble'one, the Asse, and the Verdon on the left. The climate 
 in the mountainous districts of the north is cold and 
 variable. The soil there is poor, but it is cultivated with 
 great industry — producing rye, oats, barley, potatoes, 
 and timber. In the south and south-west, however, where 
 the country is comparatively flat, the temperature is milder 
 and the soil more fertile; here plums, almonds, apricots, 
 peaches, and other fruits are produced in large quantities, 
 as well as wine of an excellent description, chiefly for home 
 consumption. Considerable numbers of cattle, sheep, goats, 
 and pigs are reared in the Basses Alpes, besides which 
 many flocks of sheep, from Var and Bouches du Rh6ne, 
 are pastured during summer in the upper valleys of the 
 department. Game is abundant. There are mines of lead 
 and other metals of some value. The manufactures are 
 few and of little importance, the chief being leather, 
 coarse woollen cloths, cutlery, earthenware, and paper. 
 Basses Alpes, one of the departments formed out of ancient 
 Provence, is divided into five arrondissements — Digne,in the 
 centre; Barcelonnette and Castellan e, on the east; Sisteron 
 and Forcalquier on the west; which together contain 30 
 cantons and 251 communes. Digne is the capital and 
 the seat of a bishop, whose diocese is co-extensive with the 
 department; and among the other towns are Barcelonnette, 
 Castellane, Sisteron, Forcalquier, and Manosque. Popu- 
 lation (1871), 139,332. 
 
 Haoies Alpes is bounded on the N. by the depart- 
 ments of Isere and Savoir; on the E. by the kingdom 
 of Italy; on the S. by the department of Alpes Basses; 
 and on the W. by that of Drome. It extends nearly 80 
 miles from N.E. to S.W., and contains an area of 2158 
 square miles. Its surface is very mountainous, being tra- 
 versed in all directions by the Cottian and Dauphine" Alps, 
 which, in Mont Pelvoux and other peaks, rise to an eleva- 
 
 tion of about 13,000 feet above the sea, the highest sum- 
 mits in France. The Drac, -flowing northwards into the 
 Isere, and the Durance, with its tributaries the Guil and 
 the Buech, are the chief rivers of Hautes Alpes. The 
 climate is cold in winter, and in summer variable ; the soil 
 is barren, yielding only oats, barley, potatoes, rye, and 
 timber, except in a few favoured valleys, where wine of 
 a fair quality and fruits of various kinds are produced. 
 Large numbers of sheep and other domestic animals are 
 reared or pastured in the department. Game, both large 
 and small, is found in great abundance. The mines 
 produce lead, copper, iron, and other metals. There are 
 no manufactures of any commercial importance, although 
 some leather, coarse woollen cloth, hats, woodwork, and 
 iron wares are made. Hautes Alpes, a part of the old 
 province of Dauphin^, is divided into three arrondisse. 
 nients: Gap on the west, Enibrun on the South-east, and 
 Briancon on the .north-east, with 24 cantons and 89 com- 
 munes. The capital is Gap, the seat of the bishop ; Eni- 
 brun and Briancon being the only other towns of any size. 
 Population, 118,898. 
 
 Alpes Makitimes, bounded on the N. by Basses Alpes 
 and the kingdom of Italy, which also forms its boundary 
 on the E. ; on the S. by the Mediterranean Sea; and on 
 the W. by Var and Basses Alpes. It extends at the 
 widest points 55 miles from N. to S., and 50 from E. to 
 W.; and- contains an area of 1517 square miles. The 
 surface of this department, like that of the two former, is 
 more or less mountainous, branches of the Maritimes Alpes 
 covering the greater part of the territory. It is watered 
 by the Roya, the Paillon, the Var (with its tributaries the 
 Tine'a and the Esteron), the Loup, and the Siagne. The 
 climate is on the whole warm and gentle, except among 
 the higher mountains; while the mildness of the tempera- 
 ture along the shores of the Mediterranean has made that 
 portion of the department a favourite resort for invalids. 
 The upper valleys and mountain slopes are chiefly devoted 
 to pasture for sheep, being ill-suited for cultivation, although 
 a little barley and maize is grown ; the richer districts of the 
 south produce fruits of various kinds, tobacco, honey, and 
 flowers, used in the making of perfumes. The other manu- 
 factures are of dried fruits, olive-oil, preserved anchovies 
 and sardines, silk, soap, and paper. Alpes Maritimes is 
 divided into three arrondissements — Grasse and Nice on 
 the south, and Puget Theniers on the north, containing 
 25 cantons and 146 communes. The arrondissements of 
 Nice and Puget Theniers constitute the bishopric of Nice ; 
 Grasse belongs to that of Frejus. Nice is the capital; and 
 among the other towns are Mentone, ViUafranche, Grasse, 
 Antibes, Cannes, and Puget The'niers. The Marseilles, 
 Nice, and Ventimille railway, skirting the coast, connects 
 Cannes, Antibes, Nice, and Mentone, and joins an Italian 
 line which affords direct railway communication with 
 Genoa. The department of Alpes Maritimes was formed 
 in 1860 from the territory of Nice, which had been ceded 
 to France, together with Mentone and Roccabruna, pur- 
 chased from the Prince of Monaco, and the arrondisse- 
 ment of Grasse, transferred from Var. It had a popula- 
 tion of 119,037 in 1871. 
 
 ALPHA and OMEGA (A and ft), the first and last 
 letters of the Greek alphabet, frequently employed to 
 symbolise the idea of completeness or infinity. They are 
 used as a designation of himself by the speaker in Rsv. L 
 8; xxi. 6; xxii. 13. In the last passage the speaker is 
 undoubtedly Jesus Christ. In the symbolism of the early 
 church A and ft,- combined with a cross or with the mono- 
 gram of Xptords, represented Christianity, or, more speci- 
 fically, faith in the divinity of Christ.
 
 600 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 
 1. 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 8. 
 
 f. 
 
 Names of 
 LzTTEns. 
 
 HIERATIC 
 EGYPTIAN. 
 
 ANCIENT 
 PHOENICIAN. 
 
 moabitic. 
 
 OLD HEBREW. 
 
 OLD HEBREW. 
 (liOCK 
 
 Inscriptions.) 
 
 SQPARE 
 HEBREW. 
 
 Aleph 
 
 a 
 
 <"** 
 
 *■ 
 
 // 
 
 * 
 
 Jfc 
 
 Beth 
 
 ^ 
 
 S4 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 J 
 
 a 
 
 Gimel 
 
 -s 
 
 7/ 
 
 
 "\ 
 
 a 
 
 Daleth 
 
 -$ 
 
 <*^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 T 
 
 <l 
 
 *> 
 
 He ftj 
 
 ^4^\ 
 
 A 
 
 ^r 
 
 T 
 
 n 
 
 Vav ^ 
 
 1Y 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 f T 
 
 
 Zayin 
 
 ^ 
 
 J^A* 
 
 X 
 
 z^ ^ 
 
 9 1 
 
 Cheth 
 
 e 
 
 QR^/1 
 
 % 
 
 a 
 
 
 n 
 
 Teth 
 
 <=>► 
 
 ©@ 
 
 
 
 
 ta 
 
 Yodh 
 
 v 
 
 V>LS 
 
 ^ 
 
 />>• 
 
 n 
 
 H 
 
 Kaph 
 
 <\ 
 
 7 A;* 
 
 > 
 
 ^ 
 
 J/ 
 
 5 1 
 
 Lamedh I J 
 
 6V 
 
 e 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 Mem 
 
 3 vjy 
 
 VM 
 
 ~) 
 
 > 
 
 b D 
 
 Nun 
 
 > 
 
 yss I 
 
 j 
 
 3 
 
 > ; 
 
 a 1 
 
 Samekb 
 
 -tS 
 
 ^y^V 5 . $ 
 
 1* 
 
 ^ 
 
 D 
 
 Ayin 
 
 i 
 
 \s* 
 
 4 o 
 
 5 
 
 Pe 
 
 ■3 9T7 
 
 ; 
 
 
 ? 
 
 s n 
 
 Tsadhe 
 
 s 3 U >■ 
 
 /* 
 
 AAyJ 
 
 /*■ 
 
 s v 
 
 Koph 
 
 ^ cf 94? 
 
 <s> 
 
 p 
 
 -? 
 
 P 
 
 Resh 
 
 9 I q ^ 
 
 <\ 
 
 4 
 
 q 
 
 n 
 
 Shin 
 
 2 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 UU 
 
 w 
 
 a 
 
 Tav 
 
 6 
 
 + X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 + 
 
 n 
 
 Greek Letters — 
 
 a 
 
 iB 
 
 7 
 
 s 
 
 e,«J) 
 
 * 
 
 € 
 
 i(» 
 
 ) 3- 
 
 t 
 
 K 
 
 >. 
 
 /» 
 
 V 
 
 MUM 
 
 T 
 
 <i 
 
 g 
 
 a 
 
 T 
 
 v I 
 
 : * 
 
 X. 
 
 -f' 
 
 
 7 
 
 8a 
 
 81 
 
 fa 
 
 OLD 
 
 ATHENIAN 
 
 AA 
 
 *B 
 
 rA 
 
 DA 
 
 6£ 
 
 
 i 
 
 B 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 K 
 
 t-L 
 
 r 
 
 K 
 
 o 
 
 r 
 
 P 
 
 F>P 
 
 2 X 
 
 T 
 
 V 
 
 ®<t> 
 
 x+ 
 
 
 
 CORINTHTAN 
 (Old Form) 
 
 CORINTHTAN 
 (Y0TOO8B 
 
 Form) 
 
 AA 
 
 D 
 
 C 1 
 
 A> 
 
 K B 
 X 
 .,1, 
 
 f*F 
 
 — 
 
 a 
 
 ' OG 
 
 it 
 i 
 
 K 
 
 rr 
 
 m 
 
 1" 
 
 Oo 
 
 o.w 
 
 pr 
 
 9 
 
 pp 
 
 R 
 
 rtM 
 
 T 
 
 vr - 
 
 Y ■ 
 
 r (BO 
 " <P 
 
 x + 
 
 Y 
 
 - 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 f" 
 
 
 
 CHALCIDIAN 
 
 COLONIES 
 
 in Italy 
 
 (Inscriptions) 
 
 AA 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 c 
 
 Dt> 
 A 
 
 4-^ 
 
 
 
 Bt 
 
 uo 
 
 I 
 
 KK 
 
 L / 
 
 *YM 
 
 "Ay 
 
 00 
 
 nr 
 
 ? 
 
 PR 
 
 * 2 
 
 * 
 
 TT 
 
 vy ; 
 
 ( (D4> 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 9J 
 11) 
 
 Ditto 
 (Vases) 
 
 AA 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 c 
 
 >D 
 A 
 
 |5^ 
 
 E 
 
 c 
 
 i 
 
 Bt 
 
 .oe 
 1 o 
 
 l 
 
 K 
 
 L 
 
 /* 
 
 /"A' 
 
 Oo 
 
 rn 
 
 90 
 
 V 
 
 *£ 
 
 T 
 
 VY - 
 
 h 
 
 4.Y 
 
 
 
 OLD LATIN 
 
 A A 
 A 
 
 >B 
 
 < c 
 
 >D 
 1) 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 n 
 
 K 
 
 LL 
 
 X 
 
 
 N 
 
 00 
 
 P r 
 P 
 
 9Q 
 
 It R 
 R 
 
 
 TT 
 
 1 
 
 V ) 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 Z
 
 601 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 BY an alphabet we.mean.a list of Symbols which repre- 
 sent conventionally to the eye the sounds which are 
 heard in the speech of a nation. An alphabet will 
 therefore be perfect if the number of its symbols exactly 
 corresponds to the number of simple sounds which are 
 commonly distinguishable in the spoken language. But 
 this perfection has probably never yet been reached : all 
 known alphabets have failed, either by defect, i.e., from 
 not representing all the simple sounds ; or by redundancy, 
 in having more than one symbol for the same sound. 
 They must also necessarily become imperfect by lapse of 
 time. No nation keeps the sound of its language unaltered 
 through many centuries : sounds change as well as 
 grammatical forms, though they may endure longer, so 
 that the symbols no longer retain their proper values ; 
 often, too, several different sounds come to be denoted by 
 the same symbol ; and in strictness the alphabet should be 
 changed to correspond to all these changes. But little 
 inconvenience is practically caused by the tacit acceptance 
 of the old symbol to express the new sound ; indeed the 
 change in language is so gradual that the variation in the 
 values of the symbols is imperceptible. It is only when 
 we attempt to produce the exact sounds of the English 
 language less than three centuries ago that we realise the 
 fact that if Shakespeare could now stand on our stage he 
 would seem to us to speak in an unknown tongue ; though 
 one of his plays, when written, is as perfectly intelligible 
 now as then. Such changes of sound are most developed 
 in countries where many different dialects, through con- 
 quest, immigration, or otherwise, exist side by side : they 
 are checked by the increase of education and by facility of 
 locomotion — both of which causes tend to assimilate all 
 dialects to that one which by some lucky chance has become 
 the literary speech of the nation. 
 
 The term alphabet has come to us from the Latin 
 alpkabetum, which, however, occurs in no prose writer 
 before Tertullian. It could not have been used, for 
 metrical reasons, by Juvenal, when he wrote, " Hoc discunt 
 omnes ante alpha et beta puellas " — their a b c. But there 
 is no reason why it should not have existed earlier : the 
 word was borrowed from the Greek, as seems clear from 
 the compound avakfyafirjTos, which is as old as the comedian 
 JPhilyllius (Meineke, Com. Frag. ii. 857), and he was alive 
 in 392 b.o. It does not seem likely that this compound 
 adjective would have been coined if the noun itself had 
 not already existed in the same sense which it now bears. 
 
 The symbols of our alphabet are nearly those of the 
 Latin ; these in their turn were borrowed from a Greek 
 alphabet; and there seems no reasonable ground for 
 doubting -the common tradition that the Greeks derived 
 their characters from a Phoenician source. All these 
 borrowings will be fully described hereafter. At this 
 point absolute certainty ends. We cannot prove to de- 
 monstration the origin of our alphabet ; but positive facts 
 and analogical arguments may be adduced which enable 
 us to attain a very high degree of probability. It is now 
 commonly believed that the characters were originally 
 hieroglyphics, and in that ultimate form were devised in 
 Egypt. There, for convenience of writing, they took a 
 himpler form (called hieratic). In this shape they were 
 borrowed by the Phoenicians ; and thus, in their long 
 course down to us ; .they passed gradually from being the 
 written expression of an idea into the written expression 
 each of a single sound. It is true that the proof is not 
 clear throughout : sometimes the links are feeble, and here 
 we have to employ the analogy of other languages, in which 
 
 the particular step which we want to prove has un- 
 doubtedly beeu made under similar circumstances. Still, 
 it may with some truth be said that we can only prove the 
 possibility of such a process, while any given alphabet may 
 have had a perfectly independent origin ; the Phoenician 
 alphabet may have been developed in Phoenicia itself, and 
 never been hieroglyphic at alL But this is very difficult 
 to conceive. The a priori argument for the derivation of 
 phonetic from hieroglyphic characters is strong. Hiero- 
 glyphics have unquestionably been the first attempt of 
 many nations in a rude state to record their thoughts in a 
 permanent and universally intelligible form. It is also 
 certain that these hieroglyphics have undergone progressive 
 degradation, of shape, so that their visible connection with 
 the thing signified was Often lost ; they became in many 
 cases the expression of those combinations of sounds by 
 which the things were denoted in the spoken language, 
 though they still generally retained their original value as 
 welL Here, at all events, a certain connection between 
 hieroglyphics and sounds establishes itself ; and a priori it 
 is more probable that all alphabets should have derived the 
 single sounds of which they consist from hieroglyphics, 
 through the medium of their derived phonetic values, than 
 that any alphabet should have been produced independently 
 of hieroglyphics (which are admitted to have existed), by 
 some arbitrary process of formation for which absolutely 
 no testimony can be adduced. As we have said above, 
 such a process is not impossible, and may be true for any 
 particular alphabet ; but the opposite theory has the most 
 internal probability and all the. evidence of which the case 
 admits. Against this it seems insufficient to urge (as has 
 been done) that there exist upon earth savages who have 
 never developed any alphabetic writing out of their rude 
 attempts — a fact which may be readily granted ; or that 
 civilised men often return to the simple methods employed 
 by uncivilised nations, such as cutting notches on sticks or 
 tying knots in strings — such return being apparently 
 adduced to prove' that two totally different methods of 
 expression can co-exist without there being any tendency 
 to pass from one to the other ; nay, it is added that in 
 Egypt the hieroglyphic and the common (or demotic) 
 character did certainly exist side by side ; and if the latter 
 were borrowed from the former, it would have superseded 
 it, which it did not do. Now, in answer to this, reasons 
 will appear shortly why the hieroglyphic characters lingered 
 so persistently, even when the later phonetic character was 
 in common use — nay, in the very same inscription or docu- 
 ment with the hieroglyphic. Still, the argument would 
 have some weight if it were not grounded on the false 
 assumption that the demotic alphabet was a purely phonetic 
 one, totally unconnected with its more aged rival But 
 modern research has proved incontestably that the demotic 
 characters can be traced back to their original hieroglyphic 
 shape through the medium of the hieratic ; in fact, that 
 the cumbrous hieroglyphics were successively put into 
 more and more abbreviated shapes, for convenience of 
 writing, as its use increased. 
 
 Excluding, then, attempts of savages such as have been 
 mentioned above, whioh were neither durable nor in- 
 telligible enough to make them of service, except for the 
 smallest number of men during the most limited time — 
 excluding these as not deserving the name, we derive all 
 real writing from hieroglyphics, such hieroglyphics being 
 either purely pictorial, the expression of visible objects in 
 the external world ; or symbolic, when some external 
 object is conventionally chosen to represent some action cr
 
 G02 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 some abstract idea. These two methods were probably 
 nearly contemporaneous in their origin, because the 
 necessity of writing at all supposes a considerable advance 
 in civilisation, and therefore a considerable development of 
 ideas. To this system as a whole the convenient term 
 ideography is now generally applied. From this men have 
 passed to phonetic writing, first, apparently, in the form 
 of syllabism, in which each syllable of a word is regarded 
 as an independent whole and represented by a siugle sign ; 
 then from this to alpkabetum, in which the syllable is no 
 longer denoted by an indivisible symbol, but is resolved 
 into vowel and consonant, each with its own accepted 
 sign. 
 
 It seems probable that all known alphabets (with one or 
 two possible exceptions) may be traced back to four orfivo 
 parents. These have differed much in fruitfulness, but all 
 were originally hieroglyphic These five systems of writing 
 are the Egyptian, the cuneiform, the Chinese, the Mexican 
 or Aztec, and the curiously cumbrous characters of Yucatan 
 and central America : these last may be seen interspersed 
 with figurative paintings in a facsimile given by M. de 
 Rosny at p. 20 of his very useful little summary, Les Ecri- 
 tures Figurative^ desDifferentsPeuples Anciens et Modernes. 
 Of these, the first three alone can be said to have had any 
 great extension ; and the first, if the Phoenician, and by 
 consequence the European alphabets, were derived from it, 
 far exceeds in importance all the rest together. These 
 systems were perfectly independent, and developed them- 
 selves, each in the same course, but in its own manner, and 
 each in the main to a different dogree. At certain points 
 in their history all but one became crystallised, and 
 remained to show us the steps by which the progress to 
 phonetism can be made. We do not propose to describe 
 here' fully any of these systems of hieroglyphics. We are 
 only cpneerned to point out their relative degrees of de- 
 velopment, their deficiencies, and the consequent motives 
 which must have impelled men by degrees to the produc- 
 tion of a genuine alphabet. 1 
 
 There are obvious deficiencies even in the most highly 
 developed hieroglyphics. In the first place, they must 
 have been excessively burdensome to the memory. They 
 speedily lost their original form, which was in most cases 
 too cumbrous to be retained when writing became frequent ; 
 their pictorial value was therefore lost, and the new form 
 could not generally have been intelligible to a learner, who 
 was thus obliged to acquire by memory an enormous 
 number of symbols, compared with which even the Sans- 
 krit alphabet may be regarded as easy. Secondly, it is 
 impossible by hieroglyphics to express grammatical rela- 
 tions : the order, indeed, in which the symbols are placed 
 may denote the distinction between subject and object ; 
 plurality may be expressed by the repetition of a symbol ; 
 some even of the relations in space, denoted in more 
 advanced languages by cases, may be pictorially rendered ; 
 but all these helps do not go far to remedy this obvious 
 want. Experience, however, shows bow much incon- 
 venience a nation will undergo rather than make any 
 radical change in its phonetic system. We have only to 
 look at our own alphabet, with its numerous and univer- 
 sally confessed deficiencies and redundancies, and then 
 
 1 The authorities referred to chiefly are Endlicher (Cliincsischt 
 Orammatik't, Oppert (Expedition Scuntifique en MUopotamie, torn. 2), 
 and Bunaet (Eoypts Place in History, vol. v.) Frequent use has 
 been made of De Rosny's book mentioned above, and still more of the 
 Essai sur la Propagation de V Alphabet Phtnicim dans VAneien Monde, 
 by M. Francois Lenormant, of which the first volume only has yet 
 appeared. It contains an introduction to his special subject, in which 
 the labours of Champollion, Young, Lepsius, Bunsen, De Rouge, in 
 Egyptian hieroglyphics, and of Grotefend, Rawlinson, Hincks, and 
 'M'l>ert, among the cuneiform characters, are ably summarised, and set 
 forth with mu;b. clearness. 
 
 remember the fruitless attempts which have been made to 
 work a reform in it, to be convinced that no people will of 
 its own accord strike out a thoroughly new system of 
 writing. Such revolutions can only be produced by the 
 meeting of two different civilisations, and the reception 
 by the one of the arts and ideas of the other. But such a 
 meeting may, and more commonly does, only stimulate the 
 inferior race to some partial development. For the new 
 ideas new names are required : these may be metaphori- 
 cally represented out of the old vocabulary, as when the 
 Romans called the unknown elephant the Lucanian ox, 
 and of course wrote it so. But suppose '.he inferior people 
 to be one which has not yet advanced beyond hiero- 
 glyphic writing ; their simplest and most obvious plan 
 will be to take the strange name, and express it by those 
 symbols out of their old stock which denote the nearest 
 sounds to that of the name required. Such symbols tlien 
 cease to represent ideas only, as they used to do ; they are 
 consciously employed to represent mere sounds, and thus 
 arise the first beginnings of phonetism. A good example 
 of this process may be found in the Aztec (Lenormant, i. 
 29; Do Rosny, p. 19, who also gives others). When 
 Christianity was introduced into Mexico, the Lord's Prayer 
 was reduced to writing in the following manner : — The 
 Mexican symbols nearest to the two syllables of patei were 
 a Hag (sounded sspantli), and a rock {tell) -.pater was there- 
 fore represented pictorially by a flag and a rock ; we cannot 
 tell whether it was sounded as pan-tetl, or only as pa-te — 
 the nearest possible equivalent in the Mexican language, 
 which has no r. Similarly, noster was phonetically repre- 
 sented by noch-tctl, pictorially by the Indian fig (nochtli) 
 and the rock as before. Here, then, we have the application 
 of symbols to denote sound without regard to the original 
 sense ; just as we might draw the figures of an eye, a saw, 
 and a horse, and convey by them the idea, " I saw a horse." 
 The Aztec would not long have the ideas of a flag, a rock, 
 and a fig presented to his mind when ho read these symbols; 
 and so the first conception of phonetism was gained, the 
 first move from hieroglyphic to alphabetic writing. Yet 
 he had not attained the first real step in the progress — i.e., 
 syllabic writing — because if he had decomposed his new 
 words, pan would not have represented to his mind merely 
 so much sound — a syllable by itself meaningless : it would 
 have given him only the idea of a flag. And further than 
 this the Aztec language did not pass : probably it only 
 reached this stage incompletely .with a small number of 
 words. The great advance to syllabic writing is to be 
 found elsewhere ; first in the Chinese, perhaps through the 
 accident of the monosyllabic nature of the language ; but 
 with a clearly-developed purpose in the Aramaic cuneiform 
 inscriptions. 
 
 In the Chinese written character we find a considerable 
 number of symbols which were unquestionably at first 
 pictorial. Though but very slight vestiges of their original 
 meaning can now be seen in them, yet they can be traced 
 back to older forms which are unnmtakeable : and their 
 origin is further attested by the name " images," which 
 the Chinese give them, as distinguished from others which 
 they call " letters." These symbols were simple, and 
 denoted very ingeniously natural objects — the sun (by a 
 circle with a dot inside), the moon (by a crescent with a 
 line inside), a mountain (by three peaks side by side), rain 
 
 (by drops under an overarching line), a child (thus (\ ), 
 
 a mother ( "f*fif, a figure expressing the arms and bosom 
 
 effectively enough), &c. These symbols could be combined : 
 thus the symbols for water and eye combined denoted 
 tears, an ear and & door expressed hearing and under-
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 603 
 
 standing; but such combinations of pure hieroglyphics 
 were rare, as they would have been liable to be confused 
 with combinations of the same kind used in a different 
 way, as will be seen immediately. There were also some 
 hieroglyphs used symbolically ; e.g., a hand to denote a 
 workman, the two valves of a shell-fish to denote friends. 
 These also are few in number, and not very ingenious. 
 Last in this class come some symbols which are essentially 
 pictorial, though they represent no visible object ; e.g., 
 " above " was expressed by a dot above a horizontal line ; 
 "below," by a dot below it; the numerals one, two, three, 
 
 by so many horizontal lines ; " right," by the symbol — ^ 
 
 " left," by fC , &c So far, we have simple hieroglyphs, 
 
 or ideograms (a more convenient term), — pictorial repre- 
 sentations, expressing not merely visible objects, but also 
 abstract ideas, and even actions ; but each of these could 
 also have the phonetic value of the name of the object 
 which it depicted. 
 
 Distinct from these are the " letters " — in use, though 
 not in origin. These have two parts — one, a symbol which 
 was originally an ideogram, and which could still be used 
 as such, but which in this particular combination lost its 
 ideographic value, and retained only the phonetic value of 
 the name of its object ; the other, an ideogram, which laid 
 aside its phonetic value, and only restricted to a particular 
 class the phonetic symbol which it accompanied. Thus, 
 for example, the ideogram of a ship had also the phonetic 
 value tcheu — i.e., the name denoting ship in the spoken 
 language ; the ideogram of fire had the phonetic value hvo: 
 these two symbols combined were still pronounced tcheu, 
 and meant the flickering of flame. The second symbol 
 dropped its phonetic value altogether, but kept the generic 
 idea of fire : the ship was lost, but the idea of undulating 
 motion modified that of fire, and the complex symbol com- 
 bined the two ideas, with the one sound tcheu. Similarly, 
 the ideogram ship and speech combined expressed 
 loquacity, and this in the spoken language was also tcheu, 
 the phonetic value of the symbol for speech being dropped, 
 just like that of the symbol fire above. In this way there 
 are teu different ideas given by Endlicher (p. 10), all called 
 in the spoken language tcheu, and all expressed to the eye 
 by different complex symbols formed on this principle. 
 These symbols, he reckons, form at least J^-ths of the 
 written language. 
 
 This is a very imperfect sketch of the Chinese system 
 of writing, and into the history of the " keys," which indeed 
 belong rather to Chinese lexicography, we do not propose 
 to enter. But it is enough to throw light on some 
 questions connected with our subject. First of all, we see 
 ideography and phonetism existing side by side ; and even 
 the same symbol, having in most cases (not in all) either 
 an ideographic or a phonetic value at will. Therefore, in 
 this case the passage from the one system to the other 
 may be considered as certain ; but how it was made there 
 is not sufficient evidence to show. It must have been 
 earlier than the combination of pure ideograms mentioned 
 above. It was probably greatly facilitated by the Chinese 
 being a monosyllabic language ; each syllable is a complete 
 word in itself, expressing a complete notion : hence the idea 
 of completeness and individuality would attach to such a 
 combination of sound more easily than would be possible 
 in polysyllabic language ; and it would seem more natural 
 to givo that sound a symbol for itself, quite apart from its 
 ideographic meaning. Further, as the whole number of 
 single syllables of which the language consists is only 450, 
 the effort of remembering the symbols could not be great, 
 and the memory must have been already trained in that 
 
 direction, because the symbols (even in thei r ideographic 
 acceptation) had lost their obviously pictorial character, 
 and must have been kept by the memory, not recognised 
 each time by the eye , just as children, in learning to read, 
 commonly remember short and familiar words as a whole, 
 without analysing them into the component letters. 
 
 The explanation of the cumbrous " letters ;: described 
 above is simple ; and it will show us, secondly, how so ap- 
 parently monstrous a system of writing could be maintained, 
 and has been in its essence maintained, down to the present 
 day. With so few radical sounds in the language, it was 
 inevitable that many different objects must have {>(■■■» 
 expressed, as ideas grew and multiplied, by the same sound, 
 as we saw above that there were eleven different ideas 
 (including the ship itself) all called tcheu. These could 
 be distinguished in the spokeD language by tone or accent, 
 and actually were so distinguished. But how were they 
 to be distinguished in writing ? Now, writing is but the 
 visible exponent of language, and therefore is naturally 
 formed under the same conditions — those conditions v. Iiich, 
 because the effect is obvious while the reason is often 
 difficult to detect, we vaguely call the genius of the 
 language: and it must accommodate itself to the defects 
 as well as the strength of the language. There is an 
 inherent evil in Chinese speech — inevitable in a mono- 
 syllabic language with a limited number of radicalsr— that 
 the same combination of sound should serve to express 
 many ditferent ideas. A combination, therefore, of symbols 
 is absolutely necessary, which shall represent to the mind 
 through the eye the fact that the sound which is heard 
 has changed its meaning to meet that of another sound 
 which is not heard — that tcheu no longer means a ship, but 
 means the flickering of flame, or something else quite 
 different. It would have been easy enough to have had 
 different symbols for the different meanings of tcheu ; but 
 it would not practically have been so convenient, because 
 it would not have represented so well the facts of the 
 language. If the Chinese had chosen in their speech to 
 do universally what they did occasioually, to form com- 
 pounds like " ear-dooring " for " hearing " a thing, the 
 native genius for pictorial representation would have pro- 
 duced a symbolism which might have supplied all its 
 wants down to the present day. But that was not the 
 bent of the language ; and the writing therefore remains 
 to the present day a mixture of ideography and phonetism, 
 and is perhaps better so. Still, a great deal of confusion 
 is possible. In modern writing, according to Endlicher, each 
 syllable has several symbols, partly because of the extra- 
 ordinary number of meanings belonging, as we have seen, 
 to each combination of souud, partly from considerations of 
 calligraphy, because it is not every symbol which will 
 combine neatly with every other; and therefore for par- 
 ticular combinations a different symbol with the same 
 phonetic value is required, so that the shapes of the mixed 
 symbols increase in number. Also, the pictorial symbols 
 being comparatively few, and many of these being em- 
 ployed phonetically for the same syllable, it is obvious 
 that, with the growth of ideas, many new symbols must 
 have been required. To meet this want, the mixed 
 symbols so often mentioned were employed purely phoneti- 
 cally, each in new combination on the old principle with 
 an ideogram, whose meaning was disregarded. Generally 
 these symbols kept their phonetic worth, but sometimes in 
 combination with particular ideograms they change. Thus 
 we see a. double evil arise in the language. Not only have 
 we several symbols for each combination of sound, but 
 also the same symbol can under certain circumstances have 
 different phonetic values. But the difficulties thus caused 
 seem greater to a stranger than to a native ; and tba 
 Chinese have never been moved thereby to exchange thei^
 
 804 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 picturesque but unwieldy system. The impure syllabism 
 marked out for them by tho genius of their language has 
 been their furthest development. It was reserved for the 
 Japanese to borrow the Chinese characters, and; expelling 
 all ideographic associations, to employ them simply as 
 syllables, thus advancing to a pure syllabic writing. This 
 borrowing and extension of a system by a foreign nation 
 will be more fully dwelt upon hereafter. It should perhaps 
 be added that the expression of many different senses by 
 one symbol, which has so largely modified the Chinese 
 writing, is not peculiar to monosyllabic language. It ia 
 found in all languages, though not to the same extent : 
 roots of different sense have been worn down by phonetic 
 decay till they reach the same form, and thi3 cause may 
 have operated to some extent in China, though it cannot 
 have been very important. 
 
 The cuneiform writing, so called from the wedge-like i 
 
 shape of the characters, I or f , which compose it, was 
 
 employed by different nationalities. It was first deci- 
 phered by Grotefend on inscriptions of Persepolis, and 
 was found to be the exponent of the Aryan spoken 
 by the conquering Persians, which belonged, as is well 
 known, to the Indo-European family of languages. But 
 cuneiform inscriptions in three languages were found on a 
 monument at Behistun: the first was the Persian, and 
 much the simplest in, form ; the- second^ and third were 
 composed of elements of the same shape in much more 
 unwieldy combinations. 1 It was obvious that the three 
 inscriptions were identical in meaning, but in different 
 languages; and principally by the help afforded by recur- 
 ring proper names, whose value could be compared with 
 the known values in Persian, the characters of the last two 
 inscriptions were deciphered, and found to belong, one to 
 the language of the Assyrian and Babylonian subjects of 
 Darius, the other to the old Scythian population of Media, 
 who used a Turanian speech. Other languages, the old 
 Armenian and that of Susa, were found afterwards to be 
 represented by the same characters ; and to these different 
 systems the collective name Anarien (i.e. non-Aryan) has 
 been given by French writers (Oppert, <fec), to distinguish 
 them from the Aryan-Persian, which is a purely phonetic 
 character. 
 
 It seems clear that the origin of this system was 
 Turanian, and that it was borrowed by the Semitic races 
 who used it. It was originally hieroglyphic, though the 
 stiff combinations of wedges give but little indication of 
 such an origin. But both in Assyrian and Babylonian 
 there is an older character and a newer one, and the older 
 forms can again be traced back to a still more archaic 
 shape, which was unquestionably the original of both, and 
 which is not cuneiform, but composed of straight lines only. 2 
 These show little of thebrilliancy of invention of the Chinese ; 
 they seem to appeal to- the reason rather than to the eye; 
 they are obviously intended to recall the image of the 
 object, but they must have been first explained in order 
 to be intelligible at all, and then they might be remembered. 
 
 ' For example, a house was denoted by 
 
 ; a town by 
 
 Neither of these are symbols which will be intelli- 
 gible as soon as seen by a person who has not been taught 
 them. This is probably due to the fact that they were 
 produced, not by the hair-pencil of the Chinese, but by the 
 chisel; they were intended to be written on rock, and for 
 this straight lines are more convenient; and the wedge 
 shape which they assumed afterwards may be explained 
 
 A part of this trilingual inscription is printed in Do Rosnv's 
 EcrtiuTU Figurative), p. .70. 
 
 •For specimens, see Oppert, toL 11. , p. 63. 
 
 by the ease with which it can be made by two strokes of 
 the chisel — perhaps no other figure so clear can be produced 
 with such facility. 
 
 This system seems to have reached syllabism before it 
 was adopted by the Aramaic peoples. But the syllabism 
 was still mixed up with ideography, just as we have seen 
 was the case in China — that is, the same symbol denoted 
 ideographically the object, and phonetically the sound, of 
 the name of the object; as though in English we should 
 denote by the symbol B both the insect bee and the sound be. 
 But there is a difference between this idiom and the Chinese ; 
 it was polysyllabic, whereas Chinese was syllabic. When, 
 then, the name of the object contained more than one 
 syllable, the first alone was taken to be denoted phoneti- 
 cally by the symbol. The evidence for this is small in 
 quantity, owing to the scanty remains of the language of 
 that Turanian element of the Chaldee nation from which 
 the cuneiform writing was borrowed. To this language 
 the name Accadian has been given by Dr Hincks, and 
 this name seems to be now generally received. But tho 
 Medo-Scythic, mentioned above, which is a closely-con- 
 nected dialect, supplies us with forms sufficiently close to 
 the old Scythian spoken originally by all the Turanian stock 
 in that part of Asia. Thus one symbol in Assyrian denotes 
 ideographically God and phonetically an; now the name 
 for God in Medo-Scythic is Annap. Another denotes a city 
 and but; batin is a city in Scythian. Another is a father 
 and at; in Scythian a father is atta. (Oppert, i<. 79; 
 Lenormant, L 41.) This evidence will doubtless be 
 strengthened with time, but even now it is conclusive; 
 and the principle thus established, the arbitrary selection of 
 the first part of a name to have a particular phonetic value, 
 seems to be exactly the principle which we should a priori 
 have expected to find if we had tried to conceive the 
 possible ways in which ideography could pass into 
 phonetism. 
 
 The confusion which was occasioned by the imperfection 
 of Assyrian writing was immensely increased by the fact 
 of their characters being borrowed, not indigenous, as in 
 China. There is first of all the obvious difficulty of 
 adapting Turanian symbols to a Semitic language, in which 
 the short vowels were not written, and the meaning of the 
 radical group of consonants in any particular place had to 
 be determined by the context. Instead of being able to 
 retain the same symbol to express a root in its modified 
 forms, e.g. in the conjugation of a verb, a new symbol 
 would be necessary for each person-form, which could be 
 expressed by mere vowel change in the root, and these sym- 
 bols might be totally unconnected, so that all sense of the 
 connection of different parts of a verb would be lost. This 
 is bad enough, but it is an evil inherent in the borrowing 
 of such a system of writing to express a language whose 
 genius was so essentially different. But there was another 
 evil, much greater, which might have been avoided, and 
 was not. This is polyphony — the expression of many 
 different sounds by the same symbol. When the Assyrians 
 took an Accadian symbol, they should have taken only 
 its phonetic value, or one of them, if it had more than one, 
 and in this way they might have acquired a purely syllabic 
 character, as the people of Susa afterwards actually did. 
 But, aa was not unnatural at the time, they took it with all 
 its values, ideographic and phonetic, and added more of their 
 own. A striking example given by Oppert (ii 85) will 
 
 make this plain. In Accadian this symbol "jA was tha 
 
 ideogram for an open hand, doubtless originally in a more 
 elaborate form.' In the spoken language a hand was called 
 hurpi, and therefore, by the principle mentioned above, 
 this symbol had also the phonetic value htr. But by a 
 metaphor the hand symbol had the furthw' ideographic
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 605 
 
 values of seizing, possessing, and understanding: To seize 
 in the spoken language must have been mat, or something 
 very like it (imid occurs in this sense in the Scythian), for 
 this phonetic value also belonged to one symbol. But 
 further, in Accadian a mountain was called kur; sunrise, 
 kurra; earth was mat; to go was mit; and these sounds, 
 identical or nearly identical, were every one expressed by 
 the same symbol, which thus had eight ideographic and 
 two phonetic values, kur and mat; and in this wretched 
 condition it was taken by the Assyrians, and employed by 
 them in all these different senses. But this was not all 
 In the Assyrian language kur was the name of a furnace, 
 and mat meant to die; and as it must have been to obtain 
 a visible exponent for these sounds that the foreign symbol 
 was adopted, both of these ideas were necessarily denoted 
 by it. Again, in Assyrian, " to understand " was pro- 
 nounced as not, and to " possess " was rial; and so were 
 added two more phonetic values by reason of the meta- 
 phoric value of mat in Accadian. Lastly was added the 
 phonetic value shat, because that was the Assyrian name 
 for a mountain, which we saw was denoted in Accadian by 
 kur. Thus, when an Assyrian came upon this little plain- 
 looking symbol he had to determine whether it meant the 
 earth, a mountain, sunrise, a furnace, or seizing, possessing, 
 understanding, going, or dying; or whether it had only 
 one of the phonetic values, kur, mat, slvat, nal, or nat. 
 And a large list of other symbols is given by M. Oppert, 
 which, in a similar way, have two, three, four, and even 
 six different phonetic values. It may seem incredible that 
 a people under such difficulties should ever have been able 
 to express what they wished to say, much less to understand 
 what was written. It is a great witness to the strength of 
 the feeling which must have existed in these old people 
 that ideography was the natural and proper method of 
 writing, and phonetics were only a supplement to eke out 
 its deficiencies. To us such a feeling is at first incompre- 
 hensible, but after such an example we cannot doubt its 
 existence. With respect, indeed, to the difficulty caused 
 by one symbol having many ideographic values, we have 
 only to think of the many different significations expressed 
 in our own language by the same combination of sound, 
 without any confusion arising, because the particular 
 meaning is marked out by the context; for instance, when 
 the one sound but denotes a conjunction, a verb, and a 
 noun with two senses — one original and one derived, but 
 now quite different, — we should therefore only see in the 
 Assyrian an aggravated case of this want of clearness. 
 But the difficulty is much more serious when the same 
 symbol has different phonetic values ; and much help can- 
 not have been obtained from the grammatical lists which 
 have actually been dug out under the superintendence of Mr 
 Layard, in which the Assyrian kings state, avowedly for the 
 instruction of their subjects, the different values which each 
 symbol could possess. (See Oppert, ii. 53.) By these lists 
 some limit might undoubtedly be put to the further multipli- 
 cation of values for the same sign, but it could not help a 
 reader to trace which of all the authorised values he was 
 to give to a symbol at any particular time. It would 
 appear that in the cuneiform, as unquestionably in the 
 Egyptian, conventional phonetic symbols could be used 
 as complements to other symbols, which might represent 
 an idea or a mere syllable, and by these phonetic comple- 
 ments the special sense could be defined with some approach 
 to exactness. But into these remedies of the ills of poly- 
 phony we need not further enter. 
 
 It is far beyond the scope of the present article to 
 describe fully the development of hieroglyphism in Egypt, 
 the country in which the last step to alphabetism — the 
 separation of the vowel-symbols from those which mark the 
 consonants — was undoubtedly taken, though with much 
 
 faltering, and even turning back. According to M. Lenor- 
 mant, the Egyptians passed through every stage which w« 
 have alreacly seen successively reached by different peoples; 
 and at one of which every one of these peoples halted, with- 
 out ever achieving for themselves the triumph of alphabetic 
 writing. And evidence of each stage, more or less distinct, 
 certainly lingers in the Egyptian, producing an extra- 
 ordinary medley, little suited for popular or even literary 
 use, but well adapted for the transmission of occult records 
 and rituals, the purpose for which the Greeks not un- 
 naturally supposed the whole hieroglyphic system to have 
 been invented by the priests. As we have already de- 
 scribed the phenomena of each stage with some fulness, it 
 is not necessary to do more here than to indicate their 
 occurrence in Egyptian. The hieroglyphs themselves arc 
 certainly the finest of their kind. Whether they represent 
 the full contour of the object with all the assistance of 
 vivid colouring, or whether they are simply formed by 
 lines which convey its essential character — a practice which 
 doubtless owed its origin to the increased use of writing — 
 it is impossible not to admire the extraordinary complete- 
 ness of the representation. Nothing can be more perfectly 
 pictorial than the portraiture of the different emotions, each 
 by the figure of a man affected by it : the position of the 
 body and the gestures of the arms are simply perfect. 
 These belong in the main to the symbolic use of the 
 hieroglyphs : this use we saw in Chinese was but slight, 
 but in Egypt it was immense. Thus, the sun, with rays 
 streaming from it, denoted to the Egyptian light and clear- 
 ness ; the moon, with its horns turned downward, denoted 
 the month, — in these cases the cause is put for the effect. 
 Sometimes the part is put for the whole : two arms, one 
 holding a shield and one an offensive weapon, express 
 battle ; two legs with the feet denote movement, forward 
 
 or backward according to the direction of the feet, J± or 
 
 /\, ; an arm holding a stick denotes force. Sometimes 
 
 the symbol is purely metaphorical : as when a king is 
 expressed by a bee ; knowledge by a roll of papyrus ; 
 or justice by the feather of an ostrich, because all feathers 
 of that bird were supposed to be of equal length. Such 
 symbols are clearly of later origin than the other ; they 
 imply the existence of conventional rules, which could 
 acquire currency for meanings quite unintelligible in them- 
 selves. These symbolic ideograms were not very often 
 used alone ; most commonly they accompanied other 
 symbols used phonetically, merely to determine then- 
 special meaning in each place : as such they are commonly 
 called determinatives; this practice we also saw in China, 
 less skilfully employed. Thus, for example, on the Rosetta 
 stone — whose trilingual inscription, hieroglyphic, demotic, 
 and Greek, is the hasis of all our knowledge of Egyptian 
 writing — the word for a decree is expressed by characters, 
 consonant and vowel, which denote the sounds of which it 
 is composed, just as in any modern writing ; but at the 
 end of these, forming part of the word, though adding 
 nothing to its pronunciation, is the figure of a man with 
 his hand raised to his mouth, which adds the idea of pas- 
 sive obedience to the phonetic combination, and limits it 
 to the idea of a decree. In like manner, the arm with the 
 stick, which as we said denotes force, is added as a deter- 
 minative to express actions which require force ; and the 
 ideogram of motion is also very frequent. This seems tf 
 us unnecessary and cumbrous ; but when a phonetic com- 
 bination might have two diTerent meanings, they could 
 hardjy have been differentiated in a more intelligible 
 manner. A good list of these symbols may be seen in Dg 
 Kosny, p. 46. 
 The traces of the rebus stage which we saw in the Azteo,
 
 606 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 in which a symbol could be transferred from one object to 
 another, because the names of the two had the same sound 
 in the spoken language, are not very distinct, and have not 
 been fully examined ; on this point wo may hope for more 
 light from M. Lenormant He points out that the same 
 symbol denotes "holiness" and a "slave." No meta- 
 phorical explanation seems possible here ; but both are 
 sounded lien in the spoken language, and the community 
 of symbol becomes at once intelligible. In such a pi 
 as this we see at once a cause of great confusion, especially 
 when the same symbol was employed to denote two things 
 the names of which were not exact homophones, and yet 
 sufficiently near in sound to allow themselves to be ex- 
 pressed by the same symbol; e.g., when the circle w T hich 
 denoted the sun was also taken to denote the idea of day, 
 the sun was called ra, the day hru, and so the symbol 
 became a polyphone ; it had two not very different sounds. 
 It is true that here the application of the symbol for the 
 sun to denote the day was not caused only by the similarity 
 of sound in the two words — it was probably employed at 
 first metaphorically ; but there can be little doubt that it 
 was helped to its double use by the indistinctnep 1 : of the 
 Egyptian vowel-sounds, which caused the two words to be 
 sounded nearly alike. From this and similar causes arose 
 that polyphony which necessitated the use of the deter- 
 minatives described above. Vestiges of the syllabic stage in 
 Egyptian exist beyond a doubt, and they point to a slowly- 
 effected transition from the older to the newer form of 
 writing. Thus the symbol of a fish represented at the 
 syllabic stage the syllable an ; later on, the letter a alone 
 came to be denoted by a reed, and n by a waving line. 
 Vow we find the syllable an represented not merely by its 
 own simple exponent, the fish, but also by tho reed and 
 fish together, that is, in phonetic value, by A . an; by the reed 
 
 above the waving line ( — ) ; and even by all three (a. — ) 
 
 (Lenormant, ii 44). This surely points to a stage at which 
 the alphabetic values of the reed and line were not yet so 
 firmly fixed that the writer could dispense with the older 
 and more familiar sign of the fish to specialise the other 
 two. Of Egyptian alphabetism proper it is not necessary 
 to give examples ; we are sufficiently acquainted with the 
 use of letters pure and simple, and their use in Egypt is 
 not denied. 
 
 To what cause are we to assign the progress of the 
 Egyptian beyond the Assyrian method of writing 1 What 
 circumstances enabled the one nation to develop at least an 
 imperfect alphabetism, while the other never advanced 
 beyond syllabism? No certain answer can be given; but at 
 least a probable suggestion is made by M. Lenormant. The 
 Egyptian vowel-sounds were indistinct: the consonants were 
 clear and definite. Therefore it was natural (as Lepsius 
 pointed out) that in each syllable the consonant should 
 come to be regarded as the important element, and should 
 finally extrudo the following vowel altogether. Thus a large 
 number of symbols, which originally represented syllables 
 beginning with the same consonant but followed by differ- 
 ent vowels, would become in time absolutely identical in 
 value, the different representatives of the same consonant. 
 And a great abundance of such homophones is actually 
 found in Egyptian. The method, therefore, which was 
 followed in passing from the syllable to the mere alphabetic 
 sign, was identical with that which we have already pointed 
 out in Assyrian, by which the symbol of a polysyllabic 
 word was taken to have the phonetic value of the first 
 syllable of that word; in each case it denoted the first 
 element of the name — the syllable in Assyrian, the single 
 sound in Egyptian. And in each language the symbol thus 
 applied to a new use still retained for a long time its old value 
 fit the hieroglyphic or at least conventional exponent of a 
 
 material object or of an idea. Thus in Egypt nefer meant 
 good. This word in writing is expressed in two ways : 
 first, by a single symbol — which had originally been the 
 pictorial representation of some material, object, but was 
 afterwards tho conventional symbol of the idea of good- 
 ness ; secondly, by this same symbol followed by two 
 others, which had also, from being originally hieroglyphs, 
 acquired the phonetic values of / and r ; that is to say, 
 one symbol could at will express the whole word nefer and 
 its initial letter n. This is the natur.il, perhaps the only 
 possible way of eliminating tho single sound ; but it is 
 obvious that great difficulties would attend it at the outset 
 Thcro could be at first no convention to restrict the symbol 
 for n to that of the particular word nefer; any other begin- 
 ning with n would have served. There was no law to 
 prevent a writer taking as many symbols for n as took bis 
 fancy ; and in fact each letter in this way did have several 
 different symbols. 
 
 It follows that while Egypt must be credited with having 
 first invented an a'phabetic system, and must for ever 
 claim for this tho gratitude of the world, yet that system 
 was far too imperfect to become the instrument of a popular 
 literature. It suffered equally from the opposite diseases 
 of homophony and polyphony, from the expression of the 
 same*sound by many different symbols, and from the use 
 of one symbol to denote many different syllables. And 
 each of these evils was only aggravated by time. The 
 earlier Egyptian writing is much more simple than the 
 later, wherein homophones increased to a degree to which 
 there was practically no limit except the strength of the 
 memory; and the numerous phonetic devices to unravel the 
 confusions of polyphony must haro been equally burden- 
 some. It might have been expected that polyphony at 
 least would have become extinct with time ; that the 
 different symbols for the same syllable would all have been 
 worn down into single letters, and thus, though homophony 
 might % have multiplied, polyphony would have perished. 
 This might have been the case if these symbols had ever 
 become perfectly clear of their originally pictorial or con- 
 ventional origin. But this was never the case. To the 
 last, the employment of a symbol to express an object or 
 idea continued side by side with its employment as a single 
 letter. The spirit of hieroglyphism, real if not apparent, 
 could not be vanquished by alphabetism ; and in order 
 that ideography may be finally expelled, it would seem 
 that circumstances are needed more favourable than can 
 be often found combined at any period of any nation's 
 history. In fact, a purely phonetic alphabet is most likely 
 to be produced when one nation borrows from another such 
 portion of that nation's symbols as it requires for its own 
 needs, and rejects that superfluity which only leads to 
 confusion. We have already seen indications of this fact. 
 
 Many circumstances combine to render it difficult for u 
 nation to reach of itself pure phonetism in writing. There 
 is the strong disinclination to change, of which we have 
 before spoken. It is always easier to put up with diffi- 
 culties to which we have been accustomed all our life than 
 to make any radical change, especially when that change 
 causes at once serious difficulties at every moment It 
 was easier for the Egyptians to retain the odd mixture of 
 ideographic, syllabic, and alphabetic writing, and occasion- 
 ally to add some new key for unlocking the difficulties to 
 the formidable list wliich was already in use. The in- 
 genuity of these grammatical devices almost surpasses 
 belief. We can only refer the curious to the hieroglyphic 
 grammar in the fifth volume of Bunsen's Egypt's Placr »'» 
 Universal Uistary. In the second place, a good deal must 
 be allowed to tho restraining influence of religion. It is 
 well known that most of the ancient nations ascribed a 
 divine origin to their systems of writing. It might well
 
 ALPBTABET 
 
 607 
 
 seem to thern to be too wonderful a thing for the result of 
 human ingenuity. Thus in one of the Assyrian lists of the 
 different values of syllables, published, as has been already 
 mentioned, by royal authority, Sardanapalus V. states that 
 the god Nebo has revealed to the kings, his ancestors, the 
 cuneiform writing, which he thus endeavours to simplify 
 for the better understanding of his people (Oppert, iL 53). 
 The Sanskrit character, which is now known to be due to 
 a Phoenician source, was called Devandgari, " belonging to 
 the city of the gods," unless, as Prof. M. Muller suggests 
 (Sanskrit Grammar, p. 1), we are to understand by the 
 gods here only the Brahmans ; but whatever the name may 
 mean, their belief in its divine origin is certain enough. 
 And M. Lenormant points out (i. 80) that the native 
 Egyptian term for writing meant "writing heavenly words." 
 Now it is clear that no nation among which this belief 
 lingered in any degree would be likely to alter fundament- 
 ally the spirit of their system of writing. Lastly, it is 
 possible, though, as we have suggested above, not very 
 probable, that the obscurities of the existing system may 
 have recommended it to the priests. These reasons may 
 suffice to show that it was not in Egypt that we should 
 expect to find the development of a purely phonetic system. 
 But just as the Japanese took the Chinese characters, and 
 gave them a development which they have never had in 
 the land of their creation — just as the people of Susiana 
 took the cuneiform writing and made it purely phonetic, 
 without any remnant of ideography, — so the work of ex- 
 tracting order out of the chaos of Egyptian writing was 
 reserved for the Phoenicians. 
 
 The Phoenicians were peculiarly fitted to perform this 
 inestimable part in the history of human development. 
 An active and enterprising nation, they were early brought 
 into commercial relations with Egypt, and must of neces- 
 sity have learnt something of their system of writing; 
 they could see its advantages and its perfectly remediable 
 faults ; the advantage of one definite symbol for one sound, 
 and the disadvantage of a dozen ; the desirability that this 
 symbol should signify that sound only, and the undesir- 
 ability of its denoting a horse or a man as well And the 
 religious scruples which may have affected the Egyptians 
 need have no weight for strangers. If the characters were 
 divine for the priests of Isis, they were* a convenient instru- 
 ment to supply every-day wants for the sailors of Tyre. 1 
 
 These considerations do not, of course, amount to a proof 
 that the Phoenician alphabet was derived from Egypt. ' It 
 is of course possible that it disengaged itself by degrees 
 out of an earlier hieroglyphic system at home. But of 
 such a system no vestiges remain ; and the correspondence 
 between the Phoenician characters and those of the earlier 
 Egyptian hieratic is sufficiently striking to warrant us in 
 regarding it as at least provisionally true that what was 
 natural and perfectly possible did actually take place. 2 The 
 general testimony of the early Greek and Roman writers, 
 that the alphabet was invented in Phoenicia, must then be 
 limited to the sense in which Tacitus says that the Phoeni- 
 cians had this credit — tanquam repererint, quce acceperant. 
 
 It cannot be known with certainty whether the Phoeni- 
 cians took, together with the Egyptian symbols, the 
 phonetic values which they had in Egypt, or whether 
 they totally disregarded those values, and simply assigned 
 to the symbols the value of their own sounds at will. The 
 first vie-w, however, seems clearly the more probable. The 
 Phoenicians could only become acquainted with the Egyptian 
 
 1 M. Lenormant (p. 83) -will have it that the Phoenicians must 
 have been "tres peu religieux, et au fond presque athee." They 
 may have been so, but surely not merely in order to borrow an 
 alphabet from Egypt. It is enough that that alphabet could have 
 bad no sanctity for them. 
 
 * For evidence of this, see plate, p. 600. 
 
 symbol and sound together ; the one would naturally sug- 
 gest the other ; and we should expect that they would first 
 take the symbols belonging to those sounds which exactly 
 corresponded in Egyptian and Phoenician, then the symbols 
 of other Egyptian sounds which did not exactly correspond 
 to their own, but which seemed in each case the most 
 analogous to them ; but that there would never be any 
 violent rupture between the symbo. and its old sound. 
 Yet it seems quite certain that there is no connection 
 between the names which the letters bore in Phoenicia 
 and the original object of which the Egyptian character is 
 the debased representation. Thus the first letter of the 
 Phoenician alphabet (corresponding to'the Hebrew aleph) 
 was named from its fancied resemblance to an ox's head, 
 the second (Hebrew beth) to a house, and so on. But the 
 symbol which strangely seemed to the Phoenicians like an 
 ox is only the form, rapidly drawn, of an eagle ; beth, in 
 like manner, is the quickly-drawn figure of a crane. It 
 would seem, then, that the Phoenicians ion-owed sound 
 and symbol, but no name. They cared nothing for the 
 history of the symbols; and when they found it convenient 
 to have a name for each symbol they chose some object 
 whose name began with the letter in question ;-and we should 
 have said that it was totally impossible that any similarity 
 in form between the letter and the object whose name it 
 borrowed could have helped to give currency to the nomen- 
 clature, did we not see evidence of similar and apparently 
 equally impossible fancies in the names of the constella- 
 tions, let the origin of those names be what it may. 
 
 Such, very briefly traced, seems to have been tie origin 
 of the Phoenician alphabet, the parent of almost every 
 alphabet, properly so called, existing on the earth. For 
 the main ramifications of this alphabet in subsequent times 
 we cannot do better than translate the summary of an 
 author already often referred to, M. Francois Lenormant 
 He distinguishes (p. 110) five main sterna These are — 
 
 1. The Semitic stem, wherein the values of the letters have re- 
 mained exactly the same as those of the Phoenicians, except in a 
 few derived alphabets framed in Persia and the countries imme- 
 diately adjacent, which being employed to write Indo-European 
 languages, turn the soft breathings of the Phoenician into genuine 
 vowels. This stem subdivides itself into two main branches — the 
 Hebrseo-Samaritan and the Aramaic 
 
 2. The Central stem, whose province includes Greece, Asia 
 Minor, and Italy. The transformation of the symbols of the 
 smooth, and even of the rough, breathings into symbols of vowels 
 is here the invariable rule. This stem contains first the different 
 varieties of the Hellenic alphabet, then the alphabets derived from 
 the Greek, including three families — the Albanian, Asiatic (taking 
 Asia in the same sense as the old Greeks did), and the Italian. In 
 the Asiatic family we distinguish two groups — one for the Phiygian 
 alphabet only, which is made up of elements whose origin is exclu- 
 sively Greek ; the other containing the Lycian and Carian, where 
 these elements are mixed up with Cypriote^ characters. The Italian 
 family must also be subdivided into an Etruscan group and a Latin 
 group, between which stands the Faliscan alphabet, of a mixed 
 character.. 
 
 3. The Western stem, containing the systems of writing which 
 resulted from the spread of the alphabet "by the colonists of Tyre 
 among the indigenous inhabitants of ancient Spain. This stem 
 reckons but one single family. It has, as that which precedes it, 
 for its fundamental character the change of the value of the Phoeni- 
 cian breathings. But the direction in which the forms of the letters 
 vary is signally different. . . . 
 
 4. The Northern stem, containing only one branch, the runes 
 of the Teutonic and Scandinavian peoples, who were settled at a 
 particular epoch in the north of Europe, but had arrived from Asia, 
 where they still lived during a part of historic time, and where they 
 must have had imparted to them the alphabet produced by the 
 Phoenicians. Some elements in the runic writing seem to point to 
 a direct reception of the writing from the seamen of Canaan ; others, 
 on the contrary, bear a certain stamp of Greek influence. . . . 
 
 8 The only two alphabets, in the strict sense of the term, which M. 
 Lenormant cannot classify as of Phoenician origin are the Cypriote 
 and the Persian cuneiform — the former still imperfectly deciphered, 
 but seemingly to some extent syllabic ; the latter pwhapa not pure 
 alphabetic, but retaining certain ideograms.
 
 GOB 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 6. The Indo-Bomeritt stem, distinguished by the appearance of a 
 new principle, the expression of vowel sounds by means of conven- 
 tional adjuncts attached to the symbol of the consonant, and thus 
 sometimes considerably modifying its shape. The place of its origin 
 seems to have been southern Arabia. From thence it has radiated 
 on the one side to Africa, where the Abyssinian and the African 
 systems form a separate family with the Himyaritic, or alphabet of 
 the old inhabitants of Yemen ; on the other aide to Ariana, where 
 a special form of writing established itself ; and to India, whoso 
 most ancient alphabet, Magadhi, now referred by A. Weber to a 
 Phoenician origin, has given birth to an enormous list of derivatives, 
 which can be classified among six famines — Devanagart, Pali, 
 Dravidian, Transgangetic, Oceanic, and Thibetan— which we here 
 enumerate in their chronological order of descent 
 
 It will of course be observed that this classification of 
 alphabets runs entirely counter to the universally-accepted 
 classification of languages into certain well -recognised 
 groups under three main heads — Indo-European, Semitic, 
 and that family which, rather because its members differ 
 from the two first-named than from any especial bond of 
 union among themselves, is called Turanian. This is in 
 nowise surprising. There is no necessary connection what- 
 ever between the sound and the symbol which signifies it 
 — between the language and the alphabet The languages 
 of nearly all Europe are Indo-European (or Aryan, as they 
 are sometimes called) ; the alphabets are universally Semitic 
 — that is the fact, explain it as we may. In fact, if we 
 wish to maintain that sound and symbol correspond, so 
 that the second is the only natural exponent of the first, 
 we must form two hypotheses which refute themselves — 
 first, that it was possible that any race of men, when they 
 first felt the need of an alphabet, deliberately set them- 
 selves to form their letters so as to represent the different 
 positions of the organs of speech as each sound was pro- 
 duced ; secondly, that such forms could have been exactly 
 preserved through long lapse of time, so as to convey to 
 subsequent generations exactly the same idea as they 
 gave to their inventors. But each supposition is clearly 
 impossible. An alphabet so formed would also be an 
 artificial alphabet, such as could never have entered the 
 minds of men who needed to supply just their actual 
 wants as they arose, not to construct a scientific table of 
 signs to denote all possible sounds. But the construction 
 of such a pictorial alphabet as wo have supposed is quite 
 possible, and it has actually been formed most ingeniously 
 by Mr Melville Bell. La his system, which he calls 
 " Visible Speech," consonants are denoted by curved lines, 
 which represent the position of the tongue or lips in their 
 formation. For example, in forming the gutturals k, g, n<j, 
 the back of the tongue is raised, and this is expressed by 
 
 the curve Q ; in pronouncing y, the front of the tongue is 
 arched, and this is denoted by (*j ; in pronouncing dentals, 
 the point of the tongue is raised, and this is expressed by 
 0> i° sounding labials, the lips are closed, and this is 
 denoted by Q ; where the passage of the mouth is com- 
 pletely closed by the symbolised organ (as in k, g, t, d, 
 p, 6), the ends of the curve are shut by a connecting line — 
 
 thus C\ denotes k; the consonants which are voice articu- 
 lations {i.e., in producing which the chordm vocales vibrate, 
 and so produce voice), as g, d, b, &c, are further distin- 
 tinguished by a short straight line within the curve, the 
 physiological sign which is chosen (conventionally, it must 
 be allowed) to represent voice being (I) a straight line; 
 and the other distinguishing marks of the consonants are 
 similarly expressed either by added marks or by slight 
 modifications of the primary curve. Equally ingeniously, 
 the vowels are expressed by the straight line which is the 
 sign of voice, a subordinate symbol, or "definer," being 
 
 added to denote the part of the mouth which modifies tht 
 vowel — e.g., a hook or a solid point at the top or bottom 
 of the vowel-line, a bar across the lino to express that the 
 lips are contracted or drawn across the aperture of the 
 mouth, 4c, <tc. ' We need not enter further into the 
 minutiae of the system ; enough las been said to show the 
 principle on which it is formed. It is obvious that there 
 would be no greater difficulty in teaching this alphabet to 
 a child than in teaching it a, b, c, except that the number 
 of symbols is greater, because one is provided for everj 
 sound in the language, which our alphabet certainly fails 
 to do ; still, to learn either our alphabet or " visible 
 speech " must for a child be simply an effort of memory. 
 And one great practical gain which would be derived from 
 the general adoption of such a system is the ease with 
 which foreign languages could be mastered. The great 
 difficulty in learning to speak a foreign language does not 
 consist in the mere mastering so many declensions ; it lies 
 in the fact that two alphabets may be composed of exactly 
 the same symbols, and yet many of these symbols may 
 express to the two nations quite different sounds. This is 
 a preliminary difficulty which must be mastered at once ; 
 and it would be immensely lessened if such dissimilar 
 sounds — as, e.g., the German, French, and English u — were 
 not all presented to the learner under the same symbol. It 
 seems certain that, with the lapse of time and the progress 
 of invention, the intercourse between nations must be 
 largely increased ; and the need of some more perfect 
 instrument of speech between them must increase propor- 
 tionately. But in spite of the obvious gains, it is Utopian 
 to suppose that the world will ever be converted to a 
 system of universal writing ; and the real and immense 
 gain of such a method is the power which it give3 to a 
 linguistic inquirer to denote accurately on paper the exact 
 sounds heard in any dialect spoken in any part of the 
 world, civilised or uncivilised ; for it is as competent to 
 register the click of the Hottentot as the most subtle 
 vowel sound of Europe. With our present alphabet it is 
 utterly impossible to represent adequately the strange 
 sounds of some out-of-the-way dialect (which for students 
 of language may be as important as the literary speech) in 
 such a way as to be generally intelligible, because there 
 often is no symbol to correspond exactly, and naturally no 
 two inquirers agree upon the nearest out of the existing 
 symbols.- The science of language is therefore greatly 
 indebted to Mr Bell for providing so effective a method 
 for preserving for ever those dialectic peculiarities which 
 are vanishing with startling rapidity in these days of con 
 stant communication between different parts of a country 
 Another system, equally valuable scientifically, has been 
 invented by the eminent philologer, Mr Alexander J. Ellis. 
 In his " Palaeotype"only the ordinary symbols are employed, 
 but they are printed in different ways to denote different 
 sounds — sometimes as capitals, sometimes in italics, some- 
 times turned upside down ; so that, despite the familiarity 
 of the letters, a page of palaeotype is at least as appalling to 
 the uninitiated as the curves and lines of "visible speech." 
 We may proceed to trace the variations from the Phoenician 
 alphabet to our own, down the central stem of Greece and 
 Italy. The Phoenician alphabet consisted of twenty-eight 
 letters, which for convenience we may call by the names of 
 their Hebrew equivalents. These were (1) Aleph, (2) Beth, 
 3) Gimel, (4) Daleth, (5) He, (6) Vav, (7) Zayin, (8) Cheth, 
 9) Teth, (10) Yodh, (11) Kaph, (12) Lamedh, (13) Mem, 
 (14) Nun, (15) Samekh, (16) Ayin, (17) Pe, (18) Tsadhc, 
 (19) Koph, (20) Resh,«(21) Shin, (22) Tav. None of these 
 were vowel sounds. Aleph was the lightest guttural or 
 rather faucal sound, being pronounced below the guttural 
 point at the very top of the larynx : it can have been barely 
 audible even before a vowel. He corresponded nearly
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 609 
 
 to our h. Cheth was a strongly-marked ch, a continuous 
 guttural sound produced at the back of the palate. Ayin 
 represents a faucal sound peculiar to the Semitic race, 
 varying between an evanescent breathing and a g rolled in 
 the throat. 
 
 The Phoenicians employed hardly any vowel signs : in 
 Hebrew the three principal sounds a, i, u (see article A) 
 were sometimes expressed in writing, and long i and u were 
 denoted, not by special signs, but by consonants akin to 
 them, yodh and vav: a was regularly omitted except at the 
 end of a word, where it was denoted by He and sometimes 
 by Aleph. In fact, in all Semitic languages the practice 
 was to ignore vowels in writing, leaving it to the reader 
 to fill in, according to the context, the unvarying frame- 
 work of consonantal sounds: the Hebrew vowel-points 
 were a later invention, rendered necessary when the lan- 
 guage had ceased to be spoken. 
 
 When the Greeks received the Phoenician alphabet it is 
 obvious that they must have made considerable changes 
 in the values of the symbols. Several of them would be 
 ■unnecessary, for they had no sounds in their language to 
 correspond to them : while for other most important sounds, 
 €.g., the vowels, no symbol was provided. It is clear how 
 imperfect any previous alphabet of the Greeks must have 
 been when they adopted in its stead another so foreign to 
 the genius of their language, which developed the vowels 
 and marked strongly the momentary consonants and nasals, 
 but rejected as far as possible the continuous consonants, 
 both palatal and labial, and even under many circumstances 
 tho dental s, the one sibilant they employed. But they 
 ingeniously adopted the strange signs to new ends. Aleph, 
 He, and Ayin were turned without difficulty into a, t, and 
 o .• Yodh became t, as it seems that the semi-vowel y had 
 totally disappeared from Greece even at that early period: 
 on the same principle Vav might have served to express 
 v, although apparently the ti>-sound was still sufficiently 
 common to require the retention of Vav with its con- 
 sonantal value. But from what source they took their 
 upsilon cannot be known with certainty. Professor Key 
 thinks that it is the Hebrew form of Ayin, which differs 
 much in shape from the nearly perfect circle of the old 
 Phoenician. This is possible enough, for the sound of 
 Ayin was not more like o than u; and if the Greeks knew 
 the two forms, it is not likely that they may have taken 
 both. On the other hand, it is equally possible that v may 
 be a remnant of an earlier native alphabet. Among the 
 consonants /3, y, S, k, X, /*, v, ir, p, t were borrowed with 
 little change of form, and probably of value. And these 
 letters (with o- and the vowels already mentioned) are 
 stated by tradition to have been the only ones brought 
 to Greece from Phoenicia by Cadmus, others having been 
 added by Palamedes, Simonides, or Epicharmus; but which 
 were the letters added by each of these is a question on 
 which the different authorities do not agree; and the incor- 
 rectness of most of them is proved by the letters being found 
 in Greek inscriptions before the time of their supposed 
 inventor. In fact, all tradition on this point is worthless, 
 unless it is borne out by inscriptions. It is at least probable 
 that the whole alphabet was borrowed at one time, for all, 
 or nea?ly all, the characters occur on the oldest inscriptions 
 we possess. Thus on inscriptions of Thera dating from 
 Olympiad 40 (see Franz, Epigraphice G rosea, pp. 51-59; 
 Kirchhoff, Studien zur Geschichte des Griechischen Alphabets, 
 
 p. 41), we find Cheth in the form Q . denoting mainly the 
 
 rough breathing h, but also applied to denote e, as it 
 afterwards did regularly by the name Eta: Teth occurs 
 
 as ©, nearly the later Theta ; and Koph as G , Koppa, a 
 
 symbol which was once current throughout Greece, and 
 
 1—21 
 
 remained universally as the numeral 90, though as a letter 
 it was retained only by the Dorians, and _passed with the 
 Doric alphabet into Italy as Q. It may be observed that 
 in this alphabet, and in some later ones of Crete, Corinth, 
 r.nd Corcyra, Iota appears not as a straight line, but in 
 many curved shapes, approximating much nearer to the old 
 Phoenician ; and the same is true of Pi, which has the top 
 rounded like a crook. We have then left only the four 
 sibilants, Zayin, Samekh, Tsadhe, and Shin. These are 
 believed to have had the values dz, s, Is, sh respectively. 
 We have already said that the Greeks had no ^reat affec- 
 tion for sibilants ; witness the manner in which o- was 
 constantly dropped, e.g., in yeWos for ytvecr-os. It was 
 therefore not to be expected that they could employ all 
 the wealth of the Phoenicians; and one symbol (Tsadhe) 
 appears in no Greek alphabet. The name, however, recalls 
 
 the name Zeta; but the shape of Zeta (always ^T ) is 
 
 unquestionably that of Zayin ; and its place in the alphabet 
 agrees to this. It seems, therefore, most probable that the 
 Greeks confounded together the two compound sounds 
 dz and ts, and kept but one symbol, perhaps with the 
 name of the other (Tsadhe), because it was most like that 
 of the neighbouring letters Eta and Theta. This con- 
 fusion of the two sounds seems the more probable when 
 we remember that no symbol was required for the com- 
 pound ts at the time when a special symbol for ps was 
 added, and that for ks (another analogous compound) 
 perhaps revived. There is also much uncertainty with 
 regard to the relations of Samekh and Shin in their Greek 
 dress. Xi ( — ks) occupies the place of Samekh, sigma of 
 Shin. One form of Samekh seems unquestionably to have 
 furnished that of the Greek 2 (see the forms, p. 600); 
 
 another Hh is exactly the Greek £ of all the inscriptions. 
 
 Sigma had the sound (s) of Samekh, and cannot be shown 
 ever to have had the sound (sh) of Shin. Two names were 
 preserved among the Greeks, sigma and san. Herodotus 
 (L 139) speaks of the "same letter which the Dorians call 
 <rdv, the Ionians o-ry/io;" and though san was no letter 
 of the Ionic alphabet, the compound sampi ( = <rav + m) 
 denoted 900. The name san is obviously the Semitic shin 
 or sin: it is just possible that crty/ia may be an attempt to 
 turn samekh into a form which should explain its meaning 
 to Greek ears. The oldest Greek alphabets known to us — 
 those of Thera, Melos, Crete, and the earlier forms of 
 
 those of Argos, Corinth, and Corcyra — have the form ^ 
 
 to denote s, — that is, the equivalent of Shin. It seems 
 fair to infer that this was originally the - case in the other 
 alphabets also. Then this symbol was dropped by degrees 
 to avoid confusion with m, while one form of samekh, with 
 the name sigma, was introduced into its place : another 
 form was kept in its old place to denote the compound 
 ks (xi). 
 
 We now come to the apparently non-Phoenician letters 
 of the Greek alphabet, <f>, x» "/s *>■ Of v we have 
 already spoken : we may add that its sound was not a 
 pure u, but modified, perhaps as is the German u. This 
 appears from the fact that, when the Romans borrowed 
 Greek words in the later times of the republic (when 
 Roman taste had grown more scrupulous), they did not 
 use their own symbol u to denote the Greek vpsilon (as 
 their forefathers had done), but together with the sound 
 borrowed the symbol also: which clearly shows that the 
 sound of vpsilon was different from the ordinary u. We 
 now take the aspirates <j> and %. It is most probable that 
 the sounds of the Greek aspirates x, 6, <t>, were not those of 
 the German ch, and the English th and /: that is, they 
 were probably not continuous consonants, but momentary
 
 610 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 Bounds, followed in each caso by a slight but distinctly 
 audible breath ; so that x might be represented in English 
 characters by Wk, though the following breath is not so 
 distinct as an English k, — if it were, we should have 
 a compound, not a simple sound. Now two of these 
 aspirates were actually written in the oldest alphabets KH 
 
 and P H (pi having the right down-stroke much shorter 
 
 than the left) : for the dental the single symbol 6, borrowed 
 from the Phoenician, sufficed. Afterwards the. symbols 
 <f> and x (variants (D and + ) were taken to supply the 
 place of these compounds, from what source cannot be 
 certainly known; but it is not impossible that they may 
 have been characters of an older Greek alphabet which 
 originally had the values p and k. This draws some proba- 
 bility from the history of \fr. That letter was originally 
 
 written P£ ; and £, of which we have already spoken, 
 
 written aSiKS (or KM). But each of these also appears 
 as #2 and X2; so that here at-least <£ and % appear as no 
 
 more than p and k: the compound Q) J remained perma- 
 nently in the Western alphabets. It is to Epicharmus that 
 tradition (here with some probability) ascribes the estab- 
 lishment of i/f in the alphabet The history of.<u is closely 
 connected with that of ij. At an early period, certainly 
 before the 40th Olympiad, in the eastern part of HeUas 
 an attempt was made to distinguish the different kinds 
 of e. The symbol e had hitherto denoted both c and the 
 diphthong «, where the i waa probably not a much more 
 important sound than the y — e.g., in our day. The habit 
 of writing the two symbols came in late in the Ionic 
 alphabet, and so spread through Greece. But at the earlier 
 time of which we speak the symbol H began to denote 
 some e. It is commonly supposed that this was long e as 
 distinguished from epsilon, which, by the way, does not 
 mean $hort e, but "e unaccompanied," perhaps by that 
 after sound of i mentioned above, though a different reason 
 is commonly given for the name. It seems very strange 
 that the Greeks should have introduced symbols to express 
 long e and o, and none to mark the length of the other 
 vowels, which must have been just as urgently needed: 
 surely this would have been done at Athens at the time of 
 the formal introduction of the Ionian alphabet. Again, 
 there are a great many recognisable varieties of sound 
 which border closely on pure e and o (but none of im- 
 portance near i and u), and such varieties are clearly 
 marked in the south of Europe now. For these two 
 separate reasons, it seems at least more probable that t) 
 was adopted to express a sound the same, or nearly the 
 same, as the open e of the Italians. For the same reasons, 
 it seems probable that oi was taken not to denote long o, 
 but a more open sound ; perhaps something between open o 
 and the English aw. The form fi is of doubtful origin. It 
 is found in an alphabet of Miletus of about Olympiad 60 ; 
 not earlier. It looks like a conscious modification .of O. 
 
 Greek writing in the earliest times was from right to 
 left, following the example of Phoenicia: several specimens 
 of this still exist. The more convenient practice of writing 
 from left to right soon became universal. It was preceded, 
 however, by an intermediate method, in which the direction 
 of the lines was alternately right to left and left to right, 
 &■> that it was not. necessary to carry the eye back, as with 
 us, from the end of one line to the beginning of the next, 
 l^iis was called /3ovo~rpo<f>rj&6v, because the lines were made 
 u. the same way as the furrows by oxen in ploughing. 
 
 Kirchhoff distinguishes two main divisions of Greek 
 alphabets — the East and the West; not that this geographi- 
 cal distribution is exact, but it is the most convenient. The 
 •astern includes first tie alphabets of the towns of Asia 
 
 Minor — Halicarnassns, Ephcsua, Teos, Miletus, Colophon, 
 and Rhodes, which, agreeing essentially, became that Ionic 
 alphabet that was adopted at Athens 463 B.C., and is 
 the Greek alphabet with which we are familiar ; secondly, 
 those of the yEgean islands — Thera, Melos, Crete, Paros, 
 Siphnos, Thasos, Naxos, — in which fi does not stand for 
 Omega, but occasionally appears as well as o for Omicron, 
 and there are other minute differences in the shape of the 
 letters ; thirdly, some of the alphabets of the mainland of 
 Greece, which have a closer affinity to the Ionic than to 
 their neighbours, viz., the old one of Attica, down to 
 01. 94 — Argos, Corinth and its colonics, Corcyra, and even 
 Syracuse. The western division includes the • remainder 
 of the towns of Greece proper and their Sicilian and 
 Italian colonies; these are marked by peculiar variations 
 of certain characters, especially g, e, h, th, I, r, and s, by 
 the use of A as the aspirate only, by the absence of omega, 
 
 and by the universal application of the symbol ^ or ^ 
 
 to denote, not ps, but ch, whilst X or +, the symbol of 
 ch in the eastern alphabets, here denotes x. Compare with 
 this last variation what we have said above of the use of 
 X2 to express X : there can be little doubt that it was 
 from the occurrence of X in this collocation, and no other, 
 that this new value for it arose, and 2 was dropped. It 
 is significant that in the old Latin alphabet XS appear 
 instead of X. The difference in value of V in the eastern 
 and western alphabets is perplexing : it seems that in one 
 or the other the original value must have been consciously 
 changed, but it is not easy to say in which. The most 
 important alphabet of this group for our purpose is that of 
 the Chalcidian colonies of Sicily and the west coast of 
 Italy — Cumas, Neapolis; <fcc. — because from this was derived 
 the Latin alphabet, the direct progenitor of our own. It 
 is distinguished from others of the same clas3 by the 
 
 rounded form of the Gamma £ , by the peculiar form of 
 
 the Lambda L , by the very old Mu (/w)> and by a rounded. 
 
 Sigma ^ , though it has also the two other ordinary forms. 
 
 ^ and 2;: in common with some other western alphabets, 
 it has a double rho (P and R). (See p. 600.) 
 
 From this Chalcidian alphabet it seems clear that all 
 the Italian alphabets were derived. They fall into two 
 families, which differ from each other- considerably, but 
 principally in the loss of old letters and the insertion of 
 new — differences which do not militate against their com- 
 mon origin, but show the cause of their separate develop- 
 ment. Thelfirst family contains the Etruscan, Umbrian, 
 and Oscan alphabets ; the second the Latin and Faliscan. 
 Into the peculiarities of the members of the first group we 
 do not propose to enter at length : they agree in the total 
 rejection of O and X, and the addition of a strange symbol 
 
 Q to denote the/ sound, van being retained with a slightly 
 
 modified form for v: the Etruscan retains the symbols 
 CD and V which the other two dropped, and the Etruscan 
 and Umbrian agree in rejecting the^ soft mutes. The 
 Umbrian, however, has a new symbol for a modified d, 
 peculiar to itself, and also for a modified k ; the Oscan. 
 has new symbols for a modified i and a, and in general 
 shows a difference in the shape of its. characters from all 
 the other' Italian dialects, which does not seem due to any 
 other foreign influence so much as to its own individuality. 
 These three languages are all written from right to left, 
 in which the Faliscan agrees with them : the Latin alone, 
 from the earliest time of which we have any records, was 
 written from left to right ; but there can be little doubt 
 that it did not originally differ from its fellows, but 
 changed at a later time, just as the Greek alphabet itself
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 <)11 
 
 had done. The fact that X, found in the Latin and 
 Faliscan alphabets, hag the value of x, and not of ch, and 
 that V. aa already mentioned, is found with the value of 
 eh in Etruscan, shows that the common source of these five 
 alphabets was a western, not an eastern Greek alphabet ; 
 and the rounded form of C, and the peculiar L (V, not A) 
 limit the choice to the Chalcidian family. The points in 
 which the Latin differs from the Chalcidian alphabet of 
 Cuma?, from wliich it was probably derived through com- 
 mercial intercourse, lie — 
 
 (1.) In the application of the symbol van (F), to denote 
 not the v but the / sound, which was probably strange to 
 the Greeks. 
 
 (2.) In allowing K to fall almost out of use — it was 
 employed only in abbreviations, such as the first letter of a 
 pramomen, as Kaeso, or for Kalenda?, &c. — and employing C 
 instead, which had of course in the present Greek alpha- 
 bet the power of g. This change may point to a time when 
 the distinction of the sounds k and g was obliterated, to 
 be afterwards restored. 
 
 (3.) In the formation of the new symbol G — i. e., C 
 with a distinguishing line — to mark the soft gutturals, 
 when the want of a distinctive symbol was again felt. 
 This was some time in the 3d century B.C. ; but instead of 
 replacing K for the hard guttural sound, they preferred to 
 leave C in its old place, but with a new value, k instead of 
 g; while the modified form G was inserted into the place 
 
 of j~ (Z), which may have been taken, by the Romans 
 
 (as it certainly was found in the other Italian alphabets), 
 but which fell out of use absolutely without any record. 
 
 (4.) In absence of the aspirates V> ©. and ©: these 
 sounds were not natural to the Roman tongue, and there- 
 fore the symbols were never regularly received into their 
 alphabet, though liu-y were taken to represent numerals. 
 Their forms, howe.er, were much altered, and so in process 
 of time they became confused with other letters : thus Y 
 denoted 50; but it came to be written _L, and so naturally 
 passed into the quite meaningless L : © denoted 1 0, 
 but being too cumbrous to write, the circle was dropped, 
 and the cross (X) alone remained. A variant form of the 
 same letter (0) seems to have originally represented 100, 
 and either to have been shortened into the common form 
 C, or C superseded it as being the first letter of centum. 
 Q) was taken for 1000, but for convenience of writing it 
 was broken up into CIO, and this was the more easily done 
 because the parts were characters in use; but this symbol 
 also was replaced by M, the first letter of mille. It is 
 probable that © was simply divided, and the half of it (D) 
 then stood for half of 1000, or 500; and half of X, ten, 
 became V, five. Neither D nor V have any other propriety 
 as symbols. 
 
 (5.) In the addition, in the 1st century B.C., of the two 
 symbols Y and Z after X (which had long been the last 
 letter of the alphabet), to express the Greek sounds v and 
 Z. In borrowed words these in earlier times had been 
 roughly denoted by u and ss; but in Cicero's day greater 
 precision was desired; and not being able to compound 
 two characters of their own to denote the strange sound 
 (as they did for the aspirates kh, th, ph, formerly denoted 
 ouly by k, t, and p or 6), they took sound and symbol 
 together, so that <I>puyes appeared, not as Bruges, but as 
 Phryges : Tpairt&Trjs ceased to bo tarpesslla, and sona be- 
 came zona, &c. 
 
 The Latin alphabet agrees with the Chalcidian in the 
 retention of koppa ( 9 ) ; the downward stroke became by 
 degrees more oblique. This symbol had a much wider 
 use in Latin than it had in any Greek language : it was 
 needed to express a modified i-sound which the Latins 
 liked, wherein a slight w 60und was heard after the k. 
 
 This sound was distasteful to the Greeks, and consequently 
 they changed this kw (or qu) into/); so also did the other 
 Italians (compare equos, hnros, Epoiva, ic); but the Romans 
 liked it. and therefore, alone in Italy, kept the ? to denote 
 it. It is true that the Q was generally followed by a. 
 written ii, though not always in the older inscriptions ; 
 but it was fully recognised that thi3 u was not a real 
 letter. It was only a symbol expressing further, and 
 somewhat unnecessarily, the indistinct after-sound which 
 made Q different from K ; it would have been more logical 
 to have written Q alone, as was actually attempted under 
 the empire, where we find on inscriptions forms such as 
 qis, qidem, qaerella; but this never became general. The 
 Latin and Chalcidian alphabets are again at one in not 
 having the s3Tnbol M for s, differing in this respect from 
 the alphabets of South Italy, and also fiom the Etiuscan 
 and Umbriau, which had both forms. Lastly, the Chal- 
 cidian (as we saw) had two forms for r, P and R; of these 
 the Latin chose the last, and generally employed the first 
 
 for p; though for that leiter the genuine Crock form P 
 
 also appears rarely. 
 
 The Romans did not retain the Greek names for the 
 characters of the alphabet. The vowels were known by 
 their sounds only. The momentary sounds and h were 
 denoted by their own sound followed by a vowel, as he, ce r 
 de, ge, pe, and te, but ka, ha ; q, as we saw, had sufficient 
 vowel sound to float it ; on the other hand, the continuous} 
 consonants were preceded by the vowel, as ef, el, em, en, 
 er, es ; x was called ix. The difference in the names of 
 the consonants obviously was caused by their nature : 
 momentary sounds are produced by a complete closure and 
 opening of the organs required in each case ;*when this 
 opening is made, the organs are so placed as to form a 
 vowel, which naturally is produced by the remnant of 
 sound required for the consonant ; whereas a vowel cannot 
 be produced before any one of these sounds without 
 conscious effort : hence it was simpler to call k, ka, than tt> 
 call it ok. But the continuous sounds are pronounced, 
 when the necessary organs only approximate more or less 
 closely to each other; the .channel through which the 
 sound passes from the larynx to the lips i3 never, closed 
 altogether, and by reason of this slightly open position a 
 certain amount of vowel sound tends to escape just as the 
 organs are drawing together to produce the consonant, and 
 thus is heard before it ; but to sound a vowel after one of 
 these '.onsonants the organs must be intentionally put into 
 the p.oper position. Thus, then, exactly the same principle. 
 — the conscious or unconscious striving for ease of articula- 
 tion — produces exactly opposite results in the case of the 
 momentary and the continuous consonants. The same 
 reason caused a different vowel to be employed for h and h 
 from that which is used for the other letters. In sounding 
 a the organs are in nearly the same position as in sounding 
 these two gutturals, only a little more open ; whereas the 
 position of e is more nearly that of all the other consonants. 
 It must of course be remembered that a Roman, if he bad 
 wished to speak of his ABC, would not have said, as we 
 do, a-bee-see, but ah-bay-kay. 
 
 The arrangement of the letters of the alphabet hast 
 caused much ingenious speculation. It has been more 
 than once pointed out (as by Prof. Key, The Alphabet, p. 2tf) 
 that there are enrtainly traces of regularity of arrangement 
 The three soft momentary sounds b, g, rf, were placed 
 together ; and it is possible that p, k, t (if denoted by 
 Pe, Koph, Tau), may have once been together, and sepa- 
 rated by later intrusions ; 7, m, n have an affinity more 
 apparent than real, which was perpetuated by their 
 meaningless designation as "liquids;" still, the appearance 
 is sufficient to justify the idea that they may have beeg
 
 612 
 
 ALP Hi.E E-'l 
 
 purposely put together. It has been suggested that the 
 alphabet was at first composed of " four quaternions" of 
 letters, each headed by a vowel, and the scattered position 
 of the vowels lends itself to this arrangement ; but it must 
 be remembered that the arrangement of the European 
 alphabets is certainly the same as that of Phoenicia, and in 
 the Phoenician there were breathings but no vowel symbols. 
 Besides, the remaining letters are just as necessary as any 
 sixteen which we might so arrange, and to all appearance 
 just as ancient. The author of the New Cratylus, indeed 
 (p. 170, ed. 3), actually drew up his list of fours : the 
 three soft momentaries headed by aleph ; then came h, 
 followed by vau, cheth, and tetk, oddly grouped . as 
 aspirates ; then the three " liquids," with eamekh behind 
 them ; and lastly, pe, hoph, and tau, under the care of ayin. 
 This, of course, renders it necessary to " omit caph, which 
 is only a softened form of coph, the liquid resh, and the 
 eemi-vowel yodh, which are of more recent introduction." 
 Also it is " quite certain that at the first there was only 
 one sibilant, same/eh." In this way Dr Donaldson satisfies 
 himself that the " original Semitic alphabet contained only 
 sixteen letters." We give this futile attempt at arrange- 
 ment with no wish to sneer at a philologer who did good 
 work in his day, but simply to show the arbitrary nature of 
 all such attempts, resting as they must do simply on internal 
 evidence. If we bear in mind the history of the derivation 
 of the Phoenician alphabet, as we have attempted to give 
 it, from the Egyptian hieratic, we shall conclude that it is 
 hardly probable that symbols borrowed for practical uses 
 should have been arranged upon any scientific method ; 
 that chance guided the general arrangement, though a few 
 sounds obviously similar may have been put intentionally 
 together. No argument can be drawn (as by Rodiger in 
 his Hebrew Grammar) from the juxtaposition of two letters 
 meaning a hand (yodh and kaph), two meaning a head 
 (koph and resh), &c. ; reasons have been given above for 
 believing that these names have no relation to the original 
 import of the signs, but were merely fanciful analogies 
 drawn by the Phoenicians themselves; and it seems as 
 possible that the juxtaposition may have suggested the 
 idea of the names as that the names caused the arrange- 
 ment. But if the argument be sound, it is valid against 
 the supposition that the order was fixed throughout on 
 scientific grounds. 
 
 It is quite certain that the Teutonic tribes of north- 
 western Europe possessed characters of some sort before 
 they received the Greek or Latin alphabets. These 
 characters are generally called runes, and have been the 
 subject of some sound scholarship and much baseless 
 speculation. They may be divided into three main classes 
 — the Anglo-Saxon, the German, and the Scandinavian ; 
 each of these contain a number of lists of characters, 
 which, however, do not differ from each other more than 
 the Greek alphabets ; and there is so much likeness in the 
 whole family that we may infer a common origin for alL 
 The term rune is recognised as the name of a German 
 letter by Venantius Fortunatus at the beginning of the 
 seventh century, in the lines — 
 
 Barbara fraxineis pingatur rhuna tabellia ; 
 Quodque papyrus agit, virgula plana valet. 
 
 i.e., these characters were cut on smoothed ash-boughs. 
 The meaning of the word run in Anglo-Saxon is a " secret;" 
 end the verb rynan, which is derived from the same, 
 means " to whisper" — the same verb which appears in the 
 now disused phrase, to " round in the ear." Runa denoted a 
 magician ; the word is contained in the German alruna, 
 the well-known designation of those prophetesses whom 
 the German tribes venerated, which appears corrupted by 
 Tacitus (Germ. c. viiL) into aurinia. There is sufficient 
 jBvidence to show that the knowledge of these runes was 
 
 confined to a 6mall class ; that they were used as magical 
 characters, and also as means of augury. It was for this 
 reason undoubtedly that they were generally proscribed on 
 the introduction of Christianity ; and the reception of the 
 Latin characters by the Anglo-Saxons was regarded as 
 important as their reception of the Christian doctrines. 
 
 It is impossible to believe that the barbarous inhabitants 
 of the German forests should havo worked out for them- 
 selves a genuine alphabet before they came into intercourse 
 with the civilised nations of the south. When we 
 remember the long process through which a pure alphabet 
 was reached by the highly-developed nations which dwelt 
 on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, it is utterly 
 incredible that such success should have been achieved, as 
 it were, per saltum, under so much more unfavourable 
 circumstances in the West. It may be asserted with some 
 confidence that if the runes were genuine alphabets (which 
 there seems no reason to deny), they must have been derived 
 from the Phoenicians in process of commerce. There is quite 
 sufficient similarity in several of the characters to make 
 this view antecedently probable, but any historical proof 
 would be extremely difficult, if not impossible. It is true 
 that even where the characters resemble the Phoenician the 
 names of the letters differ altogether ; but this, as we have 
 before seen in the case of the Phoenicians themselves, is 
 nowise unnatural when an alphabet is borrowed ; the form 
 is important, the name signifies little, and new names are 
 attached according to the fancy of the borrowers. It is 
 highly probable, both from the meaning of the word rune 
 itself and from the evidence of foreign writers, that these 
 symbols were not used by their owners for any of the 
 ordinary ends of an alphabet (except, perhaps, for inscrip- 
 tions) until the Teutonic nations came into contact with 
 Greek and Roman civilisation ; by the mass of the people 
 they were probably looked on simply as charms, the 
 unknown symbols of an occult science. Nay, it might be 
 held that even to the initiated they had merely a sort of 
 hieroglyphic value, and were developed into phonetic 
 significance only by the contact of the Greek and Roman 
 alphabets; For this view, indeed, there is no evidence, 
 and it is not in itself probable. But we should be driven 
 to it if we were to suppose that the runes were the creation 
 of the Teutonic intellect. 
 
 These ancient characters occur plentifully on memorial 
 stones, rings, coins, &c, in Scandinavia. In England they 
 have been found principally in Northumbria, Mercia, and 
 East Anglia. It has been suggested (by Mr Haigh) that 
 this may be due to the milder principles of the Irish 
 monks, who restored Christianity to the north of England 
 after its fall with Edwin in 633, and did not pursue that 
 system of eradicating every trace of paganism which had 
 been originally commanded by Gregory. Runic writing 
 was even employed in the service of Christianity. Mr 
 Kemble (Archceologia, vol. xxviii. p. 349) interpreted with 
 great ingenuity the mutilated inscription on tho famous 
 cross discovered at Ruthwell, and showed that it refers to 
 the Crucifixion. But the Anglo-Saxon alphabet was soon 
 — early in the 7th century — conformed to the Latin type, 
 those letters of the older form alone being retained which 
 were required to denote sounds that had no counterparts 
 in Latin ; these were J> (wen), and f (thorn), the latter of 
 which expresses the surd breathing heard in "thin:" in 
 order to express the corresponding sonant (heard in "Mat," 
 and confusedly denoted by the same compound th) a stroke 
 was drawn across the simple d (6), and the new letter 
 was called edh. The symbol 3 is sometimes found instead 
 of y. Curious admixtures of runes with Latin characters 
 occasionally occur even to late times. Thus, in the Codex 
 Exoniensia (p. 400, ed. Thorpe), an enigma occurs in verso, 
 and the parts apparently of the subject to be guessed arp
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 61S 
 
 written in runes; the odd effect is increased'by these runes 
 being written in the regular way — (sometimes they were 
 written jiovo-Tpo^-qhov) — from right to left, contrary to the 
 general run of the words. Kemble, in the Archoeologia, has 
 given an interesting translation of an Anglo-Saxon poem, 
 each stanza of which begins with the name of a runic 
 letter; thus the first stanza begins with Fesh, " money," 
 the name of/) the first runic letter, and goes on to say — 
 
 " Money is a consolation 
 To every man : 
 Yet shall every man 
 Liberally distribute it ; 
 If he will that, before God, 
 Honour shall fall to his lot.'' 
 
 The second stanza is dedicated to the bull, Ur (a), the 
 third to thorn (th), fcc. This poem accordingly gives the 
 order of the alphabet, which agrees in the main with that 
 of all other runic alphabets. Yet the poem is not old, for 
 the name of s (Sigel, " the sun ") is treated by the writer 
 as though it- had been Segel " a sail" — clearly'a mistake of 
 a later time, when the true name had passed out of use. 
 It may be added that the names of this alphabet are some- 
 times strangely abstract ; thus we find " gift," " hope," 
 " need," " war," which differ much from the very concrete 
 objects which the Phoenicians chose to denote their letters. 
 In consequence of all these old alphabets beginning with 
 the letters /,•«, th, o, r, c, in the same order, the alphabets 
 are called by some antiquarians " futhorcs," just as we 
 commonly speak of the ordinary alphabet as the ABC. 
 
 The doctrines of Christianity were first presented to a 
 Teutonic people in a written form by Ulfilas, who, though 
 not the 'first successful missionary to the Goths, has thereby 
 established his claim to be regarded as the apostle of his 
 race ; and while the main body of the Goths, spurning the 
 weak control of Home, poured westward in their fierce 
 career of victory towards Italy and Spain, a remnant was 
 left in Msesia, to whom Ulfilas gave the gospel in their own 
 tongue. This was at the end of the 4th century of our era. 
 He emplo} T ed an alphabet of twenty-four or twenty-five 
 letters, some of which are unmistakably Greek in form ; 
 others are common (or nearly so) to the Greek and the 
 pinic alphabets, and may therefore have been derived 
 from either ; but if they were runic, they at least received 
 a more rounded form, it being no longer necessary to 
 retain those angles which (as we saw above in describing 
 the cuneiform characters) were most convenient in days 
 when writing meant cutting on stone or wood. But some 
 of the letters seem to be beyond doubt runic : most clearly 
 so are/, r, u, y, and the symbol for the compound sound 
 kw ; and the reason for all these (except r) appears to be 
 the lack of a proper equivalent in Greek. The letter which 
 Ulfilas adopted to denote the surd breath th is not runic, 
 so that the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon alphabets here differ : 
 it is apparently the Greek <p. It would seem, therefore, that 
 this letter still denoted an aspirate (p'h) in Greek, and not 
 a breath, otherwise it would surely have been taken for/; 
 here, on the contrary, it seems to have been selected at 
 random from a list of symbols which denoted no corre- 
 sponding sounds in Gothic. On the same lack of principle 
 G was taken to denote hw. X was the exponent of the 
 breath ch, as heard in German words : here the difference 
 between the true aspirate and the breath is not great. 
 Long o formed a symbol which is very like omega. 
 
 Another alphabet which has had an important influence 
 on Europe, and which may be destined to a yet wider 
 extension as the alphabet (in a modified form) of the 
 great and progressive Russian empire, is the Cyrillic. This 
 was the work of Cyril, a monk of Constantinople, who, 
 together with Methodius preached the gospel among the 
 Sclavonic tribes of Bulgaria and Moravia, in the 9th 
 eentury, long after the Teutons had come under the influ- 
 
 ence of Christianity. Cyril held the services of the church' 
 among his new converts in the vulgar tongue, into which 
 he also translated certain books of the Scriptures. The 
 alphabet which he employed for' this purpose is more 
 thoroughly Greek than that of Ulfilas ; but since the 
 Greek alphabet was not nearly sufficient to express all the 
 Sclavonic sounds — especially the numerous sibilants — ho 
 added further signs, the history of which is not clear. 
 This alphabet has been largely adopted by the eastern 
 branches of the Sclavonic race, including the Russians, 
 Bulgarians, and the IUyrian division of the Sclaves. The 
 old Bulgarian (commonly called the Ecclesiastical Sclavonic) 
 is the language into which Cyril translated the Scriptures ; 
 in philology it holds the same rank as the Gothic has 
 among the Teutonic languages : it is the parent, however, 
 only of one of the least important dialects, the modern 
 Bulgarian. The Illyrian family is divided into the Servians 
 on the one hand, and the Croats and Slovenian peoples on 
 the other. These parties are separated by difference of 
 religion : the Servians belong mainly to the Greek Church, 
 while the others are exclusively Roman Catholic ; and tho 
 members of the Greek Church naturally cling to tho 
 Cyrillic characters, while the Catholics have adopted the 
 Latin alphabet. It is not easy to predict which characters 
 will ultimately predominate. The Latin letters are in- 
 sufficient to express the Sclavonic sounds ; but this deficiency 
 can be eked out by diacritical signs, and the greatest 
 literary activity is shown by the Latinising party. Lastly, 
 the Cyrillic alphabet has been adopted by the Wallachians, 
 through the influence of their Sclavonic neighbours, 
 though it is little adapted to express their essentially 
 Latin speech, derived from the colonists whom Trajan 
 settled in the new Roman province of Dacia. Most of 
 the needless symbols have been dropped in the newest 
 form of the Wallachian alphabet. (See Max Miiller. 
 Survey of Languages, pp. 39-84.) 
 
 Cyril's original alphabet consisted of forty-eight symbols, 
 but some of these are slightly different representations of 
 the same sound; others are tachygraphies for combina- 
 tions of sound, as sht, ts, &.C. The names were not Greek, 
 with the exception of three — ksi, ,psi, and thita — which 
 were relegated to the end as unnecessary, but they retained 
 their.original Greek place as numerical signs. The alphabet 
 is printed at the end of this article. It will be seen that 
 B occupies the third place, while a modified B stands 
 -second: the reason is, that B had come to denote the 
 v sound in Greek, and therefore carried this value into 
 the Sclavonic. The modified letter denotes the old b sound. 
 The 7th letter, which is not Greek, had the sound of 
 English soft/, a little softer than the French/ in jamais. 
 The 8th and 9th symbols are the Greek * and z: they 
 are supposed to have had the same sound, that of the soft 
 English 2 (not dz) — perhaps one of them may have originally 
 denoted dz, a sound which easily passes into dj; dj had a 
 special symbol both in the Servian and Wallachian, though 
 it had none in the Cyrillic, probably because the sound 
 had not then been produced; if it had, we may conclude, 
 from the exactness which the Cyrillic alphabet everywhere 
 shows, that it would not have been left without a mark. 
 The 8th letter has been expelled from the Russian alphabet aa 
 superfluous : the Russians have no dj sound. The 1 Oth and 
 1 lth letters were sounded alike as i; the 10th is the Greek 
 Eta, which had therefore become undistinguishable from 
 Iota in Cyril's day, as it is in modern Greek. The 1 2th 
 letter, / pure and simple, denoted the semi-vowel y. The 
 22d was t, followed by a parasitic y. The 23d and 24th 
 are only different ways of writing the same combination ou; 
 the Greeks having changed the u sound into ii, Cyril was 
 obliged to write ou for u, as the Greeks themselves did. 
 The Russian has one symbol (y) to denote this sound: it is
 
 614 
 
 alphabet 
 
 probably a tachygraphy of the 24th. The 25th and 26th 
 denoted respectively the breathings /and German ch. We 
 may recall here the different treatment of <f> by Ulfilas; it 
 seems a fair inference that the sound of <£ had changed 
 from an aspirate to a breathing between the times of 
 Ulfilas and CyriL The 27th and 28th are the Greek 
 Omega in the simple and in a modified form: they de- 
 noted the sounds heard in note and not respectively; 
 these have been dropped in all the derived alphabets, in 
 ■which the 17th letter does -work for both. We now come 
 to a series of letters (29-44) which are not Greek, and 
 denote sounds which were probably unknown, or at least 
 had no separate exponents, in the Greek system. The first 
 four are sibilants, simple or compound. It will be remem- 
 bered how the Greek dropped the large Phoenician stock 
 of sibilants, through their own disinclination to such 
 .sounds. CyriL however, did not go back to the original 
 types, but had recourse to the inartistic expedient of 
 using two or three upright strokes, with Bmall modifiers 
 below. Letter 29 is the compound ts, 30 denotes the fuller 
 compound tsch (English ch in " church"), 31 is the simple 
 sh, 32 is sht, which in Russian is said to be expressible 
 only by schtsch, unquestionably a very strong sibilant; the 
 newer form of Wallachian -used 29 to express dj. The 
 letters 33-36 were attempts to express the neutral vowel 
 (heard in English in fir, sun, &c), the first two in its 
 aspect nearest to u, the last two nearer to i. The first and 
 last are important in Russian: they are written, but not 
 pronounced; but the first hardens a preceding letter, or, 
 if it be a continuous consonant, makes it be sounded as 
 though it were double. The 36th, on the contrary, softens 
 a preceding letter, giving it the mouille sound. The 34th 
 letter has been dropped in Russian; the 35th has a pecu- 
 liar kind of i sound. The 37th letter has an e sound; it 
 was apparently introduced into the alphabet in consequence 
 of the polyphony of the original e, which in Russian does 
 the work of e, o, and as, and also of each of these preceded 
 by the semi-vowel y ; but as the new letter has three of these 
 sounds, there is not much gain of clearness. A third symbol, 
 
 however, has been introduced — an inverted e, P, which did 
 
 not belong to the Cyrillic alphabet: it is used at the begin- 
 ning of words where the pure e sound is heard — not ye, and 
 also in foreign words beginning with os. Letters 38-40 are 
 compounds expressing the v., a, and e sounds, preceded 
 by y. The combinations seem to us needless, but the 
 Greek had no symbol for y; therefore Cyril probably 
 thought it necessary to connect the I-symbol with the 
 following vowel, in order to show that it was only the 
 eeroi-vowel, not a full vowel, which would have caused 
 another syllable. The first of these symbols has been 
 retained in Russian unchanged; the second is now written 
 
 rather like an invertca r A; the third was suffered to 
 drop— whenco arose the confusion respecting « which we 
 have just mentioned. Nos. 41 and 42 denote nasalised 
 voweb, e and o, as heard in the French en and on: these 
 sounds seem to have fallen out of all Sclavonic languages, 
 except the Polish. 43 and 44 denote the same vowels 
 " pre-iotised," like 'the three 38—40 : theso aiso are now 
 unknown. Then came the Greek Ksi and Psi, the char- 
 acters being very slightly altered : they have fallen out of use 
 altogether. No. 47, Thita, is retainedin Russian, but sounded 
 as an f, which has thus two exponents, and <j>. Lastly 
 came the equivalent of the Greek Upsilon called ijica: this 
 is employed in Russian in words borrowed from the Greek. 
 Fourteen of these letters have been expelled from the 
 Russian alphabet, namely 8, 11, 22, 23, 27, 28, 34, 40-46; 
 their list of 35 letters is made up by the addition of the 
 inverted e, which stands in the 31st place of the alphabet. 
 The forms of the letters are more rounded than those of 
 Cyril, as will be seen by a comparison of the two. This 
 refcrm, among others, was due to Peter the Great, who 
 printed the first Russian periodical at Moscow in 1704. 
 (Max Miiller, Survey, p. 49.) 
 
 , The Servian alphabet differs from the Russian chiefly 
 by the insertion of symbols to denote modification of sound 
 caused by a following y. Thus we find a character to 
 express dy (equivalent to the Hungarian gy heard in 
 "Magyar"); another for ly, denoting the sound of the 
 Italian gli; another for ny, the Italian and French gn; 
 and one for ty, a softer sound than the tsch, the symbol 
 for which is common to Russian and Servian. 
 
 The Wallachian adopted nearly all the Cyrillic charac- 
 ters, except the superfluous vowel-symbols and the nasalised 
 vowels. The list was soon considerably shortened, as was 
 natural in a language originally non-Sclavonic, though m 
 the course of time it has naturally borrowed many words 
 from its neighbours. Since it has been used for literary 
 purposes, it has been further diminished to 27 symbols by 
 the loss of the short sibilant (32), the second e, and tho 
 iotised a; the other iotised vowels had gone before. The 
 forms of the characters have also been much assimilated to 
 the Latin types: instead of the peculiar symbol for sch, 
 which the Russian retains, the new Wallachian has a J 
 with a wavy stroke through the middle; n is written as N, 
 not as H ; and Cyril's combinations of perpendicular lines 
 are more rounded than the Russian. The Wallachian has 
 
 f 
 
 to denote the sound tin. 
 
 one special symbol 
 
 We have thus described the alphabets used in modern 
 Europe. The only others which have any special interest 
 for Englishmen are the different Indian alphabets; but 
 these are too numerous and complicated to be fully 
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 ALF-ALf 
 
 615 
 
 ALPHEUS, (A\<£«os), the chief river of Peloponnesus, 
 now called Patfia or Eoiiphi. Its sources are in the 
 mountains of Arcadia, to the east of Megalopolis. Being 
 •fed by a great number of small streams, it becomes navi- 
 gable, and traversing Elis, empties itself into the Ionian 
 sea. At several points in its course it run3 in a subter- 
 ranean channel This fact probably gave rise to the well- 
 known myth which represents Alpheus, the river-god, 
 as passing under the sea to the nymph Arethusa, who had 
 been changed into a fountain in the island of Ortygia. 
 Milton in his Arcades thus alludes to the story — 
 
 " That renowned flood, so often sung, 
 Divine Alpheus, who by secret sluice 
 Stole under seas to meet hi3 Arethuse." 
 
 ALPHOXSO, Alfonso. Alonzo, Affoxso, or Ildefoxso. 
 This name, so famous in the annals of the Spanish peninsula, 
 has been borne by no fewer than twenty-two of its sovereigns 
 — viz., by ten of the Asturias and Leon, one of Castile when 
 separate from Leon, five of Aragon, and six of Portugal. 
 
 1st, Asturias and Leon. — ALrnoxso I., surnamed " The 
 Catholic," King of the Asturias, the son of Pedro, duke of 
 Biscay, was born in the year 693. On the death of Favila, 
 the sou of Pelayo, Alphonso, who had married Ormisinda, 
 the daughter of the latter, was proclaimed king of Asturias. 
 During his whole reign he was engaged in almost perpetual 
 conflicts with the Moors, and is said to have wrested Leon, 
 Galicia, and Castile from their hands. His zeal for the 
 church, displayed in endowing and repairing monasteries 
 and churches, gained for him his surname of " The 
 Catholic." Alphonso died at Cangas in 757, and was 
 succeeded by his son Fruela I. 
 
 Alphoxso II., surnamed "The Chaste," King of the Astu- 
 rias, the son of Fruela I., was but a child when his father 
 was assassinated in 768, and consequently his claims to 
 the throne were passed over in favour of Aurelio, who was 
 probably a cousin of Fruela. Alphonso was invested with 
 regal authority by Silo, the successor of Aurelio j on whose 
 death, in 7S3, he became sole ruler. He was afterwards 
 dethroned by his uncle Mauregato, and was compelled to 
 retire into Biscay. Mauregato, after a reign of about five 
 years, was succeeded by Bermudo, who, in 791, took 
 Alphonso as his partner on the throne. Bermudo reigned 
 for only about four years longer. A rebellion of many of 
 the chief nobles in 802 compelled Alphonso to surrender 
 lis throne for the third time ; but he was soon afterwards 
 restored, mainly through the assistance of Theudius, one 
 of his most faithful followers. In addition to having to 
 defend himself against these internal dissensions, Alphonso 
 was during the greater part of his reign at war with the 
 Moors, obtaining, among other successes, a signal victory 
 over Mohammed, governor of Merida, in 830. Alphonso 
 died in 8-13, in the city of Oviedo, which he had greatly 
 adorned and made the capital of his kingdom. He had 
 some years previously abdicated in favour of Kamiro, son 
 of Bermudo. His surname of " The Chaste " has been 
 connected by some with the legend that he refused to pay 
 the Moors their tribute of a hundred Spanish virgins, but 
 is rather to be ascribed to his vow to preserve an absolute 
 continence. 
 
 Alphonso LTL, surnamed "The Great," King of the As- 
 turias, was born in the year 848, and succeeded his father 
 Ordono I. in 866. In the following year, Fruela, count of 
 Galicia, disputed Alphonso's right of succession, and forced 
 Mm to retire to Alava ; but Fruela's tyranny so exasper- 
 ated the people that he was assassinated before he had 
 been a year in power, and they gladly recalled Alphonso to 
 the throne. Other conspiracies marked the beginning 
 of Alphonso's reign, but he soon felt himself tolerably 
 .secure at home, and turned his arms against the Moors. 
 13y 901, the year in which he gained a splendid victory at 
 
 Zamora, he had, it is said, extended his empire to the 
 banks of the Guadiana, and had, by founding and fortifying 
 cities, made good his hold over a large part of the con- 
 quered territory. But Alphonso's victories abroad wero 
 greatly neutralised by discontent among his own subjects, 
 who found it difficult to bear the heavy war taxes that had 
 been imposed upon them. There was a rising under Ano 
 in 885, and another under Witiza in 894 ; and in 907 a 
 more formidable insurrection broke out, headed by Garcia, 
 the king's eldest son. Garcia was defeated and taken 
 prisoner ; but as the greater part of the nation sided with 
 the queen in demanding that he should bo released, 
 Alphonso, either wishing to prevent a civil war, or think- 
 ing that his cause was hopeless,- resigned his crown to his 
 son in 901. After his abdication, Alphonso, offering hi* 
 services to his son in the true spirit of the ago, led an 
 expedition against the Moors, in which he gaiued fresh 
 victories. He died towards the end of the same year (901). 
 He was the last monarch who bore the title King of Astu- 
 rias, his successors being called kings of Leon, from the 
 new capital of the kingdom. It wa3 in his reign that the 
 counts of Navarre became independent. There is still 
 extant a Latin chronicle, treating of the history of Spain 
 from the Moorish invasion down to the death of Ordoiio, 
 which is usually attributed to Alphonso. 
 
 Axphokso IV., " The Monk," King of Leon, succeeded 
 Fruela II., his uncle in 924. On the death of his wLe, 
 about six years afterwards, he resigned his crown to his 
 hrother Bamiro, and retired into a cloister ; but soon grow- 
 ing weary of monastic life, he made an attempt to resume 
 the sceptre. He was, however, taken prisoner at Leon, 
 and confined in the monastery of St Julien, where he died, 
 probably about two and a half years after. 
 
 AxrHoxso V. succeeded his father Bermudo IT. in 999, 
 being then about five years of age. Gonsalez, count of 
 Galicia, and his wife, were, by appointment of Bermudo II., 
 guardians of the young king ; and on arriving at manhood 
 he married their daughter Elvira. The regency is remark- 
 able for the defeat and death of the famous Moor Almansur 
 in 1002 — a success that led ultimately to the conquest of 
 Cordova by the Christians. Alphonso himself made war 
 upon the Moors, recapturing Leon and other places that 
 had been lost during his minority. Alphonso died at the 
 siege of Viseo in 1028. He was succeeded in the king- 
 dom of Leon by his son Bermudo III., while the hitherto 
 dependent countship of Castile became a separate kingdom 
 under the sovereignty of Sancho el Mayor, king of Navarre, 
 and husband of the eldest daughter of the late count. 
 
 Alphonso VI. of LeoD, and eventually I. of Castile, 
 surnamed " The Valiant," was born in the year 1030. His 
 father, Fernando the Great, who in his own right was 
 king of Castile only, but succeeded to the throne of Leon 
 in right of his wife, died in 1065, leaving his kingdom 
 divided among his children. Sancho, the eldest son, 
 received as his portion Castile ; to Alphonso was given the 
 kingdom of Leon, the territory of Campos, part of Asturias, 
 and some towns in Galicia ; and Garcia the youngest 
 brother, received a part of Galicia and of Portugal; while 
 the towns of Toro and Zamora were left to Urraca and 
 Elvira, Fernando's two daughters.' Peace was not long 
 maintained between the three brothers; In 1068 Sancho 
 made war upon Alphonso, and defeated him in a bloody 
 battle at Piantica, on the Pisuerga. In 1071, hostilities, 
 which seem to have been suspended, again commenced, 
 and Alphonso having recruited his army, defeated Sancho 
 at a place called Valpellage, on the banks of the Carrion ; 
 but the latter, being reinforced, it is said by the famous 
 Koderigo Diaz de Bivar, commonly called " The Cid," made 
 an attack during the night, and almost exterminated the 
 Leonnese army, Alphonso himself being taken prisoner. _ Ha
 
 616 
 
 ALFHONSO 
 
 was compelled to abdicate his throne, and was imprisoned 
 in the monastery of Sahagun, probably with the intention 
 of making him become a monk ; but escaping from this 
 place of confinement, he sought refuge with Almamun, the 
 Moorish king of Toledo, who received him with great hospi- 
 tality. Sancho having taken possession of Leon, advanced 
 into Oalicia against Garcia. The two brothers met at 
 Santarem, when the Galicians were defeated with great 
 slaughter, and Garcia himself captured and thrown into 
 prison. Sancho was assassinated in 1073, and Alphonso, 
 after making a solemn declaration that ho was guiltless of 
 his brother's death, was reinstated in his own dominion, 
 besides receiving his brother's kingdom of Castile. Garcia, 
 who had been liberated on the death of his brother, was 
 preparing to recover his throne, when Alphonso, having 
 treacherously invited him to his court, shut him up in the 
 castle of Luna, where he died ten years afterwards. Being 
 now the undisputed master of nearly all his father's king- 
 dom, Alphonso was at liberty to turn his arms against the 
 Moors. His first expedition, in 1074, was in defence of 
 Almamun of Toledo, who had befriended him in his ad- 
 versity, and whose kingdom was now invaded by the Cor- 
 dovans. Some years later, however, disregarding the 
 ties of gratitude, he himself laid waste the territories of 
 Yahia ben Ismail, the son and successor of Almamun, and 
 ended by taking the city of Toledo itself in 1085. Many 
 parts of Spain, hitherto subject to the Moors, were now 
 added to the empire of Alphonso ; and it is not improbable 
 that he would have reduced the entire peninsula to his 
 sway, had not a new and formidable power arisen, which 
 threatened to undo all he and his predecessors had accom- 
 plished. A large army of Moors from Africa, under Yussef 
 ben Tashfyn, one of the Almoravides, entered Spain, and, 
 with the assistance of Ben Abad, king of Seville, inflicted 
 i terrible defeat upon Alphonso near Zalaca, in the year 
 108G. Fortunately for the Christian cause, the Moorish 
 chiefs began to quarrel among themselves, and Alphonso 
 was enabled not only to recover his position, but even to 
 extend his conquests in some directions. In 1108, how- 
 ever, the Almoravides made another serious attempt to 
 destroy the power of Alphonso. A bloody battle was 
 fought at Ucles, in which the Leonnese army was com- 
 pletely defeated, and Sancho, Alphonso's only son, who 
 commanded in place of his father, slain. Alphonso died 
 at Toledo in' 1109, and was succeeded by his daughter 
 (Jrraca, whose husband, Alphonso I. of Aragon, is by 
 some historians enumerated among the kings of Leon 
 as Alphonso VII. Through his illegitimate daughter 
 Teresa, whom he gave in marriage to Henry of Burgundy, 
 Alphonso became an ancestor of the kings of Portugal. 
 Alphonso VII., the same as Alphonso L of Aragon 
 
 (*■"■> 
 
 Alphonso VIII. of Leon (or v L, according to those 
 
 who do not consider Alphonso ui Aragon as properly a 
 king of Leon) and II. (or IIL) of Castile, often called 
 Alphonso Raymond and " The Emperor," was born in 
 the year 1106. He was the son of Urraca, daughter 
 of Alphonso VL, and Raymond of Burgundy, her first 
 husbaud. In 1112 he was proclaimed king of Galicia, by 
 whom it does not clearly appear; in 1122 he was associated 
 with his mother in the government of Leon and Castile ; 
 and on her death in 1126 he became sole monarch. Soon 
 after this event he made war upon his stepfather, Alphonso 
 of Aragon,- in order to recover the territories, properly 
 belonging to Leon and Castile, which had been lost owing 
 to his mother's misgovernment. The two kings came to 
 an agreement about the year 1129, Alphonso of Leon 
 having regained most of .his possessions. In 1135, 
 Alphonso, elated by the homage of the king of Navarre 
 and the cs-.ir.t3 of Barcelona and Toulouse, caused himself 
 
 to be solemnly crowned emperor of Spain. This dignity 
 was, however, little more than a, name, for Alphonso 
 llenriqucz of Portugal and Garcia Ramiro of Navarro 
 declared war upon the new emperor almost immediately 
 after his elevation. Intestine feuds between the various 
 Christian princes of Spain, which resulted in no very 
 definite gain to any of them, lasted until the advance of 
 large Moorish armies under the Almohades compelled tbo 
 Christians to turn against their common foe. Alphonso 
 invaded Andalusia in 1150, and gained several victories, 
 which contributed greatly to the extension of ChristiaD 
 territory in Spain. He died in 1157 at Tremada, on hi* 
 return from an indecisive battle with Cid Yussef at Jaen ; 
 and was succeeded by his elder son, Sancho, in the throne of 
 Castile, and by his younger, Fernando, in that of Leon. 
 In 1156 he instituted the order of St Julien, afterwards so 
 celebrated under the name Alcantara (q.v.\ 
 
 Alphonso IX. (VIII.), King of Leon only, succeeded his 
 father Fernando in 1 1 88. In 1 1 90 he sought to strengthen! 
 his position by marrying his cousin Teresa of Portugal. 
 This marriage, being within the forbidden degrees, was pro- 
 nounced null by the pope (Celestine III.), who excom- 
 municated Alphonso and his queen until 1195, when they 
 agreed to separate. In 1197 Alphonso a second time defied 
 the papal authority by marrying his cousin Berengaria, 
 daughter of Alphonso III. of Castile, with a view of putting 
 a stop to the frequent quarrels between the two kingdoms. 
 As before, the pope (Innocent III.) prevailed, and in 
 1204 the separation took place, Innocent, however, granting 
 that the children already born should be recognised as 
 legitimate. After the dissolution of the marriage the old 
 chronic state of feud between the two kings returned, and 
 was kept up, although with little actual warfare, until the. 
 death of Alphonso of Castile inl214. In 1217, Fernando, 
 the eldest son of Alphonso and Berengaria, became king 
 of Castile. Alphonso, thinking that his own claims had 
 been unjustly passed over, declared war upon his son ; but 
 finding that the people preferred Fernando, he relinquished 
 his claims. The remainder of Alphonso's reign was chiefly 
 spent in campaigns against the Moors. Along with his 
 son, he captured Merida, Badajoz, and other cities ; and in 
 1230 gained a brilliant victory over Mohammed Ibn Hud 
 at Merida. He died in the same year, and was succeeded 
 by his son Fernando, who thus finally united the kingdoms 
 of Leon and Castile.. 
 
 Alphonso X., surnamed El Sabio, or " The Wise," King 
 of Leon and Castile, was born in 1221, and succeeded his 
 father Fernando IIL in 1252. Ho ascended the throne 
 with the entire approbation cf his subjects, and with every 
 prospect of a happy reign ; but, through the ill-directed 
 aims of his ambition, few sovereigns have been more 
 unfortunate. He first attempted to gain possession of 
 Gascony, contending that he had a better -right to that 
 province than Henry IIL of England. The arms of 
 England, however, proved too formidable ; and he agreed 
 to renounce his claim on condition that Henry's son, 
 afterwards Edward I., should many his sister Eleonora. 
 The marriage was solemnised with great pomp and magni- 
 ficence towards the end of October 1254. Alphonso's next 
 act was to lay claim to the duchy of Swabia, which ho 
 believed to be his in right of his mother Beatrix, daughter 
 of the late duke. This claim was passed over, but when 
 advancing it Alphonso formed a connection with tho 
 German princes, and in 1256 became a competitor, against 
 Richard, Earl of Cornwall, for the imperial crown. Ho 
 was again unsuccessful, the Earl of Cornwall being elected 
 by a small majority. In 1271, on the death of Richard, 
 he a second time attempted to make himself emperor of 
 Germany, and even after Rodolph of Hapsburghad actually 
 been elected, he undertook a fruitless journey to Beaucaire
 
 ALPHONSO 
 
 617 
 
 in order to prevent the pope (Gregory X.) from confirm- 
 ing the election. These repeated attempts to increase hk 
 dignity weakened rather than strengthened the power of 
 Alphonso, and forced him to impose heavy taxes upon his 
 subjects, and even to debase the coinage, thus producing 
 much discontent and disturbance, while the Moors were 
 ever ready ta take advantage of any misfortunes that 
 might happen to him. From 1261 to 1266 he was 
 engaged in a war with Mohammed of Granada, during 
 which hi3 army suffered several defeats. In 1270 an 
 insurrection broke out, headed by Felipe, brother of the 
 king, who was assisted by Mohammed of Granada ; it 
 was only quelled after nearly all their demands had been 
 conceded to the rebels. In 1275, when Alphonso was 
 absent on his fruitless journey to Beaucaire, his eldest son, 
 Fernando de la Cerda, died, an event which, raising as it 
 did the question of the succession to the crown, threatened 
 anew to involve the kingdom in war. Sancho, Alphonso's 
 second son', was, according to the law of the Visigoths, 
 proclaimed heir by the Cortes at Segovia; but Philip 
 of France, uncle of the two young sons of Fernando, 
 declared war with Alphonso on their behalf; actual 
 hostilities were, however, prevented by the intercession of 
 Pope Nicolas III. 'In 1281, Sancho, irritated probably by 
 some attempt that Alphonso had made to favour the sons 
 of Fernando, raised the standard of revolt against his 
 father. Sancho, who was a favourite with the people, 
 having secured the assistance of Mohammed of Granada, 
 reduced hia father to such extremities that the latter 
 solemnly cursed and disinherited his son, an act which he 
 confirmed by Ms will in 1283, and at the same time 
 solicited aid from the king of Marocco. At. the com- 
 mencement of the following year, however, Alphonso, on 
 receiving intelligence from Salamanca that Sancho was 
 dangerously ill, pardoned him. Alphonso died a few days 
 afterwards, on 4th April 1284 He was a learned prince, 
 and a great encourager of learning, brave and energetic, 
 but at the same time restless and ambitious. He has befe 
 charged with impiety, chiefly on account of a well-known 
 saying of his, that " had he been present at tha creation, he 
 could have given some useful hints for the better ordering of 
 the universe." To him science is indebted for a set of astro- 
 nomical observations known as the Alphonsine Tables, which 
 were drawn up under his auspices by the best astronomers of 
 the age; and in the palace of Segovia a room is still shown 
 as the observatory of Alphonso. He was also distinguished 
 as a poet and as a legislator. In the Escurial is preserved 
 a curious manuscript containing some hymns of his com- 
 position ; and he was the principal compiler of a code of 
 laws which is still extant under the name of Las Sieie 
 Partidas. 
 
 Alphonso XI., " The Avenger," was an infant when he 
 succeeded his father, Ferdinand IV., in 1312. During 
 his long minority the kingdom was cruelly distracted by 
 intestine warfare. Assuming the reins of _ government in 
 1324, he strove to repress the turbulent spirit of the 
 nobility, and to put down that system of brigandage to 
 which it had given rise, acquiring by his inflexible severity 
 the title of " The Avenger." He lost Gibraltar in 1 329, but 
 as commander of the allied armies of Catholic Spain, on 
 the 29th Oct. 1340 he gained a complete victory over the 
 kings of Morocco and Granada at the Salado. The 
 slaughter was immense, and the booty so rich that the 
 value of gold is said to have fallen one-sixteenth. "In 
 1342 Alphonso laid siege to Algeciras, where cannon 
 were employed for the first time in Europe by the Moors 
 in defence of their walls. This siege had lasted two years, 
 when the Moors capitulated on condition of a truce between 
 the two nations for ten years; but the king of Castile 
 broke his word a few years after by besiegiag Gibraltar, 
 
 1—21* 
 
 where he died of the plague on the 26th March 1350, 
 aged 40. He was succeeded by his son, Pedro the Cruel. 
 From this reign dates the institution of regidors or 
 jurats, to whom was committed the administration of 
 the communes; and these regidors became the exclusive 
 electors of the Cortes, in which the people ceased to have 
 a voice. 
 
 2c?, Castile. — Alphonso III. (according to other enume- 
 rations, Viri. or IX.), surnamed " The Noble," is the only 
 king of Castile of the name who was not also king of Leon. 
 He was born in 1155, and succeeded his father, Sancho III., 
 in 1158. Hia minority was disturbed by the contention 
 of the two powerful houses of Lara and Castro for the 
 regency ; but after his marriage with Eleanor, daughter 
 of Henry II. of England, he was proclaimed sole ruler. 
 After compelling the kings of Aragon, Navarre, and Leon 
 to surrender the territories they had taken possession of 
 during his minority, he turned his arms against the Moors, 
 and at Alarcos, in 1195, sustained one of the most terrible 
 defeats recorded in the annals of Spain. This disaster 
 encouraged the kings of Leon and Navarre to renew their 
 hostilities, which were carried on for several years with 
 varying success. In 1211 the Moors again threatened 
 Castile ; but in the following year, Alphonso, along with 
 Pedro II. of Aragon and Sancho VIL of Navarre, gained 
 a most complete and splendid victory over them at La 
 Navas de Tolosa. Alphonso died at Garci Mufioa in 
 1214, and was succeeded by his son, Enrique I. Alphonso 
 was a patron of literature, and in 1208 founded a university 
 at Ealencia, the first in Christian Spain. , This university 
 was afterwards transferred to Salamanca. 
 
 3c?, Aragon. — Alphonso I., surnamed El Batallador, 
 "The Fighter," King of Navarre and Aragon, was the 
 second son of Don Sancho Ramirez, and succeeded hia 
 brother Pedro I. in 1104. ' By his marriage in 1109 with 
 Urraca, daughter and heiress of Alphonso VI. of Leon and 
 Castile, he became her associate in the government of 
 these kingdoms, and in the same year assumed the title 
 of " Emperor of all Spain." Misunderstandings soon 
 arose between Alphonso .and his wife, and he separated 
 from her shortly after their marriage, an act which was 
 confirmed by the council of Palencia in 1114. Alphonso, 
 however, refusedto give up his claims to the kingdoms of 
 Leon and Castile, and maintained a constant struggle with 
 Urraca till her death in 1126. Alphonso's chief victories 
 were gained over the Moors. He laid siege to Saragossa 
 for the first time in 1114, but the city was not captured 
 until 1118, after several bloody battles had been fought in 
 its neighbourhood. In 1120 his territories were menaced 
 by a large force sent against him by Ali ; but engaging tha 
 enemy near Daroca, he left 20,000 Almoravides dead on 
 the field. Three years afterwards, while the king of 
 Marocco was fully occupied at home by the rise- of a 
 dangerous sect of Almohades, Alphonso seized the oppor- 
 tunity to invade Valencia. In 1125 he undertook a new 
 expedition against Granada in aid of the Mozarabcs or 
 Christian Moors. The Moors in their reprisals invaded 
 Estremadura, and defeated the Castiliana near Badajoz. 
 The king of Aragon, so far from rendering his neighbour 
 any assistance, determined to take advantage of the 
 critical position of Alphonso Raymond, as well as of the 
 troubles which the death of Urraca had occasioned in 
 several parts -of his dominions, but when on the point of 
 battle the two kings came to an agreement Alphonso 
 next crossed the Pyrenees, and captured the cities of 
 Bordeaux in 1130, and Bayonne in°1131. On his return 
 to Spain he took Mequinenza from the Moors in 1133, and 
 invested Fraga in 1134, where, during a sally from the 
 town, he received a wound from which he died a few days 
 after.
 
 618 
 
 ALPHONSO 
 
 Alphonso TI. was born in 1152, aud in 1163 succeeded 
 his father, Raymondo V., as count of Barcelona, his 
 mother, Petronilla, daughter of Ramiro II., king of Aragon, 
 at the same time resigning that kingdom to him. He was 
 frequently at war with Raymondo of Toulouse, and also 
 directed an expedition against the Almohades, from which 
 the invasion of Aragon by Sancho of Navarre recalled him. 
 tHe assisted Alphonso of Castile against Cuenca, for which 
 service he was relieved from doing homage to Castile. He 
 died in 1196. He was a patron of the troubadours, and 
 wrote some poems in the Provencal language. 
 
 Alphonso III., the son of Pedro HI., was born in 1265, 
 and in 1285, on the death of his father, being -absent in 
 Majorca on an expedition against his uncle Jayme, assumed 
 the title of king without taking the oaths of adherence to 
 the articles to which his predecessors had subscribed. 
 When he returned in 1286, however, he was compelled to 
 go through the usual coronation ceremony. In 1287 ho 
 signed the Privilege of Union, which permitted his subjects 
 to have recourse to arms to defend their liberties, and 
 invested the jmtizero with the power of citing the king 
 himself to appear before the Cortes. Alphonso's chief 
 ■wars were with Jayme of Majorca, Sancho of Castile, and 
 the pope. He died in 1291. 
 
 Alphonso IV., son of Jayme II., was born in 1299, 
 and ascended the throne in 1327. During almost the 
 whole of his reign he was occupied in war with the 
 Genoese about the possession of Corsica and Sardinia. 
 He died in 1336. 
 
 Alphonso V. of Aragon, L of Sicily and Sardinia, and 
 latterly I. of Naples, was born in 1385, and succeeded his 
 father, Fernando the Just, as king of Aragon and of SicUy 
 and Sardinia, in 1416. In 1420 Joanna I. of Naples 
 offered to make Alphonso her successor if he would assist 
 her against Louis of Anjou. This he did; but, owing to 
 misunderstandings, the queen revoked her adoption of 
 Alphonso in 1423, making Louis of Anjou her heir. 
 Recalled to Spain immediately after by an attack made by 
 the Castilians upon his hereditary kingdom, he left his 
 brother Pedro as his lieutenant at Naples, which he had 
 taken by storm the year before. On his way to Spain he 
 captured, but generously refrained from pillaging, Marseilles, 
 a city belonging to his rival the duke of Anjou. After 
 restoring peace at home, Alphonso again turned his atten- 
 tion to Naples, where his cause now appeared to be hope- 
 less. Louis of Anjou died in 1434, and Queen Joanna the 
 following year, leaving Naples to Louis's brother Rene, 
 who had in his possession the whole kingdom except a few 
 fortresses which still held out for Alphonso. In the same 
 year (1435) Alphonso laid siege to Gaeta, but the siege was 
 raised, and Alphonso himself taken prisoner by Philippo 
 Maria Visconti, duke of Milan. Visconti, however, being 
 greatly pleased with the high character and noble appear- 
 ance of Alphonso, soon released him, and even made him 
 his ally. Immediately on recovering his liberty, Alphonso 
 made a third attempt upon the kingdom of Naples. The 
 issue of the war at first was doubtful, but latterly the arms 
 of Alphonso were nearly everywhere victorious. He laid 
 siege to Naples, and after an obstinate resistance captured 
 it in 1442. The States-General were then convoked, and 
 solemnly proclaimed Alphonso king; hia election being 
 sanctioned by Pope Eugenius IV., who had previously 
 promised that honour to Ren& Alphonso now fixed his 
 residence at Naples, and devoted himself chiefly to the 
 improvement of his kingdom ; although he was also fre- 
 quently involved in the wars and disputes of the Italian 
 princes. He died at Naples on the 27th June 1458 ; and 
 was succeeded in his kingdoms of Aragon and of Sicily and 
 Sardinia by his brother John, and in that of Naples by 
 his natural son Ferdinand. Alphonso was undoubtedly 
 
 oue of the best monarchs of his name. His bravery arrl 
 generalship fitted him for the warlike enterprises he had 
 to undertake ; and it is evident that, from his generous 
 and humane disposition, as well as from his love of litera- 
 ture and encouragement of law and justice, his rule would 
 have been equally successful had it been his lot to live in 
 more peaceful times. 
 
 it/i, Portugal. — Alphonso I., Enriquez, son of Henry 
 of Burgundy, count of Portugal, and Teresa of Castile, was> 
 born at Guimaraens in 1094. He succeeded his father in 
 1112, and was placed under the tutelage of his mother. 
 When he came of age he was obliged to wrest from her 
 by force that power which her vices and incapacity had 
 rendered disastrous to the state. Being proclaimed sole 
 ruler of Portugal in 1128, he defeated his mother's troops 
 near Guimaraens, making her at the same time his prisoner. 
 He also vanquished Alphonso Raymond of Castile, his 
 mother's ally, and thus freed Portugal from dependence 
 on the crown of Leon. Next turning his arms against the 
 Moors, he obtained, on the 26th July 1139, the famous 
 victory of Ourique, and immediately after was proclaimed 
 king by his soldiers. Not satisfied with this, however, he 
 assembled the Cortes of the kingdom at Lamego, where he 
 received the crown from the archbishop of Braganza; the 
 assembly also declaring that Portugal was no longer a 
 dependency of Leon. Alphonso continued to distinguish 
 himself by his exploits against the Moors, from whom he 
 wrested Santaremin 1146, and Lisbon in 1147. Some years 
 later he became involved in a war that had broken out among 
 the kings of Spain; and in 1167, being disabled during an 
 engagement near Badajoz by a fall from his horse, he was 
 made prisoner by the soldiers of the king of Leon, and was 
 obliged to surrender as his ransom almost all the conquests 
 he had made in Galicia In 1184, in spite of his great age, 
 he had still sufficient energy to relieve his son Sancho, 
 who was besieged in Santarem by the Moors. He died 
 shortly after, in 1185. Alphonso was a man of gigantic 
 stature, being 7 feet high according to some authors. Ha 
 has long been regarded as a saint by the Portuguese, who 
 reverence him both on account of his personal character 
 and as the founder of their kingdom. 
 
 Alphonso II., "The Fat,"was born in 1185, and succeeded 
 his father, Sancho L, in 1211. He was engaged in war 
 with the Moors, and gained a victory over them at Alcazar 
 do Sal in 1217. He also endeavoured to weaken the power 
 of the clergy, and to apply a portion of their enormous 
 revenues to purposes of national utility. Having been, 
 excommunicated for this by the pope (Honorius III.), he> 
 promised to make amends to the church; but he died in 
 1223 before doing anything to fulfil his engagement. 
 Alphonso framed a code which introduced several bene- 
 ficial changes into the laws of his kingdom. 
 
 Alphonso IIL, son of Alphonso II., was born in 1210, 
 and succeeded his brother, Sancho II., in 1248. Besides, 
 making war upon the Moors, he was, like his father, fre- 
 quently embroiled with the church. In his reign Algarve 
 became part of Portugal. Alphonso died in 1279 
 
 Alphonso TV. was born in 1290, and in 1325 succeeded 
 his father, Dionis, whose death he had hastened by his 
 intrigues and rebellions. Hostilities with the Castilians 
 and with the Moors occupied many years of his reign, 
 during which he gained some successes; but by consenting 
 to the barbarous murder of Inez de Castro, who was secretly 
 espoused to his son Pedro, he has fixed an indelible stain 
 on his' character. Enraged at this barharous act, Pedro- 
 put himself at the head of an army, and devastated the . 
 whole of the country between the Douro and the Minho- 
 before ho was reconciled to his father. Alphonso died 
 almost immediately after, on the 12th May 1357. 
 
 Alphonso v.. Africano. was born in 1432, and succeeded
 
 A L P — A L P 
 
 619 
 
 his father Edward in 1438. During his minority he was 
 placed under the regency, fiwt of his mother, and latterly 
 of his uncle, Don Pedro. In 1448 he assumed the reins 
 of government, and at the same time married his cousin 
 Isabella, daughter of Don Pedro. In the following year, 
 being led by what he afterwards discovered to be false 
 representations, he declared Don Pedro a rebel, and de- 
 feated his army in a battle at AJfarrobeira, in which his 
 ancle was slain. In 1458, and with more numerous forces 
 in 1471, he invaded the territories of the Moors in Africa, 
 and by his successes there acquired his surname of "The 
 African." On his return to Portugal in 1475 his ambition 
 led him into Castile, where two princesses were disputing 
 the succession to the throne. Having been affianced to 
 the Princess Juana, Alphonso caused himself to be pro- 
 claimed king of Castile and Leon; but in the following 
 year he was defeated at Toro by Ferdinand, the husband 
 of Isabella of Castile. Alphonso went to France to obtain 
 the assistance of Louis XL, but finding himself deceived 
 by the French monarch, he abdicated in favour of his son 
 Joan. When he returned to Portugal, however, he was 
 compelled by his son to resume the sceptre, which he con- 
 tinued to wield for two years longer. After that he fell 
 into a deep melancholy, and retired into a monastery at 
 Cintra, where he died in 1481. 
 
 Alphonso VI. , the second king of the house of Braganza, 
 was born in 1643, and succeeded his father in 1656. In 
 1667 he was compelled by his wile and brother to abdicate 
 the throne, and was banished to the island of Terceira. 
 These acts, which the vices of Alphonso had rendered 
 necessary, were sanctioned by the Cortes in 1668. Alphonso 
 died at Cintra in 1675. 
 
 ALPHONSUS a Sancta Maria, or Alphonso de 
 Cartagena, a celebrated Spanish historian, was born at 
 Carthageua in 1396, and died on the 12th July 1456. 
 He succeeded his father, Paulus, as bishop of Burgos. In 
 1431 he was deputed by Juan EL of Castile to attend the 
 council of Basle, in which he made himself conspicuous by 
 his learning. He was the author of several works, the prin- 
 cipal of which is a History of Spain from the earliest times 
 down to the year 1496, printed at Granada in 1545, foL 
 
 ALPLNI, Peospeeo (in Latin Prosper Alpinus), a cele- 
 brated physician and botanist, was born at Marostica, in 
 the republic of Venice, on the 23d November 1553. In 
 his youth he served for a time in the Milanese army, but 
 in 1574 he quitted it, and went to Padua to study medi- 
 cine. He was admitted to the degree of doctor of physic in 
 1578, soon after which he left the university, and settled 
 as a physician in Campo San Pietro, a small town in the 
 Paduan territory, at the invitation of its citizens. In the 
 course of his studies he had paid particular attention to 
 
 botanical science ; but the sphere of his present practice 
 was too limited to afford him much opportunity of prose- 
 cuting his favourite study. He wished particularly to 
 extend his knowledge of exotic plants, by observing their 
 economy and habits in their native soil To gratify this 
 laudable curiosity an oppu.rtunity presented itself when 
 George Emo or Hemi, the consul for the Venetian republic 
 in Egypt, appointed Alpini his physician. They sailed 
 ■from Venice in September 1580, and arrived at Grand 
 Cairo in the following year. Alpini spent three years in 
 Egypt, and by his industry and assiduity greatly im- 
 proved his botanical knowledge, having travelled along 
 the banks of the Nile, visited every place, and consulted 
 every person from whom he expected any new information. 
 From a practice in the management of date-trees which, 
 he observed in this country, Alpini seems to have deduced 
 the doctrine of the sexual difference of plants, whicn was 
 adopted as the foundation of the celebrated system of 
 Linnaeus. He says that " the female date-trees or palms 
 do not bear fruit unless the branches of the male and 
 female plants are mixed together; or, as is generally done, 
 unless the dust found in the male sheath or male flowers 
 is sprinkled over the female flowers." His treatise Be 
 Medicina JEgyptiorum contains the first account of the 
 coffee-plant that was published in Europe. When Alpini 
 returned to Venice in 1586 he was appointed physician 
 to Andre Doria, prince of Melfi; and during his residence 
 at Genoa he was esteemed the first physician of his age. 
 The Venetians were unwilling that the Genoese state should 
 number among its citizens a person of such distinguished 
 merit and reputation; and in the year 1593 he was recalled 
 to fill the botanical chair in the university of Padua, with 
 a salary of 200 florins, afterwards increased to 750. He 
 discharged the duties of his professorship for many years 
 with great reputation, till his declining health interrupted 
 ' his labours. He died of slow fever on the 6th February 
 1617, in the sixty -fourth year of his age, and was succeeded 
 as botanical professor by one of his sons. The genu3 
 Alpini a, belonging to the order Zingiberaceae, is named after 
 him. Alpini wrote the following works in Latin : — 1. Be 
 Medicina jEgyptiorum Libri iv., Venice, 1591, 4to; 2. Be 
 Plantis JSgypti Liber, Venice, 1592, 4to; 3. Be Bahama 
 Bialogus, Venice, 1592, 4to; 4. Be Pra?sagienda Vita et 
 Morte uEgrotantium Libri vii., Venice, 1601, 4to; 5. Be 
 Medicina Methodica Libri xiii., Padua, 1611, folio; 6. Be 
 fikapontico Bhputatio, Padua, 1612, 4to. Of all these 
 works various editions have appeared; and besides these, 
 two posthumous treatises were published by his son — 
 1. Be Plantis Exoticis Libri ii., Venice, 1627, 4to ; 2. 
 Historim Naturalis Egypti Libri iv., Lugd. Bat 1635, 4to. 
 Several other works of Alpini remain in ■manuscript. 
 
 ALPS 
 
 TAKING a general view of the earth's surface, the 
 continent of Europe appears to be no more than a 
 great peninsula extending westward from the much vaster 
 continent of Asia. Its shores are deeply indented by twp 
 inland seas connected by narrow straits with the Atlantic 
 Ocean, and these in their turn are divided into gulfs that 
 penetrate still more deeply into the land, and form a 
 number of secondary peninsulas. The Mediterranean Sea, 
 by its branches — the Gulf of Genoa, the Adriatic, and the 
 /Egean Sea — forms the Iberian, the Italian, and the Greek 
 peninsulas ; and the Baltic Sea, extending northward into 
 the Gulf of Bothnia, forms on one side the great Scandi- 
 navian peninsula, and on the other that of Denmark. 
 Save the last, all these peninsulas of Europe are essentially 
 mountain regions, traversed by lofty chains that occupy 
 
 a large portion of their surface. But in height and im- 
 portance these are much srrpassed by a great mountain 
 zone stretching from the south-east of France to the fron- 
 tiers of Hungary, and between Italy and the plains of 
 southern Germany, which is collectively known as the 
 Alps, and which must be considered as the most important 
 feature in the physical geography of our continent Of 
 {he influence of this mountain system on the climate of 
 the surrounding regions, on the distribution of animal and 
 vegetable life, and, indi r ectly, on the political condition of 
 Europe, some brief notice will here be given; but it may 
 be well to remark that owing to the peculiar disposition 
 of the greater massed which form this system, the Alps do 
 not present do continuous a barrier as might be expected 
 from a comparison with other great mountain ranges,
 
 620 
 
 ALPS 
 
 Thus if we take the great masses of the Himalaya in Asia, 
 the Andes in South America, or even such lesser ranges 
 as the Pyrenees or the Great Atlas, we find that they 
 interpose a far more absolute limit between the regions 
 lying on their opposite flacks than occurs in respect to the 
 Alps. These are formed of numerous ranges divided by 
 comparatively deep valleys, which, with many local excep- 
 tions, tend towards parallelism with the general direction 
 of the entire mass. This, between Dauphin^ and the 
 borders of Hungary, forms a broad band convex towards 
 the north, and most of the main valleys lie between the 
 directions west to east and south-west to north-east. But 
 in many parts deep transverse valleys intersect the pre- 
 vailing direction of the ridges, and facilitate the passage 
 not only for purposes of human intercourse, but also for 
 the migration of animals and plants, and for currents of 
 air which mitigate the contrast that would otherwise be 
 found between the climates of the opposite slopes. 
 
 The received opinion is, that the name Alps is derived 
 from a Celtic root — alp or a/6 — signifying height. This 
 has been connected by some writers with the Latin alb, 
 albus, white, referring to the colour of the peaks. Strabo 
 says that the name "AA7rta was formerly "AA/?m. Alp in 
 south Germany — alpa in old High German — is exclusively 
 applied to mountain pastures. For the present the deriva- 
 tion must remain somewhat uncertain. 
 
 To define the precise limits of the Alps, as will be seen 
 fully in describing the several groups, is a somewhat arbi- 
 trary operation. To the W. they extend through a large 
 portion of the French departments of Savoie, Haute-Savoie, 
 Hautes Alpes, and Basses Alpes, being divided from the 
 mountain district of the Cevennes by the broad and deep 
 valley through which the Rhone flows from Lyons to 
 the Mediterranean. The Jura range, usually regarded as 
 distinct from the Alps, is nevertheless closely connected 
 on one side with the outer ranges of the Alps of western 
 Savoy, and on the other with those of northern Switzer- 
 land. On the N. side the Alps are definitely bounded by 
 the lake of Constance, the plain of Bavaria, and the low 
 country extending from Salzburg to the neighbourhood of 
 Vienna. By these they are completely separated from the 
 mountainous districts of central Germany, which extend 
 through western Bohemia and Saxony in one direction to 
 the Hartz mountains, and in the other to the Sudeten, 
 or Riesengebirge, of Silesia. Hence it happens that the 
 drainage of the northern slopes of the Alps flows either to 
 the North Sea through the Rhine, or is diverted through 
 the Danube to the Black Sea, and no portion of it reaches 
 the Baltic. The eastern limit of the Alps is not easily 
 defined with accuracy. The region of high hills, chiefly 
 formed of tertiary strata, that extends from the left bank 
 of the Mur into Hungary ia continued by the north, side 
 of Lake Balaton to the Danube near Buda ; and some 
 geographers see in the hilly district that stretches thence 
 to the northern Carpathians a connection between that 
 range and the Alp3. For practical purposes it seems that 
 the line of depression, partly formed by the valley of the 
 Mur, through which the railway is carried from Vienna to 
 Laybach, may be considered as the eastern boundary of 
 the Alpine chain. On the southern side the difficulty of 
 firing the precise limits of the Alpine chain is still more 
 apparent. For a distance of some 350 roiles, from the neigh- 
 bourhood of Turin to that of Gorizia, the boundary is 
 sufficiently obvious. The mountains subside into the con- 
 tinuous plain which includes the greater part of Piedmont, 
 Lombardy, and Venetia; and their drainage is all borne 
 eastward to the Adriatic. But on the west side of Piedmont 
 the Alpine chain dividing Italy from Frarca extends nearly 
 due southward till it approaches to the Mediterranean in the 
 neighbourhood of Nice. About 4.0 miles north of this city, 
 
 that which, from its superior height and its geological strut 
 ture, we call the main chain, is bent round from west to east 
 in a curve, slightly convex towards the south, till it becomes 
 parallel to the Mediterranean shore, and is merged in the 
 chain of the Apennines. For reasons hereafter mentioned it 
 would appear that the limits of the Alps in this direction may 
 best be fixed at the Col dAJtare, west of Savona, though 
 the boundary commonly adopted is that of the Col di 
 Tenda t lying considerably farther to the west. At the south- 
 eastern extremity of the Alpine chain the difficulty of flying 
 its limits arises rather from the vague use of geographical 
 terms by ancient and modern writers than from the physical 
 structure of the region. Taking no account of the arbitrary 
 proceedings of geographers who have included in the Alps 
 the mountains dividing Bosnia from Croatia and Dalmatia, 
 and regarding only the natural features of the country, it 
 seems clear that the south-eastern extremity of the Alps 
 must be looked for in the group of lofty peaks between the 
 head waters of the Isonzo and those of the Save, whos6 
 highest summit is the Terglou ; and if we are not to include 
 all the mountain ranges of European Turkey and Greece 
 within the same designation, the plateau of the Karst must 
 be held to form the boundary between these and the Alps. 
 Within these limits the Alps extend from about the 44th 
 to the 48th parallel of N. lat., and from about 5° 10' to 
 18° 10' E. long; 
 
 In every mountain system geographers are disposed to 
 regard the watershed, or boundary dividing the waters 
 flowing towards opposite sides of the range, as marking 
 the main chain ; and this usage is often justified by the 
 fact that the highest peaks lie on, or very near, the 
 "boundary so defined. In applying this term in the case 
 of the Alps, there are, however, difficulties arising from 
 their great extent and the number of their branches and 
 ramifications. Many of the loftiest groups lie altogether 
 on one side of that which' we call the main chain, and at 
 the eastern extremity, where all the drainage is ultimately 
 borne to the Black Sea, we must be partly guided by 
 geological considerations in deciding which of several 
 ranges deserves to be considered pre-eminent. 
 
 Starting from the pass of Altare or Cadibona, west of 
 Savona, the main chain extends first south-west, then 
 nearly due west, to the Col di Tenda, but nowhere rising 
 beyond the zone of coniferous trees. Beyond that limit 
 the range is more lofty, and includes four peaks exceeding 
 10,000 feet in height, till the line dividing the waters 
 flowing to the Adriatic, through the Po, from the short 
 streams that flow into the Gulf of Genoa, reaches the 
 Mont Enchastraye. -Beyond that point, although the line 
 of watershed is very sinuous, its general direction for a 
 distance of about 75 miles is nearly due north. On the 
 east side the waters run to the Po ; on the west they flow 
 through the Durance to join the Rhone, near Avignon. 
 The most considerable peaks in the range immediately 
 north of the Mont Enchastraye are the Grand Rioburent 
 and the Aiguille de ChambeyTon ; but these are much 
 surpassed by the Monte Viso, which is the highest peak 
 in the range dividing Piedmont from Dauphin^. On the 
 north side of Monte Viso the main chain diminishes much 
 in average height, and presents no prominent peaks .until 
 we reach the Mont Tabor. That summit forms the apex 
 of a salient angle which the main chain here presents on 
 the side of France. For a distance of about 28 miles this 
 extends eastward to the prominent peak of the Roche 
 Melon, which may be considered as a re-entering angle ia 
 the great rampart by which Italy is guarded from her 
 northern neighbours. Here the main chain resumes its 
 northerly direction, and attains a greater average height 
 than it had previously exhibited. Several of the prominent 
 peaks in the range connecting the Roche Melon with Monl
 
 ALPS 
 
 621 
 
 Blanc exceed 11,000 English feet in height, though they 
 are much surpassed by the highest group of the Graian 
 Alps, lying on the side of Piedmont, and that of the 
 Tarentaise Alps in Savoy ; while there is in this part of the 
 main range but one considerable depression, which is that 
 crossed by the road of the Little St Bernard. In the range 
 crowned by the summit of Mont Blanc the Alpine cha in 
 attains its highest elevation. From thence to the Pass of 
 St Gotthard its general direction varies between east and 
 north-east. To the east of Mont Blanc a comparatively 
 low tract allows of several comparatively easy passes 
 between Switzerland and Piedmont, one of which has long 
 been famous as the Pass of the Great St Bernard ; but from 
 that to the Simplon Pass, a distance of about 52 miles in 
 a straight line, or about 75 miles if measured along the 
 watershed, the main chain preserves a greater average 
 height than in any other part. Several peaks lying in the 
 dividing ridge, such as the Grand Combin, Matterhorn, 
 Lyskamm, and Monte Rosa, exceed 14,000 feet in height; 
 and these are rivalled by at least six summits on the north 
 side of the same ridge, which at two points only sinks 
 below the level of 10,000 feet. The Simplon Pass corre- 
 sponds to what may be called a dislocation of the main 
 chain. From thence to the St Gotthard the dividing ridge 
 runs nearly due north-east, and does not present any 
 dominant summit excepting the Monte Leone. On the 
 east and south-east side of the St Gotthard Pas3, as far as 
 that of the Maloya, the line of watershed between the 
 affluents of the Rhine and that of the Po is determined by 
 what may be called accidental conditions. The chief 
 mountain ridges, which culminate in the Cima Camadra, 
 Piz Valrhein, and Tambohorn, instead of being arranged 
 along the parting of the waters, lie in a transverse direc- 
 tion, and hence the natural frontier of Italy is here more 
 broken and irregular than elsewhere ; and it is only on the 
 south side of the Maloya Pass that the main chain assumes 
 a tolerably continuous direction from west-south-west to 
 east-north-east, as between Piz Giiz and the Bernina Pass 
 it rises into the lofty group whose dominant peaks are 
 Piz Tremoggia, Piz Bernina, and Piz Cambrena. East- 
 ward of the Bernina Pass the same direction is preserved, 
 and in the range including the Gorno di Campo, Monte 
 Zembrasca, and Monte Foscagno the level scarcely sinks 
 below 9000 feet ; but beyond the last-named summit, 
 in the space lying between the Lower Engadine, the head 
 waters of the Adige, and those of the Adda, the semblance 
 of a continuous ridge forming the watershed between the 
 Inn and the Adriatic altogether disappears. If we adhere 
 to the usage of designating as the main chain the ridges 
 which part the waters flowing in different directions, it 
 must be owned that the disposition of the chief mountain 
 masses has no connection with the direction of that chain. 
 Lying between the great mass of the Orteles Alps to the 
 south and the considerable group of the Silvretta Alps on 
 the north side of the Inn, the greater part of the mass in 
 question is drained by streams that flow into the latter 
 river; but the arrangement of the valleys seems to be 
 largely due to erosive action. Few summits in this part 
 of the main chain exceed 10,000 feet, the highest being 
 Piz Scesvenna, on the east side of Val Scarla. 
 
 The break in the continuity of the Alpine chain marked 
 by the deep valley through which the main branch of the 
 Adige descends, first southward and then eastward from 
 its source tc Meran and Botzen, is one of the most remark- 
 able features in the orography of the Alps. The little 
 lake which is regarded as the chief source of the river lies 
 within less than five miles of the Inn, where that river 
 enters the Tyrol, and no apparent barrier divides the lake 
 frcni the Inn valley. Eastward of this limit the Alpine 
 chain exhibits e degree of order ir its general arrange- 
 
 ment which it is impossible to trace in its western and 
 central portions. For a distance of some 250 miles a 
 broad zone of crystalline rocks extends from west to east, 
 flanked on the north and south sides by parallel zones of 
 sedimentary rocks, chiefly belonging to the older secondary 
 formations. Two great valley systems on the opposite 
 sides of the central zone closely coincide with those 
 geological boundaries, and mark out in the physical aspect 
 of this region the limits between the central and the 
 secondary zones. In the former are situated all the 
 highest peaks of the eastern Alps. For a distance of 
 about 140 miles, from the Schafkogcl, south-east of 
 Nauders, to the Markkahrspitz, the average level of the 
 main chain is nearly as high as in any equally long section 
 of the central or western Alps. There is one very con- 
 siderable depression which is marked by the Bieuner Pass, 
 but elsewhere in that long barrier there are but three 
 points where the range is passable by beasts of burden. 
 Between the two main sources of the Adige, at the Reschen 
 Scheideck aad the Brenner Pass, the considerable groups 
 of the Oetzthal and Stubay Alps attain a great average 
 elevation, though two points only — the Wildspitz and the 
 Weisskugel — surpass the level of 12,000 feet. . The 
 drainage of these groups is mostly carried to the Inn, and 
 the line of watershed, about 53 miles in length, is much 
 less direct than in the more easterly portion of the chain. 
 This extends nearly due east for about 90 miles from the 
 Brenner Pass, nowhere falling below the level of 8000 feet, 
 and in two prominent peaks^the Gross Venediger and the 
 Gross Glockner — rising considerably above the limit ol 
 12,000 feet At a point somewhat north of the Mark- 
 kahrspitz the central chain divides into two parallel ranges, 
 between which lies the upper valley of the Mur. This 
 river flows for a distance of fully 80 miles nearly due east, 
 till at Bruck-an-der-Mur it turns southward to approach 
 the Drave, and ultimately joins that stream, Various 
 reasons combine to induce geographers to regard the more 
 northern of the two ranges above mentioned, which divides 
 the Enns and other minor tributaries of the Danube from 
 those of the Drave, as constituting the eastern extremity 
 of the main chain of the Alps. This extends a little north 
 of due east for more than 110 miles, with a comparatively 
 low mean elevation, from the Arlscharte to the Semmering 
 Pass, which we regard as the eastern limit of the main 
 chain of the Alps. 
 
 Measured along the watershed, as above defined, but 
 without taking into account the minor sinuosities, which 
 would considerably increase the total, the length of the 
 main chain is about 790 English miles. 
 
 For ages before there existed any correct knowledge of 
 the configuration of the Alpine chain, the needs of war and 
 Commerce had urged the people dwelling on the opposite 
 sides of the great barrier to seek out the easiest and most 
 direct routes for traversing it. Hence the chief passes of 
 the Alps have been known and frequented from a period 
 antecedent to authentic history, while until a quite modern 
 period little attention was given to the parts of the chain 
 which did not lie in or near the lines of traffic. It is 
 highly probable that many other passes, affording the 
 easiest means of communication between adjacent valleys, 
 have been known and used by the native population from 
 a very remote period, but only those which served for 
 international purposes of war or peace became known at a 
 distance, and are alluded to by ancient writers. A pass is 
 a depression between two adjacent mountains, and the 
 track is usually carried over the lowest part of that depres- 
 sion ; but nevertheless nearly all the passes of the Alps 
 involve a long ascent to reach the summit, and a long 
 descent upon the opposite slopes. Hence the Romans, 
 who were the first semi-civilised people to make extensive
 
 622 
 
 ALPS 
 
 uje ui tho Aiijiuu p.issea, upplied to Buoli ol them tlio term 
 Mons. The same names, more or lesa modified in the 
 middle ages, have been preserved in the dialects of Latin 
 origin that prevail throughout the western half of the 
 Alpine chain, and the modern name for the chief passes are 
 still Mont Genevre, Mont Cenis, Mont Isiran, Petit Mont 
 St Bernard, Grand Mont St Bernard, Monte Moro, and 
 Monte San Gottardo. In more recent times, since 
 geographers have attempted to fix the names and positions 
 of the chief summits of the Alps, they have been con- 
 tinually misled by the supposition that a name of high 
 antiquity designating a mountain must belong to some 
 prominent peak. The errors arising from that source have 
 not yet disappeared from geographical works of high 
 repute, but in point of fact each of the names above 
 pnumnraiM belongs solely to the pass, and there is no 
 neighbouring peak entitled to the same designation. The 
 more important passes of the Alps are enumerated in the 
 following description of the chief groups of the Alps ; but 
 it may be here remarked that the direction of the main 
 routes for traffic is not exclusively determined by the 
 position of the lowest and easiest passes over the main 
 chain. The configuration of the mountains is such that a 
 traveller proceeding from Italy to France, Switzerland, or 
 Germany, after crossing a comparatively easy pass over 
 the main chain, may find it necessary to traverse a second 
 and loftier pass over a lateral chain, or else follow a 
 circuitous route that may double the length of his journey. 
 Thus a traveller going from Turin to Lyons, who should 
 take what appears to be the direct course over the pass of 
 Mont Genevre, the easiest in the whole range of the 
 western Alps, will find on descending to Briancon that he 
 must cross the much higher and more difficult pass of the 
 Col de Lautaret, or else descend along the Durance till it 
 emerges into the lower country near Gap, and thus more 
 than double the length of his journey. Including the 
 Semmering Pass, there are now not less than 60 Alpine 
 passes that are traversed by carriage roads 5 and besides 
 three lines of railway now open for traffic, several others 
 are in course of construction. 
 
 From the time of Julius Ctesar downwards, the Romans, in the 
 prosecution of their policy of universal dominion, or for the purpose 
 of maintaining communication with their military colonies, had 
 become acquainted with all the easiest and most serviceable passes 
 of the Alps, and were thus naturally led to attach names to the 
 chief groups. As their acquaintance with the entire region was 
 very incomplete, the exact boundaries of these groups were imper- 
 fectly understood, and the denominations adopted by them were 
 never accurately defined. As might have been expected, the 
 divisions thus roughly established had reference rather to the aspect 
 of the mountains as presented to one travelling from Italy towards 
 the north or west, than to a general view of the physical conforma- 
 tion of the entire region. Hence the ancient, divisions are essentially 
 defective, as taking no note of some important groups, or including 
 under a single designation groups entirely distinct. Notwith- 
 standing these defects, the ancient divisions have been adhered to 
 by all but a few modern geographers, and it is therefore desirable 
 to record them separately. 
 
 1. Maritimt Alps (Alpes Maritimee). — These included the portion 
 of the main chain dividing sonth-westem Piedmont from the coast 
 of the Mediterranean, and extending northward tc the neighbour- 
 hood of the conspicuous peak of Monte Viso. 
 
 2. Coiiian Alps (Alpes Cottiae or Cottianae) included the portion 
 of the main chain dividingPiedmont from Dauphine and Savoy, 
 and extending from Monte viso to the neighbourhood of the Mont 
 Cenis. The name appears to be derived from Cottius, the king or 
 chief of a powerful tribe who ruled the greater part of this region 
 when the paramount authority of Augustus was established in 
 Cisalpine Gaol. 
 
 3. Graian Alps (Alpes Graise). — Under this designation was 
 known the great group of mountains between Turin and the upper 
 Vol d'Aosta, and the portion of the main chain lying between the 
 Mont Cenis and the Little St Bernard. ?liny and other Latin 
 writers derive the name- from the legendary passage of a body of 
 Greeks led by Hercules through thi3 region ; but the true derivation 
 ts probably from some lost Celtic appellation. 
 
 ■i. Pcnniru Alps (Alpes Pennine) was the name applied to the 
 
 great range including Mont Blanc and lloute Kosa, which, from 
 Hie time of Julius Caaar, if not earlier, was recognised as the highest 
 portion of the entire chain. The word Pen or Ben is still in use in 
 the living dialects of the Celtic stock as a'common designation foi 
 a conspicuous mountain, and was certainly in use in the speech 
 of this part of Cisalpine Gaul, when inauy other Celtic terms are 
 1 in the local names. The Human designation JupiUr 
 1 1 was undoubtedly taken from the Celtic root, but the 
 
 asserted use of the name Pen for a divinity by the native tribes is 
 not established by valid evidence. 
 
 6. Lepontint Al, \ ontinoe). — It would appear that this 
 
 denomination was originally restricted to the parts of the I 
 
 chain lying ou cither side of the pass of St Gotthard, including tlie 
 sources of the river Ticiuo, with those of its tributaries, of which 
 the most important is the Tosa or Toccia, draiuing the range 
 between the neighbourhood of the Simplon Pass aud that of the 
 Gries. The name is derived from the Lepontii, a tribe of doubtful 
 extraction (lihitian, according to Strabo) who inhabited the main 
 
 valley of the Tessin or Ticino, the upper part of which is still called 
 Val Leventina. The eastern limit of this group was usually fixed 
 at the pass of San Bernardino. 
 
 6. Khatian Alps (Alpes Hhitticse) derived their name from tLe 
 Rhteti, a powerful tribe or nation holding a largo tract of territory 
 which appears to have extended from the sources of the Hliino anil 
 the Ticino on the west, to those of the Adige and the Salza on the 
 east. The area included under this vague heading is at least equal 
 in area to that of the five divisions hitherto enumerated. 
 
 7. Noric Alps (Alpes Noricae). — Under this name the entire 
 region lying north of the Drave, and extending thence to the valley 
 of the Danube on the north and the plains of Hungary on the east, 
 was included. 
 
 8. Carnic Alps (Alpes Carnicje). — This name was given to the 
 mountain tract lying between the upper Drave and the low country of 
 Friuli. By some writers it has been limited to the ranges that feed 
 the Tagliamento ( Tilavcntiis) and its tributaries ; by others the raDgn 
 seems to have been held to extend from the sources of the Piave to 
 those of the Save. The name Carnia is stdl in use in Friuli, but is 
 strictly limited to the basin of the Tagliamento. 
 
 7. jidian Alps (Alpes Julia:). — This designation has been still 
 more vaguely used by ancient and modern geographers than any of 
 the preceding The lofty group of peaks crowned by the Terglou, 
 and lying between the head waters of the Isonzo and those of the 
 Save, undoubtedly forms the chief nucleus of the group distinguished 
 by this name ; but it also appears to have included the ranges of 
 eastern Friuli, which province, as well as the Alps in question, took 
 its name trom the Konian Forum Julii, now known as Cividale. 
 By others, and even by contemporary Italian writers, tho term 
 Julian Alps is made to extend southward through the district of 
 Kai <t between Carniola and tho shores of the Adriatic, and thence 
 through Croatia to the frontiers of Bosnia. A great part of this 
 district is an undulating plateau, in part not attaining to 2000 feet 
 above the sea-level, to which by no stretch of language can the 
 term Alps be properly applied. 
 
 In addition to the groups above mentioned some writers have enume- 
 rated the Dinaric A Ips (Alpes Dinaricse), and include under that term 
 the mountain range extending along the western frontier of Bosnia, 
 port ion of the extensive mountainsystem of European Turkey, 
 which in one direction includes the Balkan, and in another is continued 
 through Albania into Greece. The Romans probably applied to these 
 the designation Alps as some of their later writers did to the Pyrenees 
 and the mountains of southern Spain ; but it can merely cause 
 confusion to speak of them as a portion of the great system to which 
 the name Alps specially applies. For the reasons already mentioned 
 it is impossible to regard the ancient groups above enumerated as 
 affording a satisfactory division of the region under consideration } 
 but so far as they con be made to correspond with the division* 
 suggested by a more exact knowledge of its physical configuration, 
 it seems desirable to retain the established nomenclature. 
 
 Actual observation of the Alpine region through the 
 greater part of its extent, or even the careful study of 
 accurate models, must convince any one who seeks to 
 divide it into groups that it is not possible to do this by 
 adhering rigidly to any single test or rule. In a general 
 way, it is natural and desirable to include under the same 
 name mountain masses that are not divided by a broad 
 and deep opening; bul it is sometimes more convenient to 
 include in one group disjoined masses that have some 
 natural connexion with each other, rather than multiply 
 groups to an inconvenient extent. In some cases the 
 geological structure may supply a rational ground for pre- 
 ferring one arrangement to another, when the choice would 
 otherwise be arbitrary; and in a few cases it may be well 
 to yield something to ancient usage, based upon political
 
 ALPS 
 
 623 
 
 or f thiiological grounds. Accurate knowledge of the Alps 
 la so recent that few attempts have been made to establish 
 a general division of the entire region, and it cannot be 
 said that any one arrangement has obtained such general 
 recognition as not to be open to future modification ; but 
 there is a pretty general agreement as to the main features 
 of that here proposed, to which a few general remark 
 must be premised. 
 
 Whatever may "have been the original cause of those 
 disturbances of the earth's crust to which great mountain 
 chains owe their existence, it is generally, though not 
 universally, true that the higher masses (formed of rocks 
 geologically more ancient) are found towards the central 
 part, and that these are flanked by lower ranges, composed 
 of more recent rocks, which surround the central groups 
 very much as an outer line of entrenchment may be seen 
 to surround a fort. In most cases it is not possible to 
 descend continuously in a nearly direct line from the crest 
 of a great mountain chain to the plains on either side, for 
 there are usually intermediate valleys, running more or 
 less parallel to the central range, which separate this from 
 outer secondary ranges. These, in their turn, are often 
 accompanied by external ranges, intermediate between 
 them and the plains, and related to them as they are to 
 the central ranges. The type of arrangement here described 
 is more or less traceable throughout the greater part of the 
 Alps, but i3 most distinctly exhibited in the eastern por- 
 tion lying between the Adige and the frontier of Hungary. 
 "We have a central range, composed mainly of crystalline 
 rock ; a northern range, formed of secondary rocks, sepa- 
 rated from the first by the great valleys of the Inn, the 
 Salza, and the Enns ; a southern range, somewhat similar 
 to the last in geological structure, divided from the central 
 one by the Rienz, or east branch of the Adige, and the 
 Drave. Flanking the whole, as an external entrenchment 
 on the north side, are the outer ranges of the Bavarian 
 Alps, of the Salzkammergut, and of Upper Austria, to 
 •which correspond on the south side the Monti Lessini, 
 near Verona, the mountains of Eecoaro, those of the Sette 
 Comuni, and the considerable masses crowned by the 
 summits of the Grappa, the Col Vicentino, the Monte 
 Cavallo, the Monte Matajur, and Monte Nanos. Where, 
 as in the cases above mentioned, the secondary ranges of 
 the Alps rise to a greater altitude, and are completely 
 separated from the neighbouring portions of the central 
 chain, it i3 impossible not. to distinguish them as distinct 
 groups j but the outermost ranges, which rarely rise above 
 the forest zone, are in all cases regarded as appendages of 
 the adjoining groups: These outer ranges are called in 
 German Voralpen, and in Italian Prealpi, and it is to be 
 desired that equivalents should be introduced in other 
 European languages. A complete catalogue of the peaks 
 and passes of the Alps would exceed the limits of this 
 article, but it seems desirable to append to each of the 
 main groups in the following arrangement the names of 
 the more conspicuous summits, with the height of each 
 above the sea-level in English feet No limit of absolute 
 height has been fixed in selecting the peaks here enume- 
 rated, as the highest summits of the less lofty groups would 
 appear insignificant in those whose average elevation is 
 much greater. The more important passes are also enu- 
 merated, distinguishing those traversed — (1) by carriage 
 road, (2) by bridle-path, practicable for beasts of burden, 
 and (3) by footpath ; and (4) snow passes, involving the 
 necessity of crossing snow-fields or glacier 
 
 Main Divisions of the Alps. 
 
 1. Maritime Alps. — On examining a map of the region 
 ^vhere the chain of the Alps approaches the shores of the 
 Mediterranean, it will be seen that, about 50 miles 
 
 N.N.W. of Nice, and about 20 S.S.W. of the Monte Viso, 
 several valleys diverge in various directions, disposed, 
 roughly speaking, like the rays of a fan. These are formed 
 by a number of ridges which converge towards, although 
 they do not actually meet at, the Mont Enchastraye or 
 Cima dei Quattro Vescovadi. On the west side one of 
 these ridges divides the upper valley of the Ubaye from 
 that of the Verdon, and sands out a branch which sepa- 
 rates the latter irom the Bleone. A third ridge divides 
 the Verdon from the Var, and a fourth separates this from 
 its main affluent, the Tinea. As already mentioned, the 
 range extending S.E. from Mont Enchastraye is regarded 
 as the main chain of the Maritime Alps, and extends, with 
 numerous diverging secondary ridges, in a curved line, 
 gradually approaching nearer to the coast till it is merged 
 in the chain of the Apennines. To fix the limit between 
 the Alp8 and the Apennines in this direction is necessarily 
 a somewhat arbitrary process, and different criteria may 
 be applied with different results ; but it seems most natural 
 to fix. on the depression west of Savona known as the 
 Col d'Altare or Col di Cadibona, over which the road is 
 carried which leads in one direction to Alessandria, and in 
 the other to MondovL This is by far the lowest depres- 
 sion in the barrier dividing the Adriatic from the Mediter- 
 ranean, the summit being only 1 608 feet above the sea- 
 level; and during the Miocene epoch it formed a strait 
 connecting those seas. In modern times the project of 
 utilising the same pass for the construction of a canal to 
 connect the Po with the Gulf of Genoa is an illustration of 
 its geographical significance. On the north side of the 
 Mont Enchastraye, a comparatively low pass, Col de 
 PArgentiere, divides that mountain from the adjoining 
 portion of the main chain. This might properly be regarded 
 as the northern limit of the Maritime Alps, but ancient 
 usage has included in that group the ranges that enclose 
 the Val Maira, and separate it on one side from the Stura 
 di Demonte, and on the other from the Vraita. Conform- 
 ing to that practice, we fix the northern limit of the 
 Maritime Alps at the Col de Longet, S.E. of the peak of 
 Monte Viso, connecting the head of Val Vraita in lied- 
 mont with the sources of the Ubaye in France. 
 
 Chief Peaks of the Maritime Alps. 
 (The heights arc given in English feet.) 
 
 Monte Gale 5.649 Monte Matto 10,230 
 
 Monte Fronte 7,198 Mont Tinibras 30,223 
 
 Monte Bertrand 8,209 Mont Enchastrayo 9,747 
 
 Rocca dell' Abisso 9,193 Grand Kiobarent. 11,142 
 
 Cima dei Gelas 10,433 Aiguille de Cbambeyron 11,155 
 
 Rocca dell' Argentera 10,617 Pointe Haute de Mary 10,537 
 
 Chief Passes of the Maritime Alps. 
 
 Col di San Bernardo (Albenga to Garessio), carriage road .3301 
 
 Col di Nava (Oneglia to Ormea), carriage road 3150 
 
 Col di Tenda (Tenda to Cuneo), carriage road 6158 
 
 Col delle Finestre (S. 'Martino to Entracque), footpath 8189 
 
 Col delle Cerese (S. Martino to Valdieri), footpath S412 
 
 Col di Frema Morta (Val Tinea to Valdieri), bridle-path 8839 
 
 Col della Lombarda (Val Tinea to Vinadio), footpath 7858 
 
 Col di Sta. Anna (same), footpath 8009 
 
 Col de Pouriac (San Stefano to Bersesio), fuotpaui 8360 
 
 Col de 1' Argentine (Val. of the Stura to Barcefpnnette), bridle-path 6545 
 
 Col de Sautron (Val -Maira to Barcelonnette), footpath about 8000 
 
 Col de Lanzanier (Val Tinea to the Ubaye), footpath about 8300 
 
 2. Cottian Alps. — In the well-known panorama pre- 
 sented to an observer who takes his stand on the Superga, 
 or some other eminence near Turin, the most distant 
 objects are the peaks of the Maritime Alps south of Cuneo 
 and, exactly in the opposite direction, the great mass of 
 Monte Rosa. In the western horizon, subtended by this 
 chord, about 120 miles in length, the eye follows the 
 irregular curve traced out by the main peaks of the western 
 Alps, that separate upper Italy from France. More than 
 any other part of the Alpine chain, this is characterised by 
 extreme irregularity in the disposition of the mountain 
 masses and the chief valleys. On the west side the ire-
 
 624 
 
 ALPS 
 
 Mont Albaron 12,014 
 
 Mont Chardonnet 12.373 
 
 La Levanna 11,516 
 
 Pointe de Sainte Anne, or 
 
 Pte. des Orches about 11,000 
 
 Roche Brune 10,906 
 
 Mont Chaberton 10,258 
 
 vailing direction seems to be from south-west to north-east, 
 while on the east side it is more nearly from west to cast; 
 but the valleys and the ridges that enclose them are often 
 curved or irregularly sinuous. Convenience seems to confirm 
 immemorial usage in subdividing this rogion into two or 
 more groups ; but it is not easy to decide how this is to bo 
 effected. The great valley of the Dora Riparia, and the 
 low passes connecting it with the valley of the Durance, 
 seem to afford the most natural division. Ancient and 
 modern usage being alike opposed to this, it appears that 
 the valley of the Oreo in Piedmont and that of the Arc in 
 Savoy, with the connecting pass of the Col del Carro, may 
 best be taken as the boundary between the northern and 
 southern portions. The latter is distinguished as the group 
 of the Cottian Alps. This includes a number of secondary 
 ridges that extend from the main chain on the side of 
 Piedmont, with a general direction from west to east; and 
 on the French side one considerable range, stretching south- 
 west from the neighbourhood of Monte Viso, that divides 
 the Ubaye from the Guil, besides a lesser parallel ridge lying 
 between the Guil and the head waters of the Durauce. 
 
 Chief Peaks of the Cotlian Alps. 
 
 Monte Viso 12,605 
 
 Monte Meldassa 10,991 
 
 Mont Albergian 9,990 
 
 Roche du Grand Galibier ...10,637 
 
 Mont Tabor 10,436 
 
 Rocbe d'Ambin 11,096 
 
 Roche Melon 11.621 
 
 Ciamarella 12,081 
 
 Chief Passes of the Cotlian Alps. 
 
 Col de Longet (Val Vraita to the Ubaye), footpath 8,727 
 
 Col de St Veran (Val Vraita to Queyras), footpath 9,564 
 
 Col de la Traversette (Crissolo to Abries), footpath 9,827 
 
 Col de la Croix (La Tour de Luserne to Abries), bridle-path 7,611 
 
 Col de Sestrieres (Pigncrol to Cesanne), carriage road 6,335 
 
 Mont Genevre (Cesanne to Briancon), carriage road 6,102 
 
 Col d'Izouard (Quevras to Briancon), bridle-path about 6,580 
 
 Col dea Echelles de Planpinet ( Bardonneche to Briancon), footpath 6,873 
 
 Col de la Roue (Bardonneche to Modane), bridlepath 8,334 
 
 Col d'Etiaches (Bardonneche to Braroans), footpath 9,301 
 
 Col du Clapier (Bramans to Susa), footpath 8,107 
 
 Mont Cenis (Susa to Lanslebourg), carriage road 6,772 
 
 Col de l'Autaret (Via to Lanslebourg), enow 10,170 
 
 Col do Colorin (Ala to Lanslebourg), glacier 10,662 
 
 Col de Sea (GrOscavallo to Lanslebourg), glacier n* 15 ! 
 
 Col della Crocetta (Groscavallo to Ceresole), footpath 9,179 
 
 3. BauphinS Alps. — On the west side of the Cottian 
 Alps, and separated from these by the broad valley of the 
 Durance, rises a group of lofty peaks, surpassing them 
 considerably in height, and almost completely isolated 
 from their neighbours. This group has not usually been 
 included amongst the Cottian Alps by geographers, and 
 it is more natural to regard it as the nucleus of a distinct 
 division constituting the Dauphine" Alps. On the north 
 side of this central mass, and separated by the valley of 
 the Romanche and the Col de Lautaret, is a considerable 
 group, including three principal ridges, whose direction is 
 nearly due north and south, separated from the neighbour- 
 ing mountains of Savoy by the deep valleys of the Arc 
 and the Isere, which may best be regarded as an outlying 
 portion of this division. On the south side of the main 
 group another outlying mass, which on one side feeds the 
 chief sources of the Drac, and on the other several short 
 tributaries to the Durance, must also be included in this 
 division. The ranges of secondary rocks lying west of the 
 broad valley between Grenoble and Chambery, which are 
 geologically and orographically a southern extension of the 
 chain of the Jura, are at the same time exactly parallel to 
 the northern ranges of the Dauphine" Alps, and must be 
 regarded as the outer range or "Border Alps" (Voralpen) 
 of the group. The only doubt in fixing the limits of the 
 Dauphine" Alps is as to the boundary between their northern 
 group and the adjoining mass of the Cottian Alps. It 
 eeema that this may best be fixed at the Col de Galibier, 
 
 conntcting the chiet source of the Durance with the Tallej- 
 ot Valloires in Savoy. 
 
 Chief Peaks of the Dauphinl Alps. 
 
 Pic des Ecrins, or Pointe 
 
 des Arcines 13,462 
 
 La Meiie, or Aiguille du 
 
 Midi do la Grave 13,081 
 
 Pic d'Ailefroide about 13,000 
 
 Mont Pelvoui (highest peak) 12,973 
 
 ric d'Olan 11.739 
 
 Aiguille d'Arve (highest) 11,529 
 
 Aiguille delaSausse(high'st) 10,896 
 
 Grandes Rousses 11 ,395 
 
 Taillefer 9,387 
 
 Pic de Belledonne 9,780 
 
 Ho du Frene 9,203 
 
 Pic Bonvoisin 11,503 
 
 Dormillouse 10,571 
 
 Chamechaude 6,847 
 
 Mont Granier 6,348 
 
 Cent du Chat 5,302 
 
 Chief Passes of the Dauphinl Alps. 
 
 Col de Galibier (Briancon to St Michel), footpath 9,151 
 
 Col de Lautaret (Monestierto Bourg d'Oisans), carriage road 6,791 
 
 Col dea Ecrins (Vallouise to La Berardo), glacier 11,071 
 
 Col du Glacier Blanc (Vallouise to La Grave en Oisans), glacier.. .10,811 
 
 Col do l'Echauda (Vallouise to Monestier), bridle-path 7,938 
 
 Col de la Lauze (St Christophe to La Grave en Oisans), glacier ...10,509 
 
 Col de Venose (Venose to Freney), bridle-path 6,292 
 
 Col de Sais (La.Be>arde to Val Goderaar), glacier 10,289 
 
 Col de Celar (Vallouise to Val Godemar), glacier 10,092 
 
 Col des Tourettes (Orcieres to Chateauroux), footpath 8,465 
 
 Col de l'lnfernet (La Grave en Oisans to St Jean de Maurienne), 
 
 footpath 8,826 
 
 Col de la Croix de Fer (Bourg d'Oisans to St Jean de Maurienne), 
 
 bridlepath 6,600 
 
 4. Graian, Alps. — The lofty group of snowy mountains 
 lying between the plain of Piedmont and Mont Blanc has 
 from a remote period borne the designation Graian Alps. 
 To the north they are bounded by the Val d'Aosta, and to 
 the south by the yalley of the Oreo; but on the west side 
 the boundary is not so easily determined. The portion of 
 the main chain dividing Savoy from Piedmont, between 
 the Levana and Mont Blanc, must undoubtedly be in- 
 cluded in this division; but it is not so easy to determine 
 the relations of a group of lofty summits that are divided 
 from the rest of the Graian Alps by the upper valley of 
 the Isere, filling the space between the upper course of 
 that river and that of the Arc. This is further geologically 
 distinguished by the fact that the higher summits are 
 chiefly composed of nearly unaltered sedimentary rocks. 
 This group has by some writers been associated with the 
 mountains of Beaufort, lying between the Isere and the 
 Arly, to form, with some subordinate branches, a group of 
 south Savoy Alps ; but we prefer to adhere to the older 
 usage of those who have united them with the Graian 
 Alps. The exact boundary between these and the Mont 
 Blanc group may best be fixed at the pass of the Little 
 St Bernard, the lowest in the main chain between the 
 Mont Cenis and the Simplon. 
 
 Chief Peaks of the Graian Alp: 
 
 La Grivola 13,028 
 
 Becca di Nona 10,384 
 
 Mont Emilius 11,677 
 
 Punta di Tersiva , 11,603 
 
 Savoy Group. 
 
 Grande Motte about 11,800 
 
 Grande Casse 12,780 
 
 Dent Parassee 12,137 
 
 Roche Chevriere 10,765 
 
 Mont Pourri 12,491 
 
 Main Chain. 
 
 Grand Apparei 11 ,491 
 
 Aiguille de la Sassiere 12,326 
 
 Mont Bassao 11,200 
 
 Onnelune 10,833 
 
 Ruitor 11,480 
 
 Piedmontcse Group. 
 
 Grand Paradis 13,300 
 
 Tour du Grand St Pierre*. 12,069 
 
 Punta di Lavina 10,824 
 
 Bee d'luvergnuon about 12,100 
 
 Chief Passes in the Graian Alps. 
 
 Col del Carro (Locana to Lanslebourg), glacier 10,292 
 
 Col de Galeae (Locana to Tignes), snow < 8,839 
 
 Col de Gailletta (Tignes to Val de Rhcmes), glacier 10,049 
 
 Col Vaudet (Tignes to Val Grisanche), snow 9,305 
 
 Col du Mont (Sainte Foi to Val Grisanche), footpath 8,635 
 
 Pass of Little St Bernard (Bourg St Maurice to Aosta), car. road 7,192 
 Col de la Croix de Nivolet (Ceresole to Val Savaranche), bridlepath 8,624 
 
 Col de Grancrou (Cogne to Noasca), glacier 11,034 
 
 Col de Telleccio (Cogne to Locana), glacier 10,925 
 
 Col della Nouva (Ponte to Cogne), glacier 9,664 
 
 Col de Lauzon (Cogne to Val Savaranche), bridle-path about 9,500 
 
 Fenetre de Cogne (Cogne to Bard), bridlepath 8,860 
 
 Col de Lore (Cogne to Brissogne), glacier 10,049 
 
 Col d'Iseran (Bourg St Maurice to Lanslebourg), bridle-path 9,085 
 
 Col de la Leisse (Tignes to Entre-deux-Eaux), snow 9,127 
 
 Col de la Vanoise (Moutiers Taxentaise to Lanslebourg), footpath 8,271 
 
 Col de Chaviere (Pralognan to Modane), snow 9,144 
 
 Col de la Platiere (Moutiers Tarentaiae to St Jean de Maurienne), 
 
 footpath 6,800 
 
 Col do la Madeleine (Albertville to La Chambre), bridle-path 6,637
 
 ALPS 
 
 025 
 
 5. Pennine Alps. — The portion of the great chain that 
 includes the peaks of Mont Blanc and Monte Kosa has 
 always been recognised as the most important among the 
 divisions of the Alps. This pre-eminence is due not only 
 to its surpassing height, but to the fact that its peaks are 
 so conspicuous. Throughout the plain of Upper Italy, 
 from Turin to Milan, and even as far as the slopes of the 
 Apennines, Monte Kosa, with its attendant peaks, is com- 
 monly the most remarkable object in the northern horizon ; 
 while in western. Switzerland, and as far westward as the 
 heights above Lyons, the dome of Mont Blanc, rising in 
 the distant eastern horizon, attracts the frequent attention 
 alike of natives and strangers. Some doubts may arise as 
 to the precise limits that should be assigned to this group. 
 Towards the north-east.it is generally agreed that the 
 Simplon Pass is the most natural limit. In the opposite 
 direction most writers have fixed on the Col de Bonhomme, 
 south-west of Mont Blanc, as the proper boundary; but it 
 seems reasonable inageneral arrangement to regard the range 
 extending from the last-named pass to Grand Cceur, in the 
 valley of the Isere, as a south-western prolongation of the 
 range of Mont Blanc. From the portion of the main chain 
 connecting the Mont Combin with Monte Rosa, numerous 
 branches, with peaks that rival these in height, diverge 
 northward. The secondary ranges that extend on the side 
 of Italy, southward and eastward from Monte Rosa, are 
 much inferior in altitude. On the north and west sides 
 of Mont Blanc an extensive mountain district, including 
 the French department of Haute Savoie, must be considered 
 as an appendage to the group of the Pennine Alps. On 
 the south side, the short range extending parallel to that 
 of Mont Blanc, from Courmayeur to the Val de Bellaval, 
 corresponding to the range of the Aiguilles Rouges and the 
 Brevent, on the opposite side, mav best be included within 
 the group of the Pennine Alps. 
 
 Chief Peaks of the Pennine Alps, 
 
 Fletschhorn (Laquinhorn) 13,176 
 
 Grauhaupt 10,702 
 
 Corno Bianco 11,014 
 
 Pointe de Salles about 10,200 
 
 Buet 10,207 
 
 Tour Salliere 10,587 
 
 Dent du Midi : 10,450 
 
 Pigne d'Arolla 12,471 
 
 Rouinette 12,727 
 
 Mont Blanc de Cheillon ... 12,700 
 
 Dent Blanche 14,318 
 
 Grand Cornier 13,022 
 
 Sasseneire • 10,692 
 
 Gabelhom 13,363 
 
 Rothhorn, or Morning 13,855 
 
 Weisshorn 14,804 
 
 Strablhorn 13,750 
 
 Mischabelhbrnor (Doni) ... 14,935 
 
 Cima des Fours 12,615 
 
 Aiguille de Trelatete 12,907 
 
 Aiguille de Bionnassay 13,324 
 
 Mont Blanc (Calotte) 15,781 
 
 Aiguille Verte 13,527 
 
 Grandes Jorasses 13,799 
 
 Aiguille d'Argentiere 12,796 
 
 Grande Rossere 10,904 
 
 Mont Velan 12,353 
 
 Grand Combin .-. 14,164 
 
 MontGele 11,539 
 
 Mont Colon 12,264 
 
 Dent d'Herens 13,714 
 
 Bee de Luseney 12,350 
 
 Matterhorn.orMontCervin 14,780 
 
 Breithorn 13,685 
 
 Lyskaram 14,889 
 
 Mle. Rosa (highest peak)... 15,217 
 Weissmies : 13,225 
 
 Chief Passes of the Pennine Alps. 
 
 Col de Bonhomme (Contamines to Chapiu), bridle-path 8,193 
 
 Col de la Seigne (Chapiu to Courmayeur), bridle-path 8,327 
 
 Col du Mont Tondu (Contamines to AlUe Blanche), glacier 9,204 
 
 Col de Miage (Contamines to Courmayeur), glacier 11,076 
 
 Col du Geant (Chamouni to Courmayeur), glacier 11,030 
 
 Col du Tour (Chamouni to Orsieres), glacier 11,213 
 
 Colde Ferrei (Courmayeur to Orsieres), bridle-path 8,320 
 
 Great St Bernard Pass (Orsieres to Aosta), bridle-path 8,120 
 
 Col de Fenetre (Chables to Aosta), bridle-path 9,141 
 
 Col de Colon (Aosta to Evolena), glacier 10,269 
 
 Col de la Val Pellina (Aosta to Zermatt), glacier. .' 11,687 
 
 Col de Vessona (Oyace to St Barthelemi), footpath about 8,600 
 
 Col de Vacornere (Prarayen to Val Tournanche), snow , 10,335 
 
 Col de Chermontane (Chermontane to Evolena), glacier 10,349 
 
 Col d'Herens (Evolena to Zermatt), glacier 11,418 
 
 Col do Torrent (Evolena to Vissoie), footpath 9,593 
 
 Pas du Bosuf (St Luc to Turtmanthal), footpath 9,154 
 
 Augstbord Pass (Griiben to St Niklaus), bridle-path 9,515 
 
 Trift Joch (Zinal to Zermatt), glacier 11,614 
 
 Col de St Theodule (Zermatt to Val Tournanche), glacier 10,899 
 
 Schwarz Thor (Zermatt to Val d'Ayas), glacier 12,777 
 
 Lys Joch (Zermatt to Val de Lys), glacier - 14,050 
 
 Weiss Thor (Zermatt to Macugnaga), glacier. 11.851 
 
 Betta Fuike (Val d'Ayas to Val de Lys), footpath 8,639 
 
 Col d'OUen (Gressouay to Alagna), bridle-path „._.. 9,544 
 
 Col di Vnl Dolibia (Gressonay to P-iva), bridle-path «.. 8,360 
 
 Turlo Pass (Alagna to Macugnaga), snow 9,088 
 
 Col di Barranca (Varallo to Ponte Grande), bridle-path 5,749 
 
 Alphubel Joch (Zermatt to Saas), glacier. 12,474 
 
 Adler Pass (Zermatt toDistel Alp), glacier 12,461 
 
 Monte Moro (Saaa to Macugnaga), snow 9,390 
 
 Saas Pass, or Passo d'Antrona (Saas to Val Antrona), glacier 9,331 
 
 Zwischbergen Pass (Saas to Gondo), glacier 10,732 
 
 Simplon Pass (Brieg to Domo d'Ossola), carriage road. 6,595 
 
 Col de Balme (Chamouni to Martigny), bridle-path 7,231 
 
 Col d'Anterne (Servoz toSixt), bridle-path 7,612 
 
 Col de Sesanfe (Champe'ry to Martigny), footpath 7,940 
 
 6. Bernese Alps. — There is no considerable mass of 
 Alpine summits whose boundaries are better defined than 
 that which is generally known as the group of the Bernese 
 Alps. By the number and height of the peaks, that rise 
 far above the limits of perpetual snow, it ranks next in 
 importance to the Pennine group ; and its position with 
 reference to that group has largely contributed to the fame 
 of the region which they occupy for a marvellous and 
 almost unique combination of grandeur and variety. The 
 most characteristic feature in the orography of Switzerland 
 is the great valley system that extends in a nearly direct 
 line from Martigny to Coire — interrupted, it is true, by 
 two passes (the Furka and Oberalp) of small elevation 
 compared to the surrounding heights. On the opposite 
 sides of this great trench the- chief groups of the central 
 Alps are arranged in masses that, amid much apparent 
 irregularity, approach to parallelism T?ith the direction of 
 the central valley. Hence the traveller who attains any 
 considerable height on either side sees over against hi m 
 the dominant summits of the opposite group in constantly 
 varying combination. The highest groups (the Pennine 
 and Bernese) are so placed that the chief peaks on the one 
 side are rarely more than 20 miles apart from their rivals 
 in the opposite chain, and the projecting summits of the 
 secondary ridges between them afford panoramic views of 
 wonderful beauty and grandeur. What may be called the 
 main chain of the Bernese Alps, forming the boundary 
 between the Swiss cantons of Bern and Valais, extends 
 parallel to the course of the Rhone, from the glacier which 
 is the main source of that river, to Martigny, a distance of 
 about 70 miles ; and we must regard as a dependency of 
 that chain the mountain district that lies on its northern 
 side, between the upper course of the Aar and the head of 
 the Lake of Geneva. Desiring to adhere to the divisions 
 of the Alps admitted by ancient geographers, many modern 
 writers have included the Bernese group among the Lepon- 
 tine Alps ; but this arrangement is not consistent with any 
 rational criterion that can be applied. The only question 
 admitting of doubt is as to the eastern limit of this group. 
 The Aar issues from its parent glacier at a point very near 
 to the chief source of the Rhone, and separated only by a 
 comparatively deep and broad depression, the Grimsel 
 Pass; and it might appear that the Bernese Alps. should 
 be defined as the group enclosed between those rivers. 
 But some ten miles east of the Grimsel Pass the range 
 lying north of the great valley of Switzerland is completely 
 cut through by the valley of the Reuss, where that stream 
 descends towards the Lake of Lucerne through the famous 
 defile- of the Devil's Bridge; and as it would be incon- 
 venient to reckon the comparatively small group that lies 
 between the head waters of the Reuss and those of tho 
 Aar as a separate division, we prefer to include this as a 
 portion of the Bernese Alps. 
 
 Chief Peaks of the Bernese Alps. 
 
 Grand Moveran 10,043 | Aletschborn 13,803 
 
 Diablerets 10,666 
 
 Wildhorn 10,722 
 
 Wildstrubel 10,715 
 
 Balmhora 12,100 
 
 Doldenhorn ..11,965 
 
 Blvimlis Alp (Blurolisalp- 
 
 hom) 12.041 
 
 Bietschhorn 12.969 
 
 Jungfrau 13,671 
 
 Mdnch 13,438- 
 
 Eiger 13,045 
 
 Finsteraarhorn 14,025 
 
 Schreckhorn 13,394 
 
 Wetterhorn (Mittelhorn) 12,166 
 
 Rizlihorn 10.774 
 
 EgFjisrhhoro 9,649
 
 620 
 
 ALPS 
 
 Titlis 10,627 
 
 Uri Rothstock 9,620 
 
 Niesen 7,763 
 
 Brienzer Rothhorn 7,917 
 
 Pilatus (Oberuaupt) 7,290 
 
 Loffelhora 10,139 
 
 Galenstock 1 1 ,966 
 
 Dammastock 1 1 ,990 
 
 Sustenhorn 11,519 
 
 Gross Spaouort 10,515 
 
 Chief Passes in the Bernese A lps. 
 
 Col da Chevilte (Bex to Sion), bridle-path 6,630 
 
 S.onetsch Pass (Sion to Sa path 7,369 
 
 Rawyl Pass (Sion to Zweisimmen), bridlepath 7,943 
 
 Geromi Pass (Kandersteg to Leuk), bridle-path 7,553 
 
 LOtaeheD Pass (Eandenug to Turtman), glacier 8,796 
 
 Tschingel Pass (Kandersteg to Lauterbrunnen), glacier 9,252 
 
 Peteisgrat (Lauterbrunnen to Kippel), glacier. 10,550 
 
 Lotscben LUcke (Kippel to the jEggiscblom), glacier 10,512 
 
 Kleine Scheidegg (Lauterbrunnen to Grindelwald), bridle-path... 6,768 
 
 Grosse Scheidegg (Grindelwald to Meyringen), bridlepath 6,910 
 
 Munch Joch (Grindelwald to Viescb), glacier about 11,600 
 
 Strahleck Pass (Grindelwald to the Gnmsel), glacier 10,994 
 
 Briinig Pass (Brienz to Sarnen), carriage road 3,648 
 
 Engelberger Joch (Meyringen to Engelberg), bridle-path 7,'-M4 
 
 rn), carriage road (?) 7,440 
 
 Triftlimmi ('lVift Glacier to Grimsel), glacier about 10,200 
 
 nanlinimi (Gcschenen to Stein Alp), glacier about 10,170 
 
 Surenen Pass (Engelberg to Altdorf), bridle-path 7,562 
 
 7. North Siviss Alps. — Attention has already been called 
 to the great line of valley that traverses Switzerland from 
 Martigny to Coire. The range of high peaks lying on the 
 north side of this valley is interrupted at one point only, 
 ■where the Reuss flows through the deep defile of the 
 Devil's Bridge from Andermatt to Altdorf, and this breach 
 in the continuity of the range has been here regarded as 
 the eastern limit of the Bernese Alps. The range extend- 
 ing eastward from that boundary to the neighbourhood of 
 Coire might perhaps be considered as a prolongation of 
 the range of the Bernese Alps ; but independently of the 
 inconvenience of assigning such wide boundaries to a single 
 group, there are geologic as well as orographic grounds for 
 preferring to class this along with the dependent ranges 
 lying further north as a separate division of the Alps. 
 With regard to the latter ranges, those lying between the 
 valley of the Reuss and the Lake of Lucerne, on one side, 
 and the ancient valley of the Rhine, which included the 
 lakes of Wallenstadt and Zurich, on the other, manifestly 
 correspond to the outer ranges of contral Switzerland, 
 ■which we regard as appendages of the Bernese Alps. The 
 case is somewhat different as regards the small detached 
 group culminating in the Hoh Sentis, and lying in the 
 angle between the ancient course of the Rhine and the 
 modern Rhine valley from Sargans to the Lake of Con- 
 stance. This is so far separated orographically and by 
 geological structure that it might proporly rank as a 
 separate division, but it is on the whole more convenient 
 to reckon it as an outlying portion of this group. The 
 Oberalp Pass, a few miles east of Andermatt, forms the 
 <*- ttershed between tho Reuss and the main branch of the 
 I' nine, and the waters meet again at the" confluence with 
 the latter of the united streams of tho Aar and the Reuss 
 at Waldshut, so that the entire territory comprehending 
 this division of the Alps is enclosed between the two first- 
 named rivers. 
 
 Chief Peaks of the 
 
 Crispalt (Piz Giuf) 10,164 
 
 Oberalpstock (Piz Cotschen) 10,925 
 
 :odl 11,887 
 
 Piz Tumbif, or Brigelserhorn 10,668 
 Bifertenstock.or Pis Durgin 11,237 
 
 Hausstock 10,355 
 
 Segnesbom 10,870 
 
 Halanda 9,213 
 
 Bristenstock 10,089 
 
 Scheerhorn .'....11,142 
 
 Claridenstock 10,709 
 
 Selbsanft. 9,921 
 
 North Swiss A lps. 
 
 Karpfstock 9,180 
 
 Saurenstock 10,026 
 
 Scheibe 9,687 
 
 Mythen (higher peak) 6,244 
 
 Glamisch (highest peak, 
 
 Bachistock) 9,584 
 
 MUrtschenstock - 8,012 
 
 Mageren — ., 8,294 
 
 Churfirsten (highest peak, 
 
 Scheibenstoll) 7,654 
 
 Faulfirst 7,916 
 
 Hoh Sentis .?. 8,215 
 
 Chief Passes of the North Swiss A lps. 
 
 Ob<:ralp Pass (Dissentis to Andermatt), carriage road 6,732 
 
 Kreuzli Pass (Dissentis to Amsteg), footpath - 7,710 
 
 Band Grat Pass (Dissentis to Stachelberg), glacier 9,188 
 
 Clariden Grat (Amsteg to Stachelberg), glacier 9,842 
 
 Kisten Pass (Tlanz to Stachelberg), snow 8,281 
 
 tanixar Pass (Uanz to Elm), bridle-path 7,907 
 
 Segnes Pass (Reicbenau to Elm), snow 8,611 
 
 Sardona Pass (Elm to Vattis), glacier about 9,500 
 
 Ramin Pass (Elm to Sargans), footpath 6,772 
 
 Klausen Pass (Altdorf to Stachelberg), bridle-path 6,437 
 
 Pragel Pass fSchnyz to Glarus), bridle-path 5,062 
 
 Kamor 1 o J to KUti), bridle-path about 6,300 
 
 8. Lepontine Alps. — The portion of tho Alpine chain 
 lying between the Simplon and Spliigen passes, and form- 
 ing the boundary between the tributaries of the Po and 
 those of the Rhine, presents some peculiar orographic 
 characteristics. The line of ■watershed is pretty nearly 
 parallel to that great line of depression traced across 
 Switzerland by the valley of the Rhone, the Ursorenthal, 
 and the valley of tho Vorderrhein ; and a tendency to 
 parallelism with the same system may be traced in many 
 parts of this group. But the dominant direction of the 
 secondary valleys and ridges is that of tho meridian ; and 
 on the south sido we find a series of long valleys running 
 from north to south, with occasional slight distortions. The 
 most considerable of these are partly .occupied by the two 
 famous Lombard lakes — Maggiore and Como — which have 
 from an early period attracted the admiration of strangers 
 to this region. Ancient geographers limited the term 
 Lepontine Alps to the portion of this group that sends its 
 drainage on the south side to the river Ticino ; but the 
 ranges between the Spliigen and' Bernardino passes, and be- 
 tween the lakes Maggiore and Como, evidently belong to the 
 same system, and must be united in any natural arrange- 
 ment of the Alps. On considering a tolerably correct 
 model, it is impossible not to be struck by the fact that all 
 the valleys that contain the most considerable streams of 
 the central Alps appear to radiate from the neighbour- 
 hood of the St Gotthard Pass. If we measure from the 
 summit of that pass to the head valleys of the Rhone, the 
 Aar, the Reuss, the Vorderrhein, the Ticino, and the 
 Toccia, we find that the most distant lies within i) English 
 miles from that point. This fact has doubtless a signifi- 
 cance which we are not yet able fully to appreciate, but 
 scarcely suffices to justify the view of those who regard the 
 St Gotthard Pass as in some special sense the central point 
 of the whole system of the Alps. It is worth remarking 
 that, so far from being distinguished by superior height, 
 the neighbouring peaks are surpassed by all the surround- 
 ing groups, and that the valleys are much deeper than in 
 many other districts, and especially than those of eastern 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Chief Peaks of the Lepontine A lps. 
 
 Piz Vial, or Gallinario 10.387 
 
 PizVahhein 11,148 
 
 Vogelberg 10,564 
 
 Piz Tern 10,338 
 
 Piz Cavel 9,659 
 
 Fanellabom 10,248 
 
 Lochliberg 9,990 
 
 PizBerenn 9,843 
 
 Tambohorn 10,748 
 
 Cima di Balniscio 9,967 
 
 Monte Camoghe 7,304 
 
 Monte Leone 11,696 
 
 Wasenhom. 10,628 
 
 Ofenhom,or Punta d'Arbola 10,728 
 
 Blinnenhorn 10,932 
 
 Monte Basodine 10,748 
 
 Bizzo Rotondo 10,489 
 
 Pizzo di Campo Tenca 10,096 
 
 Piodi di Crana 7,959 
 
 Cima di Laurasca 7,264 
 
 Badus, or Six Maduna. 9,616 
 
 Scopt 10,499 
 
 Cima Camadra 10,609 
 
 Chief Passes in the Lepontine Alps. 
 
 Rittor Pass (Viescb to IsoUa), snow 8,854 
 
 Albrun Pass (Viescb to Premia), bridle-path 8,005 
 
 Grics Po3s (Obergestelen to Fonnazza), bridle-path 8,050 
 
 Nufenen Pass (Obergestelen to Airolo), bridle-path 8,009 
 
 Passo di San Giacomo (Fonnazza to Airolo), bridle-path 7,572 
 
 Furka Pass (Obergestelen to Hospenthal), carriage road 7,992 
 
 St Gotthard Pass (Bospcnthal to Airolo), carriage road 6,936 
 
 Criner Furka (Locarno to Val Fonnazza), footpath 7,631 
 
 Passo di Narret (Locarno to Airolo), footpath 8,013 
 
 Passo dell' Uomo (Dissontis to Airolo), footbath. 7,257 
 
 Lukmanier Pass (Dissentis to Olivone), bridle-path _ 6,289 
 
 Greina Pass (Trons to Olivone), bridle-path - 7,743 
 
 Disrut Pass (llanz to OUvone), footpath 7,953 
 
 Scaradra Pass (llanz to Gnu-one), snow 9,088 
 
 Passo di Buffalora (Val Calanca to Mesocco), bridle-path 6,686 
 
 Bernardino Pass (Hinterrhein to Val Mesocco), carriage road. 6,769 
 
 Valserborg Pass (llanz to Hinterrhein), bridle-path 8,226 
 
 LSch^ibcrg Paaa (Reichenan to Bplugen), footpath. ™~ 8 Jf *
 
 A L 
 
 BplUgen Pass (Spliijen to Chiavenna), carriage road 6,945 
 
 Passo di Balniscio (Campodolcino to Mesocco), footpath 7,715 
 
 Passo della Forcola'(Chiaveuna to Roveredo), footpath 7,274 
 
 Passo di San Jorio (Gravedona to Bellinzona), footpath 6,417 
 
 9. The Rhaetian Alps. — The older geographers included 
 under the term Rhaetian Alps a vast mountain region 
 extending over 6° of long., from the east side of the Lago 
 Maggiore to the left bank of the Salza, and through 2£° 
 of lat., from the neighbourhood of Brescia to the plain of 
 Bavaria. There is no assignable reason for uniting in a 
 single division mountain groups so distinct as many of 
 those included -within this wide space — scarcely less than 
 that occupied by all the divisions hitherto enumerated — 
 save the fact that at an early period they received a com- 
 mon designation from writers who had a most imperfect 
 acquaintance with their topography. It might be expe- 
 •dient to discard a term to which it is difficult to assign a 
 limited meaning without incurring the risk of confusion ; 
 but general usage has so constantly applied the term 
 Rhastia to the mountain region of Switzerland lying east 
 of the Rhine, with the adjoining portion of Tyrol, that 
 it seems best to preservathe ancient name while endeavour- 
 ing to restrict it within juster limits. With that object it 
 is necessary to take account of one of the most remarkable 
 features in the orography of the Alps — the great breach in 
 the continuity of the main chain shown in the upper valley 
 of the Adige. On a general view of western Tyrol it is 
 apparent that the lakes which feed the head of that stream 
 lie on the northern side of the axis of elevation of the 
 main chain, and in fact several streams draining the 
 northern slopes of the central mass are borne southward 
 to the Adriatic through that opening. This is not the 
 place to take into consideration the important influence 
 that this breach in the line of defence between Italy and 
 the north, and the equally deep opening of the Brenner 
 Pass at the head of the other main branch of the Adige, 
 las had on the history of Europe, nor to discuss the 
 geological significance of the same depression throughout 
 an incalculably longer period ; but it is sufficiently clear 
 that this should be taken as the eastern limit of the group 
 to which the term Rhaetian Alps most properly applies. 
 On the west the limit, as we have already seen, is, marked 
 by the valley of the Rhine, *nd the line of depression over 
 which the Spliigen road is carried to the head of the lake 
 of Como. In the space between these boundaries the 
 chief mountains of the Rhaetian Alps appear as islands of 
 crystalline rock, divided by intervening masses of palaeozoic 
 and older secondary strata; but on the south side lies a district 
 which differs considerably in geological structure, and is 
 cut off by a distinct orographic boundary. A straight line 
 drawn from the head of the lake of Como to Cles in Tyrol, 
 will throughout lie close to a trench formed by the valley 
 of the Adda, the low pass of Aprica, the head of Val 
 Camonica, the Tonale Pass, and the Tyrplese Val di Sole. 
 On the south side of this trench, and parallel to it, extend 
 in succession a broad baud of palaeozoic rock and a still 
 broader zone of trias, bordered on he southern slope by a 
 narrow girdle of Jurassic rocks which decline towards the 
 jJain of Lombardy. Towards the east these are interrupted 
 by a great mass of very peculiar granite, the most consider- 
 able tract of true granite to be found in the Alps. Beyond 
 this the ridges and valleys no longer preserve the direction 
 from east to west, bat become parallel to the lake of 
 Garda and the valley of the Adige. The district thus 
 limited is enumerated hereafter as a distinct division under 
 the designation Lombard Alps, the boundary between this 
 and the Rhaetian division being the trench above described, 
 which is prolonged from near Cles over the low Gampen 
 Pass to tie neighbourhood of Meran. On the northern 
 side the Rhaetian Alps are divided from the Vindelician 
 by a well-marked trench closely corresponding with the 
 
 i? s 
 
 627 
 
 Ofen Wand 11 ,55S 
 
 Venezia Spitze 11,095 
 
 Hasenobr 10,873 
 
 PaUon della Mare 12,038 
 
 Tresero 11,636 
 
 Monte Confinale 11,079 
 
 Monte Sobretta about ll.OOU 
 
 Piz Curver 9,761 
 
 Piz Starlera 10,001 
 
 Piz Platta 11,109 
 
 Gravasalvas (Piz Lungen) ...10,421 
 
 Piz d'Aela 10,893 
 
 Pizd'Err 11.13t 
 
 Cima da Flix 10,947 
 
 Piz Munteratsch 1 1 ,106 
 
 PizOtt 10,660 
 
 Piz Uertsch 10,738 
 
 Piz Kesch 11,211 
 
 PizVadred 10,610 
 
 Schbne Bleise 9,794 
 
 Scesa Plana 9,738 
 
 Blankahora 10,382 
 
 Piz Linard 11,208 
 
 Fluchthorn 11,142 
 
 Muttler 10,824 
 
 PizMondin 10,377 
 
 Vesulspitz 10,154 
 
 northern limit of the crystalline rocks of the Silvretta 
 group, formed by the valley of the HI, the Vorarlberg Pass, 
 and the course of the Rosanna. Within the limits here 
 assigned the Rhaetian Alps occupy an area measuring 
 about 80 miles by 60. The entire mass is divided into 
 two nearly equal portions by the upper valley of the Inn, 
 known in Switzerland as the Engadine. 
 
 Chief Peaks of the Rhalian Alps, 
 
 Piz d'Emet 10,502 
 
 Pizzo Stella 10,266 
 
 Pizzo della Duana 10,279 
 
 Piz Margna 10,355 
 
 Piz Giiz 17,066 
 
 PizTremoggia 11.326 
 
 Piz Eoseg 12,986 
 
 Piz Bernina 
 
 Piz Cambrena 11,-35 
 
 Punta Trubinesca 11,106 
 
 Cima del Largo 11,162 
 
 Monte della Disgrazia 12,074 
 
 Pizzo di Verona 11,353 
 
 Corno di Campo 10,843 
 
 Monte Foscagno 10,148 
 
 Piz Languard 10,715 
 
 Piz Quatervals 10,359 
 
 PizMurterol 10,424 
 
 Pizzo di Sena. 10,099 
 
 Como di Dosde 10,597 
 
 Piz Pisoch 10,427 
 
 Piz Scesvenna 10,568 
 
 Piz Umbrail 9,954 
 
 Monte Cristallo 11,370 
 
 Orteler Spitze 12,814 
 
 Konigs Spitze 12,646 
 
 Monte Cevedale 12,505 
 
 Pederspitz (highest peak) ...11,349 
 
 Chief Passes in the Khartian A !ps. 
 
 Passo di Madesimo (Campo Dokino to Avers Thai), footpath 7,480 
 
 Passo della Duana (Casaccia to Avers Thai), glacier 8,720 
 
 Septimer Pass (Casaccia to Molins), bridle-path 7,582 
 
 Maloya Pass (Casaccia to Silvaplana), carriage road 5,942 
 
 Passo di Zov.-ca (Casaccia to Val Masino), glacier 8,957 
 
 Muretto Pass (Casaccia to Sondrio), snow 8,616 
 
 Bernina Pass (Pontresina to Poschiavo), carriage road 7,658 
 
 Passo di Canciano (Chiesa to Poschiavo), footpath 8,366 
 
 Lavinim Pass (Ponteto Val Livigno), snow 9,249 
 
 Passo di Val Viola (Poschiavo to Bonnio), footpath about 7,900 
 
 Foscagno Pass (Bormio to Zernetz), bridle-path 6,329 
 
 Ofen Pass (Zernetz to Santa Maria), carriage road 7,070 
 
 Umbrail Pass (Bormio to Santa Maria), footpath 8,342 
 
 Stelvio Pass (Bormio to Prad), carriage road 9,213 
 
 Passo Cevedale (Sta. Catarina to Latsch), glacier 10,765 
 
 Passo di Vios (Sta. Catarina to Pejo), glacier 10,868 
 
 Passo di Sforzellina (Val Gavia to Pejo), glacier 9,950 
 
 Gavia Pass (Sta. Catarina to Val Camonica), bridle-path about 8,600 
 
 Hohenferner Joch (Martell Thai to Val della Mare), glacier 9,904 
 
 Saent Pass (Martell Thai to Eabbil, glacier 9.954 
 
 Kirchberger Joch (Ulten Thai to Rabbi), footpath 8,134 
 
 Julier Pass (Molins to Silvaplana), carriage road 7.503 
 
 Albula Pass (Bergiin to Ponte), carriage road 7,589 
 
 Sertig Pass (Scanfs to Bergiin), footpath _ 9,062 
 
 Strela Pass (Coire to Davos), bridle-path 7,739 
 
 Laret Pass (Bergiin to Klosters), carriage road 5,338 
 
 Scaletta Pass (Davos to Scanfs), snow - 8,613 
 
 Fluela Pass (Davos to Sus), carriage road 7,891 
 
 Vereina Pass (Klosters to Siis), footpath 8,133 
 
 Silvretta Pass (Klosters to Guarda), glacier 9,928 
 
 CavellJoch (Bludenzto Seewia), footpath 7,562 
 
 SchweixerthoT (Vadans toSchiersch), footpath 7,120 
 
 Dnisenthor (Scbxuns to Schiersch), footpath 7,822 
 
 Schlappiaer Joch (St Gallenkirch to KJosters), bridle-path (?) 7,185 
 
 Fermunt Pass (Pattenen to Guarda), glacier 9,206 
 
 Bieler Joch (Montafun to Paznaun Thai), bridle-path about 6,000 
 
 Fimber Joch (Ischgl to Remiis), snow 8,547 
 
 Vignitz Pass (Kappel to Samnaunthal), snow 8,855 
 
 10. Lombard Alps. — The limits of the Lombard Alps 
 have been already pointed out They are enclosed on the 
 east and west sides by the Adige and the lake of Como, 
 extending through about 90 miles from near Meran to 
 Lecco. Their northern boundary is the great orographic 
 trough that stretches from the head of the lake of Como 
 along the valley of the Adda to Tresenda, thence by the 
 low Aprica Pass to the upper Yal Camonica, and over the 
 Tonale Pass to the Val di Sole. Where that valley bends 
 abruptly to SSE., the trough still keeps its original direc- 
 tion across the Gampen Pass to the right bank of the 
 Adige below Meran, In spite of the zeal with which
 
 628 
 
 ALPS 
 
 travellers have of late years explored the unfrequented 
 parts of the Alps, this group continues to be very im- 
 perfectly known, although it offers abundant attractions to 
 the naturalist and the lover of picturesque and grand 
 scenery. 
 
 Chief Peaks of the Lombard Alps. 
 
 L«gnone 8,568 
 
 Puzo del Tre Signori, about 8,600 
 
 Origna (Monte Codeno) 7,908 
 
 Corno Stella 8,846 
 
 Aralalta 6,585 
 
 Monte Arera 8,255 
 
 Monte Redorta. 9,980 
 
 Pizao del Diavolo 9,574 
 
 Pizzo di Cocca 9,705 
 
 Monte Presolana 8,202 
 
 Monte Frerone 8.676 
 
 Monte Blumone 9,321 
 
 Chief Passes in the Lombard Alps. 
 Passo di San Marco (Morbegno to Val Brerabana), bridle-path ... 
 
 Passo del Salto (Sondrio to Val Seriana), footpath about 
 
 Presolana Pass (Castione to Val di Scalve), footpath 
 
 Aprica Pass (Sondrio to Edolo), carriage road 
 
 Tonale Pass (Edolo to Val di Sole), carriage road 
 
 Gampen Pass (Cles to Meran), bridlepath about 
 
 Croce Domini Pass (Breno to Lodron), bridle-path about 
 
 Passo di S. Valentino (Val di Fum to Tioue), snow about 
 
 Passo del Lago Ghiacciato (Ponte di Legno to Pinzolo), snow 
 
 Passo di Lares (Pinzolo to Val di Fum), glacier 
 
 Ginevrie Pass (Pinzolo to Val di Non), bridlepath 
 
 Bocca di Brenta (Pinzolo to Molveno), snow 
 
 Mendelscharte (Cles to Botzen), bridle-path 
 
 Crozzon di Laris 10,889 
 
 Monte Adamello ,...11,832 
 
 Care Alto 11,352 
 
 Preaanella, or Cima di Nar- 
 
 dis 11,688 
 
 Cima delle Rochettc 10,777 
 
 Brenta Alta (?) 10,771 
 
 Monte Baldo (highest peak 
 
 —La Colma) 7,212 
 
 Mendola (Monte Koen) 6,919 
 
 Monte Bondone 7,412 
 
 6,997 
 7,500 
 4,265 
 4,052 
 6,483 
 4,000 
 6,500 
 9,300 
 9,437 
 9,230 
 5,200 
 8,502 
 4,964 
 
 1 1 . Vindelieian Alps. — Reference has already been made 
 to the contrast offered by the orderly arrangement of the 
 Eastern Alps, as compared with the far more complicated 
 and irregular disposition of the masses that make up the 
 Western and Central Alps. In the former wo have a broad 
 zone of crystalline or metamorphic palaeozoic rocks, extend- 
 ing from the upper valley of the Adige to the frontier of 
 Hungary, flanked on either side by a parallel zone of 
 secondary rocks, which rise into peaks that do not much 
 exceed the limit of perpetual snow. The northern zone 
 extends for a distance of fully 260 miles from the lake of 
 Constance to the neighbourhood of Vienna, with an average 
 width varying from 30 to 40 miles. For the greater part 
 of that distance this is separated from the central range by 
 broad and deep valleys, through which the Inn, Salza, and 
 Enns flow from west to east, till each of them, turning 
 abruptly northward, runs through an opening that cuts 
 across the general strike of the stratification to reach the 
 plain of South Germany. In geological structure and 
 general aspect the mountains of this tract show many 
 common characteristics, and convenience supplies the only 
 good reason for dividing it into two main groups, separated 
 by the valley of the Inn, the greatest of the tributaries 
 which the Alps send to the Danube. Of the western 
 portion of this region the larger part belongs to Bavaria, 
 but a considerable share lies in the Austrian provinces of 
 Tyrol and Vorarlberg; and on this account the designa- 
 tions Bavarian Alps and North Tyrol Alps are open to 
 objection, and have the further disadvantage of excluding 
 the Alpine districts of Bavaria and North Tyrol lying east 
 of the Inn. The name Suabian Alps is liable to. the 
 serious objection that none but a very small part of this 
 district was ever included in the circle of Suabia. On 
 the whole, it seems that the region lying north of the 
 Vorarlberg road and the valley of the Inn, between the 
 lake of Constance and the latter river, may best be 
 termed the Vindelieian Alps. The whole was included 
 within the territory of .the Vindelici before that powerful 
 tribe was conquered by the Romans, and their territory 
 joined to that of the Rhaetians to form a single Roman 
 province. In height the mountains of this division fall 
 considerably short of those hitherto enumerated, not more 
 than four *r five exceeding 9000 feet. It is impossible to 
 consider a man of this region without being struck by the 
 
 Miemingergebirge (highest) 8,856 
 
 Karwandlspitz 8,259 
 
 Kreuzspitz 7,156 
 
 Solstein 8,649 
 
 Edkorspitz 8,911 
 
 Lavatscherspitz 9,081 
 
 Vomperjoch 7,. r >'k"> 
 
 Soiernspitz 7,303 
 
 Jmfen 7,144 
 
 fact, that although the general slope inclineb northward 
 towards the plain of Bavaria, or southward towards the 
 111 and the Inn, nearly all the ridges and minor valleys 
 lie east and west parallel to the course of those rivers and to 
 the outcrop of the sedimentary strata, which is equally the 
 direction of the line of depression followed by the Vorarl- 
 berg road forming the southern boundary of this group. 
 Chief Peaks of the Vindelieian Alps. 
 
 Mittagspitz 6,851 
 
 Rothewand 8,842 
 
 Schafberg 8,774 
 
 Madelegabel 8,674 
 
 Biberkopf 8,543 
 
 Widderstein 8,294 
 
 Hoch Vogel 8,501 
 
 Stanzerkopf 9,041 
 
 Muttekopf 9,077 
 
 Zugspitz 9,716 
 
 Chief Passes in the Vindelieian A Ips. 
 
 Arlberg Pass (Bludenz to Landeck), carriage road 5,902 
 
 Haldenwanger Eck (Scbrecken to Oberstdorf), footpath 0,070 
 
 Schrofen Pass (Oberstdorf to Stcg in Lechthal), bridle-path 6,569 
 
 Madelejoch (Oberstdorf to Holzgau), footpath about 7,000 
 
 Kaiserjoch (Steg to Petnou in Stanzerthal), footpath' about 7,000 
 
 Zamserjoch (Elbigen Alp to Landeck or Imst), footpath about 7,000 
 
 Fern Pass (Lermoos to Telfs), carriage road 4,063 
 
 Seefeld Pass (Partenkirch to Zirl), carriage road 3,900 
 
 .Geissel Pass (Mittenwald to Lermoos), footpath t .. 4,258 
 
 Stempeljoch (Scharnitz to Hall), footpath, 7,;t4" 
 
 Haller Anger (Scharnitz to Schwaz), footpath 6,835 
 
 Plumserjoch (Hinter-Kiss to Pertisau), bridle-path 5,492 
 
 Pfans Joch (Fall to Pertisau), footpath about 5,800 
 
 Stockeralp Pass (Schliersee to Brudegg), bridle-path about 4,000 
 
 HbrhagPass (Bairisch-zell to Kufstein), bridle-path about 4,000 
 
 12. Northern Noric Alps. — We have already spoken of 
 the broad mountain zone extending from the Inu to the 
 neighbourhood of Vienna, and bearing a general resem- 
 blance in orographic and geological character to the group 
 last described. For reasons given hereafter, it seems 
 impossible to preserve the ancient designation Noric Alps 
 for any portion of the central chain of the Eastern Alps, 
 but the name Northern Noric Alps seems the most suitable 
 for a region which was altogether included in the Roman 
 province of Noricum, and which closely coincides with the 
 northern half of the Alpine district known to them as 
 Alpes Noricce. The boundaries of this division are easily 
 determined. To the north and east the mountains subside 
 towards the valley of the Danube. To the west it is 
 bounded by the Inn, which bends first to north-east, then 
 to north, to enter the plain of Bavaria. On the south side 
 the boundary runs .from the Inn through a part of the 
 Zillerthal, over the low Gerlos Pass, and along the valleys 
 of the Salza and the Enns, evidently forming a single line 
 of depression; but where the Enns enters the defile of 
 Gesause, a broad and low valley, through which runs the 
 road from Rottenmann to Leoben, seems to form the most 
 natural division between this and the central chain. The 
 line of separation is completed by the valley of *he Mur 
 and the depression of the Semmering Pass, over which the 
 railroad is carried to Vienna. The highest peaks of the 
 Dachstein group form the most considerable prominence 
 in the entire range of the Northern Alps; but the average 
 height of the mountains of this division does not exceed 
 that of the Vindelieian Alps. 
 
 Chief Peaks of the Northern Noric Alps. 
 
 Thorhelm 8,548 
 
 Hohe Salve 6,993 
 
 Rettensfein 7,750 
 
 Scheffauer Kaiser 7,611 
 
 Bu-nhom 8,635 
 
 Staufen 6,950 
 
 Watzmann 8,9S8 
 
 Untersberg (highest point)... 6,487 
 
 Hohe Gtill 8,286 
 
 Hochkalter 8,595 
 
 TJebergoasene Alp or Hoch- 
 
 konig 9,643 
 
 Tannengebirge(Raucheck)... 7,947 
 
 Schafberg 5,837 
 
 Hollkogl 6,754 
 
 Traunatein 6,638 
 
 Thorstein 9,677 
 
 Dachstein 9,845 
 
 Sarstein 6,558 
 
 Grlmming 7,700 
 
 Grosser Priel 8,238 
 
 Waschenegg 8,H2 
 
 Buchstein 7,266 
 
 Hochthor 7,478 
 
 Eiscnerzer Reichenstein 7,08* 
 
 Kaiserschild 6,817 
 
 Oetscher 6,320 
 
 Brandstein 6,642 
 
 Hochschwab 7,441 
 
 Razalp 6,676 
 
 8chneeberg 6,809
 
 ALPS 
 
 G29 
 
 /Chief Passes in the Northern Noric Alps. 
 
 GotIos Pass (Jenbach to Mittersill), bridle-path 4,717 
 
 Pass Thurn (Kitzbiihel to Mittersill), carriage road 4,371 
 
 Salza Joch (Kelschau to Wald), footpath ..... 6,533 
 
 Waidring Pass (St Johann to Lofer), carriage road.....'.. 2,518 
 
 Hochfitzen Pass (St Johann to Saalfelden), bridle-path ."about 3,200 
 
 Pihwarzbachwaeht (Reichenhall to Ramsan), carriage road 2,907 
 
 Hirschubel Pass (Berchtesgaden to Saalfelden), carriage road 3,896 
 
 Diesbach Scharte (Kbnigssee to Frohnwies), footpath 6,679 
 
 Weissbach Scharte (Kb'nigssee to Saalfelden), footpath 7,402 
 
 Torrener Joch (Berchtesgaden to Golling), footpath t -... 5,697 
 
 Urschlauerscharte (Werfen to Saalfeldeu), footpath 6,859 
 
 Filzen Sattel (Saalfelden to Lend), bridle-path 3,953 
 
 Wagram Sattel (St Johann im Pongau to Radstadt), carriage road 2,933 
 
 Pass Gschiitt (Abtenau to Gosau), carriage road 3,247 
 
 Pyrhn Pass (Windischgarsten to Lietzen), carriage road 3,162 
 
 Prebichel Pass (Eisenerz to Leoben), carriage road 4,014 
 
 Eisenerzer Hohe (Eisenerz to Wildalpen), bridle-track 4,760 
 
 Kastenriegel Pass (Weichs^lboden to Wegscheid), bridle-path 3,556 
 
 Seeberg Pass (Mariazell to Aflenz), carriage road 4,099 
 
 Niederalpl (Mariazell to Miirzsteg), carriage road 3,994 
 
 Semmering Pass (Bruck-an-der-Mur to Wiener Neustadt), c. rd. 3,256 
 
 13. Central Tyrol Alps. — To the eye of the geologist, 
 taking a cursory view of the Eastern Alps, it may appear 
 that the great central zone, extending from the upper 
 valley of the Adige eastward to the neighbourhood of 
 Gratz, forms but a single district of tolerably uniform 
 structure. He will, however, remark that about the centre 
 of the range the prevailing crystalline rocks — gneiss and 
 mica-schist — give place to metamorphic schists, probably 
 of palaeozoic age, that rise into several of the highest peaks 
 of the entire mass. Those who are disposed to regard the 
 above-named crystalline rocks as merely extreme forms of 
 metamorphic sedimentary strata, may not attach much 
 importance to this circumstance; but it is- a still more 
 significant fact that at a short distance east of the same 
 extension of the metamorphic rocks we have proof of the 
 former existence of a depression which seems to have cut 
 completely through the central range. On the north side 
 triassic rocks extend from the Enns to the upper valley of 
 the Mur, and the presence, of miocene deposits at several 
 points in the latter valley, the Lieserthal and the Malta- 
 thai, seems to show that at a much later period this portion 
 of the ehain underwent, great relative depression as com- 
 pared with those ' on either side. Another and more 
 obvious character that distinguishes the western from the 
 eastern portion of the central zone, is the fact that in the 
 latter the great range that extends like a vertebral column 
 from the Weisskugel to the Hochalpenspitz forks into two 
 branches of inferior height, that enclose between them the 
 upper valley of the Mur. Ancient geographers divided 
 the main mass of the Alps between the Bernardine Pass 
 and the frontier of Hungary into two vast divisions, respec- 
 tively called the Rhaetian and Noric Alps, placing the 
 boundary between these at or about the Dreiherrnspitz, at 
 the head of the Ahrenthal, and their example has been 
 followed by, some modern geographers. Nothing in the 
 form or structure of the chain justifies the adoption of 
 that arbitrary boundary between two main divisions of the 
 Alps We have already assigned reasons for fixing the 
 western boundary of the Rhaetian Alps at the upper valley 
 of the Adige, and we propose to retain the designation 
 Central Tyrol Alps for the portion of the main chain 
 extending thence to the head of the Malta Thai in Carin- 
 thia, nearly the whole of which lies within the limits of 
 Tyrol. The exact boundaries of this division are, on the 
 north, the course of the Inn- from Landeck to the opening 
 of the Zillerthal, the track thence over the Gerlos Pass to 
 the head of the Pinzgau, and the valley of the Salza to 
 the opening of the Gross Arl Thai ; to the east, the way 
 through the latter valley, over the Arlscharte, through the 
 Malta Thai to Gmiind, and the toad thence to Villach ; on 
 the south, the continuous trough extending from near the 
 latter town, to Miihlwald, on the Reinz, through the Gail 
 Thai, the Lessach Thai, the head of the Drauthal and the 
 
 upper valley of the Rienz. From Miihlwald the tortuous 
 course of the Eisack forms the boundary as far aa Botzen, 
 whence the high road running N.W. along the Adige and 
 though the Finstermiinz completes the western boundary. 
 Although the region thus limited does not present many 
 prominent peaks, it is remarkable for the great average 
 height of the main chain which forms the watershed 
 between the affluents of the Danube on one side, and 
 those of the Adige and the Drave on the other. In a dis- 
 tance of 120 miles — wEiich would be much increased if 
 measured along the sinuosities of the main chain — there is 
 but a single low pass, that of the Brenner, none other being 
 below 8000 feet in height, or suited for the construction 
 of a carriage road. The Brenner is the lowest pass in the 
 entire range of the Alps, and has from a remote period 
 afforded the easiest access from middle Europe to the plains 
 of northern Italy, but is properly described as a pass 
 rather than as a breach in the continuity of the chain. 
 
 Chief Peaks of the 
 
 Karls-spitz 10,253 
 
 Glockenthurm 10,998 
 
 Portles-spitz 10,066 
 
 Rems-spitz _........lu,611 
 
 Blickspitz 11,045 
 
 Weiskugel 12,277 
 
 Wildspitz 12,390 
 
 Anichspitz - 11 ,654 
 
 Similaun 11,810 
 
 Rothbergspitz (The "Kothen- 
 
 spitz " of Sonklar) 11 ,904 
 
 Texelspitz 10,890 
 
 Birkkogel 9,281 
 
 Grieskogel (highest peak) ...10,638 
 
 Ruderhofspitz 11,393 
 
 Schrankogl 11,474 
 
 Series-spitz, or Waldraster- 
 
 spitz 8,898 
 
 Schaufelspitz -...10,924 
 
 Wilder Pfaff (Zuckerhutl) ...11,512 
 
 Sonklarspitz 11,410 
 
 Habicht ...» 10,746 
 
 Samer Scharte 8,255 
 
 Rittnerhorn 8,064 
 
 Glungetzer : 8,781 
 
 Gilfertsberg 8,201 
 
 Olperer Fuss-stein 11,451 
 
 Hochfeiler 11,535 
 
 Central Tyrol Alps. 
 
 Lbffelspitz 11 ,108 
 
 Reichenspitz 10,866 
 
 Wildgerlos-spitz 10,771 
 
 Eidechsberg, or Hegedex 8,975 
 
 Dreiherrnspitz 11,494 
 
 Rbdtspitz 11 ,459 
 
 Gross Durreck 10,325 
 
 Gross Venediger 12,053 
 
 Hohe Fiirleg 11,114 
 
 Lasbrling 10,171 
 
 Hochgall, or Rieser 11,284 
 
 Schneebige Nock, or Ruth- 
 
 nerhorn 11,068 
 
 Tauernkogel 9,790 
 
 Kitzsteinhorn 10,482 
 
 Johannisberg 11,425 
 
 Gross Glockner 12,405 
 
 Hoch Schober 10,628 
 
 Petzeck 10,761 
 
 Vischbachhom 11,738 
 
 Fuscherkahrkopf 10,957 
 
 Hochnarr 10,692 
 
 Ankogl 10,674 
 
 Hochalpenspitz 11,026 
 
 Sauleck .'. 10,108 
 
 Kreuzkofel 8,979 
 
 Dobratch.or Villacher AJp 7,067 
 
 Chief Passes of the Central Tyrol Alps. 
 
 Reschen Scheideck (Landeck to Meran), carriage road .r..... 4.596 
 
 Weisse See Joch (Glurns to Kaunser Thai), glacier 9,657 
 
 Langtauferer Joch (Mallag to Fend), glacier 10,335 
 
 Hoch Joch (Fend to Kurzras), glacier 9,515 
 
 Nieder Joch (Fend to Obervemagt), glacier 9,847 
 
 Gebatsch Joch (Fend to Kaunser Thai), glacier about 10,800 
 
 Timbler Joch (Oetzthal to Meran), bridle-path 8,298 
 
 Langthaler Joch (Gurgl to Pfelders Thai), glacier 9,939 
 
 Gruben Joch (Pfelders to Schnalser Thai), glacier 9,548 
 
 Gurgl Joch (Gurgl to Schnalser Thai), glacier 9,956 
 
 Pitzthaler Jbchl (Pitzthal to Sblden), glacier 9,806 
 
 Jaufen Pass (Meran to Sterzing), bridle-path .« 6,872 
 
 Penser Joch (Botzen to Sterzing), footpath 7,040 
 
 Gries Joch (Selrain to Lengenfeld),snow , 8,652 
 
 Mutterberger Joch (Neustift to Lengenfeld), glacier 9,893 
 
 Bildstbckl Pass (Neustift to Sbluen), glacier 10,294 
 
 Grub Joch (Pflersch to Oberbergthal), footpath 7,021 
 
 Brenner Pass (Innsbruck to Sterzing), carriage road 4,588 
 
 Pfitscher Joch (Sterzing to Mayrhofen), bridle-path 7,297 
 
 Tuier Joch (Stafflach to Lanersbach), footpath 7,618 
 
 Lappacher Joch (Lappach to Ahrenthal), footpath 7,763 
 
 Hbrndl Joch (Mayrhofen to Steinhaus), snow „... 8,368 
 
 Heiligengeist Jbchl (Mayrhofen to Kasern), footpath 8,309 
 
 Krimmler Tauern (Krimml to Kasern), snow 9,071 
 
 Dorfer Sulzbach Thbrl (Pregratten to Wald), glacier 9,438 
 
 Velber Tauern (Windisch Matrey to Mittersill), footpath 8,024 
 
 Vorder Umbal Thbrl (Pregratten to Kasern), glacier 9,723 
 
 Troyer Thbrl (Pregratten to Defereggen), snow 4,845 
 
 Mufjtz Thbrl (Virgen to Defereggen), snow 8,911 
 
 Klamml Joch (Defereggen to Taufers), footpath 7,608 
 
 Staller Sattel (Defereggen to Antholz), bridle-path 6,738 
 
 Gsiesser Joch (Defereggen to Gsiess), footpath 7,353 
 
 Kaiser Tauem (Kals to Uttendorf), snow 8,410 
 
 Kaprnner Thbrl (Stubachthal to Kaprun), glacier 8,740 
 
 Riffelthor (Kaprun to Heiligenblut), glacier ■. 9,958 
 
 Pfandelscharte (Ferleiten to Heiligenblut), glacier .'. 8,817 
 
 Fuscher Thbrl (Ferleiten to Seidelwinkelthal), footpath 7.998 
 
 Hoch Thor (Buche*)en to Heiligenblut), footpath 8,551 
 
 Berger Thbrl (Kala to Heiligenblut), footpath 7,971
 
 630 
 
 ALPS 
 
 Auf der Stanz (Buoneoen to Gastein), bridle-path ?.... 6,920 
 
 Tramerscharte (Kauris to Dollach), glacier 8,391 
 
 Klein Zirknitzscharte (Rauris to Fragant), snow _ 8,855 
 
 MallnitzerTu i to Mal'.nitz), bridle-path 8,038 
 
 Arlscharte (St Johaun in Pongau to Gmund), footpath 7,499 
 
 Klein Elendscharte (Gastein to Gmund), glacier 8,231 
 
 Dossner Scharte (Gmund to Ober Vcllach), snow - 8,748 
 
 Toblacher Felil (Bruneck to Lienz), carriage road 3,951 
 
 Zochen Pass (Licnz to Maria Lukau), footpath 7,394 
 
 Kotschach Sattel (Oberdrauburg to Kbtscbach), carriage road 3,210 
 
 14. Styrian Alps. — The boundary between the central 
 range of lofty peaks that extends through Tyrol and tho 
 adjacent province of Salzburg, and the much lower masses 
 that spread eastward through Styria to the frontier of 
 Hungary, has bben already fixed at the Arlscharte. On 
 the east side of that pass the mass whose conspicuous 
 summits are the Markkahrspitz and the Hafnereck is 
 divided into two parallel branches that enclose between 
 them the upper valley of tho Mur. The northernmost 
 of these ranges is cut through by the broad and deep 
 valley, traversed by the road that leads from Liesing on 
 the Enns to Leoben, which we have regarded as the limit 
 between the Northern Noric Alps and the central mass. 
 The eastern boundary of this division, which we at the 
 same time regard 03 the proper limit of the Alps, is 
 marked by the river Mur, which, after flowing eastward 
 for about 100 miles to Bruck-an-der-Mur, turns southward, 
 and finally joins the Drave in Hungary. The eastern 
 limit of the Alps is completed by the depression between 
 Spielfeld and Marburg, over which is carried the railway 
 from Vienna to Trieste. The southern boundary of the 
 central range is unmistakably marked by the great valley 
 of the Drave. The whole of this region was, along with 
 large portions of the adjoining divisions, included under 
 the term Noric Alps by ancient geographers; but as the 
 retention of that designation can only lead to confusion, 
 we readily adopt the name Styrian Alps, proposed by 
 Karl v. Sonklar, whose writings have done so much to 
 increase our knowledge of the Eastern Alps. It must, 
 however, be remarked that the region above defined also 
 includes a considerable district of Carinthia, along with a 
 small part of the province of Salzburg, which extends to 
 the head o f the valley of the Mur. Excepting the com- 
 paratively lugh muss in which that river takes its source, 
 the summits of this region do not attain nearly so great a 
 height as those of the other main divisions of the Alps, 
 and only two or threo» reach the limit of perpetual snow. 
 
 Chief Peaks of the Styrian Alps. 
 Markkahrspitz 9,245 | Eisentmt .... 8,008 
 
 Wollancr Nock 7,019 
 
 Sirbitzkogel 7,863 
 
 Sau Alp :.. 6,800 
 
 KorAJp 7,010 
 
 Rappenkogcl 6,310 
 
 Obdacher Speikkogel 6,625 
 
 Gleinalpen Speikkogel 6,508 
 
 Hafnereck 10,044 
 
 Kaschauner Nock 9.130 
 
 Hoch Colling 9,383 
 
 Predigtstuhl 8,834 
 
 Knallstein 8,511 
 
 Bb'sec^tein 8,018 
 
 Hoch Reichart 7,900 
 
 Kbnigstuhl 7,648 
 
 Chief Passes in the Styrian Alps. 
 
 Radstadter Tanern (Radstadt to St Michael), carriage road ..* 5,703 
 
 Katschberg (St Michael to Gmund), carriage road 5,261 
 
 Windsfeld (Flachau to Zederhaus), footpath 7,037 
 
 Waldhornthorl (Schladming to Tamsweg), footpath ^,437 
 
 Bblkerscharte (Grobming to Murau), bridle-path 5,767 
 
 RottenmannerTauern(KottenmanntoJudenburg),c. road.. .about 4,900 
 
 Tun-acH Pass (Feldkirchen to Tamsweg), carriage road 5,825 
 
 Fladnitz Pass (Friesach to Stadl), bridle-path about 5,000 
 
 Perchauer Pass (Friesach to Scheining), carriage road 3,274 
 
 Obdacher Sattel (Wolfsberg to Judenburg), carriage road 3,174 
 
 Stubalp Pass (Kbflach to Weisskircheir), carriage road 5,130 
 
 Die Pack (Kb'liach to Wolfsberg), carriage road 3,870 
 
 Gleinalp Pass (Peggau to Knittelfeld), footpath about 5,500 
 
 15. South Tyrol and Venetian Alps. — It has been seen 
 that thfl mountain zone on the northern side of the main 
 range of Tyrol extends from the lake of Constance to 
 near Vienna, with a remarkable uniformity both of general 
 aspect and of geological structure, so that no reason much 
 more valid than convenience could be assigned for form- 
 ing it into two separate divisions- Tb« same remark does 
 
 not hold good on the southern side of tho main range. 
 There is, indeed, a general similarity between the northern 
 and southern zones, especially in their geological structure, 
 so far as regards the sedimentary rocks; but in the western 
 portion of the latter — in the region lying between tho 
 Adige and the sources of the I'iave — the intrusion of 
 igneous rocks on a large scale, and tho accumulation of 
 deposits formed from ejected volcanic matter, have pro- 
 foundly modified the structure and outward aspect of the 
 country. Nowhere else in the Alps do the peaks rise so 
 abruptly and with so little apparent connection, and 
 nowhere are the contrasts depending on differences of 
 geological structure so marked as those which strike the 
 mere passing traveller, when, beside rounded masses of 
 rod and black porphyry, he sees white and pink crystalline- 
 dolomite limestone rising in towers and pinnacles of extra- 
 ordinary height and steepness. Dolomite limestone is 
 found in many other parts of the Alps, but nowhere else 
 is it developed on so grand a scale, and the exquisite 
 beauty of this region has of late years led an increasing 
 number of travellers to spots that before were scarcely 
 known even to the inhabitants of adjoining valleys. 
 Though there are abundant grounds for regarding the 
 district here spoken of as a separate division of the Alps, 
 it is very difficult to assign to it a satisfactory designation. 
 The larger portion of the region has long been politically 
 connected with Tyrol, and is partly inhabited by a German- 
 speaking population, while the remainder has been poli- 
 tically connected with Venice, and the inhabitants are 
 thoroughly Italian in language and manners. Were it not 
 for a reluctance to introduce new and unfamiliar terms, the 
 present division might be denominated Cimbiic Alps, as, 
 according to ancient tradition, the Cimbri, after their final 
 defeat by Marius, sought and -found a refuge in this part of 
 the Alps ; but for the present it seems best to designate as 
 Smith Tyrol and Venetian Alps the region lying between 
 the valley of the Adige and the sources of the Drave 
 and the Piave, and south of the great valley traversed by 
 the Eisack and the Rienz between Botzen and Innichen. 
 The eastern limit may best be fixed by the track leading 
 through the Sextenthal from Innichen to San Stefano in 
 the head valley of the Piave, and by the road from that 
 place to Conegliano. 
 
 Chief Peaks of the South Tyrol and Venetian Alps. 
 
 Schlern 8,405 
 
 Rosengarten 10,163 
 
 Langkofel 10,392 
 
 Marmolata (?) 11,045 
 
 Monte Tofana....- 10,724 
 
 Croda Rossa, or Ilohe Gai-i 
 
 Monte Cristallo 10,644 
 
 Drei Zinnen, or Cima di 
 
 Lavaredo above 10,300 
 
 Dreischusterspitz 10,368 
 
 Cimadi Posta 7,547 
 
 Covelalto about 7,500 
 
 Chief Passes in the South Tyrol and Venetian Alps 
 Piano 
 Passo 
 Caressa _ _ 
 
 Mahlknecht Pass (Vols to Campidello), bridle-path 7,016 
 
 Fedaya Pass (Val di Fassa to Caprile), footpath 6,884 
 
 La Costonzclla (Paneveggio to Primiero), carriage road 6,657 
 
 Passo di Valles (Paneveugio to Cencenighe), bridle-path 6,877 
 
 Grodncr Joch (St Ulrich'to Bruneck), bridle-path 7,042 
 
 Carnpolungo (Corfara to Araba), bridle-path 6,200 
 
 Pordoi Pass (Gries to Araba), bridle-path 7.396 
 
 Passo dei Tre Sassi (Andraz to Cortina), carriage road 7,073 
 
 Monte Gian, or P. di Falzarego (Caprile to Cortina), bridlepath... 7,511 
 
 Pcutclstein Pass (Niederndorf to Cortina), carriage road about 5,000 
 
 Passo delle Tre Croci (Cortina to Auronzo), bridle-path 5,970 
 
 Forcella Grande (Auronzo to San Vito), footpath 7,536- 
 
 Kreuzberg (Innichen to S. Stephano), carriage road 5,361 
 
 16. South-Eastern A Ips. —Ancient geographers, and those 
 who have followed their example, use the terms Carnic 
 Alps and Julian Alps to designate two of the main divi- 
 sions of the Alps j but the latter of these at lea3t hat 
 
 Cima delle Dodici 7,651 
 
 Cima d'Asta 9,132 
 
 Monte Paviouo, or Col di 
 
 Luna 7,877 
 
 Palle di S. Martino (?) 10,643 
 
 Cimon Jella Pala about 11, 000 
 
 Monte Civetta 10,440 
 
 Pelmo 10,377 
 
 Sorapis : 10,798 
 
 Autelao 10,679 
 
 Marmarolo above 10,000- 
 
 L/il«/ fosses \n me oouill J yrut. wnc* rciieiiuit .-I'^a. 
 
 ) delle Fugazze (Roveredo to Schio), carriage road *>V.' 
 
 i di Manazzo (Asiago to Levico), bridle-path 4,662 
 
 sa Pass (Botzen li Vigo di Fassa), bridlepath 5,966
 
 ALPS 
 
 631 
 
 been applied in a vague and inconsistent way. in point of 
 fact, the south-eastern portion of the AJps, which includes 
 both the groups above specified, presents three principal 
 groups ■which are very closely connected together. Tho 
 first of these — the Carnic Alps, properly so called — have 
 been defined as including the legion between the upper 
 valley of the Drave and the plain of Friuli. But to the 
 orographer the true head of the Drave valley is the Gail- 
 thai, which extends in an almost straight and broad trench 
 from near Innichen to Villacb, while the main stream flows 
 through a sinuous and contracted valley. For this reason 
 we have taken the Gail thai as the boundary between the 
 Central Tyrol and the Carnic Alps. Almost continuous with 
 the Carnic Alps is a range, very similar in geological struc- 
 ture, which divides the Drave from the northern branch of 
 the Save, and includes the mountains locally known as the 
 Karawankas and the Sulzbacher Alp3. Throughout these, 
 which may be called the maiu range of the South-Eastern 
 Alps, palaeozoic rocks, probably of carboniferous age, extend 
 in a narrow band for a distance of fully 100 miles, giving 
 place at the eastern extremity to the small granitic mass 
 that forms the hills of the Bacher Gebirge near Marburg. 
 On the south side of the main range of the Carnic Alps 
 two mountain masses, mainly formed of triassic rocks and 
 Dachstein limestone, attain a considerable height in the 
 Monte Cavallo on the west, and the Monte Canin on the 
 east side of Friuli. In a similar position as regards the 
 Karawankas is a still loftier mass which is crowned by the 
 Terglou — the highest peak of the South-Eastern Alps. This 
 group is referred by geographers to the Julian Alps, which 
 are said to divide the Save and its tributaries from the 
 Adriatic.' A3 has been already said, there is no range to 
 which the term Alps can properly be applied forming such a 
 boundary. The plateau of the Karst, though rising here and 
 there into hills of moderate height, has an average eleva- 
 tion of about 2000 feet above the sea, and cannot correctly 
 be spoken of as a mountain chain. The orographer, if 
 peeking an eastern prolongation to the Terglou group, 
 would prefer the hilly region between the Save and the 
 southern Gurk ; but the low country through which the 
 railway is carried from Marburg to Lay bach, and the road 
 thence to Qorizia, may for all practical purposes be taken 
 as the south-eastern limit of the Alps and of the division 
 here described. 
 
 Chief Peaks of the South-Eastern Alps. 
 
 Monta Paralba 9,097 
 
 Kelleiwand about 9,500 
 
 Monte Cridola 8,474 
 
 Monte Premaggiore 8,127 
 
 Monte Cavallo 7,377 
 
 Monte Crostis 7,384 
 
 Jof di Montasio about 9,000 
 
 Monte Canin (Prestrelenick) 8,711 
 
 Stou 7,326 
 
 Koschotta 6,895 
 
 Ovir ,001 
 
 Grintouz 8,386 
 
 Oistritza 7,701 
 
 Bacber Gebirgo ( Velka 
 
 Kappa) 5,041 
 
 Mangart 8,776 
 
 Terglou 9,371 
 
 Km 7,858 
 
 Kuk 6.829 
 
 Chief Passes of the South-Eastern Alps. 
 
 KartUclier Jocb (Sillian to Tilliach), carriage road 5,363 
 
 Passo di Mauria (Ampezzo to Pieve di Cadore), carriage road 4,191 
 
 Piano di Sappada (San Stefano to Fomo Avoltri), car. road, about 4,100 
 
 Giogo Veranis (Fomo Avoltri to Lorenzen), footpath 7,521 
 
 Wolaver Joch (Fomo Avoltri to Rorschach), footpath 6,563 
 
 Monte Croce (Tolmezzo to Kbtschach), bridle-path 4,337 
 
 Nosfeld Pass (Pontebba to Hermagor), footpath about 5,000 
 
 Saifnitz Pass (Pontebba to Tarvis), carriage road 2,682 
 
 Predil Pass (Tarvis to Flitsch), carriage road 3,522 
 
 Wurzener Ber£ ,Villach to Wurzen), carriage road 3,497 
 
 Loibl Piss (NeaTiarktl to TJnterbergen), carriage road 4,445 
 
 Seeberg Pass (Krainburg to Katjpel), carriage road 3,976 
 
 Bt Leonhard Sattel (Kappel to Sulzbach), bridle-path 4,666 
 
 Schkaria Pass (Sulzbach to Stein), footpath 0,193 
 
 Worschez Sattel (Flitsch to Kronau), footpath - 5,254 
 
 Kerma Pass (Moistrana to Feistritz), footpath 6,332 
 
 Bkarbinja Joch (To)mino to Feistritz), footpath about 6^000 
 
 It is well known that as we rise from the sea-level into 
 the upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature 
 decreases. The effect of mountain chains in prevailing 
 
 winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region 
 into an upper zone, where it expands in volume at the cost 
 of a proportionate loss of heat, often accompanied by the 
 precipitation of moisture in the form of snow or rain. The 
 position of the Alps about the centre of the European 
 continent has profoundly modified the climate of all the 
 surrounding regions. The accumulation of vast masses of 
 snow, which have gradually been converted into permanent 
 glaciers, maintains a gradation of very different climates 
 within the narrow space that intervenes between the foot of 
 the mountains and their upper ridges; it cools the breezes 
 that are wafted to the plains on either side, but its most 
 important function is to regulate tho water supply of that 
 large region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps. 
 Nearly all the moisture that is precipitated during six or 
 seven months is stored up in the form of snow, and gradually 
 diffused in the course of the succeeding summer: and ever, 
 in the hottest and driest seasous the reserves accumulated 
 during a long preceding period of years in the form cf 
 glaciers are available to maintain the regular flow of the 
 greater streams. Nor is this all; the lakes that fill several 
 of the main valleys on the southern side of the. Alps are 
 somewhat above the level of the plains of Loiubardy and 
 Venetia, and afford an inexhaustible supply, which, from a 
 remote period, has been used for that system of irrigation 
 to which they owe their proverbial fertility. Six regions or 
 zones, which are best distinguished by their characteristic 
 vegetation, are found in the Alps. It has been a common 
 error to suppose that these are indicated by absolute height 
 above the sea-leveL Local conditions of exposure to the 
 sun, protection from cold winds, or the reverse, are of 
 primary importance in determining the climate and tho 
 corresponding vegetation. 
 
 1. Olive Region. — The great plain ol upper Italy has a 
 winter climate colder than that of the British Islands. The 
 olive and the characteiistic shrubs of the northern coasts 
 of the Mediterranean do not thrive in the open air, but 
 the former valuable tree ripens its fruit in sheltered places 
 at the foot of the mountains, and penetrates along the 
 deeper valleys and the shores of the Italian lakes. The 
 evergreen oak is wild on the rocks about the lake of Garda; 
 and lemons are cultivated on a large scale, with partial 
 protection in winter. The olive has been known to survive 
 severe cold when of short duration, but it cannot be culti- 
 vated with success where frosts are prolonged, or where 
 the mean winter temperature falls below 42° Fabx; and 
 to produce fruit it requires a heat of at least 75 c Fahr. 
 during the day, continued through four or five months of 
 the summer and autumn. 
 
 2. Vine Region. — The vine is far more tolerant of cold 
 than the clive, but to produce tolerable wine it demands, 
 at the season of ripening, a degree of heat not much lesj 
 than that needed by the more delicate tree. These con- 
 ditions are satisfied in the deeper valleys of the Alps, even 
 in the interior of the chain, and up to a considerable height 
 on slopes exposed to the sun. The protection afforded by 
 winter snow enables the plant to resist severe and prolonged 
 frosts, such as would be fatal in more exposed situations. 
 Along with the vine, many wild plants characteristic ol 
 the wanner parts of middle Europe are seen to flourish. 
 A mean summer temperature of at least 68" Fahr. is con- 
 sidered necessary to produce tolerable wine, but in ordinary 
 seasons this is much exceeded in many of the great valleys 
 of the Alps. 
 
 3. Mox:ntain Region, or Region of Deciduous Trees. — 
 Many writers take the growth of corn as the characteristic 
 of thia region; but so many varieties of all the common 
 specief are in cultivation, and these have such different 
 climataJ requirements, that they do not afford a satisfactory 
 criterion. A more natural limit is afforded by the presents
 
 632 
 
 ALPS 
 
 of tne chief deciduous trees — oak, beech,' ash, and syca- 
 more. These do not reach exactly to the same elevation, 
 nor are they often found growing together; but their upper 
 limit corresponds accurately enough to the -change from a 
 temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by 
 a change in the wild herbaceous vegetation. This limit 
 usually lies about 4000 feet above the sea on the north 
 side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises 
 to 5000 feet, sometimes even to 5500 feet. It must not 
 be supposed that this region is always marked by the 
 presence of the characteristic trees. The interference of 
 man has in many districts almost extirpated them, and, 
 excepting the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, a con- 
 siderable wood of deciduous trees is scarcely anywhere to 
 be found. In many districts where such woods once existed, 
 "Jieir place has been occupied by the pine and Scotch fir, 
 which suffer less from the ravages of goats, the worst 
 enemies of tree vegetation. The mean annual temperature 
 of this region differs little from that of the British islands; 
 but the climatal conditions are widely different. Here 
 snow usually lies for several months, till it gives place to a 
 spring and summer considerably warmer than the average 
 of our seasons. 
 
 4. Subalpine Region, or Region of Coniferous Trees. — 
 This is the region which mainly determines the manner of 
 life of the population of the Alps. On a rough estimate. 
 we may reckon that, of the space lying between the summits 
 Of the Alps and the low country on either side, one quarter 
 is available for cultivation, of which about one-half may 
 be vineyards and corn-fields, and the remainder produces 
 forage and grass. About another quarter is utterly barren, 
 consisting of snow-fields, glaciers, bare rock, lakes, and the 
 beds of streams; and there remains about one-half, which is 
 divided between forest and pasture, and it is the produce 
 of this which mainly supports the relatively large popula- 
 tion. For nearly half the year the flocks and herds are 
 fed on the upper pastures; but the true limit of the wealth 
 of a district is the number of animals that can be sup- 
 ported during the long winter, and while one part of the 
 population is engaged in tending the beasts and in making 
 cheese and butter, the remainder is busy cutting hay and 
 storing up winter food. The larger villages are mostly 
 in the mountain region, but in many parts of the Alps the 
 villages stand in the subalpine region at heights varying 
 from 4000 to 5500 feet above the sea, more rarely extend- 
 ing to about 6000 feet. The most characteristic feature 
 of this region is the prevalence of coniferous trees, which, 
 where they have not been artificially reduced, form vast 
 forests that cover a large part of the surface. These play 
 a most important part in the natural economy of thu 
 country. They protect the valleys from destructive ava 
 lanches, and, retaining the superficial soil by their roots, 
 they mitigate the destructive effects of heavy rains. In 
 valleys where they have been rashly cut away, and the 
 waters pour down the slopes unchecked, every tiny rivulet 
 becomes a raging torrent, that cuts away and carries off the 
 grassy slopes and devastates the floor of the valley, cover- 
 ing the soil with gravel and debris. In the pine forests of 
 the Alp3 the prevailing species are the common spruce and 
 the silver fir; on siliceous soil the larch flourishes, and 
 surpasses every other European species in height. The 
 Scotch fir is chiefly found at a lower level, and rarely forms 
 forests. The Siberian fir is found scattered at intervals 
 throughout the Alps, but is not common. The mughus, 
 creeping, pine, or Krummholz of the Germans, is common 
 in the Eastern Alps, and sometimes forms on the higher 
 mountains a distinct zone above the level of its con- 
 geners. In the Northern Alps the pine forests rarely 
 surpass the limit of 6000 feet above the sea, but on 
 the south aide they commonly attain to 7000 feet; and the 
 
 larch, Siberian fir, and mughus often extend above that 
 elevation. 
 
 5. Alpine Region. — Throughout the German Alps tho 
 word alp is used specifically for the upper pastures, where 
 cattle are fed in summer, but this region is held to include 
 the whole space between the uppermost limit of trees and 
 the first appearance of permanent masses of snow. It is here 
 that the characteristic vegetation of the Alps is developed 
 in its full beauty and variety. Shrubs are not wauting. 
 Three species of rhododendron vie with each other in 
 the brilliancy of their masses of red or pink flowers; tho 
 common juniper rises higher still, along with three species 
 of bilberry; and several dwarf willows attain nearly to the 
 utmost limit of vegetation. The upper limit of this region 
 coincides with the so-called limi t, of perpetual snow, which 
 demands further explanation. 
 
 6. Glacial Region. — On the higher parts of lofty moun- 
 tains more snow falls in ea^h year than is melted on the 
 spot. A portion of this is carried away by tho wind before 
 it is consolidated ; a larger portion accumulates in hollows 
 and depressions of the surface, and is gradually converted 
 into glacier-ice, which descends by a slow secular motion 
 into the deeper valleys, where it goes to swell perennial 
 streams. As on a mountain the snow does not lie in beds 
 of uniform thickness, and some parts are more exposed to 
 the sun and warm winds than others, we commonly find 
 beds of snow alternating with exposed slopes covered with 
 brilliant vegetation ; and to the observer near at hand 
 there is no appearance in the least corresponding to the 
 term limit of perpetual snow. But the case is otherwise 
 when a high mountain chain is viewed from a distance. 
 Similar conditions are repeated at many different points, 
 so that the level at which large snow-beds show themselves 
 along its flanks is approximately horizontal But this 
 holds good only so far as the conditions are similar. On 
 the opposite sides of the same chain the exposure to the 
 sun or to warm winds may cause a wide difference in the 
 level of permanent snow; but in some cases the increased 
 fall of snow on the side exposed to moist winds may more 
 than compensate the increased influence of the sun's rays. 
 Still, even with these reservations, the so-called line of 
 perpetual snow is not fixed. The occurrence of favourable 
 meteorological conditions during several successive seasons 
 may and does increase the extent of the snow-fields, arid 
 lower the limit of seemingly permanent snow; while an 
 opposite state of things may cause the limit to rise higher 
 on the flanks of the mountains. From these remarks it 
 may bo inferred that all attempts to fix accurately the 
 level of perpetual snow in the Alps are fallacious, arid can 
 at the best approach only to local accuracy for a particuleir 
 district. In some parts of the Alps the limit may be set 
 at about 8000 feet above the sea, while in others it cannot 
 be placed much below 9500 feet. As very little snow czn 
 rest on rocks that lie at an angle exceeding 60°, and this 
 is soon removed by the wind, some steep masses of rock 
 Eemain bare even near the summits of the highest peaks, 
 but as almost every spot offering the least hold for vegeta- 
 tion is covered with snow, few flowering plants are seen 
 above 10,000 feet. There is reason to think, however, 
 that it is the want of soil rather than climatal conditions 
 that checks the upward extension of the Alpine flora. 
 Increased direct effect of solar radiation compensates for the 
 cold of the nights, and in the few spots where plants have 
 been found in flower up to a height of 12,000 feet, nothing 
 has indicated that the processes of vegetation were arrested 
 by the severe cold which they must sometimes endure. 
 The climate of the glacial region has often been compared 
 to that of the polar regions, but they are widely different 
 Here, intense solar radiation by day, which raises the 
 surface when dry, to a temperature approaching 80° Fahr.,
 
 ALPS 
 
 033 
 
 alternates with severe frost by night. There, a sun which 
 never sets sends feeble rays that maintain a low equable 
 temperature, rarely rising more than a few degrees above 
 the freezing-point. Hence the upper region of* the Alps 
 sustains a far more varied and brilliant vegetation. 
 
 At the earliest period of which records are preserved 
 the Alps appear to have been mainly inhabited by Celtic 
 tribes, some of which, before they were subjugated by 
 the I? jmans, had made considerable progress in the know- 
 ledge of the useful arts. The Rhastians and Vindelicians 
 especially, in whum a primitive Turanian stock seems to 
 have been amalgamated with a dominant Celtic race, 
 readily assimilated the civilisation of Rome ; and the 
 language of the conqueror, modified by peculiarities of 
 pronunciation and the retention of some native terms, 
 still survives in Eastern Switzerland, and in a few isolated 
 valleys of Tyrol. Throughout by far the larger part of 
 the Alps, however, the flood of Teutonic invasion either 
 exterminated or drove into exile the previous population. 
 The Alemanui and other kindred tribes settled in the 
 main valleys of the Eastern Alps, and finally became 
 masters of the greater part of Switzerland, leaving to tie 
 original CeUic population the Western Alps and both 
 slopes of the great Pennine chain. At a later period the 
 invasion of Slavonic hordes threatened to substitute a new 
 nationality throughout the same region, but after pro- 
 longed contests these tribes were restricted to its south- 
 eastern portion, being nearly confined to the upper valleys 
 of tho Drave and the Save, with their tributaries. The 
 Italian valleys of the Alps, from the Val d'Ossola to the 
 Tagliamento, inhabited by people of mixed race, have, 
 with a few exceptions, preserved the language of Italy, 
 much varied in the local dialects; while the western dis- 
 tricts, in which the Celtic element remained predominant, 
 have for the most part clung to the French tongue. The 
 estimates formed of the present population of the Alps are 
 uncertain, because they usually include towns and populous 
 districts lying, withoixt the mountain region. It is usually 
 reckoned that there are about 1,500,000 of Celto-Gallic 
 stock in the French and Savoy Alps, western Switzerland, 
 and some valleys of Piedmont; about 4,000,000 of Teutonic 
 origin in the Swiss and German Alps ; about 1,000,000 of 
 Slavonic sfock, chiefly Slovenes; and about 1,000,000 of 
 Italians in the valleys of Northern Italy, the Swiss cantons 
 of Tessin and Grisons, and in the Italian Tyrol, making an 
 aggregate of 7,500,000. To these should be added about 
 70,000 people speaking some dialect of the Rhseto-Roman 
 or Romansch. All these numbers excepting the last are 
 excessive, if we would restrict the estimate within the 
 proper limits of the Alps. 
 
 . Although no conspicuous species of quadruped or bird 
 is known to be exclusively confined to the Alps, they have 
 afforded an asylum to many animals that have become 
 rare or extinct elsewhere. The great urus, the elk, and 
 the wild swine have disappeared since the Roman period, 
 and the beaver in more recent .times ; but the brown bear, 
 the lynx, the wild cat, and the wolf still survive. Among 
 Ruminants, the red deer, fallow deer, and roebuck, chiefly 
 found in the lower forest region, are common to other 
 mountain districts, More characteristic of the Alps is the 
 chamois, which is found elsewhere only in the Carpathians, 
 Pyrenees, and the mountains of European Turkey, and is 
 the sole representative of the antelopes in this part of the 
 world. Much rarer is the ibex or bouquetin, which still 
 lives in the higher Alpine region of the Graian Alps, and 
 possibly also in some recesses of the Pennine chain. Un- 
 like the chamois, which descends at night to find suste- 
 nance as low as the verge of the pine forests, thi3 fine 
 animal remains, at least in the summer, in the upper 
 region, on the verge of the snow-fields, or on the rocks that I 
 
 ff" - 
 
 rise amidst the glaciers. The massive horns of the male 
 are often a yard or more in length. Closely, allied species 
 are found in the Pyrenees and other mountain ranges of 
 the Iberian peninsula, and in the Caucasus, but the mis 
 ibex seems to be now confined to this small cor :er of the 
 Alps. The few endemic 8pecie3 of Mammalia found in 
 the Alps are chiefly small Rodentia and Ii;.<wtivora, whi«ii 
 alone can multiply rapidly in the midst of a large and 
 increasing human population. The marmot, which is the 
 most characteristic of the Rodentia, maintains its ground 
 in the stony recesses of the Alpine rej/ion, and does not 
 diminish in numbers as most other wild animals have 
 done. The most singular of this group is the snow-vole 
 (Arvicola nivalis), whose nearest ally is a native of East 
 Siberia. Several forms (varieties or sub-species) are found 
 in various parts of the Alps. They ascend through the 
 Alpine region to the rocks of the glacial zone, at least as 
 far as 12,000 feet above the sea; aud, unlike other animals 
 framed to endure severe cold, they continue in activity 
 throughout the long winter. There is at least one species 
 of shrew (Sorex alpinus) peculiar to the Alps. The 
 Cheiroptera are represented by numerous forms, which, 
 with one exception (Vespeiugo maurus), are not confined 
 to this region ; but the Alps form a limit to the distribu- 
 tion of many of this order : some species of middle Europe 
 do not cross the main range, while several Bpecies of the 
 Mediterranean region find their northern limit iu tho 
 valleys on the southern side. 
 
 The Birds of the Alps are proportionately very numer- liirdu 
 ous. Many southern species find a home in the warmer 
 Italian valleys, and there meet northern forms that descend 
 during the winter and spring, but return to the upper zone 
 in the warm season. Of the more conspicuous species of 
 the high Alps, the lammergeyer (Gypa'etos barbatus) — once 
 common, but now become very rare — is pre-eminent. It 
 is also found in Algeria, in Syria, and in Northern Asia, 
 but is one of those animals that is threatened with ex- 
 tinction by the progress of civilisation. The rock chough 
 (Pyrrhocorax alpinus), distinguished by golden-yeUow bill 
 and feet, builds on rocks in the glacial region as high as 
 10,000 feet above the sea. Several song birds, such as 
 the snow lark and snow finch, ascend to the limits of 
 vegetation.^ The Gallinacese are well represented. The 
 cock of the woods (Tetrao urogallus), the grouse, ptarmigan, 
 blackcock, gelinotte, and rock partridge (Caccabis saxalilis), 
 are the most ■ remarkable. The first, .which is somewhat 
 rare and extremely shy, surpasses the dimensions of an 
 ordinary well-grown fowL 
 
 Several Reptiles are found even in the upper region of Reptile 
 the Alps, though none are very common. Of three 
 venomous species of viper, Vipera herns ascends to about 
 8000 feet ; and the black viper ( V. prester) also reaches 
 the Alpine region. V. Eedii is confined to the warmer 
 Italian valleys. The snakes and lizards frequent the 
 lower zones, excepting Lacerla pyrrhogaslra, which is 
 sometimes seen in the upper region. 
 
 Batrachians are more common than true reptiles. An 
 Alpine frog attains the extreme limi t, of vegetation, and a 
 toad ascends nearly as far. These have been considered 
 by some as distinct species, by others as varieties of the 
 common animals. At least one triton (T. Wur/beinii) is 
 peculiar to the Alps. The spotted salamander is common 
 in the sub- Alpine region, but in the Eastern Alps it is re- 
 placed by S. atra, which is entirely black. This is some- 
 times found far above the limit of the pine forests. 
 
 The great lakes of the Alps are very rich in Fish, not 
 only as regards the number of individuals, but in species 
 also. Thus in the Chiemsee, at the northern, foot of the 
 Bavarian Alps, thirty-three species have been found, in 
 the lake of Constance twenty-six species, and twenty-four
 
 (534 
 
 IS 
 
 Li J S 
 
 in the lake of Lucerne. The most esteemed are those of 
 the trout and salmon tribe, whose specific differences have 
 not yet been fully investigated by ichthyologists. First in 
 rank is the saibling (Salmo salvelliniu), which flourishes in 
 lakes between 2000 and" 4000 feet above the sea, and 
 occasionally extends to those of the Alpine region between 
 C000 and 7000 feet. The fish of the northern side of tho 
 Alps are fully described in Siebold's Siisswasser-Fische 
 Mttt'leuropa*. Those of the waters running to the 
 Mediterranean have not been so fully investigated. Two 
 or three peculiar species have been found in the lake of 
 Geneva. In some of the Lombard lakes, tho agone, a small 
 fish of the herring tribe (Clupea finta), is a much esteemed 
 article of diet. 
 
 In the classes hitherto noticed the number of species 
 'peculiar to the Alps is very small. This rule is reversed 
 among tho Invertebrata, especially as regards the Articu- 
 lata and Mollusca. The number of insects is very great, 
 and a considerable proportion extend to the limit of per- 
 petual snow. Oswald Ileer has pointed out several pecu- 
 liarities in the insect fauna of tho higher Alps. In ascend- 
 ing from the mountain region the proportion of the 
 carnivorous tribes rapidly increases, and the families that 
 feed on living vegetable matter either disappear or are 
 much reduced in numbers. Beetles and other insects 
 either lose their wings in the upper region, or are represented 
 by allied wingless species. Along with the tendency to 
 lose the power of flight, a diminution of brilliancy of colour 
 appears, the prevailing hues being black or dingy grey. 
 These peculiarities are to be explained by the fact that in 
 the upper Alpine zone most insects live under stones, and 
 the power of flight generally proves injurious to animals 
 liable to be carried by the wind and upward air-currents 
 over the snow-fields, whence they are unable to return. 
 This' is often seen to occur to butterflies and a few moths, 
 which ascend as far as the highest flowering plants. The 
 snow-fields and glaciers are not devoid of insect life. 
 Several species of snow-flea have been detected; and 
 further observation will probably bring to light other 
 minute animals living in the pools that form on the surface 
 of glaciers, or on the snow-beds, although their activity 
 is often interropted by the freezing of the surface. 
 
 The Arachnida are eminently characteristic of the fauna 
 of the high Alps, where they abound both in species and 
 individuals. Spiders ascend to the utmost limit of vegeta- 
 tion, and are even to be found on the bare rocks that rise 
 out of the snow up to a height of 11,000 feet. 
 
 Although most of the orders of Articulata are repre- 
 sented in the Alps by numerous forms, these are far out- 
 numbered by the total number of European species of that 
 class ; but among land and fresh- water Mollusca the pro- 
 portion is reversed, and as many as seVen-eighths of all 
 the species known in middle Europe, and a large propor- 
 tion of those of the Mediterranean region, have been found 
 in the Alps. Still more remarkable is the large propor- 
 tion of endemic species. In the important group of the 
 Heliceae fully one hundred species, or four-tenths of the 
 whole number, are peculiar to the Alps. Between thirty 
 and forty species only have been found in the' Alpine zone, 
 and of these but five — Vitrina diapkana, V. glacialis, fli I ix 
 glacialis, H. fodens, and Vertigo Charpentieri — attain the 
 ■upper limit of vegetation. 
 
 The Annulosa and Itadiata of the Alps, so far as they 
 are known, do not offer any points of special interest; and 
 the study of the minute organisms, which have been 
 proved to exist a3 high as 12,000 feet above the sea, is 
 atill in its infancy. 
 
 In describing the several regions which are found in 
 ascending from the low country to the snow-clad summits 
 of the Alps, and whose existence is due to climatal differ- 
 
 ences, it was necessary to refer to tho characteristic vege- 
 tation of each zone, inasmuch as this affords the chief 
 apparent distinction which climatal conditions impress on 
 the earth's surface. The most cursory observation suffice? 
 to show that within each of the zones thus broadly sketched 
 out there exist marked differences in the vegetable popula- 
 tion, so that a comparison of the local floras in two spots 
 possessing a similar climate as regards temperature may 
 exhibit but few points of agreement along with many 
 marked contrasts. This partly depends on external con- 
 ditions, of which tho most important are differences in the 
 amount and distribution of moisture in tho air and the 
 soil, and differences in the composition and state of aggre- 
 gation of the soil itself. But a more important element in 
 determining the flora of any particular district depends 
 upon the causes which have operated throughout the whole 
 period since it has become dry land to facilitate migration 
 for certain species, and to impede it for others. The sub- 
 ject of the distribution of Alpine plants, so far as regards 
 tho eastern half of the chain, has been very well discussed 
 in an essay by Dr A. Kerner in the 1st vol of the 2d edit, 
 of Schaubach's Deutsche Alpen, although some of the con- 
 clusions of the writer may not bear careful criticism. He 
 divides the natural floras of the Alps into four — named 
 respectively Arctic, Baltic, Pontic, and Mediterranean, the 
 term Baltic referring to the region that includes Germany, 
 Southern Scandinavia, and North- Western Russia; while 
 Pontic comprehends the region north and west of the Euxine 
 — the northern provinces of Turkey and the whole space 
 between the Carpathians and the Crimea. It does not 
 appear that the writer holds that tho plants existing in the 
 Alps have actually migrated to their present homes from 
 the geographical regions corresponding to the above deno- 
 minations, but merely that they belong to the types of 
 vegetation characteristic of each of them. It must be 
 borne in mind that the Alps, and especially the mountain 
 and sub- Alpine regions, produce a large number of peculiar 
 forms, many of which have no near allies in the other 
 mountain regions of Europe, while at the same time the 
 differences are seldom so wide as to place these in distinct 
 generic groups; and it seems quite inadmissible to suppose 
 that the flora has been altogether formed by colonisation 
 from surrounding districts. No space can be here found 
 for details, but it may broadly be said that while the 
 highest zone of all, lying close to the limit of permanent 
 snow, exhibits throughout the whole chain an approach to 
 uniformity, several of. the most conspicuous species being 
 common to this and to Arctic flora, the zone immediately 
 below this, as well as those lower down, shows a large 
 admixture of quite distinct elements. This is especially 
 true of the- southern slopes. In truth, but a very few of 
 the well-marked endemic species of the Alps are confined 
 to the north side of the main chain. A considerable 
 number are common to both slopes, and a still larger pro- 
 portion are restricted exclusively to the southern side. Of 
 the larger groups which are represented in the Alps by 
 numerous well-marked endemic species, the genera Alsine, 
 Androsace, Arabis, Campanula, Crepis, Gentiana, Pedicu- 
 laris, Primula, and Saxifraga may be especially noted. 
 Without attempting to enter into details, it may be said 
 that, along with a general Alpine flora, which extends 
 throughout the entire chain, there are three large districts 
 where, along with species common to all, we find a con- 
 siderable number of others either absolutely local and 
 endemic, or else representative in the Alps of the floras of 
 other distant mountain groups. Only a few of the more 
 remarkable species characteristic of each can be cited. The 
 West Alpine Flora is found in Dauphhae, South Savoy, 
 and Western Piedmont, as far north as the group of the 
 Graian Alps. In the following list of the more remark-
 
 ALPS 
 
 G35 
 
 able species those which are either identical with or 
 nearly allied to Pyrenean forms have an asterisk pre- 
 fixed : — 
 
 Arabia pcdemontana, Eugucnina tanacelifolia, "Dianthus ne- 
 glectus, Silcne cordifolia, "Saponaria lutea, 'Hypericum, nummu- 
 lariafolium, Astragalus alopccuroidcs, Saxifragi fiorulcnla, S. 
 diapensioides, *S. pcdemontana, "Asperula hexaphylla, Cephalaria 
 alpina, Achillea Herbarota, Bcrardia subacaulis, Campanula 
 Allionii, C. elatines. Primula marginata, P. Allionii, 'Erinus 
 Mpinus, Veronica Allionii, Thymus pipcrella, and Alopecurus 
 Oerardi. 
 
 The Lombard Flora is marked by a considerable number 
 of very distinct species that are limited to the southern 
 declivity of the Alps, between the Lago Maggiore and the 
 lake of Garda. jlost of these are absolutely confined 
 ■within these boundaries, but a few extend some distance 
 east of the lake of Garda. The following deserve .to be 
 specified : — 
 
 Viola Comollia, V. heterophylla, Silcne Elhabethce, Arcnaria 
 grimcensis, Cytisus glabrescens, Sanguisorba dodecandra , Saxifraga 
 Vandellii, S. arachnoidca, Laserpitium nilidum, Telehia speciosis- 
 sima, Leontodon tenuiflorus, Hieracium porrifolium, Campanula 
 Maineri, C. elatinoides, Daphne rupeslris, Euphorbia variabilis, and 
 Carex baldensis. 
 
 The Fast Alpine Flora, extending through the region 
 east of the valley of the Adige, is characterised by a large 
 number of peculiar species, and by a perhaps equal number 
 of plants not seen elsewhere in the Alps, but also natives 
 of the Carpathians, or of the region lying between Servia 
 and the Adriatic. In the following list' those included in 
 , he latter category are marked with an asterisk : — - 
 
 Arabis vochinensis, *A. Scopoliana, "Cardamine trifolia, Braya 
 alpina, CochXearia brevicaulis, Silcne pumilio, S. a'.pcslris, Dianthus 
 alpinus, 'Genista scricea, Mcdicago Pironce, 'Potentilla Clusiana, 
 Saxifraga Burscriana, S. tenella, *S. petrcca, *S. hieracifolia, 
 'Hacquetia Epipactis, Aslraniia carniolica, Bladnikia golacensis, 
 Anihemis alpina, Achillea Clusiana, 'Scnecio abrotani/olius, Cen- 
 iaurea alpina, C. rupestris, * Saussurea pygmcsa, Phyleuma comosum. 
 Campanula pulla, *C. alpina, C. morctliana, C. Zoysii, Rhododen- 
 dron chamcecistus, Oentiana imbricata, 'G. frigida, G. Fr'ohlichii, 
 'Primula minima, P. glutinosa, Androsace Hausmanni, P&derota 
 Bonarota, P. Ageria, Wulfenia carinthiaca, Sesleria sphcerocephala, 
 and S: microcephala. 
 
 It is worthy of remark that the central and highest part 
 of the Alpine chain, including the Pennine and Bernese 
 groups, the Lepontine Alps, and those of .North Switzer- 
 land, produce scarcely a well-marked species — with the 
 doubtful exceptions of Rumex nivalis and of Potentilla 
 fframmopetala, which is confined to a small district south 
 east of Monte Rosa — that does not spread throughout the 
 rest of the chain. 
 Glaciers of The phenomena of glaciers have been chiefly studied in 
 the Alps, the Alps, but they are not especially characteristic of the 
 mountains of central Europe. The investigation of their 
 origin and structure, and the laws of their motion, fall 
 within the province of the physical philosopher, and are 
 discussed elsewhere. See Glaciers. 
 Geology of The geological structure of the Alps is a subject that has 
 1* occupied the labours of many eminent men of science, 
 especially during the last thirty years, yet it may be safely 
 asserted that it will continue to offer new problems to the 
 researches of at least another generation. There is scarcely 
 a single difficult question regarding the nature and mode 
 of deposition of the strata that make up the earth's crust, 
 the mode of elevation of mountain chains, the causes of 
 the formation of valleys and lake basins, the action of 
 meteoric forces, of rivers and ice-streams, that must not be 
 decided before we can give a rational account of the struc- 
 ture of the Alps. Along with these, and scarcely less im- 
 portant, is the study of the various agencies involved in 
 the phenomena of metamorphism, and that of the part 
 played by volcanic action in some parts of the chain. The 
 study of the organic remains embedded in the rocks is not 
 so constantly the duty of the geologist in the Alps as it is 
 
 in most other mountain districts; but of late years this has 
 been actively pursued; and has tended to clear up man7 
 difficulties, while much room is left for further investiga- 
 tion. The reader is referred to the article Geology, and, 
 with reference to detailed information as to the structure 
 of the Alps, to the list of works on alpine geology given 
 below. 
 
 The number of publications relating to the Alps has been so 
 largely increased during the last quarter of a century that a bare 
 catalogue would fill a considerable space. The majority of these 
 are of a narrative and descriptive character, and do not add mu<ra 
 to our knowledge of the Alps, either topographically or scientifically. 
 It will suffice to give here a brief list of the chief works that may 
 fairly be considered to have achieved that object. Works of exclu- 
 sively scientific character, especially those relating to Alpine geology, 
 are separately enumerated. 
 
 Scheuchzer (J. J.), Itinera Alpina, Leydcn, 1723. Griiner, Die 
 Eisgebirge des -Schweizerlandes, Bern, 1760. Saussnre (H. B. de), 
 Voyages dans les Alpes, Neuchatel, 1803-C. Hugi (J. J.), Natur- 
 bistorische Alpenreise, Solothurn, 1830. Agassiz (L.), Etudes sur 
 les Glaciers, Neuchatel, 1840 ; Systemc Glacaire, ou Nouvelles 
 Etudes, Ice, Paris, 1847. Forbes (J. D.), Travels through the 
 Alps of Savoy, &c, Edinburgh, 1843. Desor (E.), Excursions et 
 Sejours dans les Glaciers et les Hautcs Regions des Alpes ; 2 series, 
 Neuchatel, 1844-5. Saluzzo .(A. di), Le Alpi che cingono l'ltalia, 
 l""- Parte, Torino, 1S45.. Schlagintweit (H. und A), Untersu- 
 chungen iiber die Physicalische Geographic die Alp en j 2 series, 
 Leipzig, 1850-4. Tyndall (J.), The Glaciers of the Alps, London, 
 I860. Berlepsch (H. A.), Die Alpen in Natur- und Lebensbildern 
 dargestellt, Leipzig, 1861. Brown» (Rev. G. F.), Ice-caves 
 of France and Switzerland, London, 1865. Morell, Scientific 
 Guide to Switzerland, London, 1866. Sonklar (Karl von), Die 
 Oetzthaler Gebirgsgruppe, Jcc, Gotha, 1860 ; Die Gebirgsgruppe 
 der Hohen Tauern, &c, Wien, 1866. Schaubach Die Deutsche 
 Alpen; 2d edition, Jena, 1865-71. Bonney (Rev. T. G.), The 
 Alpine Regions of Switzerland and the neighbouring countries, 
 Cambridge and London, 1868. Ball (J.), The Alpine Guide; new 
 edition, in ten parts, London, 1873. Considerable additions to our 
 knowledge of the Alps are also to be found in the periodical publi- 
 cations of the English, Swiss, Austrian, Italian, and German Alpine 
 Clubs ; and also in papers that have appeared in Petermann's 
 Gcographische Mittlieilungen. 
 
 No general zoological works of a purely scientific character relat- 
 ing exclusively to the fauna of the Alps can be quoted ; but much 
 valuable information, conveyed in a popular form, will be found in 
 Tschudi's Thierleben der Alpenwelt, of which translations have 
 appeared in English and French. The want of a compact work 
 containing descriptions of all the plants of the Alps has been much 
 felt by botanists. Those of Switzerland and the Eastern Alps are 
 included in Koch's Synopsis Florae Germanicae et Helveticae, a 
 work of high authority, written in Latin ; but it does not compre- 
 hend the species 'peculiar to Piedmont and the Western Alps. An 
 illustrated work, by J. C. Weber, Die Alpenpflanzen Deutschlands 
 und der Schweiz, may also be recommended. Of numerous books 
 and memoirs connected with the geology of the Alps, the following 
 deserve special mention : — L. von Bueh, Geologische Beobachtung- 
 en auf Reisen, 1802. Sir R. I. Murchison, .On the Geological 
 Structure of the Alps, the Apennines, and the Carpathians, Quart. 
 Journal Geol. Soc. of London, vol. v. ; a translation of this im- 
 portant memoir into Italian, with an appendix, by P. Savi and 
 G. Meneghini, Florence, 1851. Sedgwick and Murchison, On the 
 Geology of the Eastern Alps, Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond. 1832. J. de 
 Charpentier, Essai sur les Glaciers et sur le Terrain Erratique du 
 Bassin du Rhone, 1841. B. Studer, Geologie der Schweiz, 1853 ; 
 Id. Index der Petrographie nnd Stratigraphie der Schweiz, &c, 
 Bern, 1S72. A. Stoppani, Studii Geologichi e Paleontologichi suRa 
 Lombardia, 1857. C. Lory, Description Geologique du Dauphine, 
 1860. Giimbel, Geologie des Kbnigrcichs Bayern, 1861. O. Heer, 
 Die Urwelt der Schweiz,. Zurich, 1865. £. Desor, Der Gebirgsbau 
 der Alpen, &c, Wiesbaden, 1865. A. Favre, Recherches Geo- 
 logiques dans les Parties de la Savoie, ic. ; Voisines du Mont Blanc, 
 Geneve, 1867. L. Riitimeyer, TJeber Thai- und Seebilding, Basel, 
 1869. A copious collection of facts and observations bearing on 
 the physics and recent geology of the Alps will be found in a work 
 by M. DoUfuss-Ausset, Matcriaui pour l'Etude des Glaciers, ol 
 which nine volumes have appeared. Many important contributions 
 to Alpine geology are scattered through the Proceedings of scientific 
 societies. The Bulletin of the French Geological Society contains 
 valuable papers by CoUegno, Dausse, Gras, Huber, MortiUet, 
 Omboni, Rozet, and others. The geology of the Austrian Alps is 
 iUustrated by numerous papers in the Jahrbuch der k. k. Reichsan- 
 stalt. The memoirs of A. Sismonda and B. Gastaldi, in the 
 Memorie della R. Acadcmia di Torino, must be consulted by those 
 who would study the geology of Piedmont The phenomena of the 
 motion and structure of glaciers have been discussed in numerous.
 
 626 
 
 ALP-ALS 
 
 papers that have appeared in the London and Edinburgh Philoso- 
 phical Magazine during the last thirty years. The important 
 memoirs of Professor Tyndall were published in the Philosophical 
 Transactions for 1857, 1858, and 1859 ; and those of the late Mr 
 Hopkins in the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 
 vol. viii. Various contributions to illustrate and enforce the views 
 first set forth by the late Principal Forbes in his Travels through 
 the Alps were published in a collected form by Messrs Black, Edin- 
 burgh, in 1859. 
 
 With the exception of special maps of small districts, the only 
 maps of the Alps founded on actual survey are those which have 
 been published under the authority of the governments whose 
 territory is concerned. Among these the first place is due to tho 
 federal map of Switzerland, executed under the direction of General 
 Dufour, on the scale no'oaii , in 25 sheets. Considering the diffi- 
 culty of the task, this is unsurpassed both for accuracy and skill in 
 execution. The Austrian War Office has brought out, during the 
 last sixty years, a series of maps, executed on a large scale, of the 
 several states of the empire. These are of very unequal merit. 
 That of the kingdom of Venetian Lombardy, in 42 sheets, on the 
 scale of B > ' o a , has considerable merit, but falls short of the stand- 
 ard of the Swiss map. A new map of Tyrol is in preparation, and 
 will doubtless sustain the reputation of Austrian cartographers. 
 The "eneral map of Piedmont, in 91 sheets, on the scale rrfiin, is 
 sufficiently correct as regards the inhabited districts, but quite 
 unsatisfactory as '■egards the higher region. Until latelv there 
 
 existed no tol .able map of tho Alpines provinces of France. The, 
 general map ol France, on the scale lt lu . has of late years been 
 extended to the greater pai t of Dauphine, and will before long include 
 the newly-acquired departments of Savoy and Dice. The portion 
 already published is quite on a level with modern requirements, and 
 reflects credit on the French war department. The only tolerable 
 map that includes the entire chain of the Alps is that compiled by 
 .!. Q Mayr. It is on a small scale ( IH Vii l, and is not free from 
 serious errors. A map published by W'orl, in 48 sheets, on a scale 
 TTTt'sTTJ, entitled "Atlas von Sudwest Deutschland und deni Alpen- 
 lande," is very unsatisfactory. Scheda's general map of the Aus- 
 trian Empire and adjoining territories, in 20 sheets, is an excellent 
 compilation. It includes the Alps as far west as Monte Rosa 
 and the lake of Thurj, but the scale (rr*V<nj) is inconveniently 
 small. 
 
 Of geological maps including any considerable portion of th» 
 Alps the following deserve to be specified : — 
 
 Favrc(AA Carte Geologique des Parties de la Savoie, &c, Toisines 
 du Mont Wane. Giimbel, Geognostische Karte des Kbnigreichs 
 Bayern. Hauer (F. von), Geologische UebersichtskaKc der Oester- 
 reichischen Monar-hie ; sheets 5 and 6 include tho Austrian Alps. 
 Lory (C. ), Carte Geologique du Dauphine'. Morlot, Uebersichts- 
 karte der Nordbstlichen Alpen. Sismonda (A.), Carta Geologies 
 di Savoja, Piemonte, e Liguria. Societe Geologique de France, 
 Carte Geologique de la Savoie. Studer (B.i u. Escher v. d. Linth, 
 Carte Geologique de la Suisse. (J. B.) 
 
 ALPUJAKKAS, or Alpttxaras, a mountainous district 
 'n the south of Spain, in the province of Andalusia, lyirfg 
 between the Sierra Nevada and the Sierras Lugar and 
 Contravieca, and consisting principally of valleys, -which 
 descend at right angles from the crest of the Sierra Nevada. 
 These valleys are among the most beautiful and fertile in 
 Spain. They contain a rich abundance of fruit trees, 
 especially vines, oranges, lemons, and figs, and in some 
 parts present scenes of almost Alpine grandeur. The 
 inhabitants are the descendants of the Moors, who vainly 
 sought to preserve the last relics of their independence in 
 their mountain fastnesses, and many of the names of places 
 in the district are of Moorish origin. The principal 
 villages are Lanjaron, Orgiba, Trevelez, and Ugijar, all 
 •situated at a" considerable elevation — the highest, Trevelez, 
 being 5333 feet above the sea — and containing from 1500 
 to 4000 inhabitants. 
 
 ALREDUS, Altjred, or Alttkedtjs, of Beverley, one 
 of the earliest English historians, was born at Beverley, 
 in Yorkshire. He wrote in tho reign of Henry I., but 
 little is known with certainty of his life. It is generally 
 believed that he was educated at Cambridge, and afterwards 
 became one of the canons and treasurer of the church of 
 St John's at Beverley. We learn from a note in Bishop 
 Tanner's Bibliotkeca Brit.-Hib. that, for the sake of im- 
 provement, ho travelled through France and Italy, and at 
 Rome became domestic chaplain to Cardinal Othoboni. 
 He died in the year 1128 or 1129. His chief work, 
 entitled Annates give Historia de gestis Begum Britannicce, 
 was edited by Thomas Hearne from a manuscript belonging 
 to Thomas Rawlinson, and was published at Oxford in 
 1716. It contains an outline of the history of England 
 from Brutus to Henry I., written in elegant Latin, and 
 with remarkable accuracy as to facts and dates, though, of 
 course, much of the earlier portion is fabulous. A manu- 
 script entitled Liber-tales Ecclesia? S. Jokannis de Beverla?, 
 in the Cottonian library, is also ascribed to him, but on 
 doubtful authority. It is a collection of records relative to 
 the church of Beverley, translated from the Saxon. 
 
 ALRESFORD (New), a market town in Hampshire, so 
 named from a ford on the river Arle, a tributary of the 
 Itchin, on which it is situated. It is 58 miles distant from 
 London and 7 from Winchester. It suffered severely from 
 a series of conflagrations, and partly on this account and 
 from the decline of a small manufacture of linseys, it is now 
 a place of little importance. Alresford House, the seat of 
 
 the Rodney family, is in the neighbourhood and the naval 
 hero of that name was interred in New Alresford church 
 in 1792. Miss Mitford was a native of Alresford. Alres- 
 ford is a station on tho L. and S.-W. Railway. Population 
 of the parish of New Alresford (1871), 1623. 
 
 ALSACE (Germ. Elsass), a former province of France, 
 divided after the Revolution into the departments of 
 Haut Rhin and Bas Rhin, and incorporated since the war 
 of 1870 with the German empire. It is bounded on the 
 north by the Rhine palatinate, on the east by the Rhine, 
 on the south by Switzerland, and on the west by the 
 Vosges Mountains; arid it comprises an area of 3344 
 English square miles. The district possesses many natural 
 attractions, and is one of the most fertile in central Europe. 
 There are several ranges of hills, but no point within the 
 province attains a great elevation. The only river of 
 importance is the 111, which falls into the Rhine after a 
 course of more than 100 miles, and is navigable below 
 Colmar. The hills are generally richly wooded, chiefly 
 with fir, beech, and oak. The agricultural products are 
 corn, flax, tobacco, grapes, and various other fruits. Tho 
 country has a great wealth of minerals, silver having been 
 found, and copper, lead, iron, coal, and rock-salt being 
 wrought with profit. There are considerable manufactures, 
 chiefly of cotton and linen. The chief towns are Miihl- 
 hausen and Colmar in the upper district, and Strasburg 
 in the lower. The province is traversed from east to west 
 by the railway from Strasburg to Nancy, and the main line 
 north and south runs between Basle and Strasburg. 
 
 From a very early period and for many ages Alsace has been a 
 disputed territory, afld has suffered in the contentions of rival races. 
 It formed part of ancient Gaul, and was therefore included in the 
 Roman empire. The Romans held it nearly five hundred years, 
 and on the dissolution of their power it passed under tho swny of 
 the Franks and of the early French monarchy by whom it was 
 governed until the time of Otho I., Emperor of Germany, who 
 reigned about the middle of the 10th century. It was at that 
 period that Alsace became Cerman : its original population of Celtic 
 tribes, which had been first Romanised and then further qualified 
 by a Frankish element, was now to a great extent supplanted by a 
 purely Teutonic stock. By Otho II. the province was erected into 
 a landgraviate, and it subsequently came into the possession of the 
 House of Austria, which succeeded in 1273 to the imperial dignity 
 of Germany. This state of things continued until 1648, when o 
 large part of Alsace was ceded to France by the treaty of Miinster. 
 In the war which preceded this peace (generally known as '1/ 
 Thirty Years' War) Alsace had been so terribly devastated by tht 
 French that the German emperor found himself unable to hold it 
 The population was greatly reduced in numbers, and much of the
 
 A L S — A L S 
 
 637 
 
 land was left uncultivated. In the subsequent war between France 
 and the empire of Germany, arising out of the attempt of Louis XIV. 
 to wize Holland, that part of Alsace which remained to Germany 
 was again overrun by the French. Although this war was termi- 
 nated in 1678 hy the treaty of Nimeguen, the French monarch was 
 desirous of incorporating a still larger amount of Khine territory ; 
 and accordingly, in 1680 he laid claim to a number of territories, 
 belonging 10 princes of the empire, which he alleged had been dis- 
 membered from Alsace. It was ordered that these territories should 
 be at once restored to that province under the crown of France, and 
 several independent sovereigns were cited to appear before two 
 chambers of inquiry which Louis had established at Brissac and 
 Jletz. Tho princes appealed to the German emperor and to the 
 Diet ; but the previous wars had so exhausted the power of the 
 former that nothing . could be done to resist the aggression. In 
 1681 the French troops under Louvois seized Strasburg, aided by 
 the treachery of the bishop and other great men of the city. A 
 further war broke out, but by the treaty of Ratisbon in 1684, 
 Strasburg was secured to France. Again the war was renewed in 
 1688, and continued for nine years, when, at the peace of Ryswick, 
 iu 1697, another considerable portion of Alsace was ceded to France. 
 Some remaining territories of small extent were acquired by the 
 French after the revolution of 1789. 
 
 It will be seen from the foregoing sketch that Alsace was 
 originally French, that it then became German, and then French 
 agui; From the middle of the tenth century, however, the popu- 
 lation has in the maiu been Teutonic ; and the French conquests of 
 the seventeenth century, while modifying this element, still left it 
 predominant. The people continued to use German as their native 
 tongue, though the educated classes also spoke French. Pro- 
 testantism was professed by a large number of the inhabitants ; and 
 in many respects their characteristics identified them rather with 
 the race to the east than that to the west of the Rhine. In process 
 of time, however, they considered themselves French, and lost all 
 desire for re-annexation to any of the German States. 
 
 Alsace suffered a good deal in the war of 1870-71. 
 The earlier battles of the campaign were fought there ; 
 Strasburg *and other of its fortified towns were besieged 
 and taken ; and its people were compelled to submit to 
 very severe exactions. The civil and military govern- 
 ment of the province, as well as that of Lorraine, was 
 assumed by the Germans as soon as they obtained pos- 
 session of those parts of France, which was very shortly 
 after the commencement of the war. The Alsatian rail- 
 ways were reorganised and provided with a staff of German 
 officials. German stamps were introduced from Berlin ; 
 the occupied towns were garrisoned by the Landwehr ; and 
 requisitions on a large scale were demanded, and paid for 
 in cheques which, at the close of the war, were to be 
 honoured by whichever side should stand in the unpleasant 
 position of the conquered. The people, notwithstanding 
 their German origin, showed a very strong feeling against 
 the invaders, and in no part of France was the enemy 
 resisted with greater stubbornness. It wa3 evident from 
 an early period of the war, however, that Prussia was 
 resolved to reannex Alsace to German territory. When the 
 preliminaries of peace came to be discussed at Versailles in 
 February 1871, the cession of Alsace, together with what 
 is called German Lorraine, was one of the earliest con- 
 ditions laid down by Count Bismarck and accepted by M. 
 Thiers. This sacrifice of territory was afterwards ratified 
 by the National Assembly at Bordeaux, though not without 
 a protest from the representatives of the departments about 
 to be given up ; and thus Alsace once more became German. 
 By the bill for the incorporation of Alsace and German 
 Lorraine, introduced into the German Parliament in May 
 1871, it was provided that the sole and supreme control of 
 the two provinces should be vested in the Emperor of 
 Germany and the Federal Council until January 1st, 1873, 
 when the constitution of the German empire was to be 
 established. Bismarck admitted the aversion of the popu- 
 lace to Prussian rule, but said that everything would be 
 done to conciliate the people. This policy appears really 
 to have been carried out, and it was not long in bearing 
 fruit. Many of the inhabitants of the conquered districts, 
 however, siill clung to the old connection, and on the 30th 
 
 of September 1872 — the day by which the people were 
 required to determine whether they would consider them- 
 selves German subjects and remain, or French subjects and 
 transfer their domicile to France — 45,000 elected to be 
 still French, and sorrowfully took their departure. The 
 German system of compulsory education of every child 
 above the age of six was introduced directly after the 
 annexation. The population in 1871 amounted to upwards 
 of 1,060,000. 
 
 ALSEN, an island in the Baltic, situated off the coast 
 of Schleswig, in the Little Belt. It formerly belonged to 
 Denmark, but, as a result of the Danish war of 1864, was 
 incorporated with Germany. Its area is 105 square miles ; 
 the length nearly 20, and the breadth from 3 to 12 miles. 
 The island is fertile, .ichly wooded, and yields grain and 
 fruit. Sonderburg, the capital, a town of 5475 inhabitants, 
 with a good harbour and a considerable trade, is situated 
 on the narrow channel that separates Alsen from the 
 mainland. Population, 22,500. 
 
 ALSOP, Vincent, a celebrated Nonconformist divine, 
 was educated in St John's College, Cambridge. He received 
 deacon's orders from a bishop, whereupon he settled as 
 assistant-master in the free school of Oakham, Rutland. 
 He was recovered from indifferent associates here by a very 
 worthy minis ter, the Bev. Benjamin King. Subsequently 
 he married Mr King's daughter, and " becoming a convert 
 to his principles, received ordination in the Presbyterian 
 way, not being satisfied with that which he had from the 
 bishop." He was presented to the living of Wilby in 
 Northamptonshire ; but was thence ejected by the Act of 
 Uniformity in 1662. After his ejection he preached 
 privately at Oakham and Wellingborough, sharing the 
 common pains and penalties of Nonconformists — e.g., he 
 was imprisoned six months for praying with a sick person. 
 A book against Sherlock, called Antisozzc (after Socinus), 
 written in the vein of Andrew Marvell's Rehearsal Trans- 
 prosed, procured him much celebrity as a wit. Dr Robert 
 South, who cannot be supposed to have been favourably 
 disposed towards the Nonconformists, publicly pronounced 
 that Alsop had the advantage of Sherlock in every way. 
 Besides fame, Antisoizo procured for its author an invita- 
 tion to succeed the venerable Mr Cawton in Westminster. 
 He accepted the call, and drew great multitudes to his 
 chapeL The other books he published showed a fecundity 
 of wit, a playful strength of reasoning, and a provoking 
 indomitableness of raillery. Even with Dr Goodman and 
 Dr Stillingfleet for antagonists, he more than held his 
 own. His Mischief of Impositions in answer to the tatter's 
 Mischief of Separation, and Melius Inquirendum in answer 
 to the former's Compassionate Inquiry, remain historical 
 landmarks in the history of Nonconformity. Later on, 
 from the entanglements of a son in alleged treasonable 
 practices, he had to sue for and obtained pardon from 
 King James IL This seems to have given a somewhat 
 diplomatic character to his closing years, inasmuch as, 
 while re m a inin g a Nonconformist, he had a good deal to 
 do with proposed political-ecclesiastical compromises. He 
 died May 8, 1703. (a. b. g.) 
 
 ALSTED, Johann Hedtrich, a German Protestant 
 divine, and one of the most voluminous writers of the 
 17th century, was born in 1588. He was some time pro- 
 fessor of philosophy and divinity at Herborn, in the county 
 of Nassau, and afterwards at Weissenburg in Transylvania, 
 where he continued till his death in 1638. His Fncyclo- 
 pcedia, the most considerable of the earlier works of that 
 class, was long held in very high estimation. It was pub- 
 lished in 1630, in two large folio volumes, the whole 
 having been composed by himself. His Thesaurus Chrono- 
 logies has gone through several editions. He published 
 in 1627 a treatise, Be Mille Annis, in which, he asserted
 
 63b 
 
 ALS-ALT 
 
 that tlio reign of the saints on earth was to begin in 
 
 ALSTON, Charles, M.D., a botanical and medical 
 writer, was born in the west of Scotland in the year 1683. 
 He began his studies at the university of Glasgow; and on 
 the death of his father, prosecuted them under the patron- 
 age of the Duchess of Hamilton. After studying at Ley- 
 den under Boerhaave, along with Alexander Monro (1716- 
 19), he returned to Edinburgh, and shared with Monro, 
 Rutherford, Sinclair, and Plummer, the honour of laying 
 the foundation, of the renowned school of medicine there. 
 He lectured on botany and materia medica with increasing 
 reputation till his death in November 1760. He was a 
 man of great ability, and an assiduous student of science. 
 His most valuable work is his Lectures on Materia Medica, 
 2 vols., 1770. 
 
 ALSTROEMER, Jonas, a Swedish industrial reformer, 
 was born at Alingsaes, in West Gothland, on the 7th Jan. 
 1685. He left his native village at an early age, and in 
 1707 became clerk to Alberg, a merchant of Stockholm, 
 whom he accompanied to London. After carrying on 
 business for three years, Alberg failed, and Alstrom (as 
 the clerk then called himself) engaged in the business of 
 shipbroker on his own account, which eventually proved 
 very successful After travelling for several years on the 
 Continent, he was seized with the patriotic desire to trans- 
 plant to his native country some of the industries he had 
 Been flourishing in Britain. He accordingly returned to 
 Alingsaes, and in 1724 established a woollen factory in the 
 village, which after preliminary difficulties was completely 
 successful He next established a sugar refinery at Gothen- 
 burg ; introduced improvements in the cultivation of 
 potatoes and of plants suitable for dyeing ; and directed 
 attention to improved methods in shipbuilding, tanning, 
 and the manufacture of cutlery. But his most successful 
 undertaking was the importation of sheep from England, 
 Spain, and Angora. In return for his services he received 
 many marks of distinction. He was created (1748) knight 
 of the order of the North Star ; and a few years later re- 
 ceived letters of nobility, with permission to change his 
 name to Alstromer. He died June 2, 1761,- leaving several 
 works on practical industrial subjects. A statue was erected 
 to his honovr in the exchange at Stockholm. One of his 
 sons, Clas {i.e.. Claude), was a naturalist of considerable 
 eminence. 
 
 ALT, or Alcjta, a tributary of the Danube, which, 
 rising in the eastern Carpathian mountains, flows through 
 Transylvania and Wallachia, entering the latter by the 
 pass of Rothenthurm, and joins the Danube opposite 
 Nicopoli, after a course of more than 300 miles. 
 
 ALTAI MOUNTAINS, a group of mountains in central , 
 Asia, separating the table-lands of Mongolia from Siberia. 
 The irregular chains of which the group consists extend 
 from 85° to 103" E. long., and from 48° to 34° N. lat. 
 The great Siberian rivers, the Obi, Irtish, and Yenesei, 
 take their rise in these mountains, which are said to abound 
 in scenes of picturesque beauty. The highest summits 
 exceed 12,000 feet. The rauge'is rich in mineral produc- 
 tions, particularly silver, copper, and iron. See Asia, and 
 Geography, Physical. 
 
 ALTAMUKA, a cathedral town in the south of Italy, 
 province of Terra di Bari, 28 miles S.W. of Bari. It is 
 Bitoated in a fertile country, which produces wine and oil, 
 and is said to occupy the site of the ancient Lupatia. 
 Population, 17,365. 
 
 ALTAR, in Classical Antiquity, was a solid base or 
 pedestal on which supplication was made and sacrifice 
 offered to tho gods and deified heroes. According to this 
 difference in the service for which they were employed, 
 altars fell into two classes. <jf which the one, smaller and 
 
 Fio. I —Greek altar: 
 usual /oroi. 
 
 lower so that the suppliant could klittl upon it, stood 
 inside temples, in front of the sacred imn^a ; while the 
 other, destined for burnt sacrifice, was jmi.-.d in the opeu 
 air, and, if connected with a temple, in from til t lie entrance. 
 Possibly altars of the former class were sulialiinles for, and 
 rendered the same service in historical times a*, in an early 
 age, the base of the sacred image within a temple. In 
 this case the altar of Apollo at Delphi, on which Neopto- 
 lemus is frequently represented on the Greek vases a» 
 taking refuge from Orestes, might bo regarded as tht.- 
 pedestal of an invisible image of the , 
 
 god, and as fulfilling the same function <^>. no^ 
 as did the base of the actual iifage of (^ 
 Minerva in Troy, towards which Cas- 
 sandra fled from Ajax. The other class 
 of altars, called /3cu/ioi'by the Greeks and 
 altaria by the Romans, appear to have 
 originated in such temporary construc- 
 tions as heaps of earth, turf, or stone, 
 made as occasion offered for kindling 
 a fire for sacrifice. The next step was 
 to allow the bones and ashes of the victims sacrificed 
 to accumulate, and upon this to kindle new fires. Altars 
 so raised were viewed with particular sanctity, the most 
 remarkable recorded instances of them being thb altar* 
 of Juno at Samus ind at Olympia (Pausanias, v. 14, E; 
 v. 15, 6), of Apollo at Thebes (Pausanias, ix. 11, 5), aud 
 of Jupiter at Olympia. The last-mentioned stood on a 
 platform (irp66vm.<;) measuring 125 feet in circumference, 
 and led up to by steps, the altar itself being 22 feet high. 
 Women were excluded from the platform. Where heca- 
 tombs wero sacrificed, the Trp69v<ri<: necessarily assumed 
 colossal proportions, as in the case of the altar at Parion, 
 where it measured on each side 600 feet. The altar 
 of Apollo at Delos (£ Kcparwos ftufjo;) was made of 
 tho horns of deer believed to have been slain by Diana ; 
 while at Miletus was an altar composed of the blood of 
 victims saenfieed. The altar used at the festival in honour 
 of D«dalus on Mount Citha;ron was of wood, and was 
 consumed along with the sacrifice (Pausanias, ix. 3, 2). 
 Others, of bronze, are mentioned; but while these were 
 exceptional, the usual material of an altar was marble, 
 and its form, both among the Greeks and Eomans, either 
 
 n q aral t a ; r T^hi P c h y fx°: ^M^^W 
 amples still exist, being 
 exceptions. When sculp- 
 tured decorations were 
 added - they frequently 
 took the form of imita- 
 tions of the actual festoons 
 with which it was usual to 
 ornament altars, or of sym- 
 bols, such as crania and 
 horns of oxen, referring 
 to the victims sacrificed. 
 As a rult, the altars 
 which existed apart from 
 temples bore tho name 
 of the person by whom 
 they were dedicated, and 
 the names of the deities in whose service they were; or, if 
 not tho name, some obvious representation of the deity. 
 Such is the purpose of the figures of the Muses on an altar 
 to them in the British Museum. An altar was retained for 
 the service of one particular god, except where, through local 
 tradition, two or more deities had become intimately asso- 
 ciated, as in the case of the altar at Olympia to Diana and 
 Alpheus jointly, or that of Neptune and Erecatheus in the- 
 Erechtheum at Athens, and others. Such deities were styled 
 
 Fia. 2. — Polygonal Greek Altar.
 
 ALTAR 
 
 639 
 
 oTj/i/?o>/xot, each having a separate part of the altar, if we 
 may judge from that at the Ampuiareum at Oropos (Pau- 
 sanias, i. 34, 2). Deities of an inferior order, who were 
 conceived as working together — e.g., the wind gods — had 
 an altar in common. In the same way, the " unknown 
 gods" were regarded as a unit, and had in Athens and at 
 Olympiu. one altar for all (Pausanias, i. 1, 4; v. 14, 5; 
 ^.cts of Apostles, xvii. 18). An altar to all the gods is 
 mentioned by iEschylus (SuppL v. 225). Among the excep- 
 tional classes of altars are also to be mentioned those on 
 which fire could not be kindled (/3<a/Aol airvpoi), and those 
 which were kept free from blood (/3<o/ioi dvat/uzKTot), of 
 which in both respects the altar of Zeus Hypatos at Athens 
 was an example. The eoria was a round altar ; the ecr^apa, 
 one employed apparently for sacrifice to inferior deities or 
 heroes, or on comparatively unimportant occasions, as was 
 also the ara among the Romans ; though ara is sometimes 
 used with tie same signification as allare, and etymo- 
 logically would have the same meaning if it is correctly 
 derived from adpa, not from ardere; while allare is con- 
 nected with alius, " high." 
 
 Egyptian altars were monoliths, in the form of a truncated 
 cone about four feet* in height. Some are extant, made of 
 granite, others of green basalt; in almost every case they 
 bear hieroglyphical inscriptions. In the temple of Jupiter 
 at Babylon there was an altar of massive gold. Assyrian, 
 Egyptian, and Persian altars were either square or oblong. 
 
 The most ancient altars of which any record has been 
 preserved are those mentioned in the Bible. As sacrifice 
 implies an altar, there must have been altars for those of 
 Cain and Abel ; but the first which is mentioned is that 
 which Noah after the flood "builded unto Jehovah" (Gen. 
 viii 20). The three patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, 
 are repeatedly said to have built an altar in the different 
 parts of the land of Canaan in which they sojourned ; and 
 though it is not stated expressly, yet it may be inferred 
 from there having evidently been a place where Abraham 
 was accustomed to " stand before Jehovah" (ibid. xix. 27), 
 that, once built, it remained during the whole period of 
 the encampment at the particular place, and was frequently 
 used for the purpose of sacrificing. 
 
 But the most remarkable altar mentioned in the book of 
 Genesis is that which Abraham built for the sacrifice of 
 his son Isaac, from which we glean several particulars 
 relative to the patriarchal worship. The altar was evi- 
 dently something distinct from the wood by whose fire the 
 sacrifice was to be burnt, for Abraham " built an altar and 
 laid the wood in order," which he had brought with him 
 from Beersheba, as if he could not count upon finding it at 
 the place. The victim also was bound, laid upon the 
 wood, and there slain. This was contrary to the practice 
 under the Levitical dispensation, when the fire on the top 
 of the altar was kept continually burning, and the animal 
 was killed before being carried up to it; but it is pro- 
 bably alluded to in a verse of the Psalms, which has given 
 much trouble to commentatoa. who have tried to reconcile 
 it with the precepts of the Mosaic law — " Bind the sacrifice 
 with cords unto the horns of the altar " (Ps. cxviii. 27). 
 To this simple patriarchal ritual belong also the rules 
 about the construction of altars given to the Israelites 
 shortly after they left Egypt (Exod xx. 24-26). While 
 sojourning in that country they do not seem to have 
 offered any sacrifice to Jehovah, till, just as they were 
 leaving it, they were commanded to sacrifice the passover. 
 [t is not unlikely that they might have despised the simple 
 altars of their forefathers, and tried to imitate those which 
 they had seen in Egypt, as they so soon copied: their late 
 oppressors in a still graver matter, the making a supposed 
 likeness of the Deity. They were therefore ordered to 
 make ti-eir *?'£*» of «.rth, froeaa mijfht also be used. 
 
 . but they were not to be hewn, nor were the altars to he so 
 high as to require the offerer to go up by steps to arrange 
 the sacrifices upon them. 
 
 The first altar that is mentioned as haviug been built 
 after these directions were given, was the one for the 
 solemn covenanting sacrifice between God and the Israelites 
 (Ex. xxiv. 4-8). There it is mentioned that Moses " builded 
 an altar under the bill, and twelve pillars, according to 
 the twelve tribes of Israel." Its being under the hill 
 may have been a significant protest against the prevalent 
 heathen error of localising the Deity in the sky, and the 
 twelve pillars or rough blocks of stone appear to have been 
 a principal part of the materials used in constructing it. 
 They may be compared with the " twelve stones, according 
 to the number of the tribes of the sous of Jacob," with 
 which Elijah built his altar on Carmel (1 Kings xviii. 31). 
 We seem to learn from these examples that when an altar 
 was to be constructed for a special occasion, it was fitting 
 that it should bear a symbolism of all in whose name the 
 sacrifice was offered. It is to be observed that this precept 
 about making altars of earth or of unhewn stones was 
 anterior to the Levitical ceremonial, and was superseded 
 by it. After the sin of making the golden calf, the whole 
 ceremonial of the worship of the Israelites was alteied 
 According to the new ritual, two different altars were 
 required, and they were permanent, being carried about in 
 the people's wanderings, and replaced by others, similar, 
 but larger and more costly, when the ark was placed in 
 the temple on Mount Moriah. 
 
 The first of these altars was that for burnt offerings. 
 For the tabernacle this was hollow, made of boards of 
 shittim-wood, covered with brass. It was three cubits or 
 about five feet high, and five cubits or eight feet square. 
 It had a horn at each corner, and was carried about by 
 means of staves. The corresponding altar in the temple 
 was of greatly larger dimensions, ten cubits or about 18 feet 
 high, and in the first temple 20 cubits square, and in the 
 second 24 cubits. The tradition of the Jews is, that it was 
 32 cubits (about 50 feet) square at the base, contracting to 
 24 at the top, by several ledges round it at different 
 heights. It must therefore have been an immense struc- 
 ture, and though called " an altar of brass," was probably 
 built of stones, and merely covered with plates of that 
 metal From the account of the building of the altar in 
 the second temple given in 1 Mace. iv. 45-47, it is pro- 
 bable that it consisted merely of a mass of masonry of 
 the proper form. EzekLel, in his vision of the temple, 
 gives a* description of the altar of burnt-offerings, from 
 which we learn that it was surrounded by several ledges 
 or steps, each a cubit broad. The uppermost of these 
 was two cubits (about 3 feet) below the top of the altar, 
 so that, standing upon it, the priest was able to arrange 
 the sacrifice upon the fire, which was kept always burning, 
 to supply it with fuel, ard to remove the ashes. The 
 lower ledges were to enable him to sprinkle the blood on 
 the sides of the altar, which (according to the Levitical 
 ritual) was sometimes to be done on the upper part of the 
 altar, and sometimes on the lower part. The lowest step 
 is said to have had a raised ledge on the outside, by which 
 the blood poured upon it was confined till it ran through 
 a hole into a subterranean pipe. 
 
 One of the most difficult questions about the Levitical 
 altars is their having horns ; for these do not seem to have 
 been used in that ritual, yet they are specially ordered to 
 be made, not only in the altar of burnVofferings, but also 
 in that of incense ; and on certain solemn occasions they 
 were sprinkled with blood, as if they were not mere append- 
 ages or ornaments of the altar, but had a special signi- 
 ficance of their own. From the way they are spoken of in 
 the book oi Exodus, we see that they must then have beorv
 
 C40 
 
 ALTAR 
 
 well known, aud it might almost bo thought that tney were 
 retained from the older ritual, according to which they 
 were used to bind the victim that was slain upon the altar. 
 
 The second temple having suffered gTeatly in the wars 
 between the kings of Syria and Egypt, and been plundered 
 by the Romons, was almost rebuilt by Herod, the restora- 
 tion occupying forty-six years. The altar of burnt-offering 
 erected then is thus described by Josephus ( De Bell. Jud. 
 v. 5, 6) : — " Before this temple stood the altar, 15 cubits 
 high, and equal both in length and breadth, each of which 
 dimensions was 50 cubits. The figure it "'as built in wa3 
 a square : it had corners like horns, aud the passage up to 
 it was by an insensible acclivity from the south. It was 
 formed without any iron tool, nor did any iron tool so 
 much as touch it at any time." A pipe was connected 
 with the south-west horn, through which the blood of the 
 victims was discharged by a subterraneous passage into the 
 brook Kedron. Under the altar was a cavity to receive 
 the drink-offerings. This was covered with u marble slab, 
 and cleansed from time to time. On the north side of the 
 altar several iron rings were fixed to fasten the victims. 
 Lastly, a red line was drawn round the middle of the altar 
 to distinguish betweeu the blood that was to be sprinkled 
 above and below it. 
 
 The second altar belonging to tlie Jewish worship was 
 the altar of incense, the golden altar (Ex. xxx. 1). It was 
 placed in the holy place, between the table of shew-bread 
 and the golden candlestick. This altar, in the tabernacle, 
 was made of shittim-wood overlaid with gold plates, 1 cubit 
 in length and breadth, and 2 cubits in height. It had 
 horns of the same materiab ; and round the flat surface 
 was a border of wrought gold, underneath which were the 
 rings to receive " the staves, made of shittim-wood overlaid 
 with gold, to bear it withal ;'' (Exod. xxx. 1-5 ; Joseph. 
 Antiq. iii. 6, 8). The altar in Solomon's temple was similar 
 in form, but made of cedar overlaid with gold (1 Kings 
 vi. 20). It is a question whether it was hollow or filled 
 up with stones, the construction of the Hebrew being doubt- 
 ful, but the former supposition appears the more probable. 
 The altar in the second temple was taken away by Antiochus 
 Epiphanes (1 Mace. i. 21), and restored by Judas Maccabaeus 
 (1 Mace. iv. 49). The archangel Gabriel stood at the right 
 side of this altar when, he announced the birth of John 
 the Baptist to Zacharias, who was burning incense upon it 
 (Lukei 11); and it is alluded to in the vision shown to 
 St John (Rev. viii. 3), where it is immediately "before the 
 throne," the veil, which under the Mosaic dispensation 
 had separated it from the holy of holies, having been rent 
 asunder at the crucifixion. 
 
 On tins altar incense was offered twice every day, aud 
 thi3 was the only use of incense under theLevitical ritual; 
 for though the word "censer" is repeatedly used in our 
 common translation of the Old Testament, neither in the 
 Hebrew nor the Greek has the word any connection with 
 incense, but denotes the fire-pan in which the burning 
 charcoal was carried from the brazen altar to be emptied 
 out upon that of iucense. The true equivalent for censer 
 is only used of sinful or heathen worship (2 Chron. xxvi. 1 4 ; 
 Ezek. viiL 11, and perhaps 2 Chron. xxx. 14). The fire- 
 pans used as censers in the story of Korah, and of the 
 atonement subsequently made by Aaron burning incense 
 among the people, do not belong to the Leviticai ritual, 
 but were to prove whether it. was to be observed or 
 not. 
 
 The single exception to the exclusive use of the golden 
 altar for incense was on the great day of atonement, when 
 the high priest went into the holy of holies, carrying a 
 fire-pan containing lighted charcoal from the great altar, 
 and having set it down, threw incense upon it, and left it 
 for some time before the ark while he went and came 
 
 back once and again to sprinkle it with the blood of the 
 sacrifices. This fire-pan is accordingly called a golden 
 censer by the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews (ix. 4); 
 but even this is no precedent for the swinging censors 
 which have been used for so many ceuturies iu the Latin 
 churches. Incense, indeed, was put on the loaves of shew- 
 bread ; but it does not appear that it was burned upon 
 that table, which is nowhere called an altar. More pro- 
 bably, when the loaves were taken away, the incense was 
 burnt on the proper altar. But the shew-bread was so 
 completely special an appointment of the Mosaic ritual 
 that it is impossible to class it among sacrifices. 
 
 Among the early Christians, alike in the East and West, 
 that on which the bread and wine were put in the celebra- 
 tion of the Eucharist appears to have been regarded as an 
 altar, and accordingly sacrificial words were used in connec- 
 tion with it, such as "offering," "unbloody sacrifice." It 
 should be observed, however, that the Greek fathers 
 scarcely ever apply the word /3w/xos to Christian altars, 
 confining themselves to Ovo-iacm'/ptov ; while in the West 
 there seems to have been a preference for allare rather 
 than ara, though the latter term is often found. As the 
 Christians generally shrunk from disclosing to the heathen 
 the details pf their worship, their enemies used to taunt 
 them with having neither temples nor altars, and some of 
 tho apologists admit this ; but all they meant by this was 
 that they had no such altars as the heathen had, altars for 
 slain beasts and for the burning of their bodies. 
 
 From the privacy with which the early believers bad to 
 meet, their altars at first woidd naturally be simple and 
 unobtrusive. We have seen that the Leviticai altars were 
 four-square, but Christian altars seem to have been always 
 longer than they were broad, and to have been placed 
 " athwart" the length of the basilica or church, so as to 
 present one of the broad sides and both the sacred vessels 
 to the eyes of the great body of the worshippers. 
 
 There docs not seem to have been any rule as to the 
 material of which altars might be made. At first they 
 appear to have been mostly of wood, as being easily pro- 
 cured and fashioned. But when the persecutions ceased, 
 and the Christians began to erect churches for worship, 
 there seems to have sprung up some diversity of usage, 
 each province following its own traditional custom, which 
 perhaps was affected in some degree by the nature of the 
 buiidiig-stone found there, and the use commonly made 
 of it. It seems that in Egypt and the region afterwards 
 called Barbary the altars were of wood ; and there is a 
 tradition that this was also the case originally at Borne. 
 On the other hand, in the latter half of the 4th century, 
 they were made of stone in Asia Minor. Early in the 6th 
 century a council, held at Epaone in Burgundy, ordered 
 that only altars made of stone should be consecrated with 
 the chrism, which shows that wooden altars also were still 
 made in that province. In England the change from wood 
 to stone seems to have taken place about the time of the 
 Norman Conquest, Wulfstan, bishop of Worcester, being 
 mentioned as having introduced it in his diocese. No 
 doctrinal significance can be ascribed to the change, which 
 was simply in keeping with the greater costliness of the 
 whole structure, when the cessation of the inroads of the 
 Scandinavian sea-kings allowed the nations of Western 
 Europo to accumulate wealth, of which a portion was 
 dedicated to religion. A few exceptional instances are 
 mentioned of altars of silver, and they were sometimes 
 even covered in part with plates of gold ; but the current 
 set in steadily in favour of stone as the most suitable 
 material, and by degrees the legislation of the Latin church 
 on this point grew more definite. The altar could only be 
 of stone ; not that it was necessary that the whole struc- 
 ture should be so, for it was enough if there was a slab at
 
 A E T A E 
 
 641 
 
 sttme on the top large enough for the sacred vessels to 
 stand upon ; the upper face of the altar must have five 
 crosses incised in the stone ; before being used, it must 
 have been consecrated by the bishop with the chrism, 
 according to the ritual prescribed in the pontificals, which 
 by decrees grew more elaborate; and at first a plain cross, 
 and afterwards a crucifix, was placed erect upon it. 
 
 At the Reformation the altars in churches were looked 
 npon as symbols of the old Catholic doctrine, in those 
 countries where the struggle lay between the Catholics and 
 the " Reformed " or Calvinists, who on this point went 
 much further than the Lutherans. In England the name 
 " altar" was retained in the Communion Office in English, 
 printed in 1548, and in the complete English Prayer-book 
 of the following year, known to students as the First Book 
 of Edward. But orders were given soon after that the 
 altars should be destroyed, and replaced by movable 
 wooden tables; while from the revised Prayer-book of 
 1552 the word "altar" was carefully expunged. The short 
 reign of Mary reversed all this, but the work was resumed 
 on the accession of Elizabeth, and has been carried out so 
 thoroughly that the industry of recent antiquaries has only 
 been able to find about thirty cases in all England where 
 the old stone altar-slabs still exist, and of these that at 
 Arundel is almost the only one which is still used. 
 
 The name " altar" has been all along retained in the 
 Coronation Office of the kings of England, where it Occurs 
 frequently. It was also recognised in the canons of 1640, 
 and an important change was then made in the posi- 
 tion of the communion tables, which has become universal 
 throughout the Church of England. La primitive times 
 the position of the Christian altar seems to have been such 
 that, like the Jewish and patriarchal altars, they could be 
 surrounded on all sides by the worshippers. The chair of 
 the bishop or celebrant was on their west side, and the 
 assistant clergy were ranged on each side of him. But in 
 the Middle Ages the altars were placed against the east wall 
 of the churches, or else a screen, called a reredos (generally 
 much decorated with carving), was erected close to the east 
 of the altar, so as to cut off any one on that side from 
 jo inin g in the worship, and the celebrant was brought 
 round to the west side, to stand between the people and 
 the altar; while there were often curtains on the north 
 and south sides. When tables were substituted for altars 
 in the English churches, these were not merely movable, 
 but at the administration of the Lord's Supper were actually 
 moved into the body of the church, and placed table-wise 
 as it was called — that is, with the long sides turned to the 
 north and south, and the narrow ends to the east and 
 west — the officiating clergyman standing at the north side. 
 In the time of Archbishop Laud, however, the present 
 practice of the Church of England was introduced. The 
 communion table, though still of wood and movable, is, as 
 a matter of fact, never moved; it is placed altar-wise — 
 that is, with its longer axis running north and south, and 
 close against the east wall, with for the most part a reredos 
 behind it ; it is also fenced in by rails, within which the 
 laity do not enter. 
 
 When, under the superintendence and partly at the 
 charge of the Camden Society, the church of Saint Sepul- 
 chre at Cambridge, founded 1101, was restored, a stone 
 altar, consisting of a flat slab resting upon three other 
 upright slabs, was presented to the parish, and set up in 
 the church at the east wall of the chancel. This circum- 
 stance was brought before the Court of Arches in 1845, 
 and Sir- H. Jenner Fust (Faulkner v. Lichfield and Steam) 
 ordered it to be removed, on the ground that a stone struc- 
 ture- so weighty that it could not be moved, and seeming 
 to be a mass of solid masonry, was not a communion-table 
 rithin.the meaning of the Church of England. No attempt 
 
 1— i> 
 
 has been made to obtain a reversal of this judgment ; but 
 from other decisions some infer that only such altars an 
 cannot also be considered as tables are forbidden. 
 
 Few particulars have come down to us regarding the 
 construction of the wooden altars used by the Christian 
 Church in early times, except that several circumstances 
 indicate that they were hollow. Gregory of Tours applies 
 the word "area" or "chest" to them; and in other cases 
 they must have been simply like ordinary tables supported 
 by legs, since we read of persons taking refuge beneath 
 them. There is nothing, therefore, either in the matter 
 or the form of the ordinary English communion-tables, to 
 prevent them serving as altars. The stone altars at first 
 were probably only one or more blocks of rough hewn 
 stone; but by degrees they were ornamented, and this 
 produced two different types. Either the altar remained 
 a solid mass of masonry, but had its front richly panelled 
 (in later times it had figures in bas-relief), or the upper 
 slab was supported by from one to five columns, often of 
 highly-polished stone. It was in the 16th century that a 
 new fashion was introduced in France, according to which 
 the altar was regarded as being itself a tomb or sarcophagus, 
 and to Tyhich are due the unsightly altars which now dis- 
 figure the wonderfully beautiful mediaeval churches of that 
 country. So complete was the change, that now, perhaps, 
 there are not more ancient altars in France than there are 
 in England. 
 
 In early times, before the altars were placed close to the 
 east wall or to a large reredos, they were often surmounted 
 by a canopy or baldacchino, supported by four pillars rising 
 from the ground just beyond the corners of the altar. 
 
 At first there was but one altar in a church; but for 
 many centuries this rule has been disregarded in the Latin 
 churches, and almost every large church contains several 
 altars dedicated in honour of different saints, and sometimes 
 appropriated to the use of particular guilds, or endowed for 
 a series of masses for the repose of the founder. These, 
 however, must not be confounded with the principal altar, 
 called the high altar or maitre axdel, situated towards the 
 east end of the choir or chanceL A few cases occur where 
 there are two high altars, the second being placed near the 
 west end of the church. 
 
 Altars are "vested" during service; that is, covered 
 with cloths of various kinds. There is often a frontal, 
 richly embroidered, whose colour depends upon the ecclesi- 
 astical season or the particular festival; but in all cases 
 the uppermost cloth on the top is of linen, to represent 
 that in which the body of the Lord was wrapped in the 
 sepulchre. 
 
 Since the age of Bede, portable altars have been used in 
 the Latin Church; but the East has never adopted them, 
 and they quite put out of sight the symbolism of the form 
 of an altar. They consist simply of a small slab of stone, 
 large enough to support the chalice and paten. This must 
 bear the incised crosses and must have been consecrated 
 by the bishop. They may be carried about on a journey 
 by a bishop or priest in a heathen or heretical country, as 
 now it is not allowed to say mass except on a duly conse- 
 crated altar, and they are also used in oratories attached 
 to private houses. 
 
 Those who wish to investigate the matter further may 
 be referred to the standard works on church ritual and 
 ecclesiastical architecture. For the altars of the Israelites, 
 much information will be found in Lightfoot's two treatises 
 on the Temple Service, and in Carpzov*s notes to his trans- 
 lation of Godwin's Moses and Aaron. Christian altars are 
 described by Bona, Martene, and Bingham ; but the stand- 
 ard work on the subject is probably that by the Lutheran 
 | 'ublished after bis death by J. A. Fabricius. Nearly 
 twenty years ago an £ssay on Christian Altars, by Lain
 
 642 
 
 A L T — A L T 
 
 and Schwartz, appeared at Rottenburg ; while for France, 
 the Abbe 1 Thiers' Dissertation on the subject is full of 
 curious information, like all his works. Drawings of 
 mediaeval altars which have been preserved will be found 
 in many works on architecture, Parker's Glossary gives 
 the most noticeable preserved in England ; but the Dic- 
 tionnaire de V Architecture of Viollet le Due is much 
 superior, and, with its beautiful illustrations and careful 
 descriptions, has nearly exhausted the subject so far as 
 regards French examples, to which it is almost exclusively 
 confined. (o. h. f.) 
 
 ALTDORF, or Altorf, a town in Switzerland, capital 
 of tho canton of Uri, situated at the northern end of 
 the pass of St Gotthard, near the lake of Lucerne. It 
 contains the oldest Capuchin monastery in Switzerland, 
 but is otherwise of little interest, except as the place pointed 
 out by tradition where William Tell shot the apple from 
 his son's head. The lime treo, under which it is alleged 
 the boy stood, has disappeared, but a fountain still marks 
 the spot There is also an old tower, with rude frescoes 
 commemorating the feat. Biirglen, a village in the neigh- 
 bourhood, is Tell's reputed birthplace. Population, 2724. 
 
 ALTDORFER, Albrecht, a painter and engraver of 
 the early German school, was born at Regensburg, not 
 later than 1480, and died in 1538. His paintings are 
 remarkable for minute and careful finish, and for close 
 study of nature. The most important of them are to be 
 found in the Pinakothek at Munich. A representation of 
 the battle of Arbela, included in that collection, is usually 
 considered his chief work. His engravings on wood and 
 copper are very numerous, and rank next to those of 
 Albert Diirer. 
 
 ALTENBURG, a town in Germany, capital of tho 
 duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, situated near the river Pleisse, 
 about 24 miles south of Leipsic. The town, from its hilly 
 position, is irregularly built ; but many of its streets are 
 wide, and contain a number of large and beautiful build- 
 ings. Its ancient castle is picturesquely situated on a lofty 
 rock, and is memorable as the place from which, in 1455, - 
 Kunz von Kaufungen carried off the young princes Albert 
 and Ernest, the founders of the present royal and ducal 
 families of Saxony. Altenburg is the seat of the higher 
 courts of the duchy, and possesses a cathedral and several 
 churches, a gymnasium, a library, a gallery of pictures and 
 a school of art, several elementary schools, an infirmary, 
 and various learned societies. There is considerable traffic 
 in grain and cattle brought from the surrounding district ; 
 twice a year there are large horse fairs ; and the book 
 trade is extensive. Cigars, woollen goods, gloves, hats, 
 and porcelain are among the chief manufactures. Popula- 
 tion (1871), 19,966. 
 
 ALTEN OETTLNG, or Altoetting, a small market 
 town in Upper Bavaria, situated on the Morn, not far from 
 its junction with the Inn. It has long been famous as a 
 place of pilgrimage to which Roman Catholics resort in 
 very large numbers, especially from Austria, Bavaria, and 
 Swabia, oh account of a celebrated image of the Virgin 
 Mary in one of the churches. Another church contains the 
 tomb of Tilly. Population, 1500. 
 
 ALTENSTEIN, a castle upon a rocky mountain in 
 Saxe-Meiningen, on the south-western slope of the Thiir- 
 inger Wald, not far from Eisenach. It is the summer 
 residence of the duke3 of Meiningen, and is surrounded 
 by z poble park, which contains, among other objects of 
 interest, a remarkable underground cavern, 500 feet long, 
 through which flows a large and rapid stream. Boniface, 
 the apostle of the Germans, lived and preached at Alten- 
 stein in 724 ; and near the castle is the place from which, 
 in 1521, Luther was seized, to be carried off to the Wart- 
 burg. There used to be an old beech called " Luther's 
 
 tree," which association connected with the Reformer, but 
 it was blown down in is 11, and a small monument now 
 stands in its place. 
 
 ALTIN, a lake of Siberia, which gives rise to the Bija, 
 one of the head streams of the Obi, is situated among the 
 Altai mountains, 320 miles south of the city of Tomsk. 
 It is about 80 miles long, and its greatest breadth is about 
 50 miles ; but the large quantities of melted snow which 
 flow down from the surrounding mountains mako it larger 
 in summer than in winter. It is remarkablo that iu 
 winter the northern part is frozen se hard as to be passable 
 on sledges, while the southern is never covered with ice. 
 
 ALTLNG, Heinrich, a German divine, was born at 
 Embden in 1583. His father, Menso Alting, was minister 
 of Embden, and early destined his son to tho same pro- 
 fession. He studied with great assiduity and success at 
 the universities of Herborn and Groningen. In 1608 he 
 was appointed tutorof Frederick, afterwards elector-palatine, 
 at Heidelberg, and in 1612 accompanied him to England. 
 Returning in 1613 to Heidelberg after the marriage of tho 
 elector with the Princess Elizabeth of England, he wa3 
 appointed professor of theology, and in 1616, director of 
 the Collegium Sapienlice. In 1618, along with Scultcius, 
 he represented the university in the synod of Dort. When 
 Count Tilly took the city of Heidelberg, and handed it 
 over to plunder, Alting fuund great difficulty in escaping 
 the fury of the soldiers. He first retired to Schomdorf ; 
 but in 1623 he removed with his family to Embden, and 
 afterwards followed to the Hague his late pupil, tho Elector 
 Frederick, who had been compelled to flee from his new 
 kingdom of Bohemia. Such was the regard this prince 
 had for Alting that he made him preceptor to his eldest 
 son, and prevented him from accepting the charge of 
 the church at Embden, and likewise a professorship in 
 the university of Franeker. In 1627, Alting, with some 
 difficulty, obtained leave from his patron to remove to 
 Groningen, where he was appointed to the chair of divinity; 
 and there he continued to lecture, with increasing reputa- 
 tion, until his death, which took place in 1644. Alting was 
 a man of great ability and extensive learning. Among 
 the productions of his pen are: — Notae in Decadem Pro- 
 blematum Jacobi Behm, Heidelberg, 1618; Scrijita T/teolo- 
 gica Heidelbergensia, Amst. 1662; Exegesis Augustunce 
 Confessionis, Amst. 1647. 
 
 ALTING, Jacob, son of the preceding, was born at 
 Heidelberg in 1618. He studied theology and the Oriental 
 languages at Groningen, and in 1638 he put himself under 
 the tuition of a Jewish rabbi at Embden. In 1640 he 
 went to England, and was admitted to clerical orders by Dr 
 Prideaux, bishop of Worcester; but an offer of the Hebrew 
 professorship in the university of Groningen induced him 
 to return to Holland in 1643. In 1667 he was appointed 
 professor of theology in the university. In this office he 
 gave great offence to his colleague, Samuel Desmarets, by 
 his disuse of the scholastic method of teaching. Desmarets 
 preferred a charge of heresy against him; but the divines 
 at Leyden pronounced that Alting was not guilty of any- 
 thing more serious than imprudent fondness for innovation. 
 Alting died of a fever in 1679. The fondness which he 
 showed for rabbinical learning gave birth to the general re- 
 port that he was inclined to become a Jew. His opinions, 
 which seem to have excited more general attention than 
 they deserve, may be seen in his writings, which wero 
 collected a few years after his death, and published in 
 five volumes folio, by his pupil, the well-known Balthasar 
 Bekker. 
 
 ALTON, a town of Hampshire, on the Wey, 17 miics 
 
 E. of Winchester, and 47 S. W. of London by road; by the 
 
 London and South- Western Railway it is 60 miles from. 
 
 . Lr^doa. Large markets and fairs are held for corn, hops,
 
 ALT-ALU 
 
 643 
 
 cattle, and sheep; and the town contains some highly 
 reputed ale breweries, besides paper manufactories and an 
 iron' foundry. The church, a fine old building, was the 
 scene of a fierce conflict between the royalist and parlia- 
 mentary troops in 1643. Population in 1871, 4092. 
 
 ALTON, a town in Madison county, Illinois, United 
 States, stands on a high bluff on the left bank of the 
 Mississippi, 21 miles above St Louis, and 3 above the 
 mouth of the Missouri. It is a place of considerable 
 importance, and carries on a thriving export trade in the 
 produce of the surrounding country — grain, hay, fruit, 
 coal, and lime. It has an excellent wharf, and good means 
 of communication by railway, the two great lines from 
 Chicago and Indianopolis having their junction at Alton. 
 The town contains a Koman Catholic cathedral, about ten 
 other churches belonging to various sects, and several 
 schools. It has also a printing trade, with daily and 
 weekly newspapers. Population in 1870, 8665. 
 
 ALTON A, the richest and most populous city of the 
 Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, is situated on the 
 north bank of the Elbe, so close to Hamburg that the two 
 cities are virtually one. The rise of Altona to its present 
 position has been rapid, at least for a continental city, and 
 is mainly due to the fostering care of the Danish govern- 
 ment, who established it as a rival to Hamburg. In 1640, 
 when it became the property of Denmark, it was a small 
 fishing village ; in 1871 it contained 74,131 inhabitants. 
 After the war of 1864 it ceased to belong to Denmark, 
 and eventually became part of Prussia, although, with 
 Hamburg, it is not included in the Zollverein. It carries 
 on a large trade with Britain, France, the "West Indies, 
 and other countries; but it has by no means succeeded in 
 depriving Hamburg of its commercial pre-eminence — great 
 part of the business of Altona being, indeed, transacted 
 on the Hamburg exchange. Tobacco is probably the chief 
 manufacture, but there are also breweries, tanneries, oil- 
 works, soap-works, and linen factories. Altona is a well- 
 built modern town, really dating from 1713 (when the 
 Swedes burnt it to the ground), with a higher situation 
 than that of Hamburg, and consequently a purer and 
 healthier atmosphere. It contains an observatory of some 
 celebrity, several churches, two synagogues, a gymnasium, 
 and an infirmary. It is the terminus of the Altona-Kiel 
 Railway, which places it in connection with the principal 
 towns of Schleswig-Holstein. 
 
 ALTOONA, a town of the United States, in Blair county, 
 Pennsylvania, on the Central Railway, 244 miles west of 
 Philadelphia, situated near the eastern base of the Alle- 
 ghany Mountain, where the railroad begins to ascend it. 
 It contains extensive locomotive and railway carriage manu- 
 factories belonging to the Pennsylvania Central Railway 
 Company. Near Altoona is the famous " Horse Shoe 
 Bend," where trains of but ordinary length are seen to be 
 moving in opposite directions at the same time. The line 
 of railway, in its ascent between Altoona and Cresson, 
 winds round the side of the mountain, affording some of 
 the finest mountain scenery on the continent. Population 
 in 1870, 10,610. 
 
 ALTO-RILIEVO {high relief) is the term applied to 
 sculpture that projects from the plane to which it is attached 
 to the extent of more than one-half the outline of the 
 . principal figures. It is thus distinguished from basso-riliew, 
 in which there is a greater or less approximation to the 
 pictorial method, the figures being made to appear as pro- 
 jecting more than half their outline without actually doing 
 so. See Relief and Scdxptctue. 
 
 ALTRINGHAM, or Alteixcham, a market town in 
 the north of Cheshire, 8 miles south of Manchester, with 
 which it is connected by railway. It is a neat, clean place, 
 surrounded by villas of Manchester manufacturers, who 
 
 are attracted by its healthy climate and pleasant situation. 
 It has no parish church, but there is a chapel of ease 
 belonging to the parish of Bowdon, in which it is situated, 
 and also a Roman Catholic and several dissenting places 
 of worship. Yarn, worsted, and cotton are the chief 
 manufactures; and large quantities of fruit and vegetables 
 are sent to the Manchester market. Population in 1871, 
 8478. 
 
 ALUM, a compound salt employed in dyeing and 
 various other industrial processes. It is soluble in water, 
 has an astringent, acid, and sweetish taste; reddens vege- 
 table blues, and crystallises in regular'octahedrons. When 
 heated, it liquefies ; and if the heat be continued, the 
 water of crystallisation is driven off, the salt frotlies and 
 swells, and at last a white matter remains, known by the 
 name of burnt alum. 
 
 Its constituents are sulphuric acid, alumina, an alkali, 
 and water. The alkali may be either potash, soda, or 
 ammonia. Hence there are three distinct species of alum, 
 depending upon the nature of the alkali which each con- 
 tains. Potash alum (in which the alkali is potash) is the 
 common alum of this country, although both soda alum 
 and ammoniacal alum are manufactured. The term alum 
 is now used in chemistry as a generic one, and is applied 
 to the class of double salts formed by the union of the 
 sulphates of alumina, chromium, or iron with the sulphates 
 of the alkalies. The composition of the ordinary potash 
 alum is represented by the formula ALK(SOJ 2 - 12H,0. 
 
 The progress made by chemists in the discovery of the 
 constitution of alum was very slow. The species first 
 investigated was potash alum. That it contained sulphuric 
 acid as a constituent was known even to the alchemists. 
 Pott and Marggraff demonstrated that alumina was another 
 constituent. Pott, in his Lithogeognosia, showed that 
 the earth of alum, or the precipitate obtained when an 
 alkali is poured into a solution of alum, is quite different 
 from lime and chalk, with which it had been confounded 
 by Stahl Marggraff went much farther. He not only 
 showed that alumina is one of the constituents of alum, 
 but that this earth possesses peculiar properties, is different 
 from every other substance, and is one of the ingredients 
 in common clay (" Experiences faites sur la Terre d'Alun," 
 Marggraff 's Opusc. ii. 111). Marggraff showed likewise, 
 by many experiments, that crystals of alum cannot be 
 obtained by dissolving alumina in sulphuric acid, and 
 evaporating the" solutions. The crystals formed are always 
 soft, and quite different in their appearance from alum 
 crystals. But when a solution of potash or ammonia is 
 dropt into this liquid, it immediately deposits perfect 
 crystals of alum (" Sur la Regeneration de l'Alun," Marg- 
 graff's Opusc. ii 86). He mentions likewise that manu- 
 facturers of alum in general were unable to procure the 
 salt without a s imil ar addition, that at first it had been 
 customary, to add a quantity of putrid urine, and that 
 afterwards a solution of carbonate of potash was sub- 
 stituted in its place. But subsequent chemists do not 
 seem to have paid much attention to these important 
 observations of Marggraff: they still continued, without 
 any rigid examination, to consider alum as a sulphate of 
 alumina. 
 
 Bergmann indeed had observed that the addition of 
 potash or ammonia made the alum crystallise, but that the 
 same effect was not produced by the addition of soda or of 
 lime (" De Confectione Aluminis,"Bergmann's Opusc. i. 225). 
 He had observed likewise that sulphate of potash is fre- 
 quently found in alum. He decomposed the solution of 
 alum by means of ammonia, evaporated the filtered liquid 
 to dryness, and exposed the residue to a red heat A 
 quantity of sulphate of potash often remained behind in 
 the crucible (ibid., p. 326). From these facts he drew
 
 644 
 
 ALUM 
 
 tie conclusion that sulphate of potash readily combines 
 with sulphate of alumina. 
 
 After Klaproth had discovered the existence of potash 
 as an ingredient in leucite and lepidolite, it occurred to 
 Vauquelin that it was probably an ingredient likewise in 
 many other minerals He recollected that alum crystals 
 often make their appearance during the analysis of stony 
 bodies ; and, considering that alum cannot be obtained 
 in crystals without tho addition of potash, he began to 
 suspect that this alkali constituted an essential ingredient 
 in the salt. A set of experiments, undertaken on purpose 
 to elucidate this important point, soon satisfied him that 
 his conjecture was well-founded. Accordingly, in the 
 year 1797 he published a dissertation demonstrating that 
 alum is a double salt, composed of sulphuric acid, alumina, 
 and potash (Annates de Chimie, xxii. 258}. Soon after, 
 Chaptal published the analysis of four different kinds of 
 alum, namely, Roman alum, Levant alum, British alum, 
 and alum manufactured by himself. This analysis led 
 to the same result as that of Vauquelin (Ann. de Chim, 
 sxii. 280). 
 
 Since that time alum has been admitted by chemists to 
 be a triple salt, and various analyses of it have been made 
 to determine its constituents. Vauquelin (Ann. de Chim. 
 L 167), Thenard and Board (ibid., torn. lix. 72), Curaudau 
 (Journal de Physique, lxvii. 1), and Berzelius (Ann. de 
 Chim. lxxxii. 258), successively published the results of 
 their experiments. These analyses gradually led to an 
 accurate knowledge of the composition of this salt. 
 
 One of the most remarkable differences between the 
 three species of alum is tho solubility of each in water. 
 At the temperature of 60°, 100 parts of water dissolve — 
 
 937 parts of ammoDiacal alum 
 1479 parts of potash alum, 
 827 '6 parts of soda alum. 
 
 This great solubility of soda alum renders the manufacture 
 of it very difficult. It does not easily crystallise; indeed, 
 when the weather is hot, crystals of it can hardly 1 ■ 
 obtained. Its great solubility would render it more con- 
 venient and more economical for dyers and calico-printers, 
 provided it could be furnished at the same rate with 
 common- alum. But the greater difficulty attending the 
 making of it would probably prevent it from being sale- 
 able at a price sufficiently low to make it available as a 
 mordant. 
 
 Soda alum was first mentioned by Mr Winter in 1810, 
 in his account of the Whitby alum processes (Nicholson's 
 Jour. xxv. pp. 254, 255); but before that time it had 
 been made by Mr Charles Macintosh of Crossbasket. Mr 
 William Wilson, at Hurlet, near Glasgow, afterwards made 
 it in considerable quantities. Specimens of it have been 
 sent by Dr Gillies from the neighbourhood of Mendoza, 
 in South America, where it occurs native in considerable 
 quautity. 
 
 These three different species of alum differ also some- 
 what from each other in their SDecific gravities, which are 
 is follows: — 
 
 Ammoniacal alum 156 
 
 Potash alum 175 
 
 Soda alum 188 1 
 
 The word alumen, which we translate alum, occurs in 
 Pliny's Natural History. In the 15th chapter of his 35th 
 book he gives us a detailed description of it. By com- 
 paring this with the account of a-nnrrnpia given by Diosco- 
 rides in the 123d chapter of his 5th book, it is obvious 
 that the two are identical. Pliny informs us that alumen 
 
 1 The soda alum whose specific gravity is here given was the native, 
 from the province of St Juan, on the north of Mendcia. It contains 
 leal water, and therefore is probably heavier thui common soda alum. 
 
 was found naturally in the earth. He calls it sahugo> 
 terra}. Different substances, he informs us, were dis- 
 tinguished by tho name of alumen ; but they were all 
 characterised by a certain degree of astringency, and were 
 all employed in dyeing and medicine. The light-coloured 
 alumen was useful in brilliant dyes, the dark-coloured only 
 in dyeing black or very dark colours. One species was a 
 liquid, wliich was apt to bo adulterated; but when pure 
 it had the property of striking a black with the juice of 
 the pomegranate. This property seems to characterise a 
 solution of sulphate of iron in water. It is quite obvious 
 that a solution of our alum would possess no such property. 
 Pliny says that there is another kind of alum which the 
 Greeks call schistos. It forms in white threads upon the 
 surface of Certain stones. From the name schistos, and 
 the mode of formation, there can bo little doubt that this 
 species was the salf which forms spontaneously on certain 
 slaty minerals, as alum slate and bituminous shale, and 
 which consists chiefly of sulphate of iron and sulphate of 
 alumina. Possibly in certain places the sulphate of iron 
 may have been nearly wanting, and then the salt would 
 be white, and would answer, as Pliny says it did, for dye- 
 ing bright colours. Several other species of alumen are 
 described by Pliny, but we are unable to make out to what 
 minerals he alludes. 
 
 The alumen of the ancients, then, was not the same 
 with the alum of the moderns. It was most commonly a 
 sulphate of iron, sometimes probably a sulphate of alumina, 
 and usually a mixture of the two. But the ancients were 
 unacquainted with our alum. They were acquainted with 
 sulphate of iron in a crystallised state, and distinguished 
 it by the names of misy, sory, chakanthum (Pliny, xxxiv. 
 12). As alum and green vitriol were applied to a variety 
 of purposes in common, and as both are distinguished by 
 a sweetish and astringent taste, writers, even after the 
 discovery of alum, do not seem to have discriminated the 
 two salts accurately from each other. In tho writings of 
 the alchemists we find the words misy, sory, chalcanthum, 
 applied to alum as well as to sulphate of iron; and tho 
 name atramentum sutorium, which ought to belong, one 
 would suppose, exclusively to green vitriol, applied in- 
 differently to both. 
 
 When our alum was discovered is entirely unknown. 
 Beckmann devoted a good deal of attention to the history of 
 this salt, and published a curious dissertation on the sub- 
 ject; but his attempts to trace its origin were unsuccessful 
 The manufacture of it was discovered in the East, but at 
 what time or place is totally unknown. It would appear 
 that, about four or five hundred years ago, there was a 
 manufactory of it at Edessa in Syria, at that time called 
 Rocca, — hence, it is supposed, the origin of the term rock 
 alum, commonly employed in Europe; though others allege 
 that the term originated at Civita Vecchia, where alum is 
 made from a yellow mineral which occurs in the state of a 
 hard roclf. 
 
 Different alum works existed in the neighbourhood of 
 Constantinople. About the time of the fall of the Grecian 
 empire the art of making alum was transported into Italy, 
 at that period the richest and most manufacturing country 
 in Europe. Bartholomew Pernix, a Genoese merchant, 
 discovered alum ore in the island of Ischia, about the 
 year 1459. Nearly at the same time John di Castro, 
 who was well acquainted with the alum works in the 
 neighbourhood of Constantinople, suspected that a mine- 
 ral fit for yielding alum existed at Tolfa, because it was 
 covered with the same trees that grew on the alum mine- 
 ral near Constantinople. His conjecture was verified by 
 trials, and the celebrated manufactory at Tolfa established. 
 Another was begun ir. the neighbourhood of Genoa ; and 
 the manufacture Nourished in diffarent parts of Italy. To
 
 ALUM 
 
 645 
 
 this country it wa3 confined for the greater part of a 
 century. Various manufactories of it were established in 
 Germany by the year 1544. 
 
 England possessed no alum works till the reign of 
 Charles I. Thomas Chaloner, son of Dr Chaloner, who 
 had been tutor to Charies, while hunting on a common 
 in Yorkshire took notice of the soil and herbage, and 
 tasted the water. He found them similar to what he had 
 seen in Germany where alum works were established. In 
 consequence of this he got a patent from Charles for an 
 alum work. Since that time various alum works have 
 been established in different parts of Great Britain, — 
 the most important now in operation being the Whitby 
 works, originally established by Mr Chaloner ; and the 
 works at Pendleton, near Manchester, and Goole, York- 
 shire, and at Hurlet and Campsie, both in the neighbour- 
 hood of Glasgow. 
 
 Several alum works exist in Sweden, particularly in 
 West Gothland. There is one, for example, at Haensaeter, 
 near the borders of the Wener Lake. But for a descrip- 
 tion of the Swedish works we refer to Bergmann's Opus- 
 cida, i. 284, or English translation, L 342. 
 
 Various minerals are employed in the manufacture of 
 alum, but by far the most important of them are the fol- 
 lowing three : alum-stone, alum-slate, bituminous shale. 
 
 Alum-stone or Alunite was first observed at Tolfa, near 
 Borne, in the 15th century, and afterwards in Hungary 
 and several other places, chiefly in trachyte or other vol- 
 canic rocks. It appears to be produced by the action of 
 sulphureous vapours on the felspars they contain, and gene- 
 rally occurs in compact, granular, or earthy masses, mixed 
 with quartz or felspar. Small crystals are found in cavities, 
 and are either rhombohedrons with angles of 89° 10', and 
 thus nearly cubes, or these with the polar angles replaced 
 by the basal plane. The specific gravity ranges from 2-58 
 to 2-752, the compact varieties being the lighter. Its 
 hardness is 3 - 5 to 4, or rather softer than fluor spar. It 
 has a distinct cleavage perpendicular to the axis of the 
 rhombohedron, and conchoidal fracture in other directions. 
 The pure varieties are white and colourless, but it is often 
 coloured greyish, yellowish,- or reddish. The crystals de- 
 crepitate before the blowpipe, but are infusible, as well as 
 the compact alunite. The alum is extracted from this 
 mineral by repeated roasting and treating with water. 
 The absence oi" iron accounts for the superior purity for 
 which the Soman alum was long celebrated. 
 
 Alum-slate is a far more abundant substance, occurring 
 in beds in different formations. Thus it is common in 
 the older Palaeozoic or Silurian strata of Scandinavia and 
 Scotland. Generally it is distinctly slaty, but sometimes 
 forms rounded balls or concretions. It contains much 
 carbonaceous matter, and hence its colour is greyish or 
 bluish-black. It has a dull lustre, is soft and sectile. It 
 contains much disseminated iron pyrites, and on decom- 
 position in the air yields sulphate of iron,. and alum as an 
 efflorescence on the surface. 
 
 Many of the shales or slate clays in the coal formation 
 also contain much iron pyrites, and thus also produce 
 alum when acted on by the atmosphere. Such are those 
 used for manufacturing alum at Campsie and other places 
 near Glasgow. Where thqy . contain much bituminous 
 matter they show a shining resinous streak and greyish- 
 black colour, and are named bituminous shales. These 
 burn when heated, with a pale flame and sulphureous 
 odour. 
 
 The alum slates at Whitby in Yorkshire belong to 
 the Lias, and are used in the alum works in that neigh- 
 bourhood. In other places, as in many parts of Germany, 
 similar beds are found in Tertiary formations, particularly 
 in connection with the brown coal deposits. When fresh 
 
 dug they often snow no trace of alum, which only appears 
 after exposure to the air, or when the decomposition of 
 the iron pyrites is assisted by the action of heat. 
 
 Several native varieties of sulphate of alumina and soda' 
 alum occur in South America, some of the most remarkable 
 of which it may be proper to specify. 
 
 1. Sulphate of alumina, or Alunogene, was first found 
 at Bio Saldanha, but is now obtained from several places 
 in Europe and America. The colour is white, here and 
 there tinged yellow, obviously from external impurities. 
 It occurs in fine crystalline needles ; lustre silky; taste that 
 of alum, but stronger; specific gravity, 1-6 to 1-7; soft; 
 before the blowpipe behaves like alum. 
 
 2. Soda-alum. It occurs native in the province of St 
 Juan, situated to the north of Mendoza, on the east side 
 of the Chilian Andes, at about 30° S. lat. The alum is 
 white, and composed of fibres adhering longitudinally, and 
 having a certain breadth, but very thin. It bears some 
 resemblance to fibrous gypsum, but it is harder, not being 
 scratched by the nail, though the knife scratches it with 
 great ease. It is sectile. The outer fibres are white and 
 only slightly translucent, as if they had lost a portion of 
 their water ; but the internal fibres are transparent, and 
 have a silky aspect. It/ tastes precisely like alum, and is 
 very soluble, water at the temperature of 62° dissolving 
 3-773 parts of it, and boiling water dissolving any quantity 
 whatever. When exposed to heat, it behaves very nearly 
 as common alum. 
 
 3. There is a mineral called aluminite, which was ob- 
 served in the environs of Halle many years ago, and which 
 was afterwards detected by Mr Webster in clay resting on 
 chalk at Newhaven in Sussex. This, if it were sufficiently 
 abundant, would constitute an excellent material for the 
 manufacture of alum. Its colour is snow-white. It occurs 
 in reniform pieces of greater or smaller size ; fracture fine 
 earthy ; dull ; streak glistening ; opaque ; adheres feebly to 
 the tongue ; soils very slightly ; very soft ; feels fine, but 
 meagre; specific gravity, L7054. It consists of alumina, 
 sulphuric acid, and water. 
 
 Four different processes are employed in the manufac- 
 ture of alum, according to the nature of the mineral from 
 which the alum is to be extracted. 
 
 The process employed at Tolfa is the simplest of all. 
 If the Tolfa stone be kept constantly moistened with 
 water for about two months, it falls to powder of itself, 
 and yields alum by lixiviation. But this is not the pro- 
 cess employed by the manufacturers. The alum-stone is 
 broken into small pieces, and piled on the top of a per- 
 forated dome, in which a wood fire is kindled. The smoke 
 and flame of the wood penetrate through the pieces of 
 alum-stone, and a sulphureous odour is disengaged, owing 
 to the decomposition of a portion of the sulphuric acid in 
 the stone. This roasting is twice performed ; the pieces of 
 ore which the first time were at the edge of the dome, 
 being the second time put in the middle. The process 
 of roasting this stone requires considerable attention. If 
 the heat be too great, the quality of yielding alum is 
 destroyed : if the heat be too small, the stone does not 
 readily fall to powder. There can be little doubt that the 
 unroasted stone would yield more alum than the roasted ; 
 but probably the additional labour requisite in the latter 
 case would more than swallow up the increase of product. 
 
 The roasted stone, which has now acquired a reddish 
 colour, is placed in rows between trenches filled with 
 water. This liquid is so frequently sprinkled on it that 
 the stone is always moist. In two or three days it falls 
 to powder, like slacked quicklime ; but the daily watering 
 is continued for a month. The success of this part of the 
 operation is said to depend very much . on the weather. 
 When' the weather is rainy, the alum is _ all .washed
 
 046 
 
 A L V M 
 
 out, and little or nothing left for the manufacturer to 
 extract 
 
 When the stone has by this process been reduced to a 
 sufficiently fine powder, it is thrown into a leaden boiler 
 filled two-thirds with water. During the boiling the 
 powder is frequently stirred up, and the water that eva- 
 porates is replaced. When the boiling has been continued 
 for a sufficient time, the fire is withdrawn, and time 
 allowed for the earthy matter to subside to the bottom. 
 A cock is then opened, which allows the clear liquor to 
 flow out into deep wooden square vessels^ so made that 
 they can be easily taken to pieces. Here the alum gradu- 
 ally crystallises, and attaches itself to the sides and bottom 
 of the vessel. The mother liquid is then drawn off into 
 shallower wooden troughs, where more alum crystals are 
 deposited. The liquid has now a red colour, and is 
 muddy ; and the last alum crystals are mixed with this 
 red matter. They are washed clean in the mother liquor, 
 which is finally pumped into a trough, and used in subse- 
 quent processes. 
 
 The alum obtained at Tolfa is known by the name of 
 Roman alum, and is in very high estimation. It is always 
 mixed with a little reddish powdery matter, which is easily 
 separated from it. 
 
 Alum-slate, being very different in its composition, re- 
 quires a different treatment to fit it for yielding alum. If 
 the alum-slate contain % a notable quantity of lime or mag- 
 nesia, it does not answer the purposes of the manufacturer 
 so well. The essential ingredients in alum-slate, for the 
 alum-makers, are alumina and iron pyrites. 
 
 The first process is to roast the ore. In Sweden, where 
 the fuel is wood, and consequently expensive, it is cus- 
 tomary to use the alum-slate itself as fuel for roasting the 
 ore. For this purpose a small layer of brushwood is 
 covered with pieces of alum-slate, and set on fire ; and, as 
 the combustion proceeds, new layers of alum-slate are 
 added. It is usual to place alternate layers of roasted and 
 unroasted alum-slate. The combustion continues for a 
 month or six weeks. At Whitby, coal is employed for 
 roasting the alum-slate. . Indeed the alum-slate of Whitby 
 is lighter coloured than that of Sweden, and probably 
 would not burn of itself. So great is the quantity of com- 
 bustible matter in the Swedish alum-slate that it is em- 
 ployed as fuel for burning limestone. Great quantities of 
 limestone are burnt in this manner at Hunneberg, near 
 the south side of the lake Wener. The roasted ore has 
 usually a brown colour. When it is red the quantity of 
 alum which it yields is considerably diminished. 
 
 Bj this roasting the pyrites is oxidised into sulpnate of 
 iron and sulphuric acid, thus : — 
 
 FeS 3 + 7 + H ? = FeS0 1 + H 1 SO, 
 The sulphuric acid as it is produced is, however, at once 
 neutralised by the large excess of alumina producing sul- 
 phate, so that the result of the action is to produce a 
 mixture of the sulphates of iron and alumina. 
 
 The roasted o^ has an astringent taste, owing to the 
 sulphate of iron and sulphate of alumina which it con- 
 tains. The next process is to lixiviate it with water, in 
 order to dissolve these salts. For this purpose it is put 
 into reservoirs made of wood or masonry, with a stop- 
 cock at the bottom to draw off the water. The usual 
 method is to keep the water for twelve hours in contact 
 with ore that has been twice lixiviated ; then to draw 
 t off, and allow it to remain for an equal period on ore 
 that has been once lixiviated. Lastly, it is run upon 
 freeh ore, and allowed to remain on it for twelve hours 
 longer. If the specific gravity of the liquid thus treated 
 *25 at the temperature of 55°, it may be considered as 
 «turated with sulphate of alumina and sulphate of iron ; 
 out probably this specific gravity is not often obtained. 
 
 The liquid, thus impregnated with salt, is now boiled 
 down in leaden' vessels to the proper consistency for crys- 
 tallisation. In Sweden the fuel employed for this pur- 
 pose is »Ium-slate. By this means a double effect is 
 produced — the liquid is evaporated, and the alum-slate 
 is roasted. During the boiling abundance of oxide of 
 iron falls, mixed with selenite, if lime be one of the con- 
 stituents of the alum-slate. When the liquid is suffi- 
 ciently concentrated it is let into a square res'irvoir, in 
 order to crystallise. Great quantities of sulphate of iron 
 crystals are usually deposited in this vessel. These are 
 collected by drawing the liquid off into another reservoir. 
 When all the sulphate of iron that can be obtained has 
 been separated, a quantity of sulphate of potash or am- 
 monia, muriate of potash, or putrid urine, is mixed with 
 the liquid. The sulphate of potash is procured from- the 
 sulphuric acid makers, and the muriate of potash from the 
 soap-makers. By this addition alum i3 formed in :he 
 liquid, and it gradually deposits itself in crystals bn the 
 sides of the vessel These crystals are collected, and dis- 
 solved in the smallest quantity of boiling water that will 
 take them up. This solution is poured into large wocden 
 casks. In a fortnight or three weeks the alum crystal- 
 lises, and covers the sides and bottom of the cask. The 
 hoops aro now taken off, and the staves of the cask 
 removed. A mass of alum crystals, laving the shape of 
 the cask, remains. This mass is pierced, the mother liquor 
 allowed to run out, and preserved for a subsequent process; 
 The alum, being now broken in pieces, is fit for sale. 
 
 The manufacture of alum from bituminous shale- and 
 slate-clay bears a considerable resemblance to the manu- 
 facture from alum-slate, but differs in several particu- 
 lars. We shall give a sketch of the processes followed in 
 two works of this kind that are in operation in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Glasgow. The bituminous shale and slate- 
 clay employed are obtained from old coal-prts, which are 
 very extensive near Glasgow. The air in these coal-pits 
 is moist, and its average temperature about 62°. Tho 
 shale having been exposed for many years, .'ias gradually 
 opened in the direction of its slaty fracture, so as to re- 
 semble in some respects a half -shut fan ; and all the chinks 
 in it are filled with a saline efflorescence in threads. This 
 salt is white, with a shade of green, has a sweetish as- 
 tringent taste, and consists of a mixture of sulphate of 
 iron and sulphate of alumina. In order to obtain these 
 salts in a" state of solution, nothing more is requisite than 
 to lixiviate this shale with water. The lixiviated ore 
 being left exposed to the weather, forms more salt, which 
 is gradually washed out of it by tho rain-water, and this 
 water is collected and preserved for use. 
 
 The next step in tho process is to boil down the liquid 
 to a sufficient state of concentration. At Campsie all 
 the boilers are composed of stone, and the heat is applied 
 to the surface. This is a great saving, as leaden vessels 
 are not only much more expensive, but require more fre- 
 quent renewal When the liquid is raised to a sufficiently 
 high temperature in the stone reservoir, pounded sulphate 
 of potash, or muriate of potash, as they can be procured, 
 is mixed with it ; and there is an agitator in the vessel, by 
 which it is continually stirred about. This addition con- 
 verts the sulphate of alumina into alum. The liquid is 
 now let into another trough, and allowed to remain till it 
 crystallises. In this liquid there are two salts contained 
 in solution — viz., sulphate of iron and alum ; and it is an 
 object of great consequence to separate them completely 
 from each other. The principal secret consists in drawing 
 off the mother liquor at the proper time ; for the alum is 
 much less soluble in water than the sulphate of iron, and 
 therefore crystallises first. Tho first crystals of alum 
 formed are very impure. They have a veUow colour, and
 
 ALU-ALV 
 
 G47 
 
 seem to be partly impregnated with sulphate of iron. 
 They are dissolved in hot water, and the solution poured 
 into troughs, and allowed to crystallise a second time. 
 These second crystals, though much purer, are not quite 
 free from sulphate of iron ; but the separation is accom- 
 plished by washing them repeatedly with cold water ; for 
 sulphate of iron is much more soluble in that liquid than 
 alum. These second crystals are now dissolved in as small 
 a quantity of hot water as possible, and the concentrated 
 liquid poured while hot into large casks, the surface of 
 which is covered with two cross beams. As the liquor 
 cools, a vast number of alum crystals form on the sides 
 and surface. The casks are allowed to remain till the 
 liquid within i3 supposed to be nearly of the temperature 
 of the atmosphere. This, in winter, requires eleven days ; 
 in summer, fourteen or more. The liquid, after standing 
 eleven days in summer, has been observed to be still above 
 blood heat. The hoops are then removed, precisely as in 
 the manufacture of alum from alum-slate. 
 
 There always remains in the boilers a yellowish sub- 
 stance, consisting chiefly of peroxide of iron. This is 
 exposed to a strong heat in a reverberatory furnace, and it 
 becomes red. In this state it is washed, and yields more 
 *dum. The red residue is ground to a fine powder, and 
 dried. It then answers all the purposes of Venetian red 
 as a pigment. By altering the temperature to which this 
 matter is expopd, a yellow ochre is obtained instead of 
 a led. 
 
 In France, where alum orGS are by no means abundant, 
 alum is manufactured from clay. This method of making 
 the salt was first put in practice by Chaptal when pro- 
 fessor of chemistry at Montpellier. His methods have 
 been since gradually improved, and brought to a state of 
 considerable perfection. The first process tried was this : 
 The clay was reduced to a fine powder in a mill, and then 
 mixed with sulphuric acid. After remaining some days, 
 it was exposed for twenty-four hours to a temperature of 
 about 1 30°. It was then lixiviated, and the liquid mixed 
 with urine or potash. This method being found incon- 
 venient, was abandoned for the following: — The clay being 
 well ground, was mixed with half its weight of the saline 
 residue from a mixture of sulphur and nitre. This residue 
 is little else than sulphate of potash. The mixture was 
 formed into balls about 5 inches in diameter, which were 
 calcined in a potter's furnace. They were then placed on 
 the floor of a chamber in which sulphuric acid was made. 
 The acid vapour caused them to swell, and to open on all 
 sides. In about a month they were sufficiently penetrated 
 with the acid. They were then exposed to the air, under 
 shades, that the saturation might become more complete. 
 Finally, they were lixiviated, and the liquid being evapo- 
 rated, yielded pure alum. 
 
 This process was considerably improved by Berard, of 
 the Montpellier alum work. Instead of exposing the 
 calcined balls to the fumes of sulphuric acid, he sprinkled 
 them with a quantity of sulphuric acid of the specific 
 gravity 1 '367, equal to the weight of the clay employed; 
 but it is obvious that the proportion must vary with the 
 nature of the clay. The solution takes place with the 
 greatest facility, and crystals of alum are obtained by 
 e%*aporating the liquid. 
 
 Another process was put in practice by Chaptal, in the 
 neighbourhood of Paris. A mixture is made of 100 parts 
 of clay, 50 parts of nitre, and 50 parts of sulphuric acid 
 of the specific gravity 1*367 ; and this mixture is put into 
 a retort and distilled. Aquafortis comes over, and the 
 residue in the retort being lixiviated with water, yields 
 abundance of excellent alum. 
 
 For chemical constitution and relations of the alums, 
 see Cuemistky. 
 
 ALUMBAUH, the name of a large park or walled 
 enclosure, containing a palace, a mosque, and other build- 
 ings, as well a3 a beautiful garden, situated about 4 mile9 
 from Lucknow, near the Cawnpore road. It was converted 
 into a fort by the mutineers in 1857; and after its capture 
 by the British was of importance in connection with the 
 military operations around Lucknow. See Ltjcknow. 
 
 ALUMINIUM, a metallic substance, first separated from 
 the chloride by Wohler in 1828. It remained a laboratory 
 product until Deville, about 1858, succeeded in improving 
 the mode of production, so as to render the operations 
 capable of management on the manufacturing scale. The 
 process consists in heating to a red heat a mixture of the 
 double chloride of aluminium and sodium, or the double 
 fluoride of aluminium and sodium (cryolite), with the metal 
 sodium. A vigorous action takes place, chloride of sodium 
 being formed and the metal aluminium separated. On the 
 large scale the reduction is effected by throwing a mixture 
 of 10 parts of the double chloride, 5 parts of cryolite, and 
 2 parts of sodium on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace. 
 Immediately after the action, the fused metal and slag, 
 consisting of common salt and fluoride of aluminium, are 
 run out, and a new quantity of the previous mixture intro- 
 duced. The various patents that have been secured with 
 reference to this manufacture have all regard to the saving 
 of the metal sodium. The metal aluminium may be 
 separated from the double chloride by electrolysis. For 
 this purpose the fused salt has the electric current from 
 ten cells of a battery passed through it, carbon poles being 
 used. The metal appears at the negative pole in large 
 globules, which may be collected and melted together 
 under a layer of fused salt. 
 
 Aluminium is a white metal resembling silver in appear- 
 ance. It is very malleable and ductile, and may be beaten 
 and rolled into thin sheets, or drawn into fine wire. By 
 hammering in the cold it becomes as hard as soft iron, but 
 may be softened again by fusion. Being highly sonorous, 
 it has been used for making bells. It is very light, being 
 only 2i times heavier than water, and is thus four times 
 lighter than silver. After fusion it has a specific gravity 
 of 2 '5 6; by hammering this may be increased to 2-67. 
 It melts at a red heat, and is non-volatile at very high 
 temperatures. The metal conducts heat and electricity as 
 well as silver. Aluminium does not oxidise in air, even 
 at a red heat, has no action on water at ordinary tempera- 
 tures, and i3 not acted upon by sulphuretted hydrogen or 
 sulphide of ammonium, and thus preserves its lustre where 
 silver would be tarnished and blackened. It is not at- 
 tacked by nitric acid, even when concentrated, and is not 
 soluble in dilute sulphuric acid, but is readily soluble in 
 dilute or concentrated hydrochloric acid with evolution of 
 hydrogen. Solutions of caustic potash or soda dissolve 
 the metal with great ease, forming alum in ate of potash or 
 soda, and giving off hydrogen. Aluminium forms alloys 
 with most metals. The copper alloy called aluminium- 
 bronze is the most important because of its colour, hard- 
 ness, and malleability, and is largely used for articles of 
 jewellery, for mounting sextants and other astronomical 
 instruments, and for making balance beams. 
 
 ALUTA, an afiiuent of the Danube. See Alt. 
 
 ALVA, a village in Stirlingshire, Scotland, situated at 
 the foot of Craigleith, one of the Ochil range, 7 miles N.E. 
 of Stirling, with which it is connected by railway. Besides 
 the parish church, there are places of worship belonging to 
 the Free and United Presbyterian churches. Yarn spin- 
 ning and the manufacture of shawls and tweeds are carried 
 on to a considerable extent. Population in 1871, 4096. 
 
 ALVA, or Alba, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, 
 Duke of, born in 1508, was descended from one of the most 
 illustrious families in Spain. His grandfather, Ferdinand
 
 648 
 
 A L T — A L V 
 
 of Toledo, educated him in military science and politics ; 
 and he was engaged with distinction at the battle of Pavia 
 while still a youth. Selected for a military command by 
 Charles V., he took part in the siege of Tunis (1535), and 
 successfully defended Perpignan against the Dauphin of 
 France. He was present at the battle of Miihlberg (1547), 
 and the victory gained there over John of Saxony was due 
 mainly to his exertions. He took part in the subsequent 
 siege of Wittenberg, and presided at the court-martial 
 which tried the Elector and condemned him to death. In 
 1552 Alva was intrusted with the command of the army 
 intended to invade France, and was engaged for several 
 months in an unsuccessful siege of Metz. In consequence 
 of the success of the French arms in Piedmont, he was 
 made commander-in-chief of all the emperor's forces in 
 Italy, and at the same time invested with unlimited power. 
 Success did not, however, attend his first attempts, and 
 after several unfortunate attacks he was obliged to retire 
 into winter quarters. After the abdication of Charles he 
 was continued ia the command by Philip II., who, how- 
 ever, restrained him from extreme measures. Alva had 
 subdued the whole Campagna, and was at the gates of 
 Rome, when he was compelled by Philip's orders to nego- 
 tiate a peace. One of its terms was, that the Duke of 
 Alva should in person ask forgiveness of the haughty 
 pontiff whom he had conquered. Proud as the duke was 
 by nature, and accustomed to treat with persons of the 
 highest dignity, yet such was the superstitious veneration 
 then entertained for the papal character that he confessed 
 his voice failed him at the interview, and his presence of 
 mind forsook him. Not long after this (1559) he was sent 
 at the head of a splendid embassy to Paris, to espouse, in 
 the name of his master, Elizabeth, daughter of Henry, 
 king of France. In 1567, Philip, who was a bigoted 
 Catholic, sent Alva into the Netherlands at the head of an 
 army of 10,000 men, with unlimited powers for the extir- 
 pation of heretics. When he arrived he soon showed how 
 much he merited the confidence which his master reposed 
 in him, and instantly erected a tribunal which soon became 
 known to its victims as the " Court of Blood," to try all 
 persons who had been engaged in the late commotions 
 which the civil and religious tyranny of Philip had excited. 
 He imprisoned the counts D'Egmont and Horn, the two 
 popular leaders of the Protestants, brought them to an 
 unjust trial, and condemned them to death. In a short 
 time he totally annihilated every privilege of the people, 
 and, with unrelenting cruelty, put multitudes of them to 
 death. The executioner was employed in removing all 
 those friends of freedom whom the sword had spared. In 
 most of the considerable towns Alva built citadels. In the 
 city of Antwerp he erected a statue of himself, which was 
 a monument no less of his vanity than of his tyranny : he 
 was figured trampling on the necks of two smaller statues, 
 representing the two estates of the Low Countries. By 
 his unusual and arbitrary demand of now supplies from 
 the states he greatly aggravated this insult. .The exiles 
 from the Low Countries, roused to action by his opprersion, 
 fitted out a fleet of privatee;-s, and after strengthening 
 themselves by successful depredations, ventured upon the 
 bold exploit of seizing the town of Breil. Thus Alva, by 
 his cruelty, became the unwitting instrument of the future 
 independence of the seven Dutch provinces. The fleet of 
 the exiles having met the Spanish fleet, totally defeated 
 it, and reduced North Holland and Mons. Many cities 
 hastened to throw off the yoke; while the States-General, 
 assembling at Dordrecht, openly declared against Alva's 
 government, and marshalled under the banners of the 
 Prince of Orange. Alva's preparations to oppose the 
 gathering storm were made with his usual vigour, and he 
 succeeded ; ja recovering Mons, Mechlin, and Zutphen. 
 
 under the conduct of his son Frederick. With the excep- 
 tion of Zealand and Holland, he regained all the provinces; 
 and at List his son stormed Waerdan, and massacring its 
 inhabitants, proceeded to invest the city of Haarlem, 
 which, after standing an obstinate siege, was taken and 
 pillaged. Their next attack was upon Alkmaar ; but the 
 spirit of desperate resistance was raised to such a height in 
 the breasts of the Hollanders that the Spanish veterans 
 were repulsed with great loss, and Frederick constrained 
 reluctantly to retire. Alva's feeble state of health and con- 
 tinued disasters induced him to solicit his recall from the 
 government of the Low Countries; a measure which, in 
 all probability, was not displeasing to riiilip, who was 
 now resolved to make trial of a milder administration. In 
 December 1573 the much oppressed country was relieved 
 from the presence of the Duke of Alva, who, returning home 
 accompanied by his son, made the infamous boast that during 
 the course of six years, besides the multitudes destroyed 
 in battle and massacred after victory, he had consigned 
 18,000 persons to the executioner. (For further details of 
 his administration in the Netherlands, see Holland.) 
 
 On his return he was treated for some time with great 
 distinction by Philip. A tardy and imperfect justice, how- 
 ever, overtook him, when he was banished from court and 
 confined in the castle of Uzeda for complicity in certain 
 disgraceful conduct of his son. Here he had remained 
 two years, when the success of Don Antonio in assuming 
 the crown of Portugal determined Philip'o turn his eyes 
 towards Alva as the person in whose fidelity and abilities he 
 could most confide. A secretary was instantly despatched 
 to Alva to ascertain whether his health was sufficiently 
 vigorous to enable him to undertake the command of an 
 army. The aged chief returned an answer full of loyal 
 zeal, and was immediately appointed to the supreme com- 
 mand in Portugal. It is a striking fact, however, that the 
 liberation and elevation of Alva were .not followed by 
 forgiveness. In 1581 Alva eutered Portugal, defeated 
 Antonio, drove him from the kingdom, and soon reduced 
 the whole under the subjection of Philip. Entering Lisbon, 
 he seized an immense treasure, and suffered his soldiers, 
 with their accustomed violence and rapacity, to sack the 
 suburbs and vicinity. It is reported that Alva, being 
 requested to give an account of the money expended on 
 that occasion, sternly replied, " U the king asks mo for an 
 account, I will make him a statement of kingdoms pre- 
 served or conquered, of signal victories, of successful sieges, 
 and of sixty years' service." Philip deemed it proper to 
 make no further inquiries. Alva, however, did not enjoy 
 the honours and rewards of his last expedition, for he died 
 in January 1583, at the age of 74. 
 
 ALVARADO, Pedeo de, one of the Spanish leaders in 
 the discovery and conquest of America, was born at Badajoz 
 about 1495. He held a command in the expedition sent 
 from Cuba against Yucatan in the spring of 1518, and 
 returned in a few months, bearing reports of tHe wealth 
 and splendour of Montezuma's-empire. In February 1519 
 he accompanied Hernando Cortez in the expedition for the 
 conquest of Mexico, being appointed to the command of 
 one of the eleven vessels of the fleet. (For the details of 
 this expedition and of Hernando's share in it, see Cobtez 
 and Mexico.) He was engaged (1523—4) in the conquest 
 of Guatemala, of which he was subsequently appointed 
 governor by Charles V. In 1534 he attempted to bring 
 the province 'of Quito under his power, but had to content 
 himself with the exaction of a pecuniary indemnity for the 
 expenses of the expedition. During a visit to Spain, three 
 years later) he had the governorship of Honduras conferred 
 upon him in addition to that of Guatemala. He died in 
 Guatemala in 1541. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Francisco, born at Coimbra alter 1460, a
 
 A L V — A L Y 
 
 649 
 
 priest and almoner to Dom Manuel, king of Portugal, was 
 eent in 1515 as secretary to Duarte Galvao, on an embassy 
 to David, king of Abyssinia. The expedition having been 
 delayed by the way, it was not until 1520 that he reached 
 Abyssinia, where he remained six years, returning to Lisbon 
 in 1527. In 1533 he was sent to Rome on an embassy 
 to Pope Clement VTL The precise date of his death, like 
 that of his birth, is unknown; but it must have been later 
 than 1540, in which year he published at Lisbon, under 
 the king's patronage, an account of his travels, in one 
 volume folio, entitled Verdadeira Informacam do Preste 
 Joas das ludias. This curious work was translated in 
 Latin, under the title of De Fide, Regime, et Moribus 
 jEthiopum, by Damien Goez, a Portuguese gentleman; and 
 has often been reprinted and translated intj other lan- 
 guages. The information it contains must, however, be 
 received with caution, as the author is prone to exaggerate, 
 and does not confine himself to what came within his own 
 observation. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Don Jos£, the foremost Spanish sculptor of 
 modern times, was born at Priego, in the province of 
 Cordova, in 1768, and died at Madrid in 1827. Bred to 
 his father's trade of a stone-mason, he devoted all his 
 spare time to drawing and modelling. In his twentieth 
 year he became a pupil of the Academy of Granada. A 
 work he executed soon afterwards for a fountain in hi3 
 native town attracted the notice of the Bishop of Cordova, 
 who took the young artist into his house and maintained 
 him for several years. In 1799 he obtained from Charles 
 IV. a pension of 12,000 reals, to enable him to visit Paris 
 and Rome. In the former city he executed, in 1804, a 
 statue of Ganymede, which placed him at once in the front 
 rank of sculptors. Shortly afterwards his pension was 
 more than doubled, and he left Paris for Rome, where he 
 remained till within a year of his death. The most im- 
 portant of his numerous works, executed during this period, 
 was a group representing Antilochus and Memnon, which 
 was commissioned in marble (1818) by Ferdinand VIL, 
 and secured for the artist the appointment of court sculptor. 
 It is now in the Museum of Madrid. Alvarez modelled a 
 few portrait busts (Ferdinand VH., Rossini, .the Duchess 
 of Alba), which are remarkable for their vigour and fidelity. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Don Manuel, a Spanish sculptor, was born 
 at Salamanca in 1727, and died in 1797. He followed 
 classical models so closely that he was styled by his 
 countrymen El Griego, " The Greek" His works, which 
 are very numerous, are chiefly to be found at Madrid. 
 
 ALWAR, a semi-independent state of Rajputana, and 
 under the control of the Governor-General's agent for 
 Rajputana, lies between 28° 13' 25" and 27° 14' 34" N. 
 lat, and between 77° 15' 35" and 76° 14' 10" E. long. 
 It is bounded on the E. by the state of Bhartpur and 
 the British district of Gurgaon, on the N. by Gurgaon 
 district and the states of PatialA and NabhA, on the W. 
 by the states of Nabhd and Jaipur, and on the S. by 
 the states of Jaipur and Bhartpur. Its configuration is 
 irregular, the greatest length from north to south being 
 about 80 miles, and breadth from east to west about 60 
 miles, with a total area of about 3000 square miles. The 
 total population of the state, as ascertained by a census 
 taken in 1872, was 778,596, consisting of 598,333 Hindus, 
 180,225 Mahometans, and 38 Christians. The number 
 of males was returned at 418,723, and females at 359,873, 
 the proportion of males to the total population being 53'76 
 per cent. The eastern portion of the state is open and 
 highly cultivated ; the western is diversified by bills and 
 peaks, which form a continuation of the Aravalli range, 
 from 12 to 20 miles in breadth. These hills run in rocky 
 and precipitous parallel ridges, in some places upwards of 
 2200 feet in height. The Sabhi river flows through the 
 
 "] 22* 
 
 north-western part of the state, the only other stream of 
 importance being the Ruparel, which rises in the Alwar 
 hills, and flows through the state into the Bhartpur terri- 
 tory. 
 
 The one attempt at road-making in the state is a line which con- 
 nects the chief town, Alwar, with Bajghar on the one side and with 
 Tijari on the other. The greater portion of this road was metalled 
 during the minority of the present raja, but it has been neglected 
 since he took the management of the state into his own hands, and 
 is now said to be almost impassable, and worse than the ordinary 
 cart tracks. The earthwork for a road from Alwar to the Bhartpur 
 border was thrown up, but it has never been metalled, and the fine 
 is not used for traffic. The Alwar hills are rich in minerals. Iron 
 ore is found in large quantities close to the surface. Thirty smelting 
 furnaces are kept at work, and are capable of turning out 390 tons 
 a-year. They give employment to a large number of people. Two 
 copper mines have been in operation for a number of years, but with 
 doubtful advantage to the state. Silver, lead, and sulphur are also 
 found in small quantities, and attempts have been made to work 
 them, but without success. The principal agricultural products are 
 wheat and barley during the cold weather, with grain to a less 
 extent. Joar, bajra, and Indian com are raised during the rains. 
 Cotton is extensively cultivated, and exported on a considerable 
 scale. A ten yeare' land settlement, which was formed by a lata 
 political resident, is now expiring, and a fresh settlement for a 
 longer term is being made. The revenue of the state has for some 
 time been in an unsatisfactory state. When the raja attained his 
 majority, and was invested with the full administration of his terri- 
 tory in 1863, the treasury contained a surplus of £205,000. Within 
 seven years this surplus had dwindled away, and debts to the extent 
 of £160,000 accumulated. Under these circumstances, the govern- 
 ment found it necessary to place the administration of the state in 
 the hands of the political resident, assisted by a council of manage- 
 ment consisting of five of the principal chiefs and native gentlemen 
 of the state. In 1870-71, the first year under the new management, 
 the revenue of the state amounted to £213,085, and the expenditure 
 to £135,201, leaving a surplus of £77,884, part of which was devoted 
 to the liquidation of the state debt, the remainder being "kept as s 
 working balance. An allowance of £18,000 a-year is made for the 
 household expenses of the raja, besides an establishment of horses, 
 carriages, and elephants maintained for his use. The educational 
 institutions consist of a high school, attended in 1871-72 by 382 
 students ; a Thakur school, for the education of the sons of chiefs 
 and native gentlemen, and attended by 51 pupils ; and sixty other 
 schools, containing a total of 2785 pupils. Seven towns in the 
 state are returned as containing a population of upwards of 5000 
 souls— namely, Alwar, 52,357; KAjghar, 12,070; Tijara, 7382; 
 Govindgarh, 5720 ; Ramgarb, 5581 ; Eampur, 5381 ; and Bahror, 
 5213. The only municipality is the town of Alwar. It derives its 
 municipal revenue from a tax of 1 per cent on the supposed income 
 of the owners of houses. This tax yields about £800 per annum, 
 out of which, with some assistance from the state, the city police, 
 conservancy establishment, &c, are paid. 
 
 ALYPIUS, one of the seven Greek writers on music 
 whose works are collected and published, with a com- 
 mentary and explanatory notes, by Meibomius (Antiques 
 Musicce Audores Septem, Amstel., 1652). The time in 
 which he flourished cannot be precisely ascertained. He 
 is said to have written before Euclid and Ptolemy; and 
 Cassiodorus arranges his work, entitled Introduction to 
 Music, between those of Nicomachus and Gaudentius. 
 The work consists solely of a list of symbols of the various 
 scales and modes, and is therefore probably only a fragment 
 
 ALYPIUS of Antioch, a geographer of the 4th century, 
 who was sent by the Emperor Julian into Britain as prefect, 
 and was afterwards commissioned to rebuild the temple of 
 Jerusalem. Amo;.g the letters of Julian are two (29 and 
 30) addressed to Alypius; one inviting him to Rome, the 
 other thanking hiiu. for a geographical treatise, which no 
 longer exists. 
 
 ALYTH, a town on the eastern borders of Perthshire, 
 in a parish of the same name, situated in the valley of 
 Strathmore, 1 3 miles west of Forfar. It is tolerably well 
 built, and contains a handsome parish church, and also 
 Free, United Presbyterian, and Scottish Episcopal churches. 
 The chief industrial employments are linen manufacturing 
 and wool spinning, and there is a fair nearly every month. 
 Alyth was created a burgh of barony by -James IIL 
 Population in 1871, 2134.
 
 650 
 
 A M A — A M A 
 
 AMADEUS V., surnamed tho Great, Count of Savoy, 
 was born at Bourget in 1249, and succeeded his uncle 
 Philip in 1285. The cautious prudence of Amadeus 
 enabled him greatly to incrcaso his territory by means of 
 marriage, purchase, and donations. He gradually rose to 
 such eminence among the European powers, that he was 
 constituted their umpire to settlo their differences — an 
 office which he performed with much reputation to himself 
 and advantago to them. In 1310 he was created a prince 
 of the empire by Henry VII. When the Turks attempted 
 to retake Ehodes from the knights of St John of Jerusalem, 
 he acquired great renown by tho valour with which he led an 
 expedition to the relief of the island. A Maltese cross with 
 the letters F.E.R.T. (Fortifudo ejus Jihodum tenuit), it is 
 said, becamo tho arms of Amadeus and his successors, in 
 memory of this victory. Amadeus undertook a journey to 
 Avignon to persuade Pope John XXIL to preach a crusade 
 in favour of Andronicus. He died there in the year 1323. 
 
 AMADEUS VIIL, Count and first Duke of Savoy, and 
 latterly pope or anti-pope, under the name of Felix V., was 
 born at Chambery in 1383, and succeeded his father, 
 Amadeus VII., in 1391. Having, by purchase or other- 
 wise, added large territories to his patrimonial possessions, 
 he became so powerful that tho Emperor Sigismund erected 
 Savoy, into a duchy in 1416; and after his elevation 
 Amadeus added Piedmont and other provinces to his 
 dominions. After this increase of rank and of territory 
 he suddenly, in 1434, retired to a monastery at Ripaille. 
 He does not appear, however, to have resigned his duchy, 
 but continued to administer it through his son Louis. It 
 is said, too, although some historians have cast doubts 
 upon the story, that, instead of leading a life of asceticism, 
 he spent much of the ducal revenues in furthering his own 
 luxury and enjoyment. In 1439, when the pope, Eugenius 
 IV, was deposed by the council at Basle, Amadeus, although 
 not in orders, was elected, through bribery some say, his 
 successor; and after resigning his duchy, was crowned in 
 the following year as Felix V. In the stormy conflict that 
 followed, the Emperor Frederick sided with Eugenius, and 
 the nations of Europe, except Germany, which remained 
 neutral, declared for the one pope or the other. In 1449 
 Amadeus thought it prudent to renounce his claim to tho 
 pontificate in favour of Nicholas V., who had been elected 
 on the death of Eugenius. He, however, induced Nicholas 
 to annul all the acts of Eugenius; to confirm the determi- 
 nation of the council of Basle to appoint him perpetual 
 apostolical legate in Savoy, Piedmont, and the other places 
 of his own dominions; and even to confer on him the 
 bishoprics of Basle, Lausanne, Strasburg, and Constance. 
 It was also conceded to Amadeus that he should continue to 
 wear the pontifical dress, except in a very few particulars; 
 that he should not bo obliged to go to Rome to attend any 
 general council; and that he, instead of kissing the pope's 
 toe, should be permitted to kiss his cheek. Amadeus died 
 at Geneva in 1451. 
 
 AMADIS OF GAUL. The best edition for English 
 readers of this famous work is to be found in the abridged 
 translation of Southey, and the best account of it is to bo 
 found in his preface, which, however, is not void of error. 
 Here, for example, is its final sentence : — "Amadis of Gaul 
 is among proso what Orlando Furioso is among metrical 
 romances — not the oldest of its kind, but the best." We, 
 of course, in England would place the Morte a" Arthur 
 above all romances of the kind; and the praise that we 
 allow to Amadis of Gaul is precisely that which Cervantes 
 bestows upon it — of being the earliest and best of the 
 Spanish romances. When the licentiate and the barber 
 burnt the library of Don Quixote, they spared from the 
 flames only three romances— Amadis of Gaul, Palmerin of 
 England, and Tirante the White. "I have heard." said 
 
 the licentiate, " that Amadis of Gaul was tho first book of 
 chivalry printed in Spain, and that all the rest sprung 
 from it; I think, therefore, as head of so pernicious a sect, 
 we ought to condemn hiin to the fire without mercy-' 
 " Not so, sir," said the barber, " for I have hoard also that 
 it i3 the best of all the books of this kind ; and therefore — 
 as being unequalled in its way — it ought to bo spared." 
 " You are right," said tho priest, " and for that reason its 
 life is granted." Although Cervantes speaks of tho romance 
 83 a Spanish one, and although Southey translated it from 
 the oldest extant edition, which is also Spanish, it is cur- 
 rently supposed to have been originally written in Portu- 
 guese by Vasco Lobeira, himself a good knight, who re- 
 ceived his spurs on the field of battle from King Joam, and 
 who died in 1 403. Tho work, however, has been claimed 
 as of French origin by the Comto do Tressan. Southey 
 ridicules this theory, and insists upon tho claims of the 
 Portuguese author. It is quite certain that the Comte de 
 Tressan attempted to prove too much; but, on the other 
 hand, Southey has not allowed weight enough to the fact 
 that the Amadis of Gaul is but the first work of romanco 
 which appeared in the Portuguese and Castilian languages ; 
 that it was preceded for moro than a century by other 
 romances of Anglo-Norman origin ; and that, if not in its 
 names and personages, yet in its idea — in the character of 
 its incidents and in much of its geography — it belongs to 
 tho world of Anglo-Norman romance. What though we 
 cannot lay our hands on the French original from which 
 Lobeira translated, any more than we can lay our hands on 
 Lobeira's own work from which the Castilian version has 
 been made, we still know that all the ideas and materials, 
 all the design, all the machinery of Amadis of Gaul, belong 
 to the Anglo-Norman cycle of romance which was in vogue 
 before Lobeira was born. And in this creed we cheat him 
 of nothing when we say that we know not to what extent 
 he is entitled to the praise of originality. Knowing what 
 we do of these romances, it is not enough to say, for tho 
 establishment of Lobeira's claims, that we cannot trace the 
 Amadis of Gaul to any one before him. Expressions of 
 his own throughout his work show that if ho was not a 
 literal translator, he was at least a borrower. Thu3, towards 
 the end of his third chapter he writes — " Tho author 
 ceaseth to speak of this, and rcturncth to tho child whom 
 Gandales brought up." The Spanish translator, Montalus, 
 confesses to have taken liberties with the Portuguese version 
 from which he worked, altering, adding, and abridging. 
 The Comte de Tressan maintains that the original French 
 work must have ended with the third book and the rescuo 
 of Oriana; and that from this point we can distinctly trace 
 the work of Spanish hands. Southey, again, thinks that 
 the work, as it left the hands of Lobeira, ended in the 
 fourth book with the marriage of Amadis and Oriana", and 
 that all which follows is due to the tasteless accretions of 
 Montalus. Although this is mere conjecture, still it is 
 natural that we should attach no little force to the correct 
 feeling of Southey. For the story itself, it is impossible 
 to give a summary of it — tho plot being too discon- 
 nected; but he who has read one such tale, or even a 
 few chapters of one, may have a general impression of all — 
 hacking and hewing in every page, knights always at war 
 and seeking adventures, giants in the path, b'ons in tho 
 forest, damsels in durance, castles to be attacked, wizards 
 and witches with hate in their hearts, kings everywhere 
 plentiful as blackberries, and lovely ladies abounding in 
 tenderness. The sentiment of the work is very noble, and 
 some of tho descriptions are full of fire; but tho reader 
 owes more than he is aware to the curtailments of Southey. 
 AMADOU (Polyporus fomentarius), a fungus that grows 
 upon old trees, especially the oak, ash, fir, and cherry. When 
 beaten soft it is used as a styptic for slight hemorrhage.
 
 A M A — A M A 
 
 651 
 
 ^ das material for surgical pads. After being boiled in a 
 aonition of nitre it is employed as tinder. 
 
 AMAGER, or Amak, a small island belonging to Den- 
 mark, lying in the Sound, close to the east coast of See- 
 land. The channel which separates its northern extremity 
 from Seeland forms the harbour of Copenhagen ; and 
 nearly the third part of that city, the suburb of Christians- 
 hafen, is situated in Amager. The island is about 9 miles 
 long and 4 broad, with a fertile soil, which produces large 
 quantities of vegetables for the Copenhagen market. It is 
 peopled chiefly by the descendants of a Dutch colony 
 which Christian U. brought there in 1516, who still 
 retain many of the old peculiarities of dress, language, and 
 manners. Population about 9000, exclusive of the inhabit- 
 ants of Christianshafen. The other towns are Dragoe and 
 Castrup. 
 
 AMALASONTHA, or Amalasuentha, daughter of 
 Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, was born about 498 
 A.D. In 515 she married Eutharic, the last representative 
 of the Amali family, who died (524-5), leaving an only 
 son, Athalaric. The latter was designated by his grand- 
 father Theodoric as the heir to the throne, and Aruala- 
 eontha was appointed his guardian. On the death of 
 Theodoric in 526, Amalasontha became regent, and en- 
 deavoured by a wise and vigorous aclministration to carry 
 on the work of crvilisation and enlightenment which her 
 father had commenced. She devoted herself with special 
 solicitude to the education of Athalaric, but her efforts 
 were frustrated by the opposition of the Gothic nobles. 
 Encouraged by them, the young heir to the throne threw 
 off the restraints imposed by his mother, plunged into 
 debauchery, and died at the age of sixteen (534). In the 
 same year Amalasontha married her cousin Theodahadus, 
 and made him co-regent with herself. A few months later 
 (April 535) she was assassinated by order of her husband 
 in an island on Lake Bolsena. 
 
 AMALEKITES, an ancient people, widely spread 
 throughout the country lying on the south and east of 
 Palestine, often mentioned in the Jewish Scriptures, and 
 celebrated also in Arabian tradition. In Scripture they 
 occur first in Gen. xiv. 7, occupying the territory around 
 Kadesh, and suffering from the invasion of Chedorlaomer 
 and his confederates. They appear next assaulting the 
 Israelites, shortly after the exodus from Egypt, at Rephidim, 
 in the neighbourhood of Mount Sinai (Ex. xvii. 8 ; cf. 
 Oeut. xxv. 17). They again occur falling upon a party 
 of the Israelites on the southern verge of the promised 
 land (Num. xiv. 45 ; cf. xiii. 29). In the time of the 
 judges they are found associated with the Moabites, the 
 Ammonites, the Midianites, and " the children of the 
 east," in repeated attacks upon the Israelites, invading 
 their territory from the eastern side of Jordan (Judges iii 
 13; vi. 3). SauL by divine command, led an expedition 
 into the country of Amalek, waging against them an 
 exterminating war, " smiting them from Havilah until 
 thou comest to Shur, that is over against Egypt" (1 Sam. 
 xv. 1). David also " invaded the Geshurites, and the 
 Gezrites, and the Amalekites ; for these nations were of 
 old the inhabitants of the land as thou goest to Shur, 
 even unto the land of Egypt" (1 Sam. xxvii. 8). The 
 last notice occurs in 1 Chron. iv. 43, from which we 
 learn that in the days of Hezekiah a body of Simeonites 
 " went to mount Seir " and " smote the rest of the Ama- 
 lekites that were escaped ; " a notice showing the accom- 
 plishment of the doom of extermination which had been 
 denounced against them (Ex xvii 14-16 ; Num. xxv. 20), 
 and finding an echo in the words of an Arabian poet, "The 
 race of Amlak has disappeared, and there is left of it 
 neither mean man nor mighty" (Macoudi, Les Prairies 
 d'Qr, par Meynard et Courteille, vol iii. 104). We twice 
 
 hear of Agag as the name of the king of the nation (Num. 
 xxiv. 7 j 1 Sam. xv. 8); and it is reasonably supposed 
 that this, like Pharaoh in* Egypt, was a name common to 
 all their kings. It has been generally supposed that the 
 Haman of the book of Esther, called " the Agagite," be- 
 longed to the royal line of the Amalekites; but it is now 
 found, from Assyrian records, that Agagi was the name of a 
 country east of Assyria, from which it may be assumed that 
 the title was derived. See Lenormant, Lettres Ass. i. 45. 
 
 Josephus agrees with Scripture in assigning to the Ama- 
 lekites the territory immediately to the south of Palestine. 
 Thus he speaks of them as inhabiting " Gobolitis and 
 Petra" (Gobolitis = Gebal, in Ps. lTTnriii. 7; cf. Eeland, 
 Palcestina, p. 71) ; and as reaching "from Pelusium to the 
 Red Sea" (Ant. Jud. iii. 2, 1 ; vi. 7, 3 ; cf. ii. 1, 2). 
 The country which they are thus represented as occupying 
 is suited only to a nomadic population ; and accordingly 
 the indications of the Scripture narrative point to this as 
 the general character of the Amalekite people. They 
 appear as the Bedouins of ancient times, rapid and de- 
 vastating in their movements (1 Sam. xxx. 1); and in 
 their expeditions " coming up with their cattle and their 
 tents " (Jud. vi. 5). At the same time, in the mero 
 fertile portions of their territory they doubtless had settled 
 abodes. We read in 1 Sam. xv. 5 of "a city of Amalek;" 
 and Josephus speaks, apparently in an exaggerated way, 
 of their cities being captured by means of elaborate siege 
 operations (Ant. Jud. vi. 7, 2). 
 
 The ethnical character and relation of this people, and their com- 
 plete national history, it is impossible satisfactorily to make out 
 from the fragmentary materials in our hands. They are not men- 
 tioned in the table of nations in Gen. x., while in Gen. xxxvi. 12, 
 16, their ancestry seems to be referred to Esau. At the same time, 
 the existence of the nation is noticed in Gen xiv., long before Esau ; 
 and it seems unnatural to understand this, with Hengstenberg and 
 others, in a proleptic sense, especially as there are other independent 
 grounds for referring the beginning of their history to an earlier 
 date. It is certain that the genealogical tables of Scripture, like 
 those of Arabia, include cases of adoption or affiliation as well aa 
 of direct descent, and probably it is in this sense that the notica 
 referring Amalek to Esau should be understood. In Balaam's pro* 
 phecy Amalek i3 called "the first of nations" ( B, ' u R, P !f ?, praestan. 
 tissima gentium, Gesenius), Num. xxiv. 20, an expression scarcely 
 reconcilable in the circumstances with descent from Jacob's brother. 
 Again, though found in Jewish scripture located in the immediate 
 south and east of the Israelitish territory, yet there are indications 
 in Scripture itself that at one time they had had a wider extension. 
 " The mount of the Amalekites " is mentioned as situated in " the 
 land of Ephraim " (Jud. xii. 15), apparently warranting the infer- 
 enca that they once held possessions on the west of the Jordan (see 
 Stanley, Sin. and Pal., p. 237, n.) "Amalek" also is found in 
 some copies of the LXX., as the translation of Maacah, in 2 Sam. x. 
 6, 8, giving some ground for the belief *hat a section of the same 
 race had once been settled on tie no~th-east of Palestine (see 
 Ewald, Gesch. Israel's, Bd. I. 335). Tl ere is little in the Bible to 
 illustrate their linguistic affinity ; but so far as appears their 
 language was Shemitic, identical with or very closely allied to the 
 Hebrew. Samuel and the captive Agag (1 Sam. xv. 32K and David 
 and the Amalekite youth (2 Sam. i. 13) converse together; and it 
 has been attempted also to explain the names Amalek and Agag 
 by Shemitic analogies (Meier, Zcitschrifl d. morg. Qes., Bd. 'xvii. 
 p. 577). By Philo ( Vita Mosis, § 39) th» Amalekites of the Sinaitio 
 peninsula are called Phoenicians. ' 
 
 The traditions of the Arabians regarding this race are oonfused 
 and conflicting, yet certainly are not to be summarily rejected as 
 destitute of any claim to historic credibility ; and with all their 
 entanglement they speak strongly for the ancient and far-extended 
 power of the people in question, and also more doubtfully for their 
 Shemitic affinities. In these traditions, Amlak or Amlik, the father 
 of the Amalekites, is represented sometimes as the son of Laud (i.e., 
 Lud), tho son of Shem ; sometimes as the son of Aram, the son of 
 Laud ; while sometimes also he is spoken of as a son of Ham. 
 They belong, with the Adites, Thamudites, and others, to the 
 primitive races of Arabia. They ars said to have been expelled 
 from Babylonia by the Assyrian conquerors, and driven westward 
 into Arabia and Syria, to have built and reigned in Aleppo, to have 
 conquered and for some centuries retained possession of Egypt, and to 
 bo the ancestors of the Berbers in North Africa (see Abuifeda, Hist. 
 Anie-Isl, pp. 16. 17S ; Macoudi, ej>. tit., vol. iii., p. 106 ; C. do
 
 652 
 
 A M A — A M A 
 
 Perceval, Hist, des Arabcs, vol. i., p. 18) ; Knobcl, Volkertafel, 
 p. 198; Sloven). Pltonizier, 2ter Th., Bd. ii., p. 422). With 
 these Arabian accounts it is natural to bring into connection the 
 irrated by llanetho, and now in substance ascertained from 
 old Egyptian records, regarding the conquest of the Nile valley by 
 an Arabian race, called Iiycsos by the former, and ilenti, or shep- 
 liordfl, iu the latter (see Bunsen, Egypt* Place, vol. iii., p. 266; 
 ■h, Hist. d'Ki]>jptc, vol. i., p. 75; Chabas, Les Pasteurs en 
 Egtjpte, p. 9) Now, from the time of the eighteenth dynasty, 
 northern Arabia is found in Egyptian monuments to bo in posses- 
 sion of a people called Shasu, a name which Egyptologers generally 
 compare with the second syllable of Hyesos, and wluch also, per- 
 haps, corresponds with Zuziin of Gen. xiv. 5. These Shasu may 
 with confidence be identified with the Amahkites of Scripture ; 
 their locale and their habits 'are the same ; and of them we learn 
 that " they were Bpread over a vast territory, quite like the wander- 
 ing Arabs of our day. They are found near Djor, on the north- 
 east frontier of Egypt, as well as in the defiles of Lebanon, where 
 their depredations made themselves felt fourteen centuries before 
 our era (Chabas, Eludes sur V Antiquiti Historique, p. 114; cf. 
 his Voyage dun Egyplien, p. 111). "They wear short tunics, a 
 turban like head-dress, and are armed with spears and axes. A 
 characteristic feature is the long beard, as among the Canaanitish 
 nations" (Brugsch, Ocog. Inschrijlen, lid. ii. 53). 
 
 The notices occurring in Arabian writers, which speak of Amalck- 
 ites as spread over various more southern portions of Arabia, may 
 probably be referred to the period subsequent to their expulsion 
 liom their northern seats by the Israelites and other enemies. The 
 liouu-Kerker, who dwell around Mecca, are by some referred to this 
 stock ; the same is true of the Benu-Amila, who, before migrating 
 northwards into Syria, dwelt in Yemen. We hear of Amalekites 
 also iu "Cheibar, Jatrib, and other parts of Hedjaz" (Abulfeda, 
 op. cit., p. 179) ; in regard to which notice a certain degree of 
 confirmation is afforded by the mention by Piiny of an Arabian 
 town, the name of which reads JIarippa Palmalacum, but which 
 probably should be read Jatrippa Alamalacum, that is, Jatrib the 
 Ainalek'ite (see Pliny, Hist. Nat. vi. 32 ; Blau, Zcitschrifl d. m. 
 Oes., Bd. xxii. 668; cf. Noldeke, Ubcrd. AmalckiUr, 37). Accord- 
 ing to some (Tuch, Blau, and others), the famous Sinaitic inscrip- 
 tions, ascertained to be written in a Shemitic dialect, are to be ascribed 
 to the Amalekite race. Doubtless their authors dwelt in the country 
 once inhabited by this people, but that they belonged to them, 
 and not to some succeeding race, has not yet been demonstrated. 
 
 From the cuneiform records we have gained as yet no illustration 
 of this subject, unless the people Malikhu, or Malaku, mentioned in 
 the inscriptions of Sennacherib among certain Aramsan tribes in- 
 habiting the valley of the Euphrates, may be identified with 
 Amalek (see Records of the past, vol. i., pp. 26, 67). 
 
 AMALFI, a town of Italy, in the Principato Citeriore, 
 situated at the entrance of a deep ravine on the north side 
 of the Gulf of Salerno. It was founded, according to the 
 common account, under Constantino the Great, and was 
 one of the first cities to recover from the irruption of the 
 barbarians into Italy. During the 10th and 11th centuries 
 it was an independent republic of gTeat commercial im- 
 portance, with a trade which extended to Egypt and the 
 east, and a population of 50,000. Its code of maritime 
 laws (Tabula Amaifitana) is said to have regulated com- 
 merce at one time throughout the whole of Italy, but the 
 truth of this statement appears to be extremely question- 
 able. In 1 135 Amalfi was plundered by the Pisans, who are 
 said to have then discovered and carried off the far-famed 
 manuscript of the Pandects of Justinian, which is now in the 
 Laurentian library at Florence. Soon after this the town 
 passed under the dominion of Naples, and from that timo 
 rapidly declined. In 1343 a terrible storm buried a large 
 part of the town under the sea, and at the present day it 
 is a mere wTeck of its former greatness. It has only about 
 6500 inhabitants, whose chief employments are fishing 
 and the manufacture of macaroni, silk, and paper. It is 
 still the seat of an archbishop, and contains an ancient 
 cathedral dedicated to St Andrew. Flavio Gioja, to whom' 
 the invention of the mariner's compass has been ascribed, 
 and Masaniello were born at Amalfi. 
 
 AMALGAM, the name given to an alloy of mercury and 
 another metaL The amalgams are a very numerous class 
 of compounds, and many of them are used largely in the 
 arts. Many amalgams are produced by direct contact of 
 tho metals, with evolution of heat. Others are obtained 
 
 by the action of mercury on a salt of the metal, or tho 
 action of the metal on a salt of mercury, assisted by the 
 passage of a weak electric current in some cases. Some 
 amalgams are solid, others liquid. They are, generally 
 speaking, weak compounds, many of them being decom- 
 posed by pressure, and all are decomposed at a white heat. 
 Tin amalgam is used for " silvering " mirrors, gold and 
 silver amalgam in gilding and silvering, cadmium and 
 copper amalgam in dentistry, and an amalgam of zinc and 
 tin for the rubbers of electrical machines. See Mercury 
 and Chemistry. 
 
 AMALIA, Anna, Duchess of Saxe- Weimar, was born 
 at W<>lfenbiittel on the 24th October 1739, and married 
 Duke Ernest of Saxe- Weimar in 1756. Her husband died 
 in 1758, leaving her regent for their infant son. Karl 
 August. During the protracted minority she administered 
 the affairs of the duchy with the greatest prudence, 
 strengthening its resources and improving its position La 
 spite of the troubles of the Seven Years' War. She was a 
 warm patroness of art and literature, and attracted to 
 Weimar many of the most eminent men in Germany. 
 Wieland was appointed tutor to her son ; and the names 
 of Herder, Goethe, Knebel, Bottiger, Musaeus, and Schiil;r 
 shed au undying lustre on her court. In 1775 she retired 
 into private life, her son having attained his majority. 
 In 1788 she set out on a lengthened tour through Italy, 
 being accompanied by Goethe. She died on the 10th 
 April 1807. A memorial of the duchess is included in 
 Goethe's works under the title Zum Andenken der Fiirstin 
 Anna-Amalia. 
 
 AMALRIC or Amauri of Bena, so called from his 
 birthplace, a small village in the diocese of Chartres, was 
 the founder of a school of pantheists known by his name. 
 He lectured at Paris about the year 1200, and attracted a 
 large circle of hearers. In 1204 his doctrines were con- 
 demned by the university; and on a personal appeal to 
 Pope Innocent IH. the sentence was ratified, Amalno 
 being ordered to return to Paris and recant his errors. 
 This he did in 1207. His death, two- years later, w.is 
 caused, it is said, by grief at the humiliation to which he 
 had been subjected. In the same year (1209) ten of his 
 followers were burnt before the gates of Paris, and 
 Amalric's own body was exhumed and burnt, and the 
 ashes given to the winds. The doctrines of the Amal- 
 ricians were formally condemned by the fourth Lateran 
 Council in 1215. 
 
 AMALTEO, the name of a family belonging to Oderzo, 
 Treviso, several members of which were distinguished in 
 literature. The best known are three brothers, Geronimo 
 (1507-74), Giambattista (1525-73), and Corneb'o (1530- 
 1603), whose Latin poems were published in one collection 
 under tho title Trium Fratrum Amalthiorum Carmina 
 (Venice, 1627; Amst. 1689). The eldest brother, Geronimo, 
 was a celebrated physician ; the second, Giambattista, 
 accompanied a Venetian embassy to England in 1554, and 
 waa secretary to Pius IV. at the Council of Trent; the 
 third, Cornelio, was a physician and secretary to the re- 
 public of Ragusa. 
 
 AMALTEO, Pomponio, a painter of the Venetian 
 school, was born at San Vito in Friuli in 1505, and died 
 in 1584. He was a pupil of Pordenone, whose style he 
 closely imitated. His works consist chiefly of frescoes and 
 altar-pieces, and many of them have suffered greatly from 
 the ravages of time. 
 
 AMAKA SLNHA, a Sanscrit grammarian and poet, of 
 whose personal history hardly anything is known. He is 
 said to have been " one of the nine gems that adorned tho 
 throne of Vikramaditya," and accordingly to have flourished 
 about 56 B.C. This seems on the whole the most pro- 
 bable date, though the fifth century of the Christian era.
 
 AIA-AMA 
 
 653 
 
 And even the eleventh, have also been assigned, on the sup- 
 position that the Vikramaditya spoken of was not the first 
 but a later monarch of the name. Amara seems to have 
 been a Buddhist; and an early tradition asserts that his 
 works, with one exception, were destroyed during the per- 
 secution carried on by the orthodox, Brahmins in the fifth 
 century. The exception is the celebrated Amara-Kosha 
 (Treasury of Amara), a vocabulary of Sanscrit roots, in 
 three books, and hence sometimes called Trikanda, or the 
 " Tripartite." It contains 10,000 words, and is arranged, 
 like other works of its class, in metre, to aid the memory. 
 The first chapter of the Kosha was printed at Rome in 
 Tamil character, in 1798. An edition of the entire work, 
 with English notes and an index by Colebrooke, appeared 
 at Serampore in 1808. The Sanscrit text was printed at 
 Calcutta in 1831. A French translation by Loiseleur- 
 Deslongchamps was published at Paris in 1839. 
 
 AMARANTH, or Amar ant (from the Greek d/idpavros, 
 anwithering), a name chiefly used in poetry, and applied 
 to certain plants which, from not soon fading, typified 
 immortality. Thus Milton {Paradise Lost, iiL 353) : — 
 
 *' Immortal amarant, a flower which once 
 In paradise, fast by the tree of life, 
 Began to bloom; but soon for man's offence 
 To heaven removed, where first it grew, there grows, 
 And flowers aloft, shading the fount of life-, 
 And where the river of bliss through midst of heaven 
 Kolls o'er elysian flowers her amber stream: 
 With these that never fade the spirits elect 
 Bind their resplendent locks." 
 
 The famous flowers, however, still live upon earth, and 
 are known in our gardens as love-lies-bleeding, prince's 
 feather, cockscomb, and the globe amaranth. As we 
 wreathe our churches in winter with holly and ivy, the 
 churches in Portugal and other southern countries are 
 adorned with the purple tints of the globe amaranth, 
 which is said to retain its colour for years. It should be 
 noted that the proper spelling of the word is amarant; 
 the more common spelling seems to have come from a 
 hazy, notion that the final syllable is the Greek word for 
 flower, which entera into a vast number of botanical names. 
 
 AMARAPURA, literally " the City of the Gods„" a town 
 of independent Burmah, situated on the east bank of the 
 Irawadl river, in 21° 57' N. lat., and 73° 4' E. long. The 
 town was founded in 1783, and made the capital of the 
 Burmese kingdom. It increased rapidly in size and popu- 
 lation, and in 1810 -was estimated to contain 170,000 
 inhabitants; but in that year the town was destroyed by 
 fire, and this disaster, together with the removal of the 
 native court in 1819 oaused a decline in the prosperity of 
 the place. In 1827 its population was estimated at only 
 30,000. Since then it has suffered another severe calamity 
 from an earthquake, which in 1839 destroyed the greater 
 part of the city. It is regularly laid out, but, with the 
 exception of some temples, is built only of bamboos, 
 although several of the buildings, being richly gilt, have a 
 showy appearance. The most remarkable edifice is a cele- 
 brated temple, adorned with 250 lofty pillars of gilt wood, 
 and containing a colossal bronze statue of Buddha. The 
 remains of the ancient palace of the Burmese monarchs 
 still survive in the centre of the town. During the time 
 of its prosperity Amarapura was defended by a rampart 
 and a large square citadel, with a broad moat, the walls 
 being 7000 feet long and 20 feet high, with a bastion at 
 each corner. 
 
 AMASIA, or Amasiayah, a town in Anatolia, Turkey, 
 situated on both sides of the Yeshil-Irmak, or Iris, in a 
 narrow gorge about 80 miles from the mouth of the river. 
 The houses being ill-built and the streets narrow, the town 
 would have a mean appearance but for its situation and 
 She splendid remains of antiquity in ita neighbourhood. 
 
 The most remarkable of these are the Acropolis, which ia 
 built on a lofty rock overhanging the town; the tombs of 
 the kings of Pontus, described by Strabo the geographer, 
 a native of Amasia; and a handsome mosque, erected in 
 1 490 by the Sultan Bajazet IL The chief productions c4 
 Amasia and the surrounding districts are silk, salt, wheat, 
 wine, and cotton. Population of the town, 25,000. 
 
 AMASIS, King of Egypt, ascended the throne 569 B.C. 
 From the rank of a common soldier he gradually rose to be 
 one of the principal officers in the court of Apries, the last 
 king of the line of Psammetichus. Being commissioned by 
 Apries to quell an insurrection, he went over to the rebels, 
 who proclaimed him king. Apries, whose tyranny had 
 caused nearly all his subjects to desert him, took the field 
 with an army of mercenaries, and meeting Amasis near 
 Memphis, was defeated and taken prisoner. The usurper 
 treated the captive prince with great lenity; but so violent 
 was the popular hatred, that he was compelled to deliver 
 him into the hands of his enraged countrymen, who in- 
 stantly put him to death by strangling. Under the pru- 
 dent administration of Amasis, Egypt enjoyed the greatest 
 prosperity. He adorned it with numerous and splendid 
 buildings, among which were a portico to the temple of 
 Minerva at Sais, and the great temple of Isis at Mem- 
 phis. He also erected a colossus before the temple of 
 Vulcan, 75 feet in length, resting on its back; and on the 
 basis stood two statues, each 20 feet high, cut out of the 
 3ame stone. To gain the alliance of the Greeks, he allotted 
 settlements for them on the sea-coast, permitting them to 
 build temples, and to observe all the rites of their religion 
 unmolested;- and when the temple of the Delphians was 
 burnt he presented them with 1000 talents to assist them 
 in rebuilding it. He also married a Grecian lady, named 
 Ladice, the daughter of -"Battus of Cyrene, and had a 
 bodyguard of Greeks in his" pay. Solon, the celebrated 
 lawgiver, is reported to have visited Amasis. The close 
 of his reign was disturbed by the threatened invasion of 
 Cambyses, king of Persia, and by the rupture of the 
 alliance between Amasis and Polycrates of Samos. . (See 
 Polycrates.) Amasfe, however, did not live to see the 
 conquest of Egypt, for he died in 525, before the Persians 
 had entered the country. 
 
 AMAT, Felix, a Spanish ecclesiastical historian, was 
 born at Sabadell, in the diocese of Barcelona, 10th August 
 1750. He entered the church in 1767, and after taking his 
 doctor's degree at Grenada in 1770, was made professor 
 of philosophy and librarian in the episcopal seminary at 
 Barcelona. In these offices, and in that of director of 
 the seminary, which he subsequently held, his talents and 
 energy did much to advance the efficiency of the institu- 
 tion. In 1803 he was made archbishop of Palmyra by the 
 Eope, and in the same year the king, Charles TV"., created 
 im abbot. of St Hdefonso. When the war with France 
 broke out in 1794, Amat was at first looked upon as an 
 undoubted patriot, but latterly he was suspected, and with 
 some reason, of favouring the French cause. He was 
 compelled to leave Madrid on the entry of the British in 
 1812; and was subsequently, in 1814, banished to Cata- 
 lonia. He died in a Franciscan convent near Salent on 
 28th September 1824. Amat's chief work is his Ecclesias- 
 tical History, from the birth of Christ to the end of the 
 18th century, originally published in twelve volumes 
 (1793-1S03). It was condemned by the Inquisition, but 
 rather on political than on religious grounds. His other 
 works are numerous, the most important being his 
 Observations on Ecclesiastical Power and his Six Letters to 
 Irenictu, in which he attacked the theory that consent of 
 the subjects' is the. necessary foundation of sovereignty. 
 Amat was a man of gigantic stature, being, it is said, at 
 the age of seventeen, 7 feet 2 inches in height.
 
 654 
 
 AMA-AMA 
 
 AMATI, tho name of a family of violin-makers who 
 flourished at Cremona from about 1500 to 1692. Accord- 
 ing to Fdtis, Andrea and Nicolo Amati, two brothers, were 
 the first Italians who made violins. They were succeeded 
 by Antonio and Geronimo, sons of Nicolo. Another 
 Nicolo, son of Geronimo, was alive in 1692. The violins 
 made by this family are distinguished by their small size, 
 exquisite finish, and the mathematical proportion of tho 
 parts. Their tone is soft and sweet, but deficient in inten- 
 sity, owing to tho flatness of their model. Stradivari was 
 a pupil of the Amatis 
 
 AMATITLAN, the name of a lake and town in Gmte- 
 mala, Central America. The lake is IS miles from tho 
 city of Guatemala, and is about 9 miles long and 3 broad. 
 The town, which is sometimes called St Juan d'Amatitlan, 
 is situated on the shores of the lake. The houses are all 
 of one storey, and are mostly built of mud. The Jesuits 
 formerly had extensive sugar plantations at Amatitlan, but 
 the chief industry now is the raising of the cochineal. The 
 wells of the town are strongly impregnated with salt and 
 alum, and in the vicinity there are several hot springs. 
 Population about 10,000, chiefly mulattoes and samboes. 
 
 AMAUROSIS (anaipuicris), a deprivation of sight. Tho 
 term is now limited chiefly to those for^ns of defect or loss 
 of vision which are caused by diseases riot directly involv- 
 ing tho eye, although sooner or later the optic nerve 
 undergoes changes recognisable by the ophthalmoscope. 
 Sometimes tho amaurosis is temporary, disappearing with 
 the removal of the disease with which it is associated ; but 
 in many cases, more especially where the brain and spinal 
 cord are affected, the amaurosis remains permanent. 
 
 AMAXICHI, a seaport town on the N. of the Ionian 
 island of Santa Maura. It is the capital of the island, and 
 the residence of a Greek archbishop. The frequent occur- 
 rence of earthquakes compels tho inhabitants to construct 
 their houses of wood ; hence the town is of mean appear- 
 ance. Its harbour admits small craft only. Population, 
 7000." 
 
 AMAZON, Maranon, Orellana, or Solimoens, a 
 river of South America, tho largest in the world. Its 
 head stream is either the Ucayale or Apurimac, which 
 rises in Peru about 16° S. lat., and 72° W. long. ; or the 
 more northerly Maranon, also called Tunguragua, which 
 flows from Lake Lauricocha, 10° 30' S. lat, and 76° 10' 
 W. long. The former is the longer river, but the latter 
 has perhaps the weight of authority in its favour. The 
 Maranon flows in a north-westerly direction, parallel to 
 the Ucayale, as far as 6° S. lat., when it bends to the 
 north-east, and, on reaching the frontiers of Equador, 
 turns almost due east. It thence forms the boundary 
 between Equador and Peru, with an easterly direction, 
 until it joins the Ucayale. The united river continues to 
 separate Equador and Peru as long as these countries are 
 conterminous, and thereafter strikes through Brazil, the 
 general direction being north-north-east It finally dis- 
 charges itself into the Atlantic under the equator. From 
 the' source of the Apurimac to the ocean this mighty river 
 has a length, including windings, of nearly 4000 miles. 
 It receives enormous tributaries — from the north, the 
 Napo and the Putumayo, each about 700 miles long ; the 
 Yapura, 1000 miles; the Negro, 1400; as well as others 
 of less importance : from the south, besides the Yavari, the 
 Yutai, the Yurua, Tefe, the Puruo, and others, there are the 
 Madeira, of nearly 2000 miles ; the Topayos, of 1200 ; the 
 Xingu, of 1300 ; and. the Tocantins, of 1200. In addition 
 tQ these, the Huallaga, of 500 miles, joins the Maranon, 
 from the south, above its union with the Ucayale. The 
 area drained by the Amazon and its tributaries is pro- 
 bably not less than 2,500,000 square miles, or more than 
 a third part of South America. The breadth of the river, 
 
 of course, varies at different points. At some distance 
 below Jaen, on the Maranon, it was found to be 860 feet 
 wide ; at a pass called the Pongo de Manscriche its bed 
 is suddenly contracted from 250 to 25 fathoms, being 
 enclosed on either side by rocks, which rise like perpen- 
 dicular walls to a great height ; at the junction with the 
 Napo its breadth has increased to 900 fathoms. Between 
 the Negro and the Madeira it has the breadth of a league, 
 which extends to two leagues at those parts where islands 
 abound ; but during the annual rise of the water it covers 
 a great part of the adjacent country, and has then no 
 determinate limits. The main mouth is about 50 miles 
 wide abovo the island of Caviana, but the whole delta, 
 including tho Para mouth and the island of Joannes, is 
 nearly 200 miles from shore to shore. The depth of tho 
 Amazon in some parts exceeds 50 fathoms, and the river 
 is navigable for vessels of tho largest size up to the con- 
 fluence of tho Maranon and the Ucayale. Beyond this 
 point vessels of a smaller size can proceed as far as San 
 Borja, on tho Maranon, and a considerable distance up tho 
 Ucayale and the Huallaga. The velocity of the water 
 above San Borja so greatly exceeds the average (which is 
 about 2£ miles an hour), that navigation becomes difficult, 
 and among the rapids is impossible, even to canoes. 
 Nearly all the branches of the Amazon are navigable to a 
 great distance from their junction with the main stream; 
 and collectively the whole presents an extent of water 
 communication unparalleled in any other part of tho 
 globe. It may be mentioned, too, that as the wind and 
 current are usually, at least from July to December, 
 opposed to each other, a vessel can make her way either 
 up or down with great facility by availing herself of her 
 sails in the one case, and committing herself to the force 
 of the current- in the other. Since the introduction of 
 steamers, however, this circumstance is of less importance. 
 The influence of the tides is felt 400 miles abovo the 
 mouth of tho Amazon, while on the other hand the river 
 current is distinctly perceptible in the ocean for more 
 than 200 miles from the shore. The curious tidal pheno- 
 menon called the bore, or proroca, is thus described by La 
 Condamine '. — 
 
 " During three days before the new and full moons, the period of 
 the highest tides, the sea, instead of occupying six hours to reach 
 its flood, swells to its highest limit in one or two minutes. The 
 noise of this'terrible flood is heard five or six miles off, and increases 
 as it aoproach.es. Presently you see a liquid promontory 12 or 15 
 feet high, followed by another, and another, and sometimes by a 
 fourth. These watery mountains spread across the whole channel, 
 and advance with a prodigious rapidity, rending and crushing 
 everything in their way. Immense trees are sometimes uprooted 
 by it, and sometimes wholo tracts of land are swept away." 
 
 The Amazon traverses a region thickly covered with lofty 
 forests, which are the haunts of the jaguar, bear, panther, 
 and other wild animals, and are inhabited by numerous 
 small tribes of savages, among whom the Spaniards and 
 Portuguese have established missionaries. Tho river 
 abounds with fish, many of which arc delicious eating; 
 and turtles of an excellent quality are numerous.' Large 
 alligators may be frequently seen stretched motionless in 
 the mud like trunks of trees. The name Amazon (which 
 is also written Amazons and Amazonas) is derived from the 
 Indian word Amassona, or "boat-destroyer," the reference 
 being to the destructive proroca. According to native 
 usage, tho name Amazon ought to be restricted to the 
 lower part of the river, below the mouth of the Eio 
 Negro, the portion above that point, as far at least as the 
 juuetion of the Marafion and the Ucayale, being termed 
 by the natives Solimoens. The other two designations by 
 which the river is sometimes known owe their origin 
 respectively to Francis Orellana, who in 1540 sailed from 
 the mouth of tho Eio Napo to the ocean, and Maraion,
 
 A M A — A M B 
 
 655 
 
 who visited the upper waters in 1513. Yanez Puizod, 
 however, visited the river before either, having discovered 
 the mouth in 1500.' (Sec the works of Bates, Wallace, 
 and W. H. Edwards, and the article Brazil.) 
 
 AMAZONS ('A/jLa^ovcs), a race of women represented 
 in Greek legend as having lived in the north-east of Asia 
 Minor, near the shore of the Black Sea, and as having 
 there formed an independent state, with a queen at its 
 head, and with the mythical town of Themiscyra, on the 
 river Thermodon, as its capital. From this centre they 
 made warlike excursions, sometimes northward, but chiefly 
 against the people on the coast of Asia Minor. From the 
 traditions that to repel and conquer them was assigned as 
 a task to Bellerophon by the King of Lycia, and again to 
 Hercules by Eurystheus, it may be inferred that they 
 were regarded by the Greeks at least as a permanent 
 source of danger. But equally, if the task of conquering 
 them is to be strictly compared with the other tasks in 
 which these heroes were generally opposed to monsters 
 and beings impossible in themselves, but possible as illus- 
 trations of permanent danger and damage, it would follow 
 that the Amazons were mythical illustrations of the 
 dangers which beset the Greeks on the coast of Asia 
 Minor. Their impossibility as actual beings is further 
 recognised in works of art, in which combats between 
 them and Greeks are placed on the same level as, and 
 often associated with, combats of Greeks and centaurs. 
 The belief in the existence of the Amazons, however, 
 having been once accepted and introduced into the national 
 poetry and art, it became necessary to surround them as 
 far a3 possible with the appearance of not unnatural 
 beings. Their occupation was hunting and war ; their 
 arms the bow, spear, axe, a half shield, nearly in the 
 shape of a crescent, called pelta, and in early art a helmet, 
 the model before the Greek mind having apparently been 
 the goddess Athene (Minerva). In later art they approach 
 the model of Artemis (Diana), wearing a thin dress, girt 
 high for speed ; while on the later painted vases their 
 dress is often peculiarly Persian — that is, close-fitting 
 trousers, and a high cap called the L-idaris. They fought 
 partly on foot, partly on horseback, and always without 
 quarter; so that the epithet of avSpoKTovoi, or oiorpata, 
 which is the Scythian equivalent (Herod, iv. 110), was 
 applied to them. To maintain their stock, annual visits 
 were paid to the neighbouring peoples ; and when, in con- 
 sequence of this, children were born, the males were either 
 sent over the borders or retained and brought up crippled, 
 and in the condition of slaves, while the female children 
 were assiduously trained to hunting and war. So as to 
 have freedom in the use of the bow, the right breast was 
 either removed by burning and other processes, or was 
 checked in its growth ; hence the ancient derivation of the 
 name Amazon from d-/ia£os, " breastiess." But instead of 
 there being any indication of this in works of art, it is 
 noticeable that in the case of wounded Amazons the wound 
 is in the breast, as if the artist conceived them as truly 
 womanly in that region. The other derivations are — (1) 
 from d-fia£os, in the sense of " strong-breasted," so as to 
 compare with their deity Artemis Polymazos ; (2) from 
 d'/wo-ci), "not touching (men);" (3) from the Scythian 
 amazzen, a "virago." The deities of the Amazons were 
 Ares (Mars) and Artemis, the former being consistently 
 assigned to them as a god of war, and as a god of Thracian 
 and generally northern origin. In the case of Artemis, it 
 was not here the usual Greek goddess of that name, but an 
 Asiatic deity in some respects her equivalent, but different, 
 among other points, in this, that troops of women {hiero- 
 dulce) were associated with her worship, especially as it 
 existed at Ephesus in historical times. That it may have 
 been so also in the early myth-making age, and that 
 
 accordingly the idea of the Amazons as a jace may have 
 originated in the ecstatic lawless life of these women, has 
 been conjectured. With regard to Ephesus, it was said 
 that a body of Amazons, under a princess named Lampedo, 
 had founded that town, and established the worship of 
 Artemis ; though in another account they appear as 
 enemies of this religion, and -as having burnt the temple 
 of Artemis at Ephesus. Several other towns of Asia 
 Minor claimed to have been founded by Amazons; but 
 according to Diodorus (ii. 52, 55), the Amazons in this 
 case were a race of women who" inhabited the west of 
 Libya, and who once, led by their queen Myrina, advanced 
 through Asia Minor and on to Thrace, where they were 
 defeated by Mopsus, and compelled to return. Other 
 memorials of the expeditions and battle-fields of the Ama- 
 zons were recognised in the tumuli in the Troad and 
 elsewhere in Asia Minor. These ancient local traditions 
 derived a strong colour of reality afterwards, when inroads 
 of barbarians, under a female leader, occurred, as in the 
 time of Cyrus, or when Thalestris appeared before Alex- 
 ander the Great, announcing herself as the queen of the 
 Amazons ; but chiefly when it was observed that certain 
 characteristics of the Amazons actually existed among the 
 women of Sarmatia. The effect of this mixture of fact 
 and legend may be seen in the account given by Herodotus 
 (iv. 110) of the collapse of the Amazonian state, or in the 
 origin of it as related by Justin (ii. 4). On the other 
 hand, the Persian war seems to have freshened, as if to 
 supply a mythical prototype, the national legends of 
 combats between Greeks and Amazons. These legends 
 recounted the defeat of the Amazons, first, by Bellerophon, 
 and secondly by Hercules, who had been ordered by 
 Eurystheus to bring him the girdle of their queen Hippo- 
 lyte, or, in other words, since the girdle of their queen 
 would in Greek eyes be the most sacred object, to conquer 
 the whole race of Amazons. It is supposed that he was 
 accompanied by his friend Theseus, and that this was the 
 occasion on which the latter became possessed of the 
 A m azon princess Antiope. From his possession of her 
 originated a third legend, which described an invasion cf 
 Attica by a body of Amazons, with the view of carrying 
 off Antiope. Their utter defeat by Theseus must have 
 seemed, in the light of Marathon and Salamis, as a fore- 
 cast of the glory then won by Athens. The fourth legend, 
 which deals with the appearance of an army of Amazons, 
 led by their queen Penthesilea on the side of the Trojans 
 in the Trojan war, wa3 developed by Arctinus of Miletus 
 in his poem the ^Ethiopis. Achilles and the queen meet 
 in battle," and she falls by his hand ; but the hero is 
 smitten with grief, and lifts her gently before she dies. It 
 is this feeling of regret on the part of a hero who is com- 
 pelled to kill a woman in his own defence, that gives the 
 principal tone to the existing works of Greek art, in which 
 combats with Amazons are represented, and especially to 
 works of sculpture. Of this class there exist (besides- a 
 number of reliefs, among which those from the temple of 
 Apollo at Phigalia, now in the British Museum, are con- 
 spicuous for many touching motives of this kind), several 
 statues of wounded Amazons, the sad expression of which, 
 combined- with the nobility of form and power of limb, 
 shows what was the highest conception of them in the best 
 days of Greek art. (a. 8. M.) 
 
 AMBALA, a division, district, and city of British India, 
 under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-Governor of the 
 Panjab. The AmMla division comprises the districts of 
 Ambald and Ludhiana in the plains, and the district of 
 Simla in the Himalayas. The last-named district consists 
 of a few detached patches of territory, scattered among 
 the territories of the petty chieftains by whom the neigh- 
 bouring hills are held. Simla district is, however, the
 
 656 
 
 AMB-AMB 
 
 seat of the supreme government of India during the not 
 weather, and its chief town", of the same name, is the largest 
 hill station in India The other two districts of the divi- 
 sion lie upon the plains at the foot of the Himalayas. 
 They are bounded on the N.E. by those mountains, on the 
 N.W. by the river Satlej, on the S.W. by .the district of 
 Firozpur, the independent native state of Patiala, and the 
 district of Kama], and on the S.E. by the river Jamna. 
 
 AmbAlA District stretches N.W. and S.E. along the 
 lower face of the Himalayas, and lies between 29° 55' and 
 31" 14' N. lat., and between 76° 37' and 77° 38' E. long. 
 It is bounded on the N.E. by the Himalayas, on the N.W. 
 by the river Satlej, on the S.E. by the river Jamna, and 
 on the S.W. by the district, of Ludhiana, the. state of 
 Patiala, and the district of Karnal. The total area of the 
 district is 2628 square miles, or 1,681,930 acres, of which 
 945,526 acres are cultivated, 283,989 acres are cultivable, 
 but not actually under tillage, and 452,415 acres are 
 uncultivable and waste. The total population of the 
 district, according to the census of 1868, amounts to 
 1,035,488 souls, divided into the following classes : — 
 Hindus, 689,333; Mahometans, 286,874; Sikhs, 56,440; 
 others, 2841. The males numbered 567,930, and the 
 females 467,558; the proportion of males to the total 
 population being 54'84 per cent. The principal tribes and 
 castes in point of numbers are — (1.) Jits, viz., Hindus and 
 Sikhs, 161,967; Mahometans, 13,368: total, 175,335. (2.) 
 Chamars (Hindus), 125,638. (3.) Rajputs— viz., Hindus 
 and Sikhs, 20,121; Mahometans, 62,866: total, 82,987. 
 (4.) Brahmans, 63,744. (5.) Gujjars — viz., Hindu* end 
 Sikhs, 24,500; Mahometans, 24,195 total 48,695. (6.) 
 Banias (Hindui), 39,053. The total agricultural popula- 
 tion was 501,056. Taking the population as compared 
 with the area, the result give3 1"62 acres per head of the 
 population, or 3'35 acres per head of the agricultural 
 population. Putting aside the uncultivable and waste land, 
 there are 1"18 acres of cultivated or cultivable land per 
 head of the population, or 2'45 acres per head of the agri- 
 cultural population. Taking only the area under actual 
 cultivation, there are - 91 acres per head of population, or 
 1"88 acres per head of the agricultural pooulation. With 
 one small exception, the whole district consists of a level 
 alluvial plain, sloping away gradually from the foot of the 
 Himalayas, and lying between the rivers Jamna and Satlej. 
 These rivers do not materially affect the district, which 
 ha3 a drainage system of its own, consisting of the numerous 
 torrents and water-courses which pour down upon it from 
 the hills. In the southern portion of the district these 
 torrents run in broad sandy beds scarcely below the sur- 
 faco of the country, and vary from 200 yards to a mile in 
 width, until, at a distance of 20 or 30 miles from the hills, 
 thej" assume the form of comparatively docile streams, 
 with well-defined clay banks.- Towards the northern por- 
 tion of the district the torrents run in deep beds from the 
 point where they debouch from the hills; they also differ 
 from the streams of the southern tract in' being free from 
 sand. The principal of these northern streams is the 
 Ghaggar, into which all the other minor 3treams sooner or 
 later empty themselves, some within and some beyond 
 the limits of the district. Whatever surplus water of 
 this river is not swallowed up by irrigation passes on 
 through Patiala state and Sirsa, and is finally lost in the 
 Einds of Rajputanl The Ghaggar is the only perennial 
 Etream within the district, and even it dwindles down to a 
 tiny rivulet in the dry weather, and. disappears altogether 
 beyond the border of the district. 
 
 The Sind, Tanjab, and Dehli railway passes through the centre of 
 the district from south-east to north-west The other principal land 
 routes are two main lines of road, one passing through the district 
 farallel to the line of railway, and the other coming from Dehli and 
 
 Karnal, entering it on the «onth, and running northward till the two 
 roads meet at Ambala city. A less important rond runs northward 
 from this town to the foot of the Himalayas, and forms the route to 
 the hill station of Simli. The principal agricultural products o( 
 Ambala district are wheat, grain, and barley for the spring harvest 
 and rice, joar (spiked millet), and Indian corn in the autumn. The 
 total area under cultivation in 1871-72 was, for the spring harvest 
 437,377 acres, and for the autumn crop 496,542 acres. The land 
 settlement of the southern portion of the district was completed in 
 1853, and that of the northern part in 1855. Both will expire in 
 1880. The following eight towns are returned as containing a 
 population of upwards of 5000 souls, the first-named seven being 
 also municipalities ; Ambala, population, 60,662 souls ; Shahabad, 
 11,678; Jagadhrl, 11,678; Sadhaura, 11,198; Riipar, 8700; Buna, 
 8351 ; Thaneswar, 7929 ; Mani Majrd,' 6989. A municipal in- 
 come is also raised from the following seven towns : — Kharar, 
 Siswan, Morindah, Pihewah, Radaur, Ladwah, and Khizirabad. All 
 the municipalities derive their rdvcnue from a system of octroi 
 duties. The total revenue of Ambala district for 1871 was £101,362, 
 of which 74 per cent, or £74,446, was derived from the land. The 
 other principal items of revenue were as follows:— Distilleries, 
 £3594, 14s. ; drugs and opium, £3181, 4s. ; income-tax, £2709, 14s. ; 
 Btamps, £9308, 14«. ; local rates levied under Act xx. of 1871, 
 .£7653, 18s. Ambala is one of the territories previously held by 
 a Sikh Sarddr which lapsed to the East India Company in default 
 of rightful heirs. The district was seized by Ranjit Singh during 
 one of his marauding expeditions. This aggression caused the 
 movement of British troops in 1809 which resulted in the treaty 
 with Ranjit Singh by which he was required to withdraw his army 
 from the left bank of the Satlej, and to relinquish his recent con- 
 quests in Sirhind. 
 
 Ambala City, the capital of the district of the same 
 name, is situated in 30° 24' N. lat., and 76° 49' E. long. 
 It forms a large and important station on the Sind, Pan- 
 jab, and Dehli railway. The military station and can- 
 tonments lie a few miles south-east of the town. Ambala 
 is a large walled town, situated in a level and highly-culti- 
 vated country, well supplied with water, and capable of 
 furnishing abundant supplies. The houses are built of 
 burnt brick, and the streets are very narrow. The town 
 population is returned at 50,662 souls, but this probably 
 includes the English station. The population within muni- 
 cipal limits numbers 24,040, divided as follows: — Agricul- 
 turists, 3226; non-agriculturists, 20,814. The town has 
 been constituted a second-class municipality, the affairs of 
 which are conducted by a committee consisting of six 
 official and five non-official members. The municipal in- 
 come is derived from an octroi duty, and the revenue has 
 increased from £836, *16s. in 1867-68, to £1520 in 
 1871-72. The average incidence of municipal taxation in 
 the latter year was Is. 3Jd. per head of the population 
 within municipal limits. 
 
 AMBARVALIA, or Ambarvale Sacrum (ambio and 
 arvum,\o go round the field), an annual festival celebrated in 
 ancient Pome on three «days during the month of May. 
 The private ambarvalia is to be distinguished from the 
 sacrificium decs dice celebrated by the twelve fratres 
 arvalet, though the two festivals were coincident in point 
 of time and had a common object, namely, to obtain from 
 the gods a favourable harvest. The sacrificium was offered 
 up on behalf of the entire state ; the ambarvalia was cele- 
 brated by each proprietor for himself. The victims were 
 a sow, a sheep, and a bull, and were called by the combined 
 name suovelaurilia. Previous to the sacrifice these were 
 led round the fields, while the peasants sang hymns to 
 Ceres. The form of prayer used (carmen ambarvale) is 
 preserved in an inscription of the date of the Emperor 
 Elagabalus (218 A.r ), which was discovered in 1777. 
 The same inscription gives an interesting account of the 
 entire ceremony. (See Marini's Gli Atti e Monumenti de 
 ' Fratelli Arvali, Pome, 1792.) The Christian festival that 
 seems to have taken tho place of the ambarvalia is the 
 Rogation or Gang Week of the Roman Catholic Church, 
 for which the perambulation of the parish boundaries was 
 substituted at the Reformation.
 
 AMBASSADOR 
 
 657 
 
 AMBASSADOR, a word introduced into the English 
 language from the Fr. ambassadeur, the Ital. ambasciatore, 
 or the Span, embaxador, which Wicquefort derives, perhaps 
 without sufficient authority, from the Span, embiar, to send. 
 The word denotes a public minister of the highest rank, 
 accredited and sent by the head of a sovereign stake to a 
 foreign court or country, with power to represent the 
 person of the sovereign by whom he is sent, to negotiate 
 with a foreign government, and to watch over the interests 
 of his own nation abroad. The power thu3 conferred is 
 contained in the credentials or letters of credence of which 
 the ambassador is the bearer, and in the instructions 
 under the sign-manual delivered to himself. The creden- 
 tials consist in a sealed letter addressed by the sovereign 
 in person whose representative he is, to the sovereign to 
 whom he is sent, and they contain a general assurance that 
 the sovereign by whom he is despatched will approve and 
 confirm whatever is done by the ambassador in his name. 
 In England these letters of credence are under the sign- 
 manual of the Queen, and are not countersigned by the 
 Secretary of State. On special occasions, as for the nego- 
 tiation of treaties, additional an express powers are given 
 to an ambassador under the great seal, and sometimes 
 (but very rarely) full general powers to treat on all subjects. 
 Lord Clarendon held such powers at the congress of Paris 
 in 1856 
 
 Diplomatic envoys are of three ranks, as was finally 
 determined by a common agreement of all the powers 
 which was annexed to the final act of the treaty of Vienna 
 in 1815: — 1. Ambassadors; the ambassador of the pope 
 being called a nuncio, and the ambassador of the Emperoi 
 of Austria to the Sublime Porte being called his Lnter-nuncio. 
 These only have representative rani. 2. Envoys extraordi- 
 nary or ministers plenipotentiary, accredited to sovereigns 
 (auprks des souverains). 3. Charges d'affaires, who are only 
 entitled to transact business with the Minister of Foreign 
 Affairs. We shall confine ourselves in this article to the 
 diplomatic officers of the first rank. The relative number of 
 ambassadors, as distinguished from ministers, has of late 
 years been considerably increased. The Emperor Nicholas 
 refused for many years to send an ambassador to the court 
 of France, and he therefore suppressed the grade for a time 
 altogether. His example was imitated by other powers. 
 But the old practice has now been reverted to. The Queen 
 of England has embassies at Paris, Constantinople, Vienna, 
 St Petersburg, and Berlin. The number of British ministers 
 plenipotentiary is twenty-three, and three charge's d'affaires ; 
 but these numbers vary. 
 
 From the 15th century, when the practice of sending 
 resident embassies may be said to have commenced in 
 Europe, down to the close of the 18th century, these 
 missions were surrounded with a prodigious amount of 
 splendour, ceremonial, and contentious dignity. British 
 ambassadors were commonly sent out till within the last 
 thirty years in ships of war. The ambassador represented 
 a monarch, and was to play the part of one. The memoirs 
 of those ages are full of the magnificence and profuse 
 display which marked their progress — lacqueys, liveries, 
 state coaches, led horses, and all the pageantry of state. 
 Fierce disputes frequently arose between rival ambassadors 
 for precedence ; sometimes these disputes even extended to 
 the courts and ministers to whom these envoys were 
 despatched as messengers of peace, and a vast deal of time 
 was lost (especially at the Congress of Munster) in 
 adjusting them. On the part of the sovereign to whom 
 they were to present their credentials the same display was 
 made. The new ambassador was fetched by the master of 
 the ceremonies in the king's coaches and feasted at the 
 king's expense. The solemn entry and the public audience, 
 as they were termed, were an essential part of the mission. 
 
 The ambassador had the right to stand covered in the 
 presence- of royalty. At Venice the doge placed Sir 
 Harry Vane, covered and seated, on his right hand in the 
 Council of Ten. A speech was then delivered, in which 
 the ambassador declared the friendly sentiments of his own 
 sovereign, andhis own humble desire to give effect to them. 
 Modern simplicity and the facility of intercourse has swept 
 away many of these formalities. Traces of them survive 
 at the courts of Berlin and Vienna, but elsewhere an am- 
 bassador is presented with little more than the customary 
 ceremony of a court. It has long been held that every 
 state is at liberty to receive ambassadors with or without 
 ceremony, just as it pleases, provided they are all treated 
 alike. Formalities of this kind are, however, still of 
 moment in dealing with Oriental states, where ceremony is 
 the language of power. Perhaps it is nowhere carried to 
 higher perfection than at the court of Japan. The knotty 
 question of precedence was also settled at the Congress of 
 Vienna by an agreement that precedency should be regu- 
 lated by seniority, dating from the notification of the 
 arrival of the envoy. In foreign countries the senior am- 
 bassador is known as the dean or doyen of the diplomatic 
 body; but in England the diplomatic body has no general 
 mouthpiece or representative. 
 
 Every state or sovereign has the right, if it thinks fit, to 
 refuse to receive a particular person as an ambassador, or 
 even to receive any ambassador at all. It is therefore 
 customary to ascertain beforehand whether the person desig- 
 nated for an embassy is favourably regarded, and will be well 
 received. There have been instances, not very remote, of 
 unfavourable answers or refusals to receive given individuals. 
 
 The rank of an ambassador, as regards the society of the 
 nation to which he is accredited, places him immediately 
 after the princes of the blood royal, because he represents 
 a sovereign power, and this rank is universally conceded to 
 him. The rank of a minister plenipotentiary is rather 
 more dubious, but by a rule_ laid down by Her Majesty for 
 the court of St James they follow dukes and precede 
 marquises. An ambassador or minister not actually 
 accredited to this court has of course no official rank at 
 all, and must take his personal rank. No distinction is 
 made between the ambassadors of monarchies and of 
 republics. The Venetian ambassadors held in their time 
 a very prominent rank in Europe ; so in our day do the 
 ministers of the United States; but the United States have 
 never sent any ambassador to Europe — their representatives 
 therefore rank in the second class of public ministers. 
 
 We shall now proceed briefly to enumerate that which 
 constitutes the essential dignity and utility of an ambassador 
 — on the one hand his rights and privileges, on the other 
 his duties. 
 
 A. The first right of an ambassador is that of personal 
 audience of the sovereign. His credentials must invariably 
 be presented to the sovereign in person, and he may ask 
 for an audience on any fitting occasion. In England, 
 however, the sovereign does not officially receive an 
 ambassador except in the presence of one or more of the 
 ministers of the crown. Mr Canning complained bitterly 
 of the influence of Prince Lieven and Prince Esterhazy 
 over George IV, who lived on intimate terms with these 
 ambassadors, and used to say " his father would never 
 have done so." In England the right of audience is now 
 generally limited to the presentation of some congratulatory 
 letter ; but at Continental courts it is not without con- 
 siderable utility • and importance, as was shown by the 
 memo- able conversation of Sir Hamilton Seymour with t! : 
 Emperor Nicholas, and the personal interviews of Lord 
 Cowley and Lord Clarendon with the Emperor Napoleon IIL 
 
 In all ages the perfect personal security of persons in- 
 vested with high diplomatic functions, as the representa-
 
 658 
 
 AMBASSADOR 
 
 tivos of a foreign power, has beeu mi essential and funda- 
 mental principle of the law of nations. Indeed it was the 
 law of nations when there was no other. Alexander the 
 Great destroyed Tyre for an insult offered to his ambas- 
 sador; and it stands recorded in the Roman law, " Si quia 
 legatuni hostium pulsasset, contra jus gentium id commis- 
 sum ec" existimatur, quia sancti habentur legati" (Dig. L. 
 Tit. vii. § 17). In moments of excessive excitement or 
 revolutionary frenzy even this principle has been vio- 
 lated, as in the murder of Dr Dorislaus at the Hague 
 (1649), and of the French envoys at Eastadt (171)0); 
 but such acts leave an indelible disgrace on those 
 who have committed them. For it is the interest of 
 all mankind that ambassadors and envoys should have 
 absolute security to perform ■ their missions with freedom 
 of speech and the liberty "eundi et redeundi" undis- 
 turbed, insomuch that to intercept or refuse passage to an 
 ambassador, even through the territory of a third party, is 
 justly regarded as a base action, though probably the leave 
 of the third party to grant the passage ought to be asked. 
 It was the barbarous custom of Turkey to send an ambas- 
 sador to the Seven Towers on a declaration of war, and 
 detain him there as long as the war lasted; but the Porte 
 formally relinquished and abandoned this practice on the 
 breaking out of war with Russia in 1827. To secure this 
 im m unity from all interference, an accredited ambassador 
 or envoy is wholly free from the jurisdiction of the courts 
 of law, or of any other authority in the country in which 
 he is sent to reside. This constitutes the doctrine of extra- 
 territoriality. His house is as sacred as his person. It is 
 supposed, like a ship at sea, to form part of the territory 
 represented by the flag which he may hoist over it. All 
 the members of the embassy, and even the servants of the 
 ambassador, share the same inviolability. They cannot even 
 be arrested and prosecuted for offences without his consent. 
 Hence, as the courts of justice have no jurisdiction over 
 them, and indeed would have no means of enforcing an 
 adverse decision either by distress or imprisonment, these 
 diplomatic agents cannot be impleaded or sued. The only 
 means of obtaining redress for an injury or breach of con- 
 tract is an appeal to the head of the mission, or a further 
 appeal to the government which he represents, which, it 
 must be presumed, -will not allow a vrong to be committed 
 with impunity under the shelter of privilege. In England, 
 by the statute 7 Anne, c. 12, it is expressly enacted that 
 any process against foreign ambassadors or ministers, or 
 their goods and chattels, shall be altogether void. This 
 Act was passed in consequence of an attempt, made in 
 1708, to arrest an ambassador of Peter the Great in London 
 for a debt of £50, and it is still law; but in fact it is only 
 declaratory, and in confirmation of the common law and the 
 law of nations. 
 
 An ambassador or envoy pays no taxes or contributions 
 to the public revenue of the country in which he resides, 
 and on this principle he is entitled to receive commodities 
 from abroad free of customs duties. But he is not 
 exempted from the payment of local rates, — though, indeed, 
 if he were to decline to pay them, no process could issue 
 against him for the purpose of levying them. He also, 
 pays the ordinary rates of postage, but he has the privi- 
 lege of sending his own couriers carrying sealed despatches, 
 which exempts him from the monopoly of the post office. 
 These ojariers, and their despatches or mails, are also 
 regarded by common consent as inviolable messengers, 
 unless they chance in time of war to fall into the hands of 
 a hostile belligerent. In some countries ambassadors and 
 their couriers have been allowed to have, a prior claim for 
 post horses over private travellers. 
 
 Another of the important privileges of an ambassador or 
 bnvoy is the free exercise of the religion or form of worship 
 
 to which ho adheres; but it is laid down by the best writer* 
 on the subject that a foreign minister has not the right of 
 maintaining a ehapel or chaplain within his hotel, under 
 the law of nations; hence the liberty of religious worshin 
 for the ambassador and his suite was made a matter of 
 treaty engagement between Catholics and Protestants, and 
 between Christians and Mussulmans. By courtesy, though 
 not of strict right, the usage of ambassadors' chapels has, 
 however, become general; and it had a real importance in 
 countries where the free exercise of different forms of belief 
 was not tolerated by law. Thus, at the timo when the 
 rites of the Church of Rome were forbidden in England, 
 the Spanish and Bavarian chapels in London- were" free; 
 and they have remained in existence till our own days, 
 although the enlarged tolerance of the present age has 
 removed in every civilised country those barriers. In 
 China and Japan the free exercise of the Christian religion 
 by the Christian embassies is formally secured by treaty. 
 
 JB. We now pass to the duties of an ambassador, and we 
 place at the head of them that of keeping bis own sove- 
 reign well informed of all that may concern his interests 
 in foreign countries. He is the eye of the government he 
 serves, specially directed tr a pan.cular spot, and he ought 
 to be thoroughly acquainted with the course of policy, the 
 movements of parties, the character and disposition of 
 individual statesmen, and the material and commercial 
 resources of the country in which he resides. His public 
 despatches, and his private correspondence with the Minister 
 of Foreign Affairs under whom he serves, ought to be a 
 record of all that can interest t>r concern the state which 
 he represents. In this sense the diplomatic reports of the 
 ambassadors of former times are invaluable materials for 
 history. His next duty is to protect and defend, if neces- 
 sary, the persons Lnd interests of his fellow-countrymen 
 abroad; and this is of especial moment in the case of a 
 British ambassador, whose countrymen are to be met with 
 as travellers, navigators, or merchants in all parts of the 
 globe. To them the presence and influence of the diplo- 
 matic representatives of their country is of incalculable 
 value, and nothing can be more ill-judged than the pro- 
 posals that have been made to cut down and contract 
 our foreign embassies and missions. A third, but not less 
 important, duty of an ambassador is to maintain the most 
 amicable relations with the sovereign to whom he is 
 accredited, and with his ministers, and to observe towards 
 them the strictest respect, veracity, and good-will. It has 
 been said in joke that the first duty of an ambassador is to 
 keep a good cook ; but if this implies that he is to exercise 
 a liberal hospitality and to make his house agreeable, those' 
 no doubt are means whkh may powerfully assist him in 
 the objects of his mission. In former times it was con- 
 sidered to be essential to good diplomacy to act as a spy 
 upon the motives and conduct of foreign statesmen, to 
 cheat without being cheated, to use clandestine means to 
 obtain information, to endeavour to form a party in foreign 
 states favourable to the ambassador's own national interests, 
 to observe and resist with the utmost jealousy the demeanour 
 of other foreign envoys, and to carry on a species of 
 warfare under the mask of courtesy and good-breeding. 
 These practices have given diplomacy and the functions 
 of ambassadors a bad name, but it must be said that 
 they are repudiated by the principles and practice of 
 the present time, and more especially by the foreign 
 policy of this country. Down to a recent period, 
 these struggles for ascendancy in foreign countries were 
 carried on with great eagerness, and they led to unfor- 
 tunate results. In Spain, for example, the untoward 
 marriage of Queen Isabella was notoriously brought about 
 by the violent and arbitrary interference of the French 
 Embassador : and in 1848. when Lord Palmers ton instructed
 
 AMB-AMB 
 
 659 
 
 Sir Henry Bulwer to represent to the Spanish minister 
 that they Tould do well to adopt a more liberal and con- 
 stitutional system of government, General Narvaez imme- 
 diately sent the British envoy out of the country. This 
 was the exercise of an extreme right, for which the British 
 government could claim no redress. So, again, when in 
 the course of the Russian war (1855) it appeared to the 
 American government that the British envoy in Wash- 
 ington had infringed the neutrality laws of the United 
 States by endeavouring to enlist recruits for the service 
 of Her Majesty, he was compelled to leave the country, 
 and Great Britain had no just cause of complaint. These 
 modern cases are important, because they prove that no 
 state which respects itself will tolerate, on the part of a 
 •foreign envoy, a direct interference in the internal affairs 
 of government or an infraction of its own laws. HenCe 
 arises the great principle on which our modern practice is 
 founded, namely, that it is the duty of an ambassador W 
 observe a strict neutrality between contending parties in 
 the state to which he is accredited; to accept the govern- 
 ment de facto with which he communicates as the govern- 
 ment and sovereign of the nation; to pay implicit obedience 
 to the laws of that state, whatever they be; and to abstain 
 as much as possible from all intervention in its internal 
 affairs. These doctrines are comparatively new, but they 
 are sound, and they may be said to have received the 
 assent and the approval of the most' enlightened govern- 
 ments of Europe. Great changes have occurred within 
 the last few years in France, Germany, Austria, Italy, and 
 Spain; but they have all the distinguishing mark that 
 they are wholly independent of foreign diplomatic influ- 
 ence. The first, perhaps we ought to say the sole duty, of 
 an ambassador is to protect his own national interests and 
 to promote the most friendly relations with the sovereign 
 to whom he is accredited ; and experience has proved that 
 these objects are best secured by confining himself to the 
 principal objects of his mission, and by relying on no arts 
 but those of sincerity, forbearance, and truth (h. k.) 
 
 AMBATO, or Asiento d'Ambato, a town of Ecuador, 
 on the northern slope of Chimborazo, about 65 miles south 
 of Quinto, 8859 feet above the sea. It was destroyed by 
 an eruption of Cotopaxi in 1698, but was soon rebuilt, 
 and now carries on a flourishing trade in grain, sugar, and 
 cochineal. Population, 12,000. 
 
 AMBER (Gr. "HXexiyw; Lat, Succinum, Electrum; 
 Ft. Succin, Ambre ; Ger. Bernstein) is a hard, brittle 
 substance with a resinous lustre, sometimes found perfectly 
 transparent, but more usually of varying degrees of trans- 
 lucency, and possessing a prevailing yellow colour, passing 
 from a pale straw tint to a deep orange. It occurs in 
 irregular masses, and has neither taste nor, at ordinary 
 temperatures, odour. It . develops electrical phenomena 
 by friction, a property which doubtless early drew atten- 
 tion to amber, and invested it with the romantic interest 
 which attached to it in ancient times. The popular regard 
 for the substance among the nations of antiquity was 
 further maintained by the fabulous tales of the manner in 
 which amber was formed and the mystery connected with 
 its occurrence. 
 
 The earliest notice of amber we .find occurs in the 
 Odyssey of Homer, where in the list of jewels offered by 
 Phoenician traders to the Queen of Syra occurs " the gold 
 necklace hung with bits of amber " (Od. xv. 460). Thales 
 of Miletus, 600 B.C., noticed that amber when rubbed 
 attracted light bodies, and that remote and simple observa- 
 tion is the foundation of the modern science of electricity, 
 so named from the Greek tjXcktpov. Among the Greek 
 fables purporting to account for the origin of amber, it is 
 narrated that the Heliadae, on seeing their brother Phsethon 
 hurled by the lightning of Jove into the Eridanus, were 
 
 by the pitying gods transformed into poplar trees, and the 
 tears they shed were dropped' as amber on the shores of 
 ^the river. Hence arose the Greek term for amber, 
 "HXtKTtap being one of the names of the sun god. A less 
 poetical theory of its origin states that it was formed from 
 the condensed urine of the lynx inhabiting northern Italy, 
 the pale varieties being produced by the females, while the 
 deeper tints were attributed to males. In such repute was 
 amber in Rome in the time of Pliny that he sarcastically 
 remarks, " the price of a small figure in it, howevei 
 diminutive, exceeds that of a living healthy slave." 
 Besides its application to jewellery and carved ornaments, 
 and its use, partly decorative and partly prophylactic, aa 
 necklaces, peculiar virtues were attributed to it. Pliny 
 observes — " True it is that a collar of amber beads worn 
 about the necks of young infants is a singular preservative 
 to them against secret poisen, and a counter-charm for 
 witchcraft and sorceries." As an article of personal orna- 
 mentation, the same authority states that amber was used 
 to produce imitations of precious stones by artificial 
 staining, a use to which it was peculiarly adapted owing 
 to its brilliant lustre combined with the ease with whichit 
 could be worked and polished. 
 
 The great source of supply of amber in all age3 appears 
 to have been the Baltic coasts, from vhich the supplies of 
 commerce still continue to be drawn. During the reign 
 of Nero an expedition was sent from Rome to explore the 
 amber-producing country, and so successful was the party 
 that a present of 13,000 fi of amber was brought back 
 to the emperor, including a piece weighing 13 lb. It 
 occurs in regular veins along the Baltic coast, but in 
 greatest abundance between Pillau and Grosz Hubenicken, 
 on the Prussian coast. Professor Phillips thus describes 
 the mines :— 
 
 " Near the sea-coast in Prussia there are regular mines for the 
 working of amber : under a stratum of sand and clay, about 20 feet 
 thick, a stratum of bituminous wood occurs, from 40 to 50 feet 
 thick, of a blackish brown .colour, and impregnated with pyrites. 
 Parts of these trees are. impregnated with amber, which sometimes 
 is found in stalactites depending from them. Under the stratum 
 of trees were found pyrites, sulphate of iron, and coarse sand, in 
 which were rounded masses of amber. The mine is worked to the 
 depth of 100 feet ; and from the circumstances under which the 
 amber is found it seems plain that it originates from vegetable 
 juices." 
 
 After heavy storms large ■ quantities are usually found 
 thrown up on the coast- at the localities where it is 
 regularly excavated, and the assumption is, that amberifer' 
 ous deposits crop up in the shallow waters near the shores, 
 from which pieces become detached during the violent com- 
 motion of the water. It is further sparingly cast on the 
 Swedish and Danish coasts, and occasionally pieces are 
 picked up along the shores of Norfolk, Essex, and Sussex 
 in .England. It occurs at numerous localities inland 
 throughout Europe, among which may be noted the 
 neighbourhood of Basle in Switzerland, the departments 
 of Aisne, Loire, Gard, and Bas Rhin in France, and in the 
 Paris clay it is associated with- bituminous deposits. In 
 England it ha3 been found in the sandy deposits of the 
 London clay at Kensington. The coasts of Sipily and the 
 Adriatic likewise afford amber. The most beautiful 
 specimens are perhaps these which are found at Catania, 
 They often possess a beautiful play of colour, approaching 
 to purple, not to be observed in the product of other places. 
 Professor Dana gives the following note on its occurrence 
 in America : — 
 
 "It has been found in various parts of the greensand formation of 
 tie United States, either loosely embedded in. the soil or engaged in 
 msrl or lignite, as at Gay Head or Slather's Vineyard, near Trenton, 
 and also at Camden, in New Jersey, and at Cape Sable, sear 
 Magothy river, in Maryland."
 
 0130 
 
 A M B-A5IC 
 
 It is said to be taken in large quantities from the north of 
 Burmah to the markets of China, where it is highly prized. 
 
 The appearance of enclosed foreign bodies, such as 
 insects, leaves, twigs, «kc, which amber very often presents, 
 and the markings on its surface, very early led to correct 
 inferences as to its origin. Pliny states that " amber is 
 an exudation from trees of the pine family, like gum from 
 the cherry and resin from the ordinary pine ; and in 
 accordance with this opinion is its Latin name succinum, 
 the gum-stone. The opinion expressed by Pliny is that 
 which at tho present day may be fairly held as established ; 
 but of course amber differs from other resins owing to 
 changes induced by its fossilised condition. Sir David 
 Brewster has pointed out that in optical properties it 
 agrees with other resinous exudations. The insects found 
 enclosed in amber aro for the most part of extinct species, 
 and so also are the remains of plants. A species of conifer 
 has been established provisionally as the amber-yielding tree, 
 Pinites succinifer, but Gopptrt has shown that many trees 
 may have yielded tho exudation, and these not all neces- 
 sarily belonging to the pine order. 
 
 The close relation of amber to ordinary resins is further 
 brought out by its chemical properties and composition. 
 According to Berzelius, it consists mainly of a resin, 
 succinite, insoluble in alcohol, in combination with small 
 proportions of two others, isomeric with the first, but soluble 
 in alcohol and ether. By dry distillation it gives off at a 
 low temperature water, succinic acid, and oil of amber, 
 which last substance was formerly used in medicine in 
 combination with alcohol and ammonia under the name of 
 eau de luce; but now amber and all its products have 
 disappeared from the standard pharmacopoeias. Its com- 
 position is, according to Schrotter — 
 
 Carbon 7894 
 
 Hydrogen 1053 
 
 Oxygen 10-53 
 
 and mineralogically it belongs to Dana's class of oxygenated 
 hydrocarbons. It burns with a pale yellow flame, with a 
 good deal of black smoke, evolving an agreeable odour, and 
 leaving a shining black carbonaceous residue. 
 
 It is said that by exposing amber covered with sand in 
 an iron pot to tho influence of heat for forty hours, or 
 boiling it for twenty hours in rape oil, it will become 
 trauspatent, and pieces will cement and mould together. 
 The great size of vessels of amber which have come 
 down from ancient times suggests the probability of some 
 such art being practised in remote periods. It is now 
 applied to few useful purposes among western nations 
 beyond forming tho mouthpieces for tobacco-pipes and 
 cigar-holders. Fine pieces are in some demand for public 
 collections and for the purposes of the carver. In tho East, 
 besides its being highly prized for ornamental purposes, a 
 feeling of veneration for its mystic properties still en- 
 hances its value. The Turks esteem it highly as a mouth- 
 piece for tobacco pipes, and believe that it resists the 
 transmission of infection. The principal demand for the 
 amber of commerce is among tho Armenians, through 
 whom it is conveyed to Egypt, Persia, China, and Japan ; 
 and a great quantity is purchased to be consumed at the 
 shrine of Mahomet by the pilgrims bound to Mecca. The 
 value of amber depends upon its colour, its lustre, and its 
 size. In 1576 a mass weighing 11 lb was found in 
 Prussia, and deemed worthy of being presented to the 
 ror; later, a mass of 13 lb was found, for which it is 
 said 5000 dollars were refused. In the royal cabinet at 
 Berlin a piece is shown weighing IS lb; but such masses 
 are of very great rarity. 
 
 AMBERG, a walled town of Bavaria, formerly the 
 capital of tho Upper Palatinate, and at present the scat of 
 the appeal court for the district, is situated on both sides 
 
 of the Vil-.. 3"> miles cast of Nuic.nbcrg. It is a well- 
 built town, and has a bbrary, a gymnasium, a lyceum, 
 elementary schools, an arsenal, and several churches, tho 
 finest of which is St Martin's, with many fine paintings, 
 and a tower 300 feet high. Ttic principal manufactures aro 
 fire-arms, ironmongery, earthenware, woollen cloth, beer, 
 and salt; in the neighbourhood arc iron and coal mines. 
 The French under Jourdan were defeated by the Austriana 
 near Amberg in 1796. Population in 1871, 11,688. 
 
 AMBERGRIS (Ambra grisea, Ambre gris, or Grey 
 Amber) is a solid, fatty, inflammable sabstance of a dull 
 grey or blackish colour, the shades being variegated hko 
 marble, possessing a peculiar sweet earthy odour. It is 
 now known to be a morbid secretion formed in tho intes- 
 tines of the spermaceti whale (Phi/scter macroceplialus), and 
 is found floating upon the sea, on the sea-coast, or in the 
 sand near the sea-coast. It is met with in the Atlantic 
 Occau, on tho coasts of Brazil and Madagascar; also on 
 the coast of Africa, of the East Indies, China, Japan, and 
 the Molucca Islands; but most of the ambergris which is 
 brought to England comes from the Bahama Islands, 
 Providence, <tc. It is also sometimes found in tho ab- 
 domen of whales, always in lumps in various shapes and 
 sizes, weighing from i oz. to 100 or more lb.. A piece which 
 the Dutch East India Company bought from the King 
 of Tydore weighed 182 lb. An American fisherman from 
 Antigua found, inside a whale, about 52 leagues south-cast 
 from the Windward Islands, a piece of ambergris which 
 weighed about 130 lb, and sold for ,£500 steriing. Like 
 many other substances regarding the origin of which there 
 existed some obscurity or mystery, ambergris in former 
 times possessed a value, and had properties attributed to it, 
 moro on account of tho source from which it was drawn 
 than from its inherent qualities. Many ridiculous hypo- 
 theses were started to account for its origin, and among 
 others it was conjectured to be the solidified foam of tho 
 sea, a fungoid growth in the ocean similar to the fungi 
 which form on trees, the excreta of sea-birds, <tc The 
 true source and character of ambergris was first satisfac- 
 torily established by Dr Swediaur in a commuuicatio.n to 
 the Royal Society (Philosophical Transactions, vol. lxxiii. ) 
 It wa3 found by Dr Swediaur that ambergris very fre- 
 quently contained the horny mandibles or beaks of the 
 squid (Sepia moschata), on which spenn whales are known 
 to feed. That observation, in connection with the fact of 
 ambergris beiug frequently taken from the intestines of 
 the sperm whale, sufficiently proved that it was formed 
 within that creature, and not an extraneous substance 
 swallowed by the .whale. It was further observed that the 
 whales in which ambergris was found were cither dead 
 or much wasted and evidently in a sickly condition. 
 From this it was inferred that ambergris was in some way 
 connected with a morbid condition of the sperm whale. 
 Ambergris, when taken from the intestinal canal of the 
 sperm whale, is of a deep grey colour, soft consistence, and 
 a disagreeable smell On exposure to the air it gradually 
 hardens, becomes pale, and develops its peculiar sweet 
 earthy odour. In that condition its specific gravity ranges 
 from 0-780 to 0-926. It melts at a temperature of about 
 145° Fahr. into a fatty yellow resinous-like liquid; and at 
 212° it is volatilised into a white vapour. It is soluble in 
 ether, volatile and fixed oils, but only feebly acted on by 
 acids. By digesting in hot alcohol, a peculiar substance 
 termed ambrein is obtained, which deposits in brilliant 
 white crystals as the solution cools. In chemical constitu- 
 tion ambrein very closely resembles cholesterin, a principle 
 found abundantly in biliary calculi. It is therefore more 
 than probable that ambergris, from the position in which it 
 is found and its chemical constitution, is a biliary concrc 
 I tion analogous to what is formed in other mammals. The
 
 AMB-AMB 
 
 661 
 
 use of ambergris in Europe is now entirely confined to 
 perfumery, though, it formerly occupied no inconsiderable 
 place in medicine. As a material of perfumery its price 
 varies from 15s. to 25s. per ounce; and in minute quantities 
 its alcoholic solution is much used for giving a " floral" 
 fragrance to bouquets, washes, and other preparations of 
 the perfumer. It occupies a very important place in the 
 perfumery of the East, and there it is also used in phar- 
 macy, and as a flavouring material in cookery. The high 
 price it commands makes it peculiarly liable to adultera- 
 tion, but its genuineness is easily tested by its solubility 
 in hot alcohol, its fragrant odour, and its uniform fatty 
 consistence on being penetrated by a hot wire. 
 
 AMBERT, chief town of an arrondissement of the same 
 name in the department of Puy de Dome, France, situated 
 on the Dore, 35 miles from Clermont. Its chief manu- 
 factures are paper, linen, lace, ribands, and pins; it has 
 also an extensive trade in cheese of a very fine quality. 
 Population in 1872, 7625. 
 
 AMBLESIDE, a small market town in Westmoreland, 
 situated about a mile from the head of Lake Windermere, 
 and 14 miles from Kendal. . During the summer it is much 
 frequented by tourists on account of its beautiful situation. 
 In its vicinity is Rydal Mount, for many years the resi- 
 dence of the poet Wordsworth. Some indistinct remains 
 of Roman fortifications, in which coins, urns, and other 
 relics have been frequently discovered, exist in the neigh- 
 bourhood. Coarse woollen cloths are manufactured at 
 Ambleside. Population in 1871, 1988. 
 
 AMBLETEUSE, a seaport town of France, in the 
 department of the Pas de Calais, on the English Channel, 
 6 miles north of Boulogne. From the accumulation of 
 sand in its harbour it has lost its importance as a seaport, 
 and the town is now almost deserted. It possesses an 
 historical interest as the landing-place of James IL after 
 his abdication in 1688; and Napoleon I. in 1804 attempted 
 to improve the harbour for the flat-bottomed boats by 
 means of which he was to invade England. Near Amble- 
 teuse is the column which he erected to the grand army in 
 1805. Population, about 700. 
 
 AMBO, or Ambon (Gr. afipwv, from avapaivto), a read- 
 ing-desk or pulpit in early Christian churches which was 
 placed in the middle of the nave. It was ascended by a 
 flight of steps on both the east and west sides, and was in 
 some cases so large as to accommodate fifty persons. From 
 it the lessons were read, and hence it, was sometimes 
 called suggestus lectorum, and (Srju.a t£>v dvayvcucnw. It 
 was also occasionally used by the preacher. Two movable 
 anibos may be seen in the church of St John Lateran at 
 Kome. The purposes of the ambo were served in mediaeval 
 churches by the rood-loft, a gallery across the chancel-arch, 
 and in modern churches it has given place to the lectern 
 and the pulpit. 
 
 AMBOISE, a town situated in a rich wine-producing 
 district in the department of Indre-et-Loire, France, on 
 the left tank of the Loire, 14 miles east of Tours. Its 
 chief manufactures are cloth and files. At Amboise the 
 French Protestants were first called Huguenots, and 1200 
 of them were massacred there in 1560 on the discovery of 
 their conspiracy against the Guises. The ancient castle, 
 which is situated on a height above the town, was a seat 
 of the French kings, and it was set apart as a residence 
 for the Arab chief Abd-el-Kader during his captivity in 
 France. Population, 4570. ' 
 
 AMBOYNA, one of the Moluccas or Spice Islands, be- 
 longing to the Dutch, lying south-west of Ceram, in 3° 
 41' S". lat. and 128° 10' E. long. It is 32 miles in length, 
 with an area of about 280 square miles, and is of very 
 irregular figure, being almost divided into two. The south- 
 eastern and smaller portion (called Lcitimor) is united to 
 
 the northern (known as Hitoe) Dy a neck of land about 
 a mile broad. The island is mountainous, but is for the 
 most part fertile and well-watered. Large tracts are 
 covered with rich tropical forests, which embrace a great 
 variety of trees, although ordinary building timber u 
 scarce. The climate is comparatively pleasant and healthy; 
 the average temperature is 80° Fahr., rarely sinking below 
 72°. The rainfall, however, after the eastern monsoons, 
 is very heavy, and the island is liable to violent hurricanes 
 and earthquakes. Amboyna produces most of the-common 
 tropical fruits and vegetables, including the sago-palm, 
 bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, sugar-cane, maize, coffee, pepper, 
 and cotton. Cloves, however, form its chief product, 
 and the only one that is of any real commercial import- 
 ance. The Dutch' have done much to foster the cultiva- 
 tion of this article in the island, and at one time prohibited 
 the rearing of the clove-tree in all the other islands subject 
 to their rule, in order to secure the monopoly to Amboyna. 
 Each tree yields annually from 2 to 5 lb of cloves, and 
 sometimes even more; while the total annual quantity 
 produced probably averages about 500,000 lb. The animal 
 kingdom is poorly represented. Indigenous mammals are 
 feeble in species as well as few in number; birds are more 
 abundant, but of no greater variety. The entomology of the 
 island is, however, very rich, particularly among the Lepi- 
 doplera. The aborigines of Amboyna are a race called 
 Horaforas, but Malays constitute the main body of the 
 population ; there are also Chinese, Dutch, and a few Por- 
 tuguese. The Malays in most points resemble those of 
 Java. They are naturally lazy and effeminate, but when 
 properly trained make good soldiers. The inhabitants 
 are mostly Christians or Mahometans. Amboyna is the 
 chief island of the Dutch residence of the Moluccas, which 
 comprises, in addition, the islands of Boeroe, Amblauw, 
 Ceram, Manipa, Kilang, Bonoe, Haroekoe, Honimoa or 
 Saparoa, Noesa-laut, and Hila. The Portuguese were the 
 first European nation to visit Amboyna (1512). They esta- 
 blished a factory there in 1521, but did not obtain peace- 
 able possession of it till 1580, and were dispossessed by 
 the Dutch in 1605. About the year 1615 the British 
 formed a settlement in the island, at Cambello, which they 
 retained until 1623, when it was destroyed by the Dutch, 
 and frightful tortures inflicted on the unfortunate persons 
 connected with it. In 1654, after many fruitless nego- 
 tiations, Cromwell compelled the United Provinces to 
 give the sum of £300,000, together with a small island, 
 as compensation to the descendants of those who suffered 
 in the "Amboyna massacre." In 1796 the British, under 
 Admiral Rainier, captured Amboyna, but restored it to 
 the Dutch at the peace of Amiens in 1802. It was 
 recaptured by the British in 1810, but once more restored 
 to the Dutch in 1814. Population, about 50,000. See 
 Moluccas. 
 
 Amboyna, the chief town of the above island," and also 
 of the Dutch Moluccas, is situated towards the north-west 
 of the peninsula of Leitimor. The streets are broad and 
 unpaved, running at right angles to one another, and inter- 
 sected by numerous rivulets. The houses are of wood, 
 roofed with palm leaves, and mostly of one storey, on 
 account of the frequent earthquakes. An esplanade of 
 250 yards reaches from Fort Victoria to the town, and is 
 terminated by a handsome range of houses. The town- 
 house is a neat structure of two storeys ; and among the 
 other buildings are two Protestant churches and a hospital. 
 The government offices are in Fort Victoria. The road- 
 stead of Amboyna is safe and commodious. Population, 
 about 13,000. 
 
 AMBRACIA, or Ampracia, an important city of ancient 
 Epirus, situated on the eastern bank of the river Arach- 
 thus, about seven miles from the Ambracian Gulf.
 
 662 
 
 A M B — A M 13 
 
 According to tradition, it was originally a Thesprotian 
 town, founded by Ainbrax, son of Thesprotus, or by 
 Ambracia, daughter of Augeas. About 635 B.C. it was 
 colonised by Corinthians, and so became a Greek .city. 
 Its power increased rapidly until the time of the Pelopon- 
 nesian war, when it commanded the whole of Amphilochia,- 
 including tho town of Argos, from which the original 
 inhabitants were expelled. In 432 B.c. the ex] 
 citizens, with the assistance of the Athenians under 
 Phorrnion, retook Argos. In 430 the Anibracians made 
 an unsuccessful attempt to recover the town, and a second 
 attack in 426 resulted in a still more disastrous failure. 
 The power of Ambracia now declined as rapidly a3 it had 
 grown. In 338-7 it was compelled to submit to Philip of 
 Macedonia, and it remained subject to that kingdom until 
 it was ceded by Alexander V. to Pyrrhus of Epirus about 
 295. The latter made it his capital, and enriched it with 
 numerous works of art It subsequently came under the 
 power of the JEtolian League (239), and sustained a 
 memorable siege in the war- between the latter and Rome 
 (189). In the end the city opened its gates to the 
 enemy, who removed many of its most valuable works of 
 art to Rome. In 31 B.c. the inhabitants of Ambracia 
 were removed by Augustus to Nicopolis, the town he had 
 founded in commemoratidn of the victory of Actium. The 
 site of Ambracia is occupied by the modern Arta, near 
 which remains of the ancient fortifications may be seen. 
 
 AMBROSE of Alexandria lived in the beginning of 
 the third century. Jerome and Eusebius differ in the 
 account they give of him, the one calling him a Marcionite, 
 the other a Valentinian ; but they agree in alleging that 
 he was converted to the orthodox faith by the preaching 
 of Origen. Origen dedicated many of his works, among 
 others his book On Martyrdom, to Ambrose, at whose 
 desire and expense they were published, and the two lived 
 on terms of the most intimate friendship. According to 
 some, Ambrose died a martyr in the persecution under 
 Maximin, about the year 236; but the dedication of 
 Origen's Eight Books against Celsus proves that ho lived 
 to the year 250, or near that period. - Origen speaks of 
 him as a man of sincere piety, and much devoted to the 
 study of the Scriptures. 
 
 AMBROSE, Saint, Bishop of Milan, was one of the 
 most eminent fathers of the church in the fourth century. 
 He was a citizen of Rome, born in Gaul, — according to 
 some historians, in the year 334, but according to others 
 in 340. At the period of his birth his father was prae- 
 torian prefect of Gallia Narbonensis ; and upon his death 
 the widow repaired to Rome with her family. Ambrose 
 received a religious education, and was reared in habits of 
 virtue by his mother, an accomplished woman, and eminent 
 for her piety. The names of his instructors in the rudi- 
 ments of Greek and Roman literature have not been trans- 
 mitted to posterity ; but in these branches he made early 
 proficiency, and having directed his attention to the law, 
 he employed his eloquence with such reputation in the prae- 
 torian court of Anicius Probus, that he was soon deemed 
 worthy of a place in the council. After he had continued 
 in this station for some time, Probus appointed him con- 
 sular prefect of Liguria and /Emilia, comprehending the 
 territories of Milan, Liguria, Turin, Genoa, and Bologna. 
 Milan was chosen as the place of hi3 residence ; and, by 
 the prudent and gentle use of his power, ho conducted tho 
 affairs of the province with general approbation and grow- 
 ing popularity. 
 
 The death of Auxentius, bishop of Milan, in the year 374, 
 made a sudden change in the fortune and literary pursuits 
 of Ambrose. At that period the tide of religious conten- 
 tion ran Li^h between the orthodox and the Arians, and a 
 violent content arose concerning the choice of a successor 
 
 to Auxentius. When the people were assembled in the 
 church to elect the new bishop, Ambrose, in the character 
 of governor of the place, presented himself to the assembly, 
 and in a grave, eloquent, and pathetic address, admonished 
 the multitude to lay aside their contentions, and proceed to 
 the election in tho spirit of religious meekness. It is 
 reported that when Ambrose had finished his address, 
 a child cried out, "Ambrose is bishop," and that the 
 ted multitude, regarding this as a miraculous inti- 
 mation, unanimously elected Ambrose bishop of Milan. 
 Some suppose that this was entirely a device of Ambrose 
 or his friends ; others ascribe it to mere accident Am- 
 brose professed strong reluctance, and even fled, or pre- 
 tended to fly, from tho city in order to avoid the intended 
 honour. The place of his concealment, however, was soon 
 discovered ; the emperor's confirmation of his election was 
 made' known to him ; and after being baptized, he was 
 ordained bishop of Milan, about the end of tho year 374. 
 Whatever we may think of the singular conduct of Ambrose 
 in accepting an office for which he was certainly unqualified 
 in respect of previous studies, habits, and employments, 
 it must be admitted that he immediately betook himself 
 to the necessary studies, and acquitted himself in his new 
 elevation with ability, boldness, and integrity. Having 
 apportioned his money among the poor, and settled his lands 
 upon the church, with the exception of making his sister 
 tenant during life, and having committed the care of his 
 family to his brother, he entered upon a regular course 
 of theological study, under the care of Simplician, a pres- 
 byter of Rome, and devoted himself to the labours of the 
 church. 
 
 The irruption of the Goths and the northern barbarians, 
 who rushed down upon the Roman empire at this time, 
 spreading terror and desolation all around, compelled 
 Ambrose, along with several others, to retire to Illyricum 
 but his exile was of short duration, for the northern in- 
 vaders were quickly defeated by the forces of the emperor, 
 and driven back with considerable loss into their own 
 territories. 
 
 The eloquence of Ambrose soon found ample scope in 
 the dispute between the Arians and the orthodox. About 
 this era the doctrine of Arius concerning the person ot 
 Christ had been extensively received, and had many power- 
 ful defenders both among the clergy and the common 
 people. Ambrose espoused the cause of the Catholics. 
 Gratian, the son of the elder Valentinian, took the same 
 side; but the younger Valentinian, whohadnow become his 
 colleague in the empire, adopted the opinions of the Arians; 
 and all the arguments and eloquence of Ambrose were in- 
 sufficient to reclaim the young prince to the orthodox faith. 
 Theodosius, the emperor of the East, also professed the 
 orthodox belief ; but there wero many adherents of Arius 
 scattered throughout his dominions. In this distracted 
 state of religious opinion, two leaders of the Arians, Pal- 
 ladius and Secundianus, confident of numbers, prevailed 
 upon Gratian to call a general council from all parts of 
 that empire. This request appeared so equitable that he 
 complied without hesitation ; but Ambrose, foreseeing the 
 consequence, prevailed upon the emperor to have the matter 
 determined by a council of the Western bishops. A synod, 
 composed of thirty-two bishops, was accordingly held at 
 Aquileia in the year 381. Ambrose was elected president; 
 and Palladius being called upon to defend his opinions, 
 declined, insisting that the meeting was a partial one, and 
 that the whole bishops of tho empire not being present, 
 the sense of the Christian church concerning the question 
 in dispute could not be obtained. A vote was then taken, 
 when Palladius and his associate Secundianus were de- 
 posed from the episcopal office. 
 
 Ambrose was equally zealous in combating tho heathen
 
 AMBROSE 
 
 663 
 
 superstitions Upon the accession of Valentinian II. , many 
 of the senators who remained attached to the pagan idolatry 
 made a vigorous effort to restore the worship of the heathen 
 deities. Symmachus, a very opulent man and a great orator, 
 who was at that time prefect of the city, was intrusted with 
 the management of the pagan cause, and drew up a forcible 
 petition, praying for' the restoration of the altar of Victory 
 to its ancient station. in the hall of the senate, the proper 
 support of seven vestal virgins, and the regular observance 
 of the other pagan ceremonies. In the petition he argued 
 that this form of religion had long been profitable to the 
 Roman state, and reminded the emperor howmuch Rome had 
 been indebted to Victory, and that it had been the uniform 
 custom of the senators to swear fidelity to the government 
 upon that altar. He likewise adduced many facts to prove 
 the advantages accruing to the state from its ancient religious 
 institutions, and pleaded that, as it was one divinity that 
 all men worshipped under different forms, ancient practice 
 should not be rashly laid aside. He even proceeded so 
 far as to assert the justice of increasing the public revenue 
 by robbing the church, and attributed the late famine which 
 had overtaken the empire to the neglect of the ancient 
 worship. To this petition Ambrose replied in a letter to 
 Valentinian, arguing that the devoted worshippers of idols 
 had often been forsaken by their deities ; that the native 
 valour of the Roman soldiers had gained their victories, 
 and not the pretended influence of pagan priests; that 
 these idolatrous worshippers requested for themselves what 
 they refused to Christians; that voluntary was more 
 honourable than constrained virginity ; that as the Christian 
 ministers declined to receive temporal emoluments, they 
 should also be denied to pagan priests ; that it was absurd 
 to suppose that God would inflict a famine upon the 
 empire for neglecting to support a religious system con- 
 trary to His will as revealed in the Scriptures ; that the 
 whole process of nature encouraged innovations, and that 
 all nations had permitted them, even in religion ; that 
 heathen sacrifices were offensive to Christians; and that it 
 was the duty of a Christian prince to suppress pagan 
 ceremonies. In the epistles of Symmachus and of Ambrose 
 both the petition and the reply are preserved, in which 
 sophistry, superstition, sound sense, and solid argument 
 are strangely blended. It is scarcely necessary to add that 
 the petition was unsuccessful. 
 
 The increasing strength of the Arians proved too 
 formidable for Ambrose. In 384 the young emperor and 
 his mother Justina, along with a considerable number of 
 clergy and laity professing the Arian faith, requested from 
 the bishop the use of two churches, one in the city, the 
 other in the suburbs of Milan. The prelate believing the 
 bishops to be the guardians both of the temporal and 
 spiritual interests of the church, and regarding the religious 
 edifices as the unquestionable property of the church, 
 positively refused to deliver up the temples of the Lord 
 into the impious hands of heretics. Filled with indig- 
 nation, Justina resolved to employ the imperial authority 
 of her son in procuring by force what she could not obtain 
 by persuasion. Ambrose was required to answer for his 
 conduct before the council. He went, attended by a 
 numerous crowd of people, whose impetuous zeal so over- 
 awed the ministers of Valentinian that he was permitted 
 to retire without making the surrender of the churches. 
 The day following, when he was performing divine service 
 in the Basilica, the prefect of the city came to persuade 
 him to give up at least the Portian church in the suburbs. 
 As he still continued obstinate, the court proceeded to 
 violent measures : the officers of the household were com- 
 manded to prepare the Basilica and the Portian churches 
 to celebrate divine service upon the arrival of the emperor 
 and his mother at the ensuing festival of Easter. Perceiving 
 
 the growing strength of the prelate's interest, the court 
 deemed it prudent to restrict its demand to the use of one 
 of the churches. But all entreaties proved in vain, and 
 drew forth the following characteristic declaration from 
 the bishop : — " If you demand my person, I am ready to 
 submit : carry me to prison or to death, I will not resist ; 
 but I will never betray the church of Christ. I will not 
 call upon the people to succour me ; I will die at the foot 
 of the altar rather than desert it. The tumult of the peoplo 
 I will not encourage ; but God alone can appease it." 
 
 Many circumstances in the history of Ambrose are 
 strongly characteristic of the general spirit of the times. 
 The chief causes of his victory over his opponents were 
 his great popularity and the superstitious reverence paid 
 to the episcopal character at that period. But it must also 
 be noted that he used several indirect means to obtain and 
 support his authority with the people. He was liberal to 
 the poor ; it was his custom to comment severely in his 
 preaching on the public characters of his times ; and he 
 introduced popular reforms in the order and manner of 
 public worship. It is alleged, too, that at a time when 
 the influence of Ambrose required vigorous support, he was 
 admonished in a dream to search for, and found under the 
 pavement of the church, the remains of two martyrs, 
 Gervasius and Protasius. The vulgar crowded to behold 
 these venerable relics, and, according to report, a number 
 of sick persons were healed by touching the bones. 
 Ambrose exulted in these miracles, and appealed to them 
 in his eloquent sermons ; while the court derided and 
 called in question their existence. It is remarkable that 
 these and many other miracles obtained current credit 
 among the Christian historians of the second, third, and 
 fourth centuries; and Dr Cave, in speaking of them, 
 says — " I make no doubt but God suffered them to be 
 wrought at this time on purpose to confront the Anan 
 impieties." , 
 
 Although the court was displeased with the religious 
 principles and conduct of Ambrose, it respected his great 
 political talents ; and when necessity required, his aid was 
 solicited and generously granted. When Maximus usurped 
 the supreme power in Gaul, and was meditating a descent 
 upon Italy, Valentinian sent Ambrose to dissuade him from 
 the undertaking ; and the embassy was successful. On a 
 second attempt of the same kind Ambrose was again 
 employed ; and although he was unsuccessful, it cannot be 
 doubted that, if his advice had been followed, the schemes 
 of the usurper would have proved abortive ; but the enemy 
 was permitted to enter Italy, and Milan was taken. 
 Justina and her son fled ; but Ambrose remained at his 
 post, and did good service to many of the sufferers by 
 causing the plate of the church to be melted for their 
 relief. Theodosius, the emperor of the East, espoused 
 the cause of Justina, and regained the kingdom. 
 
 In the year 390 a tumult happened at Thessalonica, in 
 which Botheric, one of the imperial officers, was slain. 
 Theodosius was so enraged at this that he issued a royal 
 mandate for the promiscuous massacre of the inhabitants 
 of the place, and about 7000 persons were butchered 
 without distinction or mercy. The deed called forth a 
 severe rebuke from Ambrose, who charged the emperor not 
 to approach the holy communion with his hands stained 
 with innocent blood. The emperor reminded him that 
 David had been guilty of murder and of adultery. The 
 bishop replied, "You have imitated David in his guilt; 
 go and imitate him in his repentance." The prince obeyed, 
 and after a course of eight months' penance he was 
 absolved, on condition that in future an interval of thirty 
 days should intervene before any sentence of death or con- 
 fiscation was executed. 
 
 The generosity of Ambrose was favouraoly exhibited in
 
 G64 
 
 AMBROSE 
 
 the year 392, after the assassination cf Valentinian and 
 the usurpation of Eugenius. Rather than join the Btandard 
 of the usurper, he fled from Milan ; but -when Theodosius 
 was eventually victorious, he supplicated the emperor for 
 the pardon of those who had supported Eugenius. Soon 
 after acquiring the undisputed possession of the Roman 
 empire, Theodosius died at Milan (395). Bishop Ambrose 
 did not long survive him, having died in the year 397. 
 
 On many accounts the character of the bishop of Milan 
 stands high among the fathers of the ancient church. 
 With unvarying steadiness he delivered his religious senti- 
 ments on all occasions; with unwearied assiduity he dis- 
 charged the duties of his office; with unabated zeal and 
 boldness he defended the orthodox cause in opposition to 
 the Arians; with a liberal hand he fed the numerous poor 
 who flocked to his dwelling; with uncommon generosity he 
 manifested kindness to his adversaries; and with Christian 
 affection he sought the happiness of all men. His general 
 disposition and habits were amiable and virtuous, and his 
 powers of mind vigorous and persevering. Ambition and 
 bigotry were the chief blemishes in his character. 
 
 The writings of Ambrose are voluminous, but many of 
 them are little more than reproductions of the works of 
 Origen and other Greek fathers. The great design of them 
 was to defend and propagate the Catholic faith. His 
 expositions of Scripture contain many extreme examples 
 of allegorical and mystical interpretation. Modern readers 
 will regard much in the writings of Ambrose as trivial, 
 and even as ludicrous; but bis style is vigorous, and the 
 sentiment is often weighty. Gibbon's judgment appears 
 to be too severe : " Ambrose could act better than he could 
 write ; his compositions are destitute of taste or genius, 
 without the spirit of Tertullian, the copious elegance of 
 Lactantius, the lively wit of Jerome, or the grave energy 
 of Augustin." His exegetical writings include an exposi- 
 tion of the Gospel of St Luke, and commentaries on certain 
 Psalms. Hia Htxa'emeron is a homiletical treatise on the 
 history of the creation. " The Hymns of St Ambrose 
 have qxercised a powerful influence on Christendom. They 
 were designed by him to be a preventive against the errors 
 of Arianism, and to confirm the professors of the true faith 
 in the doctrines of the Trinity and the divinity of Christ. 
 . . Very many of them have found a place in the liturgies 
 of the western Church. On account of the celebrity of St 
 Ambrose, many hymns have been attributed to him which 
 are not his ; and, on the other hand, some critics have 
 gone into the opposite extreme, and have deprived him of 
 his property. In the Benedictine edition of his works 
 only twelve hymns are admitted ; and Dom. Biraghi [of 
 the Ambrosian Library, who has endeavoured, in his 
 Inni Sinceri di Sent' Ambrogio, to restore the hymns to 
 their primitive form] shows reason for believing that only 
 seven of these are genuine " (Journal of a Tour in Italy, 
 by Chr. Wordsworth, D.D., 1863.) The most accurate 
 and complete edition of his works is that published by the 
 Benedictines, printed at Paris in 1G8G and 1G90, in two 
 volumes folio. 
 
 A liturgical form, the Ambrosian Ritual, which is still 
 in use in the arch-diocese of Milan, has been tradition- 
 ally ascribed to Saint Ambrose. Several attempts were 
 made, in particular by the Emperor Charlemagne and Pope 
 Nicolas II., to secure uniformity by enforcing the adoption 
 of the Roman breviary throughout the Western Church, but 
 the clergy of Milan refused to yield. The ritual of Ambrose 
 is included in the Liiurgia Latinorum of Pamelius (Cologne, 
 1571-6). "Full information concerning its history will be 
 found in the Ceremoniale AmbrosM.no, by Dom. Giovanni 
 Dozio, published at Milan, 1853" (Wordsworth's Tour, 
 1863). 
 
 For a description of the famous churoh of St Ambrose, 
 
 founded by him at Milan 387 a.d., see Milan. For the 
 Ambrosian Library, see Libraries. Notices of his 
 Liturgy and Hymns will be found under these headings. 
 AMBROSE, Isaac, a Puritan divine. Formerly the 
 practical and devotional writings of this eminent Noncon- 
 formist rivalled John Bunyan's in popularity, and his 
 Looking to Jesus holds its own even now. Prominent 
 name as his was in his generation, very scanty are the 
 personal memorials of him. His own " Media," under the 
 head of " Experiences," yields a few incidents of his life. 
 According to Anthony a Wood, he was a minister's son, 
 descending from those of the name living at Lowick, and 
 they from the Ambroses of Ambrose Hall in Lancashire. 
 It is probable that his father was Richard Ambrose, vicar 
 of Ormskirk, who was succeeded by another son, Henry. 
 It seems improbable that any of his line could descend of 
 the Lowick Ambroses, inasmuch as they were the most 
 "persistent Catholics of Lancashire;" and there is the 
 additional consideration that, while in our worthy's writ- 
 ings there are many references to the Papists, he makes 
 not the slightest allusion to his conversion from Popery, 
 or to any Catholic relatives or associations. He entered 
 Brazenose college, Oxford, in 1621, in the seventeenth year 
 of his age, and must therefore have been born in 1603-4. 
 Having proceeded M.A. and been ordained, he received 
 at the outset a little cure in Derbyshire, which was at 
 that time and onward to Puritanism what Goshen was to 
 Egypt and Israel. By the influence of the Earl of Bed- 
 ford, he was appointed one of the king's itinerant preachers 
 in Lancashire. Having later served for a time a curacy 
 in Garstang, he was selected by the Lady Margaret 
 Hoghton as vicar of Preston. He was on the celebrated 
 committee for the ejection of "scandalous and ignorant 
 ministers and schoolmasters" during the Commonwealth. 
 So long as Ambrose continued at Preston he was favoured 
 with the warm friendship of the Hoghton family, as was 
 John Howe, — their ancestral woods and the tower near 
 to Blackburn affording him sequestered places for those 
 devout meditations and "experiences" that give such a 
 charm to his diary. The immense auditory of his sermon 
 at the funeral of Lady Hoghton is a living tradition still 
 all over the county. For some reason which i3 unknown, 
 perhaps failing strength for so onerous a charge, Ambrose 
 left his great church of Preston, and became minister of 
 Garstang, where before he had been curate. He was 
 vicar of Garstang when the Act of Uniformity was passed. 
 He could have conscientiously complied with many of its 
 requirements, for he was willing to use the Prayer-book, 
 and did not stickle at things whereat other tender con- 
 sciences did ; but the enforcement was so absolute, not to 
 say brutal, that he found himself constrained to form 
 one of the Two Thousand. His after years we're passed 
 among old friends at Preston. He spent a great part of 
 his time every summer in Widdicre wood, where, seldom 
 seen by any except on the Sabbath, he communed with 
 his own heart and his God. The last time he was seen 
 alive was by some friends from Garstang, of whom he is 
 said to have taken leave with unusual affection and gravity. 
 Immediately after they left him he retired to his wonted 
 place of meditation, where he was found by an attendant 
 in artichlis mortis. He died in 1 664 at the age of. sixty-one. 
 Calamy says he was seventy-two, but his college entry shows 
 he was mistaken. As a religious writer, Ambrose has a 
 vividness and freshness of imagination possessed by scarcely 
 any of the Puritan Nonconformists. He is plaintive as 
 Flavel and as intense as Baxter. Many who have no love 
 for Puritan doctrine, nor sympathy with Puritan expe- 
 rience, have appreciated the pathos and beauty of his writ- 
 ings, which have never been out of print from their original 
 issue until now. (a. b. a.)
 
 AMB-AMB 
 
 665 
 
 AMBROSIUS, Aitbexiant/s, a leader of the Britons 
 during the 5th century. He is said, on somewhat doubt- 
 ful authority, to have been a son of Constantine, who was 
 elected emperor by the Roman army in Britain in 407. 
 The usually received account of his life, based chiefly 
 upon the history of Geoffrey of Monmouth, contains much 
 that is evidently fabulous. It seems probable that he was 
 educated at the court of Aldroen, king of Armorica, who 
 sent him over with a strong force to assist his countrymen 
 against the Saxons, whom Vortigern had invited to Britain. 
 There is also little doubt that, having defeated Vortigern, 
 he was chosen to succeed him as king of Britain. Geoffrey 
 also states that he built Stonehenge (see Stonehenge), 
 that he defeated Hengist, and that he compelled the 
 Saxons to surrender at York; but these stories are inhe- 
 rently improbable. The circumstances of his death are in- 
 volved in equal obscurity. According to Geoffrey's account, 
 he died of poison at Winchester; but others state that he 
 was killed in a battle with Cerdic the Saxon in 508. 
 
 AMBULANCE, the French ambulance, h&pital ambulant, 
 derivod from the Latin ambulare, to move from place to 
 place. 
 
 Ambulances, in military phraseology, are hospital esta- 
 blishments moving with armies in the field, and organised 
 for providing early surgical assistance to the wounded 
 after battles. They are only prepared for affording help 
 of a more or less temporary kind, and they are thus 
 distinguished from the stationary or fixed hospitals, in 
 which sick and wounded soldiers . receive care and treat- 
 ment of a permanent character. The term, is not un- 
 frequently misapplied in common speech in England to the 
 ambulance waggons, or other conveyances by which the 
 wounded are carried from the field to the ambulances and 
 fixed hospitals. Such vehicles form part of the ambulance 
 equipment, and will be noticed presently. 
 
 The constitution of an ambulance includes (1) a certain 
 staff of officers and subordinates, and (2) a certain equip- 
 nent. The equipment naturally divides itself into (a) the 
 medical and surgical equipment, and (6) the equipment 
 forming the means of transport for the wounded. But the 
 constitution would hardly be understood without a general 
 comprehension of the system on which the functions of 
 ambulances are discharged, or, in other words, the plan of 
 administering surgical assistance in the field to the wounded 
 of armies. Ambulance administration will therefore be 
 first noticed, keeping in view the circumstances of armies 
 operating in Europe, and the ambulance staff and equipment 
 subsequently. 
 
 Ambuxance Admlnistbation. — The origin of the ambu- 
 lance system which now prevails in all civilised armies, 
 though variously modified among them in particular details, 
 only dates from the last decade of the last century. Be- 
 fore that time no ambulance establishments had been 
 organised for effecting the removal of the wounded, or for 
 giving the requisite surgical attention to them, while 
 battles were in progress. Soldiers wounded in the ranks 
 were either carried to the rear by comrades, or were left 
 to lie exposed to all risks, and unheeded, until after the 
 fighting had ceased. The means of surgical assist- 
 ance did not reach the battle-field till the day after the 
 engagement, or often later, and to a large proportion of 
 the wounded it was then of no avail In 1792 Larrey 
 'introduced his system of ambulances volantes, or flying 
 field hospitals, establishments capable of moving from 
 place to place with speed, like the flying artillery of the 
 time. They were adapted both for giving the necessary 
 primary surgical help, and also for removing the wounded 
 quickly out of the sphere of fighting. The first Napoleon 
 warmly supported Larrey in hi« endeavours to introduce 
 and perfect the new system of surgical aid to the wounded 
 
 in battle ; and, being, received with much favour by the 
 troops, the plan obtained a firm footing, and was subse- 
 quently brought to a high state of perfection. About the 
 same time another distinguished surgeon of high position 
 in the French army, Baron Percy, introduced and developed 
 a corps of brancardiers, or stretcher-bearers. These con- 
 sisted of soldiers trained and regularly equipped for the 
 duty of collecting the wounded while a battle wa3 in pro- 
 gress, and carrying them on stretchers to places where 
 means of surgical aid were provided. 
 
 From the period when these improvements were intro- 
 duced most civilised armies have had ambulance establish- 
 ments formed for giving surgical help near to the com- 
 batants. * It is only, however, during the last twenty years 
 that ambulances have acquired the completeness of organisa- 
 tion which they have now attained in some armies, espe- 
 cially in those of Germany. In the armies of the United 
 States of America, during the late great civil war, the 
 ambulance system attained a very complete organisation, 
 particularly from March 1864, when an Act was passed by 
 Congress, entitled " An Act to establish a uniform system 
 of Ambulances in the United States." This law fixed a 
 definite and single system of ambulance arrangements for all 
 the armies of the United States at that time in the field. 
 
 The ambulance arrangements of the British army have 
 never reached the degree of completeness which they have 
 reached in Continental armies. During the Peninsular wax 
 the want of a trained ambulance corps, and of properly- 
 constructed sick-transport carriages, formed a theme of 
 constant complaint. For the former, soldiers from the 
 ranks were substituted — a double evil, as they were un- 
 suited for the work, while their employment lessened the 
 fighting strength; for the latter, commissariat waggons, 
 or the agricultural carts of the country in which the troops 
 were operating. It was not from want of attention being 
 called to the subject, as the writings of Sir J. M'Grigor, 
 Hennen, Millingen, and other Peninsular surgeons suf- 
 ficiently testify. The last-named military surgeon published 
 a very complete scheme of an ambulance establishment 
 shortly after the war was concluded, approaching closely 
 in its principles to those put into prance of late years in 
 the armies of Germany. There is reason for believing that 
 had the operations of the British troops on the Continent 
 not been discontinued, some plan of the kind would have 
 been introduced. As it was, subsequently to 1815, so far 
 as army hospitals were concerned, administrative atten- 
 tion was chiefly given to improving those for the accom- 
 modation of the sick in peace time. The wars that 
 British troops were engaged in in India, China r .the south 
 of Africa, and elsewhere, did not lead to improvements 
 like those which have been made in Continental armies; for 
 either the habits of the natives of the respective countries, 
 or the nature of the climate, or the state of the country, 
 necessitated special arrangements for the care of the sick 
 and wounded unsuited for meeting the circumstances of 
 European warfare. Thus, when the Crimean war broke 
 out the English army was still without an ambulance 
 corps, or an ambulance establishment of materiel. An 
 ambulance corps of military pensioners was hastily raised, 
 but failed from the habits and enfeebled constitutions of 
 the men. They were succeeded by a corps formed of 
 civilians," unused to the discipline and habits of military 
 life, which likewise failed Several forms of sick-transport 
 vehicles were tried, but only indifferently answered their 
 intended purposes. Fortunately, as the troop3 were for 
 the most part stationary during the war, the want of 
 thoroughly organised ambulances was not felt to the same 
 extent as it would have been had the operations been 
 extended far into the interior of the country. ^The ex- 
 perience of the Crimean war led to efforts to repair the
 
 6(30 
 
 A 3IBULANCE 
 
 defects which wererthen made manifest. Since that time 
 a trained army hospital corps has been constituted, and 
 much of the ambulance equipment has been revised. 
 
 One serious impediment to perfecting an ambulance 
 system is the costliness of maintaining, in time of peace, 
 establishments which will only be required for use in time 
 of war. All that can be done is to form a nucleus which 
 can be expanded according to need when war breaks out. 
 But even in Continental armies, with frequent wars pressing 
 upon them, the urgency of giving close attention to the 
 subject, and in countries where the existence of conscrip- 
 tion furnishes a greater supply of men at less cost than in 
 England, the deficiencies of the ambulance establishments 
 have hitherto been so great in respect to the numbers and 
 necessities of the wounded on occasions of great battles, 
 that an extensive volunteer organisation, with national 
 societies in every country of Europe, has sprung up for 
 giving additional assistance. This is not the place to dis- 
 cuss the advantages of such volunteer aid; buf.'if accepted, 
 all who have considered the subject well have admitted the 
 necessity for its being placed under military authority, and 
 under distinct regulations, in order to secure maintenance 
 of order and discipline. It is also generally admitted that 
 volunteer aid to wounded soldiers is out of place in the 
 ambulances, and can best be employed in the fixed hospitals; 
 by which means some of the regular military personnel 
 may be set free for work in the field. 
 
 One important step, taken a few years since, towards 
 the amelioration of the condition of the wounded of armies 
 in the field must be just mentioned. This was the Euro- 
 pean Convention signed at Geneva in 1804, by the terms. 
 of which, subject to certain regulations, not only the 
 wounded themselves, but the official staff of ambulances 
 and their equipment have been rendered neutral ; the 
 former, therefore, not being liable to be retained as 
 prisoners of war, nor the latter to be taken as prize of 
 war. This convention has greatly favomred the develop- 
 ment of ambulance establishments. 
 
 The conditions of modern warfare have led to the need 
 of army ambulances being arranged on printiples different 
 from what were applicable only a few years ago. The 
 immensely increased range of rifles and artillery in the 
 present day, the consequent extension of the area over 
 which fire i3 maintained, the suddenness with which 
 armies can be brought into the field from increased 
 facilities of locomotion, the rapidity of their movements, 
 the shortened duration of campaigns,- the large numbers of 
 wounded which have to be dealt with, not merely from 
 the destructive qualities of the fire-arms, but from the 
 vast forces collected on occasions of important battles, the 
 increased proportion of severe wounds, — are all circum- 
 stances which have entailed need for revision of am- 
 bulances and their administration. The ambulances must 
 be so organised as to be able to keep up with the troops, 
 and so disposed as in no way to interfere with their 
 movements. They must be capable of meeting the wants 
 of a partial or general engagement at any moment, and if 
 the troops advance, must be prepared to accompany them, 
 so as to be ready to meet future wants. 
 
 Whatever the details of organisation may be when ai 
 important battle is fought, the ambulance system must 
 admit of three help stations at least being established in 
 rear of the combatants. There must be a station of limited 
 character immediately in rear of the troops for attention 
 to such wounds as entail speedy loss of life if no assistance 
 be rendered ; a second station, more remote, where tem- 
 porary assistance of a more general nature can be afforded ; 
 a third, where more thorough attention can be given, and 
 where the wounded can receive food and protection until 
 there are means of sending them away. Recently, in some 
 
 armies, the ambulance arrangements have been calculated 
 for furnishing aid at four stations ; and, indeed, owing to 
 the increased range of fire, and the consequent distance 
 between the help stations when only three are formed, the 
 fatigue thrown on the bearers is so great, and the time the 
 wounded are left without help so long, that the division 
 of the ambulances into four stations has become almost 
 essential. If this arrangement be followed, there will be 
 — 1st, the field station, for help of prime urgency; 2d, the 
 transfer station, where the wounded will be transferred 
 from the hand conveyances to wheeled vehicles ; 3d, the 
 dressing station, where the provisional dressings will be 
 applied ; and 4th, the field hospital station, where defini- 
 tive treatment will be adopted. 
 
 The disposition and distances of these four ambulance 
 sections must vary according to the nature of the battle, 
 the configuration of the terrain, and other circumstances, 
 but in a general way will be as follows : — 1st, the field 
 station, in the immediate rear of the troops, moving with 
 them, and therefore under fire ; 2d, the transfer station, 
 clear of the enemy's rifle fire, but not too far for the 
 bearers, and at a place practicable for waggons, from 800 
 to 900 yards behind the troops engaged ; 3d, the dressing 
 station, beyond range of artillery fire, at a spot easily 
 reached by the ambulance waggons, and on the way to 
 the fourth station, with a running stream or well at hand if 
 possible, from 800 to 1000 yards in rear of No. 2; and 
 4th, the field hospital station, at a place free from risk of 
 being brought within the sphera of fighting, from 2 to 4 
 miles in rear of the combatants. This last station may be 
 at a farm or country house, or in a village, but should not 
 be in a place of strategical importance, or in one likely to 
 be blocked by the general transport of the army. When 
 the four stations are in working order, as men fall badly 
 wounded, those within reach will be placed on stretchers by 
 the men told off for duty as bearers, and, after hasty inspec- 
 tion by the field surgeon, and, as far as practicable, receiv- 
 ing such help as is of vital importance, they will be borne 
 to the second or transfer station, and placed in ambulance 
 waggons, or on wheeled stretchers if they are in use. The 
 bearers, then taking vacant stretchers, will return to the 
 field station for more wounded. The wounded who havo 
 been transferred to the wheeled conveyances will be driven 
 by the men of the ambulance train to the third or dressing 
 station, and there receive whatever provisional dressing 
 may be necessary before being sent on to the fourth or field 
 hospital station, where definitive treatment will be adopted, 
 and any surgical operations performed that may be re- 
 quired. 
 
 It is obvious that such a system of help can only be 
 carried out, with any approach to regularity and requisite 
 speed, with ambulance establishments proportionate to the 
 number of troops in the field, each ambulance being well 
 organised, provided with a sufficient staff and complete 
 equipment, and acting under the general supervision of 
 an experienced director, whose duty it is to watch the 
 varying events of the contest while it is in progress, and 
 to order changes in the ambulance arrangements according 
 as the troops advance, retire, or otherwise change position. 
 Even with these advantages, the difficulties of adequately 
 meeting the wants of the wounded must always be very 
 great, owing to the rapid manoeuvres of the troops, the 
 varying features of the ground over vhich battles are 
 extended, and the rapidity with which the wounded fall ; 
 but without a proper organisation arranged beforehand, 
 the difficulties are insuperable, and no help of much value 
 can be afforded until all fighting has ceased. 
 
 Ambulance arrangements have to be modified to suit par- 
 ticular military operations, such as when troop3 disembarV 
 on a hostile shore, on occasion of sieges, <tc
 
 AMBULANCE 
 
 667 
 
 Ambtjlance Staff. — The scheme of ambulance adminis- 
 tration and action just described involves the necessity of 
 a staff comprising the following personnel, viz. : — 1. 
 Bearers of wounded ; 2. Surgeons and attendants ; 3. 
 Ambulance train . personnel ; 4. Ambulance police ; 5. 
 Servants to officers. 
 
 Bearers of Wounded. — These are soldiers specially 
 trained and told off for the duty of picking up and carry- 
 ing the badly wounded on stretchers. In Continental 
 armies special provision is made to meet this particular 
 want, but under different systems in different armies. In 
 the Prussian army companies of bearers, distinguished by 
 a particular uniform, and denominated " sanitats-detache- 
 ments," have the duty assigned to them of gathering the 
 wounded during battles, and carrying them to the dressing 
 and field hospital stations. Each of these bearer columns 
 consists of a military staff of officers for discipline and 
 direction,- non-commissioned officers, buglers, and a large 
 number of bearers ; a special medical staff, with assistantn 
 and dressers; a transport staff of non-commissioned officers 
 and drivers, with a certain number of stretchers, wheeled 
 stretcher supports, sick transport waggons, and store 
 waggons for the carriage of instruments, dressings, and 
 other necessary materials. Separate establishments exist 
 for the field hospitals. In addition to these sanitary 
 detachments, auxiliary sick-bearers {Hilfs-krarkentrager) 
 are provided for service on occasions of great battles. To 
 form these auxiliaries, four men in each company of every 
 battalion of the army are practised at regular periods with 
 the sanitary detachments in time of peace in the modes 
 of picking up, temporarily attending to, and carrying 
 wounded These auxiliary bearers wear the uniform of 
 their regiments, of which they perform the ordinary duties, 
 but have a distinguishing badge on the left arm when 
 serving as bearers. When a battle is imminent, the auxi- 
 liary bearers fall out, are provided with stretchers and 
 other needful appliances from the ambulance waggons, 
 and act under the orders of the officers of the divisional 
 sanitary detachments. The system in the Austrian army 
 is very like that in the Prussian. In the British army no 
 corresponding establishment exists. The hospital attend- 
 ants belonging to the Army Hospital Corps are trained 
 in all that refers to the care of wounded men, but in time 
 of war they will be too urgently needed for their duties in 
 the field and fixed hospitals to be spared for duty as 
 bearers of the wounded from the field to the dressing 
 stations. The regimental bandsmen are generally regarded 
 as available for these duties in the British service ; but 
 though the army regulations order that bandsmen are 
 liable to serve in the ranks on an emergency, they nowhere 
 constitute them bearers of wounded, nor do bandsmen 
 receive the necessary training to fit them for the duties. 
 As it is understood that the ambulance arrangements of 
 the British army are at present under consideration, this, 
 with other details, will probably be shortly placed on a 
 settled basis. 
 
 Surgical Staff. — This section embraces the medical 
 officers (administrative and executive), the dispensers of 
 medicine, and the officers, non-commissioned officers, and 
 men of the Army Hospital Corps. The last-named corps 
 includes the dressers, nurses, cooks, and all the hospital 
 subordinates who are required for the care, dieting, watch- 
 ing, arid protection of the patients, for the hospital • cor- 
 respondence, &c. The men act professionally under the 
 directions of the' surgeons ; in respect of other matters, 
 under their own officers. The constitution and duties of 
 the several divisions and grades of the army medical 
 department are shown in a special code of instructions 
 known as the " Army Medical Regulations." 
 
 Amlivlance. Train. — On the officers and men of the 
 
 ambulance train devolve the duties of conducting the 
 wheeled transport, and the mule litters and cacolets when 
 such conveyances are used In the British service these 
 duties are entrusted to the ordinary transport branch of 
 the Control department. It has been recommended that 
 the officers and men to whom these duties are entrusted 
 should be specially selected and trained, as well as fami- 
 liarised, to co-operate with the bearers and ambulance 
 corps. They would thus form an ambulance train some- 
 what like that which exists in the sanitary detachments 
 of the Prussian army. 
 
 Military Servants. — Orderlies are required as servantfl 
 to the ambulance surgeons and other officers, in order that 
 they may give their time fully to the concerns of the sick 
 and wounded When special orderlies are not provided, 
 men of the Army Hospital Corps usually act as servants to 
 officers, — a bad system, for the whole time and services of 
 these trained men should be devoted to their legitimate 
 functions. 
 
 Ambulance Police. — Many irregularities are liable to 
 occur in the rear of troops engaged in a general action ; 
 not so much from acts of the troops themselves as from 
 camp followers, hired drivers, and others. The officers 
 charged with the military discipline pf the bearer, train, 
 and hospital corps have other pressing duties to engage 
 them on such occasions. In the British army it devolves 
 on the provost-marshal to arrange for this service. 
 
 Ambulance Equipment. — As before mentioned, ambu- 
 lance equipment divides itself into two categories: — 1. 
 The medical and surgical equipment; 2. The equipment 
 for the transport of wounded. These divisions will 
 therefore be noticed separately, and the description will 
 be confined tc/ the equipment supplied in the British 
 army for service in Europe. In India and in tropical 
 countries special ambulance equipments are rendered 
 necessary. 
 
 Medical and Surgical Equipment. — This portion of am- 
 bulance equipment consists of the articles necessary for the 
 service of the wounded in the field itself, at the dressing 
 stations, and in the field hospitals. It has to be distributed 
 in forms such that it may be readily conveyed to the places 
 where it is required, and such also as will admit of its 
 being hastily packed up and removed should the circum- 
 stances of the field operations require it. At the same 
 time, these forms must be, adapted for use at all seasons of 
 the year, for passage over all descriptions of ground that 
 troops can march over, and must be protected against the 
 effects of exposure to all varieties of weather. 
 
 It would occupy too much space to name the articles 
 comprising this equipment. The special forms under which 
 it is issued will be mentioned, and a brief explanation of 
 them and the nature of their contents be added 
 
 Tie equipment is distributed as follows: — Supplies of 
 instruments, dressings, medicines, and restoratives, of 
 first necessity, in small cases named " medical field com- 
 panions," and in large cases named "field panniers;" of 
 cooking utensils and other articles for field hospital service 
 in "canteens;" of articles of light nourishment, stimu- 
 lants, <fcc, in "medical comfort boxes;" of hospital tents, 
 bedding, and the bulkier articles of surgical equipment, in 
 ambulance equipment carts or store waggons. In addi- 
 tion, every soldier on taking the field is supplied with a 
 "field dressing;" each surgeon carries a pouch-belt, ar- 
 ranged both for distinguishing his functions and at the 
 same time carrying his " pocket case " of instruments ; 
 and each Army Hospital Corps man has his "orderly'e 
 dressing-case." Every wounded man has therefore on his 
 person the means of a first dressing for his wound, every 
 surgeon has at hand instruments for affording surgical 
 aid, and every ambulance and field hospital attendant tke
 
 r,68 
 
 AMB-AME 
 
 means of assisting the surgeon in his duties. Moreover, 
 wherevor the sohlier can go, there the first two forms of 
 the surgical equipment — the medical field companion and 
 tho field panniers — can also be taken. The articles for 
 use in the field hospitals, being carried in wheeled vehicles, 
 can only move where tho other transport of the army can 
 be taken. 
 
 Mrdleal Field Companions. — These are small cases car- 
 ried by men of the Army Hospital Corps selected to accom- 
 pany surgeons. They consist of two pouches and a wallet, 
 worn nearly in the same way as the pouches and belt-bag 
 in which ammunition is carried by combatant troops. The 
 two pouches, carried on the waist-belt, contain small sup- 
 plies of essential medicines and styptics; the surgical 
 wallet, also carried on the waist-belt, and supported by 
 valine straps, contains materials for surgical dressings and 
 other articles. As these attendants are not armed with 
 rifles, they can carry their valises and the medical field 
 companions at the same time without inconvenience. With 
 each medical field companion is carried, by a shoulder-strap, 
 a witer-bottle and a drinking-cup. 
 
 Field Panniers. — These are tough wicker baskets covered 
 with hide, each being 2 feet 2 inches in length, by 1 foot 
 2i inches in breadth, and 1 foot 4i inches in depth. They 
 are supplied in pairs, and are arranged for being attached 
 to a pack-saddle and carried on a bat-pony or mule. They 
 are capable of being opened while on the animal in such a 
 way that all the contents can be readily got at. The field 
 panniers contain instruments for important surgical opera- 
 tions, chloroform, surgical materials (such as splints, ban- 
 dages, plaisters, <fcc), a lamp, supplies of wax candles, 
 restoratives, and medical comforts in concentrated forms, 
 and other articles necessary for urgent cases at the dressing 
 stations and field hospitals. Each pannier has a double 
 lid, and the four lids of the two panniers, when they are 
 laid on the ground, can be connected so as to form a substi- 
 tute for an operating table. 
 
 Field. Hospital Canteens. — These are also supplied in 
 pairs, and are distinguished as A and B canteens. They 
 are wooden boxes nearly similar in size to the field panniers, 
 so that, although usually carried in the equipment vehicles, 
 they can, in case of need, be carried on the backs of bit- 
 Eniinals. Their contents consist of camp-kettles and other 
 utensils for cooking purposes; tin plates, drinking-cups, 
 and other such requisites; sets cf measures and weights; 
 a lantern of coloured glass for indicating the field hospital 
 at night; together with various articles required for the 
 service of patients in a tent or other field hospital. 
 
 Medical Comfort Boxes. — These also are supplied in 
 pairs, and resemble the canteens in shape and dimensions. 
 The contents of tho two are different, and they are there- 
 fore marked No. 1 rnd No. 2 respectively. Each box is 
 partitioned and fitted with cases or bottles with labels in- 
 dicating their contents. These principally consist of 
 essence of beef, groceries, arrowroot, preserved vegetables, 
 brandy, wine, and sundry accessory articles. The wounded 
 are supplied with the same rations as the healthy troops, 
 and they are turned to the best account available for their 
 nutriment, supplemented by such medical comforts as are 
 named above. 
 
 Ambulance Equipment Waggons. — In these vehicles are 
 carried the "tents for forming the field hospital in case o/ no 
 building being available, with a supply of blankets, water- 
 proof covers, and other articles of bedding for the patients. 
 The canteens and medical comfort boxes are also carried 
 in these vehicles. Certain implements, as reaping-hooks, 
 spades, pickaxes, saws, which are constantly required when 
 men are thrown so much on their own resources as they 
 must be in campaigning, are also carried in the equipment 
 waggons. 
 
 Ambulance Equipment /or /Ac Transport of Wounded 
 Trou/)s. — The auibidance conveyances authorised for use 
 in the British army are of four kinds. They are the fol- 
 lowing: — i. Conveyances carried by the hands of bearers, 
 called stretchers; 2. Conveyances wheeled by men, wheeled 
 stretchers; 3. Conveyances borne by mules, mule litters 
 and mule cacolets; and 4. 'Wheeled con\cyancc3 drawn 
 by horses, ambulance waggons. The forms of all these 
 conveyances have been lately revised by a committee which 
 was appointed in 18C8 by Sir J. Pakiugton, then Secretary 
 of State for War, to inquire into the geneial question of 
 ambulance and hospita' conveyances for the army, and 
 the new pattern vehicles have now been authorised for 
 use. (t. l.) 
 
 AMELOT DE LA HOUSSAYE, Abraham Nicolas, 
 historian and publicist, was born at Orleans in February 
 1634, and dief 5 . pA Paris 8th December 1706. Little is 
 known of his personal history beyond the fact that he was 
 secretary to an embassy from tho French court to the 
 republic of Venice. At a later period he was imprisoned 
 in tho Bastile by order of Louis XIV. In 1676 he pub- 
 lished at Amsterdam his Histoire duGouvernement deVenise, 
 in three volumes. Under the assumed name of De la 
 Motho Josseval, he published in 1683 a translation of Fra 
 Paolo Sarpi's History of the Council of Trent. This work, 
 and especially certain notes added by the translator, gave 
 great offence to tho advocates of the unlimited authority 
 of the pope, and three separate memorials were" presented 
 to have it repressed. Amelot also published translations 
 of Machiavel's Prince, and of the Annals of Tacitus, besides 
 several other works. 
 
 AMELOTTE, Denis, a French ecclesiastic and author, 
 was born at Saintes in Saintonge in 1606, and died October 
 7, 1678. Soon after receiving priest's orders he became a 
 member of the congregation of the oratory of St Philip 
 Neri. In*1643 he published a Life of Charles de Goudren, 
 second superior of the congregation, which by some of its 
 remarks on the famous abbot of St Cyran, gave great 
 offence to the Port Royalists. Another work, containing 
 a vehement attack on the doctrines of the Jansenists, still 
 further embittered the feelings of the partv towards hici, 
 and elicited from Nicole a se- 
 verely satirical reply entitled 
 Idie Genirale de I' Esprit el du > 
 Livre du P. Amelotte. Amelotte 
 in revenge availed himself of his 
 influence with the chancellor to 
 prevent the publication of the 
 newly - completed Port Bujalist 
 translation of the New Testament, 
 which had therefore to be issued 
 at Mons in Flanders. He thus 
 secured a free field for a transla- 
 tion of his own with annotations, 
 which appeared in 4 vols, octavo 
 in 1666-8. The dedication to the 
 archbishop of Paris contained an- 
 other abusive denunciation of the Bstuia ana (the common birch), 
 
 Jansenists ftn amentlferons tree, the male 
 
 , ,„ XT '-._,__ _ , flowers, a. are produced In scalj 
 
 AMElNTIrEKiE, or AMEN- catkins, and to are the female 
 
 tacejE. Under this name are fl ° w,: ™' & 
 included apetalous unisexual plants bearing their flowers 
 in catkins {amenta). This group of plants includes 
 trees and shrubs chiefly of temperate climates. It is 
 divided into the following orders : — Salicaceo?, willows and 
 poplars ; Corylacex or Cvpuliferw, hazel, oak, beech, chest- 
 nut, hornbeam, <tc. ; Betulacew, birch, alder; Casuarinacea:, 
 Casuarina (beefwood); Altingiacece or Ealsami/luoB, liquid- 
 ambar ; Platanaceoz, the plane ; Jvglandaceo?, walnut ; 
 Guri'/3cci£ (iarryaj Myrkacca:, bog myrtle.
 
 ^ 
 
 c
 
 669 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 OUR object in this article is to take a comprehensive 
 survey of the American continent in its physical, 
 moral, and political relations. In attempting this, we shall 
 dwell at some length upon those great features and peculiar- 
 ities which belong to it as a whole, or facts which can be most 
 advantageously considered in connection with one another. 
 The new continent may be styled emphatically " a land of 
 promise." The present there derives its greatest impor- 
 tance from the germs it contains of a mighty future. It is 
 this prospective greatness which lends an interest to the 
 Western continent similar to that which the Eastern derives 
 from its historical associations. But the Western continent 
 also has its past, which abounds in points of interest relating 
 to both the historic and prehistoric periods. Facts show 
 that although America may be called the New World in 
 consequence of its having been the last to come under the 
 general knowledge of geographers, it is from most other 
 points of view an old world. It abounds in the oldest 
 known strata; it has yielded some of the oldest known 
 remains of man, indicating that he has long been a denizen 
 there ; and it has afforded evidences of a civilised era, 
 which may even have preceded that of Western Europe. 
 
 The new continent, when compared with the old, enjoys 
 three important advantages. First, it is free from such vast 
 deserts as cover a large part of the surface of Asia and 
 Africa, and which not only withdraw a great proportion of 
 the soil from the use of man, but are obstacles to communi- 
 cation between the settled districts, and generate that ex- 
 cessive heat which is often injurious to health, and always 
 destructive to industry. Secondly, no part of its soil is so 
 far from the ocean as the central regions of Asia and Africa. 
 Thirdly, the interior of America is penetrated by majestic 
 rivers, the Mississippi, Amazon, and Plata, greatly surpass- 
 ing those of the old continent in magnitude, and still more 
 in the facilities they present for enabling the remotest 
 inland districts to communicate with the sea. 
 
 In the physical formation of North and South America 
 there is a remarkable resemblance. Both are very broad 
 in the north, and gradually contract towards the 'south till 
 they end, the one in a narrow isthmus, and the other in 
 a narrow promontory. Each has a lofty chain of moun- 
 tains near its western coast, abounding in volcanoes, with 
 a lower ridge on the opposite side, destitute of any recent 
 trace of internal fire ; and each has one great central plain 
 declining to the south and the north, and watered by two 
 gigantic streams, the Mississippi, corresponding to the 
 Plata, and the St Lawrence to the Amazon. In their 
 climate, vegetable productions, and aninial tribes, the two 
 regions are very dissimilar. 
 
 The extent of the American continent and the islands 
 connected with it is as follows : — 
 
 Square Eng. miles. 
 
 North America 7,400,000 
 
 S 'Uth America 6,500,000 
 
 Islands 150,000 
 
 Greenland; and the islands connected with it lying j Qfm nnn 
 north of Hudson's Straits, may be estimated at j »ou,uuu 
 
 14,950,000 
 
 The American continent, therefore, with its dependent 
 islands, is four times as large as Europe, and about one- 
 third larjrer than Africa, but somewhat less than Asia, while 
 it is nearly five times the size of the Australian continent 
 It constitutes about three-tenths of the dry land on the sur- 
 face of the globe. It is characterised by having a greater 
 length from N. to S. than any other continent ; and by 
 Mie northern and southern portions being connected by a 
 
 comparatively narrow strip of land. South America has 
 a more regular form, and as a mass is situated much 
 farther east than North America. In South America the 
 most central point lies in about 58° W.; but in North 
 America the most central point would be in about 100° W. 
 
 Sketch Map of America. 
 
 As regards continuity of land, America comprises some 
 islands at the southern end ; a main continental portion, 
 including South America, Central America, and North 
 America; some islands off the north shore, and many other 
 islands along the east and west coasts, those on the east 
 being the most important. The most northern point of the 
 mainland is that of Boothia Felix, in Bellot Strait, 71° 55' 
 N., 02° 25' W. The islands to the north extend beyond 
 82° 1 6' N., 65° W., which point was reached by the "Polaris" 
 in August 1871. The southernmost point of the mainland 
 is Cape Froward, which lies close to 54° S., 71° W. ; while 
 Cape Horn, the most southern pointof the islands, isin56°S., 
 67° 20'W. The extreme points traced are consequently 138 s 
 apart; and the continental part stretches over about 126 
 degrees of latitude. This corresponds to lengths of 8280 
 and 7560 geographical miles respectively. The extreme east) 
 points of the continent are Cape St Koque, in 5° 28' S., 35° 40' 
 W., in South America, and Cape St Charles, in 52° 17' N., 
 55° 35' W., in North America. The most western point of 
 South America is Point Parina, in 4° 40' S., 81° 10' W.; 
 and of North America, Prince of Wales Cape, in 65° 30' 
 N., 167° W. The greatest breadth of North America is
 
 670 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 [3. AMERICA. 
 
 between Cape Lisbume and Melville Peninsula ; and of 
 South America, between Pernambuco and Point Aguja. 
 The narrowest part is 28 miles, at the isthmus of 
 Panar-a. The nearest approach to the Old World is at 
 Behring Strait, which is 48 miles across, and shallow. 
 On the east 6ide the nearest point to the Old World is 
 Cape St Roque, which is opposite the projecting part of 
 ;he African coast at Sierra Leone. Greenland is separated 
 from the archipelago of Arctic America by a deep and for 
 the most part broad sea, and seems naturally to belong to 
 the European rather than the American area. 
 
 North America, with the general form of a triangle, natu- 
 rally divides itself into five physical regions : 1. The table-land 
 of Mexico, with the strip of low country on its eastern and 
 western shores; 2. The plateau lying between the Rocky 
 Mountains and the Pacific Ocean, a country with a mild 
 and humid atmosphere as far north as the 55th parallel, 
 but inhospitable and barren beyond this boundary ; 3. The 
 great central valley of the Mississippi, rich and well wooded 
 on the east side ; bare but not unfertile in the middle ; dry, 
 sandy, and almost a desert on the west; 4. The eastern 
 declivities of the Alleghany Mountains, a region of natural 
 forests, and of mixed but rather poor soil; 5. The great 
 northern plain beyond the 50th parallel, four-fifths of which 
 is a bleak and bare waste, overspread with innumerable 
 lakes, and resembling Siberia both in the physical char- 
 acter of its surface and the rigour of its climate. 
 
 South America is a peninsula likewise of triangular form. 
 Its greatest length from north to south is 4550 miles; its 
 greatest breadth 3200 ; and it covers an area, as already men- 
 tioned, of 6,50O,0OOsquare English miles, about three-fourths 
 of which lie between the tropics, and the other fourth in the 
 temperate zone. From the configuration of its surface, this 
 peninsula also may be divided into five physical regions — 
 1. The low country skirting the shores of the Pacific Ocean, 
 from 50 to 150 miles in breadth, and 4000 in length. The 
 two extremities of this territory are fertile, the middle a 
 sandy desert. 2. The basin of the Orinoco, a country con- 
 sisting of extensive plains or steppes, called Llanos, either 
 destitute of wood or merely dotted with trees, but covered 
 with a very tall herbage during a part of the year. 
 During the dry season the heat is intense here, and the 
 parched soil opens into long fissures, in which lizards and 
 serpents lie in a state of torpor. 3. The basin of the Amazon, 
 a vast plain, embracing a surface of more than two millions 
 of square miles, possessing a rich soil and a humid climate. 
 It is covered almost everywhere with dense forests, which 
 harbour innumerable tribes of wild animals, and are thinly 
 inhabited by savages, who live by hunting and fishing. 
 4. The great southern plain, watered by the Plata and the 
 numerous streams descending from the eastern summits of 
 the Cordirieras. Open steppes, which are here called Pampas, 
 occupy the greater proportion of this region, which is dry, 
 and in some parts barren, but in general is covered with a 
 strong growth of weeds and tall grass, which feeds prodigious 
 herds of horses and cattle, and affords shelter to a few wild 
 animals. 5. The country of Brazil, eastward of the Parana 
 and Uruguay, presentingalternate ridges and valleys, thickly 
 covered with wood on the side next the Atlantic, and open- 
 ing into steppes or pastures in the interior. 
 
 In our more particular description of the physical con- 
 formation, the geological structure, the mountains, rivers, 
 and forests, and the climates of America, we shall first 
 deal with the southern peninsula, as having the more 
 strongly marked conditions. 
 
 The mountain areas of South America are, as a general 
 rule, those which have received the thickest accumulations 
 of sedimentary matter, and this thickness is nearly pro- 
 portional' to their height. During the periods of the 
 formation of such deposits, these areas were to a great 
 
 extent areas of subsidence, and since those beds which 
 once formed the sea bottoms now constitute the highest 
 peaks, these areas must have been subjected to subsequent 
 upheaval. Vertical movements of this kind have occurred 
 again and again, indicating that these areas are specially 
 liable to disturbance, either from comparative weakness 
 or from the greater comparative power of the moving 
 forces. The history of the mountain chains is almost co- 
 extensive with that of the continent itself. In the sea the 
 beds were deposited horizontally, or nearly so ; and at certain 
 intervals the deposition was arrested, in consequence of the 
 beds being uplifted above the sea. Each successive sub- 
 mergence and emergence occupied a long period of time, 
 during which the rocks were at one time faulted, folded, 
 and metamorphosed, and at other times denuded both by 
 the sea and by meteoric agents. As a general rule, the strike 
 or line of direction of the strata ran approximately parallel to 
 the trend of the shore line on the large scale, and the dip was 
 at right angles to their direction. During each elevation 
 the land was uplifted in a broad band, the axis of which 
 ran parallel to the shore of the sea in which the beds 
 were formed. The axes of the principal folds and faults 
 usually run parallel to the stratigraphical axis or strike. 
 The principal ridges formed during the same period usually; 
 coincide in direction with the stratigraphical striko of the* 
 bed forming them. In the mountains of South America, 
 and especially in the Andes, several of these groups of 
 ridges, formed at different periods, combine to make up a. 
 single system of mountains. The high range of moun- 
 tains which extends from the most southern parts of South 
 America, and runs approximately on the samo meridian 
 of 72° to the isthmus of Panama, forms the Andes. Theso 
 consist of a vast rampart, having an average height of some 
 11,000 or 12,000 feet, and a width varying from 20 to 300 
 or 400 miles. In most places the chain rises to heights 
 of several thousand feet, and upon this chain rest two or 
 three principal ridges 01 mountains, enclosing lofty plains 
 or valleys, separated one from another by mountain knots, 
 which mark the spots where ridge3 belonging to different 
 systems intersect. In one sense, the lofty plains of the 
 Desaguadero, Quito, and others, are valleys, since they are 
 encompassed by mountains; but in a certain sense they 
 are plateaus, since they form the broad summit of the 
 range or platform on which the bounding ridges them- 
 selves stand. Further details respecting the Andes are 
 given under Andes, and in the geological remarks of this 
 article. 
 
 Three branches or transverse chains proceed from the 
 Andes, nearly at rigLt angles to the direction of the prin- 
 cipal chain, and pass eastward across the continent, about 
 the parallels of 18° of S. and 4° and 9° of N. latitude, 
 thus forming the three natural areas of the Orinoco, 
 Amazon, and La Plata river basins. The most northern 
 of these is " the Cordillera of the coast," which parts from 
 ' the main trunk near the south extremity of the lake 
 Maracaybo, reaches the sea at Puerto Cabello, and then 
 passes eastward through Caraccas to the Gulf of Paria. 
 Its length is about 700 miles, and its medium height from 
 4000 to 5000 feet; but the Silla de Caraccas, one of its 
 summits, has an elevation of about 8632 feet ; and its 
 western part, which is at some distance' from the sea, 
 contains the Sierra of Merida, 15,000 feet in height. The 
 second transverse chain is connected with the Andes at 
 the parallels of 3° and 4° north, and passing eastward, 
 terminates in French Guiana, at no great distance from 
 the mouth of the Amazon. It consists properly of a suc- 
 cession of chains nearly parallel to the coast, and is some- 
 times called the Cordillera of Parimd, but. is named by 
 Humboldt the " Cordillera of the Cataracts of the Orinoco," 
 because this river, which flows amidst its ridees in the
 
 MOUNTAINS.] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 671 
 
 upper parts of its course, forms the cataracts of Maypure 
 at the point where it descends into the plains. Its mean 
 height is estimated at 4000 feU above the level of the sea; 
 but at about 70° and 75° W. longitude, it sinks to less than 
 1000 feet, and at other points rises to 10,000. This chain 
 divides the waters of the Orinoco and the rivers of Guiana 
 from the basin of the Amazon, and is covered with mag- 
 nificent forests. Its breadth is supposed to be from 200 
 to 400 miles, and it encloses amidst its ridges the great 
 lake Parime, in longitude 60°, and several of smaller size. 
 At the Caratal gold-field, which lies south of Angostura, 
 the range is about 60 miles across, and the watershed 
 about 1100 feet above the sea. On a table-land forming 
 part of it, about the 67th degree of longitude, the Cassi- 
 quiari forms an intermediate channel which connects the 
 rivers Orinoco and Negro, so that, during the annual 
 floods, a part of the waters of the former flows into the 
 latter. This singular phenomenon was made known long 
 ago by the Spanish missionaries, but was thought to be a 
 fable till the truth was ascertained by Humboldt. The 
 length of this chain is about 1500 miles. The third 
 transverse chain leaves the main trunk near 17° 25' S., 
 and extends almost as far as Santa Cruz, near the river 
 Mamore. Some of the mountains in the western part are 
 of considerable height. South of this range are a number 
 of ridges having an east and west direction, an average 
 height of about 10,000 feet, and ter min ating in the plains 
 near the Paraguay.' This country, which divides the waters 
 of the Amazon from those of the Plata, is a broad plateau 
 of elevated land, rather than a distinct mountainous ridge, 
 and consists of low hills or uneven plains, with very little 
 wood, presenting in soine places extensive pastures, and in 
 others tracts of a poor sandy soil Its average height 
 probably does not exceed 2000 or 3000 feet above the 
 level of the sea. 
 
 The mountains of Brazil, which are of moderate height, 
 and occupy a great breadth of country, form an irregular 
 plateau, bristled with sharp ridges running in a direction 
 approximately parallel to the eastern coast, connected by 
 offsets running in a more or less east and west direction. 
 They extend from 5° to 25° of south latitude, and' their ex- 
 treme breadth may be about 1000 miles. Between Victoria 
 on the north and Morro de St Martha on the south, a range 
 with numerous curves lies a little way back from the coast, 
 and is, for the greater part of its length, known as the 
 Sierra do Mar; somewhat farther inland is a higher range, 
 the different parts of which have different names, but 
 it is best known as the Sierra de Mantiqueira. It con- 
 tains the highest peaks in Brazil, amongst which may 
 be mentioned Mount Itacolumi, famous for the gold and 
 diamond yielding strata in its vicinity; the Pico dos 
 Orgaos, which is 7700 feet high; and Itambe, 8426 feet 
 Some of the peaks are believed to be even higher. West 
 of this the uplands of Brazil stretch far into the interior, 
 and at length sink into the great central plain through 
 which flows the Paraguay and its tributaries. 
 
 Although large areas of South America remain as yet 
 unexplored by geologists, the researches of D'Orbigny, 
 Humboldt, Boussingault, Darwin, Forbes, Agassiz, and 
 many other travellers, suffice to give an approximately cor- 
 rect general view. This is mainly owing to the simplicity- 
 of the stratigraphy of the country. The same groups of 
 rocks spread over such extensive areas, that, from what is 
 seen in the areas which have been examined, we can safely 
 infer the general condition of those which have not been 
 explored. The general disposition of the rocks is as fol- 
 lows: — The oldest rocks, which are Pre-Silurian, possibly 
 Laurentkn, form the outermost rim of the continent, of 
 which the N.E. and S.E. corners have probably been swept 
 *way. These cornera now correspond with the hiouuuj j 
 
 of the Orinoco, the Amazon, and the La Plata rivers. 
 Within this basin, and following close upon these old 
 rocks, are schists and quartzites, which are in all proba- 
 bility of Silurian age. These enter largely into the transverse 
 ranges by which the central hollow is subdivided into three 
 basins. Within this again are sandstones and limestones, 
 usually refejred to the Carboniferous period, which also form 
 part of the transverse ridges. A band of rocks of secondary 
 age follow, some of which are believed to be Triassic, while 
 others are identified as Cretaceous. Tertiary beds, some of 
 Miocene date, together with Post-Tertiary beds, cover the 
 largest part of the areas of the great river basins and the 
 hollows in the mountain range, and also occur on the sea- 
 ward flanks of the principal chains. 
 
 By following the development of these beds, we shall be 
 able to give a brief account of the growth of the present 
 continent. In the Argentine Confederation a few bosses of 
 gneiss protrude through the more recent beds constituting 
 the Pampas. Granite, supporting gneiss and quartzite, 
 occurs along the coast of Chili In Bolivia we find a 
 range of granitic mountains which have a general direction 
 somewhat to the E. of N., and which are flanked on either 
 side by zoaes of gneiss and quartzite. The gneiss also 
 prevails along the shores of Peru, Ecuador, and New 
 Granada, or t to call it by the name which it received in 1861, 
 Columbia. The gneiss is again seen at the eastern base 
 of the Andes, in the last-mentioned State, associated with 
 quartzites, and both these can be traced along the Vene- 
 zuelan coast. Gneiss is largely developed near Angostura, 
 and has a strike approaching E. and W. At Limones, 
 which is near the Caratal gold-field, the country consists 
 largely of granite and gneiss, which latter lies here a little 
 to the E. or to the W. of N. In Brazil the gneiss forms a 
 long band from Bahia to the southern portion of the pro- 
 vince of Santa Catharina. Near the coast it rests upon 
 and apparently passes into granite; but towards the west, 
 as far as the Mantiqueira chain, it gradually becomes more 
 and more schistoid. Gneiss, again, is met with in the 
 mountains which stretch through the Bolivian provinces of 
 Moxos and Chiquitos. It has not been ascertained if these 
 older rocks appeared above the waters before the deposi- 
 tion of those which follow, and which will next be noticed. 
 
 In Chili the succeeding rocks are slaty schists. In 
 Bolivia the mountainous district. crossing the country is 
 largely composed of talcose schists, which, where exposed 
 to the weather, have formed by their decomposition a 
 layer of clay; in advancing from the east towards the west 
 the schists become more and more crystalline, and are at 
 last replaced by gneiss. This, as has already been stated, 
 rests against granite, on the west side of which gneiss is 
 again brought in by an anticlinal arrangement of the beds, 
 and dips beneath a thick mass of schists, which constitute 
 the great bulk of the Andes in this district In this 
 mountain range the lower portion of the formation is 
 mainly siliceous schist, alternating with beds of compact 
 quartz; above this come talc-bearing quartzites, alternating 
 with slaty schists, which latter become more and more 
 prevalent as we ascend in the strata, and at last constitute 
 the predominating rock. They form, indeed, the crest of 
 the range ; the thickness of the formation may be roughly 
 estimated at 10,000 feet These rocks are much dis- 
 turbed and faulted against other and probably newer 
 rocks, which with them constitute the great bulk of the 
 lofty eminences in the range of which Mount Illimani 
 forms so cbnspicuous a. feature. The lower argillaceous 
 schist, which is associated with gneiss all along the Pacific 
 coast from lower Peru to Panama, possibly belongs to this 
 group of rocks. In the high valleys of Ecuador the oldest 
 rocks visible. are granite, gneiss, and schists, which are fro- 
 quenuy in a vertical position. The 6chistose group appear?
 
 672 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 [s. AMERICA. 
 
 to be absent on the east side of the Andes in Columbia, as 
 also along the coast of Venezuela. In the mountain range 
 south of the Orinoco, hornblende, talcose, and mica schists 
 again appear on a largo scale, more especially in the Caratal 
 district, where auriferous veins occur. In Brazil the mi- 
 caceous and talcose schists enter into the composition of 
 the Mantiqueira chain and of the uplands to the west; 
 they probably pass beneath the valley of the Panama, since 
 they occur to the west of it, and extend through the pro- 
 vinces of Goyaz and Matto Grosso, so as to approach within 
 a moderate distance of the similar strata in Bolivix They 
 are associated with talc-bearing quartzites, which are famous 
 for the diamonds and auriferous particles they have yielded 
 in the district around Mount Itacolumi The soil is 
 usually a clay, such as would result from the decomposit inn 
 of talcose schist; but we shall have occasion to refer to the 
 soil of South America subsequently. Borne of these rocks in 
 various parts of the continent have yielded Silurian fossils. 
 Facts are not sufficient yet to warrant the correlation of 
 these strata with thoso of other cor-ntries, or to settle how 
 far they belong to distinct geological periods. The pre- 
 valent strike of the rocks is abof t east and west, but some- 
 times the strike approaches to a north and south direction. 
 At any rate, the rocks which overlie them do so uncon- 
 formably, indicating that, prior to the deposition of these 
 newer rocks, land had appeared at least once on areas now 
 constituting part of South America. At this early date 
 the continent was represented by a few islands only; one 
 corresponded with part of Brazil, another with parts of 
 Venezuela and Columbia; perhaps a third more or less 
 with Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Chili; while a few small 
 islands appeared where now we have the Pampas. These 
 were the nuclei around which the present land has accumu- 
 lated, and already wo see faint indications of the existing 
 outline and broad geographic features of the future con- 
 tinent. 
 
 The next group of rocks are always in stratigraphies! 
 discordance with those beneath them; and, in consequence 
 of the highly metamorphosed condition of those on the 
 west side of the continent, it is difficult to correlate them 
 with the rocks of Brazil. In the Andes of Chili they are 
 represented by enormous stratified masses of quartzoso 
 porphyries, which there is good reason to believe are 
 metamorphosed argillaceous schists and felspathic sand- 
 stones, into which rocks they have been seen gradually to 
 pass. These porphyries not only form the great bulk of 
 the principal chain of the Andes, but also the smaller 
 chain on the west, the interval between them being formed 
 by the longitudinal valley of Chili. Further west they 
 rest on syenitic rocks, beyond which come the older rocks 
 already noticed. On passing into Bolivia, we find that to 
 the west of the great fault developed there, the beds con- 
 sist of micaceous sandstones and dark bituminous schists, 
 which are believed to be the equivalents of the porph\ riea 
 of Chili Such formations constitute the west slope of the 
 Andes from Sorata to Illimani, and also form two bands, 
 one stretching from Illiinani to Cochabamba, the other 
 between Calamarca and Chayanta. Towards the west they 
 dipbeneath black bituminous and siliceous limestones, which 
 are well developed near Tiahuanaco. Carboniferous strata 
 with seams of coal occur near Pisco And Arequipa in Peru. 
 In Brazil the beds which succeed those previously men- 
 tioned are quartzites, rich in mica and magnetic oxide of 
 iron; talcose schists; and crystalline limestones, containing 
 a great deal of talc These rocks form the highest regions 
 and loftiest peaks in Brazil. Unconformably upon these 
 rest micaceous sandstones and argillaceous schists, which 
 occupy the western part of St Paul province between Ytu 
 and the banks of the Parana. In Mount Arasoyaba and 
 some other places, a carboniferous limestone succeeds and 
 
 is overlain by a thick white or yellowish sandstone, siliceous 
 limestones, and bituminous schists. The limestones occupy 
 most of tho area between the Uruguay and the Parana. In 
 tho Diamantina district the carboniferous limestone is over- 
 lain by rod sandstone, which belongs to the succeeding 
 group of beds. The beds in Brazil appear to be fuller than 
 thoso on the west side of the continent, and represent pro- 
 bably both the Devonian and Carboniferous periods. Rocks 
 of this age are also exposed in a narrow band round por- 
 tions of the basin of tho river Amazon. The strata next 
 in succession are of secondary age. The lowest formation 
 is a red sandstone, which is spread over a very extensive 
 area. It is remarkably well developed in Chili, where, 
 together with more recent beds, it is a marked feature in 
 the crest of the Andes. In the small chain to the west it 
 is associated with conglomerates. In tho small chain of 
 Colorado, near Tiahuanaco, a thick conglomerate rests on 
 tho older limestones, and supports red sandstones and con- 
 glomerates dipping west beneath marls. The red sand- 
 stone extends across the province of Carangas, and unin- 
 terruptedly over both slopes of the western Cordillera. In 
 the desert of Atacama the red sandstone, with the over- 
 lying marls, forms a number of parallel chains directed north 
 and south. Red sandstones and conglomerates form the 
 base of the Cordilleras of Quito ; they stretch north into the 
 basins of the Magdalena and Cauca rivers, and east over 
 the basin of the Orinoco. In the province of Bahia, and far 
 away to the north, there is a great development of red 
 sandstone. The age of these sandstones has-been variously 
 stated ; their stratigraphical position would indicate a 
 secondary age. and possibly they may be Triassic. After 
 their deposition, and prior to that of tho marls, syenitic 
 rocks were introduced amongst the strata in the Andes, 
 causing the red sandstones, as also the older sandstones 
 and schists, to be converted into porphyries. This erup- 
 tion was also accompanied by, and probably connected 
 with, the formation of auriferous veins, the elevation of the 
 strata, and the faulting of the rocks. The strike of the 
 strata, as also of the faults, was about 8° to the E. of N., 
 but subsequent movements have modified the direction in 
 places. The red sandstone has a similar strike from 
 Venezuela in the north to Magalhaens Strait on the south, 
 and this favours the idea that all are of the same age. 
 Several of the ranges in the Andes have a corresponding 
 direction. As tho sandstone is believed to underlie the 
 basins of the great rivers, it appears that during its deposi- 
 tion South America was still represented by a few large 
 islands only. Its elevation gave rise to north and south 
 trending mountains, whereby these scattered portions were 
 connected, and the Andes received their first development. 
 The great features of the continent were then first dis< 
 tinctly marked out, and only a few gaps remained to b« 
 filled up. The next succeeding period, represented by 
 strata, is characterised by saliferous and gypseous marls, 
 which rest unconformably on the rocks beneath. Iu C'hib 
 they occur in the lower plains, or abut against the western 
 spurs of the Andes; but they have been largely denuded, 
 so that they now occur in isolated plateaux or basins, and 
 there is a patch capping the lofty Aconcagua. It is stated 
 that in Chili the marls, or at least some of them, are Liassicj 
 In Bolivia, also, they form plateaux between Ban Andre.*' 
 and the mountains of Tarija. Here they consist of alter, 
 nations of greenish marls and wine-coloured beds support 
 ing limestones, with interstratified beds of gypsum and 
 saliferous clay. There are beds of gypsum and limestone 
 in the Orinoco plains. Marls are associated with marly 
 sandstones in the Gulf of Bahia and in the plains of 
 Reconcavo. These beds are arranged along strikes which 
 are approximately east and west, and their elevation if 
 apparently connected with the formation of chains running
 
 r.] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 G73 
 
 in the same direction, as, for instance, most of the lateral 
 spurs from the Andes. Some geologists think it is also 
 connected with the east and west faults, through which, in 
 the Andes, labradorite and hypersthenite rocks have been 
 erupted. This eruption, it is said, has caused the metamor- 
 phism of the calcareous rocks into crystalline limestones, 
 marls into jaspers, and red sandstones into porphyries; and 
 has also given rise to the copper-bearing veins. Calcare- 
 ous beds occupy large areas in Venezuela, Columbia, and 
 other parts of the continent. Miocene strata occur in 
 Venezuela, and probably in other districts. Finally, there 
 Bre deposits of Post-Miocene date, which chiefly belong 
 to the Post-Pliocene and recent periods, and which cover 
 most of the lower lands along the coasts and in the interior 
 of the continent. In Chili they occur in the valleys, and 
 fill up the gulfs in the old granite range near the coast. 
 Here the succession is a calcareous sandstone abounding in 
 marine shells and beds of lignite; above this is a pumiceous 
 conglomerate, which passes in places into a pebbly con- 
 glomerate, and then follow the marine sands which stretch 
 from Coquimbo across the desert of Atacama. The most 
 recent formation is drift, which occurs in patches and sheets. 
 In the valley plains of the Desaguadero there are clays and 
 sindy marls overlain by pumiceous conglomerates, which 
 near La Paz are surmounted by drift. Near this place the 
 drift is many hundred feet thick, and formed of large 
 blocks; but, on receding from the mountains, it passes 
 into a sand which encircles the plains of the Desaguadero, 
 which are chiefly formed by limestone deposits, such as 
 concretionary limestone, which abounds in the fossil remains 
 of plants and fresh water shells. The lacustrine beds ap- 
 proximate in age to the marine tertiary beds near the 
 coast. In Peru the pumiceous conglomerate is overlain by 
 drift Tertiary beds occur at Guayaquil in Ecuador, while 
 in the valley of Quito there are enormous layers of pumice, 
 scoriae, and drift, which last has yielded the remains of 
 various Post-Pliocene mammals and terrestrial shells. Drift 
 withsimilarremains occurs in the lowergrounds of Columbia. 
 In the Gulf of Bahia there are recent beds; and near St 
 Paul, as also in many other parts of Brazil, there are 
 patches of lacustrine deposits. On the west side of the 
 continent the pumiceous conglomerate is intimately con- 
 nected with trachytes,, and indeed is formed from them. 
 It is intermediate in age between the lacustrine beds, 
 th« marine deposits near the shore, and the drift, which 
 is in its turn covered by the more recent lava overflows ; 
 and it is in this intermediate age that the upheaval of the 
 principal chain of the Andes occurred. The ranges 
 and faults which are assigned to this period, probably 
 Pliocene or Post-Pliocene, run very nearly north and south. 
 This elevation did not materially alter the extent of land 
 west of the Andes, its general effect being to add a strip 
 about thirty miles in width. On he east the change was 
 great, since the larger proportion of the great central plain 
 then emerged, and thus connected the high lands on the 
 east, west, and north into one great continent. The erup- 
 tion of the trachytes, which form so marked a feature in 
 the Andes, was accompanied by a metamorphism distinct 
 in character from those of . earlier ages. The rocks were 
 then subjected not only to heat and water, but also to acid 
 vapours, which changed the felspar into sulphates of 
 alumina and iron, salt into anhydrous sulphate of soda; 
 and, probably, by freeing the chlorine and iodine, originated 
 the chlorides and iodides which are 80 abundant in the 
 argentiferous veins. Since the drift there has been a slight 
 elevation along a meridional axis. 
 
 Such is a brief account of the growth of South America, 
 We must, however, mention that Professor Agassiz and hie 
 coadjutors believe that the red soil and immediately under- 
 lying beds, seen near Bio Janeiro and in the valley of 
 
 1—23 
 
 the Amazon, are true glacial formations, and_ infer that 
 the similar beds which are spread over such an enormoua 
 area in South America have been formed under similar 
 conditions. Professor Agassiz has found moraines and 
 ice-transported boulders in various places in the mountains 
 of Brazil, as also indications of valley glaciers. Professor 
 Orton has found marine shells in these beds at Pebas in 
 Ecuador. 
 
 The foregoing sketch indicates that there have been seve- 
 ral periods of volcanic activity ; and that, so far as our present 
 knowledge goes, such activity has only been manifested 
 along the line of the Andes. Volcanic rocks have rarely 
 been observed on the east side of the continent, but some 
 of the Tertiary and Post-Tertiary beds of the plains contain 
 matter which has been showered upon them during erup? 
 tions, and which now forms a portion of the Pampean de- 
 posits. At one period or other the whole system of the 
 Andes has been subjected to volcanic disturbance, but at 
 the present time the active volcanoes occur in groups more 
 or less widely separated The most southern active volcano 
 is Corcovado, in 43° 10' S. There are, besides, some twenty 
 or more volcanic cones, of which about a dozen are known 
 to be active. Bolivia has one or two active vents, and 
 Peru several; but it is in Ecuador, with its dozen igni- 
 vomous vents, that have occurred the grandest and most 
 frequent displays. Columbia has four or five volcanoes. 
 With the exception of the Moluccas, no country in the 
 world has had so many and so destructive earthquake shocks 
 as South America. But these are concentrated, both as 
 regards frequency and strength, along the Andes, and more 
 particularly their western slope. Comparatively few are felt 
 in the plains to the east of them; but occasionally it 
 happens that shocks are felt at points on the opposite slopes 
 of this great range without being perceived in the inter- 
 mediate higher regions. Peru seems to be the principal 
 focus of action ; and next to it in importance as a seismic 
 area comes Chili ; but although some earthquake shocks 
 spread over both these areas, there does not seem to be 
 the community of action which we should expect between 
 the two areas. In Peni the maxima of seismic intensity 
 were in the decades ending 1590, 1610, 1660, 1690, 1710, 
 1720, 1730, 1750, 1770, 1790, 1840, 1870. In Chili they 
 occurred in the decades ending 1580, 1640, 1650, 1660, 
 1690, 1730, 1780, 1800, 1820, 1840, 1850. Nearly every 
 other portion of the continent is subject "to earthquakes. 
 Bolivia, which lies between Peru and Chili, is compara- 
 tively free from them, as also are Brazil, Patagonia, and the 
 Argentine Confederation, but they are more frequent in 
 Ecuador, Columbia, Venezuela, and the three Guianas. 
 
 The mountains of North and Central America will not 
 detain' us long. The ranges of Central America have no 
 relation to the Andes, differing from them both as regards 
 age and direction, which is generally N. 55° W., and being 
 separated from them by gaps only a few hundred feet above 
 the sea, and upwards of 100 miles wide. During the 
 Tertiary period the mountains of N. and S. America had 
 still less connection than at present, lor where the isthmus 
 now forms a bridge of land there was a broad strait, 
 which lasted up to the end of the Pliocene, or beginning 
 of the Post-Pliocene period Volcanoes are frequent in 
 Central America; and basalt and other volcanic products 
 cover a large portion of the country. The large develop- 
 ment of trachytes indicates an earlier period of volcanic 
 activity, during which most of the Tertiary strata were 
 metamorphosed into porphyries. At any rate these rest 
 upon cretaceous limestones. In many places the clays and 
 sandstones of the Cretaceous age have been metamorphosed 
 into granite rocks. From Puebla to Durango the Mexican 
 mountains no longer present the appearance of a chain, 
 but spread out U> a Uble-l^nd or elevated plain, from 5000
 
 G74 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 [N. AM. .«. AMi:i:I(\\. 
 
 to 9000 feet in height, and from 100 to 300 miles in 
 breadth. Across this plain, close to tho 19th parallel, six vol- 
 canoes aro distributed in a line running east and west, as 
 if a vast rent, extending from tho Atlantic to tho Pacific, 
 had opened a passage for tho internal fires of the globo at 
 this spot. Two of those on the east sido of tho continent, 
 ■with a group of four or five other cones lying between 
 Jalapa and Cordoba, have an elevation exceeding 17,000 
 feat, and are tho only mountains in New Spain that rise 
 to the region of perpetual snow, which commences here at 
 15,000 feet above the level of the sea. Jorullo, the lowest 
 of the Bix volcanoes, rose suddenly in the middle of a 
 plain, in September 1759, after ftarful concussions of the 
 ground, which continued for fifty or sixty days. Near the 
 tropic tho Mexican Cordillera divides into thrco parts. One 
 runs parallel to the eastern coast at the distance of thirty 
 or forty leagues, and terminates in New Leon. Another 
 proceeds in a north-western direction, and sinks gradually 
 as it approaches the Californian Gulf in Sonora. The third 
 or central Cordillera traverses Durango and New Mexico, 
 divides the sources of the Rio Gila from the Rio Bravo del 
 Norte, and dies out before reaching the Rocky Mountains. 
 In a recent scientific survey of the Rocky Mountains, 
 conducted by Professor Hayden of Yale College, a higher 
 peak has been discovered than was formerly known. Holy 
 Cross mountain was computed to reach 17,000 feet above 
 the sea, or 2000 feet higher than Big Horn (15,000), which 
 has hitherto been supposed to be the highest of tho chain. 
 The great est altitudes on the North American continent are 
 now said to be the following — St Elias (17,850) in Alaska, 
 Popocatepetl (17,884) in Mexico, Orizaba (17,337) in 
 Mexico, Holy Cross (17,000), Rocky Mountains, Big Horn 
 (15,000), and Mount Lincoln (14,300), both in the same 
 chain. The Great Salt Lake of Utah is in 41° N. and 1 1 2° 
 W., and has intensely salt waters. It is nearly 300 miles in 
 circumference, and its shores, for a breadth of several miles, 
 are covered with an incrustation of very pure salt. It lies 
 in a basin, which measures about 500 miles each way, and 
 contains much fertile soil. 
 
 H we run a line westward across the continent of North 
 America at the latitude of Delaware Bay (38°), the geolo- 
 gical formations present themselves in the following order: 
 — 1. Tertiary and Cretaceous strata on the shores of the 
 Atlantic • 2. Gneiss underlying these strata, and present- 
 ing itself on the eastern slope of the Alleghany or Appala- 
 mountains, but covered in parts by New Red Sand- 
 stone; 3. Palaeozoic rocks, consisting of Silurian, Devonian, 
 and Carboniferous strata, curiously bent into parallel fold- 
 ings, with synclinal and anticlinal axes, the crests of the 
 latter forming the ridges of the Alleghany Mountains, which 
 in this region rise to the height of 2500 feet. Upon these 
 Palaeozoic rocks rest three great coal-fields — the Appala- 
 chian, that of Hlinois, and that of Michigan, covering a 
 large portion of the space between the Alleghanies and the 
 Mississippi, and embracing collectively an area equal to 
 the surface of Great Britain. From the Mississippi west- 
 ward to Utah tho Palaeozoic rocks occur in great folds, be- 
 tween which are extensive areas of Triassic, Oolitic, Creta- 
 ceous, and Tertiary beds. In California the rocks are 
 chiefly metamorphosed secondary strata on which lie patches 
 of Tertiary sediments. In British America there is an 
 enormous development of the Laurentian and Huronian 
 rocks, which ire the oldest yet discovered, and occupy 
 most of the country immediately north of the largo lakes. 
 Newfoundland and the neighbouring British territories con- 
 sist of Pre-Silurian, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous^ which 
 includes coal-fields of considerable extent), and Triassic 
 rocks. The area north of about 40° N. is also covered and 
 strewed with glacial drift and boulders. 
 
 The Ozark Mountains resemble the Alleghanies in their 
 
 mineral structure, containing the same rocks from the 
 granite to tho carboniferous, and probably upwards to the 
 chalk. 
 
 In no single circumstance is tho superiority of America 
 over the old world so conspicuous, as in the number and 
 magnitude of its navigable rivers. The Amazon alone dis- 
 charges a greater quantity of water than the eight prin- 
 cipal rivers of Asia, the Yenesei, Indus, Ganges, Oby, Lena, 
 Amoor, and the Hoang-ho and Yang-tse of China. The 
 Mississippi, with its .branches, affords a greater amount 
 of inland navigation than all the streams, great, and small, 
 which irrigate Europe; and tho Plata, in this respect, may 
 probably claim a superiority over the collective water of 
 Africa. But the American rivers not only surpass those 
 of tho Old World in length and volume of water, — they 
 are so placed as to penetrate everywhere to the heart of 
 the continent. By the Amazon, a person living at the 
 eastern foot of tho Andes, 2000 miles of direct distance 
 from tho Atlantic, may convey himself or his property to 
 tho 6hores of that sea in forty-five days, almost without 
 effort, by confiding bis bark to the gliding current. H he 
 wish to return, he has but to spread his sails to the 
 eastern breeze, which blows perennially against the stream. 
 The navigation is not interrupted by a single cataract or 
 rapid, from tho Atlantic to Jaen, in west longitude 78° 
 where the surface of the stream is only 1240 feet above 
 the level of its estuary at Para. The part of North 
 America most remote from the sea is the great interior 
 plain extending from the Rocky Mountains to the Alle- 
 ghanies and the lakes, between the parallels of 40° and 
 50° ; but the Mississippi, Missouri, and St Lawrence, 
 with their branches, are wonderfully ramified over this 
 region, and tho Missouri is in some degree navigable 
 to the centre of the continent. It is only necessary 
 to cast the eye over a map of South America, to see 
 that all the most sequestered parts of the interior are 
 visited by branches of the Plata and the Amazon. These 
 streams, having their courses in general remarkably 
 level, and seldom interrupted by cataracts, may be con- 
 sidered ,without a figure of speech, as a vast system of 
 natural canals, terminating in two main trunks, which 
 communicate with the ocean at the equator and the 35th 
 degree of south latitude. Since the invention of steam 
 navigation, rivers are, in the truest 'sense of the term, 
 Nature's highways, especially for infant communities, 
 where the people are too poor, and live too widely dis- 
 persed, to bear the expense of constructing roads. There 
 is little risk in predicting, that in two or three centuries 
 the Mississippi, the Amazon, and the Plata, will be the 
 scenes of an active inland commerce, far surpassing in 
 magnitude anything at present known on the surface of 
 the globe. The Mississippi is navigable for boats from 
 the sea to the falls of its principal branch the Missouri, 
 1700 miles from the Mexican Gulf in a direct line, or 
 3900 by the stream ; and the whole amount of boat 
 navigation afforded by the system of rivers, of which the 
 Mississippi is the main trunk, has been estimated as 
 e.qual to 40,000 miles in length, spread over a surface of 
 1,350,000 square miles. This, however, is perhaps an 
 exaggeration; a navigable length of 35,000 miles may be 
 nearer the truth. 
 
 The Amazon contains many islands, is broad, and in the 
 upper part so deep, that on one occasion Condamine found 
 no bottom with a line 620 feet long. At its mouth, two 
 days before and after the full moon, the phenomenon called 
 a Bore occurs in a very formidable shape. It is a high, 
 upright wave of water rushing from the sea, which no 
 small vessel can encounter without certain destruction. 
 
 Tho estuaries of all these great American rivers open to> 
 the eastward ; and thus Providence seems to have plainly
 
 CtlMATE.] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 675 
 
 -ength, 
 miles. 
 
 Area of 
 
 basin, 
 
 eq. miles. 
 
 Navigable 
 waters, 
 miles. 
 
 4300 
 
 1,850,000 
 
 85,000 
 
 2200 
 
 600,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 1800 
 
 400,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 4000 
 
 2,100,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 2400 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 indicated that "the most intimate commercial relations of 
 the inhabitants of America should be with the western 
 shores of the Old World. It should at the same time be 
 observed, that this position of the great rivers of America 
 is but one example of a physical arrangement which is 
 common to the whole globe; for it is remarkable that, 
 in the Old World as well as in the New, no river of the 
 first class flows to the westward. Some, as the Nile, the 
 Lena, and the Oby, flow to the north; others, as the Indus 
 and. the rivers of Ava, to the south; but the largest, as 
 the Volga, the Ganges, the Yang-tse, the Hoang-ho, the 
 Euphrates, and the Amoor, have their courses to the east 
 or south-east. This arrangement is not accidental, but 
 depends most probably on the inclination of the primary 
 rocks, which, in all cases where their direction approaches 
 to the south and north, seem to havo their steepest sides to 
 the west and the longest declivities to the east. We have 
 examples in the Scandinavian Alps, the mountains of Bri- 
 tain, the Ghauts of India, the Andes, and the Rocky 
 Mountains. 
 
 The following table exhibits the lengths, size of the 
 basins, and probable extent of the navigable water3 of the 
 greater rivers of America. 
 
 Table of Principal American Rivers. 
 
 Mississippi to source of 
 
 Missouri 
 
 8t Lawrence through the ; 
 
 lakes 
 
 Orinoco. 
 
 Amazon, not including Ara- 1 
 
 guay S 
 
 Plata, including Uruguay... 
 
 The latitude and elevation of the land in each country, 
 its position in reference to the sea, and the direction of the 
 prevailing winds, are the chief circumstances which deter- 
 mine the nature of the climate. We have already men- 
 tioned that three-fourths of South America lie within the 
 tropics, and the remaining fourth in the temperate zone ; 
 but, in both divisions, it might be naturally inferred that a 
 huge wall like the Andes, rising into the atmosphere to the 
 height of two or three miles, and running across the course 
 of the tropical and extra-tropical winds, would exert a 
 powerful influence on the temperature, the humidity, and 
 the distribution of the seasons. This is actually the case; 
 and it is this vast chain of mountains, with its prolonga- 
 tion in North America, which affords a key to the most 
 remarkable peculiarities in the climate of the whole con- 
 tinent. The subject, which has been frequently mis- 
 understood, admits of being explained in a very simple 
 manner. 
 
 The trade-winds blowing from the east occupy a zone 60 
 degrees in breadth, extending from 30° of N. to 30° of 
 S. latitude. Beyond these limits are variable winds; 
 but the prevailing direction in the open sea, where no acci- 
 dental causes operate, is well known by navigators to be 
 from the west. Now these winds are the agents which 
 transport the equable temperature of the ocean, and the 
 moisture exhaled from its surface, to the interior of the 
 great continents, where it is precipitated in the shape 
 of rain, dew, or snow. Mountains receive the moisture 
 which floats in the atmosphere ; they obstruct and lift the 
 aerial currents, and by causing a reduction of temperature, 
 favour precipitation. Rain, accordingly, in all countries 
 falls most abundantly on the elevated land. Let us con- 
 lider, then, what will be the effect of a mural ridge like 
 »he Andes in the situation which it occupies. In the 
 region within the 30th parallel, the moisture swept up by 
 
 the trade-wind from the Atlantic will be precipitated in 
 part upon the mountains of Brazil, which are but low, and 
 so distributed as to extend far into the interior. The por- 
 tion which remains will be borne westward, and, losing a, 
 little as it proceeds, will be arrested by the Andes, and fall 
 down in showers on their slopes. The aerial current 
 will now be deprived of all the humidity which it can part 
 with, and arrive in a state of complete exsiccation at Peru, 
 where no rain will consequently fall. That even a much 
 lower ridge than the Andes may intercept the whole mois- 
 ture of the atmosphere, is proved by a well-known pheno- 
 menon in India, where the Ghauts, a chain only 3000 or 
 4000 feet high, divide summer from winter, as it is called) 
 that is, they have copious rains on their windward side, 
 while on the other the weather remains clear and dry; and 
 the rains regularly change from the west side to the east, 
 and vice versa, with the monsoons. In the region beyonc] 
 the 30th parallel this effect will be reversed. The Andes 
 will in this case serve as a screen to intercept the mois 1 
 ture brought by the prevailing west winds from the Pacifiii 
 Ocean ; rains will be copious on their slopes, and in 
 Chili on their western declivities, but none will fall on the 1 
 plains to the eastward, except occasionally, when the winds 
 blow from the Atlantic. The phenomena of the weathei 
 correspond in a remarkable manner with this hypothesis. 
 On the shoretf the Pacific, from Coquimbo, at the 30th 
 parallel, to Amatapu, at the 5th of south latitude, no rain 
 falls ; and the whole of this tract is a sandy desert, except 
 the narrow strips of land skirting the streams that descend 
 from the Andes, where the soil is rendered productive by 
 irrigation. From the 30th parallel southward the scene 
 changes. Rains are frequent; vegetation appears on the 
 surface, and grows more vigorous as we advance south- 
 ward. "At Conception," says Captain Hall, "the eye was 
 delighted with the richest and most luxuriant foliage; at 
 Valparaiso the hills were poorly clad with a stunted brush- 
 wood and a poor attempt at grass, the ground looking 
 starved and naked; at Coquimbo the brushwood was gone, 
 with nothing in its place but a vile sort of prickly pear 
 bush, and a thin sprinkling of gray wiry grass ; at Huasco 
 (latitude 28|°) there was not a trace of vegetation, and the 
 hills were covered with bare sand." 1 It follows from the 
 principle we have laid down, that in this southern part of 
 the continent the dry tract should be found on the east 
 side of the mountains, and such is the fact. At Mendoza, 
 in latitude 32°, rain scarcely ever falls, and the district 
 along the east foot of the Andes is known to consist chiefly 
 of parched sands, on >which a few stunted shrubs grow, 
 and in which many of the streams that descend from the 
 mountains are absorbed before they reach the sea. The 
 whole country, indeed, south of the Plata, suffers from 
 drought ; but on the eastern side this is remedied to some 
 extent by winds from the east or south-east, which bring 
 occasional rains to refresh the soil. From Amatapu north- 
 ward, on the other hand, the west coast is well watered 
 and fruitful; and this is easily accounted for. The line of 
 the coast here changes its direction, and trends to the 
 north-east as far as the isthmus of Panama, where the 
 mountains sink to a few hundred feet in height, and leave 
 a free passage to the trade-wind, which here often assumes 
 a direction from the north-east, or even the north. The 
 exhalations of the Atlantic are thus brought in abundance 
 to the coast of Quito, which is in consequence well watered ; 
 while the neighbouring district of Peru suffers from per- 
 petual aridity. 
 
 Our principle applies equally to the explanation of soma 
 peculiar facts connected with the climate of North Ame- 
 rica. The western coast of Mexico, as far as St Bias or 
 
 i ' Hall's Extract* from a Journal, vol ii. p. 12.
 
 676 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 [n. AND S. AMERICA. 
 
 Mazutlan, in latitude 23° N., is well watered, because.^rrf, 
 the continent here is narrow; secondly, the table-land of 
 Mexico, which is much lower than the Andes of Chili, is 
 not so effectual a screen to intercept the moisture ; and, 
 third/)/, there is reason to believe that a branch of the 
 trade-wind, which crosses the low part of the continent at 
 Panama and Nicaragua, sweeps along the west coast during 
 part of the year, and transports humidity with it. But 
 beyond the point we have mentioned drought prevails. 
 Sonora, though visited occasionally by rains, consists of 
 Bandy plains without herbage, where the streams lose them- 
 selves in the parched soil without reaching the sea ; and 
 even Old California, which has the ocean on one side, and 
 a broad gulf on the other, and ought apparently to be ex- 
 cessively humid, is covered with sterile rocks and sandy 
 hills, where the vegetation is scanty, and no timber is seen 
 except brushwood. This dry region extends as far as 33° 
 or 34° N. ; but immediately beyond this we have another 
 change of scene. New California is in all respects a 
 contrast to the Old. It is rich, fertile, and humid, 
 abounding in luxuriant forests and fine pastures ; and the 
 other American possessions to the northward preserve the 
 same character. How can we account for this singular 
 diversity of climate, except upon the principle which has 
 been explained, namely, that in all regions where ranges 
 of mountains intersect the course of the constant or pre- 
 dominant winds, the country on the windward side of the 
 mountains will be moist, and that on the leeward dry; and 
 hence parched deserts will generally be found on the west 
 side of countries within the tropics, and on the east side 
 of those beyond them t Our hypothesis applies equally to 
 the country east of the Rocky Mountains. For the space 
 of about 3000 miles along the foot of this chain -the surface 
 consists of dry sands or gravel, sometimes covered with 
 saline incrustations, almost destitute of trees and herbage, 
 and watered by streams flowing from the mountains, which 
 are sometimes entirely absorbed by the arid soil The 
 central and eastern part of the basin of the Mississippi 
 would in all probability have been equally barren had the 
 configuration of the land been a little different in the 
 south. A tract of country extremely low and level extends 
 along both sides of this river; and a portion of the trade- 
 wind blowing from the Mexican Gulf, finding its motion 
 westward obstructed by the high table-land of the Cordil- 
 lera, is deflected to the right, and ascends the valley of the 
 Mississippi and Ohio. This wind, whose course was first 
 traced by Volney, bears with it the humidity of the torrid 
 rone, and scatters fertility-over a wide region that would 
 otherwise Be a barren waste. 
 
 The views on the subject of climate we have been un- 
 folding will enable us to throw some light on an interest- 
 ing point — the distribution of forests. We are induced to 
 think, that in all countries having a summer heat exceed- 
 ing 70°, the presence or absence of natural woods, and 
 their greater or less luxuriance, may be taken as a measure 
 of the amount of humidity, and of the fertility of the soil. 
 Short and heavy rains in a warm country will produce 
 grass, which, having its roots near the surface, springs up 
 in a few days, and withers when the moisture is exhausted ; 
 but transitory rains, however heavy; will not nourish trees, 
 because after the surface is saturated with water, the rest 
 runs off, and the moisture lodged in the soil neither sinks 
 deep enough, nor is in sulhcient quantity to furnish the 
 giants of the forest with the necessary sustenance. It may 
 be assumed that 20 inches of rain falling moderately, or at 
 intervals, will leave a greater permanent supply in the soil 
 than 40 inches falling, as it sometimes does in the torrid 
 zone, in as many hours. It is only necessary to qualify 
 this conclusion by stating, that something depends on the 
 •absoil. If that is gravel, or a rtck full of fissures, the 
 
 water imbedded will soon drain o9 ; if it is clay or a com- 
 pact rock, the water will remain in the soil. It must bo 
 remembered, also, 
 that both heat and 
 moisture dim i nish as 
 we ascend in the at- 
 mosphere, while eva- 
 poration increases ; 
 and hence that trees 
 will not grow on 
 very high ground, 
 though its position 
 in reference to the 
 sea and the prevail- 
 ing winds should be 
 favourable in other 
 respects. In speak- 
 ing of the region of 
 forests, we neither 
 restrict the term to 
 those districts where 
 the natural woods 
 present an unbroken 
 continuity, nor ex- 
 tend it to every place 
 
 where a few trees Sketch Map showing the Forest Regions 
 grow in open plains. of America. 
 
 It is not easy to give a definition that will be always 
 appropriate ; but in using the expression, we wish to be 
 understood as applying it to ground where the natural 
 woods cover more than one-fourth of the surface. 
 
 The small map of America prefixed will enable the reader 
 to follow our statements with ease. The long black 
 lines show the positions of the chains of mountains ; the 
 shading represents the regions of forests ; the dense forests 
 being marked by the double shading, and the thinner ones 
 by the open lines. The white spaces represent the lands 
 on which little or no wood grows. The equator and the 
 parallel of 30° on each side are indicated by the horizontal 
 lines marked and 30. The arrows show the direction of 
 the prevailing winds; but it must be remembered that, 
 though the intertropical wind is assumed to have its course 
 right from the east, this is only true at the equator, its 
 direction inclining to north-east as we approach the northern 
 tropic, and to the south-east as we approach the southern. 
 In North America A is the woody region on the west 
 coast, extending from latitude 35° to about 58°, and of 
 unknown breadth. B, the region on the east side of the 
 Rocky Mountains, partly a bare desert, partly covered with 
 grass and dotted with trees. C, the forests of the Alleghany 
 chain, thick on the east and south, and thin on the west; 
 bounded by a curved line passing from St Luis, in Mexico, 
 through Lake Huron, to the mouth of the St Lawrence, in 
 latitude 50° N. The arrow at M points out the direction 
 of the wind, which ascends the valley of the Mississippi, 
 and nourishes the western part of these forests ; and the 
 arrow at R that which blows across the isthmus of Panama, 
 D is the table-land of Mexico, graduating on the north- 
 west into the dry plains of Sonora and California, all bare, 
 or nearly bare, of wood. E is the Llanos or bare plains of 
 Caraccas, nearly fenced round with mountains. F G is 
 the long strip of bare dry sands on the west side of the 
 Andes which constitutes Lower Peru and the north part of 
 Chili ; and N is Amatapu, its northern boundary. H is 
 the great region of forests which constitutes the basin of 
 the Amazon, and occupies ail the rest of Brazil. Near the 
 equator the moisture is so excessive, that after 150 or 200 
 inches of rain have fallen on the' east coast, there is still 
 sufficient humidity in the atmosphere to afford copious 
 showers to all the country up to the Andes, riere. there-
 
 CLIMATE.] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 677 
 
 fore, the woods reach from side to side of the continent. 
 But as we recede from the equator the humidity diminishes 
 rapidly ; and though the continent becomes narrower to- 
 wards the south, the supply of rain falls off in a still 
 greater proportion, and the forests extend over a much 
 smaller space. At the foot of the Andes the forests ex- 
 tend to 16° or 18° of S. latitude; on the east coast to 
 2S° or probably 30°. K L are the Pampas or open lands of 
 Buenos Ayres, extending on the east side of the Andes from 
 Cape Horn to the latitudes just mentioned. If we divide 
 this region into three parts, the most easterly, refreshed 
 by occasional rains from the Atlantic, is covered with a 
 strong nutritive herbage ; the second, which is drier, dis- 
 plays a thin coarse wiry grass ; and the third portion, which 
 extends to the Andes, receiving little or no rain, is nearly 
 a desert : all the three are destitute of timber, but the sur- 
 face of the third is dotted with dwarfish shrubs. I is the 
 southern part of Chili. Here the prevailing winds, which 
 are from the west, coming loaded with the moisture of the 
 Pacific Ocean, produce copious rains to nourish the herbage 
 and the forests. This applies, however, chiefly to the 
 country south of the 35th parallel. From that to Coquimbo, 
 in latitude 30°, the wood is scanty. Beyond 50° on the east 
 coast of North America, and 55° or 58° on the west, very 
 little wood grows, in consequence of the rigour of the climate, 
 wcrat'ng Great misapprehensions have arisen with regard to the 
 iuroces climate of America, from comparisons being drawn between 
 the east side of the new continent and the west side of the 
 old. We have already pointed out the influence of winds 
 blowing from the sea in modifying the state of the atmo- 
 sphere over the land, both as to heat and humidity. "When 
 this circumstance is attended to, and when the east and west 
 sides of the old and the new continents are respectively com- 
 pared with one another, the difference is found to be small, 
 and easily accounted for. In the torrid zone, and on the 
 sea-shore, the temperature of both continents is found to be 
 the same, viz., 82°; but in the interior the difference is 
 rather in favour of America. There is no counterpart in 
 the New World to the burning heats felt in the plains of 
 Arabia and N. Africa. Even in the western and warmest 
 part of the parched steppes of Caraccas, the hottest known 
 region in America, the temperature of the air during the 
 day is only 98° in the shade, which rises to 1,12° in the 
 sandy deserts which surround the Ked Sea. At Calabozo, 
 farther east in the Llanos, the common temperature of the 
 day is only from 88° to 90°; and at sunrise the thermo- 
 meter sinks to 80°. The basin of the Amazon is shaded 
 with lofty woods; and a cool breeze from the east, a minor 
 branch of the trade wind, ascends the channel of tie stream, 
 following all its windings, almost to the foot of the Andes. 
 Hence this region, though under the equator, and visited 
 ' with almost constant rains, is neither excessively hot nor 
 unhealthy. Brazil, and the vast country extending west- 
 ward from it between the Plata and the Amazon, is an 
 uneven table-land, blest with an equable climate. At Eio 
 Janeiro, which stands low, and is exposed to a heat 
 comparatively great, the temperature in summer varies 
 from 68° to 82° Fahr., and the mean is only about 
 74°. Farther north, and in the interior, the Indians find 
 it necessary to keep fires in their huts ; and in the country 
 near the sources of the Paraguay, hoar-frost is seen on 
 the hills during the colder months, and the mean tem- 
 perature of the year falls below 65° or 67°. On the de- 
 clivities of the Andes, and on the high plains of Upper 
 Peru, the heats are so moderate that the plants of Italy, 
 France, and Germany come to maturity. Lower Peru, 
 though a sandy desert, enjoys a wonderful degree of cool- 
 ness, owing to the fogs which intercept the solar rays. 
 LAt Lima, which is 540 feet above the sea, the temperature 
 varies from 53° to 82°, but the mean for the whole year is 
 
 only 72°. In the plains cf La Plata the mean temperature 
 of the year is very nearly the same as at the corresponding 
 north latitudes on the east side of the Atlantic. At Buenos 
 Ayres, for instance, the mean annual heat is 19° - 7 of the 
 centigrade thermometer (68° Fahr.), while that of places on 
 the same parallel in the Old World is 19°'8. The range of 
 temperature is probably greater in the basin of the Plata; 
 but as we advance southwards, the diminishing breadth of 
 the continent makes the climate approximate to that of an 
 island, and the extremes of course approach each other. In 
 the Strait of Magalhaens the temperature of the warmest 
 month does not exceed 43° or 46°; and snow falls almost 
 daily in the middle of winter, though the latitude corre- 
 sponds with that of England. But the inference drawn from 
 this, that the climate is unmatched for severity, is by no 
 means just, for the winter at Staten Island is milder than 
 in London. In point of fact, the climate of Patagonia is 
 absolutely colder than that of places in the same latitude 
 in Europe ; but the difference lies chiefly in the very low 
 temperature of the summer. This peculiarity no doubt 
 results chiefly from the greater coolness of the sea in the 
 southern hemisphere ; for beyond the parallel of 48°, the 
 difference of temperature in the North and South Atlantic 
 amounts, according to Humboldt, to 10° or. 12° of Fahren- 
 heit's scale. H we push our researches a step farther, and 
 inquire' what is the cause of the great warmth of the 
 Northern Sea, we shall be forced to admit that a very 
 satisfactory answer cannot be given. Something may be 
 due to the influence of the Gulf Stream, a minute branch 
 of which is supposed to carry the waters of the torrid zone 
 to the shores of Shetland and Norway; but such an agent 
 seems too trifling to account for the phenomenon. The 
 sum, then, of the peculiar qualities which distinguish the 
 climate of South America may be briefly stated. Near 
 the equator the new continent is perhaps more humid than 
 the old; and within the tropics generally, owing to its vast 
 forests, the absence of sandy deserts, and the elevation of 
 the soil, it is cooler. Beyond the tropics the heat is nearly 
 the same in the south temperate zope of America and 
 the northern one of the old continent, till we ascend to the 
 latitude of Cape Horn, where we have cold summers and 
 a very limited, range of the thermometer. 
 
 _ The mountain ranges of North America form two widely Highland* 
 distant highland regions, separated from each other by the of N- 
 vast interior plain, which contains, in its southern slope, America 
 the Mississippi with all its tributaries, and the other rivers 
 flowing into the Gulf of Mexico, while its northern part 
 contains the great fresh-water lakes, and many rivers 
 taking a northward course to Hudson's Bay or to the 
 Arctic seas. The watershed of this plain, dividing the 
 streams that nin into the Missouri and Mississippi from 
 those communicating with the Saskatchewan, with Lake 
 Winnipeg, and with Lake Superior, is along a line from 
 west to east nearly coinciding with the 48th parallel of 
 latitude, and has a mean elevation of 1500 feet. 
 
 Along the whole of the western side, from near the 
 mouth of the Mackenzie in the Arctic Ocean, and from 
 Alaska on the Pacific shore, to the Isthmus of Nicaragua 
 and Panama, that is, across 60° of latitude from north to 
 south, extends with a grand double curve the continuou; 
 length of the Rocky Mountains, and others which prolong 
 the line, having a position in North America similar to 
 that of lhe Andes in South America, and shutting off, in 
 some parts, a comparatively narrow portion of the con- 
 tinent., with the Pacific shore, from the great central plain. 
 But several minor ranges, branching off or confronting the 
 principal mountain-ridge or backbone of North America, 
 enclose large spaces of a table-land, traversed by the 
 Columbia, the Fraser, and the Colorado rivers, with those 
 which join them, and holding the Great Salt Lake of
 
 678 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 [N. AMERICA. 
 
 Utah in its central basin. The Cascade Mountains of 
 Washington and Oregon, the Sierra Nevada of California, 
 and the Coast Range prolonged through the Californian 
 peninsula, have a general direction from north to south; 
 while the Wan itch, the Humboldt, the Blue Moun- 
 tains, the Salmon River, and other ranges, stand rather 
 across the table-land, or obliquely, from west to cast. It 
 may be convenient to speak of the former scries, regarded 
 altogether, as the general Pacific Coast Range, which we 
 also observe to be continued northward, with some intervals, 
 beyond latitude GO N. to the peninsula of Alaska, pre- 
 senting summits of increased height, that of Mount St 
 Elias being above 17,000 feet, and Mount Fairweather 
 nearly 15,000 feet. In the Cascade Range are Mount St 
 Helens, north of the Columbia River, attaining an eleva- 
 tion of 15,750 feet; Mount Hood and Mount Jefferson, 
 about 15,500 feet. The Sierra Nevada, at its northern 
 extremity, where it forms an acute angle with the coast 
 range, displays the lofty terminal peak of Mount Shasta, 
 having an altitude of 1 -1,400 feet. The minor Californian 
 Coast Range nowhere rises to 4000 feet. The main Cor- 
 dillera or spine of Western North America, which in the 
 British Dominion and in the United States' territory is 
 called the Rocky Mountains, but which takes the name of 
 the Sierra Madre in Mexico, and in the isthmus, farther 
 south, is split into two lower groups of a volcanic character, 
 attains the height of 16,000 feet in Mount Brown, and 
 15,700 feet in Mount Hooker, both near the 54th degree 
 of latitude, above the source of the Saskatchewan river; 
 but Fremont, in the Wind River group, between Oregon 
 and Nebraska, is 13,560 feet high, and there are peaks of 
 10,000 feet or 12,000 feet in Utah and New Mexico. 
 The highest mountains, however, in North America, ex- 
 celling even Mount St Elias, belong to a volcanic series 
 which crosses the table-land of southern Mexico from west 
 to east, and of which the culminating points are Popo- 
 catepetl, 17,884 feet, and Orizaba, 17,373 feet; while 
 Agua, in Guatemala, rises to 13,000 feet. Thus we may 
 remark, at each extremity of the Cordillera, at its north 
 end, towards Alaska, and at its south end, in Central 
 America, it is encountered by a cluster of volcanoes, 
 Mount St Elias being one of this description, which exceed 
 the height of the Rocky Mountains. The spaces enclosed 
 between the main trunk and branches of this immense 
 system of mountains are several hundred miles wide, and 
 their surface is elevated 5000 feet of 6000 feet above tie 
 Bea-level, as in the Utah lake-basin, the Nevada territory, 
 and the plateau of Anahuac, or southern Mexico, which 
 last has an elevation of 6000 feet to 8000 feet, and has 
 therefore a temperate climate within the tropics. 
 
 An outline merely has been given of the western high- 
 land region of North America. The eastern highlands of 
 this continent are mainly constituted by the Alleghanies 
 or Appalachian system of mountains, with then: dependen- 
 cies, which are of no great height, the Black Mountain, or 
 Mount- Guyot, in North Carolina, being the highest, at 
 6476 feet; but they extend nearly 2000 miles, from the 
 Gulf of St Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico, having a gene- 
 ral direction from north-east to south-west. The strip of 
 land, one or two hundred miles wide, between these moun- 
 tains and the Atlantic coast, is of the greatest historical 
 interest, as it includes the seats of all the older English 
 ■nents on this continent, which seems destined for 
 the grandest dweliing-place of our nation. North of the 
 Gulf of St Lawnece, through the peninsula that terminates 
 with Labrador between the Atlantic and Hudson's Bay, 
 the Appalachian system of mountains is continued, or 
 resumed, in a range called the Watchish, only 1500 feet 
 high, but in the severe climate of that region covered with 
 perpetual enow. The Alleghanies, south of the St Law- 
 
 rence, including the Green Mountains of Vermont and the 
 White Mountains of New Hampshire, are not so much a 
 chain of mountains as a long plateau, crested by several 
 different ridges, and intersected by wide valleys of con- 
 siderable elevation, but altogether on a much smaller scalo 
 than the highlands of Western America. East of the 
 Hudson the mountains are chiefly granitic, with 
 rounded summits, often covered with turf or moss to the 
 top; they assume a more regular formation in Penn- 
 sylvania, Virginia) and North Carolina, but again decline 
 and break into detached groups in approaching their 
 southern extremity in Alabama. Next to the summit in 
 North Carolina, which is named above, Mount Washington 
 in New Hampshire stands pre-eminent, with an altitude of 
 6428 feet. The scenery of these " White Mountains" is 
 very striking, especially where the Saco river cleaves its 
 way through the barrier of granite by a cutting two miles 
 long, in one place only 22 feet wide, between lofty pre- 
 cipitous walls. It is in the " Green Mountains," succeed- 
 ing these to the west, and giving their name in French to 
 the neighbouring State, that the prevalent form becomes 
 that of round humps on a broad base, with firs or shrubs 
 growing on the slopes, and with scanty grass or lichens on 
 the summits. Both these two contrasted groups of New 
 England mountains enter the State of Massachusetts from 
 the north; the Hoosacand Taconic extensions of the Green 
 Mountains rise on the west side, while the White Moun- 
 tains are continued by those of which Mount Holyoke and 
 Wachusett are the most conspicuous; and between their 
 parallel ranges is the Connecticut river, with the Housa- 
 tonic, Mount Tom, and Blue Hills to overlook its lower 
 course. These features of the country, though of far less 
 physical importance than the towering peaks of Colorado 
 and California, will always be,associated with the genuine 
 traditions of English rural, domestic, and social life, trans- 
 planted to the New World in the 17th century, and 
 defended by a long struggle against stern nature and 
 savage men in the early age of the American colonies. 
 The natural boundary separating New England from the 
 great and more modern State. of New York is that noble 
 river the Hudson, rising in the Adirondack Mountains, 
 near Lake Champlain and the waters of the St Lawrence, 
 but pouring its beautiful and useful stream directly south, 
 to the greatest of American commercial ports and cities. 
 This river passes close by the Catskill and Shawangunk 
 Mountains, from which is continued the general distribu- 
 tion of the eastern American highlands along the Atlantic 
 states, but with a more westerly declination from the coast, 
 running through Pennsylvania, West Virginia, the borders 
 of Tennessee, and North CaroUna, the upper parts of 
 Georgia and Alabama. It is in Virginia that the Alle- 
 ghanies have their greatest breadth, which is about 150 
 miles. They rise highest in North Carolina and Tennessee, 
 and subsequently keep up a distinct line of position, across 
 the cotton-growing States, between those of the Atlantic 
 seaboard and those of the Lower Mississippi This cir- 
 cumstance, it may be remarked, has' had most important 
 effects on the political and military events of late years, 
 in the results of the attempted secession of the slavehold- 
 ing States from the Union. Another feature of physical 
 geography, which probably conditioned the earlier stages 
 of that momentous civil struggle, in the disputes relating 
 to the Missouri compromise and to the admission of Kansas 
 as a free-soil State, is the existence of the Ozark range of 
 mountains. These stand in the middle of the great Mis- 
 sissippi valley, stretching across from northern Texas to 
 Arkansas and the confluence of the Missouri with the 
 Mississippi By the elevation they give to the soil, in 
 latitudes between 30° and 40°, as well as by the raised 
 table-land of New Mexico and Arizona farther west, the
 
 CEOLOftv] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 079 
 
 area of United States' territory suitable for cotton planta- 
 tions and for slave labour was so far limited, and confined 
 to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic sea- 
 board. At the sam'e time, in the latitudes north of these, 
 between 40° and 50°, the whole vast prairie region from 
 the Ohio to the Rocky Mountains was adapted to the 
 growth of corn, while it had such continuity and unifor- 
 mity of surface, and was so pervaded by the grand river- 
 system of this middle plain of North America, that it 
 couldt not well undergo political division. The entire 
 West being thus secured to the Union, and the better 
 part of the South being thus rescued from the curse of 
 Negro slavery, by the moulding hand of nature in planning 
 the distribution of mountain ranges and the level ground 
 all over this continent, we may conr'der that the political 
 and social destinies of the great English Republic, vindi- 
 cated in the civil war from 1861 to 1865, were predeter- 
 mined in the formation of the land. 
 
 The North American continent affords an interesting 
 study of the geological changes and adjustments, by which 
 the mighty work of preparation for what promises to be a 
 noble development of humanity was slowly effected in 
 the remote epochs of the past. The oldest sedimentary 
 rocks anywhere found on the globe are those which under- 
 lie the whole of Canada, New Brunswick, and Newfound- 
 land, the Labrador peninsula, and the country north of 
 Lake Superior, perhaps also the less explored regions of 
 the far north-west towards the Arctic Sea. This series, 
 named the Laurentian, from the St Lawrence river, is per- 
 ceived to exist in Europe only in a fewscattered instances, 
 in the Hebrides, and in Norway or Sweden. In North 
 America it occupies the most extensive areas; the thick- 
 ness of its beds is estimated by Sir William Logan at 
 30,000 feet; it rises to hills or mountains 4000 feet high, 
 and in the deep gorge of the Saguenay river, forms per- 
 pendicular cliffs of 1500 feet. Only one fossil animal, 
 which has been called the Eozoon Canadense, has been dis- 
 covered to have left its trace in this most ancient bottom 
 of the primeval ocean; it was one of the Foraminifera, 
 which covered its gelatinous body with a thin crust of 
 carbonate of lime, having numerous holes or pores for the 
 emission of its filament-members, with which to feel and 
 to feed outside. Next to the Laurentian, but with a vast 
 unknown interval of time, comes the Huronian or Lower 
 Cambrian series. It .'is suggested by geologists that, as 
 the vast .level bed of the Laurentian sea was cracked by 
 internal changes of the earth's density, these cracks threw 
 up certain ridges along the surface of the present con- 
 tinent, which laid a foundation for the principal mountain 
 ranges we have described. At the borders and extremities 
 oi these mountain ranges, it is evident that there were 
 intense volcanic emptions, producing great quantities of 
 lava and conglomerate, basalt, greenstone, and other 
 formations resulting from igneous action. The northern 
 shores of Lake3 Huron and Superior exhibit results of this 
 land; but it is in the table-lands between the Rocky 
 Mountains and tho west coast ranges, as in the singular 
 lava beds near the Klamath, on the frontier of Oregon 
 and North California, that volcanic forces havo made their 
 strongest marks on the earth. On the eastern side also of 
 the grand Cordillera, between the sources of the Missouri 
 and of the Yellowstone rivers, is a wonderful region of 
 boiling springs or geysers, of sulphur beds and other 
 natural curiosities, which have recently been described by 
 Dr Hayden, of the United States' Government Survey. 
 To speak more generally of tho local arrangement of dif- 
 ferent geological formations, it may be remarked that 
 crystalline rocks are spread over the western parts of North 
 America, from Alaska to Nicaragua, and over the most 
 jiortheru parts, also including Greenland; but some of 
 
 later date are found in the eastern or Appalachian range, 
 consisting of felspathic gneiss and quartz rocks, mingled 
 with talcose and chloritic schists. The Palaeozoic forma- 
 tions occupy that middle part of the continent which lies 
 between the Rocky Mountains and- the great l?kes, as well 
 as the shores of Hudson's Bay, and some portions of the 
 Atlantic coasts. With reference to the Lower Silurian or 
 Siluro-Cambrian period, it is abundantly illustrated by the 
 Trenton and associated limestones, which can be traced 
 over 40° of longitude, their beds consisting entirely of 
 dibris of coral, shells, and crinoids, from the shallov 
 inland sea, teeming with animal life, that once filled the 
 whole level space between the Alleghanics and the Rocky 
 Mountains, separated by these ridges from the Atlantic 
 and Pacific Oceans, and sheltered from the cold Arctic 
 currents by the northern Laurentian highlands. This 
 space, which is now the central plain of North America, 
 comprising the prairies and the Mississippi valley, was then 
 a coral sea with archipelagos of volcanic isles, resembling 
 that of Australasia in the South Pacific, The next forma. 
 tion succeeding the Silurian presents immense deposits of 
 sandstone and shale from the muddy waters troubled by 
 subterranean motions ; this is the Devonian formation, 
 which in America has been called the Erian, on account of 
 the great development of such beds south of Lake Erie. 
 The deposits of this period in the western continent are 
 stated to be 15,000 feet in thickness. They include the 
 cliff limestones, studded with calcareous corals of great 
 size and beauty of shape, noticed by Sir Charles Lyell at 
 the falls of the Ohio, near Louisville; these limestones are 
 estimated to extend, as an ancient coral reef, over 500,000 
 square miles of the American middle plain. In the Stata 
 of New York and in Western Canada there is the corni- 
 ferous limestone, in which the imbedded corals have been 
 replaced, in the cavities they once filled, by flinty horn- 
 stones which present the perfect coral forms, as though 
 cast in a mould. In the Carboniferous age the great 
 internal sea of the continent was slowly changed into 
 swampy flats and shallow lakes or creeks, and gradually 
 filled with a rank vegetable growth, afterwards buried 
 under later marine deposits and pressed into the existing 
 coal-beds. Of this period there are very, extensive de- 
 velopments throughout the eastern half of the great middle 
 plain to the AUeghanies. This portion of America seems 
 to have been land, covered with the forests of that period, 
 while the western half of the middle plain, a northward 
 extension of the Gulf of Mexico, was still under -water. 
 As the eastern half of North America, between the Mis- 
 sissippi and the Atlantic, was thus in the Carboniftfrou? 
 era well raised out of the sea, it exhibits no traces of the 
 succeeding Permian age, such as we find in Europe. The 
 earliest periods also of Mesozoic time have failed to leave 
 any record here, but their formations appear towards the 
 western range of mountains in what was the bed of a 
 Mediterranean Sea. It is, however, the Cretaceous system, 
 wuth its characteristic greensand, its sands, clays, marls, 
 and soft grey limestones, that occupies most space in 
 Western America, between the meridians of 97° and 112°. 
 These strata, overlaid sometimes by those of the Tertiary 
 periods, extend through the country up the Missouri, the 
 Platte, tho Arkansas, and the Red River, to the Rocky 
 Mountains; they also form parts of the plains enclosed by 
 different mountain ranges beyond the Cordillera. Along 
 the eastern side of the Appalachians there is a broad belt 
 of the Cretaceous formation, stretching from the Delaware 
 across the upper parts of Virginia, Carolina, Georgia, and 
 Alabama. Among the fossil animal remains discovered in 
 this formation in North America, which are enumerated in 
 a separate list, one of the most remarkable is that of the 
 Mosasaurus, a combination of tho serpent with the lizard
 
 680 
 
 A M ERICA 
 
 In. AMERICA. 
 
 form, sometimes 80 feet in length, and of aquatic habits. 
 The Tertiary deposits, including the boulder clay, prevail 
 chiefly along the seaward districts, from Long Island, 
 above New York, to the peninsula of Florida, and around 
 the shores of the Mexican Gulf, and likewise on the Pacific 
 shore from Lover California to Vancouver Island, also in 
 some detached instances, as in Nebraska, in the midst of 
 the interior plain. The newer Pliocene is met with in the 
 southern part of Maine, and on the shores of Lake Cham- 
 plain. The drift formation lies mostly north of 40° lati- 
 tude. Alluvial deposits are of great amount from the 
 large rivers and lakes, especially in the delta of the Missis- 
 sippi, which has an area of 13,600 square miles, and must, 
 by Sir Charles Lyell's reckoning, have taken 67,000 years 
 for its composition, at the rate of the bringing down of solid 
 matter by that mighty river. 
 
 The mineral products of North America are of unequalled 
 richness and variety. Gold is abundant, to a proverb, in 
 California, and likewise in Nevada and Montana. It is 
 also found in British Columbia, Mexico, Central America, 
 and Canada, and sparingly in Virginia and South Caro- 
 lina Silver is obtained from Mexico in larger quantities 
 than from any other country; it is supplied also by Cali- 
 fornia and by Honduras, and a vein of this metal is worked 
 in Newfoundland. Great masses of almost pure copper 
 are found in the Quronian rock strata, the north and east 
 shores of Lake Superior being the richest of copper-mining 
 regions; while New York State and Indiana possess a 
 Bhare of the same metal, and it is found among the wes- 
 tern mountains in different countries from British Columbia 
 to the isthmus. The iron ores of Pennsylvania, and thoso 
 of Canada, including New Brunswick, are of the greatest 
 importance; the former are rendered more available by 
 their occurring close to the beds of bituminous coal, giving 
 materials for the manufacturing industry of Pittsburg; 
 while anthracite coal is obtained from the eastern districts 
 of Pennsylvania. It is estimated that one-third of the 
 total area of thJ3 State is occupied by coal-fields, which 
 can scarcely be exhausted. Lead is found in Wisconsin, 
 Illinois, and Missouri, in New York State, in Canada, in 
 California, and in Central America, as well as quicksilver ; 
 white zinc is got from Arkansas and New Jersey ; both 
 Canada and Mexico produce tin. lleverting to the subject 
 of coal, as having an intimate economic connection with all 
 metallic wealth, it should be observed that the united area 
 of all the coal-fields in the United States is estimated at 
 190,000 square miles, exceeding twentyfold those of Europe. 
 The chief of these coal-fields are, first, the Appalachian, 
 extending from the Susquehanna, in Pennsylvania, to the 
 Tuscaloosa, in Alabama, along the west side of the Alle- 
 ghany Mountains ; the area of this coal-field is 70,000 
 square miles, and its greatest thickness 2500 feet ; secondly, 
 the coal-field of Michigan, about the centre of that State; 
 thirdly, the extensive coal-field between the Ohio and the 
 Mississippi, across the States of Indiana and Illinois ; 
 lastly, the Iowa and Missouri coal-field, which occupies a 
 large space in the very centre of the continent. Coal is 
 found also in Nova Scotia, in British Columbia, and Van- 
 couver Island, and wherever the Upper Palsozoic strata 
 prevail in the geological structure. But in the vast extent 
 of British American territory north-west of Lake Superior, 
 around Lake Winnipeg and up the Saskatchewan river, 
 even as far as the Peace river, in latitude 56° N., it may 
 be expected that manufacturing as well as agricultural 
 prosperity will result from the use of immense stores of 
 natural wealth existing in the soil of that long-neglected 
 land, which is now proved to have a climate not more 
 severe than the inhabited provinces of Canada. The iron 
 and copper, more especially of the Canadian Dominion, 
 will einploy and enrich, in all probability, at some future 
 
 period, a nation that may become greater in material 
 resources than the most powerful kingdoms of Europe. 
 In view of these prospects from the working of the useful 
 metals, by the aid of that most useful product of the 
 earth which supplies heat and mechanical force to the 
 service of human industry, we may regard the Californian 
 gold-fields as a matter of secondary importance. They 
 have indeed been surpassed by the productiveness of thoso 
 in Australia and New Zealand. 
 
 Nine-tenths of North America lying under the tempe- 
 rate zone, the climate follows a different law from what is 
 observed in the southern peninsula, and presents more strik- 
 ing contrasts with that of the best known parts of the Old 
 World. The long narrow region now denominated Central 
 America, which connects the two great divisions of the con- 
 tinent, stretching from Panama to Tehuantepec, has iu 
 general a. very humid atmosphere; but, for a tropical coun- 
 try, it must be only moderately hot, as every part of it is 
 within a small distance of the sea. At Vera Paz the rains 
 fall during nine months of the year. Mexico is hot, moist, 
 and unhealthy on the low coasts; but two-thirds of its area, 
 comprising all the populous districts, consist of table-land, 
 from 5000 to 9000 feet in height. In consequence of this 
 singular configuration of its surface, Mexico, though chiefly 
 within the torrid zone, enjoys a temperate and equable cli- 
 mate. The mean heot at the capital, which is 7400 feet 
 above the sea, is 62J°, and the difference between the 
 warmest and coldest months, which exceeds 30° at London, 
 is hero only about 12°; but the atmosphere is deficient in 
 moisture, and the country suffers from drought. Beyond 
 the parallel of 24° N. the western shores are hot and arid. 
 
 In the extensive region lying between the parallels of 
 30° and 50° N., which compreheuds three-fourths of the 
 useful soil of North America, we have three well-marked 
 varieties of climate, that of the east coast, the west coast, 
 and the basin of the Mississippi. On the east coast, from 
 Georgia to Lower Canada, the mean temperature of the 
 year is lower than in Europe by 9° at the latitude of 40°, 
 and by 12i° at the latitude of 50°, according to Humboldt's 
 calculation. In the next place, the range of the thermo- 
 meter is much greater than in Europe, the summer being 
 much hotter and the winter much colder. At Quebec the 
 temperature of the warmest month exceeds that of the 
 coldest by no less than 60^° of Fahr.; while at Paris, which 
 is nearly under the same latitude, the difference is only 31°. 
 In the third place, the climate undergoes a more rapid 
 change in America as we proceed from south to north, a 
 degree of latitude in the middle of the temperate zone pro- 
 ducing a decrease of annual temperature of l c, 13 Fahr. 
 in Europe, and of 1 0, 57 Fahr. in America The comparison 
 is greatly to the disadvantage of America when made in 
 this form; but when the east coasts of the two continents 
 are compared, the case is altered ; the Old World is found 
 to have no superiority over the New, for Pekin has still 
 colder winters and warmer summers than Philadelphia, 
 which is under the same latitude. It is the west coast of 
 the new continent which ought to exhibit the climate of 
 Europe ; and from the observations made, we have reason to 
 believe that it is quite as mild and equable. At the mouth 
 of Columbia river, in latitude 46 j° N., it appears that 
 the mean heat of the warmest month was about 62° Fahr. of 
 the coldest about 36°, and of the whole year 51°. Now 
 the place is under the same latitude with Quebec, where the 
 snow lies five months, and the mean temperature during 
 the three winter months is 18° below the freezing point. 
 This single circumstance marks emphatically the contrast 
 in the climate of the east and west coasts of North America. 
 But the mouth of Columbia river is also under the same 
 parallel with Nantes at the mouth of the Loire ; and we 
 have, therefore, good grounds to conclude that the west
 
 CLIMATE.] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 681 
 
 coast of America, in the middle latitudes, has nearly as mild 
 and equable a climate as the west coast of Europe. The 
 climate of the great central valley, or basin of the Mississippi, 
 has a considerable affinity to that of the east coast. It wa3 
 long a matter of dispute in what the difference between the 
 two consists, but this seems at last to have been clearly 
 settled by the meteorological registers kept at the military 
 posts of the United States. From a comparison of four of 
 these registers, from posts near the centre of this great val- 
 ley, with others kept on the Atlantic coast in the same 
 latitudes, it appears that the extremes of heat and cold 
 in the basin of the Mississippi are from 5° to 6° higher 
 and lower than on the coasts of New England. The pro- 
 portion of fair weather to cloudy is as 5 to 1 in favour 
 of the east coast. The climate of the interior, therefore, 
 exhibits in still greater excess those extremes of tem- 
 perature which distinguish the eastern coast of this con- 
 tinent from the western, and from the shores of Europe. 
 The fourth region of extra-tropical America includes 
 the parts beyond Mount St Elias on the west coast, 
 and, in. the interior, the plains extending from the 50th 
 parallel to the Polar Seas. The intensity of the cold 
 in this tract of country is scarcely equalled by anything 
 that is known under the same parallels in Northern Asia. 
 The northernmost spot in America where grain is raised is 
 at Lord Selkirk's colony, on lied River, in latitude 50°. 
 Wheat, and also maize, which requires a high summer 
 heat, are cultivated here. Barley would certainly grow 
 as far north as Fort Chippewyan, in latitude 58f°, where 
 the heat of the four summer months was found by Captain 
 Franklin to be 4' higher than at Edinburgh. There is 
 even reason to believe, that both this species of grain and 
 potatoes might thrive as far north as Slave Lake, since the 
 spruce fir attains the height of 50 feet three degrees farther 
 north, at Fort Franklin, in latitude 65°. These, however, 
 are low and sheltered spots; but in this dreary waste 
 generally, it will not be found practicable, we suspect, to 
 carry the arts of civilised life beyond the 60th parallel; 
 'and the desirable country, capable of supporting a large 
 population, and meriting the name of temperate, can 
 scarcely be said to extend beyond the 5 2d parallel. At 
 65° the snow covers the ground in winter to the depth of 
 only two feet, but small lakes continue frozen for eight 
 months. The sea is open only for a few weeks, fogs darken 
 the surface, and the thermometer in February descended in 
 one instance to minus 58°, or 90° below the freezing point. 
 At Melville Island, under the 75th parallel, such is tne 
 frightful rigour of the climate, that the temperature of the 
 year falls 1° or 2° below the zero of Fahrenheit's scale. It 
 is a peculiarity in the climate of America, that beyond the 
 parallel of 50° or 52°, it seems to become suddenly severe 
 at both extremities. At the one, summer disappears from 
 the circle of the seasons; at the other, winter is armed 
 with double terrors, 
 logy : The zoology of America is especially interesting, on 
 mmalia - account of the contrast which exists between the faunas of 
 the north. and south portions of the continent — a contrast 
 which is especially exhibited in.the case of the Mammalia. 
 The zoological province which naturalists mark off as con- 
 stituted by South America and part of Central America 
 has been termed the neotropical region, and the area 
 which has the nearest relationship to this is the Indian 
 region. As regards South America, the Andes have 
 the highest -value as* zoological boundaries ; next to them 
 in importance are the rivers, and then the confines of 
 the forest region. The Quadrumana are well represented, 
 and are especially characteristic of the forest region 
 which principally prevails in the western half of the con- 
 tinent. None are known to occur on the west side of the 
 Andes south of Guayaquil. The sub-order Platyrhina is 
 
 1-23- 
 
 peculiar to South America, and so far as research has yet 
 extended, it is not known even to have existed on any 
 other area. On the other hand, no catarhine or lemurine 
 Quadrumana have yet been found in South America. Some 
 of the lower forms of monkey appear to have some affinity 
 with the Lemuridae, which occur in India, Africa, and 
 Madagascar. There are two families, 'viz., the Cebidae and 
 Hapalidse, all the members of which are strictly arboreal 
 in habits. Some of these monkeys are. the most highly 
 developed tree-climbers known, and in many cases they rarely 
 if ever descend to the ground ; and since the monkeys of 
 South America have never been seen to swim, it might be 
 expected that the broad streams of the continent effectually 
 limit the distribution of certain monkeys. The largest 
 species is Lagothrix Eumboldtii, so that as a whole the 
 American monkeys are smaller than those of Asia and Africa. 
 As they are the most powerful of arboreal Mammalia, 
 they rule the forests, and this may in part account for the 
 scarcity of squirrels in this region. The Cebids have a wide 
 range, extending from the south of Mexico to the Uruguay. 
 They include the highest forms of American monkey, and 
 its most specialised representatives are those which have the 
 best adaptation for life in trees, as may be exemplified by 
 Ateles, with its long limbs and prehensile tail This latter 
 organ serves all the purposes of a fifth hand; the under 
 surface is bare and provided with tactile papillae, so that a 
 monkey not only holds by, but also feels with it. It is as 
 mobile and flexible, and in its way as useful to this genus 
 of monkey as is the trunk to the elephant.^ The genus 
 includes numerous species, the estimate of different natural- 
 ists varying from 8 to 40, but about 10 species have been 
 well established. Most of them occur in Brazil and the 
 Guianas; but each species generally has circumscribed 
 limits. Thus A. paniscus occurs in the north-east corner 
 of the continent, between the Rio Negro and the Amazon. 
 On the south side of the Amazon its place is taken by 
 another species, A. marginatus. A. Bartlettii occurs on 
 the Upper Amazon. Brachyteles is represented by a single 
 species in South-East Brazil. Several species of Lagothnx 
 have been described, although perhaps all are but varie- 
 ties of but one species. L. Humboldtii is confined to 
 the Upper Amazon, west of the Bio Negro, and in some of 
 the contiguous valleys of the Orinoco basin. Mycetes has 
 six species, ranging from Guatemala to South Brazil if. 
 seniculus occurs on the north side of the Lower Amazon ; 
 if. caraya on the Upper Amazon ; and if. behebuth is the 
 species which occurs near Para, and south of the Lower 
 Amazon. All the above genera have prehensile tails, with 
 bare under surfaces. Nyctipithecus,withthreeorfourspecies, 
 occurs in the upper portions of the Bio Negro, Amazon, 
 and Orinoco basins. Callithrix ranges over the same 
 ground, but also extends into South-East Brazil. Cnrysoth rix 
 occurs throughout the northern part of the region. The 
 genus Pithecia (including Brachyurus) is represented by 
 about 12 species in the Amazon basin. F. irrorata is 
 confined to the south bank of the Upper Amazon ; another 
 species only occurs on the north side to the west of the Rio 
 Negro. P. satanas is the species east of the Rio Negro, and 
 there is a species limited to the south side of the Upper 
 Amazon. The family Hapalidae, or marmosets, has about 
 30 species, belonging to the genera Hapale and Midas, 
 which range throughout the forests of South America. 
 One species, H. cedipiis, occurs in Costa Rica, but this is the 
 northernmost limit of the family. It seems that the 
 distribution of the monkeys is restricted to the areas elad 
 with continuous forests, so that the absence of monkeys in 
 the Pampean, Andisian, and Peruvian sub-regions is mainly 
 due to the absence of continuous forests. It is also notice- 
 able that the sub-orders, families, and genera extend over the 
 greater portion of the Brazilian sub-region ; whereas iu
 
 G82 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 [zoology. 
 
 many instances this sub-region is parcelled out into districts 
 by the larger streams, which are characterised by distinct 
 species. Hence i able that the continuousness of 
 
 the forest area has lasted throughout the duration of those 
 species, but not so long as the genera have existed ; and 
 that those species wliich occur on both sides of the Amazon, 
 Rio Negro, and other large rivers, originated at an earlier 
 period than those restricted to one side. The want of 
 meano f communication with North America -would account 
 for vhe absence of monkeys in that region. Our space 
 wi'.i not allow of our dwelling so fully on the other orders, 
 but we may notice that the arboreal habit is strongly 
 marked in many, and that the strictly arboreal groups are 
 frequently represented in river-bounded areas by distinct 
 species. It often happens that genera, both of vertebrates 
 and invertebrates, which are elsewhere terrestrial, are 
 represented in the Amazonian forests by arboreal species. 
 TheCarnivorado not present so marked a feature as regards 
 distribution as the monkeys. The families Felidse, Canidte, 
 Mustelidea, and Orsidffl are represented; but the Hyajnidae 
 and Viverridae are absent, unless Bassaris of Mexico be 
 referred to' the latter family. The Felidas comprise two 
 groups one formed of species which are uniformly coloured, 
 the other of those which are striped or spotted. Felis onca, 
 the jaguar, is the largest feline animal of this region, 
 and ranges from La Plata to Louisiana, and on both sides of 
 the Peruvian Andes. Tho puma or F. concolor is known 
 everywhere from Patagonia to as far as 50° or 60° N., a 
 range from north to south of about 110°, which is probably 
 greater than that of any other mammal. F. payeros occurs 
 on all the pampas of tho southern portion of South America. 
 /'. mitis and F. macrura belong to South-East Brazil ; F. 
 tigrina and cdidogaster to tho Amazon basin ; while F. 
 pardalis, F. eyra, and F. yagouaroundi range from Brazil 
 to Texas. . The Canidoe family is represented by the genera 
 Icticyon and Canis. The former comprises but one species, 
 which is confined to Brazil, viz., I. venaticus, which is an 
 aberrant form between dogs and badgers. The dogs com- 
 prise C. jubatus, C. cancrivorus, C. velulus, C. fulvicaudus, 
 C. azarce, C. magellanicus, and one or two other species. 
 Tho Mustelidae are not abundant, there being only a few 
 species of each of the sub-families Mustdin.ee, Isutrina; and 
 Melinae; and among others Mustelafrenata; two species of 
 Galklis, a genus only found in this region; Lutra chilensis 
 and brazil iensis; and several species of Mephitis belonging 
 to the sub-genus Thiosmus. Of Ursidae there occur Ursus 
 omatut in Peru, and perhaps Ursus frugilcgus ; Procyon 
 cancrivorus, Nasua, and Cercoleptes. The last two genera 
 are characteristic of South America. In this order the 
 species, with the exception of a few which range into North 
 America, are restricted to this area ; but only four of the 
 eleven genera are peculiar, the others ranging not only into 
 North America, but also into the Old World. The latter 
 genera do not form a prominent feature in tho fauna, and 
 the species have probably migrated from North America in 
 comparatively recent times from a geological point of view. 
 In the order Artiodactyla the sub-order Ruminantia is 
 represented by a fow species only of Cervus, belonging to 
 the neotropical sub-genera Furcifer, Coassus, and Blastocerus, 
 and even these only occur sparingly in the open tracts. 
 There is nothing to represent the enormous herds of 
 Antelopes and Bovida?, wliich are so characteristic of North 
 America and portions of the, Old World. Anchenia, how- 
 ever, is a characteristic genus frequenting the Andes, and 
 i interesting on account of its being the only genus of 
 iuants which is confined to South America. It is 
 isolated and far distant from the other members of the 
 family Camclida:, which are now special to Asia ; but, as 
 we shall presently find, the gap in distribution and structure 
 is supplied by the extinct species of North America. The 
 
 characteristic genus Dicotyles is the sole representative in 
 South America of the sub-order Omnivora and of the family 
 Soidffi, a family wliich is restricted (naturally) to the 
 Neotropical, /Ethiopian^ and Indian regions. Another 
 remarkable genus is Tapirus, which repreaentsin this region 
 the elephants and rhinoceroses of the Old World. Until 
 recently, the tapirs of Sumatra and tho Malay Archipelago 
 were considered to belong to tho same genus, but Dr Gray 
 has proposed that the latter be ranked in a distinct genus, 
 Rhinochourus. There are several species of South American 
 tapirs, viz., T. americanus, T. villosus, T. Laurillardii, T. 
 Roulinii, and perhaps one or two others not determined. 
 An albed form exists in the isthmus of Panama, namely 
 •Elasmognathus Bairdii, which is considered as the typo of 
 a distinct sub-family. There are no true Proboscideans in 
 this region. The order Sirenia is represented by the genus 
 Manatus, of which three or four species occur in the Amazon 
 and other large rivers. This genus is remarkable for its 
 distribution, since species belonging to it frequent the fresh- 
 water streams of tho opposite coast of Africa. Si 
 species of dolphins and porpoises occur in tho larger rivers ; 
 some of them range up almost to their sources, and are 
 strictly river species, being unknown in the adjoining seas. 
 The presence of these cetaceans, together with the distance 
 of the shores (several miles) and the high waves, impart to 
 some portions of these rivers a more or less oceanic aspect. 
 The order Bruta i3 abundantly represented in this region, of 
 tho fauna of which it constitutes themost marked peculiarity. 
 Marsupialism is not a prominent feature in this region, but 
 its presence is important, because it now occurs nowhere else 
 out of the Australian region. It should be observed that tho 
 connection is stronger with the extinct marsupial fauna 6i 
 Paloearctic regions than with the living one of Australia. 
 
 The fossil and living mammalia of this region seem to 
 indicate that at present our knowledge of the extinct faunas 
 is very fragmentary. This is shown in various ways. 
 None of the remains can be definitely assigned to an older 
 period than the Post-Pliocene. The region was essentially 
 the same as at present, zoologically, the same characteristic 
 groups of platyrhine apes, rodents, cats, dogs, edentates, and 
 opossums being represented ; while the catarhine apes, 
 insectivora, oxen, rhinoceroses, and other groups were ex- 
 cluded, or at any rate are not known to have existed in it, 
 so that its isolation from the other zoological regions must 
 have commenced before the Post-Pliocene period. The extra- 
 ordinary development of large forms allied to the sloths and 
 ant-eaters ; the restriction of the Toxodontia amongst the 
 Post-Pliocene mammals, and of the subungulated Rodents 
 among the living mammals to this region, — these and other 
 facts would lead the palaeontologist to believe that the area 
 must have been inhabited by mammals during the periods 
 which preceded the Post-Pliocene, as far back, perhaps, as 
 the Miocene or Eocene. The Toxodontia include tho forms 
 of Pachyderms most nearly allied to the Rodents, while the 
 subungulated Rodents are those of the order which approach 
 nearest to the Pachyderms. As both these groups occur 
 hnre, and hero only, we may reasonably expect to find 
 genera partaking of the geucral features of both orders in 
 beds of an earlier geological age in South America. The 
 principal genera and species found fossil in this region are 
 the following. In the Argentine Confederation we have — 
 
 Macrauclienia patachonica. 
 Ulyptodou spiuicauJus 
 
 clavipes. 
 
 tuberculatum 
 
 pumilio. 
 
 clavicaudatns. 
 
 clavatus. 
 
 asper. 
 
 elougatus. 
 MachairoJua ncugacua. 
 
 mgifrons. 
 italopex, 
 avus. 
 I primfflva, 
 
 Myupotauius bonitrcnsis. 
 
 antiimus. 
 Ctcuomys bonrerensis. 
 1 i liduna. 
 
 I Uavia breviplicata.
 
 SOOLOG 
 
 s 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 683 
 
 Megatherium americanum 
 Mylodou giganteus. 
 
 gracilis. 
 
 robustus. 
 
 darwinii. 
 Scelidotherium leptocephalum. 
 Cuvieri. 
 
 Megalonyx meridionalis. 
 jeifersoni. ' 
 Equus curvidens. 
 
 devillei. 
 Toxodon burmeisten. 
 
 owenii. 
 Mastodon humboldtii. 
 
 Some of these also occur in Brazil, where species have 
 also been found belonging to the genera Callithrix, Cebus, 
 Protopitheeus, Chlamydotherium, Ccelogenys, Colodon, 
 Dasypus, Equus neogmus, Equus principalis, Euryidon, 
 lleterodon, Hoplophorus, Myrmecophaga, Nesodon, Pachy- 
 iherium, and Xenurus. Remains of many of these genera 
 have also been found on the banks of the Rio Negro in 
 Uruguay, and those of some, such as Mastodon, Equus, 
 Auchenia, &c, in Ecuador. As space forbids our dwelling 
 upon the points of interest -which these fossil forms present, 
 we pass *on to the lists of the extinct faunas of North 
 America. 
 
 The oldest species yet found in North America belongs 
 to Dromatherium, and was found in the Triassic beds of 
 Virginia. Then nothing is known until we come to the 
 Tertiary deposits which were formed in lakes along the base 
 and in the midst of the Rocky Mountains and neighbouring 
 ranges, and in the marine beds which lie nearer the pre- 
 sent sea margin. The following lists are given by Dr 
 Leidy, 1 who considers the oldest beds in Nebraska, which 
 rest on the Cretaceous series, as of Miocene age. They 
 contain Titanotherium prouti, Lophiodons, and several other 
 forms which would induce U3 to regard them as Eocene. 
 1 lowever, we follow his lists. The Miocene species are — 
 
 Carnivora, 
 Canidaj. 
 Ainphicyon vetus. 
 gracilis. 
 Hyrenodontidae. 
 Hytcnodon horridus. 
 cruentus. 
 crucians. 
 Felidae. 
 Drepanodon (Machairodus) 
 primxvus. 
 (Machairodus) 
 occidentalis. 
 Dinictis felina. 
 C.iminantia. 
 Oreodontida?. 
 Oreodon culbertsoni 
 gracilis, 
 major, 
 affinis. 
 hybridus. 
 bullatus. 
 Merycockcerus proprius 
 Leptauchcnia major, 
 decora, 
 nuida. 
 Agriochceridce. 
 Agviochoerus antiquus. 
 major, 
 la t if ions. 
 Carnelidas. 
 Pocbrotlicrium wilsoni. 
 Protomeryx halli. 
 Mosckid.e. 
 
 Leptomcryx evansi. 
 Artiodactyla. 
 Suidoe. 
 
 Elotherium mortonii 
 
 Since this list was published numerous genera and species 
 have been discovered in Wyoming and other districts in the 
 far west from what appear to be the older or Eocene group 
 of beds. Amongst these the most remarkable is the large 
 Dinoceras mirabili$,a.n animal which had three pairs of 
 horns, and which was intermediate in character between 
 the Proboscideans and the Perissodactylcs. There are also 
 1 J.-.-irn. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. vii 1869. 
 
 Artiodactyla. 
 Suidas. 
 
 Elotherium ingens. 
 
 super bum. 
 leidyanum. 
 
 Perchcerus probus. 
 
 Leptochcerus spectabilis. 
 
 Nanohyus percinus. 
 Anthracotherida;. 
 
 Hyopotamus americanus. 
 Anoplotheridae. 
 
 Titanotherium prouti. 
 Perissodactyla. 
 Rhinocerotidne, 
 
 Rhinoceros. 
 
 Hyrocodon. 
 Tapiridoe. 
 
 Lophiodon. 
 Solidungula. 
 Anchitheriida;. 
 
 Anchitherium 
 
 Anchippus. 
 
 Hypohippus. 
 
 Parahippus. 
 
 Anchippodua. 
 Rodentia. 
 Leporidre. 
 
 Palaiolagus liaydeni. 
 Castorida:. 
 
 Palaeocastor nebrascensis. 
 Murida?. 
 
 Eumys elegans. 
 Insectivora. 
 Erinacidas. 
 
 Leptictis liaydeni. 
 
 Ictops dakotensis. 
 
 Omomys cartcri. 
 
 several generalised forms in the foregoing lists, which present 
 a fauna with numerous remarkable features, which we can 
 only briefly allude to. It is quite distinct in character 
 from the present South American fauna, and yet, like it, it 
 has a strong Asiatic facies ; at the same time it resembles 
 in many point3 the older Tertiary fauna of Europe. The 
 occurrence of rhinoceroses, camels, and musk-deer, is notice- 
 able ; but its great feature is the abundance of oreodoiits 
 (which family is not known elsewhere) and of equine forms. 
 The Pliocene fauna consists of the following genera and 
 species : — 
 
 Carnivora. 
 Canidae. 
 
 Canis sffivus. 
 temerariu 
 vafer. 
 haydeni. 
 Fclida. 
 Pseudaelurus intrepidus. 
 iElurodon ferox. 
 Ursidas. 
 Leptarctus primus. 
 Ruminantia. 
 Oreodontidae. 
 Merychyus elegans. 
 medius. 
 major. 
 Camclidae. 
 Procamelus robustus. 
 
 occidentalis. 
 gracilis. 
 Homoeamelus caninus. 
 Megalomeryx niobrarensis. 
 Merycodus necatus. 
 Cervidae. 
 Cervus warreni. 
 
 Ruminantia. 
 Antilopidae, 
 
 Cosoryx furcates. 
 Artiodactyla. 
 Suidae. 
 Dicotyles. 
 Perissodactyla. 
 Rhinocerotidai 
 Rhinoceros. 
 Proboscideae. 
 Mastodon. 
 Elephas. 
 Solidungula. 
 Equidae. 
 Hipparion. 
 Protohippus. 
 Merychippus. 
 Equus. 
 Rodentia. 
 Castorida:. 
 Castor. 
 Hystricidae. 
 Hystrix. 
 
 The Post-Pliocene forms are— 
 
 Perissodactylsc 
 
 Proboscidea3. 
 
 Mastodon. 
 
 Carnivora. 
 
 Canidae. 
 
 Canis. 
 
 Felidae. 
 
 Felis. 
 
 Orsidae. 
 
 Procyon lotor. 
 
 priscus. 
 Ursus americanus 
 amplidens. 
 Arctodon pristinus. 
 Mustelidae. 
 
 Galera macrodon. 
 Tuminantia. 
 Camelidie. 
 
 Camelops kansanus, 
 Cervidae. 
 Cervus virginianus. 
 canadensis, 
 tarandus. 
 americanus. 
 Capridae. 
 
 Ovis mammillaris. 
 Ovibos moschatus. 
 bombifrons, 
 lavifrons. 
 Bovidae. 
 Bison americanus. 
 latifrons. 
 antiquus. 
 priscus. " 
 Artiodactyla. 
 Suidce. 
 
 Dicotyles nasutus. 
 Platygonus compressus, 
 Perissodactyla. 
 Tapiridas. 
 Tapirus americanus. 
 
 Elephas. 
 Solidungula. 
 Equidae. 
 
 Hipparion venuitum. 
 Equus major. 
 
 fraternus. 
 pacificus. 
 conversidena. 
 tau. 
 fossilis. 
 Rodentia. 
 Leporidae. 
 
 Lepus sylvatlca 
 Sciuridae. 
 Arctomys monax. 
 Sciunis\ 
 Castorida;. 
 
 Castor canadensis. 
 Castoroides ohioensis. 
 Cavidae. 
 
 Hydrochcerus aesopi. 
 Chincliillida;. 
 
 Amblyrhiza inundafei 
 Muridae. 
 Ncotoma m agister. 
 Marsupialia. 
 
 Didelphys virginiana. 
 Edentata. 
 
 Megatherium mirabile. 
 Mcgalonyx jeffersoni. 
 dissimilis. 
 validus. 
 Megalocinus rodens. 
 Eivntodon priscus. 
 Mylodon harlani. 
 
 haysii 
 
 Here it is observable that, while this fauna has a general 
 
 | resemblance to that of the preceding period, most of the 
 
 genera are distinct. Several existing genera make their 
 
 appearance, as also a number of forms which appear to have 
 
 migrated from South America, and after a temporary estabr
 
 684 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 [zoology* 
 
 lishment to have disappeared. Ono remarkable feature 
 is the abundance of horses, which is such that North 
 America may be regarded as the land of horses during the 
 Plioceno and Post-Pliocene period. 
 
 The existing mammals of North America must now be 
 considered. We can only refer to a few of the more con- 
 spicuous species here. South America has numerous 
 families peculiar to itself, but North America has none 
 which are not also represented in South America. There 
 are numerous representatives of the Canid(B or dog family, 
 such as the prairie, Mexican, and mancd wolves, and 
 several foxes, of which the Arctic, common American, cross, 
 and silver foxes are of high commercial value on account 
 of their furs. Amongst the cats are three or four species 
 of lynx, which afford valuable furs. The beaver, though 
 abundant in some places, is, like the bison, fast diminish- 
 ing before the encroaching steps of the colonists. The 
 grizzly, the black, and the polar bears are common in the 
 more mountainous and colder regions of the continent, and 
 are much hunted by the fur traders. Ilacoons and Vir- 
 ginian opossums are prevalent in the south portion of the 
 United States. The Rocky Mountain goat reigns supreme 
 amidst the rocks in inaccessible fastnesses of the Kocky 
 Mountain range; while the rein-deer, the elk, and the 
 wapiti give a character to the mammalian fauna of the more 
 level districts. Further details respecting the mammals of 
 North America will be found under the names of the 
 separate countries; and those who wish for still fuller 
 information may consult the works of Lord, Small, Mttller, 
 Harlan, and Allen on-the mammals of various regions, The 
 Quadrupeds of North America by Audubon and Bachman, 
 the articles by Gilpin in the publications of the Institute 
 of Natural Science at Halifax/ Adams' Field and Forest 
 Rambles, The North-West Passage by Viscount Milton and 
 Dr Cheadle, Morgan's work on the Beaver, and the nume- 
 rous reports issued by exploration expeditions. 
 Bird*. The birds of America are very numerous in almost every 
 
 great family. The researches of Wilson, Charles Lucien 
 Bonaparte, Audubon, Richardson, Dekay, Blakiston, Cassin, 
 Gundlach, Lord Lawrence, Sclater, Salvin, and Baird, have 
 beautifully illustrated the ornithology of North America ; 
 while those of Azara, Hunboldt, Swainson, Waterton, 
 JSdnionstone, Darwin, Landbeck, Philippi, Cassin, <tc, have 
 thrown great light on that of South America. The North 
 American species of birds already described amount to 
 nearly 700 ; the species of South America are over 2300 ; 
 so that we may fairly estimate the ornithology of America 
 to include upwards of 3000 species. The fossil remains 
 deserve particular notice. It is very probable that the 
 footprints on the older secondary rocks of North America 
 are those of birds. A large number of remarkable genera 
 found in the Cretaceous rocks have recently been described 
 by Professor Marsh and others. 
 
 The serpents of America are very numerous, and in- 
 clude amongst others, the following genera : — Tortrix, 
 Calamaria, Coronella, Xeuodon, Heterodon, Lycodon, 
 Coluber, Herpetodryas,Psainmophis, Dendrophis, Dryophis, 
 Dipsas, Tropidoaotus, Homalopsis, Boa, Elaps, Trigono- 
 cephalus, Crotalus. 
 
 Of these the genera Heterodon and Crotalus or rattle- 
 snake are entirely peculiar to America, and the latter are 
 by far the most deadly of serpents. The reptilia of North 
 America have besn well described by Dekay and Hol- 
 brooke. 
 
 The North American saurians belong to the genera 
 Crocodile, Alligator, Anobs, Skink, Agama, Tropidolepis, 
 Ophisaurus, Leptophis. Of the Ranidae there are Rana, 
 Bufo, and Hyla. 
 
 _ The North American and Asiatic regions form a zoological 
 kingdom, according to Dr Straucb, which is characterised 
 
 by the prevalence of Emydcs and by the presence of 
 Trionychides. In the North American region there are 44 
 species distributed over four sub-regions — viz., the north- 
 west part, which lies west of the Rocky Mountains ; the 
 north-east part, which lies east of them; the south-east part 
 and the south-west part, which embraces Central America. 
 South America and Australia together form another king- 
 dom, characterised by the prevalence of Chelydcs, and the 
 total absence of Trionychides. There are about 35 species 
 in the South American region. 
 
 The multitude of fishes in South America is extraordinary, I 
 and still more so is the marvellous variety of form which 
 they exhibit. A large number of species have very circum- 
 scribed ranges, so that not only does each rh\,T basin have 
 a distinct fauna, but a number of distinct faunas occupy 
 different portions of the same river, as is well exemplified 
 in the Amazons, Tocantins, Rio Negro, and other rivers, 
 where most of the fishes at stations a few hundred miles 
 apart are for the most part specifically distinct. Professor 
 Agassiz, in his scientific journey through Brazil, collected 
 about 2000 species from the Amazon basin only. In 
 fishes, as in other classes, there is a remarkable difference 
 between the faunas of North and South America, and in 
 this class also North America has much in common with 
 Europe and North Asia. The sturgeons abound in North 
 America, but are absent in South America, where the corre- 
 sponding group is theGoniodonts; the Siluroids are abundant 
 in both portions of the continent ; the perches are numerous 
 throughout North America, but none occur in South America) 
 where, however, they are represented by the Chromids. 
 The Cyprinoids are abundant in North America, but absent 
 in South America, where we have the allied group of 
 Cyprinodonts. The Characines of South America represent 
 the Salmonidoe of North America, each group being confined 
 to its *0wn portion of the continent. » There are several 
 other small families present in South America, such as the 
 Erythrinoids, Gymnotines, and others. 
 
 In the meagre outline of American vegetation- which it Botany, 
 is possible to attempt here,, we shall more or less strictly' 
 adhere to the principle laid down by Schouw, viz., that 
 in constituting a botanical region, at least one-half of the 
 species and one-fourth of the genera should be peculiar 
 to it. We shall therefore divide the horizontal range of 
 the vast continent into zones, commencing with the Arctic, 
 and proceeding towards the Antarctic Circle. 
 
 In the Arctic Region or Region of Saxifragacea?, as near 
 to the Pole as man has yet penetrated, is found the red 
 snow plant (Pi-olococcus nivalis), penetrating the snow 
 itself, sometimes to the depth of 12 feet, and covering 
 for miles with its crimson tints the cliffs and ice-floes of 
 the Polar Sea. Greenland is bctanically distinguishable 
 from Arctic America proper, inasmuch as it produces 
 heath {Calluna vulgaris), which, it is somewhat remark- 
 able, is nowhere to be found on the continent. 
 
 The most remarkable of the sub-arctic lichens is that 
 known as Tripe tie Roche, which has often preserved tho 
 lives of famished " trappers," who, but for its sustenance, 
 must have perished of hunger. Tho Saxifrages which dis- 
 tinguish this region vary in species, and solnctiines in 
 genera, from those of Europe, but, generally speaking, 
 there is a strong resemblance, which amounts almost to 
 identity, as the Arctic shores are approached. 
 
 Emerging from the region of Saxifraguceae, we find 
 ourselves in that of the Asters and Solidagos, extending to 
 the parallel of 36" N. This region not only produces 
 many species of aster and solidago, but also a great variety 
 of oaks and firs, and numerous species of Vaccinium. 
 Among the oaks of Canada and the United States are, the 
 lime oak (Qiiercus virens), the laurel oak (Que reus laurifolia), 
 the black oak (Quercus tinctoria), the white or iron ouk
 
 BOTAOT.] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 685 
 
 (Quercus aioa and Quercus obtusiloba), and the scarlet oaK 
 (Quercus eoccinea). None of these, in regard to the quality 
 of their timber, can stand comparison with the British oak, 
 though some of them are very valuable. 
 
 The western or Califomian and Oregon districts of this 
 region are in many respects distinct in character. Poh- 
 inoniacece abound; also Eschscholtzia californica, species of 
 Platysttmon, Nemophila, Gilia, Collinsia, Clarkia, Bar- 
 tonia, and EutocJia. Conifers also exist in abundance, some 
 of them possessing great botanical interest, such as Abies 
 Douglasii, Paltoniana, nobilis, amabilis, grandis, lasiocarpa, 
 Pinus Lambertiana, Sabinidna, insignis, Jeffreyi, pon- 
 derosa, monticola, californica, Fremontiana, Coxdteri,flej:ilis, 
 Thuja gigantea, Sesquoia giganiea, Juniperus dealbata and 
 occidental is, and Castanea chrysophylia. Pinus pondtrosa 
 predominates in the forests of Upper Oregon, and along 
 frith it occur Abies balsamea, canadensis, Douglasii, nobilis, 
 and alba. Yivid colours mark the basaltic region of 
 Upper Oregon. Rhododendron macrophyllum is found in 
 Vancouver Island. Barley, oats, rye, wheat, buckwheat, 
 and maize, along with the common fruit-trees and culinary 
 vegetables of the temperate regions, are cultivated. 
 
 The region of Magnolias lies between parallels 30° and 
 36", embracing the southern portion of North America. 
 Nearly seventy species are known to exist. Cycadacece, 
 Anonaceo?, Sapindacece, Zingiberacece, Melastomacea?, Cac- 
 tacece, and numerous other tropical forms, show themselves. 
 
 The forest trees display either broad shining foliage like 
 the Liriodendron and ^Esculus, or pinnated leaves like the 
 Acacia and F.obinia. They are, moreover, decked with 
 magnificent blossoms. Rice, sugar-cane, and cotton are 
 the special objects of culture in this region. 
 
 The region of Cactuses and Peppers includes Mexico, 
 Guatemala, and South America to the Amazon (to an 
 elevation of 5000 feet above the sea-level), as also Guiana, 
 certain parts of Peru, and New Granada. The leaves of the 
 plants of the isthmus of Panama are covered with hair and 
 tomentum, while greenish and yellow flowers predomi- 
 nate. The included portion of South America produces 
 Mauritia ftexuosa, tho Murichi or Ita Palm, and Victoria 
 regia. The vegetable-ivory palm (Phytelephas macrocarpa) 
 is a native of Columbia and Peru. Yams, plantains, 
 chocolate, sugar, coffee, cocoa-nut, <tc, are cultivated in 
 this region. 
 
 The Mexican highlands, rising over 5500 feet above the 
 sea-level, produce Pinus religiosa, Pinus apulcensis, Pinus 
 Hartwegii, Pinus Montezumce, and Taxodium. distichum. 
 European grains are cultivated with success. 
 
 The region of medicinal bark tiees (Cinchonas) em- 
 braces the Cordilleras between parallels 5° N. and 20° S., 
 where the elevation ranges between 5000 and 9600 feet. 
 In the lower part3 of this region coffee, maize, and potato 
 are cultivated. 
 
 The region of Calceolarias and Escallonias is, generally 
 speaking, coextensive with the preceding, but at an ele- 
 vation greater than 9G00. 
 
 The AVest Indian region is marked by the prevalence of 
 ferns and orchids, and has a vegetation intermediate be- 
 tween that of Mexico and the north of South America, 
 
 We next come to the region of Palms and Melaslomas, 
 which lies to the east of the Andes, between the Equator 
 and the Tropic of Capricorn. Here the luxuriance of 
 vegetable life is almost startling to European eyes. The 
 forest trees of Brazil tower to an almost incredible height, 
 while the very underwood is composed of Paims, Melasto- 
 maceae, Myrtaceae, Crotons, and Tree Ferns. In the tree- 
 less belts are found Heb' :oniafi, Dorstenias, and tall grasses. 
 Immense Compositae, Vernonias, arborescent Solanums, 
 and pecies of Fuchsia, Solan dra, Lasiandra, Laurus, Ficus, 
 and.Cassia abound. The trees are covered, stem &nH branch. 
 
 with Ferns, Araceae, Tillandrias, Orchids, Cactuses, Pepero 
 mias, Gesneras,and innumerable other epiphytic plants. 
 
 The region of arborescent Composites, extending from 
 the Tropic of Capricorn to lat. 40° S., embraces Southern 
 Brazil, La Plata, and Chili. The distinctive features of the 
 Upper Cordilleras reappear here; Calceolarias and Escal- 
 lonias abound. Thuja telragona,Podocarpus chiliana, Thuja 
 chilensis, and Chili pine (Araucaria imbricala), are native t<r 
 this region, the last-named being a hardy conifer, extend 
 ing along the Chilian Andes from 37° to 40° S. In the 
 neighbourhood of Rio Janeiro is found Araucaria brazir 
 liana. Wheat, vine, peach, and many European plants 
 are cultivated to great perfection in this region. 
 
 The Antarctic region comprehends the Strait of Magal- 
 haens, Tierra del Fuego, and the Falkland Islands. Many 
 European, and more especially British, genera appear in 
 this region, and species of Srmfraga, Gentiaua, Arbutus, 
 Primula, and other Arctic and North Temperate forms are 
 common. In Fuegia the evergreen beech (Feigns Forsteri), 
 the deciduous beech (Fagus antartica), and Drymis JTui- 
 teri, correspond to the birch, oak, and mountain ash of 
 Scotland. The Fuchsia is a native of Fuegia. Among ' 
 shrubs maybe mentioned Chiliolricum amelloides, YeronUa 
 elliptica and decussala, Empetrum rubrum, and Pernettya 
 empetrifolia ; among ferns, Lomaria alpina and MagtU 
 lanica; and among lichens, Usnea melaxantha. 
 
 Northern America, though its vast forests have now Chief ia 
 been exposed for centuries to the axe of civilised man, is dijenoos 
 still one of the best wooded regions of the world. Among j^f^J 
 the principal forest-tree3 are the pine, oak, ash, hickory, can con . 
 red-beech, Canadian poplar, chestnut, black walnut, maple, tinenu 
 tulip-tree, and white cedar. 
 
 Central America produces extensively mahogany, pimento, 
 sarsaparilla, vanilla, Peruvian balsam, and many other 
 valuable woods and drugs. 
 
 Nearly two-thirds of the surface of South America ara 
 still covered with gigantic forests, which must ultimately 
 disappear, like many of those in the north, before the 
 combined efforts and necessities of commerce and agri- 
 culture. The most distinctive and valuable forest-trees of 
 South America are the greenheart and the mora. The 
 cow-tree, which yields a juice very like milk in its pro- 
 perties, is also a remarkable product of this region. 
 
 Maize is by faf the most important farinaceous product 
 of the New World. It was the only grain which the 
 earliest European settlers found cultivated, t'o some extent, 
 by the natives. For nutrition it is inferior to wheat, but 
 it is much more prolific, and is suited to a greater variety 
 of soils. Tobacco is also,indigenous to America, whence 
 its use has extended over the whole world. AmoDg roots 
 the potato, which we also owe to America, is without a 
 rival Millet, tapioca, arrow-root, cocoa, copaiva, cinchona, 
 jalap, sassafras, nux-vomica, the cochineal plant, the agave 
 or American aloe, and the pine-apple are also indigenous 
 to the coutinent 
 
 It is impossible here to do more than touch on the vast 
 subject of the botany and the indigenous vegetable pro- 
 ducts of the New World. For fuller information, in addi- 
 tion to that contained in articles in the present work that 
 treat of the geographical distribution of plants, the reader 
 is referred to the numerous valuable American works of 
 such authors as Beck, Bigelow, Breckenridge, Brown, 
 Carson (Medical Botany), Darby, Darlington (Agricultural 
 Botany). Asa Gray, Harvey (Algae), Ravenel, Sprague, 
 Strong, Torrey, <tc. An extended description of the forest 
 trees of North America will be found in the great work of 
 Michaux and Nuttall, The North American Sylva. 
 
 The origin, history, languages, and condition of tho 
 American nations present ample materials for speculation ; 
 but before touching on these subiects, the question presents.
 
 (586 
 
 A M E 11 ICA 
 
 [eTHUOLOG*. 
 
 itself, Whr.t is tlic total of the indigenous population 1 
 Humboldt, in 1823, estimated the number of Indians at 
 ated the number existing in 1863 
 as follows : — 
 
 Mexico...... 4,000,000 
 
 Peru l.COO.000 
 
 i 1,400,000 
 
 rica 1,000,000 
 
 Paraguay 700,000 
 
 Ecuador. 500,000 
 
 United States 500,000 
 
 1,314,710 
 
 Abori- 
 gines :. 
 
 Divisionsof , 
 race. 
 
 Total 11,014,710 
 
 It is pr. il theso numbers have been diminished : 
 
 the l;' ial returns for the United State?, in 1872, 
 
 estimate the Indian population at 300,000. (See Indians.) 
 
 The indigenous population of America presents man 
 under many aspects, and society in various stages, from 
 tho regular but limited civilisation of Mexico and Peru, to 
 savagejifc in its most brutal state of abasement. At one 
 extremity of the country we find the pigmy Esquimaux of 
 four feet and a half . other the Pata- 
 
 gonian standing above six feet. In complexion the variety is 
 great, and may be said to embrace almost every hue known 
 elsewhere on the face of the earth, except the pitchy black 
 of the Negro. About one-half of all the known languages 
 belong to America; and if we consider every little wander- 
 ing horde a distinct community, we have a greater number 
 of nations here tlian in all the rest of the world. Amidst 
 all this diversity philosophers have thought they were able 
 to discover certain general characters, sufficiently marked 
 to distinguish the American nations from those of tho old 
 continent. It is foreign to our purpose to inquire whether 
 the varieties of form, stature, and complexion, in the 
 human species, are modifications produced by external 
 causes operating differently on distinct portions of the 
 progeny of one primitive pair, or whether several races 
 were originally created, and have given birth, by their 
 mixture, to the amazing varieties we witness. We assume 
 the former opinion as true, because the probabilities seem 
 to bo in its favour ; but the phenomena present themselves 
 to us in the same light in whichever way they originated. 
 
 Physiologists are not at one in their accounts of the 
 characteristics of the aborigines of the new world, nor are 
 hey agreed as to whether they should be considered one 
 race or several. Blumenbach places them all under one 
 class, except the Esquimaux. Bory St Vincent divides 
 them into four races, or five if we include tho Esqui- 
 maux, under the following designations: — 1. The Colom- 
 bian, which comprehends the tribes formerly inhabiting 
 the Alleghany Mountains, Canada, Florida, the eastern 
 coasts of Mexico, and Central America ; and the Caribs, 
 who occupied the West India Islands and Guiana. 2. The 
 American, embracing the tribes which occupy all the other 
 parts of South America east of the Andes, except Pata- 
 gonia. 3. The Patagonian race, inhabiting the southern 
 extremity of the continent. 4. The Neplvmkm, inhabiting 
 the western coasts of both divisions of the continent, from 
 California to Cape Horn, and which he considers as essen- 
 tia y the same with the race spread over the Malay Pcnin- 
 stil and the Indian Archipelago. With this race arc classed 
 nsand Peruvians. Py another writer the species 
 are reduced to two, the Cdombian and the American; 
 the former including all the North American tribes, with 
 
 e Caribs, tho Mexicans, and Peruvians, and other in- 
 habitants of the Cordillera; and the latter the Brazilian 
 Indians and Pataspnams. Neither of these svstems, when 
 tested by facts, is very satisfactory. Dr Prichard thinks 
 that the mutual resemblance anion- the American nations 
 .has been exaggerated by some writers; yet it is certain 
 
 that there is more of a common family character in their 
 organisation than in that of the indigenous population 
 of Asia or Africa. " The Indians of New Spain," says 
 11 urn!. I i- a general resemblance to those who in- 
 
 habit Canada, Florida, Peru, and Brazil. We have the 
 w; u thy and copper colour, straight and smooth hair, 
 small 1 ly, long eye, with the corner director" 
 
 upwards towards the temples, prominent check-bones, Unci" 
 ion 'of gentleness in the mouth, strongly 
 contrasted with a gloomy and severe look. Over a million 
 and a half of square leagues, from Cape Horn to the river 
 St Lawrence and Bchring's Straits, we arc struck at the 
 first glance with the general resemblance in the features of 
 the inhabitants. We think wo perceive them all to be 
 descended from the same stock, notwithstanding the pro- 
 digious diversity of their languages. In the portrait drawn 
 by Volncy of the Canadian Lidians, we recognise the tribes 
 scattered over the savannahs of the Apure and the Carony. 
 The same style of features exists in both Americas." 
 
 On the authority of Dr Morton, tho most natural division 
 of the Americans is into two families', the Toltccan and 
 the American; the former of which bears evidence of 
 centuries of half-civilisation, while the latter embraces all the 
 barbarous nations of the New World, with the exception of 
 the Polar tribes, which are evidently of Mongolian origin. In 
 each of these, however, there are several subordinate groups, 
 which may be distinguished as the Appalachian, the 
 . and the Fuegian. The Appa 
 lachian branch includes all the nations of North America, 
 except the Mexicans, together with the tribes of South 
 America north of the river Amazon and east of tho Andes. 
 In this race the head is rounded, the nose large, salient, and 
 aquiline; the eyes dark brown, with little or no obliquity of 
 position ; the mouth large and straight ; the teeth nearly 
 vertical ; and tho whole face triangular. The neck is long, 
 the chest broad but rarely deep, the body and limbs mus- 
 cular, and seldom disposed, to fatness. In character these 
 nations aro warlike, cruel, and unforgiving ; they turn with 
 aversion from the restraints of civilised life, and have mado 
 but little progress in mental culture or the useful arts. The 
 Brazilian branch is spread over a great part of South Ame- 
 rica, east of the Andes, including the whole of Brazil and 
 Paraguay, between the Kivcr Amazon and 35° S. latitude. 
 Their physical characteristics differ but little from those of 
 the Appalachian branch ; they possess, perhaps, a larger and 
 more expanded nose, with larger mouths and lips. The 
 eyes are small, more or Jess oblique, and far asunder ; the 
 neck short and thick; the body and limbs stout and full, 
 even to clumsiness. In character, also, they differ little. 
 None of the Americans are less susceptible of cultivation ; 
 and what they are taught by compulsion seldom exceeds the 
 humblest elements of knowledge. The Patagonian branch 
 includes the nations to the south of the Plato, as far as the 
 Strait of Magalhaens, including also the mountain tribes 
 of Chili. They are chiefly distinguished by their tall stature, 
 handsome forms, and indomitable courage. The Fuegians, 
 who call themselves Yacannacnnnce, rove over the sterile 
 wastes of Tierra del Fucgo, which is computed to be half 
 the size of Ireland, and yet their whole number has been 
 computed as not exceeding. 2000. The physical aspect 
 of the Fuegians is altogether repulsive. They are of low 
 stature, with large heads, broad faces, .and small eyes. 
 Their cheats are large, their bodies clumsy, wi f b large knees, 
 and ill-shaped legs. Their hair is lank, black, and coarse, 
 and their complexion a decided brow n, like that of the more 
 northern tribe3. Their expression of face is vacant, and 
 their mental operations are to the last degree slow and 
 stupid ; they are almost destitute of the usual curiosity of 
 savpges, caring little for anything that does not minister to 
 their present wants.
 
 ETHNOLOGY.] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 687 
 
 The American race is distinguished by the form of the 
 skull, which, except in its greater length, resembles the 
 Mongol type. The cheek-bones are prominent, but not so 
 angular, as in the Mongol head ; the occiput is rather flat, 
 • the cavity for lodging the cerebellum small, the orbits large 
 and deep. The nose is generally aquiline, but ii> some 
 tribes flat, and the nasal cavities are large. Compared 
 with the head of the Negro, that of the American is 
 broader, and the teeth are less prominent : when placed by 
 the side of the Caucasian bead, it is seen to be smaller in 
 size, less rounded aud symmetrical, and less developed in the 
 part before the ear. The skull is generally thin and light. 
 There are, however, many deviations from this typical form. 
 The Carib skull aud the Araucanian are large ; the Peru- 
 vian small, and singularly flattened behind, so as to nresent 
 a short line from the forehead to the occiput. 
 
 The colour of the Americans, though it includes a con- 
 siderable diversity of shade, is more uniform than that of 
 the inhabitants of Asia or Africa ; and, what is more re- 
 markable, its varieties do not bear any visible relation to the 
 temperature of the climate. A brownish yellow, or copper 
 colour, as it has been called, pervades nearly all the nume- 
 rous tribes from the Arctic Ocean to Cape Horn, but still 
 with many different degrees of intensity. The eastern na- 
 tions of Chili have but a slight tinge of the brown colour, 
 and the Boroanes are still whiter. On the north-west 
 coast, from latitude 48° to 60°, there are tribes who, 
 though embrowned with soot and mud, were found, when 
 their skins were washed, to have the brilliant white and 
 red which is the characteristic of the Caucasian race. 
 But within the tropics, the Malapoques in Brazil, the 
 Guaranis in Paraguay, the Guiacas of Guiana,, the Scheries 
 of La Plata, have tolerably fair complexions, sometimes 
 united with blue eyes aud auburn hair; and, in the 
 hot country watered by the Orinoco, Humboldt found 
 tribes of a dark, and others of a light hue, living almost in 
 juxtaposition. It is remarkable, too, that the nations whose 
 colour approaches nearest to black are found in the tempe- 
 rate zone namely, the Charruas of the Banda Oriental, in 
 latitude 33° 3 and the Cochimies, Pericus, and Guay- 
 curus, spread over the peninsula of California. These people 
 have skins of a very deep hue, but are not absolutely black ; 
 and they have neither the woolly hair of the Negroes, nor 
 their social and good-humoured disposition. The Charruas, 
 especially, are distinguished by a high degree of that auste- 
 rity and stern fortitude which are common to the American 
 nations. The Caribs and some Brazilian tribes have the 
 yellowish hue of the Chinese, and the same cast of features. 
 Among the nations dwelling on the west side of the Alle- 
 ghanies, and near the northern lakes, there is also a con- 
 siderable variety of complexion ; but the brown or. copper 
 shade i3 found more or less in them all. It may be said, 
 then, of the American nations, tha f ; with the exception of 
 two or three tribes on the north-west coast, who probably 
 arrived from Asia at a later period than the others, the two 
 extremes of complexion, the white of Northern Europe and 
 the black of Ethiopia, are unknown amongst them; and 
 that, when compared with the Moors, Abyssinians, and other 
 swarthy nations of the Old World, their colour inclines less 
 to the yellow, and more to the reddish brpwn. 
 
 Long, black, lank hair is common to all the American 
 tribes, among which no traces of the frizzled locks of the 
 Polynesian,or the woolly texture of the African Negro have 
 ever been observed. The beard is very deficient, and the 
 little that nature gives them they assiduously root out. A 
 copper-coloured skin has been also assumed by most writers 
 as a characteristic distinction of the Americans ; but their real 
 colour is in general brown, of the hue most nearly resem- 
 bling that of cinnamon ; and Dr Morton coincides in opinion 
 with Dr M'C"Uoch, that no epithet derivable from the colour 
 
 of the skin so correctly designates the Americans as that of 
 the brown race. There are, however, among' them occa- 
 sional and very remarkable deviations, -including all the va- 
 rieties uf tint from a decided white to an unequivocally black 
 skin. That climate has a very subordinate influence in 
 producing these different huas must be inferred from the 
 fact that the tribes which wander in the equinoctial regions 
 are not darker than the mountaineers of the temperate zone. 
 The Puelches, and other tribes of the Magellanic regions, 
 beyond 55° S. latitude, are darker than the Abipones, 
 Mocobies, and Tobas, who are many degrees nearer the 
 equator ; and the Botocudos are of a clear brown colour, 
 sometimes approaching nearly to white, at no great distance 
 from the tropic ; while the Guiacas under the line are cha- 
 racterised bya fair complexion ; the Charruas, who are almost 
 black, live at the 30th degree of S. latitude ; and the still 
 blacker Californians are 25° north of the equator, v Every- 
 where, indeed, it is found that the colour *of the American 
 depends very little on the local situation which he actually 
 occupies; and never, in the same individual, are those parts 
 of the body which are constantly covered of a fairer t-olour 
 than those which are exposed to a hot and moist atmosphere. 
 Children are never white when they are born, as is the case 
 among even the darkest of the Caucasian races ; and the 
 Indian caciques, who enjoy a considerable degree of luxuty, 
 and keep themselves constantly dressed, have all parts of 
 their body, except the palms of the hands and the soles of 
 the feet, of the same brownish-red or copper colour. These 
 differences of complexion are, however, extremely partial, 
 forming mere exceptions to the general tint which charac- 
 terises all the Americans, from Cape Horn to Canada. The 
 cause of such anomalies is not easily ascertained ; that it is 
 not climate is sufficiently obvious ; but whether or not it 
 arises from partial immigrations from other countries re- 
 mains yet to be decided. 
 
 The Americans of indigenous races might also be 
 divided into three great classes distinguished by the pur- 
 suits on which they depend for subsistence, namely, hunt 
 ing, fishing, and agriculture. The greater number of them 
 are devoted to hunting ; the fishing tribes are not numerous, 
 •and are wholly destitute of the spirit of maritime adven- 
 ture, and even of fondness for the sea. A few tribes were 
 strictly agricultural before the arrival of' Europeans, but 
 a much greater number have becomo so since. Many 
 tribes regularly resort to all these modes of subsistence, 
 according to the seasons ; employing the spring in fishing, 
 the summer in agriculture, and the autumn and winter in 
 hunting. 
 
 The intellectual faculties of this great family appear to be 
 decidedly inferior, when compared with those of the Cauca- 
 sian or Mongolian race. The Americans are not only averse 
 to the restraints of education, but are for the most part in- 
 capable of a continued process of reasoning on abstract sub- 
 jects. Their minds seize, with avidity on simple truths, but 
 reject whatever requires investigation and analysis. Their 
 proximity for more than two centuries to European in- 
 stitutions has made scarcely any perceptible change in 
 their modo of thinking or their manner of life ; and, as to 
 their own social condition, they are probably in most respects 
 exactly as they were at the earliest period of their national 
 existence, They havo made few or no improvements in 
 constructing their houses or their boats ; their inventive and 
 imitative faculties appear to be of very humble capacity, 
 nor have they the smallest taste for the arts and sciences. 
 One of the Most remarkable of their intellectual defects is 
 the great difficulty they find in comprehending the relations 
 of numbers ; and Mr Schoolcraft, the United States Indian 
 agent, assured Dr Morton that this deficiency was one cause 
 of most of the misunderstanding in respect to treaties en- 
 tered into between the United States Government and the
 
 ,;ss 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 [AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 native tribes. The natives sell their land for a sum of 
 money, without having any conception of the amount ; and 
 it is only when the proceeds come to be divided that each 
 man becomes acquainted with his own interest in the 
 transaction. Then disappointment and murmurs invariably 
 ensue. 
 
 Everyunwritten tongue is subject to continual fluctuations, 
 which will be numerous and rapid in proportion as the tribe 
 using it is exposed to frequent vicissitudes of fortune, and 
 the individuals composing it have little intercourse with one 
 auother. When the population of one of these societies in- 
 creases, it splits into several branches ; and if these have 
 little intercourse, the original language divides by degrees 
 into as many dialects. These smaller societies subdivide in 
 their turn with the same effects ; and, in such continual sub- 
 divisions, the dialects of the extreme branches deviate farther 
 and farther from one another, and from the parent tongue, 
 till time, aided by migrations and wars, producing mixtures 
 of different hordes, obliterates all distinct traces of a com- 
 mon origin. The cause of these changes becomes more ob- 
 vious when we reflect on the principles which give stability 
 to a language. These are — 1. The abundant use of writing ; 
 2. The teaching of a language as a branch of education ; 3. 
 Frequency of intercourse among all the people speaking 
 it ; 4. The existence of an order of men, such as priests 
 or lawyers, who employ it for professional purposes; 5. 
 Stability of condition in the people, or exemption from 
 vicissitudes and revolutions; 6. A large stock of popular 
 poetry, which, if universally diffused, may almost become 
 a substitute for writing. All these conditions were wanting 
 (with some trifling exceptions) in the whole of the wan- 
 dering tribes of America. The great multiplication of 
 languages, therefore, proves two things — first, that the 
 people are in a low state of savage life ; and, secondly, that 
 they have been for many ages in this condition ; for time 
 is a necessary element in the process of splitting human 
 speech into so many varieties. 
 
 Among the seven or eight millions of American aoori- 
 gines, it is estimated that there are as many languages 
 spoken as among the seven or eight hundred million 
 inhabitants of the Old World. Just as there is a marked 
 physiological resemblance attaching to all the New World 
 tribes, so judged by the evidence of language, the native 
 American is sui generis, having no connection, except the 
 most remote, with the rest of the human family. The 
 few corresponding words in Old and New World lan- 
 guages, which are not of an imitative character, bear 
 the stamp of fortuitous coincidence rather than that 
 of common origin. Vater, in his Linguarum Totius Orbis 
 Index, estimated the number of American aboriginal 
 languages at about 500, and Balbi at 423, of which 211 
 belonged to North, 44 to Central, and 158 to South 
 America. In the absence of cert; in data, it maybe safe 
 to set down the number of native American languages at 
 about 450. 
 
 Throughout the whole of these runs a thread of con- 
 nection. They are all characterised by polysynthesis, as 
 Duponceau calls it, or holophrasm, to adopt the phraseology 
 of Dr Lieber. Holophrasm is a process more or less com- 
 mon to every language at a particular stage of- its develop- 
 ment. We have glimpses of it in most of tho Turanian 
 group of languages, and it appears, in a faint degree, in the 
 Basque; but it belongs to a very large proportion of the 
 languages of America, so extremely numerous, and many of 
 "which have nothing else in common. This diffusion of a 
 peculiar and common character over materials so dissimilar 
 has been plrjsibly accounted for by the supposition of 
 a community of origin in the tribes, whether few or 
 many, which peopled the continent. As no person has 
 the full command of all the vocables in his native lan- 
 
 guage, individual terms must be continually dropping out 
 of dialects preserved by oral communication; and new 
 ones will bo introduced a9 new wants and new objects 
 solicit attention. But during the gradual change which 
 thus takes place, the new words will be combined and 
 modified according to the rule3 wliich belong to tho 
 genius of the spoken dialect with which they are incor- 
 porated; and thus it may happen that the grammatical forms 
 of an ancient language may live, while its material* 
 perish. The changes of structure which Dresent them- 
 selves in the history of European languages, it must be 
 remembered, took place in progressive communities. 
 Among nations like the American Indians, whose bar- 
 barism, we may suppose, remained almost stationary, tlio 
 forms of speech might be more permanent, though its sub- 
 stance was in a state of slow but constant mutation. But 
 even were this community of origin admitted, it cannot 
 be looked on as entire and absolute among the American 
 nations. 
 
 Analysis and generalisation are processes that distinguish 
 the languages of reflective and civilised races. " Nothing," 
 says Schoolcraft, "could apparently be further removed from 
 the analytical class of languages than the various dialects 
 spoken by the Indians of America, who invariably express 
 their ideas of objects and actions precisely as they are pre- 
 sented to their eyes and ears, i.e., in all their compound 
 associations." To " encapsulate " words, as Dr Lieber 
 expresses it, " is the striking feature of all these languages, 
 and hence a word will consist sometimes of seven or eight 
 syllables, each one conveying one individual idea, like a set 
 of boxes each one contained in the other." This common 
 feature of American languages is both psychologically and 
 philologically of the greatest interest. Of all the groups of 
 American languages, the various dialects of the Algonquin 
 stock furnish the most inviting field for the philologist. 
 It is from the Algonquin, therefore, that we draw the follow 
 ing examples of the process of syllabical agglutination :— 
 
 Thus, waul is the root of the verb to see, and of the word 
 light. Waubun is the east or sunlight, and inforentially 
 place of light. Aub is the eye-ba\l ; hence, aiaub = to see, 
 to eye. Waub itself appears to be a compound of aub 
 and the letter w, which is the sign of the third person. 
 Waubuno is a member of a society of men who continue 
 their orgies till daylight. The simplest concrete forms of 
 tho verb to see are as follow : — 
 
 Ne waub = I see. 
 
 Ke waub = Thou seest. 
 
 waub = He or she sees. 
 
 But all this is vague to the Indian mind until the verb 
 is made transitive, and the class of objects acted on is 
 thereby shown. The Indian order of thought, moreover, 
 requires that the object should generally precede the 
 verb, e.g — 
 
 Inine ne wau bum ok = man, I see him. Wah He-gun 
 ne ne wau bun daun = house, I see it. 
 
 Such examples show the tendency of these languages 
 to accretion. The verb is made to include within itself, 
 as it were, the noun, pronoun, and adjective. " Declen- 
 sion, cases, articles, are deficient," says Bancroft, " but 
 everything is conjugated. The adjective assumes a verbal 
 termination, ■ and is conjugated as a verb ; the idea 
 expressed by a noun is clothed in verbal forms, and 
 
 at once does i.\e office of a verb Then, since tho 
 
 Indian verb imludes within itself the agent and the 
 object, it may piss through as many transitions as the 
 persons and numbers of the pronouns will admit of dif- 
 ferent combinations ; and each of these combinations may 
 be used positively or negatively, with a reflex or a cansa- 
 tivo signification. In this manner changes are so multi- 
 plied, that the number of possible forms of a Chippewa
 
 ASIEMCAN INDIANS.] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 68:i 
 
 verb is said to amount to five or six thousand : in other 
 words, the number of possible variations is indefinite." 
 The formidable array of syllables arises partly from the 
 fact, that there are some sixteen modes of forming the 
 plural of nouns represented in the verb by sixteen corre- 
 sponding modifications. Nouns are divided, as in the 
 Dravidian languages of South India, into animate and 
 inanimate. 
 
 The best account of those peculiarities, as well as the 
 best general distribution of the American languages, are 
 given by Professor Whitney of Yale College, in his work 
 on Language and the Study of Language, pp. 346-351 : — 
 
 "The conditions of the linguistic problem presented by the 
 American languages are exceedingly perplexing, for the same reason 
 is those presented by the Polynesian and African dialects, and in 
 n yet higher degree. The number, variety, and changeableness of 
 the different tongues is wonderful. Dialectic division is carried to 
 its extreme among them ; the isolating and diversifying tendencies 
 have had full course, with little counteraction from the conserving 
 and assimilating forces. The continent seems ever to have been 
 peopled by a congeries of petty tribes, incessantly at warfare, or 
 standing off from one another in jealous and suspicious seclusion. 
 Certain striking exceptions, it is true, are present to the mind of 
 every one. Mexico, Central America, and Peru, at the time of the 
 Spanish discovery and conquest, were the seat of empires possessing 
 an organised system of government, with national creeds and insti- 
 tutions, with modes of writing and styles of architec.ure, and other 
 appliances of a considerably developed culture, of indigenous origin. 
 Such relics, too, as the great mounds which are scattered so widely 
 through our western country, and the ancient workings upon the 
 veins and ledges of native copper along the southern shore of Lake 
 Superior, show that other,large portions of the northern continent 
 had not always been in the same savage condition as that in which 
 our ancestors found them. Yet these were exceptions only, not 
 changing the general rule ; and there is reason to believe that, as 
 the civilisation of the Mississippi valley had been extinguished by 
 the incursion and conquest of more barbarous tribes, so a similar fate 
 was threatening that of the southern peoples : that, in fact, American 
 culture was on its w-ay to destruction even without European inter- 
 ference, as European culture for a time had seemed to be during 
 the Dark Ages which attended the downfall of the Roman empire. 
 If the differentiation of American language had been thus un- 
 checked by the influence of culture, it has been also favoured by 
 the influence of the variety of climate and mode of life. While the 
 other great families occupy, for the most part, one region or one 
 zone, the American tribes have been exposed to all the difference of 
 circumstances which can find place between the. Arctic and the 
 Antarctic oceans, amid ice-fields, mountains, .valleys, on dry table- 
 lands, and in reeking river-basins, along shores of every clime. 
 Moreover, these languages have shown themselves to possess a 
 peculiar mobility and changeableness of material. There are groups 
 of kindred tribes whose separation is known to be of not very long 
 standing, but in whose speech the correspondences are almost over- 
 whelmed and bidden from sight by the discordances which have 
 sprung up. In more than or.3 tongue it has been remarked that 
 books of instruction prepared by missionaries have become anti- 
 quated and almost unintelligible in three or four generations. Add 
 to all this, that our knowledge of the family begins in the most 
 recent period, less than four hundred years ago ; that, though it 
 has been since penetrated and pressed on every side by cultivated 
 nations, the efforts made to collect and preserve information respect- 
 ing it have been only spasmodic and fragmentary ; that it is 
 almost wholly destitute of literature, and even of traditions of any 
 authority and value ; and that great numbers of its constituent 
 members have perished, in the wasting away of the tribes by 
 mutual warfare, by pestilence and famine, and by the encroach- 
 ments of more powerful races — and it will be clearly seen that the 
 comprehensive comparative study of American languages is beset 
 with very great difficulties. 
 
 " Yet it is the confident opinion of linguistic scnolars that a fun- 
 damental unity lies at the base of all these infinitely varying forms 
 of speech ; that they may be, and probably are, all descended from 
 a single parent language. For, whatever their differences of 
 material, there is a single type or plan upon which their forms are 
 developed and their constructions made, from the Arctic Ocean to 
 Cape Horn, and one sufficiently peculiar and distinctive to con- 
 stitute a genuine indication of relationship. This type is called the 
 incorporative or polysynthetic It tends to the excessive and 
 abnormal agglomeration of distinct significant elements in its words; 
 whereby, on the one hand, cumbrous compounds are formed as the 
 names of objects, and a character of tedious and time-wasting poly- 
 s)Uabisni is given to the language — see, for example, the three to 
 ten-syllabled numeral and pronominal words of our western Indian 
 
 tongues; or the Mexican name for 'goat,* lira-lcieaith tt\Jsnne y 
 literally ' head-tree (horn) - Up hair (beard),' or 'the horned and 
 bearded one'— and, on the o'her hand, and what is of y. t more 
 importance, an unwieldy aggregation, verUil or qiCasi- verbal, is 
 substituted for the phmso or sentence, with its distinct and bal.mred 
 members. Thus, tho Mexican bays, ' 1-flcsh-cat,' as a single word, 
 compounded of three elements; or if, for emphasis, the object is 
 left to stand separate, it is at least fust represented l.y a pronoun 
 in the verbal compound; as, '1-it-eat, the flesh;' or, ' I-it-him-gives 
 tihe bread, my son,' for 'I give my son the bread.' 
 
 "The incorporative type is not wholly peculiar to the languages 
 of our continent. A trace of it (in tho insertion, among the verbal 
 forms, of an objective as well as a subjective pronominal ending) is 
 found even in one of the Ugiiau dialects of the Scythian family, 
 the Hungarian; and the Basque, of which we shall presently s|»ak 
 more particularly, exhibits it in a very notable measure. It is 
 found, too, in considerably varying degree and style of development 
 in the dillerent branches of the American family. But its general 
 effect is still such that the linguist is able to claim that the lan- 
 guages to which it belongs are, in virtue of their structure, akin 
 with one another, and distinguished from all other known tongues. 
 "Not only do the subjective and objective pronouns thus °ntcr 
 into the substance of the verb, but also a great variety of modifiers 
 of the verbal action, adverbs, in the form of particles and frag- 
 ments of words; thus, almost everything which helps to make ex- 
 pression formsa part of verbal conjugation, and the verba] paradigm 
 becomes well-nigh interminable. An extreme instance of excessive 
 synthesis i3 afforded in the Cherokee word-phrase wi-ni-taic-ti-gr-gi- 
 na-H-skaw-hing-la-naw-ne-li-ti-se-sli, 'they will by that time have 
 nearly finished granting [favouis] from a distance to thee and me.' 
 
 "Other common traits, which help to strengthen our conclusion 
 that these languages are ultimately related, are not wanting.* Such 
 are, for example, the habit of combini-ig words by fragments, by 
 one or two representative syllables ;' tbj direct conversion of nouns, 
 substantive and adjective, into verbs, and their conjugation as such ; 
 peculiarities of generic distinction — many languages dividing animate 
 from inanimate beings (somewhat as we do by the use of who and 
 what), with arbitrary and fanciful details of classification, like those 
 exhibited by the Indo-European languages in their separation of 
 masculine and feminine ; the possession of a very peculiar scheme 
 for denoting the degrees of family relationship ; and so on. 
 
 "As regards their material constitution, their assignment of cer- 
 tain sounds to represent certain ideas, our Indian dialects show, as 
 already remarked, a very great discordance. ■. It has been claimed 
 that there are not less than a hundred languages or groups upon the 
 continent, between whose words are discoverable no correspondences 
 which might not be sufficiently explained as the result of accident 
 Doubtless a more thorough and sharpsighted investigation, a mere 
 penetrating linguistic analysis and com] arison — though, undcrexist- 
 ing circumstances, any even distant approximatiou to the actual 
 beginning may be hopeless— would considerably reduce this number ; 
 yet there might still remain as many unconnected groups as are to be 
 found in all Europe and Asia. It i3 needless to undeitake here an 
 enumeration of the divisions of Indian speech : we will but notice 
 a few of the most important groups occupying our own portion of 
 the continent. 
 
 " In the extreme north, along the whole shore of tlie Arctic Ocean, 
 are the Eskimo dialects, with which is nearly allied the Grcenlandish. 
 Below them is spread our, on the west, the great Athapaskan group. 
 On the east, and as far south as the line of Tennessee and Xorlh 
 Carolina, stret-hes the immense region'oC'-upied by the numerous 
 dialects of the Algonquin or Delaware stock; within it, however, is 
 enclosed the distinct branch of Iroquois languages. Our south- 
 eastern states were in possession of the Florida gioup, comprising 
 the Creek, Choctaw, and Cherokee. The great nation of the Sioux 
 or Dakotas gives its name to the branch which occupied th? .Mis- 
 souri valley and parts of the lowir Mississippi. Another -wide- 
 spreid sub-family, including the SLoshonee and Comanche, ranged 
 from ;**« shores of Texas north-westward to the borders of Califoi ma 
 and the ."»rritory of the Athapaskas; and the Pacific coast was 
 occupied by a medley of tribes. Mexico and Central America, 
 finally, were the home of a great variety of tongues, that of the 
 cultivated Aztecs, with its kindred, having the widest range." 
 
 For further information regarding the aboriginal lan- 
 guages of America, the reader is referred to the researches 
 of Balbi, Gallatin, Vater, and Schoolcraft; to Lewis LT. 
 Morgan's Tables, with accompanying text and forms, vol. 
 xvii. of the Smitltsonian Contributions to Knowledge (1871), 
 entitled " Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the 
 Human Family," and to an invaluable work, The Literature 
 of American Aboriginal Languages, by Dr Ludewig, edited 
 by Nicolas Trubner, 1858. 
 
 Though any attempt to reduce the American popula- 
 tion under a few general classes, either on physical or
 
 690 
 
 A M E Jl t C A 
 
 [AMERICAN IXDIANS. 
 
 tfhn ' grounds, * He, we may notice ono 
 
 cr two of the most rcmai I alics. 
 
 All the nortkern coast of tho continent is tenanted by 
 "the Esquimaux; a dwarfish race, rarely exceeding five feet 
 in height. TLeir territories commence near Mackenzie's 
 River, in GS° N. lat., and extend to the Arctic Ocean. They 
 occupy all the nortl dpelago, tho shores of Hud- 
 
 son's rador, and of Hussion Ame- 
 
 rica round by Bearing's Straits, to the peninsula of Al- 
 aska. They live entirely by fishing, the whale and the seal 
 being their most common food ; they inhabit skin tents 
 during their short slimmer and in winter caves or houses 
 built with snow in the shape of domes, within which a 
 single rude lamp is kept perpetually burning. They are 
 crafty and dirty, but appeared to Captain Franklin more 
 intelligent and provident than the northern Indians. There 
 is a wide diversity in their dialects, which still i 
 decided marks of identity in their roots. 
 
 The north-west coast of Alaska, Srom Cook's Inlet to ine 
 48th parallel, is inhabited by four tribes, of whom the 
 Kaluschi are the most remarkable. These people are 
 distinguished from all the native races of America by 
 having as fair a complexion when their skins are washed 
 as the inhabitants of Europe; and this distinction, accom- 
 panied sometimes with auburn hair, has been considered 
 as indicating an origin different from that of the copper- 
 coloured tribes who people all the rest of the continent. 
 Tmlian ft The Indians of the east coast belong almost entirely to 
 'Iribes. three stems; and, befoTa the arrival of the English colo- 
 nists, occupied both sides of the Alleghany Mountains, 
 from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada and New Bran 
 1. The Delaware or Algonquin Indians, compreh' 
 the Ottogamies, Shawnees, Narragansets, Chipp 
 Knisteneaux, Delawares, and other nations, to the number 
 of thirty or forty, were spread over the space between the 
 Mississippi and the Atlantic, as far math as Hudson's Bay, 
 and all spoke dialects of one language. 2. IThe Iroquois, 
 often called the " Five Nations," and the " Six Nations," 
 but comprehending 15 tribes or more, among whom were 
 the Mohawks, Oneidas, Hurons, and Scnecas, all spoke 
 dialects of one language. They lived on the south side of 
 tho great lakes, and finally obtained a complete ascend- 
 ency over the Algonquin race. 3. The Florida Indians, 
 including the Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws, Chickasaws, 
 Natches, and Mobiles. Tribes belonging to these three 
 families (with the Wocons and Catawbas) occupied nearly 
 all the region east of the Mississippi, from the Gulf of 
 Mexico to Hudson's Bay, comprising more than a million 
 of square miles. The Catawbas alone, however, are said to 
 have included 20 tribes, and nearly as many dialects. The 
 Powhattans were a confederacy of 33 tribes, comprehend- 
 ing 10,000 persons. It is probable that when the E 
 settlers landed in the country, the region mention! 
 inhabited by a quarter of a million of Indians, divided into 
 many tribes, and speaking dialects belonging to half a 
 dozen radically distinct languages. 
 
 These nations have the virtues of savage life — a high sense 
 of honour, according to their perceptions of duty, mutual 
 fidelity among individuals, a fortitude that mocks at the 
 most cruel torments, and a devotion to their tribe which 
 makes self-immolation in its defence easy. On the other 
 hand, they treat their wives cruelly, and their children 
 with indifference. li_>e apathy under the good and ill of 
 life which the Stoic affected, is the grand element of the 
 Indian'3 character. Gloomy, stern, and severe, he is a 
 stranger to mirth and laughter. All outward expression 
 of pleasure or pain he regards as a weakness; and the 
 on Jy feeling to which he ever yields is the boisterous joy 
 which he manifests in the moment of victory, or under 
 the excitement of intoxication. He is capable of great 
 
 na in war cr tne chase. Diit has an unconquerable 
 aversion to re] ular labour. He is extremely improvident; 
 
 eats enormously while he has abundance of food, without 
 thinking of the famine which may follow ; and, when 
 
 3 are supplied to him, will continue drunk for days. 
 Most of the Indians of North America believe in 
 the existence of a supreme being, whom they call the 
 I Spirit ; and of a subordinate one, whose nature is 
 
 evil and hostile to -man. To the hitter their worship is 
 piincn ; tlio Good Spirit, in their opinion, 
 
 ■ ers to induce hi in to aid and protect his 
 creatures. They generally belie\e in a future state, in 
 which the souls of brave warriors an 
 a tranquil and happy existence with their ancestors and 
 ding their time in those exercises in which 
 they delighted when on tho earth. The Dakotas believe 
 that the road to these "villages of the dead" leads over 
 a rock with an edge as sharp as a knife, on which only tho 
 good are ablo to keep their footing. The wicked fall off, 
 and descend to the region of the Evil Spirit, where they are 
 hard worked, and often flogged by their relentless master. 
 
 y is allowed ; and a number of wives is con Customs 
 sidered as adding to a man's consequence. Marriage cus- 
 toms differ in different tribes, but in every case the pre- 
 senting of gifts to the father of the intended wife is an 
 essential feature of the transaction, and shows that tlio 
 wife is considered as procured by purchase. Deformed 
 children, and lame or decrepit old persons, are destroyed 
 sometimes ; but the practice is uncommon. Incest and 
 rises are practised in some tribes, but they are 
 always viewed as matters of reproach. The Indian fune- 
 rals are conducted with much decorum. The deceased is 
 dressed in his best clothes, and laid in a grave, in a verti- 
 cal, horizontal, or inclined position, according to his own 
 previous directions, with his moccasins, knife, money, and 
 silver ornaments beside him, and a small quantity of food 
 near his head. It is usual to mark tho graves with a post, 
 on which figures aro carved expressive of tho nature of the 
 pursuits and achievements of the deceased. 
 
 Some nations of Indians wear little or no clothing ; but Clothes, 
 tne general dress of tho men in the temperate and cold l'""'«i an < 
 parts of the country, previous to the arrival of the Euro- oraan " :D ' , i 
 peans, consisted of three articles : a cloak of buffalo-skin 
 hanging from the shoulders, a piece of skin used as an 
 apron, and a pair of moccasins or loose boots, made of un- 
 dressed skin also. The women wore a long robe of the 
 same material, which was fastened round the waist ; but 
 among the tribes living near tho whites, coarse woollens 
 are now frequently substituted for the hides of wild ani- 
 
 i xcept for the moccasins. The habitations of the 
 Indians are huts or cabins, generally of a circular form and 
 small size, but sometimes of 30 or 40 feet in diameter, 
 formed by stakes fixed in the ground, and covered with 
 the bark of trees. ■ Sometimes the spaces between the 
 stakes are filled up with twigs, grass, and mud, and the 
 roof i3 covered nearly in the same way. A hole in the 
 
 rves for the escape of the smoke, and the skins 
 of wild beasts form the beds and seats. When they go 
 to a distance to hunt, they erect for temporary use large 
 tents, which aro covered with skins. On the west side 
 of the Mississippi, where the ground is open, many of 
 the tribes make use of horses, which are seldom em- 
 ployed amidst the woods covering the territories east 
 of that river. The custom of painting their bodies is 
 nearly universal. They introduce the colours by making 
 punctures on their skin ; and the extent of surface which 
 this ornament covers is proportioned to the exploits they 
 have performed. Some paint only their arms, others 
 both their arms and legs, others again their thighs ; 
 ivhile those who have attained the summit of warlike.
 
 %iI£RICA>' nTDIAKS.] 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 691 
 
 ienovm have their bodies painted from the 'waist upwards. 
 This is the heraldry of the Indians, the devices of which 
 are probably more exactly adjusted to the merits of the 
 persons who bear them than those of more civilised coun- 
 tries. Besides these ornaments, the warriors also carry 
 plumes of feathers on their heads, their arms, or ancles. 
 Their arms were the tomahawk, the war-club, knife, the 
 bow and arrow, but now they have .muskets. 
 
 Each tribe is governed by a chief and council, who are 
 elective ; but in matters of importance the whole warriors 
 are consulted ; and Mr Keating informs us that questions 
 are not decided by the vote3 of a majority, but the reso- 
 lution adopted must have the consent of every individual 
 warrior. Their assemblies are conducted with much for- 
 mality and decorum. The eldest chief commences the 
 •debate, -which is often carried on by set speeches, abound- 
 ing iu bold figures and metaphors, and bursts of a rude but 
 impassioned eloquence. The young are permitted to be 
 present aud to express their approbation by cries, but 
 not to speak. In their wars the object commonly is, to 
 secure the right of hunting within particular limits, to 
 maintain the liberty of passing through their accustomed 
 tracts, and to guard from infringement those lands which 
 they consider as their own tenure. War is declared by 
 sending a slave with a hatchet, the handb of which is 
 painted red, to the nation they intend to break with. 
 They generally take the field in small numbers. Each 
 ■warrior, besides bis weapons, carries a mat, and supports 
 himself till he is near the enemy by killing game. From 
 the time they enter the enemy's country, no game is 
 killed, no fires lighted, or shouting heard, and their vigi- 
 lance and caution are extreme. They are not even per- 
 mitted to speak, but must communicate by signs and 
 motions. .Having discovered the objects of their hostility, 
 they first reconnoitre them, then hold a council ; and they 
 generally make their attack just before daybreak, that 
 they may surprise their enemies while asleep. They will 
 lie the whole night flat on their faces without stirring, 
 and. at the fit moment for action, will creep on their hands 
 and feet till they have got within a bow-shot of those 
 they have doomed to destruction. On a signal given by 
 the chief warrior, which is answered by the yells, of the 
 whole party, they start up, and,"after discharging their 
 arrows, they rush upon their adversaries, without giving 
 them time to recover from their confusion, with their 
 war-clubs and tomahawks. If they succeed, the scene of 
 horror which follows baffles description. The savage fury 
 of the conquerors, the desperation of the conquered, the 
 horrid yells of both, and trroir grim figures besmeared 
 with paint and blood, form -an assemblage of objects 
 worthy of pandemonium. When the victory is secured, 
 they select a certain number of their prisoners to carry 
 home : they kill the rest in cold blood, take their scalps, 
 and then march off with the spoil. The prisoners des- 
 tined to death are soon led to the place of execution, 
 where they are stripped, have their bodies blackened, and 
 are bound to a stake. In this situation, while the burn- 
 ing faggots embrace his limbs, and the knives of his 
 revengeful enemies. are inflicting a thousand tortures, it 
 is common for the warrior to recount his exploits, boast 
 of the cruelties he has committed upon his enemies, and 
 to irritate and insult his tormenters in every way. Some- 
 times it happens that this has the effect of provoking one 
 of the spectators to dispatch him with a club or toma- 
 hawk. Sometimes the male adult prisoners are given as 
 slaves to women who Lave lost their husbands in the war, 
 end by whom they are often married. The women taken 
 are distributed among the warriors ; the boys and girls 
 Vc considered as slaves. 
 
 Nea.lv all the Indian tribes raise maize, beans, and 
 
 pumpkins, by the labour o» their women, but only to a 
 small extent, and as a resource against famine, their chief 
 reliance being upon the chase. The buffaloes which 
 wander over the prairies of the west, in herds of tens of 
 thousands, are their great support ; but deer, bears, and 
 in time of need otters, beavers, foxes, squirrels, and even 
 reptiles, are devoured. 
 
 The Toltecan family embraced the civilised nations of 
 Mexico, Peru, and Bogota, extending from the Bio Gila in. 
 33 3 N. latitude along the western shore of the conti-' 
 nent to the frontiers of Chili ; and on the eastern coast, along 
 the Gulf of Mexico, in North America. In South America, 
 on the contrary, this family chiefly occupied a narrow B*r!p 
 of land between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean, bounded 
 on the south by the great desert of Atacama. Farther north, 
 however, in New Granada, were the Eopotese, a people 
 whose civilisation, like their geographical position, was 
 intermediate between that of the Peruvians and the Mexi-. 
 cans. But, even before the Spanish conquest, the Toltecan 
 family were not the exclusive possessors of the regions which 
 we have assigned to them ; they were only the dominant 
 race or caste, while other tribes of the American race.always 
 constituted a large mass of the population. The arrival ol 
 the Spaniards reduced both classes alike to vassalage ; aud 
 three centuries of slavery and oppression have left few traces 
 of Mexican and Peruvian civilisation, except what may 
 be gleaned from their history and antiquities. These nations 
 can no longer be identified in existing communities ; and 
 the mixed and motley races which now respectively bear the 
 name, are as unlike their predecessors in moral and intellec- 
 tual character, as the degraded Copts are unlike the ancient 
 Egyptians. It is in the intellectual faculties that the great 
 difference between the Toltecan and the American families 
 consists. In the arts and sciences of the former we see the 
 evidences of an advanced civilisation ; their architectural 
 remains everywhere surprise the traveller and confound the 
 antiquary. Among these are pyramids, temples, grottoes, 
 bas-reliefs, and arabesques; while their roads, aqueducts, 
 and fortifications, and the traces of their mining operations, 
 sufficiently attest their attainments in the practical arts of 
 life. 
 
 The origin of the populations of America is a problem i 
 which has yet to be solved. It is known that in Europe j 
 man was in existence at a very remote period ; and there . 
 are facts which lend some support to the view that man 
 has also been a denizen of America for ages. Thus there 
 have been found portions of the human skeleton and 
 fragments of human handiwork, associated with the bones 
 of mammals which now have no existence, under circum- 
 stances which imply great antiquity. In most instances, 
 however, it is not certain that such relics are of the age' of 
 the deposit in which they have been found. Human 
 skeletons and bones in a fossilised state, or associated with 
 bones of extinct mammals, have been found at Guadaloupe, 
 in Missouri, near Natchez, at New Orleans, in the coral 
 reef of Florida, near Charleston, in California, in Orchilla, 
 at Petit Anse, and in Kansas. Some of these are referred 
 to a very distant period. Thus the conglomerate in which 
 the remains occur in the Florida reef is estimated by Agassiz 
 to be 10,000 years old; but, what is still more amazing, 
 the skeleton found by Dr Dowler beneath four buried 
 forests in the delta near New Orleans, is said to be 50,000 
 years old, and the remains from California were found in a 
 deposit beneath Table Mountain, which deposit was formed 
 in an old river of the Post-Pliocene, or Pliocen< period. 
 At any rate, when this deposit was formed there was a river 
 valley here, down which an overflow of volcanic matter was 
 poured. Since that time denudation has been so great, and 
 the volcanic matter so hard, that the sides of the valley have 
 been swent awav. leaving the valley bottom with its Dro-
 
 692 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 [antiquities. 
 
 tecting cover standing up far above the level of the neigh- 
 bouring country. Articles made by man also occur under 
 conditions indicating great antiquity. Thus along the coast 
 of Ecuador there are volcanic deposits which belong to the 
 period of volcanic activity preceding the present, which may 
 prol ibly bo referred to the Post- Pliocene period. This 
 matter is arranged in terraces, and in one of these terraces, 
 now 24 miles from the coast and 150 feet above the sea, 
 Mr Wilson has found beneath the vegetable mould, beds of 
 clay with sand and gravel which contain fragments of pot- 
 tery. These beds, it is believed, were deposited beneath 
 the sea. implying an elevation of 150 feet since their forma- 
 tion. On the coast there is a pottery-containing stratum, 
 which has been followed for 80 miles, and patches of a 
 similar bed occur over a further distance of 200 
 These facts, taken in conjunction with wli.it wo learn from 
 the traditions and histories of numerous nations, as also the 
 characters of the present Datives, render it highly probable 
 that r ■ 1 in America long before the origin or arrival 
 
 of the civilised communities to which allusion will be pre- 
 sently made. The histories of these communities gem 
 agree that civilisation was introduced by persons who first 
 appeared as strangers amidst the people already in possession 
 of the country. Eence the question has a twofold aspect, 
 viz., the origin of the earliest uncivilised as well as that of 
 the earliest civilised tribes. It is possible, as the traditions 
 suggest, that people have arrived from various quarters and 
 at various times. As yet we have little positive evidence 
 to rely upon, and caution is required in drawing conclusions 
 from resemblances in customs or religion. For instance, 
 to take one remarkable case. Amongst tribes living high 
 up the Amazon basin there are customs which correspond 
 with those in Borneo. In both areas we find blow-pipes 
 for discharging arrows; large houses inhabited by several 
 families and similarly constructed; baskets and bamboo 
 boxes of almost identical form and construction; and the 
 smoke-dried heads of enemies hung up in the houses. In 
 one tribe on the Amazon the throwing-stick is used, and 
 not the blow-pipe, which is employed by all the surrounding 
 tribes ; the throwing-stick is also used by the Esquimaux, 
 the Andaman Islanders, and the Australians. On the 
 Amazon an arrow or spear is used for catching turtle, 
 which has the barb loosely attached to the shaft, so that 
 wlu.-n the turtle disappears the shaft floats on the surface 
 and indicates its movements and position. The Australians 
 catch turtle in precisely the same way. Again, many 
 other customs are common to the Americans, and tribes 
 living in areas far remote from them, with which they 
 have no apparent direct relationship. If these analogies 
 were always proofs of affinities, then we might infer, 
 as has been done, that America was first peopled by 
 emigrants from the opposite shores of Africa, W. Europe, 
 E. Asia, and Polynesia. 
 
 In the great valley of the Mississippi and its mighty 
 tributaries, the Ohio and Missouri, are the remains' of the 
 works of an extinct race of men, -who seem to have made 
 advances in civilisation far beyond the races of red men dis- 
 covered there by the first European adventurers. These 
 remains consist chiefly of tumuli and ramparts of earth, 
 enclosing areas of great extent and much regularity of form. 
 Some of them recall the barrows of Europe and of Asia, or 
 the huge mounds and ramparts of Mesopotamia, as displayed 
 at Babylon and Nineveh ; while others remind us of the 
 ruined hippodromes and amphitheatres of the Greeks and 
 Romans. In that part of North America the barrows are 
 usually I uncated cones ; but in advancing farther south, 
 they ofteL assume the figure of four-sided pyramids in suc- 
 cessive staces, with flattened topSj like the Teocallh, or 
 temples of Mexico and Yucatan. They have been accurately 
 described, and many of them delineated in the Smithsonian 
 
 Contributions to Knowledge, from the researches of Messrs 
 Squier aud Davis. 
 
 The barrows and ramparts are constructed of mingled 
 earth and stones ; and from their solidity and extent, must 
 have required the labour of a numerous population, with 
 leisure and skill sufficient to undertake combined and vast 
 operations. The barrows often contain human bones, and 
 the smaller tumuli appear to have been tombs ; but the 
 larger, especially the quadrangular mounds, wovdd seem to 
 have served as temples to the early inhabitants. These 
 barrows vary in size, from a few feet in circumference and 
 elevation, to structures with a basal circumference of 1000 
 or 2000 feet, and an altitude of from 60 to 90 feet, resem- 
 bling, In dimensions, the vast tumulus of Alyattes neai 
 Sardis. One in Mississippi is said to cover a base of six 
 acres. The also vary in thickness, and in height 
 
 from 6 to 30 feet, and usually enclose areas varying from 
 100 to 200 acres. Some contain 400 ; and one on the Mis' 
 Bouri has an area of 600 acres. Tho enclosures generally 
 are very exact circles or squares, sometimes a union of both ; 
 occasionally they form parallelograms, or follow the sinuo- 
 sities of a hill ; and in one district, that of Wisconsin, they 
 assume the fanciful shape of men, quadrupeds, birds, or ser- 
 pents, delineated with some ingenuity, on the surface of 
 undulating plains or wide savannahs.' 
 
 These ramparts are usually placed on elevations or hills, 
 or on the banks of streams, so as to show that they were 
 erected for defensive purposes, and their sites are judiciously 
 chosen for this end. The area enclosed, therefore, bears no 
 proportion to the relative labour bestowed on such ramparts : 
 thus, in Ohio, an area of not more than 40 acres is enclosed 
 by mounds of a mile and a half in circumference ; and on the 
 Little Miami, in the same state, is found an enclosure fully 
 four miles round, that contains an area of about 100 acres. 
 These remains are not solitary and few, for in the state 
 of Ohio they amount to at least 10,000. 
 
 The enclosures in the form of animals are more rare than 
 those now noticed, and seem nearly confined to Wisconsin. 
 One of these represents a gigantic man with two heads, the 
 size of which may be estimated, by the body being 50 feet 
 long, and 25 feet across the breast. Another on a slope near 
 Brush Creek, represents a tolerably designed snake, with an 
 oval ball in its mouth ; the undulating folds of its body and 
 spiral of its tail extending to a length of 700 feet. The 
 forms of quadrupeds and birds are also characteristically 
 represented in these works. Those that have been explored 
 rarely contain human bones ; though the Indians deposit 
 their dead within them occasionally, they have no tradition 
 of their having belonged to their ancestors. The most pro- 
 bable supposition respecting them is that of Mr R. C. Taylor, 
 that each was the sepulchral monument of a different tribe, 
 who have all disappeared from America. 
 
 The question immediately suggests itself, to what people 
 must we ascribe those vast works ? They can scarcely be 
 the works of the ancestors of the red men discovered by 
 Europeans in North America. Neither can we ascribe 
 them to the early Greenland and Iceland colonists, wlw 
 seem never to have passed westward of the Alleghanies. 
 We can scarcely attribute them to the somewhat apocryphal 
 advent of the Welsh Madoc. Can their authors be the 
 people obscurely mentioned in the Icelandic sagas, as. the 
 inhabitants of New Iceland.} v 
 
 A curioifs tradition of the present Iroquois records.'that 
 when th'e Lenni Lenapi, the common ancestors of tho Iro- 
 quois and other tribes, whose language is still widely spread 
 among the Indians, advanced from the north-west to the 
 Mississippi, they found on its eastern side , a^great nation 
 more civilised than themselves, who lived in fortified towns 
 and cultivated the ground. This people at first granted the 
 Lenni Lenapi leave to pass through their territories to seA
 
 aimiioiTiEs.J 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 693 
 
 an eastward settlement, but treacherously attacked them 
 while crossing the river. This conduct gave rise to inve- 
 terate hostilities, that terminated in the extermination or 
 subjugation of their opponents, and the establishment of the 
 red men in those regions. This not improbable, though 
 imperfect, account of such rude communities, where neither 
 letters not hieroglyphics existed, is probably all that we 
 shall ever learn of the people who executed those works 
 that now excite our surprise. 
 
 As we advance southward we find proofs' of still greater 
 refinement on the table-land of Anahuac or Mexico ; and 
 on descending into the humid valleys of Central America, 
 the peninsula of Yucatan, and the shores of Honduras, we 
 find striking remains of the .semi-eivilisation of the races 
 that inhabited those countries before the Spanish invasion. 
 The barbarous policy of Cortez and other invaders was to 
 eradicate every trace of the former grandeur of the native 
 races, and thereby to inure them to a degrading servitude. 
 The systematic destruction of the native works of art and 
 gorgeous buildings in Mexico was relentlessly carried on for 
 ages, to the infinite regret of the modern ethnographical 
 inquirer. Little positive information on these subjects can 
 be gleaned from the early Spanish historians of the con- 
 quest ; and it was not until the publication of Humboldt's 
 Researches that Europe knew anything of the state of the 
 Great Mexican pyramid, or of the wonderful remains of 
 Palenque and Papantla. 
 
 In the middle of the last century, however, some Spanish 
 adventurers penetrated with difficulty the dense forests of 
 the Mexican province of Chiapas, in which they discovered 
 the remains of an ancient city, of which all memory had 
 been lost, and to which they gave the name of Palenque, 
 from a poor adjacent village. Stimulated by their report, 
 the Spanish Government some years afterwards despatched 
 two intelligent travellers to explore those wilds ; but the 
 report of Del Kio and Du Paix, from the commotions that 
 agitated Europe and convulsed Spain, remained unpublished 
 until a - few years ago. It has since appeared, with very in- 
 teresting designs of the ruins they explored. Our know- 
 ledge of such remains, however, has been greatly enlarged 
 by the labours of an enterprising North American traveller, 
 Mr Stephens, given to the world in four volumes, entitled 
 Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas,- and 
 Yucatan, 1838, and Incidents of Travel in Yucatan, 1842. 
 rhia gentleman discovered, in the almost impenetrable 
 forests of those regions, the remains of no less than 44 
 towns, some of them with extensive and highly decorated 
 structures. These exhibit walls of hewn stone, admirably 
 put together with mortar, often enriched by sculptures 
 in bold relief, and hieroglyphical inscriptions, exactly 
 resembling the Aztec MSS. in the museums of Europe, 
 and in the publications of Humboldt ; well executed 
 vaulted roofs, and obelisks covered with mythic figures 
 and pictorial or hieroglyphical inscriptions. These curi- 
 ous remains have been concealed for ages by a luxu- 
 riant tropical vegetation, so dense that they seem to have 
 been unknown to people living within half a mile of their 
 site. 
 
 The most conspicuous ruins are those of temples and 
 palaces, which almost invariably have a pyramidal form, in 
 several stages, with wide intervening terraces, the ascent to 
 which is by grand flights of steps. The chambers in those 
 buildings have generally a length disproportioned to their 
 width, they have no windows, but receive their light from 
 the doors, just as the rooms do at this day in Barbary and 
 some other eastern countries. The apartments are in two 
 parallel rows, a narrow corridor or series of chambers runs 
 along the front, and the apartments behind this receive their 
 light only from the front rooms into which they open. Yet 
 these interior apartments aie often richly decorated with 
 
 sculptures, ornamented with stuccos, and gaily painted red, 
 yellow, white, and black. 
 
 The ruins of Palenque, as may be seen in the researches 
 of Humboldt, have the characters just mentioned. They 
 are covered with hieroglyphics, and sculptures in relief, with 
 ornamental cornices. The largest building stands on a 
 terrace, faced with stone, measuring 310 by 2G0 feet; the 
 building itself is 200 by 180 feet; its walls are 25 feet 
 high. The stone has been originally covered with painted 
 stucco ; fronts the east, and contains 1 4 doors, separated 
 by piers ornamented with stucco figures. In this building 
 some of the figures are erect, while others sit cross-legged, 
 in what we term the oriental fashion ; one statue, 10| feet 
 high, was found at Palenque ; and two fragments of two 
 torsos and a head were also discovered that exhibited a 
 severe but fair style of sculpture, that recalls something of 
 the early style of Greek art. 
 
 The ruins at Copan, in Honduras, are of vast extent. 
 Here a pyramidal structure remains, with an elevation of 
 150 feet measured along its slope, and this appears to be a 
 principal temple, included with several smaller structures 
 within a sacred enclosure, in the manner of the temples of 
 ancient Egypt. On its walls are many skulls of a quadru- 
 manous animal, well executed in high relief ; a large figure 
 of a baboon was discovered among the ruins, bearing no in- 
 considerable resemblance to the cynocephalus of the Egyp- 
 tians. Here also several sculptured obelisks occur, from 
 11 to 13 feet in height, and from 3 to 4 feet wide, which, 
 as well as the walls of the temple, were highly ornamented 
 with sculptures in bold relief. 
 
 The similarity between the ruins at Copan and Palenque, 
 and the identity of the hieroglyphic tablets in both, show 
 that the former inhabitants of Chiapas and Honduras had 
 the same written language, though the present Indians of 
 those provinces do not understand each other. 
 
 At several places, but more especially at Uxmal, in 
 Yucatan, are very magnificent ruins of the same kind. 
 Here are found sculptured obelisks, bearing on their prin- 
 cipal face the figure, probably, of some deity, with a be- 
 nignant countenance represented in full, and the hands 
 applied to the breast. The other sides of the obelisks are 
 covered with hieroglyphical tablets, proving that the same 
 race once inhabited the plains of Honduras and the table- 
 land of Anahuac. The principal building at Uxmal seems 
 to have been a very magnificent pyramid in three stages or 
 terraces, faced with hewn stone, and neatly rounded at the 
 angles. The first terrace is 575 foet long, 15 feet broad, 
 and 3 feet high, serving as a sort of plinth to the whole ; 
 the second terrace is 545 feet long, 250 feet wide, and 20 
 feet high ; the third terrace is 360 feet long, by 30 feet 
 wide, and 19 feet in height. From the centre of the second 
 terrace, the upper part is gained by a vast- flight of well- 
 constructed steps 130 feet wide. This leads to the temple, 
 the facade of which is no less than 322 feet long, but has 
 not had a greater elevation than 25 feet ; yet its grandeur 
 is enhanced by the rich sculpture that covers the upper part 
 above a fillet, or cornice, that surrounds the whole building 
 at about half its elevation. The interior consists of two 
 parallel ranges of chambers, 1 1 in each row. The front 
 apartments are entered by 11 doorways, enriched with 
 sculpture, which gives sufficient light to those rooms; but the 
 posterior row receives no light except what enters by their 
 doors from the exterior rooms. The roofs here, unlike those 
 of Palenque and Copan, are not stone arches, but are sup- 
 ported on bearers of a very hard wood, that must have been 
 brought from a distance of some hundred miles, and these 
 beams too are covered with hieroglyphics. The flat roof 
 of this building has .been externally covered with a hard 
 cement. In a building placed on a lower level is a rectan- 
 gular court, which has been once wholly paved with well-
 
 t)94 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 [\NT1QUITIE3. 
 
 carved figures ot tortoises in demi-relief. These are ar- 
 ranged in groups of four, with their heads placed together ; 
 and from the dimensions of the court, this sala de_ las Tor- 
 tugas must have required 43,600 of such carved stones for 
 its pavement. 
 
 The ruins of Chichcn, also in Yucatan, extend over an 
 area of two miles in circumference. One of the best pre- 
 served buildings with an ambit of C38 feet, is constructed in 
 three terraces, which gave it an apparent altitude of C5 feet. 
 The buildings here, on the second terrace, have the facades 
 highly sculptured, both above and below the horizontal fil- 
 let; and the doorways are enriched with mouldings, and 
 •ru&s-liko ornaments supporting a drip-stone. The staircase 
 here is 56 feet wide. The front apartments are 47 feet 
 long and only 9 wide. There are three doors in the front, and 
 in the central apartment are nine niches. The roofs are 
 stone arches ; and all has been once painted of various 
 colours. A curious adjoining structure consists of two 
 parallel stone walls, 274 feet long, and 30 feet apart. The 
 walls are 30 feet thick. It has been conjectured to have 
 been connected with the celebration of some public games, 
 like the palcestrce of the Greeks. 
 
 In several of the ruins now noticed are found buildings 
 to -which there is no access. They have doorways, but these 
 eeem to have been walled up when the buildingswere erected. 
 Their use is unknown ; they are named casa» cerradas, or 
 -' shut up houses." Their interior does not differ from the 
 other apartments above described. 
 
 It is worthy of notice, that the builders of those cities took 
 great pains to supply them with one of the primo essentials 
 of human comfort— abundance of good water, by means of 
 wells and cisterns of excellent construction. 
 
 The remains in all the 44 ancient towns visited by 
 Stephens have a similar character; so that we can have no 
 hesitation to ascribe them to the same nation, or to kindred 
 races of men, who had certainly attained no inconsiderable 
 civilisation, although unacquainted with the use of iron, or 
 oven of bronze. Many of these towns are repeatedly referred 
 to in the native histories, and it is almost certain that a 
 large proportion of them were founded and inhabited by 
 the Tutul-Xius, Nahoas, and other tribes speaking the 
 Nahuatl tongue. In not a few instances the dates and the 
 aames of the founders have been preserved. 
 
 It has been generally admitted by physiologists, that 
 the temperate regions of the globe are best fitted, to de- 
 velope all the powers of our nature ; and it is a fact in 
 accordance with this Opinion, that among the aborigines 
 of America, civilisation xollowed very closely the chain of 
 the Andes, and was found either upon their sides or the 
 table-land of their summits, where the elevation of the 
 ground moderates the heat of the tropical sun, and pro- 
 duces a climato analogous to that of Central and Southern 
 Europe. This civilisation did not exist merely at the two 
 distant and isolated points of Mexico and Peru, but pre- 
 sented itself at intermediate places, and may be said to have 
 formed a continuous line from lat. 35° N. to lat. 35° S, with 
 fow interruptions, except at those parts where the moun- 
 tainous chain disappears, or sinks down to a trifling eleva- 
 tion. Some large buildings near the Rio Gila, in lat. 33° N., 
 with fragments of porcelain, indicate the existence of a 
 people there who had some knowledge of the arts. These 
 were most probably a branch of the Aztecs or Toltecs, 
 who afterwards occupied Mexico, as the annals of that 
 country tell. Though some pursued their march south- 
 ward, it may be reasonably supposed that a part remained 
 in the district ; and the Indians living here, who culti- 
 vate corn, weave cloth, and live in villages consisting of 
 houses built of solid materials, sometimes two stories in 
 height, may either be their descendants, or have bor- 
 rowed from them the improvements they possess. Next 
 
 in order as we proceed southward, are the various natiens 
 of Mexico, of whose condition we shall speak by and by. 
 In Chiapa were the Zapotecs, in Yucatan the Mayas, ia 
 Guatemala the Quiches and Kachiquels, all nearly a» 
 much advanced in civilisation as the Mexicans, and pro- 
 bably of the samo primitive stock. From this point, whcre> 
 the Andes lose their elevation, or break into isolated cones, 
 no distinct traces of civilisation appear till we enter the 
 southern continent. Here were found the Muyscas or 
 Moscas, on the table-land of Bogota, a nation consisting, 
 of several tribes, who worshipped the sun and practised 
 some of the useful arts. To these succeeded the nations of 
 Peru, living under the Incas, whose dominion expended 
 from the equator to the 35th degree of S. latitude. 
 Beyond this boundary were the Chilian tribes, who, though 
 inferior to .the Peruvians, had made some advances beyoud 
 tho rudeness of the savage state. It is proper to mentioD 
 that some of the nations named were extinct before the 
 arrival of the Spaniards ; but the degree of civilisation the} 
 had attained is attested by the monuments they have lefl 
 behind them. There were no other tribes in the new 
 continent which had made any progress in social improve-, 
 ment. We would not except the Guaranis of Brazil, and a 
 few others, who derived their subsistence chiefly from 
 agriculture, but were in other respects savages. We place 
 among the exceptions, however, the extinct race of tho 
 Allegowis, or whatever was the name of the people, who 
 erected tho military works existing between the Ohio and 
 the northern lake*; but they also, it must be remembered, 
 Bd a temperate climate, though not a mountainous 
 country. It may be affirmed, then, as a general proposi- 
 tion, that from 35° of.N. to 35° of S. latitude, the sides 
 and summits of the Andes were the exclusive seats of 
 American civilisation. We admit that some of tho tribes 
 in Chiapa, Oaxaca, and Yucatan, inhabited low districts j 
 but they were still near the Cordillera, and may he fairly 
 considered as offsets from the nations dwelling upon it. 
 The fact is important, as marking the effect of climate on 
 the active energies of our species. There is no doubt 
 that, with the improved arts of modern times, civilisation 
 can subsist under the burning sky of the torrid zone, but not 
 in such vigour as in countries which enjoy a more moderate 
 temperature. Perhaps it will be found that the moral 
 and physical powers of man attain their highest perfection 
 in those* regions where he is accompanied by wheat and 
 tho vine. The zone occupied by the former extends 
 from the 30th to the 57th or 58th parallel ; and within the 
 tropics the corresponding climate is found on the flanks 
 or summits of mountains, from 4500 to 10,000 feet above 
 the level of the sea. 
 
 It is remarkable that the Mexican annals reach tc a Mexiccv 
 very remote date, although they were preserved merely by 
 picture-writing. Wo do not pretend to enter into the 
 question as to the authenticity of the records themselves, 
 and their correctness. It is enough that they have received 
 credit from Humboldt, Vater, and other men of learning 
 and judgment. From the annals thus preserved, of which 
 further details will bo subsequently given, we learn that at 
 the earliest dawn of history the Quinames were in possessioD 
 of the country, that civilisation was introduced by strangers 
 coming from the east, and that several nations belonging to 
 one race migrated in succession from the north- west, and 
 settled in Anahuac or Mexico. The Tojtecs, it is stated, 
 left their original seat, far to the west, in 544 of our era, 
 and after a long journey invaded Mexico, then occupied 
 by wandering hordes, in 648. This people, who penetrated 
 to Nicaragua, if not to South America, were nearly 
 destroyed after the lapse of some centuries ; but were 
 followed by the Chichlmecs, a half savage tribe, about 
 1 1 20, and these a few years afterwards by tin Anahautlnls.
 
 AKCIENT MEXICO.] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 G95 
 
 Or seven tribes, including the Acolhuans, the Tlasoaltccs', and 
 the Aztecs or proper Mexicans. All these people spoke 
 dialects of one language, and had similar arts, customs, 
 tmd institutions. The town of Mexico or Tenochtitlan 
 was founded in 1325, and the series of Mexican kings 
 which commenced in 1352 was continued through eight 
 monarchs to Montezuma. The monarchy was small at first, 
 find passed through many vicissitudes ; but it was gradually 
 enlarged, especially by the policy and enterprise of the later 
 princes of the line. When Cortes arrived, it embraced 
 what are now the provinces'of Vera Cruz, Oaxaca. Puebla, 
 Mexico, and part of Valladolid. a surface of 130.000 square 
 miles; but within this were comprehended three small 
 independent slates, Tlascala, C'holullan, and Zapeaca. The 
 pastoral state, which forms the intermediate stage between 
 savage and civilised life, had never existed in Mexico ; for 
 the native wild ox had not been tamed, and the use of milk 
 as food was unknown. The Mexican nations derived their 
 n>e arts in subsistence from agriculture, which, however, was conducted 
 Mexico. ju the rudest manner, with very imperfect instruments. 
 They cultivated maize, potatoes, plantains, and various 
 other esculent vegetables. They raised cotton, and under- 
 stood the art of spinning and weaving it into cloth, of a 
 texture which excited the admiration of the Spaniards. 
 They had no iron, but showed considerable skill in fashion- 
 ing the gold, silver, and copper, found in a native state, 
 into domestic utensils and ornamental articles. In some 
 of their buildings the stones were hewn into regular forms, 
 and accurately joined ; and from the ruins of the palace of 
 Mitla, in Oaxaca, still existing, it appears that they had 
 the art of designing ornaments like arabesques, in paste, 
 with great neatness, and attaching them to the walls ; but 
 solid structures of masonry evincing any considerable skill 
 are extremely rare in the country. Their carvings in 
 wood were tolerably well executed, but the figures were 
 dispropovtioned and uncouth. The same remark applies 
 to their hieroglyphical drawings, which were far inferior 
 in taste and design to those of the Hindoos, Japanese, 
 and Thibetians. For paper they employed sometimes 
 the large leaves of the aloe, sometimes cotton cloth, or the 
 skins of deer dressed. Their books consisted of strips or 
 webs of such materials, composed of pieces neatly joined, 
 one or two feet broad and twenty or tliirty long, which 
 were divided into pages by folding them in a zig-zag 
 manner ; and two pieces of thin deal attached to the outer- 
 most folds served as boards, and gave these manuscripts, 
 when closed, an appearance very much like our old folios 
 in wooden binding. The written language of Mexico con- 
 tained a few real hieroglyphics or symbols, purely conven- 
 tional, to designate such objects as water, earth, air, day, 
 night, speech, and also for numbers; but it was essentially a 
 system of picture-writing in which objects were represented 
 by coloured figures having a resemblance more or less 
 exact to themselves. With all its necessary imperfections, 
 this instrument was familiarly employed to a prodigious ex- 
 tent in deeds and instruments for effecting the transmission 
 and sale of property. The government kept couriers for 
 conveying intelligence from all parts of the empire ; and the 
 capital was watched and cleaned by a sort of police estab- 
 lishment. This is the bright side of Mexican civilisation. 
 On the other hand, it must be kept in view, that the Mexi- 
 cans had no tame animals, no made roads, no money to 
 serve as a universal medium of exchange in commercial 
 transactions. The government was originally a perfect 
 feudal monarchy, in which all power was monopolised by 
 a numerous nobility and the priesthood. The great mass 
 of the people were serfs, attached to the soil, and trans- 
 ferred with it from owner to owner by descent or purchase. 
 (The peasants or slaves of a nobleman were allowed a cer- 
 ifiin portion of land, which they cultivated in common 
 
 for their subsistence : the rest of their labo-jr belonged 
 to their lord. The country swarmed with beggars, and 
 thousands were swept off every few years by famine. As 
 among the ancient Egyptians and the Chinese, immutable- 
 custom, regulating every act of civil and common life, 
 chained up the course of improvement, and spread a 
 languid monotony over society. The crown was elective, 
 and the powers of the monarch small, till the privileges of 
 the nobles were destroyed by the policy and ambition of 
 Montezuma. The religion of the Mexicans breathed 
 a savage spirit, which degraded them, in a moral point of 
 view, far below the hordes of wandering Indians. Their 
 deities, represented by mis-shapen images of serpents 
 and other hideous animals, were the creation of the 
 darkest passions of the human breast, of terror, hatred, 
 cruelty, and revenge. They delighted in blood, and thou- 
 sands of human sacrifices were annually offered at their 
 shrines. The places of worship, called Teocallis, were pyra- 
 mids composed of terraces placed one above another, 
 like the temple of Belus at Babylon. These were built of 
 clay, or of alternate layers of clay and nnburnt bricks, 
 but in some cases faced with slabs of polished stone, on 
 which figures of animals are sculptured in relief. 1 One or 
 two small chapels stood upon the summit, enclosing 
 images of the deity. The largest known, which is com- 
 posed of four stories or terraces, has a breadth of 480 
 yards at the base, and a height of 55. These structures 
 served as temples, tombs, and observatories ; and it is re- 
 markable that their sides are always placed exactly in the 
 direction of the meridian. This leads us to the most in- ' 
 teresting fact connected with Mexican civilisation, we 
 mean the perfection of their calendar. The civil year was 
 composed of 365 days, divided into 18 months of 20 
 days, and 5 supplementary days. The Mexicans had 
 besides a ritual or religions year for the regulation of their 
 festivals ; and, by means of a cycle of 52 years, and a very 
 complicated method of computation, the religious and civil 
 periods were connected with one another, and the civil year 
 was made to correspond with the natural by the inter- 
 calation of 13 days at the end of the cycle. The month 
 was divided into four weeks of five days, but each day of 
 the month had a distinct name ; and Humboldt has given 
 strong reasons for believing that these names were bor- 
 rowed from an ancient zodiac formed of 27 or 28 lunar 
 houses, which was made use of from the remotest anti- 
 quity in Tartary, Thibet, and India. The calendar of the 
 Mexicans bespeaks a degree of scientific skill, and an 
 accuracy of observation, which are not easily reconciled 
 with their semi-barbarous habits, their general ignorance 
 in other things, and the recent date of their civilisation 
 according to their own account. It is here, indeed, and 
 not in their language, that we find distinct traces of their 
 connection with Asiatic nations. The character of the 
 Mexicans is probably the same at this day as before the 
 conquest, which, we are disposed to think, made less 
 change in the situation of the people than is often sup- 
 posed, though it annihilated the rank and privileges of 
 the nobles. The Mexican Indian is grave, suspicious, 
 and taciturn ; quiet and placid in his external deportment, 
 but rancorous in his spirit ; submissive to his superiors, 
 harsh and cruel to thoso beneath him. His intellect i» 
 limited, aud chiefly developcs itself in imitative labours 
 and mechanical arts. Slow, cautious, and persevering, ho 
 loves, both in his acts and thoughts, to travel in. a beaten 
 track. The people, though speaking man)' different lan- 
 guages, have nearly the same physical character. The 
 Mexicans have olive complexions, narrow foreheads, black 
 
 1 Robertson was mistaken in believing that the- Teocallis were in aH 
 cases mere masses of earth, without masonry. Sea UuUiin'Mt's 
 Researches, vol. i. p. Ill, English translation.
 
 flor, 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 [ANCIENT PERU. 
 
 eyes, coarse glossy black hair, and thin beards. Tlicy 
 are of the middle size, and well-proportioned in their 
 limbs. A person with any defect or deformity is rarely 
 seen amongst them. They are healthy, and live to an 
 advanced age, when life is not shortened by drunken- 
 ness. The Toltec and Aztec races, when they established 
 themselves in the country, diffused their own language 
 initially from the Lake of Nicaragua to the 37th ] 
 Th y reclaimed, by degrees, many of the neighbouring 
 p tribes to a settled mode of life, and spread a feeble 
 degree of civilisation over a mixed mass of nations, speak- 
 ing, according to Clavigero, 35 languages, of which Hum- 
 boldt tells us that 20 still exist. The Aztec language is one 
 of the mo ' and polished of the American tongues, 
 
 and abounds in words of the immoderate length of 12 or 15 
 syllables. It is uncertain what was the number of sub- 
 jects over whom Montezuma ruled. The ruins in the 
 valley of Tenochtitlan, on which the capital stands, show 
 that it must have been more populous bfcfore the conquest 
 than now ; but the population at present is diffused over 
 an incomparably wirier space ; and, upon the whole, there 
 are no good grounds for believing that the number of 
 civilised Indians was much greater when Cortes landed, 
 than in 1803, when it amounted to 2,000,000. 
 
 The civilisation of Mexico, as well as of Peru, owed its 
 existence to a single cause, — the patient, submissive, and 
 superstitious character of the people, which fitted them 
 to be beasts of burden, under an aristocracy of priests 
 and nobles, who were led, perhaps, partly by influences 
 from abroad, partly by the instincl of self-interest, to 
 devise means for holding the mass ol the community 
 in subjection. Many of the nations which continued 
 savage, such as the Algonquins and Iroquois, were pro- 
 bably equal to the Mexicans in intellect ; but their 
 propensity to superstition was less, and their energy of 
 character was too great to permit of their being enslaved 
 by their chiefs. It is chiefly in the variety of their pri- 
 mitive character that we must seek for the cause of the 
 diversity of manners and institutions we find among the 
 American nations. 
 n«ru. The ancient empire of Peru, more extensive than that 
 
 of Mexico, embraced the whole sea-coast from Pastos to 
 the river Mauie, a line of 2500 miles in length. Its 
 breadth is uncertain ; but as it included both declivities 
 of the Andes, it must have extended in some cases to 
 500 miles, and the entire surface of the empire probably 
 exceeded 500,000 square miles. It is plain, however, 
 from the imperfect history of the Incas which has been 
 preserved, that within this space there were many dis- 
 tricts where their authority was feeble, and others inhabited 
 by tribes which were entirely independent. One part 
 of the country, besides, consisted of a sandy desert, while 
 the most elevated tracts were uninhabitable from cold. 
 It must not therefore be supposed that the. capacity of 
 the country to support population was commensurate 
 with the extent of its surface. Still the magnitude of the 
 Peruvian empire, in the midst of an immense multitude 
 of independent savage communities, so extremely minute, 
 that a hundred of them might have been planted with- 
 out crowding in one of its- provinces, is an extraordinary 
 phenomenon. • The creating and maintaining of such an 
 empire is a proof that the Peruvians had made no trifling 
 progress in the useful arts and in the science of government. 
 To keep in subjection so many'remote provinces, there must 
 .have been an efficient military force, rapid means of com- 
 munication, considerable revenues, and an organised magis- 
 tracy capable of understanding and executing the plans 
 of rulers, who had sufficient political skill and knowledge 
 of human nature to adapt their institutions and arrange- 
 ments to the wants, habits and character of a great 
 
 variety of dissimilar nations, spread over a territory reach, 
 ing as far as from Lisbon to the banks of the Volga. It 
 is clear that the ruling tribe, which was able to extend 
 its dominion, and to a considerable extent its language, 
 over a space of 2500 miles, must have possessed a marked 
 superiority of some kind over the' hordes that surrounded 
 it. We must remember, besides, that the Peruvians lay 
 under the disadvantage of being destitute of even such an 
 imperfect instrument of communication as the hieroglyphic 
 language of the Mexicans, and that they were extremely 
 nt in military spirit. Indeed, it is one of the most 
 singular facts connected with the history of America, that 
 by far the largest empire it contained was formed by the 
 most unwarlike people in it. The dominion of the Incas 
 was founded entirely on policy, superstition, and the arts. 
 It could only be by the intelligence and skill which civi- 
 lisation developes, that the Peruvians conquered tribes 
 superior to themselves in courage; and it was by policy 
 and superstition that the Incas tamed the rudeness of 
 savage tribes, and held distant countries in subjection. 
 Robertson justly observes, that the Peruvians " had ad- 
 vanced far beyond the Mexicans, both in the necessary arts 
 of life, and in such as had some title to tho name of 
 elegant." In two points only were they inferior; in then- 
 calendar or mode of computing time, and in their want 
 of such a substitute for writing as the Aztecs possessed 
 in their hieroglyphics. 
 
 Agriculture was conducted with greater carj and sue .«« b 
 cess in Peru than in "Mexico. The lands capable of cul- 
 tivation were divided into three shares. One was conse- 
 crated to the service of religion, the erection of temples, 
 and the maintenance of priests ; the second was set .apart 
 as a provision for the support of the government; and 
 the third and largest share, which was reserved for the 
 . was parcelled out, not among individuals, but 
 the hamlets and villages, according to the number 
 and rank of the inhabitants ; and a new division was made 
 every year to meet any change that might arise in the 
 circumstances of the parties. The members of each 
 little community went to the fields under overseers, and 
 cultivated the land by their joint labour. The produce 
 was distributed among the families and individuals accord- 
 ing to their wants, while the evils of famine were pro- 
 vided against by storing up the corn in granaries. The 
 Peruvians having no draught animals, and no ploughs, 
 turned up the earth with wooden mattocks ; but their 
 skill and care were exemplified in irrigation, which they 
 practised extensively, and in their employing as manure 
 guano, or the dung of sea" birds, which abounds on 
 tho islands near the coast. Their masonry was superior 
 to that of the Mexicans. Like the ancient Egyptians, 
 they understood mechanics sufficiently to move stones 
 of vast size, even of 30 feet in length, of which speci- 
 mens are still existing in the walls of ' the fortress of 
 Cuzco. They had the art of squaring and cutting blocks 
 for building with great accuracy ; and they did not effect 
 their purpose, as Robertson supposes, merely by chip, 
 ping the stones, or rubbing them together so as to fit 
 the surface of the one to that of the other, without re- 
 gard to symmetry of form, i It is now known that they 
 had hard chisels, made of copper, with a mixture of § 
 per cent, of tin,— a proof of considerable skill in the work- 
 ing of metals. With these they hewed the stones 
 into parallelopipeds, which *were disposed in "courses as 
 regular," says Humboldt, " as those of Roman workman- 
 ship." They are joined with such nicety, that the line 
 which divides the blocks can scarcely be perceived ; and 
 the outer surface is in some cases covered with carving. 
 The palaces or lodges of the Incas, of which there are 
 many remains, had doors with slanting sides bike the
 
 ANCIENT PERU.] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 G97 
 
 Egyptian ; sloping roofs, which, it is supposed, were covered 
 with rushes or stone slabs; no windows, but niches 
 symmetrically distributed. 1 Ancient stone structures, 
 which are so rare in Mexico, are pretty abundant in 
 p erU) — a fact for which we can only account by the dif- 
 ficulty with which the Mexicans erected buildings, in 
 consequence of their inferiority in the art of masonry. 
 The architecture of the Peruvians, like everything else 
 connected with their social state, displays a remarkable 
 uniformity, not only of style, but of plan. "It is impos- 
 sible," says Humboldt, "to examine a single edifice of 
 the time of the Incas, without recognising the same type 
 in all the others which cover the ridge of the Andes, 
 along an extent of 450 leagues." 
 
 The ancient public roads of Peru are justly considered 
 as striking monuments of the political genius of the 
 government. One of these extended along the sides of the 
 Andes from Quito to Cuzco, a distance of 1500 miles. It 
 is about forty feet broad, and paved with the earth and 
 atones which were turned up from the soil ; but in some 
 marshy places it is formed, like the old Roman roads, of a 
 compact body of solid masonry. A tolerably level line is 
 preserved, by filling up hollows, cutting down small emi- 
 nences, and winding round the sides of large ones. At 
 proper distances tambos or storehouses were erected, -for 
 the accommodation of the Inca and his messengers. A 
 similar road was made along the coast in the low country. 
 Fissures a few yards in breadth were passed by bridges 
 formed of beams laid horizontally ; and an invention, at 
 once bold and ingenious, afforded the means of crossing 
 deep ravines, or the channels of rivers, which hap- 
 pened to intersect the route. This consisted of a suspen- 
 sion bridge, perfectly analogous in its principle to those 
 with which we are familiar. It was formed of half a 
 dozen of cables of twisted osiers, passed over wooden 
 supports, and stretched from bank to bank ; then bound 
 together with smaller ropes, and covered with bamboos. 
 Humboldt passed over one of these pendulous bridges, of 
 120 feet span ; and Mr Miers crossed one of 225 feet span, 
 over which loaded animals might travel. In low grounds 
 the rivers were crossed on rafts with a mast and sail, which, 
 by a particular contrivance, could be made to tack and 
 veer. In this respect the Peruvians were a stage in 
 advance of all the other American races, who had nothing 
 superior to the canoe with paddles. The Peruvians manu- 
 factured a rude species of pottery : they understood the 
 art of spinning, and, in an imperfect degree, that of weav- 
 ing. They procured native gold by washing the gravel of 
 rivers ; and silver, and perhaps copper, by working veins 
 downward from the outcrop. They knew how to smelt 
 and refine the silver ore ; and they possessed the secret of 
 giving great hardness and durability to copper by mixing 
 it with tin. Their utensils and trinkets of gold and silver 
 are said to have been fashioned with neatness and even 
 taste. On the other hand, they had no money, no know- 
 ledge of iron or glass ; and they were ignorant of the 
 mode of mortising or joining beams, and of casting arches. 
 They had no animals fitted for draught ; but the llama, a 
 small species of camel, which they had tamed, was em- 
 ployed to some extent as a beast of burden. 
 
 The political organisation of Peru, which was artificial 
 in a high degree, reminds one, in some of its features, of 
 the old system of the Saxons in England, but bears a 
 more general resemblance to that of the ancient Egyp- 
 tians. The mass of the people were in a state of servi- 
 tude, except a small number, who were free ; above these 
 in rank were the Curacas, or chiefs of districts, who formed 
 
 1 See Humboldt's account of the ancient 
 Cunnitr, vols. i. and ii. of Lis licsearchts. 
 
 buildings of Callo and 
 
 a sort of nobility; and above the whole, the family 
 of the Incas, the members of which, by intermarrying 
 only with themselves, formed a numerous and distinct 
 caste. For the purposes of police and civil jurisdiction, 
 the people were divided into parties of ten families, like 
 the tithings of Alfred, over each of which was an officer. 
 A second class of officers had control over five or ten 
 tithings, a third class over fifty or a hundred. These 
 last rendered account to the Incas, who exercised a 
 vigilant superintendence over the whole, and employed 
 inspectors to visit the provinces as a check upon mal- 
 administration. Each of these officers, down to the lowest, 
 judged, without appeal, in all differences that arose within 
 his division, and enforced the laws of the empire, 
 among which were some for punishing idleness, and com- 
 pelling every one to labour. It is probable that the 
 tithings and hundreds, as in England, would lose their 
 numerical signification in course of time, and become 
 mere local allotments. In the hamlets and villages a 
 person mounted a tower every evening, and announced 
 where and how the inhabitants were to be employed next 
 day. The taxes were paid in the produce of the fields, 
 and magazines for receiving them were established in 
 every district. Such is the account given by Acosta and 
 Garcilasso of the civil institutions of Pern, which may be 
 correct with regard to the oldest possessions of the Incas 
 near Cuzco, where their power had been long established ; 
 but it is not probable that such a complicated system was 
 ever fully in operation in the more distant narts of the 
 empire. 
 
 The government of Peru was a theocracy. ' The Inca Govern- 
 was at once the temporal sovereign and the supreme meat and 
 pontiff. He was regarded as the. descendant and repre- Kellgl0n - 
 sentative of the great deity the sun, who was supposed to 
 inspire his counsels, and speak through his orders and 
 decrees. Hence even slight offences were punished with 
 death, because ihey were regarded as insults offered to 
 the divinity. The race of the Incas was held sacred. 
 To support its pretensions, it was very desirable that it 
 should be kept pure and distinct from the people; but 
 human passions are often too strong for the dictates of 
 policy ; and though the marriages of the family were con- 
 fined to their own race, the emperor, as well as the other 
 males of the blood royal, kept large harems stocked with 
 beauties drawn from all parts of the empire, and multi- 
 plied a spurious progeny, in whom the blood of the 
 " children of the sun" was blended with that of the " chil- 
 dren of the earth." Among a simple-minded and credulous 
 people the claims of the Incas to a celestial origin seem 
 to have been implicitly believed. They were blindly 
 obeyed, and treated with a respect bordering on adora- 
 tion, by the nobles as well as the common people. The 
 Peruvians worshipped the sun, the moon, the evening 
 star, the spirit of thunder, and the rainbow, and had 
 erected temples in Cuzco to all these deities. That of 
 the sun, which was the most magnificent, had its walls 
 covered with plates of gold. The sacrifices consisted oi 
 the objects most prized by the people, of grain and fruits, 
 of a few animals, and of the productions of their own in- 
 dustry. Sabianism, as it is the most "rational of all the 
 forms of idolatry, is also generally the most mild; and 
 doubtless this results from the tendency which it has to 
 fix the thoughts on the marks of beneficence and wisdom 
 which are displayed in the works of nature. The Peru- 
 vian temples were accordingly never polluted, like those 
 of Mexico, with the blood of human victims; and the 
 Incas even went farther, and signalised their zeal against 
 such horrid rites, by suppressing them* in all the countrieo 
 they conquered. Though their history exhibits some 
 bloody deeds, the general character of their government
 
 l>!»« 
 
 A M E It 1 C A 
 
 I ancient r-Eim. 
 
 was the reverse of crucl.~ Tlie severe punishments pre- 
 scribed by their laws were rarely inflicted, and rebellion 
 was scarcely known in their dominions. The Inca not 
 only assumed the title of the father of his people, but the 
 vices as well as the merits of his government sprung 
 partly from the attempt mode to construct the go 
 ment on the model of paternal authority, and partly 
 the blending of moral ana religious injunctions with civil 
 duties. Hence the idle pretension of the state to reward 
 virtuous conduct, as well as to punish crimes ; hence 
 too the plan of labouring in common, the ex 
 individual property, the absurdities of eating, drinking, 
 sleeping, tilling, building, according to fixed urn 
 rules; in fiue, that minute and vexatious regulation i 
 the acts of ordinary life, which converted the people into 
 mere machines in the hands of an immense corps of civil 
 and religious officers. Such a system may have served 
 to reclaim some tribes from the savage state; but it must 
 have stifled the seeds of improvement, and left the mass 
 of the people more stupid and imbecile than it found 
 them. The government was as pure a despotism, pro- 
 bably, as ever existed ; but its theocratic character, no 
 doubt, helped to mitigate the ferocity of its spirit. Super- 
 stition and force are the two base3 on which tyranny 
 tests in all countries ; and in proportion as it is firmly 
 uated on the one, it stands less in need of the support of 
 the other. The Inca had so completely enslaved the 
 Hinds of his subjects^ and the apparatus he wielded for 
 d"-»ctjrg and controlling their acts was so perfect, that 
 he was able in a great measure to dispense with those ter- 
 rific examples of cruelty and bloodshed, by which the pure 
 military despot operates on the fears of those who. live 
 under his authority. 
 
 This system of the Peruvian monarchs, by which the 
 pec^la "were kept in a state of perpetual tutelage, merits 
 ■the greater attention, because it is precisely that which 
 the Jesuits employed, in Paraguay and other, districts, to 
 reduce the natives to a settled mode of life ; and it seems, 
 in fact, to be the only method by which a semblance of 
 civilisation can be introduced amongst t*ie American 
 nations. Two things must be supposed to account lor its 
 prevalence : first, a certain amount of timidity, passive- 
 ness, and superstition, in the body of the people, implying 
 weak passions, but not necessarily smallness of intellect ; 
 and, secondly, a few minds of a higher class, to give an 
 impulse to the rest, and to control and regulate their 
 acts. In the case of Peru, did these ruling intellects 
 spring from the body of the people, end, after striking out 
 new lights in morals and legislation for themselves, devise 
 a complex and artificial system for establishing their power 
 over the minds of the rest, by the help of superstition and 
 force ? or were they strangers from another country, and 
 imbued with the principles of a higher civilisation ! 1 f 
 we may believe the Peruvian annals, the latter was the 
 case. About the year 1000 of our er,a, or perhaps a cen- 
 tury later, Manco C'apac, with his wife and sister 
 Ocello, appeared as strangers on the banks of the lake 
 Titicaca. They were persons of majestic appearance, and 
 announced themselves as " children of the sun," sent by 
 their beneficent parent to reclaim the tribes living 
 from the miseries of savage life. Their injunctions, ad- 
 dressed to a people who probably worshipped the god of 
 day, were listened to by a few, who settled around them, 
 and founded Cuzco. By degrees, other tribes were in- 
 duced to renounce their wandering habits. Manco Capac 
 instructed the men in agriculture and the arts, and Mama 
 Ocello taught the women to spin and to weave. I.aw?, 
 institutions, and religious rites, were added. The form of 
 a civilised society arose, which was gradually extended by 
 persuasion or conquest. — the Inca» having always planted 
 
 their arts and religion wherever they established their 
 authority, liu.iyna C'apac, the twelfth in succession from 
 the founder of the dynasty, occupied the throne when the 
 first party of Spaniards visited Peru in 1627, and the em- 
 pire was then still in a state of progress. There is, however, 
 little doubt that some advance in civilisation had been 
 made in tames before the Incas. 
 
 Such is the account which the Peruvians give of the 
 origin of their civilisation, which we should be disposed to 
 > , if thi not peculiar circumstances 
 
 which give it some credibility. Fir.!, their institutions, 
 tin the mass, do not present what may be called llio 
 •pe. The mild and paternal character which 
 , the injunction to "love one another" i 
 to the rank of a positive precept, the preference of the 
 useful arts to war, all breathe a spirit, not only foreign to 
 the genius of the American tribe?, but exactly opposed in 
 character to anything which a native self-taught lej 
 tor was likely to produce. Secondly, the artiCci:' 1 . and 
 form of the Peruvian institutions renders' it 
 improbable that they were developed by the natural ac- 
 tion of political causes, but strongly favours the idea, that 
 they were framed by a few designing heads, as an inst in- 
 to tame and govern a patient, feeble, and credulous 
 people of rude or .savage habits. A small number of 
 Jesuits were led, by a sagacious study of the savage charac- 
 ter, to devise a system extremely similar in its nature, 
 which worked admirably. These missionaries were the 
 Manco Capacs of Paraguay ; and, like the Incas, might, 
 in the course of two or three centuries, have extended 
 their theocracy over as large a space as Peru, if then 
 situation had permitted them to employ force. Thirdly, a 
 million of native Peruvians yet survive, the living descen 
 dants of those who built the temples of Cuzco ; and thei 
 extreme stolidity, apathy, and feebleness ■ of character 
 sufficiently testify that the chances were nearly as grea 
 against a legislator like Manco Capac arising amongs 
 them, as against the Jews in the time of Augustus pro- 
 ducing a being like Jesus Christ. They have the weak 
 ness and passiveness which fit them to receive an ini 
 pression from superior directing minds ; but they discover 
 no trace of the intelligence, energy, and originality which 
 must have been united in the persons who planned and 
 carried into effect the political system of the Incas. We 
 admit that oppression may have degraded their character, 
 but it cannot have entirely changed it. 
 
 If, then, the civilisation of Peru was exotic, whence was 
 it derived ? To us it appears most probable, that the legis- 
 lators of Peru were either Chinese, or persons who had 
 received at second-hand a- knowledge of the arts and in- 
 stitutions of China ; and our opinion is grounded on traits 
 of resemblance in the manners, laws, arts, and institutions 
 of the two nations, which, in our opinion, are too mime 
 rous, striking, and peculiar, to be the effect of chance. 
 We eha'l mention Eome of the most prominent. 
 
 1. The first and most obvious resemblance is in tho 
 rly artificial frame of society in both countries. In 
 , as in Peru, the legislation is directive as well as 
 punitive, and is distinguished by that minute and elaborate 
 system of regulation, inspection, and control, which inter- 
 feres with the most trifling actions of ordinary life, and 
 reduces the mass of the people to the condition of automata, 
 moved and guided in everything by the rulers. China, 
 says Mr Barrow, is a great school, in which the magis- 
 trates are the masters, and the people tho scholars. It 
 might be more correctly compared to a largo monastio 
 establishment, in which each person has his place and hia 
 duty assigned to him, and all his acts directed by supe- 
 riors, whose wisdom and authority he is not permitted to 
 question. The Chinese have the same immense multitude
 
 O.NCIENT PERU.] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 699 
 
 ■of civil officers which the Peruvians had, and the same 
 chain of subordination from the emperor down to the 
 petty constable. In China this system was undoubtedly 
 the growth of many centuries ; but it was too artificial to 
 occur to the thoughts of a cacique, educated amongst a 
 tribe of savages on the sides of the Andes. 2. In China 
 as in Peru, the emperor assumes the title of the " father 
 of his people;" and his government is modelled upon 
 this figure of speech. • He affects to be sprung from pro- 
 genitors who descended from heaven like the children of 
 the sun, and he unites the character of supreme pontiff 
 •with that of temporal prince. There are vestiges, too, 
 ■of the worship of the heavenly bodies in China. 1 3. The 
 Chinese emperor extends an ostentatious patronage to 
 agriculture, by celebrating an annual festival in its 
 honour, on which occasion he proceeds to the field in 
 great pomp, and takes a part in the labour of cultivating 
 the ground with his own hands. This singular custom 
 existed in Peru, where the Incas went through an annual 
 ceremony perfectly similar. How .foreign was such an 
 institution to the spirit of the American tribes I 4. In 
 China agriculture is in a rude state, and exhibits proofs 
 of intelligence and skill only in two things — the use 
 of manures, and a laborious system of irrigation. Pre- 
 cisely the same circumstances characterised the agricul- 
 ture of Peru. 5. The internal taxe3 of China, like 
 those of Peru, are paid in kind (maize, rice, silk, cotton, 
 Ac), and stored in public magazines or granaries. 6. The 
 Chinese government maintained public roads, even in 
 those provinces where neither carriages nor beasta of 
 burden were used, of course for the use of pedestrians, 
 «,nd storehouses or places of refreshment were built upon 
 them at proper distances. The Peruvians constructed 
 loads on precisely the same plan, and for the same pur- 
 poses ; and this was done by no other people in America. 
 7. The Chinese do not inter the bodies • of the jdead, 
 but lay them on the ground and raise a tumulus or conical 
 heap of earth over them. Such was also the practice 
 in Peru. The only barbarously cruel rite practised in 
 Peru, that of immolating the Inca's domestics at the 
 obsequies of their master, was brought into China by the 
 Tartars. Its existence is an anomaly in each case, for 
 the geniu3 of both nations was peaceful and mild. 8. The 
 .architecture of the Chinese displays little taste, but is 
 distinguished by two peculiarities — the power shown of 
 cutting and moving- immense masses of stone, and the 
 •uniformity of style which pervades their structures, of 
 every size and description. "All the buildings," says 
 Mr Barrow, "from the meanest hut to the viceroy's 
 palace, are upon one plan." Humboldt remarks the same 
 adherence to a single model among the Peruvians, and 
 the walls of Cuzco show that they were acquainted with 
 the method of moving stones of prodigious size. The 
 Chinese were fond of covering their walls with carving, 
 and examples of the same practice occur in Peru. J£ 
 any of the Peruvian buildings had remained entire with 
 their roofs on, it would perhaps have been found, that 
 the type or primary architectural form employed in 
 the two countries was not very dissimilar, and some 
 allowance should be made for the circumstance, that 
 Peru must have . borrowed her models from China 700 
 or perhaps 1000 years ago. 9. The Peruvians made 
 coarse pottery, and all the world knows that this is an 
 art in which the Chinese excel. The Peruvians were 
 the only American nation who had mado any progress in 
 the art of fusing and alloying metals, in which the Chinese 
 have long been distinguished by their skill. 10. The 
 
 1 See accounts of the temples at Pekin dedicated to the heavens, the 
 north star, the moon, tho earth, &c, and of the festival kept at the 
 summer solstice, like the grand solar festival in Peru. 
 
 Peruvians had dramas and dramatic spectacles. Whence 
 could a people so uninventive havo derived the idea of such 
 entertainments, if not from China, where they have been 
 long familiar to the people? There were mimics and buf- 
 foons in Mexico, but nothing, we believe, to which the 
 term drama could be applied. 11. But perhaps the most 
 !:able coincidence is found in an invention entirely 
 confined to the two countries. We have described the sus- 
 pension bridges made of ropes, employed by the Peruvians 
 in crossing deep ravines. Now, it is singular that bridges 
 of the very same description,- some of chains, and some of 
 ropes, are found in the south of Cluna, and nowhere else 
 except in Thibet, which has interchanged arts and cus- 
 toms with China from time immemorial. . This single fact 
 we would consider as a proof of communication between 
 the two countries. The Peruvians made their ropes of 
 twisted osiers, and the Chinese had ropes also of this 
 description. 12. From what people nearer than the Chinese 
 could the Peruvians borrow the idea of rafts with a mast 
 and sail? These rafts, supporting covered huts, may be 
 considered as literal copies of some that are used in China ; 
 and the peculiar mechanism employed in lieu of a rudder 
 is no doubt borrowed from the paddles attached to the 
 Chinese boats, fore and aft. 13. The Chinese in ancient 
 times made use of quipus or knotted cords to facilitate 
 calculation. Is it not probable that this invention had 
 passed from them to the Peruvians, the Mexicans, the 
 Kalusehi, and other American nations who employed it J 
 It would be easy to trace similar analogies in many other 
 customs, laws, and institutions of the two nations. Both 
 had nunneries or religious societies of women, who lived 
 under a vow of celibacy; both had a class of literary men 
 (the Haravecs and Amautas, or poets and philosophers, in 
 Peru), patronised by the government; both divided tho 
 year into twelve months, and placed the beginning of it in 
 January (a coincidence the more remarkable, as the year 
 of the Mexicans and other northern nations consisted 
 of 18 months); both were strangers to the use of milk, 
 cheese, and butter. 2 These facts may suffice, for we have 
 not room for lengthened inquiries, neither are we anxious 
 to press our argument beyond its proper limits. Our po- 
 sition is, not that the Peruvians are descended from the 
 Chinese, but simply that Peru had been inoculated with 
 civilisation by persons who derived their ideas from China. 
 If it be asked why these persons did not import from China 
 the use of letters, the method of casting arches, and many 
 other arts practised there, our answer is, that no individual, 
 and still less any casual assemblage of individuals such as 
 the purposes of trade or navigation might bring together, 
 possesses a knowledge of every art and science which 
 exists in his country. How many men are there in Eng- 
 land at this day, who could not even carry the knowledge 
 of the alphabet to another country 1 We must remember, 
 too, that all the arts existing in China do not exist in 
 every province of it, and have not always existed in 
 those provinces where we now find them. 3 As to the 
 means of communication, it is. evident that the trade- 
 wind renders Peru almost unapproachable from Eastern 
 Asia, between the parallels of 30° K. and 30° S. latitude. 
 
 a Sir John Barrow is our authority for this fact, which is the more 
 remarkable, as the Mongols, the neighbours and conquerors of the 
 Chinese, had the use of all the three articles .immemorial ly. 
 
 3 The uniformity and unchangeableness of customs in China have 
 evidently been much exaggerated. The empire is formed of an 
 assemblage of small states, conquered one after another, each of which 
 must have had its peculiar laws, manners, and superstitions ; and 
 common sense tells us, that to blend these into one perfectly homo- 
 geneous mass, must have required a much longer period than has 
 elapsed since tho empire attained its present magnitude. It would 
 be easy, too, to find instances of the Chinese having changed 
 their customs, both in matters of business and matters of domestio 
 ecouomy-
 
 700 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 [rERtTVIAX CIVILISATION. 
 
 But beyond these limits the west winds prevail, and hence 
 China, in point of facility of access, is nearer to Peru than 
 the Society or Marquesas Islands. The Chinese have 
 long exposed themselves to the casualties of a maritime 
 life, in vessels of large size, provisioned for many months ; 
 and at this day they perform voyages of 3000 or 4000 
 miles, to Ceylon and Polynesia. 
 
 The Quichua language, or that of Peru, was spread, by 
 the care of the Incas, over all the countries .which they 
 conquered, so far at least as to bo understood, if not 
 spoken, by the great variety of tribes subject to their 
 sway. It is understood at present as far as Santiago del 
 Estero, 1200 miles of direct distance south-east from 
 Cuzco. This singlo fact proves both the long duration of 
 their power, and the efficiency of their internal adminis- 
 tration. It is said to be the most rich, polished, and har- 
 monious of the South American languages, abounding in 
 vowel sounds, but wanting thoso corresponding to the 
 Spanish consonants 6, d, f, g, I, x, v. Like all the other 
 American tongues, it wants terms for abstract and uni- 
 versal ideas, such as tinu, space, being, substatice, matter, 
 body, and even such as virtue, justice, liberty, gratitude. 
 There are five dialects of the Quichua, which are spoken 
 in Peru proper, and in Quito, New Granada, and a con- 
 siderable part of La Plata, and not only by the aborigines, 
 but by many Spaniards of the higher classes. The Peru- 
 vians had no alphabetic writing. They possessed a very 
 rude species of hieroglyphics, of which little use was 
 made, and the quipus or knotted cords of various colours, 
 which last were originally employed simply as aids to 
 calculation, but latterly as records of facts, laws, &c. 
 Each quipu required a verbal commentary. About ten 
 years ago a copy of an old MS. was discovered, which 
 contained an account of the Maya alphabet of Yucatan 
 I — the only alphabet yet known to have existed in America. 
 The Peruvians of the aboriginal Quichua race are of a 
 
 rks people, copper colour, with a small forehead, the hair growing on 
 each side from the extremities of the eye-brow3 ; they 
 have small black eyes, a small nose, a moderately sized 
 mouth, with beautiful teeth ; beardless chin (except in old 
 age), and a round face. Their hair is black, coarse, and 
 sleek, the body well proportioned, the feet small, the 
 stature rather diminutive. Their intellectual qualities, 
 according to M. Ulloa, are of the lowest order. The most 
 prominent trait in their character is an imperturbable and 
 incurable apathy. Though half-naked, they are as con- 
 
 Mannere. tented as the Spaniard in his most ^splendid raiment. 
 Gold and silver have so little influence over them, that the 
 greatest recompense will not induce them to perform the 
 slightest service voluntarily. Neither power nor dignity 
 moves them, and they receive with the same indifference 
 the office of alcalde and that of executioner. They are 
 habitually slow in 'their motions, and extremely indolent. 
 When employed at any piece of labour, if the master with- 
 draws his eye for a moment, they cease to work. They 
 are timid, shy, secretive, and always grave, even in the 
 dances, which are their favourite pastime. The love of 
 intoxicating liquors is deeply footed in their nature. They 
 prepare a fermented beverage called chicha from maize, 
 by a process known to them before the conquest, and at 
 their festivals drink till their senses fail them, day after 
 day. This vicious habit, however, is common to all the 
 American nations, and is confined to the men, for the 
 women are in general strictly sober. The Peruvians are 
 a gentle and mild people ; they are fond of their dogs, and 
 breed up hogs, geese, and chickens, for which they have 
 so tender a regard, that they will often neither kill nor 
 sell them. Their huts, says Mr Stevenson, consist of 
 6tones- laid upon one another without any cement or 
 mortar, thatched over with long grass or straw, affording 
 
 no defence from cither the wind or the rain. One small 
 room contains the whole family ; their bed a shecp-skiu 
 or two ; their furniture one or two earthen pots. Tho 
 principal food of tho Peruvians is maize ; but they raise also 
 potatoes, wheat, beans, tomatos, yucas, pumpkins, and 
 other vegetables. Christianity, imposed upon them dogma- 
 tically, by priests who take no pains to enlighten them, 
 has scarcely gained admission to their understandings, 
 and has no hold on their affections. They attend diviuo 
 service from the dread of chastisement, and give an out" 
 ward assent to whatever they arc taught, but without any 
 real religious impression being made upon their minds. 
 They meet death with the same 6tupid indifference as 
 the ordinary accidents of life, and rather decline than seek 
 the assistance of a priest in their last hours. It ought not 
 to be forgotten, however, that the intellectual torpor which 
 the Peruvians display may be attributed in part to the 
 ing and debasing effects of three centuries of brutal 
 oppression. They still cherish in secret a strong venera- 
 tion for their ancient faith and their native government, 
 which displays itself even in the large towns. |The story 
 of Manco Capac (whom, since numbers of our countrymen 
 appeared in Peru, they affect to call an Englishman) and 
 Mama Ocello, the wealth, power, and beneficence of the 
 Incas, are still fresh in their memories, and are handed 
 down from father to son with a degree of fund admiration 
 which three centuries of humiliation and misfortune seem 
 only to have rendered more intense. The barbarous murder 
 of the Inca Atahualpa by Pizarro is annually represented 
 in the form of a tragedy. " In this ^performance," says 
 Mr Stevenson, " the grief of the Indians is so natural, 
 though excessive, their songs so plaintive, and the whole is 
 such a scene of distress, that I never witnessed it without 
 mingling my tears with theirs. The Spanish authorities 
 have endeavoured to prevent this exhibition, but without 
 effect. The Indians in the territory of Quito wear black 
 clothes, and affirm that it is mourning for their Incas, of 
 whom they never speak but in a doleful tone." 
 
 The oppression of the mita, or forced labour in the Populate 
 mines, with the introduction of the small-pox and the use 
 of spirituous liquors, has destroyed prodigious multitudes 
 of the Indians since the conquest. What their number 
 was before that event it is impossible to tell ; but, judging 
 from the extent of the Inca's dominions, he probably had 
 not less than three or four millions of subjects. A pre- 
 tended Spanish account, assigning a population of eight 
 millions to Peru shortly after the conquest, is known to 
 be fictitious. An official estimate in 18G2 made the nuni- 
 ber'of Indians in Peru amount to 1,600,000, being three- 
 fourths of the entire population. 1 
 
 In Chili there were several tribes who possessed nearly Chili 
 all the arts known to the Peruvians, but were distin- 
 guished from them by a finer physical constitution and 
 an unconquerable spirit. When the Spaniards arrived, 
 Chili, according to Molina, was inhabited by fifteen tribes 
 independent of each other, who were spread over the 
 country on both side3 of the Andes, from latitude 30° to 
 the Strait of Magalhaens. They all spoke dialects of one 
 language, which is described as rich, harmonious, abound- 
 ing in compound words, and Laving, like the other Ameri- 
 can tongues, very complicated grammatical forms. It has 
 no affinity to the Quichua or Peruvian. The inhabitants 
 of the plains are a stout people, of middle stature ; those 
 
 1 In this account of tho Peruvians we have chiefly followed Garci- 
 lasso, Acosta, Frezier, and Ulloa, of whose statements a copious digest 
 is given by Prevost in tho 13th volume of his Histoire QfntraU da 
 Voyages. We have also taken some facts from Humboldt's Researches, 
 Balbi's Ethnographical Atlas, and W. B. Stevenson's Narrative of 
 Twenty Years Residence in South America, a useful work, although 
 the author has shown rather too great an anxiety to exalt the cb&racw 
 of the Indians.
 
 CHILIAN TRIBES.] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 701 
 
 of the mountains are tall ; and one tribe, the Tehuels or 
 Patagonians, surpass in size every other nation in the 
 world. AH the tribes inhabiting the plains, except those 
 of the extreme south, now make use of horses. The com- 
 plexion of the Chilian tribes is, like that of the other 
 American nations, a reddish brown ; but one tribe is said to 
 be of a clear red and white. They do not paint their 
 bodies. The Chilians lived partly by hunting, but chiefly 
 by agriculture, before they had any intercourse with 
 Europeans. They cultivated maize, magu, guegen, tuca, 
 quinoa, the potato, pumpkins, and some species of pulse ; 
 and to these they added, as food, the flesh of the biz- 
 cacho, and of the llama or Araucanian camel, of whose 
 wool they are said to have manufactured cloth. Like 
 the Peruvians, they understood the use of manure, prac- 
 tised irrigation with considerable skill, and turned up the 
 ground with a wooden spade or mattock. They boiled 
 their grain in earthen pots, or brayed it into meal after 
 roasting it in hot sand ; of the meal they made puddings 
 or bread, which they knew how to leaven, and various 
 species of fermented drink. They had gold, silver, copper, 
 tin, andlead, procured probably by washing; but they seem 
 to have had few or no edge-tools of metal, those found 
 being allmost always of basalt. They made baskets and 
 mats, extracted salt from sea-water, and were able to give 
 various dyes to their cloths. They used quipus or knotted 
 cords for calculation, and, according to Mr Stevenson, 
 for the transmission of intelligence and for recording 
 events. They lived in villages formed of houses standing 
 at a distance from one another, under hereditary chiefs, 
 but whose power was limited. It is remarkable that 
 the Chinese mode of catching wild ducks on the rivers, by 
 covering the fisher's head with a gourd, was practised in 
 Chili. 
 
 The Araucanians, the most intelligent, improved, and 
 warlike of the Chilian tribes, occupy about 200 miles of 
 the sea-coast, between the 37th and 39th parallels. They 
 are of ordinary stature, but vigorously formed ; bold, 
 hardy, hospitable, faithful to their engagements, generous 
 to a fallen enemy, ardent, intrepid, and enthusiastic lovers 
 of liberty. Their vices are drunkenness, and a contempt 
 of other nations, springing from pride. Their govern- 
 ment, in the regularity of its form and its sub-division of 
 authority, has an outward resemblance to the Peruvian ; 
 but the spirit of the two systems differs as widely as the 
 genius of the two nations. Araucania contains four 
 tetrarchies, under four toquis or princes, who are inde- 
 pendent of one another, but confederated for their joint 
 security against foreign enemies. Each tetrarchy is 
 divided into five provinces, ruled by five chiefs called apo- 
 ulmen; and each province into nine districts, governed by 
 as many idmen, who are subject to the apo-ulmen, as 
 the latter are to the toquis. These various chiefs (who all 
 bear the title of ulmen, as our nobility of all orders are 
 barons) compose the aristocracy of the country " hey 
 hold their dignities by hereditary descent in the male 
 line, and in ihe order of primogeniture. Ihe supreme 
 power of each tetrarchy resides in a diet or great coun- 
 cil of the ulmen, who assemble annually in a large plain, 
 like the Poles and Germans in old times ; but a3 the 
 people are all armed, and have a high love of liberty, no 
 resolution of the diet is of any avail if it has not their hearty 
 concurrence. The chiefs, indeed, are little more than 
 leaders in war; for the right of private revenge, which is 
 fully admitted, limits their authority in judicial mat- 
 ters ; and they receive no taxes. Their laws are merely 
 primeval usages. The Araucanians can raise altogether 
 6000 or 7000 men, besides a body of reserve. When war 
 is declared by the great council, messengers bearing "ar- 1 
 tows dipt in blood " are sent to all parts of the country 
 
 to summon the men to arms. Unlike many barbarous 
 nations, which are immovably attached to their ancient cus- 
 toms, the Araucanians were not slow in copying the mili- 
 tary arts and tactics qf the Spaniards. Their troops now 
 consist of infantry and cavalry ; the former armed with 
 pikes or clubs, the latter with swords and lances. The 
 infantry are formed into regiments of ten companies) each 
 company containing a hundred men. When they take the 
 field, they carry parched meal with them for provisions ; 
 they station sentinels, send out scouts, and have advanced 
 guards preceding their main body. When necessary for 
 their security, they dig ditches, and plant stakes along 
 their sides, and throw up mounds of earth. They advance 
 to battle in lines, well formed, and fight with intrepidity. 
 Their history affords a brilliant example of what a. brave 
 nation, animated by an enthusiastic love of liberty, can 
 accomplish under the greatest disadvantages. After re- 
 sisting the best troops and the best generals of Spain for 
 two hundred years, they at last compelled their proud 
 enemies to acknowledge their independence. The Arau- 
 canians were indebted for their success to a deliberate 
 species of courage, to which even the bravest of the North 
 American tribes are strangers ; and they combined with it a 
 degree of sagacity and intelligence which led them to adapt 
 their mode of fighting to the new circumstances in which 
 they were placed. Experience having taught them the 
 inefficiency of their old missiles when opposed to musket 
 balls, they soon laid aside their bows, and armed them- 
 selves with spears, swords, or other weapons fitted for 
 close combat. Their practice was to advance rapidly 
 within such a distance of the Spaniards as would not leave 
 them time to reload after firing. Here they received 
 without shrinking a volley, which was certain to destroy 
 a number of them, and then rushing forward in" a close 
 column, fought their enemies hand" to hand. In this way 
 they gained many victories, and impressed the Spaniards 
 with such a respect for their courage that an individual 
 of that nation made their achievements the subject of an 
 epic poem. Combining the moral, intellectual, and physi- 
 cal qualities of the Araucanians, they were certainly the 
 finest native race in the New World. They had nearly 
 all the germs of civilisation which belonged to the Mexi- 
 cans and Peruvians, without the ferocity of the former, the 
 apathy of the latter, or the slavish habits common to both ; 
 . and without having their minds stupified by that grovel- 
 | ling superstition which the rulers of these two nations 
 seem to have considered as the only secure foundation of 
 their authority. In true courage, in manliness and energy 
 of character, they take precedence of all the American 
 nations. 
 
 The Araucanians believe in a supreme being, and in 
 many subordinate spirits, good and bad. They believe 
 also in omens and- divination, but . they have neither 
 temples nor idols, nor religious rites ; and discover upon 
 the whole so little aptitude for the reception of religious 
 ideas that the Catholic missionaries who have settled 
 among them have had very little success in imbuing their 
 minds with a knowledge of Christianity. They believe in 
 a future state, and have a confused tradition respecting a 
 deluge, from which some persons were saved on a high 
 mountain. They divide the year into twelve months of 
 30 days, which have significant names, and add five days 
 by intercalation. They esteem poetry and eloquence, but 
 can scarcely be induced to learn reading or writing. 
 Chess, a game of -oriental origin, is said to have been 
 known among them from time immemorial ; and it may 
 be further observed, that the numbers 5 and 9, employed 
 in their geographical and civil divisions, are favourite num- 
 bers in China. 
 
 The other Chilian tribes are all much behind the Aran-
 
 702 
 
 AMEBIC A 
 
 [CHILIAN TKIBE?. 
 
 jnnians in civilisation ; but some, as tile Puelches and 
 the Tehuels, surpass them iu strength and stature. Part 
 of them live on horse flesh, part by keeping sheep and 
 cattle, and part by hunting. Some of these tribes paint 
 their faces. AVith regard to the height of the Patago- 
 nians, M. Lesson, an eminent French naturalist, has col- 
 lected the authorities on the subject in a noto published 
 by Balbi in his Ethnographical Atlas ; and they appear to 
 us to remove every rational doubt as to the fact of a race 
 of men existing there whose average stature is about six 
 feet, and among whom men seven feet high are perhaps 
 more frequently to be met with than among an equal num- 
 ber of men in any other country. They have large heads, 
 but their hands and feet are small, and they are not strong 
 in proportion to their tall stature. They ride on horse- 
 back, and hunt the huanaco or the ostrich with a sling, 
 which they cast so as to entangle the animal's legs. They 
 dwell in tents, and lead a wandering life. 
 
 Of the numerous nations that inhabited Brazil there 
 is only one to which we can afford any special notice in 
 tliis article. Tho Guaranis have at one time formed a 
 numerous people, which seems to have been spread over a 
 larger surface than any other now existing in America. 
 Tribes, or remnants of tribes, whose relationship to the 
 Guaranis is attested by the strong evidence of their lan- 
 guage, are found diffused over the wide space between the 
 Orinoco and the embouchure of the Plata, or more than 
 the half of South America. They are met with among 
 the Andes of Peru, in the province of Chiquitos, in Matto 
 Grosso, in Paraguay, in Minas Geraes ; and the Omaguas, 
 in tho republic of Ecuador, who, from their nautical habits, 
 and the influence they obtained on the upper part of the 
 Amazon, have been called the Phoenicians of the new world, 
 are believed to be of the same race. They constituted the 
 bulk of the native population of Brazil when the Portu- 
 guese gained possession of it, but were divided into many 
 distinct tribes, quite independent of one another, and living, 
 "not in contiguity, but mixed with other nations. Tli<y 
 are of low stature, two inches shorter than the Spaniards, 
 according to Azara; of a square form, fleshy, and ugly. 
 Their colour has a strong shade of the copper red, while 
 that of the other Brazilian tribes inclines generally to the 
 tawny or black. Their character, like their physical form, 
 resembles that of the Peruvians. They are patient, tor- 
 pid, silent, downcast in their mien, mild, and passionless. 
 Nearly all tho Indians whom tho Portuguese have civi- 
 lised or converted belong to this race. It is difficult to 
 account for their dissemination through the southern con- 
 tinent, amidst nations much more brave and powerful than 
 themselves. May we suppose that, like the subjects of 
 the Incas, they had been at one time the dominant tribe 
 of an extensive empire, which derived its force from 
 union and civilisation ] But if such a state did exist, its 
 date cannot be very ancient ; for the identity or close 
 resemblance of the dialects spoken by the scattered portions 
 b of tho Guaranis shows that their dispersion from a com- 
 mon point did not happen at a very remote period. 1 Yet 
 no memorial of its existence survives, either in traditions 
 or monuments. The supposition, therefore, that the 
 Guarani tribes aie the remnants of a once powerful and 
 united people, is scarcely admissible ; and Azara thinks 
 it more probable that they have crept gradually from 
 north to South. Their dispersion is the more remarkable, 
 as they are not a wandering but an agricultural people. 
 They live in the woods, or in small open spaces in the 
 forerta; cultivate maize, beans, gourds, yams, mandioc; 
 and eat also wild honey, and the flesh of monkeys and 
 Tf.riou3 small quadrupeds. 
 
 1 T)r Prichard's Ramrchts, voL ii. p. 487. 
 
 The Indians whom the Jesuits civilised and collected 
 into communities in rated settlements of Para- 
 
 guay I chiefly to the nation of the Guaranis. 
 
 These missionaries arc said to havo borrowed tho plan 
 of tho theocracy which they established hero from that 
 which the Incas had introduced into Peru. There is 
 no doubt that the spirit of their system was the same ; 
 and, considering that they were precluded from any other 
 i of extending and supporting their authority than 
 persuasion, their success was remarkable. The settle- 
 were commenced al ■ ■ gradually 
 extended ever the country l>y the Parana and 
 lay, betwi . ih and 30th degrees of south 
 '1 the order of the . is suppressed in 
 17C7. The plan of the government may bo called paro- 
 chial, for i\ wi i administered entirely by the parochial 
 clergy. The Indians were collected into villages. Eac'i 
 village had its church and its curate, who . ted by 
 one, two, or more priests, according to the number of In- 
 dians under his charge. Tho curate and assistant priest* 
 were nominated, not by the Spanish authorities, but by 
 the father superior, also a Jesuit, who exercised a vigilar.t 
 superintendence over the whole. Indians wero appointed 
 in each village with the titles of regidors aud alcaldes; 
 but they wero merely instruments in the hands of the 
 curate and his assistants, in whom all power was lodged. 
 The curate gave his whole attention to religious offices, 
 saying mass in the church, and visiting tho sick; while 
 the assistant priests managed all secular matters, direct- 
 ing tho labour of the Indians who cultivated the ground, 
 aud training others to the crafts of the weaver, mason, 
 carpenter, goldsmith, painter, and sculptor; for the fine 
 arts were by no means neglected. Private property did 
 not exist. The produce of the labour of the community 
 was stored in magazines, from which each family was sup- 
 plied according to its wants, special provision being made 
 for aged persons, widows, and orphans. The surplus was 
 I iy agents at Buenos Ayres, and the proceeds em- 
 ployed in paving the taxes to the king, in procuring or- 
 naments for tho churches, and various articles which 
 the colonists could not manufacture for themselves. Tho 
 religious instruction was of the most simple kind ; but tho- 
 service of the church was conducted with a well-trained 
 choir, a pompous ceremonial, and every accessory calculated 
 to strike tho senses. Tho punishments were mild; and 
 they were always accompanied with such admonitions as 
 a parent would address to a child whom he was chastising. 
 Crimes, in truth, were rare. The Indians, who regarded 
 their spiritual chiefs with the veneration due to beneficent 
 beings of a superior order, scarcely felt humbled in confess- 
 ing their misdeeds ; and offenders may have solicited correc- 
 tion, as Raynal says, for the quieting of their consciences. 
 The incursions of the Portuguese compelled the Jesuits 
 to take means for repelling force by force. All the male 
 Indians of the proper age were accordingly armed with 
 muskets, and disciplined as a militia. In 1 732, according 
 to Dobrizhoffer, the thirty villages or parishes under the 
 care of tho missionaries contained a population of 141,000 
 souls. Tho Jesuits had another establishment of the 
 same kind among the Chiriguas, a branch of the Guara- 
 nis, in the province of Chiquitos, containing 30,000 or 
 40,000 Indians; a third, of smaller size, in the province 
 of Moxos; a fourth in California; and probably others. 
 After the suppression of the order, all these were com- 
 mitted to the care of friars of other descriptions ; and wo 
 believe they have universally fallen into a state of decay. 
 The social system established in Paraguay was the most 
 effectual ever contrived for reclaiming the Indians frcm 
 their savage mode of life ; but even its success shows how 
 hopeles3 the attemut is to raise the American tribes to
 
 INDIAN RACES.] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 703 
 
 the rank of thoroughly civilised nations. The Jesuits 
 were able to introduce settled habits and a slight know- 
 ledge of religion and the arts among the Indians only by 
 means of the personal ascendancy they acquired over 
 them. It was a few superior minds gaining the respect 
 and confidence of a horde of savages, then employing the 
 influence they acquired to lead tLem as children ; giving 
 them such portions of instruction as taught them to trust 
 implicitly in their guides, working alternately on their 
 fears, their pride, their kind affections, but never fully 
 revealing to them the springs of the machinery by which 
 they were governed. The incurable indolence of the 
 savages rendered it necessary to prescribe the labour 
 as task-work, and to carry it on under the constant in- 
 spection of the missionaries. The plan of cultivating the 
 ground in common, and of storing the produce in maga- 
 zines, out of which the wants of each family were supplied, 
 was resorted to as a check upon their improvident habits. 
 In short, the eye and the hand of the missionaries were 
 everywhere ; and the social system was held together en- 
 tirely by their knowledge and address. When these were 
 withdrawn, the fabric soon fell into ruins, and the Indiana 
 relapsed into their idolatry and savage habits. 
 
 To complete our general view of the aboriginal races, a 
 <'ew particulars remain to be mentioned. Many of the 
 tribes who inhabit the Pampas of South America make 
 use of horses. Dobrizhoffer enumerates eight equestrian 
 tribes in the province of Chaco, on the west side of the 
 river Paraguay, who are generally distinguished by tall 
 and vigorous forms, and a bold and active character. 
 The Abipones and Mbayas are the most celebrated of 
 these. The woods of Brazil are too dense for eques- 
 trians; but horses are used by a few hordes in the great 
 plain of. the Mississippi and in the north of Mexico. 
 The American tribes in general either kill their prisoners 
 or adopt them; but a few retain them as slaves, and 
 compel them to work. The Guaycuru3 of Brazil are an 
 example. The food of different tribes is extremely va- 
 rious. Maize, beans, pumpkins, and mahdioc are raised 
 in small quantities by some; natural fruits, berries, bulbous 
 roots, and bananas are gathered by others. Those who 
 dwell on the sides of rivers live greatly on fish ; in the 
 .plains, buffaloes, horses, and sheep are killed. In the 
 forests of Brazil, monkeys, pigs, armadillos, pacas, agoutis, 
 and tapirs are the favourite food ; but birds, turtles, 
 deer, and the coati are also taken ; and in an emergency 
 the Indians do not scrapie to feed on serpents, toads, and 
 lizards, the larvaa of insects, and other disgusting sub- 
 stances. Salt is used where it can be easily obtained, 
 and some season their food with capsicum. Some roast 
 their meat, others boil it ; and not only several savage 
 tribes, but even the civilised Peruvians, ate their flesh 
 raw. The Ottomaques, a tribe near the Orinoco, eat a 
 species of unctuous clay ; this strange diet, which no 
 doubt owed its introduction to the stern monitor' famine, 
 is not extremely rare in Brazil, and Captain Franklin 
 found the same food in use among an Indian tribe near 
 the Frozen Ocean. The clay is stated by that traveller 
 to have a milky and not disagreeable taste. A great 
 proportion of the tribes in Brazil and the basin of the 
 Orinoco, and some in other parts of America, indulge in the 
 horrid banquet of human flesh. Shame, in our sense of 
 tho term, is nearly a stranger to the breasta of these sa- 
 vages. _ In the warm regions of Brazil men and women 
 go entirely naked, except in the neighbourhood of the 
 Portuguese settlements, where some wear a band of cloth 
 round the loins. In such situations, where the want of 
 shelter is little felt, their dwellings are often nothing 
 more than a sort of arbour formed by interlacing the open 
 space between two cr three trees with twipa. widicopeiv 
 
 ing it with leaves so as to form a screen on the windward 
 side, while it fa left entirely open on the other. The 
 manufacture of bows and arrows, war-clubs, baskets, 
 mats (which, swung from a tree, serve them both as 
 seats and hammocks), and in some cases a coarse pottery, 
 comprises the sum of their practical skill in the arts. It 
 has long been the practice of bands of Portuguese, con- 
 sisting chiefly of outlaws and vagabonds, to make maraud- 
 ing expeditions among the Indians living near the great 
 rivers, and to carry them off and sell them clandestinely 
 for slaves. This infamous trade is carried on in despite 
 of the orders of the government, which has issued many 
 decrees for the protection of the Indians, and, besides 
 employing missionaries to convert them, enjoined the 
 governors of provinces to furnish them with hoe3 and 
 other agricultural implements. Wherever the negroes 
 are introduced in great numbers, as in the Capitanias 
 of Santo Paulo and Bio Janeiro, and in the whole of 
 the West India islands, the aborigines rapidly disappear, the 
 former being more intelligent, more tractable in their 
 habits, and more active and industrious. The negroes are 
 indeed a superior race to the Indians ; and the existence of 
 one or two hundred blacks, as slaves, among some thousands 
 of the Cherokees, does not detract from the accuracy of 
 this opinion. Missions for the conversion of the Ladians 
 have been supported for more than two centuries by the 
 governments of Spain and Portugal They are thinly spread 
 over those parts of Mexico, La Plata, Peru, Brazil, and Co- 
 lombia, which are still occupied by the savages; but there 
 are extensive districts in all these provinces in which they 
 have never been established, owing to the fierce character 
 of the tribes, or the remote and inaccessible nature of the 
 country. A mission consists in general of one or two 
 friars or priests, who settle among the savages, learn their 
 language, and, besides teaching them the elements of 
 Christianity, always endeavour to instruct them in the 
 more simple and useful arts, and to train them to settled 
 habits. We believe that many of these establishments have 
 been abandoned, owing to the failure of the funds with 
 which they were supported; and that the success of the 
 others has been extremely trifling. The late revolutions 
 in those countries, by liberating the Indians from their 
 ancient state of tutelage under the whites, have in many 
 cases broken up the little settlements which the mission- 
 aries had formed. This has been the result even in Brazil, 
 where the political changes have been least felt. 
 
 Owing to the fanaticism of the Spaniards a large propor- 
 tion of the manuscripts of the natives were destroyed, so 
 that now we are unable to acquire so full and accurate a 
 history of the more civilised nations as we might otherwise 
 have done. The literature which still exists, together with 
 the numerous remains of cities, temples, roads, bridges, and 
 other works of art, testify to the general truth of the his- 
 torical narratives. However obscure they may now be, 01 
 however difficult the reconciliation of statements, it seem* 
 clear they have been founded on facts. As in the case o! 
 other histories, there is much error and tradition, mingled 
 with truth, which renders 'Leir correct interpretation diffi- 
 cult. Amongst some of the nations we know that historians 
 were appointed by the government, and that such hstonana 
 were severely punished if they ventured to tamper with the 
 rrnth wiUullv The best connected recount of these his- 
 £t TofSs concerns the nations of Central America, is 
 that given by the Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg.i If we 
 cSiftha native accounts, the earliest traces of cmhsation 
 originated in Yacatan and the neighbouring districts, » 
 region which is amongst the most fertile in the New World 
 
 -l Ilistoire des Nations civilisies du Mcxiqae et de VAmMque central, 
 iurant lea eteUs anterUur, d Chrulofhe Columb. 4 tomea. 8m- 
 1857-59.
 
 704 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 It is stated that many centuries before the Christian era, 
 Votan, the oldest of the American legislators, established 
 himself in the region watered by the rivers Tabasco and 
 Usumasinta. It is near the sources of this latter river, in 
 the highlands of Vera Paz, that cities of civilised Indians 
 still exist, according to travellers who have recently visited 
 the adjoining districts. However this may be, this river 
 was the principal highway into the interior of Central 
 America lor the earliest civilised tribes, as it is now for the 
 existing natives. Near the mouths of the rivers mentioned 
 the ground is scarcely above the level of the sea, and is foi 
 the most part a recent alluvial formation. Duriug the 
 rainy season it is covered with water, and all intercourse 
 between village and village takes place by water. Just 
 where the laud acquires a slight rise, Palenque, said to be 
 the oldest city in Central America, was founded. At this 
 time, according to the tradition, the low land was occupied 
 by a lake. Votan, it seems, came from some foreign laud, 
 and found the whole of the country from Darien to California 
 occupied by a barbarouspeople, who used the skins of wild 
 beasts for clothing, caverns and huts made with branches 
 for shelter, and wild fruits and roots, with raw flesh, for 
 food. Votan announced to these people a knowledge of 
 the Supreme Deity, who was at first worshipped as the 
 God " of all truth." At first no temples or altars were 
 dedicated to him, and it was not until long after that 
 Nezahualcoyotl erected a teocalli, or " house of God," as it 
 means in the Mexican language, and dedicated it " to the 
 unknown God." At a later period the religious ideas were 
 considerably debased. In Votan's time there seems to 
 have been but one lauguage prevalent over a large area, 
 and this language was probably the Maya, which is the 
 stock of many of the languages formerly in use among the 
 natives, and is still the language of Yucatan. The 
 people apparently formed tribes differing somewhat in 
 manners, the most prominent of which tribes are referred 
 to as the Quinames or giants. Votan and his companions 
 arrived iu large ships, woro long flowing garments, and 
 spoke the Nahuatl lauguage. These strangers married the 
 daughters of the country, and established a settled form of 
 government. According to one document, the year 955 
 B.C. is assigned to these events; but it is quite imprac- 
 ticable to give any trustworthy fixed date. Votan, it is 
 said, wrote an account of the origin of the Indians, and of 
 their immigration into America. He attempted to prove 
 that they were the descendants of Imos, of the race of Chan, 
 or the serpent. Votan made four voyages to his original 
 country, and described the route he followed. On one 
 of these voyages he visited the dwelling of the thirteen 
 serpents, as also the ruins of an old building which had 
 been erected by men for tho purpose of reaching heaven. 
 The people who lived in its vicinity told him it was- the 
 place where God had given to each family its particular 
 language. Allusion is also made by him to certain 
 mysteries like those of Egypt and Greece, of which traces 
 were still discoverable amongst the civilised nations 
 of America. On returning from 1 is first voyage to his 
 native country he found the pec pie at Palenque had 
 attempted to usurp his authority and overturn his power. 
 Thereupon he parted his monarchy into four divisions. 
 One of these had for its capital the town -of Tulha, the 
 ruins of which may be see a near Ocosingo in Chiapa. 
 Votan also is the reputed founder of Tsequil, which was 
 afterwards called Ghowel, and the site of which is now 
 occupied by a suburb of Ciudad Real. Some time, pos- 
 sibly not many years, after Votan, Zamna appeared in 
 Yucatan. He introduced the Maya civilisation, founded 
 the town of Mayapan, and called the country Maayha, or 
 land without water, a term well applied to the extremity 
 of the peninsu a of Yucatan, where rivers are almost absent. 
 
 LTBADITIONAL history. 
 
 Mayapan was once the capital of Yucatan, and in Zamna'a 
 lime tho sea covered the country to within a short distance 
 of it. He lived to a great age, and during the later years 
 of his life dwelt on the sea-coast. ar,d was buried at 
 this place. The spot became the site of a large temple 
 erected to his honour, which was visited by pilgrims from 
 great di taiiccs. A town sprung up aiuund it called 
 Itzamal, which is believed to correspond with the modern 
 Isamal, now about 30 miles distant from the sea. The 
 region to seaward is reported to be geologically very recent 
 as land, and the remarkable absence of names of any 
 antiquity in a country where almost every locality has its 
 ition is some confirmation of the traditions. The 
 architectural character of the oldest towns also lends some 
 support to the considerable antiquity claimed for them. 
 The forest-covered nuns of Mexico and Central /bnerica 
 present so many different architectural styles that it seems 
 very probable they w-ere built at different periods and by 
 different people. Those which appear to be the oldest, and 
 which are most uniform in style, are the substructures in 
 Mayapan, some of the buildings in Tulha, many of thosa 
 in Palenque, and others which occur in the country of tho 
 Lacandons. 
 
 The names of the successors to Votan are mentioned, buj 
 without details. One of the last of the dynasty was Chinax', 
 in whose reign mention is made of the Nahuatl people. Not 
 long after liis death, this people, who were called Nahoas 
 or Toltecs, obtained the dominion of the country, and the 
 throne was occupied by Nahoa princes. They originally 
 came from Huehue-Tlapallan (but where this country was 
 situated is not known), having been induced to leave it in 
 consequence of a revolutiou. This event seems to have 
 occurred shortly before the Christian era. The journey to 
 America from ilieir native country was a long and painful 
 one, and indicates that seas and lands intervened between 
 them. The traditions report it to be in the far cast, nnd 
 that the first comers filled seven ships and disembarked at 
 Tanipico, near the mouth of the Panuco. The leader of the 
 band bore the title of Quetzalcohuatl, and was the first 
 known by that name. They then coasted along the shore 
 as far as Tamoanclia, which place was evidently somewhere 
 near the mouth of the Tabasco. In this district there 
 was a tradition in the time of the Spaniards that twenty 
 illustrious chiefs from the east landed there many centuries 
 before, who had long flowing garments and large beards, 
 of whom the principal was Cukulcan, a name which 
 has the same meaning as Quetzalcohuatl. Quetzalcohuatl 
 and his comrades soon obtained possession of the capital of 
 the country, Xibalba, which is believed to be the same as 
 Palenque. Their success induced others of the Nahoa 
 nation to join the first colonists, and their power gradually 
 spread over a large portion of Central America. The 
 strangers, however, met with considerable resistance from 
 the princes of Xibalba, who compelled the Nahoa to leave 
 their country and disperse themselves over the surrounding 
 region. This dispersion is stated to have occurred in 
 a.d. 174. Before this date, the lunar calendar, so prevalent 
 among the civilised nations of America, was introduced. It 
 was one of these parties of Nahoa that established 
 itself in Mexico, and founded many of the more im- 
 portant cities. They were called ©lmeques, and were led 
 by Olmecatl and Xelhua. The latter was one of Quetzal- 
 cohuatl's companions, and was once shipwrecked along 
 with him. In-order to commemorate his delivery he 
 erected the greai pyramid of Cholullan. Before the arrival 
 of the Olmeques he valley of Mexico was inhabited by the 
 Quinames or giai.ts, and they continued to dwell in the 
 mountains arounc for centuries after they had been 
 driven from their native valley. The Totonacs, Mixtccas, 
 and Othomis were the contemporaries, or possibly tho
 
 TRADITIONAL HISTORY.] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 705 
 
 predecessors, of the Olmeques. The first mentioned people 
 erected the pyramids of the Teotihuocan, or the City of the 
 Oods, near Mexico. These tribes spoke a language quite 
 distinct from the Nahuatl. The Totonacs placed the cradle 
 of their race at Chicomoztoc, which was said to be far to 
 the north ; but the Othomis seem to have been in posses- 
 sion of the land from time immemorial. According to the 
 traditions of the Quiches and other nations of North 
 America, they originally carrie from Tulan. They allude 
 t ) several places of this name. One was in the region of 
 the setting sun and beyond the sea; and another, from 
 which the Quiches came, was also in the direction of the 
 setting sun and was apparently situated in California. In 
 the descriptions given of the migrations from the more 
 distant Tulan, which seem to have occurred at frequent 
 intervals, each migration consisting of a moderate number 
 of people, the difficulties and hardships are prominently 
 noticed. They pointedly allude to the intense cold, to the 
 long daTk night, and to the sterility of the country, which 
 allusions seem to point to travels in Arctic regions. The 
 travellers were reduced to such extremities as to be obliged 
 to suck juicy woods in order to sustain life. The name 
 Chichimecs, which means suckers of maguey, given to the 
 invading hordes from the north, may have some connection 
 with this traditional fact. Chicomoztoc has been identified 
 by some with the extensive ruins near the Rio Gila, in 
 California. The history of these early nations is somewhat 
 obscure, but it may be gathered from the preserved records 
 that the worship of the sun and the practice of human 
 sacrifice had nearly or wholly superseded the earlier and 
 purer religions. Towards the end of the 7th century we 
 first hear of the Chichimecs invading Mexico from the 
 north. This name is a general one given to all invading 
 hordes from the north, and is similar to that of barbarians 
 applied to the people who invaded the Roman empire. 
 The first invasion was by the Chichimecs-Culhuas, headed 
 by Mixcohuatl Mazatzm. They commenced their march, 
 or rather progress, from Chicomoztoc about 635, and 
 reached the valley of Mexico about 40 years after. After 
 many years' fighting the Toltec empire was established 
 in about 686 ; and from this period we enter upon more 
 detailed and trustworthy historical ground. At first the 
 government of the Toltecs was republican and theocratical, 
 but it soon became monarchical, and Nauhyotzin was elected 
 the first king. The most illustrious of his successors was 
 Topiltzin Ceacatl Quetzalcohuatl, during whose reign the 
 Toltec empire arrived at its most flourishing condition. 
 According to tradition, the Toltecs were taller and of 
 larger build than the existing Indians, were great runners, 
 and were as white as Europeans. They carried many of 
 the arts to a high state of perfection, such as weaving, 
 building, jewelling, and making ornaments with the 
 feathers of birds. There were astrologers and poets, 
 sorcerers and philosophers and orators. They were well 
 acquainted with the medical properties of plants, and were 
 in the habit of recording in books their observations on dis- 
 eases. Quetzalcohuatl's reign was for the most part one 
 of prolonged peace, but this peace was disturbed by the 
 religious party who advocated human sacrifice, a practice 
 which be used every effort to abolish. The rebellion 
 becoming very formidable, Quetzalcohuatl left the country 
 with a few chosen attendants, and founded a new Toltec 
 empire on the plain of Huitzilapan, which corresponds 
 with the one on whi^h La Puebla now stands. This occurred 
 in 895. The town ot La Puebla stands on the site of the old 
 Uuitzilapan, and at the time of Quetzalcohuatl's arrival 
 it was said that the pyramids of Cholullan had existed from 
 time immemorial, and had been built by the giants. 
 According to this legend, the country was inhabited by 
 giants, all but seven of whom were either destroyed by a 
 
 grgat inundation or turned into fishes. These seven took 
 refuge in a cave, and when the waters abated, one of then; 
 named Xelhua, went to Cholullan, and built the famoui 
 pyramid to commemorate his escape. Quetzalcohuatl built 
 a temple here, which he dedicated to the " creator of light," 
 and around this temple sprang up Cholullan, or the " town 
 of the exile." His disciples carried the Toltec civilisation 
 into Oaxaca. After having reigned at Cholullan about ten 
 years, during which period his subjects erljoyed all the 
 blessings of peace, he was attacked by enemies again. 
 Huemac had ascended the throne which he had vacated, 
 and being jealous of Quetzalcohuatl's power and prosperity, 
 he suddenly resolved to march with his army against 
 Cholullan. In order that the town might be spared the 
 horrors of a siege, Quetzalcohuatl informed his priests of 
 his intention to leave the place and to visit other countries. 
 Accordingly he proceeded to the mouth of the Coatzocualco 
 river, then entered a boat with four companions, and 
 nothing more was heard of him. Huemac finding his 
 enemy had escaped, wreaked his vengeance on Cholullan, and 
 took up his residence there with a view to subjugating the 
 surrounding districts. He also re-established the practice 
 of human sacrifice. During Huemac's absence from his 
 kingdom of Tulan, Nauhyotl was elected king in his 
 stead. A battle took place between the rivals, which 
 resulted in the defeat and subsequent death of Huemac 
 and the establishment of Nauhyotl's power. His reign 
 lasted for fifteen years, and as he was one of Quetzalcohuatl's 
 disciples, he governed according to similar principles, so 
 that the reign was a prosperous one. Hi3 death occurred 
 in 945. After this a series of disasters broke over the 
 country, and these, with constant civil war, weakened the 
 power of the empire in Anahuac. This soon became known 
 to other nations, and led to the Chichimecs-Teotenancaa 
 leaving their homes in Texas and New Mexico to make an 
 irruption upon the valley of Mexico. This occurred between 
 1041 and 1047. The internal discord continued, and the 
 disorder was increased by the uprising of the sect of 
 Ixcuinames, the devotees of which practised the most 
 abominable rites. In the midst of this corruption another 
 horde of. barbarians, the Teo-Chichimecs, poured down from 
 the north, and took possession of the country. The Toltec 
 power rapidly declined, and the last king of the empire 
 was Huemac Atecpanecatl, who after his dethronement lived 
 for some years at Chapultepec, and died there in 1070. 
 
 According to the Guatemalan traditions, four individuals 
 of the Tutul-Xius, a nation speaking a Nahuatl lai:guage, 
 left their country of Tulapan, to the west of Zuyna, in a.d. 
 174, and arrived the same year at Chacnouitan, which seems 
 to be the name for some place in Yucatan. In 258 another 
 migration of Tutul-Xius occurred, the new colony being 
 established in the province of Zyan-Caan, which is believed 
 to be the district around Chetumal Bay. About the end 
 of the 10th century, it is stated that a venerable personage 
 arrived in Yucatan, called Cukulcan, who retrieved the 
 falling fortunes of the Tutul-Xius. -According to the Abta 
 Brasseur de Bourbourg, this personage was no other than 
 the. Ceacatl Quetzalcohuatl whose departure from the 
 Coatzocoalco river has already been mentioned. After 
 reigning here ten years, he voluntarily abdicated the throne 
 and left the country. According to a Mexican legend be 
 went to Tlapallan, and died there. His successor trans- 
 ferred the capital of the Tutul-Xius from Mayapan to 
 Uxmal, a town which seems to have been founded some 
 centuries before, but which first rose to importance at this 
 period, or near the end of the 10th century. Numerous 
 temples and public buildings were erected, the ruins of 
 which are now so abundantly met with in Yucatan. 
 Artificial ponds or zonotes were constructed; and the 
 number and magnitude of these indicate a large number of 
 
 1-24
 
 706 
 
 AMEKICA 
 
 [discovery. 
 
 towns as well as a thickly-populated country. At tho 
 present day they have all the appearance of being natural 
 ponds, and indeed wero long considered to be such, not- 
 withstanding the repeated assertions of the Indians that 
 they had been built by their aucestors, until chance led 
 to the discovery that the muddy floor of one was entirely 
 composed of flat stones, the interstices between which were 
 stopped with a kind of clay not known in the neighbourhood. 
 The centre was occupied by four artificial wells, the walla 
 of which were formed of polished stones. Further research 
 led to the discovery of numerous other zonotes. After the 
 final fall of the Toltec empire there commenced the great 
 movement of the northern tribes towards tho south, a 
 movement which continued throughout the 11th, 12th, and 
 13th centuries. The movement consisted of a succession 
 of migrations, and its starting-point appears to have been 
 in New Mexico and California, which region was evidently 
 the seat- of a semi-civilised empire. Amongst these in- 
 vading tribes was one which subsequently rose to high 
 importance. The Aztecs, or Mexicans proper, were living 
 at Atzlan in the 11th century, a country which was sur- 
 rounded by water, and where their usual occupation was as 
 boatmen and carriers of wood. Other tribes also lived in 
 this region, which is believed to be that of Lower California. 
 The Aztecs commenced their journey towards Mexico in 
 1090. In 1116 they reached Chicomoztoc, and in 1177 
 they entered Anahuac. Settlements were gradually estab- 
 lished in the valley, towards which peoples of various 
 nations converged from the south as well as the north. 
 The numbers of the Aztecs were slowly augmented by 
 fresh arrivals; but it was not until 1325 that they were 
 able to lay the foundations of Mexico-Tenochtitlan, and 
 thus to inaugurate their assumption of power. In 1464 the 
 empire of the Tutul-Xius was overthrown. The Mexican 
 empire had, however, acquired large proportions, and was 
 conducted with a magnificence and splendour scarcely 
 equalled by any other court in America, and this empire 
 continued up to the time of tho Spanish conquest. 
 Discovery The discovery of a continent so large that it may be said 
 of Aperies to have doubled tho habitable world, is an event so much 
 nLf" * t ' ie more grand and interesting that nothing parallel to it 
 can ever occur again in tho history of mankind. America 
 had of course been known to tho barbarous tribes of eastern 
 Asia for thousands of years ; but it is singular that it should 
 have been visited by one c-f the most enterprising nations of 
 Europe five centuries before the time of Columbus without 
 awakening tho attention of either statesmen or philosophers. 
 Iceland was discovered about 860, and colonised by the Nor- 
 wegians in 874. About 50, or, according to other accounts, 
 100 years later, the same people planted colonies in Green- 
 land. Into tho disputes respecting the situation of these 
 colonies we have not room to enter. Sir Charles Giesecke, 
 a good authority, states that their ruins, exist near the south- 
 ern point of the peninsula. It is obvious that the same ad- 
 venturous spirit which enabled these northern mariners to 
 discover the southern extremity of the country, would not 
 permit them to stop short without visiting what is now known 
 to be the most habitable part of it — the western coast ; and 
 the fact has been established by an inscription in runic cha- 
 racters found on a stone four miles beyond Upernavik, at 
 the 73d parallel, intimating that " Erling the son of Sigvat, 
 and Enride Oddsoen, had cleared that place and raised a 
 hillock on the Friday after Rogation day." The marking of 
 the date is indistinct, but it is supposed by Professor Rask, 
 the translator, to be either 1135 or 1170; and the runic 
 characters show at any rate that it was anterior to the Refor- 
 mation, when this mode of writing was prohibited. 1 Whoever 
 looks at the map of Greenland, and reflects on the fact 
 
 1 Fenusac, Bulletin da Scienca UUtoriquet, Jtdliet 1828. 
 
 [■fans. 
 
 tint the Norwegians must have been ascending through 
 Divis' Straits as high as the latitudo mentioned, aunuallyf 
 perhaps for two or three centuries, will admit that, with half 
 the spirit of enterprise which had carried them so far, tho 
 discovery of some portion of tho west coast of these strait* 
 was almost unavoidable. Now, the position and direction 
 of this coast once known, it required no great effort to traca 
 it southwards to Labradorand Newfoundland. We mention 
 these particulars because Mr Murray, one of the few who 
 have denied the discovery of America by the Norwegians, 
 grounded his disbelief chiefly on the hypothesis that the 
 colonies and the navigation of that people at the period 
 alluded to were confined to the east coast of Greenland. 
 
 In 1001 an Icelander, sailing to Greenland, was driven 
 away by a tempest far to tho south-west, where he saw a' 
 level country covered with wood. The wind abating, he 
 turned his course homeward, and on his arrival gave such a 
 flattering account of the country he had seen as induced 
 Lief, the son of the founder of the Greenland colony, to 
 undertake a voyage thither. Lief and Bjorn, who sailed 
 together, first reached a rocky island, to which they gave 
 the name of Helluland ; then a low country, thickly wooded, 
 which they called Markland ; and some days afterwards they 
 found trees loaded with fruits on the banks of a river. They 
 spent the winter in the country ; and one of them, who was 
 a German, having found wild vines growing, they called it 
 Vinland. They had some intercourse and' traded for furs 
 with a people who came in leathern boats, and were called 
 Skrcelings, from their dwarfish size. A colony was planted, 
 and remained for many years in the country, the situation 
 of which is indicated by a fact casually mentioned, that the 
 sun remained nine hours above the horizon at the shortest 
 day. This indicates the 41st parallel of latitude ;.and tho 
 actual latitude of Rhode Island, the country which every col- 
 lateral circumstance would lead us to fix upon as the seat of 
 the colony, is from 4 1 ° to 42°. The Skraelings were of course 
 the Esquimaux. 2 The vine appears to be the fox grape 
 ( Titis vulpina), which grows wild in that part of America. 
 Only a few unimportant particulars respecting the settle- 
 ment are preserved ; but it was probably abandoned oi 
 destroyed, like tho Greenland colonies, of which it was an 
 offset. The account, though meagre, is distinct and consis- 
 tent. Its authenticity can scarcely be disputed ; and it is 
 almost equally obvious that the country it refers to undei 
 the name of Vinland is in the vicinity of Rhode Island. A 
 conclusion resting on such strong grounds scarcely requires 
 to be supported by the high authority of Humboldt and 
 Malte-Brun. That the colony disappeared, and that the 
 discoveries made were not prosecuted farther, are not cir- 
 cumstances which will shake the credit of the narrative in 
 tho minds of those who know tho numerous reverses which 
 befell the early colonies in New England and other parts of 
 America. The hostilities of the Skralings was no doubt 
 the principal cause of the abandonment of the colony. The 
 Norsemen describe Vinland as a rich country, with a de- 
 lightful climate. Helluland, Markland, and Vinland, were 
 no doubt regarded as countries either connected with or 
 similar to Greenland, the. flattering descriptions of which, 
 given by the first discoverers were sadly belied by later ex- 
 perience. 3 The interest excited by the obscure accounts 
 
 * See the curious work of Torfeus called Vinlandia Anliqua, Hafn, 
 1705 ; and the valuable AnUquitates Americana, published at Copen- 
 hagen in 1837. Also Humboldt's Cosmos, vol. ii. p. 233, Sabine's 
 transl. 1848. 
 
 3 M. Rafn, a Dane, who was much engaged in researches respecting 
 these early voyages, announced that he had ascertained, from original 
 documents, various facts previously unknown ; among others, that 
 America (first discovered in 935) was repeatedly visited by the Ice- 
 landers in tho 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries ; that the eranouclmw 
 of the St Lawrence, and in particular the bay of Gaspe, was their 
 principal station ; that they had penetrated along the coast as far 
 south as Carolina : and that they introduced a knowh-dge of Chris
 
 DISCOVERY. 
 
 ■•] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 707 
 
 of these countries was probably such as the announcement 
 of a new island eastward of Spitzbergen would produce at 
 the present day. No reasonable doubt can exist, however, 
 that the north-eastern portions of America (considering 
 Greenland as a distinct country) were familiarly known to 
 the Norwegians in the eleventh Century. 
 
 The obscure allusions of Aristotle, Plato, and Seneca, to 
 & country hid in the Western Ocean, must have derived fresh 
 importance from the discovery of the Canary Isles, Madeira, 
 and the Azores in the early part of the fifteenth century. 
 The love of maritime adventure was excited by these events ; 
 and among the active spirits who were attracted to nautical 
 life by the career of distinction which was then opened up, 
 was Christopher Columbus. Our limits do not permit us to 
 enter into details respecting this great man, an outline of 
 whose life will be found under the proper heading. He had 
 received a learned education, and the study of the geographi- 
 cal systems then in vogue impressed him with a strong con- 
 viction that a voyage to India by a course directly westward 
 was quite practicable with the degree of nautical science 
 which his contemporaries possessed. From the old and im- 
 perfect maps of Ptolemy he was led to believe that the parts 
 of the globe knowu to the ancients embraced 15 hours, or 
 225 degrees of longitude, which exceeds the truth by more 
 than one-third. The discovery of the Azores on the west 
 Bide had lengthened the space by one hour; and the accounts 
 gleaned by Marco Polo in Asia induced him to think that 
 the isles connected with this continent stretched out so far 
 to the eastward that their distance from Europe could not be 
 great. Columbus was, however, without the fortune neces- 
 sary to fit out ships ; and when he attempted to interest some 
 of the princes of those times in his project, he encountered 
 neglects and difficulties which would have exhausted the 
 patience of any mind less ardent than his own. At length, 
 after many delays and discouragements, Ferdinand and Isa- 
 bella of Spain supplied him with three small vessels, two of 
 them only half-decked ; and in this little armament, accom- 
 panied by 120 men, he set sail from the port of Palos on the 
 3d of August 1492. He proceeded first to the Canary Isles, 
 where he was detained three weeks in repairing one of his 
 vessels. On leaving these isle3 he entered on a region of 
 ocean where all was mystery. The trade-wind, however, 
 bore him steadily along, and the labour of the ships pro- 
 ceeded cheerfully, till the increasing length of the voyage, 
 the failure of prognostics which had from time to time kept 
 alive the hopes of the crew, and various circumstances 
 interpreted by their superstition as evil omens, produced a 
 mutinous spirit, which all the address and authority of Co- 
 lumbus would not have been able to quell had the discovery 
 of land happened one day later than it did. Columbus, 
 says Humboldt, on sailing westward of the meridian of the 
 Azores, through an unexplored sea, sought the east of Asia 
 by the western route, not as an adventurer, but according 
 to a pre-conceived and steadfastly-pursued plan. He had 
 on board the sea-chart which the Florentine astronomer 
 Tobcanelli had sent him in 1477. H he had followed the 
 chart, he would have held a more northern course, along a 
 parallel of latitude from Lisbon. Instead of this, in the hope 
 of reaching Zipangu (Japan), he sailed for half the distance 
 in the latitude of Gomcra, one of the Canary Islands. Un- 
 easy at not having discovered Zipangu, which, according to 
 his reckoning, he should have met with 21 G nautical miles 
 more to the east, he after a long debate yielded to the 
 
 tianity among the natives. The announcement was contained in a letter 
 •ddressed to a person in Washington, and published in Nile's Register 
 (Baltimore), in November 1828. But M. Rafn afterwards found reason 
 to change his opinion as to the site of the Icelandic colony, and he 
 latterly considered that it was at the mouth of the River Taunton, 
 which falls into the sea in Narraganset Bay. at the north end if 
 Rhode Island. 
 
 opinion of Martin Alonzo Pinzon, and steered to the south- 
 west. The effect of this change in his course curiously ex- 
 emplifies the influence of small and apparently tririal events 
 on the world's history. H Columbus, resisting the connsel- 
 of Pinzon, had kept his original route, he would have en- 
 tered the warm current of the Gulf Stream, have reached 
 Florida, and thence perhaps been carried to Cape Hatteras 
 and Virginia. The result would probably have been to giro 
 the present United States a Roman Catholic Spanish popula- 
 tion, instead of a Protestant English one, a circumstance of 
 immeasurable importance. Pinzon was guided in forming' 
 his opinion by a flight of parrots towards the south-west. 
 Never, says the Prussian philosopher, had the flight of hiids 
 more important consequences. It may be said to have de- 
 termined the first settlements on the new continent, andits 
 distribution between the Latin and Germanic races. It-was 
 on the 12th of October that the western world revealed 
 itself to the wondering eyes of Columbus and his companion* 
 What a triumph for thik extraordinary man, who had trea- 
 sured in his breast for twenty years, amidst neglect, . dis- 
 couragement, and ridicule, the grand truth which his own 
 incomparable skill, wisdom, and firmness had now demon- 
 strated in the eyes of an incredulous world ! The spot which 
 he first touched was Guanahani, or Watling Island, as ■wa* 
 suggested by Munoz in 1793, and proved by Mr R. H. 
 Major in 1870. After spending nearly three months ia 
 visiting Cuba, Hispaniola, and other isles, he returned 
 to Spain. He made three other voyages, and in the second. 
 coasted along a part of South America, which he rightly 
 judged to be a continent from the volume of water poured 
 into the sea by the Orinoco. But he died ignorant of the-, 
 real extent and grandeur of his discoveries, still believing 
 that the countries he had made known to Europe be- 
 longed to that part of Eastern Asia which the ancients 
 called India. Hence the name of West Indies which, 
 the tropical islands and part of the continent have ever 
 since received. 
 
 We should extend this article to an unreasonable length Progresc 
 were we to describe in detail the discoveries and settlements' 1 ' j cov i'. r - 
 made by the several nations of Europe in America. We sation. 
 shall therefore confine ourselves to a very brief chronologi 
 cal notice of the more important events. 
 
 1495. The first pl2<-« in which the Spaniards established 
 their power was the l.irge island of Hayti or Hispaniola, 
 which was inhabited by a numerous race of Indians of a 
 mild and gentle character, a third part of whom are said to 
 have perished within two or three vears after the Spaniards 
 conquered them. 
 
 1497. John Cabot discovered Newfoundland June 24th, 
 and coasted along the shores of North America to Florida 
 
 1498. Columbus first saw the mainland, May 30. 
 1500. Cabral, a Portuguese, visited the coast of Brazil 
 
 and discovered the mouth of the Amazon. It was probablv 
 colonised before 1515. In 1500, too, Cortereal touched at 
 Labrador. 
 
 1508. Vincent Pinzon is said to have entered the Rio de- 
 la Plata. It was in the same year that the Spaniards, find- 
 ing the aborigines too weak for the labour of the mines in 
 Hayti, first imported negroes from Guinea, and thus laid 
 the foundation of a traffic which continued to disgrace the- 
 civilisation of Europe for three centuries. 
 
 1511. Diego Columbus conquered the island of Cuba 
 with 300 soldiers, of whom he did not lose one. 
 
 1513. Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Darien with 290 
 men, and discovered the South Sea. 
 
 1519. Hernando Cortes sailed from Cuba with 11 ships 
 and 550 men, and landed on the coast of Mexico, which had 
 been discovered in the previous year. The conquest of the 
 empire was finished in 1521 by 950 Spaniards, assisted hy 
 a vast number of the Indians of Tlascaia.
 
 70« 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 [colonisation. 
 
 1531. Peru invaded by Pizarro, and conquered in little 
 more than one year, with a force of 1000 men. 
 
 1535. Jacques Cartier, a Frenchman, discovers the Gulf 
 of St Lawrence. 
 
 1535. Mendoza, a Spaniard, with 2000 followers, founds 
 Buenos Ayres, and conquers all the country as far as 
 Potosi, at which silver mines were discovered nine years 
 after. 
 
 1537. Cortes discovers California. 
 
 1511. Chili conquered; Santiago founded; Orellana 
 sails from the sources of the Rio Napo down the Amazon 
 to the Atlantic. 
 
 1578. New Albion, on the north-west coast of Ame- 
 rica, discovered by Sir Francis Drake. 
 
 1586. The Spaniards found St Thomas' Island, in 
 Guiana. 
 
 1587. Davis' Straits and Cumberland Islands discovered 
 l>y John Davis. 
 
 1604. De Monts, a Frenchman, founded the first set- 
 tlement in Nova Scotia, then called Acadie. 
 
 1607. After many ineffectual attempts during more 
 than twenty years, the first permanent settlement of the 
 English in North America was made this year, on the 
 banks of tho James River, in Virginia. 
 
 1608. Quebec founded by tho French, who had had a 
 email neglected colony in Canada from 1542. 
 
 1611. Newfoundland colonised by tho English ; a Dutch 
 colony established at Hudson's River. 
 
 1614. New York founded. 
 
 1618. Baffin penetrates to the 78th degree of latitude, 
 in the bay which bears his name. 
 
 1620. The first English colony estabb'shed in New 
 England at Plymouth. It was in 1619 that the first 
 negroes were imported into Virginia. They were brought 
 by a Dutoh vessel. 
 
 1635. A French colony established in Guiana. 
 
 1655. Jamaica conquered by the English. 
 
 1664. The Dutch colonies on Hudson's River capitu- 
 late to the English. 
 
 1666. The Buccaneers begin their depredations on the 
 Spanish colonics. 
 
 1682. William Penn establishes a colony in Pennsyl- 
 vania. La Sallo takes possession of Louisiana in the 
 name of the French king. 
 
 1698. A colony of 1200 Scots planted at Darien. In 
 the following year the settlement was attacked by the 
 Spaniards, and abandoned. 
 
 1733. Georgia colonised by the English. 
 
 1760. Canada and all the other French settlements in 
 North America conquered by the English. 
 
 We must pause at this point to give a very short ac- 
 count of the colonial system introduced by the principal 
 European nations who occupied extensive tracts of the 
 new world. The English settlements extended from 
 the 31st to the 50th degree on the east coast, and were 
 divided into 15 oiv 16 provinces. The colonists had car- 
 ried the love of liberty characteristic of their country- 
 men with them ; and after many struggles with their Bri- 
 tish rulers, all the provinces, with one or two exceptions, 
 were permitted to enjoy a form of government extremely 
 popular. The executive power was vested in a governor 
 appointed by the king. He was assisted by a council, 
 which sometimes conjoined the functions of a Privy Council 
 and a House of Peers. Tho people were represented by 
 a House of Assembly, consisting of persons chosen by tho 
 freeholders in the country parts, and the householders or 
 corporations of towns. The governor could levy no 
 money without the consent of the House of Assembly : the 
 British parliament, however, claimed, but scarcely ever 
 exercised, the privilege of imposing taxes upon the colonists 
 
 without consulting them. Against this assumption of 
 power the local legislatures always protested as an in- 
 fringement of their rights. Tho vessels of foreign states 
 were not permitted to trade with the colonics ; but tho 
 colonists were allowed to trado in their own ships with 
 one another, with the mother country, and, to a limited 
 extent, with foreign states. Their taxes, which were 
 always small, were all consumed in defraying interna 
 expenses ; and, compared with any other people in tho new 
 world, they enjoyed an unexampled degree of commer 
 cial and political liberty. Ii was the growing prosperity (A 
 the colonies and the increasing debt of the mother country, 
 which induced the British ministers, for the first time, in 
 1764, to attempt raising a revenue in America, for purposes 
 not colonial. The experiment was made by imposing a 
 stamp-duty on newspapers and commercial writings. The 
 sum was trifling ; but the Americans, far-sighted and 
 jealous of their rights, saw in it the introduction of a 
 principle which deprived them of all security for their 
 property. The people declared themselves against it as 
 one man, in local assemblies, and by petitions and publi 
 cations of all kinds. The ministers became uneasy, and 
 repealed the tax ; but, as a salve to the pride of tho 
 mother country, a declaratory Act was passed, asserting hei 
 right "to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever." 
 The idea of raising a revenue in America, was not re- 
 nounced, but another mode was to be tried. Duties 
 were laid on glass, colours, paper, and tea, and were met 
 by an opposition in the colonies still more zealous and 
 determined. Tho British ministers, irritated, but waver- 
 ing in their purpose, dropped all the taxes but that on 
 tea, and commenced at the samo time a series of alarm- 
 ing innovations. They closed the port of Boston, changed 
 the charter of the province, placed judges and juries on 
 a footing to render them more subservient to tho view? 
 of the government, and introduced a strong military force 
 to overawe the people. On the other side, the colonist* 
 passed resolutions not to import or consume any British 
 goods, and hastened to supply themselves with powdei 
 and arms. Blood was at length shed in April 1775, at 
 the village of Lexington ; and in the following year the 
 American Congress published their celebrated declaration 
 of independence. We shall not enter into the details of 
 the war, which was closed in 1782. Suffice it to say 
 that, on the part of the Americans, it rested on high 
 grounds ; it was a war to vindicate a principle — for tho 
 practical grievance was admitted to bo slight ; and it was 
 conducted with a regard to humanity of which there are 
 few examples in history. 
 
 The Spanish possessions in America before the revolu- Spannt 
 tion formed nine distinct governments, all constructed colon,* 
 on the same plan and independent of one another. Four 
 of these, of the first rank, were vice-royalties, viz., Mexico, 
 Peru, La Plata, and New Granada ; and five were captain- 
 generalships, viz., Yucatan, Guatemala, Chili, Venezuela, 
 and the island of Cuba. The government was vested 
 in the viceroy or captain -general, who was held to repre- 
 sent tho king, and to enjoy all his prerogatives within 
 the colony. But in these countries, as in others where 
 the supreme power is apparently unlimited, it was in- 
 directly restrained by tho influence of the courts of jus- 
 tice, corporations, and other public bodies. The royal 
 audiencias or supreme courts, composed of Spaniards 
 nominated by the crown, had extensive judicial powers, 
 and were independent of the viceroys. The cabildos or 
 municipalities, and the fueros or corporations (similar to 
 our guilds), also possessed considerable privileges, which 
 derived security and importance from long prescrip- 
 tion. Lastly, the clergy, who were numerous and rich, 
 necessarily possessed great influence among a supersti-
 
 COLONISATION.] 
 
 A SI E 11 I C A 
 
 70> 
 
 tious people. The vices naturally inherent in the colo- 
 nial system existed in full force in the Spanish American 
 dominions. There was tolerable security for all classes 
 except the miserable Indians, who were regarded and 
 treated precisely as beasts of burden, out of whose toil 
 and sufferings a provision as ample as possible was to be 
 extracted, first to supply the wants of the royal treasury, 
 ind next to provide for and satisfy the cupidity of a 
 jhoal of do-nothing public officers and priests. Edicts 
 were indeed issued for the protection of the Indians, and 
 persons appointed to enforce them ; but these were feeble 
 correctives of the evils rooted in the system, and not 
 unfrequently increased their weight. The Indians, after the 
 conquest, were at first slaves ; they paid a capitation 
 tax to the crown, and their labour was entirely at the 
 disposal of their lord. This system was modified from 
 time to time ; but all the changes introduced down to the 
 revolution did not release them from their state of vas- 
 salage. They still continued liable, in a less or greater 
 degree, to the performance of compulsory labour, under 
 the orders of persons against whom they had no protection, 
 This wa3 an enormous grievance ; but, what was equally 
 bad, being held incompetent in law to buy or sell, or 
 enter into any pecuniary engagement beyond the value of a 
 few shillings, without the agency of white men, the swarm 
 of public functionaries had an unlimited power of inter- 
 fering in their concerns, of vexing, harassing, and plunder- 
 ing them, under the forms of law. The memoir of Ulloa, 
 long buried amidst the Spanish archives, with various 
 other documents published since the revolution, depicts 
 acts of extortion, perfidy, cruelty, and oppression prac- 
 tised upon the Indians which have rarely been paralleled. 
 Men rose to affluence in offices without salaries ; and the 
 priests rivalled the laymen in the art of extracting money 
 from those whom they ought to have protected. As the 
 sole aim of the Spaniards in the colonies was to enrich 
 themselves, so the government at home made all its acts 
 and regulations subordinate to the grand object of raising 
 a revenue. Spain retained in her hands the whole trade 
 of the colonies, and guarded her monopoly with the most 
 severe penalties. The price of all European commodities 
 was enhanced three, four, or six fold, in America. The 
 colonists were not allowed to manufacture or raise any 
 article which the mother country could supply; they 
 were compelled to root up their vines and olives ; and for 
 a long period one colony was not even permitted to send 
 a ship to another. To support such a system it was 
 necessary to keep the people in profound ignorance, and to 
 cherish prejudices and superstition. The schools were 
 extremely few, and permission to establish them was often 
 refused, even in towns where the Spaniards and Creoles 
 ^ere numerous. The importation of books, except books 
 of Catholic devotion, was rigorously prohibited. Even 
 the more grave and dry sciences, such as botany, che- 
 mistry, and geometry, were objects of suspicion. And 
 the more effectually to crush all mental activity, natives 
 of America could rarely obtain leave to go abroad, to 
 seek in foreign countries what was denied them in their 
 own. On the other hand, the priests, sharing in the spoil, 
 filled the minds of the people with childish superstitions, 
 as a means of confirming their own power, and employed 
 the terrors of religion to teach them patience under 
 oppression. To create a race of servants devoted to its 
 purposes, the court bestowed all offices, from the highest 
 to the lowest, on natives of the peninsula exclusively. 
 The wisdom of the plan seem3 questionable, but that it 
 *as adhered to with wonderful pertinacity is certain. " It 
 was tho darling policy of Spain," says Mr Ward, " to dis- 
 seminate through her American dominions a class of men 
 distinct from the people in feelings, habits, and interests, 
 
 taught to consider themselves as a privileged caste, and to 
 regard their own existence as intimately connected with 
 that of the system of which they were the principal sup- 
 port." With all those means and appliances, it is extra- 
 ordinary that Spain should have been able to uphold foi > 
 three centuries a system in which the interests of bu 
 many millions of human beings were so habitually and 
 unrelentingly sacrificed. It was the course of events, much 
 more than it3 own inherent weakness, which ultimately 
 caused its subversion. 
 
 After the seizure of Ferdinand and the elevation of 
 Joseph Buonaparte to the throne of Spain, orders were dis- 
 patched to all the colonies with the view of securing theii 
 obedience to the new dynasty. The men in office were 
 generally disposed to submit, but the treacherous conduct 
 of the French excited a universal hatred of their cause 
 among the people ; and when the regency established ifl 
 Spain presented the semblance of a patriot government, 
 the loyalty of the Americans blazed forth, and poured 
 large contributions of money into the hands of Ferdi- 
 nand's adherents. The weak and suspicious conduct of 
 the regency, however, and its subserviency to the gTasp-1 
 ing spirit of the merchants of Cadiz, at length alienated 
 the colonists, and roused them to take measures for their 
 own security. But the diversity of views and^interests 
 among the colonists rendered the course to be adopted a 
 matter of some delicacy. Ferdinand, being a prisoner, 
 was, politically speaking, a nonentity. Napoleon's brother 
 was clearly an usurper, odious to, and rejected by, the mass 
 of the Spanish people. The regency, shut up in Cadiz, 
 without troops or revenue, was but a phantom ; and the 
 little power it had was so employed as to raise doubts 
 whether its membere were not secretly in league with tho 
 enemy. In these circumstances, when the only govern- 
 ment to which the colonists owed allegiance had fallen 
 into abeyance, the wisest course they could have pursued 
 was to declare themselves independent. This would at 
 once put a stop to the machinations "of France, which they 
 dreaded, and prevent the regency from compromising or 
 sacrificing their interests by its weakness or treachery. 1 
 The Spaniards, however, who occupied all public situa- 
 tions, were averse to a change which they foresaw must 
 lead to the downfall of their power. This was perfectly 
 understood by the other classes ; and in the first move- 
 ments which took place in the different colonies nothing 
 was said derogatory to the supremacy of Spain, though 
 independence was clearly aimed at. By spontaneous efforts 
 of the people "juntas of government" were formed, 
 at Caraccas in April 1809, at La Paz in Upper Peru Chili ana 
 in July, at Quito in August, at Santa Fe and at Bue- Peru - 
 nos Ayres in May 1810, and at Santiago in Chili in 
 September the same year. In 1810, also, the first insur- 
 rection broke out in Mexico. The colonists unluckily had 
 been too long the slaves of superstition and tyranny to 
 be fit for conducting so bold an experiment ; and after a 
 straggle, which was generally short, but almost every- 
 where bloody, the juntas were all put down except in 
 Colombia and Buenos Ayres. But in the stir and tumult 
 of the contest old prejudices had received a shock, and 
 the seeds of political change had struck their roots too 
 deep in the soil to be eradicated. A desultory war was 
 carried on for six years between Buenos Ayres and Upper 
 Peru, with little advantage on either side. At length, in 
 1817, the former state, which had assumed the style of 
 an independent republic four years before, sent an army 
 across the Andes to Chili, under General San Martin, and 
 defeated the Spaniards at Chacabuco. A second victory, 
 gained at Maipo in April 1818, led to the entire subver- 
 sion of the Spanish power in this colony. The war was 
 now transferred to Peru, where the Spaniards continued
 
 710 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 [kevolutiohp 
 
 ,*> loeo ground, till the decisive battle of Ayacucho put 
 an end to their power in December 1824. Rodil and 
 OUveta, with the obstinacy of their nation, held out for 
 6«*ue months longer, when every chance of success was 
 .gone ; but after the surrender of Callao in January 182G, 
 the Spanish flag no longer waved on any spot in the land 
 of the Iucas. 
 
 In New Granada and Venezuela the struggle was more 
 bloody, .variable, and protracted than in- any other part 
 of South America. As this portion of the dominions of 
 Spain was comparatively easy of access, and from i«s cen- 
 tral position was in some measure the key to the whole, 
 •he made immense efforts for its preservation. No Less 
 than ten thousand troops were sent out to it within the 
 :ooarse of one year. The patriots, on the other hand, pos- 
 •aessed advantages here, in the greater intelligence of 
 tin- population, and the easy intercourse with the West 
 Indies. From 1809, when juntas were established in 
 Caraccas and Quito, to the surrender of Porto Cabcllo 
 ki 1823, the vicissitudes of the war were numerous and 
 ^eitraoidiinary. The patriots were repeatedly on the eve of 
 ji complete triumph, and as often the state of their affairs 
 leeemed nearly hopeless. But the spirit of resistance never 
 was entirely subdued. The cause was rooted in the hearts 
 of the people, and was insensibly gaining ground even 
 .during its reverses. .To attempt tho faintest outline of 
 the military operations would lead us beyond our proper 
 limits. It is enough to state that the decisive victory of 
 Carabobo, gained by the patriots in 1819, gave them an 
 ascendancy which they never afterwards lost ; but the 
 Spaniards, according to their custom, continued to main- 
 ■taiu the contest as long as they had a foot of land in the 
 country, and were only finally expelled in 1823. 
 
 In Mexico the revolutionary movement began at Dolores 
 in 1810, and soon wore a very prosperous appearance; 
 but the weakness or false pride of the Creoles, who 
 «tero cajoled into the ranks of their oppressors the old 
 Spaniards, armed against the patriots those who should 
 have been their firmest supporters, and by one or two 
 mischances the. force of the independent party was ruined 
 in November 1815, when Morelos, their able leader, 
 icas taken prisoner and executed. For six years after 
 this period many guerilla bands maintained themselves in 
 the provinces, and greatly annoyed the Spaniards ; but 
 they did not act in concert, and no congress or junta 
 [fnafmring to represent the Mexican people existed. 
 Even during this interval the desire for independence was 
 making great progress among the population ; but the 
 establishment of a constitutional government in Spain in 
 1820, and its extension to the colonies, gave a new aspect 
 to the affairs of Mexico. The viceroy Apodaca, while 
 outwardly yielding obedience to the new system, was 
 silently taking measures to effect its overthrow; but he mis- 
 took the character of the agent he employed. This per- 
 son, tho celebrated Iturbide, turned his own arms against 
 him, proclaimed a constitution under the name of "the 
 three guarantees," and put an end to the dominion of 
 Spain in 1821, almost without bloodshed. Iturbide, who 
 had nothing in view but his own aggrandisement, called a 
 congress, which he soon dissolved after getting himself 
 proclaimed emperor. His usurpation kindled a spirit of 
 resistance. He was exiled in 1823, made a new attempt 
 on the liberties of his country in 1824, was,taken prisoner, 
 and expiated his crimes by a military death within a 
 few weeks after he landed. 
 
 Guatemala was the last portion of the American con- 
 tinent which threw off the Spanish yoke. In 1821 the 
 persons in office assembled and formed a junta. Divi- 
 sions arose, which were fomented by the intrusion of a 
 Mexican .array sent by Iturbide. This force, however, 
 
 was beaten, - and an elective assembly called, which df 
 clared the country independent, and established a consti 
 tution in July 1823. Spain now retains none of her pos- 
 sessions in the new world but Cuba and Porto Rico. 
 . Tho government of Brazil was conducted by the Por- Portneoe* 
 tugucse on a system extremely similar to that of the iij^'i'f. 
 Spanish colonics. The monopoly which the mother coun- 
 tiy retained of the commerce of the colony was equally 
 rigorous ; tho restrictions on its internal industry as se 
 vere ; and the same means were employed to keep the 
 people in a state of pupilage and ignorance. Down te 
 180C a single printing-press had never existed in Brazil. 
 In 180", when tho emperor Napoleon had resolved to 
 possess himself of Portugal, and if possible to get the 
 royal family into his power, the king, seeing no othei 
 means of escaping from the clutches of his enemy, em- 
 barked with his suite in several ships, and sailed for 
 Brazil, where he arrived in January 1808. He was received 
 with joy by the colonists, who anticipated great benefits 
 from his residence, of which they were not disappointed. 
 One by one the fetters of colonial dependence fell off. 
 Within a few months printing-presses and newspapers 
 were established, the ports were opened to the trade of all 
 nations, and the people were invited and encouraged to 
 prosecute all those brnnches of internal industry frotrj 
 which they had till now been interdicted. To crown and 
 secure these advantages, Brazil was declared an inde- 
 pendent kingdom in 1815, subject to the crown of Portugal, 
 but entitled to its separate administration and its own 
 laws. The revolutionary spirit pervading the Spanish, 
 colonics now found its way into Brazil, and produced an 
 insurrection at Peinambuco in 1817. It was soon sub-' 
 dued, but received a new impulse from the constitutional 
 systems suddenly introduced into Spain and Portugal in 
 1820. To quiet tho popular feeling, it was announced 
 that the Portuguese constitution would be extended to 
 Brazil. Before this had been done, however, tho old king 
 had sailed for Europe, leaving his son Dom Pedro to rulo 
 in his absence. The people now discovered, or believed, 
 that the object of the king was to degrade Brazil again to 
 the rank of a colony, and to restore the old system in all 
 its rigour. Meetings were held, and resolutions adopted 
 to maintain the independence of the country at all 
 hazards ; and the patriots, gaining confidence by degrees, 
 called loudly for the establishment of a legislature, and 
 besought Dom Pedro to put himself at the head of tho 
 independent government. Ambition or policy induced Empire ol 
 Pedro to listen to the solicitation : in 1822 he was pro- BraziL' 
 claimed emperor, and had his own title and the inde] i n- 
 dence of Brazil acknowledged by his father three years • 
 afterwards. A representative system was at the samo 
 time introduced. An unlucky war now arose with Buenos 
 Ayres, which weakened both countries ; but it was at 
 length terminated in 1828 by the recognition of the dis- 
 puted territory as an independent state under the title of 
 the Banda Oriental. 
 
 Having finished this brief notice of the series of revo- 
 lutions which broke the fetters of America, we shall now 
 give a very short sketch of the new political order ofj 
 things which has arisen out of these changes, referring for, 
 a detailed account of the several states to the artick^ 
 appropriated to them ir the different volumes of the prc-i 
 sent work. 
 
 America, with its islands, embraces at present (1874) 
 twenty-one independent states, and various colonies belong- 
 ing to six European powers. The former are — 1, Tha 
 United States of North America ; 2. Brazil ; 3. Mexico • 
 4. Venezuela ; 5. Colombia ; 6. Ecuador or Quito ; 7. 
 Peru; 8. Bolivia or Upper Peru ; 9. Chili; 10. La Plata; 
 or the Argentine Republic; 11. Uruguay; 12. Paraguay,
 
 STATES.] A M E 
 
 13. Patagonia; 14. Costa iiic-.i , 15. Mosquitia ; 10. Gua- 
 temala ; 17. Honduras ; 18. Nicaragua; 10. Saul Salvador; 
 20. Hayti ; 21. San Domingo. The colonics belong to 
 Britain, Denmark, Sweden, Holland, France, and Spain. 
 Patagonia is merely the geographical name of a district of 
 Chili, occupied by independent tribes of Indians ; Mos- 
 quitia, or the Mosquito coast, is a small Indian state ruled 
 by a native king ; and Hayti is a negro republic proclaimed 
 in 1867. For detailed accounts of these various states and 
 colonies we refer to the articles under the proper heads. At 
 present we must confine ourselves to a brief notice of the 
 more important ones. 
 
 The United States were colonised a century later than 
 Spanish America; but their brilliant and rapid progress 
 shows in a striking light how much more the prosperity 
 of nations depends on moral than on physical advantages. 
 The North Americans had no gold mines, and a territory of 
 only indifferent fertility, covered with impenetrable woods ; 
 but they brought with them intelligence, industry, a love 
 of freedom, habits of order, and a pure and severe morality. 
 Armed with these gifts of the soul, they have converted the 
 wilderness into a land teeming with life and smiling with 
 plenty ; and they have built up a social system so pre-emi- 
 nently calculated to promote the happinpss and moral im- 
 provement of mankind, that it has truly become the " envy 
 of nations." The republic is bounded on the north by 
 Canada, on the south-west by Mexico, and on the other 
 sides by the sea. At present (1874) it consists of thirty - 
 seven states, with one district and eleven territories, which 
 latter will be converted into states as soon as each acquires 
 a sufficient population. The extent of the country, including 
 the Indian lands stretching west to the Pacific Ocean, over 
 which it claims a right of pre-emption, embraces 3,003,844 
 square miles of land. The agriculture of the United States 
 partakes to some extent of a tropical character. The sugar- 
 cane is cultivated in Louisiana, Florida, and other states 
 as far north as the latitude of 31£°. Cotton is raised in 
 all the south-east states S. of the 37th parallel, and tobacco 
 chiefly in the middle states. Wheat succeeds in the middle 
 and northern states, and maize thrives in every part of the 
 Union. Agriculture is conducted with considerable skill; but 
 the " high farming " practised in England would not pay in 
 America, where money is of much value and land of little. 
 Scarcely any portion of the soil is rented in the United 
 States : the farmers are almost universally proprietors ; and 
 when their property is extensive, which rarely happens, it is 
 soon broken into small occupancies under the law of equal 
 division. The advance the Americans have made in manu- 
 factures may be judged of from the fact that in 1870, 
 according to the census then taken, there were upwards of 
 35,000 operatives employed in 909 cotton factories, and 
 77,870 in 1938 manufactories of woollen goods. The iron 
 industries gave employment to upwards of 140,000hands,the 
 iron produced in the country reaching nearly two millions 
 of tons. In the useful arts generally America is on a level 
 ■with France and England". The internal commerce of the 
 United States is conducted with extraordinary spirit. The 
 amount of capital expended on roads, canals, harbours, 
 bridges, and other public works, is very great. The length 
 of the lines of railway open for traffic now exceeds 70,000 
 miles, and is rapidly increasing. The extent of the foreign 
 trade of the country, and the amount of its shipping, place 
 it next to Great Britain in the list of commercial nations. 
 
 Tho population of the United States in 1S70 was ) „„ ,-<, ... 
 
 by census f »8.5aS,3<l 
 
 In 1S00 it was 5,308,483 
 
 Increase in 70 years.. 33,24P,8S3 
 
 Since .1800 the rate of increase has been remarkably 
 n:«form at nearly 3h per cent, per annum. In 1871 the 
 
 RICA 
 
 711 
 
 number of immigrants was 340,938, of whom 198,843 
 migrated from the British Isles, 107,201 from Germany, 
 6030 from China, and the remainder from British North 
 America, Sweden, Norway, France, Austria, Italy, Switzer- 
 land, Denmark, and Russia. 
 
 Slaves were first introduced in 1619. In 1775 slavery 
 was abolished in Rhode Island; in 1780 Massachusetts' 
 abolished it ; then numerous northern states followed, 
 and in December 1865 slaver}' was abolished throughout 
 the United States. By subsequent amendment of the 
 constitution all negroes were admitted to all the privileges 
 of citizenship. Thus it was enacted on March 30, 1870, 
 that " no discrimination should be made in the United 
 States among the citizens of the United States in the 
 exercise of their elective franchise, or in the right to hold 
 office in any state, on account of race, colour, nativity, 
 property, education, or creed." Every person born or 
 naturalised in the United States is recognised to be a 
 citizen thereof. 
 
 The American government is a pure representative de- 
 mocracy in which the people are recognised as the fountain 
 of all power; and the sole object of all its mechanism is 
 to give effect to their deliberate opinions. The federal 
 government and the governments of the separate states are 
 constituted on the same plan. The legislature consists in 
 every case of two bodies, a House of Representatives chosen 
 for one or two years, and a Senate for a period varying 
 from two years to six — all chosen by popular election, except 
 in the case of the Federal Senate, which is elected by the 
 legislatures of the thirty-seven states. The President holds 
 his office for four years, but is occasionally re-elected for 
 four years more. 
 
 The characteristic facts in the condition of America are 
 the non-existence of titles, of privileged classes, of corpora- 
 tions in our sense of the term, of a landed aristocracy, of 
 mendicity except to a very limited extent, and of an en- 
 dowed church ; the cheapness and efficiency of its govern- 
 ment, the universality of education, the omnipresence of its 
 periodical press, the high feeling of self-respect which exists 
 in the very humblest classes, and the boundless spirit of 
 enterprise which pervades all classes of society. The 
 higher classes are less polished than ^n England, the middle 
 are perhaps less carefully instructed; but the American 
 people, taken collectively, are at least as well educated and 
 have as much intelligence and manliness of character as any 
 other nation in the world. 
 
 In 1807 the territory formerly known as Russian America 
 was purchased by the United States, and called Alaska. 
 It occupies the north-west corner of the continent, and 
 extends along the coast as far south as Mount Elias, where 
 it is bounded by British Columbia and the southern end of 
 Prince of Wales Island, in 54° 40' N. It comprises an 
 area of about 570,390 square miles. Furs and fish aro 
 the most valuable commodities. Sitka is the capital. It 
 is situated on an island in 57° 2' 45" N. and 135° 17' 10* 
 W. It has a population of over 2000 persons. The 
 Yukon river, which is about 2000 miles long, flows through 
 the territory. 
 
 British North America is bounded on the south by the 
 United States, on the north by the Arctic Ocean, and or 
 the west by Alaska. In 18G7 the provinces of Ontario 
 (formerly Upper Jauada), Quebec (formerly Lower Canada), 
 Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba (formerly Hudson's 
 Bay Territory), and British Columbia, were united under 
 the title of " The Dominion of Canada," while Newfound- 
 land and Prince Edward Island still remained independent. 
 The executive power is vested in the sovereign of the 
 British empire, but is carried out by a Governor-General and 
 Privy Council. The Parliament consists of a Senate ar.d a 
 House of Commons. The senators are nominated for life
 
 712 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 [state 
 
 by the Governor-General, and are 75 in number. The mem- 
 bers of the House of Commons are elected by the people in 
 the proportion of one member for each 17,000 souls. The 
 eeat is retainable for five years, and each member is allowed 
 a salary and travelling expenses. Ottawa is the capital of 
 the Dominion. According to the latest census, taken on 
 April 3, 1871, the area and population of the several pro- 
 vinces are as under : — 
 
 Area, iqcarc miles. 
 
 Ontario , 121, 2C0 
 
 Quebec 210,020 
 
 Nova Scotin 18,660 
 
 New Brunswick 27,105 
 
 Manitoba 2.8D1.734 
 
 British Columbia 213,000 
 
 3,481,779 
 
 Newfoundland (1869) 40,200 
 
 Prince Edwards Island (May 1871) 2,173 
 
 Population. 
 
 1,620,842 
 
 1,191,505 
 
 887,800 
 
 285,777 
 
 111,963 
 
 50,000 
 
 3,647,887 
 
 146,536 
 
 94,021 
 
 In 1871 the Dominion had 2854 miles of railway open, 
 1173 miles in preparation, and 3000 miles for which con- 
 cessions had bc;n granted by the government. A line has 
 been projected to extend from Lake Superior to the Pacific 
 0:ean. 
 
 Brazil is the largest state in South America, and enjoys 
 the greatest combination of natural advantages. It is 
 bounded on the south, west, and north, by La Plata, 
 Paraguay, Uruguay, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, 
 Venezuela, and Guiana. Embracing an area of 3,100,000 
 English miles,' ft is nearly as large as Europe, and is capable 
 of supporting a much greater population. Its climate is 
 probably cooler and more salubrious than that of any other 
 extensive tropical country ; and every part of its soil is rich 
 and fruitful, as its magnificent forests and the exuberance 
 and boundless variety of its vegetable productions attest. 
 Its commerical advantages are admirable. No country in 
 the new world has the same facilities for carrying on in- 
 tercourse with Europe and with all its neighbours. The 
 Amazon, with its numerous branches, the Parana, the Tc- 
 cantins, the St Francisco, and other streams, supply the most 
 remote parts of the interior with easy means of communi- 
 cation with the sea. Brazil possesses iron, copper, and pro- 
 bably all the other metals ; but her mines of gold and dia- 
 monds are remarkably rich. Her most valuable productions 
 for exportation are cotton, sugar, coffee, hides, tobacco, 
 vanilla, dyewoods, aromatic plants, timber, &c. Her com- 
 merce is much greater than that of all the Spanish colonics 
 put together. The Brazilians are lively, irritable, hospitable, 
 but ignorant, superstitious, and rather inclined to indol- 
 ence. Their acquisition of independence in 1822, however, 
 worked like a charm, and produced an extraordinary change 
 in their industry, opinions, and modes of thinking. There 
 we numerous schools, but although the education is gra- 
 tuitous, they are not well attended. The advance litera- 
 ture has made will be allowed to-be great when it is 
 remembered that printing was unknown in the country in 
 1807. According to the constitution introduced by Dom 
 Pedro, the legislature consists of a Senate of 52 members, 
 who hold their places for life, and a House of Congress of 
 107, elected by the people for four years; upon the acts of 
 both of which bodies the emperor has a negative. The 
 members of the lower house are chosen by elections of two 
 stages. The householders of a parish meet and appoint 
 one elector for every' thirty of their number, and the 
 ^electors thus chosen meet in districts and choose the depu- 
 ties. The members of both houses receive salaries. The 
 executive power is invested in the emperor assisted by a 
 ministry and a council of state. 
 
 The population of Brazil amounted to 3,671,558, accord- 
 ing to returns published in 1818, and procured probably for 
 the purpose of taxation. This was exclusive of the wander- 
 
 ing Indians. In 1823 it was estimated at 4,000,000 
 by Humboldt. M. Schceffer carries it to 5,700,000, and 
 an estimate for 18G7 makes it 9,858,000, comprising 
 8,148,000 free persons, and 1,674,000 slaves. The census 
 taken in 1872 gives a population of 10,095,978, including 
 1,683,864 slaves. 
 
 Brazil, unlike the Spanish American provinces, has re- 
 mained, subject to its ancient sovereign ; and its govern- 
 ment, from being colonial, has become imperial and inde- 
 pendent, without any violent revolution. The result has 
 been greatly in favour of the peace and prosperity of the 
 country. See Brazil. 
 
 The portion of South America next to the isthmus in- 
 cludes the states of Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. From 
 1820 till 1831, when a separation took place, it formed 
 one state under the name of Colombia; which name has 
 recently been assumed by the republic long known as New 
 Granada. The territories of these three states are bounded 
 on the south by Peru, on the south-east and east by Brazil 
 and Guiana, on the other sides by the sea, and embrace an 
 area of 1,020,000 square English miles. The ooil is 
 fruitful and the climate salubrious, except along the coast 
 and in a few other low situations. The eastern part 
 consists chiefly of the llanos or steppes of the Orinoco, 
 which are very hot ; the western, of the mountain ridges 
 of the Andes, which support tracts of table-land where the 
 blessings of a temperate climate are enjoyed, and the 
 cerealia of Europe can be successfully cultivated. The 
 tropical vegetation extends to the height of 4000 feet; 
 from 4000 to 9000 is the region where wheat; barley, and 
 leguminous plants thrive. Above the level of 9000 feet 
 the climate becomes severe ; and at 15,700 feet vegetation 
 ceases. The situation of Colombia is highly favourable 
 for commerce. It has excellent ports on both seas ; and 
 being mistress of the isthmus of Panama, it ha3 superior 
 facilities for establishing a communication from the one to 
 the other. The Orinoco and the Amazon afford the inmost 
 districts of Venezuela and Ecuador the advantages of 
 water carriage to the ocean. The Cassiquiari, an inter- 
 mediate obannel, by which the Orinoco bifurcates or con- 
 nects with the Amazon (a remarkable hj drographical pheno- 
 menon), is within the limits of Venezuela. The territory 
 contains much gold and silver- — the former in alluvial depo- 
 sits : it has mines of copper and mercury also, with platinum, 
 iron, end-coal. Its tropical productions are similar to those 
 cf Brazil ; but it has as yet cultivated few articles for foreign 
 markets, and its exports are inconsiderable. The civilised 
 population of this country is chiefly located in the districts 
 near the coast, and in the high valleys or table-land of the 
 Andes. Its amount, according to the Statesman's Tear- 
 Book, is — 
 
 Venezuela 1,564,438 
 
 Colombia ....2,794,473 
 
 Ecuador 1,300,000 
 
 6,658,906 
 
 It is always of importance to know in what proportions the 
 different races are blended, but on this subject we have 
 only approximate data. In Colombia the whites form about 
 half of the population, the Indians about one-third, and 
 the negroes about one-tenth, the remainder being of mixed 
 blood. In Venezuela the whites form about one-third, the 
 Indians about one-thirtieth, and Zamboes (from Indiana 
 and negroes) about one-half. In Ecuador the proportions 
 are, roughly — whites one-sixth, Indians nearly one-half, 
 negroes one-thirteenth. 
 
 All the three states are republican. See Venezuela, 
 Colombia, and Ecuador. 
 
 The Argentine Kepublic, or La Plata, is, in point of 
 natural advantages, the second state of importance in South
 
 1 

 
 STATES.] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 713 
 
 America. It is bounded on the west by Chili ; on the north 
 by Bolivia; on the east by Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and 
 the sea; and on the south by Patagonia. It embraces an 
 area of 515,000 square miles if we include Tucuman, Salta, 
 Santiago del Estero, and Jujuy, which scarcely acknowledge 
 its authority. Nearly the whole territory of this republic 
 consists of open plains destitute of timber, called pampas, 
 extending from the Atlantic and the river Paraguay to the 
 Andes. The eastern part of these plains exhibits a vigorous 
 growth of herbage, intermixed with a forest of gigantic plants, 
 9 or 10 feet high, which have been called thistles, but are 
 now known to be artichokes ; in the middle they are covered 
 with grass ; and the western division, which extends to the 
 foot of the Andes, consists of barren sandy plains, thinly 
 sprinkled with shrubs and thorny trees. The openness 
 and dryness of the country, however, render it healthy ; 
 and by the Parana, the Paraguay, and their branches, it 
 possesses a great extent of natural inland navigation. It 
 has mines of gold, silver, copper, lead, and probably iron ; 
 but its mineral riches have been greatly diminished by the 
 separation of Potosi, Cochabamba, La Paz, and other pro- 
 vinces now forming part of Bolivia. The force of this 
 republic lies almost entirely in the wealth, intelligence, 
 and commercial spirit of its capital, Buenos Ayres, which 
 contains 150,000 souls, including a large proportion of 
 foreigners. A small number of estancias, or grazing farms, 
 are sparingly diffused over its boundless plains, the pro- 
 prietors of which keep multitudes of horses and mules, 
 flocks of sheep, and vast herds of cattle ; the latter being 
 chiefly valued for their skins. These people are a bold, 
 frank, hardy, half-civilised race, who live isolated in the 
 wilderness, and scarcely acknowledge any government. 
 The census of 1869 gives a total population of 1,736,922. 
 See Argentine .Republic, and for the two small states 
 formed out of the north-eastern portion of its territory, see 
 Paraguay and Uruguay. Entre Rios, formerly a sepa- 
 rate state, is now a province of La Plata. 
 
 , Chili extends along the coast of the Pacific from 24° to 
 56° of south latitude: its length is 2270 miles; its breadth 
 varies from 40 to 200; and its surface, exclusive of Arau- 
 cania, which has an area of 88,000 sq. miles, is estimated 
 at 130,977 English square miles. The country consists 
 properly of the western slope or declivity of the Andes, 
 for the branches of the mountains running out in tortuous 
 directions from the main trunk reach to the sea-shore. It 
 enjoys an excellent and healthful climate ; severe cold is un- 
 known in the inhabited parts, and the heat is seldom exces- 
 sive. The useful soil bears a small proportion to the entire 
 surface of the country, consisting merely of the bottom of 
 the valleys. It has rich mines of gold, silver, and copper in 
 the northern provinces ; but very few of them can be worked 
 in consequence of the absolute sterility of the adjacent 
 country. Its two northern provinces, occupying 450 miles 
 of the coast, are nearly perfect deserts. The soil continues 
 extremely .dry, and yields nothing without irrigation, till we 
 reach the latitude of 35° ; a id it is believed that not one- 
 fiftieth part of the country L< fit for cultivation. But south 
 of the river Maule the land :s covered with fine timber, and 
 bears crops of wheat and other grain without the aid of any 
 other moisture than what is supplied by the atmosphere. 
 This is in truth the fine and fruitful part of Chili ; and the 
 project was once entertained of selecting its chief town, Con- 
 ception, for the seat of the government. ' Chili has no manu- 
 factures, and is unfavourably situated for commerce. It 
 has no navigable rivers, while its mountainous surface is an 
 obstacle to the formation of roads; but nevertheless it has 
 bow upwards of 500 miles of railway opened. A represen- 
 tative ^institution was established in Chili in 1833. An 
 enumeration dated 1869 makes the population, exclusive of 
 Araucauia(with 70.000 aborigines), 1,938,801. See Chiu. 
 
 Peru may be regarded as a continuation of Chili, consist-, 
 ing of the western declivities of the Andes, from the 4th 
 to the 22d degree of south latitude, with the addition of 
 a considerable tract on the east side of the mountains, be- 
 tween the 4th and 15th parallels. There are few countries 
 in the world which have a more singular physical charac- 
 ter than the western part of Peru. It is a belt or zone 
 of sands, 1240 miles in length and from 70 to 600 in 
 breadth, with inequalities of surface which might be called 
 mountains if they were not seen in connection with the 
 stupendous background of the Andes. This long line of 
 desert is intersected by rivers and streams, which are seldom 
 less than 20 or more than 80 miles apart, and on the sides 
 of which narrow strips of productive soil are created by 
 means of irrigation. These isolated valleys form the 
 whole habitable country. Some of the large rivers reach 
 the sea ; the smaller are either consumed in irrigating 
 the patches of cultivated land or absorbed by the encom- 
 passing desert, where it never rains, where neither beast 
 nor bird lives, and a blade of vegetation never grew. No 
 stranger can travel from one of these valleys to another 
 without a guide, for the desert is trackless ; and the only 
 indications of a route are an occasional cluster of bones, 
 the remains of beasts of burden fhat have perished. Even 
 experienced guides, who regulate their course by the stars, 
 the sun, or the direction of the wind, sometimes lose thtir 
 path, and they almost inevitably perish. Of a party of 300 
 soldiers thrown ashore by a shipwreck in 1823 on one of 
 these desert spaces, nearly a hundred expired before they 
 reached the nearest valley. Ignorance and wonder have 
 been busy with this singular region : legends are current, 
 which tell that descendants of the ancient Peruvians have 
 lived in some of these mysterious valleys, hid from the know- 
 ledge of their merciless invaders, since the days of the 
 Incas. We have no reason to beiieve that more than one 
 acre in a hundred of maritime Peru will ever be available 
 for the sustenance of mankind. The country ha3 two ad- 
 vantages — its mines of the precious metals, and a temperate 
 and delightful climate, in consequence of the absence of rain 
 and the fogs which intercept the solar heat. It can never 
 be rich in the proper sense of the term, or make much pro- 
 gress in the improvements which depend upon a dense popu- 
 lation. Like Chili, it has no navigable rivers — and nature 
 has deprived it of the means of forming good roads. There 
 are indeed few countries in the world whose natural advan- 
 tages have been so much overrated as Peru'; and it requires 
 little sagacity to discover that its future career cannct cor- 
 respond with its past celebrity. The districts east of the 
 Andes, which have a hot climate accompanied with a rich 
 ,soil, will ultimately be the most valuable part of the country; 
 but their secluded situation and want of communication 
 with other countries must keep them long in a backward 
 state. The government is republican. Peru comprehends 
 a surface of 502,760 square miles ; the capital, Lima, 
 contained in 1862 a population of 121,370. Inthatv*ar 
 a rough calculation W3s made which gave 3,199,000 as the 
 entire population of the republic. It was also estimated 
 that the proportions of races were : — 
 
 Indians 57 per cent! 
 
 Mixed races 23 ,, 
 
 Spaniards, Negroes, Chinese, &c 20 ,, 
 
 Bolivia, or Upper Peru, lies eastward of Lower Peru, and 
 is bounded on the south by the Argentine Republic, and on 
 the north and east by Brazil. It is of an irregular form, and 
 comprehends a space of 473,300 square miles. The climate 
 is pleasa .t and healthful, the soil is generally dry, and in the 
 eastern parts, as well as the elevated table-land, its aridity 
 produces b^.rrenness. Nature, however, as a compensation 
 for its other disadvantages, has bestowed upon it some of 
 the richest mines in the world. The country was erected 
 
 1—24*
 
 14 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 [states. 
 
 inio an independent state only in 182C, and named Bolivia 
 m honour of its liberator Bolivar. It has a small strip of 
 barren territory on the slices of the Pacific Ocean, between 
 the 22d and 25th parallel ; but it is, properly speaking, 
 entirely an inland country, and more deficient in the means 
 of communicating with foreign nations than any other state 
 in America. See Bolivia. 
 
 Guatemala or "Central America" originally occupied all 
 the narrow part of the continent from the 83d to the 94th 
 degree of west longitude, extending 800 miles in length, 
 and covering a space of 130,000 square miles. The surface 
 of the country is hilly, and in most parts mountainous ; the 
 climate warm and very moist. The mineral wealth of the 
 country is not great ; but this is compensated by the rich- 
 ness of its soil and its excellent commercial position. It 
 was a federal republic, but its five provinces have now 
 become independent states. Humboldt estimated the 
 population of the five states at 1,600,000. According 
 to a statement furnished to Mr Thomson, a former British 
 envoy by the government, it was 2,000,000 ; while the 
 most recent of the estimates made by the resident officials 
 give a total of 2,335,019, viz. :— 
 
 Guatemala (1865) 1,180,000 
 
 St Salvador (1870) 434,520 
 
 Honduras 250,000 
 
 Nicaragua 350,000 
 
 Costa Rica '120,499 
 
 2,335,019 
 
 The proportions of the different races have been esti- 
 mated as follows . — 
 
 Humboldt. Thomson. 
 
 Whites and Creoles 20 per cent. 20 per cent. 
 
 Mixed classes 28 ,, 40 ,, 
 
 Indians 52 „ 40 „ 
 
 Mexico Mexico is the most populous and powerful of all the new 
 
 states erected in America since the commencement of the 
 present century. Previous to the war with the United 
 States it embraced an area of 1,600,000 square miles, which 
 was reduced to 1,030,442 by the cession of the northern 
 provinces in 1848. About three-fourths of the surface con- 
 sists either of mountains or table-land, raised from 5000 to 
 10,000 feet above the sea. Owing to this extraordinary 
 elevation, even those parts of the country which lie within 
 the torrid zone (the low ground on the coast excepted) 
 enjoy a dry, cool, and salubrious atmosphere ; but this 
 advantage is counterbalanced by the insufficient supply of 
 moisture and the rapid evaporation resulting from the 
 same cause, which render the soil generally rather arid, 
 and in many parts absolutely barren ; by the smallness 
 of the rivers and the almost entire absence of inland 
 navigation ; and by the obstacles which the steep and 
 rugged ascents from the coast presnt to land-carriage. 
 The republic is, besides, almost destitute of ports on the 
 Atlantic side. Mexico is extremely rich in the precious 
 metals ; and there are few regions upon which nature has 
 lavished so g~eat a variety of vegetable productions, or 
 where plants fitted to the coldest and the hottest climates 
 may be seen so nearly in juxtaposition. The low ground 
 on the east coast is admirably adapted for raising sugar; 
 and no country is more favourably situated for growing 
 the other great articles of West India produce — coffee, 
 cotton, cocoa, indigo, and tobacco. The raising of bread- 
 ttnjft — as they are termed by the Anglo-Americans — wheat, 
 maize, and barley, with potatoes, the cassava root, beans, 
 pumpkins, fruit, <fec. — for domestic consumption, will neces- 
 sarily be the chief branch of industry on the table-lands. 
 The mines have never employed above 30,000 labpurers ; 
 and their superior productiveness depends chiefly on two 
 circumstances — the great abundance of the ore, which is 
 only of poor quality, and the comparative facility with 
 
 which they can be worked owing to their being generally 
 situated in fertile districts, where provisions, wood, and all 
 materials can be easily procured. 
 
 Mexico has had her full share of the ignorance and super- 
 stition which belonged to Spain; and these evils, with her 
 internal dissensions and her rapacious, immoral, and intole- 
 rant clergy, are great obstacles to her improvement. That 
 excessive inequality of fortune which corrupts both extremes 
 of society has been nowhere in the world more prevalent than 
 in Mexico. ■ Individual proprietors possessed immense tracts 
 of land and boundless wealth, while all the great towns 
 swarmed with beggars, and thousands fell a sacrifice to fa- 
 mine from time to time. The Mexican constitution, which 
 is federal and almost a literal copy of that of the United 
 States, was established in 1824. The distinction >i castes, 
 which was maintained in the greatest rigour under the colo- 
 nial system, has now disappeared, and power and office are 
 open, not only legally but practically, to men of all colours. 
 The African blacks formed an extremely small proportion of 
 the Mexican population at all times ; and since the ^evolution 
 slavery has ceased. The number of inhabitants was estimated 
 at 6,800,000 by Humboldt in 1823, and classed as follows : — 
 
 Nnmber*. Proportion*. 
 
 Whites .... 1,230,000 19 per cent 
 
 Mixed races.. 1,860,000 27 „ 
 
 Indians 3,710,000 64 
 
 Mr Ward states that very few of the whites, so called, are 
 free from a mixture of Indian blood and now when tha 
 odious distinctions founded on complexion are abolished, 
 they readily acknowledge it. Mr Ward estimated the 
 population at 8,000,000 in 1827. In 1869 that of 
 Mexico with its present boundaries was stated to be 
 9,176,082. See Mexico. 
 
 Hayti, called formely Hispaniola and St Domingo, was Hayti 
 a colony belonging partly to France and partly to Spain 
 till 1791, when the blacks rose in arms, killed a number of 
 whites, and expelled the rest The attempts of England in 
 1793, and of France in 1801, to conquer the island, both 
 failed, and Hayti has at length been acknowledged as an 
 independent state by all the great powers, including France. 
 The island, which contains about 28,000 square miles, is 
 remarkably fertile ; but its climate, like that of the West 
 Indies generally, is rather unhealthy. The population, 
 which before the revolution was estimated at 600,000, is 
 now said to amount to 900,000 or 1,000,000, and it is almost 
 entirely composed of blacks and mulattoes. The island 
 formed one state till 1844, when the eastern or Spanish 
 portion revolted, and established its independence. It is 
 now the republic of " Dominica,", ruled by a president, 
 while the western portion, retaining the name of Hayti, 
 was formed into an empire under Faustin I. ; but in 1867 a 
 republican constitution was proclaimed. After long negotia- 
 tions, the French government agreed in 1838 to acknow- 
 ledge the independence of Hayti on condition of the latter 
 paying 60,000,000 of francs by small annual instalments 
 continued for 30 years. The money was destined chiefly 
 to indemnify the French proprietors who were chased from 
 the uJand in 1791. Nothing has been paid of late years. 
 
 The multifarious nature s of the subject prevents us from 
 attempting any description of the West India colonies, in- 
 sular and continental. The islands have been variously 
 denominated, but the most convenient division seems to us 
 the following : — 1. The Great Antilles, comprehending 
 Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico; 2. The Small 
 Antilles, extending in a semicircle from Porto Bico to the 
 coast of Guiana ; 3. The Bahama Isles, about 500 in num- 
 ber, of which, however, only a small number are inhabited. 
 
 The British colonies are 18 in number, viz., 16 insvlai — 
 Jamaica, Antigua, Barbadoes, Dominica, Grenada, Mont- 
 serrat, Nevis. St Kitts, St Lucia. St Vincent, Tobago,
 
 COMMUNICATION.] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 715 
 
 Jransit 
 from the 
 
 the Pacific. 
 
 Tortola, Trinidad, Bahamas, Bermuda, Falkland Island; 
 and 2 continental-— British Guiana and Honduras. The 
 colonies contained a population of 1,228,967 in 1871, of 
 whom probably four-fifths were persons of colour. 
 
 The Spanish colonies are Cuba and Porto Kico. Cuba has 
 an area of 45,883 square miles, and in 1 867 the population 
 was 1,41 4,508. Porto Rico has an area of 3530 square miles, 
 and in 1866 a population of 646,362 persons. In 1867 
 there were upwards of 700,000 slaves in these two colonies. 
 
 It August 1872 the Spanish government issued a decree 
 ordering that arrangements should be made for the gradual 
 emancipation of the slaves ; and in December 1872 a bill 
 was laid before the Spanish Cortes for the abolition of slavery 
 in Porto Rico in 1873 ; so that probably slavery will soon 
 be extinct throughout the whole of America. 
 
 The French colonies in the West Indies include Mar- 
 tinique, Guadaloupe, and some smaller isles ; and on the 
 continent, Guiana. According to a recent authority the 
 population of these colonies was 318,934. 
 
 The Dutch have Surinam on the continent, with the 
 islands of Curaeoa, St Eustatius, and St Martin. 
 
 In 1870 the population of the islands was 35,482, and 
 of Surinam 59,885, occupying an area of 2812 geographical 
 square miles. Slavery has ceased since July 1863, when the 
 Dutch government compensated theownersfor44,645 slaves. 
 
 The Danes have the small islands of Santa Cruz 
 and St John, containing a population of 24,698 in 
 1860, of whom most are freed slaves, and St Thomas, 
 which had in the same year a population of 13,463. 
 St Bartholomew, another of the Lesser Antilles, belongs 
 to Sweden. 
 
 The problem of making a grand highway for travel and 
 traffic from the Atlantic to the Pacific, either across the 
 AUantic to breadth of the American continent or by taking advantage 
 of the narrow isthmus that joins its northern to its southern 
 portion, has been the subject of many schemes since its 
 western as well as its eastern shores have been inhabited by 
 enterprising nations, skilled in commerce and in mechanical 
 arts. It ia interesting to remark that, whereas the hope of 
 sailing to India by a westward route was the motive which 
 guided the navigators of the 15th century to the disco- 
 very of America, the means of internal communication for 
 this part of the earth, and the geographical exploration of 
 its. remote extremities, have been more recently advanced 
 by the desire of finding a path in this direction to the 
 Asiatic resorts of mercantile activity. Arctic voyarers 
 were at first invited to the icy Beas of high latitudes by 
 the dream of a north-west passage to China and the East 
 Indies. It was a passage by sea from the Atlantic to the 
 Pacific which Sir John Franklin went to seek in his last 
 expedition in 1845, but which Captain Maclure effected in 
 1856, though by an opposite course from Behring's Strait 
 to Baffin's Bay. But it is scarcely possible that this route 
 along the north coasts of America should ever be habitually 
 frequented by mariners going to and fro between the two 
 oceans. At the opposite extremity of the continent arrange- 
 ments have lately been made to substitute a shorter way 
 to the Pacific for that round Cape Horn by improving the 
 navigation of the Strait of Magalhaens, which separates 
 Tien-a del Fuego from the south portion of the mainland. 
 The project of cutting a canal through the central American 
 isthmus has often been discussed. There can be no doubt 
 of the practicability of a system of inland navigation from 
 the Atlantic coast by the river San Juan to Lake Nicar- 
 agua, and thence by a canal to the neighbouring Lake 
 Managua or Leon, with a short artificial channel of exit to 
 the Pacific. A different route, of combined river and canal 
 navigation, has more recently been proposed, which would 
 cut off the whole of the isthmus from the body of South 
 America — entering the uppermost part of that mainland 
 
 by the river Atrato from the Gulf of Darieu, ascending 
 this river 150 miles, then following up the course of tke 
 Napipi or the Bajaya, tributaries of the Atrato — crossing 
 the coast range of hill s by a canal with several locks, and 
 descending to the Pacific either in Limon Bay or in the 
 Gulf of Cupica. But these projects could be adapted oniy 
 to the admission of vessels of smaller size than such as in 
 the present day are commonly employed for commercial 
 traffic between distant regions of the world. In spite of 
 the grand example of the Suez Canal, it seems likely that, 
 in a country tolerably productive of wealth and capable of 
 supporting population, the more profitable means of provid- 
 ing for a through traffic will be found in railroads, which 
 serve also for the accommodation of intermediate districts. 
 In this class of undertakings North America has of late 
 years displayed a wonderful degree of active enterprise. 
 The line of 60 miles from AspinwalL, near Chagres, across 
 the neck of land, which is there so narrow, to Panama, on 
 the Pacific side, though situated in the territory of a Spanish 
 republic, was constructed by citizens of the United States, 
 expressly for the traffic between New York and San 
 Francisco. But since that first opening of a gateway 
 of communication with California, Australia, or China, 
 for the travellers and merchandise of the Atlantic statea- 
 or of Europe, the whole breadth of the continent where it 
 widens, in latitudes between 35° and 45° N., all belonging 
 to the United States, has been traversed by a continuous 
 railroad system. The middle link of this system is the 
 Union Pacific Railway, 1600 miles long, from Omaha, on 
 the Missouri, in the state of Nebraska, through that state; 
 up the course of the Platte river, and through Wyoming, 
 Idaho, Utah, and Nevada, crossing the summits of three 
 great mountain ranges from 7000 feet to 8250 feet high,, 
 and meeting the Central Pacific Railway of California.-. 
 This line was through a barren desert for several hundred 
 miles, in the arid uplands of Idaho and the salt plains of 
 Utah; but its construction has served to bring the com-- 
 mercial cities of the Atlantic and of the Pacific within six 
 or seven days' journey of each other. Three or four rival 
 projects of railways across the width of the United States, 
 or extensions of the existing railway system westward from 
 the Mississippi and Missouri, have been taken up w!.a 
 some promise of their realisation. The one which offers' 
 the greatest advantages is that designed to ascend the long_ 
 and broad valley of the Arkansas river, and to cross the 
 Rocky Mountains with a southerly inclination into New 
 Mexico, opening up the Rio Grande and San Juan country, 
 which is said to be very rich, and thence passing on to the 
 Grand Caiion of the Colorado, and to the Nevada mining 
 district. Near the northern frontier of the United States 
 territory, where it borders on the British Dominion oft 
 Canada, another continental bine from east to west is now~ 
 in progress — that is, from the western extremity of Lake 
 Superior, through Minnesota, Dakotah, and Washington, to 
 Puget Sound, just below Vancouver Island. But the work 
 of this kind that will be most interesting to many of our- 
 readers is that undertaken in 1871 by the government of 
 the Canadian Dominion. By the extension of the Dominion, 
 beyond the Rocky Mountains to include British Columbia, 
 and the incorporation of thj vast territories of the Hudson's. 
 Bay Company, nearly the whole of North America above 
 the 49 th parallel is united in one grand British colonial 
 province, and the Canadian Pacific Railway will do muck 
 to promote a compact union between the widely-scattered 
 communities of Her Majesty's subjects on this great con- 
 tinent The line will proceed from a port on the northern 
 shore of Lake Superior, westward to the Red- River settle- 
 ment, near Lake Winnipeg, now forming the province of 
 Manitoba ; and will thence be conducted up the valley 
 of the river SiSLitcl^v-..- i; the foot of the Rocky
 
 71G A M E 
 
 Mountains, whien it will cross by the Ycllowhead Pass, 
 to descend along the Thomson and Fraser rivers, in 
 British Columbia, till it finally reaches the- coast of the 
 Pacific Ocean, possibly connecting Vancouver Island with 
 the mainland by a bridge over the narrowest part of the 
 straits. In connection with the Grand Trunk and other 
 railways of Canada, supplemented by the Intercolonial 
 Railway between Lower Canada, New Brunswick, and 
 Nova Scotia, this new western line will afford the most 
 direct and expeditious means of transit across North Ame- 
 rica, and will probably become the favourite route for mails 
 and passengers and light traffic from Europe to China. It' 
 will open a country which abounds in mineral wealth, 
 especially of iron, coal, and copper; while the Saskat- 
 chewan valley, and the belt of fertile soil lying at the base 
 of the Rocky Mountains (where the climate, as far north as 
 Fort Dunvegan on the Peace river, is not more severe than 
 that of Toronto, though in latitudes beyond 56° N., nearly 
 thirteen degrees above that place), are capable of sustaining 
 an agricultural population. The progress of railroad con- 
 struction in North America, stimulating and assisting the 
 development of industrial resources with amazing rapidity, 
 is a feature of high importance in the most recent phases of 
 the world's civilisation. Its average rate of advance in the 
 Uiiited States alone, during the five years preceding January 
 1873, was nearly 6000 miles annually of new railway; and 
 the aggregate length of railway lines in the Union, all com- 
 pleted and in actual working, was then computed at 71,000 
 miles. British America, as we have seen, will not be left 
 deficient of similar appliances for its internal improvement. 
 Gold A great auriferous deposit was discovered in Upper Cali- 
 
 Mines. fornia in the end of 1847, just before its formal cession 
 to the United States. It is situated in the valley of the 
 Sacramento river, and its principal branch the Joaquin, and 
 is believed to extend over a range of country 200 miles in 
 length, or more. The gold is found in its virgin state in 
 small grains in three different situations— first, in sand 
 and gravel beds; secondly, among decomposed or disin- 
 tegrated granite; and thirdly, intermixed with a friable 
 talcose slate standing in vertical strata, and containing 
 j white quartz, interlaminated or in veins. The largest 
 pieces of gold are found in and near the talcose slate rocks, 
 over which the streams flow ; but the finer particles and 
 scales have been carried down by the water to the lowest 
 part of the valleys. It was known before that gold existed 
 in the country ; but the wonderful richness of the deposit 
 ■was only discovered in 1847, in making a mill-race on 
 American Fork, a small branoh of the Sacramento. It 
 soon became widely known, and attracted multitudes of 
 persons, first from the neighbouring districts, and by and 
 by from all parts of the world. The population, which 
 •was estimated at 15,000 in 1848, had increased to 92,000 
 in 1850, and in 1870 was found to bo 500,247. 
 Popula- Humboldt gave the following estimate of the entire popu- 
 
 tion.' lation of America in 1823 : — 
 
 Nomber. Proportion. 
 
 Whites 13,471,000 88 per cent. 
 
 Indiana .' 8,010,000 25 „ 
 
 **- HS^iSSoSI 6 ' 433 - 000 l9 ■• 
 
 Mixed races '. 6,428,000 18 
 
 34,942,000 
 Bollaert made the following estimate for 1863 :— 
 
 Number. Proportion. 
 
 Whites 38,074,423 62 per cent. 
 
 Indians 11,014,710 15 „ 
 
 Negroes .12,122,030 17 „ 
 
 Mestizoes 6,031,000 
 
 Mulattoes '. 4,037,440 ^ 16 
 
 £»mboe« 1,563,230 
 
 72,842,833 
 
 RICA 
 
 [population. 
 
 What will be the number of the inhabitants of the new 
 continent two or three centuries hence, and of what races 
 will it consist? Setting aside the negroes, to simplify the 
 question/and the Indians, who will gradually disappear, it 
 is evident that the soil of America is destined to be occupied 
 by two races, who may be designated as the Anglo-Saxon 
 and the Spanish-Indian. In the latter the Indian blood 
 greatly predominates, for the Creoles or pure progeny of 
 the Spaniards probably do not constitute more than 20 per 
 cent, of the population, while the civilised Indians may 
 amount to 50, and the Mestizoes to 30. 
 
 The whites in the United States were in 1850 19,500,000 
 
 The population of British America 2,500,000 
 
 The pop .j. lion of Spanish and Portuguese America, 
 exclub. . , of slaves, was in round numbers 
 
 22,000,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon population in America increases at 3 
 per cent,' annually, and doubles its numbers in 25 years. 
 
 Its amount in 1850 was 22,000,000 
 
 In 1875 it will be 44,000,000 
 
 In 1900 88,000,000 
 
 In 1925 176,000,000 
 
 A population of 176,000,000 spread over the territories 
 of the United States and Canada would only afford an 
 average of 40 persons to each square mile, about l-7th part 
 of the density which England now exhibits, and could occa- 
 sion no pressure. But let us suppose the rate of increase 
 after 1925 to fall to 2 per cent., the period of doubling will 
 then be 35 years. 
 
 In 1960 the number will be 352,000,000 
 
 In 1995 do. do- 704,000,000 
 
 Suppose the rate again to decline to \\ per cent., which 
 scarcely exceeds that of England and Prussia, the period of 
 doubling will then be 50 years. 
 
 In 2045 the number will be 1,408,000,000 
 
 In20D5 do. do 2,816,000,000 
 
 Let us now compare with this the growth of the Spanisn- 
 Indian population, doubling its numbers in 75 years. 
 
 Its amount in 1850 was 20,000,000 
 
 In 1925 it will be 40,000,000 
 
 In 2000 do 80,000,000 
 
 In 2075 do 160,000,000 
 
 In 2095 (interval of 20 years) 200,000,000 
 
 It hence appears that, supposing both races to have free Prpspeci* 
 space for expansion, the Anglo-Saxon population in 220 of Amencd 
 years from the present time will amount to 2816 millions, 
 while the Spanish-Indian population will only have multi- 
 plied to 200 millions, or one-fourteenth fart of the other. 
 It will be shown by and by, on probable grounds, that the 
 new continent, if fully peopled, could support 3600 millions, 
 and there would consequently be room enough for both; but 
 long before this density is attained the two races will inevi- 
 tably come into collision. In new settlements, where the 
 best lands are invariably first occupied and the inferior 
 neglected, the population is always thinly diffused. The 
 Anglo-Saxons will therefore crowd to the richer fields of 
 the south, while millions of acres of their own poorer lands 
 are still untenanted ; for we may rest assured that before 
 cultivation is extended to the third-rate soils on the north 
 side of the boundary, means will be found to appropriate 
 the first-rate soils on the south side. These may be acquired 
 by purchase like the lands of Louisiana, or by conquest 
 like those of New Mexico and California, but in one way 
 or another they will be acquired. Nearly forty years ago 
 M. de Tocqueville calculated that along the great space 
 from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian lakes the whius 
 were advancing over the wilderness at an average rate of 
 17 miles per annum, and that enlightened observer was 
 powerfully impressed by the grandeur and solemnity of 
 this deluge of men, for ever swelling and flowing onward,
 
 t>BOSPECTS.] 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 71<- 
 
 lents. 
 
 to the west, tie south,- and the north, as " driven by the 
 hand of God." Since he wrote the rate of progress has 
 perhaps doubled, and every year will quicken its pace. If, 
 then, we take a glance at the state of America at any 
 future period, say 220 years hence (a.d. 2095), we must take 
 the ratio of increase of the two civilised races as the prime 
 element of our calculation. We may assume that the 
 whole continent, from Behring's Straits and Hudson's Bay 
 to Cape Horn, will be divided between the two races in 
 some such proportion as their rate of growth indicates — it 
 may be 10, 15, or 20 to 1. Supposing them to maintain a 
 separate existence, the weaker race will probably be driven, 
 like the Welsh before the English, into the mountainous and 
 inhospitable regions. On the other hand, it is possible, and 
 not improbable, that the smaller population may be absorbed 
 into the mass of the greater, be incorporated with it, and 
 adopt its language. The result, like other things in the 
 womb of time, may be modified by causes yet unseen ; but 
 in whatever shape it may present itself, there is little risk in 
 predicting that the Anglo-Saxon race is destined bj its 
 superior intelligence and energy to 'rule the New World 
 from end to end. American statesmen now speak of the 
 whole continent as the heritage of their people. 
 TJm£u1 soil Paradoxical as the fact may appear, we are satisfied that 
 in New and the new continent, though less than half the size of the old, 
 Old Conti- contains a t least an equal quantity of useful soil and much 
 more than an equal amount of productive power. America 
 is indebted for this advantage to its comparatively small 
 breadth, which brings nearly all its interior within reach of 
 the fertilising exhalations of the ocean. In the old conti- 
 nent, owing to its great extent from east to west, the cen- 
 tral parts, deprived of moisture, are almost everywhere de- 
 serts ; and a belt round the western, southern, and eastern 
 shores, comprises nearly all that contributes to the support 
 of man. How much fruitful land, for instance, is there in 
 continental Asia? If we draw a line from the Gulf of 
 Cutch (near the Indus) to the head of the Yellow Sea, we 
 cut off India and China, with the intervening Birman em- 
 pire and the southern valleys of Thibet ; and this space, 
 which comprises only about one-fifth of the surface of Asia, 
 embraces five-sixths of its productive power. Arabia, 
 Persia, Central Thibet, Western India, Chinese and Inde- 
 pendent Tartary are deserts, with scattered patches of use- 
 ful soil not amounting to the twentieth part of their extent. 
 Siberia, or Northern Asia, is little better, owing to aridity 
 and cold together. Anatolia, Armenia, the Punjab, and a 
 narrow strip along the 'western shores of the Pacific Ocean, 
 north as far as the 60th parallel, compose the only valuable 
 agricultural territory beyond India and China. Europe, 
 which is merely the western margin of Asia, is all fruitful in 
 the south ; but on the north its fruitf ulness terminates at the 
 COth or 62d parallel. Africa has simply a border of useful 
 soil round three-fourths of its sea-coast, with 3om'e detached 
 portions, of tolerably good land in' its interior. Of the 
 31,000,000 of square miles which these three continents 
 occupy, we cannot find, after some calculation, that the pro- 
 ductive soil constitutes so much as one-third, and of that 
 third a part is but poor. 
 
 Now, in estimating the useful soil in America we reject — 
 1. Most of the region north of the latitude of 53°, amounting 
 to 2,600,000 square miles ; 2. A belt of barren land about 
 300 miles broad by 1000 in length, or 300,000 square miles, 
 lying on the east side of the Rocky Mountains; 3. A belt of 
 arid land of similar extent situated on the east side of the 
 Andes, between' 24° and 40° of south latitude; 4. Tie desert 
 shore of Peru, equal to 100,000 square miles; 5. An extent 
 of 100,000 square miles for the arid country of Lower Cali- 
 fornia and Sonora ; and 6. An extent of 500,000 square 
 miles for the summits of the Andes and the south extremity 
 of Patagonia. These make an aggregate of 3,900,000 
 
 square miles; and this, deducted from 13,900,000, leaves 
 10,000,000 square miles as the quantity of useful soil in 
 the New World. 
 
 The productive powers of the soil depend on two circum- 
 stances, heat and moisture; and these increase as we 
 approach the equator. Now, it appears that the produc- 
 tive or rather nutritive powers o' the soil will be pretty 
 correctly indicated by combining the ratios of the heat and 
 the moisture, expressing the former of these in degrees of 
 the centigrade scale. Something, we know, depends on tha 
 distribution of the heta through the different seasons; but as 
 we do not aim at minute accuracy, this may be overlooked 
 
 Latitude. Inches of Rain. Mean Heat. Product. Eatlo. 
 
 60 16 7 112 4 
 
 45 29 14 406 15 
 
 96 28 2688 100 
 
 Thus, if the description of food were a matter of indiffer- 
 ence, the same extent of ground which supports four persons 
 at the latitude of 60°, would support 15 at the latitude of 
 45°, and 100 at the equator. But the food preferred will 
 not always be that which the land yields in greatest abund- 
 ance; and another most important qualifying circumstance 
 must be considered— it is labour which renders the ground 
 fruitful, and the power of the human frame to sustain labour 
 is greatly diminished in hot climates. We shall therefore 
 consider the capacity of the land to support population as 
 proportional to the third power of the cosine (or radius of 
 gyration) of the latitude. It will therefore stand thus to 
 round numbers : — 
 
 Latitude, 0' 15° 30" 45' 60" 
 
 Productiveness, 100 90 65 35 12J 
 
 In England the density of population is about 389 per- increase 
 sons per square mile ; but England is in some measure the ^ v n opa> 
 workshop of the world, and supports, by her foreign trade, 
 a greater- population than her soil can nourish. In France 
 the density of population is about 1.77 ; in Germany it varies 
 from 100 to 200. On these grounds, we may assume that 
 the number of persons which a square mile can properly sus- 
 tain without generating the pressure of a redundant popula- 
 tion is 150 at the latitude of 50°, and 26 is the sum which 
 expresses the productiveness of this parallel. Then taking, 
 for the sake of simplicity, 35 as the index of the productive- 
 ness of the useful soil beyond 30° in America, and 85 as that 
 of the country within the parallel of 30° on each side of the 
 equator, we have about 4,000,000 square miles, each capable 
 of supporting 200 persons, and 5,700,000 square miles, each 
 capable of supporting 490 person. It follows that if the 
 natural resources of America were fully developed it would 
 afford sustenance to 3,600,000,000 of inhabitants, a number 
 nearly five times as great as the entire mass of human beings 
 now existing upon the globe 1 
 
 Alphabetical Contents. 
 
 nc. 
 
 Aborigines, 686. 
 
 Alaska, 711. 
 
 Amazon, 674. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon race. 
 
 Antiquities, 692. 
 
 Andes, 670. 
 
 Araucanians, 701. 
 
 Area, 669. 
 
 Argentine Republic, 713. 
 
 Aztecs, 695. 
 
 Barrows, 692. 
 
 Birds, 6S4. 
 
 Bolivia, 713. 
 
 Botany, 684. 
 
 Brazil empire, 710, 712; 
 
 Indians. 702. 
 Canada, 711. 
 Carnivore. S. A, 682. 
 Central America, an. ient, 
 
 703. 
 Chili, 709, 713. 
 Climate, C. A., 680; N.A., 
 
 676, 680 ; S. A., 675. 
 Colombia, 713. 
 Colonisation, 708 
 Columbus, 707. 
 Discovery, European, 706. 
 Earthquakes, S. A»673. 
 Ecuador, 7U. 
 
 English settlements, 708. 
 Esquimaux. 690. 
 Ethnology, 685. 
 Fertility, 717. 
 Fishes, 684. 
 Foresta, 676. 
 FossU animals, 682. 
 Geology, N. A, 679; S.A., 
 
 671. 
 Gold, 716. 
 Guarania, 702. 
 Guatemala, 710, 714. 
 Havti, 714. 
 Indians, 686, 690. 
 Isthmus, central. 715. 
 Languages, 688; Peruvian, 
 
 700. 
 Mammalia, N-A 
 
 681. 
 Mexico, ancient, 
 
 Spanish. 710. 714. 
 Minerals, N. A., 680 
 
 ppl, 674. 
 Mountains. Brazil, 
 
 C. A, f.73; N. A. 
 
 677; S. A, 670. 
 New Granada, 710. 
 Nicaraguan iaUunus, 715 
 Panama, 715. 
 
 I;S.A, 
 694; 
 
 671; 
 . 674, 
 
 Patagonlans, 702. 
 
 Peru, ancient, 696 ; Span- 
 ish. 709, 713.' 
 
 Physical regions, 670. 
 
 Plateaux, 677. 
 
 Population, 716, 717. 
 
 Productiveness, 717. 
 
 Quadrumana, S. A, 68L 
 
 Kivers, 674. 
 
 Rocky mountains, 674, 
 677. 
 
 Rumlnantia. S. A, 682. 
 
 Russian America, 711. 
 
 Serpents. ' -4. 
 
 Spanish settlements, 707. 
 
 Spani?h-Indianrace, 716. 
 710. 
 
 Table-land, 677. 
 
 Toltec empire, 705. 
 
 Tolteeans, 691. 
 
 Trade win : 
 
 United States 711 
 
 Venezuela, 712. 
 
 Volcanoes. Mexico, JtV74 
 S. A, 673. 
 
 Votan. 704. 
 
 West Indies, 714. 
 
 Whitney, Professor, 6S8 
 
 Zoology, 68L
 
 71b 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 I. — Introductory. 
 The literature of the United States, while still half our 
 own, is pervaded, to a degree not easily estimated, by a 
 foreign element The relationship between Englishmen 
 and Americans, making them ignorant of their mutual 
 ignorance, operates against the soundness of their judg- 
 ment on each other's work Community of speech, which 
 ought to be a bond of union, is often a medium of offence; 
 for it dispenses with a study of the language, and in 
 studying a language wa learn something also of the 
 habits and social histories which are reflected in, and 
 serve to interpret, distinctly alien literatures. Facility of 
 travel, making it easy to acquire first impressions, is a 
 temptation to such hasty estimates as many of the most 
 accomplished Americans have formed of England, and 
 many of the most accomplished Englishmen have formed 
 of America. The least satisfactory works of some of their 
 foremost writers, as Mr Hawthorne's Old Heme and Mr 
 Emerson's English Traits, are those associated with their 
 transatlantic experiences. But of the mistakes on both 
 sides, ludicrous and grave, we have had perhaps the larger 
 share. Few Americans have ever so misconceived a 
 British statesman as we misconceived Mr Lincoln, or gone 
 so far astray in regard to any crisis of our history as we 
 did in reference to the moving springs and results of their 
 Civil War. The source of this greater ignorance lies not 
 so much in greater indifference as in greater difficulty. 
 England is one, compact and stable. The United States 
 are many, vast, various, and in perpetual motion. An old 
 country is a study, but a new country i3 a problem. 
 Antiquity is brought to our firesides in the classics, till 
 Athens and Kbme 
 
 " To us are nothing novel, nothing strange." 
 
 We are more familiar with the Acropolis than with the 
 Western Capitol — with Mt. Soracte than with the Catskills. 
 Our scholars know more about Babylon than about Chicago. 
 Dante immortalises for us the Middle Age ; Plantagenet 
 England is revived in Chaucer ; the inner life of modern 
 England has a voice in Tennyson and the Brownings. 
 Where is the poet who will reveal to us " the secrets of a 
 land," in some respects indeed like our own, but separated 
 in other respects by differences which the distance of 3000 
 miles of ocean only half represents ; which, starting on 
 another basis, has developed itself with energies hitherto 
 unknown in directions hitherto unimagined? Who will 
 become the interpreter of a race which has in two centuries 
 diffused itself over a continent, the resources of which are 
 not more than half discovered, and which has to absorb 
 within itself and harmonise the discordant elements of 
 other races for whom the resources of the Old World are 
 well-nigh exhausted? Caret vote sacro; but it does not 
 want poetical aspirations as well as practical daring : 
 
 " This land o' ourn I tell ye's gut to be 
 A better country than man ever see ; 
 1 feel my sperit swellin' with a cry 
 That seems to say, ' Break forth and prophesy.' 
 strange New World, thet yet wast never young, 
 "Whose youth from thee by gripin' want was wrung, 
 Brown foundlin o' the woods, whose baby bed 
 "Was prowled round by the Iujun's cracklin' tread, 
 An" who grew'st strong thru' shifts an' wants an' pains 
 Nursed by stern men with empires in their brains." 
 
 Q- — Conditions and Characteristics of American 
 Literature. 
 The number of writers who have acquired some amount 
 
 of well-founded reputation in the United States is startling. 
 The mere roll of their names would absorb a great part of 
 the space here available for an estimate of the works 
 which best represent them. Mr GrisN old informs us that 
 he has in his own library more than 700 volumes of native 
 novels and tales, his list of "remarkable men" is liko 
 Homer's catalogue of ships. Almost every Yankee towa 
 has indeed its local representatives of literature, reflecting 
 in prose or verse the impulses and tendencies of the time. 
 But while America has given birth to. mure than a fair 
 proportion of eminent theologians, jurists, economists, and 
 naturalists, hardly any great modern country, excepting 
 Russia, has in the same number of years produced fewer 
 works of general interest likely to become classical j and 
 Bishop Berkeley's prophecy of another golden ago of arts in 
 the Empire of the West still awaits fulfilment. This fart, 
 mainly attributable to obvious historic causes, is frankly 
 recognised by her own best authors, one of whom has 
 confessed — " From Washington, proverbially the city of 
 magnificent distances, through all its cities, states, and 
 territories, ours is a country of beginnings, of projects, of 
 designs, of expectations." The conditions under which 
 the communities of the New World were established, and 
 the terms on which they have hitherto existed, have been 
 unfavourable to Art. The religious and commercial en- 
 thusiasms of the first adventurers to her shores, supplying 
 themes for the romancers of a later age, were themselves 
 antagonistic to romance. The spirit which tore down the 
 aisles of St Regulus, and was revived in England in a 
 reaction against music, painting, and poetry, the Pilgrim 
 Fathers bore with them in the " Mayflower," and planted 
 across the seas. The life of the early colonists left no 
 leisure for refinement. They had to conquer nature before 
 admiring it, to feed and clothe before analysing them- 
 selves. The ordinary cares of existence beset them to the 
 exclusion of its embellishments. While Dryden, Pope, 
 and Addison were polishing stanzas and adding grace to 
 English prose, they were felling trees, navigating rivers, 
 and fertilising valleys. We had time, amid our wars, to 
 form new measures, to balance canons of criticism, to dis- 
 cuss systems of philosophy ; with them 
 
 " The need that pressed sorest 
 Was to vanquish the seasons, the ocean, the forest.' 
 
 The struggle for independence, absorbing the whole 
 energies of the nation, developed military genius, states- 
 manship, and oratory, but was hostile to what is called 
 polite literature. The people of the United States have 
 had to act their Iliad, and they have not had time to sing 
 it. They have had to piece together the disjecta membra of 
 various races, sects, and parties, in a TravronwXiov ttoXltciCiv. 
 Their genius is an unwedded Vulcan, melting down all 
 the element* of civilisation in a gigantic furnace. An 
 enlightened people in a new land, " where almost every- 
 one has facilities elsewhere unknown for making his 
 fortune," it is not to be wondered that the pursuit of 
 wealth has been their hading impulse ; nor is it perhap3 
 to be regretted that much of their originality has been 
 expended upon inventing machines instead of manufactur- 
 ing verses, or that their religion itself has taken a practical 
 turn. One of their own authors confesses that the " com- 
 mon New England life is still a lean impoverished life, in 
 distinction from a rich and suggestive one ; " but it is 
 there alone that the speculative and artistic tendencies of 
 recent years have found room and occasion for develop- 
 ment Our travellers find a peculiar charm in the manly 
 force and rough adventurous spirit of the Far West, but
 
 AMERICAN LITE RAT QUE 
 
 719 
 
 the poetry of the pioneer is unconscious. Bret Hart, 
 Hay, and Joaquin Miller have caught the spirit of the 
 new and energetic West, and have embalmed in stirring 
 lyrics the heroic age of the pioneer and the miner. The 
 literature of the South, on the other hand, is the fruit 
 rather of leisure and of culture than the rugged devel- 
 opment of a stern struggle with natural forces. Some 
 of the sweetest poetry ever written has been traced by 
 Southern pens, and the most distinctively American 
 writer whom we can call to mind— preeminent alike in 
 Action and in poetry — Edgar Allan Poe, was educated 
 in and spent the greater part of his too brief life in the 
 South, his productions appearing almost exclusively 
 in Southern magazines. In the higher branches of 
 culture the South long reigned supreme, and from her 
 soil sprang the authors of the organic law, the immor- 
 tal Declaration of Independence, the state papers 
 which have become embodied in the history of the 
 land. Her sons, inheriting great names and placed 
 above the need of continued literary labor for the sup- 
 ply of their daily needs, devoted themselves to the 
 cultivation of oratory and the att of government, and 
 for three quarters of a century practically controlled 
 the executive, the judicial, and the legislative branches 
 of the government. The new South of to-day gives 
 every assurance of a rapid and gratifying development 
 of literary production distinctively American, and pre- 
 senting a faithful portraiture of life and manners 
 which we would not willingly see pass away unre- 
 corded, and which is full of interest to American read- 
 ers. The names of George W. Cable, Opie Read and 
 others will serve to illustrate this agreeable fact. 
 
 When we remember that the Romans lived under the 
 sky of Italy, that the character of the modern Swiss is 
 like that of the modern Dutch, we shall be on our 
 guard against attributing too much to the influence of 
 external nature. Another race than the Anglo Saxon 
 would doubtless have made another America; but we 
 cannot avoid the belief that the climate and soil of 
 America have bad something to do in moulding the 
 Anglo-Saxon race, in making its features approximate 
 to those of the Red Indian, and stamping it with a new 
 character. An electric atmosphere, and a temperature 
 ranging at some seasons from 50° to 100° in twenty- 
 four hours, have contributed largely to engender that 
 restlessness which is so conspicuous " a note - ' of the 
 the people. A territory which seems boundless as the 
 ocean has been a material agent in fostering an ambi- 
 tion unbridled by traditionary restraints. When 
 European poets and essayists write of nature, it is to 
 contrast her permanence with the mutahility of human 
 life. We talk of the everlasting hills, the perennial 
 fountains, the ever-recurring seasons. "Damnatamen 
 celeres reparant coelestia lunae — nos ubi decidimus' — 
 In the same spirit Byron contemplates the sea 'and 
 Tennyson a running stream. In America, on the other 
 hand, it is the extent of nature that is dwelt upon— 
 the infinity of 6pace, rather than the infinity of time, 
 is opposed to the limited rather than to the transient 
 existence of man. Nothing strikes a traveler in that 
 country so much as this feature of magnitude. The 
 rivers like rolling lakes, the lakes which are inland 
 seas, the forests, the plains, Niagara itself, with its 
 world of waters, owe their magnificence to their 
 immensity ; and by a transference, not unnatural 
 although fallacious, the Americans generally have 
 modeled their ideas of art after the same standard of 
 size. Their wars, their hotels, their language, are 
 pitched on the huge scale of their distances. 
 "Orphaned of the solemn inspiration of antiquity,"' 
 they gain in surface what they have lost in age ; in 
 hope, what they have lost in memory. 
 
 " That untravelled world whose margin fades 
 
 For ever and for ever when they move," 
 
 is all their own and they have the arena and the expec- 
 tations of a continent to set against the culture and 
 
 the ancestral voices of a thousand years. Where Eng< 
 lishmen remember.. Americans anticipate. In thought 
 and action they are ever rushing into empty spaces. 
 Except in a few of the older States, a family mansion 
 is rarely rooted to the same town or district ; and the 
 tie which unites one generation with another being 
 easily broken, the want of continuity. in life breeds a 
 want of continuity in ideas. The American mind 
 delights in speculative and practical, social.and polit- 
 ical experiments, as Shakerism, Mormonism, Panta- 
 gamy ; and a host of authors, from Emerson to Walt 
 Whitman, have tried to glorify every mode of human 
 life from the transcendental to the brutish. The habit 
 of instability, fostered by the rapid vicissitudes of their 
 commercial life and the melting of one class into 
 another, drifts away all landmarks but that of a tem- 
 porary public opinion ; and where there is little time 
 for verification and the study of details, men satisfy 
 their curiosity with crude generalisations. The great 
 literary fault of the Americans thus comes to be impa- 
 tience. The majority of them have never learnt that 
 "raw haste is half-sister to delay;'" that " works dooe 
 least rapidly, art most cherishes." The makeshifts' 
 which were at first a necessity with the Northern set- 
 tlers have grown into a custom. They adopt ten half 
 measures instead of one whole one; and, beginning 
 gravely, like the grandiloquent preambles to their 
 Constitution, end sometimes in the sublime, some- 
 times in the ridiculous. 
 
 ■ Many of the artistic as well as many of the social 
 peculiarities of the United States may doubtless be 
 traced to their form of government. After the most 
 obvious wants of life are provided for, Democracy stim- 
 ulates the production of literature. When the heredi- 
 tary privileges of rank have ceased to be recognised, 
 the utility, if not the beauty, of knowledge becomes 
 conspicuous. The intellectual world is spurred into 
 activity; there is- a race in which the prize is to the 
 swift. Everyone tries to draw the eyes of others by 
 innumerable imperfect efforts with a large insignifi- 
 cant sum total. Art is abundant and inferior: white- 
 washed wood and brick pass for marble, and rhythmi- 
 cal spasms for poetry. It is acknowledged that the 
 prevailing defect of Aristocratic literatures is formal- 
 ity; they are apt to be precise and restricted. A Dem- 
 cratic literature runs the risk of lawlessness, inaccur- 
 acy, and irreverence. From both these extremes the 
 Athenian, the Florentine, and the Elizabethan classics 
 were preserved by the artistic inspirations of a flexible 
 tradition. The one is exemplified in the so-called Aug-- 
 ustan ages of letters, in the France of Louis XIV. and 
 the England of Queen Anne, when men of genius, car- 
 ing more to perfect their style tha'n to establish truth, 
 more to captivate the taste than to st ; r the passions, 
 moved with dipt wings in a charmed circle of thought. 
 The other has its best illustration in the leaders of our 
 own romantic schools, but its most conspicuous devel- 
 opment in America; a country which is not only dem- 
 ocratic but youthful without the modesty of youth, 
 unmellowed by the past and untrammelled by author- 
 ity, where the - spirit of adventure is unrestrained by 
 feelings of personal loyalty — where order and regular- 
 ity of all kinds are apt to be misnamed subservience — 
 where vehemence, vigour, and wit are common, good 
 taste, profundity, and imagination rare; — a country 
 whose untamed material infects the people, and diverts 
 them from the task of civilization to the desire of con- 
 quest. 
 
 American literature is cramped on another side 
 by the spirit of imitation. It has been in great 
 measure an offshoot or prolongation of our own. As 
 English sculptors study at Rome and Naples, the 
 most prominent Western artists in every department 
 have almost invariably inaugurated their careers by 
 traveling in Europe, and writing descriptions of the 
 foreign lands where they have found their richest intel-
 
 720 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 lertua! culture. Thoy have Bought the sources, the themes, 
 the rules, and the sanctions of their art in the Old World, 
 and their highest ambition, like that of all colonists, has 
 hitherto been to receive a favourable verdict, not from the 
 country of their birth, but from that of their ancestors. 
 Even Franklin — in some respects an American of the 
 Americans — was in philosophy a practical disciple of 
 Locke, as Jefferson was of the French Revolution. " The 
 literary genius of Great Britain," says Do Tocqucville, "still 
 darts its rays into the recesses of the West. . . . The small 
 number of men who write aire English in substance, and 
 Btill more in form." Of the great number of men who 
 have written in America since the date of this criticism, 
 only a few have written much to confute it. Washington 
 Irving, who, in the course of four distinct visits, spent 
 much of his life in Europe, only escapes from the influence 
 of Addison in his Knickerbocker and Dutch sketches. On 
 land at least, Cooper — though in many respects an original 
 writer — everywhere remembers Scott As in the works of 
 the Scotch novelist, the semi-barbarous feudal spirit is repre- 
 sented in conflict with modern law, in those of the Ameri- 
 can the enterprise of New England is struggling against 
 the ruggedness of nature and a savage life. The writers 
 of the last thirty years have been making strenuous, some- 
 times spasmodic, efforts after originality, but they, are still 
 affected by transatlantic associations. *In the style of Mr 
 Motley we cannot help observing the stamp of Carlyle. 
 The Transcendental movement begun by Emerson is ad- 
 mitted to have derived its first impulse from Sartor 
 Resartut ; and among the eccentricities that mark its 
 followers none is more remarkable than their mania for 
 German and Oriental quotations. The tyranny which five 
 centuries' load of classics, in the same tongue, exercises over 
 the mind of a nation not yet a century old is very much 
 strengthened by the non-existence of an international 
 copyright, which leads to the intellectual market being 
 glutted with stolen goods. As long as a publisher in 
 Boston or New York can .republish a good book written 
 in Edinburgh or London without paying for it, he is likely 
 to prefer an undertaking which involves no risk and com- 
 paratively no outlay, to another which involves both; that 
 u, the republication of the English to the first publication 
 of an American book ; for the English book has already 
 attained its reputation, and its popularity in America is 
 secured, while the American book; for the copyright of 
 which he has to pay, has, except in the case of a few authors, 
 still to win its spurs. If the people of the United States 
 had spoken a language of their own, it 13 probable they 
 would have gained in originality; as it is, they are only 
 now beginning to sign their intellectual declaration of 
 independence, — a fact confessed among the latest words of 
 their own greatest prose artist : — " Bred in English habits 
 of thought as most of us are, we have not yet modified our 
 instincts to the necessities of our new modes of life. Our 
 philosophers have not yet taught us what is best, nor have 
 our poets sung to U3 what is most beautiful in the kind of 
 life that we must lead, and therefore we still read the old 
 English wisdom, and harp upon the ancient strings." 
 
 JJL — Earlier American Literature. 
 
 We may trace the influence of the foregoing controlling 
 tacts or tendencies, subject to various phases of personal 
 power, through the three great periods under which Anglo- 
 American history obviously falls: — The Colonial, the 
 Revolutionary, and that of the 19th Century. 
 
 1. The Colonial Period. — Little of interest in the world 
 of letters has come down to us from the 17th century in 
 the West. Sandvs's Ovid, translated on the banks of the 
 Jamas' River, dedicated to Charles L, and published 1626, 
 
 is worthy of note as the first contribution to English 
 literature frcn America. About the same date the Welsh 
 Puritan Vaughan sent home his Golden Fleece from New- 
 foundland, and Captain Smith gave to the world his 
 descriptions of Virginia. But the earliest verse that has a 
 real claim to be regarded as American is a doggerel list, 
 by an anonymous author, of New England's annoyances, 
 which, if wo remember the date — a generation after 
 Spenser had celebrated " the Indian Peru " in his Faery 
 Queeh — will confirm our view of the backwoodsman's want 
 of leisure for " polishing his stanza:" — 
 
 " Tho place where we live is a wilderness wood, 
 "Where grass is much wanting that's fruitful and good 
 • • • • 
 
 If fresh meat be wanting to fill up our dish, 
 We have carrots and pumpkins, and turnips and fish; 
 Ws have pumpkins at morning and pumpkins at noon, 
 If it was not for pumpkins we should be undone." 
 
 A little later we have a Puritan version of the Psalms, the 
 worst of many bad; and about 1650 the poems of Anne 
 Bradstreet and Benjamin Thomson, worthy of mention, 
 but scarcely readable. In prose are relics of tho sermons 
 and controversies of Roger Williams and John Cotton and 
 Eliot, the apostle of the Indians, with the ponderous 
 Magnalia and witch denunciations of Cotton Mather. 
 The main literary event of the century was the founda- 
 tion (1636) of Harvard diversity. Yale College followed 
 at a long interval, and subsequently Princeton College, and 
 Brown University (Rhode Island). In all new countries in- 
 dustrial and commercial interests are at first the strongest. 
 The febrile activity produced by fear of a sterile future leave* 
 little room for speculative imagination. But in the New 
 World, colonised in part by adventurers, in part by reli- 
 gious refugees and enthusiasts, another influence was from 
 the first at work. When her solitudes began to give place 
 to cities, the brains of her people were expended on the 
 farm or the exchange with a zeal materially modified by 
 the spirit and formula? of the faith which led the founders 
 of the Northern States across the sea, and continued to 
 infuse a religious element into their enterprises. This 
 element, which elevated the settlers of New England above 
 ordinary emigrants, adding to their strength and giving a 
 faster dye to their morality, was yet, in its original form, 
 no more favourable to freedom or variety of thought than 
 the industrialism by which it was surrounded. But it 
 begat and fostered the Puritan theological literature which 
 was concentrated in the massive yet incisive treatises and 
 discussions of Jonathan Edwards of Connecticut — .(1703- Edward*. 
 1758) — who, if not, as asserted by American panegyrists, 
 " the first man of the world during the second quarter of 
 the 18th century," was yet, by the clear vigour of his 
 thought and the force of its expression, one of the fore- 
 most figures of that era. An estimate of his rank as a 
 theologian belongs to a distinct branch of the history of 
 American literature. It i3 enough here to refer to the 
 testimony of all competent judges as to tho singular 
 lucidity of his style, and to that of his contemporaries as 
 to the fervour of his eloquence and the modest simplicity 
 of his life. Passages of his occasional writings, as the 
 description of his future wife, evince a grace and sweet- 
 ness of temper not always associated with the views of 
 which he was and remains the most salient English advo- 
 cate. A slightly junior contemporary of Edwards, the 
 exponent kot' i£oxfp of the other — that is, the secular side 
 of early American life — was destined to see the end of one 
 and play a prominent part in opening another era of his 
 country's history. Benjamin Franklin, as long, as Utili 
 tarian philosophy endures, will be a name to conjure with. 
 It is clarum et venerabile, though its owner was endowed 
 with as little as possible for a great man of the " faculty 
 divine." Franklin's autobiography, the details of which,
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 721 
 
 need not find place here, is a3 romantic as the life of an 
 onromantic person can be. The incidents of the young 
 candle-moulder — the printer's apprentice — the ballad- 
 monger wisely discouraged by the wise paternal criticism, 
 " Versemakers are generally beggars" — the runaway, 
 eating rolls on the Philadelphia street — his struggling life 
 in London with Ralph of the Dunciad — his return, " cor- 
 recting the erratum " of his infidelities by marriage with 
 his old Pennsylvanian friend — his success as a printer, 
 economist, statesman, and diplomatist — his triumphs in 
 natural and political philosophy, clenched, in Turgot's 
 line, adapted from Manilius — 
 
 " Eripuit caelo fulmen, eceptrumque tyranma " — 
 
 his examination before the House of Commons, resulting 
 in the repeal of the Stamp Act, when Lord Chatham spoke 
 of Tiim as one who was " an honour not to England only, 
 but to human nature " — his signature of the Declaration of 
 Independence — his ministry in France and popular triumph 
 with Voltaire, who said, " Je n'ai pu register au desir de 
 parler un moment la langue de Franklin" — the acclamations 
 of shouting multitudes on his return home — Mirabeau's 
 announcement of his death (in 1790, in his eighty-fourth 
 year) to the Assembly — " the genius which has freed 
 America, and poured a flood of light over Europe, has 
 returned to the bosom of the divinity " — are elementary 
 facts of schoolboy history. They are the records of the 
 successive stages of the greatest success achieved in modern 
 times by the genius of common-sense, integrity, and in- 
 dustry indomitable. Franklin's experiments and physical 
 discoveries form a chapter in the history of science ; but 
 half of his fame even in this field is due to the precision 
 and clearness of the- manner in which they are announced. 
 *' The most profound observations," says Lord Jeffrey, 
 " are suggested by him as if they were the most obvious 
 and natural way of accounting for phenomena." The 
 same literary merit characterises the financial pamphlets 
 and treatises which first brought him into celebrity. Both 
 are marked by the same spirit, — the love of the Useful, 
 which was hi3 passion through life. Franklin follows 
 Bacon, to an extreme opposed to that of the Platonists, in 
 decrying abstractions. Archytas is said to have apologised 
 for inventing the arch. Franklin is ashamed to have 
 wasted time over pure mathematics in his " magical 
 squares." His aim is everywhere to bring down philo- 
 sophy, like the lightning, from heaven to earth, "illustrans 
 commoda vitce." His ethics — those of Confucius or the 
 Seven Sages, modified by the experience and the circum- 
 stances of a later age — are embodied in the most famous of 
 popular annuals, Poor Richard's Almanack, in which for 
 twenty-six years he taught his readers (rising to the 
 number of 10,000) "the way to be healthy and wealthy 
 and wise," by following simple utilitarian rules, set forth 
 in plain incisive prose and rhyme, rendered attractive by 
 a vein of quaint humour and the homely illustrations 
 always acceptable to his countrymen. The same train of 
 thought appears in the " Whistle," among the letters from 
 Passy, where his persistent deification of thrift appears 
 side by side with graceful compliments to Mesdames 
 Helvetius and Brillon, records of the aftermath of senti- 
 ment that often marks a green old age. Franklin remains 
 the most practical of philosophers in perhaps the most 
 practical of nations. 
 
 2. The Revolution, Period. — It has been often remarked 
 that periods of political national crisis are more favourable 
 to the preparation than to the actual production of litera- 
 ture. Wordsworth's assertion, that poetry is the outcome 
 of emotion recollected in tranquillity, applies with slight 
 modification also to artistic prose. The demands of instant 
 action cast the reflective powers into abeyance, but a 
 
 stormy era is the seed-tune of a later harvest. There is 
 only one exercise of the imagination that it directly stimu- 
 lates — that of the orator ; and the conditions of his success, 
 save in a few instances, make a drain oh his posthumous 
 reputation. In reading even the greatest speeches of the 
 past, divested of the living presence which gave them 
 colour and force, we find it difficult to account for the 
 effect which they are known to have produced. They are 
 the ashes or the fossils of genius. Little that is of per- 
 manent literary value is left us of the harangues that 
 were the trumpet-calls of patriotism during the American' 
 Revolutionary War. The triumphs of Patrick Henry, who 
 " wielded at will that young democraty," are commemor- 
 ated in the judicious biography of Wirt, but few of his 
 orations are accurately preserved ; and of the speeches of 
 James Otis, which were compared to " flames of fire," ws 
 have mainly a tradition. His pamphlet (1762), entitled 
 A Vindication of the conduct of the House of Representa- 
 tives, is considered to contain the germ of the Declaration 
 of Independence. Among other considerable efforts of 
 eloquence, those of Fisher Ames are worthy of note as 
 being directed in great measure against the excesses of 
 democracy. The master-minds of the era were the states- Statesmen 
 men and jurists, who fought for the free soil, sunk the 
 deep foundations, and reared the superstructure of the new 
 Commonwealth. . The history of American law is a distinct 
 theme. It must suffice here to mention, as c l a imin g recog- 
 nition in the field of letters, Washington himself, in his WashiDg- 
 clear and incisive though seldom highly-polished corre- ton. 
 spondence ; his biographer John Marshall, chief justice of Marshall 
 the supreme court from 1801 to 1835, one of the early 
 pilots of the state, who left behind him a noble and 
 stainless name, and laid down the first principles of that 
 international code afterwards elaborated by Wheaton; 
 Madison, John Jay, the elder Adams, and Alexander 
 Hamilton, during the war Washington's " most confiden- Hamilton, 
 rial aid," afterwards the presiding genius of the movement 
 represented by the Federalist, the organ of the anti- 
 democratic party. To this he contributed three-fourths of 
 the material, marked, as are all his papers and speeches, by 
 originality of thought, breadth of view, and purity of style. 
 As secretary of the treasury, he became .perhaps the greatest 
 of financiers. The general judgment of his countrymen 
 acquiesces in the terms of the tribute paid to his memory by 
 Guizot. " He must be classed among the men who have 
 best known the vital principles ' and fundamental con- 
 ditions of a government worthy of its name and mission." 
 Of Hamilton's numerous historical sketches, the most 
 celebrated is his letter to Colonel Laurens giving an 
 account of the fate of Major AndriS, in which refinement 
 of feeling and inflexible impartiality of view are alike 
 conspicuous. The great and unhappily the bitter anta- Jeffersoa 
 gonist of the Federalists is one of the most conspicuous 
 figures in the history of American thought Thomas 
 Jefferson (1743-1826), President from 1801 to 1809, is the 
 representative in chief of the revolutionary spirit of his 
 age and country. While his rival compeers stood firmly 
 on the defensive against the encroachments of an arbitrary 
 government, his desire was, in politics as in speculation 
 generally, to break with the past Inspired with patriotic 
 zeal by Patrick Henry's denunciations of the Stamp 
 Act, he came forward prominently in 1769 as a member 
 cf the Colonial Assembly of Virginia, In 1776 the main 
 part of the responsibility of drawing up the Declaration of 
 Independence fell upon him. In 1784 he was appointed 
 minister of the congress in Paris, where he spent the 
 greater part of six years, and brought back an admiration 
 for those phases of the French Revolution from which 
 the more temperate judgments of Hamilton and Fisher 
 Ames had recoiled. He threw himself heart and soul into
 
 722 
 
 AMERICAN LITE.RA T IT R E 
 
 the arms or the Democndic party, nnd in the constitutional 
 struggle that ensued his keener sense of tho direction 
 in which popular sympathies were tending, with the 
 weight of his half physical cnorgics, gave him tho ascend- 
 ancy over tho wider knov, 1 more far-seeing intel- 
 lects of his adversaries. Jeti'erson might be termed the 
 Danton of the West, but his forte lay not so much in oratory 
 as in political management and incisive vivacity. More 
 perhaps than any other great statesman of his age, he 
 aspired to be an author, to which title the best passages 
 in his Notes on Virgin ia, his Autobiography, and Con; 
 ence, give him a fair claim. His descriptions of scenery in 
 the first are always pleasing and generally graphic. His 
 sketches of Continental society are lively, and his occasional 
 flights of fancy, as the dialogue between the head and heart, 
 at least ingenious. His roligion and ethics wc.ro those of 
 hi* fiisnd Tom Taiiie and tho Encyclopedic 
 
 Winor The age of the Titans in transatlantic history abounds in minor 
 
 Tritera. literati, whose light effusions, mainly satirical or descriptive si 
 
 in prose and verse, throw a somewhat dim ami ragged lustre over 
 its graver page. The bulk of theso obvious rellcctions of the 
 manner and thought of Butler, Pope, and Swift, or of Gay, 
 and Shcnstone, are a penance to wade through, and scarce claim re- 
 membrance for their authors. A few stand out conspicuously by 
 the celebrity of the names with which they aro associated, or a 
 certain raciness and approach to originality in their style. Of these 
 the chief are :— The social caricatures of Judge Brackcnridge (who, 
 though born in Scotland, lived in Ameri ocy), and his 
 
 doggerel but vigorous lines on Bunker's Hill ; the once popular 
 humorous lyric entitled M'Finjal, by J. Trumbull, also the author 
 of The Progress of Dulness, in the Hudibrastic metre whii a 
 seems to have been used by imitators to show how intolerable it is 
 in any but the original hands ; the more flowing but on the whole 
 commonplace odes of Philip Freneau, including his patriotic hymns 
 to Washington, with the more musical lyrics th" "Wild Honeysai kle" 
 and the "Indian Death Song, "and his prose cut itled./'/n'cc to Authors; 
 the political satires of Mercy Warren, authoress of Things necessary 
 to a Woman (the obvious model of the more modern squib. Nothing 
 to JVear), and of a History of the Revolution, remembered only as 
 being the first in date ; the patriotic rhapsodies of Phillis Wheatley, 
 interesting as the production of a young ncgress brought from 
 Africa in 17G1, and soon afterwards sold in Boston to the mistress 
 from whom she took her name ; Francis Hopkinson's Battle of the 
 Kegs and his Pretty Story — a burlesipio closely fashioned after 
 Arbutbnot's John Bull— his New Poof , meaning the Ameri 
 stitution, and his satire on tho pedantry of the sciences entitled 
 the Salt Box; Joel Barlow's Hasty Pudding ; the humorous 
 of Man, by Quincy Adams, more prominent as a statesman than as 
 a poet ; and on a similar but higher platform the best of too large 
 a volume of verses, in which the " Triumph of Infidelity" (after the 
 manner of Cowper), the "Conquest of Canaan, "and "Coluni! 
 the leading pieces, by the amiable theologian Dr Timothy 1 
 Dwight's prose descriptions, as that of the Notch of the White Moun- 
 tains and the evening on Lake George, are superior in grace to his 
 efforts in rhyme. 
 Ballad The ballad literature of the revolution days is said to have at- 
 
 literature. traded the attention of Lord Chatham, less probably from its 
 intrinsic merit than from its faithful though rough embodiment of 
 the sentiment that not only moved over the surface, bi 
 tho depths of the national life. The anonymous popular literature 
 of a -country is the best "abstract and brief chronicle of the time" 
 in which it is produced. The songs current in America during this 
 era, inspired by the same spirit and pit 1" i in the same I 
 historically interesting and artistically monotonous. They celebrate 
 in rude verse the achievements of native heroes, like " Bold Haw- 
 thorne ;" or ridicule, like "Jack Brag," the British Lion, or, like the 
 " Fate of Burgoyne," the overthrow of vaulting ambition ; or, as in 
 " Wyoming Massacre," bewail the fate of the fallen ; or, as in " Free 
 America," celebrate with schoolboy huzzahs the triumph of the good 
 cause. Among the very rude nai ':'ms of the 
 
 "Yankee Doodle" is remarkable as having been an old Dutch 
 catch adapted into an English satirical chant, and adopted, with 
 conscious or unconscious irony, by the American troops. "Hail 
 Columbia," which as a poetical production takes even a lower rank 
 than "Rule Britannia," was a somewhat later production by 
 Joseph Hopkinson (1798); and the "Star-Spangled Banner" of 
 Francis S. Key is associated with the traditions of the second 
 British war. As inspired with the spirit of the 18th, though be- 
 longing in date to the early years of the 19th century, we may 
 mention in advance the " Pilgrim Fathers" of J. Pierpont, Wood- 
 worth's "Old Oaken Bucket," "Home, Sweet Home," by J. H. 
 Parne ; the humorous burlesque of J. G. Saxe. "Miss MacBride ;" 
 
 verses of the great painter and creditablo romancer Wcsh* 
 ington Allston, with the refrain " We urc one." 
 
 English philology and literature were during this period 
 represented by tho famous Lindlcy Murray, and Noah 
 Webster (1758-18 13), the author of the best dictionary of 
 our language that has appeared sinco Johnson'a In 
 Datura] the two Bertrams; Alexander Wilson the 
 
 omithcJ lubon, the literary glory of LouisL ins, 
 
 whose descriptions of auimate nature rival those of Buffon, 
 are illustrious names. 
 
 IV. — The Literature of the Nineteenth Century. 
 Prose Writings. 
 1. In a rapid estimate of the literature of this prolific 
 age we can only signalise its contributions to the several 
 
 es of physical and mental science. The United 
 
 have iluiing the last two generations been justly 
 proud of the names of Morton and Schoolcraft in ethnology, 
 of Bowditch in mathematics, of Sullivan and Dana in 
 chemistry and mineralogy. Their classical scholarship, 
 which hardly competes with that of England, has yet been 
 fairly maintained by Everett, Felton, Woolsey, Anthon, 
 and Robinson. Dr Marsh is an accomplished English 
 scholar, while Professor Whitney is a learned and accurate 
 
 :ist, whose researches iu Sanscrit are well known 
 and appreciated by European Orientalists. The mrta- 
 
 .1 schools of Locke and Reid aro nowhere better 
 represented than in America by Dr Bowen and Dr N. 
 Porter. The place of Marshall as a jurist has been 
 worthily filled by Chief-Justice Kent and Judge Story ; 
 the latter of whom ranks, by virtue of his essay on classical 
 studies and his graceful descriptions of natural scenery, 
 among the most accomplished of the numerous professional 
 men who have in the New World devoted their leisure 
 
 to lighter literature. 
 The inhabitants of the United States have always been Oraton. 
 noted for remarkable fluency, sometimes a super-fluency 
 of speech. The early years of the century were illustrated 
 by the fiery zeal of Randolph and the practical force and 
 occasional impassioned eloquence of Henry Clay. The 
 great political controversies inherited from the preceding 
 age found their most conspicuous popular exponents in 
 two leading minds laying claim to diverse kinds of great- 
 ness, and destined to be in almost incessant antagonism. 
 John C. Calhoun, the most illustrious representative of Calhous 
 the Southern States, of whose rights, real or imaginary, he 
 was during his life the foremost champion, was by educa- 
 tion and choice a professional statesman. Secretary of 
 War in 1817, and Vice-President of the Commonwealth in 
 1825, ho resigned the latter office on occasion of the dis- 
 pute about the tariff law in 1832, to become the leader 
 
 I )pposition ; and in vindicating the attitude of South 
 Carolina was the first to lay the strands of tho future 
 Secession war. The most accomplished modern apologist 
 for slavery, it is probable that he only hastened the conflict 
 between opposing principles which was sooner or later 
 le. Calhoun's eloquence, as attested by his audi- 
 tors and the numerous speeches and papers preserved in 
 the six volumes of his published works, was notable for its 
 earnestness and gravity, the terse polish of its manner, for 
 phic generalisations and analytical dialectic. His 
 prevailing sincerity and candour have made his memory 
 respected by those farthest removed from him in sentiment 
 
 nion. Daniel Webster, on the whole the grandest Webste$ 
 orator of the New World, w r as during the greater part of 
 his career the champion of Massachusetts and the assertor 
 of her policy. His defence of that State in the Senate 
 (1830) against General Hayneof Carolina, and his oratorical 
 duel with Calhoun (1838), resulting in tho temporary over- 
 throw of the doctrine of nullification, aro among the most
 
 A M E R I C A N LITERATURE 
 
 723 
 
 remarkable triumphs of debate in history. Smut of his 
 pleadings on criminal trials have an almost terrible power. 
 But his literary genius and richness of illustration found 
 freer scope in his famous appeal for the Greeks in 1824, 
 his great speech (1820) on the second centennial anni- 
 versary of the landing of the Pilgrims, or his address 
 (1825) on laying the corner-stone of Bunker Hill monu- 
 ment. Webster's eloquence, everywhere solid, massive, 
 and on great occasions glowing with a lurid light, is not 
 the mere record of half-forgotten strifes; it is "vital in 
 every part," and belongs to the permanent literature of his 
 country, in whose political arena he was during his life 
 perhaps the most powerful actor. The art of making 
 commemorative speeches, technically called " orations," 
 ha3 been cultivated in North America to excess. The 
 great master in this species of composition was Edward 
 Everett, distinguished by his early association with Lord 
 Byron in Greece, the high dignities — governor of Massa- 
 chusetts, minister to the court of St James's, and president 
 of Harvard — to which he attained, and by the variety of 
 his accomplishments. Mr Everett was for ten years a 
 useful member of Congress. In his literary work he 
 displayed an almost fatal fluency, having contributed to 
 the " North American Review," of which he was for some 
 time editor, upwards of a hundred articles in the space of 
 a few years. These articles are inevitably of unequal 
 merit, but they everywhere evince the ripe scholarship 
 of a highly cultivated mind. The volume by which he 
 is best remembered — twenty-seven Orations — published 
 in 1836, is marked by the same characteristics. Discoursing 
 on a wide range of subjects — among which the refrains are 
 America and Greece, the " Mayflower," the Progress of Dis- 
 covery, Patriotism, Reform, the Republic, Concord, Lex- 
 ington, and the inevitable Bunker Hill — these speeches 
 are always able, but seldom inspiring: carefully elaborated 
 and richly adorned, they are the production of the first of 
 rhetoricians rather than a genuine orator. 
 
 Among the remaining lawyers and statesmen, remarkably nume- 
 rous in the States, who have in the course of their professional 
 careers made highlv creditable contributions to literature, it may 
 suffice to mention H. Swinton Legare of Charleston, at one time a 
 student of law at Edinburgh, a prominent speaker in the House of 
 Representatives, afterwards President Tyler's attorney -general, who 
 published in the Southern Quarterly and New York Reviews a series 
 of masterly criticisms mainly relating to Greek and Roman litera- 
 ture ; J. P. Kennedy of Baltimore, a successful barrister and Con- 
 gressman, also a vigorous essayist and author of some remarkably 
 lively sketches of country life and manners in the Old Dominion ; 
 Richard H. Wilde, of Georgia, in which State, after surmounting 
 unusual difficulties with remarkable perseverance, he roso at the bar 
 to be attorney-general, author of the song entitled the "Lament of 
 the Captive," and of a Life of Tasso, displaying great research 
 and occasionally subtle criticism, written after, two years' residence 
 in Europe ; and, taking higher rank as an author, Richard Dana, a 
 barrister of the early years of the century, and adherent in politics of 
 the old Federalist party in the state. Dana became known in the 
 world of letters as the author of a Fourth of July Oration in 1814, 
 and somewhat later as the contributor to the North American 
 Review of appreciative and discriminating criticisms of the English 
 lake poets. In]S27hepublishedhisfantasticghoststoryofthe "Buc- 
 caneer" and other poems, to which he continued to add at intervals. 
 Many of his minor verses are characterised by remarkable grace, 
 but they want original force. Among contemporary politicians, 
 Mr Wendell Phillips is the only one who can be called a great orator ; 
 the ease and energy of his style at its best being rarely surpassed. 
 'But the speeches of Mr Sumner are eloquent, and his arrange- 
 ment of facts converging to clench his argument is often masterly. 
 
 2. History, as the reflection of philosophy on the states- 
 manship and the struggles of the past, seldom comes very 
 early in national literature. The 18th century in America 
 supplied, in letters, journals, and contemporary chronicles, 
 material for more elaborate and comprehensive treatment 
 in the 19th at the hands of George Bancroft, a leading 
 Democrat, who held the post of representative of his country 
 in Great Britain from 1846 to 1849. His great work — 
 
 three volumes of which are devoted to the Colonisation 
 and seven to the Revolutionary period — published at in- 
 tervals between 1834 and 1874, has been generally ac- 
 cepted as the standard history of the United States up 
 to this time. The book is written for the most part in a 
 sufficiently vigorous style ; somewhat defective, however, 
 - in elegance, and characterised by a certain monotony and 
 want of ease, which detracts from the pleasure of the reader. 
 Bancroft's statements of matters of fact are generally 
 reliable ; but his comments are moulded even more than 
 is usual by the foregone theories of a political partisan. 
 The rival history of Richard Hildreth, which appeared in 
 six volumes, issued in rapid succession (1849-53), while 
 marked by the same Puritan tone, is even more severe 
 in its judgments. The style is more animated, but more 
 prone to the torva voluptas of false rhetoric. The key- 
 note of the sentiment which pervades Mr Hildreth's book 
 is to be found in his keen abolitionist views, previously 
 expressed in a juvenile work of th« author, The White 
 Slave. One of its merits i3 its appreciation of th« 
 Federalists, and especially of the genius and character 
 of their leader, Hamilton. Of the host of national bio- 
 graphies in which the West abounds, Sanderson's Lives 
 of the Signers, the historical sketches of G. C. Verplanck, 
 Wirt's Patrick Henry, and the stupendous series edited 
 and largely written by Jared Sparks, may be signalised. 
 Nearly one-half of the works of the most classic American 
 prose writers of the generations previous to our own are 
 historical or biographical. Washington Irving's Conquest Irving 
 of Granada, and his lives of Columbus, the Followers of 
 Mahomet, Goldsmith, and Washington, if not the most ori- 
 ginal, are among the most interesting of his works — accu- 
 rate in their leading estimates, and marked by the usual 
 smoothness and even flow of his style. Irving contemplated 
 a continuation of the record of the early relations of Spain 
 to the New World, but, with his wonted generosity, 
 abandoned the theme on hearing that the task had 
 been assumed by worthy hands. The works of William H. Prescott 
 Prescott, the most artistic historian to whom the United 
 States have hitherto given birth, are remarkable from the 
 difficulties under which they were produced, and for the well- 
 deserved success which they have achieved. This success 
 is due in part to the genius and indomitable industry of 
 the writer, in part to the steady concentration of his powers 
 on the arduous undertaking of which he had at an early 
 age formed a just estimate. In a diary of 1819 (that is 
 in his twenty-third year) he allows ten years for preliminary 
 studies and ten more for the execution of his, task — a 
 notable example to his countrymen, nine-tenths of whose 
 literary performances will prove ephemeral, less from lack 
 of ability in the writers than from an utterly inadequate 
 sense of the time and toil that every true Muse demands 
 of her votaries. Ferdinand and Isabella, given to the 
 world in 1S38, was written while Mr Prescott was, owing 
 to an accident at college, almost wholly deprived of his 
 sight. His authorities, in a foreign tongue, were read to h i m 
 by an assistant, and by aid of a writing-case for the blind 
 he scrawled the pages of his great work. It soon attained 
 a European as well as an American fame, and superseded 
 all other records of the period of which it treats. No such 
 comprehensive view of Spain at the zenith of her greatness 
 has ever appeared in English. The proportion of its parts 
 and the justice of its estimates are universally acknow- 
 ledged; while hypercriticism of the style — graceful, correct, 
 and sufficiently varied — can only point to the occasional 
 possibility of greater condensation. Among the most 
 notable of the descriptions, which can seldom be detached 
 from the whole into which they are woven, we may refer 
 to the return of Columbus and the contrasted characters of 
 Queen Isabella and Elizabeth. The Conquest of Mexico,
 
 724 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 written with somewhat improved sight, followed in 1843; 
 that of Peru in 1847. Theso have attained an even wider 
 popularity than their precursor, owing to the more con- 
 densed romance and greater novelty of their themes. 
 They are "open sesames" to an old world of wonders, 
 real, and yet from its strangeness invested with half the 
 charms of fairyland. Few passages of fiction are so 
 enthralling to the youthful reader as the story of 
 Nezahualcoyotl, king of Tezcuco, the life and exploits 
 of Montezuma, the night retreat from the Aztec capital, 
 or the account of the sun -worshippers in the Golden 
 City. Both works are dramas in which our sympathy is 
 divided between the chivalry of Spain in her hey-day 
 and the poetical traditions and innocent patriotism of a 
 vanished race. But their author has never, in the midst 
 of his " Claude-like descriptions " and charmingly vivid 
 narratives, allowed himself to forget that he is writing 
 history. Boys read his Mexico and Peru as they read the 
 Arabian Nights; critics can point to few flaws in the 
 accuracy of the author's judgment Philip II, Mr Pres- 
 cott's latest work, has similar excellencies in dealing with 
 a less attractive theme. John Lothrop Motley, a dis- 
 tinguished ambassador in foreign courts, and author of 
 the best existing history of Holland, is Mr Prescott's 
 only more recent rival Less faultless, he is more strik- 
 ingly original ; and the greater complexity of the theme, 
 which he has made Ms own, calls for the exercise of even 
 higher powers. The Dutch Republic, which appeared in 
 1856, at once arrested attention by its evidence of careful 
 and long research, comprehensive grasp, rich pictorial 
 power, and the enthusiasm which, only here and there 
 interfering with the impartial judgment of the author, 
 gives colour and life to the work. Mr Motle/s style, even 
 to minute turns in his sentences, bears the impress of the 
 influence of Carlyle. The very titles of his chapters, 
 especially in the first volume, seem transferred from the 
 French Revolution. Such are " Sowing the Wind," " The 
 Harvest Ripening," "The First Whirlwind," "The Taciturn 
 against King, Cardinal, and Elector," <fcc From the same 
 source he may have caught some of his hero-worship, 
 which, however, by the choice of a worthy object, he has 
 done much to vindicate. The Dutch Republic, preluded 
 by the overture of a masterly and vivid historical survey, 
 is a drama, which facts have made highly sensational, of 
 the most terrific struggle against temporal and spiritual 
 despotism that, within the same space of years, modern 
 times have seen. It is divided, not inappropriately, though 
 perhaps with some regard for effect, into a prologue and 
 five acts, to each of which in succession the name of 
 the Spanish governor for the time is attached. The por- 
 traits of those emissaries, particularly those of Granvelle 
 of Arras and Duchess Margaret of Alva, Don John of 
 Lepanto, and Alexander of Parma, are drawn with bold 
 Btrokes and in lasting colours. Behind the scenes, director 
 of the assailing forces, is the evil genius Philip himself, to 
 whose ghastly figure, writing letters in the Escurial, our 
 attention is called with a wearisome, if not affected, itera- 
 tion of phrat t ; while the presence of the great champion, 
 like that of Achilles in the Iliad, is felt at every crisis 
 retrieving the retreat and urging on the victory. The most 
 horrible chapter of modern history — that of the Inquisition 
 — i3 unfolded with a power that brands its records into the 
 memory of the reader; and amid a throng of scenes of- 
 pageantry and pathos we may refer to those of the "resigna- 
 tion of Charles V., Egmont's triumph at St Quentin and 
 his death, the misery of Mook Heath, the siege of Leyden, 
 and the .hero's death. The United Netherlands (1867-69) 
 is a continuation of the same history in the same spirit ; 
 but, as regards style, a somewhat calmer and more matured 
 composition. The most thrilling' chapters in those four 
 
 later volumes are the siege of Antwerp — which compares 
 with that of Syracuse in Thucydides — and that on the 
 wreck of the Armada, unsurpassed in vividness and vigour 
 by either Froude or Kingsley; to which wo should add 
 the episodes of the battle of Ivry and the skirmish at 
 Zutphen, with one of the most eloquent tributes ever paid 
 to the genius and character of Sir Philip Sidney. Of the 
 other full-length pictures, which, with the campaigns of 
 Parma, Spinola, and Maurice, and the intrigues of England 
 and France, divide the interest of the book, are those of 
 Queen Elizabeth (whose habitual treachery, real meanness, 
 and shallow pretences to magnanimity are exposed, as 
 afterwards by Mr Froude), Henry of Navarre, St Alde- 
 gonde, the Earl of Leicester, and the great Barneveld, 
 who, with tho Prince of Nassau, divides our sympathy at 
 the close of the book. Since the death of Lord Macaulay 
 no equally solid and valuable contribution has been made 
 to historical literature. As supplementary in some measure Ticknc* 
 to the volumes of Mr Prescott, we may mention here the 
 History of Spanish Literature by his coadjutor Geo. Ticknor, 
 incomparably tho best, tho most comprehensive, most criti- 
 cal, and most interesting work which exists on the subject 
 Of other contributions to literary criticism, from which, owing to 
 their superabundance, it is hard to select, those of George S. llillard, 
 one of the most highly cultured writers in New England ; of 
 Henry T. Tuckermann, author of Thoughts on the Poets, an elegant 
 but sentimental essayist ; of E. P. Whipple, a critic who, according to 
 Mr Griswold, combines " the strength of the Areopagitica with the 
 liveliness of the Spectator" (!) ; of Margaret Fuller D'Ossoli, a pre- 
 cocious linguist, translator of Eckermann's Conversations •vrith 
 Ooethe, herself a brilliant conversationalist and somewhat cloudy 
 transcendentalist and advocate of the superiority of women to men ; 
 the always lively reviews of Mr Lowell, with numerous papers in 
 the North American and Atlantic Revuws, — may be referred to. To 
 these we should add the discriminating "Essays on recent Engllih 
 Poets " contributed to Scribner's Monthly by E. C. Stcdman. 
 
 3. Politk LiTEBATrrRE, of any excellence, in the lighter 
 branches is, in the West, almost wholly a growth of the 
 present century. ., The most widely and justly celebrated of 
 transatlantic authors in this field, during its earlier half, 
 was the amiable and versatile Washington Irving. Of his irvin* 
 numerous writings, we have referred in last section to 
 those which are directly historical. The rest fall under 
 two heads, according as they are . concerned mainly "with 
 American or with European themes. On the same principle 
 on which Agassiz, and Follen, and Paine, even Berkeley 
 and Priestley, have been claimed by the United States, 
 Irving is associated with the progress of English litera- 
 ture; for in virtue of his Scotch parentage, and in the 
 course of four distinct and extended visits to Europe — 
 1803-6, 1815-20, 1827-32, and 1841-46— he may be 
 said to have become half an Englishman. His style is in 
 the main that of the essayists of Queen Anne, modified by 
 the humour of Charles Lamb; and many of his most effective 
 sketches of life, manners, and society relate to the eastern 
 hemisphere. Such are his Histories, the Tales of a Travel* 
 ler, Bracebridge Hall, Newstead and Abbots/ord, tha 
 Alhambra, and half of the Sketch Book. In reference to 
 those works — the best passages of which are classical — a 
 French critic has said that Irving describes al) countries 
 but his own in the style of Addison. In others, however, 
 and these the earliest and latest of his works, he treats of 
 national legend and scenery in a manner peculiar to 
 himself. His first literary efforts, which resulted in the 
 series of papers entitled Salmagundi, were gently satirical 
 descriptions of the features of society in American cities. 
 The History of New York, by " Diedrich Knickerbocker," in 
 point of pure originality his masterpiece, is one of the 
 richest farragoes of fact, fancy, and irony that have ever 
 issued from the press. In later life, his Tour of the 
 Prairies — The Adventures of Bonneville, and Astoria, are 
 instinct with the spirit of western discovery and adventnr*.
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 725 
 
 In this, as in other points of view, versatility and grace are 
 his prevailing characteristics. He belonged historically 
 to both worlds, and was equally at home in each-; he 
 reflected the quiet philosophy of the Tatler and Spectator, 
 adding to it the pathos which dims the eye of the reader 
 over his "Wife," and "Widow and Son," and "Broken 
 Heart," and " Pride of the Village." He started the vein 
 of burlesque that has run through his country's literature, 
 but under the restraints of taste and temperance that have 
 unfortunately been often discarded. The even grace of his 
 manner often leads hasty critics to do scant justice to the 
 range of bis sympathy. His manly but gentle style is at 
 home in Spanish history, English . essay, and American 
 legend ; in the Alhambra and among the slopes of 
 " Sleepy Hollow," where, as in the famous " Rip Van 
 Winkle," we have some of the earliest models of amuse- 
 ment with grave faces and the melancholy parties of 
 pleasure that are, under various forms of buffoonery, still 
 typical of American humour. Associated with Irving in his 
 Salmagundi, the name of J. K. Paulding deserves a distinct 
 place for the humorous vigour of his character sketches, 
 and his vivid pictures of early colonial life, in the Dutch- 
 man's Fireside and Westward Ho! where the features of 
 the contest between the new settlers and the aborigines are 
 brought before U3 in clear relief. His apologue of " Bull 
 and Jonathan," and the thirteen good farms over which 
 they squabbled — founded on Swift's Tale of a Tub — pre- 
 sents us, in a satire which lies on the border of irony and 
 a rougher form of wit, with an early American view of the 
 relations between his own and the mothe? country. 
 Some of the same themes have been handled with superior 
 richness of illustration and force by the greatest, with one 
 exception, of transatlantic novelists — J. Fenimore Cooper 
 (1789-1831) — a man remarkable no less for the somewhat 
 defiant independence of his character, which led him to 
 defend his countrymen in Europe, where he travelled from 
 1827-33, and to •assail their foibles in America, than by 
 the marked originality of his genius. His first consider- 
 able work, The Spy, appeared in 1821, and from its fresh 
 treatment of a patriotic theme obtained a European reputa- 
 tion. His second, The Pioneers (1823), with a vivid repre- 
 sentation of the scenery of the author's early life, introducing 
 for the first time his ever-recurring hero the famous Natty 
 Bumpo, or Leather-Stocking, established bis place as a 
 new actor on a crowded stage. Then followed The Pilot, 
 in which he first asserted hi3 claim to an empire since 
 indisputably made bis own among novelists — that of the 
 sea ; and somewhat later The Last of the Mohicans and 
 T/ie Prairie, in which he asserted a similar sway over the 
 " gardens of the desert " and the hills of the remoter West 
 While abroad he wrote his Red Rover and The Bravo — a 
 graphic tale of Venice, and flung on the aspersors of 
 his country the American in Europe. Shortly after his 
 return he issued his satirical assault on newspaper editors 
 and other delinquents — his Homeward Bound, which 
 led him into several actions for libel, in which he claims 
 to have been almost invariably successful — The Pathfinder, 
 and The Deerslayer (1840-41). The latter, perhaps the best 
 of the Leather-Stocking series, completes the list of his 
 gTeat novels; to which must be added another important 
 work — The History of the American Navy — published in 
 1839. There is a certain severity about Cooper's genius, 
 showing itself in a hardness in his style, which restricts the 
 range of his readers. He wastes perhaps too many words 
 on descriptions, is exhaustive where he might have been 
 suggestive, and his plots are apt to be deficient in interest 
 — The Red Rover conspicuously excepted. But, deducting 
 the echoes of Scott, to which we have referred, he is 
 American to the core ; he needs no slang or affectation to 
 establish his originality, but moves on his own way with 
 
 something like disdain of comment. His best descriptions 
 -. — as, for example, those of the prairie on fire, of the 
 "Ariel" among the shoals, of the capture of the whale 
 and the panther in The Pioneers, of the last sea-fight in 
 The Rover, of the regatta in The Bravo — are unsurpassed. 
 His ships move over the seas like things of life. His 
 hunters traverse the prairies with a sense of possession. 
 His best characters are few ; but Natty Bumpo, Bob Yarn, 
 Nightingale, Long Tom Coffin, Hetty Hunter, and Brand 
 Merideth are undying creations. The earliest American 
 romancer of note, Charles Brockden Brown (1771-1810), 
 who came before the world (1797) in Alcuin, a Dialogue 
 on the Rights of Women (first of a mob of tracts on the 
 same theme), set the example on his side of the Atlantic of 
 that love of the anomalous, fantastic, and horrible, repre- 
 sented on our own by Beckford, Walpole, and Godwin, 
 and later by Mrs Radcliffe and Mrs Shelley. His main 
 works — Wieland, Ormond, Arthur Mervyn, and Edgar 
 Huntly — are unmistakably the productions of a man of 
 genius. None are wanting in passages of thrilling interest, 
 striking situations, and subtle analysis of character. But 
 they dwell too prevailingly on the night-side of nature — 
 on such themes as insanity and somnambulism, and all the 
 repulsive anatomy of mental disease. Brown's account of 
 the yellow fever in Arthur Mervyn may be compared with 
 •the corresponding narratives in Thucydides, Lucretius, and 
 Defoe ; and Wieknd's confession of the murder of his wife 
 (a favourite subject of Western fiction) is hideously vivid ; 
 but the author's plots as a whole are wanting in method, 
 his bursts of passion are dulled by intervening tediousness, 
 and his style deformed by pedantic circumlocutions. 
 Brown must be credited with considerable originality of con- 
 ception, and blamed for introducing a morbid v^in of 
 thought. His influence is apparent in two novels of 
 Richard Dana — to whom we. have before referred — Tom 
 Thornton and Paul Felton, in which a mote graceful style 
 is employed with almost equal vigour to illustrate similar 
 monstrosities of character on the basis of incidents almost 
 equally unnatural. Of the same school are many of the 
 sketches of Charles F. Hoffmann, as "Ben Blower's Story" noSuui 
 of being immured in a steam-boiler, and the " Flying 
 Head ;" but alongside of these are others, as his " Winter 
 in the West," " Romance of the Mohawks," and " Adiron- 
 dacks," that are steeped in the fresh atmosphere of the 
 green fields and hills . Hoffmann is also the author of 
 three deservedly popular songs, " Myrtle and Steel," 
 "Sparkling and Bright," and "Rosalie Clare." The 
 influence of those writers, along with that of a profonnder 
 analyst, the French Balzac, is apparent in the works of 
 the most morbid genius the modern world of letters has 
 known. In the regions of the strangely terrible, remotely 
 phantastic, and ghastly, Edgar Allan Poe reigns supreme. 
 For clearness of style, aptness of illustration, and subtilty 
 of thought, he distances in this field all his predecessors 
 except Balzac, who in the mental dissecting-room is his 
 only master. ' But while the N Frenchman deals with 
 anomalous realities, the power of the American consists in 
 making unrealities appear natural. One of his great 
 charms is his perpetual interest. Confining his imagina- 
 tion within limited bounds of space, he is never dull, save 
 in his acridly jealous criticisms and miserable attempts at 
 humour. Criticism would hardly strike a line from the 
 longest and perhaps the most thrilling of his narratives, 
 that of " Arthur Gordon Pym." In fictitious verisimilitude 
 it u only equalled by De Quincey's "Flight of the Kalmuck 
 Tartars." With the "Adventure of Hans PfaalT'inhis 
 balloon, and the " Descent into the Maelstrom," it is the 
 obvious source of the ingenious pseudo-scientific romances 
 of Jules Verne, which have lately attained so wide a 
 popularity. Poe's most hideous tales, as " Thou art the
 
 726 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 Mc-," "The Black Cat," "The Premature Burial," "The 
 Pit end the Pendulum," " The Cask of Amontillado," " The 
 Tell-Tale Heart," are redeemed by their literary merits and 
 their reference, under the form of grotesque circumstances, 
 to dominant fears and passions of mankind. In the " Fall 
 of the House of Usher," " The Domain of Arnheim," 
 " William Wilson," arid " Ligeia," a more purely poetic 
 or deeply psychological element is added to the horror. In 
 the " Murders of the Rue Morgue," " The Mystery of Marie 
 Roget," "The Purloinod Letter," and "The Gold Bug," 
 he is on the borderland between romance and reality, and 
 seems to prove himself in potentiality the prince of all 
 detectives. We shall have to refer to him again as a poet. 
 The super-subtilty of Balzac and Poe appears with higher 
 qualities in the works of the greatest of New England 
 romancers, on the whole the most artistic of American prose 
 writers, Nathaniel Hawthorne. Of his style it is impossible 
 to speak too highly ; for without any of the defects often 
 found in the writings of his countrymen, it has a healthy 
 flavour of nationality. It is accurate and strong, terse and 
 yet full, rich and yet simple, harmonious, varied, and 
 suggestive. These excellencies of form give a fascination 
 to his most ordinary themes as to his descriptions of scenery 
 and works of art. The only modern pictures ui Italy 
 comparable to those of Rome and her sculptures in 
 Transformation are Ruskin's Venice and the finest stanzas 
 in the fourth canto of Childe Harold. But Hawthorne's 
 scenery can seldom be disentangled from the mood of mind 
 in which he views it, and which constantly associates it 
 with some remoter purpose or underlying allegory. Amid 
 the din of voices in the Custom-house or half-buried in 
 the mosses of his Manse, walking along the Appian Way or 
 gliding down the Assabeth, he dwells among strange 
 visions. The sea-shore tells him secrets of the past,' and 
 the prattling village is full of a present sympathy. But 
 the features of nature, and life, and character which he 
 loves to draw are peculiar. They are for the most part 
 sombre and mysterious ; not with the sort of mystery that 
 attends unprecedented events and unnatural marvels, but 
 with the mysterv which he finds underneath the current of 
 common lives. One of his prevailing thoughts is, things 
 are not what they seem — he is so fond of peering beneath 
 the. surface of existence, that in his pages it almost loses 
 its ordinary reality ; he tries so constantly to look through 
 life that he scarcely takes time to look at it. The 
 highest art of all is that which comprehends both aspects, 
 and, seeing the face of nature as it is, also penetrates to its 
 hidden meanings. Hawthorne, on the other hand, weaves 
 his fictions, to borrow a phrase from himself, in " the 
 moonlight of romance ;" and while he admits that materials 
 for a better book than he has written " lie scattered on the 
 page of life open before him, he has seldom stooped to 
 gather them." 
 
 " Moonlight," he repeats in ms preface to the Scarlet LMtr, 
 " moonlight in a familiar room, falling so white upon the carpet 
 »nd showing all its figures so distinctly, making every object so 
 distinctly visible, yet so unlike a morning or noontide visibility, is 
 a medium the most suitable for a romance writer to get acquainted 
 with his illusive guests. The room becomes a neutral territory, 
 somewhere between the real world and fairyland, where the actual 
 and imaginary may meet, and each imbue itself with the nature of 
 the other." 
 
 Hawthorne itas sometimes abandoned this neutral terri- 
 tory, and given us a few short sketches which show that 
 he is eminently capable, when he chooses, of illustrating 
 and characterising common things ; such, among his minor 
 tales, are " The Old Apple Dealer," " Little Annie's 
 Ramble," " A Rill, from the Town Pump," " Sights from a 
 Steeple," "The Village Uncle," that well-named "Buds 
 and Bird Voices," and " The Seven Vagabonds," the most 
 humorous and genial of his lighter pieces. His prevailing 
 
 themes are drawn on a border-land or twilight between 
 two worlds, half real and half ideal ; fairy tales, in which 
 human beings are the fairies, and are made to point morals 
 of their own histories. He haunts us, as he himself was 
 haunted, by problems. Of the five volumes of his minor 
 sketches, three at least are filled with allegories — riddles, 
 some of them hard to read, anil open to doubtful because 
 double interpretations. " The Great Stone Face " is a 
 noble piece of writing, apart from the lesson it is intended 
 to convey. " Drowne's Wooden Image " and " The Artist 
 of the Beautiful " are in themselves "beautiful exceedingly." 
 The exquisite pathos of " Lily's Guest " and " Edward 
 Fane's Rosebud " lies on the surface. " Lady Eleanor's 
 Mantle " tells its own story in a parable of the Nemesis of 
 pride; but in "Roger Malvin's Burial," "The Wedding 
 Knell," "Young Goodman Brown," and others, the meaning 
 is either more intricate or more remote. Hawthorne's 
 longer works are all conceived in the same spirit. Their 
 incidents are comparatively few, and might have easily 
 been condensed into one of his shorter tales ; which iu 
 their turn might easily have been expanded into elaborate 
 romances — what a consummate story, for instance, might 
 have been reared on the basis of " Rappacini's Daughter ! " 
 His forte lies in the analysis of character and situations, 
 rather than the dramatic arrangement of events. " To 
 live in other lives, and to endeavour to learn the secret 
 which was hidden even from themselves," is the purpose 
 set before himself by a character which in one of those 
 romances nearly represents the author. Everywhere he 
 seems to be carrying out this purpose, ■ 'operating upon 
 some thiee or four characters, and removing them — as he 
 tells us in the introduction to Blithedale — a little from the 
 highway of ordinary travel to a theatre where these 
 creatures of bis brain may play their phantasmagorical 
 antics without exposing them to too close a comparison 
 with the actual events of real lives. A small group of 
 figures is thus made to work out some problem- of life, or 
 at least to throw by theix ideal actions a light on some 
 puzzle in the autK.r's mind. The great question over 
 which, in one form or other, he perpetually broods, is the 
 nature of evil — the effect of sin and error on the soul — 
 and their relation to virtue and human progress. In the 
 Blithedale Romance, for instance, his theme is that the 
 exaggeration of good may turn to eviL This almost pain- 
 fully minute anatomy of four lives, relieved by passages of 
 delicate description and a few scenes of thrilling power, is 
 designed to show the blighting effects of a one-sided idea, 
 even though it assumes the guise of a benevolent impulse, 
 when it overrides private and personal claims. In Trans- 
 formation, or tlit Romance of Monte Beni, a conception in 
 some respects the converse of this, is wrought out of richer 
 materials ; and we are taught to appreciate the possibilities 
 of good that there may be in evil, by the effect which an 
 impulsive crime has in inspiring a simple instinctive nature 
 with a stronger life. The Scarlet Letter, which is at once 
 the most solid and the subtlest of the author's works, 
 illustrates the fatal influence which a single- sin exerts on 
 all the persons whom it involves ; but unlike the Blithedale 
 Romance, which is a dismal tragedy, it ends with a magnifi- 
 cent triumph of expiation. The Scarlet Letter appears to 
 us to be the best analytical novel of this century, the 
 nearest approach to it in artistic finish and pyschological 
 penetration being Goethe's Elective Affinities. The IIousp 
 of the Seven Gables has more variety, and mixes humour 
 with its pathos ; but the web of this last romance, which 
 has for its moral the malign influences which may be 
 transmitted from one generation to another, is woven of 
 thinner threads. Hawthorne's Protean genius is a power 
 in American thought. His influence as a teacher and an 
 artist is still crescent among tho contemporaries from
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 727 
 
 'Whom he has lately passed. His symbolic yet real cha- 
 racters — Hester and Pearl by the forest brook; Dimmesdale 
 by the scaffold, with the red morning upon his brow ; the 
 dead Judge sitting with his watch ; the Cleopatraf of Brook 
 Farm plunging in the pool ; Miriam and Hilda, and 
 Donatello the Faun — are stamped in letters of fine gold on 
 the pages of his country's literature, and the music of his 
 quiet sentences yet lingers on the ear of strangers as of 
 friends. But his name remains as a warning as well as an 
 example. In one sense he was a patriot, glorying in the 
 great deeds of his country's past. Of this feeling the 
 " Gray Champion " and " Howe's Masquerade " give suffi- 
 cient evidence. At the close of the last he writes, as we 
 may /ancy with a grim Puritan smile : " On the anniver- 
 sary night of Britain's discomfiture the ghosts of the 
 ancient governors of Massachusetts still glide through the 
 portals of the Province House."- But as a politician he 
 wrecked himself with the democratic party. He looked 
 upon slavery as " one of those evils which Providence does 
 not leave to be remedied b>y human contrivances." He 
 had no sympathy with the abolitionists, and at least a half 
 sympathy with the planters. " As regards human progress," 
 he wrote, " let them believe it who can ; " and in the pre- 
 face to his last completed work, as his excuse for laying 
 the scene in Italy, — " There is in our country no shadow, 
 n.j ambiguity, no mystery, no picturesque and gloomy 
 wrong." " Romance and poetry, ivy, lichens, and wall- 
 flowers, need ruin to make them grow." Hawthorne lived 
 to see the beginning of what he could only regard as ruin : 
 he did not live to see his country rising stronger after 
 a great struggle with a gloomy wrong. 
 
 Oliver Wendell Holmes, the accomplished physician of 
 Harvard, better known as a humourist and author of 
 occasional verses, has contributed to psychological romance 
 two remarkable volumes : Elsie Venner and The Guardian 
 Angel. The former, and more striking of the two, is a 
 weird tale of destiny, dwelling upon the idea of transmitted 
 qualities in' a manner which suggests comparison with The 
 House of the Seven Gables; but Holmes's story has a more 
 Incredible plot, the chief character being a sort of sprite, 
 having mysterious relations to the animal world, a snake- 
 charmer, herself half a snake (as Donatello in Transforma- 
 tion is half a faun), like the Lamia of tradition and Keats, 
 but endowed with the graces of Undine. The vigorous 
 sketch of the hero Langdon, with which the book opens, 13 
 impaired by the somewhat obtrusive manner in which h.9 
 is vaunted as a type of the blue-blooded or Brahmin caste 
 of New England. The same pathological treatment of 
 human nature pervades The Guardian Angel, which turns 
 partly on mysterious physical, and psychical affinities. The 
 Margaret of Sylvester Judd, a Unitarian clergyman of 
 Maine, belongs, by virtue of some of the problems with 
 which it deals, to the category of metaphysical novels. 
 Thi3 work of decided genius, to which a just tribute is 
 paid by Mr Lowell in his Fable for Critics, has hardly 
 attained the popularity it merits, owing to the slender cha- 
 racter of the plot, and the frequency of the dissertations 
 by which the author endeavours to impress his own views 
 of society, art, and religion. But it is a powerful picture 
 of the more ideal sides of New England life ; the character 
 of Margaret and Chilion are permanent types, and the 
 whole book is extremely fresh and original The most 
 genuine successor of Hawthorne is Theodore Winthrop, 
 who left a counting-house in New York for an adventurous 
 life, and fell at Great Bethel in 1861 in his thirty-third 
 year. His best novel, Cecil Dreeme, teems with life-like 
 characterisation, bathed in a poetic element of mystery ; 
 and John Brent, the next in merit, is a graphic sketch of 
 romantic incidents ir> the Far West, drawn from his own 
 experience. 
 
 Of tales evincing talent there la a pletho.-* ; they lis on the 
 shelves of, the libraries "thick as the leaves on Vallombrosa." 
 Among those worthy of note are the pictures of Southern society 
 by W. G. Simms, whose fertile brain is said to have produced fifty 
 volumes in twenty years ; The Bee Hunter, and other narratives of 
 the south-west, by T. B. Thorpe of Baton Bouge ; John Neal'g 
 Rachel Dyer and Ruth Elder; the classical romances of Ware, 
 Zenobia and Probus and Julian; Mrs E. 0. Smith's Indian 
 Reminiscences; The IAnwoods, Hope Leslie, and other philan- 
 thropic tales of New England, by Miss Sedgwick ; Mrs Lydia 
 Child's Hobomok, and her Philothea, a romance of Pericles and 
 Aapasia, somewhat too sentimental in its style, and not free from 
 anachronisms ; with the anti-slavery pictures represented by Mrs 
 Stowe's Uncle Tom, a book which, inspired by ordinary talent and 
 written in an earnest spirit, owed its success to the air ot simple 
 narration which pervades it, and its having the aggressive strength 
 of a political pamphlet appearing at the right time in harmony wit v . 
 the passion on one side of an impending struggle. The light brj 
 graceful and often incisive sketches of N. P. Willis take a somt- 
 what higher rank. A rapid writer, but at his best a brilliant 
 colourist, his fertile fancy has been employed in almost all the 
 countries of Europe, and in his own, in prose and verso, with mora 
 than average success. His Pencillings by the Way and People I 
 have Met are among the most agreeable of books for a leisure hour ; 
 his descriptions are always interesting as well as accurate, and his 
 characters, grave and gay, are generally life-like. His picture of 
 the Indian girl, Nunu, in the Inklings of Adventure, is fascinating 
 ajid vivacious enough to be worthy of a higher artist. 
 
 Books of Travel, among which those of Mr Willis hold a Traveit 
 respectable place, superabound in the literature of the West. 
 Nine-tenths of the literary men of America have crossed 
 the Atlantic, and nine-tenths of those who have done so have 
 published their impressions of the Old World, with every 
 variety of good and bad taste, from the Old Home to the 
 Innocents Abroad. After that of his birth, an American 
 author's travels are the first essential of his being. We 
 may next predict his praise of Italy, his half satirical half 
 curious view of England, and his wonder at the Pyramids. 
 Of the multifarious descriptions of Europe to which thi3 
 habit has given birth, the worthiest of note are tho3e of 
 Hawthorne and Emerson, of Story and Cheever, and 
 Curtis's Nile Notes. In the " Lotus Eating " of the last 
 named we have pleasing reminiscences of the watering- 
 places of his own country. But the most interesting 
 records of western scenery are those of Fremont ; Win- 
 throp's Canoe and Saddle, and Life in the Open Air; and 
 the numerous remarkable " Excursions " of Emerson's 
 leading pupil, H. D. Thoreau — his " Maine Woods," "Cape 
 Cod," and " Merrimack ; " with the vacation voyage to 
 Cuba of the younger Dana. 
 
 4. A leading feature of transatlantic literature is its 
 Htjmotje. Humour is a word of many meanings : it 
 begins on the low level of any laughter-provoking absurdity, 
 and rises, as in the speeches of Lear's Fool, to a tragic 
 height. In the Greek classics it shows itself in the 
 Rabelaisian exuberance of Aristophanes or in the Socratic 
 irony : in the English we have an even more subtle appre- 
 ciation of the curiosities of character, and a deeper senso 
 of the contradiction or conflict between the higher and 
 lower phases of human nature. In Sterne and Fielding, 
 as in Ben Jonson, we have every man in his humour. As 
 developed in America, thi3 quality of the mind seldom 
 penetrates to the under-currents of life ; its insight is clear 
 but not profound ; it relies mainly on exaggeration, and a 
 blending of jest and earnest which has the effect of singing 
 comic words to a sad tune, or telling a preposterous story 
 with a grave face. Mr Lowell makes us laugh by his 
 description of a negro " so black that charcoal made a chalk 
 mark upon him," and of a wooden shingle " painted so like 
 marble that it sank in the water." Mr Browne (Artemus 
 Ward) excited the same sort of laughter by his remark in 
 pointing to a hill daubed on his canvas, " the highest part 
 of this mountain is the top." In both cases there is ft 
 surprise, excited in the one by a falsehood plausibly pre- 
 tending to be the truth, in the other by a truism asserting
 
 728 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 itself as a novelty. Similarly, when the latter writer, 
 among his anecdotes of tho conscription, tells us that " one 
 young man who was drawn claimed to be exempt because 
 he was the only son of a widowed mother — who supported 
 him," the amusement is all in the unexpected turn of the 
 last three words. In contradistinction to this, the humour 
 of Don Quixote, of Falstaff, of Uncle Toby, of Major Bath, 
 of the Vicar of Wakefield and Sir Roger de Coverley, of 
 Major Pendennis and Bishop Blougram, consists in its 
 truih. What these people do or say never surprises us. 
 It is absurd as a great part of human life is absurd, and, 
 laughing at them, we feel we are laughing at something in 
 ourselves. The best recent instances of this higher kind 
 of humour which American literature affords are to be 
 found in Washington Irving, in Mr Lowell's Biglow 
 Papers (to which, as a considerable national poem, we 
 shall have to revert), in passages of Mr Longfellow's 
 Kavanagh, in Mr Hawthorne's Seven Gahles and Seven 
 Vagabond*, and in the prose and verse of Dr Holmes. In 
 his three pleasant volumes, The Autocrat, The Professor, 
 and Tlve Poet at the Breakfast Table, there is much that 
 might have been omitted, more that should have been 
 compressed. They contain too many jokes, good, bad, 
 and indifferent, and are tainted here and there with what 
 we must be excused for regarding as New England slang. 
 But they are pervaded by a genial glow of kindly sym- 
 pathy, and they exhibit, with a quaint mannerism — not 
 without its attractions — personages, and situations, and 
 sentiments which we recognise as at once odd and real. Dr 
 Holmes's works have frequent reflections of Montaigne and 
 Burton, and the Nodes Ambrosiana; ; he mixes pathos and 
 whimsicality after the manner of Lamb and Sterne. His 
 humorous verses, the best known of which, " Daily Trials," 
 " Evening, by a Tailor," and-the " Music-grinders," inevi- 
 tably recall the drolleries of Hood. His genius has, 
 nevertheless, an original vein, less mellow, but at its best 
 as genuine as that of his older masiers. Several of the 
 miscellaneous papers, essay3, and periodicals belonging to 
 the earlier years of the century, as Salmagundi, The 
 Talisman of Bryant and Verplanck, The Olipodiana of 
 W. G. Clarke, and the Sparrow Grass Papers, are fre- 
 quently enlivened by sparkles of wit and evidences of 
 keen discrimination. In others we trace the germs of a 
 vicious style which threatens to degrade the lighter litera- 
 ture of the States. The Charcoal Sketches of Joseph Neal 
 — which might be entitled Comicalities of the Mississippi 
 — are among the earliest examples of the habit of playing 
 with slang terms characteristic of his successors. An 
 author who relies for effect on giving his imaginary 
 personages such nicknames as " Dawson Dawdle," " Peter 
 Ploddy," " Tippleton Tipps," and " Shiverton Shanks," is 
 more likely to be the cause of wit in others than the source 
 of humour liimself. During the last generation in America 
 the anxiety to be national has led many of her minor 
 authors to make themselves ridiculous. To avoid walking 
 like Englishmen, they have gone on all-fours ; to escape the 
 imputation of Anglo-Saxon features, they have painted 
 their faces with ochre and put ear-rings through their 
 nostrils; forsaking the speech of Addison and Steele, they 
 have expressed themselves in an unseemly jargon of 
 strange tongues. Of this mocking-bird humour the most 
 legitimate form is that of the Biglow Papers, whero the 
 New England dialect is employed with effect to give voice 
 to the sentiments of that district of the country during the 
 national struggle, on one side of which it took the lead. 
 A similar justification may be put forward in behalf of the 
 Californian peculiarities, which are perhaps not too promi- 
 nent in the often really humorous pieces of Bret Harte. 
 The mixture of two dialects in the Breitmann Ballads is a 
 bolder licence, though for the best of these Mr Leland 
 
 may plead the wide-spread use of the nongrel speech, and 
 the original success of a drollery which has only become 
 tiresome from his not knowing when his readers have had 
 more than enough of it. The parodies of Mr Browne 
 (Artemus Ward) are open to the same criticism. The 
 writer was a man of wit- and talent, and therefore his 
 writings are amusing. They are good specimens of tho 
 worst style of satire : for the wit that relies on bad spelling 
 is almost as false as that which consists in bad language. 
 In vindication of the " Showman," it must, however, be 
 observed that his sarcasm is generally directed against 
 mean or ridiculous things. But his example has paved, 
 for those who have caught the trick of his phrase and 
 who aro unrestrained by his good feeling and good sense, 
 an easy descent to the lowest form of light literature— 
 that which panders. to the vice of moral scepticism and 
 thrives on the buffoonery of making great and noble 
 things appear mean or ridiculous. The names of those 
 who habitually fee"d on mental garbage should be left to 
 sink into the oblivion from which they have unfortu- 
 nately emerged. It is painful but necessary to observe 
 that some of the more considerable writers and thinkers of 
 the New World are apt to condescend on occasion to this 
 burlesque way of. writing. American light literature 
 bristles in puns wnich are at best the " a-b abs " of 
 wit. Of these, Mr Lowell (a severe critic of everything 
 English) has made the worst — " Milton is the only man 
 who has got much poetry out of a cataract — and that was 
 a cataract in his eye." Mr Leland, tho next worst, in his 
 book of travels — " If a thing of beauty be a. jaw for ever, 
 as the American said of his handsome, scolding wife, then 
 the donkey boys of Cairo are the most jaw-ous and 
 beautiful creatures ; for the sound of their voices drieth 
 not up." Eccentricities of this sort, with the graver 
 irreverences wh'ch intrude themselves even into the 
 pulpits of the West, should be universally discredited as 
 blasphemies against the first principles of taste. They 
 are as " flat, stale, and unprofitable " as the contortions of 
 a wearied clown. True humour — as ever in our classics 
 — must go hand-in-hand with seriousness ; it must never 
 forget that behind the comic there is a tragic 'element in 
 human life. Tho mere " farco " is contemptible, because 
 it is as unnatural as the expression of a countenance dis- 
 torted by a continual grin. In forgetfulness of this lies 
 tho greatest danger of the recent literature of America, 
 and we can only trust to the higher intellectual instincts 
 and tendencies of the age to detect and resist it. 
 
 5. New England Transcendentalism. — Religion, the Theology 
 first motive power of thought in America, has continued 
 to flow, both in its old channel— that of the orthodox 
 Puritanism which came down from Eliot and Edwards 
 through Dwight to Hodge and the Princeton Essays — and 
 in another, that of the new forms of faith advocated by 
 W. E. Channing, and with gravely heterodox modifica- Wianntag. 
 turns by Theodore Parker. Criticism of Channing's 
 theological position is apart from our purpose here. He 
 claims notice in a review of literature by the vigour of 
 his conceptions and his graceful and correct expression of 
 them. His earliest considerable essay, the Moral Argu- 
 ment against Calvinism, one of the best known of his 
 numerous controversial works, indicates by its title his 
 prevailing attitude. He relied through life on a priori 
 moral arguments, and employed them as his engines of 
 attack against all persons, institutions, or practices that 
 offended his rigid sense of justice or his enthusiastic 
 benevolence — e.g., Napo/eon I., War, and Slavery. A 
 generous indignation agamst wrong, and keen practical 
 sense of the duties of life are more conspicuous in his 
 writings than speculative power ; but his insight into the 
 political position of parties and the probability of future
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 729 
 
 conflicts is remarkable. Though at variance with the 
 older creeds of Christendom, Channing's writings are 
 everywhere marked by a reverential spirit, and not un- 
 frequontly by a touch of asceticism inherited from the 
 Puritan days, whose abstract doctrines alone he proposed 
 to modify. On the other hand, he admired the higher 
 forms of Art, and in his eloquent essays on Self-culture 
 anticipated much that has been said more recently by 
 Emerson. He loved beauty as well as virtue for itself, 
 and his style, except on rare occasions, is free from the 
 defects of taste so frequent in tho writings of his con- 
 temporaries. His reviews of Milton and Fenelon abound 
 in passages — as the picture of religious peace in the latter 
 — which exhibit the delicacy and the breadth of his 
 sympathies. Theodore Parker — unlike Channing — assails 
 the whole basis of the old theology, and frequently errs 
 from arrogance and impetuosity. He had, perhaps, a 
 more powerful but a less highly cultivated mind. He 
 was a pupil of the transcendental movement of New 
 England, to which, because of its influence on literature 
 and its association with the most original thinker of the 
 New World, we must accord some space. 
 
 In the early years of this century the mental philosophy 
 of the West, beyond that which was a handmaid to the 
 Calvinistic theology, was limited to commentaries on Locke 
 and Brown and the eclecticism of Cousin, when the repub- 
 lication of Sartor Resartus, and the works of the German 
 idealists which it introduced, gave life and voice to a new 
 intellectual world. Ideas which filter slowly into English 
 soil and abide there for a generation, flash like comets 
 through the electric atmosphere of America. Coleridge and 
 Carlyle were hailed as prophets in Boston while their own 
 countrymen were still examining their credentials. The rate 
 of this transformation was surpassed by its thoroughness. 
 The converts put their teachers to the blush ; and in recoil 
 from solid Scotch psychology and practical materialism, 
 rushed to the outer verges of idealism, mysticism, and pan- 
 theism. Their quarterly magazine, the Dial, during the 
 space of four years represented their views throughout four 
 volumes of miscellaneous merit. The Dial is a pantheon 
 from which only Calvinists and Utilitarians are excluded, 
 where the worshippers, Parker, Fuller, Alcott, and a 
 host, neet and sing hymns to Confucius, Zoroaster, 
 Socrates, Goethe, Tieck, and Richter, set to German 
 music; and pass from antiquated laudations of Homer 
 and Shakespeare to friendly recognitions of new heresies ; 
 from thoughts on labour to puffs of poetasters; from 
 Hindoo mythology and Chinese ethics to 19th century 
 truisms about progress and union, prudence and humanity; 
 from soaring among the heights of a modern religion of 
 beauty to raking among the tangled roots and dead leaves 
 of a second-hand Orientalism. But those vapours of ideal- 
 ism might have soon faded into the light of common day, 
 had not all their best aspirations been concentrated and 
 vitalised by Mr R. W. Emerson. His first oration, delivered 
 at Cambridge thirty-five years ago — the refrain of which is 
 the independence of American literature — is referred to by 
 recent critics as a landmark in the annals of their country. 
 In this discourse — as in the six volumes through which the 
 author enforces the same conceptions — there is scarce any- 
 thing of which, taken separately, we need fail to trace the 
 pedigree. Fichte had many years before spoken in the 
 same strain of the vocation and nature of the scholar; the 
 view of science comes from Swedenborg and Schelling; and 
 the dignity of labour from Carlyle. The originality, as is the 
 case with the author's whole system of thought, is in the 
 combination — which, it may be, is the only kind of origin- 
 ality now possible. His position, as far as.it is tenable, 
 illustrates the fact that the divisions of philosophy are being 
 continually altered as old systems form affinities with new 
 
 beliefs and historical conditions. Mysticism in the Now 
 World has been combined with the opposite extravagances 
 of Mount Lebanon and Oneida Creek, but it has been dis- 
 tinguished from idealism proper by its exaltation of emotion 
 above reasoning. Mr Emerson, defining transcendentalism 
 as " the saturnalia of faith," differs from the older mystics 
 in his absolute rejection of all external authority, his almost 
 arrogant confidence in the sufficiency of the inner light, and 
 his new American preference for the active to the passive 
 side3 of life. He has an historical sympathy with the un- 
 satisfied aspirations of all ages, with the day-dreams of 
 restlessness in search of rest that inspired the quest of the 
 Sangreal, and led the monks to Christianise the eastern 
 Nirvana; that laid out Brook Farm in Massachusetts, and 
 gave Novalis and Newman back to the fold of Rome : but 
 he will not be drawn by them into any church with walls. 
 All religions are to him " the same wine poured into dif- 
 ferent glasses." He drinks the wine, and tries to shatter 
 the glasses. His unflinching scepticism pierces the armour 
 of all definite dogmas, while he entrenches himself behind 
 an optimism like that of Spinoza. Mysticism has in the 
 main been fatalistic. As a developed system, its natural 
 home is in the East; where the influence of great uniform- 
 ities of soil and climate have only in recent years been 
 partially counteracted by the conquering activities of an 
 energetic race. Beneath her.burning sun and surrounded by 
 her tropic vegetation, the mass of men were overwhelmed 
 by a sense of their insignificance, and this feeling of sub- 
 jugation was intensified by absolute forms of government. 
 The same listlessness which permitted a secular and 
 priestly despotism, led its victims to welcome the idea of a 
 final absorption of their individuality. Their philosophical 
 ambition was to pass into the framework of a gigantic 
 nature, to be "rolled round the earth's diurnal course with 
 rocks and stones and trees." There is a relic of this spirit 
 in the drapa^ia, a7ra0«a, and rjpep.la, which are the aims at 
 once of the Epicurean and Stoic systems; but the doctrines 
 of passive obedience had been banished from Greece as 
 early as the overthrow of the Pythagorean institute. They 
 revived in the dark and middle ages, when the church took 
 upon itself the task of legislating for the intellect ; and 
 even the precursors of the Reformation were possessed 
 with an almost oppressive sentiment of resignation. 
 The reproduction of the Oriental spirit in America, in so 
 far as it is genuine and not the mere expression of a love 
 of far-fetched quotations, may be attributed to external 
 influences in some respects comparable to those which 
 weighed on the inhabitants of ancient India. In the 
 Western, as formerly in the Eastern World, nature still 
 struggles to assert her old supremacy, and threatens to 
 domineer over men's minds by the vastness of her empire. 
 But in other respects the conditions are reversed. In place 
 of stagnation and uniform although magnificent decay, we 
 have to deal with the manifold progress of 19th century 
 civilisation in a land where every one is more or less 
 inspired by the resolve of the modern mariner with an 
 ancient name to " sail beyond the sunset " in pursuit of 
 fresh adventures ; where the energies of the individual are 
 in constant, and in the long run triumphant, struggle with 
 all that tends to restrict the full sweep of his arm .or to 
 retard the freest activities of his mind. Where every moon 
 sees new forests felled, new rivers crossed, new fleets built, 
 new tribes amalgamated, new discussions raised, and new 
 problems solved, mysticism, if it exist at all, must take 
 on a form very different from that handed down from the 
 East of 3000 years ago to the Alexandrians, and trans- 
 mitted to the European ages of implicit faith by the pseudo 
 £)ionysius. Mr Emerson strikes the key-note of the dif- 
 ference when ho writes, " Feudalism and orientalism had 
 long enough thought it majestic to do nothing; the modern
 
 730 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 majesty consists in work." Retaining from the mystics his 
 belief in the supremacy of the higher emotions, he substi- 
 tutes for a religious creed an idealised view of modern 
 physical science. His combination of stern practical recti- 
 tude with an ideal standard is his point of contact .with 
 Puritanism. A chivalric nobility, in which beauty and 
 goodness are blended, is at once the goal, the sanction, and 
 the motive of his ethical system. Praise of the virtue 
 which, transcending all prudence and disdaining all conse- 
 quences, is its own reward, is the refrain of his moral 
 monologue. His severe censure of Goethe's artistic indif- 
 ferentism recalls the age when the Bible and theological 
 commentaries were regarded as the sum of honest literature. 
 He writes of our great dramatist in the spirit of the men 
 who closed the theatres : " He was the master of the revels 
 to mankind" — a sentence far removed from the spirit of 
 modern art-worship. But those which follow, protesting 
 against the opposite extremes of austerity, indicate his 
 divergence on the other side from the old faith of New 
 England. 
 
 Mr Emerson is, wo believe, most widely known in this 
 country by his Representative Men: by no means the most 
 satisfactory of his works. A seric3 of generally acute criti- 
 cisms, pervaded by no well-marked ethical idea, it leaves 
 on the mind a somewhat indefinite impression. Its cate- 
 gories are not exhaustive, and it is difficult to determine on 
 what principle they are chosen : but it serves as an interest- 
 ing point of comparison with the corresponding lectures of 
 the great English advocate of hero-worship, to the sugges- 
 tions of which it probably owes its existence. Mr Carlyle, 
 whose whole faith is centred in strong individualities, adopts 
 the view of history which practically resolves it into a 
 series of biographies. Mr Buckle, caring little for persons, 
 and confiding rather in general laws, resolves biography 
 into history. Mr Emerson on this question steers a middle 
 course. He believes in great men, "to educate whom 
 the state exists, with the appearance of whom the state 
 expires;" but he regards them as inspired mouthpieces of 
 universal or national ideas rather than as controlling forces. 
 Their mission is not so much to regulate our action a3 to 
 " fortify our hopes." Possessed of a larger share of the 
 Over Soul which " makes the whole world kin," they appre- 
 hend and explain phenomena which have hitherto passed 
 unheeded; but their indirect services are the best. Then- 
 examples, more weighty than their acts or discoveries, are 
 perpetual encouragements. The great man is an encyclo- 
 paedia of fact and thought; the belief born in his brain 
 spreads like a current over humanity, and he becomes for 
 a time the golden key to the ill-defined ideal of the multi- 
 tude. .But his career should rouse us to a like assertion 
 of our liberties. We ought not to obey, but to follow some- 
 times by not obeying him. Our author accepts the position 
 upheld by Aristotle and popularised by Macaulay, that 
 different forms of government are adapted to different social 
 conditions; but maintains that the tendency of modern 
 times, attaching more weight to the equality of persons and 
 les3 to the inequalities of property, is towards Democracy, 
 with which and the industrialism of his age he has in the 
 main a cordial sympathy. He believes in collective wisdom 
 as the best check on collective folly, and, allowing that the 
 state exists for its members, he thinks they can act best in 
 union when all are subject to the fewest external restraints. 
 He differs from Thoreau and others of his disciples in 
 having no share in their selfish isolation. His best essays, 
 woven of two curiously intersecting threads, present us with 
 a unique conjunction of shrewdness and idealism. There 
 never was a mystic with so much of the spirit of the good 
 farmer, the inventor, or the enterprising merchant. 
 
 As regards form, Mr Emerson is the most unsystematic 
 of writers. The concentration of his style resembles that 
 
 of a classic, but, as with others who have adopted the 
 aphoristic mode of conveying their thoughts, he everywhere 
 sacrifices unity to riches of detail His essays aro bundles 
 of loose ideas tacked together by a common title, handfuls 
 of scraps tossed down before his audience liko the contents 
 of a conjuror's hat. He delights in proverbs and apt 
 quotations; ho exaggerates like an American, loves a con- 
 tradiction for itself, and prefers a surprise to an argument 
 His epigrams are electric shocks He sacrifices everything 
 to directness. His terse refinement of phrase and trenchant 
 illustrations are his charm. His ideas are on the scale of 
 a continent; his sentences are adapted for a cabinet of 
 curiosities — bits of mosaic work, sweeping generalisations 
 given in essences. His style, armed with points like the 
 bristles of a hedgehog, wants repose. This feature is con- 
 spicuous in the English Traits, where his estimates of men 
 and things, frequently felicitous and generally racy, are 
 often marred by an unpruncd violence. His eye is keen, 
 but its range is narrow, and ho is ignorant of the fact. 
 Unconsciously infected by the haste which ho condemns, 
 ho looks at other nations through the folding telescope of. 
 a tourist. [_ His representations of our leading writers and 
 statesmen seldom rise above the level of Mr Willis's Pen- 
 cillings by the Way. His taste is constantly at fault, and 
 an incessant straining after mots often leads him into 
 caricature. His judgments of those whose lives and writ- 
 ings do not square with his theories are valueless ; and in 
 dealing with foreign languages he betrays the weakness of 
 bis scholarship. 
 
 One qualification for a good critic is a well-defined 
 artistic standard, another is the dramatio capacity of 
 placing himself for the time in the position of the person 
 who is being criticised. Mr. Emerson has neither of these. 
 With the spirit of a fearless inquirer, he unfortunately 
 blends so much presumption as to feel an absolute indif- 
 ference regarding the opinions of others; and this in excess 
 constitutes a moral as well as an artistic defect. Thought 
 is free, and the expression of it ought to be so; but when 
 our thought wanders very far from that of the majority of 
 the wise and good, we are bound to watch it, to sift its 
 conclusions, and to state them moderately. Mr Emerson's 
 thought does wander far, and it runs fast; he does not 
 know what moderation in expression means, and his almost 
 childish love of contradiction perpetually, and often justly, 
 provokes offence. He rides rough-shod over the most 
 cherished convictions, or waves them aside with a com- 
 placent smile and a sort of divine impudence. Every 
 claim of authority he receives as a challenge to 'his per. 
 sonal rights, and he stabs the bull Apis, in utter disregard 
 of the historian's warning. His impatient anticipations 
 natural detract from his reliability in matters of detail, 
 while by a similar carelessness he repeats and contradicts 
 himself with equal frequency. His soundest judgments 
 relate to the men around him, of whom he is at once the 
 panegyrist and the censor. All that is weak and foolish 
 in their mode of life ho condemns, all fhat i3 noblest and 
 most hopeful he applauds. 
 
 Mr Emerson has left his mark on the century; to use a 
 favourite phrase of his own, "he cannot be skipped." 
 Even where his results are least satisfactory, his intense 
 suggestiveness is the cause of thought in others; and as 
 one of the " genetic" powers of modern literature, his fer- 
 tilising influence will survive his inconclusive speculations. 
 His faults are manifest: a petulant irreverence, frequent 
 superficiality, a rash bravery, an inadequate solution of diffi- 
 culties deeming itself adequate, are among the chief. But 
 he is original, natural, attractive, and direct — limpid in 
 phrase and pure in fancy. His best eloquence flows as 
 easily as a stream. In an era of excessive reticence and 
 cautious hypocrisy he lives within a case of crystal where
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 731 
 
 thero are no concealments. We never suspect him of with- 
 holding half of what he knows, or of formularising for our 
 satisfaction a belief which he does not sincerely hold. He 
 is transparently honest and honourable. His courage has 
 no limits. Isolated by force of character, there is no weak- 
 ness in his solitude. He leads us into a region where we 
 escape at once from deserts and from noisy cities ; for he 
 rises above without depreciating ordinary philanthropy, 
 and his philosophy at least endeavours to meet our daily 
 wants. In every social and political controversy he has 
 thrown his weight into the scale of justice, on the side of 
 a rational and progressive liberty; and his lack of sym- 
 pathy with merely personal emotions is recompensed by a 
 veneration for the ideal of the race which recalls the beau- 
 tiful sentiment of Malebranche : " When I touch a human 
 hand I touch heaven." 
 
 Poetry. 
 
 Half the literary men and all the literary women of this 
 century in America have mitten verses; most of them are 
 respectable and many are excellent. But a brief review of 
 the poetry of the West must dwell on the works of four or 
 five authors who most clearly and saliently express the 
 main tendencies of their nation. It must suffice here to 
 name as familiar, or worthy to be so, the graceful vers de 
 sociele of Holmes, 'especially his " Punch Bowl" and " Old 
 Ironsides;" the patriotic chants of James Percival; the 
 sparkling fancies of J. R. Drake's "Culprit Fay;" the 
 fashionable satires of Halleck ; the lyrics and romances of 
 Ihe great traveller and prolific author, J. Bayard Taylor ; 
 the well-balanced stanzas of Hjllhouse ; the plays of Conrad 
 and Bird • " Woodman, spare that Tree " and the " Whip- 
 poor-Will." by G. P. Morris ; A. B. Street's " Settler," and 
 " Forest Walk ;" and, pre-eminent among female minstrels, 
 Mrs Sigourney, whose blank verse descriptions of nature 
 approach those of Bryant; the youthful prodigies, Lucretia 
 and Maria Davidson; and Maria Brooks, authoress of the 
 richly imaginative southern romance of Zophitl, whom 
 Southey, her friend and admirer, pronounced to be " the 
 most impassioned of poetesses." We proceed to review the 
 position of the really great poets of the United States, as re- 
 presentingsome what different mannersand modes of thought. 
 
 1. The European School. — Of these, in our judgment, 
 Mr Longfellow is still the first. His works are free from 
 the defects that stamp the national literature of his country. 
 He has none of the uncouth r^ower and spasmodic exag- 
 geration of his contemporaries. He is all grace, polish, 
 and sweetness. His prose masterpiece, " Hyperion," is the 
 key-note of his minor poems. The source of their inspira- 
 tion is " Outre Mer " among feudal towers, Flemish towns, 
 and Alpine passes. Like Irving in the variety of his 
 culture and superior in genius, his imagination is Teutonic 
 rather than American. He lingers in Nuremberg, Bruges, 
 and Prague; and chooses for his emblem of life's river, 
 not the Ohio, nor the Hudson, nor the Assabeth, but the 
 "Moldau's rushing stream." His " New England Trage- 
 dies" are perhaps his least successful efforts, partly because 
 dramatic literature has seldom yet flourished in American 
 soil, and partly because his sympathy with the ruder age 
 is not keen enough to enable him to vitalise it. Mr Long- 
 fellow has given us the best translations in the world from 
 Swedish, German, Spanish, and Italian authors, and many 
 of his best verses are avowedly suggested by proverbs 
 or sentences, or bits of old romance. A few words from 
 an old French author give him the burden of the " Old 
 Clock on the Stairs;" a leaf out of Mather's Magnalia 
 Christi is rhymed into the " Phantom Ship ;" the ballad 
 of the Count Arnaldos sets him dreaming over the secret 
 of the sea; a verse of Euripides is the key-note to his 
 " Voices of the Night;" a few lines from Goethe gather 
 
 up the essence of the " Psalm of Life.'' In tho JSew 
 World, but not of it, he dwells with almost wearisome 
 fondness on the word " old." Volumes of old days, old 
 associations that we cannot buy with gold, quaint old 
 cities, old poets and painters, sweet old songs, old haunted 
 houses, dear old friends, the grey old manse, Nature the 
 dear old nurse, dear old England, — on phrases and thoughts 
 like these his fancy broods. American verse is fre- 
 quently rough-hewn and audacious, sometimes obscure and 
 pedantic; its novelty is often more striking than its truth. 
 Every sentence that Longfellow has penned is- as clear as 
 crystal and as pure as snow. He wears his weight of 
 learning lightly as a flower; and though he cannot create, 
 he cannot touch without adorning. He seldom gives us 
 thoughts absolutely new, but he puts our best thoughts 
 in the best language. Critics react against his popularity, 
 and complain of h:3 want of concentration and the con- 
 ventionality of his epithets (a fault more rare in his later 
 volumes); but his place as the laureate of women and 
 children and gentle men is unassailable ; and there are 
 seasons when we-^>refer his company to that of the grand 
 old masters, when we seek an anodyne rather than a 
 
 stimulant — 
 
 " His eongs have power to quiet 
 The restless pulse of care. 
 
 Longfellow's command of verse alone proves him to be a 
 genuine poet. There are passages in the " Arsenal," the 
 " Occupation of Orion," the " Building of the Ship," and 
 the " Household Poems" unsurpassed in melody by any in 
 contemporary English verse. The introduction to " Hia- 
 watha," the closing lines of "Evangeline," and some of 
 the character sketches which preface the "Tales of the 
 Wayside Inn," have a music equally attractive and more 
 decidedly original The highest flights of Longfellow's 
 imagination are in the strangely-confused old-world story 
 of the "Golden Legend;" but the work on which his fame 
 most securely rests is " Hiawatha." This poem, in which 
 a series of idylls are strung together on the thread of an 
 idea common to Indian and Scandinavian legend, has that 
 exhilarating flavour of nationality wanting in many of the 
 author's works, and it yields to none of them in artistic 
 finish. The monotony of the verse is like that of a 
 bird's song which has only two or three notes, and yet 
 from its everlasting freshness never palls upon the ear. 
 Most modern attempts to reproduce old ballads put new 
 wine into old bottles; but the American poet has thrown 
 himself as completely into the spirit of aboriginal western 
 life as he has into that of Gothic paganism in the " Chal- 
 lenge of Thor." Like Chibiabos the musician he is at 
 home among the pine-groves and the prairies and "the 
 great lakes of the Northland ;" and 
 
 " All the many sounds of Nature 
 Borrow sweetness from his singing." 
 
 Longfellow's descriptions charm us more than they astonish. 
 Inferior in luxuriance to those of " Enoch Arden," in in- 
 tensity to those of " Locksley Hall," in subtilty to Brown- 
 ing's Italian pictures, they are superior in simplicity. II 
 they do not adorn Nature as a mistress with the subjective 
 fancies of a lover, they bring her before us as a faithful 
 nurse, careful for her children. In " Evangeline" the poet 
 follows the wheels of the emigrant's waggon over 
 
 " Billowy bays of grass, ever rolling in sunshine and shadow " 
 and 
 
 " Over them wander the buffalo herds and the elk and the 
 roebuck." 
 
 Hiawatha speaks of Nature with the familiarity of an 
 inhabitant ; there is no trace of the grandiose style of the 
 tourist. In the best episodes of the volume— as tho 
 account of the hero's childhood and his friends — of the 
 wooing of Minnehaha — of the son of the evening star — of
 
 732 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 the ghosts and the famine — the parable of human life, 
 with its incidents of birth, love, and death — of civilisation 
 and decay — is told in a narrative of child-like tenderness 
 as well as masculine grasp. He who runs may read it, 
 and yet the whole is lit up by an imagination like an 
 aurora borealis. A recent New York critic ridicules tho 
 European view of " Hiawatha" as an American poem. It 
 is true that the feverish ardour of Wall Street has no 
 place in iU pages; but it is none the less manifestly 
 transatlantic and sui generis. In celebrating Red Indian 
 life, it inevitably discloses some of the features of the race 
 which has come into close contact with that life. The 
 New Zealand myth about the strength of the dead enemy 
 passing into his conqueror applies here. Mr Dixon has 
 dwelt very justly on the extent to which the aborigines 
 of America have communicated their spirit to the pioneers 
 before whom they have given way. Hiawatha sings of, 
 the decadence of a primitive people in strains that recall by 
 their pathos the old British legends of the death of Arthur, 
 but has also a prophetic side ; from the meeting-point of 
 two races it looks before as well as after. 
 Poe, More devoid of national sentiment and local colouring 
 
 are the remarkable verses of Edgar Allan Poe, to whom 
 we have before referred as a romancer. If the aim of 
 poetry be to astonish or to fascinate, Poe takes a high 
 rank among poets. According to Wordsworth's definition 
 of the art, he has hardly a place among them at alL He 
 teaches nothing, and living in one world writes in another. 
 AH we know of the personality of most of the authors we 
 have named adds to the charm of their works. Regarding 
 Poe's career it is otherwise. The vain and captious jea- 
 lousy of his criticism is as repulsive as his grayer defects. 
 It has been said that he is the greatest of American 
 writers in verse. This is an exaggeration of his powers 
 only surpassed by his own exaggeration of them. It is 
 true, however, that by pure intensity of delirium he now 
 and then takes a flight beyond that of any other Western 
 poet. His " Politian" is perhaps the stupidest fragment 
 of a play that exists. But in his lyrics the fervour of his 
 sympathy with himself makes artistic recompense for his 
 want of sympathy for others. The passion of " Annabel 
 Lee " is at a white heat, and is pervaded by a, true pathos. 
 The class finish of the best of his verses is unsurpassed, 
 and his musical cadences give a charm even to those which 
 are comparatively meaningless. The " Raven" is at the 
 worst a marvellous piece of mechanism; and the same deli- 
 cacy of touch is everywhere visible in the rushing lines of 
 "Annie," "Eulalie," "Ulalume," " Lenore," and the "City 
 in the Sea." The purity of those poems is one of their most 
 remarkable features. By the side of the author's life, they are 
 like nuns in the convent of a disorderly city; but they are 
 at the same disadvantage — their isolation gives them an air 
 of unreality. The "banners, yellow, glorious, golden," of his 
 fancy " float and flow " on the roof of an imaginary palace. 
 2. School of American Scenery and Adventure. — 
 The French critic M. De Tocqueville remarks that, in 
 democratic communities, where men are all socially insig- 
 nificant, poetry will be less apt to celebrate individuals, 
 but will incline to dwell on external nature or on the ideas 
 which concern mankind in general. It will be either 
 descriptive or abstract The works of Mr Bryant, the 
 earliest considerable American poet, help to vindicate the 
 generalisation. His " Thanatopsis," written in his 19th 
 year, is perhaprthe masterpiece of his (.ombre contempla- 
 tive imagination The reason why the author has never 
 surpassed this effort of his youth is be found partly in the 
 cast of his mind, characterised by a narrow greatness, and 
 partly in the fact that, during the major part of his life 
 he has been constrained to " scrawl strange words with the 
 barbarous pen" as the editor of a daily newspaper: a fact 
 
 to which, at the close of his " Green River," he makes a 
 touching reference. Mr Bryant has lived in thronging 
 cities, an honest and energetic politician ; but in his leisure 
 hours his fancy has roamed to breezy hills and valleys and 
 the undulating sea of the prairies. The perpetual autumn 
 of his writings is peculiar. He has written smoothly in 
 various measures, but he is never lively. An American 
 Alastor, he loves " the air that cools the twilight of the 
 sultry day " better than morning " clad in russet vest." 
 In the beautiful verses on the "Death of the Flowers" 
 his ear catches a dirge in the wind 
 
 "The south wind searches for the flowers whose fragrance late 
 he bore, 
 And sighs to find them in the wood and by the stream no 
 more." 
 
 Tho high rank grass of the meadow is to his eye the. 
 garniture of tho graves of a race represented by his " Dis- 
 interred Warrior." His " Evening Wind," " Forest Hymn," 
 " Monument Mountain," " The Burial Place," and " The 
 Past," are set to the same slow music, and pervaded by 
 the thought of life as the avenue of death. If we com- 
 pare his " Address to a Waterfowl" with Wordsworth's or 
 Shelley's " Skylark," we appreciate the monotony of his 
 mind, which is like that of Cowper without Cowper's 
 occasional vivacity. Mr Bryant stands on a high level, 
 but the space he covers is limited; he has.no touch of 
 humour, and only the distant pathos of prevailing melan- 
 choly. Master of his position where he is at home in the 
 woods, he loses his inspiration when he draws near his 
 own cities. His nature-worship has a parallel in the 
 feeling which animates some of the most graphic passages 
 in New England prose; as when Emerson writes — 
 
 " At the gates of the forest, the surprised man of the world is 
 forced to leave his city estimates of great and small, wise and 
 foolish. The knapsack of custom falls olF his back with the firat 
 step he makes into these precincts. Here is sanctity which shames 
 our religions, and reality which discredits our heroes. . . . "We 
 have crept out of our crowded houses into the night and morning. 
 .... The incommunicable trees begin to persuade us to live with 
 them, and quit our life of solemn trifles. Here no history or church 
 or state is interpolated on the divine sky and the immortal year." 
 
 The whole life and writings of the morbidly eccentric 
 genius H. D. Thoreau are a comment on the results of 
 this one-sided spirit It pervades half the volumes of 
 Theodore Winthrop, a manlier though less original mind. 
 It has taken possession of the poetic advocate of Far 
 Western and wild Indian life, Joaquin Miller, whose 
 " Songs of the Sierras " in their best passages add to 
 Bryant's descriptive power more of the fire of adventure, 
 finding expression in the quicker pulse of the verse. But the 
 lyrics of this writer, though the vehicle of national thought, 
 bear tho mark of foreign influence. Their cadences are 
 echoes of Mr Swinburne. The impulse which made captive 
 the " Scholar Gipsy," which the hero of " Locksley Hall" 
 welcomes and then rejects, is a leading feature of Western 
 literature. Imaginative and ardent minds, oppressed by 
 what Mr Arnold calls "this strange disease of modern 
 life," try to escape from the region of tho real drama into 
 that of the ideal lyric, — " arva, beata petanms arva, divites 
 et insulas," — and have now and then endeavoured to convert 
 it into an actual idyll, as when Thoreau buried hims elf in 
 a log hut by Walden lake, or Theodore Winthrop, leaving 
 his ledgers in New York, scoured over the crags of Oregon; 
 or Home, with his " Orion" still unsold, was found mining 
 in a quarry of New South Wales. But this emigre spirit, 
 when put into practice, ultimately cures itself: a poet 
 soon tires of working with his hands for a livelihood. The 
 aspirations of dough's " Bothie" are stifled by the vitwsB 
 euros of a hard life, or terminate in the catastrophes of a 
 fanaticism, such as Hawthorne has branded with his genius 
 in the BlithedaU Romance. The philosophical refugees
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 733 
 
 find that tne solitude they desired charms only by its 
 eontrast with the civilisation they have left ; as the beauty 
 of the sea is its contrast with the shore. But this wander- 
 ing impulse, strong in the ancient Greek and the modern 
 English race, has colonised and civilised the world: it is 
 especially strong in the Anglo-American. The very restless- 
 ness which makes his cities so noisy bid him long for a 
 remoter rest, and this longing acta in conjunction with 
 more material demands to drive him across the Mississippi, 
 and pioneer the way to the Pacific. 
 
 3. Transcendental and Eccentric School. — The 
 freshness which breathes through Mr Emerson's essays 
 reappears in his poems: but they are seldom so successful 
 as his prose. .Apart from the obscurity of their matter, 
 which is great — for he has chosen verse as the vehicle of 
 his remoter mysticism — they are defaced by frequent 
 mannerisms and incongruities: most of them are wanting 
 in melody, many in syntax. The writer seems to trust to 
 providence for his rhymes, and changes his metres at will 
 Nevertheless, his genius has a lyric side, and the imagina- 
 tive sympathy with nature which makes his prose poetical,- 
 prevents his verse, even when awkward, from becoming 
 prosaic. The rippling of rivers, the sough of the pine, 
 the murmur of the harvest, and the whirr of insects per- 
 vade/and give life to his descriptions. A morning light is 
 thrown over his happiest pages, and some of his quieter 
 reflective pictures are not unworthy of the author of the 
 " Excursion." Interleaved between the gold-dust of Alex- 
 andrian rhapsody there are pieces that speak of a love 
 that is neither "initial," "daemonic," nor "celestial," but 
 human. Of these, " The Dirge," " In Memoriam," " Tie 
 Farewell," the lines " To J. W.," " To Ellen," and the 
 "Threnody," are- the most conspicuous. The prevailing tone 
 of the greater part of Emerson's poetry is cheerful Unlike 
 those of Bryant, his "woodnotes" are those of the spring. 
 " Thousand minstrels wake within me, 
 Our music's on the Kills, " 
 
 is the perpetual refrain of the exulting worshipper of 
 nature. His lines entitled " Good-bye, proud World," 
 breathe the hermit-like spirit of Quarles or Andrew Mar- 
 veil; but the Puritanism of older days has here assumed 
 another shape. There are other pieces relating to the 
 intercourse of men with each other showing a keen obser- 
 vation of common life and sound worldly wisdom, in neat 
 quatrains and a few vigorous political songs. The "Hymn 
 on Coneord Monument" is strong and dignified, while the 
 verses relating to the civil war address the nation in forcible 
 terms both of warning and encouragement. Those prac- 
 tical manifestoes are the more striking from the fact that 
 they are printed by the side of others proclaiming in tran- 
 scendental enigmas the emptiness of transitory things, 
 the fixity of fate, and the doctrine of the absorption of 
 the individual in the infinite, 
 litman. Mr Emerson was one of the first to praise the extra- 
 ordinary rhapsodies of Mr Walt Whitman, which have 
 since attracted too much attention to be passed without 
 notice. But although this author on varioas occasions 
 displays an uncouth power, his success is in the main 
 owing to the love of novelty, wildness, and even of ab- 
 surdity, which has infected a considerable class of critics 
 and readers on both sides of the Atlantic. Mr Whitman 
 does not write in verse; he discards not only rhyme, but 
 all ordinaiy rhythm. What there is of the latter seems to 
 come by accident in lines of various length, and arranged 
 either on no principle or on one which we have failed to 
 discover. " The Leaves of Grass" is redeemed by a few 
 grand descriptive passages from absolute barbarism both 
 of manner and matter. It is a glorification of nature in 
 her most unabashed forms, an audacious protest against all 
 that civilisation has done to raise men above the savage 
 
 state. The "Drum Taps," a set of generally vigorous 
 pictures of the war, are less objectionable; the dirge on 
 Lincoln in particular has many qualities of a noble elegy, — 
 the imagery is rich though sometimes fantastic, and there 
 is he. - e and there a wild music in the composition, — but it 
 is still defaced by pedantic words and unjustifiable, because 
 unnecessary, novelties of phrase. 
 
 4. Patriotic and Political Poetry. — The assertion 
 of Henri Beyle, that politics are like a stone tied round 
 the neck of literature, must be accepted with a reservation ; 
 for if the songs make the laws, Uie battles often make the 
 songs of a nation. The growth of a history on their own 
 soil is, in the minds of most Americans, a requisite to the 
 full development of national art. English history inade- 
 quately supplies the desired background, for they cannot 
 associate it with what they see around them. Memories 
 of the Revolution war have, during this century, been 
 recalled in some stirring verses, as " Paul Revere's Ride," 
 in Mr Longfellow's " Wayside Inn;" but the most effective 
 national poetry has been suggested by more recent events. 
 The " Biglow Papers," a series of metrical pamphlets, born r.owel . 
 of the last great social and political struggle of the New 
 World, are among the most original contributions to its 
 literature. Mr James Russell Lowell is the author of 
 several volumes of miscellaneous verse. His earlier efforts, 
 buoyant and vigorous, but- bearing the marks of haste, 
 display more impetuosity than power. His genius every- 
 where appears in contrast to Bryant's. Far from shrinking 
 into solitary places, he loves great cities and their cries, 
 and sets them to rhyme with hearty good-will When he 
 goes into the country, it is on a " day in June," to have 
 his blood sent faster through his veins by the spring 
 morning, and not to dream among the autumn woods of 
 " Thanatopsis." His " Allegra," " Fountain," and " Indian 
 Summer Reverie," are marked by the same jubilant energy 
 and the same apparent carelessness. Mr Lowell's diffuse- 
 ness is only half redeemed by his fluency. He writes 
 currente calamo; and, unchecked by any spirit of reverence, 
 contemns what he is pleased to call " the blaspheming 
 past" and the "dotard Orient." In dealing with the 
 forms of nature around him, he shows a keen eye and a 
 fine sense of analogies : his images drawn from history are 
 less successful. Few Americans know how to use the 
 classics with reticence, and Mr Lowell's page3 are infected 
 with schoolboy commonplaces. His " Ode to Freedom," 
 " The Present Crisis," with other semi-political and social 
 pieces, are noble and stirring platform verse, but they will 
 not bear analysis. His " Irene," " Requiem," and " Beg- 
 gar Bard" are marked by genuine sentiment and true 
 pathos. But the prevailing flaw of his earlier and later 
 serious poems — as " The Cathedral," and " Under the 
 Willows," is the confusion of inspiration with aspiration. 
 In the " Fable for Critics," which may be compaied with 
 Leigh Hunt's " Feast of the Poets," he breaks ground on 
 the field in which he has found his harvest. The merit of 
 this piece lies in its candour and the general fairness of its 
 criticisms, in the course of which " the whole tuneful herd" 
 of American authors are reviewed with good-humoured 
 banter. In several instances, as in the following, he shows 
 himself alive to the defects which he shares with the 
 majority of his countrymen — 
 
 " Neal wants balance ; he throws his mind always too Car, 
 And whisks out flocks of comets and never a star; 
 He has so much muscle, and longs so to show it, 
 That he strips himself naked to prove he's a poet* 
 
 The author's style is rapid and sparkling; his points fol- 
 low one another like the sparks from a Leyden jar ; his 
 love of freedom and truth and detestation of pretence are 
 always admirable; but his earlier poems are constantly 
 defaced by violences.
 
 734 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 Mr Lowell informs us that the Mexican war, which he 
 regarded as a crime perpetrated in behalf of slavery, led to 
 the publication, in 1846, of -the first of his series of "Big- 
 low Papers." After an interval of thirteen years, the 
 second began to appear in 1861, and closed with the war 
 in 1865. In his preface to those remarkable productions 
 the author makes a successful defence of the language in 
 which they are written. The more homely standards of 
 the present as compared with those of the last century 
 give countenance to his mottoes — " Unser Sprach ist auch 
 ein Sprach," and " Vim rebus aliquando ipsa verborum 
 humilitas affert. * The essential to the use of a patois is 
 that it be natural to the writer. Mr Lowell has taken 
 pains to show that the peculiarities of the Yankee dialect 
 are not indigenous; that the pronunciation and meanings 
 given to familiar words, and the employment of words now 
 Unknown in England, are authorised by the example of 
 our elder classics. We are more concerned to know that 
 he has been happy in his use of the words and phrases in 
 question. The popularity of his work is in this respect a 
 voucher for his success. The rural dialect seems to suit 
 his genius better than the English of his university. The 
 quasi-dramatic form he has adopted confines within limits 
 a too discursive fancy. The letters of Mr Sawin are excel- 
 lent exan. pies of the form of satire in which contemptiblo 
 qualities .-.re stripped of their varnish by the sheer effrontery 
 of the wearer. The style of the book is more trenchant 
 and better matured than that of Lowell's other works, and 
 it is really humorous. The humour of the " Biglow 
 Papers" is broad and obvious. They derive their force 
 from the incisive expression given to the sentiments shared 
 by the author with a large section of his countrymen; and 
 the lines most frequently quoted owe everything to a 
 startling directness, something bordering on irreverence. 
 Mr Lowell's poetical powers are set on fire by political 
 zeal, and his animosity sharpens the edge of his most 
 effective verse. The satiric scorn of the lines put into the 
 mouth of Calhoun, with the speeches of Garrison, Phillips, 
 and Sumner, helped to hasten the irrepressible conflict of 
 the contending forces in the Western Continent. The 
 second series of the " Biglow Papers" are animated by tho 
 spirit of an uncompromising Unionist as well as that of 
 an Abolitionist. In these the poet's patriotism glows with 
 a deeper fervour, and his songs rise out of the battlefield 
 " like rockets druv* by their own burnin'." The graver 
 poetry of this volume reaches a higher standard than tho 
 author has elsewhere attained. The short rural romance 
 entitled "The Courtin'" is one of the freshest bits of pas- 
 toral in the language. The stanzas beginning " Under the 
 yallar pines I house," and ending " A nation saved, a race 
 delivered," are his masterpieces. 
 
 Mr John Greenleaf Whittier is the political lyrist par 
 excellence of America; and the best of his lyrics have a 
 verve, swing, and fire that impart to the reader a share of 
 the writer's enthusiasm. His verse, rapid as a torrent, is 
 perpetually overflowing its banks. No one stands more 
 in need of the advice once given to Southey, " squeeze out 
 the whey;" and to no works more than to his is the 
 maxim irXeov tjixutv ^euro's more applicable. There are 
 few more graceful tales in verse than those of his " Tent 
 on the Beach." They are remarkable for their smooth- 
 ness and quiet beauty of sentiment. The music of " River- 
 mou'.h Rocks," " Revisited," and the " Grave by the Lake" 
 recalls that of Longfellow's best ballads. The most strik- 
 ing is the " Brother of Mercy," Piero Luca, who, like Abu 
 Ben Adhem, loves his fellow-men. The same trust in tho 
 divine love which is the sum of Whittier's ardent faith, 
 appears in the beautiful verses entitled " The Eternal 
 Goodness " and " Our Master." The strongest lines in the 
 book, addressed to " Thorns Stzxt iiing," have the rare 
 
 merit of condensation. Of Whittier's national lyriet, the 
 most powerful is " Laus Deo," the burst of acclamation 
 suggested by the passing of Lincoln's constitutional amend- 
 ment. His narrative power is best illustrated in " Maud 
 Muller," an original and more innocent version of Brown- 
 ing's " Statuo and the Bust," springing up in an American 
 meadow. 
 
 V. — Summary. 
 
 The cntic3 of one nation must, to a certain extent, 
 regard the works of another from an outside point of 
 view. Few are able to divest themselves wholly of th& 
 influence of local standards; and this is pre-eminently 
 tho caso when the early efforts of a young country aro 
 submitted to the judgment of an older country, strong in 
 its prescriptive rights, and intolerant of changes the 
 drift of which it is unable or unwilling to appreciate. 
 English critics are apt to bear down on the writers and 
 thinkers of the New World with a sort of aristocratic hauteur; 
 they are perpotually reminding them of their immaturity 
 and their disregard of the golden mean. Americans, on 
 the other hand, are impossible to please. Ordinary 
 men among them are as sensitive to foreign, and above 
 all to British, censure, as tho ir ritabile genus of other lands. 
 Mr Emerson is permitted to impress home truths on/his 
 countrymen, as "Your American eagle is very well; but 
 beware of tho American peacock." Such remarks are not 
 permitted to Englishmen: if they point to any flaws in 
 transatlantic manners or ways of thinking with an effort 
 after politeness, it is " tho good-natured cynicism of well- 
 to-do age;" if they commend transatlantic institutions or 
 achievements, it is, according to Mr Lowell, "with that 
 pleasant European air of self-compliment in condescending 
 to be pleased by American merit which we find so con- 
 ciliating." Now that the United States have reached 
 their full majority, it is time that England should ceaso 
 to assume the attitude of their guardian, and time that 
 they should cease to be on the alert to resent the assump- 
 tion. Foremost among the more attractive features of 
 transatlantic literature is its freshness. The authority 
 which is the guide of old nations constantly threatens to 
 become tyrannical : they wear their traditions like a chain ; 
 and, in tho canonisation of laws of taste, the creative 
 powers are depressed. Even in England we write under 
 fixed conditions; with tho fear of critics before our eyes, 
 we are all bound to cast our ideas into similar moulds, and 
 the name of " free-thinker " has grown into a term of 
 reproach. Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress is perhaps the 
 last English book written without a thought of being 
 reviewed. There is a gain in the habit of self-restraint 
 fostered by this state of things; but there is a loss in the 
 consequent lack of spontaneity; aud we may learn some- 
 thing from a literature which is ever ready for adventures. 
 In America the love of uniformity gives place to im- 
 petuous impulses : the most extreme sentiments are made 
 audible, the most noxious " have their day, and cease to 
 be;" and truth being left to vindicate itself, the overthrow 
 of error, though more gradual, may at last prove more 
 complete. A New England poet can write with confi- 
 dence of his country as the land 
 
 " Where no one suffers loss or bleeds 
 For thoughts that men call heresies." 
 
 Another feature of American, literature is its comprehen- 
 siveness: what it has lost in depth it has gained in breadth. 
 Addressing a vast audience, it appeals to universal sym- 
 pathies. In the Northern States, where comparatively 
 few have leisure to write well, almost every man, woman, 
 and child can read and does read. Books are to be found 
 in every log-hut, and public questions are discussed by
 
 A M E — A M E 
 
 735 
 
 every scavenger. .During the war, when the Lowell fac- 
 tory girls were writing verses, the " Biglow Papers " were 
 being recited in every smithy. The consequence is, that 
 (setting aside the newspapers) there is little that is sec- 
 tional in' the popular religion or literature; it exalts and 
 despises no class, and almost wholly ignores the lines that 
 in other countries divide the upper ten thousand and the 
 lower ten million. Where manners make men the people 
 are proud of their peerage, but they blush for their boors. 
 In tie New World there are no " Grand Seigniors," and 
 no human vegetables; and if there are fewer giaDts, there 
 are also fewer mannikins. American poets recognise no 
 essential distinction between the " Village Blacksmith" and 
 the " caste of Vere de Vere." Burns speaks for the- one ; 
 Byron and Tennyson for the other; Longfellow, to the 
 extent of his genius, for both. The Same spirit which 
 glorifies labour denounces every form of despotism but that 
 of the multitude. American slavery, being an anachron- 
 
 ism based on the antipathies of race, was worse than 
 Athenian slavery. But there is no song of an Athenian 
 slave. When the ancients were unjust to their inferiors, 
 they were so without moral disquietude: the lie had got 
 into the soul Christianity, which substituted the word 
 " brother " for " barbarian," first gave meaning to the word 
 " humanity." But the feudalism of the Middle Ages long 
 contended successfully against the higher precepts of the 
 church : the teaching of Froissart held its ground agaiust 
 that of Langland. The hero-worship of our greatest living 
 author is apt to degenerate into a reassertion of the feudal 
 spirit. The aspirations of our descendants in the West 
 point, on the other hand, to a freedom which is in danger 
 of being corrupted by licence. But if the vulgarism of 
 demagogic excess is restrained and overcome by the good 
 taste and culture of her nobler minds, we may anticipate 
 for the literature of America, under the mellowing influ- 
 ences of time an illustrious future. (j. u.) 
 
 AMERIGO VESPUCCI. See Vespucci. 
 
 AMERSFOORT, a town of Holland, in the province of 
 Utrecht, situated 12 miles E.N.E. of the city of that name, 
 on the Eem, which here is navigable. It contains a town- 
 house, several churches— Protestant and Roman Catholic 
 — a court of primary jurisdiction, a Jansenist college, an 
 industrial and several other schools. Woollen goods, 
 eotton, Bilk, glass, and brandy are the chief manufactures, 
 and there is a large trade in corn, tobacco, and dried 
 herrings. Amersfoort received its municipal privileges in 
 1249. It was taken by the Archduke Maximilian in 
 1483, and by the French in 1672 and in 1795. Popula- 
 tion, 13,200. 
 
 AMERSHAM, or Aghondesham, an old market town 
 in Buckinghamshire, pleasantly situated in the valley o f 
 the Misbourn, a small tributary of the Colne, 32 miles 
 from Buckingham, and 26 from London. It consists 
 chiefly of a main street crossed by a smaller one ; and 
 possesses a handsome church, containing some beautiful 
 monuments, several dissenting places of worship, a town- 
 hall, built in 1642 by Sir William Drake, and a grammar 
 school. It has manufactures of black lace, cotton, straw- 
 plait, wooden chairs-, flour, and beer. Edmund Waller, 
 the poet, was born near Amersham, and sat for the 
 borough, which sent two members to parliament until 
 1832. Population of parish in 1871, 3259. 
 
 AMES, Fisher, an eminent American statesman and 
 political writer, son of Nathaniel Ames, a physician, was 
 born at Dedham, in Massachusetts, on 9th April 1758. 
 He studied at Harvard college, where he graduated in 
 1774. After practising the law for some little time, he 
 abandoned that profession for the more congenial pursuit 
 of politics, and in 1788 became a member of the Massa- 
 chusetts convention for ratifying the constitution. In this 
 assembly he bore a conspicuous part, and in the next year, 
 having passed to the house of representatives in the state 
 legislature, he distinguished himself greatly by his elo- 
 quence and sprightliness and readiness in debate. Dur- 
 ing the eight years of Washington's administration he 
 took a prominent part in the national councils ; and on 
 Washington's retirement, he returned to his residence at 
 Dedham to resume the practice of the law, which the state 
 of his health after a few years obliged him to relinquish. 
 He still continued his literary labours, and published 
 numerous essays, chiefly in relation to the contest between 
 Great Britain and revolutionary France, as it might affect 
 the liberty and prosperity of America. Four years before 
 bis death he was chosen president of Harvard college, an 
 honour which his broken state of health obliged him to 
 
 decline. Ho died on the 4th July 1808, admired and 
 respected by his countrymen from the brilliancy of his 
 talents and his private virtues. His writings, which abound 
 in sparkling passages, displaying great fertility of imagina- 
 tion, were collected and published, with a memoir of 
 the author, in 1809, by the Rev. Dr Kirkland, in one large 
 octavo volume. A more complete edition in two volumes 
 was published by bis son, Seth Ames, in 1854. 
 
 AMES, Joseph, author of a valuable work on the pro- 
 gress of printing in England, called Typographical Anti- 
 quities (1749), which is often quoted by bibliographers. 
 He was born in 1689, and died in 1759. The best editions 
 of his work are those published with the additions of 
 Herbert (1785-90), and of Dibdin (1810-16). These both 
 include a life of Ames written by Mr Goughl 
 
 AMES, William, D.D. In the Latinised form of 
 Amesius this distinguished English theol6gian is now 
 better known on the Continent than in our own country, 
 through works that were a power in their day, and are not 
 yet spent of their force. He was born at Ipswich, Suffolk, in 
 1576. He received an excellent education at the grammar 
 school of Ipswich ; and proceeded next to the university 
 of Cambridge, where he was entered of Christ's college. 
 From the outset, as to the latest, he was an omnivorous 
 student. Entering half-carejessly into the church where 
 the great Master William Perkins was the preacher, he 
 was, under the sermon, roused and alarmed in such fashion 
 as was not rare under so burning and intense an orator as 
 Perkins. Like. another Nicodemus he visited the vener- 
 able preacher, and was taught and comforted so as never 
 through life to forget his interviews with the " old man 
 eloquent." Perkins having died at a ripe old age, was 
 succeeded by one of kindred intellect and fervour, Paul 
 Bayne, and his friendship also was gained by Ames. He 
 proceeded B.A. and M.A. in due course, and was chosen 
 to a fellowship in Christ's collega He was universally 
 beloved in the university. His own college (Christ's) would 
 have chosen him for the mastership ; but a party-opposi- 
 tion led to the election of a Dr Carey, who at once sought 
 a quarrel by arraigning Ames for disapproving of the sur- 
 plice and other outward symbols. Not succeeding by 
 threats of expulsion, which were illegal and powerless, tho 
 master resorted to transparent flattery. Ames stood firm, 
 was led to re-examine former opinions, and the result was 
 that more absolutely than ever he decided against con- 
 formity. Nevertheless, he preached in season and out of 
 season, and always with profound impression. One ser- 
 mon became historical in the Puritan controversies. It 
 was delivered on St Thomas' day, before the feast of Christ's
 
 736 
 
 AME-AMK 
 
 nativity, and in it ho rebuked ah&rply Lusory Lotts and 
 the " heathenish debauchery " of the students during the 
 twelve days ensuing. His exposures and scathing denun- 
 ciations won thunders of applause, but there were sheathed 
 in them lightnings of wrath among the High Church party. 
 He was summoned before the vice-chancellor and whole 
 senate of the university. He appeared, and in presence of 
 as brilliant an assembly as ever met in the congregation- 
 house, defended himself triumphantly. Nonconformity, 
 admittedly in lesser things, was regarded as excluding him 
 from the Church of England. He left the university, 
 and would have accepted the great church of Colchester in 
 Essex, but the relentless bishop of London refused to grant 
 institution and induction. Like furtive persecution awaited 
 him elsewhere, and at last he passed over to Holland. To 
 leave England was not so simple or easy a thing then, and 
 Ames had to disguise himself for safety. His disguise was 
 singularly timed, for it produced an incident that has long 
 been worked into the very fabric of church history in Eng- 
 land and Holland. Coincident with his arrival at Rotterdam 
 a congress of theologians — Remonstrant and non-Remon- 
 strant — was being held. Ames went into the meeting in 
 his " habit of a fisherman, with his canvas slops about his 
 body, and a red cap on his head." As the debate pro- 
 ceeded, the English visitor rose and craved permission to 
 oppose Grevinchovius — a theologian long since in oblivion, 
 but a tower of strength in heresy at that day — in Latin. 
 The Remonstrant champion was rather taken aback at first; 
 but jeered and flouted the plain countryman, " like an- 
 other Goliath scorning David." The question was the old- 
 new one of the " self-determining power of the human will 
 to spiritual good, without any need of tho previous effica- 
 cious operations of divine grace." Ames' bore his op- 
 ponent's gibes at his dress, and overwhelmed him with his 
 logical reasoning from Phil. ii. .13, " It is God that worketh 
 in us both to will and to do." The fisherman-contro- 
 versialist made a great stir, and from that day became 
 known and honoured in the Low Countries. Subsequently 
 Ames entered into a controversy in print with Grevin- 
 chovius on universal redemption and election, and cognate 
 problems. He brought together all he had maintained in 
 his Coronis ad Collationem Hagiensem — his most master- 
 ful book, which figures largely in Dutch church history. 
 At Leyden, Ames became intimate with the venerable Mr 
 Goodyear, pastor of the English church there. While thus 
 resident in comparative privacy he was sent for to the 
 Hague by Sir Horatio Vere, who appointed him a minister 
 in the army of the states-general, and of the English 
 soldiers in their service, a post held by some of the greatest 
 of England's exiled Puritans. Ho married at the Hague a 
 daughter of Dr Burgess, who was domestic pastor of Vere. 
 On his father-in-law's return to England, Ames succeeded 
 to his place. It was at this time he began his memorable 
 controversy with Episcopius, who, in attacking the Coronis, 
 railed against the author as having been "a disturber of 
 the public peace in his native country, so that the English 
 magistrates had banished him thenco; and now, by his 
 late printed Coronis, he was raising new disturbances in 
 the peaceable Netherlands." It was a miserable libel. Mr 
 Goodyear being present in the lecture-room when Epis- 
 copius vented his malice, there and then rebutted his 
 charge against his absent friend. None the less did the 
 controversy proceed. Ultimately Ames reduced the Re- 
 monstrants to silence. Tho Coronis had been primarily 
 prepared for the Synod of Dort, which sat from November 
 1618 until May 1619. At this celebrated synod the posi- 
 tion of Dr Ames, if an extremely honourable, was a 
 peculiar one. The High Church party in England had in- 
 duced the king to interfere and bring about his removal 
 from the Hague, on the ground of his nonconformity ; but 
 
 he was still held, deservedly, in such reverence that it was 
 arranged he should attend the synod informally. Through- 
 out its sittings Dr Ames appears to have been the most 
 active and influential of the foreign divines. It is o 
 sorrowful fact that, from 1611-12 onward, Ames was 
 interfered with harassingly by the High Church party in 
 England. Twice over, when chosen professor, the most 
 envenomed opposition was led from England. He waa 
 kept from the university of Leyden ; and when later in- 
 vited by the state of Friesland to a professoriate at Franeker, 
 the persecution was renewed, but this time abortively. 
 He was installed at Franeker on 7th May 1622, and de- 
 livered a most learned discourse on tho occasion on " Urim 
 and Thummim." He soon brought renown to Franeker as 
 professor, preacher, pastor, and theological writer. He 
 prepared his Medulla Tluologica for his students. His 
 Casus Conscientice followed. Both these treatises left their 
 mark on the thought of the century. His " Cases of Con- 
 science " was a new thing in Protestantism. The work shows 
 much insight into human nature, and may be favourably 
 compared with the bulkier Ductor Dubitantium. Having 
 continued twelve years at Franeker, his health gave way, and 
 he contemplated removal to New England. But another 
 door was opened for him. His English heart yearned for 
 more frequent opportunities of preaching the gospel to his 
 fellow-countrymen, and an invitation to Rotterdam gave 
 him such opportunity. His friends at Franeker were 
 passionately opposed to the transference, but ultimately 
 acquiesced. At Rotterdam he drew all hearts to him by 
 his eloquence and fervour in the pulpit, and his irrepres- 
 sible activity as a pastor. Home-controversy engaged him 
 again, and he prepared his Fresh Suit against Ceremonies — 
 extrinsically having the distinction of being the book which 
 made Richard Baxter a Nonconformist. It was posthu- 
 mously published. He did not long survive his removal to 
 Rotterdam. Having caught a cold from a flood which 
 drenched his house, he died in November 1633,- in hit 
 fifty-seventh year. 
 
 Few Englishmen have exercised so formative and controlling ar, 
 influence on continental thought and opinion as Dr Ames. He was 
 a master in theological controversy, shunning not to cross swords 
 with the formidable Bellarmine. He was a scholar among scholars, 
 being furnished with extraordinary resourcos of learning. His 
 works, which even the JBiographia Britannica (1778) testifies, were 
 famous over Europe, were collected at Amsterdam in 6 vols iio. 
 Only a very small proportion were translated into his mother tongue. 
 His Lectiones in omnes Psahws Davidis (1635) is exceedingly sug- 
 gestive and terse in its style, reminding of Bengel's Gnomon, as 
 does also his Commtnlarius utriusque Epist. S. Petri. His 
 "Replies" to Bishop Morton and Dr Burgess on "Ceremonies" 
 tell us that even kinship could not prevent him from " contending 
 earnestly for the faith." (John Quicks MS. lames Sacra; Anglicance, 
 who gives the fisherman Anecdote on the personal authority of one 
 who was present ; Brook's Puritans, vol. iii. pp. 405-8 ; Win- 
 wood's Memorials, vol. iii. pp. 346-7 ; Neal'a Puritans; Fuller's 
 Cambridge (Christ's College) ; Sylvester's Life of Baxter, part i. pp. 
 13, 14 ; Biogr. Brit., vol. i. pp. 172-3 ; Mather's New England, 
 book iii. ; Palmer's Nomamf. Memorial. ; Mosheim's Eccles. Eist., 
 who mistakenly calls him a Scotsman; Hanburg, s.v. ; Collections 
 of the Massachusetts Historical Society, vol. vi., fourth series, 1863, 
 pp. 576-7.) (A. B. G.) 
 
 AMESBURY, an old town in 'Wiltshire, on the Avon, 
 8 miles north of Salisbury, and 78 west of London. It 
 is an ill-built place, with little trade. It contains an old 
 parish church, which probably belonged to an abbey, a 
 chapel for the Wesleyan Methodists, and a beautiful house 
 erected by Inigo Jones for the Duke of Queensberry. 
 Near Amesbury are Stonehenge, and Milston, where Addi- 
 son was born. Population, 1169. 
 
 AMETHYST, properly, is only a variety of quartz or 
 
 rock-crystal distinguished by its fine violet-blue or purple 
 
 colour. This tint seems to be caused by a minute mixture 
 
 of the peroxide either of iron or of manganese, and is lost 
 
 { when the stone is exposed to the action of the fire It
 
 AMH-AMH 
 
 737 
 
 then changes through yellow and green to colourless; 
 end in this condition is often sold for the aquamarine or 
 topaz. Amethyst is generally found in thick columnar 
 masses, of short hexagonal prisms terminating in pyramids. 
 The faces, especially in Brazilian specimens, are often 
 marked by zig-zag or undulating lines, and the colour in 
 many is similarly disposed, showing a peculiar internal 
 structure in the stone. It has been proposed to name all 
 varieties of quartz, whether coloured or uncoloured, show- 
 ing this peculiarity, amethyst, but without sufficient reason. 
 Amethyst, according to Pliny, got its name, 6.jj.i6vo-ro<;, from 
 its supposed power of preventing drunkenness. Though 
 not a true gem, it was formerly much valued as an orna- 
 mental stone, but has greatly declined in value in the 
 present century, being obtained in great abundance from 
 Brazil. There it is often white or yellow, and named topaz. 
 The finest blue stones are found in Ceylon and Siberia; 
 and less remarkable ones in many places in Europe, India, 
 and Australia. Amethysts may be counterfeited by glasses, 
 to which the proper colour or stain is given by mineral 
 matter. There were fine ones made in France about the 
 year 1690, which even .imposed on connoisseurs, but with 
 the decrease in price there is now less danger of such 
 deceptions. 
 
 AMHERST, a district and city within the Tenasserim 
 division of British Burmah, and within the jurisdiction of 
 the chief commissioner of that province. The District 
 forms a narrow strip of land between, the Indian Ocean 
 and the mountains which separate it from the independent 
 kingdom of Siam. It lies in 16° N. lat., 98° E, long., 
 and consists partly of fertile valleys formed by spurs of 
 the mountain system which divides it from Siam, and 
 partly of a rich alluvial tract created by the great rivers 
 which issue from them. The most important of these are 
 the Salween river and the Houng-da-raw Khyoung. The 
 river highways bring down inexhaustible supplies of rice 
 to Maulmain, the chief town of the district, as also of the 
 province of Tenasserim, and the second city in British 
 Burmah. The district comprises an area of 15,144 square 
 miles, of which 346 are cultivated, 4889 are capable of 
 being brought under cultivation, and the remaining 9909 
 square miles are returned as uncultivable. The population 
 in 1872 numbered 235,738 souls, occupying 38,945 houses, 
 and consisting of 203,774 Buddhists, 15,598 Hindus, 
 12,279 Mahometans, and 4081 Christians. The town of 
 Maulmain contains 53,653 inhabitants. The rainfall is 
 ceryheavy,245'85 inches being registered in 1871-72. The 
 temperature is uniform, but not excessive, and averaged 
 83° at 2 p.m. throughout the month of May 1871, 80° at 
 2 p.m. throughout July, and the same at 2 p.m. through- 
 out December 1871. 
 
 Amherst Town, situated in the district of the same 
 name, about 30 miles south of Maulmain. It was founded 
 by the English in 1826 on the restoration of the town of 
 Martaban to the Burmese, and named in compliment to 
 the Governor-General of India who projected it. The 
 proclamation inviting the natives to people the town was 
 well adapted to the character and capacities of those whom 
 it addressed. "-The inhabitants of the towns and villages 
 who wish to come shall be free from molestation, extortion, 
 and oppression. They shall be free to worship as usual, 
 temples, monasteries, priests, and holy men. The people 
 shall go and come, buy and sell, do and live as they 
 please, conforming to the laws. In regard to slavery, 
 since all men, common people or chiefs, are by nature 
 equal, there shall be under the English government no 
 slaves. Whoever desires to come to the new town may 
 come from all parts and live happy, and those who do 
 not wish to remain may go where they please without 
 hindrance." Shortly after its settlement the number of 
 
 1—25 
 
 houses amounted to 230, and the population to 1200. 
 Large teak forests abound in its neighbourhood, and the 
 timber is esnorted in considerable quantities. The harbour, 
 tnougn large and capable of accommodating ships of any 
 burden, is difficult of access, and dangerous during the 
 south-west rnonsoni A aiherst town has been eclipsed by 
 the rapidly rising ciiy of Maulmain, which has absorbed to 
 itself the trade and mercantile enterprise alike of Amherst 
 district and of the Tenasserim province. 
 
 AMHERST, a post t:wnship of Hampshire countT 
 Massachusetts, United States. It is a picturesque village 
 intersected by two branches of the Connecticut river. 
 Its water-power is utilised for manufactories of machinery, 
 edge tools, cotton goods, paper, <fec; but it is principally 
 Iinown as the seat of Amherst college, a valuable institu- 
 tion founded in 1821, mainly for the purpose of educating 
 poor and pious young men for the ministry. The charity 
 fund is large, and pays the tuition fees of forty or fifty 
 students. The faculty of the college consists of eighteen 
 professors, beside the president. The number of students 
 in 1873 was 261. The buildings of Amherst college are 
 situated on a hill at the southern extremity of the village. 
 An octagonal building in advance of the line of college 
 halls is devoted to the purposes of a museum. Some of 
 the collections are of great value, especially those in the 
 palaeontological department. The Massachusetts Agri- 
 cultural school, founded in 1863, has also its seat at 
 Amherst. Its handsome buildings are on the edge of a 
 rich plain from which fine views are obtained of the moun- 
 tains on the west and south. There is a large farm for 
 experiment attached to the school, which is esteemed ono 
 of the best in America. The population of Amherst in 
 1870 was 403.5. 
 
 AMHERST, Earl (William Pitt Amherst), born in 
 1773, was the nephew of Jeffery Amherst, who, for his 
 services in America, where he was commander-in-chief at 
 the time of the conquest' of Canada, was raised to the 
 peerage as Baron Amherst in 1776. The patent of nobility 
 was renewed in 1788 with remainder to the subject of this 
 notice, who succeeded to the title in 1797. In 1816 he 
 was sent as ambassador extraordinary to the court of China, 
 with the view of establishing more satisfactory commercial 
 relations between that country and Great Britain. On 
 arriving in the Peiho, he was given to understand that he 
 could only be admitted to the emperor's presence on condi- 
 tion of performing the ko-tov, a ceremony which Western 
 nations have always considered degrading, and which is, 
 indeed, a homage exacted by the Chinese sovereign from his 
 tributaries. This Lord Amherst, .following "the advice of 
 Sir George T. Staunton, who accompanied him as second 
 commissioner, refused to consent to, as Lord Macartney 
 had done in 1793, unless the admission was made that his 
 sovereign was entitled to the same show of reverence from 
 a mandarin of his rank. In consequence of this he was not 
 allowed to enter Peking, and the object of his mission was 
 frustrated; His ship, the " Alceste," after a cruise along the 
 coast of Corea and to the Loo-Choo Islands, on proceeding 
 homewards was totally wrecked on a sunken rock in Gaspar 
 Strait. Lord Amherst and part of his shipwrecked com- 
 panions escaped in the ship's boats to Batavia, whence relief 
 was sent to the rest The ship in which he returned to 
 England in 1S17 having touched at St Helena, he had 
 several interviews with the Emperor Napoleon (Ellis's 
 Proceedings of the Late Embassy to China, 1817; M'Leod's 
 Narrative of a Voyage in H.M.S. "Alceste," 1817). Lord 
 Amherst held the office of governor-general of India frcir. 
 August 1823 to February 1S28. The principal event of 
 his government was the Burmese war, resulting in the 
 cession of Aracan and Tenasserim to Great Britain U* 
 was created Earl Amherst of Aracan in lo26. Qi ?ii&
 
 738 
 
 A T\I H - A M L 
 
 return to England ho lived iu rotireiuout till Lis death in 
 March 1857. 
 
 AMHURST, NicnoLAS, an English poet and political 
 jrritcr of the 18th century, was born at Harden in Kent, 
 and entered (171G) at St John's college, Oxford, from 
 which he v Hod, ostensibly for libertinism aud 
 
 irregular conduct, but really, according to his own state- 
 ment, on account of the liberality of his opinions. Retain- 
 ing great resentment against the university on this account, 
 bo gave expression to his feeling in a poem published in 
 1724, called 0:uliis Britannia, and in a book <" 
 Trrra Filius. He published a Miscellany of Poems, sacred 
 and profano; and The Convocalioji, a poem in five cantos, 
 
 a satire on the bishop of Bangor's ant.ip 
 3 '.at he is best known for the share Le had in the political 
 paper called The Craftsman, which he conducted for 
 several years. It attained a circulation of 10,000 or 12,000 
 copies, and had very considerable influence in inflaming 
 popular opinion against Sir Robert Walpole, and in bring- 
 ing about tho political change of 1742. Amhurst's party 
 made no provision for him, however, on their accession to 
 power, and their neglect is supposed to have hastened his 
 death, which occurred at Twickenham on the 27th April 
 1742. 
 
 AMIANTHUS (unstained, from a privative, and /uiatVu>, 
 to stain), the best known and most beautiful of the 
 asbestos clas3 of substances. See Asbestos. 
 
 AMICI, Giovanni Battista, a celebrated designer and 
 constructor of optical instruments, was born at Modena in 
 1764. While studying mathematics at Bologna, he 
 acquired a taste for astronomical science, and devoted 
 himself early in life to the improvement of astronomical 
 instruments with great ingenuity and success. . For. the 
 specula of his reflecting telescopes he prepared a very hard 
 alloy, capablo' of receiving .and retaining a fine polish, and 
 to prevent spherical aberration he wrought the specula into 
 an elliptical form. About 1812 he undertook the con- 
 struction of a telescope with a five-foot speculum, and the 
 gun-foundry at Pavia was put at his disposal for this 
 purpose by the war minister of Italy, but the project was 
 broken off, owing apparently to political complications. 
 Amici is still better known from his microscopes. His 
 reflecting microscopes, with ■ ellipsoidal specula, were an 
 improvement on all that had preceded them, and he 
 attained still- greater success in tho construction of com- 
 pound achromatic object-glasses. His compound micro- 
 scope was the first that could be used either in a vertical 
 or in a horizontal position. His prism, too, for the oblique 
 illumination gf objects of microscopical observation is much 
 commended _ Amici was a very diligent and skilful 
 observer; and his intimate acquaintance with the principles 
 of optical science enabled him to arrange his apparatus to 
 tho very best advantage. Various papers recording the 
 results of his observations, which he read before learned 
 societies, were published in scientific journals. They treat 
 of the measurement of the diameters of the sun (by i 
 of a micrometer he invented) and other astronomical 
 subjects, the circulation of the sap in plants, the fructifica- 
 tion of plants infusoria, ic. After holding'for some time 
 a professorship of mathematics in Modena, he was in 1831 
 appointed inspector-general of studies in the duchy. A 
 few years later he was entrusted with the charge of the 
 observatory at Florence, where he also delivered lectures 
 as professor of mathematics at the museum of natural 
 history. He died in April 18C3. 
 
 AMIENS, an ancient city of France, capital of the 
 department of Somme, and formerly of the old province of 
 Picardy, situated on the Somme, about 40 miles from its 
 mouth, and 71 miles N. of Paris. It was once a place of 
 great strength, ami still nossesses a citadel, but the ramnarts 
 
 which surrounded it have been replaced by beautiful boule- 
 vards. The new part of the town is well built, but the 
 streets of the old quarter are narrow and irregular, and are 
 so cut up h n canals into wdiich the Somme is 
 
 hero divided, that Louis XI. is said to have called the town 
 " little Venice." The most interesting object in Amiens 
 is its magnificent cathedral, one of tho finest in Europe, 
 commenced in the year 1220 and finished in 1288, alth 
 additions to it were altera i le. Among the other 
 important public buildings are the 1 Intel de Ville, the 
 Chateau d'Eau, the theatre, the museum, the hospital, and 
 several churches. The town is the scat of a bishop, of a 
 prefect, and of tho departmental courts of justice; and 
 possesses a library containing more than 50,000 volumes, 
 besides manuscripts, an academy of sciences, various other 
 learned societies, a theological Bominary, a lyceuin, and 
 several ordinary schools. It has many important manu- 
 factures, the chief being cotton velvets, kerseymeres, 
 woollen and linen cloths, flax, beetroot sugar, soap, leather, 
 and paper. Amiens occupies the site of the ancient 
 Samarobriva, capital of the Ambiani, from whom it 
 probably derives its name.. After the dissolution of the 
 empire of the west it repeatedly changed owners, becoming 
 fur the first time a dependency of the French crown in 
 11S5, when Philip of Alsace oiled it to Philip Augustus; 
 and since that date it has more than once passed out of tho 
 power of the French kings. f The famous treaty between 
 Britain, France, Spain, and Holland, which took its 
 name from this city, was signed in the Hotel do Ville on 
 March 25th, 1802. During the recent war between France 
 and Germany Amiens fell into the hands of the Prussians 
 on the 28th of November 1870. General Manteuffe!- was 
 operating against the French army of the north, which had 
 been formed with the view of helping the armies of Pans 
 and of the Loire to. effect a junction, and thus raise tho 
 siege of the capital. The French, however, were defeated 
 in a battle in front of Amiens, which was fought on tbo 
 27th of November, along a line stretching from Saleux to 
 Marceleane, and extending, it is said, more than four 
 leagues. They retreated northward in the direction of 
 Arras, and Amiens surrendered on the following day, after 
 a very slight demonstration of force on the part of the 
 Prussians. Peter the Hermit was born at Amiens about 
 1050 Population (1872), 03,747. 
 
 AMIOT, Pere Joseph, a learned Jcsilit missionary to 
 China, was born at Toulon in 1718. In 1750 he arriv-d, 
 along with two others of his order, at Macao, from which. 
 on a favourable answer to a petition being received from 
 the emperor Kien-Lung, he removed to Peking in the 
 autumn of the following year He continued to reside in 
 the capital until his death in 1704, devoting himself 
 almost exclusively to the study of Chinese and Mancho 
 Tatar literature. The results of Ids labours were ccm- 
 municated at frequent intervals to Europe in works which 
 did more than had ever been done before to make knoTn 
 to the Western world the thought and life of the furthest 
 East. Many of his statements, however, are not trust- 
 worthy, and his works are practically superseded by thosj 
 of others who entered the field later. His Diclionncirc 
 TatarmanicJiou-Francais (Paris, 17S9) was a work of great 
 value, the language having been previously quite unknown 
 in Europe. His other writings are to be found chiefly in 
 the Memoires concernanl VIIistoire,les Sciences, et lesArts de 
 .Chinois (15 vols. 4to, Paris, 1776-91). The Vie de 
 Cunfucius, which occupies the twelfth volume of that 
 collection, is very complete and accurate. 
 
 AMLWCH, a town of Anglesey, North Wales, situated 
 on a rising ground on tho north coast of the island, 15 
 miles from Beaumaris. It owes its importance almost 
 entirely to the copper mines of the Parys Mountain: before
 
 A M M — A M M 
 
 73S 
 
 the discovery of the ore in 17G8 it was a small hamlet of 
 some six houses. At one time the mines produced 3000 
 tons of metal annually, but in recent years the quantity 
 has greatly diminished. The harbour has been cut out of 
 rock at considerable expense, and is protected by a break- 
 water. A branch of the Chester and Holyhead Railway 
 terminates in the town. Amlwch, which is associated 
 with Beaumaris, Holyhead, and Llangefni, in returning 
 •me member to parliament, had a population of 29G8 in 
 1871. 
 
 AMMAN, Joiiaxn Conead, a physician, and one of the 
 earliest writers on the instruction of the deaf and dumb, was 
 born at Schaffhausen, in Switzerland, in 1GG9. In 1687 
 he graduated at Basle, and commenced the practice of his 
 profession at Amsterdam, to which he had to flee on 
 account of his religious views. He first called the atten- 
 tion of the public to his method of training the deaf and 
 dumb in a paper which was inserted in the Philosophical 
 Transactions, and which appeared in a separate form in 
 the year 1G92, under the title Surdus Loquens. It was 
 again issued, with much additional matter, in 1702 and 
 1728, under the title Dissertvtio de Loquela. In this 
 work, which Haller terms "vere aureum," he develops, 
 with great ability, the mechanism of vocal utterance, and 
 describes the process which he employed in teaching its 
 use. This consisted principally in exciting the attention 
 of his pupils to the motions of his lips and larynx while 
 he spoke, and then inducing them by gentle means to 
 imitate these movements, till he brought them to repeat 
 distinctly letters, syllables, and words. As his method 
 was .excellent, we may readily give him credit for the all 
 but universal success to which he laid claim. The edition 
 of Cselius Aurelianus, which was undertaken by the 'Wet- 
 steins in 1709, and still ranks as one of the best editions 
 of that author, was superintended by Amman. He died 
 about 1730. 
 
 AMMAN, Jost, an artist celebrated chiefly for his en- 
 gravings on wood, was born at Zurich in June 1539. Of 
 his personal history little is known beyond the fact that 
 he removed in 15G0 to Nuremberg, where he continued to 
 reside until his death in March 1591. His productiveness 
 was very remarkable, as may be gathered from the state- 
 ment of one of his pupils, that the drawings he made 
 during a period of i^ur years would have filled a hay- 
 waggon. A large number of his original drawings are 
 contained in the Berlin collection of engravings. The 
 genuineness of not a few of the specimens to be seen else- 
 where is at least questionable. A series of copperplate 
 engravings by Amman of the kings of France, with short 
 biographies, appeared at Frankfort in 1576. He also 
 executed many of the woodcut illustrations for the Bible 
 published at Frankfort by Feierabend. Another serial 
 work, the Panoplia Omnium Liberalium Mechanicarum et 
 Sedeniariarum Artium Genera Continens, containing 115 
 plates, is of great value. Amman's drawing is correct and 
 spirited, and his delineation of the details of costume, &c, 
 is minute and accurate. He executed too much, however, 
 to permit of his reaching the highest style of art. Paint- 
 ings in oil and on glass are attributed to him, but no 
 specimen of these is known to exist. 
 
 AMMAN, Paul, a physician and botanist, was born at 
 Breslau on the 30th August 1634. In 1662 he received 
 the degree of doctor of physic from the university of 
 Leipsic, and in 1G64 was admitted a member of the society 
 Naturm Curiosorum, under the name of Dryander. 
 Shortly afterwards he was chosen extraordinary professor 
 of medicine in the above-mentioned university; and in 
 1674 he was promoted to the botanical chair which he 
 again in 1682 exchanged for the physiological. He died 
 on the 4th February 1691. Paul Amman seems to have 
 
 been a man of acute mind and extensive learning; but a 
 restless and irritable disposition led him to engage too 
 much in controversy, and to indulge in raillery in his 
 writings to a degree which the nature of the subjects hardly 
 warranted. 
 
 Aniiuau's principal works were— llediciua Crilica, ten Centuria 
 Casuum hi Facilitate Lipsiensi raoliUor um variis Discureibus aucta ; 
 Paramesh ad DoccnUs occuputa circa InsliliUiouum Medicarum 
 tmcndniionem ; Ircnicvm Nnrrnt Pornpilii cum Eippocratc ; Supellcx 
 Botanicn, el Hanuduetio ad llalcriam lledicam; and Ckaractor 
 Naturulis Planlarum. 
 
 AMMANATI, BAr.Tor.OMEo, a celebrated Florentine 
 architect and' sculptor, was born in 1511, and died in 
 1592. Ho studied under Bandinelli and Sansovius, ami 
 closely imitated the style of Michael Augelo. He wa^ 
 more distinguished in architecture than in sculpture. Ho 
 designed many buildings in Rome, Lucca, and Florence, 
 an addition to the Pitti palace in the last-named city bei:.g 
 one of his most celebrated works. He also planned t!:e 
 beautiful bridge over the Arno, known as Ponte ■ 
 Trinita — one of his celebrated works. The three arches are 
 elliptic, and though very light and elegant, have resisted thr 
 fury of the river, which has swept away several other bridged 
 at different time3. Ammanati's wife, daughter of Giov. 
 Antonio Battil'erri, an elegant and accomplished woman, 
 published a volume of poems of considerable merit 
 
 AMMIANUS, Marcel linus, a Roraauohistorian of the 
 4th century, was bom in the city of Anticch, in Syria. la 
 his youth he was enrolled among the protectores domestici, 
 or household guards, which proves him to have 'been of 
 noble birth. In the year 350 he entered the service of 
 Constantius, the emperor of the East, and, under the 
 command of Ursicinus, a general of the horse, he served 
 during several expeditions. According to his own modest 
 account, it appears that he acquired considerable military 
 fame, and that he deserved well of his sovereign. He 
 attended the Emperor Julian in his expedition into Persia, 
 but it is not known that he obtained any higher military 
 promotion than that which has already been mentioned. 
 He was either in the city or in the vicinity of Antioch when 
 the conspiracy of Theodorus was discovered, in the reign 
 of Valens, and was an eye-witness of the severe tortures to 
 which many persons were subjected by the emperor on 
 that account. But his lasting reputation was not to be 
 acquired from military service. He left the army and 
 retired to Rome, where he employed himself in writing a 
 history of the Roman empire, comprising a period of 282 
 years. Though a Greek by birth, he wrote in the Latin 
 language; but, according to the remark of Vossius, his 
 Latin shows that he was a Greek, and also a soldier. His 
 history extended from the accession of Nerva to the death 
 of Valens ; and the work was originally divided into thirty- 
 one books. Of these the first thirteen have perished, and 
 the eighteen which remain commence with the seventeenth 
 year of the reign of Constantius, and terminate at the year 
 378. But there are several facts mentioned in the history 
 which prove that the author was alive in the year 380. 
 Of this number are the accession of Theodosius to the 
 Eastern empire, the character of Gratian, and the consulate 
 of Neothorius. The style is harsh and redundant, as was 
 to be expected from the author's education and military 
 life; but the work is valuable as a source of information 
 for the period of which it treats. Gibbon appears to give 
 a correct estimate when he says that Ammianns is "an 
 accurate and faithful guide, who composed the history of 
 his own times without indulging the prejudices and pas 
 sions which usually affect the mind of a contemporary.'' 
 From the respectful manner in which he speaks of pr.gar» 
 deities, and of the advantage of heathen auguries in fore- 
 telling future events, it is evident that Ammianus was ■
 
 740 
 
 A M M — A M M 
 
 heathen. The favourable account which he gives of the 
 religion, manners, and fortitude of Christians, is the result 
 of his candour and impartiality as an historian. The work 
 of Ammianus has passed through several editions, of which 
 the best are tho Ley den edition of 1G93, by Gronovius, 
 and those of Leipsic, published in 1773 and 1808. The 
 latter was edited by Wagner and Erfurdt. 
 
 AMMIBATO, Scipio, an Italian historian, born at 
 Lecce, in the kingdom of Naples, on the 27th September 
 1531. His father intending him for the profession of 
 law, sent him to study at Naples, but his own decided 
 preference for literature prevented him from fulfilling his 
 father's wishes. Entering the church, he resided for a 
 time at Venice, and afterwards engaged in the service of 
 Pope Pius IV. In 15G9 he went to Florence, where he 
 ■was fortunate in securing the patronage and support of 
 Duke Cosmo I. It was at the suggestion of this prince 
 that he wrote the work by which he is best known, hij 
 Istoric Florentine (1G00). In 1595 he was made a canon 
 of the cathedral of Florence. He died in 1601. Among 
 the other works of Ammirato, some of which were first 
 published after his death, may be mentioned discourses 
 on Tacitus and histories of the families of Naples and 
 Florence. 
 
 AMMON, the name of an Egyptian deity, called by the 
 ancient Egyptians Amen or Amun, and one of the chief gods 
 of the country. His namo meant the hiddeD or concealed 
 god, and in this respect was analogous to Hapi or Apis, 
 which conveyed the same idea. He was tho local deity of 
 Thebes or Diospolis, and supposed by tho Greeks to be 
 the same as Zeus or Jupiter. His type was that of a man 
 wearing on his head the red crown teshr, emblem of 
 dominion over the lower world or hemisphere, surmounted 
 by the sun's disc to indicate his solar nature, flanked by 
 two tail feathers of a hawk, also symbolical of his relation 
 to the gods of light. Ammon was not one of the oldest 
 deities of Egypt, for his form and name do not appear till 
 the eleventh or Diospolitan dynasty, when the kings of 
 that line assumed his name, and built a sanctuary to him at 
 Medinat Habu. From this period the monarchs of Thebes 
 introduced his name into their titles, and the worship of 
 Amen became the predominant one of ancient Egypt; and 
 the embellishment of his shrine and enrichment of his 
 treasury were the chief object of the policy of the Pharaohs. 
 Victory and conquest were the chief gifts he offered to his 
 adorers; and he is often seen leading up the conquered nations 
 of the north and south to the monarchs whom he endows 
 with power and victory. In this character Amen is often 
 represented holding the Egyptian scimitar kkepsh. In his 
 celestial character his fl'ish was coloured blue, that of the 
 heaven. He in said to have been called on some monu- 
 ments the son of Hapimaa (or the Nile) ; but in the hymns 
 addressed to him tho title of self-engendered is applied to 
 him, and he was one of the self-existent deities. His 
 principal titles are — lord of tho heaven, king of the gods, 
 substance of the world, and resident on the thrones of the 
 world, eternal ruler, — appellatives of his celestial and ter- 
 restrial functions. He was also lord of heaven and earth, 
 streams and hills, and as a demiurgos, the creator of beings. 
 The hymns addressed to him designate him as the sole or 
 only god, in terms applicable to one god who alone exists, 
 who moulds and governs tho world. At one time an 
 attempt was made to identify him with the solar orb. Con- 
 sidered as the active, intelligent, and pervading spirit of 
 the universe, he transfuses the breath of life into the 
 nostrils of king3 and other persons. In his solar characters, 
 Ammon was allied with Ea, and called Amen Ra, or Amen 
 Ha Harmachis, or " the sun in the horizon," Amen being 
 considered one of the forms of the sun itself. The worship 
 of the celestial Ammon prevailed chiefly at Thebes, where, 
 
 with the Mut, or "mother" goddess, ar\d his son Khonsu or 
 Chons, he formed the Theban triad, and tho sacred name 
 of Thebes was ''the ubodo of Amen." Besides Thebes, his 
 worship has been found at Siuah inLybia, at Beit Oually, 
 and at Meroe in Ethiopia, marked respect being shown to 
 his worship by the later Ethiopian monarchs. At Phila: and 
 Debud his namo also appears as one of the dominant 
 deities. In the representations at Hermonthis he assists at 
 the birth of Har-pa-Ra; and in the scenes of the passago 
 of Ra, or the sun, through tho hours of the night, tho 
 gigantic arm of Amen strangles the serpent Apophis, " the 
 great dragon" of Egyptian mythology, the spirit of dark- 
 ness, who warred against the gods of light. Another 
 of the types of Amen represents him as the reproductive 
 power of nature, still in the human form, but mummied, 
 and holding — instead of the usual sceptre, uasm, or so- 
 called kukupka sceptre — the whip nekhekh. In this type 
 he was supposed to be Amen the father and Homs the 
 child of the triad, which then consisted of Amen, Anient, 
 or the female Ammoii, and Harka. His titles in this 
 character are Amcn-ka-mut-f, — Amen, "the husband of hia 
 mother," considered as the final avatar of tho god, the 
 alpha and omega, the oldest and youngest of created 
 beings. He is, considered in his youthful character, called 
 Harnekht, or "the powerful Horus," and identified with 
 Kkons, the local god of Chemmo or Panopolis. As Horus 
 he is called the " son of Isis," but this is clearly a later 
 fusion of the two myths. In the inscriptions it is said 
 " he has tall plumes," and in the esoterical explanations of 
 the seventeenth chapter of tho Ritual, these plumes are 
 explained by "his two eyes," or Isis and Ncphtbys, who 
 are seen accompanying Horus in certain scenes. This 
 type of Amen was not usually exhibited, but brought out 
 on the occasion of his festival, called the manifestation of 
 Khem, ono of the oldest fetes of Egypt. This type of 
 Amen is principally found at the Ruan, or valley of El 
 Hammamat, on the way to Coptos; and at Wady Haifa, 
 where a temple was erected to him by Amenophis III. As 
 the god of the reproductive powers of nature, the kings of 
 Egypt are seen hoeing the ground before him, or offering 
 various coloured calves and gazelles to him. A great fes- 
 tival in his honour is represented at Medinat Habu, where 
 his statue is carried by twenty priests, and Rameses III. 
 cuts down before him the corn which has just ripened for 
 the sickle. The negroes of Arabia, or else the lierjio 
 Barbarica of later geographers, appear as assistants at this 
 festival. . Another type of Amen connected him with the 
 god Khnum or Chnoumis, the spirit of the waters. In 
 this relation he has the head of a ram instead of the usual 
 human one. Khnum was ono of the demiurgi, and creator 
 of mankind, whom he had made as a potter out of clay on 
 the wheel, as also Osiris and Horus. Sometimes the typo 
 of Khnum bears the name of Amen; and with the ram'a 
 head he was worshipped in the Oasis of Ammon, as also 
 up the Nile at the cataracts, Syene, Elephantine, Beghc, 
 Beit Oually, and Meroe. It is this type of Amen witli 
 which the later Greek and Roman writers were most fami- 
 liar; and Rameses TL\ as the son of Amen, assumes the ram'a 
 horn, which Alexander the Great adopted at a later date. 
 The worship of Khnum was older than that of Amen, as 
 it appears on the Pyramids and at the Wady Magarcsh, 
 but became less important, and finally fused into that of 
 Amen. Although it has been supposed that the worship of 
 Amen came from Meroe, it is now known that the Ethiopian 
 civilisation was comparatively of much more recent date 
 than tho Egyptian, and that it was implanted in Ethiopia 
 by the conquests of the Pharaohs, and subsequently adopted 
 by the later rulers of Meroe; and that the statements of 
 Herodotus, that it was brought from thence to the Oasis 
 of Ammon are incorrect, the existing tempie ai the Oasis
 
 A M M — A M M 
 
 741 
 
 not being older than the Persian rulers of Egypt, while the 
 worship of the god at Thebes dates from a much older epoch. 
 The later chapters of the Ritual, -added at the time of the 
 twentieth dynasty, which contain the mystic names and 
 appellatives of the god in the language of the negroes of 
 Punt, are also of too late a date to throw any light on the 
 origin of Amen, which appears prior to the Hykshos, when 
 the Egyptian princes were driven to the south. The sheep 
 was sacred to the god, and the inhabitants of Thebes in 
 consequence abstained from it; but it is said they annually 
 sacrificed a ram to Amen, and dressed the figure of the 
 god in the hide of the animal. The reasons assigned by 
 classical authorities for this action, as well as for the 
 astronomical meaning of his horns, are rt3t confirmed by 
 monumental evidence. On the conquest of Egypt Alex- 
 ander the Great called himself the son of Ammon, and his 
 portraits wear the ram's horn. In this he had only 
 imitated the Pharaohs of the nineteenth dynasty. Amen 
 is only mentioned by the Hebrew prophets in speaking of 
 Diospolis as the city of No or No Amon. 
 
 Jablonski, Panth. JEgypt., L 160-184; Birch, Gallery 
 of Antia., pt. i. 1 ; Wilkinson, Manners and Customs, iii. 
 313, iv. 246, /.; Goodwin, Traris. Soc. Bibl. Arch., ii. 
 pp. 353-9; Herodotus, ii 42, 54; Diodorus, iii 72; Jer. 
 xlvi. 25; Nah. iii. 8.' (s. B.) 
 
 AMMON, Christoph Friedrich von, a distinguished 
 theological writer and preacher, was born at Baireuth in 
 January 1766, studied at Erlangen, held various professor- 
 ships in the philosophical and theological faculties of 
 Erlangen and Gottingen, succeeded Reinhard in 1813 as 
 court preacher and counsellor at Dresden, retired from 
 these officesin 1849, and died May 21, 1850. He sought 
 to establish for himself a middle position between rational- 
 ism and supernaturalism, inclining, however, decidedly to 
 the former. He declared for a " rational supernaturalism," 
 and contended that there must be a gradual development 
 of Christian doctrine corresponding to the advance of know- 
 ledge and science. He was a man' of great versatility and 
 extensive learning, and a very voluminous author, his 
 principal work being the Fortbildung des Christenthums zur 
 Weltreligion, in 4 vols. (Leipsic, 1833—40). Eidunirf ' einer 
 rein bibliscken Theologie appeared in 1792 (second edition. 
 1801 ),and Summa/Fheologica in 1803 (other editions, 1808, 
 1816, 1830). Yon Amnion's style in preaching was terse 
 and lively, and some of his discourses are regarded as 
 models of pulpit treatment of political questions. 
 
 AMMONIA (NH 3 ), sometimes called the Volatile 
 alkali, or Alkaline air, was known to the alchemists in 
 aqueous solution. Priestley first separated it in the gase- 
 ous state in 1774. Scheale in 1777 discovered that it 
 contained nitrogen, and its true composition was ascer- 
 tained by Berthollet about 1785. Ammonia occurs in 
 the atmosphere as carbonate and nitrate, in sea-water, and 
 in many mineral springs. Iron ores and many clayey 
 soils contain it in small quantity, and sal-ammoniac and 
 ammonia alum are found as minerals in volcanic districts. 
 Carbonate of ammonia is obtained in large quantity by 
 the putrefaction of the urine of animals, or the dry distilla- 
 tion of animal matter. \_ Ammonia is obtained from its 
 salts by the acting of slaked lime or solutions of potash 
 or soda, and is freed from water by passing over quick- 
 lime or solid potash, and finally collected over mercury. 
 It is a colourless gas, of a pungent smell, and alkaline 
 taste and reaction. It does not support combustion or 
 respiration, and is feebly combustible. It is remark- 
 ably soluble in water, 1 volume dissolving nearly 700 of 
 the gas. It may by the action of a low temperature 
 and great pressure be changed into the liquid or solid 
 state. •■ The gas is easily decomposed into its elements by 
 a succession of electric sparks, or by passing it over red- 
 
 hot iron or platinum wire. The aqueous solution in pre* 
 sence of finely divided platinum and atmospheric air is 
 converted into nitrite of ammonia * and conversely, the 
 oxides of nitrogen, mixed with exce'ss of hydrogen and 
 passed oyer platinised asbestos, are changed into ammonia. 
 Nitrogen and hydrogen have not by any process been in- 
 duced to combine so as to yield this compound directly, 
 unless in very small quantity. For theoretical relations of 
 ammonia, salts, &c, see Chemistry. 
 
 AMMONIAC, Sal (NH 4 C1), the earliest known salt of 
 ammonia, now named chloride of ammonium, formerly 
 much used in dyeing and metallurgic operations. 
 
 The name Hammoniacus sal occurs in Pliny (Xat. 
 Hist. xxxi. 39), who relates that it wa3 applied to a kind 
 of fossil salt found below the sand, in a district of Cyre- 
 naica. It was similar in appearance to the alumen scissile, 
 and had a disagreeable taste, but was useful in medicine. 
 The general opinion is, that the sal-ammoniac of the 
 ancients was the same as that of the moderns ; but the 
 imperfect description of Pliny is far from being sufficient 
 to decide the point. The native sal-ammoniac of Bucharia 
 described by Model and Karste"n, and analysed by Klaproth, 
 has no resemblance to the salt described by Pliny. The 
 same remark applies to the sal-ammoniac of volcanoes. 
 Dioscorides (v. 126), in mentioning sal-ammoniac, makes 
 use of a phrase quite irreconcilable with the description of 
 Pliny, and rather applicable to rock-salt than to our sal- 
 ammoniac. Sal-ammoniac, he says, is peculiarly prized if 
 it can be easily split into rectangular fragments. Finally, 
 we have no proof whatever that sal-ammoniac occurs at 
 present, either near the temple of Jupiter Ammon, or iii 
 any part of Cyrenaica. These circumstances induce us to 
 conclude that the term sal-ammoniac was applied as inde- 
 finitely by the ancients as most of their other chemical 
 terms. It may have been given to the same salt which 
 is known to the modems by that appellation, but was not 
 confined to it. 
 
 Some derive thenameW-ammoni'acfrom Jupiter Ammon. 
 near whose temple it is alleged to have been found; others 
 from a district of Cyrenaica called Ammonia. Pliny's 
 derivation is from the sand (a/i/xos) in which it occurred. 
 
 Whether our sal-ammoniac was known to the ancients 
 or not, there can be no doubt that it was well known tc 
 the alchemists as early as the 13th century. Albertus 
 Magnus, in his treatise De Alchymia, informs us that 
 there were two kinds of sal-ammoniac, a natural and a:i 
 artificial. The natural was "sometimes white, and some- 
 times red ; the artificial was more useful to the chemist 
 He does not tell us how it was prepared, but he describes 
 the method of subliming it, which can leave no doubt that 
 it was real sal-ammoniac. In the Opera Mineralia of 
 Isaac Hollandus the elder, there is likewise a description 
 of the mode of subliming sal-ammoniac. Basil Valentine, 
 in his Currus Triumphalis Antimonii, describes some ol 
 the peculiar properties of sal-ammoniac in, if possible o 
 still less equivocal manner. 
 
 Egypt is the country where sal-ammoniac was first 
 manufactured, and from which Europe for many years was 
 supplied with it. This commerce was first carried on by 
 the Venetians, and afterwards by the Dutch. Nothing 
 was known about the method employed by the Egyptians 
 till the year 1719. In 1716 the younger Geoffroy read a 
 paper to the French Academy, showing that sal-ammoniac 
 must be formed by sublimation ; but his opinion was 
 opposed so violently by Homberg and Lemery, that tho 
 paper was not printed. In 1719 M. Lemaire, tho Frenph 
 consul at Cairo, sent the Academy an account of the mode 
 of manufacturing sal-ammoniac in Egypt. The salt, it 
 appeared, was obtained by simple sublimation from soot 
 In the year J7CQ Linnxus communicated to the Royal
 
 74.! 
 
 A M M — A M M 
 
 Society a ooivcct detail uf the whole process, -which ho had 
 received from Dr II who had travelled in that 
 
 country as a naturalist. This account is published in the 
 51st volume of the Philosophical Transactions, 1760, p. 
 501. Almost the only fuel used in Egypt is the dung of 
 cattle. The dung of black cattle, horses, sheep, goats, .fcc,, 
 which contains the sal-ammoniac ready formed, is collected 
 during the first four months of the year, when the animals 
 feed on the spring grass, a kind of clover. It is dried, 
 and sold to the common people as fuel. The soot 
 this fuel is carefully collected and sold to the sal-ammoniac 
 makers, who work only during the months of March and 
 April, for it is only at that season of the year that the 
 dung is fit for their purpose. 
 
 The composition of this salt seems to have been first 
 discovered by Tournefort in 1700. The experiments of 
 the younger Geoffroy in 171G and 1723 were still more 
 ive, and thoso of Duhamcl, in 1735, left no doubt 
 t. Dr Thomson first pointed out a process 
 by synthesis, which has the advantage of being very simple, 
 and at the same time rigidly accurate, resulting from hi i 
 observation that when muriatic gas and ammoniacal gas, 
 both as dry as possible, are brought in contact with each 
 other, they always combine in equal volumes. 
 
 The first attempt to manufacture sal-ammoniac in 
 Europe was made, about the beginning of tho - 18th cen- 
 tury, by Mr Goodwin, a chemist of London, who appears to 
 have used the mother ley of common salt and putrid urine 
 as ingredients. The first successful manufacture of sal- 
 nmmoniac in this country was established in Edinburgh 
 by Dr Hutton and Mr Davy, about the year 1760. It was 
 first manufactured in France about the same time by 
 15aume\ Manufactories of it were afterwards established 
 in Germany, Holland, and Flanders. 
 
 Chloride of ammonia is now manufactured in large quan- 
 tity from the crude carbonate of ammonia obtained in gas- 
 works, or from the destructive distillation of animal 
 matter. This salt is changed into chloride by the addition 
 of hydrochloric acid or the mother liquor of salt-works, 
 called bittern, containing the chlorides of calcium and 
 magnesium. When hydrochloric acid is not easily got for 
 neutralisation, the crude gas liquor is transformed into 
 sulphate, and this is mixed with an equivalent quantity of 
 common salt. During the subsequent evaporation the 
 sulphate of soda separates in hard granular crystals, which 
 are apt to adhere to the sides of the boiler. The liquor is 
 agitated to prevent this adhesion taking. place, and assist 
 in the separation of the sulphate of soda. The sulphate 
 of soda is removed by drainers as it is formed, and the 
 mother liquor boiled up to the crystallising point, and run 
 off into coolers. The crystals of impure muriate of am- 
 monia are dried carefully and subsequently sublimed. 
 
 Sal-ammoniac occurs usually in the form of a hard, 
 white cake, opaque, or only slightly translucent. Its taste 
 is cooling, saline, and rather disagreeable. It dissolves in 
 272 parts of water at 18° 7 C. with great reduction of tem- 
 perature, and in about an equal weight of water at the 
 boiling-point. The feathery crystals it forms are found 
 on microscopic examination 'to be masses of cubes or 
 octahedrons; their specific gravity is about 1-5. When 
 exposed to a moist atmosphere, the salt gradually absorbs 
 water, and deliquesces, though very slowly, becoming 
 slightly acid. When heated, it sublimes unaltered in a 
 white smoke, having a peculiar smell, very characteristic 
 of sal-ammoniac. If a cold body be presented to this 
 smoke, the sal-ammoniac condenses on it, and forms a 
 white crust. When thus sublimed, it has the property of 
 carrying along with it various bodies, which, when heated 
 by themselves, are perfectly fixed. 
 
 For the other ammoniacal salts see Chemistry. 
 
 AMMOXJACUM. or Ammoniac, a gum-rcsinous exuda- 
 tion from the stem of a perennial herb (Dorema ammonia- 
 cum) belonging to the natural order Umbcllifcra;. The 
 plant grows to the height of 8 or 9 feet, and its whole 
 stem is pervaded with a milky juice, which oozes out on 
 an incision being mado at any part. This juice quickly 
 hardens into round -tears, forming tho "tear ammonia 
 cum" of commerce. Lump ammoniacum, the other form 
 in which the substance is imported, consists of aggrega- 
 tions of tears, frequently incorporating large quantities of 
 the fruits of the plant itself, as well as other foreign bodies. 
 In order to free lump ammoniacum from these impurities, 
 it has to be melted and strained, operations which depre- 
 ciate its therapeutical value. Ammoniacum has a faintly 
 t odour, which becomes more distinct on 
 heating ; externally it possesses a reddish yellow appear- 
 ance, and when the tears or lumps are freshly fractured 
 i liiliit an opalescent lustre. It is chiefly collected 
 in the province of Irak in Persia; but some quantity is 
 also produced in the Punjab, and comes to the European 
 I Bombay. Its composition, according to 
 Hagen, is — resin, 686 ; gum, 193; gluten, 5-1; volatile 
 oil and water, 28; extractive, <tc, 3 - 9. Ammoniacum is 
 closely related to assafoctida, not only in the plant yielding 
 it, but also in its therapeutical effects. It may be used as 
 a substitute for assafoctida, although, containing a much 
 smaller proportion of volatile oil, its effect is less powerful. 
 Internally it is used in conjunction with squills in bronchial 
 affections ; and in asthma and chronic colds it is found 
 useful. It is, however, more used externally in the form 
 of plasters, as a discutient or resolvent application in indo- 
 lent tumours, affections of the joints, &c. 
 
 African ammoniacum is a totally different substance, 
 though often confounded with tho real gum-resin, which 
 is produced only in the East. It is the product of an un- 
 known plant growing in North Africa, and occasionally 
 shipped to our markets from Marocco. It is a dark- 
 coloured gum-resin, possessed of a very weak odour and a 
 persistent acrid taste. A considerable commerce in it is 
 carried on between Mogador and Alexandria, where it is 
 in demand for purposes of fumigation. 
 
 AMMONITES, called also very frequently the children 
 of Amnion, a people allied- by descent to the Israelites, 
 and living in their vicinity, sprung from Lot, Abraham's 
 nephfiw, by the younger of his daughters, as the imme- 
 diately adjoining people, the Moabites, were by the elder 
 (Gen. six. 37-38). Both peoples are sometimes spoken 
 uf under the common name of the children of Lot (Deut. 
 ii. 19; Ps. h-xriii. 8); and the whole history shows that 
 they preserved throughout the course of their national 
 existence a sense of the closest brotherhood. The original 
 territory of the two tribes was the country lying imme- 
 diately on the cast of the Dead Sea and of the lower half of 
 the Jordan, having the Jabbok for its northern boundary; 
 and of this tract the Ammonites laid claim to the northern 
 portion, the "half mount Gilead" (Deut. iii 12), h in- 
 between the Arnon and the Jabbok, out of which they had 
 expelled the Zamzummini (Judg. xL 13; Deut. ii. 20, 21 ; 
 b. xiv. 5), though apparently it had been held, in 
 part at least, conjointly with the Moabites, or pcrhaj s 
 under their supremacy (Num. xxi. 26, xxii. 1; Josh. xiii. 
 32). From this their original territory they had been in 
 their turn expelled by the Amoritcs, who were found 
 by the Israelites after theit deliverance from Egypt in 
 possession of both Gilead and Bashan, that is, of the 
 whole country on the left bank of the Jordan, lying to the 
 north of the Arson (Num. xxi. 13). By this Amorite 
 invasion, as the Moabites were driven to the south of 
 the Anion, which formed their northern boundary from 
 that time 60 the Ammonites were driven out of Gilead
 
 A M M -AMU 
 
 743 
 
 across the upper waters of the Jabbok where it flows from 
 south to north, which henceforth continued to be their 
 western boundary (Num. xri. 24; Deut. ii. 37,. iii. 16). 
 The other limits of the Ammoniiis, or country of the 
 Ammonites ('A/j/Lavins x^P ; 2 Mac. iv. 26), thero are no 
 means of exactly defining. On the south it probably 
 adjoined the land of Moab (but cf. Ewald, Gesch. Israels, 
 ii. 266); on the north it may have met that of the king of 
 Geshur (2 Sam. xiii. 37); and on the east it probably 
 melted away into the desert peopled by Amalekites and 
 other nomadic races. 
 
 The chief city of the country, called Rabbah, or Rabbath of the 
 children of Amraon, i.e., the metropolis of the Ammonites (Deut. iii. 
 11), and Rabbathamniana hy the later Greeks (Polyb. v. 7, 4). whose 
 name wa3 changed into Philadelphia by Ptolemy Philadelphus, a 
 large and strong city with an acropolis, was situated on both sides of 
 a branch cf tho Jabbok, bearing at the present day the name of 
 Moiet or Nahr Amman, the water or river of Amnion, whence the 
 designation "city of waters" (2 Sam. xii. 27; cf. Burckhardt, Syria, 
 p. 361). The ruins called Amman by the natives are extensive and 
 imposing. The country to the south and east of Amman is dis- 
 tinguished by its fertility ; and ruined towns are scattered thickly 
 over it, attesting that it was once occupied by a population which, 
 however fierce, was settled and industrious (see Burckhardt, op. cit., 
 357, cf. Lindsay, Holy Land, 5th ed., p. 279), a fact indicated also 
 by the tribute of corn paid annually to Jotham (2 Chron. xxvii. 5). 
 The Israelites on their journey out of Egypt to the land of promise 
 were forbidden to meddle with the territory of Amnion as of Moab 
 (Deut. ii. 19); and it seems to indicate that friendly relations sub- 
 sisted at first between this people and the chosen nation, that after 
 the laMer had conquered and slain Og, the giant king of Basban, the 
 enemy of both, his bedstead was placed in Rabbah (Deut. iii. 11). 
 Like Moab, however, the Ammonites beheld with jealousy the rising 
 greatness of Israel. They joined the former in hiring Balaam to 
 curse them (Deut xxiii. 4) ; and thenceforward their history, so 
 far as known, reveals a spirit of bitter hostility against the people 
 of Jehovah—-shown in invasions repeated and violent, and cruelties 
 the most outrageous and unsparing (Judg. x. 8 ; Amos i. 13). They 
 could not forget that the Gileadite portion of the inheritance of 
 Israel had once been their possession, nor cease to press their claim 
 for its recovery (Judg. xi. 13). We find them joined first with 
 Moab (Judg. iii. 12), and then with the Philistines (Judg. x.. 7, 8), 
 in the invasion and oppression for lengthened periods of the land of 
 their enemies. ' Subdued by the prowess of Jephthah, they began 
 again to act on the offensive in the days of Saul, laying siege to 
 Jabesh-Gilead (1 Sam. xi. 1). David offered his friendship to 
 the king of Ammon, but his offer was rejected with contumely and 
 outrage, for which a terrible vengeance was exacted in the capture 
 and overthrow of their metropolis, and the deliberate slaughter of 
 the people (2 Sam. x.) They were united with Moab against Judah 
 in the days of Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. xx. 1) ; they paid tribute to 
 Uzziah and Jotham (2 Chron. xxvi. 8, xxvii. 5) ; and with the 
 neighbouiing tribes helped the Chaldean monarch against Jehoiakim 
 (2 King3 xxiv. 2). When, after the destruction of Jerusalem, the 
 poor remnants of the Israelites were gathered together under the 
 protectorate of Nebuchadnezzar, it was by tho instigation of a 
 king of Ammon that Gedaliah, the ruler appointed over them, was 
 murdered, and new calamities were incurred (Jer. xii. 14) ; and 
 when Jerusalem was to be rebuilt, the foremost in opposing the 
 patriotic Jews were a Moabite and an Ammonite (Neh. ii. 10, 19; iv. 
 1- 3). True to their antecedents, the Ammonites, with some of the 
 neighbouring tribes, did their utmost to resist and check the revival 
 of the Jewish power under Judas Maccabseus (1 Mace. v. 6 ; cf. Jos. 
 Ant. Jud. xiii. 8, 1). The last historical notice of them is in Justin 
 Martyr (Dial, cum Tryph. § 119), where it is affirmed that they were 
 still a numerous people. Tho Ammonites are repeatedly mentioned 
 under the form Bit-Amman, i.e., house of Amman, in the inscrip- 
 tions of Nineveh among tho tributaries of the kings of Assyria 
 (Schrader, Keilinschriftcn mid d. A. T. 52). The names of their 
 kings, so far as known, — in Scripture, ~ Nahash, Hanun, Baalis, 
 or Baalim (2 Sam. x. 2; Jer. xl. 14); in Assyrian, Puduilu (cf. 
 Pedahel (Num. xxxiv. 23), Basa (cf. Baasha, 1 Kings xv. 33), and 
 Sanibi (of less obvious analogy), — testify, in harmony with other 
 considerations, that their language was Semitic, closely allied to 
 the Hebrew ; and this fact is now placed beyond question by the dis- 
 covery of the Mesha-stele, presenting the languago of the Moabites, 
 and doubtless that also of the brother tribe (see Moabites). Their 
 national deity, Moloch or Milcom (see Moloch), was worshipped 
 with cruel rites, — a circumstance tending to foster that fierceness 
 •of character which distinguished this people throughout their 
 history. 
 
 AMMONIUS,surnamed Hermit, or the son of Hermias, 
 studied at Alexandria, along with his brother Heliodorus, 
 
 under the neo-Platonist Proclus during the latter part of 
 the 5th century a.d. He was afterwards the head of a 
 school for philosophy; and among his scholars wero 
 Asclepias, John Philoponus, Damascius, and Simplicius. 
 Although a neo-Platonist, Ammonius appears to have 
 devoted most of his attention to the works of Aristotle. 
 Commentaries on some of these are all that remains of his. 
 reputedly numerous writings. Of the commentaries we 
 have— 1. One on the Isagoge of Porphyry, published at 
 Venice, 1500, fol.; 2. One on the Categories, Venice, 1503, 
 fol., the authenticity of which is doubted by Brandis; 3. 
 One on the Be Interpretatione, Venice, 1503, foL 01 
 each of the commentaries there are several Latin transla 
 tions, and. the three have been published in a collected 
 form, with a Latin translation, Venice, 1546, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 They are also printed in Brandis' Scholia to Aristotle, 
 forming the fourth volume of .the Berlin Aristotle. Tho 
 special section on fate has been published separately by 
 Orelli, Alex. Aphrod. Ar.im.onii et all. de Fato quae super- 
 sunt, Zurich, 1824. A life of Aristotle, generally ascribed 
 to Ammonius, but with more accuracy to John Philoponus, 
 is often prefixed to editions of Aristotle. It has been 
 printed separately, with Latin translation and Scholia, at 
 Leyden, 1621, and again at Hehnstadt, 1606. Other com- 
 mentaries on the Topics and the first six books of tho 
 Metaphysics still exist in manuscript. Of the value of the 
 logical writings of Ammonius there are various opinions. 
 PrantL perhaps the highest recent authority, speaks of them 
 with great but hardly merited contempt (Geschichte der 
 Logik, i. 612). (For list of his works, see Fabricius, 
 Bibliotheca Graica, v. 704-707; and also Brandis, Memoiii 
 of the Berlin Academy, 1833.) 
 
 AMMONIUS, siirnamed Saccas, or " The Sack Carrier," 
 from the fact of his having been obliged in the early part 
 of his life to gain his livelihood by acting as a porter n 
 the market, lived at Alexandria during the 2d century 
 .A.D., and died there 241 a.d. Very little is known of the 
 events of his life. He is said by Porphyiy to have been 
 born of Christian parents, and to have belonged originally 
 to their faith, from which he afterwards apostatised. 
 Eusebius (Church History, vi. 19) denies this apostasy, 
 and affirms that Animonius continued a Christian to the 
 end of his life. It is clear, however, that Eusebius is 
 referring to another Ammonius, a Christian who lived at 
 Alexandria during the 3d century a.d. Ammonius, after 
 long study and meditation, opened a school for philosophy 
 in Alexandria. Among his pupils were Hcrennius, the 
 twoOrigens, Longinus, and, most distinguished of all, 
 Plotinus, who in his search for true wisdom found himself 
 irresistibly attracted by Ammonius, remained bis close 
 companion for eleven years, and in all his later philosophy 
 professed to be the mere exponent of his great mas-«r. 
 Ammonius himself designedly wrote nothing, and the 
 doctrines taught in his school were, at least during his life, 
 kept secret, after the fashion of the old Pythagorean 
 society. Thus, while all the later developments of neo- 
 Platonism are in a general way referred to him as their 
 originator, little is known of his special tenets. From the 
 notices of Hierocles, a scholar of Plutarch, in the early 
 part of the (5th century a.d., preserved in Photius, we 
 learn that his fundamental doctrine was an eclecticism, or 
 union of Plato and Aristotle. He attempted to show that 
 a system of philosophy, common to both and higher than 
 their special views, was contained in their writings. He 
 thus, according to his admirers, put an end to the inter- 
 minable disputes of the rival schools. What other elements 
 Ammonius included in his eclectic system, and in par- 
 ticular how he stood related to the Jewish and Christian 
 theosophies, are points on which no information can be 
 procured. Few direct references to him exist and c-a
 
 '44 
 
 A M M — A M M 
 
 theso are not of unquestionable authority. He un- 
 doubtedly originated the neo-Platonic movement, but it 
 cannot be determined to what extent that philosophy, as 
 known to us through Plotinus and Proclus, represents his 
 ideas. Eusebius (Church History, vi. 19) mentions some 
 Christian works by Ammonius. As Porphyry expressly 
 tells us that Ammonius the philosopher wrote nothing, 
 Eusebius must be referring to the later Christian of the 
 same name. To this later Ammonius belongs the i 
 saron, or Harmony of the Four Gospels, sometimes ascribed 
 to the philosopher. (See Fab'ricius, Bibliotheca Graeca, 
 v. 701, 713; and Zeller, Phil. d. Griechen, 2d cd., iii. 2, 
 398, note 6.) On Ammonius the philosopher, besides 
 general works on the Alexandrian school and the history 
 of philosophy, see Rosier, De Commentitiit Philosophies 
 Ammoniacce Fraudibus et 2\ T oxis, Tubingen, 1786; and 
 Dehaut, Fssai Historique sur la Vie el la Doctrine 
 d'Ammonitu Saccas, Brussels, 1836. 
 
 AMMUNITION in its general sense comprises not only 
 the powder and projectiles emploj-ed in guns of all classes, 
 but also all stores directly connected with artillery fire, such 
 as friction-tubes, fuses, percussion-caps, and rockets. 
 
 Gunpowder, as manufactured in England, consists of 75 
 parts of saltpetre, 15 parts of charcoal, and 10 parts of 
 -sulphur, reduced to a fine powder and mechanically mixed 
 together, pressed into a cake, and granulated to a size 
 varying according to the purpose which it is designed to 
 fulfil. In cannon, a large grain is necessary for regular 
 and thorough burning, a fine powder choking up the inter- 
 stices, and so preventing the flame from finding its way 
 through the entire charge. On the other hand, a large 
 grain is blown out of a small piece before it is burnt to 
 the centre. For the very heavy guns recently introduced 
 into the British service powder formed into " pellets " or 
 " pebbles " has been adopted, by which the pressure of the 
 gas is kept up till the shell leaves the muzzle, without 
 being at any instant excessive and likely to injure the 
 gun. Modified forms of powder and gun-cotton have been 
 employed experimentally as the charges of guns. 
 
 For heavy guns or cannon the charge is carefully 
 weighed and made up in a serge cartridge sewn with 
 worsted, which entirely consumes in firing — any residue left 
 ignited in the bore being liable to cause explosion when the 
 cartridge of the succeeding round is rammed down on it, 
 and so to blow off the arms of the gunner using the sponge 
 stave. The shell or other projectile employed is forced 
 home on the cartridge (vide fig. 1) in muzzle-loading 
 guns. In breech-loader3 the shell is introduced first, and 
 pressed into the shot chamber, beyond which it can only 
 pass by the " lands " of the rifling cutting into the lead 
 coat, which is effected by the explosion uf the charge. 
 The cartridge is pressed forward against the base of the 
 projectile. 
 
 Rifled guns— that is, guns constructed to impart rotation 
 to the projectiles they discharge — have superseded smooth- 
 bored cannon in the armaments of all civilised nations ; 
 elongated projectiles, which are impeded by the resistance 
 of the air much less than spherical ones, being in all cases 
 employed. Fig. 1 shows a section of the bore of the 
 
 *"ia. 1.— 1, 1, wronght-lron colls ; 5, steel ; 8, copper studs ; 4, worsted braids. 
 
 muzzle-loading gun, whose projectiles are made to rotate 
 
 by means of gun-metal studs which fit in the spiral grooves 
 of the bore. The following kinds of projectiles aro fired 
 from rifled cannon in the British service : — Common shell, 
 Shrapnel shell, Palliser shell and shot, and case-shot. 
 Light balls, carcasses, and spherical shells are discharged 
 from smooth-bored mortars. The two last mentioned, as 
 well as spherical Shrapnel, round shot, grape, and case, are 
 fired from smooth-bored guns. 
 
 Common shell for rilled guns are simply hollow elongated 
 projectiles filled with powder, which is fired by the action 
 of a fuse, and bursts the shell with great violence,. acting 
 in walls or earth into which it has penetrated like a small 
 mine, the largest shells, which are twelve inches in diameter, 
 containing nearly 37 lb. of powder. Gun cotton, nitro- 
 glycerine, and other substances, have been tried for burst- 
 ing purposes, but it has been found very difficult to prevent 
 premature explosion from the sudden shock of discharge 
 of the gun. Picrate of potash, or " picric powder," has 
 been recommended as stronger than gunpowder and quite 
 cafe, but it is not as yet adopted. Common shells are 
 generally fired at earthworks, buildings, and wooden ships. 
 When carried, as in English men-of-war, filled and fused 
 with percussion fuses, they can be discharged as rapidly as 
 shot. The most terrible instance of their use in history is 
 the entire destruction of the Turkish frigates by tho 
 Russian fleet at Sinope on November 30th, 1853. At the 
 battle of Sedan in 1870 the Prussians made such havoe 
 among the crowded French troops that the ground became 
 covered with " heaps of flesh and rags ; " and a similar 
 result was produced by the fire of mortars concentrated on 
 the Russian troops in the Redan at the termination of the 
 siege of SebastopoL The slaughter in the two last named 
 instances is, however, to be attributed to the concentration 
 of fire on masses of men rather than to the description of 
 shell used, for the showers of bullets ejected by Shrapnel 
 shell would have struck many more men, although the 
 ghastly spectacle of dismembered human bodies would not 
 have been exhibited. 
 
 Shrapnel shell are hollow projectiles containing bullets 
 and a very small bursting charge. Fie. 2 exhibits the 
 construction of the Boxer Shrapnel 
 shell for the 40-pounder breech-load- 
 ing Armstrong gun, and is a good 
 specimen of this class of projectile. 
 The shell follows the usual course of 
 flight up to within about 100 yards 
 of the object, when the time fuse, if 
 properly set, fires the bursting charge, 
 and opens the shell by splitting it 
 along certain grooves forming lines 
 of least resistance. The bullets and 
 fragments then continue their course 
 in the form of a shower of missiles. 
 This class of shell was designed for 
 smooth-bore guns by General Shrap- 
 nel. It was used with great effect 
 during the Peninsular war, especially 
 in clearing the breach and ramparts 
 of St Sebastian of defenders, over 
 the heads of the English storming 
 party, who drew back into the ditch 
 for a time. The projectile has never | 
 
 been understood and thoroughly k — ■ — 
 
 taken up by foreign powers, and has ^£!&ffiZ*££t 
 never been used to full advantage iron or mud steel ; s, lead; 
 on service. In skilful .hands it is 6 ' I " 1I>er - 
 capable of producing results far bevond any that have as 
 yet been achieved. 
 
 The Armstrong segment shell fulfils the same general 
 purpose, — that is to say, it is designed to sweep down bodies
 
 AMMUNITION 
 
 745 
 
 of troops, but ft opens rather more suddenly, segments of 
 iron taking the place of lead and antimony bullets, which 
 segments being built up in a ring with the bursting charge 
 in the centre, are dispersed more widely when the shell 
 opens than the bullets of the Shrapnel The segment shell 
 consequently is rather suited for the action of a percussion 
 fuse on striking the head of a column of men, or the ground 
 close in front of it. In this way results have been obtained 
 which are out of all proportion to anything that has ever 
 occurred in actual service. At Dartmoor 'in 1869 the 
 average number of hits for every segment shell fired durii.g 
 the series of experiments, including failures of all kinds, 
 was 1 7*1. The meaning of this estimate maybe appre- 
 ciated bj applying it to some action. For example, at 
 Waterloo the English artillery fired 9467 rounds. On the 
 Dartmoor scale this would give 161,885 casualties.' This 
 result shows that after making the most liberal deductions 
 for the peculiar circumstances of war, appalling effects 
 might be produced by modern artillery with segment or 
 Shrapnel shells. 
 
 Palliser shell and shot are projectiles made with specially 
 hard and rigid heads, with the object of piercing the sides 
 of armour-clad vessels. The form of the head, which is 
 termed "ogival," is seen inside the gun in Fig. 1. A point of 
 this shape causes the resistance of the plate to fall on the 
 shell as an increasing pressure, acting inwards towards 
 points distributed along the axis, rather than as the full 
 sudden blow that would be experienced by a round shot 
 This enables chilled iron to be used, which has great hard- 
 ness and crushing strength, but is very brittle. Sir W. 
 Palliser first proposed chilled projectiles ; subsequently 
 mottled iron projectiles with chilled heads have been used. 
 Sir J. Whitworth has obtained great results with flat^headed 
 projectiles of a special quality of steel, which have been made 
 to penetrate iron plates at an angle even more oblique than 
 45°. Solid and hollow shot, as well as shell, have been 
 employed against plates. The shot, having thicker sides 
 or walls, have some advantage in penetration. Shells, by 
 their explosion, destroy wood backing better than shot, 
 when the front plating is not too thick for them to pene- 
 trate. They are charged with powder through a filling 
 hole in the base of the shell, closed with a strong screw 
 plug. No fuse is required, impact against thick iron being 
 sufficient to explode the bursting charge of a shell without 
 any fuse. The greatest penetration that has yet been 
 obtained in armour was achieved by the 35-ton Woolwich 
 gun (termed the Woolwich " infant "), at Shoeburyness on 
 June 20th, 1872, the head of a Palliser projectile passing 
 entirely through 18i inches of iron ancTlfi of teak, a thick- 
 ness of armour exceeding that of any iron-clad vessel afloat. 
 
 Solid shot have gradually disappeared since the introduc- 
 tion of rifled guns, and the reasons are obvious. A round 
 shot fired from a smooth-bored gun, after its first graze, 
 continued to ricochet in a straight line; it produced, there-' 
 fore, a considerable moral effect, and on smooth ground 
 was actually formidable. A rifled shot, on the other hand, 
 Is violently deflected after each graze, from the fact that 
 it is rotating rapidly as it touches the ground, and this, 
 coupled with its liability to bury itself, detracts greatly 
 from its efficiency. Shells for any rifled gun may be made 
 of such length as to bring them to the same wight as the 
 corresponding shot, which wa3 not the case with smooth- 
 bore projectiles, they being all of one size instead of one 
 weigM. In short, Palliser shell with thick walls (fired as 
 hollow shot) excepted, the only projectiles of the shot class 
 now employed with rifled guns are case shot. Owing, how- 
 ever, to the fact that the charge of a rifled gun vpries from 
 | th to \th. the weight of the projectile, while in smooth- 
 borod guns it-was sometimes as great as £d that of the shot, 
 the effect of rifled case is comparatively weak. At any time 
 
 V-EF* 
 
 the range of case shot hardly exceeds 300 yards, while 
 its efficiency depends on the ground along which it bounds 
 being haid and leveL Each shot consists of a number of 
 balls enclosed in a thin metal cylinder, which breaks up 
 in the gun, the balls scattering from the muzzle, but sweep, 
 ing the ground with great effect under favourable circum- 
 stances. Grape differs only in the balb being larger. At 
 the battle of Friedland, at the bridge of Lodi, and at 
 Sebastopol, grape and case were fired with great effect. 
 
 Time and percussion fuses have been mentioned. Time 
 fuses are those which open a shell at any given time, 
 whether in the air or during penetration. Fig. 2 shors 
 the " Boxer 9-sacond fuse " for breech-loading guns, fixed 
 in the shell. On the shell moving, the hammer in the head, 
 by its inertia, shears a copper wire, fires a detonating patch 
 of composition beneath it, and lights the fuse composi- 
 tion. . This burns until it reaches the point at which a 
 hole is bored in the fuse, when it flashes down the channel 
 shown on the left side of the cut, and fires the powder 
 primer and bursting charge of loose powder. The action 
 of this fuse therefore depends on its correct boring and 
 regular burning. A percussion fuse is one that acts on 
 impact or graze. Fig. 3 shows the Pettman general service 
 fuse. On the first movement of the 
 shell, the detonating ball A, and the 
 plugs above and below it, by their '" 
 inertia, crush the lead eap C, and shear 
 the copper pin above F. During flight 
 the ball becomes detached from the 
 upper or steady plug B, and on im- 
 pact is fired by its momentum against 
 the part in front of it. The steady plug 
 itself has also a ring of detonating 
 composition, DD, which, should the 
 plug fail to escape from the detonating 
 ball, and so hold against it, is thrown Fio. %.— l, copper part»; a, 
 against the little plain ball E. The ^^ M - *• '<**• 
 flash in either case acts down the tube-F, and fires the burst- 
 ing charge of the shell. This fuse- is made not to explode 
 against a wave, being chiefly used for sea'service. It acts 
 both with smooth-bored and rifled guns. For land service 
 more sensitive ones are employed to explode on graze. 
 
 Friction tubes are copper tubes driven with mealed 
 powder, and pierced from end to end. A friction bar in 
 
 r\ 
 
 the head is rubbed against patches of de- 
 tonating composition by pulling a lanyard, 
 which hooks into a loop at the end of it 
 The tube is entered in the vent of a gun, 
 which is thus fired by pulling the lanyard. 
 
 For mitrailleuses and breech-loading small 
 arms, lead bullets or lead and tin bullets, 
 fixed in central-fire cartridges, are used. The 
 cases are made of sheet brass, with a thick 
 base disc containing a cap chamber, cap, and 
 anviL Fig. 4 shows the Boxer-Henry am- 
 munition for the Martini-Henry rifle. These 
 metal-cased cartridges are not liable to ex- 
 plode in store, even from the firing of a small 
 charge of powder confined inside the same 
 packing-case with them. They admit of a 
 very rapid rate of firing. . The Gatling mitrail- 
 leuse has discharged 657 rounds in two 
 minutes at Shoeburyness. Tha Martini- 
 Henry rifle has fired 25 rounds in a minute. 
 
 Rockets are projectiles containing composi- r, §" r ^.. 1 * 2 ; <^. 
 tion -which, as it bufns, generates sufficient j > r e r n ; \ WTO a ng " 
 gas to drire forward trie rocket by an action «, 6,miii-tio»rd| 
 resembling that of the recoil of a gun. Of '• »"«'-?•"- 
 rockets there are three kinds : first, war rockets, with 
 iron cases, introduced by Sir W. Congreve, and subsequently
 
 we 
 
 A M N — A M O 
 
 Fia. 
 
 orougut by Mr Ilale to the form shown in Fig. 5. Con- 
 
 greve rockets were kept point first by sticks screwed into 
 
 their bases, which acted on the principle 
 
 of the feathers of an arrow. The Hale 
 
 rocket is kept point first by rotation, caused 
 
 by the gas escaping from the vents pressing 
 
 ugainst the curved shields. The second 
 
 class of rockets are signal rockets, made of 
 
 paper, and containing stars, which throw 
 
 a bright light in falling. The third class 
 
 are the rockets used to carry a line and 
 
 establish communication between a wrecked 
 
 vessel and the sea-shore. (c. o. B.) 
 
 AMNESTY (d/xnj(m'a,obb:vion), an act of 
 grace by which the supreme power in a state 
 restores those who may have been guiltyof anyoffence against 
 it to the position of innocent persons. It includes more than 
 pardon, inasmuch as it obliterates all legal remembrance 
 of the offence. It is chiefly exercised towards asso< •' 
 of political criminals, and is sometimes granted absolutely, 
 though more frequently there are certain specified excep- 
 tions. Thus in the case of the earliest recorded amnesty, 
 that of Thrasybulus at Athens, the thirty tyrants and a 
 few others were expressly excluded from its operation ; and 
 the amnesty proclaimed on the restoration of Charles II. 
 did not extend to those who had taken part in the execu- 
 tion of his father. Other celebrated amnesties arc that 
 proclaimed by Napoleon on 13th March 1815, from which 
 thirteen eminent persons, including Talleyrand, were 
 excepted; the Prussian amnesty of 10th August 1840; 
 and the general amnesty proclaimed by the Emperor 
 Francis Joseph of Austria in 1857. The last Act of 
 amnesty passed in Great Britain is 20 Geo. II., c. 52, 
 which proclaimed a pardon to those who had taken part in 
 the second Jacobite rebellion. 
 
 AMOL, or Amdx, a town of Persia, in the province of 
 Mazanderan, about 12 milc3 above the mouth of tholleraz, 
 a river which flows into the Caspian Sea. It is not 
 walled, and is now a place of no great importance, but 
 in and around it there are ruins and ancient buildings 
 which bear witness to its former greatness. Of these the 
 most conspicuous is the magnificent mausoleum of Seyed 
 Quam-u-deen, king of Sari and Amol, who died in 1378. 
 At Amol there is a bridge of twelve arches over the Hcraz, 
 and the bazaars of the town are large and well supplied. 
 The population is about 40,000, but a great number of 
 these leave the city in summer to tend their flocks. 
 
 AMONTONS, GmLLATTME, a celebrated French ex- 
 perimental philosopher, was the son of an advocate who 
 had left his native province of Normandy and established 
 himself at Paris, where ths subject of this notice was born 
 on the 31st August 1663. The exertions of genius fre- 
 quently take a particular direction from accidental circum- 
 stances. A severe illness with which Amontons was 
 afflicted in his early youth had the effect of rendering him 
 almoet entirely deaf, and consequently of secluding him in 
 a great measure from the ordinary in tercourse of society. 
 Being compelled by this accident to depend for his enjoy- 
 ments on the resources of his own mind, he began to take 
 great pleasure in the construction of machines of various 
 kinds, and in the study of the laws of mechanics, a path 
 of inquiry which he pursued through life with unremitting 
 ardour and distinguished success. One of the first objects 
 which engaged his attention was the discovery of the 
 perpetual motion, — an attempt which, though necessarily 
 unsuccessful, was productive of greater advantage to him 
 than it has usually been to thoso who have pursued that 
 vain chimera, Amontons devoted himself particularly to 
 tho improvement of instruments employed in physical 
 experiments, a subject which requires the finest replica- 
 
 tions of mechanical principles, and whicli till that time had 
 not met with a due share of attention. In 1687, before he 
 had attained his 2 1th year, he presented to the Academy 
 of Sciences an hygrometer of his own invention, which was 
 received with approbddon by that learned body. In 1695 
 he published the only work which he has given to the 
 world. It was dedicated to tho Academy, and entitled 
 Jiemarques et Experiences Physiques sur la Construction 
 d'tin XouvelClcpsydre, sur les Baromilres, les Thermci,, 
 et les Hygromclrcs. After Huyghens's beautiful application 
 of the pendulum to the regulation of the motion of clocks, 
 any attempt to revive tho clepsydra, an incommodious 
 instrument, and not susceptible of much accuracy, might 
 seem to subject its author to the imputation of not suf- 
 ficiently appreciating the great importance of a discovery 
 which has so completely changed the face of astronomical 
 science ; but the object of Amontons was to produce an 
 instrument capable of measuring time on board ship, in 
 circumstances where the motion of the vessel rendered 
 such timekeepers as were then known useless. The 
 machine which he constructed is said to have been 
 extremely ingenious, and probably differed entirely froin 
 those of the ancients, among whom the clepsydra was in 
 common use. In 1689 Amontons was admitted into the 
 Academy of Sciences, the Memoirs of which ho enriched 
 with many important contributions. The first paper 
 which he presented after his admission was one on the 
 theory of friction, a subject then involved in great 
 obscurity, and on which his inquiries tended to throw con- 
 siderable light. After that appoared in succession de- 
 scriptions of a new thermometer, and of numerous experi- 
 ments made with the barometer relative to the nature and 
 properties of air, — a detailed account of all which is given 
 in the history of the Academy. In the course of these 
 investigations he found that the boiling point of watei 
 varies with the pressure of the atmosphere, a discovery 
 made almost contemporaneously in England by Dr Halley. 
 By his countrymen he is generally regarded as the inventor 
 of the telegraph; and he had the honour of exhibiting the 
 methods by which he proposed to accomplish the object in 
 view before some members of the royal family. It appears, 
 however, from a paper read by Dr Hooke to the Royal 
 Society in 1684, that that ingenious philosopher had 
 brought the telegraph, in theory at least, to a state of far 
 greater maturity than Amontons, and nearly 20 years 
 earlier. The experiments of the latter were made about 
 the year 1702. It may be regarded as a curious fact in 
 the history of inventions, that although the great import- 
 ance of telegraphic" communication is obvious, and the 
 method of accomplishing it was clearly explained by Hooke, 
 and its practicability demonstrated by Amontons, it con- 
 tinued to be regarded as of no practical value, and was not 
 regularly applied to useful purposes till nearly a century 
 afterwards, at the time of the French Revolution. 
 Amontons died in 1705, aged 42. 
 
 AMOOR, Amotje, or Amlts, a large and important river 
 of eastern Asia, formed by the confluence of the Argun 
 and the Shilka, at a place called Ust Strelkoi, in 53° 19' N. 
 lat. and 121° 50' E. long. Both these rivers come from 
 the south-west: the Argun, or Kerulen as it is called "above 
 Lake Kulon, through which it flows about half-way between 
 its source and Ust Strelkoi, rises near Mount Kentei, in 
 49° N. lat. and 109° E. long. ; tho Shilka is formed by the 
 union of the Onon and the Ingoda, both of which rise in 
 the Kingan mountains, not far from j.he source of the 
 Argun. The Amoor proper flows at first in a south-easterly 
 direction for about 800 miles, as Jar as 47° 42' lat. ; it then 
 turns to the north-cast, and after a total course of over 
 1600 miles discharges itself into the Sea of Okhotsk, 
 opposite to the island of Saghalien. Its principal tribu-
 
 A M U — A JBL (J 
 
 74Y 
 
 taries from the south are the Songari, which the Chinese 
 consider to be the true head river of the Amoor, and the 
 
 Ussuri; from the north it receives the Zeya, the Bureia, 
 the Gyrin, and the Omogun. The climate of the valley of 
 the Amoor varies very much in different parts : in the 
 upper portion of its course there are long and cold winters 
 and short summers; as the river descends into more southern 
 latitudes the rigour of the climate relaxes, and the heat 
 becomes almost tropical ; the vegetation is rich and luxu- 
 riant, and large forests of oaks, limes, and elms replace 
 barren larches and firs ; while on the lower Amoor the cold 
 again to a certain extent prevails, and at the mouth the 
 river is ice-bound for more than half the year, a circum- 
 stance which greatly impairs its otherwise admirable facilities 
 for navigation. The river is abundantly stocked with fish, 
 and the mountains near it are believed to contain iron and 
 gold. The Amoor became known to the Kussians in 1639, 
 and they resolved to annex it to their empire along with 
 the territory through which it flows. In 1651 a party of 
 Cossacks, under a bold leader named Khabaroff, built a 
 fort at Albazin, about 100 miles below Ust StrelkoL Many 
 sanguinary conflicts between the Chinese and the Russians 
 followed. Albazin mors than once changed owners ; but 
 at last, in 1689, a treaty was concluded, by which the 
 river Gorbiza or Kerbeche became the easterly limi t, of the 
 Russian empire on the Amoor, the boundary stretching 
 from the source of the Gorbiza, along the Yablonnoi moun- 
 tains, to the Sea of Okhotsk. This state of matters con- 
 tinued till 1847, when the Russians again began to make 
 preparations for the conquest of the Amoor valley. In 
 1850 and the three succeeding years, expeditions were 
 sent up the river, and the towns of Nikolaevsk, Marinsk, 
 and Blagovchenk were founded; in 1854 a powerful flotilla 
 Bailed down from Ust Strelkoi to the mouth of the river. 
 A large and very important tract was added to the Russian 
 empire by the cession in 1858 of the whole left bank of 
 the Amoor and the right bank below the Ussuri, and the 
 further cession in 1860 of all the territory between the 
 Ussuri and the Eastern Sea. 
 
 , AMORITES, a powerful people, widely spread through 
 the Promised- Land before the settlement of the Israelites, 
 belonging to the Canaanitic stock, according to Gen. x. 16, 
 though some think they belong rather to the pre-Canaanitic 
 inhabitants of the Jordan basin (see Knobel, Vblkertafel, 
 201, sq., who refers them to the Shemitic race of Lud). In 
 all probability there were incorporated among them the 
 remnants of the older tribe of the Rephaim. Their name, 
 " the high ones," has by Ewald (Gesch. Israels, i. 315), after 
 Simonis (Onomasticon, s.v.) been interpreted highlanders, 
 or inhabitants of the heights, as Canaanites is supposed 
 to mean lowlanders, or inhabitants of the plains (cf. Num. 
 xiii. 29; Deut. i. 44; Josh. v. 1, x. 6). Others call this in 
 question,' and find an explanation-rather in the tallness of 
 stature by which they seem to have been distinguished 
 (Num. xiii. 32, 33; Amos ii. 9, cf. Kurtz, Gesch. d. Alt. 
 Bundes, L § 45 ; Pusey, Minor Prophets, 174, n.) . 
 
 That thJ9 people had a certain preponderance among the Canaan- 
 itic tribes is shown by their name often standing in Scripture for 
 Canaanites in general (Gen. xv. 16 ; Josh. xxiv. 48 ; Jud. vi. 10). 
 Their principal seat on the west of the. Jordan was the mountains 
 of Judah and their southern slopes, — to the whole of which moun- 
 tainous region, indeed, the name the Mount of the Amorites is 
 applied (Gen. xiv. 7, 13 ; Num. xiii. 29 ; Deut i. 7, 20, 44; Josh. 
 xL 3 ; Jud. i. 36). We hear of them also at Gibeon, north-west of 
 Jerusalem (2 Sam. xxi. 2), at Aijalon, west of Gibeon, and in the 
 northern part of the Philistine plain (Jud. i. 34, 35), and in the 
 land of Ephraim. (Gen. xlviii. 22). On the east of Jordan, after 
 having driven back the Ammonites and Moabites, they occupied 
 the whole of Gilead and Bashan, from the Arnon, the northern 
 limit of Moab, as far as Mount Hermon, forming in this region at 
 the epoch of Moses two powerful kingdoms, — that of Sihon, whose 
 capital was Heshbon, the more southerly ; and that of Og, whose 
 capital was Ashtaroth. the more northerly (Num. xxi. 21-36 ; Deut 
 
 iii. 8, 10 ; iv. 48). It was with this east-Jordanic section of th-s 
 Amorites that the Israelites first came into conflict After these 
 had been subdued, and after the Israelites had crossed the Joiian 
 and had begun to capture the Canaanitish towns, five of the most 
 powerful of the Amorite kings of the western section formed a con- 
 federacy to oppose the advancing host (Josh. x. 6, sq.) Yv'hen this 
 combination had been overthrown, a final attempt at resistance 
 was made by the more northerly-portion of the Canaanites, under 
 the auspices of Jabin, king of Hazor ; and in the united forces, 
 which were overthrown at the waters of Merom, Amorites were 
 included (Josh. xi. 3). Those of this and the other tribes of the 
 Canaanites who survived the conquests of Joshua, either gradually 
 became mingled with the Philistines and others of the neighbour- 
 ing nations, or they continued to live among the Israelites in the 
 condition of tributaries and slaves (Josh. xi. 22 ; Jud. i. 34, 35 ; 
 1 Kings ix. 21 ; 2 Chron. viii. 8).' 
 
 In old Egyptian literature mention is frequently made, from the 
 time of Sethos I., of an Asiatic people called the Amar or Amaor, 
 whom Egyptologers agree in identifying with the Amorites (Bunsen, 
 Egypt's Place, voL iii. 212). There is as yet less agreement in 
 regard to the position of their country. Brugsch is of opinion that 
 the people in question are located in the north of Syria, on the 
 banks of the Orontes (see his Geog. Inschriflen, Bd. ii. 21 ; Hist. 
 cCEgypte, 132, 187). The later researches of Chabas, however, 
 have rendered the interpretation on which this view depends very 
 doubtful, and shown that in all probability . their territory lies, 
 in entire harmony with the representations of Scripture regarding 
 the Amorites, on the west of the Dead Sea and south of the land 
 of Judah (Chabas, Eludes sur VAntiquUe", 267, f. ; Eechcrches, 44, 
 107.) Among the towns of the Amaor are mentioned Dapur and 
 Kodesh, evidently to be identified with the scriptural Debir and 
 Kadesh. 
 
 The language, &c, of the Amorites will he more conveniently 
 considered under Caxaanites.. 
 
 AMORPHISM (from a privative, and /lop^, form), 
 a term used in chemistry and mineralogy to denote the 
 absence of regular structure in a body. Glass, resin, coal, 
 albuminous substances, &c, are amorphous, exhibiting 
 uniformity of properties in every direction : they have no 
 planes of cleavage, as crystals have; they conduct heat 
 equally in all directions' ; and they do not show double 
 refraction unless in a constrained state. A moronism is not 
 peculiar to one kind of substances, for the same molecules 
 may exist either in the amorphous or the crystalline state. 
 Thus charcoal or lamp-black is the amorphous form of the 
 diamond; sulphur and phosphorus, when slowly cooled, 
 assume a crystalline arrangement, but when rapidly cooled 
 are perfectly homogeneous — the suddenness of transition 
 from the liquid or fused state giving- no time for definite 
 arrangement of particles. 
 
 AMOS (not the same as Amoz, the father of Isaiah) 
 was an inhabitant of the district of Tekoa, a fortified town 
 (2d Chron. xi 6) among the hills of the south of Judah, 
 where a breed of stunted sheep and goats, prized, how- 
 ever, for their wool and hair, found a scanty pasturage 
 (Amos L 1). Possibly he was a common day labourer; 
 certainly he was far from wealthy, as the Jewish com- 
 mentators would have him ; for though he is called 
 a "noked" (loc. cit.), like one of the kings of Moab 
 (2 Kings iii 4), he tells us himself that he was glad to x>m- 
 bine this employment with that of a dresser of sycateire 
 fruit (vii. 14). He may thus be contrasted, as the peasant 
 prophet, with Isaiah, the prophet of the capital and thfl 
 court. It does not, however, follow that Amos was devoid 
 of such cultivation as could then be had. Distinctions of 
 rank were not,- among the primitive Semitic races, co- 
 incident with those of culture ; it is enough to refer to the 
 pre-Mohammedan Arabs, whose poetry has been so accu- 
 rately reproduced by Riickert. And in the case of Amos 
 there is evidence in his own works that he was well 
 acquainted with the literature of his day. It is true that 
 he boldly admits the irregularity, from an official point of 
 view, of his prophetic ministrations — " No prophet I, end 
 no prophet's disciple I" (vii. 14); but his discourses are 
 not only full of references (sometimes dubious) to the 
 book of Joel and the Pentateuch, but framed, however
 
 748 
 
 AM0-A11P 
 
 imperfectly, on a genuine artistic plan. Tkis is unmis- 
 takably the case in the discourse contained in i. 3-ii. 1G; 
 but with greater or less correspondence to the course of 
 thought in the remainder of the book. Thus, according 
 to Ewald (who aims, it is true, at an unattainable pre- 
 cision), chapters iii. and iv. consist of five strophes — iii. 
 1-8, iii. 9-15, iv. 1-3 (incomplete), iv. 5-11, iv. 12, 13; 
 chapters v. and vi. of a prologue (v. 1-3) and four strophes 
 —v. 4-G, 8, 9; v. 7, 10-17 j v. 18-27; vi. 1-10; with a sort 
 of epilogue in vi. 11-14; And the great critic De AVctto 
 goes so far as to declare that no Hebrew prophet has 
 shown an equal regard for clearness and harmony of pro- 
 portion. (Comp. Dr Pusey, Minor Prop/iets, p. 152.) 
 
 The date of the first public appearance of Amos cannot 
 be ascertained. From the heading of the book (i. 1), 
 which, though not by the prophet himself, has. the air of a 
 genuine tradition (Ewald, Die Prophetcn, L 123), we learn 
 that he "saw" — that is, prophesied — "two years before 
 the earthquake." This earthquake is referred to again in 
 Zech. xiv. 5, and, as some think, in passages of Joel and 
 other prophets. It seems, therefore, to have constituted 
 an era in popular tradition, but is of no significance for 
 chronology, as has been well shown by Dr Fusey (Minor 
 PropJiets, p. 148). More to our purpose is the former 
 part of the heading, which limits the prophetic career of 
 Amos to the twenty-five years that Uzziah and Jeroboam 
 II. were contemporary — i.e., 810-784, according to the 
 common chronology ; 775-750, according to the Assyrian. 
 (Comp. Schrader, Die Keilinsckriftcn und das Alte Testa- 
 ment, p. 120.) He flourished, therefore, in the greatest 
 age of Hebrew prophecy. He seems to have been younger 
 than Joel, to whose prophecy he makes several references, 
 and more or less senior to Hosea and Isaiah. This view 
 is fully borne out by the gradual emergence of the Assy- 
 rians on the prophetic horizon. Altogether absent from 
 Joel's prophecy, they are but vaguely alluded to in Amos, 
 and first mentioned by name in Hosea and Isaiah. 
 
 It was while "following the flock" (vii. 14, 15) that 
 Amos received a prophetic impulse to leave his home and 
 preach in the sister country. The circumstances are on 
 several accounts worthy of notice. They indicate — 1. A 
 distinction between Hebrew prophecy, in its mature stage, 
 and non-Hebrew — viz., that the former is not dependent 
 on a special artificial training ; 2. That though his writ- 
 ings are included in the prophetic canon, Amos did not 
 consider himself officially a prophet (which has a bearing 
 on the great controversy of Daniel); and 3. That prophets 
 of the higher or spiritual order did not recognise the revolt 
 of the first Jeroboam (comp. ix. 11 ; Hos. iii 5). But 
 the prophecies of Amos had a wider scope than the destiny 
 of Israel. They show a dim presentiment of the philosophy 
 of history, and of the reproductive power of revolutions. 
 Accordingly, Syria, Philistia, Phoenicia, Edom, Ammon, 
 Moab, and Judah were successively rebuked by the in- 
 spired messenger. But the chief blame fell u^on Israel, 
 whose unparalleled prosperity under Jeroboam II. had 
 developed the germs of vices inconsistent with the religion 
 of Jehovah. The denunciations of Amos produced a power- 
 ful impression. He was expelled with contumely by 
 Amaziah, a priest of the reactionary image cultus at the 
 frontier town of Bethel (vii. 10-17). 
 
 It is not to bo supposed that the discourses of Amos 
 were delivered exactly as they stand. This view, is pre- 
 cluded by their elaborate literary character, and by the 
 allusions to the prophet's experience in Israel in ii. 12, v. 
 10, 13. He probably put them together, with the addi- 
 tion of a grand Messianic epilogue, after his return to 
 Tekoa. There has never been a doubt of their genuineness. 
 The text is good, but there are a few corrupt passages. 
 
 Some of the characteristics of Amo3 have been already 
 
 mentioned. The tradition that he was a stammerer (Lascu 
 on an absurd etymology of his name), and the statement 
 of Jerome that he was " hnperitus sernioue (sed nou 
 scientia)," only prove the incapacity of the ancients for 
 literary criticism. The simplicity of his style is that of 
 the highest art. He delights in abrupt short clauses, but 
 they are linked together by the closest parallelism. And 
 the supposed rusticity of his dialect is deduced from the 
 spelling of only five words, analogies to which may be 
 traced in the great poem of Job. All that we can admit 
 as probable is, that the native force and talent for observa- 
 tion displayed by this prophet were derived from his early 
 converse with nature on the wild hills of Judah. His 
 imagery, in fact, from its freshness and appropriateness 
 (comp. ii. 13; iii. 5, 12; iv. 2, 9; v. 19; vi. 12; ix. 9), 
 almost reminds us of Dante, and entitles him to as high a 
 place in the history cf literature as in that of theistic 
 religion. (t. k. c.) 
 
 AMOY, a city and seaport in the province of Fo-kicn, 
 China, situated on the slope of a hill, on the south coast 
 of a small and barren island of the same name, in 24° 
 28' N. lat. and 118° 10 E. long. It is a largo and exceed- 
 ingly dirty place, about *> miles in circumference, and is 
 divided into two portions, an inner and an outer town, 
 which are separated from each other by f. ridge of hilb, 
 on which a citadel of considerable strength has been built. 
 Each of these divisions of the city possesses a large and 
 commodious harbour, that of the inner town, or city proper, 
 being protected by strong fortifications. Amoy may be 
 regarded as the port of the inland city of Chang-chu, with 
 which it has river communication; and its trade, both 
 foreign and coastwise, is extensive and valuable. In 1870, 
 560 vessels, exclusive of Chinese junks, entered the port, 
 of an aggregate burden of 224,436 tons; of these, 315, of 
 150,171 tons, were British. The chief articles imported 
 were sugar, rice, raw cotton, and opium, as well as cotton 
 cloths, iron goods, and other European manufactures; their 
 value was £1,915,427. In the same year, 554 vessels, of 
 226,911 tons, cleared the port, including 314 British, of 
 150,826 tons; the chief exports were tea, porcelain, and 
 paper, and their value was £1,144,046. It is not pos- 
 sible to give the statistics of the trade that is carried on 
 by means of Chinese junks, but it is said to be large; and 
 the native merchants are considered to be among the 
 wealthiest and most enterprising in China. Amoy was 
 captured by the British in 1841, after a determined resist- 
 ance, and is one of the five ports that were opened to 
 British commerce by the treaty of 1842; it is now open to 
 the ships of all nations. The population of Amoy is esti- 
 mated at 250,000. 
 
 AMPERE, Andr£-Makie, the founder of the science of 
 electro-dynamics, was born at Lyons in January 1775. He 
 took a passionate delight in the pursuit of knowledge from 
 his very infancy, and is reported to have worked out lengthy 
 arithmetical sums by means of pebbles and biscuit-crumbs 
 before he knew the figures. His father began to teach 
 him Latin, but left this off on discovering the boy's greater 
 inclination and aptitude for mathematical studies. The 
 young Ampere, however, soon resumed his Latin lessons, 
 to enable him to master the works of Euler and Bernouill:. 
 In later life ho was accustomed to say that he knew as 
 much about mathematics when he was eighteen as ever 1< i 
 knew; but his reading embraced nearly the whole round oi 
 knowledge, — history, travels, poetry, philosophy, and the 
 natural sciences. At this age he had read the whole of the 
 Encyclopedic, and with such interest and attention that he 
 could repeat passages from it fifty years after. When 
 Lyons was taken by the army of the Conventior in 1793, 
 the father of Ampere, who, holding the office of juge de 
 paix, had stood out resolutely against the previous rcvolu-
 
 AMP-AMP 
 
 749 
 
 tionary excesses, was at once thrown into prison, and soon 
 after perished on the scaffold. This event produced such 
 an impression on the susceptible mind of Ampere, that he 
 continued for more than a year in a state little removed 
 from idiocy. But Rousseau's letters on botany falling into 
 his hands, the subject engrossed him, and roused him from 
 his apathy. His passion for knowledge returned. From 
 botany he turned to the study of the classic poets, and to 
 the writing of verses himself. About this time (1796) an 
 attachment sprang up, the progress of which he naively 
 recorded in a journal {Amorum). In 1799 he was happily 
 married to the object of his attachment. From about 
 1796 Ampere gave private lessons at Lyons in mathe- 
 matics, chemistry, and languages; and in 1801 he removed 
 to Bourg, as professor of physics and chemistry, leaving 
 his ailing wife and infant son at Lyons. His wife died in 
 1801. After two years' absence he returned to Lyons, on 
 his appointment as professor of mathematics at the 
 Lyceum. His small treatise,. Considerations sur la Theorie 
 Matfdmatique du Jeu (Lyons, 1802), in which he success- 
 fully solved a problem that had occupied Buffon, Pascal, 
 and others, and demonstrated that the chances of play are 
 decidedly against the habitual gambler, attracted consider- 
 able attention. It was this work that brought bim under 
 the notice of M. Delambre, whose recommendation obtained 
 for him the Lyons appointment, and afterwards (1805) a 
 subordinate position in the Polytechnic School at Paris, 
 where he was elected professor of analysis in 1809. Here 
 he continued to prosecute his scientific researches and his 
 multifarious studies with unabated diligence. He was 
 admitted a member of the Institute in 1814. It is on the 
 service that he rendered to science in establishing the rela- 
 tions between electricity and magnetism, and in developing 
 the science of electro-magnetism, or, as he called it, electro- 
 dynamics, that Ampere's fame mainly rests. On the 11th 
 of September 1820 he heard of the discovery of Professor 
 Oersted of Copenhagen, that a magnetic needle may be 
 deflected by a voltaic current. On the 18th of the same 
 month he presented a paper to the Academy, containing a 
 far more complete exposition of the phenomenon, which he 
 had in the interval investigated by experiment, and show- 
 ing that magnetic defects can be produced, without magnets, 
 by aid of electricity alone. In particular he showed that 
 two wires connecting the opposite poles of a battery attract 
 or repel each other according as the currents pass in the 
 same or in opposite directions. According to the theory 
 of magnetism which Ampere's subsequent investigations 
 led him to adopt, every molecule of magnetic matter is 
 acted on by a closed electric current, and magnetisation 
 takes place in proportion as the direction of these currents 
 approaches parallelism. The whole field thus opened up 
 he explored with characteristic industry and care. He 
 anticipated the invention of the electric telegraph, having 
 suggested in 1821 an apparatus of the kind with a sepa- 
 rate wire for each letter. Late in life he prepared a 
 remarkable work on the classification of the sciences, which 
 was published after hi3 death. In addition to this and 
 one or two works of less importance, he wrote a great 
 number of memoirs and papers that appeared in scientific 
 journals. He died at Marseilles in June 183G. The great 
 amiability and child-like simplicity of Ampere's character 
 are well brought out in his Journal et Correspondence, 
 published by Madame Chevreux (Paris, 1872). 
 
 AMPERE, Jean-Jacqfes-Antoine, the only child of 
 the preceding, was born at Lyons, August 12, 1800. He 
 showed an early preference for literary pursuits, and this 
 was strengthened by his intimate intercourse with the 
 brilliant circle to whi:h his introduction to ' Madame 
 Rccamier's celebrated reunions admitted him. He began 
 his literary career as a contributor to the Globe and Revue 
 
 Franchise, which Guizot conducted in opposition to the 
 government of Charles X. After spending some time in 
 travel, he commenced a course of lectures at the Athenaeum 
 of Marseilles in 1830, the first of which, De V Histoire dc 
 la Poesie, he published. The revolution of July led to his 
 return to Paris, where he lectured at the Sorbonne, till, 
 in 1833, he succeeded Andrieux as professor of the history 
 of French literature in the college of France. His lectures 
 here, which were greatly«admired, form the basis of seVeral 
 works, particularly of his Histoire litteraire de la France 
 avant le 12me Siecle, 3 vols., Paris, 1S39, 1840. Ampere 
 was a constant contributor to various periodical publica- 
 tions. He wrote for the Revue des Deux Ifondes sprightly 
 accounts of his long journeys in Egypt and North America, 
 as well as in various parts of Europe, which were after- 
 wards collected under the title, Litterature et Voyages (2 
 vols., 1834). His principal work is the Histoire Romaint 
 a Rome (4 vols., 1856-64), a series of papers, reprinted in 
 part from the Revue des Deux Monies, showing shrewd 
 sense and great and varied learning, particularly on 
 archaeological questions, and written in an attractive though 
 often discursive style. Ampere was officer of the Legion 
 of Honour from 1846, and in 1847 was admitted to the 
 French Academy. ' He died March 27, 1864. 
 
 AMPHIAEAUS, in Greek legend, a son of Oicles and 
 Hypennnestra, descended on the paternal side from the 
 kingly seer Melampus, and, like his ancestor, endowed with 
 the prophetic gift ; but at the same time known for his 
 valour in the great enterprises of his time — the expedition 
 of the Argonauts and the hunt of the Calydonian boar. 
 The expedition, however, on which the chief events of his 
 life hinge is that of the Seven against Thebes, into which 
 he was unwillingly driven by the treachery of his wife, 
 Eriphyle {Odyssey, xi. 326), a sister of Adrastus, who then 
 ruled in Sicyon, and by whom the enterprise was planned 
 to restore Polynices to the throne of Thebes. As prince of 
 Argos, Amphiaraus was in a position to assist greatly; but 
 when called upon by Adrastus to take a part, he declined, on 
 the ground that the cause was unholy, and would end 
 fatally.- His marriage with Eriphyle, however, had not 
 only been meant to heal previous quarrels between him 
 and Adrastus, but was to be a bond of peace for the 
 future in this way, that she should always arbitrate between 
 them. To secure her favour now, Polynices gave her the 
 fatal necklace which Cadmus had once given to Harmonia, 
 and, though warned of the consequences, Eriphyle accepted it 
 and decided against her husband. Knowing that he would 
 never return, Amphiaraus enjoined his son Alcmason, then 
 a boy, to avenge his death upon his mother; and to his 
 children generally he gave wise counsel As he stepped into 
 his chariot to depart he turned with a look of anger towards 
 his wife, a scene which was represented on the chest of 
 Cypselus. The assault of Thebes was disastrous to the 
 Seven ; and Amphiaraus, pursued by Periclymenus, would 
 have fallen by his spear had not Jupiter, at a critical 
 moment, struck the earth with a thunderbolt, and caused il 
 to open and swallow him with his horses, Thoas and Dias, 
 his chariot, and his charioteer, Baton. Jupiter and Apollo, it 
 is said in the Odyssey (xv. 245), loved Amphiaraus dearly; 
 yet he did not reach an old age, but fell at Thebes, through 
 the gift accepted by his wife. After death he continued, 
 as a deified hero, to exercise his prophetic power by giving 
 oracles on the spot where he had sunk into the earth. In 
 earlier times this was believed to have happened at Harma, 
 on the way from Thebes to Potniae, and it was there that 
 the oracle of Amphiaraus was which Croesus and Mar- 
 doniu3 consulted {Herodotus, L 49, 52; viii. 134). After- 
 wards this oracle yielded to that in the neighbourhood 
 of Oropus, where was also a sanctuary to Amphiaraus 
 (Jupiter Amphiaraus, as he was styled), with athletic auJ
 
 750 
 
 A M P — A i\I P 
 
 musical festivals in Lis honour, and with a sacred enclosure 
 (temenos) in which were two springs. At one of them he 
 was thought to have risen from the lower world, and hence 
 its water was employed for no sacred purpose. Invalids 
 who had been cured by oracular prescriptions threw a piece 
 of money in it The water of the other spring was ex- 
 cellent to drink and to bathe in ('A/i<£ ( apdou kovrpd). The 
 oracle3 were conveyed in dreams, to obtain which it was 
 
 necessary to fast for a tim,e, then to offer sacrifice at th6 
 great altar (Pausanias, L 31, 2), and again to sacrifice a 
 ram and to sleep on its skin. The ruins of the temple, 
 with inscriptions which identify them as such, exist still 
 at Maurodilissi, in the ancient Oropia. In the derivation 
 of his name from u/«£i-d/jao/*ai, the piety for which Am phi- 
 araus was celebrated is expressed. (a. S. m.) 
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 LINN7EUS originally employed this term to denote a 
 class of the Animal Kingdom comprising crocodiles, 
 lizards and salamanders, snakes and Cceciliae, tortoises 
 and turtles, and frogs ; to which, in the later editions of 
 the Sifstema Ndtura:, he added some groups of fishes. In 
 Oia Tableau Elimenlaire, published in 1795, Cuvier 
 I Linnrcus's term in its earlier sense, but uses the 
 French word " Reptiles," already brought into use by 
 Brisson, as the equivalent of Amphibia. In addition, 
 Cuvier accepts the Linnsean subdivisions of Amphibia- 
 Reptilia for the tortoises, lizards (including crocodiles), 
 salamanders, and frogs; and Amphibia-Serpentes for the 
 snakes, apodal lizards, and C&cilia:. 
 
 In 1799 l Brongniart pointed out the wide differences 
 which separate the frogs and salamanders (which he terms 
 Batrachia) from the other reptiles; and in 1804, Latreille, 2 
 rightly estimating the value of these differences, though he 
 »U3 not an original worker in the field of vertebrate 
 zoology, proposed to separate Brongniart's Batrachia from 
 the class of Reptilia proper, as a group of equal value, for 
 which he retained the Linnaean name of Amphibia. 
 
 Cuvier went no further than Brongniart, and, in the 
 Rerjne Animal, he dropped the term Amphibia, and substi- 
 tuted Reptilia for it. Meckel, 8 on the other hand, while 
 equally accepting Brongniart's classification, retained the 
 term Amphibia in its earlier Linnsean sense ; and his 
 example has been generally followed by German writers ; 
 as, for instance, by Stannius, in that remarkable monument 
 of accurate and extensive research, the Sandbuch der 
 Zootomie (Zweite Aufiage, 1856). 
 
 In 181 6, De BlainviUe,' adopting Latreille's view, divided 
 the Linnsean Amphibia into SquamifSres and Nudipeiliferes, 
 or Amphibiens ; though he offered an alternative arrange- 
 ment, in which the class Reptiles is preserved and divided 
 into two sub-classes, the Ornithoidcs and the Ichthyoides. 
 The latter are Brongniart's Batrachia, plus the Cacili&, 
 whose true affinities had, in the meanwhile, been shown 
 by Dumeril ; and, in this arrangement, the name Amphibiens 
 i3 restricted to Proteus and Siren. 
 
 Merrem's Pholidota and Batrachia (1820), Leuckart's 
 Monopnoa and Dipnoa (1821), Miiller's Squamata and 
 Nuda (1832), are merely new names for De Blainville's 
 Ornitltoides and Ichthyoides, though Muller gave far better 
 anatomical characters of the two groups than had pre- 
 viously been put forward. Moreover, following the indica- 
 tions already given by Von Bar in 1828,* Muller calls 
 the attention of naturalists to the important fact, that 
 while all the Squamata possess an amnion and an allantois, 
 these structures axe absent in the embryos of all the Nuda. 
 
 1 Brongniart's "Esmi d'nne Classification Natnrci^ des Reptiles" 
 wa» not published in full till 1803. It appears in the vJnmij of the 
 Mhnoires presenile d Clnstilut par divers Savans for 1806. 
 
 * Jfouveau Dictiemnaire d'JIistoire Nalurelle, xxiv., cited in La- 
 treille's Families Naturtlla du lilgne AnimaL 
 
 System der Vergkichtrulen Analomie, 1821. 
 
 * " Prodrome d'nne Nouvelle Distribution dn Regno Animal." 
 Bulletin da Sciences var la SocilU Philomati^ue de Paris, 1816, 
 n IKj. 
 
 Hiltvulxlunjs-Qeschiehte der Thiers, ? OTI 
 
 Miillcr makes an appeal for observations on the develop- 
 ment of the Qcecilioe, and of those Amphibia whi h retain 
 gills or gill-clefts throughout life, which has unfortunately 
 yielded no fruits from that time to this. 
 
 In 1825, Latreille published a new classification of the 
 Vertebrata, 6 which are primarily divide ■ matherma, 
 
 containing the three classes of Mammifera, Monotremata, 
 and Aves ; and Ilmmacryma, also containing three classes 
 — Reptilia, Amphibia, and Pisces. This division of the 
 Vertebrata into hot and cold blooded is a curiously retro- 
 grade step, only intelligible when we reflect that the excel- 
 lent entomologist had no real comprehension of vertebrate 
 morphology ; but he makes some atonement for the blunder 
 by steadily upholding the class distinctness of the Amphibia. 
 In this he was followed by Dr J. E. Gray; but Dumeril and 
 Bibron in their great work, 7 and Dr Giinther in his Cata- 
 logue, in substance, adopt Brongniart's arrangement, the 
 Batrachia being simply one of the four orders of the class 
 Reptilia. Professor Huxley has adopted Latreille's view 
 of the distinctness of the Amphibia, as a class of the Verte- 
 brata, co-ordinate with the Mammalia, Aves, Reptilia, and 
 Pisces; and the same arrangement is accepted by Gegenbaur 
 and HaeckeL In the Hunterian lectures delivered at the 
 Royal College of Surgeons in 1863, Professor Huxley divided 
 the Vertebrata into Mammals, Sauroids, and Ichthyoids, the 
 latter division containing the Amphibia and Pisces. Sub 
 sequently he proposed the names of Sauropsida and Ichlhy- 
 opsida for the Sauroids and Ichthyoids respectively. It 
 is proper to mention, finally, that Professor Owen, in his 
 work on The Anatomy of Vertebrates, follows Latreille in 
 dividing the Vertebrata into Ilavmatotherma and Ilamia- 
 tocrya, aud adopts Leuckart's term of Dipnoa for the 
 Amphibia. 
 
 The Amphibia are distinguished from the Sauropsida 
 and Mammalia by very important and sharply-defined 
 characters. The visceral arches of the embryo develop 
 gills, which temporarily, or permanently, perform the 
 ratory function. There is no trace of an amnion, and it is 
 still a question whether the urinary bladder, which all Am- 
 phibia ■possess, answers to the allantois of the higher Verte- 
 brata or not. At any rate, it plays no part in the respira- 
 tion of the embryo, nor is it an organ by which nutriment 
 Lined from the parent. There are two occipital 
 [as, and the basi-occipital region of the skull is either 
 very incompletely, or not at all, ossified. There is no basi- 
 sphenoidal ossification. 'When young, the Amphibia are 
 provided with, at fewest, three, and usually four, cartilagin- 
 ous, or more or less ossified, branchial arches. Prom 
 Pisces, "on the other hand, they are distinguishable only by 
 the characters of their locomotive apparatus. When they 
 possess median fins and limbs, these never present fin- 
 rays ; and the limbs exhibit, in full development, the typo 
 of structure ■which obtains among the Sirniropsida and 
 Mammalia, and differ very widely from the fins of any 
 fish at present known. This difference obtains even among 
 
 * Families Naturelles du Rerrnc Animal. 
 
 7 BrpUolu'jie Otncrale. on llutoire Naturelle aimpUle des Reptile*. 
 1836.
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 '51 
 
 the long extinct Amphibia of the Carboniferous epoch. In 
 other respects, the lower Amphibia approach the Chimcerae, 
 the Ganoidei, and the Dipnoi very closely ; while, in their 
 development, they present 'curious approximations to the 
 Marsipobranchii. 
 
 With respect to the primary subdivisions, or orders, of 
 the class Amphibia, no one can doubt the propriety of the 
 separation of the recent forms into what may be broadly 
 ♦ termed Newts (Urodela) ; Frogs and Toads (Anura); and 
 Concilia (Peromela) effected by Dumeril ; while all that is 
 known of the organisation of the extinct Amphibia of the 
 newer Palasozoic, and older Mesozoic, formations, tends to 
 show that they form a fourth natural assemblage of equal 
 value to each of the others. 
 
 The names of Urodela and Anura, given to the first two 
 ■of these divisions, are undoubtedly open to criticism ; but 
 if well-understood terms, which have acquired a definite 
 scientific connotation, are to be changed whenever ad- 
 vancing knowledge renders them etymologically inappro- 
 priate, the nomenclature of taxonomy will before long 
 become hopelessly burdened; and, to set a good example, 
 the names of Urodela, Anura, Peromela, and Labyrintho- 
 donta are adopted here for the four orders of the Amphibia, 
 even although it be true that the Labyrinthodonta do 
 not all possess the dental structure on which the name 
 "was founded; though there is reason to believe that some 
 Labyrinthodonts were devoid of limbs, or peromelous ; that 
 the Anura are not more tail-less than are the Peromela; 
 and that the tails of the Urodela are not more conspicuous 
 than were those of the Labyrinthodonts. 
 
 The Ueodela are Amphibia with elongated bodies and 
 relatively ijhort limbs, devoid of scales or pectoral plates, 
 with numerous prae-caudal vertebra;, and with amphiccelous, 
 or opisthoccelous, vertebral centra. The byoidean arch re- 
 mains connected with the suspensorium throughout life, 
 and its cornua are large in proportion to its body. The 
 mandible is dentigerous. There are one or two pairs of 
 limbs, the pectoral arch and limbs being always present. 
 The manus never possesses more than four digits. The 
 bones of the antebrachium and of the eras remain distinct, 
 and the tarsus is not elongated. So far as the spermatozoa 
 are known, they are elongated filaments with a vibratile 
 fringe. The larva develops external gills only ; and, except 
 Siren, none are known to possess, at any time, a horny 
 masticatory apparatus. 1 
 
 The Anura have relatively short and broad bodies, and 
 both pairs of limbs are constantly present, the hinder 
 being the longer and stronger. There are no scales, nor 
 pectoral plates, but ossification sometimes occurs in the 
 dorsal integument. The vertebra! vary in character, but 
 are usually proccelous. The proa-sacral vertebra; never 
 exceed nine in number, and the caudal portion of the verte- 
 bral column is represented by a peculiar styliform coccyx. 
 The hyoidean arch detaches itself from the suspensorium, 
 and almost always becomes connected with the pro-otic 
 region of the skull. The cornua are usually slender, as 
 compared with the broad body of the hyoid. The mandible 
 is almost always devoid of teeth. The bones of the ante- 
 brachium and of the crus early ankylose, and the astragalus 
 and calcaneum are much elongated. The manus has a 
 rudimentary fifth digit. Except in Bombinator, the sperma- 
 tozoa have flagelliform appendages, like those of ordinary 
 Yertebrata. The larva; develop first external, and after- 
 wards internal, gills, and, so far as is known at present, are 
 provided with deciduous horny masticatory plates. The gill 
 
 1 This circumstance appears to have been remarked only by Muiler. 
 Speaking of tho larva; of the Salamanders, he says—" Sie haben nicht 
 den Hornschuabel der Froscblarven." — (Bcilrag zur Anat. der Amphi- 
 Wen, p. 209.) Dumeril and Bibron affirm the contrary top. cit.,t. ix. 
 p. 10). 
 
 apertures are closed by the growing over them of an oper- 
 cular membrane. 
 
 The Peromela have snake-like bodies, totally devoid of 
 limbs and limb arches. In most, the integument is pro- 
 vided with transverse rows of imbedded cycloid scales, but 
 there are no pectoral plates. The vertebra; of the trunk 
 are very numerous, and are amphiccelous; those of the 
 caudal region are very few, and are free. The hyoidean 
 arch is attached neither to the suspensorium, nor b 
 skull; its cornua are veiy slender, and no distinct body 
 is developed; it is followed by several slender, hoop- 
 like, branchial arches. The mandible is dentigerous. 
 Nothing is known of the early stages of development; but 
 Muiler discovered branchial clefts, with rudimentary bran- 
 chial filaments, in young Cacilice. 
 
 The Labyrinthodonta for the most part resembled the 
 Urodela in the proportions of the tail and limbs to the 
 body, but some (as Ophiderpeton) were serpen tiform, and 
 apparently apodal ; no raniform Labyrinthodonts have yet 
 been discovered. The vertebra; are amphiccelous. The 
 mandible is dentigerous. The bones of the antebrachium 
 and eras remain distinct, and the tarsus is not elongated. 
 The manus and pes appear to have been pentadactyle. 
 Three sculptured pectoral plates and a peculiar dermal 
 armour of small scales, confined to the ventral face of tho 
 body, are present in many genera. Nothing is known of 
 the early stages of development, but the youngArchrgosauria 
 appear to have possessed ossified branchial arches. 
 
 In giving a sketch of the organisation of the Amphibia, 
 it will be necessary to enter much more fully into tho 
 characters of the skeleton than into those of the other 
 systems of organs. 
 
 The Vertebral Column, Ribs, and Sternum. — Leaving tho 
 extinct Archegosauria aside for the present, all the Amphibia 
 possess well-ossified vertebra;, the arches of which, in the 
 adult condition (except, perhaps, in some Labyrinthodonts), 
 are not separated by a neuro-central suture from the 
 centra. The latter may be amphiccelous, as in the lower 
 Urodela, the Peromela, and the Labyrinthodonta; or opis- 
 thocoelous, as in the higher Urodela and some Anura (e.g., 
 Pipa and Bombinator) ; or proccelous, as in the majority 
 of the Anura (with the exception of the eighth vertebra, 
 which is usually amphiccelous ; and of the ninth, which 
 commonly has one convexity in front and two behind). 
 In all the recent forms which have been examined, the 
 centra and intervertebral masses contain more or less dis- 
 tinct remains of the notochord. The arches of the trunk 
 vertebra; are connected by zygnpophyses ; the spinous pro- 
 cesses are usually low, but attain a great relative length in 
 the caudal region of some of the Labyrinthodonts (e.g. 
 Urocordylus). Transverse processes are present in all the 
 trunk vertebra;, except the atlas; they are shortest in '.La 
 Peromela, longest in the Anura. In most Urodela, these 
 transverse processes, at any rate in the anterior trunk ver- 
 tebrae, are divided into two portions, a dorsal and a ventral, 
 which diverge towards their free ends ; or, more strictly 
 speaking, these processes are made up of two subequal trans- 
 verse processes, a dorsal "tubercular" process, and a ventral 
 "capitular " process. Sometimes this division prevai Is throu g b • 
 out the whole length of the trunk, but, more commonly, the 
 two transverse processes become fused into one, posteriorly. 
 
 In tho long-bodied Urodela (Siren, Proteus, Amphiuma), 
 only a small' number of the vertebra; which succeed the 
 atlas present traces of double transverse processes ; further 
 back, the coalesced transverse processes form trihedral pro- 
 jections, their dorsal and ventral contours converging 
 instead of diverging, and giving a very characteristic aspect, 
 to these vertebrae
 
 752 
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 In fome Labyrinthodonts, the capitular and tubercular 
 processes, divergent and subequal in some (probably the 
 anterior) vertebrae, coalesce into one in other vertebras ; 
 and the capitular division being shorter than the tubercular, 
 transverse processes, like those of the middle thoracic region 
 of the crocodiles, are thus produced. 
 
 In the Peromela, there is a short capitular process, but 
 the tubercular process is represented by a mere facet 
 placed below the prezygapophysia 
 
 In the Anura, finally, the vertebrae have oniy a singlo 
 transverse process' (possibly representing the coalesced 
 double transverse processes of the posterior trunk vertebra 
 of such Urodela as Menopoma), which, in some of the 
 vertebras, may attain a great length. 
 
 B Lbs are present in a few Anura, in all Urodela, Peromela, 
 and Lahyrinthodonta; and, in the last-named and some Uro- 
 dela, they attain as great relative dimensions as in other 
 Yertebrata. But they are always vertebral ribs, no Amphibian 
 being known to possess more than rudiments of sternal ribs. 
 The atlas is never provided with ribs. In the Peromela, ribs 
 are borne by all the other vertebra, except the very hind- 
 most. In the long-bodied Urodela, on the other hand, they 
 are restricted to a few ot the anterior vertebrae. In tho 
 other Urodela they are usually confined to tho pra-sacral 
 and sacral vertebras ; but, in some cases, one or two of the 
 anterior caudal vertebra have free ribs. The form of the 
 proximal end of the rib corresponds with that of the 
 transverse processes or process. Where thi3 is double, 
 the rib presents a fork, formed by the capiluluni and 
 tuberculum ; and when the capitular and tubercular trans- 
 verse processes are of equal length, the capitula and tuber- 
 cula of the ribs are equal ; but when cither of the former 
 is shorter than the other, the corresponding part of the 
 rib is longer. The Peromela have no sternum, and that 
 of the Lahyrinthodonta (if they possessed any) is un- 
 known. In the Urodela, tho sternum never ossifies, and 
 there is no trace of even a cartilaginous sternum in Proteus. 
 In Menobranchus, there is a very small cartilaginous sternal 
 plate, which sends Literal prolongations into two of the inter- 
 muscular ligaments, representing rudimentary sternal ribs. 
 In the Newts 1 tho sternum becomes a broad and stout 
 plate of cartilage, with a median, posterior, cristate, xiphoid 
 process, and with articular surfaces on its antero-lateral 
 margins for the reception of the coracoids. The sternum 
 attains its highest development in the ranifonn Anura, the 
 xiphoid process becoming elongated and dilated at its ex- 
 tremity, and more or less converted into bone, while calci- 
 fication of the body of the sternum itself may also occur. 
 
 f\a 1.— The first two rcrtebrB of Mmopama /x ^Y W, atlas; FT', second 
 Yertebra ; o. Intercondylold process of tho atlas ; Mbe artlcnltx surfaces for tho 
 ocop.tal condyles. The ribs of the second vertebra are not represented. A. 
 dorsal ; B, Teritr«l ; C, Initial rievr. 
 
 1 3» Parker On the Shoulder Girdle, pp. 63. 68. 
 
 In tho Urodela, the first vertebra always presents two 
 slightly concave articular facets, the faces of which look 
 outwards and forwards to adapt themselves to the occipital 
 condyles. Between these facets, the dorsal moiety of the 
 anterior face of the centrum gives rise to a process, which 
 is little more than a ridge in Proteus, but in other genera 
 becomes very prominent, and has a curious resemblance to 
 the odontoid process of tho axis vertebra of a bird. This 
 "intcrcondyloid" process of the atlas sometimes (Amphiuma, 
 e.g.) exhibits on each side, near its termination, an articular 
 facet, which plays on a corresponding facet of the adjacent 
 face of the occipital condyle. 
 
 Mayer (Analecten, p. 10) -was misled by the form of this 
 process into the supposition that the vertebra to which it 
 belongs is not the atlas, but the odontoid, vertebra. But 
 there is a similar process of the first vertebra in the Kays, 
 and the relations of the vertebra to the nerve3 show that 
 it is certainly not the homologue of the axis vertebra of 
 other Vertebrates. The first spina) nerve, which has tho 
 distribution of the hypo-glossal of the higher Yertebrata, 
 passes out of the spinal canal, either between tho first and 
 second vertebrae, or through a foramen in the arch of the 
 first, in the Amphibia, which have no proper suboccipital 
 nerve. This is a very curious circumstance, and requires 
 elucidation by the study of development. 
 
 In the Anura, the atlas has the same general form, but 
 the median process is either inconspicuous, a3 in Rana 
 esculenta, or may be absent, 0> 
 
 Among the Labyrintliodonta, the atlas of Mastodonsaurus 
 only is known. It presents two concave facets anteriorly, 
 separated for about half their length by a notch, which 
 probably lodged a ligament. 
 
 The atlas of the Peromela has the two characteristic 
 facets for the occipital condyles, but the intercondyloid 
 process is absent, and the anterior margin of the arch of 
 the vertebra projects forwards towards tho corresponding 
 margin of the occipital foramen {Epicrium). 
 
 In those ITrotWa whicly>ossess posterior limbs (except Pro 
 tens and Amphiuma), one vertebra, or sometimes two \Meno- 
 poma),axe distinguished 
 from the rest as "sacral" 
 by having stouter ribs, 
 the outer ends of winch sb 
 abut against, and are 
 united by ligaments 
 with, the ilia. 
 
 The Anura always 
 possess a sacral verte- 
 bra (sometimes anky- 
 losed with its predeces- 
 sor or successor), the 
 transverse processes of 
 which are often en- 
 Jarged, and sometimes 
 greatly expanded, at 
 their iliac' ends. The 
 characters of the sa- 
 crum of the Lahyrintho- 
 donta are not known. 
 
 In the Urodela, the 
 anterior caudal verte- 
 brae, except the first, 
 have inferior arches, 
 which, like the neural 
 arches, are continuously ossified with the centra ; and the 
 same condition obtained in the caudal vertebrae of the 
 Labyrinthodonts. 
 
 In the Anura, the caudal vertebrae are replaced by a 
 
 long coccyx, consisting of an osseous Gtyle, to the dorsal 
 
 I aspect of the anterior end of which two neural arches aro 
 
 s.v.. 
 
 ^fe 
 
 Sfi" 
 
 Fin. 2.— Menopoma. Posterior (A) una" Tentrnl 
 (B) views of the sacral vertebra (S.F.); &A 1 , 
 8.K*, ucral ribs; 11. Ilium; It. Ischium.
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 753 
 
 s.v 
 
 A caudal vertebra of ifenopoma. W, neural 
 arch; C, centrum; Z, Z x , prse- and post-zygapo- 
 physes; T.p. transverse process; S.V, sub-verte- 
 bral arch. A, lateral; B, posterior view. 
 
 an&ylosed. The anterior face of the style usually presents 
 two concavities (one in Bombinator and some other genera), 
 which articulate with the corresponding convexities on the 
 posterior face of the « n 
 
 centrum of the sa'- 
 cral vertebra. The 
 number of the verte- 
 brae in the spinal 
 column of the Uro- 
 dela and Peromela 
 varies very much. 
 In the long-bodied 
 Urodela and Pero- F ">- 8 . 
 mela they may be 
 very numerous. 
 According to Cuvier, Ccscilia has 230; Siren, 99; Amphi- 
 uma, 75 ; in Mendbranchus there are 18 prse-sacral and 25 
 caudal; in Sa.lamand.ra, 15 and 26; and a similar varia- 
 tion appears to have obtained in the Labyrinthodonts. On 
 the other hand, in the Anura the number of vertebrae (ex- 
 cluding the coccyx) is very constantly nine ; though this 
 number undergoes an apparent reduction, in some cases, 
 by the ankylosis of the first and second vertebrae (Cera- 
 loplirys dorsata, Pipa, Dactylethra, Breviceps), and in others 
 by that of the sacral vertebra with the coccyx (Pipa, 
 Dactylethra, Breviceps, Pelobales). 
 
 In the carboniferous Labyrinthodont, A vchegosaurus, the 
 notochord appears to have persisted throughout life, and 
 the ossification of the centra of the vertebrae to have gone 
 no further than the development of bony rings, such as 
 those with which the ossification of the centra of the verte- 
 brae of a tadDole commences. 
 
 The Cranium. — The skull is always very depressed, 
 and is'usually broad in proportion to its length, though, in 
 this respect, there is considerable variation, the skulls of 
 Proteus, Menobranchus, and Amphiuma being narrow, when 
 compared with those of Siredon, Menopoma, and the Anura. 
 The occipital foramen is situated in the middle of the 
 posterior face of the cranium, and there are always two 
 nccipital condyles. The long axis of the suspensorium, or 
 pedicle by which the mandible is connected with the side- 
 walls of the brain-case, varies much in its direction — 
 passing obliquely downwards and forwards in the lower 
 Amphibia and in the larval condition of all, but swinging 
 back until it stands out at right angles to the axis of the 
 skull, or becomes directed downwards and backwards, in 
 ihe higher Amphibia. The suspensorium is almost immov- 
 able upon the skull, being clamped thereto by the squa- 
 mosal bone, besides being, as a general rule, united with 
 some part of the wall of the skull by synchondrosis. 
 The " primordial skull," or chcndro-cranium, usually 
 remains, to a great extent, unossified, even in the adult. 
 In the Urodela, the hyoidean arch is always connected by 
 strong ligaments with the suspensorium; but, in the Anura 
 iiid in the Peromela, it becorres completely detached from 
 the suspensorium, and may be free (Peromela), or acquire a 
 new attachment, to the periotic region of the skull in front 
 jf the fenestra ovalis (Anura). 
 
 The bones which are always present in the Amphibian 
 skull are the exoccipital, pro-otic, parasphenoid, vomer, 
 parietal, frontal, squamosal, premaxillary, palatine, quad- 
 rate, dentary, splenial, and angular. The basi-occipital 
 and the basisphenoid are always absent, or are repre- 
 sented by mere partial calcifications of the chondro- 
 cranium. There is always a fenestra ovalis closed by a 
 stapes. The branchial arches do not exceed four pairs in 
 number, and, in the perennibranchiate Amphibia, there are 
 never fewer than three pairs. 
 
 The skull of the Frog ('Figs. 4-7), as the most accessible 
 
 member of the group, and that, the development of wnicn 
 has been most carefully studied, may be taken a3 the 
 starting-point from whence to follow the various modifica- 
 tions of the AmDhibian skull At the sides of the occifi- 
 tal foramei., 
 it presents two 
 large exoccipi- 
 tal ossifica- 
 tion's (E. 0.), 
 which bear the 
 prominent oc- 
 cipital con 
 dyles, and, in 
 old specimens, 
 may meet in 
 the middle 
 ventral line. 
 Dorsally, how 
 ever, they re- 
 cain sepa- 
 rated by a 
 narrow tract 
 of cartilage, 
 which may be- 
 come more or 
 less calcified. 
 External to 
 the condyles, 
 are the fora- 
 niina,by which 
 the vagus and 
 glosso-pharyn- 
 geal nerves 
 emerge from 
 the cranial 
 cavity; and, 
 beyond, these, 
 the bones ex- 
 pand outwards 
 and forwards, 
 so as to em- 
 brace the pos- 
 terior half of 
 the fenestra 
 ovalis, while 
 above, they 
 enclose the 
 greater part of 
 the posterior 
 vertical semi- 
 circular canaL 
 The cartilage 
 which incloses 
 the summit of Fi«, 7. "•" 
 
 the arch Of f|05 4 5 6 7.— Dorsal, ventral, lateral, and posterior view-. 
 
 that Canal, of the skull of Rana ticultnla. Tho letters have the sama 
 signification throughout. P/nj.prcma=llla; J/r.nnxilla; 
 Co. vomer; A'a, nasal; Sj. sphen-cthnioid ; Ft. frontal; 
 Pa. parietal; E o. exoccipital; Ep. cpiotic process; Fr.O 
 pro-otic; t.t. legmen tympanl; So. squamosal ; QJ. n,nad- 
 rato-jugal; Pt. 1 pterygoid, anterior process; PI. 2 Il 
 process: Pt. 3 posterior or external process; Co. columella 
 St. stapes Ily. hyoidean cornu; P.S. parasphenoid; 
 ^tn. ungulate; D. dentalc V. for.imcn of exit of the tric- 
 minal; II. of tho optic; X. of the pncumoga*1rie and 
 glntso-pliaiyngetl ncr\i . : V.' Lumen by which tho 
 oibito-ia-oi or first division of the Mm passes to tho 
 nasal cavity 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 however, ap- 
 pears always 
 to remain un- 
 ossified, and 
 its place is oc- 
 cupied by a 
 groove in the 
 dry skull (Fig. 
 
 4, Ep.) These ossifications, tnerefore, answer primarily 
 to the exoccipitals, but, in addition, represent tho 
 opisthotic and epiotic elements. Above the fenestra 
 ovalis, the wall of the otic capsule is produced out- 
 wards into a stout shelf, which forms the roof of the 
 tympanic cavity, and corresponds with the tegmen tymr
 
 754 
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 pani in man (t.t.) This is largely ossified in continuity 
 with the exoccipital 1 posteriorly, and the pro-otic (to 
 which in all probability it properly belongs) in front. 
 The outer extremity of the tegmen, however, remains car- 
 tilaginous, and, in front, it passes into a curved band 
 of cartilage, which, as it is continued backwards into the 
 euspensorium, may be termed the " dorsal crus" of the 
 puspensorium (Fig. 9, c.d.) The T-shaped squamosal bone 
 (Sq.) sends a broad, flat process inwards, which rests upon 
 the teamen tympani, while its long descending process lies 
 external to the cartilaginous Euspensorium, and the pos- 
 terior half of its cross-piece, or proper squamoso-zygomatic 
 part, has the same relation to the dorsal crus of the suspen- 
 sorium. The suspensorium has a second attachment to 
 the skull, by a "ventral crus" (Fig. 9, c.v.), which diverges 
 from the dorsal crus at the anterior extremity of the sus- 
 pensorium, and is continued into two branches. One of 
 these, passing outwards and forwards, becomes the ptery- 
 goid cartilage. The other (Fig. 9, pd.), directed backwards 
 and inwards, may bo termed the " pedicle of the suspen- 
 sorium ;" it becomes thickeneiat its inner extremity, and 
 articulates with a facet in front of the fenestra ovalis, and 
 close to the attachment of the hyoidean cornu. A thin 
 fibrous band extends from this inferior crus to the side 
 walls of the skull, passing between the first division of the 
 fifth nerve in front, and the second and third divisions 
 behind. The space between the dorsal crus of the suspen- 
 sorium and the pedicle is filled, in the fresh state, with 
 fibrous tissue, which constitutes the anterior boundary of 
 the tympanum. It is tra T . ersed (as Duges long sinco pointed 
 out) by the posterior division of the seventh nerve, which 
 therefore bes above the pedicle. The pro-otic ossification 
 (Pr. 0.) not only walls in the anterior part of the otic 
 capsule, but extends for a short distance forwards in the 
 side walls of the skulk Hence, the foramen of exit for 
 the trigeminal and portio dura (V.) is pierced in this por- 
 tion of the pro-otic; and the foramen for the sixth nerve 
 is b, *> at its lower margin. In front of the pro-otic, the 
 lateral walls of the skull remain cartilaginous for some 
 distance, and are perforated by the large optic foramen 
 (II.) Anteriorly to the exit of the optic nerves, the side 
 walls of the skull are formed by elongated plates of bone, 
 which are parts of an extensive ossification of the anterior 
 moiety of the brain-case and the posterior part of the nasal 
 capsules, constituting the complex structure termed by 
 Uuvier " os en ccinture," and by Duges " ethmoide." As 
 it takes the place of the ethmoid, presphenoid, and orbito- 
 sphenoids, it may be termed tne sphen-ethmoid (S.e.) It 
 may be compared to a dice-box, one-half of ■ \ich is 
 divided by a longitudinal partitioa Thi3 half is anterior, 
 the longitudinal partition being represented by the ossified 
 mesethmoid; while the posterior, undivided, half lodges 
 the anterior portion of the cerebral hemispheres and the 
 olfactory lobes. The front wall of this posterior cavity is 
 perforated by the olfactory foramina; while the outer and 
 posterior wall of each anterior, or nasal, chamber presents, 
 where it forms the anterior and inner boundary of the 
 orbit, a small aperture (V 1 ) through which the orbito-nasal 
 nerve passes. The exoccipitals, pro-otics, and sphen-ethmoid 
 are ossifications wbich involve the chondrocranium, 
 though they largely consist of secondary bone. The supra- 
 occipital is represented, if at all, by a mere calcification 
 of the cartilage, and the bke is true of the quadrate, which 
 is an ossification of the distal end of the suspensorium. 
 The quadrate, however, very early becomes continuous with 
 a slender style of membrane bone, the proper jugal, which 
 eppbes itself to the inner face of the posterior end of the 
 
 * Duges (p. 37) states that the pro-otic end the eioccipital always 
 remain distinct in Sana esculmla ; but it is common to find them 
 extensively onkyloscd nod inseparable in old frogs of this species. 
 
 maxilla, and thus gives rise to the quadrato-jugal (Q.J.) 
 Ligamentous fibres also connect the anterior cud of the 
 zygomatic process of the squamosal directly with the ptery- 
 goid, and indirectly with the maxilla and jugal, and pass 
 from the same process to .the frontoparietal bone, forming 
 a fascia over the levators of the mandible, and encircling 
 tho orbit A strong band is continued forwards, over tho 
 ascending process of the maxilla, to the alinasal cartilage 
 of the chondrocranium. 
 
 The short premaxillae (Pmx.) arc united suturally in tho 
 middle line, and have stout ascending processes, which 
 becomo closely connected with the "rhinal processes" by 
 means of oval nodules of cartilage adherent to their poste 
 rior surfaces. The long maxillae unite with the premaxilko 
 in front, and with the jugals behind: each sends up a short 
 anterior ascending process towards the alinasal cartilage, 
 with which it is united by ligament, 2 and further back, 
 givc3 off a longer ascending process which becomes con- 
 nected with the nasal bones. The palatine bones (PI.) are 
 straight, slender, and flattened. They be transversely 
 to the axis of the skull, behind the posterior nares, 
 closely applied to the ventral surface of the sphen-ethmoid 
 and of the antorbital processes of the chondrocranium. 
 Externally they come into contact with the pterygoids 
 and maxillae ; internally and anteriorly with the vomers. 
 Each pterygoid (Pi.) is a triradiate bone, with an anterior, 
 an inner, and a posterior, or outer, ray. The first, or 
 anterior, process of the pterygoid (Pt l ) is the longest, 
 and bes, for a considerable distance, in contact with the 
 maxilla, reaching forward to the outer extremity of the 
 palatine. The second (Pi-) underlies the pedicle of the 
 suspensorium, and come3 into contact with the end of th/ 
 transversely elongated, sub-auditory, portion of the para 
 sphenoid. The third, or posterior, process of the pterygoid 
 (PP) is prolonged, in correspondence with the backward 
 elongation of the suspensorium, along the inner side of 
 which it bes, as far as the articulation of the mandible. 
 
 The vomers ( Vo.) are broad triangular plates of bone, with 
 irregularly-notched outer edges, which are closely applied 
 to the ventral surface of the sphen-ethmoid. Their inner 
 edges are separated by a narrow interval, and each bears 
 numerous teeth, set along a line which is not quite trans- 
 verse to the axis" of the skull. On the dorsal aspect of tho 
 skull two elongated flattened bones, united in a median 
 suture, represent the coalesced frontal and parietals (/>., 
 Pa.), which are separate in the young frog. . In front of 
 these, also meeting in the middle line, are two triangular 
 bones, the apices of which extend outwards to the ascend- 
 ing processes of the maxillae, and which roof over the nasal 
 capsules (A T a.) These correspond in position and relations 
 with the nasal and so-caUed "prefrontal" bones of Saurop- 
 sida, and perhaps with the lachrymals : for brevity's sake, 
 they may be termed nasals. 
 
 The parasphenoid has the form of a dagger with a very 
 wide guard and short handle. The latter bes beneath the 
 ventral junction of the exoccipitals, while the blade extends 
 forwards, and its point underlies the posterior moiety of the 
 sphen-ethmoid, but does not reach tho vomers. The "guard" 
 passes outwards on each side beneath the auditory capsules, 
 and ends by an abruptly-truncated extremity, its anterior 
 and external angle coming into relation with the inner 
 process of the pterygoid. 
 
 The slender, permanently cartilaginous, hyoidean cornu 
 (Ily.) pesse3 into the cartilage of 'the auditory capsule on 
 the ventral side, between ike fenestra ovalis and the articu- 
 lar surface for the inferior cms of the suspensorium. Th I 
 fenestra ovalis bes in a cartilaginous interspace between 
 the exoccipital and the pro-otic, and is filled by the oval 
 
 * Tho small ossifications in this region, termed " cornets " bj Dugts, 
 were absent in the skull figured.
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 755 
 
 cartilaginous stapes (St.) The anterior face of this pre- 
 sents a concave facet, for articulation -frith a corresponding 
 surface occupying the posterior half of the inner end of 
 the columella auris (C. a.), the anterior half of which fits 
 into a fossa in the pro-otic bone. The columella auris 
 itself consists of three portions — a middle elongated osseous 
 rod, an inner swollen and enlarged cartilaginous part, which 
 articulates partly with the pro-otic and partly with the stapes, 
 and an outer portion, which is elongated at right angles 
 to the rest, fixed into the tympanic membrane, and attached 
 by its dorsal end to the tegmen tympani. 
 
 The mandiblo presents one cartilaginous and three 
 osseous constituents on each side. Of the latter, one, 
 the " Mento-Meckelian " (Parker), i3 a short curved rod of 
 bone, which unites with its fellow in the symphysis, and is, 
 in fact, the ossified symphysial end of Meckel's cartilage, 
 which extends thence through the length of the ramus, 
 becoming thicker posteriorly, and furnishing the articular 
 surface for the quadrate. The second, and largest, bony 
 constituent of the mandible is a long membrane bone, 
 which ensheaths the inner and under region of the outer 
 surface of Meckel's cartilage, rising at one part into a 
 low coronoid process. It obviously represents the angular, 
 coronary, and splenial elements, and may be termed the 
 angulo-splenial (An.) A small dentary element, which 
 bears no teeth, lies over the outer face of the anterior half 
 of Meckel's cartilage. 
 
 The hyoidean apparatus of the adult frog (Fig. 8) pre- 
 sentsm body and two slender cornua. The body consists of 
 a broad and thin squarish plate of 
 cartilage, produced on each side into 
 three processes, which may be called 
 anterior, lateral, and posterior. The 
 anterior process (a) is slender, curves 
 outwards, and very soon divides in- 
 to two processes, one short, anterior, 
 farming a loop by its ligamentary 
 connection with the second, or pos- 
 terior, branch, which passes into 
 the long and slender cornu of the 
 hyoid. The lateral process (b) passes y l0 . s._ ventral view of tne 
 outwards and slightly dorsad— ex- hyoid of yj.m, ««/«««. «, 
 
 o~ J anterior, 6 lateral, c, pos- 
 
 panding into a broad, hatchet-shaped terior processus; 4 tnyro- 
 free extremity. The posterior pro- . 
 cess (c) is a mere prolongation of the postero-lateral angles 
 of the body of the hyoid. Finally, from the middle of the 
 posterior margin of the body of the hyoid there projeet 
 two strong bony rods, wider at the ends than in the 
 middle, which embrace the larynx, and have been termed 
 the thyro-hyals (d). 
 
 The parieto-frontals, nasals, premaxilloe, maxillae, squa- 
 mosals, palatines, pterygoids, and parasphenoid, the dentary 
 aad angulo-opercular bones, may be removed from the frog's 
 skull without injury to the chondrocranium, the structure 
 of which then becomes apparent (Fig. 9). 
 
 It furnishes a floor, side walls,- and roof to the brain 
 •case, interrupted only by a large space (fontanelle), covered 
 in by membrane, which lies in the interorbital region under 
 the parieto-frontals ; and by the foramina for the exit of the 
 cranial nerves. It consists entirely of cartilage, except 
 where the exoccipitals, the pro-otics, and the sphen-eth- 
 moid invade fts substance. In front of the septum of the 
 anterior cavity of the sphen-ethmoid, it is continued for- 
 ward, between the two nasal sacs, as the cartilaginous 
 septum narium, from which are given off, dorsally and ven- 
 t rally, transverse alee of cartilage, which furnish a roof and 
 a floor, respectively, to the nasal chamber. Of these, the 
 floor is the wider. The dorsal and ventral aloe pass into 
 one another where the chondrocranium ends anteriorly, 
 and give rise to a truncated terminal face, which is wide 
 
 from side to side, narrow from above downwards, and 
 convex in the latter direction.- The lateral angles of this 
 truncated face are produced outwards and forwards into 
 two flattened prae-nasal processes {p. nl.); these widen ex- 
 ternally, and end 
 
 " -\ % -* 
 
 .CA 
 
 CLu.Ji 
 
 77.0. Qit-J. 
 
 Fio. 9. — Chondrocranium of Rana esmUnta — vcntvsl 
 aspect, r.p. the 1 hioal process; pnl. the prjenasai pro- 
 cesses; a.n. the alinasal processes, shown by the removal 
 of part of the floor of-the left nasal chamber; AO. the 
 antorbital process ; pd. the pedicle of the suspense ism 
 continued Into c.v. the ventral cms of the suspaa* 
 solium ; e.d. its dorsal crus; It. the tcgroen tymjanl; 
 S.E. the sphen-ethmoid; £.0. the exoccipitals; QuJ. the 
 quadratojugal. II. V. VI. foramina by which the optic, 
 t tgeminal and portio dura, and ubducens nerves leave 
 the skull. 
 
 by free edges, 
 which support 
 the adjacent por- 
 tions cf the pre- 
 maxillae and 
 maxillae. From 
 the ventral face, 
 just behind the 
 truncated ante- 
 rior end of the 
 chondrocranium, 
 spring two slen- 
 der cartilages 
 (r.p., r.p.), which 
 do not seem to 
 have been no- 
 ticed hitherto. 
 Each of these 
 inclines towards 
 the middle line, 
 and ends against 
 the middle of the posterior face of the ascending process 
 of the premaxilla by a vertically elongated extremity. 
 These may be termed the rkinal processes. An oval 
 nodule of cartilage is attached to the posterior face of 
 the dorsal end of the ascending process of the premaxilla, 
 and serves to connect it with the rhiial process. On the 
 dorsal face of the chondrocranium, just above the point of 
 attachment of the rhinal processes, the external nasal aper- 
 tures are situated, and the outer and posterior margins of 
 each of these apertures is surrounded and supported by a 
 curious curved process of the cartilaginous ala — the 
 alinasal process (a.n.) TVbere the sphenoidal and the 
 ethmoidal portions of the sphen-ethmoid meet, a stout, trans- 
 verse, partly osseous and partly cartilaginous, bar (A.O.) 
 is given off, which is perforated, at its origin, by the canal 
 for the orbito-nasal nerve. It then narrows, but becoming 
 flattened from above downwards, rapidly widens again, 
 and its axe-head-like extremity abuts against the inner face 
 of the maxilla. The anterior angle of the axe-head is free; 
 theposterior angle is continued back into a slender cartilagin- 
 ous rod, w hie h bifurcates posteriorly ; the outer division passes 
 into the ventral eras (c.v.) of the suspensorium. The inner 
 (pd.) is the pedicle of the suspensorium already described. 
 
 Meckel's cartilage, articulated to the free end of the 
 suspensorium, is unossified throughout the greater part of 
 its extent, no osseous articulare being developed ; but, at its 
 symphysial end, each cartilage becomes ossified, and forms 
 the "mento-Meckelian" element of the mandible. 
 
 The slender cornu of the hyoid passes directly into the 
 periotic cartilage immediately in front of, though below, the 
 fenestra ovalis. It is unossified throughout its whole length.' 
 
 With many variations in detail, the skulls of the Anura 
 in general are readily reduciblo to the type of that of the) 
 frog. In the Aglossa, which differ so widely in many 
 respects from the other Anura, the cranium presents some 
 notable peculiarities. 
 
 In Dactylethra- the skull is similar to that of the ordi- 
 nary Anura in general form, but the nasal region is small 
 in proportion to the orbito-temporal space. The fronto- 
 parietals are ankylosed together, and extend forwards as 
 far as a line drawn along the anterior edge of the antorbital 
 
 1 Compare Mr Parker's full account of the structure of the^kull ol 
 Rana Umporaria, Philosophical Transactions, 1S71. 
 ' This description applies especiJly to D. lavis-
 
 756 
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 processes. Here they overlap a very singular bone, consist- 
 ing of two broad al«, which lie between the anterior edge of 
 the frontal and the external nares, and of a median portion 
 which is continued forwards, as a narrow, flat, curved process, 
 between the nasal chambers, being received into a sort of 
 groove of the chondrocranium. The bone is readily raised 
 up from the subjacent chondrocranium, of which it appears 
 to be quite independent At the outer end of each of its 
 alae, and between the antorbital process and the nasal 
 capsule, is a small, transversely elongated, slender bone, 
 loosely connected by fibrous tissue with the foregoing. 
 The ethmoid is completely cartilaginous. The paraspheu- 
 oid has the ordinary sword shape, except that the " guard" 
 is extremely short; but its point extends along the base 
 of the skull, passing between the nasal sacs, underlying 
 their septum, and terminating close to the prcmaxllla:. 
 The vomers are represented by a transversely elongated 
 rhomboidal osseous plate, devoid of teeth, which lies be- 
 tween the two posterior nasal apertures, and therefore 
 much behind the anterior end of the parasphenoid. The 
 side walls of the cranial cavity are ossified from the antor- 
 bital process to the anterior boundary of the foramen for 
 the fifth nerve, just in front of which they are pierced 
 by the optic foramen. There is no palatine bone. The 
 pterygoid, in the main, resembles that of the ordinary 
 frogs ; but, in consequence of the shortness and little back- 
 ward extension of the suspensorium, the outer process 
 passes almost directly outwards, with hardly any back- 
 ward inclination. A bony plate, which extends backwards 
 from the posterior edge of the inner and outer branches 
 of the pterygoid, underlies the tympanic cavity and the audi- 
 tory capsule, and forms the floor of the Eustachian canaL 
 The squamosal is a short broad bone, with a long anterior 
 process, which becomes connected, by direct articulation, 
 with the pterygoid, and by ligament with the maxilla. The 
 premaxilla? are small, and the maxillae are connected merely 
 by ligaments with the suspensorium, there being no jugal. 
 The columella auris is remarkably strong, and is bent in 
 the middle, so that its two halves form an obtuse angle ; 
 the anterior half lies against the inner face of the tympanic 
 membrane. The posterior half runs parallel with the 
 posterior edge of the tegmen tympani, towards the fenestra 
 ovalis. Ligamentous fibres fix the columella firmly, though 
 movably, to. the superior margin of .the tympanic cavity, 
 where it is bounded by the squamosal. The stout car- 
 tilaginous hyoidean cornua are attached just beneath the 
 anterior and inferior part of the margin of the fenestra 
 ovalis. The body of the hyoid is very small, but the two 
 "thyro-hyals" are extremely long and broad cartilages. 
 There is no ossified " mento-Meckelian" element. 
 
 In Pipa, the skull is extraordinarily depressed and 
 broad. The nasal bones are wide, flat, triangular, and 
 quite distinct from one another, a forward prolongation of 
 the coalesced fronto-parietals extending between the two. 
 The parasphenoid, very broad in the greater part of its ex- 
 tent, and having the guard rudimentary, sends a narrow 
 median process forwards underneath the nasal septum, as 
 in Dactyletkra. No trace of a vomer or palatine bone, was 
 to be found in the specimen examined. The pterygoid is 
 very like that of Daclylcthra, but its inner branch is greatly 
 prolonged, and the floor sent under the Eustachian tube 
 unites much more closely with the produced exoccipitaL 
 The squamosal is very small, and the place of its zygomatic 
 process is taken by ligament. This ligament, however, 
 unites with the pterygoid in the same way as the bony 
 process which answers to it in Dactyletkra. The columella is 
 less massive than in Dactyletkra, and the end which abuts 
 against the tympanic membrane is imbedded in a disk of 
 cartilage. The occipital condyles look outwards and back- 
 wards, instead of inwards and backwards, as in Dactyletkra. 
 
 The hyoidean cornua are wanting, the thyro-hyals being 
 large, but not so large proportionally as in Dactyletkra. 
 
 The skulls of the Urodela present a very interesting 
 series of modifications, leading from a condition in which 
 the cranium retains, throughout life, a strongly-marked 
 embryonic character, up to a structure which closely ap- 
 proximates that found in the Anura. 
 
 In Menobranckus, for example, the chondrocranium o.f 
 the adult is in nearly the same state as that in which il 
 
 AO. 
 
 
 
 V-^ 
 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 Fiob. 10, 11, 12.— Lateral, dorsal, and ventral vfews of the cranium of iftno- 
 branchui lateralis. In the dorsal view, the bones are remored from the left 
 half of the eknll ; In the ventrtl view, the parasphenoid, paloto-ptcrygoid, and 
 tomen arc given in outline. The letters have, for the most part, tlie same 
 signification as before. VII. p. posterior division of the seventh nerve; VII. 
 chorda tympani; V>, V 1 , V*. flut, second, and third divisions of the tri- 
 geminal ; f.i.//atapcdio-5uspcnsoriai ligament; n.i./.hyo-suspensorial ligament; 
 m. ft. t. mandlbulo-hyold ligament ; a, ascending process of the susptnsorium ; 
 p, pterygopalatine process; a, quadrate process » o, otic process; h'a. posterior 
 nares; Ifek. Meckel's cartilage; 01. (Fig. 10), tbe position of tho glottis. £b\ 
 £b*, basi branch I ols. 
 
 exisU in a young taapoie or larval salamander (Figs. 10, 
 11,12).
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 757 
 
 Instead of there being a well-developed cartilaginous 
 brain-case, interrupted only by a dorsal fontanelle, as in 
 the frog, both the floor and roof of the cramal cavity are 
 formed by merely fibrous tissue, which underlies the 
 frontal and parietal bones, and overlies the parasphenoid ; 
 and only its sides and its anterior end are bounded by 
 cartilage. 
 
 The occipital region remains membranous in the middle 
 line, both dorsally and ventrally, and exhibits, in the latter 
 aspect, the remains of the notochord. The cartilaginous 
 rods (Tr.), which bound the cranial cavity laterally, and 
 represent the trabecules of the embryonic vertebrate skull, 
 ire separated by a .wide oval space, which occupies the 
 whole length of the floor of the cranial chamber. An- 
 teriorly, they converge, and, just before they do so, give 
 attachment to the slender antorbital processes (A. 0.) which 
 lie behind the posterior nares. They then unite, and, be- 
 coming applied together, coalesce into a flattened narrow 
 rnesethmoid, to the anterior extremity of which the pre- 
 maxillary bones are applied. They give off neither alinasal 
 nor subnasal processes, and therefore furnish neither roof 
 nsr floor to the nasal chamber. Posteriorly, they become 
 flattened from above downwards, and coalesce with the 
 auditory capsules, and with the cartilage which extends be- 
 neath these, and gives rise to the occipital condyles (E. 0.) 
 
 Each auditory capsule has a generally oval form, but is 
 produced posteriorly, so as to give rise to a conical epiotic 
 process (Ep. 0.), which projects beyond the level of the 
 occipital condyle. Fitted into the outer wall of each is 
 the relatively large, conical, stapes, whence strong ligament- 
 ous fibres proceed to the posterior face of the suspensorium. 
 
 Immediately' in front of the auditory capsule, the suspen- 
 sorium passes by a strong pedicle (shown, but not lettered 
 in Fig. 12) into the trabecida, and then, directed outwards, 
 downwards, and forwards, ends in the quadrate process 
 (q), with which the dorsal end of Meckel's cartilage arti- 
 culates. A large process (o) ascends from the posterior 
 face of the suspensorium, and applies itself to the outer 
 and anterior face of the auditory capsule. A small and 
 hardly perceptible elevation (p) is seen near the quadrate 
 process of the suspensorium. Finally, a flat process (a, 
 Fig. 11) ascends above the pedicle, and applies itself to the 
 dorsal face of the trabecula. 
 
 On comparing this with the suspensorium of the frog, 
 it is clear that the rudimentary process (p) answers to the 
 pterygoid cartilage; and that the process o (the otic process) 
 answers to the dorsal crus of the suspensorium. In fact, 
 tho posterior, or hyo-mandibular, branch of the seventh 
 nerve passes back beneath this, and above the stapedial 
 ligamert, to its distribution. 
 
 The pedicle answers to the part so named (including the 
 ventral crus of the suspensorium) in the frog, though it 
 retains the embryonic relations to the trabecula, such as 
 exnt in the tadpole. The ascending process (a) lies be- 
 tween the orbito-nasal and the other branches of the trige- 
 minal, the orbito-nasal passing between it and the trabecula. 
 A similar process is very generally found in the Urodcla 
 (being particularly large, for example, in Menopoma), but 
 appears to be represented only by fibrous tissue in the 
 Anura. 
 
 Meckel's cartilage (Mck., Fig. 12) is thick and deep at 
 its articular end, but, after furnishing a surface of attach- 
 ment for the elevator muscles of the jaw, it rapidly narrows, 
 and ends in a point, at some distance from the symphysis 
 of the dentary bones. 
 
 The hyoidean apparatus (Fig. i 3) is represented, on each 
 side, by a cartilaginous rod, subdivided into a short hypo- 
 hjail(ll. h.) and long cerato-hyal (C. h.) A strong liganfent 
 extends from the front face of the latter, below its free 
 summit, to the suspensorium, reaching this at the same 
 
 Ryoid and branchial apparatus of Mtne- 
 bronchus latrraha. UK hypo-hyal: Ch. cerato- 
 hyal ; Bb x . first basibrant hial ; Bb 1 , osidried 
 second basibranchial ; Ep.b 1 . Ep.b 2 , Ep.b 3 , first, 
 second, and third epibrauchiala; £7/. glottis. 
 
 place as the stapedial ligament, into which it is continued. 
 From a point a little above the attachment of this ligament, 
 another ligamentous band arises, and, crossing the former, 
 on the inner side of which it passes, becomes attached to 
 the angle of the mandible. It answers to the inter- 
 operculum of a fish, and has nearly the same relations aa 
 the stylo-maxillary ligament of the higher Vertebrata. 
 
 In the ventral median line, the hypo-hyals are connected 
 only by fibrous tissue. Firmly united with this, however, 
 there is a median 
 first basibranchial 
 cartilage (Bb x ), suc- 
 ceeded by a second 
 basibranchial (Bb 2 ), 
 which is ossified, and 
 is the only bony con- 
 stituent of the hyo- 
 branchial apparatus. 
 There are only three 
 branchial arches. 
 The first consists of 
 a stout and long 
 cerato-branchial 
 (Cb l ), bearing sn 
 equally well - deve 
 loped epibranchial 
 (Epb 1 ). The second 
 is represented by a fig. 13 
 mere nodule of car- 
 tilage (Cb 2 ), with 
 which the expanded 
 end of the second epibranchial (Ep.b 2 ) articulates. The 
 third and smallest epibranchial (Ep. o 3 ) is articulated with 
 the step-like broad end of the second. There is no trace 
 of any fourth branchial arch, such as exists in tadpoles 
 and in young salamanders ; and in Siredon, Siren, Amphi 
 uma, and Menopoma. 
 
 The most curiousfeatureinthebonyskiiUjOrosteo-crantMm, 
 of Menobranchus is the presence of the prominent conical 
 ossifications which lie external to the exoccipitals,and occupy 
 the place of the epiotic and opisthotic bones. In possessing 
 these elements of the skull, in so large and distinct a form, 
 Menobranchus differs from all Amphibia, save Proteus and 
 the extinct Labyrinthodonts. The parietal bones are sepa- 
 rate from the frontals, and send, as is usual in the Urodela, 
 a long process forwards on each side of the latter. In 
 Menobranchus, this process is extremely long, reaching the 
 olfactory foramen, the posterior margin of which it bounds. 
 There are no nasal nor prefrontal bones, nor any distinct ali- 
 sphenoidal, orbito-«phenoidal, or ethmoidal ossifications; of 
 the maxilla, nothing but a rudiment appears, and this is 
 sometimes absent. There are no jugal or quadrato-jugal 
 ossifications. A palato-pterygoid plate, bearing teeth on 
 its expanded palatine portion, extends from the antorbital 
 process to the inner face of the suspensorium, which, as 
 stated above, has a mere tubercle in the place of a pterygoid 
 process. The vomers are long, bear teeth along their outer 
 edges, and diverge backwards so as to leave an interspace 
 between their inner edges. Posteriorly, they articulat- 1 
 with the anterior ends of the palato-pterygoids. 
 
 The squamosal is a long, slender, curved bone, devoid of 
 any zygomatic process, which extends from the articular 
 end of the suspensorium, along its outer edge, to the outer 
 side of the epiotic. From its posterior margin it sends 
 down a short process over the stapedial ligament. 
 
 The parasphenoid is a broad thin plate of bone, which 
 extends from near the junction of the vomers to the 
 occipital foramen. The distal end of the suspensorium is 
 incompletely ossified, as a quadrate bone ; and a dentary 
 and a splenial element, both dentigerous lie the formci
 
 753 
 
 A 31 P H I 1) J A 
 
 external to aud below tho latter internal to, Meckel's 
 cartilage. 
 
 The skull of Protects is, in its general characters, similar 
 co that of Mcnobranchus, but is more extensively ossified. 
 
 In Siren, the skull, which has tho same elongated form 
 and forwardly directed suspensoria as in Mcnobranchus 
 and Proteus, possesses, in tho epiotic region, two strong 
 crests, which project backwards beyond tho level of tbe 
 occipital condyles, but are otherwise very different from 
 the epiotics of the latter genera. Tho " exoccipitals " and 
 prootics are completely fused together, even in half-grown 
 specimens, a mere rim of cartilage being left around tho 
 fenestra ovalis. Tho lateral walls of the skull present ossi- 
 6cations extending from tho exits of tke-orbito-nasal nerves, 
 forwards to tho mesethmoid, or internasal portion of the 
 trabecule, and completely encircling the olfactory fora- 
 mina. Hut these ossifications remain distinct for a con- 
 siderable time, if they ever coalesce. Each, therefore, 
 represents half of the splien-ethmoid of- the Frog. 
 
 The flat and w-ido parasphenoid extends forwards to 
 the space left by the divergenco of the vomers. On the 
 roof of the skull, each broad parietal sends forward a pro- 
 longation along the outer edge of the frontal, which reaches 
 tts antorbital process. Tho premaxilko have very long 
 ascending processes, which lie upon the mesethmoid, and 
 arc received between the ends of the frontal bones. Between 
 tl ; "so ascending processes one or two elongated ossifica- 
 tions are situated. These were termed "nasals" by Cuvicr, 
 but their position does not accord with this determination. 
 The horizontal, or oral, portions of tho premaxilla?, on tho 
 other hand, arc very short and edentulous, each being coated 
 by a thin plate of horny substance. The maxilla; are rudi- 
 mentary or absent. The vomers are two, flat, oval, bony 
 plates, the ventral aspect of which is beset with parallel rows 
 of teeth set in obliquely-disposed curved lines, the con- 
 vexities of tho curves being turned inwards and backwards. 
 The vomers are in contact anteriorly, but diverge posteriorly. 
 The posterior extremity of each abuts upon a. plate of 
 similar form, but much smaller, and bearing fewer series of 
 teeth, which lies on the ventral side of the origin of the 
 antorbital process, and represents the palatine bone. The 
 eperture of the posterior nares lies just opposite, and ex- 
 ternal to, the junction of these two bones. 
 
 The suspensorium is short, thick, and completely carti- 
 laginous. Dorsally and internally, it is attached by a stout 
 pedicle to the trabccula in front of tho auditory capsule, 
 while its dorsal and posterior face lies against the trun- 
 cated anterior face of the pro-otic. The angle formed where 
 this face joins the outer faco represents the otic process of 
 Maiobranchus. There is no pterygoid process, nor any 
 trace of a pterygoid bone. Just abovo the suspensorium, 
 and seemingly connected w T ith it, there proceeds from the 
 anterior face of the pro-otic region of tho skull, a strong, 
 triangular, forward ly-dirccted cartilaginous process, 
 the free anterior end of this, a band of fibrous tissue passes, 
 and, encircling the eye, is attached to the antorbital process. 
 Tbe squamosal is a slender curved bone, extending from 
 the epiotic ridge to the articular end of tho suspensorium, 
 where it is widest. It exhibits only a rudiment of the 
 well-marked process which extends towards the stapes in 
 Menolranchus and Proteus. The mandible presents a 
 dentary, an angular, tind a dentigerous splcnial element; 
 and the proximal end o f Meckel's cartilage is ossified, giving 
 rise to a dense nodular arliculare. The dentary is tooth- 
 less, and supports the inferior horny beak. 
 
 The cornu of tho hyoid is very stout, and its ventral 
 moiety is ossified. The much thicker dorsal moiety is 
 cartilaginous, and its recurved dorsal end extends beyond 
 
 tho extremity of the skull. At a considerable distance- 
 below its apex, a strong short ligament proceeds from ita 
 anterior face to the stapes. A broad sheet of ligamentous 
 fibres further unites the hyoid with tho lateral walls of tho 
 ear capsule, and with the posterior face of tho suspen- 
 sorium (hyo-suspcnsorial ligament) ; and a slender ligament 
 (mandibulo-hyoid) proceeds from near tho insertion of tho 
 hyo-stapcdial ligament to the angle of tho mandible. There 
 are two basibranchials, both ossified, the posterior ending 
 in short radiating processes; two cerato-brauehials and four 
 .inchiala. 
 
 in Amphiuma, the suspensoria are very little inclined 
 forwards, and their long axes make nearly a right anglo 
 with that of the skulL Tho portion of tho skull which 
 lies bohind a line joining the articular ends of the ossa 
 quadrala is very much shorter than the region in front of 
 it. Moreover, although tho epiotic processes aro pro- 
 minent, the occipital condyles project far beyond tLcm. 
 One bono represents tho exoccipital, epiotic, and opis- 
 thotic on each side. The pro-otic is large, and gives riso 
 to the anterior moiety of a strongly-marked temporal 
 ridge. Its exposed surface presents two fossa;, divided by 
 a nearly vertical linear elevation. The large parietals form 
 the posterior portion of the temporal ridge, and divergo 
 ily, to be continued forwards, on each side of the 
 frontals, to the sphen-ethmoid. The frontals, in like man- 
 ner, diverge in front to receive a median ossification, which 
 is continuous with the coalesced median processes of the 
 prcmaxillie. The anterior half of each frontal is rugose, 
 as arc the exposed surfaces of the sphen-ethmoid and of tho 
 nasal bones, and the integument is firmly adherent. to these 
 rugosities. Tho nasals are broad and triangular. Tho 
 truncated base of each lies over the nasal aperture ; the 
 inner edge articulates with the ascending process of the pre- 
 maxilla ; the outer edge joins first the maxilla, and then tho 
 sphen-ethmoid. The premaxillse are so thoroughly ankyloscd 
 that no trace of their primitive distinctness is to be seen. 
 The large maxilla; extend back for half the length of tho 
 skull, are firmly united with tho adjacent bones, and aro 
 connected by dense ligament with the extremity of the 
 rate bone. The greatly elongated vomers diverge but 
 little ; nevertheless, they come in contact only by their 
 anterior extremities. In the rest of their extent they are 
 separated, in front, by a median ossification representing 
 the anterio'r part of the spheu-ethmoid, and, behind, by 
 tho anterior forked prolongation of the parasphenoid which 
 ccs this ossification. The rest of the parasphenoid i3 
 broad and fiat ; it widens a little, in front of the auditory 
 capsules, so as to form a rudiment of tho "guard" in tLo 
 frog's skull. 
 
 The osseous pterygoid is a curved plate of bone, convex 
 inwards and concave outwards, which articulates posteriory 
 with the quadrate, and, in front, stops short, at little more 
 than half the distance from its posterior end to the internal 
 nostril. The cartilaginous pterygoid process of the sus- 
 pensorium extends some way beyond it, and, widening, is 
 attached by ligament to the maxilla. Posteriorly, the car- 
 tilaginous pterygoid is traceable, as a comparatively narrow 
 band, on the inner side of the bony pterygoid, to the pcdiclo 
 of tho suspensorium, which is attached in front of the 
 fenestra ovalis, and above the rudimentary "guard" of the 
 parasphenoid. An ascending process passes from it be- 
 tween the orbito-nasal and the other divisions of tho 
 trigeminal. The otic process of the suspensorium, which 
 is articulated with the outer face of the auditory capsule, 
 is cartilaginous; but the rest of the suspensorium is ossified 
 as a quadrate bone. This is, as usual, clamped to the skull 
 by the sqnami al, which is broad and expanded above, and 
 narrow below. Uehind, the suspensorium is directly articu-
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 lated with the styliform projection of the centre of the 
 stapes. A very strong hyo-suspensorial ligament passes 
 from near the distal end of the suspensorium to the cornu of 
 the hyoid. The mandibulo-hyoid ligament is much weaker. 
 The hyoidean apparatus presents a median basi-hyal, con- 
 nected by a rounded hypo-hyal on each side, with a long, 
 and curved cerato-hyal, which is almost completely ossified. 
 The first basibranchial is elongated and cartilaginous — the 
 second is absent. The first branchial arch is a single elon- 
 gated bone, representing the similarly coalesced cerato- 
 branchial and epibranchial in Menopoma. The second 
 cerato-branchial is small and cartilaginous. The three 
 pnsterior epibranchials are simple curved cartilages ; and 
 the single branchial cleft is placed between the third and 
 fourth epibranchials. 
 
 The skulk .of the four genera, Menobranchus, Proteus, 
 Siren, and Amphiuma, now described, resemble one another, 
 and differ from those of other Amphibia, in their elongated 
 form ; and, especially, in the relative narrowness of the 
 facial region in front of the orbits, which, as the case of 
 Amphiuma shows, arises, not from any want of development 
 of the maxillary bones, when they exist, but from their 
 taking a direction which but slightly diverges- from paral- 
 lelism with the axis of the skulk Moreover, they all 
 possess well-marked epiotic prominences. Amphiuma differs 
 widely from the other three, in the .great size of its maxil- 
 lary bones, in the absence of ^palatine bones, in the pro- 
 jection of the occipital condyles beyond the epiotic pro- 
 cesses, in the ankylosis of the premaxillse, in the presence 
 of well-developed nasal bones, in the coalescence of the 
 first cerato-branchial with the first epibranchial. and in the 
 transverse direction of the suspensorium. 
 
 In most of those respects, in which Amphiuma differs 
 from Menobranchus, Froteus, and Siren, it approaches the 
 Salamanders ; especially if we take such, forms as Anaides 
 into account. On the other hand, in the entire absence of 
 a palatine bone, and in the fusion of the first cerato-bran- 
 chial with its epibranchial, it agrees with Menopoma and 
 Cruptobranchus. 
 
 In Menopoma, the skull has a broadly-rounded snout, and 
 its posterior contour slopes forwards and outwards (with- 
 out being interrupted by conspicuous epiotic prominences), 
 in the manner characteristic of the higher Urodela. The 
 small pro-otics are separated from the exoccipitals (which 
 also represent the epiotics and episthotics), by a wide car- 
 tilaginous interspace, in which the fenestra oValis is situated. 
 The parietal sends a process forwards, along the outer edge 
 of the frontal, between it and the orbit o-sphenoid. This 
 meets a curved flat bone, which bounds the orbit anteriorly 
 and internally, and articulates with an ascending process of 
 the maxillary bone. It may therefore be regarded as a 
 prefronto-lachrymal. The frontals unite in a long median 
 suture, and then, diverging, embrace the nasal bones, and 
 articulate externally with the fore part of the ascending 
 process of the maxillary bone, which is thus received be- 
 tween the frontal and the prefronto-kohrymal. The very 
 broad parasphenoid extends from the exoccipitals to the 
 vomers, with wiich it unites by a detiv.'culated squamous 
 Buture. The wide vomers are united by a median suture, 
 and expand in frout, ending in arched edges, close behind 
 which the teeth are set. The premaxilln ire separate and 
 small, articulate with the arched edges of >he vomers, and 
 send up strong ascending processes to the dorsal face of 
 the skull, where they firmly unite with the nasals. The 
 squamosal is a flattened prismatic bone, as broad at one 
 end as at the other, which articuli tea with the parietal 
 externally, and with the quadrate laternahy. Like tho 
 
 7r>9 
 
 suspensorium, which it covers, it stands out at right angles 
 with the axis of the skull. There u. no palatine bone! 
 Ine pterygoid is broader and more square than in u^y 
 other Amphibian, in consequence of the great expansion of 
 its internal process, which articulates by its whole length 
 with the parasphenoid. The anterior process ends in a 
 free pointed cartilage, directed outwards and forwards, and 
 united with the maxilla by ligament, as in the higher 
 Urodela. The external process extends to the articular 
 end of the quadrate, as usual, and is continued thence alon" 
 the cartilaginous suspensorium to its attached end. 
 
 The chondrocranium forms a complete ring of cartilage 
 round the occipital foramen, continuous at the sides with 
 the auditory capsules. From these the trabecule are con- 
 tinued forwards, as in Menobranchus, leaving a very wide 
 ventral fontanelle. At the anterior end of this they unite 
 and form the mesethmoid, from which roof and floor plates 
 of the nasal capsules are continued. The suspensorium is 
 connected by a pedicle with the trabecula, in front of the 
 auditory capsule, and gives off a broad ascending process, 
 which becomes ossified continuously with the pterygoid, 
 over the orbito-nasal nerve. A stout otic process is articu- 
 lated with a facet on the antero-external region of the 
 periotic capsule, and is further connected 'with it by liga- 
 mentous fibres. The quadrate ossification involves a small 
 portion of the articular end of the suspensorium ; it thence 
 extends upwards, on the dorsal aspect of the suspensorium, 
 gradually becoming more slender, and nearly reaches tho 
 point at which the otic process of the suspensorium articu- 
 lates with the periotic cartilage. 
 
 The osseous skull of Crvvtobranchus is extremely like 
 that of Menopoma. 
 
 In Menopoma the hyo-branchial apparatus presents the 
 same general structure as that of Siredon, except that the 
 second basibranchial seems to be wanting, while the first 
 is very broad and rounded ; at the same time, the epi- 
 branchial and the cerato-branchial of the first arch are 
 represented by only one continuous cartilage. 
 
 In Cruptobranchus, 1 however, a considerable reductior 
 has taken place, the two posterior pairs of branchial arches 
 present in Menopoma having disappeared. The second 
 arch SviU presents a division into cerato-branchial and 
 epibranchial, but the dorsal end of the latter is closely 
 united with that of the preceding arch. It is interesting 
 to observe, however, that the modification thus effected is 
 quite different from that which occurs in the Salamanders, 
 in which, in the adult state, the first branchial arch retain? 
 its two segments ; while the second, reduced to its cerato- 
 branchial, is applied against the first, at the junction of 
 the ceratp- and epi-branchial; and the second basibranchial 
 persists as the ossiculum thyroideum of Von Siebold. 
 
 Menopoma and Cryptobranchus further differ from- the 
 proper Salamanders in having the vomerine teeth disposed 
 along tho anterior edges of the expanded vomers. Unfor- 
 tunately nothing is known of the larva of these forms, but 
 it would seem as if, in them, the primitive vomers enlarge 
 by extension of ossification behind, and not in front of, 
 the criginally existent teeth. 
 
 In the remaining Uroaela, tne Salamanders proper, the skull 
 has the broadly-arched snout and the shelving posterior contour of 
 ,iia, but the vomers and pterygoids are very different. 
 
 The structure of the skull in these animals will be best under- 
 stood by commencing with that of Siredon, which, though pertnno- 
 branchiate under ordinary circumstances, is totally unlike the 
 other so-called Pcrcnnibranchiata in cranial structure, and is, in 
 fact, to all intents and purposes a larval Salamander. 
 
 An ossification on each side of the occipital foramen represents 
 the exoccipitals, epiotics, and episthotics. In front of each of these 
 
 1 Sea Hj-rtl, " CryptobTanckus jajponicus, Schediasma anatomicum," 
 tab. iii.
 
 GO 
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 Is a pro-otic, and an orbito sphenoid. The latter is sometimes 
 united with its fellow of the opposite side. 1 Tlie skull is roofed in 
 by pairs of parietal, frontal, picfionto-lachrymal, and nasal bones. 
 The maxilla: are short, and are united with the ends of the suspen- 
 solium only by fibrous tissue. There is a very broad and Sal 
 sphenoid, which extends from the inferior margin of the occipital 
 foramen, and ends, anteriorly, by a wide, irregularly convex edge, 
 which does not reach tho vomers. Tho latter bones are elongated 
 and curved, and their long axes diverge posteriorly, as in 
 branchus ; but their anterior ends are far apart, and they lie, separ- 
 ated by tho whole breadth of the parasphenoid, and between that 
 bone and the premaxilla and maxilla, adherent to the vent: 
 of the subnasal process of tho chondiocranium. 
 
 The short palatine bones are situated immediately behind, and 
 on the inner sido of, the posterior nares, but their somewhat taper- 
 ing, external and posterior, ends do not articulate directly with the 
 pterygoids. The latter are triradiate bones, with an inner process 
 which passes towards the base of the skull ; an outer, which run3 
 down the suspensorium ; and a long anterior process, which gradu- 
 ally diminishes in breadth forwards, and is connected only by 
 palatine. Three ossifications embrace M 
 ^■e. The dentary covers its outer face throughout its whole 
 length. The angular lies on the inner face of its posterior two- 
 thirds, and the small dentigerous splenial is also applied to its 
 inner face between the angular and the dentary. The chondro- 
 cranium is in much tho same condition as that of Mcnopoma. 
 is a broad basicranial cartilage situated between the auditory cap- 
 sules, and passing, at the sides and above, into a complete occi- 
 pital arch, but, in front, the trabecular, tve in- 
 creased in vertical height, remain united by fibrous tissue only, 
 both in the floor and in the roof of the skull, which thus presents 
 two great " fontanelles " when the parasphenoid, parietals, and 
 frontals are removed. In front, they coalesce, each giving off, as 
 it does so, a flat antorbital process, which is expanded at its outer 
 end, where it supports the maxilla. Below, this process gives at- 
 tachment to the palatine. By their coalescence, the trabecular give 
 rise to a broad internasal septum (or mesetlunoid cartilage), and 
 they expand, on each side, below, into subnasal plates, which aro 
 separated, anteriorly, by a wide notch in the middle line. The 
 curved outer edges of .these plates give attachment to the premaxilla 
 and niaxillx, and they answer to the pra-nasal processes of the 
 chondrocrauium of the frog. Between tho posterior edge of each 
 of these and the anterior edge of the corresponding antorbital pro- 
 cess, the posterior nostril is situated ; and tho inferior surface of 
 the subnasal plate gives attachment to the vomer. Superiorly, the 
 mesethmoid cartilage expands into a very thin (alinasal) plate, 
 which roofs in each nasal chamber, and supports the prefronto- 
 lachrymal and nasal bones. 
 
 Tho suspensorium is connected, above and internally, with tho 
 trabecula of its side by a pedicle ; and it has an ascending process 
 which lies over the orbito-nasal nerve (which is therefore included 
 between the pcdicU and the ascending process) immediately after 
 its exit from the skull. Posteriorly and superiorly, it gives off an 
 otic process, which is articulated with the outer and front part of 
 the auditory capsule ; while, inferiorly and externally, it fui i 
 an articular surface to the mandible. The pterygoid process has 
 the form of a style tapering forwards, and nearly reaching the ant- 
 orbital process, with which it is connected, however, only by liga- 
 mentous fibres. The posterior moiety of Meckel's cartilage is very 
 stout as far as the coronoid process, and then tapers rapidly to its 
 free, pointed, eymphysial extremity. 
 
 Tho hyoidean and branchial apparatus is entirely fibrous and 
 cartilaginous, none of its parts having undergone ossification. Each 
 cornu of the hyoid is connected with the upper and posterior face 
 of the suspensorium, and with the angle of the mandible, by liga- 
 mentous fibres — the hyosuspensorial and mandibulosuspensorial 
 ligaments. The cornua are not subdivided, and are united in tho 
 median ventral line by ligament. A triangular first basibranchial 
 extends back from their junction, and is succeeded by a second, as 
 in Mtnebranckus ; but this second basibranchial is not ossified. 
 Two cerato-branchials are attached to the posterior extremity of tho 
 first basibranchial on each side, and the anterior is, as usual, fol- 
 lowed by a long and strong epibranchial, which supports the an- 
 terior gill. The posterior cerato-branchial supports the second 
 epibranchial directly, and tho third and fourth epibranchials in- 
 directly. 
 
 The interesting observations of Professor A Dumeril have shown 
 that, under certain conditions, the ordinarily perenni-btanchiate 
 Sircdon passes into tho caduci-branchiate Amblystoma; and this 
 metamorphosis is accompanied by some very interesting modifica- 
 tions in the structure of the cranium, especially in the vomerine, 
 palatine, and pterygoid regions. Ossification extends forwards from 
 
 1 See Fnedrich and Gegenbaur — " Dcr Schadel des Axolotl {Sircdon 
 injciformis)" in the Jlcrichte der Kuniglichm Zoolomischen Anslall 
 tu \YUrzburg, 1849. This memoir contains an excellent account of 
 the cbondrocranium of tho Axolotl 
 
 the vomers beneath the pra-nasal processes, !io that the series of 
 teeth, which originally lay along the anterior margins of these bones, 
 come to be situated at their posterior edges. At the same tima 
 they take up a direction at right angles to the axis of the skull, 
 instead of being greatly inclined to that axis, as they are in Sircdon, 
 and the two sets of vomerine teeth thus form a single transverse 
 row. Jlorcovi r, the anterior process of the pterygoid moves out- 
 until it comes into contact with the inner face of the maxilla. 
 me remaining attached to the vomer, the 
 other swings outwards, in correspondence with the change of posi- 
 tion of i lid thus becomes directed transversely to the 
 axis of the skull, immediately behind the posterior nostril, its teeth 
 continuing tho transverse line of tho tectli of the vomers. Sala- 
 manders with tii" teeth thus disposed have been termed "lechrio- 
 dont." Tho maxillary bones are larger than in Sircdon, but the 
 jugal arch remains ligamentous. The dorsal ends of the cornua of 
 tho hyoid i ligamentous connection with the suspen- 
 sorium, and the ventral ends with the anterior basibranchial. The 
 first cerato-branchial and epibranchial persist, and retain their 
 artinu ono another. The second cerato-branchial re- 
 mains, but its dorsal or outer end becomes attached to the preced- 
 ing, and all tho three posterior epibranchials disappear. The second 
 basibranchial becomes detached as a Y-shaped piece, which lies in 
 them line, in front of the larynx. 
 
 In all tho other Salamanders, tho vomers, in tho adult, present 
 the same enlargement of the part in front of the teeth, at the ex- 
 pense of the region behind them, as in Amblystoma. But the teetth 
 rarely oiler the same disposition. More commonly they form two 
 scries, inclined to one another at a more or less acute angle, open 
 forwards, and supported upon bony plates, which appear like pro- 
 longations of tho vomers, extending Backwards on the ventral face 
 of the parasphenoid. This "mccodont" arrangement is strikingly 
 exemplified by Salamandra maculosa, and still more remarkably 
 by Plcthcdon and Anaidts, where these longitudinal series of teeth 
 beneath tho parasphenoid are commonly termed "sphenoidal" 
 teeth. Duges 3 and other observers, however, have shown that, in 
 larval Salamandra; and Tritoncs, the vomerine and palato-pterygoid 
 apparatus have, at first, the same disposition as in Sircdon ,- and 
 Duges has described the process by which the palatine bones, be- 
 coming detached from tho pterygoids, which rotate outwards, onky- 
 lose with tho vomers, taking up a position beneath the parasphe- 
 noid, and more or less parallel with the axis of the skull ; and it 
 can hardly bo doubted that the so-called "sphenoidal" dentigerous 
 plates of other genera of Salamandrida have tho same origin. II 
 this conclusion be correct, it indicates a very curious morphological 
 uce between the "mecodont" and "lechriodont " Salaman- 
 
 In all tho Salamandrida the parietal bones send long processes 
 forwards on each side of the frontals. The parasphenoid is a broad 
 flat plate. Very often the premaxillae aro ankyloscd into one bone, 
 and tho bones of tho periotic capsule coalesce. In somo cases there 
 are epiotic processes or ridges. Maxillae are always present, and 
 the snout is usually broadly arched. Nasal bones, distinct from 
 tho prefronto-lachrymals, aro usually present. 
 
 In the genus Anaidcs tho skull is comparatively long and nar- 
 row, and the muzzle is less arched than usual. The single pre- 
 maxilla, and the two well-developed maxillno, follow the semieir 
 cular curve of the broad subnasal plates, to the edges of which the; 
 are attached. The hinder free extremities of the maxillae are curved 
 upwards, and the jugal arch is represented only by ligament. Thus 
 far the skull is salamandrine ; as it is also in tho presence of dis- 
 tinct nasal and prcfronto-lachrymal bones, in the disposition of the 
 vomerine and so-called "sphenoidal" teeth, in the absence of an 
 apparent palatine bone, and in the manner in which tho pterygoid 
 is produced into a long process, which becomes connected with the 
 inner face of the maxilla. But, in the well-marked downward and 
 forward inclination of the suspensorium, and in the strong crests 
 into which the epiotic processes are developed, the skull of Anaidts 
 is very like that of Siren. 
 
 In the skull of Epicrium ghdinosum (Fig. 14), which may be 
 selected as an examplo of the Pep.omela, tho strong occipital con- 
 dyles are continued into two ossifications, which rise on to the roof 
 of the skull, where they unite in a short suture, and, spreading 
 out so as to embrace tho parietals, are continued over the auditory 
 apparatus, as far as the squamosal and the quadrate bones. Vent- 
 rally, no indication of any suture between these bones rnd the broad 
 parasphenoid is visible ; laterally, they pass forward into a con- 
 tinuous ossification, which constitutes the side walls of the auditory 
 capsule, and, in front of this, is perforated by tho wide foramen for 
 the trigeminil nerve, and enters largely into the lateral wall of tho 
 cranial cavity. The parietal bone rests on the dorsal edge of this 
 lateral ossification, which terminates, anteriorly, by an irregularly 
 
 • Rechercha, pp. 172, 173, pi. xiv. fig. 89. EuscrrJ, Obxnaliunt 
 Analomijucs sur la Si-tne, 1 1. vi. £g3. 3 -nd 10.
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 VG1 
 
 excavated border, between which and the posterior margin of the 
 •uhen-ethmoid the cranial wall is unossified. Throughout its whole 
 
 Flo. 14. — The skuTl of Epicrium glutinosum. A. dorsal: B, venfrAlt C, lateral, 
 view. The letters have the same signification as before. 
 
 extent, this large ossification, which represents the exoccipitals, 
 the elements of the periotio capsule, and the alisphenoids, is firmly 
 ankylosed with the parasphenoid. There is a well-developed sphen- 
 ethmoid, similar in its general characters to that of the frog. It is 
 very closely united, if not ankylosed, with the vomers and pre- 
 maxillaB. The roof of the skull is completed by two parietals, two 
 frontals, and two large nasals, which unite in a long suture, except 
 fn front, where, for a short distance, they are separated by the 
 ascending processes of the premaxillae. The dentigerous oral pro- 
 cesses of these bones are short, and unite by suture with the maxilla?. 
 These send up broad plates which lie in front of and below the orbit, 
 on the sides of the face. The canal for the suborbital tentacle per- 
 forates the maxilla in front of the orbit. Posteriorly, the maxilla 
 unites with the squamosal, which is a broad plate firmly fixed 
 to the quadrate, but somewhat loosely united with the frontal 
 and parietal and with the complex occipito-otic bone. A small 
 crescentio post-orbital bone (denoted by 1 in Fig. 14) articulates 
 with the maxillary and squamosal, and with another bone (2), which 
 answers very nearly to the prefrontal of a reptile. Between the 
 nasal bone and the premaxilla, above and below,-and the maxilla 
 behind, a small bone (3) is fitted. The quadrate bone is repre- 
 sented by the ossification of the distal end of the suspensorium, 
 which is inclined a little backwards. The stapes is large and well 
 ossified. Two distinct ossifications, an angul--articular and a 
 dentary, are discernible in the mandible ; and the second short row 
 of teeth, inside those of the dentary, seems to indicate the existence 
 of a splenial element. 
 
 In the Labyrinthodonta the skull presents the extremes of 
 form which are met with among the Amphibia, from the elonga- 
 tion observable in Archegosaurus, to the- short and broad form of 
 Uetopias and Brachyops. The chief characters by which the Iaby- 
 rinthodont cranium differs from that of its existing allies are the 
 following : — 
 
 The occipital condyles in some genera remained long, if not per- 
 manently, cartilaginous; and one or two supra-occipital ossifica- 
 tions (probably membrane bones) very generally occur. The epiotics 
 are prominent, and appear to remain permanently separate from the 
 adjacent bones. In front of them, and articulated with the outer 
 edges of the parietal and fronUl, are two bones, which are com- 
 monly identified with the "squamosal" and "post-frontal" of the 
 higher Vertebrata. The " post-frontal " articulates anteriorly with 
 a Targe "prefrontal" bone, vhich bounds the dorsal and anterior 
 contour of the orbit. Tht outer edges of the "squamosal" and 
 "post-frontal" articulate with two bones, termed the "post- 
 orbital " and the " supra-temporal." The post-orbital lies in front 
 of the other, and contributes to the posterior margin of the orbit, — 
 the rest of the contour of which, between the post-orbital and the 
 
 tends into the articular surface for the lower jaw, and in 6ome cases, 
 at any rate, overlaid a quadrate ossification. There are long paired 
 nasals, between the anterior ends of which the ascending processes 
 of .the premaxilla »re received: and between these bones, the un- 
 
 usually long maxillae, and the prefrontals, distinct "lachrymal 1 
 ossifications occur. 
 
 The vomers are. large, meet in a long median suture, and bear 
 teeth. The palatine bones, also dentigerous, bound the posterior 
 nares in front, and are elongated antero-posteriorly. 
 
 The mandible presents a dentary (probably including a splenic!) 
 clement, an angular and an articular ossification. 
 
 Those surfaces of the cranial bones which .were covered by the 
 skin are usually-rugose, and sculptured much in the same way as 
 those of the crocodiles, and they frequently present symmetrically- 
 disposed grooves, the so-called "mucous canals," which, very pro- 
 bably, lodged sensory apparatuses resembling the similarly-named 
 structures in fishes — the homologues of which are found in existing 
 Urodela. 
 
 The hyoid is unknown, and what appears to be traces of a branchial 
 apparatus have been observed only in young specimens of Arclicgo- 
 saurus. Hence it is probable, not only that no known Labyrinth- 
 odonts were perennibrancbiate, but that the ait-breathing condition 
 supervened early in the course of their development. 
 
 The Labyrinthodonts doubtless possessed a well-developed chon- 
 drocranium, but such a structure would necessarily perish in the 
 course of fcssilisation. The singular resemblance of the labyriuth- 
 odont skull to that of the Pcromela, in the arrangement of the 
 bones which bound the cavity of the mouth, and the disposition of 
 the teeth upon "them, suggests a comparison of the other cranial 
 bones in the two groups. Starting from the nasals of Epicrium, 
 which may be safely identified with those of the Labyrinthodonts, 
 the bone marked (2) in Epicrium corresponds very closely with the 
 labyrinthodont "prefrontal;" and that numbered (1), with th- 
 " post-orbital." No. 3 in Epicrium, in some respects answers to 
 the so-called "lachrymal" of the Labyrinthodonts; While tin 
 maxilla of the Caecilian may be taken to represent both maxilla and 
 jugal of the Labyrinthodont. But if this be so, the squamosal ol 
 Epicrium corresponds with the supra-temporal of the Labvrinth- 
 odout : and a question arises as to the true nature of the "squa- 
 mosal " and " post-frontal " of the latter. 1 
 
 The Limbs. — The pectoral arch in the Amphibia is distinguish- 
 able into a scapular, a coracoidal, and a prsecoracoidal region, 
 although the extent to which these parts of the primitive cartilagin- 
 ous arch become separately ossified vajies very much iu the different 
 members of the group. 
 
 In. Proteus, Menobranehus, Cryptobranchtis, and Menopoma, 
 ossification occurs only . in the scapular region. In Siren and 
 Amphiuma an additional broad coracoidal ossification occurs, but it 
 does not meet the scapular ossification in the glenoidal cavity. Tho 
 junction, however, takes place in Siredon and the Salamanders. In 
 none of the Urodela does any ossification appear in or upon the 
 prEecoracoidal or supra-scapular cartiiage. 
 
 A supra-scapular ossification exists in all known Annra. All but 
 Microps and Hylccdactylus 1 have a pnecoracoid, which acquires a 
 sheath of -bony matter. The glenoidal cavity is bounded by tho 
 pracoracoid, coracoid, and scapula ; and in some cases (e.g., Dacty- 
 Icthra) the ossified ends of the three unite and give rise to a tri- 
 radiate suture in the glenoidal cavity, just as the pubis, ischium, 
 and ilium of most Vertebrata unite in the acetabulum. In Sljstcma 
 gibbosum, contrary to the usual rule, the pnecoracoid is far broader 
 than the coracoid (Parker). 
 
 In the higher Anura, a median piece, of very variable size, form, 
 and consistency, extends forwards from the junction of tho pre- 
 coracoids. Mr Parker considers it to be an outgrowth from these, 
 and terms it the omosternum. 
 
 The long bones, both in the fore and hind limbs, consist of an 
 axis of cartilage, sheathed in, and more or less replaced by, a dia- 
 physis of membrane bone. The extremities of the cartilages fre- 
 quently undergo calcification, and are thus converted into epiphyses. 
 A strong crest characterises the humerus in many male Anura. 
 In the latter, the radius and ulna coalesce into one bone, while in 
 all other Amphibia they remain distinct. 
 
 In Siredon, Cryptobranchus, and Mencpoma, the carpus contains 
 eight separate cartilages, of which three— the radiate, inla-medium, 
 and ulnare — form a proximal row ; and four distalia, a distal row. 
 Between these two series lies a single centrale. 
 
 In Menobranehus, there are only six carpal cartilages — the ulmrc 
 and intermedium, and the radiale and radial distale, respectively, 
 having apparently, as Gegenbaur suggests, coalesced. 
 
 In Amphiuma didaclytum, the number of carpal cartiUges is 
 reduced to four, and in Prolcus to three. In both these cases the 
 two largest cartilages form a proximal row. 
 
 1 On the structure of the skull, as of whatever else is known of the 
 organisation of the Labyrinthodonts, the reader will find full, ex- 
 cellently arranged, and well-digested information in the " Keport of the 
 Committee of the British Association ou the Labyrinthodonts of tbc 
 Coal Measures," drawn up by Mr Miall, British. Association jftejiorU, 
 1873. 
 
 « r.irker 'in (he FJiouWer Girdle, p. !"■
 
 :«;•_> 
 
 A M 1> 11 1 13 1 A 
 
 The Salamandrida usually have erven carpal elements. In t!ie 
 proximal row there are two — a radiale and a coalesced intermedium 
 and ulnare. There is a single oentrale and four distalia. These are 
 variously ossified until, in Triton crista! us an J iifyji's/m.all arc ossified. 
 
 No nrodcle amphibian has more than four digits in the manus, 
 and the number may be reduced to three, or even two (Amphiuma 
 !um). When four dibits are present the number of the 
 phalanges is usually 2, 2, 3, 2. 
 
 Among the Anura, Dugcs a] tax have shown that Bom- 
 
 bina'.ur and i carpal bones— two in tho 
 
 proximal row (radiale, i a ulnare), tivo in the di 
 
 one between theso two rows. This last, which is the cent! 
 
 ■ radial siJo of the manus, and articulates with the three 
 
 radial distulia, much as the navicular bono articulates with the 
 
 threo cunciformia in the mammalian tarsus. In Ram esculcnta, 
 
 there are also two bones in tho proximal row, and tho contrale lies 
 
 1 side of tho carpus. Hut there are only three I 
 
 tal row ; on on the ulnar side, which bears the third, 
 
 i, end fifth metacarpals, and two email ossicles on the radial 
 
 side, which articulate with tho first and second metacarpals. 
 
 Thero are five digits in the manus of the Anura ; but the pollex 
 is rudimentary, being represented only by a cartilaginous or more 
 le. Tho second and third digits usually have two 
 ,,'es each, and tho fourth and fifth, three (2, 2, 3, 3). 
 
 The pectoral arch of the Labyrinthodonts is best known in 
 wsaurus, where it presents three ossified elements, which pro- 
 bably answer to tho coracoid, prrecoracoid, and scapula. The bones 
 of tho fore-limb in the Labyrinthodonts are always wi 
 lo the size of tho body. There appear to have been five digits, tho 
 carpus remaining unossified. 
 
 In Proteus, Menobranchus, and Amphiuma, the pelvic arch is not 
 connected with any distinctly modified sacral vertebra, and tho 
 ilium is very small. The pubes and ischia are represented by broad 
 cartilaginous plates, which unite, and may become fused together 
 in the middle line. 
 
 In ifenobrancAu), the pubic portion of the pelvis is continued for- 
 wards into a broad triangular median process. In Sircdon, Aft 
 poma, Cryptobranchus, and the Salamanders, there is a similar 
 median process, reminding one of the omosternum in the pectoral 
 arch of the Anura. It becomes bifurcated anteriorly. The ilium 
 is always ossified ; and there are ischial ossifications in all but 
 Proteus. On the other hand, the pubic region always remaius 
 •artilaginou3 in the Urodcta. 
 
 Hyrtl has shown that Cryptobranchus has no proper kiiee-joint, the 
 femur being united with- the tibia and fibula by a solid fibrous mass ; 
 and that, in Menopoma, tho cavity of the knee-joint is very small. 
 
 The tibia and fibula in the Urodela are always separate, and the 
 proximal elements of tho tarsus are not elongated. The g 
 number of tarsal elements is found in Cryptobranchus ana 
 poma, which, according to Hyrtl, have three cartilages in the proxi- 
 mal, and five in the distal, row, while two are central. In Sircdon, 
 the tarsus completely resembles the carpus, but there is one more 
 distal cartilage. Tho tarsus therefore consists of three proximal 
 cartilr. • intermedium, fibularc), one central {oentrale), and 
 
 five distal (distalia). In the Salamanders, there is usually the same 
 number and disposition of tho tarsal cartilages ; but more or fewer 
 are ossified, and it is interesting to remark that tho two fibular 
 distalia sometimes become united into a "cuboid." 
 
 Alcnobranchus has two (or three) proximal, one central, and three 
 distal tarsal cartilages ; Amphiuma, three proximal and two 
 Proteus, two cartilages on the fibular, and one on the tibia! 
 
 Sircdon, Cryptobranchus, Menopoma, and most Salamanders have 
 five digits in the pes; Menobranchus, four; Amphiuma, three; 
 and Proteus, two. The number of the phalanges in the pentadactyle 
 foot is usually 2, 2, 3, 3, 2. In Siredon, Hyrtl found 1, 2, 3, 4, 2. 
 
 In tho Anura, the ilium is greatly elongated, and tho pubes and 
 Ischia are flattened, discoidal, and applied together by thoir inner 
 Burfaces. The ilium and the ischium, alone, become completely 
 ossified, and there is no prapubic process. 
 
 The tibia and fibula coalesce into one bone. Two elongated bones 
 form a proximal row in the tarsus, and are commonly united by 
 their epiphysial ends {e.g., Sana; they remain separate in Bom- 
 •a cscuicnta, the distal confluent ends of these 
 bones (which possibly answer to the astragalus and calcancum) pre- 
 sent a transversely elongated articular surface, which is convex from 
 the dorsal to tho plantar side. Between this and the proximal end 
 I third metatarsals lies a discoidal, more or less 
 calcified, cartilage. The convex distal faco of this cartilage articu- 
 ith these two metatarsals. From its fibular sido a strong 
 ligamentous band passes to the proximal end of the fifth metatarsal, 
 and a fibrous plate to the fibular and plantar edge of the fourth 
 metatarsal, 60 that tho band and plate are interposed between these 
 the coalesced astragalus and calcaneum. On the 
 :oidal cartilage lies another, which is clonuated 
 from the doi-sal to the plantar side, and concave proximal!;/, to 
 articulate with tho tibial side of the distal end of the • 
 I aneum Tho inner or tibial fare, of ' 
 
 articulate) with the proximal end of the elongated first joint of the 
 
 en/car. Its distal end is i tnd of ligament' us. 
 
 within which a nodule of cartilage may uocncioscd, with the 
 
 proximal he first and sccon-1 Is. The second joint 
 
 m of an ungual phalanx. 
 
 .-, according to Gegenbaur, the calcar con 
 
 sists of only a single piece. 
 
 The pelvic arch of tho Labyrinthodonts appears to have container' 
 
 a well-ossified pubic clement, i peel it differs from that 
 
 of ."11 other Amphibia, The hind-limb, liko tho fore-limb, was 
 
 tibia and fibula are distinct. In tho few 
 
 cases in which the pes is preserved it is pentadactyle, with a short 
 
 nuns tarsus. 
 
 The Integumentary Organs. — In all recent Amphibia, the integu- 
 ment i for the great abundance of simple follicular 
 which are distributed through it, and are sometimes all of 
 one kind (e.g., Proteus), though in other cases two sort3 of such 
 Sana). In many Anura and Urodela, 
 these glandular structures attain a greater complication of structure, 
 r the anglo of the jaw, and constitute what are termed 
 irotoid " glands. In some coses, the secretion of these glands 
 is extremely acrid and tn In (Proteus and 
 Siredon), and in t' pidcrmis becomes modified in 
 i with the t i of sensory nerves, in the head and 
 along the body, in i • >! the norvo of tho lateral line, and 
 gives riso to sensory orgni ituro as those which are 
 ii the lateral lino and the so-called mucous sacs and canals 
 
 in a few Anura, ossification takes place in the dorsal integument, 
 and this process may go so far as to give rise to bony plates, which 
 may become closely connected with the spines of the subjacent 
 vertebra; (Brackyccphalus, Ceratophrys). In the majority of the 
 Peromcla, oval, cycloid scales are imbedded in tho transversa folds 
 of the integument, and constitute another point of resemblance be- 
 I lie members of this group and the Labyrinthodonts. But the 
 rows of scales are not confined to the ventral surface, and the scales 
 themselves differ in structure from those of the Labyrinthodonts. 
 
 In tho Urodela and A nura, tho epidermis is periodically exuri 
 ated. 
 
 The Alimentary Organs. — The teeth of the recent A mpl it ia 
 vary a good deal in form. In the Urodela, they are usually 
 conical and pointed ; frequently more or less curved ; some- 
 times, as in Anaides, lancet-shaped. Siren has the surface? 
 of the vomers and palatines covered with parallel series of 
 small dents en brosse. In Ceratophrys, the baseo of the 
 teeth are slightly grooved longitudinally. In Archego- 
 saurus, similar grooves are more marked, and give rise to 
 folds of the wall of the tooth. These, extending inwards 
 and ramifying, givo rise tp the complicated or " labyrin- 
 thic'' structure exhibited by transverse sections of the 
 teeth of the typical Labyrinthodonts. Very generally, the 
 teeth become ankylosed with tho subjacent bones, and are 
 replaced by others developed at their bases. In the Laby- 
 rinthodonts, some of the anterior teeth frequently become 
 larger than the rest. Tho Anura are remarkable 
 for the total absenco of teeth in the mandibles, in all but 
 one or two genera, while many have no premaxillary oi 
 maxillary teeth. The Toads have no teeth in the upper 
 jaw. Pipa is altogether edentulous. Siren alone presents 
 plates of horn upon the gingivel surfaces of the premaxillay 
 and of the dentary elements of the mandible. 
 
 Teeth, may be developed upon tho premaxilta and 
 e, the palatines, and the dentary and the splenial 
 elements of the mandible ; but they do not occur else- 
 where, — the eo-called sphenoidal teeth of some Salaman- 
 ders being really borne, as Las been seen, on the peculiar!} 
 modified palatines. 
 
 The buccal cavity is usually spacious, and the widely-separated 
 posterior nare3 open into the anterior part of it. In the lower Uro- 
 dela; the branchial clefts lie at the sides of the pharynx, and th« 
 median aperture of tho glottis is situated far back. In the Urodela, 
 and some Anura, there are no Eustachian passages ; but, in moss 
 Anura, these passages have the form of wide recesses leading ou' 
 of the pharynx. In Pipa and Daetyleihra alone, the "recesses' 
 are converted into Eustachian "tubes," which open by & common 
 
 * Jtccherches sur les organs eensiti/s, qui ee 'trouvent dans I'epiderv-' 
 ■iu I'rotle et dt V Axolotl, Sr E n-asnion. Lorsanne, 1873.
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 763 
 
 median aperture ; tms W relatively wider in Dadylethra. Two 
 riooves iu the mucous membrane of the roof of the mouth pass 
 trom the Eustachian to the posterior nasal apertures, and. enclose a 
 lyrate space, in these genera. 
 
 The tongue is rudimentary in the lower Urodcla; but, in the 
 Salamanders, it may he free, fleshy, and even mushroom-shaped. 
 Iu Pipa and Dadylethra, no trace of a tongue i3 to be observed. 
 In liana, as in most Anura, tiie anteiior end of the tongue is com- 
 paratively small and little elevated above the mucous membrane of 
 the floor of tho mouth, but the posterior end'is'prodaced into a 
 free fleshy mass, bifurcated at its extremity. It is this free end 
 which is thrown forward in the act of preht nsion, the tongue turn- 
 ing on its anterior end as on a hinge. Fihinopjirymts is the only 
 Aimran in which the anterior end of the tongue alone is free. 
 
 In the males of many Anura the mucous membrane of tho mouth 
 is produced outwards, on each side, between the mandible and the 
 hyoid, into a sae, which becomes Idled with air, and gives rise to a 
 conspicuous projection of the integument of the throat, In some 
 cases these two sacs coalesce into one. 
 
 Salivary glands have not been discovered in any Amphibia. 
 
 Except in the Pervmcla, the gullet is short. It passes into an 
 elongated stomach, the long axis of which coincides with that of 
 the body in the Urodcla and Peromela, but becomes oblique, or 
 transverse, in the Anura. The intestine is never very long, and, 
 consequently, its convr'.utions are few and simple. There is always 
 a marked distinction between the small and the large intestine. The 
 latter opens into a cloaca, which receives the ducts of the urinary 
 and genital apparatus. The stomach and intestine are enclosed in 
 •"-eritoneum, and suspended to the roof of the abdominal cavity by 
 a mesenteric fold. The liver is always provided with a gall-bladder. 
 It is distinctly bilobed in most Anura; and, in Pipa and Dady- 
 lethra, the two lobes are completely separate, the gall-bladder being 
 attached to the right lobe. In the Peromela, the liver has an ex- 
 ceptional form, being divided into a great number of small lobes, 
 arranged in a longitudinal series so as to overlap one another. 
 
 A pancreas is always present ; but sometimes, as in Plana, it is 
 small,. and 'its glandular substance surrounds the hepatic duct. The 
 spleen, enclosed in the mesentery, is elongated in the Urodcla and 
 Peromela, rounded in the Anura. 
 
 The Organs of Circulation. — The heart is contained within 
 s pericardium, the walls of which generally exhibit 
 numerous scat- L.s.v.e. 
 
 tered pigment 
 cells, and though 
 delicate in the 
 fresh state, are 
 apt to become 
 tough and almost 
 perganientaceous 
 in. spirit speci- 
 mens. The heart 
 (if we apply that 
 name to the 
 whole apparatus 
 enclosed within 
 the pericardium, 
 except the vena 
 cavas), presents a 
 aeries of five 
 segments, to 
 which, enumera- 
 ting them from 
 behind forwards, the following terms may be applied: — 1, 
 Tho sinus venosus ; 2, tho atrium; 3, the venlricidus; 4, tho 
 pylangium (from wukuiv, a gateway, and ayyelov, a vessel); 
 and 5, the synangium. Atrium here denotes the auricular 
 division of the" heart, comprising the right and left 
 auricles. Pylangium and synangium, together, are the 
 equivalents of that portion of tho heart which lies between 
 the ventricle and the anterior wall of the pericardium, and 
 which has been variously named bulbus, cavus, and Iruncus. 
 arteriosus. 
 
 These five segments of tho heart arc so arranged, that 
 tho sinu3 and atrium lie on the dorsal and posterior aspoct 
 of the organ, while the others occupy its ventral and anterior 
 region- Viewed sideways, in fact, tho heart *w the shape 
 
 l A. 
 
 Fio.15— Theheartof SirftfomnerininM. lateral view of 
 the heart contained within the pericardium, the left 
 
 ' wall of tho sinus venosu9 end of the auricles being 
 removed; 5. sinus venosus ; I.v.c. Inferior vena cava; 
 L. s. v. c. left superior vena cava; L.A. left auricle; 
 R. A. right auricle; Spt. septum auriculorum j V. 
 ventricle; T. a. tnjncns arteriosus; 1, '-, 3, 4, the 
 aortic arches. The arrow traverses the sinu-auricular 
 aperture. The auriculo-ventricular aperture lies to 
 the right of the arch formed by the free edge of the 
 septum. 
 
 — - •* 
 
 JlS.vc. 
 
 Z.S.rr. 
 
 of a ;S, of whicn the sinus and atrium occupy the upper, 
 and the other segments tho lower half. But it als 
 always presents, 
 more or less, a 
 lateral ■ flexure, 
 between its an- 
 terior and poste- 
 rior points of 
 adherence to the 
 middle line of 
 the pericar- 
 dium; so that, 
 viewed from 
 above, it . ap- 
 proximates- the 
 form of an N, of 
 which the right 
 half is repre- 
 sented by the 
 synangium, py- 
 langium, and Fig. 16.— Ventral view of the iame henrf contained In thf 
 + ' lo o ti A pericardium. R i.v.c. right superior vena cava. Thr 
 Ventricle, anu pylangium l"id open to show the two tiansverse rowt 
 the left half by ot valves, V, V-. The cumnienceraeDt of the synan- 
 ,, ... , gium 'Sq\ cut across. 
 
 the atrium and 
 
 sinus. The pylangium, in fact, always arises from the 
 right side of the Ventricle, while a large part of the atrium 
 and of the sinus very often lies to" the left of the ventrich 
 the auriculo-ventricu- Fi- 
 
 lar aperture of the ven- T fl . r 
 tricle .looking to the 
 left side and forwards. 
 There is an interest- 
 ing difference to- be 
 observed in the relative 
 position of these seg- 
 ments of the heart in 
 the lower and the 
 higher Amphibia. In 
 Siredon, for example, 
 the greater part of the 
 sinus lies completely 
 behind the ventricle, 
 and the sinu-auricular ' 
 aperture is situated- on 
 the posterior face of the atrium, on a level with the posterioi 
 part of the ventricle ; but, in the Frogs, the sinus lies 
 altogether above the ventricle, without sensibly projecting 
 behind it, and the sinu- 
 auricular opening lies in 
 the dorsal face of the 
 atrium, in front of the 
 level of the auriculo- 
 ventricular aperture. In 
 other words, the seg- 
 ments of the heart have 
 a less marked vertical 
 flexure in the lower, 
 than in the higher Am- 
 phibia, and more nearly 
 approach the condition 
 of the embryonic heart. 
 
 T j ;t\, T7, n is The atrium of the same heart Ulo 
 
 In correspondence with ^^"ft, ,515. spread oat. so as to sho- 
 
 this, the superior cavte the opening of the rulmonary vein, P.v., auo 
 ' ., £ j- the sinu-auricular aperture, S.a 
 
 traverse the pericardium luo 3U1 r t 
 
 to enter the sinus near its posterior end in Siredon, but 
 
 about its middle in the Frog. . 
 
 The sinus venosus is a thin walled sac, which is relatively 
 largest in the lower Amphibia and smallest in the Frotis 
 Anteriorly, it usually receives, on each side, one of tU 
 two superior venne cavse ; posteriorly, the single vena cav» 
 
 Etr. 
 
 Fig. 17. — Posterior view of the same heart, r» 
 .noved f roai the pericardium ; P.v. pulmoaarj 
 vein. 
 
 Wrl 
 
 s;,t.
 
 704 
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 hiforin opens into it. But, in some cases (as in heno- 
 branchus and Pipa, according to Meyer) the inferior vena 
 cava divides in- 
 to two branches, 
 each of which 
 coalesces with 
 the superior 
 vena cava of its 
 sidebeforcopen- 
 ing into the 
 sinus. The supe- 
 rior cava* may 
 open into the 
 sinus 
 
 ately after they 
 have traversed 
 the pericardi- 
 um, as in J// ;io- 
 branchus ; or, 
 they may be 
 short trunks, as 
 in the Frogs; or, 
 
 lmmedl- Fl °- ,9 -— The Heart of Rana tKtilmta.— Lateral view of the 
 
 pericardium, fThe heart has 
 irefully dram) to scale inula, and tlie parts shown 
 pat in u if the 
 A sinus venosus; I.e. Inferior vena cava; s.vs I. left 
 superior cava; 8.VX .. ., the right superior 
 
 cava; p.v. pulmonary rein mi dotlcd contour is seen 
 through the left superior cava) ; c, style introduced Into 
 the pulmonary vein and pasting Into the left auricle; 
 0, style introduced into the sinii-auricular aperture and 
 passing Into the right auricle (R.A.I. where Its end is 
 risible to the right of the Septum, Spl. IV. ventricular 
 cavity. T.a. truncus arteriosus. Ao. aortic arch; a, 
 ligament passing from the wall of the pericardium to the 
 ventricle. 
 
 Fio. 50.— Ventral view of the heart of Rana neti- 
 Unta. obtained in the same way. A stylo Is 
 pa-sed through the aperturo which leads from 
 the vmtrlcle into the prlanglam; LA. left 
 auricle; Ao. Ao*. aortic arches; R.m.v. c. right, 
 and L.t. v. c. left superior cava. 
 
 as in Siredon 
 and the Salamanders, the right cava may be long and the 
 left short. 
 _ The sinu-auricukr aperture, by which the sinus and the 
 right auricle communicate, is small, relatively to the size of 
 these two cavities, and 
 has an oval form. Its 
 lips may be slightly 
 prolonged towards 
 the cavity of the 
 auricle, but do not 
 give rise to very de- 
 finite sinu - auricular 
 valves. 
 
 The auricular seg- 
 ment of the heart, or 
 atrium, is always 
 more or less bi-lobed, 
 the truncus arteriosus 
 being embraced by 
 the two lobes, one of 
 ■which projects on its 
 right side and the 
 other; on the left. The 
 right and left lobes are equal in Proteus ; both lobes are 
 large and sacculated in Siren ; in Menobranchus, the left 
 lobe seems to be large, in Epicrium, the right ; but many 
 of these differences are pro- 
 bably accidental In the 
 Bullfrog (Ranapipiens) the 
 two lobes of the atrial 
 segment of the heart com- 
 pletely envelop the truncus 
 •sus, and become 
 united together by fibrous 
 tissue, which connects their 
 walls on the ventral side of 
 the truncus. The atrium 
 is usually divided into two 
 cavities, of which the left 
 Is smaller than the right, 
 by a septum, which ex- 
 tends from the left wall of 
 the atrium towards the 
 •uriculo-ventricular aperture. The cavity of the auricular 
 legment thus becomes divided into a smaller, left, auricle, 
 which lies behind and to the left of the septum, and a 
 Wrger, jight, auricle, to the right and in front of the 
 
 l.s.v.c 
 
 Z.ft.v. 
 
 Fio. 21. — Theheart of Ftna tscuttnta. rleir. 
 ed from above ami Lehind. .The aortic 
 arches seen through the auricles. Z.p.r, 
 R.p.v. left and right pulmonary veins. 
 
 o. 22. — The left auricle of the bullfrog (Rana prpxem) 
 laid open in such a manner as to show the septum 
 with its nerves (n) and ganglia (?), and the manner 
 in which it descends upon the free surfaces of the 
 auriculo-ventricular valves, F 1 , F 1 . /».r. opening of 
 the pulmonary vein; L.t.v.c. left superior vena 
 cava ; V. ventricular cavity. 
 
 septum. Tn the Frogs, the septum auriculorum is a com- 
 plete partition, containing muscular fibres, and the septal 
 branches, with their ganglia, of the cardiac nerves of the 
 pneumogastric. 
 It divides the 
 auriculo - ventricu - 
 lar aperture, pass- 
 ing from one au- 
 riculo - ventricular 
 valve to the other, 
 and ending be- 
 tween tbem by a 
 free edge, which 
 might almost be 
 said to lie in the 
 cavity of the ven- 
 tricle (Fig. 23). 
 
 In Lissotriton 
 punctatus, and in 
 Siredon, the sep- 
 tum, still com- 
 plete, ends fn the 
 cavity of the au- 
 ricular segment by 
 a free edge, which 
 arches over the auriculo-ventricular aperture. In Meno- 
 branchus, the septum is reduced to little more than a 
 wide-meshed network of branched muscular bands, and, in 
 Proteus, the existence of a septum is doubtful 
 
 The auriculo-ventricular aperture is always situated at 
 the left side of the posterior end of the auricular segment, 
 where the latter joins the ventricle. In Rana esculenla 
 and pipiens it possesses distinct, though short, membrane- 
 ous valves, the free edges of which, directed towards the 
 ventricular cavity, are kept down by fine tendinous filaments. 
 The common trunk, formed by the union of the two 
 pulmonary veins, runs over the dorsal wall of the sinus 
 venosus, passes between the two superior cavae, and, usually 
 dilating, opens into the cavity of the left auricle, close 
 to the sinu-auricular aperture ; and, in fact, separated 
 from it only by the septum, which continues the direction 
 of the right wall of the pulmonary vein. 
 
 The ventricular segment always has thick walls and a 
 comparatively small cavity, which lies in the anterior half 
 or base of the ventricle, and takes a direction from left to 
 right, or from the auriculo-ventricular aperture to that of 
 the truncus arteriosus. In consequence of the loose and 
 spongy texture of the greater part of the thickness of the 
 ventricular wall, it must be recollected that its apparent 
 cavity by no means represents its capacity. 
 
 The truncus arteriosus of Menobranchus is subcylindrical, 
 in that half which is nearest the ventricle, but, in the other 
 half, has a dilated and ovoid form. The latter, in reality, 
 consists of the origins of the aortic arches, closely united 
 .together (synangium), while the former subdivision is tho 
 gateway between the ventricle and the great vessels, or the 
 pylangium. It presents two transverse rows of semilunar 
 valves, three in each row; the lower or posterior row being 
 close to the opening of communication between the pylan- 
 gium and the ventricle, while the other row is near tha 
 anterior end of the pylangium. 
 
 In Siredon (Figs. 15andlG) there 13 the same division into 
 a pylangium proper and a large oval bulb-like synangium, 
 formed by the united aortic arche3. Three valves in 8 
 transverse row are situated at each end of the pylangium. 
 An oblique ridge projects from the dorsal wall of the 
 pylangium, beginning low on tho left side, and gradually 
 increasing in size, until it passes into the dorsal valve of 
 the anterior row. There is a small space in front of thi 
 aniennr row of valves, into which projects the oosterkx
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 765 
 
 free end of an oblique, but nearly horizontal septum, which 
 divides the cavity of the synangium. From this thick parti- 
 tion thinner septa radiate to the walls of the synangium, 
 which they thus divide into five longitudinal canals, of which 
 that which lies to the right is twice as large as any of 
 the others. In fact, it also becomes subdivided, further 
 forwards, by a longitudinal septum, and then there are six 
 canals' answering to the six aortic arches which spring from 
 ?he synangium, where it reaches the anterior end of the 
 pericardium. According to Hyrtl's account, the pylan- 
 gium of Cryptobranchus has a very similar structure; but 
 the synangium is completely split into two trunks, each of 
 which contains three canals. 
 
 This 'leads to the structure of the truncus arteriosus 
 observed in the Frogs, which consists almost wholly of the 
 oylangium. Three thick semilunar valves are placed at 
 the ventricular 
 end of this re- Aa 
 gion, and three 
 others, also of un- 
 equal dimensions, 
 at its synangial 
 end. A longitudi- 
 nal ridge, with a 
 rounded, free, ven- 
 tral edge, projects 
 from the dorsal 
 wall of the py- 
 langium. It is 
 thicker anteriorly 
 than posteriorly, 
 and is idirected 
 obliquely, so that 
 its anterior end 
 passes into the 
 right anterior 
 valve, while its 
 posterior extre- 
 mity is close 
 the left posterior 
 valve. The ante- 
 rior valves of the 
 pylangium (V) 
 are much larger 
 than the posterior valves; and, of the three anterior valves, 
 that which lies on the dorsal side is the smallest. Imme- 
 diately beyond it is situated the aperture (p), which leads 
 into the pulmonary trunks. In front of the pulmonary 
 aperture is a wide cavity, whence the two great aortic trunks 
 (Ao, Ao 1 ) spring. A tongue-like projection springs from 
 the dorsal wall, and divides the cavity imperfectly. On the 
 ventral side of the base of this tongue are the two open- 
 ings (Ca) which lead into the carotid trunks. The three 
 trunks — carotid, aortic, and pulmonary — pass out of tho 
 pericardium together, so closely united that they appear 
 one. It is only at some distance beyond the pericardium 
 that they separate, — tho anterior ending in the rete mirabile, 
 which has received the name of the ."carotid gland;" 
 the middle becoming the arch of the aorta; the posterior, 
 the pulmo-cutaneous artery. 1 
 
 In the Peromela (e.g. Eptcrium), the heart presents many 
 singular peculiarities (Fig. 24). In tho first place, it is 
 moved back to a distance which i3 relatively far greater 
 than in any other Amphibia and in most lizards. Next, it is 
 extremely elongated, and the trujicus arteriosus is relatively 
 more prolonged than any other part of the heart. But 
 
 Ky 
 
 tO Fio. 23.— The heart oT Ttana pipien*. The ventricle (7!), 
 the truncus arteriosus, and ihe aortic trunks (Ao.) are 
 laid open from the ventral side. Spt. free edge of 
 the septum auriculorum; v l . semilunar valves at the 
 ventricular end of the pylangium ; t? 1 . valves nt Its 
 synangial end; <% the septum of the pylangium; 
 p s the aperture of the pulmonary trunks; Co, the 
 apertures of the carotid trunks. 
 
 1 
 
 "y 
 
 r.A— I 
 
 /Br' 
 ,-Er3 
 
 \A» 
 
 5 The structure of the heart in the Amphibia has heen recently dis- 
 cussed with great ability, by M. Annand Sabatier in his Etudes sur le 
 «tur Montpellier. 1871 
 
 the relative proportions of the pylangium and synangium 
 are the reverse of those which obtain in the Anura. The 
 two transverse rows of valves which mark the boundaries 
 of the pylangium are situated close to one another, near 
 the origin of the truncus, all the rest of which is made up 
 of the synangium. A longitudinal partition, at first, divide! 
 the cavity of the synangium into two 
 unequal passages; but, towards its 
 anterior end, it contains four equal 
 canals. Having reached the anterior 
 extremity of the pericardium, the 
 synangium divides, and the two pairs 
 of canals become independent, but 
 closely united, trunks, which run, on 
 each side of the trachea, to about the 
 level of the glottis. Here the two 
 trunks join, and pass into the single 
 arch of the aorta, which turns sharply 
 back beneath the vertebral column. 
 The carotid artery is given off from 
 the junction of the two trunks with 
 the single dorsal aortic arch. Shortly 
 before the two trunks join, that upon 
 the dorsal side gives off the pulmon- 
 ary artery. A single pulmonary vein 
 opens into the left auricle ; and it is 
 worthy of notice, that the auricles 
 and sinus are situated as far forwards 
 on the dorsal aspect of the heart as in 
 the Frogs. 
 
 As regards the number and destination 
 of the great vessels which arise from the 
 synangium, great differences obtain in the 
 different groups of the Amphibia. 
 
 In the perennibranchiate Urodela, each 
 of the three, or four, branchial arches has its 
 appropriate aortic trunk, which springs 
 mediately, or immediately, from the synan- 
 gium. The three anterior aortic trunks 
 supply the gills, but are not wholly distri- 
 buted to them; so that the trunks which 
 unite to form the dorsal aorta are derived 
 partly from the gills and partly come di- 
 rectly from the ventral aorta. The anterior 
 aortic arch gives off, on its ventral side, 
 a hyomandibular artery to the walls of the 
 oral cavity, which appears to represent the 
 remains of the hyoiaean and mandibular 
 aortic arches, while, dorsally, it supplies 
 the internal carotid. The pulmonary artery F|(J w _ Venlra . ,| ew , ttl , 
 is given off from the fourth aortic arch, or head an.l trunk of i>t- 
 from the common trunk, which is formed 
 by the union of this with those which pre- 
 cede it. 
 
 In Cryptobranchus, according to Hyrtl, 
 three trunks are given off on each side from 
 the synangium. The most anterior cor- 
 responds with the hyomandibular artery of 
 the perennibranchiate forms. The second 
 belongs to the first branchial arch. It 
 gives off no branch, but unites with the 
 third and largest vessel to form a common 
 trunk, which unites with its fellow beneath 
 the vertebral column, and gives rise to the 
 dorsal aorta. The posterior aortic arch gives off the pulmonary 
 artery (which supplies a branch to the alimentary canal). From 
 tho common trunk a maxillary and an internal carotid artery 
 are supplied ; while a third branch passes to the ventral side of the 
 atlas, and, turning bad. wards, passes between the transverse process 
 of the second and succeeding vertebrae as a collateral vertebral artery. 
 
 In Salamandra, there are four aortic arches. The most anterior 
 of these belongs to the first branchial arch. It gives off a hyoman- 
 dibular branch, then breaks up into a r-te mirabile, whence the 
 internal carotid artery is continued, and is connected by a mere 
 ductus Botalli with the second arch. The eecond and third arches 
 give off no branches ; but, along with the slender ductus Botalli 
 of the fourth arch, coalesce into the trunk which unites with its 
 j fellow to form the dorsal aorta. The fourth arch gives off the 
 
 mum glvtinoium. Mn. 
 mandible ; Hy. hyoid ; 
 Jtr>, &•*, Br*, branchial 
 arches; Gl. glottis; TV- 
 trachea ; I.v.c Inferior 
 vena cava; V, ventricle; 
 Au. auricles ; ft*.r.c., 
 Lj.v.c. right and left 
 superior cavje. T.u. trun- 
 cus arteriosus; Ao. left 
 aortic arch; PA. right 
 pulmonary artery. Tho 
 pericardium (lightly 
 
 shaded) extends as far 
 as the bifurcation of the 
 synangium.
 
 766 
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 pulmonary artery, and a smaller dorsal cutaneous branch (Hyitl). 
 Tho pulmonary artery gives twigs to tho stomach. 
 
 It is deal chat the posterior trunk ol mehui repre- 
 
 tents the second, third, i » tic arches of Salamandra.imd 
 
 that the first aortic arch of Salamandra first end 
 
 second trunks which spring frpm the syuangium of Cryptobranchus. 
 
 In the Anura tliere are apparently only two aortic arches; but, 
 as has already been observed, each of thcin is divided into three 
 canals. The anterior canal ends in a rele mirabil , 
 internal carotid artery proceeds, and it gives off the hyomandibular 
 or lingual artery. It therefore answers to tho first arch of the 
 Salamanders. The second or middle canal is the largest, an 1 
 into a trunk which runs along the side3 of the gullet; and curving 
 backwards, unites with that of the opposite side in the dorsal aorta. 
 The third canal ends in a trunk which divides into the pulmonary 
 and tho great cutaneous arteries, which latti-r i3 distributed to the 
 dorsal integument. It answers to the third and fourth arches 
 in the Salamanders. 
 
 tin. 25.— The heart, great arterial trunks, and tho adjacent principal nerves of 
 Rnna ucultnta, drawn to scale. Tho positions of the auditory capsule (Ait.), 
 Eustachian tube (Eu ), and hyotdean corrm (//j/.), are .indicated diagram- 
 maflcaljy. L, root of the left lung; &.V. sinus venosui; it. vcntric.e, Au. 
 anricle;. TV. A. truncus arteriosus; CO. carotid gland; ly. Ungos] 
 Cr. cauotld artery; Oph. ophthalmic ailery. 2. Left arch of theaorti 
 lag tbcaugh the muscular diaphragm to the aorta Mo.) beneath; Ir. til. the 
 transverse process of the third vertebra, br. the brachial artery. 3. Puimo- 
 cuioneoua artery ; cl. Us cutaneous, p. its pulmonary division. Nerves: — V, 
 V," V 5 , first, second, and third divisions of the trigeminal; VUo, VlJp, 
 anterior and posterior divisions of the portlo dura; LX. t the glossopharyngeal ; 
 X 1 , the cutaneous branch of the vagus; X a , the viscera] trunk, giving off 
 X 1 , the cardiac, X*. the pulmonic, and X*, the gastric brandies: X', the 
 laryngeal branch. Sp.l. the first spinal (hypoglossal) nerve; Sp.ll. the cut 
 trunk of the accond spinal nerve. 
 
 In the Peromela (Epicrium) the two aortic trunks which spring 
 from the truncus arteriosus would seem to correspond witli the 
 second and third of the frog, the first having become absorbed into 
 the second. 'fids is a point which can be cleared up satisfactorily 
 only by the study of development; but it is obvious that the heart 
 and its arches have undergono greater changes in this group than 
 in any of the others. 
 
 With respect to the venous system, it is worthy of notice that 
 the blood returning from the hinder part of the body and the pos- 
 terior extremities is, in part, carried to the kidneys, and in part 
 poured into a vein which runs in the anterior wall of the abdominal 
 cavity, — the anterior abdominal vein. Of the branches in 
 this vein terminates anteriorly, one communicates with tho portal 
 vein, and one is distributed to the liver directly. In the Anura, 
 venous radicles in the integument covering the back of the head 
 and shoulders, unite to form a great cutaneous vein, which passes 
 backwards, perforates the external oblique muscle, and then turn- 
 ing abruptly forwards, ends in the subclavian vein. This vein 
 carries away a large part of the blood of the cutaneous artery, 
 which accompanies it in a great part of its course. 
 
 The lympltatic system has been most carefully studied in 
 the frog, where it consists of ( 1 . ) widely-distributed lymphatic 
 capillaries, and sinuses which ensheath the blood-vessels; (2.) 
 subcutaneous lymph sacs; (3.) a large subvertebral cislerna, 
 enclosed between the diverging lamellas of the mesentery, 
 and placed in commu lication with the peritoneal cavity by 
 minute openings or stomata; (4.) four lymph hearts, two 
 situated close to the transverse process of tho third ver- 
 tebra and two at the sides of the coccygeal stvle. These 
 
 hearts pump tho lymph into the adjacent veins. Ai the 
 two pairs of lymph hearts have been discovered in Triton 
 and Salamandra as well as in Junta, it is probable that 
 they are present in the Urodda generally. No Amphibia 
 I a lymphatic glands. 
 
 The Thymus gland in the Urodda lies behind tho angle 
 of the mandible (Triton, Salamandra), or closo to tho 
 dorsal end3of the branchial arches (Proteus, Menobranchus, 
 (, Amphiuma, Menopoma). In the Peromela it has 
 the same position as in the abranchiate Urodda. In the 
 tadpolo tho thymus occupies a place similar to that which 
 it possesses in the branchiate Urodela. Iti the adult frog it 
 is to be found just behind the suspensorium. The Thyroid 
 gland, usually double, but Binglc (according to Leydig) 
 in Proteus, always lies in tho immediate vicinity of thn 
 lingual vessels. 1 
 
 The ry Organs. — Tho glottis in the Amphibia 
 
 is situated in tho middle line of the floor of tho pharynx 
 In the perennibianchiate Urodda, it is a very small longi- 
 tudinal slit leading into a narrow passage, which widens 
 into a chamber into which the elongated pulmonary sacs 
 open. The Urodela and the Peromela present mero car- 
 tilaginous rudiments of a larynx; but, in the Anura, this 
 structure attains a great development, and becomes tho 
 instrument of the powerful voice with which many of these 
 animals are provided. The larynx is lodged in the anglo 
 between the two thyro-hyals, with which it is closely con- 
 nected. The chief part of tho larynx is an annular cricoid 
 cartilage, with which two arytenoid cartilages are articu- 
 lated. Membranous folds, or freely projecting cartilagin- 
 ous processes of the arytamoid cartilages (Pipa), play the 
 part of vocal ligaments. In Pipa the larynx is extensively 
 ossified. In Proteus, the lungs are long tubes, dilated at their 
 posterior blind ends, and fixed to the dorsal walls of tho 
 abdominal cavity by folds of tho peritoneum. In Triton 
 they are somewhat wider sacs, but, in both, the inner sur- 
 faces of the pulmonary sacs are smooth. In Siren and 
 Salamandra, the walls of the sacs become cellular, and in 
 Amphiuma, Menopoma, Cryptobranchus, and tho Anura, 
 the cellulation acquires a considerable development. 
 
 In Amphiuma, Menopoma, Cryptobranchxts, and in the 
 Peromela, there is a distinct trachea, which is of great 
 length in the Peromela. In Pipa and DactyleUaa there ia 
 no trachea, but each lung is connected with tho laryngeal 
 cavity by a bronchus. 
 
 The Penal Organs. — Tho kidney is a moro or less 
 elongated organ — longer in the Urodela and Peromela, 
 shorter in tho Anura — which lies on each side oi the 
 vertebral column, its posterior end being close to, or 'even 
 extending back on the dorsal side of, the cloaca. 
 
 In tho female the efferent ducts of each kidney unite 
 into a longer or shorter common trunk, which appears 
 always to open into tho cloaca by an aperture distinct 
 from that of the oviduct, though the contrary statement 
 is very generally received. 2 In Rana esculenla, there can 
 be no doubt as to the distinctness of the minute urinary 
 apertures from the large and conspicuous oviducal openings, 
 close to whieh they are situated. Hyrtl aay3 of Crypto- 
 branchus — "Ureter .... super latera cloacae descendens 
 in collum allantoidis exoneratur" (op. cit., p. 84). 
 
 In the male Amphibia, on the other hand, there is a 
 longer or shorter duct common to both the renal and 
 the genital products, which opens into the cloaca. In 
 the Urodela, the duct is continued forwards along tho 
 outer sido of the kidney to tho 'anterior end of the al> 
 
 1 See Leydig, AnatomiscMiistolo'jiuhe Untersuctomgen iibor Fische 
 und Rcptilien, 1853. 
 
 * See, for example, Stannius, ITandtmch der Amphibian, pp. 250, 
 251. On the other side, comp, Milne-Edwards, Lectins, t. vii. p. 333
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 76'i 
 
 dominal cavity, and clearly represents the Wolffian duct 
 of the embryo. Both the urinary tubuli and the vasa 
 efereiuia of the testis open into this duct. In Crypto- 
 branchus the kidney is divided by a constriction into 
 two portions — a slender, anterior, and a much thicker and 
 longer, posterior, division. From the latter the efferent 
 urinary canals proceed, and, curving outwards and back- 
 wards, join the posterior part of the Wolffian duct. The 
 former is traversed by the vasa efferenlia of the testes, 
 which pass from its outer edge to the anterior portion of 
 the Wolffian duct, so that it resembles an epididymis. 1 
 
 In Proteus, according to Leydig, the anterior end of the 
 Wolffian duct is infundibuliform and open ; the vasa effer- 
 entia of the testes open into the anterior moiety of the duct, 
 the renal ducts, into its posterior moiety. The numerous 
 arcuated renal ducts of the Salamanders and Tritons unite 
 together, and open into the Wolffian duct near its cloacal end. 
 The Wolffian duct persists in Bomhinator igneus and Disco- 
 glossus pictus 2 ; but, in most Anura, it becomes obliterated 
 for the greater part of its extent, and the same canals 
 serve to convey both the urinary and the spermatic fluids 
 to the persistent cloacal end of the Wolffian duct, which 
 ordinarily receives the name of ureter. The urinary bladder 
 is always large, and is often bifurcated anteriorly. 
 
 The Nervous System. — The amphibian brain is remark- 
 able for the rudimentary condition of the cerebellum, which 
 has the form of a mere band arching over the anterior part 
 of the fourth ventricle. The mesencephalon is divided 
 above, more or less distinctly, into two optic lobes. The 
 cerebral hemispheres are always relatively large, subcylin- 
 drical in the Urodela, but wider behind than in front in 
 the Anura, and they are generally closely united together 
 by their inner faces. 
 
 Fis. 28.— Diatrram 'of the chief cranial nerves of Rana ucufenta. IT. optic ; IV. 
 pathetic; V 1 , orbito-nasal; V 2 , superior maxillary; V 3 , inferior maxillary; 
 Vila. VIIp. anterior and posterior divisions of the portio dura; IX. the 
 glosso-pharyngeal ; X. the pneumogastric; X\ its dorsal branch. Sp.I.Jbe 
 Brat spinal neive (hypoglossal). 01. olfactory nerve; Tg. tongue; •i/y.cornu 
 of the byoid; Ed. Haiderian gland. 
 
 Ten pairs of cranial nerves are always found— viz., 1, 
 The olfactory; 2, optic; 3, oculomotor; 4, pathetic; 5, 
 trigeminal; 6, abducens; 7, portio dura; 8, auditory; 9, 
 glossopharyngeal; 10, pneumogastric. The hypoglossal is 
 always an extra- cranial nerve. 
 
 1. The olfactory is usually a rounded cord,- not dilated 
 at its anterior end. Fischer has observed it to arise by 
 two roots in Pipa. 
 
 . 2. The optic nerves are attached, as usual, to the floor of 
 the thalamencephalon. Fischer 3 found no chiasma in 
 Siredon or Menobranchus. Dr Humphrey found none in 
 
 1 Schmidt, Goddard, and Van der Hoeven, Aanleekningen over de 
 Anatomie van den Oryptobranchus japonicua. 
 
 a According to Von Wittich. " Beitrage zur morphologischen und his- 
 tologischen Entwickelung der Ham und Geschlechtswerkzeugo der nack- 
 ten Amphibien," Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, hi. iv. 
 
 * Anatomisehe Abhandlungen, p. 123, et seq. 
 
 Cryplobranchus ; but sections of the brain are needful 
 before the actual absence of the chiasma can be considered 
 to be satisfactorily proved. 
 
 3.- The oculomotor nerve remains distinct from the 
 trigeminal in most Amphibia, but its branch to the superior 
 rectus muscle appears to coalesce with the orbito-nasal 
 division of the fifth in Salamandra terrcstris (Fischer). 
 
 4. The pathetic nerve remains distinct in Siredon and 
 Cryptobranchus, and in the Anura; but in Salamandra ter- 
 restris, Fischer found that tho superior oblique muscle was 
 supplied by a branch from the orbito-nasal, with which, 
 therefore, the pathetic had probably coalesced. 
 
 5. The trigeminal gives rise, as usual, to a Gasserian 
 ganglion; .and this ganglion remains distinct from that of 
 the seventh nerve in all the Urodela, though united with 
 it by a commissural band, which appears to answer to the 
 nervus petrosus superficialis minor of the higher Vertebrata. 
 In the Anura, on the contrary, the two ganglia are closely 
 approximated (Pelobates, BombinalorY, or confounded 
 together {Rana, Jlyla, Bufo) in the adult, though they are 
 distinct in the tadpole. The orbito-nasal, or first division 
 of the trigeminal, is always separated from the second and 
 third divisions by the ascending process of the suspen- 
 sorium, when this structure is present. It supplies the 
 tentacles of the Peromela. In the tadpole, and in some 
 Urodela, a cutaneous branch to the dorsum of the head is 
 given off from the fifth. 
 
 6. The abducens is distinct from the trigeminal in Sala- 
 mandra and Bufo, but coalesces with the Gasserian gan 
 glion in Rana, Pipa, and most Anura. 
 
 7 and 8. The portio dura and portio mollis arise by a 
 common trunk, from which the portio dura soon separates, 
 and either forms a distinct ganglion, as in the Urodela 
 and Peromela, or fuses with the trigeminal 
 
 9. The ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve appears 
 to coalesce with that of the vagus, and the roots of t^ie 
 two nerves pass out of the same foramen in all ihe-Ampltibia 
 except Siren, where, according to Fischer (op. cit.,-p . 1 47), the 
 nerve leaves the skull by a distinct aperture, close in front of 
 that for the pneumogastric, and forms a ganglion of its own. 
 
 10. The vagus ox pneumogastric, in the perennibranchiate 
 Amphibia, supplies the second and third branchia, and the 
 cucullaris muscle ; gives off cutaneous, laryngeal, cardiac, 
 pulmonic, and gastric branches, and sometimes as many as 
 three cutaneous branches, one of which runs along the 
 junction of the dorsal and ventral muscles to the hinder 
 part of the body. These lateral nerves of the pneumo- 
 gastric exist also in Menopoma, Amphiuma, and Triton, and 
 in tadpoles ; but appear to be absent in Salamandra ter- 
 rcstris and in the adult Anura (Fischer, I.e.) These, 
 however, possess a cutaneous branch of the vagus, which 
 accompanies the cutaneous branch of the pulmo-cutaneous 
 artery, and is distributed more or less widely to the dorsa) 
 integument of the head and trunk. 
 
 Fischer considers that a fine nerve, arising lower down 
 than the vagus,, and distributed to the abductors of the 
 head in Pipa,is to be regarded as an accessorius. • But, seeing 
 that, in the Amphibia generally, the motor nerves of the 
 larynx, and, where a cucullaris exists, the nerves of that 
 muscle also, are supplied from the pneumogastric, th« 
 question of the presence or absence of an accessorius seems 
 to reduce itself to this : Docs the pneumogastric receive 
 nerve fibres arising from the sides of the medulla oblongata 
 and spinal cord between the roots of the spinal nerves 1 
 And, as it certainly does not, the accessorius, as it exists 
 in the higher Vertebrata, must be admitted to be absent in 
 Amphibia. 
 
 In most Amphibia, the first cervical nerve has the dis- 
 
 * According to Staunius, Handbuji, p. 160.
 
 768 
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 tribatlon of tho hypoglossal ; in Menobranchts, however, 
 tho corresponding nervous supply is furnished by the 
 second and third cervical nerves, — the first spinal nerve, 
 in this genus, perforating the sides of tho body of tho 
 atlas, and being distributed to a muscle which passes from 
 this vertebra to the occiput (Fischer, I.e., p. 158). In 
 Pipa the hypoglossal is furnished by the second cervical 
 nerve; in Salamandra, by tho first and second. There is 
 no trace of any suboccipital nerve in the Amphibia; and 
 as, in the absence of this nerve, tho first spinal would 
 appear to anrwei to the second cervical of the higher Verte- 
 brata, the fact that it takes the place of tho hypoglossal 
 becomes very perplexing. 
 
 In the An ura (liana) the sympathetic is represented by 
 a double chain of ganglia, situated at the sides of the aorta, 
 and receiving branches from tho anterior divisions of the 
 spinal nerves. It appears to be continued in the skull by 
 commissural cords which pass forwards on the inner side of 
 the auditory capsule, and connect the ganglion of the 
 vagus with that of the trigeminal. 
 
 The Organs of the Higher Senses. — The nasal sacs arc 
 elongated in Prot'us, Menobranchus, and Siren, and not 
 covered by nasal bones or alinasal cartilages. In tho other 
 Amphibia they are broader, and enclosed by cranial carti- 
 lages and ossifications. The olfactory mucous membrane 
 is variously folded; and, in liana, some of these folds are 
 supported by ingrowths of the anterior cartilaginous wall 
 of the nasal chamber. 
 
 In Proteus tho eye is completely hidden by the continua- 
 tion of the unaltered integument over it, and the organ of 
 vision is almost as much obscured in the Peromela. In 
 the other perennibrancliiate Urodela, and in Pipa, the in- 
 tegument covering the eye forms a transparent cornea, but 
 there are no eyelids. The abranchiate Urodela have an 
 upper and a lower lid; and, in the higher Anura, the lower 
 lid becomes transparent, and is usually regarded as a 
 membrana nictitans, as it is provided with a peculiar motor 
 apparatus. In the Anura, the eye possesses not only the 
 ordinary four recti muscles and the two obliqui, but there 
 is a retractor bulbi. The Frogs and probably other Anura, 
 possess a Harderian gland ; but no lachrymal gland has 
 been observed. The sclerotic may be chondrified, but it is 
 not ossified. There is no pecten. 
 
 With regard to the organ of hearing, the membranous 
 labyrinth is enclosed between the pro-otic bone, in front, 
 and the representatives of the opisthotic and epiotic (usually 
 confounded with the exoccipital), behind. The fenestra ovalis 
 always occupies a space in the line of junction of the pro- 
 otic with the posterior ossification, whether it be occupied by 
 a broad unossified space, as in Menopoma, or the two bones 
 be ankylosed together, as in Siren, Triton, and old Frogs. 
 The stapes is more or less ossified, and its outer face is 
 frequently provided with a styliform appendage, in the 
 Urodela. In the Urodela (which have no tympanic cavity), 
 a ligament passes from the stapes to the suspensorium, and 
 there is no columella auris. The like absence of columella 
 auris and of a tympanum obtains in several Anura. Dugcs 
 states that the columella is wanting in Bombinalor and 
 Pelobates 1 (Recherches, p. 41), and the absence of the colu- 
 mella auris, as of the tympanum and Eustachian tubes, 
 has since been noticed in Telmatobius, Phryniscus, Atelopus 
 virius, and Brachycephalus ephippium (Stannius, op. cit., 
 p. 61). In the higher Anura, there is a complete tym- 
 panum, with Eustachian tubes, and a columella auris, 
 which extends from the stapes to the membrana tympani. 
 The tympanic membrane is either quite similar to the rest 
 
 •/WoVito. howeve '. has an extremely minute, osaified, columella 
 aurii. 
 
 of the integument or markedly different from it. In some 
 genera (e.g. liana), the tympanic membrane is set in a 
 frame of cartilage. In Pipa and Dactylethra, the Eusta- 
 chian tubes, as already remarked, have a common opening, 
 and the columella is very peculiar. Recent investigations 
 make it probable that the Amphibia possess a rudimentary 
 cochlea. 2 Whether the opening, which in the Frogs has been 
 described as a fenestra rotunda, is really of that nature, is 
 doubtful. 
 
 The Reproductive Organs. — The ovana and testes aro 
 attached to the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity, in the 
 immediate vicinity of the kidneys, by the mesoarial and 
 mcsorchial folds of the peritoneum, which invest them. 
 
 The ovaria, when fully developed, become hollow, and in 
 the Anura their internal cavities may be divided by septa. 
 
 The oviducts are long, usually more or less convoluted, 
 tubes, which open posteriorly into the cloaca ; while, ante- 
 riorly, their funnel-shaped apertures lie in the anterior 
 part of the abdomen, sometimes, as in the Frogs, as far 
 forward as the root of the lung. Their walls are glandular, 
 and secrete a viscid substance which invests the ova in their 
 passage down the oviduct. 
 
 In the male Urodela, tho persistent Wolffian duct, al- 
 ready mentioned, occupies the position of the oviduct in 
 the female, and the vasa efferenlia, after traversing the 
 kidney, open into it. This duct persists in Bombiualor 
 and Discoglossus pictus ; but in the male Anura, in 
 general, the greater part of it is obliterated, only so much 
 remaining as plays the part of ureter and vas deferent. 
 In the Urodela accessory glands open into the cloaca, and 
 in Triton there is a rudimentary copulatory papilla. Some 
 female Urodela are provided with receptacula seminis. In 
 the terrestrial Salamanders and in the anurous Rhinoderma 
 Gayi the young are developed within the dilated uterine 
 terminations of the oviducts. In Pipa the eggs are deposited 
 on the back of the female, and the integument grows up 
 round each, and encloses it in a cell, in which it undergoes 
 its development. In some tree-frogs (Nototrema and Opis- 
 tliodelphys) the eggs are received into a sort of marsupial 
 pouch formed by an up-growth of the margins of the dorsal 
 integument, which, when complete, has a small posterioraper- 
 ture. On the other hand, it is the male Alyles obstetricant 
 which twists the strings of eggs laid by the female round 
 his hind-legs, and, thus cross-gartered, retires into seclusion 
 until the young are ready to be hatched, when he resorts 
 to the water in which the tadpoles are to perform their 
 further metamorphoses. 
 
 Development of the Amphibia. — The yelk of the ovum undergoes 
 complete division, in which respect tho Amphibia agree with the 
 Pliaryngobranchii, ilarsipobranchii, and Mammalia, and differ 
 from other Vcrlcbrata; though it must be remembered that the 
 process of yelk division in the Ganoidei and Dipnoi is not yet 
 known. 
 
 Except in some viviparous species, the embryo, when hatched, is 
 piscifonn and apodal; and threo pairs of external gills, which become 
 more or less branched, are developed from the first, second, and 
 third branchial arches. In the larval Triton a very singular elongated 
 appendage makes its appearance on each side of the head, in front 
 ok the branch!® ;* and in the tadpole two eminences of the ventral 
 integument, with glandular terminal faces, are developed— one on 
 each side of the middle line, behind the mouth. The larvoe of 
 Dactylelhra have two long tentacles attached near tho angle of the 
 mouth. An opercular fold of the integument glows back from each 
 hyoidean arch, and the two are connected by a free fold of the sub- 
 gular integument. The limbs make their appearance as buds from 
 the sides of the body, the anterior pair appearing first. The anterior 
 limbs attain a considerable size before the posterior pair are developed 
 in Triton; but, in the Frogs, the posterior limbs grow much faster 
 than the anterior, which long remain inconspicuous and hidden. 
 
 In the Urodele larvae, teeth are very early developed in the prc> 
 maxillary, maxillary, vomerine, palatine, splcniaL and dentarr 
 
 s See Hasse, Die vergleichende Anatomic des Kauliqcn Gchvrorgcme*, 
 Leipsic, 1873. 
 
 ' The larval Sircdon has no such hyoidean (!) appendage.
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 769 
 
 regions ; and, indeed, in Triton and Siredon, the teeth precede the 
 eorrcsponding bones, which arise by the ossification of the mucous 
 membrane about the bases of the teeth ; and there are no labial 
 cartilages, and no horny labial papillae, or beak-like armature of the 
 jaw. The abdomen is slender, in accordance with the brevity of the 
 intestine, and the little animal is altogether carnivorous. 
 
 In the Anura, on the other hand, teeth are not developed until 
 a later'stage. A pair of cartilages appear in the roof of the mouth 
 in front of the ends of the trabeculae ("rostraux tuperieurs,' 
 Dnges ; "upper labials," Parker), and another pair opposite them 
 (" rostraux inferieurs," Dugea ; "lower labials,' Parker); and the 
 epithelium of the mucous membrane covering them becomes con- 
 verted into an upper and a lower brown horny toothed plate, having 
 si;me resemblance to the beaks of a Chelonian, The curtain-like 
 lips, which surround the oral aperture, are also beset with horny 
 papillae, which call to mind the corneous teeth of the Marsipo- 
 branchii. The abdomen is swollen and almost globular, and lodges 
 a long and spirally-coiled intestine.' The animal is herbivorous, 
 though it does not despise animal food, even in the shape of the 
 weaker members of its own family. 
 
 The space allotted to this article does not allow the details of the 
 development of the Amphibia to be even sketched ; but attention 
 may be directed to one or two of the more important points. 
 
 The skull presents some singular differences in the course of its 
 development in the Urodela (Triton, Siredon) and the Anura {Rana, 
 Alytes) respectively. In the former, the mandibular and trabecular 
 arches become connected only at their dorsal ends, by the pedicle of 
 the mandibular arch ; the pterygoid arch is developed late ; and the 
 mandibular arch appears to give rise to no orbital process. In the 
 latter, the mandibular and trabecular arches not only unite at their 
 lorsal ends by the pedicle, but, at a very early period, the mandi- 
 bular arch is united with the antorbital process of the trabecula ; 
 and the pterygoid grows pari passu with the subsequent divergence 
 of the mandibular and the trabecular arches. A large orbital pro- 
 cess is developed from the mandibular arch. 
 
 In the Urodela, the hyoidean and branchial apparatus consists, at 
 first, of elongated cartilaginous hyoidean cornua, united with a 
 median chondrification, which represents the basihyal and basi- 
 branchial pieces, to which last two cerato-branchials are attached. 
 The first cerato- branchial is continued dorsally into the first 
 epibranchial, while the second cerato-branchial supports the other 
 three epibranchials. As the development of the Triton proceeds, 
 the hyoidean arch becomes connected with the Buspensonum, and 
 with the stapes, by ligament. The second basi-branchial ossifies, 
 detaches itself from the first, and lies as a forked bone in front of 
 the larynx ; and only the two cerato-branchials, with the first epi- 
 branchial, remain — the rest of the branchial apparatus disappearing. 
 
 In the Anura, the hyoidean arches are, at an early period, very 
 thick, and relatively short, and are articulated with the suspensoria. 
 A relatively broad and short cartilage represents the basihyal and 
 basibranchiaL and at the sides of this are two very broad cartilages, 
 which correspond with the two cerato-branchials, inasmuch as their 
 dorsal edges bear the four epibranchial cartilages. As the tadpole 
 grows older, the hyo-branchial apparatus becomes more like that of 
 the Urodele larva, the hyoid arch elongating into a slender rod, and 
 the two cerato-branchials becoming distinct. The basibranchial 
 region of the median cartilage, which unites the cerato-branchials 
 rentrally, becomes forked, and the processes which form the fork 
 ossify and become the thyro-hyals, which therefore would seem to 
 correspond with the os ypsrloides of the Urodela. Finally, the 
 extreme dorsal end of the hyoidean arch detaches itself from the 
 suspensorium, and enters into close union with the periotic capsule, 
 from the outer wall of which the columella auris is developed.^ 
 
 The Distribution of the Amphibia. — Darwin has pointed out 
 (Origin of Species, p. 350) that Amphibia are met with on no islands 
 out New Zealand, New Caledonia, the Andaman Islands, and 
 perhaps the Solomon Islands and the Seychelles. "This general 
 absence of frogs, toads, and newt3 in so many true oceanic islands 
 cannot be accounted for by their physical conditions; indeed, it 
 seems that these are peculiarly fitted for those animals, for frogs 
 have been introduced into Madeira, the Azores, and Mauritius, and 
 have multiplied so as to become a nuisance. But as these nTn'maU 
 and their spawn are immediately killed (with the exception, so far 
 as is known, of one Indian species) by sea-water, there would be 
 gTeat difficulty in their transportal across the sea, and therefore we 
 can see why they do not exist in strictly oceanic islands." 
 
 Leaving the oceanic Islands aside, the distribution of the Am- 
 
 1 See the Memoirs of Dnges and Parker, already cited, for the 
 details of thesa-metamorphoses. The account given by Mr Parker of 
 the modifications of the dorsal extremity of the hyoidean arch, how- 
 ever, does not accord with the results of the present writer's later 
 investigations. No coalescence of the hyoidean with the mandibular 
 arch takes plac« ; and the " supra-hyo-mandibular " has nothing to 
 do with the columella auris. 
 
 philia is world-wide, but the different groups are very remarkably 
 localised. 
 
 The Urodela, for example, are limited not only to the arctogaeal 
 province, but to the temperate parts of that province ; and, in curi- 
 ous correspondence with the Ganoid fishes, their headquarters axe 
 in North America. Siren, Afcnobranchus, Amphiuma, Menopoma, 
 Dicamptodon, Heredia, Anaides, Dcsmognathus, Bairachoseps, Semi- 
 dactylus, and Plethodon are exclusively North American ; and the 
 majority of species of Amblystoma and Spelerpes appertain to that 
 region, — Amblystoma being represented in North Asia, and Spelerpes 
 in the circum-Mediterranean area. Triton alone is spread over 
 the whole temperate arctogaeal area. Salamandra, Pleurodeles, 
 Bradybates, Chioglossa, arid Salamandrina are confined to Europe 
 and North Africa. The singular Salamandra atra is limited to the 
 Swiss and Austrian Alps, Proteus to Carniola and Carinthia. Four 
 genera — Ellipsoglossa, Isodadyiium, Onychodactylus, and Ranodon — 
 are confined to North Asia ; and Cryptobranchus, if it be a distinct 
 genus, is limited to Japan. 
 
 If the distribution of the Urodela calls to mind that of the Ganoid 
 fishes, that of the Peromela is rather comparable to the distribution 
 of the Tapirs. Of the four genera, Siphonops and Rhinalrema are 
 exclusively inhabitants of the hotter part of the Austro-Columbian 
 province — as are the great number of the species of Ccecilia; but 
 the remaining species of that genus are East Indian, and Epierium 
 is confined to Java and Ceylon. 
 
 In strong contrast with the foregoing, the Anura* are of world- 
 wide distribution, being, abundantly represented in all the great 
 provinces. A great preponderance of the genera and species, how- 
 ever, are Austro-Columbian, the Anura having their headquarters 
 in South America, as markedly as the Urodela have theirs in the 
 northern division of that continent. North America, in fact, is poor 
 in Anura, having only three pe^'iliar genera, viz., Scaphiopus, 
 Acris, and Pseudacris; while the rest o' northern Arctogaea ha3 five, 
 viz., Pelodytes, Discoglossus, Alytes, Pelobates, and Bombinator. 
 
 The genus Rana itself, however, is characteristicaUy arctogaeal, 
 having only a single species in the Mexican border-land of Austrc- 
 Columbia, and none in Australia. Rana esculenta extends from 
 France to China and Japan, and from North Europe to Tunis. 
 Rana temporaria covers even a larger area, as it occurs in the 
 British Islands and in North America, as well as in North Asia and 
 Japan. 
 
 The Austro-Columbian region not only presents the greatest 
 number of species, but among them are some of the most singular 
 forms, such as Pseudis, Ceratophrys, Braehycephalus, Rhinoderma, 
 Engystoma, Otilophus, Notolrema, Opisthodelphys, Rhinophrynus, 
 and Pipa; in which respect the South American Anura run parallel 
 with the birds of the same region. And, as is seen in other cases, 
 the nearest allies of many of these singular forma are to be found 
 in DltTa-Saharal (JJthiopic) Africa, e.g., Bemisus (Braehycephalus), 
 Breviceps (Engystoma), Dactylethra (Pipa). It is remarkable that 
 Pseudophryne, which is closely allied with the .Sthiopic Hemisus 
 and the Austro-Columbian Braehycephalus; and Chelydobatrachus, 
 which is similarly related to the Jithiopic Breviceps and the Austro- 
 Columbian Engystoma, are Australian. 
 
 The Australian region is remarkable for the absence of the genera 
 Rana and Bufo, which occur everywhere else ; an^ "or the occurrence 
 of Cystignalhus, which is an Austro-Columbian, North American, 
 and ^Ethiopian form, but does not occur in India. If it were not for 
 its tree-frogs, Australia would be poorer in Anura than Europe is. 
 
 These Anura, modified for arboreal life, or " free-frogs," are repre- 
 sented in all the distributional provinces — the genus Hyla having 
 its chief seat in Austro-Columbia, and extending thence over North 
 America, Europe, North Africa, Western and Eastern Asia, and 
 Australia, but not into India or Ultra-Saharal Africa, in which 
 other forms of the same group are met with. 
 
 The British Islands possess the following species of Amphibia: 
 — Rana temporaria, Bufo vulgaris, B. calamita, Triton cristatus, T. 
 Bibronii, Lissotriton punctatus, L. palmipes. 
 
 Geological Distribution. — No fossil Peromela are known, Anura 
 occur in the Miocene deposits of France and Germany. The best 
 preserved forms belong to the genera Palceobatrachus and Latonia, 
 and occur in the schists of (Eningen along with their tadpoles. 
 They possess maxillary teeth, and present no important differences 
 from existing Anura, except that, in Palceobatrachus, the sacral 
 vertebra has coalesced with the two preceding vertebras, while, in 
 existing forms, only one of the prse-sacral vertebras is known to 
 become confluent with the sacral. Urodela also occur in the same 
 Miocene deposits. Of these the famous Andrias Scheuchzeri is very 
 closely allied to Menopoma and Cryptobranchus, while other forms 
 appear to be generically identical with Triton end Salamandra. 
 The singular genus Orihophysis presents a good deal of resemblance 
 to Proteus, but appears to have possessed no limbs. 
 
 The older Cainozoic and the upper and middle Mesozoic forma- 
 tions have yielded no Amphibia, A doubtful form, Rhinosaurus, 
 
 * Seo Dr Gunther'« valuable Catalogue of the Batrachia salientia. 
 
 1—26
 
 770 
 
 oocors in the Lias of Simbirsk. Iu the earliest Mesozoic deposits — the 
 Trias, — and in the later Palaeozoic — the Permian and the Carboni- 
 ferous formations. Amphibia occur, sometimes in great abundance. 
 In the Trias, they have been found in greatest numbers in Germany, 
 while the Carboniferous formations have furnished the largest supply 
 in the British Islands, Germany, and North America. Jt is inter- 
 esting to observe that the last-named region has recently yielded 
 elongated apodal forms, allied to the Ophiderpeion of the Kilkenny 
 coal measures. 
 
 ^Etiology of the Amphibia. — In taking a general survey of the 
 relations of the different great divisions of the Amphibia, the most 
 striking fact is their singular distinctness and isolation from one 
 another. None of the Peromela present the slightest indication of 
 an approximation towards the Anura or the Urodela. 
 
 It may be suggested that the incompleteness of the jugal arch in 
 Freviceps, Pipa, and Daclylethra; the absence or rudimentary condi- 
 tion of the palatine bones in Brericeps, Bombinator, and Alytes; 
 the rudimentary condition of the tympanum, and the absence, or 
 reduction to a rudiment, of the columella auris, in so many forms ; 
 the presence of rudimentary ribs attached to some of the anterior 
 vertebrae of Bombinator and Alytes; the presence of mandibular 
 teeth in Hemiphractus and Grypiscus; and the peculiar spermatozoa 
 of Bombinator, are so many indications of an approach towards the 
 type of structure observed in the higher Urodela. 
 
 But, without underestimating the force of these considerations, it 
 must be admitted that they count for very little, when we take into 
 consideration the fixity of the number of the vertebrae, and of the 
 characters of the pelvis and of the limbs, in the Anura. 
 
 It is to be regretted that nothing is known of the development of 
 any of the Peromtla; of any of the Urodela, except Salamandra, 
 Triton, and Siredon (A mblystoma) ; and of more lean a few of the 
 Anura. Among the lower forms of this division, the development 
 •f Alyta and Ptlabales has been studied thoroughly by Vogt' and 
 Van Bambeke; 1 and the more advanced conditions of the tadpole 
 of Daclyltthra are known. So far as these observations go, however, 
 they tend to show that the larvae of all the Anura possess the horny 
 beak, which distinguishes them from those of the Urodela. 
 
 If we assume, as the fundamental similarities between the different 
 divisions of the Amphibia lead us to do, that they have resulted 
 from the modification of some one primitive form, the problem, 
 at present seemingly insoluble, presents itself, whether these differ- 
 ences in structure and habit of the larvae of the Urodela and Anura 
 indicate that the caudate ancestor of the Anura was already different 
 from the ancestor of the Urodela, or whether they result from modi- 
 fications which have taken place in the larvae of the Anura, since 
 that group came into existence. 
 
 In view of this problem, Siren possesses a particular interest. Its 
 horny jaw-sheaths might be compared to those of the Anuran tad- 
 pole, and it might be regarded as showing the way by which the 
 Anuran became differentiated from the caudate original stock. But 
 the horny sheaths in Siren rest directly upon the premaxillae and 
 the dentaries, and not on labial cartilages ; and as to its habits 
 of life, Siren appears to be eminently carnivorous (Dume'ril et 
 Bibron, Erpltologic Glnlralc, i. 196). As has been already stated, 
 no fossil remains of Peromela are known, but Urodela and Anura 
 occur in some abundance, and, in certain cases, in an excellent state 
 of preservation, as far back as the middle of the Tertiary epoch. 
 Now, these fossils show that the Anurous and Urodelous types of 
 organisation were, at that time, thoroughly differentiated from one 
 another. Pulaobatrachus, with its three vertebrae ankylosed into a 
 sa;rum, is, in fact, a singularly modified frog ; while among the 
 Urodela, the Salamandrido, the Menopomida, and very possibly the 
 Proieida, are severally represented. The young of the Miocene 
 Anura were tadpoles so similar in form to those of the existing 
 frogs and toads, that there is no reason to doubt their resembling 
 them in other respects. 
 
 There can be little question, then, that the Anurous and the Uro- 
 delous types must have been represented before the Tertiary epoch ; 
 but here their history breaks off, no amphibian belonging to any 
 livin" groups having been discovered in Mesozoic or older strata, as 
 far as the Lias. 
 
 From the Trias to the Carboniferous formations, inclusively, the 
 fresh-water deposits abound in Amphibia. But all these, so far as 
 we have any positive knowledge, are referable to the Labyrintho- 
 dont type. No Labyrinthodont presents the slightest approxima- 
 tion towards the Anura; but elongated and apodal, as well as sala- 
 mandroid forms occur ; and in their cranial structure, no less than 
 in the presence of scale-like dermal ossifications, they approach the 
 Peromtla. In regard to their possible relations with tne Urodela, 
 it is interesting to observe that in some Labynnthodouts, at .any 
 
 1 Vogt, UnUrsuchungen fiber dU Entwickehtngsgeschkhte der Qeburts- 
 lelferkrSU (Alyta obstetricans), 1842. 
 
 * Van Bambeke, " Recherches sur le developpement dc Pelobate 
 briin," Miin. de V Acad, de Bcbjiyu, 186S. 
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 
 rate,* the mahus has the five digits; one of which, at least, is lost in 
 all the Urodela, and the pelvis appears to have had a distinct and 
 completely ossified pubic element, which has also disappeared in all 
 existing Amphibia (Miall, Report, I.e.) 
 
 The Labyrinthodonts present a few characters — such as the paired 
 supra-occipital ossifications and the complications of the folds of 
 their teeth — by which they approach the Ganoid fishes more than 
 any other Vertebrata ; and it is worthy of notice that the lowest 
 Labyrinthodonts, such as Archegosaurus, present no approxima- 
 tion to the cranial characters of the lower Urodela, and show no 
 evidence of the largely-developed branchial apparatus which is so 
 characteristic of the latter. 
 
 Thus, if upon such slender evidence as exists, it is justifiable to 
 speculate at all concerning the " phylogeny " of the Amphibia, the 
 most probable conclusion appears to be that the I.abynnthodonta, 
 the Urodda, and the Anura diverged from one another at a very 
 early period of geological history; while, possibly, the Peromela are 
 the last remnants of the peromelous modification of the Labyrintho- 
 dont type. 
 
 With respect to the origin of the amphibian stook itself, the fol- 
 lowing considerations appear to be of fundamental importance : — 
 1. The early stages of development of the Amphibia do not resemble 
 those of any known Ganoid, Telostean, or Elasmobranch fish, and 
 are similar to the corresponding stages of the ilarsipobranchii. 2. 
 The skull of the lowest Urodela has, in some respects, advanced 
 but little beyond the Marsipobranch stage. In the higher Urodela 
 there are numerous points of resemblance with the Ganoids. The 
 skull of the tadpole, on the other hand, has much in common with 
 that of Chimcera (as Miiller has pointed out), and with that of th< 
 Dipnoi, while ' the chondrocranium of the adult frog has many 
 singular affinities with that of the Elasmobranchii, and particularly 
 of the Rays. 3. The only Vertebrata, besides the Amphibia, whicfk 
 have transitory external gills are the Elasmobrancliii, the Dipnoi, 
 and perhaps some Ganoids. 4. The only fishes in which the cere- 
 bellum is rudimentary are the ilarsipobranchii and Oanoidei. 6. 
 The only fishes in which the amphibian and embryonic connection 
 between the male reproductive organs and the renal efferent ducts 
 is observed are the Ganoids. 6. The only fishes which have t 
 "pylangium," with valves disposed as in the Amphibia, are th« 
 Ganoids, Elasmobranchs, and Dipnoi. 7. The only fishes which pos- 
 sess morphological (Polypterus) or functional (Dipnoi} lungs are the 
 Ganoids and Dipnoi. The conclusions suggested by these facts 
 appear to be that the Amphibia took their origin from some 
 primordial form common to them, the Elasmobranchii, the Oanoidei, 
 and the Dipnoi; and that the main distinction by which their 
 earliest forms were marked off from those of the other groups, was 
 the development of that pentadactyle type of limb, which is commoa 
 to all the higher Vertebrata. And Beeing that the Elasmobranch, 
 Ganoid, and Dipnous types were fully differentiated from one another 
 in the Devonian epoch, it is reasonable to believe that the existence 
 of the' Amphibia, as a group, dates back »t least as far as that 
 remote period of the earth's history. 
 
 Taionomio Synopsis or the Amphibia. 
 
 I. The Urodela. 
 
 A. Branchiae persistent throughout life. (Perennibranchiata.) 
 
 1. Trachystomala. — Skull eitngated ; prsemaxillae and den- 
 
 tiry piece of the mandible provided with horny plates ; 
 premaxillae not- ankylosed ; no nasal bones, but ossi- 
 fications between the ascending processes of the prc- 
 maxillse ; maxillae rudimentary or absent ; palatines 
 small, ovaL and beset with "dents en brosse;" ptery- 
 goid absent ; four persistent branchial arches ; pelvie 
 arch and limbs absent. 
 Siren. 
 
 2. Proteida. — Skull elongated ; premaxillae and dentaiica 
 
 dertigerous ; maxillae rudimentary or absent ; pre- 
 maxillae not ankylosed; no nasal bones; palatmei 
 bearing a single row of teeth, and coalescent wiih the 
 pterygoids ; three persistent branchial arches ; both the 
 pectoral and the pelvic arches and limbs developed. 
 Proteus, Menobranchus. 
 
 B. Branchiae caducous; gill-clefts persistent (DerUremaia.) 
 
 3. Amphiumida.— Skua elongated ; premaxiUie and den- 
 
 taries dentigerous; maxillae large; premaxillae anky- 
 losed ; large nasal bones ; palatines absent ; pterygoid 
 present, elongated; a basihyal cartilage; four persis- 
 tent branchial arches ; both the pectoral and the pelvic 
 limbs developed, though very smalL 
 
 Amphiuma. 
 
 » "Description of the Vertebrate Remains from the Jarrow Colliery,' 
 by Prof. Huxley, F.R.S., Transactions of Uu Moyat Iruh Academy, 
 voL xaiv. 1867, pi. xix. fis, 2.
 
 A 11 r H I B 1 A 
 
 77} 
 
 4 ifenopomida. — Skull broad ; premaxilUe and dentarics 
 dentigerous ; maxiU.c large ; premaxillae not anky- 
 losed; large nasal bones; palatines absent; pterygoid 
 present and very broad ; a basihyal cartilage ; per- 
 sistent branchial arches may be reduced to the first 
 nnd second ; the cerato-hyal and epibranchial are 
 confluent in the first, distinct in the second bran- 
 chial arch ; both pectoral and pelvic limbs well de- 
 veloped. 
 
 Menopoma, Cryptobranchus. 
 
 C Branchis caducous, and gill-clefts closed in the adult condi- 
 tion. (Myctodera.) 
 5. Sulamandrida. — Skull broad ; premaxillae and dentaries 
 dentigerous; maxilla; large; premaxillae separate or 
 ankylosed ; nasal bones present, and usually large ; 
 palatines present in the young state, and situated as 
 in the Trachystomata xoA Prole-idea, but changing their 
 relations in th« adult; pterygoids present; the first 
 and second branchial arches persistent, — the first two- 
 iointed, the second a single piece. 
 [The latest writer on the classification of the Urodcla, Professor 
 Strauch ('* Revision der Salamandrinen-gattungen," Mem. de V Acad. 
 Imp. des Sciences de St Petcrsbourg, se. vii. tome xvi. ), divides the 
 Salamandrida into two tribes, — Mccodonla and Lechriodonta ; the 
 first comprising all those species, the vomero-palatine teeth of which 
 ire disposed along the inner edges of two backwardly diverging pro- 
 sesses of the bones, and therefore form two longitudinal series 
 divergent posteriorly ; and the second, those which have the teeth 
 disposed along the posterior edges of the vomero-palatine bones, 
 ■rluch are sometimes truncated posteriorly, sometimes produced 
 into a longer or shorter median process, and on which, therefore, 
 the teeth are either directed transversely, or form two oblique series, 
 aore or less rapidly converging backwards.] 
 a. Mecodonta — 
 
 Salamandra, Pleurodeles, Bradybales, Triton, 
 Ckioglos3a, Salamandrina. 
 A. Lcchrwdonla — 
 
 Ellipsoglossa, Tsodaclylium, Onychodaclylus, Am- 
 blystoma, Banodon, Dicamptodon, Plethodon, 
 Dcsmognathus, Anaides, Hemidactylium, 
 Hercdia, Spelerpes, Batrachoscps. 
 
 II. Tije Anuea. 
 
 [For the classification of the Anura, consult Dr GUnther's valu- 
 able Catalogue of the Batrachia saliemibia ; Jfr Cope's papers in the 
 Natural History Beuiew, 1865, and in the Journal of the Academy 
 >f Natural Science of Philadelphia, N.S., vol. vi. ; and llr Mivart's 
 jssay "On the Classification of the Anurous Batrachians," in the 
 Proceedings of the Zoological Society^ 1869. Far more minute in- 
 vestigation of the structure of the Anura than has yet been carried 
 out seems to be requisite before their classification can be placed 
 apon more than a provisional footing. The phases through which 
 the Frog passes in the course of its development, show that those 
 Anura which are devoid of a tympanic cavity are of a more em- 
 bryonic character than those which possess one. The arboreal habit 
 Is so evidently adaptive, that it can hardly be regarded as a safe 
 basis for classification. Even Bana lemporaria, at a year old, will 
 :limb up the vertical side of a glass vessel, flattening out the ends 
 A iU lota, and applying its belly against the surface of the glass, 
 oke a Tree-frog. ] 
 
 A. The tympanic cavity, with its Eustachian passage of com- 
 munication with the mouth, may be present or absent. 
 "When present, the oral apertures of the Eustachian tubes 
 are separate, and the pterygoid bones do not furnish a 
 floor to them. 
 
 <v Vo teeth in the premaxillae or maxilla; ; tongue 
 free, either in front or behind, but usually be- 
 hind. 
 
 a. No tympanic cavity. Eustachian recesses 
 sometimes present. 
 Bhinophrynus <1), Phryniseus, Psevdophryne, 
 Bmchyccphalus(2), I£cmisus(3), Micro- 
 hyla 
 C. A tympanic cavity and Eustachian tubes. 
 I/yUipicsia, Kalophrynus. Bufo, Otilophus, 
 Pc.iaphryne, Patudubufo, Schismaderma, 
 Xenorhina (4), Engystoma (4). Diplo. 
 pclrna (4), Cacopus {Systoma) (4), Gly- 
 phoglossus (4), Callula (4), Brachy- 
 merus (4 >, Adenomera (4), Pachyba- 
 trnchus(X), Breviceps, Chclydobatrachus, 
 llypopaclius, Bhinoderma, Atelopus, 
 Copca, Paludicnla. 
 
 .1) Tnorur frt* In front. ('.») Dorsal dcrroal oaslficjtiotia. (3) T-tncue retrac- 
 slo. (4) No prfccontcuida. 
 
 4. Teeth in the prcmaxiUae and maotlllae;; the "tonga 
 may be fixed by its whole circumference, hut i> 
 usually free behind. 
 o. No tympanic cavity ; Eustachian Kcewe 
 sometimes present. 
 Bombinator (1), Pelobales, Didocut, Alsoda. 
 Tclmatobius, Cacotus, Liopclnux. 
 0. A tympanic cavity and Eustachian tubes. 
 PLdromanlis, Alytes(l), Scaphropus, Hy 
 perolius, Helioporus, A'ullereria, Phyi 
 Ivmedusa, Pelodryas, Clurodryas, ByUi. 
 Bylclla, Otolygon, Bseudacris, BJdiu, 
 LUoria, Triprion, Opisthodelphys, 
 Trachycephalus, Notolrema, Izaha, 
 Megalixalus, Bylarava, XeptomarUii, 
 Bylambal/M, Platymantis, Cornuf..r, 
 Bemimantis, Bkacophorus, Chiromantis, 
 Polypedatcs, Theloderma, Bappia, Acris, 
 LeiylJi, Elosia, Epirhexis, Phyllobata, 
 llylodes, Crossodadylus, Sliaiomantis, 
 Calostctkus, Bana, Odtmtoplirynua, 
 ZHcroglossus, Oxyglossus, -PhryzwLo- 
 traehus, Boplobatrachus, Phrynoglossus, 
 Clinotarsus, Pscudis, Pilkecopsis, Mixo- 
 J'hyes, Pyocephalus, Ccratophryt {2> 
 Zachanus, PlatypUctrum y Neobatrachi~. 
 Cvclorhamphus, LimnodynasUs, Crinia. 
 Eusoph/eus, Pleurodema, Leiuperus, 
 Jfylorhina, Limnocftaris, Cystignalkus, 
 Jlemiphractus (3), ChiroUpUs, Cahjpto- 
 crphalus', Cryptolis (4), AsUrophrys (4), 
 Xenopki-ys(i), Megalopltrys(i), A"<'-".1<*- 
 phrys(i), Pelodytes, Eeptobrachium,DU- 
 eoglossus (1), Zaphrissa(l), Latonia(\\ 
 Palceobatrackus, Arthrolcplis, Grmat- 
 cus(3). t , yt»- 
 
 fl) Oplstbnecellan Teneonac ; rudimentary ribs attacbedtntheanterlor vertebras. 
 (7) IjwuJ 'Jermal ossifications. (3) Mandibular teeth. (4) Opisthoccelian vertebrae. 
 
 B. The Eustachian tubes of the well-developed tympanic cavity 
 lave a common median aperture in the roof of the mouth, 
 and the pterygoid bones extend beneath and form a 
 floor to them. The tongue is wanting. .The lungs are 
 attached to bronchial tubes ; and the vertebra) are qpisUio- 
 ccelous. 
 
 o. No teeth. 
 Pipa, 
 b. Teeth in the premaxillae and maxillav 
 Eaciylethra. 
 
 III. The Peromixa. 
 
 a. With a tentaculiferous fossa on the lure part of Ui» 
 
 face. 
 
 Camlio, Siphonops (1), Epicrium. 
 
 b. Vith no tentaculiferous fossa. 
 
 Bhinatrema. 
 (1) Siphonops annulalm has no scales 
 
 IV. The Labyklnthodonta. 
 
 Amphilamvs, . Anthracosuurvi* Apaitnn, 
 
 Jrchrgosaurus,f Baplutcs,' Bairachider- 
 
 peton, Bolhriccps,f Brac/iydecles, Brac/ty- 
 
 ops,* Capitosaurus* Chalcosaurus,' 
 
 Cocytinus, Colosleus.f Dasiiccps,' Den- 
 
 drcrpeton,* Dictyoccphalus, Dolichosonta, 
 
 Erpctoccphalus* Eupelor,~* Enrytltorox,* 
 
 Gonioglypius,' Bylcrpeton, Uylcmomus, 
 
 Jchthyerpcton* Ichthyocampsa, Kerater 
 
 ■peton,* Labyrinthodon* Lepidotomurus. 
 
 Lepterpclon,* Leptophractus, Loxvtrma.* 
 
 Mastodonsaurus* Melofaurus* Mite- 
 
 pias,' Micropnolis* Molgophis,\ (Esto- 
 
 eephalusO)T Ophidcrpcton,\ Osteo- 
 
 phorus* Pachygonia* Pa riostcgus, Pholv 
 
 tUrpcton,* Phl'c'hontior,-\ Pteroplax, 
 
 Ptyonius.f Baniceps,\ Bhinosaurus, 
 
 Sauropleura,* Trcmatosaurus.f Tudi- 
 
 tmus,\ Urocordylus,f Xcstorrhylias,' 
 
 Zy'lOStiUr; " 
 
 [A satisfactory grouping of these genera has nut y*t been effected 
 
 and it is possible that some of the forms here enunciated may no; 
 
 be true Labyrinthodonts. To those about the truly Labyrinthodoni 
 
 character of which there seems no doubt a * or a + is attached— 
 
 the t denoting the serpentiform genera. BatracliiderpetoH, Pario- 
 
 sicgus, and Pteroplax are remarkable for the incompleteness of th* 
 
 jugal arch, and some other characters by wluch they appear k 
 
 represent the Proteidea. The true position of HyUrpeUm ami 
 
 llylonomua is sliU doubtful.] (T. H II. J
 
 772 
 
 AMPHICTYONY 
 
 AMPHICTYONY, in Greeh Antiquity, was an associa- 
 tion of several tribes for the purpose of protecting some 
 temple common to tht'rn all, and for maintaining worship 
 within it. The members were called d/x<£«ri'o«s or afj.<f>tK- 
 Ti'oi'ts, a word which means " the dwellers around." Tho 
 second form of the word Benfey supposes to have arisen 
 from a digammated u/x^iKTifovc;. Out of the name the 
 Athenians, according to their habit, easily discovered the 
 founder of the Delphic Amphictyony, with which they were 
 connected; and hence in later times, by an inverse process, 
 t he name was derived from Amphictyon, one of the fabulous 
 kings of Attica. 
 
 Similar religious confederations existed in Greece at a 
 very early period, and there is reason to believo that at their 
 stated assemblies they discussed questions of international 
 law and matters affecting their political union as well as 
 religious subjects. Gradually, however, the political influ- 
 ence of the Amphictyonies died away. As states of great 
 power stood on an equality with insignificant tribes in the 
 number of votes, they naturally prevented the settlement 
 of important political matters in such an assembly. 
 Accordingly, during the flourishing period of Greek his- 
 tory the Amphictyonies almost disappear. They are not 
 mentioned in Thucydidcs and Xenophon. But they appear 
 again in vigour in the time of Philip, and become engines 
 by which political parties, under pretence of religious zeal 
 for the interests of the gods, wreak their vengeance on 
 their rivals and antagonists. 
 
 This is especially true of the Amphictyony of Delphi, 
 the most important of all these associations. Though we 
 know better about this confederation than about any other, 
 yet many particulars are hidden in obscurity, and consider- 
 able doubts gather around others of which we know some- 
 thing. The Amphictyony existed in very early times, and 
 jEschines states that it arose when the temple at Delphi 
 was first built. It is more likely, however, that it was 
 originally connected with Thermopylae and the temple of 
 Demeter Amphictyonis which was there. The Amphic- 
 tyony consisted of a unioa of twelve tribes, each of which 
 had a right to two votes. These tribes were for the most 
 part Thessalian or bordering on Thessaly ; and it is probable 
 that the others, as the Dorians and Ionians, gained admis- 
 sion in consequence of colonies that came to them from 
 Thessaly. 
 
 There are nine lists of the tribes that constituted the 
 Delphic Amphictyony in the classical writers and in in- 
 scriptions. Of these only one is complete, and the rest 
 differ from each other in some particulars. The one that 
 is complete was found on a Delphic stone containing a 
 decree of the Amphictyonic council in regard to money due 
 to the Delphic treasury. On this stone are given the votes 
 of each tribe, and the final decision of the council in har- 
 mony with the majority of votes for one of the opinions 
 held. The list is as follows : — The Delphians, two votes; 
 Thessalians, two votes; Phocians, two votes ; Dorians from 
 Metropolis, one vote; the Dorians from Peloponnesus, one 
 vote; the Athenians, one vote; the Euboeans, one vote; the 
 Boeotians, two votes; the Achaean Phthiots, two votes; the 
 Malians, one vote; the OEteans, one vote; the Dolopians, 
 one vote; the Perrhaebians, one vote; the Magnetes, two 
 votes; the jEnianes, two votes; the Locri Hypocncmidii, 
 one vote; the Locri Hesperii, one vote. The exact date 
 of the decree recorded on the Delphic stone is matter of 
 dispute, but the most probable conjecture places it about 
 the year 130 b.o. We have therefore clear testimony as 
 to the constitution of the Amphictyonic council at this 
 date; and, starting from this, we can form some idea of the 
 changes which took olace in the members of the council. 
 It is generally believed .that no change took place in the 
 tribes forming the league till the time of the second nacred 
 
 war, 315 B.c. Of these tribes jEschines gives ns a list, with 
 the omission of one. They are the Thessalians, Boeotians, 
 DorihUS, Ionians, Perrhaebians, Mngnetes, Locri, GJtcans, 
 PhthiU!:, Malians, Phocians; and there can be little doubt 
 that it is tho Dolopians who have been by some mistako 
 omitted. The confusions in some of tho other lists have 
 arisen probably from the ignorance of transcribers, who did 
 not know that tho ^Enianes and GJteans lived close to each 
 other, and were often comprehended under the same name, 
 and who made two tribes of the Achaean Phthiots, Achaeans 
 and Phthiots. yEschines says that all theso tribes had 
 equal right of voting; but the inscription on the Delphio 
 stone shows that the two votes of one tribe might be 
 divided among two different portions of it. At the con- 
 clusion of the Phocian war the Phocians were excluded, 
 and the Macedonians received their votes; and the vote of 
 the Lacedaemonians was given to the other Doric tribes of 
 Peloponnesus. The Delphians also obtained votes, either 
 at this time or after the third sacred war, 338 B.C., by 
 some of tho smaller tribes that had two votes being 
 restricted to one. In the same way, and also by the ex- 
 clusion of tho Locri Ozolae, the ^Etolians secured a place 
 in the council in 338 B.C., and gradually took possession 
 of a great number of votes. The Phocians were restored 
 to their -place in 279 B.C., on account of their gallant 
 resistance to the Gauls. Finally, the yKtolians and Mace- 
 donians were excluded from tho council, and the constitu- 
 tion of the council as given in the Delphic stone was 
 formed. The last change mentioned in classical writers is 
 detailed by Pausanias, but the passage is evidently cornipt 
 Augustus wished to give votes to. Nicopolis, and for this 
 purpose so altered the constitution of the council as to 
 make- the votes thirty in number. 
 
 The objects of the league are distinctly expressed in the 
 oath which the Amphictyons had to take, and which is 
 preserved in jEschines's oration " De Falsa Legatione." This 
 oath bound the Amphictyons not to destroy any of the 
 Amphictyonic towns, not to turn away its running waters 
 either in time of war or in time of peace; and if any out 
 should attempt to rob the temple of Delphi (the common 
 centre of the confederacy), to employ their hands, feet, 
 tongue, and their whole power to bring him to punishment 
 The humanising influence which this and other enactments 
 of the confederacy were intended to exercise, is perceptible 
 in the part relating to war. The framer of the law evi- 
 dently regarded war only as an unavoidable means of 
 settling disputes between two states; but it was to be 
 carried on only for the purpose of bringing the dispute to 
 a decision, and not for destruction and devastation. An- 
 other enactment probably was that the inhabitants of a 
 conquered city should not be sold as slaves. But the 
 chief care of the Amphictyons appears to have been to 
 watch over the temple, to punish those who were guilty of 
 a crime against it, and to reward those who did anything 
 to increase its splendour and glory. 
 
 There is difficulty in determining how often the Am- 
 phictyons met. But the most liLely inference from the 
 somewhat indefinite statements of ancient writers is, that 
 they went twice every year both to Delphi and Ther- 
 mopylae, in spring and in autumn. There is also some 
 difficulty in determining the relative positions of the two 
 sets of officials named in connection with the Amphictyony, 
 the Hieromnemones and the Pylagoroi or Pylagorai. But 
 there can scarcely be a doubt that the Hieromnemon was 
 the principal official. There were as many Hieromnemones 
 as there were votes; and the Hieromnemones were* alone 
 entitled to vote. The assembly proper consisted therefore 
 only of the Hieromnemones. It is most likely that the 
 Hieromnemones were elected annually by lot In the case 
 of the smaller states It is probable that the right to elect
 
 AMPHICTYONY 
 
 773 
 
 went round by turns, while the more important states sent, 
 their representatives every year. There might be several 
 Pylagoroi from e\ch state. ^Eschiues mentions that there 
 were on one occasion three from Athens. They were elected 
 by vote. Their function seems to have been to advise 
 ivith the Hieromnemon, to address the assembly when any- 
 thing relating to their own state was discussed, and to bring 
 ill their influence to bear on the assembly on behalf of their 
 own state. The office of Hieromnemon remained in high, 
 honour till a late period. When the Dionysiac theatre in 
 Athens was excavated in 1862, a chair of honour was 
 found with the inscription Upo/jLvrjfj.ovo^, and as it is certain 
 that dramatic exhibitions took place in this theatre in the 
 time of the Antonines, the office of Hieromnemon must 
 have existed at that period. 
 
 The meetings, however, were attended not only by the 
 deputies, but by thousands of others who flocked to Delphi 
 or Thermopylas for religious and mercantile purposes, or 
 only for the sake of amusement. This occasioned popular 
 meetings (iKKXrja-uu) distinct from those of the regular 
 deputies. But we cannot suppose that all the Greeks 
 indiscriminately were allowed to take part in those popular 
 assemblies, which must have consisted of visitors from the 
 states which were members of the Ampk.cfyony 
 
 Wise and humane as were the objects of the Amphic- 
 tyons, yet wherever they actively interfered in the affairs 
 •f Greece during the historical period, we find that they 
 were more powerful for evil than for good; and the holy 
 wars which were carried on by them in the defence of the 
 Delphic temple and the honour of its god, contributed not 
 a little to the demoralisation of the Greeks. 
 
 The very first time that the Amphictyons interfered iz 
 the affairs of Greece we find them acting in direct oppo- 
 sition to the spirit of their institution. We allude to the 
 Crissaean or first sacred war, which broke out in 594, 
 and lasted till 585 b c. The inhabitants of Crissa (or 
 Cirrha), on the Corinthian Gulf, were charged with extor- 
 tion and violence towards the strangers who landed at 
 their port, or passed through their territory on their way 
 to Delphi. For this the Amphictyons declared war 
 against Crissa, and it was vigorously carried on by the 
 Thessalians and Cleisthenes, the tyrant of Sicyon. They 
 even pretended to have the sanction of Apollo to dedicate 
 the Crissoeans and their territory to the god, to enslave 
 them, and make their land a waste for ever. The war is 
 said to have been terminated by a stratagem of Solon, who 
 poisoned the waters of the river Pleistos, from which the 
 town was supplied. When the town was taken, the vow 
 of the Amphictyons was literally carried into effect : Crissa 
 was fazed to the ground, its harbour choked up, and its 
 fertile plain changed into a wilderness. Such was the 
 terrible vengeance taken by a body of confederates, whose 
 original object was to prevent those very things which they 
 now perpetrated to uphold the honour of the deity presid- 
 ing over tbem. The second sacred war, which likewise 
 lasted for ten years, from 355 to 346 B.C., was carried 
 on with unparalleled exasperation for all that period, 
 and nearly all the Greeks took part in it. The Thebans 
 had set their hearts upon conquering Phocis, but screened 
 their designs behind a charge preferred against the Locrians, 
 alleging that they had robbed the temple of Delphi, because 
 they had taken into cultivation a tract of land belonging to 
 the Delphic temple. The Amphictyonic council, before 
 which the charge was brought, condemned the Phocians to 
 pay a heavy fine, and to destroy the crops of the sacred 
 Selds. No sooner was this verdict pronounced than the 
 Thebans, Thessalians, Locrians, and GJteans took up arms 
 to execute it. The Phociaua wer« joined by Athens and 
 Sparta, and took possession of the temple of Delphi and its 
 treasures, which they were ouliged to employ in defraying 
 
 the expenses of tue war. The war was carried on with 
 unexampled cruelty, for even the surrender of the dead for 
 burial was refused, and all Phocian captives were put to 
 death. This war also afforded Philip of Macedonia an 
 opportunity to interfere- in the affairs of Greece. Being 
 invited by the Thessalians to co-operate with them against 
 the Phocians, Philip and his Macedonians acted as the 
 champions of the god, and defeated the Phocians in a bloody 
 battle near Magnesia. Three thousand captive Phocians 
 were put to death. The latter, however, remained un- 
 daunted until at length they were compelled by treachery 
 to surrender. . The Amphictyons now excluded them for 
 ever from the league, their arms and horses were to be 
 delivered up, their towns to be destroyed, and the people 
 were henceforth to live in small villages, and to pay annu- 
 ally to the god sixty talents (about £15,000) until the 
 temple should be completely indemnified. Macedonian 
 and Theban troops carried the judgment into execution; 
 twenty-two towns disappeared from the face of the earth, 
 and the otherwise fertile country remained for many years 
 a wilderness. A third sacred war was decreed against the 
 town of Amphissa, because its inhabitants had taken into 
 cultivation the plain of Crissa ; but in reality the war was 
 brought about by the venal on. itures who endeavoured to 
 promote the ambitie is schemes of Philip of Macedon, who 
 was bent upon making himself master of Greece. This 
 war broke oui in 338 B.C., and its unfortunate conse- 
 quences lea to the catastrophe whjch deprived Greece of 
 her independence in the battle of Chaeronea, Such is a 
 brief outline of '\e history of the Delphic Amphictyony, 
 which net only itself violated its first principles, but is not 
 Known to have ever raised its voice to condemn the wanton 
 destruction of other Amphictyonic towns, such as Plataeae 
 and Thebes. 
 
 There were many other confederations of a similar kind, 
 some of which, however, do not bear the name of Amphic- 
 tyonies in the authorities from which we derive our infor- 
 mation regarding them. The following were among the 
 most noted : — 
 
 1. The Amphictyony of Calauria, an island near Trcezen, 
 consisted of the seven states of Hermione, Epidaurus, 
 iEgina, Athens, Prasias, Nauplia, and the Minyan Orcho- 
 menos. These states took part in the sacrifices which were 
 offered up in the temple of Poseidon, situated on the island. 
 Sparta and Argos displaced Nauplia and Prasiae when these 
 lost their independence. It is difficult to see what object 
 could unite states so widely apart. Some suppose that the 
 tribes forming the league were originally Ionian ; others, 
 that they all were interested in the defence cf seaports 
 against inland states. 
 
 2. Amphictyony of Ouchestos, in the territory of Hali- 
 artus in Bceotia, was likewise connected with the temple of 
 Poseidon. As at all other Amphictyonies, the meetings of 
 the members were celebrated-with various religious rites, 
 solemnities, and public games. We do not know the 
 nations that constituted this league. 
 
 3. Amphictyony of Amarynthos, in Euboea, connected 
 with the temple of Artemis. We know that the two towns 
 of Eretria and Chalcis were members of it, and that there 
 existed an ancient treaty by which these two cities pledged 
 themselves not to use against each other any missiles thrown 
 from afar. 
 
 4. Amphictyony of Delos, connected with the temple of 
 Apollo, was a league formed among the inhabitants of the 
 Cyclades and the Ionians in the neighbourhood. Its insti- 
 tution was ascribed to Theseus. The solemnities connected 
 svith its meetings gradually fell into disuse, until they were 
 revived and increased in 426 B.C., when the island of 
 Delos was purified by the Athenians. The Athenians, after 
 this time, regularly sent an annual embassy to Delos, and
 
 174 
 
 A M T - A JV1 f 
 
 they also retained for themselves the superintendence of the 
 temple and the administration of its treasures. 
 
 AMPHION, in Greek Mythology, the son of Zeus by 
 Antiope,. and the husband of Niobe, was a musician of 
 such wonderful power, that at the sounds of his lyre the 
 stones began to move, and formed themselves into walls 
 around Thebes, after his conquest of that city. He was 
 killed by Apollo for assaulting his temple ; or, as some 
 report, he destroyed himself in despair at the slaughter of 
 his children by that god. The famous Farnese bull, 
 discovered in 1546, represents Amphion punishing Dirce 
 for her treatment of his mother. There are four other 
 mythical personages of this name. 
 
 AMI'HIOXUS, a species of fish, differing widely from 
 all other known animals. See Lancelet. 
 
 AMPHIPOLIS, a city of Macedonia, situated on the east 
 bank of tho river Strymon, about three miles from the sea. 
 It was originally a Thracian town, known as the 'Eto 
 0801 (Nine Roads), and was colonised by the Athenians 
 in 437 B.C., two previous attempts (497 and 465 B.C.) 
 having been unsuccessful. In 424 B.C. it surrendered to the 
 Lacedaemonians without resistance, and the Athenians never 
 afterwards recovered possession of it. For his failure to pre-, 
 vent this disaster Thucydides was banished from Athens. 
 The site of Amphipolis is occupied by the modern Jeni Keui. 
 
 AMPHISB^ENA (from d/x$t's, on both sides, and /?<uVu>, 
 to go), a genus of animals, found only in South America 
 and the West Indies, which, though they have the general 
 appearance of snakes or worms, belong to the order Lacer- 
 tilia, or Lizards. .The best known species are the sooty 
 or dusky amphisbaena (A. fuliginosa), and the rarer A. 
 alba. The body of the amphisboena, from 18 to 24 inehes 
 long, is of nearly the same thickness throughout The 
 head is small, and there can scarcely be said to be a tail, 
 the vent being close to the extremity of the body. The 
 animal lives mostly underground, burrowing in soft earth, 
 and feeds on ants and other small animals. From its 
 appearance, and the ease "with which it moves backwards, 
 the popular belief in the countries where it prevails has 
 been that the amphisbama has two heads, and that when 
 the body is cut in two the parts seek each other out and 
 reunite. From this has arisen another popular error, which 
 attributes extraordinary curative properties to its flesh 
 when dried and pulverised. 
 
 AMPHITHEATRE (from A/itf and 6la.T P ov) denotes a 
 theatre in which tho spectators were placed " all round" 
 the stage. Though the word is of Greek formation, the 
 thing itself is distinctively Roman, being designed for those 
 cruel shows of gladiators and wild beasts in which that people 
 took great pleasure, and which in. modern times are only re- 
 presented by the barbarous bull-fights still popular in Spain. 
 
 In the present article we do not "enter on the considera- 
 tion of the spectacles themselves, but shall confine our- 
 selves to the buildings, which were devised to allow as 
 large a number of spectators as possible to enjoy the sight 
 of the show. In a dramatic representation it is necessary 
 that the actors should be heard, and also that their faces 
 should be seen, and the audience has therefore to be 
 ari-anged in a semicircle in front of them; but when men 
 fought with other men or with beasts, thev could be seen 
 equally well from all side3. 
 
 in Italy, combats of gladiators at first took place in the 
 forums, where temporary wooden scaffoldings were erected 
 for the spectators ; and Vitravius gives this as the reason 
 why in that country the forums were in the shape of a 
 parallelogram instead of being squares as in Greece. Wild 
 beasta were also hunted in the circus. But towards the 
 end of the Roman republic, when the shows increased both 
 in frequency and in costliness as the city grew ia power, 
 special buildings began to b<t provided {or them ; aad Trhea 
 
 the consolidation of peace under the empire had secured 
 great material prosperity for the provinces, such as they 
 had never enjoyed when separated into small states and 
 often at war with each other, tho example of the capital 
 was followed by many other towns in tho West; 30 that 
 nearly a hundred amphitheatres have been identified, either 
 by the existence of their ruins .or by being mentioned by 
 old writers. There were even a few in the East, although 
 such cruel games were quite alien to the elegance and re 
 finement of the Hellenic mind. 
 
 From their being so admirably adapted for enabling the 
 greatest possible number of people to behold a spectacle, it 
 is natural to suppose that they would be occasionally used 
 for purposes different from those usually intended by them; 
 and accordingly Suetonius relates how Caligula had an 
 impertinent poet burnt alive in the amphitheatre, and how 
 Titus ordered the informers, after having been whipped in 
 the forum, to be led through the arena, apparently that 
 they might be exposed to the execrations of the people. 
 Criminals were also sometimes exposed in them to be de- 
 voured by wild beasts, and many of the Christian martyn 
 died in this way. 
 
 The first amphitheatre was that constructed, 59 B.C., 
 by C. Scribonius Curio. The only author by whom it ia 
 described is Pliny, whose account of it rather taxes our 
 credulity. He tells that Scribonius built two wooden 
 theatres, which were placed back to back, and that after th« 
 dramatic representations were finished, they were turned 
 round, with all the spectators in them, so as to make one 
 circular theatre, in ^the centre of which gladiators fought 
 And this was repeated more than once. Thirteen years 
 later, Cassar built (also of wood) the first regular amphi- 
 theatre, and exhibited wild beasts in it; and sixteen years 
 after, C. Statilius Taurus built the first one of stone, which 
 was burnt in the great fire of Rome during the reign of 
 Nero. Probably the outside walls only were of stone. 
 
 Several others were constructed under the early em- 
 perors, but they were entirely superseded and eclipsed by 
 that of Vespasian and Titus, the vast ruins of which strike 
 the traveller with awe. Set on fire by lightning under 
 the emperor Macrinus, it was restored by Alexander 
 Severus, the shows during the interval being held (as of 
 old) in the circus. The latest record of its being used is 
 in .the 6th century, when Cassiodorus was present ; but 
 Bede in the 8th century speaks of the edifice as still entire. 
 During the Middle Ages many of the stones of this, as 
 of many other ancient buildings, were carried away for 
 building purposes; and among tho plunderers we regret to 
 have to reckon the great Michel Angelo, who worked 
 up a large number of its stones into a palace for one of 
 the Roman noble families. As, however, the Colosseum 
 had been the scene of many of the Christian martyrdoms, 
 Benedict XIV., whose name ought never to be mentioned 
 without an expression of admiration and gratitude for his 
 enlightened patronage of learning and antiquities, took 
 advantage of this to consecrate the interior by tho erec- 
 tion of crosses and oratories, thereby preserving it from 
 further depredations. Of late years considerable excava- 
 tions have been made to examine its substructures. Its 
 name is variously written, but on the whole it would 
 seem that the most correct orthography is Colosseum (not 
 Coliseum), and that it is derived from its colossal size, 
 which far surpassed any former edifice of the sort. Many 
 of its minor arrangements are uncertain, but the main 
 features and general plan are sufficiently intelligible. 
 
 The external elevation of the Colosseum consisted of 
 lour stages, each adorned with engaged columns of the 
 three orders of Greek architecture. The lowest three were 
 arcaded, having each eighty columns and as .many arches. 
 These of the basement story served as entrances: -seventy
 
 AMPHITHEATRE 
 
 775 
 
 six being numbered and allotted to the general body of 
 spectators, while four, at the extremities of the axes of the 
 ellipse, were the principal entrances. The higher arcades 
 had a low parapet with (apparently) a statue in each arch, 
 and gave light and air to the passages which Burrounded 
 the building. The openings of the arcades above the 
 principal entrances were larger than the rest, and were 
 adorned with figures of chariots. The highest stage was 
 much more solid, being composed of a continuous wall 
 of masonry, only pierced by forty small square windows. 
 The object of this may have been to obtain the necessary 
 solidity and weight for steadying the poles which supported 
 the awning, and must have had to carry a severe inward 
 strain. The alternate arcades were ornamented with metal 
 shields. There was also a series of brackets to support 
 the poles on which the awning was stretched. 
 
 The interior may be naturally divided into the arena 
 and the cavca, with their respective appendages. 
 
 The arena was the portion assigned to the combatants, 
 and derived its name from the sand with which it was 
 strewn, to absorb the blood and prevent it from becoming 
 slippery. Some of the emperors showed their prodigality 
 by substituting precious powders, and even gold dust, for 
 sand. The arena was generally of the same shape as the 
 amphitheatre itself, and was separated from the spectators 
 by a wall ' built perfectly smooth, that the wild beasts 
 might not by any possibility climb it. At Rome it was 
 faced inside with polished marble, but at Pompeii it was 
 simply painted. For further security, it was surrounded 
 by a metal railing or network, and the arena was some- 
 times surrounded also by a ditch (euripus), especially on 
 account of the elephants. Connected with the arena were 
 the dens from which the beasts came, and the rooms where 
 the gladiators met before the show began. In spite of the 
 excavations which have been made, it is not very easy to 
 understand how all the effects described by ancient authors 
 were produced; for after the regular shows were ovzt, the 
 arena was sometimes filled with water, and sea-fights were 
 exhibited with ships. 
 
 The part assigned to the spectators was called cavea. 
 In the different amphitheatres whose ruins' have been 
 examined, there are some differences in the arrangements, 
 but the general features are nearly the same in all The 
 cavea was divided into several galleries, concentric with the 
 outer walls, and therefore, like them, of an elliptic form. 
 The piaee of honour was the lowest of these, nearest to the 
 arena, ami called the podium. The divisions in it were 
 larger, so as to be able to contain movable seats. At 
 Rome it was here that the emperor sat, his seat bearing 
 the name of suggestuiri. The senators, principal magis- 
 trates, vestal virgins, the provider (editor) of the show, 
 and other persons of note, occupied .the rest of the 
 
 podium. At Nismes, besides the nigh officials of the 
 town, the podium had places assigned to the principal 
 guilds, whose names are still seen inscribed upon it, with 
 the number of places reserved for each. In the Colosseum 
 there were three mamiana or galleries above the podium, 
 separated from each other by terraces (pracincticmei) and 
 walls (baltei). The lowest was appropriated to the eques- 
 trian order. ,_ Numerous passages (vomitoria) and small 
 stairs gave access to them; while long covered corridors, 
 behind and below them, served for shelter in the event of 
 rain. At Pompeii each place was numbered, and elsewhere 
 their extent is defined by little marks cut in the stone. 
 The spectators were admitted by tickets (tessera;), and order 
 preserved by a staff of officers appointed for the purpose. 
 
 The height of the Colosseum is given as from 160 to 
 1 80 feet. The seats in the interior do not rise higher than 
 the level of the third order of the exterior, that is, about 
 half the entire height of the building; and this apparent 
 excess of height beyond what was made available, has led 
 some to suppose that there were upper seats and galleries, 
 of which no trace now exists. The height, however, 
 appears to have been necessary for the ventilation of the 
 building. When such enormous crowds were packed 
 closely together for several hours at a time on an Italian 
 summer day, with an awning drawn over them, the atmo- 
 sphere would have become quite pestilential if there had 
 not been a considerable space overhead, and at least one 
 range of ' open arcades, unencumbered by any galleries to 
 prevent the free circulation of air. Scented liquids were 
 at times squirted over the spectators from concealed tubes; 
 but no aroma would have compensated for the want of air, 
 which the arcade all round the building, above the highest 
 spectators, would supply. There may also have been 
 another series of openings serving the same purpose be- 
 tween the top of the wall and the edge of the awning, which 
 was supported upon poles. It has been calculated that the 
 Colosseum contained 87,000 places, and that besides these, 
 15,000 more spectators could be admitted. The greatest 
 length is about 612 feet, and the length of the shortest 
 nt-ia of the ellipse about 515 feet. The dimensions of the 
 arena are variously stated by different writers, some making 
 it 247 feet by 150, and others 281 by 176. 
 
 With regard to the provincial amphitheatres, Maffei, in 
 his account of that of Verona, appears to have unduly 
 restricted their number, with the object of exalting the 
 honour of the one he describes. Besides the Colosseum, 
 he would hardly allow any rains to be entitled to this 
 name except those at Verona and Capua. -'''But subsequent 
 writers have not followed him in this rigorism ; and Fried- 
 lander, who is the latest £nd most complete authority on 
 the subject, gives the measurements and description of 
 fifty-two. Naturally, the early ones would be of wood, 
 kke that erected by Atilius at Fidenae in the time of 
 Tiberius, which gave way while shows were being exhibited, 
 on which occason 50,000 persons were killed or injured. 
 One at Placentia is also mentioned, which is said to have 
 been the most spacious then in Italy, and" to have been 
 burned in the wars between Otho and Vitellius by the 
 inhabitants of a neighbouring town whose envy it had 
 excited. Such disasters, coupled with the growing scarcity 
 of wood and the greater facilities for quarrying stone, 
 would naturally lead to the construction of more solid 
 buildings. At the same time, the progress of this im- 
 provement must have been slow, and the building of at 
 least the great majority of the provincial amphitheatres of 
 stone may be ascribed to the period between the reign of 
 Vespasian and that of Constantine, when the establish- 
 ment of Christianity threw a discredit on the cruel and 
 bloody shows for which these vast structures were designed. 
 Hadrian is especially commemorated for the nuiiieruui
 
 77G 
 
 AMP-AMP 
 
 buildings he caused to be erected almost everywhere, and 
 this is mentioned in connection with games being held. 
 
 In constructing many of the amphitheatres in the pro- 
 vincial towns, advantage was taken of the natural slope of 
 a hill to lessen the labour of construction; and in some 
 cases a narrow ravine between two hills allowed of both 
 sides being formed on the natural slopes, and of the stream 
 at their feet being dammed up for combats on the water. 
 The conformation of the ground and the caprices of local 
 authorities have produced slight minor differences of plan, 
 but the general description of the Colosseum will suffice 
 for all. For details regarding others the reader may con- 
 sult, in addition to other authorities, the descriptions given 
 in thi3 work of tho different towns where their remains are 
 still found. HeTe it may be sufficient to name that at 
 Pompeii, which is probably better known to most persons 
 by the graphic description in Lord Lytton's novel than by 
 any of the illustrated accounts that have been published 
 of that wonderful town; that at Verona, which served as 
 a basis to Maffei's careful investigation of the whole sub- 
 ject; those at Capua and Pozzuoli, which almost rival the 
 Colosseum in dimensions; those at Nismes, Aries, and 
 Frejus in France; that at Italica, near Seville in Spain, 
 remarkable for the thickness of its walls and the strength 
 of its masonry — leading Florez to remark that its ruin is 
 due not to the injuries of time and the weather, but to the 
 hand of man; that at the ancient Thysdrus, in the province 
 of Carthage, now called El-Djemm, which alone resembles 
 the Colosseum in having five galleries or corridors in the 
 first storey; and that at Pola in Istria, whose external shell 
 — the internal fittings, which were probably all of wood, 
 having quite disappeared — forms a striking object as seen 
 from .the sea. 
 
 A very fair summary of -the whole subject will be found 
 in Smith s Dictionary of Classical Antiquities; and a much 
 more minute and elaborate account, by C. Thierry, with 
 good illustrations, in the Dictionnaire des Antiquites of 
 Daremberg and Saglio, which has the further advantage of 
 giving numerous references to larger works on the subject, 
 — its chief defect being one too common in French books, 
 the almost complete ignoring of everything published in 
 thi3 country, where Taylor and Cresy's Architectural Anti- 
 quities of Jiome,x>{ which a second edition has recently 
 appeared, is entitled to special mention. Nor does it 
 notice that treasure of information about Spanish history 
 and antiquities, the Espaiia Sagrada, where (voL xii. 
 p. 228) will be found the most careful account of the 
 amphitheatre at Italica, with several drawings. The fol- 
 lowing table, abridged from Friedliinder's Darstellung aus 
 der Sitlengeschichte Rons (1865, 2d ed. 18C7), gives the 
 dimensions, in English feet, of a few of the principal 
 amphitheatres that havo been examined : — 
 
 
 Entire Pull line. 
 
 Arena. 
 
 GreBter 
 Ails. 
 
 Shorter 
 Ails. 
 
 Greater 
 Aila 
 
 Shorter 
 
 Ail-. 
 
 
 Feet. 
 62GJ 
 616 
 GMi 
 
 567 
 
 651 
 
 513 
 
 505J 
 
 486 
 
 457 
 
 452 
 
 448 
 
 445 
 
 443 
 
 4331 
 
 Feet. 
 
 475 
 
 510J 
 
 843 
 
 468 
 
 289 
 
 4391 
 
 403 
 
 390 
 
 892 
 
 3691 
 
 352 
 
 341 
 
 3931 
 
 3321 
 
 Feet. 
 367 
 231 
 
 250 
 459 
 
 248 
 
 277 
 
 2531 
 
 230, 
 
 228 
 
 2181 
 
 223 
 
 227 
 
 Feet 
 216 
 176 
 
 150 
 197 
 
 1451 
 181 
 
 188 
 147 
 129 
 115 
 981 
 126J 
 
 
 
 
 Pola, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (o. 
 
 h. y.) 
 
 AMPHITRITE, in Greek Mythology, the supreme god- 
 dess of the sea, Bed as such the wife of Poseidon (Neptune), 
 but, unliko him, so entirely confined in her authority to the 
 sea and the creatures in it, that not only was her name 
 (from a/j.<j>l-Tpt<i>, the same root as rpvoi) sometimes used 
 as au equivalent for that element, but she was never 
 associated with her husband either for purposes of worship 
 or in works of art, except when he was to be distinctly re- 
 garded as the god who controlled the sea, though generally 
 his functions extended to the whole watery element. She 
 was one of the nereids, and distinguishable from th'. others 
 only by her queenly attributes. It was said that Neptune 
 saw her first dancing at Naxus among the other nereids, 
 and carried her off. But in another version of the myth, 
 she then fled from him to the farthest ends of the sea, 
 where the dolphin of Neptune found her out. In works 
 of art she is represented either enthroned beside him, or 
 driving with him in a chariot drawn by hippocamps or 
 other fabulous creatures of the deep, and attended by 
 tritons and nereids. 
 
 AMPHORA (from apipi and 4>lpn>), a large vessel used 
 by the ancient Greeks and Romans for preserving wine, 
 oil, fruits, <fcc, and so named from its usually having an 
 ear or handle on each side of the neck, whence it was also 
 called diola. It was commonly made of earthenware, but 
 sometimes of stone, glass, or even more costly materials 
 its usual form was tall and narrow, diminishing below to 
 a point. A number of specimens of the various kinds 
 of amphora are to be seen in the Elgin collection in the 
 British Museum. Homer and Sophocles mention amphorae 
 used as cinerary urns; and a discovery made in 1825 at 
 Salona shows that they were sometimes used as coffins. 
 The amphora was divided lengthwise to receive the corpse, 
 then closed and deposited in the earth, thus preserving 
 the skeletons entire (Steinbiichel, Alterthum., p. 67). The 
 amphora was a standard measure of capacity among both 
 Greeks and Romans. The Attic amphora contained nearly 
 nine gallons, and the Roman amphora about six. 
 
 AMPLITUDE, in Astronomy, is the amount of deviation 
 towards the north or south of a celestial object from the 
 true east at rising, and the true west at setting. For the 
 fixed stars it is constant; for the sun and planets it varies 
 with the declination. At the equinoxes the sun rises 
 exactly in the east, and sets in the west point, — the am- 
 plitude then is zero; at the solstices it amounts at London 
 to 39° 44'. 
 
 AMPTHILL, a small neatly-built market town in 
 Bedfordshire, situated about 8 miles south of Bedford. 
 Besides the old parish church, it contains various dissent- 
 ing chapels, a county court-house, a savings bank, several 
 schools, and an almshouse. Near the town is Ampthill 
 house, a mansion of the late Lord Holland, containing a 
 valuable collection of paintings, a library, and a museum. 
 The site of the old castle in which Catherine of Aragon 
 resided while her divorce from Henry VIII. was pending, 
 is marked by a cross within 'the grounds. The district is 
 chiefly agricultural, but in Ampthill there is a large brewery, 
 and a considerable amountof straw-plaiting and lace-making. 
 Population in 1871, 2220. 
 
 AMPULLA, a Latin word denoting a small jar or flask 
 for holding liquids. In mediseval church Latin it usually 
 signifies the vessels that contained the consecrated oils, of 
 which the three principal— for the catechumens, for the 
 sick, and for confirmation— were hallowed by the bishop 
 on the Thursday before Easter. The word has passed into 
 our language in connection with the coronation of the kings 
 of England, and occurs repeacdly in the coronation seme*. 
 Thus, in that used for Qu. en Victoria, we read :— " The 
 , anthem being concluded, the Dean of Westminster, taking 
 the ampulla and spoon frrm off the altar, holdetn Mm*
 
 AMR — A M R 
 
 77? 
 
 ready, 'pouring some of the holy oil into the spoun, and 
 with it the archbishop anointtth the Queen in the form of 
 a cross. . . . Then the Dean of Westminster layeth the 
 ampulla and spoon upon the altar." Gildas mentions its 
 ■ise as established among the Britons in his time, and St 
 Uolumba is said to have employed it in the coronation of 
 King Aidan. The most celebrated ampulla in history is 
 lhat known as la taiute ampoule at Rheims, from which 
 the kings of France were anointed. According to the 
 legend, which gained for itself a secure place in the national 
 belief, it had been brought from heaven by an angel for 
 the coronation of Clovis, and at one period the kings 
 of France claimed precedence over all other sovereigns 
 on account of it. It seems, however, that Pepin in the 
 8th century was the first French king who was anointed, 
 and this in connection with his baptism rather than 
 his coronation. (See the preface to the 3d volume of 
 Mask ell's Monumaita Ritualia . and the authorities there 
 referred to.) 
 
 AMRAOTI, a district and city of India, in the com- 
 missionership of East Berar, within the Haidarab&d 
 assigned districts. The district lies between 20° 23' and 
 21°7'N.lat., and between 77° 24' and 78° 13' E. long. It 
 is bounded on the N. by the Elichpur district; on the 
 E. by the Wardha river, separating it from the central 
 provinces; on the S. by the Basim and Wiin districts; and 
 on the W. by Akola district. The area is estimated at 
 2566 square miles, but the survey has not yet been com- 
 pleted The population in 1867 was returned at 407,276 
 souls, which, taking the ansa as given above, would show 
 an average density of 158 persons per square mile; num- 
 ber of males, 212,575; females, 194,701; the proportion 
 of males to the total population being 52 '19 per cent. The 
 district consists of an extensive plain, about 800 feet above 
 sea-level, the general flatness being only broken by a small 
 chain of hills, running in a north-westerly direction, be- 
 tween Amraoti and Chandor, with an average height of 
 from 400 to 500 feet above the level of the lowlands. 
 Four towns are returned as containing a population ex- 
 ceeding 5000 souls — namely, Amraott, population 23,410; 
 Karinja, a considerable commercial town, population 
 11,750; Badnera, a town on the Great Indian Peninsula 
 Railway, which intersects the district, population 6876, 
 Kolapur, population 6169. 
 
 AMRITSAR, a division, district, and city of British 
 India, under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-Governor 
 of the PanjAb. The Amritsar Division comprises the dis- 
 tricts of Amritsar, Sialkot, and GurdAspur. It is bounded 
 on theN.E. by the Himalayas; on the S.W. by the GujrAn- 
 wAlA and Lahor districts; on the N.W. by the river 
 Chenab; and on the S.E. by the river Bias. The total 
 population of the division is returned at 2,743,880 souls, 
 divided into the following classes: — Hindus, 659,905; 
 Mahometans, 1,401,290; Sikhs, 352,885; others, 329,800. 
 The number of males was returned at 1,512,480, and the 
 females at 1,231,400, the proportion of males to the entire 
 population of the division being 55 per cent. 
 
 Amrituah District lies between 30° 40' and 32° 10' 
 N. lat., and between 74° 40' and 75° 40' E. long. It is 
 bounded on the N.W. by the river Ravi, on the S.E 
 oy the river Bias, on the N.E by the district of Gurdas- 
 pur, and on the S.W. by the district of Lahor. Amritsar 
 district is a nearly level plain, with a very slight slope 
 from east to west. The banks of the BiAs are high, and 
 on this side of the district well-water is not found ex- 
 cept at 50 feet below the surface; while towards the 
 Ravi wells are less than 20 feet in depth. The only 
 stream passing through the district is the Kind or Saki, 
 which takes its rise in a marsh in the Gurdaspur district, 
 »nd after traversing part of th» district empties itself info 
 
 i— m* 
 
 the RAvi. Numerous canals intersect the district, affording 
 ample means of irrigation. The Sind, PanjAb, and Dehli 
 Railway, and Grand Trunk Road, which runs parallel with 
 it, afford the principal means of land communication and 
 traffic. Total population of Amritsar district, 832,750, 
 divided into the following classes: — Hindus, 138,027; 
 Mahometans, 377,135; Sikhs, 223,219; others, 94,369. 
 The males number 465,074, and the females 307,676; 
 the proportion of males to the total population being 55 -84 
 per cent. The principal tribes and castes in point of num- 
 bers' are as follow:— -{1.) JAts, viz., Hindus and Sikhs, 
 189,065; Mahometans, 65,964: total, 255,029. (2.) BrAh 
 mans, 43,846. (3.) Kshattriyas, 39,892. (4.) KAshmiris, 
 37,456. (5.) Aroras, 29,103. The total agricultural popu- 
 lation is returned at 417,747. Area of the district, 203623 
 square miles, or 1,303,188 acres, of which 927,730 acres 
 are under cultivation, 178,939 acres are cultivable, but 
 not actually under tillage, and 196,519 acres are uncul- 
 tivable and waste. This result gives 156 acres (of which 
 l'l 1 acres are cultivated and '21 cultivable) per head of the 
 population, or 3'12 acres (2-22 cultivated and '42 culti- 
 vable) per head of the agricultural population. 
 
 The principal agricultural products of Amritsar are wheat, barley, 
 and grain for the spring crop ; and rice, joar (spiked millet), IndiaD 
 corn, moth (Phaseolus aconiti/olius), and mash {Phaseolus radiatus) 
 for the autumn crop. . The current settlement of the district expires 
 in 1875-76. Five towns are returned as containing a population ' 
 upwards of 5000 souls — namely, Amritsar, population 135,813; 
 Jandrala, 6975 ; MajithA, 6600 ; Ram Das, 5855 ; Bundala, 5287. 
 Of the foregoing towns Amritsar has been constituted a first-class, 
 and Jandrala, Majitbi, and Earn Das third-class municipalities. 
 Besides the regularly-constituted municipalities, however, a muni- 
 cipal income is also realised at the following ten places : — Tarn Taran, 
 Fathiabad, Govindwal, Naushahri Pannian, Verowal, Jalalabad. 
 Attarf, Chamiari, Vanniki, and Bhallar. Municipal revenue is in 
 all cases levied by means of octroi duties, supplemented in some 
 instances by house rates and other direct taxation. The total 
 revenue of Amritsar district in 1871-72 amounted to £113,785, of 
 which £85,727, 18s., or 75 percent., was derived from the land. 
 Tho other principal items of revenue were as follows : — Distilleries, 
 £3677, 14s. ; drugs and opium, £3548, 6s. ; income tax, £1724, 8s; 
 stamps, £13,621, 18s. ; local rates levied under the provisions of 
 Act 20 of 1871, £5208, 10s. The staple manufacture of Amritsar 
 is woollen shawls, in imitation of those of Kashmir. The value of 
 this manufacture in 1871-72 was estimated at £91,742. 
 
 Amritsar City, the divisional headquarters and capital 
 of the district of the same name, is situated in 31° 40' N. 
 lat. and 74° 45' E. long. It bies at an equal distance be- 
 tween the BiAs and RAvl rivers, is about 8 miles in cir- 
 cumference, and forms at once the great trading centre of 
 the PanjAb, and a celebrated seat of the Sikh retigion and 
 learning. The following description of the town is ex- 
 tracted from Thornton's Gazetteer (ed 1862): — 
 
 "Amritsar owes its importance to a talao or reservoir which Kim 
 Das, the fourth guru or spiritual guide of the Sikhs, caused to t* 
 made here in 1581, and which he termed Amrita Saras, or the Fount 
 of Immortality. It thenceforward became a place of pilgrimage. 
 Nearly two centuries afterwards, Ahmad Shah, the founder of the 
 Durani empire, alarmed and enraged at the progress of the Sikhs, 
 blew up the shrine with gunpowder, filled up the holy tank, and 
 caused kine to be slaughtered upon th» site, thus desecrating the 
 spot On his return to Kabul, the Sikhs repaired the shrine and 
 reservoir, and commenced the overthrow of Mahometan sway in 
 Hindustan. The sacred tank is a square of 150 paces, containing a 
 great body of water, pure as crystal, notwithstanding the multitudes 
 that bathe in it, and supplied apparently by natural springs. In 
 the middle, on a small island, is a temple of Hari or Vishnu; and 
 on the bank a diminutive structure, whore the founder, Ram Das, 
 is said to have spent his life in a sitting posture. The temple on 
 the island is richly adorned with gold and other costly embellish- 
 ments, and in it sits the sovereign guru of the Sikhs to receive the 
 presents and homage of his followers. There are five or six hundred 
 akalis or priests attached to the temple, who have erected for them- 
 selves good houses from the contributions of the visitors. Amritsar 
 is a very populous and extensive place. The streets are narrow, 
 but the houses in general are tolerably lofty, and built of burnt 
 brick. On the whole, Amritsar may claim some little architectural
 
 78 
 
 AMlt-AMS 
 
 superiority over tlie towns of Hindustan. Resides considerable 
 manufactures of shawls and silks in imitation of tho Kashmir 
 fabric, Amritsar carries on a very extensivo transit trade, as well 
 as considerable roouetarv transactions, with Hindustan and Central 
 Asia. Provi i for an ample supply of water to tho town 
 
 from the liAri Doab cans], A striking object at Amritsar is the 
 huge fortress of Govindgarh, built by Kanjit Sinh in 1609, ostensibly 
 to protect the pilgrims visiting the place, but in reality to overawe 
 their vast and dangerous assemblage. 
 
 Amritsar was the first mission station of the Church of 
 England in the Panjab. Tho census of 18C8 gives a 
 population within municipal limits of 43,931. The total 
 population, however, of the city and suburbs is returned at 
 135,813, of whom 3477 are agriculturists, the rest being 
 engaged in trade or other non-agricultural pursuits. The 
 town has been constituted a first-class municipality, the 
 affairs of which are conducted by a committee of twenty- 
 ei'n'ht members. The municipal income is derived fr.m, 
 octroi duties, local taxes, house tax, &c, and amounted in 
 1871-72 to £19,800, or 9s. per head of the population 
 within municipal limits. Since the opening of the Panjab 
 railway Amritsar has rapidly become the great centre of 
 trade in that province. Its position on the line and the 
 enterprise of its merchants promise also to give it the com- 
 mand of the trade via Leh to Central Asia, which is now 
 (1874) being opened up. It is the chief entrepot in the 
 Panjab for Manchester goods, in return for which it ex- 
 ports to other parts of India food-grains, the local manu- 
 factures in imitation of the Kashmir fabrics, and the costly 
 shawls and stuffs which form the staple of the Kashmir 
 trade. 
 
 AMRU-IBN-EL-ASS, or 'Amp, one of the most famous 
 of the first race of Saracen leaders, was descended of Aasi, 
 of the tribe of Koreish. In his youth he wrote satirical 
 verses against tho person and doctrine of Mahomet. His 
 zeal-in opposing the new religion prompted him to under- 
 take an embassy to the king of Ethiopia, in order to stimu- 
 late him against the converts whom he had taken under 
 his protection, but he returned a convert to the Mahometan 
 faith-, and, along with Khaled, joined the fugitive prophet 
 at Medina. When Abu-Bekr resolved to make a new attack 
 upon Syria, he entrusted Amru with a high command. 
 In this he was so successful that he rose to the elevated 
 station of chief in Irak, when Khaled requested the attend- 
 ance of all the Arabian generals before Damascus. During 
 the caliphate of Omar he also served in Palestine under 
 Abu-Obeidah, taking the command in the siege of Caesarea, 
 which yielded to him in July G38 a.d. After the death of 
 Obeldah, Amru assumed the chief command in Syria, in 
 which he was confirmed by the caliph, notwithstanding the 
 opposition of Othman. Soon afterwards (639) he led an 
 army of 4000 Arabs into Egypt. During the progress of 
 his march a messenger from Omar arrived with a letter 
 containing directions to return, if he should receive this 
 letter in the territories of Syria; but if he should receive 
 it in those of Egypt, he might advance, and all needful 
 assistance would be instantly sent to him. The contents 
 of the letter were not made known to his officers until he 
 was assured that the army was on Egyptian soil, so that 
 the expedition might be continued under the sanction of 
 Omar's orders. Having taken Pharma, he advanced to 
 Misrah, the ancient Memphis, and besieged it for seven 
 ponths. Although numerous reinforcements arrived, he 
 tyould have found it very difficult to storm the place pre- 
 vious to the inundation of the Nile, but for a treacherous 
 lessening of the forces of the citadel, which was consequently 
 taken by storm; and the Greeks who remained there were 
 fitber made prisoners or put to the sword. On the same 
 fpot Amru erected a city named Fostat, the ruins of which 
 (ire known by the name of Old Cairo. Amru pursued the 
 Greeks to Alexandria, and after an obstinate and bloody 
 
 siege of fourteen months, the city was taken, 640 A.D. To 
 Amru has generally been attributed the burning of the 
 famous Alexandrian library, by command of the caliph 
 Omar. But with this act of barbarism, so inconsistent 
 with the character of Omar and his general, he is for the 
 first timo charged by Abul-Faragius, a Christian writer, 
 who lived six centuries later. It is highly probable that 
 few of the 700,000 volumes collected by the Ptolemies 
 remained at the time ol the Arab conquest, when we con- 
 sider the various calamities of Alexandria from tho time of 
 Ctesar to those of Caracalla and Diocletian, and the dis- 
 graceful pillage of the library in 389 a.d. under tho rule of 
 a Christian bishop, Theophilus (see Gibbon, c. 51). Amru 
 died 0G3 a.i>. In a pathetic oration to his children on his 
 death-bed ho bitterly lamented his youthful offenco in 
 satirising the prophet, although Mahomet had forgiven him, 
 and had frequently affirmed that " there was no Mussulman 
 more sincere and steadfast in the faith than Amru." 
 
 AM11U-EL-KAIS, an Arabian poet, contemporary with 
 Mahomet. He wrote one of the seven MoaUakat (Sus- 
 pended), or poems, composed before the promulgation of 
 Mahometanism, which derived their name from the fact 
 that they were suspended in the Kaaba at Mecca. He was 
 hostile to the claims of the prophet, and wrote verses 
 against him. It is said that his death was occasioned by 
 his wearing a poisoned shut presented to him by the Greek 
 emperor Heraclius, to whom he had gone to ask aid against 
 the Beni-Asad, his own tribe. The story is, however, dis- 
 credited by Abulfcda. The Moallakat of Amru, in the 
 original text, was published by Lette at Leyden in 1848, 
 and an English translation by Sir William Jones appeared 
 in 1782. The edition of Hengstenberg (Bonn, 1823) con- 
 tainsa Latin version. Another edition, by A mold, appeared 
 at Leipsicin 1850. The edition of Baron MacGuckin Slans 
 (Paris, 1837) includes the miscellaneous poems, a translation, 
 notes, and a life of the poet. 
 
 AMSANCTI (or AMPSANCTI) VALLIS, a valley with 
 a small sulphureous lake and cavern in the territory of the 
 Hirpini, or Principato Ultra (east of Naples), about four 
 miles from the town of Frigento (Cicero, Pliny), or eight 
 from Gesualdo. The spot can most easily be visited by 
 railway from Ariano, on the Naples and Benevcnto Hire. 
 It is described by Virgil (jEn. vii. 563-71) as an outlet from 
 a cave giving access to the infernal regions : — 
 
 " Hie specus horrendum, saevi spiracula Ditis, 
 Jlonstratur, ruptoque iDgens Acheronte vorngs 
 Pestiferas aperit fauces; quia condita Erinnys, 
 Invisum numen, terras coelumque levabat." 
 
 The modern name is Le Mofete, after the goddess Mephitis, 
 who, according to Pliny (N.II. ii. 1 ), had a temple here, 
 of which there are no remains. The lake is considered by 
 Dr C. T. Ramage (who made a special visit to it) as of 
 volcanic character, and appears to lie on the edge of a 
 crater-shaped valley. " The water," he says, " had a dark, 
 pitchy appearance, and was thrown up occasionally in 
 several places to the height of 4 or 5 feet. At the edge 
 (of the crater) we were possibly 40 feet above the water, 
 and we did not dare to descend, as the exhalations of 
 sulphur were so strong that we should have been suffocated 
 long before we reached the water. .... In fact, the whole 
 of this country seems to be volcanic, and is constantly 
 subject to earthquakes." (See Nooks and Byways of Italy, 
 by C. T. Ramage, L.L.D., 1868; Swinburne's Travels, vol. i. , 
 Murray's Handbook for South Italy, 1873.) 
 
 AMSDORF, Nicolaus, a Protestant reformer of the 
 ICth century, was born, Dec. 3, 1483, at Gross-Zschopa, 
 near Wurzen, on the Mulde. He was educated at Leipsic, 
 and then at Wittenberg, where he was one of the first who 
 matriculated (1502) in the recently-founded university. 
 ' He soon obtained various academical honours, and became
 
 A M S — A M S 
 
 77.9 
 
 professor of theology in 1511. He joined Luther at the 
 very beginning of hi3 great struggle (1517); continued all 
 along one of his most admiring and determined supporters; 
 was with him at the Leipsic conference (1519), and the 
 Diet of Worms (1521) ; and was in the secret of his Wart- 
 burg seclusion. He assisted the first efforts of the Refor- 
 mation at Magdeburg (1524), at Goslar (1531), and at 
 Einbeck (1534) ; took an active part in the debates at 
 Schmalkald (1537), where he defended the use of the 
 sacrament by the unbelieving; and (1539) spoke out 
 strongly against the bigamy of the Elector' of Hesse. After 
 the death of the Count Palatine, bishop of Naumburg- 
 Zeiz, he was installed there (Jan. 20, 1542), though in 
 opposition to the chapter, by the elector of Saxony and 
 Luther. His position was a painful one, and he longed to 
 get back to Magdeburg, but was persuaded by Luther to 
 stay. After Luther's death (1546) and the .battle of 
 Miihlberg (1547) he had to yield to his rival Pflug, and 
 retire to the protection of the young duke of Weimar. 
 Here he took part in founding Jena university (1548); 
 opposed the "Augsburg Interim" (1548) ; superintended the 
 publication of the Jena edition of Luther's works; and 
 debated oh the freedom of the will, original sin, and, more 
 noticeably, on the Christian value of good works, in regard 
 to which he held that they were not only useless, but pre- 
 judicial. He urged the separation of the High Lutheran 
 party from Melanchthon (1557), got the Saxon dukes to 
 oppose the Frankfurt Eecess-(1558), and continued to 
 fight for the purity of Lutheran doctrine. He died at 
 Eisenach, May 14, 1565, and was buried in the high church 
 there, where his effigy shows a well-knit frame and sharp- 
 cut features. He was a man of strong will, of great apti- 
 tude for controversy, and considerable learning, and thus' 
 exercised a decided influence on the Reformation. Many 
 letters and other short productions of his pen are extant in 
 MS., especially five thick volumes of Amsdorfiana, in the 
 Weimar library. A small sect, which adopted his opinion 
 on good works, was called after him ; but it is now of mere 
 historical interest. 
 
 AMSLER, Samuel, one of the most distinguished of 
 modern engravers, was born at Schinznach, in the canton 
 of Aargau, in 1791. He studied his art under Lips and 
 Hess, and from 1816 pursued it in Italy, and chiefly at 
 Rome, till in 1829 he succeeded his former master Hess as 
 professor of copper engraving in the Munich academy. The 
 works he designed and engraved are remarkable for the 
 grace of the figures, and for the wonderful skill with which 
 he retains and expresses the characteristics of the original 
 paintings and statues. He was a passionate admirer of 
 Raphael, and had great success in reproducing his works. 
 Amsler's principal engravings are — " The Triumphal March 
 of Alexander the Great," and a full-length " Christ," after 
 the sculptures of Thorwaldsen and Dannecker ; the "Burial 
 of Christ," and two "Madonnas," after the pictures of 
 Raphael; and the "Triumph of Religion in the Arts," 
 after Overbeck, his last work, on which he spent six years. 
 He died May 18, 1849. 
 
 AMSTERDAM, or Amsteldam, formerly called Amstel- 
 redam, capital of the Netherlands, situated in the province 
 of North Holland, is built somewhat in the form of a half- 
 moon, on the Y or Ij, an arm of the Zuyder Zee, in 52° 
 22" N. lat., and 4° 53' E. long. The name Amsterdam 
 means " the dam or dyke of the Amstel," from a river 
 so called which passes in a north-easterly direction through 
 the city, — the " dam" referring to the extensive and costly 
 system of embankments, canals, and sluices necessary to 
 secure this low-lying city against the encroachments of the 
 tide. Towards the land Amsterdam was at one time sur- 
 rounded by a fosse or canal, and regularly fortified; but 
 its ramparts have been demolished, and the twen'.y-oiglit 
 
 bastions that formed part of the defences are now used v& 
 promenades, or covered with buildings. Within the city, 
 four canals — the Prinsen Gracht, Keizer's Gracht, Heercn 
 
 Gracht, and the Singel — extend, in the form of polygonal 
 crescents, nearly parallel to each other and to the former 
 fosse; while numerous smaller canals intersect the city in 
 every direction, dividing it into about 90 islands, with 
 nearly 290 bridges. Some of these are of stone, but the 
 majority are of iron and wood, and constructed so as to 
 allow vessels for inland navigation to pass through. The 
 site of Amsterdam was originally a peat bog, and all its 
 buildings rest upon piles that are driven some 40 or 50 
 feet through a mass of loose sand and mud until they reach 
 a solid stratum of firm clay. This foundation is perfectly 
 secure as long as the piles remain under water. In 1822, 
 however, an overladen corn magazine sank into the mud. 
 The piles are liable to the ravages of wood-worms that are 
 supposed to have been brought by vessels from foreign 
 ports. The streets in the oldest parts of the town are 
 narrow and irregular, but are nowhere without pavements 
 or footways. The houses frequently present a picturesque 
 sky-line, broken by fantastic gables, roofs, chimneys, towers, 
 and turrets of all forms and dimensions. Four of tha 
 principal of those towers have exterior galleries very near 
 the top, running round them, from which, an alarm used 
 to be blown in case of fire, and a light shown to indicate 
 the locality of the fire to the citizens, who from the age of 
 twenty to fifty are all enrolled in the fire-brigade and civic 
 guard. This mode of signalling is now, however, super- 
 seded by a system of telegraphic communication embrac- 
 ing the whole city. Westward of the Anistel, which passes 
 almost through the centre of the city, is the more modern 
 part, where the houses are often exceedingly handsome, 
 and the streets broad, and planted with rows of large trees 
 between the houses and the canals. The chief promenades 
 are the Vondelspark, laid out and maintained by private 
 individuals, with the design of its being ultimately pre- 
 sented to the city ; and the Planteadje or Plantation, part 
 of which is occupied by the botanic and the zoological 
 gardens, and which is also supported by private contribu- 
 tions. Of the public buildings, the principal is the palace, 
 an imposing structure, built in 1648, by the architect Jacob 
 van Kampen, and adorned with stone carvings by the cele- 
 brated artist Artus Quellinus of Antwerp. It is supported 
 on 13,659 piles, and is 282 feet long,- with a breadth of 
 235 feet and a height of 116, exclusive of a turreted 
 cupola, which rises 66 feet aDove the main building. It 
 was originally tho Stadhuis, but was appropriated as a 
 palace by King Louis Napoleon in 1808. The most mag«
 
 ISO 
 
 AMSTERDA M 
 
 nihcent apartment in it is the great hall, measuring 120 
 feet by 57, and 90 in height, with walls incrusted with 
 white Italian marble. On the opposite side from the palace 
 of the square called the Dam, stands the Beurs or Exchange, 
 a fine tetraprostylo Ionic building, serving as a front to a 
 large quadraugle with a handsome peristyle of the same 
 order. The Oude Kerk, built about the year 1 300, has 
 some beautiful stained windows and a fine organ, as well 
 as monuments to various celebrated Dutchmen, including 
 the naval heroes Van Heemskerk and Sweerts. The Niewe 
 Kerk, a much finer edifice, where the kings of Holland are 
 crowned, dating from 1408, is remarkable for the carving 
 of its pulpit, for the elaborate bronze castings of its choir, 
 and for the monuments to the famous Admiral De Ruyter 
 and Holland's greatest poet, Vondel, whose statue stands 
 in the park which bears his name. There are many other 
 places of worship in Amsterdam, including those belonging 
 to the Dutch Reformed Church, the English Episcopalians, 
 the Scotch Presbyterians, the Lutherans, the Jansenists, the 
 Koman Catholics, the Greeks, etc., and also several Jewish 
 synagogues; but, as a rule, the church architecture of the 
 town is bald and uninteresting. We may except, however, 
 the synagogue of the Shephardim Jews, the equal of which 
 is only to be found at Leghorn; the Moses and Aaron's 
 Church (R.C.) ; and the new Lutheran place of worship, 
 which has a green copper cupola. The Paleis voor Volks- 
 vlijt is a building of iron and glass, 440 feet long by 280 
 broad, with a dome 200 feet high, erected between 1855 
 and 1864. It is used for industrial exhibitions, the per- 
 formance of operas, &c, and possesses a collection of 
 pictures (copies ard some originals), as well as a fine 
 garden. The Schreijerstoren, or " crier's tower," at the 
 end of the Geldersche Kade, where vessels left for all 
 parts of the globe, was built about 1482, and got its name 
 from the tears of the sailors who kere bid their friends 
 farewell. The chief literary institutions of Amsterdam 
 are the Athenaeum, the society called " Felix Meritis," from 
 the first words of the inscription on their place of meet- 
 ing; the society " Natura Artis Magistra," to whom the 
 zoological gardens belong; the Royal Academy of the 
 Fine Arts, and 
 the Seaman's In- 
 stitute. The 
 galleries of pic- 
 tures in the city 
 are of great 
 value. The 
 museum in the 
 Trippenhuis con- 
 tains over 400 
 works, chiefly of 
 the Flemish and 
 Dutch schools, 
 
 including the Cii ? Arms ot Am8terdaD) - 
 
 "Night Guard" of Rembrandt, whose statue may be seeW 
 on the Kaasplein, opposite the house he occupied, and the 
 " Banquet of the Civic Guard," by Van der Heist; besides 
 nearly 4000 engravings, and a magnificent numismatic col- 
 lection, considered one of the finest in the world. Among 
 the other collections are those in the Museum Van der Hoop 
 and in the Fodor Museum, that belonging to the "Arli et 
 Amieiliae" Society, as well as several private galleries. 
 Amsterdam is also remarkable for the number and high 
 character of its benevolent institutions, which are to a large 
 extent supported by voluntary contributions. Among others 
 may be mentioned hospitals for the sick, the aged, the infirm, 
 the blind, the deaf, the dumb, the insane, widows, orphans, 
 and foundlings. There is a noble institution, the Society 
 for the Public Welfare, whose object is to promote the 
 education and improvement of all classes. It has branches 
 
 ^>^ 
 
 in nearly every town and village in Holland. "Here la also 
 an admirable sailors' home. 
 
 Amsterdam is now capitally supplied with water for 
 drinking and culinary purposes from the Haarlem dunea 
 Formerly the inhabitants were dependent on the rain-water 
 collected in cisterns, and the supply brought from Weesp 
 in large flat-bottomed barges. This, added to the general 
 humidity of the atmosphere caused by the canals, made 
 Amsterdam an unpleasant place of residence in summer, 
 but the exertions of the inhabitants have done much of 
 late to counteract these noxious influences. The people 
 usually have a robust appearance, and the death-rate of the 
 city is low. 
 
 The population (1874) is estimated at 285,000, of whom 
 about 60,000 are Roman Catholics, and 30,000 Jews, the 
 rest being mostly Protestants of various sects. 
 
 The accompanying plan indicates the extent and position 
 of the docks of Amsterdam. The arsenal and the admiralty 
 offices are situated on the island of Kattenburg, between the 
 Dijk Gracht and the Niewe Vaart. The approach to the city 
 from the Zuyder Zee is intricate and dangerous, owing 
 to the numerous shallows ; and a bar at the entrance U> 
 the Y compels vessels to unload part of their cargo in the 
 roadstead. These delays and dangers were to a large 
 extent provided against in 1825, by the opening of a canal 
 across North Holland from the Niewe Diep, opposite the 
 Texel, to Amsterdam ; and a more direct and capacious 
 canal to the North Sea is at present in process of con- 
 struction. The following table gives the chief shipping 
 statistics for the five years ending December 1870: — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Arrival*. 
 
 Departure* 
 
 Vessel*. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 18C6 
 1867 
 1868 
 1869 
 1870 
 
 1604 
 1466 
 1465 
 1374 
 1297 
 
 420.094 
 392,975 
 430,799 
 425,329 
 405,109 
 
 1662 
 1560 
 1508 
 144' 
 1341 
 
 423,623 
 '.04,717 
 421,566 
 448,891 
 402,933 1 
 
 * 
 
 The principal imports of Amsterdam are — coffee, amounts 
 ing in 1870 to 1,147,240 bags and 1499 casks; tea, in 
 the same year, 79,573 chests; sugar, in the same year, 
 273,750,000 lb; tobacco, rice, cotton, indigo, timber, tin, 
 hemp, and grain. The exports comprise cheese, butter, 
 madder, clover, rape, linseed oil, gin, and other products of 
 Holland, besides general goods and manufactures from 
 various European countries. There is also a largo export 
 trade in the produce of the East and West Indies. There 
 are two lines of railway, the one connecting Amsterdam 
 with Haarlem, Leyden, and Rotterdam; and the other 
 with Utrecht, Arnheim, and Prussia. Amsterdam has 
 sugar refineries ; soap, oil, glass, iron, dye, and chemical 
 works; distilleries, breweries, tanneries; tobacco and snuff 
 factories. The cutting of diamonds has long been exten- 
 sively practised in the city by the Jews. Although no 
 Jonger the centre of the banking transactions of the world, 
 Amsterdam is still a place of considerable importance ii» 
 this respect The celebrated bank of Amsterdam, founded 
 in 1609, was dissolved in 1796; and the present bank of 
 the Netnerlands was established on the model of the Banl 
 of England in 1814. 
 
 About the year 1200 Amsterdam was a small fishing 
 village, held in fief by the lords of Amstel, together with 
 the surrounding district, called AmstcUand. Towards the 
 close of the 13th century it reverted, in consequence of the 
 complicity of' Gysbrecht Van Amstel in the murdb. 
 Count Floris V., to the counts of Holland, who gave it ^ 
 charter and other privileges. It was fortified in 1482, and 
 soon rose to be the most important commercial city of the 
 Netherlands. The early voyages to India, and the union 
 of the seven provinces in 1579, added greatly to the
 
 AMS-AMU 
 
 781 
 
 prosperity of Amsterdam — so much so, that it excited the 
 mpidity of the earl of Leicester, who made a futile at- 
 tempt to surprise it in 1587 ; and its position was still 
 further improved by the peace of Westphalia in 1648, 
 which closed the navigation of the Scheldt, and conse- 
 quently ruined the trade of Antwerp. Two years later, 
 the stadtholder William II. intended to surprise it, but the 
 bold attitude of the inhabitants obliged him to give up his 
 project. Amsterdam suffered so severely from the war in 
 the time of Cromwell, that more than 4000 houses stood 
 tenantless ; and the French occupation during the First 
 Empire inflicted a more permanent injury upon the city. 
 Since 1813, however, much of its former commercial 
 influence has returned ; and the completion of the above- 
 mentioned canal will, no doubt, confirm its position as the 
 chief commercial city of the kingdom, its secondary place 
 as a seaport lately having been due to the difficulty of 
 iccess to it from the sea. Among the many eminent men 
 who saw the light in Amsterdam may be mentioned the 
 celebrated philosopher Barucb Spinosa (1632), the flower 
 painter Van Huysum (1682), the naturalist Swammerdam 
 ( 1 637), and the poet Bilderdyk ( 1 750). (See Caspar Com- 
 melins, Beschryving van Amsterdam, and J. Wagenaar's work 
 bearing the same title.) 
 
 AMSTERDAM, an uninhabited and almost inaccessible 
 island in the Indian Ocean, in 37° 58' S. lat, and 70° 34' E. 
 long., about 60 miles S. of St Paul's Island, and nearly mid- 
 way between the Cape of Good Hope and Tasmania. It 
 was discovered by Van Diemen in 1633. 
 
 AMULET (in late Latin amuletum, probably from the 
 Arabic hamalet, a pendant), anything worn as a charm, 
 generally, but not invariably, hung from the neck, to pro- 
 tect the wearer against witchcraft, sickness, accidents, and 
 other evils, or to deliver him from ills under which he 
 labours. Amulets have been of many different kinds, and 
 formed of different substances,^stones, metals, and strips 
 of parchment being the most common, with or without 
 characters or legends engraved or written on them. Gems 
 have often been employed and greatly prized, serving for 
 ornaments as well as for charms. Certain herbs, too, and 
 animal preparations have been used in the same way. In 
 setting them apart 
 to their use as amu- 
 lets, great precau- 
 tions have been 
 taken that fitting 
 times be selected, 
 stellar and other 
 magic influences 
 
 propitious, and &&£&£££$&" 
 
 everything avoided that might be supposed to destroy or 
 weaken the force of the charm. From the earliest ages the 
 Oriental races have had a firm belief in the prevalence of 
 occult evil influences, and a superstitious trust in amulets 
 and similar preservatives against them. There are refer- 
 ences to, and apparently correctives of, these customs in 
 the Mosaic injunctions to bind portions of the law upon the 
 hand and as frontlets^ between the eyes, as well as write 
 them upon the door-posts and the gates ; but, among the 
 later Jews especially, the original design and meaning of 
 these usages were lost sight of ; and though it has been 
 said that the phylacteries werfl not strictly amulets, there 
 is no doubt that they were held in superstitious regard. 
 Amulets were much used by the ancient Egyptians, and 
 also among the Greeks and Romans. We find traces of 
 them too in the early Christian church, in the emphatic 
 protests of Chrysostom, Augustine, and others against 
 them. The fish was a favourite symbol on these charms, 
 from the word t^u's being the initials of 'Ir^rovs Xpicrros 
 ©«ou vios uurrrjp A firm faith in amulets still prevails 
 
 widely among Asiatic nations. The accompanying wood- 
 cut represents the boxes employed to hold written charms 
 worn by Arab women at the present day. Talisman, also 
 from the Arabic, is a word of similar meaning and use, 
 but some distinguish it as importing a more powerful 
 charm. A talisman, whose "virtues are still applied to 
 for stopping blood and in cases of canine madness," figures 
 prominently in, and gives name to, one of Scott's Tales of 
 t/ie Crusaders. A measure of belief in amulets or charms 
 exists, but appears to be diminishing, among the unedu- 
 cated of our own country and time. (See Arpe, JDe Brodigiit 
 Naturx et Artis Operibus Talismanes et Amuleta dictis, 
 Hamburg, 1717; Ewele, Ueber Amulete, 1827; and Kopp's 
 Pal&ographica Crittca, vols. iii. and iv., 1829.) 
 
 AMURATH or Mtjrad L was born in 1326 A.D. 
 (726 a.h.), succeeded his father Orkhan as sultan of the 
 Ottoman Turks in 1 360, and died in 1 389. He is entitled 
 to notice as being the first who led the Turkish arms into 
 Europe, which he quickly overran as far as the Balkan. 
 In 1361 he made himself master of Adrianople, where he 
 fixed his residence, built a splendid mosque, and otherwise 
 added to the architectural adornment of the city. The 
 first treaty of peace between a Christian people and this 
 formidaDle neighbour was struck in 1365, when the little 
 republic of Ragusa put itself under his protection. His 
 power becoming more and more formidable, Urban V. 
 preached a crusade — disastrous, as it proved, for the 
 crusaders — against him • and John Palaeologus, the Greek 
 emperor, entered into an alliance with him. He had seve- 
 ral rebellions to contend against, but he was invariably 
 successful One of his sons persuaded a son of Palaeologus, 
 who had been sent by his father to learn the art of war 
 under Amurath, to join him in a revolt ; but the youthful 
 conspirators were defeated. Immediate revenge was taken 
 by the sultan on his own son, and the young Palaeologus 
 was sent back to his father with an imperious demand that 
 he too should be punished. Like all great conquerors, 
 Amurath was active in military reform ; he perfected the 
 discipline of the spakis (or cavalry) and woinaks (or baggage 
 corps), smd gave stability to the janissaries, a body of 
 troops that had been first incorporated by his father. Of 
 literary culture he was altogether destitute, signing his 
 treaties by dipping his hand in ink, and impressing the 
 mark of three fingers together, with the thumb and fourth 
 finger at a slight distance on each side. He lost his life 
 at the close of a great battle at Kossova, which he had 
 successfully fought against Lazarus, despot of Servia, and 
 was succeeded by his son Bajazet. 
 
 AMURATH LL, the tenth emperor of the Turks, was 
 born about 1404, and died February 9, 1451. He suc- 
 ceeded Mohammed L in 1422. At first he had to contend 
 against a pretender, the pseudo-Mustapha, who was sup- 
 ported by the Greek emperor and others ; but through the 
 assistance of an astute state prisoner, Mohammed Bey 
 (Michael Ogli), he obtained a bloodless victory over him. 
 He then turned his arms against the Greek emperor him- 
 self, but failed in the siege of Constantinople. Against 
 his younger brother Mustapha ho was successful by bribes. 
 In April 1429 he besieged and took Saloniki (Thcssalonica), 
 which was under Venetian rule, thus opening up the 
 way for the final subjugation of Greece. He continued 
 almost without any v reverse3 of fortune till 1442, v.hei 
 Hunniades defeated his forces in the battle of Vasag, an< 
 obliged him to make peace with the Christian princes 
 The treaty was hardly concluded when his son Ala-Eddii 
 died. In his grief he abdicated in favour of his soi 
 Mohammed, a boy of fourteen, while he retired to Mag 
 nesia in search of repose. But the Christian princes tool 
 advantage of his abdication to renew their attacks, and w 
 was called to oppose them, which he did with terrible sue
 
 782 
 
 A M U — A M Y 
 
 cess in the battle of Varna, Nov. 10, 1444, when the king 
 of Hungary, Ladislaus, fell. Having saved his country, 
 he again gavfe up the reins to his son, and returned to 
 Magnesia. But the janissaries revolted, and his presence 
 was demanded. Again on his throne, he invaded Albania 
 and Peloponnesus, but was repulsed by George Castriot 
 or Scanderbeg. He retreated, however, only to gain a 
 great victory over his former adversary Hunniades at 
 Cassova (Oct. 17, 1448), the battle lasting three days. 
 He died at Adrianople, Feb. 11, 1451, from a stroke of 
 apoplexy, according to the most probable account His 
 Mussulman biographers tell that whenever he took a town 
 he was careful to build in it ajami (or cathedral), a mosque, 
 an imaret, a mtdresseh (or ecclesiastical school), and a iJutn. 
 The mosque of Adrianople is especially remarkable. He 
 was the first Ottoman emperor who caused bridges of great 
 length to be built ; and during his reign, poetry, juris- 
 prudence, and theology began to flourish with promise of 
 the Augustan luxuriance which they attained under his 
 eon and successor. Sultan Mohammed-Elfatyh. 
 
 AMURATH IIL, sultan of the Turks, born about 1545, 
 succeeded in 1574 his father Selim II. The first words 
 he addressed to his courtiers were — " I am hungry : give 
 me something to eat ;" and the evil omen was fulfilled in 
 the famines and disasters that marked his reign. In 1579 
 Queen Elizabeth of England managed to gain his friend- 
 ship, and obtained a favourable commercial treaty for Great 
 Britain. It was under him that the janissaries began to 
 feel their power, and to hasten the ruin of the state by 
 their revolt. He was superstitious, feeble, and irritable, 
 as well as extremely addicted to the pleasures of the harem. 
 He was fond of dancing and music, and has left, a few 
 literary trifles. He died Jan. 16, 1595. 
 
 AMURATH TV. was born about 1611, and succeeded 
 hi3 uncle Mustapha in 1623. The chief event of his reign 
 was the recovery in 1 638, after thirty days of unremitting 
 assault, of the city of Baghdad which had fallen into the 
 hands of the Persians. He disgraced his victory by re- 
 volting cruelties, slaughtering 30,000 Persians in cold 
 blood. So numerous and horrible are the atrocities recorded 
 of liim, that he stands pre-eminent even among Turkish 
 Neroes. Some historians ascribe this feature of his cha- 
 racter to his almost perpetual inebriation. Be this as it 
 may, he soon enfeebled his constitution, and falling at the 
 same time under a superstitious anticipation of death, he 
 died in 1 640, at the early age of twenty-nine 
 
 AMWELL, a village of Hertfordshire, in the parish of 
 Great Amwell, on a hill overlooking the Lea, 3 miles 
 from Hertford and 20 from London. Near it are the 
 sources of the New River, formed between 1606 and 1612 
 in order to supply London with water ; and on a small 
 island in the stream there is a monument to Sir Hugh 
 Myddleton, through whose exertions this work was carried 
 out Haileybury college, formerly the property of the 
 East India Company, is also in this parish, which has a 
 population of 2245. 
 
 AMYMONE (Afivfiwvri), in Greek Legend, a daughter of 
 Danaiis, by whom, with her sisters, she had "been sent to 
 look for water, the district of Argus being then parched 
 through the anger of Neptune. Amymone having thrown 
 her spear at a stag, missed it, but hit a satyr asleep in the 
 brake. The satyr pursued her, and she called on Neptune 
 for help, who appeared, and for love of her beauty caused 
 a spring to well up, which received her name. By Neptune 
 she became the mother of Nauplius, the WTecker. Amymone 
 at the spring is represented on ancient engraved gems. 
 
 AMYOT, Jacques, a famous French writer, was born, 
 of poor parents, at Melun, October 30, 1513; found his 
 way — a pale-faced, bare-footed, ill-clad boy — to the " Col- 
 lege de France" in Paris, and there picked up a know- 
 
 ledge of the classical languages, serving some of the richci 
 students as valet and composer of Latin, to enable him to 
 continue his studies. He became M.A. at Paris, and 
 doctor of civil law at Bourges ; obtained, through Jacques 
 Colure (or Colin), abbot of St Ambrose in the latter city, 
 a tutorship in the family of a secretary of state ; by the 
 secretary was recommended to the duchess of Berry, only 
 sister of Francis I. ; and, through her influence, wa3 made 
 professor of Greek and Latin at Bourges. Here he trans 
 lofted the Theagenes and Cliariclea of Heliodorus (1547. 
 fol.), fur which he was rewarded by Francis L with the- 
 abbey of Bellozane, and thereby enabled to go to Italy to 
 study the Vatican text of Plutarch, on whoso Lives he 
 had been some time engaged. On the way he turned 
 aside on a mission to the council of Trent Returning 
 home, he was selected as tutor to the sons of Henry II., 
 by one of whom (Charles IX.) he was afterwards made 
 grand almoner, and by the other (Henry III.) was ap- 
 pointed commander of the order of the Holy Ghost 
 Pius I. piomoted him to the bishopric of Auxerre, and 
 here he continued to live in comparative quiet, repairing 
 his cathedral and perfecting his translations, for the rest of 
 his days, though troubled towards the close by the insub- 
 ordination and revolts of Lis clergy. He died February 6, 
 1593, bequeathing, it is said, 1200 crowns to the hospital a*. 
 Orleans for the twelve " deniers " he received there when 
 "poor and naked" on his way to Paris. His fame rests 
 on his vigorous and idiomatic version of Piutarch's Livei 
 (1559, 2 vols.), which was translated intc English by North, 
 and supplied Shakespeare with materials for his Roman 
 plays. His style was greatly admired by Racine and 
 Rousseau, and Montaigne said of him, " I give the palm, 
 and rightly, methinks, to Jacques Amyot over all out 
 French writers." 
 
 AMYRAUT, Moses, a pre-eminent French Protestant 
 theologian and metaphysician, was born at Bourgueil, in 
 the valley of Anjou, in 1596. His family was an ancient 
 and illustrious one from Hagenau, Alsace. They migrated 
 to Orleans in the 13th or 14th century. His father was a 
 lawyer of local note, and designing Moses for his own pro- 
 fession, on the completion of his studies at Orleans of 
 humanity and philosophy, he sent him to the university of 
 Poictiers. It is recorded that there the youth studied 
 fourteen hours a day, and made such swift progress that 
 he was able to maintain theses and disputations, and to 
 take the degree of licentiate (B.A.) of laws. On his way 
 home from the university he passed through Saumur, and 
 having visited Mons. Bonchereau, pastor of the Protestant 
 church there, ho introduced him to the renowned lord of 
 Plessis-Mornay, governor of the city. Both were struck 
 with young Amyraut's ability and culture, and both urged 
 him to change from law to theology. Plessis-Mornay, who 
 was chary of laudations, pronounced that " there was 
 nothing above the grasp of his great parts." Returned 
 home, his father, after considerable hesitation, gave consent 
 to the change from law to divinity, with a proviso that he 
 should reviso his philological and philosophical studies, and 
 read over Mons. Calvin's Institutions, before finally deter- 
 mining. He did so, and, as might have been anticipated, 
 decided for theology. He thereupon removed to Saumur 
 — destined to be for ever associated with his name — and 
 "sat at the feet of the great Cameron," who ultimately 
 regarded him as his greatest, scholar. He had a brilliant 
 course, and was in due time licensed as a minister of the 
 French Protestant Church. The contemporary civil wars 
 and excitements hindered his advancement. His first 
 church was in St Aignau, in the province of Maine. There 
 he remained two years. The celebrated Daille, being then 
 removed to Paris, advised the church at Saumur to secure 
 Amyraut as his successor, praising him " as abuvo \jiujseli "
 
 A N A — A N A 
 
 78?. 
 
 The university of Saumur at the same time had fixed its 
 eyes on him as professor of theology. The great churches 
 of Paris and Rouen also contended for him, and sent their 
 deputies to win him, to the provincial synod of Anjou. 
 Amyraut had left the choice to the synod. He was 
 appointed to Saumur, and to the professor's chair along with 
 the pastorate. On the occasion of his inauguration he 
 maintained for thesis Be Sacerdotio Christi. His co- 
 professors were Lewis Capell and Josua de la Place, who 
 were also Cameron's pupUs. Very beautiful was the life- 
 long friendship of these three remarkable men. They 
 remain associated still as the joint authors of a body of 
 divinity entitled Th-eses Salmurienses. Full of energy in 
 every atom of him, Amyraut devoted himself to his labour 
 of love with a fine enthusiasm of love of labour. He 
 very speedily gave French Protestantism a potentiality it 
 had never possessed before. In 1631 he published hi3 
 Traite des Religions, a book that still lives ; and from this 
 year onward he was a foremost man in the church, especi- 
 ally at the natijnal and provincial synods. One incident 
 in his synodical services stands out, as the like do in the 
 story of Luther and of John Knox. Chosen to represent 
 the provincial synod of Anjou, Touraine, and Maine at 
 the national synod held in 1631 at Charenton, that 
 assembly appointed him their orator to address the king, 
 and to present to him "The Copy of their Complaints and 
 Grievances for the Infractions and Violations of the Edict 
 of Nantes." Previous deputies had addressed the king on 
 their bended knees, whereas the representatives of the 
 Roman Catholics had been permitted to stand. Amyraut 
 consented to be orator only if the assembly authorised him 
 to stand. There was intense resistance. Richelieu himself, 
 preceded by lesser dignitaries, condescended to visit Amy- 
 raut privately, to draw him over to kneel ; but the 
 stout-hearted orator held resolutely to equality with the 
 Roman Catholics, and carried his point. .Standing -in the 
 presence of king and court, he recounted the complaints 
 and grievances of his church, and charmed even his adver- 
 saries with his mingled dignity of manner and suavity of 
 address. Long afterwards Richelieu recalled the memorable 
 incident ; and the " Oration," which was immediately 
 published in the French Mercury, remains a historic land- 
 mark in the history of French Protestantism. During his 
 absence on this matter the assembly debated " Whether 
 the Lutherans who desired it, might be admitted into 
 communion with the Reformed Churches of France at the 
 Lord's Table 1 " It was decided in the affirmative previous 
 to his return ; but he approved with astonishing eloquence, 
 and thereafter was ever in the front rank in maintaining 
 intercommunication between all churches holding the main 
 doctrines of the Reformation. His defence against many 
 adversaries on the question was published in 1647 — Be 
 Secessions ab Ecclesid Romand deque Ratione Pads inter 
 Evangelicos in Religionis Negotio constituendce. Bayle (s.v.) 
 recounts the title-pages of no fewer than thirty-two books 
 of which Amyraut was the author. These show that he 
 took part in all the great controversies on Predestination 
 and Arminianism which then so agitated and harassed all 
 Eurdpe. Substantially he held fast the Calvinism of his 
 preceptor Cameron ; but, like Richard Baxter in England, 
 by his breadth and charity exposed himself to all manner 
 of misconstruction from Peter du Moulin and others ultra- 
 orthodox. His La Befense de Calvin never was answered, 
 although superabundantly replied to. The university of 
 Saumur became the university of French Protestantism. 
 Amyraut had as many as a hundred students in attendance 
 upon his prelections. Another historic part filled by 
 Amyraut was in the negotiations originated with Mons. 
 le Goux, lord of Berchere, first president of the parliament 
 of Burgundy, when exiled to Saumur, for a reconciliation 
 
 and reunion of the Roman Catholics of France with, the 
 French Protestants. Very largo were the concessions 
 made by Richelieu in his personal interviews with Amy- 
 raut; but, as with the Worcester House negotiations 
 in England between the Church of England and Non- 
 conformists, they inevitably fell through. On all aides 
 the statesmanship and eloquence of Amyraut were con- 
 ceded. When the king viaited Saumur in 1651, Amyraut 
 declined to close his church on the Sunday, but preached 
 a sermon that rang through Europe on the text, "Fear 
 God, honour the king." Amyraut remained to the end 
 one of the most prominent names of French Protestantism; 
 and his Be V Elevation de la Fog et de I 'Abaissemmt de la 
 Raison en la Crcance des Mystcres de la Religion (1641) 
 gave him early a high place as a metaphysician, which was 
 sustained by after works. Exclusive of his controversial 
 writings, he left behind him a very voluminous series of 
 practical evangelical books, which remain the fireside 
 favourites of the peasantry of French Protestantism still 
 His Estat des Fideles apres la Mort has comforted many 
 mourners ; his Sur UOraison Bominicale is striking and 
 rich ; his BuMerite des (Euvrcs and Traite de lajustificntiun, 
 weighty and powerful; his Paraphrases on Old Testa- 
 ment and New Testament books of Holy Scripture, judicious 
 and suggestive — sometimes penetrative. His closing years 
 were weakened by a severe fall he met with in 1657. He 
 died on ISth January 1664. His portrait was published 
 by his son, but with no name or inscription underneath. 
 (Bayle, s.v. ; Riog. Univ., s.v.; John Quick's Synod, in 
 Gall. Prform., pp. 352-7 ; ibid. MS. leonct Sacrw Galli- 
 cance; Life of Cameron.) (a. b. g.) 
 
 ANA, a Latin plural termination appropriated to various 
 collections of the observations and criticisms of eminent 
 men, delivered in conversation and recorded by their 
 frieads, or discovered among their paper? after their de- 
 cease. Though the term Ana is of comparatively modern 
 origin, the introduction of this species of composition is 
 not of recent date. It appears, from D'Herbelot's Biblio- 
 thkque Orientate, that from the earliest periods the Eastern 
 nations were in the habit of preserving the maxims of 
 their sages. From them the practice passed to the Greeks 
 and Romans. Plato and Xenophon treasured up and re- 
 corded the sayings of their master Socrates ; and Arrian, 
 in the concluding books of his Enchiridion, now lost, col- 
 lected the casual observations of Epictetus. The numerous 
 apophthegms scattered in Plutarch, Diogenes Laertius, and 
 other writers, show that it was customary in Greece to pre- 
 serve the colloquially expressed ideas of illustrious men. It 
 appe irs that Julius Caesar compiled a book of apophthegms, 
 in which he related the Ion mots of Cicero ; and Quintilian 
 informs us that a freedman of that celebrated wit and 
 orator composed three books of a work entitled Be Jocis 
 Ciceronis. We are told by Suetonius that Caius Melissus. 
 originally the slave but afterwards the freedman and 
 librarian of Maecenas, collected the sayings of his master; 
 and Aulus Gellius has filled his A'octcs Attica; with anec- 
 dotes which he heard from the eminent scholars and critics 
 whose society he frequented in Rome. 
 
 But though vestiges of Ana may be traced in the classi- 
 cal ages, it is only in modern times that they have come to 
 be regarded as constituting a distinct species of composi- 
 tion, comprising literary anecdotes, critical reflections, and 
 historical incidents, mingled with the detail of bon mot* 
 and ludicrous tales. The term Ana seems to have been 
 applied to such collections as far back as the beginning 
 of the 15th century. Francesco Barbaro, in a letter to 
 Poggio, pays that the information and anecdotes which 
 Poggio and Barthelemi Montepolitiano had picked up dur- 
 ing a literary excursion through Germany will be called 
 Ana : " Quemadmodum mala ab Appio e Claudia gent*
 
 784 
 
 ANA 
 
 Appiana, et pira a Mallio Malliana cognominata sunt, 
 sic hajc literarum qua? vestra ope et opera Gcnnania in 
 ltaliam deferentur, aliquando et Foggiana et Monte- 
 politiana vocabuntur." 
 
 Poggio Bracciolini, to whom this letter is addressed, 
 and to whom the world is indebted for the preservation of 
 so many classical remains, is the first eminent person of 
 modern times whose jests and opinions have been trans- 
 mitted to posterity. Poggio was secretary to five succes- 
 sive popes. During the pontificate of Martin V., who was 
 chosen in 1417, Poggio and other members of the Roman 
 chancery were in the habit of assembling in a common 
 hall adjoining the Vatican, in order to converse freely on 
 all subjects. Being more studious of wit than of truth, 
 they termed this apartment Buggiale, a word which Poggio 
 himself interprets Mendaciorum Offieina. Here Poggio and 
 his friends discussed the news and scandal of the day ; 
 communicated entertaining anecdotes ; attacked what they 
 did not approve (and they approved of little) ; and in- 
 dulged in the utmost latitude of satiric remark, not sparing 
 even the pope and cardinals. The jests and stories which 
 occurred in these unrestrained conversations were collected 
 by Poggio, and formed the chief materials of his Facetiae, 
 first printed, according to De Bure, in 1470. This collec- 
 tion, which forms a principal part of the Poggiana, is 
 chiefly valuable as recording interesting anecdotes of 
 eminent men of the 14th and 15th centuries. It also 
 contains a number of quibbles or jeux de mots, and a still 
 greater number of idle and licentious stories. Many of 
 these are not original, some of them being taken from 
 ancient authors, and a still greater number from the 
 Fabliaux of the Trouveurs. On the other hand, Poggio' 
 has suggested much to succeeding writers. Prior's Hans 
 Carvel and several of Fontaine's fables are from stories 
 originally related by Poggio. The Faeetice forms, upon 
 the whole, the most amusing and interesting part of the 
 Poggiana printed at Amsterdam in 1720; but this collec- 
 tion also comprehends additional anecdotes of Poggio's life, 
 and a few extracts from his graver compositions. 
 
 Though Poggio was the first person whose remarks and 
 bon mots were collected under the name of Ana, the Sca- 
 ligerana, which contains the opinions of Joseph Scaliger, 
 was the first work published under that appellation, and 
 accordingly may be regarded as having led the way to 
 that class of publications. There are two collections of 
 Scaligerana — the Prima and Secunda. The first was com- 
 piled by a physician named Francis Vertunien, Sieur de 
 Lavau, who attended a family with whom Joseph Scaliger 
 resided. He, in consequence, had frequent opportunities 
 of meeting the celebrated critic, and was in the custom of 
 committing to writing the observations which dropped 
 from him in the course of conversation, to which he 
 occasionally added remarks of his own. This collection, 
 which was chiefly Latin, remained in manuscript many 
 years after the death of the compiler. It was at length 
 purchased by M. de Sigogne, who published it in 1669, 
 under the title of Prima Scaligerana, nusquam aniehac 
 edita, calling it prima in order to preserve its claim of 
 priority over another Scaligerana, which, though published 
 three years before, had been more recently compiled. This 
 second work, known as Secunda Scaligerana, was collected 
 by two brothers of the name of Vassan, students of the 
 university of Leyden, of which Scaliger* was one of the 
 professors. Being particularly recommended to Scaliger, 
 they were received in his house, and enjoyed his conversa- 
 tion. Writing down what they had heard, particularly on 
 historical and critical subjects, they soon made up a large 
 manuscript volume, in which, however, th'sre was neither 
 connection nor arrangement of any description. After pass- 
 ing through various hands, this manuscript came into the 
 
 possession of M. Daillt5, who for his own use arranged in 
 alphabetical order the articles which it contained. Isaac 
 Vossius, obtaining the manuscript in loan from M. Daille. 
 transcribed it, and afterwards published it at the Hague, 
 under the title of Scaligerana, site Excerpta ex Ore Josepln 
 Scaliaeri. This edition was full of inaccuracies and 
 blunders, and a more correct impression was afterwards 
 published by M. Daille, with a preface complaining of the 
 use that Vossius had made of the manuscript, which he 
 declares was never intended for publication, and was not 
 of a nature to be given to the world. Indeed, most literary 
 men in that age conceived that tho Scaligerana, particu- 
 larly the second, detracted considerably from the reputa- 
 tion of tho great scholar. Joseph Scaliger, with more 
 extensive erudition, but, as some think, less genius than 
 his father Julius Caesar Scaliger, had inherited his vanity 
 and dogmatical spirit. Conversing with two young students, 
 he would probably be but little cautious in tho opinions he 
 expressed, as his literary errors could not be detected or 
 exposed. Unfortunately the blind admiration of his pupils 
 led them to regard his opinions as the responses of an 
 oracle, and his most unmerited censures as just condemna- 
 tions. The Scaligerana, accordingly, contains many false- 
 hoods, with much unworthy personal abuse of the most 
 distinguished characters of the age. 
 
 In imitation of the Scaligaana, a prodigious number of 
 similar works appeared in France towards the end of the 
 17th and beginning of the 18th century. At first these 
 collections were confined to what bad fallen from eminent 
 men in conversation ; bat they were afterwards made to 
 embrace fragments found among their papers, and even 
 passages extracted from their works and correspondence. 
 Of those which merely record the conversations of eminent 
 men, the best known and most valuable is the Menagiana. 
 Gilles Manage was a person of good sense, of various and 
 extensive information, and of a most communicative dis 
 position. For a long period an assembly of literary 
 men met once a week at his house ; and during his latei 
 years he daily received critics and scholars as visitors. 
 Much of his time was thus spent in conversation ; and his 
 habitual associates were at pains to record his opinions, 
 which were generally founded on a correct taste and judg- 
 ment, and were always delivered in an interesting and 
 lively manner. A collection of his oral opinions was pub- 
 lished in 1693, soon after his death; and this collection, 
 which was entitled Menagiana, was afterwards corrected 
 and enlarged by M. la Monnoye, in an edition published 
 by him in 1715. 
 
 The Perroniana, which exhibits the opinions of Cardinal 
 du Perron, was compiled from his conversation by M. dr 
 Puy, and published by Vossius, by the same contrivance 
 which put him in possession of -the Scaligerana. Some 
 parts of this collection are useful in illustrating the literary 
 and ecclesiastical history of the age in which Du Perron 
 lived ; but it contains many puerile, imprudent, and absurd 
 remarks, many of them the interpolations of his friends. 
 The Thuana, or observations of the president De Thou, 
 have usually been published along with the Perroniana. 
 This collection is not extensive, and by no means of sucb 
 value as might have been exDected from a man so able and 
 distinguished. 
 
 The Valesiana is a collection of the literary opinions of 
 the. historiographer Adrian de Valois, published by his 
 son. M. do Valois was-a great student of history, and the 
 Valesiana accordingly comprehends many valuable histori 
 cal observations, particularly on the works of Du Cange. 
 
 The Fureteriana (1696) contains the bon mots of M. 
 Furetiere of the French Academy, the stories which he was 
 in the habit of telling, and a number of anecdotes and 
 remarks found in his papers after his decease. This pro-
 
 A JN A 
 
 78o 
 
 luction, however, comprehends but few thoughts, opinions, 
 »r criticisms on books, consisting chiefly of short stories, 
 ind containing numerous allusions to a violent quarrel he 
 tad with the French Academy, of which he was a member, 
 concerning his Dictionnaire Universel de la Langue 
 Francaise. 
 
 The Chevraeana (2 vols. 8vo, 1700), so called from M. 
 Chevreau, exhibits more research than most works of a 
 similar description, and is probably more accurate, as it 
 differs from the Ana proper, of which the works described 
 tbove are instances, in having been pubNshed during the 
 life of the author, and revised by himself. Among other 
 interesting articles, it contains a learned and ingenious 
 commentary on the works of Malherbe, to whom the French 
 language and poetry were greatly indebted for their per- 
 fection. 
 
 Parrhasiana (Amst., 2 vols. 8vo, 1699-1701) is the 
 work of Jean le Clerc, a professor of Amsterdam, who 
 bestowed this appellation on his miscellaneous productions 
 with the view of discussing various topics of philosophy 
 md polities with more freedom than he could have em- 
 ployed under his own name. This work is not of the light 
 and unconnected description of most of the Ana which 
 have been above enumerated, as it contains much learned 
 philological disquisition, and a long dissertation on poetry 
 and eloquence. In the first volume there is a list of his 
 published works, and a bitter reply to all who had censured 
 them. 
 
 The Huetiana contains the detached thoughts and criti- 
 cisms of Huet, bishop of Avranches, which he himself 
 committed to writing when he was far advanced in life. 
 Huet was born in 1630, and in 1712 he was attacked by 
 a malady which impaired his memory, and rendered him 
 incapable of the sustained attention necessary for the com- 
 pletion of a long or laborious work. In this situation he 
 employed himself in putting his detached observations on 
 paper. These were published by the Khbi d'Olivet the year 
 after his death (1722), under the name of Huetiana, — a 
 work which is not, like some other Ana, a succession of 
 bon mots or anecdotes, but forms a series of thoughts and 
 criticisms on various topics of morals, philosophy, and 
 literature. One of the most instructive discussions to a 
 scholar, in this collection, is that on the Latinisation of 
 names and surnames. His critical judgments on Mon- 
 taigne, Rochefoucauld, and Tacitus are valuable. But 
 were there no other literary memorials of the bishop of 
 Avranches, he certainly would not derive high reputation 
 from the Huetiana. It was not, indeed, to be expected 
 from the circumstances in which the articles wefe com- 
 posed, that they should always display that correct judg- 
 ment which distinguishes many of the other works of this 
 learned writer. 
 
 The Casauboniana presents us with the miscellaneous 
 observations, chiefly philological, of the celebrated Isaac 
 Casaubon. During the course of a long life that eminent 
 commentator was in the daily practice of committing to 
 paper anything remarkable which he heard in conversa- 
 tion with his friends, especially if it bore on the studies in 
 which he was engaged. He also made annotations from 
 day to day on the works he read, with which he connected 
 his judgments concerning the authors and their writings. 
 This compilation, which was- styled Ephemerides, together 
 with his Adversaria, and materials amassed for a refutation 
 of the Ecclesiastical Annals of Baronius, were bequeathed 
 by his son Meric Casaubon to the Bodleian library at 
 Oxford. These were shown to Christopher Wolfius during 
 a visit which he paid to that university; and having been 
 transcribed by him, were published in 1710 under the title 
 of Casauboniana. This collection consists of opinions con- 
 cerning various eminent writers, illustrations of passages 
 
 of Scripture, and philological observations and animadver- 
 sions on the first thirty-four years of the Annals of Baron 
 ius. The materials and information which it contains arc 
 probably more accurate than is usually the case in works oi 
 the same description, as they were not reported by others, 
 but were committed to writing by Casaubon himself while 
 the works on which he commented remainad fresh in his 
 recollection. 
 
 Besides the above a great many works, under tho title 
 of Ana, appeared in France about the same period. Thus, 
 the opinions and conversation of Charpcntier, Colomesius, 
 and St Evremond were recorded in the Carpenteriana, 
 C'olomesiana, and St Evremoniana; and those of Segrais 
 in the Segraisiana, — a collection formed by a person 
 stationed behind the tapestry in a house where Segrais 
 was accustomed to visit, of which Voltaire declared, "que 
 de tous les Ana c'est celui qui merite le plus d'etre mis au 
 rang des mensonges impriines, et surtout des mensonges 
 iusipides." The Ana, indeed, from the popularity which 
 they now enjoyed, were compiled in such numbers and 
 with so little care that they became almost proverbial for 
 inaccuracy. About the middle of the 18th century, too, 
 they were sometimes made the vehicles of revolutionary 
 and heretical opinions. Thus the evil naturally began to 
 cure itself, and by a reaction the French Ana sunk in 
 public esteem as much below their intrinsic value as they 
 had formerly been exalted above it. 
 
 Of the examples England has produced of thi3 species 
 of composition, perhaps the most interesting is the Wai- 
 poliana, a transcript of the literary conversation of Horace 
 Walpole, Earl of Orford. That multifarious author spent 
 a great portion of his time in conversation, and, possess- 
 ing opportunities of information enjoyed by few, was dis- 
 tinguished for his resources of anecdote, wit, and judicious 
 remark. It was suggested to him that he ought to form 
 a collection of anecdotes and observations, but this he 
 declined, furnishing, however, the editor of the Walpoliava 
 with many anecdotes in his own handwriting. " After his 
 death several specimens of this miscellany were published 
 in the Monthly Magazine; and being afterwards enlarged 
 by the recollections of the editor and the communications 
 of others, were published in two volumes under the title 
 of Walpoliana. Most other works which in this country 
 have been published under the name of Ana, as Baconiana, 
 Atterburyana, <to., are rather extracts from the writings 
 and correspondence of eminent men than memorials of 
 their conversation. 
 
 There are some works which, though they do not bear 
 the title, belong more strictly to the class of Ana than many 
 of the collections which are known under that appella- 
 tion. Such are the Melanges d'Histoire et de Litterature, 
 published under the name of Yigneul Marville, though the 
 work of a Benedictine, D'Argonne; and the Locorum Com- 
 munium Collectanea, ex Lectionibus Pkilippi Melanchthonis, 
 — a work of considerable reputation on account of its 
 theological learning, and the information it communicates 
 concerning the early state of the Reformed Church. But 
 of those productions which belong to the class, though 
 they do not bear the name, of Ana, the most celebrated 
 are the Colloquia Mensalia of Luther and Selden's Table- 
 Talk. The former, which comprehends the conversation 
 of Luther with his friends and coadjutors in the great work 
 of the Reformation, was first published in 1566. Captain 
 Bell, who translated it into English in the time of the 
 Commonwealth, informs us that, an edict having been pro- 
 mulgated commanding the works of Luther to be destroyed, 
 it was for some time supposed that all the copies of the 
 Colloquia Mensalia had been burned; but in 1626, on the 
 foundation of a house being removed, a printed copy was 
 found lying in a deep hole, and wrapped up in a linen
 
 786 
 
 A JN A - A JN A 
 
 cloth. The book translated by Bell, and again by the 
 younger Hazlitt in 1841, is said to have been originally 
 collected by Dr Anthony Lauterbach, " out of the holy 
 mouth of Luther." It consists chiefly of observations and 
 discussions on -idolatry, auricular confession, the mass, 
 excommunication, clerical jurisdiction, general councils, 
 and all the po nts agitated by the Reformed Church in those 
 early periods. The Table-Talk of Selden contains a more 
 genuine and undisguised expression of the sentiments of 
 that eminent man than we find in his more studied pro- 
 ductions. It was published after his death by Richard 
 Milward, his amanuensis, who affirms that for twenty 
 years he enjoyed the opportunity of 'daily hearing his dis- 
 course, and made it his practice faithfully to commit to 
 writing " the excellent things that usually fell from him." 
 'Hie work contains, along with much of a lighter kind, 
 many curious facts and opinions concerning the political 
 and ecclesiastical history of the interesting period during 
 which Selden lived, and in the important events of which 
 he bore a considerable share. The style of Selden, in most 
 of the works published under his own care, is harsh and 
 obscure ; but Clarendon describes him as " a clear dis- 
 courser, possessed of the faculty of making difficult things 
 easy, and presenting them clearly to the understanding." 
 This t?'lent for elucidation shines chiefly in his Table-Talk, 
 which is filled with the stores of his extensive reading, de- 
 livered without any pretensions to that order and method 
 the want of which has been attributed to his other pro- 
 ductions. Many more recent works, under such titles as 
 Literary Remains, Table-Talk, <fcc, partake more or less of 
 the nature of Ana, but do not call for separate notice 
 
 The most remarkable collection of Ana in the English 
 language — and, indeed, in any language — is to be found 
 in a work which does not correspond to the normal type 
 either in name or in form. In his Life of Samuel John- 
 ton, LL.D., Boswell relates that to his remark, a propos of 
 French literature, "Their Ana are good," Johnson replied, 
 " A few of them are good; but we have one book of that 
 kind better than any of them — Selden's Table-Talk." Bos- 
 well's own work is incomparably superior to all. In worth 
 as a book this has been rated, on the high authority of 
 Carlyle, beyond any other product of the 18th century, 
 and the value it has depends mainly on its Ana. Its 
 interest arises, not from the details it furnishes of the 
 events of Dr Johnson's career, still less from any attempt 
 at a discriminating estimate of his work and character, but 
 from the graphic representation it gives of his habitual 
 manner of life and speech. The innate greatness of 
 Johnson appears, more than in all his writings, in his 
 portrait, delineated with the exactness of a sharply-defined 
 photograph, as he appeared to the eyes of his admiring 
 biographer in his daily dishabille. . 
 
 ■Wolfiua has given a history of the Ana in a preliminary discourse 
 to his edition of the Casauooniana, published in 1710. In the 
 Hipcrtoire de Bibliographies Spiciales, Curieuses, et Instructive*, by 
 Peignot, there ia a Notice Bibliographiqw of these collections ; but 
 many of the books there enumerated consist of mere extracts from 
 the writings of popular authors. 
 
 ANABAPTISTS (re-baptisers, from ivi and /Sottt^co), 
 a name sometimes applied indiscriminately to all denomi- 
 nations of Christians that deny the validity of infant baptism, 
 but restricted in general usage to certain sects which became 
 prominent in Germany and elsewhere at the period of the 
 Reformation. In both cases the designation originates 
 with opponents, and is repudiated by the great majority of 
 those to whom it is applied. Believing, as they do, that 
 the baptism of infanta is no baptism, they naturally object 
 to a name which implies that their baptism of such persons 
 as may have been baptised in infancy is a second adminis- 
 tration of the rite. It is therefore desirable to avoid the 
 
 use of the term as descriptive of those who hold what art 
 otherwise known as antipaedobaptist views. In its more 
 limited sense the word has been too long in use, and it 
 too well known to be now discarded, though it is open to 
 the further objection, in addition to that already stated, 
 that it describes a sect by one of the least important of its 
 distinctive doctrines and practices. The Anabaptists of 
 Germany are historically noteworthy, not because they 
 insisted on re-baptism as tho condition of admission to 
 their communion, but because the enthusiasm of the Refor- 
 mation manifested itself in them in a form and mannei 
 altogether peculiar. Their views as to the true constitution 
 of the church and its relation to the state, and the efforts 
 they made to realise these views, furnish a problem, partly 
 theological,' partly historical, of which a satisfactory 
 solution is not easy. To one who looks merely at the 
 extravagance and lawlessness which appear on the surface, 
 fanaticism and madness may furnish a sufficient explana- 
 tion of the whole Anabaptist movement, but a deeper in- 
 sight will find many elements in it that are quite incon- 
 sistent with the supposition of nothing more than bare- 
 faced imposture in the leaders, and blind delusion in the 
 followers. There is an obvious genetic, though not histori- 
 cal connection between the Anabaptists and those earlier 
 sects (Novations, Donatists, Albigenses, Waldenses) which 
 did not practise infant baptism. It is more important, 
 however, to trace the relation between the Anabaptists and 
 the great body of the Reformers. Anabaptism, as a system, 
 may be defined as the Reformation doctrine carried to its 
 utmost limit; the Anabaptists were the extreme left in the 
 army of the Reformers. It is true that they regarded each 
 other as in different camps ; but their mutual denunciation* 
 cannot conceal the fact that even the most peculiar doctrines 
 of the Anabaptists were to them only corollaries, illegiti- 
 mately drawn, as the more orthodox Reformers thought, 
 from the fundamental principle, common to both, of the 
 independence of the individual judgment, and the supreme 
 importance of the subjective element, personal faith, in 
 religion. The connection of this principle with their theory 
 of the church and its relation to the state, their doctrine 
 of the sacraments, and even their political rising, is so 
 obvious that it need not be dwelt upon. The history of 
 the Anabaptist movement in its outward development is 
 brief but eventful In 1521 their first rising took place 
 at Zwickau, under the leadership of Thomas Miinzer, the 
 Lutheran pastor of that place. (SeeMuNZEB.) Compelled 
 to leave Zwickau, Miinzer visited Bohemia, resided two 
 years at Altstadt and Thuringia, and in 1524 spent some 
 time in Switzerland. During this period he proclaimed his 
 revolutionary doctrines in religion and politics with grow- 
 ing vehemence, and, so far as the lower orders were con- 
 cerned, with growing success. The crisis came in the so- 
 called Peasants' War in South Germany, in 1525. In its 
 origin a revolt against feudal oppression, it became, under 
 the leadership of Miinzer, a war against all constituted 
 authorities, and an attempt to establish by force bis ideal 
 Christian commonwealth, with absolute equality and the 
 community of goods. The total defeat of the insurgents 
 at Frankeuhausen (May 15, 1525), followed as it was by 
 the execution of Miinzer and several other leaders, proved 
 only a temporary check to the Anabaptist movement. 
 Here and there throughout Germany, Switzerland, and the 
 Netherlands there were zealous propagandists, through 
 whose teaching many were prepared to follow as soon as 
 another leader should arise. A second and more deter- 
 mined attempt to establish a theocracy was made at Miin- 
 ster, in Westphalia (1532-5). Here the sect had gained 
 considerable influence, through the adhesion of Rothmann, 
 the Lutheran pastor, and several prominent citizens ; and, 
 the leaders, Johaan Matthyszoon or Matthiesen, a baker of
 
 ANA-ANA 
 
 787 
 
 Haarlem, and Johann Bockhold, a tailor of Leyden, had 
 littlo difficulty in obtaining possession of the town and 
 deposing the magistrates. Vigorous preparations were at 
 once made, not only to hold what had been gained, but to 
 proceed from Munster as a centre to the conquest of the 
 world. The town being besieged by Count Waldeck, its ex- 
 pelled bishop (April 1534), Matthiesen, who was first in com- 
 mand, made a sally with only thirty followers, under the 
 fanatical idea that he wa3 a second Gideon, and was cut 
 otf with his entire band. Bockhold, better known in 
 history as John of Leyden, was now supreme. Giving 
 himself out as the successor of David, he claimed royal 
 honours and absolute power in the new " Zion." He 
 justified the most arbitrary and extravagant measures by the 
 authority of visions from heaven, as others have done in 
 similar circumstances. With this pretended sanction he 
 legalised polygamy, and himself took four wives, one of 
 whom he beheaded with his own hand in the market-place 
 in a fit of frenzy. As a natural consequence of such licence, 
 Munster was for twelve months a scene of unbridled pro- 
 fligacy. After an obstinate resistance the town was taken 
 by .the besiegers on the 24th June 1535, and in January of 
 the following year Bockhold and some of his more pro- 
 minent followers, after being cruelly tortured, were executed 
 in the market-place. The outbreak at Munster was the 
 crisis of the Anabaptist movement. It never again had the 
 opportunity of assuming political importance, the civil 
 powers naturally adopting the -most stringent measures to 
 suppress an agitation whose avowed object was to suppress 
 them. It is difficult to trace the subsequent history of the 
 sect as a religious body. The fact that, after the Munster 
 insurrection, the very name Anabaptist was proscribed in 
 Europe, is a source of twofold confusion. The enforced 
 adoption of new names makes it easy to lose the historical 
 identity of many who really-belonged to the Munster Ana- 
 baptists, and, on the other hand; has led to the classifica- 
 tion of many with the Minister sect who had no real 
 connection with it. The latter mistake, it is to be noted, 
 has been much more common than the former. The Men- 
 nonites, for example, have been identified with the earlier 
 Anabaptists, on the ground that they included among their 
 number many of the fanatics of Miinster. But the con- 
 tinuity of a sect is to be traced in its principles and not in 
 its adherents, and it must be remembered that Menno and 
 his followers expressly repudiated the distinctive doctrines 
 of the Miinster Anabaptists. They have never aimed at 
 any social or political revolution, and have been as remark- 
 able for sobriety of conduct as the Munster sect was for 
 its fanaticism. (See Mejotonites.) Li English history 
 frequent reference is made to the Anabaptists during 
 the 16th and 17th centuries, but there is no evidence 
 that any considerable number of native Englishmen ever 
 adopted the principles of the Munster sect. Many of the 
 followers of Miinzer and Bockhold seem to have fled from 
 persecution in Germany and the Netherlands to be sub- 
 jected to a persecution scarcely less severe in England. 
 The mildest measure adopted towards these refugees was 
 banishiucnt from the kingdom, and a large number suffered 
 at the stake. It has already been explained that the appli- 
 cation of the term Anabaptist to those English sects that 
 had nothing in common with the German Anabaptists 
 except the practice of adult baptism, is unjustifiable. (See 
 Baptists.) 
 
 ANABASIS (dra/Wi?, a march into the interior; from 
 ava,8aiv<i>, to ascend), the title given by Xenophon to his 
 narrative of the expedition of Cyrus the younger against 
 his brother, Artaxerxes of Persia, 401 B.C., and adopted by 
 Arrian for his history of the expedition of Alexander the 
 Great. (See Ainsworth's Trav. in Track of Ten Thousand 
 Greeks: Journal of Rov. Geoa. Soc. 1870, p. 463.) 
 
 ANACHARSIS, a Scythian philosopher, who lived 
 about 600 B.C. His father was one of the chiefs of his 
 nation, and married a woman of Greece. Instructed in 
 the Greek language by his mother, he prevailed upon the 
 king to intrust him with an embassy to Athens. On his 
 arrival in that renowned city he became acquainted with 
 Solon, from whom he rapidly acquired a knowledge of the 
 wisdom and learning of Greece. By the influence of Solon 
 he was introduced to the principal persons in Athens, and 
 was the first stranger who received the privileges of citizen- 
 ship. After he had resided several years at Athens, he 
 travelled through different countries in quest of knowledge, 
 and then returned home filled with the desire of instruct- 
 ing his countrymen in the laws and the religion of the 
 Greeks. According to Herodotus, he was killed by his 
 brother Saulius while he was performing sacrifice to the 
 goddess Cybele. His simple and forcible mode of expressing 
 himself gave birth to the proverbial expression, " Scythian 
 eloquence." (Herodot. iv. 76 ; Lucian, Scytha.) 
 
 ANACHRONISM, a neglect or falsification, whether 
 wilful or undesigned, of chronological relation. Its com- 
 monest use restricts it (agreeably to its etymology, Avd, 
 back, and xpoVos, time) to the ante-dating of events, cir- 
 cumstances, or customs; in other words, to the introduction, 
 especially in works of imagination that rest on a historical 
 basis, of details borrowed from a later age. Anachronisms 
 may be committed in many ways, originating, for instance, 
 in disregard of the different modes,, of life and thought 
 that characterise different periods, or in ignorance of tne 
 progress of the arts and sciences and the other ascertained 
 facts of history, and may vary from glaring inconsistency 
 to scarcely perceptible misrepresentation. Much of the 
 thought entertained about the past is so deficient in his- 
 torical perspective as to be little better than a continuous 
 anachronism. It is only since the close of the 18th cen- 
 tury that this kind of untruthfulness has jarred on the 
 general intelligence. Anachronisms abound in the works 
 of Raphael and Shakespeare, as well as in those of the 
 meanest daubers and playwrights of earlier times. In par- 
 ticular, the artists, on the stage and on the canvas, in story 
 and in song, assimilated their dramatis persona: to their 
 own nationality and their own time. The Virgin was 
 represented here as an Italian contadina, and there as a 
 Flemish frow; Alexander the Great appeared on the 
 French stage in the full costume of Louis Quatorze down 
 to the time of Voltaire ; and in our own country the con- 
 temporaries of Addison could behold, without any suspicion 
 of burlesque, 
 
 " Cato'3 long wig, flower'd gown, and lacquer' d chair." 
 
 Considerable difference of opinion has been expressed 
 regarding the legitimacy of anachronism, especially when 
 it is introduced designedly into historical novels. The 
 safe and the just course here appears to be to " regard the 
 writer's end," and not to hold an author responsible for 
 historical accuracy or verisimilitude who does not profess 
 to write history. 
 
 ANACOLUTHON is the lack of grammatical symmetry 
 in a sentence, either through the consequent taking an un- 
 expected form or being altogether suppressed, the writer 
 or speaker desiring to present his thought in another 
 aspect, or feeling that he has already made his meaning 
 sufficiently plain. In the case of a man who is full of his 
 subject, or who is carried along by the passion of the 
 moment, such inconsequents are very apt to occur. Of 
 Niebuhr it is told that his oral lectures consisted almost 
 entirely of anacoluthic constructions. To this kind of 
 licence some languages, as Greek and English, readily lend 
 themselves ; while the grammatical rigidity of others, us 
 Latin and French admits of it hut sparingly. In nero
 
 788 
 
 A N A - A N A 
 
 dotus, Thucydides, JSschylus, Pindar, and Plato, abundant 
 specimens are to be found ; and the same is true of the 
 writers of the Elizabethan age in our own language. The 
 following is an example : — " And he charged him to tell 
 no man ; but go show thyself," <5tc. (Luke v. 14). 
 
 ANACONDA, a gigantic snake of South America, 
 sometimes over 30 feet in length, called the water-serpent, 
 from frequenting swamps and rivers, and preying on water 
 animals. Its colour is a rich brown, with bright golden 
 rings on each side, and two rows of large black spots along 
 the back. The natives kill it for an oil they obtain from 
 its carcase. It is not venomous, and is said to be harmless. 
 
 ANACREON, an Ionian Greek, born at Teos, on the 
 coast of Asia Minor, probably about 562 B.C. His repu- 
 tation as a lyric poet stood very high both in his own age 
 and in those that followed. " The charming " — " the 
 honey-tongued " — " the swan of Teos " — " the glory of 
 Ionia," are some of the epithets constantly given him by 
 ancient writers. " Sing us one of the songs of Alcaeus or 
 Anacreon," cries one of the guests in a comedy of Aristo- 
 phanes. " When I hear the verses of Sappho or Anacreon," 
 says the poet to his friends, in the Symposium of Plato, 
 " I set down my cup for very shame of my own perform- 
 ances." But though he has given his name to that class 
 of light and free lyric effusions which celebrate the joys of 
 love and wine, he is to us moderns little more than a name. 
 We can no longer say of him, as Horace could, that " time 
 has not drowned his sportive lays ; " and we have to judge 
 of his merits as a poet chiefly from the warm praises of 
 those who had his poems in their hands. Of the five 
 books of lyrical pieces by Anacreon which Suidas and 
 Athena?us mention as extant in their time, we have now 
 but the merest fragments, collected from the citations of 
 later writers. Those graceful little poems (most of them 
 first printed from the MSS. by Henry Stephens in 1554), 
 which long passed among the learned for the songs of 
 Anacreon, and which are well known to many English 
 readers in the translations of Cowley and Moore, are really 
 of much later date, though possibly here and there genuine 
 fragments of the poet have been woven up in them. They 
 will always retain a certain popularity from their lightness 
 and elegance, and some of them are fair copies of Ana- 
 creon's style, which would lend itself readily enough to a 
 clever imitator. But an almost conclusive argument 
 against their genuineness lies in the fact that the peculiar 
 forms of the Ionic Greek, in which Anacreon wrote, are 
 not to be found in these reputed odes, while the frag- 
 ments of his poems quoted by ancient writers are full of 
 Ionicisms. Of the poet's life little is known beyond a 
 few scattered notices, not in all cases certainly authentic. 
 He- probably shared the voluntary exile of the mass of his 
 fellow-townsmen, who, when Cyrus, the Great was laying 
 siege to the Greek cities of Asia, took ship, and founded 
 a colony at Abdera in Thrace, rather than surrender their 
 city to Tiia general Harpagus. From Thrace he soon 
 removed to the island of Samos, ruled at that time by Poly- 
 crates, one of the grandest of those old " tyrants " who by 
 ao means deserved the name in its worst sense. It is said 
 that he acted as Polycrates's tutor; that he stood very high 
 in his confidence we learn from so good an authority as 
 Herodotus, who represents the poet as sitting in the royal 
 chamber when audience was given to the Persian herald. 
 In return for such favour and protection, he wrote many 
 complimentary odes upon Polycrates and his favourites. 
 But if an anecdote found in Stobaeus is true, he was no 
 mercenary flatterer. On one occasion the " tyrant " pre- 
 sented him with the sum of five talents. He spent two 
 wakeful nights in thinking of his money, and then re- 
 turned it to the giver, saying that it " was not worth the 
 Care it cost him," A cursory remark in the writings of 
 
 Maximus of Tyre shows at least the high estimation id 
 which the poet was supposed to have been held by his 
 royal patron. That writer says that nut even the warning 
 given to Polycrates byAmasis, king of Egypt, that his too 
 great prosperity would surely amuse the jealousy of the 
 gods, could make a man doubt the stability of his happi 
 ncss, who had, like Polycrates, the command of the Ioniaii 
 sea, a navy so powerful, and such a friend as Anacreon 
 The same authority tells us that this companionship exer- 
 cised a beneficial influence over the stern temper of the 
 tyrant. Like his fellow-lyrist, Horace, who was one of 
 Lis great admirers, and in many respect of a kindred 
 spirit, Anacreon seems to have been made for the society 
 of courts. On the death of Polycrates, Hipparchus, who 
 was then in power at Athens, and who inherited the 
 literary tastes of his father Pisistratus, sent a special em- 
 bassy to fetch the popular poet to Athens in a galley of 
 fifty oars. He must have fully enjoyed and contributed 
 much to the enjoyment of the brilliant circle with which 
 Hipparchus had surrounded himself, and there he made 
 acquaintance, amongst others, with the poet Simonides. 
 When this circle was broken up by the assassination of 
 Hipparchus, Anacreon seems to have returned to his 
 native town of Teos. There, according to a metrical 
 epitaph ascribed to his friend Simonides, he died and was 
 buried. Lucian mentions him amongst his instances 
 of the longevity of eminent men, as having completed 
 eighty-five years. If an anecdote given by Pliny (Nat. 
 llist. vii 7) is to be trusted, he was choked at last by a 
 grape-stone ; but the story has an air of mythical adapta- 
 tion to the poet's habits, which makes it somewhat apocry- 
 phal. Anacreon had a reputation as a composer of hymns, 
 as well as of those bacchanalian and amatory lyrics which 
 are commonly associated with his name. Two short hymns 
 to Diana and Bacchus, consisting of eight and eleven lines 
 respectively, stand first amongst his few undisputed re- 
 mains, as printed by recent editors. But pagan hymns, 
 especially when addressed to such deities as Venus, Eros, 
 and Bacchus, are not so very unlike what we call " Ana- 
 creontic " poetry as to make the contrast of style so great 
 as the word might seem to imply. The tone of Anacreon 's 
 lyric effusions has probably led to an unjust estimate, both 
 by ancients and moderns, of the poet's personal character. 
 As Homer was accused of bibulous propensities by somt. 
 because he makes frequent and kindly mention of " thu 
 purple wine," so Anacreon was held to have been u 
 thorough sensualist because he sang so persistently of 
 wine and love. But a poet must not always be judged bv 
 the flights of his fancy. The " triple worship " of tho 
 Muses, Wine, and Love, ascribed to him as his religion 
 in an old Greek epigram (Anthol. iil 25, 51), may have, 
 been as purely professional in the two last cases as in the 
 first, and his private character on such points was probably 
 neither much tetter nor worse than that of his contem- 
 poraries. Athenaeus remarks acutely that he seems at 
 least to have been sober when he wrote ; and he himself 
 strongly repudiates, as Horace does, the brutal character- 
 istics of intoxication as fit only for " barbarians " and 
 " Scythians " (Fragm. 64, Bergk). His own excuse, 
 when charged with hymning the reigning beauties of the 
 day rather than the orthodox gods and goddesses, is said 
 to have been made in these words— 
 
 " But are not these also lesser divinities J " 
 
 The best editions of Anacreon are tho a e of J. F.' Fischer, 
 Leipsic, 1703, and L Bergk, Leipsic, 1854. (w. l. c.) 
 
 ANADYOMENE ('AvaSvo^ivp), an epithet of Aphrodite 
 (Venus), expressive of her having risen (i.e., been born) 
 from the foam of the sea. In works of ancient art — e.g., 
 in many existing bronze statuettes — Venus was represented
 
 A N A -^ A N M 
 
 789 
 
 under this title as if just emerged from the sea, ana in the 
 act of wringing her tresses. This was the subject of a 
 painting by Apelles, one of the most celebrated pictures of 
 antiquity, the conception having been, it was said, sug- 
 gested to him by seeing Phryne bathing. This painting 
 belonged first to the people of Cos, from whom it was taken 
 to Rome by Augustus in part payment of tribute levied by 
 him. By the time of Nero it had become almost entirely 
 ruined by decay. 
 
 ANADYR, the name of a gulf and of a nver in the 
 north-east of Siberia. The gulf extends from Cape 
 Tchutotskoi, on the north, to Cape St Thadeus, on the 
 south, forming part of the Behring Sea ; while the river, 
 taking its rise from a lake in the Stanovoi mountains, 
 called Ivashki or Ivachno, about 67° N. lat, and 173° E. 
 long., flows through the Tchutchee country, at first to the 
 west and then to the east, entering the gulf of Anadyrsk- 
 aia, a branch of the gulf of Anadyr, after a course of 
 about 600 miles. Anadyrsk is the only town on its banks, 
 and the country through -which it passes is thinly popu- 
 lated, barren, and desolate. For nine months of the year 
 the ground is covered with snow, and there is not sufficient 
 pasturage for cattle. Reindeer, upon which the inhabit- 
 ants feed, are found in considerable numbers. 
 
 ANAESTHESIA (o privative, a'o-^o-is, sensation), a 
 term in medicine used to describe a state of insensibility 
 to external impressions, either as the result of disease or 
 as induced artificially by the employment of certain sub- 
 stances known as anaesthetics. 
 
 In diseases of the brain or spinal cord anaesthesia is an 
 occasional symptom, but in such cases it is usually limited 
 in extent, involving a limb or a definite area of the surface 
 of the body. Complete anaesthesia has been observed in 
 persons who were in a state of catalepsy or trance. 
 
 The artificial induction of anaesthesia by the use of 
 drugs or the inhalation of vapours is a subject of great 
 interest, both historically and from its practical application 
 to the relief of suffering and the treatment of disease. 
 Although it is mainly owing to the researches of distin- 
 guished chemists and physicians of the present century 
 that the employment of anaesthesia has come to occupy a 
 foremost place among remedies, there is abundant evidence 
 to show that it is a practice of great antiquity. Besides 
 the mention by Homer of the anaesthetic effects of 
 nepenthe, and the reference by Herodotus to the practice 
 of the Scythians of inhaling the vapours of a certain kind 
 of .hemp to produce intoxication, the employment of 
 anesthetics in surgery by the use of mandragora is par- 
 ticularly alluded to by Dioscorides and Pliny. It also 
 appears, from an old Chinese manuscript laid before the 
 French Academy by M. Julien, that a physician named 
 Hoa-tho, who lived in the 3d century, gave his patients a 
 preparation of hemp, whereby they were rendered in- 
 Bensible during the performance of surgical operations. 
 Mandragora was extensively used as an anaesthetic by 
 Hugo de Lucca, who practised in the 13th century. The 
 soporific effects of mandrake are alluded to by Shake- 
 speare, who- also makes frequent mention of anaesthetising 
 draughts, the composition of which is not specified. 
 
 In the Medical Gazette, voL xii. p. 515, Dr Sylvester, 
 quoting from a German work by Meissner, published in 
 1782, mentions the case of Augustus, king of Poland, 
 who underwent amputation while rendered insensible by a 
 narcotic But the practice of anaesthesia had never 
 become general, and surgeons appear to have usually 
 regarded it with disfavour. When, towards the close of 
 last century, the brilliant discoveries of Priestley gave an 
 impetus to chemical research, the properties of gases and 
 vnpours began to be more closely investigated, and the 
 Wief was then entertained that many of them would 
 
 become of greaj medicinal value. In 1800, Sir Humphrey 
 Davy, experimenting on nitrous oxide gas, discovered its 
 anaesthetic properties, and described the effects it had on 
 himself when inhaled, with the *i e w of relieving local 
 pain. He suggested its employment in surgery iu the fol- 
 lowing words : — " As nitrous oxide, in its extensive opera- 
 tion, seems capable of destroying' physical pain, it may 
 probably be used with advantage in surgical operations iu 
 which no great effusion of blood takes place." His sug- 
 gestion, however, remained unheeded for nearly half a 
 century. The inhalation of sulphuric eiher for the relief 
 of asthma and other lung affections had been employed by 
 Dr Pearson, of Birmingham, as early as 1785 ; and in 1805 
 Dr Warren, of Boston, U.S., used thig treatment in the 
 later stages of pulmonary consumption. 
 
 In 1818 Faraday showed that the inhalation of the 
 vapour of sulphuric ether produced anaesthetic effects 
 similar to those of nitrous oxide gas ; and this property of 
 ether was also shown by the American physicians, Godman 
 (1822), Jackson (1833), Wood and Buche (1834). 
 
 These observations, however, appear to have been re- 
 garded in the light of mere scientific curiosities and sub 
 jects for lecture-room experiment, rather than as facts 
 capable of being applied practically in the treatment of 
 disease, till December 1844, when Dr Horace Wells, a 
 dentist of Hartford, Connecticut, underwent in his own 
 person the operation of tooth extraction while rendered 
 insensible by nitrous oxide gas. Satisfied, from further 
 experience, that teeth could be extracted in this way 
 without pain, Dr Wells proposed to establish the practice 
 of painless dentistry under the influence of. the gas; but 
 in consequence of an unfortunate failure in an experiment 
 at Boston, he abandoned the project. On 30th September 
 1846, Dr Morton, a dentist of Boston, employed the 
 vapour of sulphuric ether to procure general anaesthesia 
 in a case of tooth extraction, and thereafter administered 
 it in cases requiring surgical operation with complete 
 success. This great achievement marked a new era in 
 surgery. Operations were performed in America in nume- 
 rous instances under ether inhalation, the result being 
 only to establish more firmly its value as a successful 
 anaesthetic. The' news of the discovery reached England 
 on 17th December 1846. On 19th December, Mj Robinson, 
 a dentist in London, and on the 21st, Mr Liston, the emi- 
 nent surgeon, operated on patients anaesthetised by ether ; 
 and the practice soon became general both in Great Britain 
 and on the Continent. 
 
 The late Sir James Y. Simpson, of Edinburgh, was the 
 first to apply anaesthesia by ether in midwifery practice. 
 This he did on 19th January 1847, and he subsequently 
 employed ether inhalation in numerous cases of both easy 
 and difficult parturition, an account of which he published, 
 containing much important information. The' results of 
 his trials showed that while the anaesthesia annulled the 
 conscious sufferings of the patient, it in no way interfered 
 with the muscular contractions of the uterus and the pro- 
 gress of the labour, and that it did not injuriously affect 
 the child. 
 
 These observations excited great interest in the medical 
 world, and led to the extensive employment of ether inhala- 
 tion till November 1847, when Simpson announced his 
 discovery of the anaesthetic properties of chloroform (the 
 trial of which had been suggested to him by Mr Waldie, a 
 chemist of Liverpool), and proposed it as a substitute for 
 sulphuric ether. So convincingly did he demonstrate the 
 great advantages of chloroform, that this substance speedily 
 superseded the use of ether as an anaesthetic, and continues 
 to the present time probably the most widely-used of all 
 the agents employed in medicine for the relief of humae 
 I suffering.
 
 790 
 
 A N A — A N A 
 
 As tho result of furtfisr investigations in this depart- 
 ment of scientific research, in which the labours of Dr 
 Snow, Mr Nunneley, and Dr Richardson have been con- 
 spicuous, numerous other volatile organic fluids have been 
 found to possess anesthetic properties. Several of these 
 have -been used in surgical practice, but as yet none of 
 them have been found to possess such superiority as would 
 entitle them to supersede chloroform. 1 
 • There are many who prefer ether as being a safer anaes- 
 thetic than chloroform, less apt to depress the circulation, 
 and less apt to excite vomiting; but any advantage it has 
 in these respects appean, in the estimation of surgeons, 
 to be practically counterbalanced by the greater efficiency 
 and facility of application of the latter substance. Ether, 
 however, continues to be largely used in America. 
 
 When introduced by inhalation into the system, ames- 
 thetic vapours act upon the brain and sensory nerves in 
 such a manner as more or less completely to abolish their 
 natural sensibility. The degree in which they do this can 
 be in large measure regulated by the quantity administered. 
 Thus, taking the familiar instance of chloroform, the 
 effect of the inhalation of a small quantity (say less than 
 half a drachm) is a feeling of exhilaration or semi-intoxica- 
 tion, accompanied with diminished sensibility to pain, but 
 without entire loss of consciousness. By continuing the 
 inhalation and increasing the quantity, profound stupor, 
 stertorous breathing, fixing of the eyes, and muscular 
 relaxation mark the occurrence of complete anaesthesia. In 
 many cases it is desirable to produce merely the former of 
 these conditions, viz., that of imperfect anesthesia; and this 
 is the extent to which chloroform is usually applied in un- 
 3omplicated labour. On the other hand, in surgical opera- 
 tions requiring absolute stillness on the part of the patient 
 the inhalation must be carried to the extent of producing 
 total unconsciousness. The state of anaesthesia can be 
 safely kept up for long periods by continuing to apply, 
 with due caution, the anaesthetic vapour. Whenever the 
 inhalation is stopped, consciousness begins to return, and, 
 in most cases, is soon completely restored. 
 
 The importance to the science of medicine of the intro- 
 duction of anaesthesia can scarcely be over-estimated. By 
 the employment of anaesthetics in surgery, not only is the 
 work of the surgeon relieved of a source of embarrass- 
 ment, and operations the most difficult and delicate under- 
 taken which otherwise would have been impossible, but 
 the death-rate in the worst cases has by universal testi- 
 mony been greatly diminished. In no department of 
 medicine has the use of anaesthetics been so extensive, or 
 their value so manifest, as in midwifery. The power of 
 ohloioform in mitigating the pain attendant on ordinary 
 labour, and in facilitating operative interference in cases of 
 difficulty, is a matter of every-day experience in the practice 
 of the accoucheur. In short, there is almost no condition 
 of great physical suffering which may not be alleviated by 
 the employment, under proper precautions, of anaesthetics. 
 But if the boon has been great to medical science, it has 
 been greater still to mankind ; for not merely is an incal- 
 culabls amount of actual pain prevented, but the dread of 
 submitting to surgical operations is beyond measure lessened 
 by the thought that they can be performed while the sufferer 
 is kept in a state of tranquil sleep. 
 
 Unfortunately, there is no known method of artificially 
 producing insensibility which is entirely free from risk, 
 and deaths have occasionally occurred under the adminis- 
 tration of anaesthetic vapours. Like all medicinal sub- 
 stances of a poisonous nature, the utmost care and watch- 
 fulness are requisite in their administration. The danger, 
 
 Nitrons oxide gas has been reintroduced, and ia now extensively 
 »nployed in dentistry. 
 
 calerit paribus, is in proportion to the dose. It "is more 
 than probable that many of the fatal instances of anaes- 
 thetic inhalation have been the result of carelessness; and 
 it is certain that by r. better acquaintance with the physn>- 
 logical action of the agents employed, and a closer observa- 
 tion of the indications of danger in their use, the deaths 
 may be greatly diminished. The importance of this has 
 been recognised in many large hospitals, where the adminis- 
 tration of anaesthetics is entrusted to one individual skilled 
 in their properties and uses. 
 
 But it is doubtful whether many of the deaths occurring 
 under anaesthesia can justly be ascribed to that cause. 
 Sudden deaths occurring in the course of operations were 
 by no means unheard of before anaesthetics came to be 
 employed iu surgery at ell. Even, however, admitting 
 that all the reported cases of death from anaesthesia ai • 
 correct, it must be acknowledged that they are insignificant 
 in amount, considering the enormous extent to which the 
 use of chloroform and other anaesthetic agents prevails io 
 all departments of medical practice. 
 
 The employment of local anaesthesia in surgery has tho 
 obvious advantage of being free from/ risk to life. Many 
 means of accomplishing this have been suggested, the best 
 known of which is the method of Dr Richardson, of tlio 
 application of ether spray to the part of the body which it 
 is desired to render insensible. By the rapid evaporation 
 of the ether the tissues become frozen, and insensibility of 
 the part is produced. Since, however, the anaesthesia 
 merely affects the superficial textures, this plan is only 
 available in the minor operations of surgery. (j. o. a.) 
 
 ANAGNI, a town of Italy, in the province of Roma, 
 situated on a hill 37 miles E.S.E. of Rome. It is ill-built; 
 but contains a cathedral, of the Uth century, and several 
 ruins. Anagni is the ancient Anagnia, at one time tlis 
 capital of the Hernici, and a place of considerable im- 
 portance both under the Empire and under the popes. It 
 is still the seat of a bishop. Population, 8220. 
 
 ANAGRAM, the transposition of the letters of a word 
 or words, is derived from the Greek aviiypafi /io, which 
 was used in precisely the same sense. But the number of 
 different ways in which even a few letters can be arranged 
 being very great (with eight different letters, for instance, 
 it is 1x2x3x4x5x6x7x8 = 40,320), the term ana- 
 gram is generally restricted to such rearrangements of the 
 letters' as form other words, and these usually words which 
 express a meaning. Camden (Remains, 7th ed., 1674) 
 defines " Anagrammatisme " as "a dissolution of a name 
 truly written into his letters, as his elements, and a new 
 connection of it by artificial transposition, without addition, 
 substraction, or change of any letter, into different words, 
 making some perfect sence applyable to the person named." 
 Considering the amount of labour that has been spent (or 
 misspent) in transpositions of this kind, — in "torturing 
 one poor word ten thousand ways," — the anagrams that 
 display a felicitous perfection of "applyable sence" are 
 remarkably few. AmoDg the best are the anagrammatic 
 answer to Pilate's question, "Quid est Veritas?" — namely, 
 " Est vir qui adest;" and the transposition of " Horatio 
 Nelson" into " Honor est a Xilo;" and of " Florence Night- 
 ingale" into "Flit on, cheering angel." James I.'s courtiers 
 discovered in " James Stuart " " A just master," and con- 
 verted " Charles James Stuart " into " Claimes Arthur's 
 scat." " Eleanor Audeley," wife of Sir John Davies, is 
 said to have been brought before the High Commission in 
 1634 for extravagances, stimulated by the discovery that 
 her name could be transposed to " Reveale, O Daniel," and 
 to have been laughed out of court by another anagram sub- 
 mitted by the Dean of the Arches, " Dame Eleanor Davies," 
 " Never soe mad a ladie." There must be few names that 
 could furnish so many anagrams as that of " Augustus da
 
 ANA-ANA 
 
 791 
 
 Morgan," -who tells that a friend had constructed about 800 
 on his name, specimens of which are given in hi3 Budget of 
 Paradoxes, p. 82. The pseudonyms adopted by authors 
 tre often transposed forms, more or less exact, of their 
 names; thus " Calvinus" becomes " Alcuinus;" " Francois 
 Rabelais," " Alcofribas Nasier;" " Bryan Waller Proctor," 
 "Barry Cornwall, poet;" "Henry Rogers," " R. E. 11 
 Greyson," <fec. It is to be noted that the last two are 
 impure anagrams, an "t" being left out in both cases. 
 " Telliamed," a simple reversal, is the title of a well-known 
 work by " De Maillet." The most remarkable pseudonym 
 of this class is the name " Voltaire," which the celebrated 
 philosopher assumed instead of his family name, " Francois 
 Marie Arouet," and which is now generally allowed to be 
 an anagram of " Arouet, Lj.," that is, Arouet the younger. 
 Perhaps the only practical use to which anagrams have 
 been turned is to be found in the transpositions in which 
 some of the astronomers of the 17th century embodied 
 their discoveries, with the design apparently of avoiding 
 the risk that, while they were engaged iu further verifica- 
 tion, the credit of what they had found out might be 
 claimed by others. Thus Galileo announced his discovery 
 that Venus had phases like the moon in the form, " Haic 
 immatura a me jam frustra leguntur — oy," that is, 
 " Cynthia: figuras cemulatur Mater Amorum." 
 
 ANAHUAC, the name of the great central plateau of 
 Mexico, lying between 15° and 30° N. lat., and 95° and 
 110° W. long., at an elevation of from 6000 to 9000 feet 
 above the sea. Anahuac comprises three-fourths of the 
 territory of Mexico, including the capital ; and although 
 much of its surface is level, many lofty mountains rise out 
 of the table-land, the highest of which is Popocatepetl 
 (17,720 feet), an active volcano. The name Anahuac is 
 also used to designate a much less extensive part of the 
 table-land, as well as that portion of the Rocky Mountains 
 which lies to the south of 40° N. lat. The word itself is 
 said to signify "near the water " in the old Mexican lan- 
 guage, and seems to have been at one time the name of 
 several other places in the ancient empire of Mexico. 
 
 ANALOGY is the name in logic for a mode of real or 
 material inference, proceeding upon the resemblance be- 
 tween particulars : speaking generally, it is that process 
 whereby, from the known agreement of two or more things 
 in certain respects, we infer agreement in some other point 
 known to be present in one or more, but not known to be 
 present in the other or others. It was signalised already 
 by Aristotle under the different name of Example (n-apa- 
 8'iy/ia), the word Analogy (avaXoyia) having with him the 
 special sense of mathematical proportion or resemblance 
 (equality) of ratios. The earliest use of the name in its 
 current logical sense i3 to be found apparently in Galen. 
 While, in popular language, the word has come to be 
 vaguely used as a synonym for resemblance, the logical 
 authorities, though having generally the same kind of 
 inference in view, are by no means agreed as to its exact 
 nature and ground. It has chiefly to be distinguished 
 from the related process of Induction, in their conception 
 of which logicians are notoriously at variance. (See 
 Induction.) 
 
 Aristotle, distinguishing Syllogism and Induction as 
 passing the one from whole to part (any part), and the 
 •tber from part (all the parts N to whole, notes under 
 each a loose or rhetorical form — Enthymeme under 
 Syllogism, and Paradigm, or Example, under Induction. 
 Thus, to give his own instance, it is an inference by 
 way of example — if a war to come of Athens against 
 Thebe3 is condemned because a past war of Thebes against 
 Phocis is known to have been disastrous. Here the reason- 
 ing, which may be said to pass from part to part, is 
 •esolvel by Aristotle a3 compounded of an imperfect in- 
 
 duction and a syllogism; the particular case of Thebes 
 against Phocis started from being first inductively widened 
 into war between neighbours generally, and the particular 
 case of Athens against Thobes arrived at being then drawn 
 out by regular syllogism from that major. Example, or, 
 to speak of it by its later name, the inference from analogy, 
 is thus presented by Aristotle as directly related to induc- 
 tion : it differs from an imperfect induction — what is now 
 often called real or material induction from particulars 
 incompletely enumerated — only in having it3 conclusion 
 particular instead of general, aud its datum singular in- 
 stead of plural. 
 
 Kant and his followers, while maintaining a relation 
 between induction and analogy, mark the difference other- 
 wise than Aristotle. By induction, it is said, we seek to 
 prove that some attribute belongs (or not) to all the mem- 
 bers of a class, because it belongs (or not) to many of that 
 class ; by analogy, that all the attributes of a thing belong 
 (or not) to another thing, because many of the attributes 
 belong (or not) to this other. In this country Sir William 
 Hamilton has adopted this view (Lectures on Logic, voL ii. 
 pp. 165-174), though he differs from Kant in understand- 
 ing it only of the process called applied or modified induc- 
 tion, — not of the pure form of reasoning from all the parts 
 to the whole, which, in the manner of Aristotle, he puts 
 on a level with pure syllogistic deduction. The relation 
 and difference of the two processes may be formulated in 
 the short expressions : One in many, therefore one iu all 
 (Induction) ; Many in one, therefore all in one (Analogy). 
 For instance, it would be an analogical inference— to con- 
 clude that a disease corresponding in many symptoms with 
 those observed in typhus corresponds in all, or, .in other 
 words, is typhus ; whereas it would be an induction — to 
 infer that a particular symptom appearing in a number of, 
 typhus patients will appear in all 
 
 The view of Kant and Hamilton does not reach below 
 the surface of the matter, if it can be maintained at all. 
 In the first of the examples just given the inference might 
 well be a good induction, all depending upon the kind of 
 symptoms that are made the ground of the conclusion ; mi 
 thb other hand, the second might be a case of mere aualogy, 
 not to be called induction. Neither, again, is Aristotle s 
 view satisfactory, which practically makes the difference to 
 depend upon the mere quantity of the conclusion, worked 
 out as particular for analogy by appending to the induc- 
 tion involved a syllogism of application. Since the univer- 
 sal always carries with it the particular, and cannot be 
 affirmed unless the particular can, the two processes be- 
 come to all intents and purposes one and the same. If 
 the particular or analogical conclusion is justifiable, it is 
 because there was ground for a good induction (only not 
 of the pure sort) ; if there was no ground for a good 
 induction, then, upon Aristotle's resolution, there can be 
 no ground for the particular inference either. Should it 
 be said, indeed, that the peculiarity of the case lies uot 
 so much in the conclusion, as in the start being made from 
 one particular instance, whence the process gets its name- 
 Example, that undoubtedly will distinguish it from any- 
 thing that can seriously be called induction ; but then 
 what becomes of the resolution that Aristotle makes of it I 
 That resolution can be upheld only at the cost of the 
 character of the inductive process. 
 
 The logician who has done most to elaborate the theory 
 of real or material induction, John Stuart Mill, has also 
 been able to give an interpretation of analogy, which, 
 without in the least severing its connection with induction, 
 leaves it as a process for which a distinct name is neces- 
 sary. According to him, the two kinds of argument, while 
 homogeneous in the type of their inference, which holds 
 for (01 reasoning from experience, — namely, that thifljn
 
 792 
 
 ANALOGY 
 
 agreeing with one another in certain respects agree also in 
 certain other respects, — yet differ in respect of their degree 
 of evidence. In both the argument is from known points 
 of agreement to unknown ; but, whereas in induction the 
 known points of agreement are supposed by due compari- 
 son of instances to have been ascertained as the n. 
 ones for the case in hand or conclusion in view, — in other 
 words, to be invariably connected by way of causation with 
 the inferred properties, — it is otherwise in analogy, where 
 it is only supposed that there is no incompatibility between 
 the inferred properties and the common properties, or 
 known points of resemblance, that are taken as the ground 
 of inference. Thus, if by comparison of instances it had 
 been ascertained, or otherwise it were known, that organic 
 life is dependent on the bare possession of an atmosphere 
 in planetary bodies rotating upon an axis, then it would 
 be an induction to infer the presence of life upon any 
 heavenly body, known or as yet undiscovered, in which 
 these conditions should be detected. 'With our actual 
 knowledge, confined to the case of the Earth, and only 
 enabling us to say that the absence of an atmosphere must 
 destroy life, the inference to such a planet as Mars, where 
 the conditions stated seem to be present, is but analogical; 
 while to the Moon, which seems to have no atmosphere, 
 the inference has not even this amount of force, but there 
 is rather ground for inductively concluding against the 
 possibility of organic lifo. Upon this view it ceases to be 
 characteristic of analogy that the inference should be to a 
 particular case only; for the inductive conclusion, when 
 the evidence is of a kind to admit of such being drawn, 
 may as well be particular; and, again, it may equally 
 well happen that the analogical inference, where nothing 
 stronger can be drawn, should have universal application. 
 Notwithstanding, it will be found in general that, where 
 the evidence, consisting of bare similarity of attributes in 
 two or more particular instances, permits only of an ana- 
 logical inference being made, the extension in thought 
 takes place to particular cases only which have a special 
 interest, and the mind hesitates to commit itself to a 
 general law or rule. Mill, therefore, though he does not 
 raise the point, is practically at one with Aristotle and all 
 others who make example or analogy to consist in the 
 passage from one or more particular cases to a particular 
 new case bearing resemblance to the former. It is his 
 peculiar merit to have determined the specific conditions 
 under which the passage in thought, whether to a particular 
 or a general, acquires the authority of an effective induction. 
 Analogy is so much resorted to in science in default of 
 induction, either provisionally till induction can be made, 
 or as its substitute where the appropriate evidence cannot 
 be obtained, — it is also much relied upon in practical life 
 for the guidance of conduct, — that it becomes a matter of 
 great importance to determine its conditions. Whether in 
 science or in the affairs of life, the abuse of the process, or 
 what is technically called False Analogy, is one of the most 
 besetting snares set for the human mind. It is obvious 
 that, as the argument from analogy proceeds upon bare 
 resemblance, its strength increases with the amount of 
 similarity ; so that, though no connection is, or can be, in- 
 ductively made out between any of the agreeing properties 
 and the additional property which is the subject of infer- 
 ence, yet (in Mill's words), " where the resemblance is very 
 gTeat, the ascertained difference very small, and our know- 
 ledge of the subject-matter very extensive, the argument 
 from analogy may approach in strength very near to a 
 valid induction. If (he continues), after much observa- 
 tion of B, we find that it agrees with A in nine out of ten 
 of ita known properties,, we may conclude, with a pro- 
 bability of nine to one, that it will possess any given deriva- 
 tive property of A" (Logic,.b. iii, c. xx, § 3) Bat it is 
 
 equally obvious that against the resemblances the ascertain- 
 able differences should be told off. For bare analogy, the 
 differences in the twd (or more) cases must as little as the 
 resemblances be known to huve any connection, oneway or 
 the other, with the point in question ; both alike must 
 only not be known to be immaterial, else they should fall 
 quite out °f the reckoning. As regards the differences. 
 however, this is what can least easily be discovered, or 
 is, by the mind in its eagerness to bring things together, 
 most easily overlooked ; and, accordingly, the error of 
 false analogy arises chiefly from neglecting so to con 
 sidcr them. Thus, if the inference is to the presence of 
 organic life of the terrestrial type on other planetary bodies, 
 any agreements, even when extending to the detaiti of 
 chemical constitution, are of small account in the positive 
 sense, compared with the negative import of such facts as 
 absence of atmosphere in the Moon, and excess of heat or 
 cold in the inmost or outermost planets. To neglect such 
 points will not simply make the analogy loose ; but, as the 
 very point in question is concerned in them, the analogy 
 becomes false and positively misleading. Still greater is 
 the danger when the things analogically brought together 
 belong not at all to the same natural classes, but the 
 resemblance is only in some internal relation of each to 
 another thing of its own kind; as when, for example, under 
 the name of motives, particular states of mind (feelings, 
 &c.) are supposed to determine the action°of a man, as the 
 motion of a body may be determined by a composition of 
 forces. In such cases there may be nothing to prevent the 
 drawing of a good analogy upon a strictly limited issue ; 
 nay, there may even sometimes, in special circumstances, 
 be ground for drawing an inductive conclusion ; but gene- 
 rally the elements of difference are so numerous, and their 
 import either so hard to appreciate, or, when appreci- 
 able, so decisive in a sense opposite to the conclusion 
 aimed at, that to leave them out of sight and argue with- 
 out reference to them, as the mind is tempted to do, vitiates 
 the whole proceeding. What is not sufficient for analogy 
 may, however, be good as metaphor, and metaphor is of 
 no small use for expository purposes; while (as Mill says), 
 though it is not an argument, it may imply that an argu- 
 ment exists. 
 
 The sense just mentioned of a resemblance of relation* 
 suggests the question how far the common argument from 
 analogy and mathematically determinate proportion, which 
 was originally called by the name, are cognate processes. 
 Undoubtedly the common argument, proceeding upon 
 resemblance in the properties of things, can be made to 
 assume roughly the guise of a proportion, — e.g., Earth : 
 Mars : : Meu : Mars-dwellers, or Earth : Men = Mars : Mars- 
 dwellers, the fact of planetary nature, or other resembling 
 attributes gone upon, being regarded as common exponent. 
 Less easy is it to interpret a determinate proportion, with 
 numerical equality of ratios, as analogy in the common 
 sense ; for here the very determinateness makes all the 
 difference. 
 
 The name analogy is so suggestive to English readers of 
 Bishop Butler's famous treatise, that a word, in conclusion, 
 seems called for on the nature and scope of the particular 
 application of the process made by him. His work is 
 entitled The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, 
 to the Constitution and Course of Nature, and consists in 
 an attempt to convince deists that there are no difficulties 
 urged against revelation, or the system of natural religion, 
 which do not bear with equal force against the order of 
 nature as determined by Providence. The argument is a 
 perfectly fair one 'within the limits assigned, and Butlei 
 must be allowed the credit of very well apprehending the 
 logical conditions involved in it. In his introduction he 
 understates rather than overstates the strength of his posi
 
 A N A — A N A 
 
 793 
 
 tion; fcr, on the assumption that the system of nature and 
 ine system of religion must both spring from one causal 
 source, his argument acquires rather an inductive cha- 
 racter. Accordingly, it is interesting to see how, in con- 
 nection with his sense of analogy, he practically raises, in 
 his Introduction, the question which the general theory of 
 inductive logic, as now understood, has first to consider, 
 — the question, namely, "whence it proceeds that likeness 
 ihould beget that presumptive opinion and full conviction 
 which the human mind is formed to receive from it ; " 
 though he would not take it upon him to say " how far 
 the extent, compass, and force of analogical reasoning can 
 be reduced to general heads and rules, and the whole be 
 formed into a system." (g. c. e.) 
 
 ANALOGY, in Comparative Anatomy, is equivalent to 
 "similarity of function." See Anatomy. 
 
 ANALYSIS means literally, in the Greek, an unloosen- 
 ing or breaking-up, understood of anything complex in 
 which simpler constituents or elements may thus be brought 
 to view. It is this general sense that must be supposed to 
 have been present to the mind of Aristotle when he gave 
 the name of Analytka to the great logical work in which 
 he sought to break up into its elements the complex pro- 
 cess of reasoning ; as, accordingly, in the body of the work 
 (Anal. Prior. i. 32), we find him once using the verb 
 " analyse " of arguments, when they are to be presented in 
 " figure," or brought to the ultimate formal expression in 
 which they can best be tested or understood. Obviously 
 any more special sense that may be ascribed to the process 
 »f analysis must vary with the kind of complex to be 
 resolved. Mental states, material substances, motions of 
 bodies, relations of figures, are but a few examples of the 
 complex things or subjects that fall to be analysed, if there 
 is to be any scientific comprehension of them. Nor is it 
 only that the analysis will be into constituents differing 
 from each other as much as the complex subjects differ ; 
 for the same subject may be analysed in different ways, 
 and with very different results, according to the particular 
 aspect in which it is considered. Hence it becomes im- 
 possible, or at least very difficult, to describe the process in 
 any terms fitting equally all the variety of its applications. 
 It is from taking stand by some particular application, and 
 either overlooking all others, or trying to force them within 
 the frame of the one, that different writers have given such 
 discrepant accounts of the process — discrepant often to the 
 extent of being mutually exclusive. The express object of 
 the present article will, on the contrary, be to give an un- 
 prejudiced view of the different applications of analysis in 
 science, that one being first and most prominently put for- 
 ward which was earliest recognised and practised, namely, 
 mathematical analysis. The other applications, selected 
 for their representative character, will, as they follow, 
 naturally suggest the consideration how far the difference 
 of matter in the various sciences tends to modify the nature 
 of the process which is called analysis in alL 
 
 By the side of Analysis, at the different stages, we shall 
 at the same time treat of the related process called, after 
 the Greek, Synthesis, which means a putting together or 
 compounding. If analysis and synthesis were merely re- 
 lated to each other as mutually inverse processes, exposi- 
 tory convenience alone might be pleaded in favour of the 
 parallel treatment; but the two are in practice often em- 
 ployed as strictly complementary processes, in support of 
 each other on the same occasion ; or, in other words, the com- 
 position in synthesis may be a direct re-composition of the 
 principles or elements then and there got out by analysis. 
 As a matter of course, therefore, the foregoing general 
 remarks apply also to synthesis, especially the remark as 
 to the modifying effect of difference in the subject-matter 
 worked with. 
 
 L Mathematical Analysis and Synthesis. — In the Ele- 
 ments of Euclid, containing so many examples of geometri- 
 cal propositions variously established, there is a scholion 
 near the beginning of Book XIII. which distinguishes 
 two general methods for the treatment of particular 
 questions, under the names of Analysis and Synthesis. In 
 analysis, it is said, the thing sought is taken for granted, 
 and consequences are deduced from it which lead to some 
 truth recognised; synthesis, on the other hand, starts from 
 that which is recognised, and deduces consequences there- 
 from, till the thing sought is arrived at. With more detail, 
 but some wavering in his use of terms, Pappus of Alex 
 andria (about 380 a.d.) describes the two processes at the 
 beginning of Book VIL of his Mathematical Collections. 
 He appears, however, to regard synthesis not at all as an in- 
 dependent process to be applied alternatively with analysis 
 for the solution of particular questions (which is the view 
 suggested by Euclid), but rather as a complementary pro- 
 cess bound up with the use of analysis. These are his 
 words : " In synthesis, putting forward as done the thing 
 arrived at as ultimate result in the way of analysis, and 
 disposing now in a natural order as antecedents what were 
 consequents in the analysis, we put them together, and 
 finally come at the construction of the thing sought." The 
 two processes are involved together in what he calls the 
 twos draAud/icvos, or, as we may call it, one general Method 
 of Analysis, the use of which for the solution of problems, 
 he says, has to be learned after the Elements, having been 
 developed by Euclid himself, Apollonius of Perga, and 
 Aristaeus the elder. In a similar sense, Robert Simson, 
 its modern editor, speaking of the Euclidean book of Data, 
 calls it " the first in order of the books written by the 
 ancient geometers to facilitate and promote the method of 
 resolution or analysis." Beyond Euclid, however, the 
 invention of the method was carried back by the tradition 
 of antiquity to Plato. The philosopher, whom we know 
 to have been an ardent student of geometry, and otherwise 
 a discoverer in the science, is said by Diogenes Laertius 
 (III. L 19), to have devised the method for one Leodamas, 
 and is further said by Proclus (Coram, in Eucl., ed. Basil, 
 p. 58) to have made much use of it himself. Though the 
 report is a loose one, it may well be that this method of 
 analysis was first expressly formulated by the theoretic 
 genius of Plato, especially in view of a passage (Eth. 
 Nicom. iii. 5) in Aristotle, which has not been sufficiently 
 noticed, showing that in his time, before Euclid was born, 
 it was currently employed by geometricians. Aristotle 
 there compares the gradually regressive process of thought, 
 whereby the means of effecting a practical end is discovered, 
 to the mathematical way of inquiry upon a diagram, re- 
 markingof both that the last stage in the analysis (draAi'o-ei) 
 is the first in the production or construction (yevlo-n.). 
 However surprising it may be thought that Aristotle in 
 his logical works makes so little of a process which thus 
 must have been familiar to him, the fact that it was 
 familiar carries it back at least to the time of Plato. In 
 truth it must have been practised earlier still, from the 
 very beginnings of scientific geometry, though it may have 
 had to wait some time to be formulated. 
 
 Taking analysis and synthesis, thus defined, either as 
 distinct processes or as conjoined in one method, called 
 analytical, we have next to see how they were brought to 
 bear by the ancients in treating geometrical questions. 
 Propositions such as those contained in the Elements fall 
 into two classes with respect to the form of their enuncia- 
 tion, namely, theorems and problems. The distinction was 
 not marked by Euclid himself, nor is it in any sense radi- 
 cal, for either kind of proposition may easily be trans- 
 formed into tne expression of the other; but, as commonly 
 accepted, it amounts to this — that a theorem, is given oui
 
 7 l J4 
 
 ANALYSIS 
 
 as an assertion to be accepted, and has to be shown true ; 
 a problem is given out as an act to bo done, and has to le 
 shown possible. In the case of a theorem, Euclid accord- 
 ingly, after enunciating the proposition, proceeds generally 
 to show, with more or less of construction on a particular 
 diagram, and working always with filed definitions, that 
 the assertion follows deductively from certain truths, either 
 assumed as evident (axioms), or formerly proved therefrom, 
 and seen to be applicable to the present case by inspection 
 of the figure as constructed. The grounding propositions 
 are allowed by the reader as they are brought forward, 
 though he may for the moment have not the least idea 
 whither the author is tending, and at the end the con- 
 clusion is accepted, because the successive premises, 
 being allowed, have been combined logically. In the case 
 of a problem, after an express construction for which no 
 reason is given, the object is to show that what has been 
 brought to pass really supplies what was sought ; but the 
 procedure is not different from what it was in the case of a 
 theorem, because the object is attained by showing again 
 that certain truths allowed, in their particular application 
 to the figure constructed, involve as a conclusion some 
 relation which the figure is seen to exhibit. Now if this 
 is Euclid's procedure in general — there is an exception, 
 afterwards to be noted, where he proves his point in- 
 directly — it is undeniably synthetic, in any meaning that 
 can be ascribed to that term, the result being obtained by 
 a massing or combining of elements or conditions. But 
 on Euclid's part the process is one of demonstration, not of 
 discovery. Still less is the reader's mind in the attitude of 
 discovery: he is led on to a result which is indeed indicated, 
 but by a way which he does not know, and, as it were, blind- 
 fold. There must, however, have been discovery before there 
 could be such demonstration -, or how should the proposi- 
 tion admit of definite enunciation at the beginning! Thus 
 there is, in the background, an earlier question of procedure 
 or method, and it is this that the ancient geometricians had 
 chiefly in view when speaking of analysis and synthesis. 
 
 Now, some propositions are so simple that they must 
 have been seeD into almost as soon as conceived, and con- 
 ceived as soon as the human mind began to be directed 
 to the consideration of forms or figures ; in which case 
 no method of discovery, to speak of, can have been 
 necessary. There is, again, another class of propositions, 
 more complex though still simple, which probably were 
 established by a process of straightforward synthesis. An 
 inquirer must have in his head some knowledge in the 
 shape of principles more or less fixed, or he would not be 
 an inquirer ; and either the accidental combination of such 
 principles may lead in his mind to particular results, or 
 the first time a particular question suggests itself to him, it 
 may be seen at once to involve, or to follow from, certain of 
 the principles. Many propositions in the Elements, giving 
 the most apparent properties of triangles, circles, <tc, it 
 can hardly be doubted, were arrived at by this way of dis- 
 tovery, even when a more elaborate process of synthesis 
 was employed for their formal demonstration ; as, for ex- 
 ample, in the case of the famous fifth proposition of Book 
 I. But the same process of direct composition (understood 
 always as joined with inspection) is no longer applicable, 
 or is not effective, when the question is of less obvious 
 properties, or of construction to be made under special 
 conditions. To discover the fact or the feasibility in such 
 cases is so much the real difficulty, that the question of 
 demonstration becomes of merely secondary importance. 
 And there is even a still prior question of discovery; for it 
 has to be determined that some points rather than others 
 should be made the subject of express inquiry. This, how- 
 ever, may be left aside. To any one engaged in geometri- 
 cal inquiry, in the constant inspection of figures for the 
 
 understanding of their properties and mutual relations, 
 questions must incessantly be occurring — so incessantly and 
 inevitably that it is needless, if it were not vain, to seek 
 out a reason for the particular suggestions. As in all 
 discovery to the last, so more especially at the first 
 stages, there is an element of instinctive tact in the mind's 
 action which eludes expression ; and there is also an 
 element of what might be called chance, were it not that 
 those only get the benefit of it who are consciously on the 
 look-out, either generally or in some special direction. A 
 particular question being started by whatsoever suggestion, 
 how shall the mind arrive at certain knowledge regarding 
 it ? Such, practically, is the form which is assumed by 
 geometrical inquiry. 
 
 Besides the thing sought there is nothing else given, or al 
 least there is nothing else immediately given or suggested. 
 But the mind is supposed to have some knowledge pertain- 
 ing to the matter — though not extending to the particular 
 aspect of it — in question, also some knowledge of such mat- 
 ters generally. In such circumstances the aim of the inquirer 
 must be to bring what is sought into some definite relation 
 with what is known. Direct composition or synthesis of 
 the known, with more or less of construction, if it led to 
 that which is sought as a result, would determine the re- 
 lation for the inquirer, and determine it in like manner for 
 all who allow the principles whence the conclusion is logi- 
 cally deduced, being thus at one stroke both discovery and 
 demonstration. But synthesis, arbitrarily made, as it must 
 be where the question is at all difficult, may fail, however 
 often it is attempted. Without a proper start it avails 
 nothing; and what is to determine the start 1 There 
 is always one course open. Let the objective itself 
 be made the starting-point, and let it be seen whether 
 thence it may not be possible by some continuous route to 
 get upon known ground. In other words, a thing sought, 
 when itself assumed, may admit of being brought into re- 
 lation, upon some side or other, with the body of ascertained 
 knowledge. If it can be so brought, through whatever 
 number of steps, there is then attained as a result what 
 before it was impossible to light upon as a beginning ; and 
 now nothing hinders from making the start originally 
 desired, and from reaching as a proper conclusion the 
 assumed beginning, if the path struck out before is mea- 
 sured over again in the opposite direction. The course 
 thus becomes once more synthetic, but only becauso of 
 what was first accomplished. Till the point in question 
 was made to yield up its own secret by a process fitly 
 called analysis or resolution, nothing certain could be 
 determined. At the analytic stage, however, the line taken 
 may be twofold. The proposition, assumed at starting as 
 something definite to work from, cither may be held as 
 following deductively from some other, which again is 
 dependent on still another or others, till one is worked up 
 to that is known to be true ; or it may be taken as itself 
 a premiss leading deductively to some other proposition, 
 which in turn, by one or more steps, leads to a true pro- 
 position a3 conclusion. lu either case the implication is 
 that a proposition must itself be true, if by any line of 
 formally correct logic it leads to a proposition known -to be 
 true. And though the expression must be modified for 
 questions in the form of problems, requiring something to be 
 done — to which form of question, indeed, the analytic pro- 
 cess is peculiarly applicable — the point of logical principle 
 reihain3 there exactly the same. 
 
 But is the process, thus stated as it was understood by 
 the ancient geometricians, logically valid J In the first of 
 the two alternative forms, it is valid : the proposition 
 assumed at starting will undoubtedly be true, if a proposi- 
 tion on which it is shown to be ultimately dependent is 
 true. At the same time, there is in this case no guarantee
 
 AW ALFSIS 
 
 795 
 
 that the most effective line f or establishing it has been taken, 
 in view of the well-known logical principle that the same 
 conclusion may follow from different premisses. In the other 
 form of the process, where the proposition assumed is itself 
 used as a preniis3, the case as to validity i3 otherwise. As 
 Aristotle fii-st clearly apprehended and showed, it i3 quite 
 possible to reach a (materially) true conclusioa by strict 
 logical deduction from premisses either one or both false ; 
 and thus the mere fact that the proposition assumed is 
 found, in combination with others, to lead to a conclusion 
 known to be true, does nothing to establish its own char- 
 acter. Yet although the process of analysis thus carried 
 out by way of deduction, as formulated by Euclid and (in 
 one of his expressions) by Pappus, is theoretically faulty, 
 through neglect or ignorance of Aristotle's observation, the 
 practice of Euclid is not therefore invalidated. It was his 
 habit, as Pappus also enjoins, to follow up the analysis by 
 a synthesis consisting in a reversal of it, and this would 
 effectively get rid of error ; since the result of the analysis, 
 if it did not follow from the assumed premiss by true im- 
 plication, but only accidentally, could not itself, when in 
 turn used as a premiss for the synthesis, be made to yield 
 the original proposition as a legitimate conclusion. In 
 order, however, to validate this form of analysis it is not 
 necessary to resort to the laborious expedient of retracing 
 the whole path synthetically. As Duhamel, in his treatise 
 Des Mkhodes dans les Sciences de Raisonnement (pt. i. c. 5), 
 ha3 pointed out, it is enough if, at the different stages of 
 the deduction, the inquirer assures himself, a3 he easily 
 may do where it is the fact, that there is perfect " reci- 
 procity" among the propositions successively obtained from 
 the one first assumed ; meaning that, in the circumstances 
 of the deduction, each may as well follow from the one 
 coming after as it is fitted to yield that. And the same 
 6imple expedient suffices equally to obviate the less grave 
 defect above noted in analysis carried out by regression 
 from consequents to conditions, or conclusions to premises ; 
 reciprocity, if it can be made out here at the different 
 stages, will guarantee the exclusive validity of the line of 
 reasoning taken. So may analysis become perfectly inde- 
 pendent as a method of discovery, and give as much in- 
 sight as synthesis, where this is directly applicable, does ; 
 while it is — what synthesis is not directly — applicable to 
 every kind of question, however complex. 
 
 It is unnecessary, for the purposes of the present article, 
 to enter further into details respecting the methods anciently 
 practised in geometry. Let it suffice to mention only the 
 method of indirect proof known as reductio ad absurdum, 
 employed sometimes by Euclid in the Elements. This con- 
 forms to the type of analysis in that it starts from the 
 question to be determined, though it is peculiar in follow- 
 ing out, not the assumption itself, but what is thereby sug- 
 gested as excluded, with the final result that the point in 
 question is established upon the ruin of every other sup- 
 position. It is a method of discovery as well as a method 
 of demonstration ; while the previous argument has shown 
 that analysis, directly practised, may be made a method of 
 demonstration by itself, besides being the most potent 
 and unfailing instrument of discovery. Also it was seen 
 before that synthesis may be a method of discovery, though 
 it is more frequently employed as a method of demonstra- 
 tion in sequence upon discovery by analysis. To insist 
 thus upon the double character alike of analysis and syn- 
 thesis, as practised in geometry, is of vital importance, be- 
 cause of the change in application which the terms have 
 undergone among mathematicians. In modern times 
 analysis has come to mean the employment of the alge- 
 bfaical and higher calculus, and synthesis any direct treat- 
 ment of the properties of geometrical figures, in the manner 
 of the ancients, without the use of algebraical notation and 
 
 transformations. The excuse for the change lies in the 
 fact that, while the Greeks had only extremely undeveloped 
 means of analysis, they gave the highest possible finish and 
 exactness to their syntbetic demonstrat'ons of geometricaJ 
 propositions, seldom being content to let their discoveries 
 rest upon the ground of that analysis by which they were 
 made. But tbough it has this excuse or motive, the change 
 involves a misunderstanding, as all mathematicians allow 
 who have turned their minds seriously to consider the 
 rationale of their practice. It is, in the first place, clear 
 that only by the process described above, rightly called 
 analysis, can anything be determined about the more com- 
 plex • properties and relations of geometrical figures ; hap- 
 hazard synthesis is of no avail. The ancients therefore, 
 in their geometry, had an analysis. It is next to be re- 
 marked that the algebraical solution of problems is not so 
 exclusively analytic in character that it may not in simple) 
 cases assume the form of direct (algebraical) synthesis ; and 
 in all cases, for verification, it admits of being followed 
 up by an exposition that is truly synthetic. The moderns, 
 therefore, in their calculus, are not without their synthesis. 
 Furthermore, the ancients, however little progress they 
 made, comparatively speaking, in the general science of 
 calculation, and however their special methods for the 
 resolution of geometrical questions, even as involving direct 
 figured construction, still more as applying calculation, fell 
 short of the variety and pliability of modern devices, yet 
 had their own analytical weapons, though they cannot be 
 specified here. For our present purpose it is equally un- 
 necessary to enter into details as regards the modern 
 devices, whether belonging to the lower or higher ana- 
 lysis, or as regards the principle for applying them de^. 
 veloped by Descartes and his successors ; but to arrogate 
 for these exclusively the name of analysis, it cannot be 
 too pointedly declared, is to lose sight of the end in the 
 means. 
 
 II. Chemical Analysis and Synthesis. — After mathe- 
 matics, chemistry is the science in which application has 
 most expressly been made of processes termed analysis 
 and synthesis. In physics, regarded as the science of 
 motion, whether abstractly taken or as manifested actually 
 in natural bodies, the application i3 universal ; the resolu- 
 tion and composition of velocities, motions, and forces 
 being fundamental processes pervading the whole science 
 under all variety of circumstances. There is nothing, 
 however, in such an employment of analysis and synthesis 
 that is not easily intelligible in the light of the processes 
 as practised either in the more general science of mathe- 
 matics, dealing with relations of quantity in number and 
 form, or in the more special science of chemistry, which 
 deals with those characteristic qualities of actual bodies for 
 which no definite expression in terms of motion can be 
 found. 
 
 The concrete substances in nature are found to be snch 
 that some by no means in our power can be brought to 
 anything simpler, while others can be broken up into con- 
 stituents di fering in character from the original substances 
 and also among themselves. Hence a division is made of 
 bodies into elements and compounds; elements being all 
 such bodies, not farther reducible, as are either actually 
 found in nature, or, though not so found, have emerged in 
 the manipulation of actual bodies; compounds, all such as, 
 being actually found, are reducible to two or more different 
 elements, or have by artificial combination been constituted. 
 The proces3 of reduction to elements is called analysis; 
 the process of re-combination or free combination is called 
 synthesis. When the analysis is carried out simply with 
 the view of detecting what elements are present in a sub- 
 stance, it is called qualitative; and quantitative, if with 
 the further view of determining the <lefinite proportions
 
 796 
 
 ANALYSIS 
 
 fby weight) in which the constituents are present in a 
 definite quantity of the substance. There are correspond- 
 ing varieties of synthesis. 
 
 Now here the subject-matter is so manifestly different 
 from what it is in mathematics, that it is idle to look for 
 exact correspondence in the processes practised under the. 
 «arae names within the two sciences. In fact, however, the 
 correspondence is greater than .may at first sight appear. 
 Chemical analysis of a given substance is a process of dis- 
 covery real and actual, like the analysis of a mathematical 
 problem, and proceeds similarly by taking what is given, 
 and working with it in relation to other substances, to see 
 whether it can be made to yield up aught that is already 
 known, or may be regarded as fixed and certain. Again, 
 just as mathematical synthesis may be a process of inven- 
 tion, either generally, by way of combination of principles, 
 or sometimes specially, in reference to particular questions, 
 so does chemical synthesis give a knowledge of new forms 
 of matter, or haply solve the question as to the constitution 
 of particular substances in hand. Once more, the relation 
 of analysis and synthesis as two complementary phases 
 of one process (instead of their being regarded as two 
 processes) is exhibited as plainly in chemistry as in mathe- 
 matics. It may seem to be exhibited even more impres- 
 sively, when the very constituents got out by analysis of a 
 substance are used in the synthesis to give it being again. 
 This circumstance, however, is far from giving to the 
 science of cheiristry a character of evidence superior to 
 that of mathematics: its inferiority in this respect is but 
 too well marked, and has a reason that at the same time 
 explains what else is peculiar in its application of analysis 
 and synthesis. The chemist deals with things known 
 only by experience, and connected by way of physical 
 eausation : true, they are things with which he can freely 
 experiment — and this gives to chemistry a prerogative 
 character among the natural sciences — but the things are 
 taken as they are found, and experience is constantly dis- 
 closing in each new attributes which have simply to be 
 accepted, at least in the present state of our knowledge, 
 by the side of the others. On the contrary, the mathe- 
 matician deals rith things over which he has full power 
 of construction, and whose relations in the fact of con- 
 structing he constitutes, whether they are internal or ex- 
 ternal relations. But positive construction carries with it 
 an insight which is wanting in experiment, be the physical 
 conditions ever bo favourable ; and thus analysis and 
 synthesis have in mathematics, along with perfect freedom 
 of scope, a determinateness far surpassing anything that is 
 attainable in chemistry. 
 
 HL Psychological Analysis and Synthesis. — Passing for 
 the next signal application of analysis from the world 
 of matter to mind, we have here a subject which more 
 perhaps than any other calls for an exercise of the pro- 
 cess in order to be scientifically understood. Physical 
 things in their superficial relations lie to a great extent 
 open to direct apprehension, and, whatever deeper connec- 
 tions there may be to be traced out among things the most 
 remote in their nature as apprehended, yet the fact of their 
 separation in space involved in our perception of them 
 is already something done, leaving the scientific function 
 [analytic and synthetic) to be exercised chiefly in the 
 ittempt to comprehend them. Very different is the state 
 if affairs in mind, where everything, as it were, runs 
 )r melts into everything else. Even to lay hold of par- 
 acular mental phenomena, with a view to the explanation 
 >f them, implies already an express scientific attitude, 
 which must be called analytic. 
 
 Particular mental states being supposed to be got, with 
 inch definiteness of apprehension (always more or less 
 kupcrfect) as the subject-matter admits of, the business of 
 
 the psychologist becomes substantially one with that of thf 
 physical inquirer. Accordingly, it is often urged that com- 
 plex mental states conform to the two types of mechanical 
 and chemical composition, in the sense that some are to 
 be resolved after the manner of complex phenomena of 
 motion, and others by a process analogous to that em- 
 ployed in chemistry for the qualities of concrete substances. 
 The analogy, however, especially in the second class of 
 states, is decidedly loose. . Psychological phenomena of 
 cognition or emotion, held to be developed, under general 
 mental laws, out of simpler states of sense, resemble chemi- 
 cal compounds only in having a character unlike that of 
 any of the elements that go to make them ; in particular, 
 they do not admit of that actual resolution into their 
 elements which lends so much evidence to the processes of 
 chemistry. The realm of nature supplies a far apter ana- 
 logy in the phenomena of organic growth, more especially 
 as mental states do, in fact, stand in direct relation with 
 states of the bodily organism. It is as impossible to make 
 an actual analysis or synthesis of the physiological complex 
 of life as of the psychological complex of mind; and it 
 is only more difficult (the phenomena being undoubtedly 
 more recondite and fluctuating) to practise experiments in 
 psychology than in physiology. But, at all events, there 
 is no new principle involved in the scientific treatment 
 of mind; nor again in the treatment of moral and social 
 questions, for an insight into which psychological know- 
 ledge is indispensable. 
 
 IV. Logical Analysis arid Synthesis. — To logic, taken 
 in its widest sense as the methodology of all science, it 
 belongs to appreciate the general import of all such applica- 
 tions of analysis and synthesis as have now been considered. 
 There remains, however, a special variety which is itself 
 entitled logical analysis and synthesis, and which has the 
 more carefully to be distinguished from the other heads, 
 because it stands in an opposition to them all. 
 
 Logical analysis is the same process as that which is 
 otherwise called metaphysical division. (The process called 
 logical division is different. SeeLoGicand Division.) Given, 
 say, a concrete subject like man, this may be divided 
 physically into a number of parts in space, or, as a concept, 
 metaphysically into a number of qualities or attributes, — 
 metaphysically, because none of these has an independent 
 subsistence or physical existence apart. They are distin- 
 guished in the way of mental consideration, or, as it is 
 technically called, abstraction; and, this being a thought- 
 process or logical act, the resolution of the given complex 
 into such conceptual elements gets the name also of 
 logical analysis. The corresponding act of synthesis pro- 
 ceeds by the way that is technically called determination ; 
 thus the general concept man, to take the traditional 
 example, has the attribute of rational joined to the attri- 
 .butes of animal, or is determined by that addition, and 
 much else has to be added in a similar way before the par- 
 ticular concrete can be determined. 
 
 Now it is evident that such analysis and synthesis have 
 an application to any kind of thought that the mind can 
 conceive; and thus logicians, in meaning, as they ha^e 
 commonly done, nothing more by the names, have sig- 
 nalised processes that are in truth of no* small account for 
 knowledge in general There is no kind of scientific 
 inquiry, strictly so called, and whatever be its scope and 
 method, that does not involve at all stages from the first 
 such analysis or abstract mental consideration. Nay, it 
 may be said that science, as opposed to the natural experi- 
 ence of things, or to the artistic interest which centres 
 upon fully bodied-out concretes, is analysis in this pre- 
 sent sense, everywhere breaking up to find community of 
 character under the mask of superficial difference, and sift- 
 ing out the one from the many. But when logicians, not
 
 ANA-ANA 
 
 797 
 
 disregarding the various applied methods of the real 
 sciences, or consciously excluding them as lying beyond the 
 province of pure logic, would seek to reduce all scientific 
 procedure to this kind of mental action, the attempt implies 
 a deep misapprehension. It is one thing for the mind to 
 have its subject of inquiry clearly and sharply defined 
 apart from what else is given therewith, or again to have 
 its existing knowledge always well in hand and sifted out 
 tD the uttermost; it is another thing for the mind to be 
 making advances, to be passing out from the known to the 
 unknown, or labouring to bring the unknown into relation 
 with that which is known already. Condillac is the thinker 
 who has most expressly made the attempt to bring all 
 scientific method back to the conception of mere logical 
 analysis, repeating it everywhere throughout his works. 
 The sixteenth chapter of his unfinished treatise, the 
 Langue des Calcuh, may especially be noted in this 
 respect; the more because he there endeavours to justify 
 his developed expression for the procedure of all science — 
 that it consists in a continued substitution of identical pro- 
 positions — by the actual solution of an algebraical problem. 
 Simple, however, though the instance chosen is, he fails 
 to make good hi3 view, appearing to prove it only by 
 leaving out the step of critical moment 
 
 To analysis and synthesis in the specially logical Bense 
 is undoubtedly related the distinction that logicians have 
 made of analytic and synthetic method. Without stepping 
 beyond the bounds of logic conceived as a formal -doctrine, 
 a fourth department, under the name of Method or Dis- 
 posing, may be added to the three departments regularly 
 assigned — Conceiving (Simple Apprehension), Judging, 
 Reasoning; and this would consider how reasonings, when 
 employed continuously upon any matter whatever, should 
 be set forth to produce their combined effect upon the mind. 
 The question is formal, being one of mere exposition, and 
 concerns the teacher in relation to the learner. How 
 should results, attained by continuous reasoning, be set 
 before the mind of a learner ? Upon a line representing 
 the course by which they were actually wrought out t Or 
 always in the fixed order of following from express prin- 
 ciples to which preliminary assent is required 1 If the 
 latter, all teaching becomes synthetic, and follows a pro- 
 gressive route from principles to conclusions, even when 
 discovery (supposing discovery foregone) was made by 
 analysis or regression to principles; of which expository 
 method no better illustration could be given than the 
 practice of Euclid in the demonstrations of his Elements. 
 On the other hand, it may be said that the line of dis- 
 covery is itself the line upon which the truth about 'any 
 question can best be expounded or understood, for the 
 same reason that was found successful in discovery, 
 namely, that the mind (now of the learner) has before it 
 something quite definite and specific to start from; upon 
 which view, the method of exposition should be analytic 
 or regressive to principles, at least wherever the discovery 
 took that route. The blending of both methods, where 
 possible, is doubtless most effective; otherwise it depends 
 upon circumstances — chiefly the character of the learner, 
 but also the nature of the subject in respect of- com- 
 plexity — which should be preferred, when one alone is 
 followed. 
 
 The question of prime logical, or general, importance 
 remaining is to determine the relation of Analysis and 
 Synthesis as methods of real science, to the ground-processes 
 of all reasoning, known since the days of Aristotle tinder 
 the names of Induction and Deduction. Much difference 
 of opinion has been expressed on this subject, not only 
 because of the want of agreement as to what should be 
 called analysis and synthesis, but aho because of more 
 
 fundamental disagreement regarding tha nature cf tie 
 inductive and deductive processes. 
 
 It was remarked before as somewhat surprising, that 
 Aristotle himself did not more expressly consider the 
 relation, when we have seen that he was familiar with the 
 process of geometrical analysis, under the very name. The 
 distinction, however, upon which he lays so much stress 
 throughout his works, between knowledge from principles, 
 prior or better known by nature, and knowledge of or from 
 facts, prior in experience or relatively to us, has generally 
 been understood to imply a connection of synthesis with 
 deduction, of analysis with induction; so much so indeed, 
 that synthetic and deductive method, analytic and induc- 
 tive method, have come to be used respectively almost as 
 interchangeable terms. Nor, although Sir William 
 Hamilton seems to wish to reverse the usual association of 
 the tjrms, when he calls induction a purely synthetic pro- 
 cess, and declares it to be erroneously viewed as analytic 
 (Metaphysics, L p. 102), is he really at variance with the 
 other authorities ; his observation having a special reference 
 which the others also might allow. But any such asso- 
 ciation seems to rest upon a misconception, not to be 
 laid to the charge of Aristotle himself. In the sense of 
 analysis and synthesis for which it is important to deter- 
 mine the relation, namely, when they are taken as the 
 means of real discovery in science, the true view rather is 
 that they are the different methods in which reasoning, 
 whether inductive or deductive, must be applied for dis- 
 covering truth, in the form of special or particular ques- 
 tions. Analysis, as well as synthesis, may proceed by way 
 of deduction, as we have seen in the process of mathe- 
 matics ; on the other hand, synthesis as applied in chemistry 
 is as much an inductive act, being strictly experimental, 
 as anything could well be. Induction and deduction are 
 concerned about the relation of the particular and general 
 in thought; analysis and synthesis about the relation of 
 the known and the unknown. The two points of view are 
 of course related to each other : analysis and synthesis, 
 as practised by the human mind, either for purposes of 
 science or in the affairs of life,' cannot be worked except 
 under those highest laws of the relation between the par- 
 ticular and general in thought which Aristotle's genius first 
 was able to extract from the instinctive practice of human 
 reason. But whether the processes are applied singly, or, 
 for greater assurance, conjointly, it depends npon the 
 matter of the inquiry under which laws — those of induc- 
 tion or those of deduction — they shall be worked; and in 
 any case there is implied a peculiar intellectual attitude 
 different from that of mere formal reasoning. It is the 
 difference between the act of finding out and proving. If 
 it should ever become possible to develop a logic of Dis- 
 covery, it must consist in the formulation of the processes 
 of Analysis and Synthesis, conceived in the general sense 
 attributed to them in the foregoing article. (o. c. r.) 
 
 ANALYTIC JUDGMENTS have been distinguished 
 under that nanie, in opposition- to Synthetic, since the time 
 of Kant. It was necessary, for the purposes of his critical 
 inquiry into the principles of human knowledge, that he 
 should carefully determine the character of those assertions 
 which metaphysicians had so freely made respecting the 
 supernatural, and he found them to be such that, while 
 the predicate was added on to the subject, not involved in 
 it, the connection was affirmed as necessary and universal. 
 He therefore called them, as well as other assertions of like 
 character in mathematics arid pure physics, synthetic judg- 
 ments a priori, and the aim of his critical inquiry came to 
 be the determining of the conditions under which such 
 judgments were possible. Now, as differing from these, he 
 noted two classes of judgments: (1), such as in the predi- 
 cate added indeed to the content of the subiect, but oalj
 
 798 
 
 ANA-ANA 
 
 empirically, as, for example, Bodies have weight, and these 
 ho called synthetic-a posteriori; (2), such as were indeed 
 necessary and universal, but added nothing to the content 
 of the subject, as, for example, Bodies are extended, a:id 
 tlicse he called analytic. 
 
 The general distinction of analytic and synthetic judg- 
 ments has a value apart from the specific character of those 
 (synthetic) judgments in which Kant was most interested, 
 and for the sake of which mainly it was fixed by him. 
 Trained in the metaphysics of the Leibnitzo- Wolffian school, 
 which marked off necessary judgments from those of simple 
 fact without considering the kinds of necessity, Kant, when 
 he came, by the route that can be traced in his earlier 
 works, to apprehend the difference between merely logical 
 analysis and real synthesis in thought, applied it almost 
 exclusively to those judgments for which a character of 
 necessity was claimed. He therefore noticed traces of the 
 distinction in other thinkers, as Locke, only in so far as 
 there was a suggestion also of this special reference. In 
 truth, the general distinction, under a variety of expres- 
 sions, was familiar to both Hume and Locke, and it had 
 already been drawn by the ancients. The old doctrine of 
 the Predicates, in distinguishing the essential predication 
 of genus, species, and difference from the non-essential 
 predication of property and accident, plainly involves it; 
 making besides, as between the last two predicables, a 
 distinction which is very closely related to that drawn 
 by Kant between the a priori and a posteriori synthetic. 
 From the nominalistic point of view it is expressed by the 
 difference of Verbal and Real propositions, as in Mill's 
 Logic, and also often in Locke. 
 
 While the synthetic judgment, as the name implies, 
 brings together in thought two distinct concepts, each of 
 which may be thought apart, the analytic judgment is 
 merely the explication of a single concept in the form of a 
 proposition. It is disputed what may be the ground of 
 synthesis in different cases, but on all hands it is agreed 
 that the logical Law of Contradiction is thecontrolling prin- 
 ciple for the explication of concepts already in the mind, 
 however they may have come there. Now the explication 
 may be made either completely or partially, according as 
 the whole or part only of the intension of the concept is set 
 forth: in other words, the aim may be to give the definition 
 (where, in the full sense, that is possible), or simply to 
 express any one or more of the contained attributes. Pro- 
 positions giving such partial explication are spoken of by 
 Locke as "trifling;" and it is true that, if the concept is 
 supposed already in the mind, no increase of knowledge is 
 thereby obtained. This word, however, is unfortunate. 
 Not to say that it is equally applicable to definitions, where 
 the explication is only more complete, it tends to keep out 
 of view the fact that analytic judgments, when not arbi- 
 trarily formed, are themselves — or rather the concepts, of 
 which they are the explications, are — the permanent result 
 or deposit of foregone real syiilhesis. So much, indeed, is 
 this the case with concepts of things in nature — what Mill 
 calls natural kinds — that in them a constapt process of 
 accretion is going on ; new attributes, as they are discovered, 
 being taken up into the essence, if they are at the same 
 time characteristic and underived. Much also that is 
 mere explication to one mind is real information to another. 
 
 The terms Analytic and Synthetic, thus applied to judg- 
 ments, are so expressive in themselves that they have now 
 come into general use. It is, however, a serious drawback 
 to such an association of the terms, that it traverses what 
 is otherwise the consistent use of the words analysis and 
 synthesis in relation to each other. As the article Analysis 
 has shown, there is a synthesis which, as much as any 
 analysis, is purely logical, and there is an analysis which, 
 as much as any Bynthesis. is a means of real advance in 
 
 knowledge. The terms Explicative (Erlauterungturthide) 
 and Ampliative (Eriveiterungsurtluiic), also employed by 
 Kant, while not less expressive, are open to no such objec- 
 tion, (o. c. E.) 
 
 ANAM, o"r A-NNam, also called ICochin China, a large 
 empire of Asia, forming the eastern portion of the Indo- 
 Chinese peninsula. See Cochin China. 
 
 ANASTASIUS I., Emperor of Constantinople, was 
 born at DyTrhachium not later than 430 a.d. At the 
 time of the death of Zeno (491), Anastasius, though only 
 one of the guards (sitentiarii) in the palace, held a very 
 high character, and was raised to.tho throne of the Romau 
 empire of the East, mainly through the influence of Ariadne, 
 Zeno's widow, whom he married shortly after his accession. 
 His reign, though afterwards disturbed by foreign and 
 intestine wars and religious distractions, commenced aus- 
 piciously. He gained the popular favour by a judicious 
 remission of taxation, and displayed great vigour and 
 energy in administering the affairs of the empire. The 
 principal wars in which Anastasius was engaged were 
 those known as the Isaurian and the Persian. The former 
 (492-8) was stirred up by tho supporters of Longinus, 
 the brother of Zeno, and resulted in Anastasius's favour; 
 in the latter (502-5) he was signally defeated, but the 
 provinces the Persians had won from him were restored 
 on payment of a ransom. He also suffered defeat at tho 
 hands of the Goths of Italy, to check whose incursions he 
 built the " Anastasian wall," extending from the Propontis 
 to the Euxine. For the support he gave to the Eutychians, 
 Anastasius was anathematised by Pope Symmachus. The 
 latter years of his reign were troubled by revolts in Con- 
 stantinople, excited by his avarice and by his reputed 
 heretical tendencies. He died in 518. 
 
 ANASTASIUS II., Emperor, whose original name was 
 Artemius, was raised to the throne of Constantinople by 
 the voice of tin senate and people in 713 a.d., on the 
 deposition of Philippicus, whom he had served in the 
 capacity of secretary. His territories being threatened 
 both by sea and land, he sent an army under Leo the 
 Isaurian, afterwards emperor, to defend Syria ; adopted 
 wise and resolute measures for the defence of his capital ; 
 and equipped and despatched a formidable naval force, 
 with orders not only to resist the approach of the enemy, 
 but to destroy their naval stores. The fleet mutinied at 
 Rhodes, and proclaimed Theodosius, a person of low ex- 
 traction, emperor. After a six months' reign, Constanti- 
 nople was taken by Theodosius; and Anastasius, who had 
 fled to Nicaea, was compelled to submit to the new emperor, 
 and, retiring to Thessalonica, became a monk (716). In 721 
 he headed a revolt against Leo, who had succeeded Theodo- 
 sius, and receivingaconsiderableamountof support, laid siege 
 to Constantinople; but the enterprise failed, and Anastasius 
 falling into Leo's hands, was put to death by his orders. 
 
 ANATHEMA (aviBe^a, from avaTidrjiJ.1, lit. anything 
 offered up) is frequently used in classic Greek (in the form 
 ava.8rj/j.a) to denote things consecrated to the gods, and 
 deposited in a temple. In the LXX. it is the equivalent of 
 the Hebrew o-iri ( which denotes an offering devoted to God 
 absolutely, and therefore, in the case of a living creature, 
 put to death. The idea of destruction or perdition thus 
 becamo associated with the. word, which gradually lost its 
 primary sense of consecration. In the New Testament it 
 signifies separated from the church and accursed, and it 
 became the technical term for a form of excommunication 
 at an early date-. 
 
 ANATOLIA (from ai'aToA?J, the east), a name first 
 used under the Byzantine empire for the country east 
 of the Bosphorus. In the form Anadoli, it denotes o 
 modern Turkish division almost coincident with Asia 
 Minok, j ».
 
 709 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 ANATOMY CAvotoa"?) means in its literal sense the dis- 
 section or separation of parts by cutting, but in its 
 usual acceptation it is employed to denote the science the 
 province of which is to determine the construction, the fonn, 
 and the structure of organised bodies, i.e., of bodies which 
 either are or have been living. It is therefore a depart- 
 ment of the science of Biology. It resolves itself into 
 two great divisions — Animal Anatomy or Zootomy, the 
 object of which is to investigate the structure of animals ; 
 md Vegetable Anatomy or Piiytotomy. the object of 
 which is to elucidate the structure of plants. As Vege- 
 table Anatomy will be treated of in the article Botany, it 
 does not require to be considered here. Animal Ana- 
 tomy, again, naturally resolves itself into two divisions : one 
 in which the construction, form, and structure of two or 
 more animals are compared with each other, so as to bring 
 out their features of resemblance or dissimilarity, — this is 
 called Comparative Anatomy; the other, in which the 
 construction, form, and structure of parts in a single ani- 
 mal are cousidered, which is termed Special Anatomy. 
 The special anatomy of an animal may be studied from 
 various points of view: (a) with reference to the succession 
 «f forms which it exhibits at various periods from its first 
 appearance as an embryo to the assumption of its adult 
 characters ; this is termed Developmental or Embryo- 
 logical Anatomy ; (6) with reference either to its form 
 and structure, or to the investigation of the laws by which 
 these are determined, termed Morphological Anatomy ; 
 (c) with reference to the function, use, or purpose per- 
 formed by a part or structure in an animal, termed 
 Teleological or Physiological Anatomy ; (d) with re- 
 ference merely to the relative position of different parts or 
 structures, termed Topographical Anatomy; (e) with 
 reference to the structure and general properties of the 
 tissues or textures which enter into the construction of the 
 parts or organs of animals ; to this branch of study have 
 been applied the terms General Anatomy, Anatomy of 
 Textures, Histology, and, from the microscope being so 
 largely employed in the examination of the textures, 
 Microscopic or Minute Anatomy; (/) with reference to 
 the changes induced by disease in the organs or tissues, 
 termed Morbid or Pathological Anatomy. From its 
 manifold aspects anatomy forms the basis of the Biological 
 Sciences. As a knowledge of the laws of motion is essen- 
 tial, and must be constantly recurred to at every step 
 before any true progress can be made in the investigation 
 of the physical sciences, so must the structure of animal 
 bodies be constantly appealed to by the zoologist in all 
 attempts at classification ; by the physiologist in all in- 
 quiries into the functions performed by the organs and 
 textures in a state of health, and into the special adapta- 
 tion of parts to particular uses; and by the physician in 
 considering the alterations or disturbance of the functions 
 of parts in the course of disease. To describe the anatomy 
 •of the multitudinous forms of animal life from these dif- 
 ferent points of view would require, not one, but several 
 voluminous treatises, and would much exceed the compass 
 of a single article. Moreover, it is advisable that the 
 inatomy of the different classes of the animal kingdom 
 should be considered under their respective heads, — e.g., 
 that of the Crabs under Crustacea, that of Reptiles under 
 Repttlia, &c It is intended to devote this article more 
 particularly to the description of the Special Anatomy of 
 the Human Body in a state of health ; in other words, to 
 make it a short treatise on Human A_natomy or Anthro- 
 •otomy, which, as forming a department of the general 
 
 science of Comparative Ans>jmy, is interesting not only 
 to men of science generally, but, from its intimate con- 
 nection with the ,. several divisions of the art of healing, 
 and with the study of the functions of the human body, 
 possesses the highest importance to the physician, surgeon, 
 and ph3'siologist. 
 
 Previous to entering on the consideration of the Anatomy 
 of the Human Body, it umy be well to take a historical 
 view of the progress of the science from ils origin to the 
 present time. 
 
 HISTORY OF ANATOMY. 
 
 In tracing the history of the origin of anatomy, it may- 
 be justly said that more learning than judgment has becu 
 displayed. Some WTiters claim for it the highest antiquity, 
 and pretend to find its first rudiments alternately in the 
 animal sacrifices of the shepherd kings, the Jews, and 
 other ancient nations, and in the art of embalming a.( 
 practised by the Egyptian priests. Even the descriptions 
 of wuund3 in the Iliad have been supposed adequate to 
 prove that in the time of Homer mankind had distinct 
 notions of the structure of the human body. Of the first 
 it may be said that the rude information obtained by the 
 slaughter pf animals for sacrifice does not imply profound 
 anatomical knowledge ; and those who adduce the second 
 as evidence are deceived by the language of the poet of 
 the Trojan war, which, distinguishing certain parts by 
 their ordinary Greek epithets, as afterwards used by 
 Hippocrates, Galen, and all anatomists, has been rather 
 too easily supposed to prove that the poet had studied 
 systematically the structure of the human frame. 
 
 'With not much greater justice has the cultivation of 
 anatomical knowledge been ascribed to Hippocrates, who, 
 because he is universally allowed to be the father of 
 medicine, has also been thought to be the creator of the 
 science of anatomy. Of the seven individuals of the family 
 of the Heracleidse who bore this celebrated name, the second, 
 who was son of Heraclides and Phenarita, and grandson 
 of the first Hippocrates, was indeed distinguished as a 
 physician of great observation and experience, and the 
 first who appreciated the value of studying accurately the 
 phenomena, effects, and terminations of disease. It does 
 not appear, however, notwithstanding the vague and general 
 panegyrics of Kiolan, Bartholin, Le Clerc, and Portal, that 
 the anatomical knowledge of this illustrious person was 
 either accurate or profound. Of the works ascribed to 
 11 ppoerates, five only are genuine. Most of them were 
 written either by subsequent authors of the same name, or 
 by i 'tie or other of the numerous impositors who took 
 advantage of the zealous munificence of the Ptolemies, by 
 fabricating works under that illustrious name. Of the few 
 which are genuine, there is none expressly devoted to- 
 anatomy; and of his knowledge on this subject the only 
 proofs are to be found in the exposition of his physiological 
 opinions, and his medical or surgical instructions. From 
 those it appears that Hippocrates 1 id some accurate notions 
 on osteology, but that of the stru> lure of the human body 
 in geueral his ideas were at once superficial and erroneous. 
 In his book on injuries of the head, and in that on fractures, 
 he shows that he knew the sutures of .the cranium and 
 the relative situation of the bones, and that he had some 
 notion of the shape of the bones in general, and of their 
 mutual connections. Of the muscles, of the soft parts iu 
 general, and of the internal organs, his ideas are confused, 
 indistinct, and erroneous. The term <£Ae/?s he seems, in 
 imitation of the colloquial Greek, to have used gcncraU*
 
 800 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 LHISTORt 
 
 to Bignlfy a blood-vessel, without being aware of the 
 distinction of vein and artery ; and the term aprnpla, or 
 air-holder, 13 restricted to the windpipe. He appears to 
 have been unaware of the existence of the nervous chords ; 
 and the term nerve is used by him, as by Grecian authors 
 in general, to signify a sinew or tendon. On other points 
 Ids views are so much combined with peculiar physiological 
 doctrines, that it is impossible to assign them the character 
 of anatomical facts ; and even the works in which these 
 doctrines are contained are with little probability to be 
 ascribed to the second Hippocrates. If, however, we over- 
 look this difficulty, and admit what is contained in the 
 genuine Hippocratic writings to represent at least the sum 
 of knowledge possessed by Hippocrates and his immediate 
 descendants, we find that he represents the brain as a 
 gland, from which exudes a viscid fluid ; that the heart is 
 muscular and of pyramidal shape, and has two ventricles 
 separated by a partition, the fountains of life — and two 
 auricles, receptacles of air ; that the lungs consist of Gve 
 ash-coloured lobes, the substance of which is cellular and 
 spongy, naturally dry, but refreshed by the air ; and that 
 the kidneys are glands, but possess an attractive faculty, 
 by virtue of which the moisture of the drink is separated, 
 <ind descends into the bladder. He distinguishes the 
 bowels into colon and rectum (6 dp^ot).' 
 
 The knowledge possessed by tho second Hippocrates 
 was transmitted in various degrees of purity to the descend- 
 ants and pupils, chiefly of the family of the Heracleidae, 
 who succeeded hiaL Several of these, with feelings of 
 grateful affection, appear to have studied to preserve the 
 written memory of his instructions, and in this manner to 
 have contributed to form part of that collection of treatises 
 which have long been known to the learned world under 
 the general name of the Hippocratic writings. Though 
 composed, like the genuine remains of the physician of 
 Cos, in the Ionian dialect, all of them differ from these in 
 being more diffuse in style, more elaborate in form, and in 
 studying to invest their anatomical and medical matter 
 with tho fanciful ornaments of the Platonic philosophy. 
 Hippocrates had the merit of early 'recognising the value 
 of facts apart from opinions, and of those facts especially 
 which lead to general results ; and in the few genuine 
 writings which are now extant it is easy to perceive that 
 he has recourse to the simplest language, expresses himself 
 in terms which, though short and pithy, are always precise 
 and perspicuous, and is averse to the introduction of 
 philosophical dogmas. Of the greater part of the writings 
 :ollected under his name, on the contrary, the general 
 character is verboseness, prolixity, and a great tendency 
 to speculative opinions. For these reasons, as well as for 
 others derived from internal evidence, while the Aphorisms, 
 the Epidemics, and the works above mentioned, bear 
 distinct marks of being the genuine remains of Hippocrates, 
 it is impossible to regard the book irepl $vctios Avdpunrov 
 as entirely the composition of that physician ; and it 
 app> ars more reasonable to view it as the work of some 
 one of the numerous disciples to whom the author had 
 communicated the results of his observation, which they 
 unwisely attempted to combine with the philosophy of the 
 Platonic school and the'r own mysterious opinions. 
 
 Among' those who a. med at this distinction, the most 
 fortunate in the preservation of his name is Polybus, the 
 son-in-law of the physician of Cos. This person, who must 
 not be confounded with the monarch of Corinth immor- 
 talised by Sophocles in the tragic story of CEdipus, is 
 represented as a recluse, severed from the world and its 
 enjoyments, and devoting himself to the study of anatomy 
 and physiology, and to the composition of works on these 
 subjects. To him has been ascribed the whole of the book 
 on the Nature of the Child and most of that On Man «• 
 
 both physiological treatises interspersed with anatomical 
 sketches. His anatomical information, with which wi 
 are specially concerned, appears to have been rude and 
 inaccurate, like that of his preceptor. He represents tht 
 large vessels of the body as consisting of four pairs ; th« 
 first proceeding from the head by the back of the neck and 
 spinal chord to the hips, lower extremities, and outer ankle ; 
 the second, consisting of the jugular vessels (at <r<payiTiSc?), 
 proceeding to the loins, thighs, hams, and inner ankle; 
 the third proceeding from the temples by the neck to tho 
 scapula and lungs, and thence by mutual intercrossings to 
 the spleen and left kidney, and the liver and right kidney, 
 and finally to the rectum ; and the fourth from the fore- 
 part of the neck to the upper extremities, the fore-part of 
 the trunk, and the organs of generation. 
 
 This specimen of the anatomical knowledge of one of 
 the most illustrious of the Hippocratic disciples differs not 
 essentially from that of Syennesis, the physician of Cyprus, 
 and Diogenes, the philosopher of Apollonia, two authors 
 for the preservation of whose opinions we are indebted to 
 Aristotle. They may be admitted as representing tho 
 state of anatomical knowledge among the most enlightened 
 men at that time, and they only show how ruda and 
 erroneous were their ideas on the structure of the animal 
 body. It may indeed, 'without injustice, be said that tho 
 anatomy of the Hippocratic school is not only erroneou'?, 
 but fanciful and imaginary, in often substituting mera 
 supposition and assertion for what ought to be matter ol 
 fact. From this censure it is impossible to exempt even 
 the name of Plato himself, for whom some notices in tha 
 Timxus on the structure of the animal body, as taught by 
 Hippocrates and Polybus, have procured a place '" tba 
 history of the science. 
 
 Amidst the general .obscurity in which the early history 
 of anatomy is involved, only two leading facts may be 
 admitted with certainty. The first is, -that previous to 
 the time of Aristotle there was no accurate knowledjo of 
 anatomy ; and the second, that all that was known was 
 derived from *he dissection of tho lower animals only. By 
 the appearance of Aristotle this species of knowledge, 
 which was hitherto acquired in a desultory and irregular 
 manner, began to be cultivated systematically and with a 
 definite object ; and among the services which the philo- 
 sopher of Stagira rendered to mankind, one of the greatest 
 and most substantial is, that he was the founder of Com- 
 parative Anatomy, and was the first to apply its facts to 
 the elucidation of zoology. The works of this ardent and 
 original naturalist show that his zootomical krcwledgo. 
 was extensive and often accurate ; and from several of hia 
 descriptions it is impossible to doubt that they were 
 derived from frequent personal dissection. Aristotle, who 
 was born 384 years before the Christian era, or in the first 
 year of the 99th Olympiad, was, at the age of 39, requested 
 by Philip to undertake the education of his son Alexander. 
 During this period it is said he composed several works on 
 anatomy, which, however, are now lost. The military 
 expedition of his royal pupil into Asia, by laying open tho 
 animal stores of that vast and little known continent, 
 furnished Aristotle with the means of extending his know- 
 ledge, not only of the animal tribes, but of their structure, 
 and of communicating more accurate and distinct notions 
 than were yet accessible to the world. A sum of 800 
 talents, and the concurrent aid of numerous intelligent 
 assistants in Greece and Asia, were intended to facilitate 
 his researches in- composing a system of zoological know- 
 ledge ; but it has been observed that the ntmber^ of 
 instances in which he was thus compelled to trust to the 
 testimony of other observers led him to commit errors ir> 
 description which personal observation might hive enabieu 
 him to avoid.
 
 Hlbi-ORYj 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 801 
 
 The first three books of the History of Animals, a 
 treatise consisting of ten books, and the four books on the 
 Parts of Animals, constitute the great monument of the 
 Aristotelian Anatomy. From these we find that Aristotle 
 was the first who corrected the erroneous statements of 
 Polybus, Syennesis, and Diogenes, regarding the blood- 
 vessels, which they made, as we have seen, to arise from 
 the head and brain. These he represents to be two in 
 number, placed before the spinal column, the larger on 
 the right, the smaller on the left, which, he also remarks, 
 is by some called aorta (aopT-q), the first time we observe 
 that this epithet occurs in the history. Both he repre- 
 sents to arise from the heart, the larger from the largest 
 upper cavity, the smaller or aorta from the middle cavity, 
 but in a different manner and forming a narrower canal. 
 He also distinguishes the thick, firm, and more tendinous 
 structure of the aorta from the thin and- membranous 
 structure of vein. In describing the distribution of the 
 latter, however, he confounds the vena cava and pulmonary 
 artery, and, as might ta expected, he confounds the 
 ramifications of the former with those of the arterial tubes 
 in general. While he represents the lung to be liberally 
 supplied with blood, he describes the brain as an organ 
 almost destitute of this fluid. His account of the distribu- 
 tion of the aorta is wonderfully correct. Though he does 
 not notice the cceliac, and remarks that the aorta sends no 
 direct branches to the liver and spleen, he had observed 
 the mesenteric, the renal, and the common iliac arteries'. 
 It is nevertheless singular that though he remarks parti- 
 cularly that the renal branches of the aorta go to the 
 substance and not the pelvis («oiAta) of the kidney, he 
 appears to mistake the ureters for branches of the aorta. 
 Of the nerves (vevpd) he appears to have the most confused 
 notions. Making them arise from the heart, which he 
 eays has nerves (tendons) in its largest cavity, he represents 
 the aorta to be a nervous or tendinous vein (veupwSTj? 
 <f>\ej3s). By and by, afterwards saying that all the articu- 
 lated bones are connected by nerves, he makes them the 
 same as ligaments. 
 
 He distinguishes the windpipe or air-holder (api-qpla) 
 from the oesophagus, because it is placed before the latter, 
 because food or drink passing into it causes distressing 
 cough and suffocation, and because there i3 no passage 
 from the lung to the stomach. He knew the situation and 
 use of the epiglottis, seems to have had some indistinct 
 notions of the larynx, represents the windpipe to be neces- 
 sary to convey air to and from the lungs, and appears to 
 have a tolerable understanding of the structure of the 
 lungs. He repeatedly represents the heart, the shape and 
 site of which he describes accurately, to be the origin of 
 the blood-vessels, in opposition to those who made them 
 descend from the head ; yet, though he represents it as 
 full of blood and the source and fountain of that fluid, 
 and even speaks of the blood flowing from the heart to the 
 vefns, and thence to every part of the body, he says 
 nothing of the circular motion of the blood. The diaphragm 
 he distinguishes by the name Sta^wfia, and virolm/ia. With 
 the liver and spleen, and the whole alimentary canal, he 
 seems well acquainted. The several parts of the quadruple 
 stomach of the ruminating animals are distinguished and 
 named ; and he even traces the relations between the teeth 
 and the several forms of stomach, and the length or brevity, 
 the simplicity or complication, of the intestinal tube. 
 Upon the same principle he distinguishes the jejunum 
 (7) vrjems), or the empty portion of the small intestines in 
 animals (to orepoi/ \emov), the co?cum(Tv<f>\6v ti koI oyKwSes), 
 the colon (to koiXov), and the sigmoid flexure ( <rrevwr(pov 
 koI tlXiy/xcvov). The modern epithet of rectum is the literal 
 translation of his description of the straight progress (tv6\i) 
 of the bowel to the anus {ttijukt6%). He knew ' the nasal 
 
 1-27 
 
 cavities and the passage from the tympanal cavity of the 
 ear to the palate, afterwards described by Eustachius. 
 He distinguishes as "partes similares " those structures, 
 such as bone, cartilage, vessels, sinews, blood, lymph, fat, 
 flesh, which, not confined to one locality, but distributed 
 throughout the body generally, we now term the tissues or 
 textures, whilst he applies the term " partes dissimilares" 
 to the regions of the head, neck, trunk, and extremities. 
 
 Next to Aristotle occur the names of Diodes of Carystus, 
 and Praxagoras of Cos, the last of the family of the 
 Asclepiadae. The latter is remarkable for being the first 
 who distinguished the arteries from the veins, and the 
 author of the opinion that the former were air-vessels. 
 
 Hitherto anatomical inquiry was confined to the examina- 
 tion of the bodies of brute animals. We have, indeed, nc 
 testimony of the human body being submitted to examina- 
 tion previous to the time of Erasistratus and Herophilus ; 
 and it is vain to look for authentic facts on this point 
 before the foundation of the Ptolemaic dynasty of sovereigns 
 in Egypt. This event, which, as is generally known, 
 succeeded the death of Alexander, 320 years before the 
 Christian era, collected into one spot the scattered embers 
 of literature' and science, which were beginning to languish 
 in Greece under a weak and distracted government and an Alcx»«> 
 unsettled state of society. The children of her divided dria» 
 states, whom domestic discord and the uncertainties of school 
 war rendered unhappy at home, wandered into Egypt, 
 and found, under the fostering hand of the Alexandrian 
 monarchs, the means of cultivating the sciences, and 
 repaying with interest to the country of Thoth and Osiris 
 the benefits vhich had been conferred on the infancy of 
 Greece by Thales and Pythagoras. Alexandria became in 
 this manner the repository of all the learning and know- 
 ledge of the civilised work! ; and while other nations were 
 sinking under the effects of internal animosities andjr.utual 
 dissensions, or ravaging the earth with the evils of war, 
 the Egyptian Greeks, kept alive the sacred flame of 
 science, and preserved mankind from relapsing into their 
 original barbarism. These happy effects are to be ascribed 
 in an eminent degree to the enlightened government and 
 liberal opinions of Ptolemy Soter, and his immediate 288. 
 successors Philadelphus and Euergetes. The two latter 
 princes, whose authority was equalled only by the zeal with 
 which they patronised science and its professors, were the 
 first who enabled physicians to dissect the human body, 
 and prevented the prejudices of ignorance and superstition 
 from compromising the welfare of the human race. To 
 this happy circumstance Herophilus and Erasistratus are 
 indebted for the distinction of being known to posterity as 
 th"e first anatomists who dissected and described the parts 
 of the human body. Both these physicians flourished 
 under Ptolemy Soter, and probably Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
 and were indeed the principal supports of what has been 
 named in medical history the Alexandrian School, to which 
 their reputation seems to have attracted numerous pupils. 
 But though the concurrent testimony of antiquity assigns 
 to these physicians the merit of dissecting the human body, 
 time, which wages endless war with the vanity and 
 ambition of man, has dealt hardly with the monuments of 
 their labours. As the works of neither have been preserved, 
 great uncertainty prevails as to the respective merits of 
 these ancient anatomists; and all that is now known of 
 their anatomical researches is obtained from the occasional 
 notices of Galen, Oribasius, and some other writers. From 
 the9e it appears" that Erasistratus recognised the valves of 
 the heart, and distinguished them by the names of tricuspid 
 and sigmoid ; that he studied particularly the shape and 
 structure of the brain, and its divisions, and cavities, and 
 membranes, and likened the convolutions to the folds i f 
 the jejunum ; that ho first formed* a' distinct idea of the
 
 802 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [piBTORY. 
 
 Lature of the nerves, which he made issue from the brain ; 
 and that he discovered lymphatic vessels in the mesentery, 
 first in brute animals, and afterwards, it is said, in man. 
 He appears also to havo distinguished the nerves into 
 those of sensation and those of motion. 
 
 Of Herophilus it'is said that he had extensive anatomical 
 knowledge, acquired by dissecting not only brutes but 
 human bodies. Of these he probably dissected more than 
 any of his predecessors or contemporaries. Devoted to 
 the assiduous cultivation of anatomy, he appears to have 
 studied with particular attention those parts which were 
 least understood. He recognised the nature of the pul- 
 monary artery, which he denominates arlerious vein ; he 
 knew the vessels of the mesentery, and showed that they 
 did not go to the vena porta;, but to certain glandular 
 bodies ; and he first applied the name of twelve-inch or 
 duodenum (SiuSeKaSdnrvAos) to that part of the alimentary 
 canal which is next to the stomach. Like Erasistratus, he 
 appears to have studied carefully the configuration of the 
 brain ; and though, like him, he distinguishes the nerves 
 into those of sensation and those of voluntary motion, he 
 adds to them the ligaments and tendons. A tolerable 
 description of the liver by this anatomist is preserved in 
 the writings of Galen. He first npplied the name of 
 choroid or vascular membrane to that which is found in 
 the-cerebral ventricles; he knew the straight venous sinus 
 which still bears his name ; and to him the linear furrow 
 at the bottom of the fourth ventricle is indebted for its 
 name of calamus scriptorius. 
 
 The celebrity of these two great anatomists appears to 
 have thrown into the shade for a long period the names 
 of all other inquirers , for, among their numerous and 
 rather celebrated successors in the Alexandrian school, it is 
 impossible to recognise a name which is entitled to dis- 
 tinction in the history of anatomy. In a chasm so wide 
 it is not uninteresting to find, in one who combined the 
 characters of the greatest orator and philosopher of Rome, 
 the most distinct traces of attention to anatomical know- 
 ledge. Cicero, in his treatise De Natura Deorum, in a 
 short sketch of physiology, such as it was taught by 
 Aristotle and his disciples, introduces various anatomical 
 notices, from which the classical reader may form some 
 idea of the state of anatomy at that time. The Roman 
 orator appears to have formed a pretty distinct idea of the 
 shape and connections of the windpipe and lungs; and 
 though he informs his readers that he knows the alimentary 
 canal, he omits the details through motives of delicacy. 
 In imitation of Aristotle., he talks of the blood being con- 
 veyed by the veins (vena;), that is, blood-vessels, through 
 the body at large ; and, like Praxagoras, of the air inhaled 
 by the lungs being conveyed through the arteries. 
 
 Aretaeus, though chiefly known as a medical author, 
 makes some observations on the lung and the pleura, 
 maintains the glandular structure of the kidney, and 
 describes the anastomosis or communications of the capil- 
 lary extremities of the vena cava with those of the 
 portal vein. 
 
 The most valuable depository of the anatomical know- 
 ledge of these times is the work of Celsus, one of the 
 most judicious medical authors of antiquity. He left, 
 indeed, no express anatomical treatise ; but from the 
 introductions to the 4th and 8th books of his work, De 
 Medicina, with incidental remarks in the 7th, the modern 
 reader may form very just ideas of his anatomical attain- 
 ments. From these it appears that Celsus was well 
 acquainted with the windpipe and lungs and the heart ; 
 with the difference between the windpipe and oeso- 
 phagus (stomachus), which leads to the stomach (venlri- 
 cuius) ; and with the shape, situation, and relations of the 
 diaphragm. He enumerates also the principal facts relating 
 
 to the situation of the liver, the spleen, the kidneys, and 
 the stomach. He appears, however, to have been unaware 
 of the distinction of duodenum or twelve-inch bowel, 
 already admitted by Herophilus, and represents the stomach 
 as directly connected by means of the pylorus with the 
 jejunum or upper part of the small intestine. 
 
 The 7th and 8th books, which are devoted to the 
 consideration of thoso diseases which are treated by manual 
 operation, contain sundry anatomical notices necessary to 
 explain the nature of the diseases or mode of treatment. 
 Of these, indeed, the merit is unequal; and it is .not 
 wonderful that the ignorance of the day prevented Celsus 
 from understanding rightly the mechanism of the pathology 
 of hernia. He appears, however, to have formed a 
 tolerably just idea of the mode of cutting into the urinary 
 bladder ; and even his obstetrical instructions show that 
 his knowledge of the uterus, vagina, and appendages was 
 not contemptible. It is in osteology, however, that tho 
 information of Celsus is chiefly conspicuous. Ho enume- 
 rates the sutures and several of the holes of the cranium, 
 and describes at great length the superior and inferior 
 maxillary bones and the teeth. With a good deal of caro 
 he describes the vertebrae and the ribs, and gives very 
 briefly the situation and shape of the scapula, humerus, 
 radius, and ulna, and even of the carpal and metacarpal 
 bones, and then of the different bones of the pelvis and 
 lower extremities. He had formed a just idea of the 
 articular connections, and is desirous to impress the fact 
 that none is formed without cartilage. From his mention 
 of many minute holes (mulla et lenuia foramina), in the 
 recess of the nasal cavities, it is evident that he was 
 acquainted with the perforated plate of the ethmoid bone ; 
 and from saying that the straight part of the auditory 
 canal become:: ilexuous, and terminates in numerous minute 
 cavities (multa et tenuia J'oramina diducilur), it is inferred 
 by Portal that he knew the semicircular canals. 
 
 Though the writings of Celsus show that he cultivated 
 anatomical knowledge, it does not appear that the science 
 was much studied by the Romans ; and there is reason to 
 believe that, after the decay of the school of Alexandria, 
 it languished in neglect and obscurity. It is at least 
 certain that the appearance of Marinus during the reign of 
 Nero is mentioned by authors as an era remarkable for 
 anatomical inquiry, and that this person is distinguished 
 by Galen as the restorer of a branch of knowledge which 
 had been before him suffered to fall into undeserved 
 neglect. From Galen also we learn that Marinus gave an 
 accurate account of the muscles, that he studied particularly 
 the glands, and that he discovered those of the. mesentery. 
 He fixed the number of nerves at seven ; he observed the 
 palatine nerves,, which he rated as the fourth .pair ; and 
 described as the fifth the auditory and facial, which he 
 regards as one pair, and the hypoglossal as the sixth. 
 
 Not long after Marinus appeared Ruffus of Ephesus, a Buftaa 
 Greek physician, who in the reign of Trajan was much 
 attached to physiology, and as a means of cultivating this 
 science studied Comparative Anatomy, and made sundry 
 experiments on living animals. Of the anatomical writings 
 of this author there remains only a list or catalogue of 
 names of different regions and parts of the animal body. 
 He appears, however, to have directed attention particu- 
 larly to the tortuous couue of the uterine vessels, and to 
 have recognised even at this early period the Fallopian 
 tube. He distinguishes the nerves into those of sensation 
 and those of motion. He kne.v the recurrent nerve. His 
 name is further associated with tho ancient experiment of 
 compressing in the situation of the carotid arteries the 
 pneumogastric nerve, and thereby inducing insensibility 
 and loss of voice. 
 
 Of all the authors of- antiquity, however, none possesses-
 
 HISTOEV.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 803 
 
 bo just a claim to the title of anatomist as Claudius Galeuus, 
 the celebrated physician 01 Perganius, who was born about 
 the 130th year of the Christian era, and lived under the 
 reigns of Hadrian, the Antonmes, Commodus, and Severus. 
 He was trained by his father Nicon (whose memory he 
 embalms as an eminent mathematician, architect, and 
 astronomer) in all the learning of the day, and initiated 
 particularly into the mysteries of the Aristotelian philo- 
 sophy. In an order somewhat whimsical he afterwards 
 ' studied philosophy successively in the schools of the Stoics, 
 the Academics, the Peripatetics, and the Epicureans. When 
 he was seventeen years of age, his father, he informs us, was 
 admonished by a dream to devote his son to the study of 
 medicine ; but it was fully two years after that Galen 
 entered on this pursuit, under the auspices of an instructor 
 whose name he has thought proper to conceal. Shortly 
 after he betook himself to the study of anatomy under 
 Satyrus, a pupil of Quintus, and of medicine under Strar 
 tonicus, a Hippocratic physician, and .<Esehrion, an empiric. 
 He had scarcely attained the age of twenty when he had 
 occasion to deplore the loss of the first and most affectionate 
 guide of his studies ; and soon after he proceeded to 
 Smyrna to obtain the anatomical instructions of Pelops, 
 who, though mystified by some of the errors of Hippocrates, 
 is commemorated by his pupil as a skilful anatomist. 
 After this he appears to have visited various cities dis- 
 tinguished for philosophical or medical teachers ; and, 
 finally, to have gone to Alexandria with the view of 
 cultivating more accurately and intimately the study of 
 anatomy under Heraclianus. Here he remained till his 
 twenty-eighth year, when he regarded himself as possessed 
 of all the knowledge then attainable through the medium 
 of teachers. He now returned to Pergamus to exercise 
 the art which he had so anxiously studied, and received, 
 in his twenty r ninth year, an unequivocal testimony of the 
 confidence which his fellow-citizens reposed in his skill, by 
 being intrusted with the treatment of the wounded gladia- 
 tors ; and in this capacity he is said to have treated wounds 
 with success which were fatal under former treatment. A 
 seditious tumult appears to have caused him to .form the 
 resolution of quitting Pergamus and proceeding to Rome, at 
 the age of thirty-two. Here, however, he remained only five 
 years; and returning once more to Pergamus", after travelling 
 for some time, finally settled in Rome as physician to the 
 Emperor Commodus. The anatomical writings ascribed to 
 Galen, which are numerous, are to be viewed not merely 
 as the result of personal research and information, but as 
 the common depository of the anatomical knowledge of 
 the day, and as combining all that he had learnt from the 
 several teachers under whom he successively studied with 
 whatever personal investigation enabled him to acquire. 
 It is on thi3 account not always easy to distinguish what 
 Galen had himself ascertained by personal research from 
 that which was known by other anatomists. This, however, 
 though of moment to the history of Galen as an anatomist, 
 is of little consequence to the science itself ; and from the 
 anatomical remains of this author a pretty just idea may 
 be formed both of the progress and of the actual state of 
 the science at that time. 
 
 The osteology of Galen is undoubtedly the most perfect 
 of the departments of the anatomy of the ancients. He 
 names and distinguishes the bones and sutures of the 
 cranium nearly in the same manner as at present. Thus, 
 he notices the quadrilateral shape of he parietal bones ; 
 he distinguishes the squamous, the styloid, the mastoid, 
 and the petrous portions of the temporal bone3 ; and he 
 remarks the peculiar situation and shape of the sphenoid 
 bone. Of the ethmoid, which he omits at first, he after- 
 wards speaks more at large in another treatise. The malar 
 he notices under the name of zygomatic, .bono ; and he 
 
 describes at length the upper maxillary and nasal bones, 
 and the connection of the former with the sphenoid. He 
 gives the first clear account of the number and situation 
 of the vertebrae, which he divides into cervical, dorsal, and 
 lumbar, and distinguishes from the sacrum and coccyz. 
 Under the head Bones of the Thorax, he enumerates the 
 sternum, the ribs (at irkcvpal), and the dorsal vertebrae, the 
 connection of which with the former he designates as a 
 variety of diarthrosis. The description of the bones of the 
 extremities and their articulations concludes the treatise. 
 
 Though in myology Galen appears to less advantage 
 than in osteology, he nevertheless had carried this part of 
 anatomical knowledge to greater perfection than any of his 
 predecessors. He describes a frontal muscle, the six 
 muscles of the eye, and a seventh proper to animals ; a 
 muscle to each ala nasi, four muscles of the lips, the thin 
 cutaneous muscle of the neck, which he first termed 
 platysrna myoides, or muscular expansion, two muscles of 
 the eyelids, and four pairs of muscles of the lower jaw — the 
 temporal to raise, the masseter to draw to one side, and 
 two depressors, corresponding to the digastric and internal 
 pterygoid muscles. After speaking of the muscles which 
 move the head and the scapula, he adverts to those by 
 which the windpipe is opened and shut, and the intrinsic 
 or proper muscles of the larynx and hyoid bone. Then 
 follow those of the tongue, pharynx, and neck, those of the 
 upper extremities, the trunk, and the lower extremities 
 successively ; and in the course of this description he 
 swerves so little from the actual facts that most of the 
 names by which he distinguishes the principal muscles 
 have been retained by the best modern anatomists. It is 
 chiefly in the minute account of these organs, and especially 
 in reference to the minuter muscles, that he appears 
 inferior to the moderns. 
 
 The angiological knowledge of .Galen, though vitiated 
 by the erroneous physiology of the times and ignorance of 
 the separate uses of the arteries and veins, exhibits, never- 
 theless, some accurate facts which show the diligence of 
 the author in dissection. . Though, in opposition to the 
 opinions of Praxagoras and Erasistratus, he proved that 
 the arteries in the living animal contain not air but blood, 
 it does not appear to have occurred to him to determine iu 
 what direction the blood flows, or whether it was movable 
 or stationary. Representing the left ventricle of the heart 
 as the common origin of all the arteries, though he is 
 misled by the pulmonary artery, he nevertheless traces the 
 distribution of the branches of the aorta with some accuracy. 
 The vena azygos also, and the jugular veins, have contri- 
 buted to add to the confusion of his description, and to 
 render his angiology the most imperfect of his works. 
 
 In neurology we find him to be the author of the dogma) 
 that the brain is the origin of the nerves of sensation, and 
 the spinal chord 6f those of motion ; and he distinguishes 
 the former from the latter by their greater softness or less 
 consistence. Though he admits only seven cerebral pairs, 
 he has the merit of distinguishing and tracing the distribu- 
 tion of the greater part of both classes of nerves with great 
 accuracy. His description of the brain is derived from 
 dissection of the lower animals, and his distinctions of the 
 several parts of the organ have been retained by modern 
 anatomists. His mode of demonstrating this organ, which 
 indeed is clearly described, consists of five different steps. 
 In the first the bisecting membrane — i.e. the falx (iixiviyt 
 StxoToixovaa) — and the connecting blood-vessels are removed; 
 and the dissector, commencing at the anterior extremity 
 of the great fissure, separates the hemispheres gently as far 
 as the torcular, and exposes a smooth surface (rijv xyipav 
 tvXwSj; Trojs oxxrav), the mesolobe of the moderns, or the 
 middle band. In the second he exposes by successive sections 
 the ventricles, the choroid plexus, and the middle partition.
 
 804 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [history. 
 
 The third exhibits the pineal body (o-u>fia Ktovou&h) or 
 conarium, concealed by i membrane with numerous veins, 
 meaning that part of the plexus which is now known 
 by the name of velum inlcrpositum, and a complete view 
 of tho ventricles. The fourth unfolds the third ventricle 
 (rls oAAj; rpiTTj sotXia), the communication between the 
 two lateral ones, the arch-like body (cri/ia i/»aAi8oct8«s) 
 fornix, and the passage from tho third to the fourth 
 ventricle. In the fifth ho gives an accurate description of 
 the relations of the third and fourth ventricle, of the 
 situation of the two pairs of eminences, nates (y\ovrd) and 
 testes (SiSu/xi'a or op^cis), the scolecoid or worm-like process, 
 anterior and posterior, and lastly tho linear furrow, called 
 by Herophilus calamus scriptorius. 
 
 In the account of the thoracic organs equal accuracy 
 may be recognised. He distinguishes the pleura by tho 
 name of inclosing membrane (tyxijv iire&Kuis, membrana 
 succingens), and remarks its similitude in structure to that 
 of the peritoneum, and the covering which it affords to all 
 the organs. The pericardium also he describes as a membran- 
 ous sac with a circular basis corresponding to the base of 
 the heart, and a conical apex ; and after an account of the 
 tunics of the arteries and veins, he speaks shortly of the 
 lung, and more at length of the heart, which, however, he 
 takes Some pains to prove not to be muscular, because it is 
 harder, its fibres are differently arranged, and its action is 
 incessant, whereas that of muscle alternates with tho state 
 of rest ; he gives a good account of the valves and of tho 
 vessels ; and notices especially the bony ring formed in the 
 heart of the horse, elephant, and other large animals. 
 
 The description of the abdominal organ9, and of the 
 kidneys and urinary apparatus, is still more minute, and 
 in general accurate. Our limits, however, do not permit 
 us to give any abstract of them ; and it is sufficient in 
 general to say that Galen gives correct views of the 
 arrangement of the peritoneum and omentum, and distin- 
 guishes accurately the several divisions of the alimentary 
 canal and its component tissues. In the liver, which he 
 allows to receive an envelope from the peritoneum, he 
 admits, in imitation of Erasistratus, a proper substance or 
 parenchyma, interposed between the vessels, and capable 
 of removal by suitable dissection. His description of the 
 orgaas of generation is rather brief, and is, like most of his 
 anatomical sketches, too much blended with physiological 
 dogmas. 
 
 This short sketch may communicate some idea of the 
 condition of anatomical knowledge in the days of Galen, 
 who indeed i3 justly entitled to the character of rectifying 
 and digesting, if not of creating, the science of anatomy 
 among the ancients. Though evidently confined, perhaps 
 entirely by the circumstances of the times, to the dissection 
 of brute animals, so indefatigable and judicious was he in 
 the mode of acquiring knowledge, that many of his names 
 and distinctions are still retained with advantage in the 
 writings of the moderns. Galen was a practical anatomist, 
 and not only describes the organs of the animal body from 
 actual dissection, but gives ample instructions for tho 
 proper mode of exposition. His language is in general 
 clear, his style as correct as in most of the Authors of 
 the same period, and his manner is animated. Few 
 passages in early science are indeed so interesting as the 
 description of the process for demonstrating the brain and 
 other internal organs which is given by this patient 'and 
 onthusiastic observer of nature. To some it may appear 
 absurd to speak of anything Eke good anatomical descrip- 
 tion in an author who writes in the Greek language, or 
 anything like an interesting and correct manner in a 
 writer who flourished at a period when taste was depraved 
 or extinct and literature corrupted, — when the philosophy 
 .of Antoninus and the mild virtues of Aurelius could do 
 
 little to soften the iron sway of Lucius Verus and Cora- 
 modus ; but the habit of faithful observation in Galen 
 seems to have been so powerful that, in the description of 
 materia] objects, his genius invariably rises above the 
 circumstances of his age. Though not so directly con- 
 nected with this subject, it is nevertheless proper to 
 mention that he appears to have been the first anatomist 
 who can be said, on authentic grounds, to have attempted 
 to discover the uses of organs by vivisection and experi- 
 ments on living animals. In this manner he ascertained 
 the position and demonstrated the action of the heart ; and 
 he mentions two instances in which, in consequence of disease 
 or injury, he had an opportunity of oV-serving the motions 
 of this organ in the human body. In short, without eulogis- 
 ing an ancient author at the expense of critical justice, or 
 commending his anatomical descriptions as superior to those 
 of the moderns, it must be admitted that the anatomical 
 writings of the physician of Pergamus form a remarkable 
 era in the history of the science ; and that by diligence in 
 dissection and accuracy in description he gave the science 
 a degree of importance and stability which it has retained 
 through the lapse of many centuries. „ 
 
 The death of Galen, which took place at Pergamus in 
 the ninetieth year of his age and the 193d of the Christian 
 era, may be regarded as the downfall of anatomy in ancient 
 times. After this period we recognise only two names of 
 any celebrity in the history of the science — those of 
 Soranus and Oribasius, with the more obscure ones of 
 Meletius and Theophilus, the latter the chief of the 
 imperial guard of Heraclius. 
 
 Soranus, who was an Ephesian, and flourished under 
 the emperors Trajan and Hadrian, distinguished himself 
 by his researches on the female organs of generation. He 
 appears to have dissected the human subject ; and this 
 perhaps is one reason why his descriptions of these parts 
 are more copious and more accurate than those of Galen, 
 who derived his knowledge from the bodies of the lower 
 animals. He denies the existence of the hymen, but 
 describes accurately the clitoris. Soranus the anatomist 
 must be distinguished from the physician of that name, 
 who was also a native of Ephesus. 
 
 Oribasius, who was born at Pergamus, is said to have Oribasim 
 been at once the friend and physician of the Emperor 
 Julian, and to have contributed to- the elevation of 3G1-363 
 that apostate to the imperial throne. For this he appears 
 to have suffered the punishment of a temporary exile 
 under Valens and Valentinian ; but was soon recalled, and 
 lived in great honour till the period of his death. By 
 Le Clerc, Oribasius is regarded as a compiler ; and indeed 387. 
 his anatomical writings bear so close a correspondence with 
 those of Galen that the character is not altogether ground- 
 less. In various points, nevertheless, he has rendered the 
 Galenian anatomy more accurate ; and he has distinguished 
 himself by a good account of the salivary glands, which 
 were overlooked by Galen. 
 
 ~ To the same period generally is referred the Anatomical 
 Introduction of an anonymous author, first published in 
 1618 by Lauremberg, and more recently by Bernard. It 
 is to be regarded as a compilation formed on the model of 
 Galen and Oribasius. The same character is applicable to 
 the treatises of Meletius and .Theophilus. 
 
 The decline indicated by the_se languid efforts soon sunk 
 into a state of total inactivity ; and the unsettled state 
 of society during the latter ages of the Roman empire 
 was extremely unfavourable to the successful cultivation 
 of science. The sanguinary conflicts in which the southern 
 countries of Europe were repeatedly engaged with their 
 northern neighbours, between the second and eighth cen- 
 turies, tended gradually to estrange their minds from 
 i scientific pursuits ; and the hordes of barbarians by which
 
 HISTORY.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 80.5 
 
 t 7, o Roman empire was latterly overrun, while they urged 
 tuem to the necessity of making hostile resistance, and 
 adopting means of self-defence, introduced such habits of 
 ignorance and barbarism, that science was almost univer- 
 sally forgotten. While the art of healing was professed 
 only by some few ecclesiastics or by itinerant practitioners, 
 anatomy was utterly neglected ; and no name of anatomical 
 celebrity occurs to diversify the long 'and uninteresting 
 period commonly distinguished as the Dark Ages. 
 
 Anatomical learning, thus neglected by European nations, 
 •is believed to have received a temporary cultivation from 
 the Asiatics. Of these, several nomadic tribes, known to 
 Europeans under the general denomination of Arabs and 
 Saracens, had gradually coalesced under various leaders; 
 and by their habits of endurance, as well as of enthusiastic 
 valour in successive expeditions against the eastern division 
 of the Roman empire, had acquired such military reputation 
 as to render them formidable wherever they appeared. 
 After a century and a half of foreign warfare or internal 
 animosity, under the successive dynasties of the Ommiads 
 and Abbassides, in which the propagation of Islamism was 
 the pretext for the extinction of learning and civilisation, 
 and the most remorseless system of rapine and destruction, 
 the Saracens began, under the latter dynasty of prince9, to 
 recognise the value of science, and especially of that which 
 prolongs life, heals disease, and alleviates the pain of 
 wounds and injuries. The caliph Almansor combined with 
 his official knowledge of Moslem law the successful cultiva- 
 tion of astronomy ; but to his grandson Almamun, the 
 seventh prince of the line of the Abbassides, belongs the 
 merit of undertaking to render his subjects philosophers and 
 physicians. By the directions of this prince the works of 
 .he Greek and Roman authors were translated into Arabic ; 
 and the favour and munificence with which literature and 
 ; ts profess ors were patronised speedily raised a succession 
 of learned Arabians. The residue of the rival family of 
 the Ommiads, already settled in Spain, was prompted by 
 motives of rivalry or honourable ambition to adopt the 
 same course ; and while the academy, hospitals, and library 
 of Baghdad bore testimony to the zeal and liberality of the 
 Abbassides, the munificence of the Ommiades was not le33 
 conspicuous in the literary institutions of Cordova, Seville, 
 and Toledo. 
 
 Notwithstanding the efforts of the Arabian princes, 
 however, and the diligence of the Arabian physicians, little 
 was done for anatomy, and the science made no substantial 
 acquisition. The Koran denounces as unclean the per- 
 son who touches a corpse; tho rules of Islamism forbid 
 dissection ; and whatever their instructors taught was 
 borrowed from the Greeks. Abu-Bekr Al-Rasi, Abu-Ali 
 Ibn-Siua, Abul-Cassem, and Abu-Walid Ibn-Roshd, the 
 Rhazes, Avicenna, Abulcasis, and Averrhoes of European 
 authors, are their most celebrated names in medicine ; yet 
 to none of these can the historian with justice ascribe any 
 anatomical merit. Al-Rasi has indeed left descriptions of 
 the eye, of the ear and its meatus, and of the heart ; and 
 lbn-Sina, Abul-Cassem, and Ibn-Roshd give anatomical 
 descriptions of the parts of the human body. But of these 
 the general character is, that they are copies from Galen, 
 sometimes, not very just, and in all instances mystified 
 with a large proportion of the fanciful and absurd imagery 
 and inflated, style of the Arabian writers. The chief 
 reason of their obtaining a place in anatomical history is, 
 that by the influence which their medical authority enabled 
 them to exercise in the European schools, the nomenclature 
 which they employed was adopted by European anatomists, 
 and continued till the revival of ancient learning restored 
 the original nomenclature of the Greek physicians. Thus, 
 the cervix, or nape of the neck, is nucha; the oesophagus 
 is meri ; the umbilical region is sumen or sumac; the 
 
 abdomen is myrach ; the peritoneum ia tipliac ; and the 
 omentum, zirbus. 
 
 From the general character now given justice requires 
 that we except Abdallatif, the annalist of Egyptian 
 affairs. This author, who maintains that it i3 impossible 
 to learn anatomy from books, and that the authority of 
 Galen must yield to personal inspection, informs us that 
 the Moslem doctors did not neglect opportunities of study- 
 ing the bones of the human body in cemeteries ; and that 
 he hims elf, by once examining a collection of bones in this 
 manner, ascertained that the lower jaw is formed of one 
 piece ; that the sacrum, though sometimes composed of 
 several, is most generally of one ; and that Galen is 
 mistaken when he asserts that these bones are not single. 
 
 The era of Saracen learning extends to the 1 3th century ; 
 and after this we begin to approach happier times. The 
 university of Bologna, which, as a school of literature and 
 law, was already celebrated in the twelfth century, became, 
 in the course of the following one, not less distinguished 
 for us medical teachers. Though the misgovernment of 
 the municipal rulers of Bologna had disgusted both teachers 
 and students, and given rise to the foundation of similar 
 institutions in Padua and Naples, — and though the school 
 of Salerno, in the territory of the latter, was still in high 
 repute, — it appears, from the testimony of Sarti, that 
 medicine was in the highest esteem in Bologna, and that 
 it was in such perfection as to require a division of its 
 professors into physicians, surgeons, physicians for wounds, 
 barber-surgeons, oculists, and even some others. Notwith- 
 standing these indications of refinement, however, anatomy 
 was manifestly cultivated rather as an appendage of surgery 
 than a branch of medical science ; and, according to the 
 testimony of Guy de Chauliac, the cultivation of anatomical 
 knowledge was confined to Roger, Roland, Jamerio, Bruno, 
 and Lanfranc ; and this they borrowed chiefly from Galen. 
 
 In this state matters appear to have proceeded with the 
 medical school of Bologna till the commencement of the 
 fourteenth century, when the circumstance of possessing a 
 teacher of originality enabled this university to be the 
 agent of as great an improvement in medical science as she 
 had already effected in jurisprudence. This era, indeed, is 
 distinguished for the appearance of Mondino, under whose 
 zealous cultivation the science first began to rise from the 
 ashes in which ii Iiad been buried. This father of modern 
 anatomy, who taught in Bologna about the year 1315, 
 quickly drew the curiosity of the medical profession by 
 well-ordered demonstrations of the different parts of the 
 human body. In 1315 he dissected and demonstrated the 
 parts of the human body in two female subjects ; and in 
 the course of the following year he accomplished the same 
 task on the person of a single female. But while he seems 
 CC have had sufficient original force of intellect to direct 
 his own route, Riolan accuses him of copying Galen ; and 
 it is certain that his descriptions are corrupted by the 
 barbarous leaven of tie Arabian ?chools, and his Latin 
 defaced by the exotic nomenclature of lbn-Sina and Al- 
 Rasi. He died, according to Tiraboschi, in 1325. 
 
 Mondino divides the body into three cavities (ventres), 
 the upper containing the animal members, as the head, the 
 lower containing the natural members, and the middle 
 containing the spiritual members. He first describes the 
 anatomy of the lower cavity or the abdomen, then proceeds 
 to the middle or thoracic organs, and concludes with the 
 upper, comprising the head and its contents and append- 
 ages. His general manner is to notice shortly the situation 
 and shape or distribution of textures or membranes, and 
 then to mention the disorders to which they are subject. 
 The peritoneum he describes under the name of siphae, in 
 imitation of the Arabians, the omentum under that of 
 zirbus, and the mesentery or eucJtarus as distinct, from
 
 80G 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [lIISTORV 
 
 both. In speaking of the intestines he treats first of 
 the rectum, then the colon, the left or sigmoid flexure of 
 which, as well as the transverse arch and its connection 
 with the stomach, he particularly remarks ; then the circum 
 or monoculus, after this the small intestines in general 
 under the heads of ileum and jejunum, and latterly the 
 duodenum, making in all six bowels. The liver and its 
 vessels are minutely, if not accurately, examined ; and the 
 cava, under the name chilis, a corruption from the Greek 
 KoiXrj, is treated at length, with the emulgents and kidneys. 
 His anatomy of the heart is wonderfully accurate; and it 
 is a remarkable fact, which seems to be omitted "by all 
 subsequent authors, that his description contains the rudi- 
 ments of the circulation of the blood. " Postea vero 
 versus pulmonem est aliud orificium venae arterialis, quae 
 portat sanguinem ad pulmonem a corde ; quia cum pulmo 
 deserviat cordi secundum modum dictum, ut ei recompenset, 
 cor ei transmittal sanguinem per banc venam, qua? vocatur 
 vena arterialis; est vena, quia portat sanguinem, et arterialis, 
 quia habet duas tunicas ; et habet duas tunicas, primo 
 quia vadit ad membrum quod existit in continuo motu, et 
 secundo quia portat sanguinem valde subtilem et choleri- 
 cum." The merit of these distinctions, however, he after- 
 wards destroys by repeating the old assertion that the left 
 ventricle ought to contain spirit or air, which it generates 
 from the blood. His osteology of the skull is erroneous. 
 In his account of the cerebral membranes, though short, he 
 notices the principal characters of the dura mater. He 
 describes shortly the lateral ventricles, with their anterior 
 and posterior cornua, and the choroid plexus as a blood-red 
 substance like a long worm. He then speaks of the third 
 or middle ventricle, and one posterior, which seems to 
 correspond with the fourth ; and describes the iufundibulum 
 under the names of lacuna and emboton. In the base of 
 the organ he remarks, first, two mammillary caruncles, the 
 optic nerves, which he reckons the first pair ; the oculo- 
 muscular, which he accounts the second ; the third, which 
 appears to be the sixth of the moderns ; the fyurth ; the 
 fifth, evidently the seventh ; a sixth, the nervus vagus ; 
 and a seventh, which is the ninth of the moderns. Not- 
 withstanding the misrepresentations into which this early 
 anatomist was betrayed, his book is valuable, and has been 
 illustrated by the successive commentaries of Achillini, 
 Berenger, and Dryander. 
 
 1480. Matthew de Gradibus, a native of Gradi, a town in 
 Friuli, near Milan, distinguished himself by composing a 
 series of treatises on the anatdmy of various parts of the 
 human body. He is the first who represents the ovaries 
 of the female in the correct light in which they were 
 subsequently regarded by Steno. 
 
 Objections similar to those already urged in speaking of 
 Mondino apply to another eminent anatomist of those 
 
 1495, times. Gabriel de Zerbis, who flourished at Verona 
 towards the conclusion of the 15th Century, is celebrated 
 as the author of a system in which he is obviously more 
 anxious to astonish his readers by the wonders of a verbose 
 and complicated style than to instruct by precise and faithful 
 description. In the vanity of his heart he assumed the 
 title of Medicus Theoricus ;■ but though, like Mondino, he 
 derived his information from the dissection of the human 
 oubject, he is not entitled to the merit either of describing 
 truly or of adding to the knowledge previously acquired. 
 He is superior to Mondino, however, in knowing the 
 olfactory nerves. 
 
 Eminent in the history of the science, and more distin- 
 guished than any of this age in the history of cerebral 
 anatomy, Alexander Achillini of Bologna, the pupil and 
 commentator of Mondino, appeared at the close of the 15th 
 century. Though a follower of the Arabian school, the 
 assiduity with which he cultivated anatomy has rescued 
 
 his name from the inglorious obscurity in which the 
 Arabian doctors . have in general slumbered. lie is 
 known in the history of anatomical discovery as the first 
 who described the two tympanal bones, termed malleus 
 and incus. In 1503 he showed that the tarsus consists of 
 seven bones ; he rediscovered the fornix and the in fundi* 
 bulum ; and he was fortunate enough to observe the courso 
 of the cerebral cavities into the inferior cornua, and to 
 remark peculiarities to which the anatomists of a future 
 age did not advert. He mentions the orifices of the ducts, 
 afterwards described by Wharton. He knew the ileo-caecal 
 valve ; and his description of the duodenum, ileum, and 
 colon shows that he was better acquainted with the site. 
 and disposition of these bowels than any of his predecessors 
 or contemporaries. 
 
 Not long after, the science boasts of one of its most 
 distinguished founders. James Berenger of Carpi, in the 
 Modenese territory, flourished at Bologna at the beginning 
 of the 16th century. In the annals of medicine his name 
 will be remembered not only as the most zealous and 
 eminent in cultivating the anatomy of the human body, 
 but as the first physician who was fortunate enough to 
 calm the alarms of Europe, suffering under the ravages of 
 syphilis, then raging with uncontrollable virulence. Fit 
 the former character he surpassed both predecessors and 
 contemporaries ; and it was long before the anatomists of 
 the following age could boast of equalling him. His 
 assiduity was indefatigable ; and he declares that he 
 dissected above one hundred human bodies. He is the 
 author of a compendium, of several treatises which he 
 names Introductions (Isagoga*), and of commentaries on 
 the treatise of Mondino, in which he not only rectifies 
 the mistakes of that anatomist, but gives minute and in 
 general accurate anatomical descriptions. 
 ■ He is the first who undertakes a systematic view of the 
 several textures of which the human body is composed ; 
 and in a preliminary commentary he treats successively of 
 the anatomical characters and properties of fat, of mem- 
 brane in general (panniculus), of flesh, of nerve, of villus oi 
 fibre (filum), of ligament, of sinew or tendon, and of muscle 
 in general. He then proceeds to describe with considerable 
 precision the muscles of the abdomen, and illustrates their 
 site and connections by woodcuts, which, though rude, 
 are spirited, and show that anatomical drawing was in that 
 early age beginning to be understood. In his account of the 
 peritoneum he admits only the intestinal division of that 
 membrane, and is at some pains to prove that Gentilis, who 
 justly admits the muscular division also, is in error. In 
 his account of the intestines he is the firstwho mentions the 
 vermiform process of the caecum ; he remarks the yellow 
 tint communicated to the duodenum by the gallbladder; 
 and he recognises the opening of the common biliary duct 
 into the duodenum {quidam porus portans clioleram). In 
 the account of the stomach he describes the several tissues 
 of which that organ is composed, and which, after Alman- 
 sor, he represents to be three, and a fourth from the 
 peritoneum; and afterwards notices the ruga; of its villous 
 surface. He is at considerable pains to explain the organs 
 of generation in both sexes, and gives a long account of 
 the anatomy of the foetus. He was the first who recognised 
 the larger proportional size of the chest in the male than 
 in the female, and conversely the gTeater capacity of the 
 female than of the male pelvis. In the larynx he dis 
 covered the two arytenoid cartilages. He gives the lirat 
 good description of the thymus ; distinguishes the obi!qi.6 
 situation of the heart; describes the pericardium, and 
 maintains the uniform presence of pericardial liquor. He 
 then describes the cavities of the heart ; but perplexes him- 
 self, as did all the anatomists of that age, about the spirit 
 supposed to be contained. The aorta he properly makes
 
 HISTORY.] 
 
 A N A T M Y 
 
 807 
 
 to arise from the left ventricle ; but confuses himself with 
 the arttria venalis, the pulmonary vein, and the vna arte- 
 rialis, the pulmonary artery. His account of the brain is 
 better. He gives a minute and clear account of the vent- 
 ricles, remarks the corpus striatum, and has the sagacity 
 to perceive that the choroid plexus consists of veins and 
 arteries; he then describes the middle or third ventricle, 
 the infundibulum or lacuna of Mondino, and the pituitary 
 gland ; and lastly, the passage to the fourth ventricle, the 
 conarium or pineal gland, and the fourth or posterior 
 ventricle itself, the relations of which he had studied 
 accurately. He rectifies the mistake of Mondino as to the 
 olfactory or first pair of nerves, gives a good account of the 
 optic and others, and is entitled to the praise of originality 
 in being the first observer who contradicts the fiction of 
 the wonderful net, and indicates the principal divisions 
 of the carotid arteries. He enumerates the tunics and 
 humours of the eye, and gives an account of the internal 
 ear, in which he notices the malleus and incus. 
 
 Italy long retained the distinction of giving birth to 
 the first eminent anatomists in Europe, and the glory she 
 acquired in the names of Mondino, Achillini, Carpi, and 
 Massa, was destined to become more conspicuous in the 
 labours of Columbus, Fallopius, and Eustachius. While 
 Italy, however, was thus advancing the progress of science, 
 the other nations of Europe were either in profound 
 ignorance or in the most supine indifference to the brilliant 
 career of their zealous neighbours. The sixteenth century 
 had commenced before France began to acquire ana- 
 tomical distinction in the names of Dubois, Fernel, and 
 Etienne ; and even these celebrated tpachers were less 
 solicitous in the personal study of the animal body than in 
 the faithful explanation of the anatomical writings of 
 Galen. The infancy of the French school had to contend 
 with other difficulties. The small portion of knowledge 
 which had been hitherto diffused in the country was so 
 inadequate to eradicate the prejudices of ignorance, that it 
 was either difficult or absolutely impossible to procure 
 human bodies for the purposes of science ; and we are 
 assured, on the testimony of Vesalius and other competent 
 authorities, that the practical part of anatomical instruction 
 was obtained entirely from the bodies of the lower animals. 
 The works of the Italian anatomists were unknown ; 
 and it is a proof of the tardy communication of knowledge 
 that, 'while the structure of the human body had been 
 taught in Italy for more than a century by Mondino and 
 his followers, these anatomists aro never mentioned by 
 Etienne, who flourished long after. 
 
 Such was the aspect of the times at the appearance of 
 Jacques Dubois, who, under the Romanised name of 
 Jacobus Sylvius, according to the fashion of the day, has 
 been fortunate in acquiring a reputation to which his 
 researches do not entitle him. For the name of Jacques 
 Dubois the history of anatomy, it is said, i3 indebted to 
 his inordinate love of money. At the instance of his 
 brother Francis, who was professor of eloquence in the 
 college of Tournay at Paris, he devoted himself to the 
 study of the learned languages and mathematics ; but 
 discovering that these elegant accomplishments do not 
 invariably reward their cultivators with the goods of 
 fortune, Dubois betook himself to medicine. After the 
 acquisition of a medical degree in the university of Mont-, 
 pellier, at the ripe age of fifty-one Dubois returned to Paris 
 to resume a course of anatomical instruction. Here he 
 taught anatomy to a numerous audience in the college of 
 Trinquet ; and on the departure of Vidus Vidius for Italy 
 was appointed to succeed that physician as professor of 
 surgery to the Royal College. His character is easily 
 estimated. With greater coarseness in his manners and 
 Language than even the rude state of society in his times 
 
 can palliate, with much varied learning and considerablo 
 eloquence, he was a blind, indiscriminate, and irrational 
 admirer of Galen, and interpreted the anatomical and 
 physiological writings of that author in preference to 
 giving demonstrations from the subject. Without talent 
 for original research or discovery himself, his envy and 
 jealousy made him detest every one who gave proofs of 
 either. We are assured by Vesalius, who was some time 1 
 his pupil, that his manner of teaching was calculated 
 neither to advance the science nor to rectify the mistakes 
 of his predecessors. A human body was never seen in 
 the theatre of Dubois ; the carcases of dogs and other 
 animals were the maleriak from which he taught; and so 
 difficult even was it to obiain human bones, that unless 
 Vesalius and his fellow-students had collected assiduously 
 from the Innocents and other cemeteries, they must have 
 committed numerous errors in acquiring the first principles. 
 This assertion, however, is contradicted by Riolan, and after- 
 wards by Sprengel and Lauth, the last of whom decidedly 
 censures Vesalius for this ungrateful treatment of his 
 instructor. It is certain that opportunities of inspecting 
 the human body were by no mean3 so frequent as to 
 facilitate the study of the science. Though his mention 
 of injections has led some to suppose him the discoverer 
 of that art, he appears to have made no substantial addition 
 to the information already acquired ; and the first acknow- 
 ledged professor of anatomy to the university of Paris 
 appears in history as one who lived without true honour 
 and died without just celebrity. He must not be con- 
 founded with' Franciscus Sylvius (De le Boe), who is 
 mentioned by Ruysch and Malacarne as the author of a 
 particular method of demonstrating the brain. 
 
 Almost coeval may be placed Charles Etienne, a younger Etienca, 
 brother of the celebrated printers, and son to Henry, who 1503-64 
 Hellenised the family name by the classical appellation of 
 Stephen (Sre'^avos). It is uncertain whether he taught 
 publicly. But his tranquillity was disturbed, and his 
 pursuits interrupted, by the oppressive persecutions in 
 which their religious opinions involved the family ; and 
 Charles Etienne drew the last breath of a miserable life in 
 a dungeon in 1564. Etienne, though sprung of a family 
 whose classical taste has been their principal glory, does not 
 betray the same servile imitation of the Galenian anatomy 
 with which Dubois is charged. He appears to have -been 
 the first to detect valves in the orifice of the hepatic veins. 
 He was ignorant, however, of the researches of the Italian 
 anatomists ; and his description of the brain is inferior to 
 that given sixty years before by Achillini. His comparison 
 of the cerebral cavities to the human ear has persuaded 
 Portal that he knew the inferior cornua, the hippocampus, 
 and its prolongations ; but this is no reason for giving him 
 that honour to the detriment of the reputation of Achillini, 
 to whom, so far as historical testimony goes, the first 
 knowledge of this fact is due. The researches of Etienne 
 into the structure of the nervous system are, however, 
 neithei useless nor inglorious ; and the circumstance of 
 demonstrating a canal through the entire length of the 
 spinal chord, which had neither been suspected by contem- 
 poraries nor noticed by successors till Sennc made it 
 known, is sufficient to place him high in the rank of 
 anatomical discoverers. 
 
 The French anatomy of the sixteenth century was 
 distinguished by two circumstances unfavourable to tho 
 advancement of the science,— extravagant admiration of 
 antiquity, with excessive confidence in the writings of 
 Galen, and the general practice of dissecting principally 
 the bodies of the lower animals. Both these errors were 
 much amended, if not entirely removed, by the exer- 
 tions of a young Fleming, whose appearance forms a con- 
 spicuous era in the history of anatomy. Andrew Vesalius,
 
 808 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [nisiou 
 
 a native of Brussels, after acquiring at Louvain the ordinary 
 classical attainments of the day,Jbcgan at the age of fourteen 
 to study anatomy under the auspices of Dubois. Though 
 the originality of his mind soon led him to abandon the 
 prejudices by which he was environed, and take the most 
 direct course for attaining a knowledge of the structure of 
 the human frame, he neither underrated tho Galenian 
 anatomy nor was indolent in the dissection of brute 
 animals. The difficulties, however, with which the practical 
 pursuit of human anatomy was beset in France, and the 
 dangers with which ho had to contend, made him look to 
 Italy as a suitable field for the cultivation of the science ; 
 and in 1536 we find him at Venice, at once pursuing 
 the study of human anatomy with the utmost zeal, and 
 requested, ere ho had attained his twenty-second year, to 
 demonstrate publicly in tho university of Padua. After 
 remaining here about seven years, Vcsalius went by ex- 
 press invitation to Bologna, and shortly afterwards to Pisa; 
 ' and thus professor in three universities, he appears to 
 have carried on his anatomical investigations and instruc- 
 tions alternately at Padua, Bologna, and Pisa, in the course 
 of the same winter. It is on this account that Vesaiius, 
 though a Fleming by birth and trained originally in the 
 French school, belongs, as an anatomist, to the Italian, 
 and may be viewed as the first of an illustrious line of 
 teachers by whom the anatomical reputation of that country 
 was in the course of the sixteenth century raised to the 
 greatest eminence. 
 
 Vesaiius is known as the first author of a comprehensive 
 and systematic view of human anatomy. The knowledge 
 with which his dissections had furnished him proved how 
 many errors were daily taught and learned under the broad 
 mantle of Galenian authority; and he perceived the 
 necessity of a new system of anatomical instruction, divested 
 of the omissions of ignorance and the misrepresentations of 
 prejudice and fancy. The early age at which he effected 
 this object has been to his biographers the -theme of 
 boundless commendation ; and we are told that he began 
 at the age of twenty-five to arrange the materials he had 
 collected, and accomplished his task ere he had completed 
 bis 28 th year. 
 
 Soon after this period we find him invited as imperial 
 physician to the court of Charles V., where he was occupied 
 in the duties of practice, and answering the various charges 
 which were unceasingly brought against him by the 
 disciples of Galen. After the abdication of Charles he 
 continued at court in great favour with his son Philip II. 
 To this he 8"">m3 to have been led principally by the 
 troublesome controversies in which his anatomical writings 
 had involved him. It is painful to think, however, that 
 even imperial patronage bestowed on eminent talents- does 
 not insure immunity from popular prejudice ; and the fate 
 of Vesaiius will be a lasting example of the barbarism of 
 the times, and of the precarious tenure of the safety even 
 of a great physician. On the preliminary circumstances 
 authors are not agreed ; but the- most general account states 
 that when Vesaiius was inspecting, with the consent. of his 
 kinsmen, the body of a Spanish grandee, it was observed 
 that the heart still gave some feeble palpitations when 
 divided by the knife. The immediate effects of this outrage 
 to human feelings were the denunciation of the anatomist 
 to the Inquisition ; and Vesaiius escaped the severe treat- 
 ment of that tribunal only by the influence of the king, 
 and by promising to perform a pilgrimage to the Holy 
 Land. He forthwith proceeded to Venice, from which he 
 exiled with the Venetian fleet, under Jame3 Malatesta, for 
 Cyprus. When he reached Jerusalem, he received from 
 the Venetian senate a message requesting him again to 
 accept the Paduan professorship, which had become vacant 
 by the death of his friend ' and pupil Fallopius. 
 
 His 
 
 destiny, however, which pursued him fait, suffered him 
 not again to breathe the Italian air. After struggling for 
 many days with adverse winds in the Ionian Sea, he was 
 wrecked on the island of Zante, where he quickly breathed 
 his last in such penury that unless a liberal goldsmith had 
 defrayed the funeral charges, hi3 remains must have been 
 devoured by beasts of prey. At tho tune of his death he 
 was scarcely fifty years of age. 
 
 To form a correct estimate of the character and merits 
 of Vesaiius, wo must not compare him, in the spirit of 
 nrodern perfection, with the anatomical authors either of 
 later timc3 or of the present day. Whoever wou'd frame a 
 just idea of this anatomist nr.ist imagine, not a bold 
 innovator without academical learning, — not a genius 
 coming from a foreign country, unused to the forms and 
 habits of Catholic Europe, — nor a wild reformer, blaming 
 indiscriminately everything which accorded not with his 
 opinion ; but a young student scarcely emancipated from , 
 the authority of instructors, and whose intellect was still 
 influenced by the doctrines with which it had been originally * 
 imbued, — a scholar strictly trained in the opinions of 
 the time, living amidst men who venerated Galen as the 
 oracle of anatomy and the divinity of medicine, — exercising 
 his reason to estimate the soundness of the instructions 
 then in use, and proceeding, in the way least likely to 
 offend authority and wound prejudice, to rectify errors, 
 and to establish on the solid basis of observation the true 
 elements of anatomical science. Vesaiius has been deno- 
 minated the founder of human anatomy; and though we 
 have seen that in this career he was preceded with honour 
 by Mondino and Berenger, still the small proportion of 
 correct observation which their reverence for Galen and 
 Arabian doctrines allowed them to communicate, will 
 not in a material degree impair the original merits of 
 Vesaiius. The errors which ho rectified and the additions 
 which he made are so numerous, that it is impossible, in 
 such a sketch as the present, to communicate a just idea 
 of them. 
 
 Besides the first good description of the sphenoid bone, 
 he showed that the sternum consists of three portions and 
 the sacrum of five or six ; and described accurately the 
 vestibule in the interior of the temporal bouc. He not 
 only verified the observation of Etienne on tho valves of 
 the hepatic veins, but he described well the vena azygos, 
 and discovered the canal which passes in the foetus between 
 the umbilical vein and the vena cava, since named ductus 
 venosus. He described the omentum, and its connections 
 with the stomach, the spleen, and the colon ; gave the first 
 correct views of the structure of the pyrorus ; remarked thf 
 small size of the coecal appendix in man ; gave the first 
 good account of the mediastinum and pleura, and the fullest 
 description of the anatomy of the brain yet advanced. 
 He appears, however, not to have understood well the 
 inferior recesses ; and his account of the nerves is confused 
 by regarding the optic as t! i first pair, the third as the 
 fifth, and the fifth as the seventh. 
 
 The labours of Vesaiius were not limited to tho immediate 
 effect produced by his own writings. His instructions and 
 example produced a multitude of anatomical inquirers of 
 different characters and varied celebrity, by whom the 
 science was extended and rectified. Of these we cannot 
 speak in detail ; but historical justice requires us to notice 
 shortly those to whose exertions the science of anatomy 
 has been most indebted. 
 
 The first that claims attention on this account is Emtwh 
 Bartholomeo Eustachi of San Severino, near Salerno, who \l^.' 
 though greatly less fortunate in reputation than Vesaiius, 
 divides with him the merit of creating the science of 
 human anatomy. He extended the knowledge of tho 
 internal ear by rediscovering and describing correctly the
 
 HISTOET.J 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 809 
 
 tube which bears his name ; and if we admit that Ingras- 
 6iaa anticipated him in the knowledge of the third bone of 
 the tympanal cavity, the stapes, he is still the first who 
 described the internal and anterior muscles of the malleus, 
 as also the stapedius, and the complicated figure of the 
 cochlea. He is the first who studied accurately the anatomy 
 of the teeth, and the phenomena of the first and second 
 dentition. The work, however, which demonstrates at 
 once the great merit and the unhappy fate of Eustachius 
 is his Anatomical Engravings, which, though completed in 
 1552, nine years after the impression of the work of 
 Vesalius, the author was unable to publish. First com- 
 municated to the world in 1714 by Lancisi, afterwards in 
 1744 by Cajetan Petrioli, again- in 1744 by Albinus, and 
 more recently at Bonn in 1790, the engravings show that 
 Eustachius had dissected with the greatest care and 
 diligence, and taken the utmost pains to give just views 
 of the shape, size, and relative position of the organs of 
 the human body. 
 
 The first seven plates illustrate the history of the kidneys, 
 and some of the facts relating to the structure of the ear. 
 The eighth represents the heart, the ramifications of the 
 vena azygos, and the valve of the vena cava, named from 
 the author. In the seven subsequent plates is given a 
 succession of different views of the viscera of the chest and 
 abdomen. The seventeenth contains the brain and spinal 
 chord ; and the eighteenth more accurate views of the 
 origin, course, and distribution of the nerves than had been 
 given before. Fourteen plates are devoted to the muscles. 
 Eustachius did not confine his researches to the study of 
 relative anatomy. He investigated the intimate structure 
 of organs with assiduity and success. What wa3 too 
 minute for unassisted vision he inspected by means of 
 glasses. Structure which could not be understood in the 
 recent state; he unfolded by maceration in different fluids, 
 or rendered more distinct by injection and exsiccation. 
 The facts unfolded in these figures are so important that 
 it is justly remarked by Lauth, that if the author himself 
 had been fortunate enough to publish them, anatomy 
 would have attained the perfection of the 18th century 
 two centuries earlier at least. Their seclusion for that 
 period in the papal library has given celebrity to many 
 names which would have been known only in the verifica- 
 tion of the discoveries of Eustachius. 
 
 nbua. Eustachius was the contemporary of Vesalius. Columbus 
 and Fallopius were his pupils. Columbus, as his immediate 
 successor in Padua, and afterwards as professor at Rome, 
 distinguished himself by rectifying and improving the 
 anatomy of the bones ; by giving correct accounts of the 
 shape and cavities of the heart, of the pulmonary artery 
 and aorta and their valves, and tracing the course of the 
 blood from the right to the left side of the heart ; by a 
 good description of the brain, and its vessels, and by correct 
 understanding of the internal ear, and the first good 
 account of the ventricles of the larynx. 
 
 (Diu3 Fallopius, who, after being professor at Pisa in 1548, and 
 at Padua in 1551, died at the age of forty, studied the 
 general anatomy of the boues ; described better than 
 heretofore the internal ear, especially the tympanum and 
 i its osseous ring, the two fenestra! and their communication 
 with the vestibule and cochlea ; and gave the first good 
 account of the stylo-mastoid hole and canaL of the ethmoid 
 bone and cells, and of the lacrymal passages. In myology 
 he rectified several mistakes of Vesalius. He also devoted 
 attention to the organs of generation in both sexes, and dis- 
 covered the utero-peritoneal canal which still bears his name. 
 Osteology nearly at the same time found an assiduous 
 cultivator in John Philip Ingrassias, a learned Sicilian 
 physician, who, in a skilful commentary on the osteology 
 of Galen, corrected numerous mistakes. He gave the first 
 
 1-27* 
 
 distinct account of the true configuration of the sphenoid 
 and ethmoid bones, and has the merit of first describing 1546. 
 the third bone of the tympanum, called stapes, though this 
 is also claimed by Eustachius and Fallopius. 
 
 The anatomical descriptions of- Vesalius underwent the ArsnzL 
 scrutiny of various inquirers. Those most distinguished 1530-84 
 by the importance and accuracy of their researches, as 
 well as the temperate tone of their observations, were Julius 
 Caesar Aranzi, anatomical professor for thirty-two years in 
 the university of Bologna, and Constantio Varoli, physician 
 to Pope Gregory XILL To the former we are indebted 
 for the first correct account of the anatomical peculiarities 
 of the foetus, and he was the first to show that the 
 muscles of the eye do not, as was falsely imagined, arise 
 from the dura mater, but from the margin of the optic hole. 
 He also, after considering the anatomical relations of the 
 cavities of the heart, the valves, and the great vesoels, 
 corroborates the views of Columbus regarding the course 
 which the blood follows in passing from the right to the 
 left side of the heart. Aranzi is the first anatomist who 
 describes distinctly the inferior cornua of the ventricles of 
 the cerebrum, who recognises the objects by which they 
 are distinguished, and who gives them the name by which 
 they are still known (hippocampus) ; and hi3 account is 
 more minute and perspicuous than thut of the authors of 
 the subsequent century. He speaks at large of the choroid 
 plexus, and gives a particular description of the fourth 
 ventricle, under the name of cistern of the cerebellum, as a 
 discovery of his own. 
 
 Italy, though rich in anatomical talent, has probably few Varolii* 
 greater name3 than that of Constantio Varoli of Bologna. l5ii 
 Though he died at the early age of thirty-two, he acquired 
 a reputation not inferior to that of the most eminent of 
 ins contemporaries. He is now known chiefly as the 
 author of an epistle, inscribed to Hieronymo Mercuriali, 
 OB the optic nerves, in which he describes a' new method 
 of dissecting the brain, and communicates many interesting 
 particulars relating to the anatomy of the organ. He 
 observes the threefold division of the inferior surface or 
 base, defines the limits of the anterior, middle, and posterior 
 eminences, as marked by the compartments of the skull, 
 and justly remarks that the cerebral cavities are capacious, 
 communicate with each other, extending first backward 
 and then forward, near the angle of the pyramidal portion of 
 the temporal bone, and that they are folded on themselves, 
 and finally lost above the middle and inferior eminence 
 of the brain. He appears to have been aware that at 
 this point they communicate with the exterior or convo- 
 luted surface. He recognised the impropriety of the term 
 corpus callosum, seems to have known the communication 
 called afterwards .foramen Monroianum, and describes the 
 hippocampus more minutely than had been previously done. 
 
 Among the anatomists of the Italian school, as a pupil 1534, 
 of Fallopius, Eustachius, and Aldrovandus, is generally 
 enumerated Volcher Coiter of Groningen. He distin- 
 guished himself by accurate researches on the cartilages, 
 the bones, and the nerves, recognised the value of morbid 
 anatomy, and made experiments on living animals to ascer- 
 tain the action of the heart and the influence of the brain. 
 
 The Fruiefull and Necessary Briefe Worke of John Halle 
 (1565), and The Englisheman's Treasure, by Master Thomas 
 Vicary (1586), English works published at this time, are 
 tolerable compilations from former authors, much tinged 
 by Galenian and Arabian distinctions. A more valuable 
 compendium than either is, however, that of John Banister 
 (1578), entitled The Historic of Man, from the most approved 
 Anathomistes in this Present Age. 
 
 The celebrity of the anatomical school of Italy was 
 worthily maintained by Hieronymo FaLricio of Acquapen- 
 dente, who, in imitation of his master Fallopius, laboured
 
 810 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [history. 
 
 to render au.itomical knowledge more precise by repealed 
 dissections, and to illustrate the obscure by researches on 
 the structure of animals in general. In this manner he 
 investigated the formation of the foetus, the structure of 
 the oesophagus, stomach, and bowels, and the peculiarities of 
 the eye, the ear, and the larynx. The discovery, however, 
 on which liis sureot claims to eminence rest is that of the 
 membranous folds, which he names valves, in the interior 
 of veins. Several of these folds had been observed by 
 Fcrnel, Sylvius, and Vesalius; and in 1547 Cannani 
 observed those of the vena azygos but no one appears to 
 have offered any rational conjecture on their use, or to 
 have traced them through the venous system at large, until 
 Fabricius in 1574, upon this hypothesis, demonstrated the 
 presence of these valvular folds in all the veins of the 
 extremities. 
 
 Fabricius, though succeeded by his pupil Julius Casserius 
 of Placenza, may be regarded as the last of that illustrious 
 line of anatomical teachers by whom the science was so 
 successfully studied and taught in the universities of Italy. 
 The discoveries which each made, and the errors which 
 their successive labours rectified, tended gradually to give 
 anatomy the character of a useful as well as an accurate 
 science, and to pave the way for a discovery which; though 
 not anatomical but physiological, is so intimately connected 
 with correct knowledge of the shape and situation of parts, 
 that it exercised the most powerful influence on the future 
 progress of anatomical inquiry. This was the knowledge 
 of the circular motion of the blood, — a fact which, though 
 obscurely conjectured by Aristotle, Neinesius, Mondino, 
 and Berenger, and partially taught by Servetus, Colum- 
 bus, Cresalpinus, and Fabricius, it was nevertheless re- 
 served to William Harvey fully and satisfactorily to 
 demonstrate. 
 
 Mondino believed that the blood proceeds from the 
 heart to the lungs through the vena arterialis or pul- 
 monary artery, and that the aorta conveys the spirit into 
 the blood through all parts of the body. This doctrine 
 was adopted with little modification by Berenger, who 
 further demonstrated the existence and operation of the 
 tricuspid valves in the right ventricle, and of the sigmoid 
 valves at the beginning of the pulmonary artery and 
 aorta, and that there were only- two ventricles separated 
 by a solid impervious septum. These were afterwards 
 described in greater detail by Vesalius, who neverthe- 
 less appears not to have been aware of the important use 
 which might be made of this knowledge. It was the 
 Spaniard Michael Servet or Servetus (born in 1509; burnt in 
 1553), who in his treatise De Trinitatu Erroribus, published 
 at Haguenau in 1531, first maintained the imperviousness 
 of the septum, and the transition of the blood by what he 
 terms an unknown route, namely, from the right ventricle 
 by the vena arteriosa (pulmonary artery) to the lungs, 
 and thence into the arteria venosa or pulmonary vein and 
 left auricle and ventricle, from which, he adds afterwards, 
 it is conveyed by the aorta to all parts of the body. 1 
 
 1 The passage of Servetus is so interesting that our readers may 
 feel some curiosity in perusing it in the language of the author ; and 
 it is not unimportant to remark that Servetus appears to have been 
 led to think of the course of the blood by the desire of explaining the 
 manner in which the animal spirits were supposed to be generated : — 
 " VitalU spiritus in sinistra cordis ventriculo suam originem habet, 
 juvantibus maxime pulmonibus ad ipsius perfectionem. Est spiritus 
 tenuis, caloris vi elaboratus, flavo colore, ignea potentia, ut sit quasi 
 ex puriore sanguine hicens, vapor substantiam continens aquae, aeris, 
 et ignis. Generatur ex facta in pulmone commixtione inspirati aeris 
 cum elaborato subtili sanguine, quern dexter ventriculus sinistro com- 
 municat. Fit autem commonicatio haec, non per par tern cordis 
 medium, ut vulgo creditur, sed magno artificio a dextro 'cordis ventri- 
 culo, longo per pulmones ductu agitatur sanguis subtilis ; a pulmonibus 
 pr.epar.itur, flavus etDcitur, et a vena arteriosa in arteriam venosam 
 teransfunditur. Deinde in ipsa arteria venosa, lnspirato aev miscetur 
 
 Though the leading outlines, not only of the pulmonary 
 or small but even of the great circulation, were sketched 
 thus early by one who, though a philosopher, was attached 
 to the church, it was only in his work De Re Anatomka, 
 pul >li.ilied at Venice in 1559, that Columbus formally and 
 distinctly announced the circular course of the blood as a 
 discovery of his own ; and maintained, in addition to the 
 iniperriousness of the septnm, the fact that the arteria 
 venalis (pulmonary vein) contains, not air, but blood mixed 
 with air brought from tie lungs to the left ventricle of the 
 heart, to be distributed through the body at large. 
 
 Soon after, views still more complete of the small or 
 pulmonary circulation were given by Andrew Coesalpinus 
 of Arozzo, who not only maintained the analogy between 
 the structure of the arterious vein or pulmonary artery and 
 the aorta, and that between the venous artery or pulmonary 
 veins and veins m general, but was the first to remark the 
 swelling of veins below ligatures, and to infer from it a 
 refluent motion of blood in these vessels. The discoveries 
 of Aranzi and Eustachius in the vessels of the foetus 
 tended at first to perplex and afterwards to elucidate some 
 of these notions. At length it happened that, between Harvey 
 the years 1598 and 1000, a young Englishman, William 
 Harvey, pursuing his anatomical studies at Padua under 
 Fabricius of Acquapendente, learnt from that anatomist 
 the existence of the valves in the veins of the extremities, 
 and undertouk to ascertain the use of these valves by 
 experimental inquiry. It is uncertain whether he learnt 
 from the writings of Camlpinus the fact observed by thai 
 author, of the tumescence of a vein below the ligature , 
 but he could not fail to be aware, and indeed he shows 
 that he wa3 aware, of the small circulation as taught by 
 Servetus and Columbus. Combining these facts already 
 known, he, by a series of well-executed experiments, de- 
 monstrated clearly the existence, not only of the small, but 
 of a general circulation from the left side of the heart by the 
 aorta and its subdivisions, to the right side by the vein3. 
 This memorable truth was first announced in the year 1619. 
 
 It belongs not to this place either to consider the 
 arguments and facts by which Harvey defended his 
 theory, or to notice the numerous assaults to which he 
 was exposed, and the controversies in which his opponents 
 wished to involve him. It is sufficient to say, that after 
 the temporary ebullitions of spleen and envy had subsided, 
 the doctrine of the circular motion of the blood was admitted 
 by all enlightened and unprejudiced persons, and finally 
 was universally adopted as affording the most satisfactory 
 explanation of many facts in anatomical structure which 
 were either misunderstood or entirely overlooked. The 
 inquiries to which the investigation of the doctrine gave 
 rise produced numerous researches on the shape and 
 structure of the heart and its divisions, of the lungs, and 
 of the blood-vessels and their distribution. Of this descrip- 
 tion were the researches of Nicolas' Stcno on the structure 
 of the heart, the classical work of Richard Lower, the 
 dissertation of Pechlin, the treatise of Vieussens, the 
 
 et exspiratione a fuligine expurgatur ; atqne ita tandem a sinistro cordis 
 ventriculo totum mixtum per diastolen attrahitur, apta supellex, ut 
 fiat spiritus vitalis. Quod ita per pulmones fiat communicatio et 
 praeparatio, docet conjunctio varia, et communicatio vense artcriosos 
 cum arteria venosa in pulmonibus. Confirmat hoc magnitudo insignia 
 venae arteriosE, quae nee talis nee tanta essct facta, nee tantara a corde. 
 ipso vim purissimi sanguinis in pulmones emitteret, ob solum eoruru 
 nutrimentum ; nee cor pulmonibus hac ratione servirct, cum praeser- 
 tim antea in embryone solerent pulmones ipsi aliunde nutriri, ob 
 mem branulas illas seu valvulas cordis, usque ad horum nativita- 
 tem ; ut docet Galenus, &c. Itaque ille spiritus a sinistro cordis 
 ventriculo arterias totius corporis deinde transfunditur, ita ut qui 
 tenuior est, superiora petit, ubi magis elaboratur, pracipue in plexu 
 rctiformi, sub basi cerebri sito, ubi ex vitali fieri incipit apimalis, 
 ad proDriam rationalis aniinse rationem accedens." — Le Trin.iia.lt. 
 uu. t.
 
 H: TORY.] 
 
 A N A T M Y 
 
 811 
 
 vrork of Slalpighi on the structure of the lungs, several 
 fketches in the writings of Mayow, and other treatises of 
 less moment. Systematic treatises of anatomy began to 
 assume a more instructive form, and,' to breathe a more 
 philosophical spirit. The great work of Adrian Spigelius, 
 ■/hich appeared in 1627, two years after the death of the 
 author, contains indeed no proof chat he was aware of the 
 valuable generalisation of Harvey ; but m the institutions 
 of Caspar Bartholin, as republished and improved by his 
 6on Thomas in 1651, the anatomical- descriptions and 
 explanations are given with reference to the new doctrine. 
 A still more unequivocal proof of the progress of correct 
 anatomical knowledge was given in the lectures delivered 
 by Peter Dionis, at the Jardin Royal of Paris, in 1673 and 
 the seven following years, in which that intelligent surgeon 
 gave most accurate demonstrations of all the parts com- 
 posing the human frame, and especially of the heart, its 
 aurijles, ventricles, and valves, and the large vessels 
 connected with it and the lungs. These demonstrations, 
 first published in 1690, were so much esteemed that they 
 passed through seven editions in the space of thirty years, 
 and were translated into English. 
 
 The progress of anatomical discovery continued in the 
 meantime to advance. In the course of the 16th century 
 Eustachius, in studying minutely the structure of the vena 
 azygos had recognised in the horse a white vessel full of 
 watery fluid, connected with the internal jugular vein, on 
 the left side of the vertebral column, corresponding accu- 
 rately with the vessel since named thoracic duct. Fallopius 
 also described vessels belonging to the liver distinct from 
 arteries and veins ; and similar vessels appear to have been 
 noticed by Nicolaus Massa. The nature and properties of 
 these vessels were, however, entirely unknown.. On the 
 23d July 1622 Gaspar Asellius, professor of anatomy at 
 Pavia, while engaged in demonstrating the recurrent nerves 
 in a living dog, first observed numerous white delicate 
 filaments crossing the mesentery in all directions; nd 
 though he took them at first for nerves, the opaque white 
 fluid which they shed quickly convinced him that they were 
 a new order of vessels. The repetition of the experiment 
 the following day showed that these vessels were best seen 
 in animals recently fed ; and as he traced them from- the 
 villous membrane of the intestines, and observed the valves 
 vith which they were liberally supplied, he inferred that 
 they were genuine chyliferous vessels. By confounding 
 them with the lymphatics, he made them proceed to the 
 pancreas and liver, — a mistake which appears to have been 
 first rectified by Francis De le Boe The discovery of 
 Asellius was announced in 1627 ; and the following year, 
 by means of the zealous efforts of Nicolas Peiresc, a liberal 
 senator of Aix, the vessels were seen in the person of a 
 felon who had eaten copiously before execution, and whose 
 body was inspected an hour and a half after. In 1629 
 they were publicly demonstrated at Copenhagen by Simon 
 Pauli, and the same year the thoracic duct wa3 observed 
 by Mentel for the first time since it was described by 
 Eustachius. Five years after (1634), John Wesling, 
 professor of anatomy and surgery at Venice, gave the first 
 delineation of the lacteals from the human subject, and 
 evinced more accurate knowledge than his predecessors of 
 the thoracic duct and the lymphatics. Highmore in 1637 
 demonstrated unequivocally the difference between the 
 lacteals and the mesenteric veins ; and though some per- 
 plexity was occasioned by the discovery of the pancreatic 
 duct by Wirsung, this mistake was corrected by Thomas 
 Bartholin; and the discovery by Pecquet in 1647 of the 
 common trunk of the lacteals and lymphatics, and of 
 the course which the chyle follows to reach the blood, 
 may be regarded as the last of the series of isolated facts 
 by the generalisation of which the extent, distribution, and 
 
 1654 
 
 165& 
 
 uses of the most important organs of the animal body 
 were at length developed. > 
 
 To complete the history of thi3 part of anatomical 
 science one step yet remained, — the distinction between 
 the lacteals and lymphatics, and the discovery of the 
 termination of the latter order of vessels. The honour of 
 this discovery is divided between Jolyffe, an Englisl 
 anatomist, and Olaus Rudbeck, a young Swede. Tht 
 former, according to the testimony of Glisson and Wharton, 
 was aware of the distinct existence of the lymphatics in 
 1650, and demonstrated them as such in 1652. It is 
 nevertheless doubtful whether he knew them much before 
 the latter period ; and it is certain that Rudbeck observed 
 the lymphatics of the large intestines, and traced them to 
 glands, on the 27th January 1651, after he had, in the 
 course of 1650, made various erroneous conjectures regard- 
 ing them, and, like others, attempted to trace them to the 
 liver. The following year he demonstrated them in 
 presence of Queen Christina, and traced them, to the 
 thoracic duct, and the latter to the subclavian vein. Their 
 course and distribution were still more fully investigated 
 by Thomas Bartholin, Wharton. Swammerdam, and Biaes, 
 the last two of whom recognised the existence of valves ; 
 while Antony Nuck of Leyden, by rectifying various 
 errors of his predecessors, and adding several new and 
 valuable observations, rendered this part of anatomy much 
 more precise than formerly. 
 
 After this period anatomists % began to study more 
 minutely the organs and textures. Francis Glisson distin- 
 guished himself by a minute description of the liver, and a 
 clearer account of the stomach and intestines, than bad 
 yet been given. Thomas Wharton investigated the structure 
 of the glands with particular care ; and though rather 
 prone to indulge in fanciful generalisation, he developed 
 some interesting views of these organs ; while Charleton, 
 who appears to have been a person of great genius, though 
 addicted to hypothesis, made some good remarks on tho 
 communication pf the arteries with the veins, the foetal 
 circulation, and the course of the lymphatics. But the 
 circumstance which chiefly distinguished the history of 
 anatomy at the beginning of the seventeenth century was 
 the appearance of Thomas Willis, who rendered himself .vuhi 
 eminent not only by good researches on the brain and 
 nerves, but by many judicious observations on the structure 
 of the lungs, the intestines, the blood-vessels, and the 
 glands. His anatomy of the brain and nerves is so minute 
 and elaborate, and abounds so much in new information, 
 that the reader is struck- by the immense chasm between 
 the vague and meagre notices of his predecessors, and the 
 ample and correct descriptions of Willis. This excellent 
 work, however, is not the result of his own personal and 
 unaided exertions; and the character of Willis derives 
 additional lustre from the candid avowal of his obligations 
 to Wren and Millington, and, above all, to the diligent 
 researches of his fellow-anatomist Richard Lower. 
 
 Willis was the first who numbered the cranial nerves in 
 the order in which they are now usually enumerated by 
 anatomists. His observation of the connection of the 
 eighth pair with the slender nerve which issues from the 
 beginning of the spinal chord is known to all He 
 remarked the parallel lines of the. mesolobe, afterwards 
 minutely described by Vicq d'Azyr. He seems to have 
 recognised the communication of the convoluted surface of 
 the brain and that between the lateral '■avities beneath the 
 fornix. He described the corpora striata and optic thalami; 
 the four orbicular eminences, with the bridge, which he 
 first named annular protuberance; and the white mani- 
 niiilary eminences, behind the infundibulum. In the 
 cerebellum he remarks the arborescent arrangement of the 
 white and grey matter, and gives a good account of tho
 
 812 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [history. 
 
 internal carotids, and the communications which they 
 make with the branches of the basilar artery. 
 
 About the middle of the 17th century Rt. Hooke and 
 Nehemiah Grew employed the simple microscope in the 
 minute examination of plants and animals; and the Dutch 
 philosopher Leeuwenhoeck with great acutenesa examined 
 microscopically the solids and fluids of the body, recognised 
 the presence of scales in the cuticle, and discovered the 
 corpuscles in the blood and milk, and the spermatozoa in 
 the seminal fluid. The researches of Malpighi also tended 
 greatly to improve the knowledge of minute structure. 
 He gave the first distinct ideas on the organisation of the 
 lung, and the mode in which the bronchial tubes and 
 vessels terminate in that organ. By the microscope he 
 traced the transition of the arteries into the veins, and saw 
 the movements of the blood corpuscles in the capillaries. 
 He endeavoured to unfold, by dissection and microscopic 
 observation, the minute structure of the brain. He Rtudied 
 the structure of bone, he traced the formation and explained 
 the structure of the teeth ; and his name is to this day 
 associated with the discovery of the deeper layer of the 
 cuticle and the Malpighian bodies in the spleen and 
 kidney. In these difficult inquiries the observations of 
 Malpighi are in general faithful, and he may be regarded 
 as the founder of histological anatomy. 
 
 Nicolas Steno described with accuracy the lacrymal 
 gland and passages, and rediscovered the parotid duct. 
 Bellini studied the structure of- the kidneys, and described 
 the tongue and tonsils with some care ; and Drelincourt 
 laboured to investigate the changes effected on the uterus 
 by impregnation, and to elucidate the formation of the 
 fcetus. The science might have derived still greater 
 advantages from the genius of Regnier de Graaf, who 
 investigated with accuracy the structure of the pancreas 
 and of the organs of generation in both sexes, had he not 
 been cut off at the early age of thirty-two. Lastly, Wepfer, 
 though more devoted to morbid anatomy, made, neverthe- 
 less, some just observations on the anatomical disposition 
 of the cerebral vessels, the glandular structure of the liver, 
 and the termination of the common duct in the duodenum. 
 
 The appearance of Frederic Ruysch, who was born in 
 1 638, and became professor of anatomy at Amsterdam in 
 1665, gave a new impulse to anatomical research, and 
 tended not only to give the science greater precision, but 
 to extend its limits in every direction. The talents of 
 Ruysch are said to have been developed by accident. To 
 repel the audacious and calumnious aspersions with which 
 De Bils attacked De le Boe and Van Home, Ruysch 
 published his tract on the valves of the lymphatics, which 
 completely established his character as an anatomist of 
 originality and research. This, however, is the smallest 
 of his services to the science. The art of injecting, which 
 had been originally attempted by Eustachi and Varoli, and 
 was afterwards rudely practised by Glisson, Bellini, and 
 Willis, was at length carried to greater perfection by De 
 Graaf and Swammcrdam, the former of whom injected the 
 spermatic vessels with mercury and variously - coloured 
 liquors; while the latter, by employing melted wax with 
 other ingredients, made the first approach to the refinements 
 of modsrn anatomy. By improving this idea of using 
 substances which, though solid, may be rendered fluid at 
 the period of injecting, Ruysch carried this art to the 
 highest perfection. 
 
 By the application of this happy contrivance he was 
 enabled to demonstrate the arrangement of minute vessels 
 in the interior of organs which had escaped the scrutiny 
 of previous anatomists. Scarcely a part of the human 
 body eluded the penetration of his syringe ; and his 
 discoveries -.vere proportionally great. His account of the 
 valves of the lymphatics, of the vessels of the lungs, and 
 
 their minute structure ; his researches on the vascular 
 structure of the skin, of the bones, and their epiphyses, 
 and their mode of growth and union ; his observations on 
 the spleen, the glans penis, the clitoris, and the womb 
 impregnated and unimpregnated, were but a limited part 
 of his anatomical labours. He studied the minute structure 
 of the brain ; he demonstrated the organisation of tho 
 choroid plexus ; he described the state of the hair when 
 affected with Polish plait ; he proved the vascular structure 
 of the teeth ; he injected the dura mater, the pleura, tho 
 pericardium, and peritoneum ; he unfolded the minute 
 structure of the conglomerate glands ; he investigated that 
 of the synovial apparatus placed in the interior of the 
 joints ; and he discovered several curious particulars relating 
 to the lacteals, the lymphatics, and the lymphatic glands. 
 
 Meanwhile, Meibomius rediscovered the palpebral glands, 1*70. 
 which were known to Casserius ; Swammerdam studied 
 the action of the lungs, described the structure of the 
 human uterus, and made numerous valuable observations 
 on the cceca and pancreatoid organs of fishes ; and Kcrck- 
 ringius laid the foundation of a knowledge of the process 
 of ossification. John Conrad Brunner, in tho course of 1687. 
 experiments on the pancreas, discovered the glands of the 
 duodenum named after him, and Conrad Peyer described 1677-8) 
 the solitary and agminated glands of the intestinal canaL 
 Leonard Tassin, distinguished for original observation, 1678. 
 rendered the anatomical history of the brain more accurate 
 than heretofore, and gave particular accounts of the intes- 
 tinal tube, the pancreatic duct, and the hepatic ligaments. 
 
 That France might not be without participation in the 
 glory of advancing the progress of anatomical knowledge, 
 the names of Duverney and Vieussens are commemorated 
 with distinction. Duverney, born in 1648, and first intro- Dnverwiv 
 duced into public life in 1676 in the Royal Academy of 
 Sciences, decorated with the honorary title of professor of 
 anatomy to the Dauphin, and appointed in 1679 professor 
 at the Jardin Royal, distinguished himself by the first 
 accurate account of the organ of hearing, and by his 
 dissections of several animals at the academy, supplied 
 valuable materials for the anatomical details of the natural 
 history of animals published by that learned body. He 
 appears to have been the first who demonstrated the fact 
 that the cerebral sinuses open into the jugular veins, and 
 to have been aware that the former receive the veins of 
 the brain, and are the venous receptacles of the organ. 
 He understood the cerebral cavities and their rode of 
 communication ; distinguishes the posterior pillars of the 
 vault from the pedes hippocampi ; recognises the two 
 plates of tho septum lucidum ; and, what is still more 
 remarkable, he first indicates distinctly the decussation of 
 the anterior pyramids of the medulla oblongata — a fact 
 afterwards verified by the researches of Mistichelli, Petit, 
 and Santorini. He studied the ganglions attentively, and 
 gives the first distinct account of the formation, connections, 
 and distribution of the intercostal nerve. It is interesting 
 to remark that his statement that tho veins or sinuses of 
 the spinal chord terminate in the vena azygos was verified 
 by the more recent researches of Dupuytren and Breschct, 
 which show that the vertebral veins communicate by means 
 of the intercostal and superior lumbar veins with the 
 azygos and demi-azygos. His account of the structure of 
 bones, and of the progress of ossification, i3 valuable. Ho 
 recognised the vascular structure of the spleen, and described 
 the excretory ducts of the prostate gland, the verumontanum, 
 and the anteprostates. 
 
 One of the circumstances which at this time tended 
 considerably to the improvement of anatomical science 
 was the attention with which Comparative Anatomy was 
 beginning to be cultivated. In ancient times, and at 
 the revival of letters the dissection of the lower animals
 
 HISTORY. I 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 «rj 
 
 was substituted for that of the human body; and the 
 descriptions of the organs of the latter were too often 
 derived from the former. The obloquy and contempt in 
 which this abuse involved the study of animal anatomy 
 caused it to be neglected, or pursued with indifference, 
 for more than two centuries, during which anatomists 
 confined their descriptions, at least very much, to the parts 
 of the human body. At this period, however, the prejudice 
 against Comparative Anatomy began to subside ; and 
 animal dissection, though not substituted for that of the 
 human body, was employed, as it ought always to have 
 ' been, to illustrate obscurities, to determine doubts, and to 
 explain difficulties, and, in short, to enlarge and rectify 
 the knowledge of the structure of animal bodies generally. 
 
 For this revolution in its favour, Comparative Anatomy 
 was in a great measure indebted to the learned societies 
 which were established about this time in the different 
 countries of Europe. Among these, the Royal Society of 
 London, embodied by charter by Charles II. in 1663, and 
 the Academy of Sciences of Paris, founded in 1665 
 by Colbert, are undoubtedly entitled to the first rank. 
 Though later in establishment, the latter institution was 
 distinguished by making the first great efforts in favour of 
 Comparative Anatomy ; and Perrault, Pecquet, Duverney, 
 and Mery, by the dissections of rare animals obtained from 
 the royal menagerie, speedily supplied valuable materials 
 for the anatomical naturalist In England, Nehemiah 
 Grew, Edward Tyson, and Samuel Collins cultivated the 
 same department with diligence and success. Grew has 
 left an interesting account of the anatomical peculiarities 
 of the intestinal canal in various animals ; Tyson in the 
 dissection of a porpoise, an opossum, and an ourang outang, 
 adduces some valuable illustrations of the comparative 
 differences between the structure of the human body and 
 that of the lower animals ; Collins has the merit of con- 
 ceiving, and executing on an enlarged plan, a comprehensive 
 system, embodying all the information then extant. With 
 the aid of Tyson and his own researches, which were both 
 extensive and accurate, he composed a system of anato- 
 mical knowledge in which he not only gives ample and 
 accurate descriptions of the structure of the human body, 
 and the various morbid changes to which the organs are 
 liable, but illustrates the whole by accurate and interesting 
 sketches of the peculiarities of the lower animals. The 
 matter of this work is so excellent that it can only be 
 ascribed to ignorance that it has received so little attention. 
 Though regarded as a compilation, and though indeed 
 much of the human anatomy is derived from Vesalius, it 
 has the advantage of the works published on the Continent 
 at that time, that it embodies most of the valuable facts 
 derived from Malpighi, WLlis, and Vieussens. The Com- 
 parative Anatomy is almost all original, the result of 
 personal research and dissection ; and the pathological 
 observations, though occasionally tinged with the spirit 
 of the times, show the author to have been endowed with 
 the powers of observation and judicious reflection in no 
 ordinary degree. 
 
 About this time also we recognise the first attempts to 
 study the minute constitution of the tissues, by the 
 combination of the microscope and the effects of chemical 
 egents. Bone furnished the first instance in which this 
 method was put in use ; and though Gagliardi, who 
 undertook the inquiry, had fallen into some mistakes which 
 it required the observation of Malpighi to rectify, this did 
 not deter Clopton Havers and Nesbitt, in England, and 
 Courtial, Du Hamel, and Delasone, and afterwards Heris- 
 sant, in France, from resuming the same train of investi- 
 gation. The mistakes into which these anatomists fell 
 belong to the imperfect method of inquiry. The facts 
 whien they ascertained have been verified by recent experi- 
 
 ment, and constitute no unessential part of our knowledgo 
 of the structure of bone. 
 
 Ten years after the publication of the work of Collin3, 
 Henry Ridley, another English anatomist, distinguished 
 himself by a monograph on the brain, which, though not free 
 from errore, contains, nevertheless, some valuable observa- 
 tions. Ridley is the first who distinguishes by name tho 
 restiform processes, or the posterior pyramidal eminences. 
 He recognised the figure of the four eminences in tho 
 human subject ; he remarked the mammillary bodies ; and 
 he discovered the sinus which passes under his name. 
 
 Raymond Vieussens, by the publication of his great work 
 on neurography in 1684, threw new light on the configura- 
 tion and structure of the brain, the spinal chord, and the 
 nerves ; and gave a description of the arrangement and 
 distribution of the latter more precise than heretofore. Of 
 the formation and connections of the sympathetic nervo 
 especially he gave views which have been generally adopted 
 by subsequent anatomists. His new arrangement of the 
 vessels, published in 1705, contains several curious opinions 
 His observations on the structure of the heart, publish e 1 
 in 1706, and enlarged in 1715, exhibit the first correct views 
 of the intimate structure of an organ which afterwards was 
 most fully developed by the labours of Lancisi and Senac. 
 
 To the same period belong the rival publications of 
 Godfrey Bidloo and William Cowper, the latter of whom, 
 however, stained a reputation otherwise good by publishing 
 as his own the engravings of the former. Cowper further 
 distinguished himself by a minute account Of the urethral 
 glands, already known to Columbus and Mery; a good 
 description of the intestinal glands, discovered by Brunner 
 and Peyer ; and by demonstrating the communication of 
 the arteries and veins of the mesentery. 
 
 The anatomical genius of Italy, which had slumbered 
 since the death of Malpighi, was destined once more to 
 revive in Lancisi, Valsalva, and his illustrious pupils 
 Santorini and Morgagni Valsalva especially distinguished 
 himself by his description of the structure of the ear, 
 which, in possessing still greater precision and minuteness 
 than that of Duverney, is valuable in setting the example 
 of rendering anatomy altogether a science of description. 
 Santorini, who was professor at Venice, was no unworthy 
 friend of Valsalva and Morgagni. His anatomical observa- 
 tions, which relate to the muscles of the face, the brain, 
 and several of the nerves, the ducts of the lacrymal gland, 
 the nose and its cavities, the larynx, the viscera of th<» 
 chest and belly, and the organs of generation in the two 
 sexes, furnish beautiful models of essays, distinguished for 
 perspicuity, precision, and novelty, above anything which 
 had then appeared. These observations, indeed, which 
 bear the impress of accurate observation and clear con- 
 ception, may be safely compared with any anatomical 
 writings which have appeared since. Those on the brain 
 are particularly interesting. Morgagni, though chiefly 
 known as a pathological anatomist, did not neglect the 
 healthy structure. His Adversaria, which appeared between 
 1706 and 1719, and his Epistles, published in 1728, 
 contain a series of observations to rectify the mistakes of 
 previous anatomists, and to determine the characters of 
 the healthy structure of many parts of the human body. 
 Many parts he describes anew, and indicates facts not 
 previously observed. All his remarks show how well he 
 knew what true anatomical description ought to be. In 
 this respect, indeed, the three anatomists now mentioned 
 may be said to have anticipated their contemporaries nearly 
 a century ; for, while other authors were satisfied with 
 giving loose and inaccurate or meagre notices of parts, 
 with much fanciful supposition, Valsalva, Santorini, and 
 Morgagni laboured to determine with precision the ana- 
 tomical characters of the parts which they describe.
 
 814 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [history. 
 
 The same character is due to VYinslow, a native of 
 Denmark, but, aa pupil and successor of Duverney, as 
 well aa a convert to Catholicism, naturalised in France, 
 »nd finally professor of anatomy at the Royal Gardens. 
 His exposition of the structure of the human body is 
 distinguished for bjing not only the first treatise of de- 
 scriptive anatomy, divested of physiological details and 
 hypothetical explanations foreign to the subject, but for 
 being a close description derived from actual objects, 
 without reference to the writings of previous anatomists. 
 About the same time Cheselden in London, the first 
 Monro in Edinburgh, and Albinus in Leyden, contributed 
 by their several treatises to render anatomy still more 
 precise as a descriptive science. The Osteographia of the 
 first-mentioned was of much use in directing attention to the 
 study of the skeleton and the morbid changes to which 
 it is liable. This work, however, magnificent as it was, 
 was excelled by that of Albinus, who, in 1747, published 
 engravings descriptive of the bones and muscles, which 
 perhaps will never be surpassed either in accuracy of 
 outline or beauty of execution. The several labours of 
 this author, indeed, constitute an important era in the 
 history of the science. He was the first who classified 
 and exhibited the muscles in a proper arrangement, and 
 applied to them a nomenclature which is still retained by 
 the consent of the best anatomists. He gives a luminous 
 account of the arteries and veins of the intestines, represents 
 with singular fidelity and beauty the bones of the foetus, 
 inquires into the structure of the skin and the cause of 
 its colour in different races ; represents the changes incident 
 to the womb in different periods of pregnancy, and de- 
 scribes the relations of the thoracic duct and the vena azygos 
 with the contiguous parts. Besides these large and 
 magnificent works, illustrated by the most beautiful en- 
 gravings, six books of Academical Annotations were the 
 fruits of his long and assiduous cultivation of anatomy. 
 These contain valuable remarks on the sound structure 
 and morbid deviations of numerous Darts of the human 
 body. 
 
 Albinus found a worthy successor in his pupil Albert 
 Von Haller, who, with a mind imbued with every depart- 
 ment of literature and science, directed his chief attention, 
 nevertheless, to the cultivation of anatomical and physio- 
 logical knowledge. ' Having undertaken at an eariy age 
 (twenty-one) to illustrate, with commentaries, the physio- 
 logical prelections of his preceptor Boerhaave, ho devoted 
 himself assiduously to the perusal of every work which 
 could tend to facilitate his purpose ; and as he found 
 numerous erroneous or imperfect statements, and many 
 deficiencies to supply, he undertook an extensive course 
 of dissection of human and animal bodies to obtain 
 the requisite information. During the seventeen years 
 he -was pnfessor at Giittingen, he dissected 400 bodies, 
 and inspected their organs with the utmost care. The 
 result of these assiduous labours appeared at intervals in 
 the form of dissertations by himself, or under the name of 
 some one of his pupils, finally published in a collected 
 shape, between 1746 and 1751 (Disputationes Anatomicce 
 Selectiores), and in eight numbers of most accurate and 
 beautiful engravings, representing the most important 
 parts of the human body, e.g., the diaphragm, the uterus, 
 ovaries, and vagina, the arteries of the different regions 
 and organs, with learned and critical explanatory observe 
 tions. He verified the observations that in the fcetus the 
 testicles lie in the abdomen, and showed that their descent 
 into the scrotum may be complicated with the formation 
 of congenital hernia. Some years afteT, when he had 
 retired from his academical duties at Gbttingen, he 
 published, between 1757 and 1765, the large and elaborate 
 work which, with singular modesty, he styled EUments 
 
 of Physiology. This work, though professedly devoted 
 to physiology, rendered, nevertheless, the most essential 
 services to anatomy. Haller, drawing an accurato line of 
 distinction between the two, gave the most clear, precise, 
 and complete descriptions of the situation, position, figure, 
 component parts, and minute structure of the different 
 organs and their appendages. The results r>' .evious and 
 coeval inquiry, obtained by extensive re ."' .-', ho sedulously 
 "verified by personal observation • ' XI though he never 
 rejected facts stated on credible authorities, he in all cases 
 laboured to ascertain their real valuo by experiment. 
 The anatomical descriptions are on this account not only 
 the most valuable part of his work, but the most valuable 
 that had then or for a long time after appeared. It is 
 painful, nevertheless, to think that the very form in which 
 this work is composed, with copious and scrupulous 
 reference to authorities, made it bo regarded as a compila- 
 tion only ; and that the autcor was compelled to show, by 
 a list of his personal researches, that the most learned 
 work ever given to the physiologist was also the most 
 abundant in original information. 
 
 With the researches of Haller it is proper to notico 
 those of his contemporaries, John Frederick Meckel, J. N. 
 Lieberkiihn, and his pupil John Godfrey Zinn. The 
 first, who wa3 professor of anatomy at Berlin, described I74h-ei 
 the Casserian ganglion, the first pair of nerves and its 
 distribution, and that of the facial nerves generally, and 
 discovered the spheno-palatine ganglion. He made some 
 original and judicious observations on the tissue of the 
 skin and the mucous net ; and above all, be recognised the 1753 it. 
 connection of the lymphatic vessels with the veins, — a 
 doctrine which, after long neglect, was revived by Fohmann 
 and Lippi. He also collected several valuable observa- 
 tions on the. morbid states of the heart and brain. Lie- 
 berkiihn published in 1745 a dissertation on the villi 
 and glands of the small intestines. Zinn, who was 
 professor of medicine at Gbttingen, published a classical 
 treatise on the eye, which demonstrated at once the defects 1755 
 of previous inquiries, and how much it was possible to 
 elucidate, by accurate research and precise description, the 
 structure of one of the most important organs of the human 
 frame. It was republished after his death by Wrisberg. 1780. 
 About the same time Weitbrecht gave a copious and minuto 
 account of the ligaments, and M. Lieutaud, who had 
 already laboured to rectify many errors in anatomy, de- 
 scribed with care the structure and relations of the heart 
 and its cavities, and rendered the anatomy of the blatlder 
 very precise, by describing the triangular space and the 
 mammillary eminence at its neck. 
 
 The study of the minute anatomy of the tissues, which 
 had originally been commenced by Leeuwenhoeck, Malpighi, 
 and Ruysch, began at this period to attract more general 
 attention; De Bergen had already demonstrated the. 
 general distribution of cellular membrane, and showed that 
 it not only incloses every part of the animal frame, but forma 
 the basis of every organ, — a doctrine whicn was adopted, 
 and still more fully expanded, by his friend Haller, in* 
 opposition to. what was asserted by Albinus, who maintains 
 that each part has a proper tissue.. William Hunter at the 
 same time gave a clear and ingenious statement of the 
 difference between cellular membrane and adipose tissue, 
 in which he maintained the general distribution of the 
 former, and represented it as forming the serous membranes, 
 and regulating their physiological and pathological pro- 
 perties, — doctrines which were afterwards confirmed by his 
 brother John Hunter. A few years after, the department 
 of general anatomy first assumed a substantial form in the- 
 systematic view of the membranes and their mutual con-j 
 nections traced by Andrew Bonn of Amsterdam. In hia 
 inaugural dissertation De Continuationibus Membranarum,
 
 HI31 
 
 I] 
 
 A JN A T O M Y 
 
 815 
 
 published at Leyden in 1733, this author, after some 
 preliminary observations, on membranes in general and 
 their structure, and an exposition of that of the skin, traces 
 its transition into the mucous membranes and their several 
 divisions. He then explains the distribution of the cellular 
 membrane, the aponeurotic expansions, and the perios- 
 teum and perichondrium, by either of which, he shows, 
 every bone of the skeleton is invested and connected. He 
 finally gives a very distinct view of the arrangement of the 
 internal membranes of cavities, those named serous and 
 tibro-serous, and the manner of their distribution over the 
 contained organs. This essay, which is a happy example 
 of generalisation, is remarkable for the interesting general 
 views of the structure of the animal body which it exhibits ; 
 and to Bonn belongs the merit of sketching the first 
 outlines of that system which it was ressrved for the 
 genius of Bichat to complete and embellish. Lastly, 
 Boideu, in an elaborate essay on the mucous tissue, or 
 cellular organ, as he terms it, brought forward some 
 interesting views of the constitution, nature, and exteut of 
 the cellular membrane 
 
 Though anatomy was hitherto cultivated with much 
 success as illustrating the natural history and morbid states 
 of the human body, yet little had been done for the elucida- 
 tion of local diseases, and the surgical means by which 
 they may be successfully treated. The idea of applying 
 anatomical knowledge directly to this purpose appears to 
 have originated with Bernardin Genga, a Roman surgeon, 
 who published in 1672, at Rome, a work entitled Surgical 
 Anatomy, or the Anatomical History of the Bones and 
 Muscles of the Human Body, with the Description of the 
 Blood-vessels. This work, which reached a second edition 
 in 1687, is highly creditable to the author, who appears to 
 have studied intimately the mutual relations of different 
 1-26. parts. It is not improbable that the example of Genga led 
 Palfyn, a surgeon at Ghent, to undertake a similar task 
 about thirty years after. For this, however, he was by no 
 means well qualified ; and the work of Palfyn, though 
 bearing the name of Surgical Anatomy, is a miserable 
 compilation, meagre in details, inaccurate in description, 
 and altogether unworthy of the honour of being republished, 
 as it afterwards was by Antony Petit. 
 
 While these two authors, however, were usefully employed 
 in showing what was wanted for the surgeon, others were 
 occupied in the collection of new and more accurate facts. 
 Albinus, indeed, ever assiduous, had, in -his account of the 
 operations of Rau, given some good sketches of the relative 
 anatomy of the bladder and urethra ; and Cheselden had 
 already, in his mode of cutting into the urinary bladder, 
 shown the necessity of an exact knowledge of the relations 
 of contiguous parts. The first decided application, however, 
 of this species of anatomical research it was reserved for a 
 Dutch anatomist of the 18th century to make. Peter 
 per. (Damper, professor of anatomy at Amsterdam, published in 
 1760 and 1762 his anatomico-pathological demonstrations 
 of the parts of the human arm and pelvis, of the diseases 
 incident to them, and the mode of relieving them by 
 operation, and explained with great clearness the situation 
 of the blood-vessels, nerves, and important muscles. His 
 remarks on the lateral operation of lithotomy, which 
 contain all that was then known on the subject, are exceed- 
 ingly interesting and valuable to the surgeon. It appears,, 
 further, that he was the first who examined anatomically 
 the mechanism of ruptures, his delineations of which were 
 published in 1S01 by Sommering. Camper also wrote some 
 important memoirs on Comparative Anatomy, and he was 
 the author of a well-known work on the Relations of 
 Anatomy to the Fine Arts. 
 
 The attention of anatomists was now directed to the 
 elucidation of the most obscure and least explored parts 
 
 of the human frame — the lymphatic vessels and the nerves. 
 Although, since the first discovery of the former by 
 Asellius, Rudbeck, and Pecquet, much had been done, 
 especially by Ruysch, Nuck, Meckel, and Haller, many 
 points, notwithstanding, relating to their origin and distri- 
 bution in particular organs, and in the several classes ol 
 animals, were imperfectly ascertained or entirely unknown 
 William Hunter investigated their arrangement, and pro- 
 posed the doctrine that they are absorbents ; and John 
 Hunter, who undertook to demonstrate the truth of this 
 hypothesis by experiment, discovered, in 1758, lymphatics 
 in the neck in birds. As the doctrine required the existence 
 of this order of vessels, not only in quadrupeds and birds, 
 but in reptiles and fishes, the inquiry attracted attention 
 among the pupils of Hunter ; and William Hewson at 
 length communicated, in December 176S, to the Boyal 
 Society of London, an account of the lacteals and lymphatic; 
 in birds, fishes, and reptiles, as he had discovered and 
 demonstrated them. The subject was about the same time 
 investigated by the second Monro, who indeed claimed the 
 merit of discovering these vessels m the classes of animals 
 now mentioned. But whatever researches this anatomist 
 may have instituted, Hewson, by comniunicating his 
 observations to the Royal Society, must be allowed tc 
 possess the strongest .as well as tbe clearest claim to 
 discovery. The same author, in 1774, gave tbe first 
 complete account of the anatomical peculiarities of the 
 lymphatic system in man and other animals, and thereby 
 supplied an important gap in this department. Hewsoc 
 is the first who distinguishes the lymphatics into two 
 orders — the superficial and the deep — both in the extremi- 
 ties and in the internal organs. He also studied tbe 
 structure of the intestinal villi, in which he verified the 
 observations of Lieberkuhn ; and he made many important 
 observations on the corpuscles of the lymph and blood. 
 He finally applied his anatomical discoveries to explain 
 many of the physiological and pathological phenomena of 
 the animal body. Ten years after, John Sheldon, anotLer 
 pupil of Hunter, gave a second history and description of 
 the lymphatics, which, though divested of the charm of 
 Dovelty, contains many interesting anatomical facts. He 
 also examined tbe structure of the villi. 
 
 Lastly, Cruikshank, in 1786, published a valuable Cruik. 
 history of the anatomy of the lymphatic system, in which shank, 
 he maintains the accuracy of the Hunterian doctrine, that 1 ' 86 
 the lymphatics are the only absorbents ; gave a more 
 minute account than heretofore of these vessels, of their 
 coats and valves and explained the structure of the 
 lymphatic glands. He also injected the villi, and examined 
 them microscopically, verifying most of the observations 
 of Lieberkuhn. The origin of the lymphatics he maintains 
 rather by inference than direct demonstration. To these 
 three works, though in other respects very excellent, it is 
 a considerable objection that the anatomical descriptions 
 are much mixed with hypothetical speculation and reason- 
 ings on properties, and that the facts are by no means 
 always distinguished from mere matters of opinion. At the 
 same time Haase published an account of the lymphatics of 
 the skin and intestines, and the plexiform nets of the pelvis. 
 
 To complete this sketch of the history of the anatomy 
 of the lymphatic system, it may be added that Maso 
 who had been engaged from the year 1777 to 1781 in the 
 same train of investigation, first demonstrated to his 
 pupils several curious facts relating to the anatomy of the 
 lymphatic system. When at Florence in 1782 he made 
 several preparations, at the request of Peter Leopold, 
 Grand Duke of Tuscany; and when the Royal Academy of 
 Sciences at Paris announced the anatomy of this system 
 for their prize essay appointed for March 1784, Masca°ni 
 resolved on communicating to the public the results of
 
 S1G 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [history. 
 
 hi* researches — the first part of his commentary, with four 
 engravings. Anxiety, however, to complete his prepara- 
 tions detained him at Florence till the close of 1785 ; and 
 from these causes his work did not appear till 1787. 
 These delays, however, unfavourable as they were to his 
 claims of priority -to Sheldon and Cruikshank, were on 
 the whole advantageous to the perfection of his work, 
 which is not only the most magnificent, but also the most 
 complete that ever was published on the lymphatics. In 
 his account of the vessels and their valves he confirms 
 Borne of Hewson's observations, and rectifies others. Their 
 origin he proves by inference much in the same manner 
 as Cruikshank ; but he anticipates this author in the 
 account of the glands, and he gives the most minute 
 description of the superficial and deep lymphatics, both in 
 the members and in the internal organs. 
 
 General accounts of the nerves had been given with 
 various degrees of accuracy by Willis, Vieussens, Winslow, 
 and the first Monre ; and the subject had been much 
 rectified and improved by the indefatigable Haller. The 
 first example of minute descriptive neurography was 
 given in 1748 by John Frederick Meckel, whose account 
 of the fifth pair, and of the nerves of the face, will long 
 remain a lasting proof of accuracy and research. The 
 same subject was investigated in 17 05 by Hirsch, and in 
 1777 by Wrisberg. In 1766 Metzger examined the 
 origin, distribution, and termination of the first pair, 
 — a point which was afterwards very minutely treated 
 by Scarpa in his anatomical disquisitions, published 
 in 1780 ; and the internal nerves of the nostrils were 
 examined in 1791 by Haase. The optic nerve, which had 
 been studied originally by Varoli, and afterwards by Mery, 
 Duvemey, Henkel, Moeller, Hein, and Kaldschmid, was 
 examined with extreme accuracy, with the other nerves 
 of the organ of vision, by Zinn, in his elaborate treatise. 
 The phrenic nerves and the oesophageal branches of the 
 eighth pair were studied by Haase ; the phrenic, the 
 abdominal, and the pharyngeal nerves, by Wrisberg; 
 those of the heart most minutely by Andersch ; and the 
 origins, -forrnalion, and distribution of the intercostal 
 nerve, by Iwanoff, Ludwig, and Girardi. The labours of 
 these anatomists, however, were eclipsed by the splendid 
 works of Walter on the nerves of the chest and belly ; 
 and those of Scarpa on the distribution of the 8th pair, 
 and splanchnic nerves in general. In minuteness of 
 description and in beauty of engraving these works have 
 not yet been equalled, and will never perhaps be surpassed. 
 About the same time, Scarpa, so distinguished in every 
 branch of anatomical research, investigated the minute 
 structure of the ganglions and plexuses. The anatomy of 
 the brain itself was also studied with great attention by 
 the second Monro, Malacame, and Vicq dAzyr. 
 
 Lastly, the anatomy of the gravid uterus, which had 
 been originally studied by Albinus, Roederer, and Smellie, 
 was again illustrated most completely by William Hunter, 
 whoso engravings will remain a lasting memorial of 
 scientific zeal and artistic talent 
 
 The perfection which anatomical science attained in 
 the last ten years of the eighteenth and during the pre- 
 sent century is evinced not only in the improved character 
 of the' systems published by anatomists, but in the enor- 
 mous advance which has taken place in the knowledge 
 rf the minute structure of the animal tissues, of the de- 
 velopment of the tissues and organs, and of the modifica- 
 tions in form and structure exhibited by various groups 
 of animals. 
 
 The first who gave a good modern system was Sabatier ; 
 but his work was speedily eclipsed by the superior merits 
 of the treatises of Sommering, Bichat, aud Portal. The 
 excellent work by Samuel Thomas Sommering, originally 
 
 pubbshed in the German language, between the years 
 1791 and 1796; then in the Latin language, between thf> 
 years 1794 and 1800; and in a second edition in the 
 German language in 1800 and 1801, maintaining the high 
 character which it first possessed for clear arrangement, 
 accurate description, and general precision, was, between 
 the years 1841 and 1844, republished in eight volumes at 
 Leipsic by Bischoff, Henle, Huschke, Theile, Valentin, 
 Vogel, and Wagner, with suitable additions, and a large 
 amount of new and accurate information. In this edition 
 Rudolph Wagner gives, in the first division of the first 
 volume, the life, correspondence, and literary writings of 
 Sommering; and in the second volume the anatomy of 
 the bones and ligament's. The third volume contains the 
 anatomy of the muscles and the vascular system by 
 Theile. Valentin devotes one volume, the fourth, to the 
 minute anatomy of the nervous system and its parts, as 
 disclosed by careful examination by the microscope ; and 
 it must be allowed that the author has been at great pains 
 to present just views of the true anatomy of the brain, 
 the spinal cord, the nervous branches, and the ganglia. 
 In the fifth volume, Huschke of Jena gives the anatomical 
 history of the viscera and the organs of the senses, a 
 department which had been left in some degree incomplete 
 in the original, but for one division of which the author 
 had left useful materials in his large figures already 
 mentioned. In the sixth volume, an entire and complete 
 system of general anatomy, deduced from personal obser- 
 vation and that of other careful observers, the materials 
 being in general new, and in all instances confirmed and 
 rectified, is given by. Prof. Henle. The seventh volume con- 
 tains the history of the process of development in mammalia 
 and man, by Th. L. W. Bischoff. The eighth volume 
 treats of the pathological anatomy of the human body, by 
 Julius Vogel, but contains only the first division, relating 
 to the generalities of the subject. This, which is probably 
 the most accurate as it is the most elaborate system of 
 anatomical knowledge up to the date of its publication in 
 1844, was translated into the French language by Jourdan, 
 and published in 1846 under the name of Encyclopedie 
 Anatomique. The eighth volume was translated into English 
 in the year 1847. 
 
 The Anatomie G&n&rale of Bichat is a monument of his Bichat. 
 philosophical genius which will last as long as the structure 
 and functions of the human body are objects of interest. 
 His Anatomie Descriptive is distinguished by clear and 
 natural arrangement, precise and accurate description, and 
 the general ingenuity with which the subject is treated. 
 The physiological observations are in general correct, often 
 novel, and always highly interesting. It is unfortunate, 
 however, that the ingenious author was cut ofT prematurely 
 during the preparation of the third volume. The later 
 volumes are, however, pervaded with the general spirit by 
 which the others are impressed, and are highly creditable 
 to the learning, the judgment, and the diligence of MM. 
 Roux and Buisson. The system of Portal is a valuable 
 and correct digest of anatomical and pathological know- 
 ledge, which, in exact literary information, is worthy of 
 the author of the Histoire de I' Anatomie et de la Chirurgie, 
 and, in accuracy of descriptive details, shows that M. 
 Portal trusts not to the labours of his predecessors only. 
 Boyer published in 1803 a complete treatise on Descriptive 
 Anatomy. Cloquet formed, on the model of the Anatomie 
 Descriptive of Bichat, a system in which he avails himself 
 of the literature and precision of Sommering and the 
 details of PortaL An English translation of this work 
 was prepared by Dr Knox. Cruveilhier published in 
 1834-35 a good general treatise on Descriptive Anatomy, 
 which was translated into English, and published as a 
 part of The Library of Medicine. Cniveilhier's treatise
 
 HISTORY.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 817 
 
 has passed through several editions. About the same 
 time Blandin published an elementary work on Descriptive 
 Anatomy, and a useful treatise on Topographical Anatomy. 
 But the most elaborate system of human anatomy which 
 has proceeded from the French school is the great treatise 
 of Bourgery, illustrated by numerous large and beautifully- 
 coloured plates of the parts and organs. It consists of 
 two divisions, one on Medical and Physiological Anatomy ; 
 the other on Surgical Anatomy. 
 
 J. F. Meckel published between 1815 and 1820 a 
 manual of Descriptive Anatomy which combines the 
 philosophical generalisations of Bichat with the precise 
 description and pathological knowledge of Portal During 
 the succeeding thirty years excellent systematic treatises 
 in the German language were prepared by Rosenmullcr, 
 C. F. P. Krause, Frederick Hildebrand (the 4th edition of 
 which was edited in 1830 by the eminent anatomist E H. 
 Weber), and Fred. Arnold. In 1846 Joseph Hyrtl published 
 a system of Human Anatomy, and in the following year a 
 manual of Topographical and Surgical Anatomy, both of 
 which, but more especially the latter, have gone through 
 Eeveral editions. Luschka, the professor of anatomy in 
 Tubingen, has prepared a valuable treatise on Regional 
 Anatomy, in which attention is particularly directed to the 
 relations of the parts which are of interest to the phvsician 
 and surgeon. The text-book by Hermann Meyer of Zurich 
 is also worthy of mention as a work in which the mechanical 
 construction and uses of parts are described with great 
 care. Henle's treatise on Human Anatomy, the publication 
 of which was commenced in 1855, though the last volume 
 was not completed until 1873, is, however, the most 
 complete work on the subject which has as yet issued from 
 the German press during the latter half of the present 
 century. It is remarkable not only for the elaborate 
 description of the organs and tissaes of the body, and the 
 ample references to the labours of other observers, but for 
 the number and beauty of the wood engravings. 
 British In Great Britain systematic treatises on Human Anatomy 
 
 lystematio we re published in the earlier part of the present century- 
 uu.toiuL.to by Andrew Fyfe> Johrj BeU> the tbird Monro, and John 
 
 Gordon, all of whom were teachers in the Edinburgh schooL 
 In London, Jones .Quain prepared an excellent textbook, 
 which, under a succession of editors, who- have kept each 
 new edition on a level with the advancing tide of anatomical 
 knowledge, has been much esteemed not only for the 
 clearness of its descriptions, but for the soundness of its 
 information on the various branches of human Systematic 
 Anatomy. The 7th edition, under the editorial superin- 
 tendence of Professors Sharpey, Allen .Thomson, and 
 Cleland, appeared between 1864 and 1867. The passing 
 of the Anatomy Act in 1832, by affording facilities for 
 the pursuit of practical anatomy, gave a great stimulus to 
 its study in this country, and to facilitate the acquisition 
 of a knowledge of the subject many text-books have been 
 published. The most important are Harrison's Dublin 
 Dissector, and the well-known Demonstrations of Anatomy by 
 Prof. Ellis. The increased importance attached bysurgeonsto 
 a precise acquaintance with the knowledge of those regions 
 in which operations have most frequently to be performed, 
 has led to the production of valuable special works on 
 their anatomy. The treatise of Allen Burns on the head 
 and neck, those of Sir Astley Cooper and Sir W. Lawrence 
 on hernia, Morton's Anatomy of the Surgical Regions, the 
 excellent plates on Surgical Anatomy by Joseph Maclise,and 
 the beautiful drawings by Ford from the dissections of Prof. 
 Ellis, with descriptive letterpress, are highly creditable to 
 British anatomists ; whilst the treatise on hernia by Scarpa, 
 and Cloquet's and Hesselbach's works on the same subject, 
 reflect credit on the Italian, French, and German schools. 
 •' But special treatises have also been written on other 
 
 departments of humaa descriptive anatomy. inne\ Sandi 
 fort, and Barclay published works on the muscles generally , 
 and Sir Charles Eell, in his classical treatise on the Ana- 
 tomy of Expression, described with care the attachments 
 and action of the muscles of the face. Of late years the 
 variations in the usually described arrangements in the 
 muscular system in man have been carefully inquired into, 
 and numerous memoirs have been written, more especially 
 by M'Whinnie, Hallett, W. Gruber, John Wood, W. Turner, 
 and M'Alister. F. O. Ward published a work on Human 
 Osteology which is characterised by the minuteness and 
 accuracy of its description ; G. M. Humphry, a treatise in 
 which the physical, physiological, and pathological aspects 
 of the skeleton are dwelt upon; and Luther Holden, a pro- 
 fusely-illustrated work on the same subject, in which the 
 surfaces for muscular attachments are carefully delineated. 
 Sir Charles Bell's engravings of the arteries, Tiedemann's 
 more elaborate plates, and Harrison's admirable description 
 of these vessels, all deserve notice. But the most complete 
 work on the Anatomy of the Arteries which has yet appeared 
 is that by Richard Quain, which consists of eighty-seven 
 large plates, with 543 pages of descriptive letterpress. 
 It will long continue a standard work on the subject. 
 
 Numerous treatises on the anatomy of the nervous 
 system have been published. In Germany the brothers 
 Wenzel, Red, Tiedemann, Gall and Spurzheim, Arnold, 
 and Reichert have prepared works on the descriptive 
 anatomy of the great nerve centres, not only in man but 
 in various animals ; and by Tiedemann, Reichert, and 
 Ecker, the development of the brain has been especially 
 studied. ■ In Italy the memoirs of Rolando on the anatomy 
 of the brain, and of Bellingeri on the spinal cord and its 
 nerves, are of importance. From the French school the- 
 writings of Serres, of Foville, of Leurct and Gratiolet, have 
 thrown much new light on the structure of the brain. Ic 
 Great Britain, Sir Charles Bell, in his great work on the 
 nervous system, developed and established the truth of tho 
 separate nature of the nerves of sensation and motion. 
 In 1836, and again in 1847, Samuel Solly published an 
 instructive treatise on the anatomy of the brain. Between 
 1830 and 1834 Joseph Swan published a valuable series 
 of engravings in illustration of the distribution of the 
 nerves, and Robert Lee has especially investigated the 
 arrangement and distribution of the nerves of the heart 
 and uterus. In the Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology, 
 under the editorial superintendence of Dr Robert B. 
 Todd, original memoirs, not only on human but comparative 
 anatomy, by eminent writers, have appeared, and have 
 done much to diffuse a knowledge of anatomical science. 
 
 The improvement which has been effected in the con- 
 struction of the compound microscope during the fifty 
 years subsequent to 1822, has contributed in no small 
 degree to enable anatomists to obtain more correct infor- 
 mation on the intimate . structure of different organs 
 tissues of the animal body. For the first twenty years of 
 the nineteenth century, opticians and instrument-makers 
 had at intervals endeavoured to render the compound 
 microscope at once an instrument of greater power and 
 more free from sources of error and optical illusion than it 
 had hitherto been possible to obtain it. Two defects, how- 
 ever, still adhered to the compound microscope. The instru- 
 ment was not achromatic; and a considerable degree of spheri- 
 cal aberration uncorrected rendered the image indistinct. 
 
 Between 1812 and 1815 Professor Amici of Modena 
 had attempted to construct an achromatic object-glass of 
 one single lens, but found that this was impracticable. 
 M. Se'lliguee of Paris, in 1823, after various trials, found 
 that this could be done by making the object-glass consist 
 of four achromatic compound lenses, each of which was 
 composed of two 6inglo lenses. This method was carried
 
 818 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [history. 
 
 into practice and improved by the two MM. Chevalier of 
 Paris. About the same time Dr Goring in London, with 
 the aid of Mr Tulley and Mr Pritchard, constructed com- 
 pound microscopes upon a similar principle. 
 
 By the labours of these practical opticians, and the 
 suggestions of various scientific persons, as Sir Juhn 
 lJerschel, Sir Richard Airy, Mr Barlow, one great defect 
 of the compound microscope was obviated. The effects of 
 spherical aberration were in the next place overcome in a 
 very simple manner by the experiments of Mr Joseph 
 Jackson Lister, who had early observed that the combined 
 achromatic object-glasses devised by Selligues were fixed in 
 their cells with the convex side foremost, a most improper 
 position, as it renders the spherical errors very great. 
 This gentleman found, after various trials, that by placing 
 three or more achromatic glasses with their plane surfaces 
 directed foremost, it was possible to correct completely all 
 spherical aberration. 
 
 This fact was made known in the beginning of the year 
 1S30 ; and by its application the compound microscope was 
 brought to a high degree of perfection as an achromatic 
 instrument in 1831 and 1832, and became the means of 
 atfording valuable assistance in anatomical inquiries. -The 
 use of the microscope in anatomy, which had in the 
 times of Malpigki, Lecuwenhoeck, William Cowper, Baker, 
 Fontana, Ilewson, and the second Monro, been much 
 cultivated, but had afterwards, from the imperfection of 
 the instrument and the illusions to which it not unfre- 
 quently gave rise, been neglected, now became so general 
 and so necessary, that since the year 1832 minute struc- 
 tural anatomy has been, if not created anew, at least 
 most thoroughly revised. The amount of knowledge 
 has been enormously increased ; that which was already pos- 
 sessed has been rendered greatly more accurate and precise. 
 
 It is impossible in this place to name the authors of all 
 the valuable monographs which have appeared during the 
 past forty years, but those who have especially advanced 
 the progress of our knowledge of the minute structure of 
 the tissues and organs may be referred to. Johannes Muller 
 in 1830 published an elaborate commentary on the minute 
 structure of the glands, the first work in which the 
 anatomy'of these organs was examined and elucidated in 
 a comprehensive and systematic manner. Ehrenberg 
 explained the structure of numerous infusoria, and disclosed 
 the peculiarities of many other structures, animal, vegetable, 
 and mineral, which had previously eluded the most 
 skilful researches. Francis Kiernan, in 1833, gave the 
 first correct account of the minute anatomy of the liver. 
 •Schleiden in 1838, and Schwann in 1839, published most 
 important generalisations on the cellular structure of 
 vegetable and animal organisms. Martin Barry communi- 
 cated new facts on the structure of the ovum and on the 
 structure of cells generally. John Goodsir laid great 
 emphasis on the office of the nucleus in the nutrition, 
 growth, and reproduction of cells, and on the arrangement 
 of the cells within an organism into departments or 
 territories. Virchow, by his researches into the connective 
 tissues, has still further developed the idea of the cellular 
 structure of the animal organism, and the importance of 
 cells in the performance of physiological and pathological 
 processes. Lionel Realc attributed both to the nucleus and to 
 the substance of the cell immediately surrounding it import- 
 ant functional properties. Max Schultze showed the identity 
 in nature between the sarcode substance of the lower animal 
 organisms and the contents of the cells in the higher animals, 
 and applied to these substances the common term proto- 
 plasm, which had previously been introduced by Hugo von 
 Mohl to designate a similar material in the vegetable cell 
 
 The minute structure and development of bone h»s 
 been carefully investigated by J. Goodsir, W. Sharpey, H". 
 
 Muller, C. Gegenbaur, and A Kolliker; that of muscle, by 
 Bowman, Kolliker, and Sharpey ; of nerve by Schwann, 
 Rcmak, Stilling, Gerlach, Lockhart Clarke, and Deiters ; 
 of cartilage by Schwann ano> Schultze ; of the blood and 
 blood-vessels by Henle, Gulliver, Quekett, Paget, and 
 Wharton Jones ; of the mucous membranes by Bowman ; 
 of the serous membranes by Henle, Recklinghausen, 
 Ludwig, and Klein; of the teeth by Retzius, A. Nasmytb, 
 J. Goodsir, J. Tomes, R. Owen, Czermak, Huxley, and 
 Waldeycr. The structure of the lungs has been investigated 
 by Addison, Raincy, and Rossignol; of the kidney by 
 Bowman, Henle, and Schwciggerseidel ; of the liver by 
 Bcale and Hering; of the spleen by Sanders, Gray, 
 Billroth, and W. Muller ; of the testicle by A. Cooper, 
 Kolliker, and Henle ; of the ovary by Pfluger and Waldeyer ; 
 of the thymus by A. Cooper and Simon ; of the stomach 
 and intestines by Kolliker, Brinton, and Frey ; of the 
 placenta by Eschricht, Rcid, Sharpey, Goodsir, Van der 
 Kolk, Virchow, Farre, Priestley, Rolleston, Ercolaui, and 
 Turner ; of the organs of sense by Henle, Bowman, His, 
 II. Muller, Schultze, Corti, Reissncr, and Deiters. 
 
 The general results of the labours of these and other 
 investigators have been from time to time incorporated 
 into systematic treatises on microscopic anatomy, of which 
 reference may more especially be made to those prepared 
 by J. Berres, F. Gerber, A. Hill Hassall, A. Kolliker, W. 
 Sharpey, W. Bowman, F. Leydig, Frey, and S. Strieker. 
 Side by side with these inquiries into the structure and 
 development of the tissues, the evolution x>i the embryo 
 out of the fertilised ovum has been carried on. Purkinje, 
 Von Baer, Coste, Wharton Jones, Valentin, R. Wagner, 
 Rathke, J. Muller, Prevost and Dumas, Martin Barry, 
 Reichert, Bischoff, Kolliker, Vogt, Allen Thomson, Owen, 
 Von Siebold, Dujardin, Milne-Edwards, Claparede, Agassiz, 
 Huxley, Kitchen Parker, and Kowalevsky have all contri 
 butcd important memoirs on various branches of embryology. 
 
 Comparative Anatomy, which during the 1 8th century was Compar* 
 diligently cultivated by Daubenton, Pallas, Haller, Buffon, t,ve 
 John Hunter, and the second Monro, has become during the ani ' M> ' 1>/ 
 present century a subject of increased interest, from its inti- 
 mate connection with the sciences of zoology; physiology, and 
 geology. It has consequently been studied with great zeal 
 and assiduity, and multitudes of monographs, as well as 
 numerous systematic treatises on the anatomy both of the 
 vertebrata and invertebrata, have been published. 
 
 To name even a tithe of the workers and authors who 
 have added to our knowledge of the facts of comparative 
 anatomy would occupy considerable space. It may suffice 
 to .refer to those whose writings have contributed most 
 materially to the advance of the science. In France, 
 Cuvier, Dnmeril, the Saint-Hilaires, Blanchard, De Blain- 
 ville, H. and Alphonse Milne-Edwards, Gervais, and 
 Gratiolet; in Germany, Meckel, Tiedemann, Von Baer, 
 Spix, Martius, Bojanus, Otto, Carus, J. Muller, Leuckart, 
 Gegenbaur, and Haeckel ; in Sweden and Denmark, 
 Retzius and Eschricht ; in Holland and Belgium, Van der 
 Kolk, Vrolik, and Van Beneden; in America, Agassiz, 
 Wyman, and Burmeister; in Great Britain, E. Home, A. 
 Carlisle, R. Grant, Richard Owen, J. Barclay, R. Knox, J. 
 Goodsir, G. Busk, Rymer Jones, W. B. Carpenter, T. H. 
 Huxley, G. J. Allnian, W. H. Flower, St George Mivart, 
 and J. Murie are names identified with one or more 
 branches of the subject. 
 
 The investigations into the form and structure of 
 animals have led anatomists to search for parts in one 
 animal which correspond with parts in other animals in 
 their mode of development and arrangement, and to 
 evolve from their researches general doctrines of organic 
 forms. The conception entertained by Goethe of the 
 presence of a pre-maxillary element in the human upvc
 
 HUMAN ANATOMY.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 819 
 
 jaw because it exists in other vertebrates, and the announce- 
 ment of the theory of the vertebrate nature of the skull by 
 Goethe and Oken, directed anatomists into a line of 
 inquiry which has been productive of fruitful results, and 
 has exercised a great influence on the progress and direction 
 of biological science. Gsoffroy St llilaire and C. Martins 
 in France; Spix, Carus, Gegenbaur, and Haeckel in Ger- 
 many; and Owen, Goodsir, Humphry, Huxley, Parker, 
 and Cleland in Great Britain, have all published important 
 memoirs in this department of anatomical research. 
 
 The formation of anatomical museums in connection 
 with universities, and elsewhere, by enabling specimens 
 to be accumulated for observation and comparison, has 
 contributed in no small degree to the progress of anatomical 
 science. Pre-eminent amongst these is the collection 
 originally formed by the genius, energy, and self-devoted- 
 ness of John Hunter, which, under the fostering care of 
 the council of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, 
 las been materially augmented in all its departments by a 
 succession of curators — Clift, Owen, Quekett, and Flower. 
 The aid which ha3 been afforded to anatomists in the 
 publication of their researches, more especially in providing 
 plates and other expensive means of illustration, by the 
 learned societies of Europe, and the circulation which has 
 been given to their memoirs through the Transaction* and 
 Proceedings of these societies, and through the Journals 
 devoted to anatomical and physiological science, have 
 materially contributed to the diffusion of a knowledge of 
 discoveries, and to the general advance of the science. 
 
 SPECIAL ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 Man, zoologically speaking, belongs 
 to the Mammalian class of the Verte- 
 brate sub-kingdom, i.e., his young are 
 brought forth alive, and nourished 
 during infancy on milk secreted in 
 mammary or milk-forming glands. In 
 common with all vertebrate organisms, 
 he possesses a spine orvertebral column 
 and a skull, in which are contained 
 the brain and the spinal marrow, and 
 on the ventral surface of the spinal 
 column are situated the several sub- 
 divisions of the alimentary canal 
 
 But man possesses certain special or 
 distinctive anatomical characters. The 
 most noticeable, as seen on an external 
 inspection of his body, is his erect 
 position. He is, indeed, the only liv- 
 ing creature that can walk or stand 
 ■erect, i.e., with the axis of the- spine 
 vertical ; with the hip and knee joints 
 capable of being fully extended, so 
 that the leg is brought into line with 
 the thigh ; with the foot so planted 
 on the ground that it rests on the heel 
 behind and on the roots of the toes 
 in front ; with the upper limbs so 
 arranged as to act, not as instruments 
 of progression, but of prehension ; and 
 with the head so balanced on the top F, ?-„ l „T£ tegr ,*'T"'>! <: "*" 
 
 . I tjoo through the .human 
 
 of the spine that the face and eyes 
 iool: directly to the front. His bones, 
 joints, and muscles are constructed 
 and arranged so as to enable him to 
 preserve the erect attitude without 
 fatigue. In other vertebrata the axis 
 of the spine is obliqui or horizontal, 
 »he hip and knee joints are perma- 
 nently bent at a more er less acute angle, the limbs cor- 
 
 bcad and trunk. The 
 skull mul spine, dnvkty 
 shaded, and containing 
 the cerebrospinal nerv- 
 ous axis, are dorsal, or at 
 the back. The aliment- 
 ary and respiratory tubes, 
 seen In outline, are ven- 
 tral, or at the front. The 
 dotted line V represents 
 the vertical axis of the 
 trunk. 
 
 responding to the human upper extremities, are, in the form 
 
 of legs, wings, or fins, instruments of progression, and the 
 
 head 13 articulated with 
 
 the spine at or near the 
 
 hinder end of the skulL 
 
 Owing to the oblique or 
 
 horizontal attitude of the 
 
 body in the vertebrata 
 
 generally, and its erect 
 
 position in man, the terms F' c - 2-— Outline diagram ol a quadruped j the 
 .,,1,,'^K „ IV- axis of the spine is almost at right ancles 
 
 which are employed in to the vertical dotted line. (A/t£ coodS-j 
 describing the relative position of different parts are not 
 used in the same sense by the" human and comparative 
 anatomist. Thus, parte which are su- 
 perior, or above other parts, in the 
 human body, are anterior, or in front, 
 in other vertebrata; and parte which 
 are posterior, or behind other parte 
 in man, are superior to them in other 
 vertebrata. To obviate the confusion 
 which must necessarily arise when com- 
 paring the human body with that of 
 other vertebrates, certain descriptive 
 terms have been recommended which 
 may be employed whether the position 
 of the body be erect or non-erect. Thus, 
 the aspect of parts directed towards the 
 region where the atlas or first vertebra is 
 situated is ailantal, that directed towards 
 the sacrum is sacral, that towards the, S} °\ .Ti?of Tne^!!! 
 back is dorsal, that towards the front Uiespineiieaobiiqneiy 
 is veiltral or haemal. Quite recently u°ne. " Um^o<m1i^.-> 
 the term pros-axial has been introduced as equivalent to 
 atlantal, nnd post-axial to sacraL 
 
 The body may be considered as 
 divided by an imaginary plane, the 
 mesial plane, into two lateral and 
 similar halves, a right and left, so 
 that it exhibits a bilateral sym- 
 metry; and the constituent parte 
 are described as being external or 
 internal to each £>iher, according to 
 their Telative position to this plane. 
 For descriptive purposes, also, we 
 may subdivide the body into Attat, 
 and Appendicttlajs -portions. The . 
 Axlal part is the stock or stem of / 
 the body, and consists of the Head, ' 
 the Neck, and the Trunk. The 4 ^ 
 trunk is again subdivided into the Fro. 4 —outline diagram of • 
 chest or Thorax, and the belly or « VV.* 3 of ■]!;."£ 
 Abdomen ; and the abdomen is llM obliquely to the ranto*] 
 
 i_ j • • j j *i it., i_j dotted line, (After Goodsir.) 
 
 again subdivided into the abdo- 
 
 men proper and the Pelvis. The axial part contains 
 the organs essential to the preservation of life. In the 
 head is lodged the brain, from which the spinal marrow is 
 prolonged down the spinal canaL At the sides of the head 
 are the cars, and opening on to the face are the eyes, 
 nostrils, and moutl . Prolonged down the neck are the 
 gullet and windpipe, with the latter of which is associated 
 the organ of voice. Within the chest lie the heart, lungs, 
 and gullet ; and in the abdomen are contained the stomach, 
 intestine, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, and other organs 
 concerned in the urinary and generative functions,. The 
 Appendicular part forma the limbs, which do not contain 
 organs essential to life. In man the limbs are called 
 Upper and lower — the former aio instruments of prehen- 
 sion, the latter of progression. The subdivisions of the 
 body are not homogeneous in structure, but are built up of 
 several systems, of organs, each system being characterised
 
 820 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [skeleton — 
 
 "not only by peculiarities in form, appearance, and structure, 
 but by possessing special functions and uses. Thus the 
 bones collectively form the Osseous system; the joints the 
 Articulatory system; the muscles, which move the bones 
 at the joints, the Muscular system; and these several systems 
 collectively constitute the organs of Locomotion, The blood 
 and lymph vessels form the Vascular system ; the brain, 
 spinal marrow, and nerves, the Nervous system, with which 
 is intimately associated the organs of Sense ; the lungs and 
 windpipe, the Respiratory system ; the alimentary canal, 
 with the glands opening into it, the Digestive system ; the 
 kidneys, bladder, and urethra, the Urinary system ; the 
 testicles, spermatic ducts, and penis in the male, with the 
 ovaries, uterus, and clitoris in the female, the Generative or 
 Reproductive system ; the skin, with the hair and nails, 
 the Tegumentary system. These various systems are so 
 arranged with reference to each other as to form an organic 
 whole. 
 
 Anatomy of the Organs of Locomotion. 
 
 The organs of locomotion consist of the muscles or active 
 organs, and the bones and joints or passive organs. The 
 auatomy of the bones will first attract our attention. 
 Skeleton. , Osseous System — Osteology — Skeleton. — The word 
 Skeleton (from o-kc'AAoj, to dry) signifies literally the dry or 
 hard parts of the body. AVhen used in a limited sense it 
 is applied merely to the bones, but when used in a wider 
 and more philosophic sense it comprises not only the bones 
 or osseous skeleton, but the cartilages and fibrous mem- 
 branes which complete the framework of the body. The 
 first evidence of a skeleton in the embryo is the appear- 
 ance of membranes in many parts of which cartilage is 
 developed, and in course of time this cartilage is converted 
 into bone. In some animals, however, as in the cartila- 
 ginous fish, the osseous conversion does not take place, and 
 the skeleton remains permanently cartilaginous; and in the 
 very remarkable fish called Lancclet, or Ampkiorus, the 
 skeleton consists almost entirely of fibrous membrane. 
 
 The skeleton serves as a basis of support for the soft 
 parts, as affording surfaces of attachment for muscles and 
 as a protection for many delicate organs. In the ~erte- 
 brata the osseous skeleton is clothed by the muscles and 
 skin, and is technically called an endo-skeleton. In inverte- 
 brata the skeleton is not unfrequently on the surface of the 
 body, and is termed an exo- or dermo-sheleton. In some 
 vertebrates {e.g., the armadillo, tortoise, and sturgeon), in 
 aldition to the proper endo-skeleton, skeletal plates are 
 developed in connection with the integument, so that they 
 possess a dcrmo-skeleton likewise. In some vertebrates, 
 also, a partial skeleton is formed within the substance of 
 some of the viscera — e.g., in ruminant animals a bone is 
 situated in the heart ; in the walrus and other carnivora, 
 in rodents, bats, and some monkeys, a bone lies in the 
 penis ; and in the leopard, jackal, and other carnivora, a 
 cartilaginous style lies in the middle of the tongue. These 
 parts form a splanehno- or visceral skeleton. By some 
 anatomists the teeth, which are unquestionably hard parts 
 of the body, are also referred to the splanchno-skeleton, 
 though they are special modifications of the papillae of the 
 mucous membrane of the' gum. In man, the teeth being 
 excluded, there is neither exo- nor splanchno-skeleton, but 
 only an endo-skeleton. 
 
 In each of the great subdivisions of the body an endo- 
 skeleton exists, so that we may speak of an Axial Skeleton 
 and an Appendicular Skeleton. The Axial Skeleton con- 
 sists of the bones of the spine and head, the ribs, and the 
 breastbone; the Appendicular Skeleton, of the bones of 
 the limbs. The number of bones in the skeleton varies at 
 different periods of life. In the adult there are about 200, 
 
 but in the child they aro more numerous ; for in the pro- 
 cess of consolidation of the skeleton certain bones originally 
 distinct become fused together. In Plates XII., XIII., 
 and XIV., front, back, and side views of the entire skeleton 
 are given, together with figures of the skull aud several of 
 its constituent bones. 
 
 We shall commence the description of the Axial Skele- 
 ton by giving an account of the bones of the spine. 
 
 The Spine, Spinal or Vertebral Column, chine, or back- 
 bone, consists of a number of superimposed bones which 
 are named Vertebrae, because v; 
 
 they can move or turn some- 
 what on each other. It lies 
 in the middle of the back of 
 the neck and trunk ; has the 
 cranium at its summit ; the 
 ribs at its sides, which in 
 their turn support the upper 
 limbs; whilst the pelvis, with 
 the lower limbs, is jointed 
 to its lower end. The spine 
 consists in an adult of twenty- 
 six bones, in a young child 
 of thirty-three, certain of the 
 bones in the spine of the 
 child becoming ankylosed 
 or blended with each other 
 in the adult. These blended 
 bones lose their mobility, and 
 are called false vertebrae ; 
 whilst those which retain 
 their mobility are the true 
 vertebrae. In the vertebrata 
 the bone3 of the spine are 
 arranged in groups, which 
 may be named from their 
 position — vertebrae of the 
 neck or cervical ; of the chest, 
 dorsal or thoracic ; of the 
 
 loins, lumbar ; of the pelvis, Fl0 ,._ n , AlI ^ skeleton. C„ me 
 sacral; and of the tail, coccy- 
 geal or caudal ; and the num- 
 ber of vertebrae in each group 
 maybe expressed inaformnla. 
 In man the formula is as fol- 
 lows: — C;Di2L5SsCoc4 = 33 bones, as seen in the child; 
 but the five sacral vertebras fuse together into a single bone — 
 the sacrum — and the four coccygeal into the single coccyx. 
 Hence the sacrum and coccyx of the adult are the false, 
 whilst the lumbar, dorsal, and cervical are the true 
 vertebrae. 
 
 The vertebrae are irregularly-shaped bones, but as 'a 
 rule have certain characters in common. Each possesses a 
 body and an arch, which enclose a ring, with certain pro- 
 cesses and notches. The Body, or Centrum, is a short 
 cylinder, which b}' its upper and lower surfaces is con- 
 nected by means of fibro-cartilage with the bodies of tho 
 vertebrae immediately above and below. The collective 
 series of vertebral bodies forms the great column of the 
 spine. The Arch, also called Neural Arch, because it en- 
 closes the spinal marrow or nervous axis, springs from the 
 back of the body, and consists of two symmetrical halves 
 united behind in the middle line. Each half consists of an 
 anterior part or pedicle, and a posterior part or lamina. 
 The Rings collectively form the spinal canal. The Pro- 
 cesses usually spring from the arch. The spinous process 
 projects backwards from the junction of the two laminae, 
 and the collective scries of these processes gives to the 
 entire column the spiny character from which has arisen tho 
 
 cervical Yeltcbia*; D t3 . the dorsal; 
 L Sl the lumbar; S s . the sacral; Coe^ 
 the coccygeal; CC, the series of twelve 
 ribs on one side ; Ps, the prse-sternnm; 
 Ma, the meso-stcinum; Xa, the xlphl- 
 stemum. The dotted line VV repre- 
 sents the Tcttica] axis of the Brine.
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 PLATE XII 
 
 s&j. 
 
 ry.J. 
 
 EHCYC10P/€0I* BRlTANNICA. H\*T» E0II10A.
 
 roi. i. 
 
 f& ?. 
 
 ANATOMY 
 rtg.i. 
 
 PLATE XIII. 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA. fllKTH EDITION.
 
 VOL. L 
 
 AKATOMY 
 
 Fm 1 
 
 PLATE XIV. 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA 8RITANNICA. NINTH EDITION.
 
 SPINB.J 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 821 
 
 terra Spine, applied to it. Tne transverse processes project 
 outwards, one from each side of the arch. The articular 
 processes project, two. upwards and two downwards, and 
 are for connecting adjacent vertebrae together. The 
 Notches, situated on the upper and lower borders of the 
 pedicles, form in the articulated spine the intervertebral 
 foramina through which the nerves pass out of the spinal 
 canal. 
 
 The vertebra? in each group have characters which 
 specially distinguish them. In man and all mammals, 
 with few exceptions, whatever be the length of the neck, 
 the Cervical Vertebras are seven in number. The excep- 
 tions are the three-toed sloth, which has nine, and Hoff- 
 mann's sloth and the manatee, in which there are only six. 
 In many whales the seven cervicals are fused in the adult 
 into a single bone. In man the body of a cervical vertebra 
 is comparatively small, and its upper surface is transversely 
 concave ; the arch has long and obliquely sloping lamina? ; 
 the ring is large and triangular ; the spine i3 short, bifid, 
 and horizontal ; the transverse process consists of two bars 
 of bone, the anterior springing from the side of the body, 
 the posterior from the arch, and uuiting externally to 
 enclose a foramen, through which, as a rule, the vertebral 
 artery passes ; the articular processes are flat and oblique, 
 and the upper pair of notches are deeper than the lower. 
 The first, second, and seventh cervical vertebra? have 
 characters which specially distinguish them. The first, or 
 Alias, has no body or spine : its ring is very large, and on 
 each side of the ring is a thick mass of bone, the lateral 
 mass, by which it articulates with the occipital bone above 
 and the second vertebra below. The second vertebra, Axis, 
 or Vertebra d-entata, has its body surmounted by a thick 
 tooth-like odontoid process, which is regarded as the body 
 of the atlas displaced from its proper vertebra and fused 
 with the axis. This process forms a pivot round which 
 the atlas and head move in turning the head from one side 
 to the other; the spine is large, thick, and deeply bifid. 
 The seventh, called Vertebra prominens, is distinguished 
 by its long prominent spine, which is not bifid, and by 
 the small sue of the foramen at the root of the transverse 
 process. In the human spine the distinguishing character 
 of all the cervical vertebra? is the foramen at the root of 
 the transverse process, but amongst mammals this is not 
 an invariable character, for in the cetacea the transverse 
 process of the atlas is imperforate, and in the horse, 
 ruminants, and many quadrumana, the seventh cervical 
 vertebra has no foramen at the root of it3 transverse 
 process. 
 
 The Dorsal Vertebra?, more appropriately called costal or 
 thoracic, are twelve in number in the human spine ; but 
 amongst mammals they range from eleven in the arma- 
 dillo to twenty-two in the Cape hyrax and Hoffmann's 
 sloth. They are intermediate in size and position to the 
 cervical and lumbar vertebra;, and are all distinguished 
 by having one or two smooth surfaces on each side of 
 the body for articulation with the head of one or two 
 ribs. The arch is short and with imbricated lamina? ; the 
 ring i3 nearly circular ; the spine is oblique, elongated, 
 and bayonet-shaped ; the transverse processes are directed 
 back and out, not bifid, and with an articular surface in 
 front for the tubercle of a rib ; and the articular proces r es 
 are flat and nearly vertical. The first, twelfth, eleventh, 
 tenth, and sometimes the ninth, dorsal vertebra? are dis- 
 tinguished from the rest. The first is in shape like the 
 seventh cervical, but has no foramen at the root of the 
 transverse process, and has two articular facets on each 
 aide of the body ; the ninth has sometimes only one facet 
 at the side of the body ; the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth 
 liavc invariably only a single facet on the side of the body, 
 but the eleventh and twelfth have stunted transverse 
 
 processes, and the twelfth has its lower articular processes 
 shaped like those of a lumbar vertebra. 
 
 The Lumbar Vertebra? in man are five in number, but 
 amongst mammals they range from two in the platypus to 
 eight in the hyrax or agouti. They are the lowest of the 
 true vertebra?, and also the largest, especially in the body. 
 The arch has short and deep lamina?; the ring is triangular; 
 the spine is massive and hatchet-shaped ; the transverse 
 processes are long and pointed ; the articular are thick, 
 and strong, the superior pair concave, the inferior convex, 
 and the inferior notches, as in the dorsal vertebra?, are, 
 .deeper than the superior. In the lumbal vartebra? and ir 
 the lower dorsal an accessory process projects from the bas9 
 of each transverse process, and a mammillary tubercle fron 
 each superior articular process. In man these are small anc 
 rudimentary; but in some mammals, as the kangaroo, 
 armadillo, and scaly ant-eater, the mammillary tubercles 
 are large, and in the baboon, dog, cat, and beaver, the 
 accessory processes are well developed. The fifth lumbar 
 vertebra has its body much thicker in front than behind ; 
 its spine is less massive, and its lower articular procesres 
 are flat. 
 
 The Sacrum is composed of five originally separate 
 vertebra? fused into a single bone. In the bandicoot it 
 consists of a single vertebra, whilst it has as many as eight 
 in the armadillo. The relative size and completeness of the 
 sacrum are associated with the development of the haunch 
 bones and of the lower limbs. In whales, where the pelvic 
 bones are rudimentary and there are no hind limbs, there 
 is no sacrum. It forms the posterior wall of the pelvis, is 
 triangular in form, and possesses two surfaces, two borders, 
 a base, and an apex. The anterior or pelvic surface is con- 
 cave, and is marked by four transverse lines, which indicate 
 its original subdivision into five bones, and by four pairs 
 of foramina, through which are transmitted the anterior 
 sacral nerves. Its posterior surface is convex; in the 
 middle line are tubercles or rudimentary spines, and on 
 each side of these are two rows of tubercles, the inner of 
 which are the conjoined articular and mammillary pro- 
 cesses, the outer the transverse processes of the originally 
 distinct vertebra? ; in addition, four pairs of foramina are 
 found which transmit the posterior sacral nerves from the 
 sacral canal, which extends through the bone from base to 
 apex, and forms the lower end of the spinal canal. By its 
 borders the sacrum is articulated with the haunch-bones — 
 by its base with the last lumbar vertebra, by its apex with 
 the coccyx. The human sacrum is broader in proportion 
 to its length than in other mammals ; this great breadth 
 gives solidity to the lower part of the spine, and, conjoined 
 with the size of the lateral articular surfaces, it permits 
 a more perfect junction with the haunch-bones, and is 
 correlated with the erect position. Owing to the need in 
 woman for a wide pelvis, the sacrum is broader than in 
 man. 
 
 The Coccyx consists of only four vertebra? in the human 
 spine. It is the rudimentary tail, but instead of projecting 
 back, as in mammals generally, is curved forwards, and is 
 not visible externally, an arrangement which is also found 
 in the anthropoid apes and in Hoffmann's sloth. In the 
 spider monkeys as many as thirty-three vertebra? are found 
 in the tail, and in the long-tailed pangolin the number 
 reaches forty-six. Not only is the tail itself rudimentary 
 in man, but the vertebra? of which it is composed are 
 small, and represent merely the bodies of the true vertebra?. 
 As there are no arches, the ring is not formed, and th6 
 spinal canal does not extend, therefore, beyond the apex of 
 tie sacrum. The first coccygeal vertebra, in addition to a 
 body, possesses two processes or horns, which are jointed 
 with two corresponding processes from the last sacral 
 vertebra.
 
 822 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [skeleton 
 
 The Human Spine is more uniform in length in persons 
 of the same race than might be supposed from the indi- 
 vidual differences in stature, the variation in the height of 
 the body in adults being due chiefly to differences in the 
 length of the lower limbs. The average length of the 
 spine is 28 inches ; its widest part is at the base of the 
 sacrum, from which it tapers down to the tip of the coccyx. 
 It diminishes also in breadth from the base of the sacrum 
 upwards to the region of the neck. Owing to the pro- 
 jection of the spines behind and the transverse processes 
 on each 6ide, it presents an irregular outline on those 
 aspects; but in front it is more uniformly rounded, owing 
 to the convex form of the anterolateral surfaces of the 
 bodies of its respective vertebra?. In its general contour 
 two series of curves may be seen, an anteroposterior and 
 a lateral. The antero-posterior is the more important. 
 In the infant at the time of birth the sacro-coccygeal 
 part of the spine is concave forwards, but the rest of 
 tho spine, except a slight forward concavity in the series 
 of dorsal vertebrae is almost straight. When the infant 
 begins to sit up in the arms of its nurse, a convexity for- 
 wards in the region of the neck appears, and subsequently, 
 as the child learns to walk, a convexity forwards in the 
 region of the loins. Hence in the adult spine a series 
 of convexo-concave curves are found, which are alternate 
 and mutually dependent, and are associated with the erect 
 attitude of man. In the human spine alone are the 
 lumbar vertebra? convex forward. A lateral curve, convex 
 to the right, opposite the third, fourth, and fifth dorsal 
 vertebrae, with compensatory curve convex to the left 
 immediately above and below, is due apparently to the 
 much greater use of. the muscles of the right arm over 
 those of the left, drawing the spine in that region some- 
 what to the right. In disease of the spine its natural 
 curvatures are much increased, and the deformity known 
 as humpback is produced. As the spine forms the central 
 part of the axial skeleton, it acts as a column to support 
 not only the weight of the body,, but of all that can be 
 carried on the head, back, and in the upper lirrbs : by its 
 transverse and spinous processes it serves also to give 
 attachment to numerous muscles, and the transverse pro- 
 cesses of its dorsal vertebras are also for articulation with 
 •the ribs. 
 
 Khanx. The Tiioeax, Pectus. or Chest is a. cavity or enclosure , 
 
 the walls of which are in part formed of bone and cartilage. 
 Its skeleton consists of the sternum in front, the twelve 
 dorsal vertebras behind, and the twelve ribs, with, their 
 corresponding cartilages, on each side. 
 
 «*rnijm. The Sternum or Breast Bone is an elongated bone 
 which inolines downwards and forwards in the front wall 
 of the chest It consists of three parts — an upper, called 
 manubrium or prae-sternum ; a middle, the body or meso- 
 sternum; and .a lower, the ensiform process or xiphi- 
 sternum. Its anterior and posterior surfaces are marked 
 by transverse lines, which indicate not only the subdivision 
 of the entire bone into three parts, but that of the meso- 
 sternum into four originally distinct segments. Each 
 lateral border of the bone is marked by seven depressed 
 surfaces for articulation with the seven upper ribs : at each 
 side of the upper border of the pra?-sternum i3 a sinuous 
 depression, where the clavicle, a bone of the upper limb, 
 articulates with this bone of the axial skeleton. The 
 xiphi-sternum remains cartilaginous up to a late period of 
 life, and from its pointed form has been named the ensi- 
 form cartilage. 
 
 The Ribs or Costa?, twenty-four in number, twelve on 
 each side of the thorax, consist not only of the bony ribs, 
 but of a bar of cartilage continuous with the anterior end 
 of each bone, called a costal cartilage, so that they furnish 
 examples of a cartilajtinous skeleton in the adult human 
 
 body ; in aged persons these cartilages usually become 
 converted into bone. The upper seven ribs are connected 
 by their costal cartilages to the side of the sternum, and 
 are called sternal or true rib3 ; the lower five do not reach 
 the sternum, and are named asternal or false, and of these, 
 the two lowest, from being comparatively unattached in 
 'front, are called free or floating. All the ribs are articu- 
 lated behind to the dorsal vertebrae, and as they are sym- 
 metrical on the two sides of the body, the ribs in any 
 given animal are always twice as numerous as the dorsal 
 vertebra? in that animal. They form a series of osseo- 
 cartilaginous arches, which extend more or less perfectly 
 around the sides of the chest A rib is an elongated bone, 
 and as a rule possesses a head, a neck, a tubercle, and a 
 shaft. The head usually possesses two articular surfaces, 
 and is connected to the side of the body of two adjacent 
 dorsal vertebras ; the neck is a constricted part of the 
 bone, uniting the head to the shaft ; the tubercle, close to> 
 the junction of the shaft and neck, is the part which articu- 
 lates with the transverse process of the vertebra. The 
 shaft is compressed, possesses an inner and outer surface, 
 and an upper and lower border, but from the shaft being 
 somewhat twisted on itself, the direction of the surfaces 
 and borders is not uniform throughout the length of the 
 bone. The ribs slope from their attachments to the spine, 
 at first outwards, downwards, and backwards, then down- 
 wards and forwards, and where the curve changes from 
 the backward to the forward direction an angle is formed 
 on the rib. The first, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth ribs 
 articulate each with only a single vertebra, so that only a 
 single surface exists on the head : the surfaces of the shaft 
 of the first rib are almost horizontal ; those of the second 
 very oblique ; the eleventh and twelfth ribs are rudi- 
 mentary, have neither neck nor tubercle, and are pointed 
 anteriorly. The ribs are by no means uniform in length : 
 they increase from the first to the seventh or eighth, and 
 then diminish to the twelfth; the first and twelfth are 
 therefore the shortest ribs. The first and second costa. 
 cartilages are almost horizontal, but the others are directed 
 upwards and inwards. 
 
 In its general form the chest may be likened to a trun- 
 cated cone. Jt 13 rounded at the sides and flattened in 
 front and behind, so that a man can lie either on his back 
 or bis belly. Its truncated apex slopes downwards and 
 forwa.ds, is small in size, and allows of the passage of the- 
 windpipe, gullet, large veins, and nerves into the chest, 
 and of several large arteries out of the chest into the neck 
 The base or lower boundary of the cavity is much larger 
 than the apex, slopes downwards and backwards, and is 
 occupied by the diaphragm, a muscle which separates the 
 chest from the cavity of the abdomen. The transverse 
 diameter is greater than the antero-posterior, and the antero- 
 posterior is greater laterally, where the lungs are lodged, 
 than in the mesial plane, which is occupied by the heart. 
 
 The Head forms the summit of the axial part of the 
 body. It consists of two portions — the Cranium and the 
 Pace. 
 
 The Skull, or skeleton of tho head, is composed of 22 
 bones, 8 of which form the skeleton of the cranium, 14 
 that of the face. Except the lower jaw, which is move- 
 ,. ble, the bones are all firmly united by immovable joints. 
 The 8 bones of the cranium are so united together by their 
 edges as to form the walla of a box or cavity, the cranial 
 cavity, in which the brain is lodged. The box of the 
 cranium possesses a base or floor, a vault or roof, an 
 anterior, a posterior, and two lateral walls. The posterior 
 wall is formed by the occipital bone, which also extends 
 for some distance forwards along the middle of the base; 
 in front of the basal part of the occipital is the sphenoid, 
 which also sends a process upwards on each side of the
 
 8KULL.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 823 
 
 skull; in front of the basal part of the sphenoid is the 
 ethmoid; mounting upwards in front of the ethmoid i3 the 
 
 Flo. 0.— Profile of the skull. FY, frontal bono; Pa, parietal; SO, supra-occipital ; 
 Sq, squamous-temport'l; MT, mastoid-temporal-; Ty, tympanic; St,- styloid* 
 temporal ; As, sii-sphenoid ; E, 03 planum of ethmoid ; U luchrynml ; N, 
 nasal; Mx, superior maxilla; Jlft, malar; Jin, mandible; bh. biLst-hya: ; 
 (A, thyro-hyal; cA, cerato-hyal; em.- external meatus; ct, coronal smure; 
 /-, lamudoidal suture; £*, squamous suture. 
 
 frontal, which forms the forehead, and closes in the front 
 of the cranial box; forming the vault and side walls are 
 the two parietal bone3 ; completing the side walls, and 
 extending for a short distance along the side of the floor, 
 are the two temporal bones; the vertex of the skull is at 
 the junction of the two parietal bones with each other. 
 
 no. 7, — Section through the skull Immediately to the right of the mesial plane. 
 The lettering as in Fig. 6, with, In addition, 110, basl-occipital ; E0, ex-occlp.tal; 
 PT, petrous-temporal; BS, basl-spheuoid; PS, prc-sphenoid (the letters are placed 
 In the sphenoidal sinus); OS, orbito-sphenoid; ME, mes ethmoid; SC, septal 
 cartilage of nose; V, vomer; PI, palate; Pt, pterygoid of sphenoid; A frontal 
 iinus: Pf, pituitary fossa; fm, foramen magnum; a, angle; and t, symphysis 
 of lower Jaw. 
 
 The fourteen bones of the face, which are situated below 
 and in front of the cranium, enter into the formation of the 
 walls of cavities which open on the front of the face; thus- 
 they complete, along with the frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid,- 
 the walls of the two orbits in which the eye-balls are 
 lodged ; along with the ethmoid and sphenoid, the walls of 
 the nostrils; and they form the osseous walls of the mouth. 
 As a general rule, the cranial bones are expanded, and plate- 
 like in form. The outer surface of each bone assists in 
 forming the exterior of the cranium, and not unfrequently 
 is marked by ridges or processes for the attachment of 
 inu&clea. The inner surface, again, is smooth, and pitted 
 
 with depressions, in which the convolutions of the brain 
 are lodged, and also marked by grooves for the lodgment 
 of dilated veins called blood sinuses, and of arteries termed 
 meningeal. The two surfaces of a cranial bone, dense in 
 structure, are called its tables, outer and inner, and are 
 separated from each other by bone, looser and more spongy 
 in its texture, called diploe. In some localities, more 
 especially in certain. of the bones which form the walls 
 of the nostrils, the drploe disappears, and comparatively 
 wide interspaces separate the two tables which contain air, 
 and are called air-sinuses. The margins of the bones are 
 denticulated, and it is by the interlocking of the denticula- 
 tions of adjacent bones that they are jointed together, the 
 joints being named sutures. The bones are pierced by 
 holes or foramina, and similar holes exist between the 
 adjacent margins of some of the bones. These foramina 
 are mostly situated in the floor of the skull, and transmit 
 arteries into the cranial cavity to supply the brain and 
 the inner table with blood, and veins and nerves out of 
 the cavity. The largest of these holes is called foramen, 
 magnum. It lies in the occipital bone, immediately above 
 the ring of the atlas; through it the spinal marrow becomes 
 continuous with the brain, and the vertebral arteries pass 
 ;to supply the brain with biood. 
 
 The Occipital, or bone of the Back of the Head (Figs. 6 Occipital 
 land 7, and Plate XIII. ), consists of four originally distinct 
 I pieces fused into a curved plate-like bone. Its subdivisions 
 are arranged around the foramen magnum — the basilar 
 part, basi-occipital, in front; the condyloid parts, ex-occipi- 
 tals, one on each side ; and the tabular part, or supra-occipital, 
 behind. The anterior surface of the supra-occipital is sub- 
 divided into four fossae, in the two upper of which are 
 lodged the occipital lobes of the cerebrum, in the two lower 
 the cerebellum ; the upper and lower pairs of fossoe are 
 separated, by a groove for the lodgment of the lateral 
 venous sinus. The posterior surface is marked by a pro- 
 tuberance and by curved lines for the attachment of 
 muscles; by its margin the supra-occipital articulates with 
 the parietai and temporal bones. Each ex-occipital has 
 6n its under surface a smooth condyle for articulation 
 with the atlas ; in front of the condyle is a foramen which 
 transmits the last or ninth cranial nerve, called hypoglossal, 
 and behind it a foramen for the transmission of a vein 
 sometimes exists. The basi-occipital articulates and, in 
 the adult skull, is fused with the body of the sphenoid 
 (Fig. 7). The upper surface of the basi-occipital is grooved 
 for the lodgment of the medulla oblongata. 
 
 Sometimes the part of the supra-occipital situated abovo 
 the protuberance and upper curved line ossifies as an inde- 
 pendent bone, called interparietal. In some mammals, as 
 the sheep, the existence of an interparietal in the young 
 skull is the rule and not the exception. 
 
 The Sphenoid or Wedge-shaped bone (Fig. 7, and Plate Sphenoid 
 XIL), lies at the base of the skull ; it articulates behind 
 with the occipital; in front it is jointed to the ethmoid and 
 frontal, and by its lateral processes or wings to the frontal 
 parietal, and temporal bones. From its position, therefore, 
 it binds together all the bones of the cranium, and, more 
 over, articulates with many of those of the face. For con 
 structive purposes it is the most important bono of the 
 head. It consists of a centrum or body, with which four 
 pairs of processes are connected. The body has a deep 
 depression on its upper surface, compared in shape to a 
 Turkish saddle, in which iS lodged the pituitary body; 
 hence it is called pituitary fossa. In front of this fossa 
 is a ridge which marks the place of union of the pre- and 
 post-splienoidal subdivisions of the body of this bone; the 
 body is grooved laterally for the internal carotid artery 
 and the cavernous blood sinuses, and it is hollowed out in 
 its interior to form the sphenoidal air-sinuses: these air-
 
 824 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [skeleton — 
 
 sinuses are partially closed in front by a pair of small bony 
 plates called sphenoidal spongy bones, or bones of Bertin. 
 Behind the pituitary fossa is a pair of processes called 
 posterior clinoid, from which the bone slopes back to the 
 basi-occipital ; this slope is called the dorsum settee, and on 
 it rests the pons Varolii From the posterior part of each 
 side of the body the great wings, or ali-sphenoids, pass 
 outwards and upwards to the sides of the skull, and each 
 sends off a plate-like process to enter into the formation 
 of the outer wall of the orbit. From the anterior part of 
 each side of the body the lesser wings, orbilo-sphenoids, 
 pass outwards, and assist in forming the roof of each orbit; 
 each orbito-sphenoid ends internally in a knob-like process 
 called anterior clinoid, and at its root is a foramen called 
 optic, which transmits the second nerve, or nerve of sight, 
 into the orbit. From the great wings on each side, close 
 to its junction with the body, a pair of pterygoid processes, 
 called internal and external, project downwards, and the 
 internal process ends in a slender hook termed the hamular 
 pTocess. The ali-sphenoid is pierced by foramina called 
 rotundum, ovale, and spinosum, the two former of which 
 transmit divisions of the fifth cranial nerve, the last an 
 artery to the membranes of the brain; between the orbito- 
 and ali-sphenoids is a fissure which transmits the third, 
 fourth, sixth, and first divisions of the fifth cranial nerve 
 into the orbit ; and at the root of the pterygoid processes 
 i3 the vidian canal, for the transmission of a nerve of the 
 same name. 
 
 The Ethmoid, or Sieve-like bone (Fig. 7, and Plate XILT., 
 fig. 5 ), is situated between the two orbital plates of the frontal, 
 and in front of the body of the sphenoid. It is cuboidal in 
 shape, and is composed of a central portion and two lateral 
 masses, which are connected together by a thin horizontal 
 plate pierced with holes like a sieve, and called cribriform. 
 This cribriform plate forms a part of the floor of the cranial 
 cavity ; on it rest the two olfactory bulbs, and the branches 
 of the nerves of smell, called olfactory or first cranial 
 nerves, pass from the bulbs through the holes in thi3 plate 
 into the nose. The central portion of the bone is a mesial 
 perpendicular plate, mes-etkmoid, and forms a part of the 
 septum which subdivides the nose into the right and left 
 nostrils. Each lateral mass consists of an external smooth 
 plate, os planum, which assists in forming the inner wall 
 of the orbit ; and an internal convoluted part, called 
 superior and middle spongy bones or turbinals, which enter 
 into the formation of the outer wall of the nostril. These 
 turbinala are associated with the distribution of the nerves 
 of smell , in the toothed whales, -where there are no olfactory 
 nerves, the turbinals are absent, whilst in some mammals, 
 as the crested seal, they assume a highly convoluted form. 
 The lateral masses are hollowed out into air-sinuses, called 
 ethmoidal cells, which communicate with the nostrils and 
 with corresponding sinuses in the sphenoid and frontal 
 bones. 
 
 The Frontal, or bone of the Forehead (Figs. 6 and 7, and 
 Plate XIII. ), consists originally of a right and left lateral half, 
 united by the frontal suture in the middle line of the fore- 
 head. As a rule, this suture disappears in early life, and a 
 single greatly curved bone is formed. The bone is convex 
 forwards, to form the rounded forehead, and presents two 
 eminences, the centres of ossification of the bone ; at the 
 root of the nose is an elevation called glabella, extending 
 outwards, from which, on each side, is the supra-ciliary 
 ridge, corresponding to the position of the eyebrow. In 
 the crania of some races, e.g., the Australian, the forward 
 projection of the glabella and supra-ciliary ridges is con- 
 siderable ; and in the well-known skull from the valley of 
 the Neander it has reached a remarkable size. These 
 ridges and the glabella mark the position of the air-sinuses 
 in the frontal bone. The upper border of each orbit, which 
 
 ends internally and externally in a process of bone called 
 angular, forms the lower boundary of the forehead. The 
 cerebral Burface of the bone is deeply concave, for tho 
 reception of the frontal lobes of the brain j the concavity 
 is deepened by the backward projection of two tluJ plates 
 of bone which form the roofs of the orbits, which plates 
 are separated from each other by the deep notch in which 
 the ethmoid bone is lodged ; along the margins of thii 
 notch may be seen the openings into the frontal air-sinuses. 
 
 The Parietal bones, two in number (Figs. 6 and 7, and 
 Plate XIV.), form the greater part of the side wall of the 
 skull, and mount upwards to the vertex, where they unite 
 together along the Line of the sagittal suture. Each bone 
 possesses about the centre of its outer surface an eminence, 
 the centre of ossification of the bone, with which a hollow 
 on the cerebral surface, lodging a convolution of the parietal 
 lobe of the brain, corresponds. The bone is quadrilateral 
 in form. Three of its margins are strongly denticulated, 
 for junction with the occipital, frontal, and corresponding 
 parietal ; the fourth is scale-like, for union with the tem- 
 poral, and forms the squamous suture; near the upper 
 margin on the cerebral surface is a groove for the lodgment 
 of the superior longitudinal venous sinus. The anterior 
 inferior angle articulates with the ali-sphenoid, aud is 
 marked by a groove for the meningeal artery; the posterior 
 inferior is grooved for the lateral venous sinus, and articu- 
 lates with the mastoid of the temporal. 
 
 The Temporal bones, two in number (Figs. 6 and 7, 
 and Plate XIV.), are placed at the side and base of the 
 skull, and are remarkable for containing in their interior 
 the organs of hearing. Each bone consists originally of 
 four subdivisions — a equamoso-zygomatic, a tympanic, a 
 petro-mastoid, and a styloid — which in course of time fuse 
 together to form an irregular-shaped bone. Tho squamous 
 part of the squamoso-zygomatic is a thin plate which forms 
 that part of the side of the skull familiarly known as the 
 " temple." The zygoma extends horizontally forwards as 
 a distinct arched process, to join the malar or cheek-bone. 
 At the root of the zygoma is a smooth fossa, called glenoid, 
 which receives the condyle of the lower jaw, and assists in 
 forming the temporo-maxillary joint. The tympanic portion 
 forms in the foetus a ring, which enlarges subsequently into 
 a curved plate that forms the wall of the external auditory 
 meatus, or passage into the tympanum or middle ear. The 
 tympanic and squamoso-zygomatic parts of the bone fuse 
 together; but a fissure, called Glaserian, situated behind 
 the glenoid fossa, marks their original separation ; in this 
 fissure the slender process of the malleus (one of the bones 
 of the tympanum) is lodged. The petro-mastoid or periotic 
 part of the temporal contains the organ of hearing, and is 
 complicated in its internal anatomy. It extends forwards 
 and inwards along the floor of the skull, and forms on tho 
 exterior of the skull the large nipple-shaped mastoid pro- 
 cess. This process is rough on its outer surface, for the 
 attachment of muscles, and is hollowed out internally into 
 the mastoid cells or air-sinuses, which communicate with 
 the tympanum or middle ear. The petrous-temporal is 
 distinguished by its stony hardness, and has the form of a 
 three-sided pyramid. Its apex lies in relation to the side 
 of the body of the sphenoid ; its base corresponds to the 
 tympanic cavity and external meatus ; its under surface i» 
 rough, and forms a part of the under surface of the skull ; 
 its anterior and posterior surfaces are smooth and in rela 
 tion to certain parts of the brain. The petrous part of the 
 bone is traversed by a canal which transmits the internal 
 carotid artery and sympathetic nerve into the cranial 
 cavity ; in its posterior surface is a passage, internal 
 meatus, down which the seventh cranial nerve proceeds ; 
 at the bottom of the meatus the auditory part of that 
 nerve enters the internal ear, whilst the part cf the nerve
 
 8KULL.] 
 
 A N A T M Y 
 
 825 
 
 which goes to the muscles of the face traverses a canal in 
 the bone, called aqueduct of Fallopius, which ends ex- 
 ternally, between the styloid and mastoid processes, in the 
 stylomastoid foramen. The styloid process is a slender part 
 of the bone which projects downwards , from the tympanic 
 plate, and is connected with the small cornu of the hyoid 
 bone by the stylohyoid ligament. It does not unite with 
 the rest of the bone until a comparatively late period. 
 Between the petrous-temporal and ex-occipital is the 
 jugular foramen, which transmits out of the skull the 
 eighth cranial nerve and the internal jugular vein. 
 
 The fourteen bones of the Face are, as a rule, much 
 smaller than those of the Cranium ; some have the form 
 of thin scales, others are more- irregular in shape. They 
 are named as follows : — Two superior maxillary, two 
 palate, two malar, two nasal, two lachrymal, two inferior 
 turbinal, a vomer, and an inferior maxilla. 
 
 The Superior Maxillre, or bones of the Upper Jaw (Figs. 
 8 and 7, and Plate XIV.), form the skeleton of a large part 
 of the face, and enter into the formation of the walls of the 
 cavities of the nose, mouth, and orbit ; around them the 
 other bones of the face are grouped. The facial surface 
 of each bone presents in front a large foramen for the 
 transmission of the infra-orbital branch of the fifth cranial 
 nerve, and behind, several small foramina for the trans- 
 mission cf nerves to the teeth in the upper jaw. On the 
 same surface "is a rough process for articulation with the 
 malar bone. The orbital surface is smooth, forms the 
 floor of the orbit, and possesses a canal in which the infra- 
 orbital nerve lies. The nasal surface forms a part of the 
 outer wall and floor of the nostril, and presents a hole 
 leading into a large hollow in the substance of the bone, 
 called the antrum, or superior maxillary air-sinus. The 
 nasal surface articulates with the inferior turbinal and 
 palate bones. The nasal and facial surfaces become con- 
 tinuous with each other at the anterior aperture of the 
 nose, and from them a strong process ascends to join the 
 frontal bone close to the glabella ; this process also articu- 
 lates with the lachrymal and nasal bones. The palatal 
 surface forms a. part of the bony roof of the mouth, and 
 presents La- front a small hole (the incisive foramen) which 
 communicates with the nose. In the sheep and many other 
 mammals this hole is of large size ; the palatal surface is 
 bounded externally by a thick elevated border, in which 
 are the sockets, or alveoli, for the lodgment of the fangs 
 of the teeth ; internally this surface articulates by a narrow 
 border with the other superior maxilla and with the vomer, 
 and, posteriorly, with the palate-bone. 
 
 The Palate-bone (Fig. 7, and Plate XIV.) lies in con- 
 tact with the inner surface and posterior border of the 
 superior maxilla, and separates it from the sphenoid. It 
 is in shape not unlike the capital letter L, the horizontal 
 limb forming the hinder part of the bony roof of the 
 mouth by its lower surface, and the back part of the floor 
 of the nose by its upper. The ascending limb assists in 
 forming the outer wall of the nose, and subdivides into 
 an anterior, or orbital, and a posterior, or sphenoidal, pro- 
 cess. At the junction of the two limbs is the pyramidal 
 process, which articulates with the lower ends of the 
 pterygoid processes of the sphenoid. 
 
 ' The Vomer (Fig. 7), shaped like a ploughshare, lies 
 vertically in the mesial plane of the nose, and forms a 
 Targe part of the partition which separates one nostril from 
 tne other. It articulates above with the under surface of 
 the body of the sphenoid and the mes-ethmoid ; below 
 with the palatal processes of the superior maxillae and 
 palate-bones; in front with the septal cartilage of the nose, 
 whilst the posterior border is free, and forms the hinder 
 edge of the nasal septum. 
 
 The Inferior Turbinated is a slightly convoluted bone 
 
 situated on the outer wall of the nose, where it articulates 
 with the superior maxilla and palate a little below the 
 middle turbinal of the ethmoid. 
 
 The Lachrymal (Fig. 6) is a small scale-like bone, in 
 shape not unlike a finger-nail, placed at the inner wall 
 of the orbit, and fitting between the ethmoid, superior 
 maxilla, and frontal bones." - It has a groove on the outer 
 surface, in which is lodged the lachrymal sac. 
 
 The Nasal (Fig. 6) is a thin, somewhat elongated 
 bone, which, articulating with its fellow in the middle 
 line, forms with it the bony bridge of the nose ; above, it 
 articulates with the frontal, and by its outer border with • 
 the ascending process of the superior maxilla 
 
 The Malar bone (Fig. 6), irregular in shape, forms the 
 prominence of the cheek, and completes the outer wall 
 of the orbit. It rests upon the superior maxilla ; by its 
 orbital plate it articulates with the great wing of the 
 sphenoid ; by its ascending process with the external 
 angular process of the frontal ; by its posterior process with 
 the zygomatic process of the temporal, so as to complete 
 the zygomatic arch. 
 
 The Inferior Maxilla, Lower Jaw, orMandible (Figs. 6 and 
 7, and Plate XIV., fig. 9), is a large horse-shoe shaped bone, 
 which has the distinction of being the only movable bone of 
 the head. It consists originally of two separate halves, which 
 unite during the first year of life into a single bone at the 
 symphysis or chin. A characteristic feature ot the human 
 lower jaw is the forward slope of the bone at the chin, for 
 in other mammals the symphysis inclines backwards. In 
 the upper border of this bone are the sockets for the lower 
 series of teeth. At the posterior end of the horse-shoe 
 curve on each side the bone ascends almost vertically, and 
 terminates in two processes — an anterior, or coronoid, 
 which is for the insertion of the temporal muscle, and a 
 posterior, or condyle, which is for articulation with the glen- 
 oid fossa of the temporal bone. Where the ascending and 
 horizontal limbs of the bone are continuous, it forms the 
 angle, which is almost a right angle. On the inner surface 
 of the ascending limb is a large foramen, communicating 
 with a canal which traverses the bone below the sockets 
 for the teeth. In this canal are lodged the nerves and 
 blood-vessels for these teeth. 
 
 The Hyoid bone lies in the neck, on the same plane as Hyoid. 
 the lower border of the inferior maxilla (Figs. 6 and 7). It 
 is shaped like the letter U, and consists of a body, or basi- 
 hyal, from which two long 1 horns, or stylo-hyah, project 
 backwards. At the junction of the body and horns two 
 smaller cornua, or cerato-hyah, project upwards, and are 
 connected with the styloid processes of the temporal bones, 
 or stylo-hyals, by the stylo-hyoid ligaments, or epi-hyals. 
 The hyoid is the bone from which the muscles of the 
 tongue arise, and it is situated immediately above the 
 thyroid cartilage of the larynx, to which it is attached by 
 ligaments. 
 
 In its general form the Skull is ovoid, with the long 
 axis extending antero-posteriorly, the frontal and occipital 
 ends rounded, and the sides somewhat flattened. Its 
 average length in the people of the British Islands is a 
 little more than 7 inches ; its greatest breadth about 5 J 
 inches ; and its height, from the plane of the foramen 
 magnum to the vertex, about 5J inches. Its greatest 
 circumference is about 21 inches. The breadth of the 
 face across the zygomatic arches is about 5 inches. The 
 average capacity of the brain cavity is 92 cubic inches. 
 The British skull is dolicho-cephalic and orthognathic. 
 (See Anthropology.) 
 
 The lateral regions of the skull are called the temporal 
 fossa, and give origin to the temporal muscles. Under 
 cover of each zvfuu.atic arch is the zygomatic fossa. At 
 the bottom of this is a hollow between the superior maxills
 
 82(5 
 
 A N A T M Y 
 
 SKKLETON— * 
 
 and sphenoid, called spheno-maxillary fossa, from which 
 the pterygn-maxUlary fissure extends downwards between 
 the pterygoid and superior maxillary ; and the spheno- 
 maxillary fissure extends upwards into the orbit. The 
 orbit is a four-walled pyramidal cavity, with the base 
 directed forward to the face, and the apex backward to 
 the brain cavity. At the apex are the foramina in the 
 sphenoid, through which the nerve of sight and other nerves 
 pass from the brain to the eyeball, muscles, and other soft 
 structures within the orbit. 
 
 The nostrils open on the front of the face by a large 
 opening situated between the two superior maxilke, and 
 bounded above by the two nasals. The sides of the 
 opening pass down almost vertically to join the tloor, and 
 are not rounded off as in the ape's skull ; from the centre 
 of the floor a sharp process, the nasal spine of the superior 
 maxiilaj projects forwards, and forms a characteristic 
 feature of the human skull. Attached to the sides of the 
 opening are the lateral cartilages of the nose, which form 
 the wings of the nostrils, and so modify the position of 
 their openings that in the face they look downwards. The 
 nostrils are separated from each other by a vertical mesial 
 partition composed of the mes-ethmoid, vomer, and triangular 
 nasal cartilage, the last-named of which projects forward 
 beyond the anterior surface of the upper jaw, and con- 
 tributes materially to the prominence of the nose. The 
 outer wall of each nostril presents the convoluted turbinals, 
 which are separated from each other by horizontal passages 
 extending antero-posteriorly ; the superior passage or 
 meatus lies between the superior and middle turbinals of 
 the ethmoid, and is continued into the sphenoidal and 
 posterior ethmoidal air-sinuses ; the middle meatus lies 
 between the middle and inferior turbinals, and is continued 
 into the frontal, anterior ethmoidal, and maxillary air 
 sinuses. These sinuses are therefore exteasions of the nasal 
 chamber or respiratory passage, and correspond with the 
 air cavities which exist in so many of the bones of birds ; 
 the inferior meatus lies between the inferior turbinal and 
 floor of the nose ; into its anterior part opens the nasal 
 duct which conveys the tears from the front of the eyeball 
 The posterior openings of the nose are separated from each 
 other by the hinder edge of the vomer, and are placed 
 between the internal pterygoid plates of the sphenoid. 
 
 The skull varies in appearance at different periods of life. 
 In infancy the face is small, about -Jth of the size of the 
 entire head, for the teeth are still rudimentary and the 
 jaws are feeble ; the centres of ossification of the cranial 
 bones are prominent; the forehead projects; the skull is 
 widest at the parietal eminences ; the air-sinuses, and bony 
 ridges corresponding to them, have not formed. In the 
 adult the face is about half the size of the head, and its 
 vertical diameter greatly elongated, from the growth of the 
 antrum, the nose, and the dental borders of the jaws ; and 
 the angle of the lower jaw is almost a right angle. In old 
 age the teeth fall out, the jaws shrink in, their dental 
 borders become absorbed, the anglo of the lower jaw, as in 
 infancy, is obtuse ; the vertex and floor of the skull also 
 become flattened, and the sides bulge outwards, — changes 
 due to gravitation and the subsidence of the bones by their 
 owu weight. 
 
 The skull of a woman is smaller and lighter, with the 
 muscular ridges and projections due to the air sinuses less 
 strongly marked than in a man, but with the eminences 
 or centres of ossification more prominent. The more 
 feeble air sinuses imply a more restricted respiratory 
 activity and a less active mode of life than in a man. The 
 internal capacity is about 10 per cent, less than that of 
 the male. The face is smaller in proportion to the cranium; 
 the cranium is more flattened at the vertex, and the height 
 is consequently not so great in proportion to the length as 
 
 in the man. In the female skull, therefore, the infantile 
 characters are less departed from than is the case in the male. 
 
 Turning now to the Afpeitdiculah Skeleton, we shall 
 consider first that of tho Superior or Thoracic or 
 Fectoral Extremity, or Upper Limb. The Upper Limb i i . a 
 may be subdivided into a proximal part or shoulder, a ; - ■"•>'• 
 distal part or hand, and an intermediate shaft, which con- 
 sists of an upper arm or brackium, and a fore-arm or anti- 
 brachium. In each of these subdivisions certain bones are 
 found : in the shoulder, the clavicle and scapula ; in the 
 upper ann, the humerus ; in the fore-arm, the radius and 
 ulna, the bone of the upper arm in man being longer than 
 the bones of the fore-arm ; in the hand, the carpal and 
 metacarpal bones and the phalanges. The scapula and 
 clavicle together form an imperfect bony arch, the Scapular 
 Arch or Shoulder Girdle ; the shaft and hand form a free 
 divergent Appendage. The shoulder girdle i3 the direct 
 medium of connection between the axial skeleton and tho 
 divergent part of the limb ; its anterior segment, the 
 clavicle, articulates with the upper end of the sternum, 
 whilst its posterior segment, the scapula, approaches, but 
 does not reach, the dorsal spines. 
 
 Flo. 8. — Dlafrrsmmatlc section to represent the relations of one shoulder jrirdle to 
 the trunk. V. a Dorsal Vertebra ; C, a Ittb ; St, tlie Sternum ; Sc, the Scapula ; 
 C'r, the Coracoid ; CI, the Clavicle ; M, the Mt-niscus at its sternal end ; U, the 
 Humerus. 
 
 The Clavicle, or Collar Bone (Fig. 9), is an elongated Clavicle 
 bone which extends from the upper end of the sternum 
 horizontally outwards, to articulate with the acromion 
 process of the scapula. It presents a strong sigmoida) 
 curve, which is associated with the transverse and horizontal 
 direction of the axis of the human shoulder. It is slender 
 in the female, but powerful in muscular males ; its sternal 
 end thick and somewhat triangular ; its acromial end, 
 flattened frSm above downwards, has an oval articular 
 surface for the acromion. Its Bhaft has four surfaces for 
 the attachment of muscles; and a strong ligament, con- 
 necting it with the coracoid, is attached to the under 
 surface, near the outer end, whilst near the inner a strong 
 ligament passes between it and the first rib. The clavicle 
 is absent in the hoofed quadrupeds, in the seals and whales, 
 and is feeble in the carnivora; but is well formed, not only 
 in man, but in apes, bats, and in many rodents and 
 insectivora. 
 
 The Scapula, or Shoulder Blade (Fig. 9), is the most Scapula 
 important bone of the shoulder girdle, and is present in 
 all mammals. It lies at the upper and back part of the 
 wall of the chest, reaching from the second to the seventh 
 rib. Its form is plate-like and triangular, with three 
 surfaces, three borders, and. three angles. The funda- 
 mental form of the scapula, as seen in the mole, is that of 
 a three-sided prismatic rod, and its assumption of the 
 plate or blade-like character in man is in connection with 
 the great development of the muscles which rotate the 
 humerus at the shoulder joint. Its costal or ventral 
 surface is in relation to the ribs, from which it is separated 
 by certain muscles : one, called subscapularis, arises from 
 the surface itself, which i3 often termed subscapular fossa. 
 The dorsum or back of the scapula is traversed from 
 behind forwards by a prominent spine (PL XIV., fig. 1, S), 
 which lies in the proper axis of the scapula, and subdivides 
 this aspect of the bone into a surface above the 6pine, the
 
 TIPPER LIMB.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 827 
 
 supra- or prce-spxnous fossa, and one below the spine, the 
 infra- or post-spinous fossa. The spine arches forwards, to 
 end in a broad flattened process, 
 the acromion, which has an oval 
 articular surface for the clavicle ; 
 both spine and acromion are 
 largely developed in the human 
 scapula in correlation with the 
 great size of the trapezius and 
 deltoid muscles, which are con- 
 cerned in the elevation and ab- 
 duction of the upper limb. The 
 borders of the scapula, directed 
 upwards, backwards, and down- 
 wards, give attachment to several 
 inusclea. The angles are inferior, 
 8upero-posterior, and supero-an- 
 terior. The superoanterior is the 
 most important ; it is truncated, 
 and presents a large, shallow, oval, 
 smooth surface, the glenoid fossa, 
 for articulation with the humerus, 
 to form the shoulder joint. Over- 
 hanging the glenoid fossa is a 
 curved beak-like process, the 
 coracoid, which is of importance 
 as corresponding with the separate 
 coracoid bone of birds and reptiles. 
 The line of demarcation between 
 it and the scapula proper is 
 marked on the upper border of 
 the scapula by the supra-scapular 
 notch. 
 
 The Humerus, or bone of the 
 Upper Arm (Fig. 9),isalongbone, 
 and consists of a shaft and two 
 extremities. The upper extremity 
 of this bone possesses a convex 
 spheroidal smooth surface, the 
 head, for articulation with the 
 glenoid fossa of the scapula ; it 
 is surrounded by a narrow con- 
 stricted neck, and where the neck 
 and shaft become continuous with 
 each other, two processes or tuberosities are found, 
 to which are attached the rotator muscles arising 
 from the scapular fossae. Between the tuberosities is a 
 groove in which the long tendon of the biceps rests. A 
 line "drawn through the head of the humerus perpendicular 
 to the middle of its articular surface, forms with the axis of 
 the shaft of the bone an angle of 40°. The shaft of the 
 humerus is cylindriform above, but flattened and expanded 
 below ; about midway down the outer surface is a rough 
 ridge for the insertion of the deltoid muscle, and on the 
 inner surface another rough mark for the insertion of the 
 coraco-brachialis. The demarcation between the cylindri- 
 form and expanded parts of the shaft is marked by a 
 shallow groove winding round the back of the bone, in 
 which the musculo-spiral nerve i3 lodged. The lower 
 extremity of the humerus consists of an articular and a 
 non-articular portion. The articular presents a small head 
 or capitellum for the radius, and a pulley or trochlea for 
 the movements of the ulna in flexion and extension of the 
 limb. The non-articular part consists of two condyloid 
 eminences, internal and external. From the external, or epi- 
 condyle, a ridge passes for some distance along the outer 
 border of the bone ; it gives origin to the supinator and 
 extensor muscles in the fore-arm. From the internal emi- 
 nence, or epi-trochlea, a ridge passes up the inner border of 
 tie shaft of the bone; this eminence give* origin to the 
 
 Fio. 9. — The Appendicular Skele- 
 ton of the Left Upper Limb. 
 CU clavicle : Sc, scapula ; Ac, 
 acromion process; Cr, coracoid 
 process of scapula; H, humerus; 
 R. radius; U. ulna; C, opposite 
 the eight carpal bones; Mc op- 
 posite the five metacarpal b'>nes; 
 P. pollex. or thumb; II. Index, 
 III. ml.idle, IV. ring, V. 
 little finger. 
 
 pronator and flexor muscles in the fore-arm. In nearly 
 two per cent of the bodies examined in the anatomy-rooms 
 in the university of Edinburgh, a hooked process has been 
 seen projecting from the shaft of the bone, about 2 inches 
 above the epi-trochlea ; this process is connected to the 
 epi-trochlea by a fibrous band, so as to form a foramen, 
 which has been called svpra-condyloid. In these cases 
 the median nerve invariably passes through the foramen, 
 and not unfrequently is accompanied by the brachial 
 artery. In the feline carnivora and some other mammals 
 a foramen constantly occurs in this part of the humerus, 
 through which, as a rule, both nerve and artery proceed, 
 though in the common seal it transmits only the nerve. 
 
 Before describing the two bones of the fore-arm, the 
 anatomist should note the range of movement which can 
 take place between them. In one position, which is called 
 supine, they lie parallel to each other, the radius being the 
 more external bone, and the palm of the hand being 
 directed forwards ; in the other .or prone position the 
 radius crosses obliquely in front of the ulna, and the palm 
 of the hand is directed backwards. Not only the bones 
 of the fore-arm, but those of the hand are supposed to be 
 in the supine position when they are described. 
 
 The Radius (Fig. 9) is the outer bone of the Fore-arm, and Radius 
 like .all long bones possesses a shaft and two extremities. 
 The upper extremity or head has a shallow, smooth cup for 
 moving on the capitellum of the humerus ; the outer 
 margin of the cup is also smooth, for articulation with the 
 ulna and annular ligament; below the cup is a constricted 
 neck, and immediately below the neck a tuberosity for the 
 insertion of the biceps. The shaft of the bone possesses 
 three surfaces for the attachment of muscles, and a sharp 
 inner border for the interosseous membrane. The lower 
 end of the bone is much broader than the upper, and is 
 marked posteriorly by grooves for the lodgment of tendons 
 passing to the back of the hand : from its outer border a 
 pointed styloid process projects downwards; its inner border 
 has a smooth shallow fossa for articulation with the ulna, and 
 its broad lower surface is smooth and concave, for articula- 
 tion with the scaphoid and semilunar bones of the wrist. 
 
 The Ulna (Fig. 9) is also a long bone. Its upper end is Clna. 
 subdivided into two strong processes by a deep fossa, the 
 greater sigmoid cavity, which possesses a smooth surface 
 for articulation with the trochlea of the humerus. The 
 anterior or coronoid process is marked by an obnque ridge 
 for the insertion of the brachialis anticus, whilst the pos- 
 terior or olecranon process gives insertion to the largo 
 triceps muscle of the upper arm. Immediately below the 
 outer border of the great sigmoid cavity is the small 
 sigmoid cavity for articulation with the side of the head of 
 the radius. The shaft of the bone possesses three surfaces 
 for the attachment of muscles, and a sharp outer border 
 for the interosseous membrane. The lower end, much 
 smaller than the upper, has a pointed styloid process and 
 a smooth articular surface, the outer portion of which is 
 for tb". lower end of the radius, the lower part for moving 
 on a cartilage of the wrist joint called the triangular fibre- 
 cartilage. 
 
 The Hand consists of the Carpus or wrist, of the Meta- 
 carpus or palm, and of the free Digits, the thumb and four 
 fingers. Anatomists describe it with the palm turned to 
 the front, and with its axis in line with the axis of the 
 fore-arm. 
 
 The Cirpal or Wrist bones (Fig. 9) are eight in numbe? 
 and small in size : they are arranged in two rows, a 
 proximal, — i.e. a row next the fore-arm, — consisting of the 
 scaphoid, semilunar, cuneiform, and pisiform ; and a distal, 
 — i.e. a row next the bones of the palm, — consisting of a 
 trapezium, trapezoid, os magnum, and unciform ; the bones 
 in each row being named in the order they are met with.
 
 828 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [skeleton— 
 
 frum the rndi.il or outer to (lie ulnar or inner side of the 
 wrist It is unnecessary to give a separate descriptiou of 
 each bone. Except the pisiform or pea-shaped bone, 
 which articulates with the front of the cuneiform, each 
 carpal bone is short and irregularly cuboidal in shape ; its 
 anterior (or palmar) surface and its posterior (or dorsal) being 
 rough, for the attachment of ligaments ; its superior and 
 inferior surfaces being invariably smooth, for articulation 
 with adjacent bone3; whilst the inner end outer surfaces 
 are also smooth, for articulation, except the outer surfaces 
 of the scaphoid and trapezium (the two external bones of 
 the carpus), and the inner surfaces of the cuneiform and 
 unciform (the two internal bones). Occasionally a ninth or 
 supernumerary bone may arise from the subdivision of the 
 scaphoid, semilunar, or trapezoid, into two pieces ; more 
 rarely a distinct bone is found in the human wrist inter- 
 calated between the trapezoid, os magnum, semilunar, and 
 scaphoid, which corresponds in position to the os inter- 
 medium, found constantly in the wrist of the orang, gibbon, 
 the tailed apes, and many rodents and insectivora, 
 Mew- The Metacarpal bones, or hones of the Palm of the Hand, 
 
 =a T us - are five in number (Fig. 9). They are miniature long 
 bones, and each possesses a shaft and two extremities. 
 The metacarpal of the thumb is the shortest, and diverges 
 outwards from the rest : its carpal extremity is saddle- 
 shaped, for articulation with the trapezium ; its shaft is 
 somewhat compressed, and its phalangeal end is smooth 
 and rounded, for the first phalanx of the thumb. The 
 four other metacarpal bones belong to the four fingers : 
 they are almost parallel to each other, and diminish in size 
 from the second to the fifth. Their carpal ends articulate 
 with the trapezoid, os magnum, and unciform : their shafts 
 are three-sided : their phalangeal ends articulate with the 
 first phalanges of the fingers. 
 Digits. The number of Digits in the hand is five, which is the 
 
 highest number found in the mammalia. They are dis- 
 tinguished by the names of pollex or thumb, and index, 
 middle, ring, and little fingers. Their skeleton consists of 
 fourteen bones, named phalanges, of which the thumb 
 possesses two, and each of the four fingers three. The 
 phalanx next the metacarpal bone is the first, that which 
 carries the nail is the terminal or ungual phalanx, whilst 
 the intermediate bone is the second phalanx. Each is a 
 miniature long bone, with two articular extremities and an 
 intermediate shaft, except the terminal phalanges, which 
 have an articular surface only at their proximal ends, the 
 distal end being rounded and rough, to afford a surface 
 for the lodgment of the nail. 
 
 The Inferior or Pelvic Extremity, or Lower Limb, 
 consists of a proximal part or haunch, a distal part or foot, 
 and an intermediate shaft subdivided into thigh and kg. 
 Each part has v 
 
 its appropriate 
 skeleton : in the 
 haunch, the pel- 
 vie or innomi- 
 nate bone; in the 
 thigh, the femur; 
 in the leg, the i> 
 
 tibia and fibula Fro. 10.— Diagrammatic section to represent the relations 
 ..-, .i • -l i of the Pei/ic Girdle to the Trunk. V, a sacral Tertebra ; 
 
 Itne inign-DOne n, the Ulnm; P, the two pubic bonee meeting In front 
 in man being at the symphysis; F, the femur. 
 
 longer than the leg-bones) ; in front of the knee, the 
 patella ; in the foot, the tarsal and metatarsal bones and 
 phalanges. The bone of the haunch forms an arch or 
 Pelvic Girdle, which articulates behind with the side of the 
 sacrum, and arches forward to articulate with the opposite 
 haunch -bone at the pubic symphysis. It is the direct 
 medium of connection between the axial skeleton and the 
 ahaft and foot, which form a freo divergent Appendage. 
 
 The Os Innominatum, or I launch bone, is a large irre- 
 gular plate-like bone, which forms the lateral and auteriol 
 boundary of the cavity of the pelvis. In early life it con- 
 sists of three bones — ilium, ischium, and pubis — which 
 unite about the twenty-fifth year into a single bone. 
 These bones converge, and join to form a deep fossa or 
 cup, the acetabulum or cotyloid cavity, on the outer surface 
 of the bone, which lodges the head of the thigh-bone at 
 the hip-joint. One-fifth of this cup is formed by the 
 pubes, and about two-fifths each by the ischium and ilium. 
 At the bottom of the acetabulum is a depression, to the 
 sides of which the interarticular ligament of the hip-joint 
 is attached. From the acetabulum the ilium extends 
 upwards and backwards, the ischium downwards and 
 backwards, the pubis forwards and inwards. In front of 
 the acetabulum is a large hole, the obturator or thyroid 
 foramen, which is bounded by the ischium and pubes; 
 behind the acetabulum is the 
 deep sciatic notch, which is 
 bounded by the ischium and 
 ilium. 
 
 The Ilium (Fig. 10) in man 
 is a broad plate - like bone. 
 In its most simple form, as in 
 the kangaroo; it is a three- 
 sided, prismatic, rod-like bone, 
 one end of which enters into 
 the formation of the acetabu- 
 lum, whilst the other is free, 
 and forms the iliac crest. In 
 man, notwithstanding its ex 
 panded form, three surfaces 
 may also be recognised, cor- 
 responding to the surfaces in 
 the ilium of the kangaroo; and, as 
 in that animal, the lower end 
 aids in forming the acetabulum, 
 while the upper end forms 
 the iliac crest, which, in man, 
 in conformity with the general 
 expansion of the bone, is elon- 
 gated into the sinuous crest 
 of the ilium. This crest is of 
 great importance, for it affords 
 attachment to the broad muscles 
 which form the wall of the ab- 
 dominal cavity. One surface of 
 the ilium is external, and marked 
 by curved lines which subdivide 
 it into areas for the origin of 
 the muscles of the buttock ; 
 another surface is anterior, and 
 hollowed out to give origin to 
 the iliacus muscle ; the third, 
 or internal, surface articulates fio. 11,-ihe Appendicular skeleton 
 posteriorly with the sacrum, ? f the }f tl L "" er H 1 ?"- .,."• i !l. um • 
 
 * ... •'.,.. 'Is, ischium, Pb, pubis, the three 
 
 whilst anteriorly it forms a part parts of the innominate bnne; f, 
 
 of thfi wall nf tlio trim nplviu femur; P, patella; Tb, tibia; Fb. 
 OI tue t\ ail 01 ine true peiVlS. fibula; Tr. opposite the aeventBrsal 
 
 The external is separated from bones; c, os caicis, forming promi- 
 
 .1 r i i j nence of heel ; Mt, opposite the five 
 
 the anterior surface by a border metatarsal bones; n. hallux or 
 
 which joins the antprinr end of Kreat ,oe; "• »'' cond . '"■ i^'"i. 
 wmi.ii juius me anterior enu oi , v fourlh _ v flflh or , lrtle tM _ 
 
 the Crest, where it forms a pro- The dotted line HH represents the 
 -„„„ ii,,, , . • ■ horizontal plane, whilst the dotted 
 
 cess, the anterior superior spine. „ ne v „ ln " „„„ „ uh the Tert , ca; 
 About the middle of this border «« of tne »P |n e. 
 is the anterior inferior spine. Between the externaland inter- 
 nal surfaces is a border on which are found the posterior 
 superior andinferior spines; between the anteriorand internal 
 surfaces is the pectineal border, which forms part of the line 
 of separation between the true and false pelvis. 
 
 The Pubis (Fig. 11) is also a three-sided, prismatic, rod- 
 
 Ilium.
 
 LOWER LIMB.J 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 829 
 
 like bone, the fundamental form of which 13 obscured by 
 the modification in shape of its inner end. In human 
 anatomy it is customary to regard it as consisting of a 
 body and of two branches, a horizontal and a descending 
 ramus. The body and horizontal ramus form the funda- 
 mental prismatic rod, and the descending ramus is merely 
 a special offshoot from the inner end of the rod. The 
 outer end of the rod takes a part in the formation of the 
 acetabulum ; the inner end is expanded into the body of 
 the pubis, and ha3 a broad margin, or symphysis, for 
 articulation with the corresponding bone on the opposite 
 side of the pelvis. The three surfaces are — a superior, for 
 the origin of the pectineus muscle ; a posterior, which 
 enters into the wall of the true pelvis ; and an inferior, 
 which forms the upper boundary of the obturator foramen. 
 The descending ramus is merely a downward prolongation 
 of the inner end of the bone which joins the ischium, and 
 aids in forming the side of the pubic arch. The junction 
 of the outer end of the pubi3 with the ilium is marked by 
 the pectineal eminence. The superior and posterior sur- 
 faces are separated by the sharp pectineal line, which, 
 starting from the spine of the pubis, runs outwards to aid 
 in forming the brim of the true pelvis. 
 
 am The Ischium (Fig. 11), like the ilium and pubis, has 
 
 the fundamental form of a three-sided prismatic rod. One 
 extremity (the upper) completes the acetabulum, whilst 
 the lower forms the large prominence, or tuber ischii. The 
 surfaces of the bone are internal or pelvic, external, and 
 anterior. The pelvic and external surfaces are separated 
 from each other by a sharp border, on which is seen the 
 ischial spine. The pelvic and anterior surfaces are sepa- 
 rated by a border, which forms a part of the boundary of 
 the obturator foramen; but the margin between the external 
 and anterior surfaces is feebly marked. The tuberosity, 
 a thick, rough, and strong process, gives origin to 
 several powerful muscles : on it the body rests in the 
 sitting posture ; an offshoot, or ramus, ascends from it 
 to join the descending ramus of the pubis, and com- 
 pletes both the pubic arch and the margin of the obturator 
 foramen. 
 
 i By the articulation . of the two innominate bones with 
 
 each other in front at the pubic symphysis, and with the 
 sides of the sacrum behind, the osseous walls of the cavity 
 of the Pelvis are formed. This cavity is subdivided into 
 a false and a true pelvis. The false pelvis lies between 
 the expanded wing"-like portions of the two ilia. The true 
 pelvis lies below the two pectineal lines and the base of 
 the. sacrum, which surround the upper orifice or brim of 
 the true pelvis, or pelvic inlet; whilst its lower orifice or 
 outlet is bounded behind by the coccyx, laterally by the 
 ischial tuberosities, and in front by the pubic arch. In 
 the erect attitude the pelvis is so inclined that the plane 
 of the brim forms with the horizontal plane an angle of 
 from 60° to 65°. The axis of the cavity is curved, and is 
 represented by a line drawn perpendicularly to the planes 
 of the brim, the cavity, and the outlet; at the brim it is 
 directed upwards and forwards, at the outlet downwards 
 and a little forwards. Owing to the inclination of the 
 pelvis, the base of the sacrum is nearly 4 inches higher 
 than the upper border of the pubic symphysis. The female 
 pelvis is distinguished from the male by certain sexual 
 characters. The bones are more slender, the ridges and 
 processes for muscular attachment more feeble, the breadth 
 and capacity greater, the depth less", the ilia more expanded, 
 giving the greater breadth to the hips of a woman than a 
 man; the inlet more nearly circular, the pubic arch wider, the 
 distance between the tuberosities greater, and the obturator 
 foramen more triangular in the female than in the male. 
 The greater capacity of the woman's than the man's pelvis 
 likt afford greater room for the expansion of the uterus 
 
 during pregnancy, and for the expulsion of tho child at 
 the time of birth. 
 
 The Femur or Thigh-bone (Fig. II) is the longest bone Feiuut, 
 in the body, and consists of a shaft and two extremities. The 
 upper extremity ex head possesses a smooth convex surface, 
 in which an oval roughened fossa, for the attachment of 
 the inter-articular ligament of the hip, is found; from the 
 head a strong elongated neck passes downwards and out- 
 wards to join the upper end of the shaft; the place of 
 junction is marked by two processes or trochanters: the 
 external is of large size, and to it are attached many 
 muscles; the internal is much smaller, and gives attach- 
 ment to the psoas and iliacus. A line drawn through the 
 axis of the head and neck forms with a vertical line drawn 
 through the shaft an angle of 30°; in a woman this angle 
 is less obtuse than in a man, and the obliquity of the 
 shaft of the femur is greater in the former than in the 
 latter. The shaft is almost cylindrical about its centre, 
 but expanded above and below; its front and sides give 
 origin to the extensor muscles of the leg; behind there is 
 a rough ridge, which, though called linea aspera, is really 
 a narrow surface and not a line; it gives attachment to 
 several muscles. The lower end of the bone presents 
 a large smooth articular surface for the knee-joint, the 
 anterior portion of which forms a trochlea or pulley for the 
 movements of the patella, whilst the lower and posterior 
 part is subdivided into two convex condyles by a deep 
 fossa which gives attachment to the crucial ligaments of 
 the knee. The inner and outer surfaces of this end of the 
 bone are rough, for the attachment of muscles and the 
 lateral ligaments of the knee. 
 
 The Patella or Knee-pan (Fig. 11) is a small triangular Patelta 
 flattened bone developed in the tendon of the great .extensor 
 muscles of the leg. Its anterior surface and 6ides are 
 rough, for the attachment of the fibres of that tendon ; its 
 posterior surface is smooth, and enters into the formation 
 of the knee-joint. 
 
 Between the two bones of the leg there are no move- 
 ments of pronation and supination as between the two 
 bones of the fore-arm The tibia and fibula are fixed in 
 position; the fibula is always external, the tibia internal 
 
 The Tibia or Shin-bone (Fig. 1 1 ) is the larger and TibU. 
 more important of the two bones of the leg; the femur 
 moves and rests upon its upper end, and down it the 
 weight of the body in the erect position is transmitted to 
 the foot Except the femur, it is the longest bone of the 
 skeleton, and consists of a shaft and two extremities. The 
 upper extremity is broad, and is expanded into two tuber- 
 osities, the external of which has a small articular facet 
 inferiorly, for the head of the fibula; superiorly, the tuber- 
 osities have two smooth surfaces, for articulation with the 
 condyles of the femur; they are separated.by an intermediate 
 rough surface, from which a short spine projects, which gives 
 attachments to the inter-articular crucial ligaments and 
 semilunar cartilages of the knee, and lies opposite the inter- 
 condyloid fossa of the femur. The shaft of the bone is 
 three-sided; its inner surface is subcutaneous, and forms 
 the shin ; its outer and posterior surfaces are for the origin 
 of muscles; the anterior border forms the sharp ridge of the 
 shin, and terminates superiorly in a tubercle for the inser- 
 tion of the extensor tendon of the leg; the outer border 
 of the bone gives attachment to the inter-osseous membrane 
 of the leg. The lower end of the bone, smaller than the 
 upper, is prolonged into a broad process, internal malleolus, 
 which forms the inner prominence of the ankle: its under 
 surface is smooth for articulation with the astragalus; exter- 
 nally it articulates with the lower end of the fibula. 
 
 The Fibula, or Splint-bone of the leg (Fig. 11), is a ftbolt 
 slender long bone with a shaft and two extremities. The 
 upper end "r head articulates with the outer tuberosity of
 
 830 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [SKELETON -- 
 
 the tibia. The shaft is three-sided, and roughened for the 
 origins of muscles ; along the inner surface is a slender 
 ridge for the attachment of the interosseous membrane. 
 The lower end has a strong process {external malleolus) 
 projecting downwards to form the outer prominence of the 
 ankle, and possesses a smooth inner surface for articulation 
 with the astragalus, above which is a rough surface for the 
 attachment of ligaments which bind together the tibia and 
 fibula. 
 
 The Foot consists of the Tarsus, the Metatarsus, and the 
 five free Digits or Toes, which is the maximum number 
 found in mammals. The human foot is placed in the prone 
 position, with the sole or plantar surface in relation to the 
 ground ; the dorsum or back of the foot directed upwards ; 
 the axis of the foot at about a right angle to the axis of the 
 leg ; and the great toe or hallux, which is the corresponding 
 digit to the thumb, at the inner border of the foot. The 
 human foot, therefore, is a pentadactylous, plantigrade foot. 
 
 The bones of the Tarsus, or Ankle (Fig. 11, Tr), are seven 
 in number, and are arranged in two transverse rows, — a 
 proximal, next the bones of the leg, consisting of the 
 astragalus, os calcis, and scaphoid ; a di.stal, next the 
 metatarsus, consisting of the cuboid, ccto-, meso-, and 
 ento-cuneiform. If the tarsal bones be looked at along 
 with those of the metatarsus and toes, the bones of the 
 loot may be arranged in two longitudinal columns, — an 
 Duter, consisting of the os calcis, cuboid, and the metatarsal 
 bones and phalanges of the fourth and fifth toes ; an inner 
 column consisting of the astragalus, scaphoid, three cunei- 
 form, and the metatarsal bones and phalanges of the first, 
 second, and third toes. The tarsal, like the carpal bones, 
 are short and irregularly cuboidal ; the dorsal and plantar 
 surfaces are as a rule rough for ligaments, but as the 
 astragalus i3 locked in between the bones of the leg and 
 the os calcis, its dorsal and plantar surfaces, as well 
 as the dorsum of the os calcis, are smooth for articu- 
 lation ; similarly, its lateral surfaces are smooth for 
 articulation with the two malleoli. The posterior surface 
 of the os calcis projects backwards to form the prominence 
 of the heeL With this exception, the bones have their 
 anterior and posterior surfaces smooth for articulation. 
 Their lateral surfaces are also articular, except the outer 
 surface of the os calcis and cuboid, which form the outer 
 border; and the inner surface of the os calcis, scaphoid, 
 and ento-cuneiform, which form the inner border of the 
 tarsus. A supernumerary bone is sometimes found in the 
 human tarsus, from a subdivision of either the ento-cunei- 
 form, astragalus, os calcis, or cuboid into two parts. In 
 some rodents and other mammals eight is the normal 
 number of bones in the tarsus. 
 
 The Metatarsal bones and the Phalanges of the toes 
 agree in number and general form with the metacarpal 
 bones and the phalanges in the hand. The bones of the 
 great toe or hallux are more massive than those of the 
 other digits, and this digit, unlike the thumb or pollex, 
 does not diverge from the other digits, but lies almost 
 parallel to them. 
 
 Development and Homologies of the Skeleton. 
 
 Tt will now be advisable to consider briefly the mode of develop- 
 ment of the skeleton, and along with the study of its gcivtsis tu 
 compare its several parts with each other, in order to tscerrai^ if 
 correspondences in their arrangement and mode of origin exist, e;es 
 if they differ in the function or office which they perform. When 
 ■two or more parts or organs correspond with each other in structure, 
 relative position, and mode of origin, we say they are homologous 
 ports, or homologuu; whilst parts which have the same function, 
 tut do not correspond in structure, relative position, and mode of 
 origin, are analogous parts, or analogues. Homologous parts have 
 therefore a morphological identity with each other, whilst analogous 
 parts have a physiological agreement. The same parts may be 
 both homologous and analogous, as the fore-limbs of a bat and a 
 
 bird, both of which, with the same fundamental type of structure, 
 are subservient to flight. In other cases analogous parts are not. 
 homologues, as is illustrate) by the wing of the insect, which, 
 though subservient to Might, is fundamentally different in structure. 
 from the wing of the bat or bird. 
 
 In the germinal area of the fertilised vertebrate ovum a longitudi- 
 nal groove appears which nr-ks the beginning of the cranial cavity 
 and spinal canal of the young embryo. At the bottom of this cranio- 
 spinal groove a slender rod is formed, called chorda dorsalii or nu.'o- 
 chord. Each side of the groove then becomes elevated as a thin mem- 
 brane, to meet behind to enclose a canal in which the brain and spinal 
 marrow are developed. Small dark masses, the primordial or proto- 
 vertebra:, next form on each side of the chorda dorsalis. In these 
 proto-veitebra, about the sixth or seventh week of infra-uterine 
 life of the human ovum, little masses of cartilage appear, which 
 correspond in number and position to the future spinal vertebral. 
 The part of the cartilage which forms the body of the future vertebra 
 is developed around the chorda dorsalis, which it encloses in its 
 substance, whilst the cartilaginous neural arch forms in the mem- 
 brane which closes in the spinal canal. The formation of these 
 cartilaginous vertebrae is completed in the human embryo about the 
 fourth month of intra-uterine life. The bodies of the cartila-ginous 
 vertebra; are connected together by plates or discs of intervening 
 fibro-cartilage, which are also developed around the chorda dorsalis. 
 After the enclosure of the rod-like chorda by the cartilaginous 
 vertebrae^and the intervertebral discs it disappears, no remains 
 being found in the adult human body, or in that of the higher 
 vertebrates, except perhaps some slight traces in the soft pulpy 
 centres of the inter-vertebral discs ; although in the cartilaginous fish 
 it remains as a more or less complete structure throughout life. 
 
 In each of the cartilaginous vertebra) bone begins to form and 
 to spread beyond its original point of formation, which is called 
 a centre or nucleus of ossification; the greater part of the body is. 
 formed from one of time centres, and each half of the neural arch 
 from another; whilst small ossific centres arise for the tips of the 
 spinous, transverse, and mammillary processes, and a special plate 
 appears for both the upper and lower surfaces of the body ; thn 
 fusion of the various centres together to form a complete vertebra 
 takes place between the twentieth and twenty-fifth year. The 
 atlas has a separate centre for each lateral mass and one for the 
 anterior boundary of the ring. The axis, in addition to the ossific 
 centres found in the vertebra generally, has one or two for the 
 odontoid process. The seventh cervical vertebra has the anterior 
 bar of its transverse process developed from a separate centre. Each 
 coccygeal vertebra possesses only a single centre, which represents 
 the body of the bone. 
 
 At the time when the cranio-spinal canal is being closed in by 
 the development of its membranous walls, the germinal layers of 
 the young embryo grow towards its anterior or ventral surface, and 
 meet in the ventral mesial line, so as to enclose the cavities in which 
 tho thoracic and abdominal viscera are developed. In the membranous 
 wall on each side of the thoracic cavity twelve cartilaginous rods, 
 the future ribs, are developed ; and, connected with the anterior end& 
 of the seven pairs of upper ribs, the cartilaginous sternum is formed 
 Each rib ossifies from one centre for its shaft, and one each for the 
 head and tubercle. The sternum ossifies in transverse segments, — 
 one for the prae-sternum, one or sometimes two for each of the four 
 subdivisions of the meso-sternum, and one for the xiphi-sternum. 
 The complete ossification and fusion of the different parts of the 
 sternum into a single bone does not take place until an advanced age. 
 
 The axial part of the skeleton, formed by the vertebral, ribs, and 
 sternum, is built up of a series of thirty-three transverse segments, 
 equal in number, therefore, to the bones of the spine ; so that each 
 vertebra, according as it is, or is not, articulated with a pair of 
 ribs and a segment of the sternum, constitutes a complete or 
 incomplete transverse segment. These several segments are serially 
 homologous with each other, but the homology is not so complete 
 in some of the segments as in the others. In the coccygeal, sacral, 
 and lumbar regions of man and most vertebrates, only the verte- 
 bral portion of each skeletal segment is represented, though in the 
 abdominal wall of the crocodiles abdominal ribs and a sternum are 
 developed. In the thoracic region the five lowest dorsal vertebra; 
 have five pairs of ribs developed in connection with them ; whilst 
 the seven highest vertebra; have not only their corresponding pairs 
 of ribs, but also a sternum, which bone, however, has only six trans- 
 verse segments. In the cervical region seven vertebrae are found, 
 but the anterior bar of the transverse process, although fused with 
 the vertebral body, is homologous with a rib, for in man it some- 
 times develops as a distinct movable rib in connection with the 
 seventh cervical ; and in the crocodiles small movable ribs are 
 regularly developed in connection with the different cervical verte- 
 brae. The bodies and neural arches of the vertebra; are serially 
 homologous with each other; as a rule this is also the case with 
 their processes, but the articular processes of the atlas and the 
 superior pair of the axis, although functionally analogous, ore rwf 
 homologous with the articular processes of the other vertebra? 
 with the articular siulaeea for the ribs on the bodies of th* Au^ai
 
 DEVELOPMENT.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 831 
 
 vertebrae, for they li-? in front of, ana not behind, the vertebral 
 notches through which the spinal nerves are transmitted. The 
 development of the odontoid process of the axis shows it to be the 
 tody of the atlas displaced from its proper bone and fused with the 
 body of the axis. 
 
 The development and homology of the skull is a much more 
 difficult problem to solve than that of the spine. The chorda 
 dorsalis extends along the floor of the skull as far forward as the 
 posterior wall of the pituitary fossa. Cartilage is formed around it, 
 without, however, the previous production of proto-vertebne, and 
 this cartilage is prolonged forward on each side of the fossa, forming 
 two bars, the trabecule cranii ; these bars then unite, and form the 
 mes-ethraoid cartilage ; at the same time the cartilage grows out- 
 wards for some distance in the membranous wall of the skull, but 
 it does not mount upwards so as to close it in superiorly, so that 
 the cartilage is limited to the floor of the skull ; moreover, the 
 cartilage is not segmented. The roof, side walls, and anterior wall 
 of the cranium retain for a time their primordial membranous struc- 
 ture. This membrane is prolonged downwards into the face proper, 
 where it forms a pair of maxillary lobes or processes, which pass 
 forwards beneath the eyes to form the side parts of the face, and 
 a mid- or frontal-nasal process, into which the cartilaginous mes- 
 ethmoid extends. Immediately below each maxillary lobe four 
 arches, called branchial or visceral, arise in the ventral aspect of the 
 head, and in each of the three first of these arches a rod of cartilage 
 is formed. The arches on opposite sides unite with each other in 
 the ventral mesial line, but those on the same side are separated 
 from each other by intermediate branchial clefts; these clefts all 
 close up in course of time, except the upper part of the first, which 
 remains as the external meatus of the ear, the tympanum, and the 
 Eustachian tube ; whilst the interval between the first visceral arch 
 and the maxillary lobes forms the cavity of the mouth. Tho con- 
 version of the primordial cartilaginous and membranous cranium 
 into the bones of the head takes place by the formation in it of 
 numerous centres of ossification. The basi-, ex-, and so much of the 
 supra-occipital as lies below the superior curved line, are formed 
 from distinct centres in the cartilaginous floor of the skull ; whilst 
 the part of the supra-occipital above the curved line arises from 
 independent centres in the membranous cranium, the whole ulti- 
 mately fusing together to form the occipital bone. The basi- or 
 post-sphenoid, the pre- with the orbito-sphenoids, theali-sphenoid 
 with the external pterygoid and the internal pterygoid, also arise 
 in the cartilaginous floor, and they, together with the sphenoidal 
 spongy .bones which are formed in the membranous cranium, fuse 
 into the sphenoid bone. The palate is apparently formed by ossifica- 
 tion of cartilage continuous with the bar in which the internal 
 pterygoid arises. The central plate and each lateral mass of the 
 ethmoid also arise in the cartilage by distinct centres. The inferior 
 turbinal has also a*distinct origin in cartilage. The petro-ma^toid 
 part of the temporal arises in cartilage from at least three centres, 
 peri-, pro-, and opisth-otic, and soon blends with the squamous 
 and tympanic elements which arise in the membranous cranium ; 
 subsequently the styloid process, which is ossified in the rod of 
 cartilage in the second visceral arch, joins the temporal. The lower 
 end of this same rod forms the lesser cornu of the hyoid ; the upper 
 end forms two small bones, the stapes and incus, situated within 
 the cavity of the tympanum. The cartilage of the third visceral 
 arch forms the great cornu and body of the hyoid bone. The name 
 of Meckel's cartilage is applied to the rod found in the first visceral 
 arch ; its upper end is ossified into the malleus, a small bone 
 situated in the tympanic cavi ty ; whilst in the membrane sur- 
 rounding the rest of the cartilage the lower jaw-bone is formed. 
 The parietal and frontal bones arise altogether in the membranous 
 vault ; and the nasal, lachrymal, malar, and superior maxillae arise 
 in connection with the bones which form the face ; the vomer is 
 developed in the membrane investing the mes-ethmcid cartilage. 
 The human superior maxilla represents not only the superior maxilla 
 of other vertebrates, but the pre-maxillary bone also ; but the two 
 bones become fused together- at so very early a period that it is 
 difficult to recognise their original independence. In the deformity 
 of hare-lip and cleft palate, they are not unfrequently separated by 
 a distinct fissure. 
 
 Since the time when Oken and Goethe propounded the theory 
 that the skull was built up of several vertebrae, the vertebral struc- 
 ture of the skull has led to much discussion amongst anatomists. 
 Every one admits that the skull is in series with the spine, that 
 the cranial cavity is continuous with the spinal canal, and that the 
 cranial vault is formed in the wall of the embryonic cerebro-spinal 
 canal. The skull also, like the spine, is transversely segmented, 
 but whether we regard these segments as vertebra or not will 
 depend upon the conception we entertain of tM meaning of the 
 term vertebra. If with Owen we define a vertebra to be "one of 
 those segments of the endo-skeieton which constitute the axis of 
 the body amd the protective canals of the nervous and vascular 
 trunks, then we may support the vertebral nature of the cranial 
 segments on the following grounds: — 1st, The presence of a series, 
 of bones extending forwards from the, foramen magnunj along the 
 
 basis cranii, in 6eries with the bodies of the spinal vertebrae,— -e.g.,. 
 the basi-occipital, basi-sphenoid, pre-sphenoid, mes-ethmoid (fig. 7); 
 2d, The presence of a series of neural arches which enclose and 
 complete the wall of the cranial cavity, and lie in series with the 
 neural arches of the spinal vertebra, — e.g., the ex- and supra-occi- 
 pitals, which form the neural arches of the basi-occipital segment ; 
 the ali-sphenoids and parietals, which form the neural arches of 
 the basi-sphenoid segment; the orbito-sphenoids and frontal, which 
 form the neural arches of the pre-sphenoid segment ; 3d, The 
 presence of a series of visceral arches of which the mandibular and 
 byoidean enclose the alimentary and vascular canals, just as the 
 ribs enclose them in the thorax ; and ilh, The presence of foramina 
 between the cranial segments like the inter-vertebral foramina 
 between the spinal vertebra for the transmission of nerves,— e.g., 
 the sphenoidal fissure and the jugular foramen. 
 
 But if we are to regard a vertebra as a segment of the axial 
 skeleton, which in course of its formation passes through a definite 
 series of developmental changes, then the cranial segments cannoi 
 be regarded as vertebrae in the same sense as the spinal segments; 
 for, 1st, The chorda dorsalis is not co-equal in length with the basis 
 cranii, as with the bodies of the spinal vertebras, so that if the 
 basi-occipital and basi-sphenoid segments, the bodies of which are 
 developed around it, were to be regarded as cranial vertebra, the 
 pre-sphenoidal and ethmoido-nasal would not be morphologically the 
 same, as they are formed in front of the anterior end of the chorda. 
 2d, Proto. vertebra are formed in the spine, but not in the basis 
 cranii. 3d, The spine is transversely segmented in its cartilaginous 
 stage of development, but the skull is not. ith, The transverse 
 segmentation of the skull only appears when the bones are formed, 
 but the individuality of the segments becomes again concealed by 
 the fusion of the pre- and basi-sphenoids and the basi-occipital into 
 a continuous bar of bone, a condition which is not found in the 
 spine except in the sacro-coccygeal region. 5th, The neural arches 
 in the spine are, like the bodifs, ossified in cartilage, but in the 
 cranium they are for the most part ossified in membrane. These 
 differences in the mode of development of the spine and basis cranii 
 may be summarised as below : — 
 
 Spine. 
 
 1st Stage, 2d Stage, 3d Stage, ith Stage, 
 
 Unsegmented Proto-vertebrae. Segmented Segmented 
 
 chorda. cartilage. bones. 
 
 Basis Cranii. 
 
 1st Stage, 2d Stage, 
 
 Unsegmented Unsegmented 
 chorda in part. cartilage. 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that, although both skull and spine are 
 developed in the walls of the cerebro-spinal groove, yet, to quote 
 the words of Huxley, "though they are identical in general 
 plan of construction, the two begin to diverge as soon as the one 
 puts on the special character of a skull and the other that of a 
 vertebral column ; the skull is no more a modified vertebral column 
 than the vertebral column is a modified skull." 
 
 The limbs, at their first appearance, sprout like little buds or 
 lappets from' the sides of the trunk ; cartilage forms within them, 
 which assumes the shape of the future bones, and as the limbs 
 grow outwards, manifestations of joints appear, and the subdivision 
 of each limb into its several segments takes place. The clavicle, 
 which ossifies before any of the other bones, begins to form, how- 
 ever, in fibrous membrane ; and at a much later period the ends of 
 the bone, which are formed in cartilage, unite with the intermediate 
 shaft. The scapula ossifies from one centre for its expanded plate 
 and spine, two small centres each for the acromion and vertebral 
 border, and one for the coracoid. In many vertebrates, more espe- 
 cially birds and reptiles, the coracoid is a distinct bone from the 
 scapula, bnt they articulate with each other to form the glenoid 
 fossa. Each of the three rod-like bones of which the innominate 
 bone is composed, ossifies from one centre for the shaft of the bone, 
 and one for each extremity ; in the ilium these terminal centres are 
 situated at the crest and acetabulum ; in the ischium, at the tuber 
 and acetabulum ; and in the pubis, at the symphysis and acetabu- 
 lum. Each of the long bones of the shafts of the limbs ossifies 
 from a single centre for the shaft, and one or more centres for each 
 articular extremity. Each carpal and tarsal bone ossifies from a 
 single centre, except the os calcis, which possesses an independent 
 centre for its posterior surface. The metacarpal and metatarsal 
 bones and the phalanges ossify each from two centres, one for the 
 shaft and one for one ol the extremities. In the metacarpal bones of 
 the fingers and the four outer metatarsals, the distal end is that which 
 ossifies independently ; in the metacarpal of the thumb, in the meta- 
 tarsal of the great toe, and in all the phalanges, the proximal end is 
 that which ossifies independently. As the method of ossification o\ 
 the first metacarpal and first metatarsal corresponds with that of the 
 phalanges, some anatomists hold that these bones are really the first 
 pha'anges of their respective digits, and thct the bone which is absent 
 in these digits, when compared with tht> other digits, is not t. 
 phalanx, but a mcta-carual or tarsal bone. When the extremity 
 
 3d Stage, ilh Stage, 
 
 Segmented Unsegmented 
 
 bones. bones.
 
 832 
 
 ANA T U Y 
 
 of a bone ossifies from a centre distinct from the centre from which 
 the shaft arises, it i3 called an epiphysis. The epiphysis is united to the 
 shaft of the growing bone by an intermediate plate of cartilage, and 
 60 long as any of this Cartilage remains uuossified the bone can 
 continue to grow in length. 1'he ossification is not completed in 
 the different bones until from the twentieth to the twenty-fifth 
 year. In the case of the long bones, tho epiphysis situated at the 
 ind of the bone, towards which the canal in the shaft which trans- 
 mits the nutrient artery is directed, ossifies to the shaft before the 
 epiphysis at the other end. In the humerus, tibia, and fibula, 
 where the canal is directed downwards, the epiphyses at the lower 
 ends of tho bones first unite with the shaft; whilst in the femur, 
 radius, and ulna, where tbe canal is directed upwards, the ossifica- 
 tion first takes place between the upper epiphysis and the slintt. 
 
 All anatomists hold that the bones of the shaft and distal part of 
 a limb belong to the appendicular part of the skeleton, but there is 
 a difference of opinion as to the place in the skeleton to waich the 
 bones of the shoulder girdle and haunch are to be referred. Owen 
 considers that the scapular and pelvic arches belong to the axiol 
 skeleton, and are homologous with the ribs; the scapula and coracoid 
 as the visceral or rib-arch of the occipital vertebra, the clavicle of 
 the atlas, and tho innominate bone of the upper sacral vertebra. 
 Goodsir objected to this conclusion of Owen's on the ground that 
 the shoulder girdle was not in series with the visceral arches, but 
 was developed outside the visceral wall, at the junction of the 
 cervical and thoracic regions, from which region the upper limb 
 reoeives its nerves, and not from the occipito-atlnntal region, 
 whence they would have proceeded had it been an appendage of 
 the rib-arches of those segments. Owen's chief argument for 
 regarding the scapula and coracoid as the costal arch of the occi- 
 pi?al vertebra is because in fish the scapula is attached to the 
 occipital bone by a bone which Cuvier called the supra-scapula, 
 and which he believed to be homologous with the supra-scapular 
 cartilage of many other vertebrates. Parker, however, lias recently 
 pointed out that the so-called supra-scapula of a fish is not homolo- 
 gous with the supra-scapula of a reptile or mammal, that it is not a 
 cartilage bone, but is a splint or scale-liko bone, developed as a 
 part of the dermo-skeleton. Between the scapula and coracoid and 
 the innominate bono, anatomists have long recognised homologies 
 to exist ; the scapula is generally admitted to be the homotype 
 of the ilium and tiie coracoid of the ischium, so that if these 
 elements of the shoulder girdle be not a costal arch, neither can 
 those of the pelvic girdle. The clavicle has by some been re- 
 garded as the homotype of the pubis ; but in all probability the pubis 
 is homologous with the procoracoid bone which is found in the 
 amphibia and some reptiles, but is absent in crocodiles, birds, and 
 mammals; whilst the clavicle is represented in the pelvic girdle, 
 not by a bone, but by a fibrous band called Poupart's ligament. 
 Between the bones of the shafts of the limbs homologies exist : the 
 humerus is the homotype of the femur, the radius of the tibia, the 
 ulna of the fibula ; whilst the patella has no representative in the 
 human upper limb. The scaphoid and semilunar bones in the 
 carpus are homotypes of the astragalus in the tarsus, the cunei- 
 form is the homotype of the os caleis, the cuboid of the unciform ; 
 the trapezium of "the ento-cuneiform, the trapezoid of the meso-, 
 and the os magnum of the ccto-cuneiform.' The tarsal scaphoid is 
 not, as a rule, represented in tho human carpus, but its homotype 
 is the os intermedium, found in many mammals. The carpal 
 pisciform is a sesamoid bone developed in the tendon of a muscle. 
 The metacarpal bones and phalanges are homologous with the 
 metatarsal bones and phalanges ; the thumb with the great toe, and 
 the fingers with the four outer toes. During the growth of the 
 limbs outward, and their change from the simple lappet-like form 
 to their elongated condition, a rotation of the proximal segment of 
 the shaft takes place — that of the upper limb a quarter ofa circle 
 backward, that of the lower limb a quarter of a circle forward — to 
 produce in the former case a supine position of the fore-arm and 
 hand, with the thumb as the outermost digit ; in the latter case, a 
 prone condition of the»leg and foot, with the great toe as the inner- 
 most digit The range of movement at the radio-ulnar joints 
 enables us, however, to pronate th« hand and fore-arm by throwing 
 the radius across the ulna, so as to make the thumb the innermost 
 digit. In many quadrupeds the fore-leg is fixed in this position, 
 so that these animals wait on the soles of both the fore and hind feet. 
 
 General Observations on the Articulator-*- and 
 Muscular Systems. 
 
 A Joint or Articulation is the junction or union of 
 any two adjacent parts of the body. Most usually the term 
 is employed to signify the connection established between 
 contiguous bones. It is by the joints that the various 
 bones are knit together to form the skeleton. Joints may 
 be either immovuble or movable. 
 
 The immovable joints are divided into the synchondroses 
 
 the nbtous membrane, nr peil- 
 oMiimi. pawnnir brtween Hie 
 two bnm a. wlikh clays the !'"i 
 or a lljtitinetit, and wlilcn is 
 continuous wuli the Intel post-d 
 flbions mi in i.i .nir. 
 
 In old 
 
 Inn through a p.wi- 
 cbondrnsls. 6, 6, t tie 
 two bones; Sc the 
 Interposed cartil- 
 age : J, the flbtniia 
 niembrane whleh 
 plays the part ol ■ 
 ligament. 
 
 L-IOISTa AN 
 
 and the sutures. A synchondrosis is the junction of two. 
 
 bones by tho interposition of an intermediate plate of 
 
 cartilage, the fibrous membrane or periosteum which 
 
 invests the buries being prolonged from one bone to the 
 
 other over the surface of the cartilage. A suture is the 
 
 connection of two bones by the 
 
 interlocking of adjacent toothed "^^f^^^/jf... 
 
 margins; the periosteal fibrous ' &&!^*&¥-8p" 
 
 membrane is prolunged from one 
 
 bone to the other, and is also fio. 12.— verticil action throned, 
 
 iuterposed between their adjacent ? c """" ' u ' ur ''- ,*•*• '!" '"? 
 
 ' a bunt**; J. ojn tiMle tl:e auiure; /, 
 
 margins. In a young skull the 
 basi-occipital and basi-sphenoid 
 are united by synchondrosis, but 
 junction by sutures is the mode 
 of union which prevails in the bones of the head, 
 persons tbe sutures become obliterated by the ossification 
 of tho intermediate fibrous membrane. . ' , 
 
 and the bones are permanently fused "i'^'.^l l?'^" 
 together. The cranial sutures may con- J— '^ s . ''.*£-: ". 
 voniently be arranged in three groups : "~ — ^-^^-a**-*-?* - 
 a. Median longitudinal, consisting of F'o- 11 -— Ve ". r ° ltr ^ 
 the frontal suture, which counects the 
 two halves of the frontal bone, aud the 
 sagittal suture, betiyeei. the two parietal 
 bones ; 6, Lateral longitudinal, consist- 
 ing on each side of the head of the 
 fronto-nasal, fronto-maxillary, ironto-lachrymal, fronto- 
 ethmoidal, fronto-malar, fronto-sphenoidal, parieto-sphe- 
 noidal, parieto-squamous, parieto-mastoid sutures ; c, Verti- 
 cal transverse, consisting of the coronal or fronto-parietal, 
 the lambdoidal or parietooccipital, the sphenoido-malar, 
 sphenoido-squamous and occipito- mastoid sutures. As 
 the skull grows by ossification of the cartilage of the base 
 and the membranous vault, the direction of growth 
 is perpendicular to the margins of the bones and 
 the sutures and synchondroses which connect them to- 
 gether. The growth of the skull in length is perpen- 
 dicular, therefore, to 
 
 the basi-cr_anial syn- * , //.tri 4 "^ 
 
 chondrosis and the 
 vertical transverse 
 group of sutures; its 
 growth, in breadth, 
 to the median longi- 
 tudinal group, and 
 in height to the 
 lateral longitudinal 
 group. So long as 
 any of the cartilage 
 or membrane be- 
 tween the margins 
 of the bones remains 
 unossified, bone may 
 continue to form, and 
 the skull may in- 
 crease in size. It 
 sometimes happens 
 that the cartilage or 
 membrane is pre- 
 maturely ossified in 
 a particular locality, 
 and the further _ 
 
 , . , . „ Fl(~ 14.— Vertex view of a boat-shaped or itcaphe- 
 
 gTOWtn 01 the SkUil cephalic skull, showing the complete disappear- 
 
 put » stop to in that 1M of the "s"" 11 eulurc - 
 region ; if the brain is still growing, the skull must increase 
 in other directions to permit of the expansion of the 
 cranial cavity, and deformities of the skull are thereby 
 occasioned. One of the most usual of these deformities is 
 due to premature closure of the sagittal suture, causing
 
 VUSCI.ES.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 833 
 
 an amphlarthrodiul joint. 0,6, 
 the two bones; c, c, the plate of 
 cartilage on the articular sur- 
 face of each bone ; Fc, the Inter- 
 mediate flbro- cartilage; I, I, 
 the external ligaments. 
 
 stoppage of the growth of the skull in breadth, and, by 
 way of compensation, great increase in its length, so as to 
 produce a very elongated and somewhat boat-shaped 
 cranium. 
 
 The movable joints are divided into the amphiarthrodial 
 and the diarthrodial joints. An amphiarthrosis or half- 
 joint ha3 only a feeble range of 
 movement. It consists of two 
 bones, each of which has • its j, 
 articular surface covered by a 
 plate of cartilage, and which 
 plates are firmly connected to- 
 gether by an intermediate disc of 
 
 fibro-cartilage. The centre of this F io. is.-Venicai section throng 
 disc is soft, or may even be 
 hollowed out into a cavity, lined 
 by a smooth synovial membrane, 
 and containing a little fluid. 
 Ligamentous bands, continuous with the periosteum invest- 
 ing the bones, invest the fibro-cartilage, and assist in bind- 
 ing the bones together. The best examples of amphi- 
 arthrodial joints are furnished by the articulations between 
 the bodies of the true vertebras. 
 
 A diarthrosis admits of more or less perfect movement. 
 In it the two articular surfaces are each covered by a plate 
 of encrusting cartilage, the free 
 surface of which is smooth and 
 polished ; between these surfaces 
 is a cavity containing a glairy 
 fluid, the synovia, for lubricating 
 the smooth surfaces of the cartil- 
 age and facilitating the movements 
 of the joint. This cavity is en- 
 closed by ligaments, which are 
 attached to the bones, and the 
 inner surface of these ligaments 
 is lined by a synovial membrane 
 which secretes the synovia. Some- 
 times a plate or meniscus of fibro- 
 cartilage i3 interposed between, 
 without, however, being attached 
 to the encrusting cartilages of a 
 diarthrodial joint, so as more or 
 less perfectly to subdivide the 
 cavity enclosed by the ligaments into two spaces. The 
 articular surfaces of diarthrodial joints are retained in 
 apposition with each other, some- 
 times by investing ligaments, at 
 others by surrounding muscles and 
 tendons; at others by atmospheric 
 pressure, aided by the adhesive ; 
 character of the interposed synovia. 
 The form of the articular or mov- 
 able, surfaces varies very materi- 
 ally in different examples of these 
 joints, and the modifications in 
 form determine the direction of 
 the movements of the joints. In 
 some, as the carpal and tarsal 
 joints, the surfaces are almost flat, 
 so that they glide on each other ; 
 the movement is comparatively 
 slight, and about an axis perpen 
 dicular to the moving surfaces 
 surfaced joints. 
 
 - ■ ; pt?3ijWs 
 
 1 b\m*$ 
 
 Fio. 16. — Vcn leal sect ion through 
 a diarthrodial joint. 6, b, the 
 two bones ; c, c, the plate of 
 cartilage on the articular sur- 
 face of each bone ; /, /, the in- 
 vesting ligament, the dotted 
 line within which represents 
 the synovial membrane. The 
 letter s is placed In the cavity 
 of the-joint 
 
 
 Fta.17. — Vertical section through 
 a diarthrodial Joint. In which 
 the cavity ^ subdivided Into 
 two by an interposed fibro-car- 
 tilage or meniscus. Pc The 
 other letters as in Fig. 16. 
 
 these are called plane- 
 In other joints the articular surfaces may 
 be regarded as produced by the rotation of a straight or 
 curved Line about an axis lying in the same plane ; these 
 are called rotation joints, and they present various modifica- 
 tions according to the direction and relation of the rotat- 
 ing line to the a^ia One form of a rotation joint is tho 
 
 1-28 
 
 pivot joint, in which the movement takes place about the 
 axis of one of the bones, which is the axis of rotation of 
 the joint ; examples of this joint are found in the joint 
 between tho atlas and odontoid process of the axis and 
 the radio-ulnar joint. Another form is the ginglymus or 
 hinge joint, in which the axis of rotation of the joint is 
 perpendicular to the axis of the two bones ; the mova- 
 ments of the hinge are called flexion when the angle 
 between the two bones is diminished, and extension when 
 the angle is increased. An important modification of the 
 ginglymus is the screwed-surfaced joint, examples of which 
 are found in the elbow and ankle ; here the plane of 
 flexion is not perpendicular, but oblique to the axis of the 
 joint. The saddle-shaped and oblong joints are also modi- 
 fied hinges, but allow motion about two axes ; in the 
 oblong both axes are on the same side of the joint ; but in 
 the saddle-shaped there is an axis of rotation on each side of 
 the joint. The best example of the saddle-shaped is found 
 between the metacarpal bone of the thumb and the trape- 
 zium; of the oblong between the fore-arm and the carpus. 
 In the ball-and-socket joint a spheroidal head fits into a 
 cup, and rotation takes place about any diameter of the 
 sphere; the joint therefore is multi-axial; the hip and 
 shoulder joints are the best examples. Some joints, in 
 which the forms of the articular surfaces are more complex, 
 are called composite; in them the movements of a hinge 
 and of a ball-and-socket joint may be combined; the knee 
 may be cited as an example of this form of articulation. 
 In a large number of movable joints only portions of the 
 opposite articular surfaces are in contact with each other 
 at a given time ; but, as the joint describes its path of 
 movement, different parts of the surfaces come into contact 
 with each other successively, and it is not unusual to find 
 the articular surface both of the cartilage and the sub- 
 jacent bone mapped out into distinct areas or facets, which 
 are adapted to corresponding iacets on the opposite arti- 
 cular surface in particular positions of the joint. When 
 the corresponding facets on opposite articular surfaces 
 break contact with each other, the space between becomes 
 occupied by synovia, or in some joints, more especially the 
 knee, by folds of synovial membrane enclosing clumps of 
 fat, which have been called synovial pads. In the simple 
 hinge, in that with screwed surfaces, in the oblong and 
 composite joints, the principal ligaments are situated at 
 the sides of the joint, and are called lateral ; they not only 
 prevent lateral displacement of the bones, but, by a 
 tightening of their fibres, check excessive movement for- 
 wards or backwards during flexion and extension. In the 
 saddle-shaped and ball-and-socket joints, the joint is in- 
 cluded within a bag-like ligament called capsular. In the 
 pivot joints the cavity in which the pivot fits is completed 
 by a transverse or a ring-shaped ligament. 
 
 The Muscles are the organs wliich, by their contraction iiuscleti 
 or shortening, move the bones on each other at the joints. 
 The muscles constitute the flesh of the body. They are so 
 arranged as to be capable not only of moving the various 
 bones on each other, but the entire body from place to 
 place. Hence the muscles are organs both of motion and 
 locomotion. As they can be brought into action at tho 
 will of the individual, they are called voluntary muscles. 
 Some of the muscles are engaged in the movement of other 
 structures than the bones, such as the eye-ball, tongue, 
 cartilages of the larynx, &c. About 400 muscles are 
 usually enumerated, and the names applied to them express 
 either their position, or relative size, or shape, or direction, 
 or attachments, or mode of action. The word muscle is 
 itself derived from the Latin musculus, a little mouse, from 
 a fancied resemblance between that animal and some of the 
 most simply formed muscles. It is customary to dis- 
 tinguish in a muscle a central part, or belly, and two ex-
 
 834 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [joints and muscles— 
 
 • 
 
 ■'•' 
 
 ^ 
 
 to 
 
 Jt 
 
 tremities, one of whirh is the head or the origin, the otLer 
 the insertion. The belly is the fleshy part of the muscle, 
 and possesses a dccp-red characteristic colour; it is the 
 «cti'o contractile structure, the source 
 of motor power. The two extremities 
 are called the tendons of the muscle, 
 or sinews; the tendons are bluish- 
 white in colour, possess no power of 
 contractility, and are merely, as it 
 were, the ropea by which the belly 
 of the muscle is attached to the bone 
 or other structure which is moved by 
 its contraction. The term tendon of 
 origin, applied to one extremity of the 
 muscle, signifies the fixed end of the 
 muscle, that to which it draws during 
 its contraction ; as a rule this is the 
 end nearest the trunk, the proximal 
 end. The term tendon of insertion is 
 applied to the end which is moved by 
 the contraction ; as a rule this is the 
 end most removed from the trunk, 
 the distal end. Entering the sub- 
 stance of each muscle is at least 
 one artery, which conveys blood for its 
 nutrition; this artery ends in a net- 
 work of capillary blood-vessels, from 
 which a vein arises and conveys the 
 blood out of the muscle again; an- 
 other small vessel, called a lymphatic, 
 also arises within the muscle, and 
 conveys the fluid lymph out of the 
 muscle. Each muscle also is pene- 
 trated by a nerve, through which it 
 is brought into connection with the 
 brain, so as to be subject to the in- fio.i?.— The rectus muscle 
 fluence of the wilL The will is the ° f lb * th| s" 
 natural stimulus for exciting muscular 
 action, which action is in many cases 
 so rapid that scarcely an appreci- 
 able interval of time intervenes be- 
 tween willing and doing the action. 
 
 The bones form a series of rod-like levers, and, in study- 
 ing the mode of action of the muscles, the placj of inser- 
 tion of the muscle into the bone — that is to say, the point 
 of application of the power which causes the movement — 
 and its relations to the joint, or fulcrum, or centre of motion, 
 and to the weight or resistance which is to be overcome, 
 have to be kept in view. The relative positions of ful- 
 crum, point of application of power, and resistance, are not 
 the same in all the bony levers. As a rule, the muscles 
 are inserted into bones between the fulcrum and the move- 
 able point of resistance, and nearer the fulcrum than the 
 movable point, as may be seen in the muscles which bend 
 the fore-arm at the elbow-joint. Although from the weight- 
 arm of the lever being in these cases much longer than the 
 power-arm, the muscles, as regards the application of the 
 power, act at a disadvantage, yet the movement gains in 
 velocity. Sometimes the muscle is inserted, as is the 
 case in the great muscle which straightens or extends 
 the fore-arm, at one end of the lever, and the fulcrum 
 or joint is placed between it and the movable point. At 
 other times, as in the case of the chief depressor muscle 
 of the lower jaw, whilst the muscle is attached to one end 
 of the lever, the fulcrum is at the opposite end. When a 
 miv.cle is so placed that its tendon of insertion is perpen- 
 dicular to the bone to which it is attached, it acts to great 
 advantage; when placed obliquely or nearly parallel, a loss 
 of power occurs. Many muscles at the commencement of 
 contraction !ia obliquely to the bone3 which they move, 
 
 ro oho* 
 the constituent parts of a 
 muscle. R, the fleshy 
 belly ; to, tendon of ori- 
 gin ; ft, tendon of Inser- 
 tion; n, nerve of supply; 
 a. artery of Bupply ; c. 
 rein ; 7, lymphatic vessel ; 
 P, the patella. 
 
 but as contraction goes on they become more nearly per- 
 pendicular, so that they act with more advantage noir 
 the close than at the commencement of contraction. If a 
 muscle passes over only one joint, it acts on that joint only : 
 but if it passes over two or more joints, it acts on them in 
 succession, beginning with the joint next the point of 
 insertion. A given movement may be performed by the 
 contraction of a single muscle, but as a rule two or more 
 muscles are associated together, and they are not unfte- 
 quently so arranged that one muscle initiates the move- 
 ment,° which is then kept up and completed by the rest. 
 Muscles producing movement in one direction have opposed 
 to them muscles which by their contraction effect the 
 opposite movement; when both groups act simultaneously 
 and with equal force, they antagonise each other, and no 
 motion i3 produced; when a muscle is paralysed or divided, 
 its antagonistic muscle draws and permanently retains the 
 part to its own side. The rapidity of action of a muscle ia 
 proportioned to the length of its fasciculi, its power of 
 contraction to their number. 
 
 Each muscle is invested by a sheath formed of connective 
 tissue. In the limbs and in the neck not only has each 
 muscle a sheath, but a strong fibrous membrane envelopes 
 the whole of the muscles, and assists materially in giving; 
 form and compactness to the region. Thismembranc is called 
 generally a fascia or aponeurosis, but special descriptive 
 names are given to it in the different regions — e.g., cervical 
 fascia, brachial aponaurosis, fascia lata, or fascia of the 
 thigh. In some localities muscles arise from the fascia, 
 and in others they are inserted into it. The fascia is 
 separated from the skin by a layer of subcutaneous fatty 
 tissue, and in this layer muscles are in some localities de- 
 veloped. In the fat of the inner border of the palm of the, 
 hand a small muscle, the palmaris hrevis, is found, which 
 is inserted into, the skin covering the ball of the little 
 finger ; at each side of the neck, also, lies a thin muscle 
 called platysma myoides, and the muscles on the face and 
 scalp which move the skin of the face and head belong to 
 the same category. These muscles form the group of sub- 
 cutaneous or dermal muscles which, except in the localities 
 above referred to, are not represented in the human body, 
 but are well known in the bodies of the mammalia gene- 
 rally as the panniculus camosus. 
 
 In arranging the muscles for descriptive purposes, either 
 a morphological, a topographical, or a physiological method 
 maybe pursued. The morphological arrangement is to be 
 preferred when the object is to compare the muscular 
 system in man with that in different animals, and the basis 
 of the arrangement should be into muscle3 of the axiai, 
 the appendicular, and the axi-appendicular skeletons, and 
 sub-cutaneous muscles; a topographical arrangement is most 
 suitable for the purposes of the practical surgeon; a physic- 
 logical arrangement, when the object is to study the action 
 of the muscles in connection with the movements of the 
 joints. In Plates XV. and XVI., a front and back view 
 of the voluntary muscles of the body is given. 
 
 Joints and Muscles of the Axial Skeleton. 
 Tho Intervertebral Joints are complex in construction. 
 The bodies of the true v ertehjae are connected together by 
 an amphiarthrodial joint : the fibro-cartilaginous plate or 
 intervertebral disc is tough and fibrous in its peripheral 
 part, but soft and pulpy within. (Fig. 15.) Remains of the 
 chorda dorsalis are said to occur in the soft pulp, and some- 
 times a distinct cavity, lined by a synovial membrane, is 
 found in the centre of the disc, which in tho finner whale 
 is expanded into a Lrge central cavity containing many 
 ounces of synovia. A diarthrodial joint connects the supe- 
 rior and inferior articular processes of adjacent vertebra; on 
 each side. Elastic yellow ligaments, the ligamenla sub/lava,
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 PLATE XV. 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA BMTANNICA. NINTH COITION.
 
 AXIAL SKELETON.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 835 
 
 pass between their laminae. Inter- and supraspinous liga- 
 ments connect adjacent spinous processes, and in the neck 
 the supra-spinous ligament forms a broad band, the liga- 
 mentum nuchce. In those mammals which possess big 
 heads or heavy horns, this ligament of the back of the 
 neck forms a powerful elastic band for the support of the 
 head. The joints between the atlas and axis, and the 
 atlas and occiput, are specially modified in connection with 
 the movements of the head on the top of the spine. The 
 intervertebral discs are absent, and the range of movement 
 cither from before backward, as in nodding the head, or 
 from side to side, as in looking over the shoulder, are 
 more extensive than between any of the other true vertebrae. 
 The head rotates along with the atlas around the odontoid 
 or pivot process of the axis, which is lodged between the 
 anterior part of the atlas and a strong transverse ligament 
 which lies behind the odontoid. Too great movement to 
 one side or the other is prevented by the check ligaments, 
 whi.-h pass from the top of the odontoid to the occipital 
 bone, in front of the foramen magnum. The nodding 
 movements take place between the occiput and atlas, and 
 are permitted by the size and shape of the occipital condyles 
 and hollow upper articular surfaces of the atlas. These 
 joints are all diarthrodial. The spine is flexible and 
 elastic ; except in the joints above referred to, the range 
 of movement between any two true vertebrae is very small, 
 but the sum of the movement in the entire spine, owing to 
 the number of bones, is considerable. The elasticity of 
 the spine is partly due to the numerous diarthrodial joints 
 between its articular processes, but more especially to the 
 discs of fibro-cartilage interposed between the bodies of 
 the vertebrae, which act like elastic pads or buffers to pre- 
 vent shock. The spine and trunk may be bent either 
 forwards or backwards, or to the right and left side ; or 
 without being bent, the spine may be screwed to the right 
 or to the left, the screwing movement being permitted by 
 the oblique direction of the articular processes. 
 
 The muscles which move the vertebrae on each other are 
 principally situated on the back of the trunk. In the 
 hollow on each side of the vertebral spines lies the great 
 erector spinse muscle, the fibres of which pass longitudin- 
 ally upwards. When both muscles act together, the entire 
 spine is bent back; but when the muscle of one side only 
 contraets, then the spine is bent to that side. These 
 muscles also act in raising the spine from the bent to the 
 erect position, and they are assisted by small inter-epinal 
 muscles, situated between the spines in the cervical and 
 lumbar regions. The spine is bent forward by the psoae 
 and iongi colli muscles; and the straight muscles of the 
 abdomen, inserted into the lower true ribs, assist in this 
 movement. The screwing movements of the spine are 
 effected by a series of muscles, the fibres of which pass 
 obliquely between the laminae and spines of adjacent verte- 
 brae, and are known as the semispinales, multifidi, and 
 rotatores spinae muscles. 
 
 The head is balanced on the summit of the spine, and 
 is maintained in a quiescent position without any appre- 
 ciable muscular action, but it can be moved in various 
 directions by the muscles inserted into its bones. The 
 nodding movements of the head on the atlas are due to 
 the posterior recti, the two superior obliques, the two 
 splenii, and the two complexus muscles, which draw it 
 backwards, and the anterior recti and sterno-cleido-ma«toid 
 muscles, which draw it forwards. When the right splen/us 
 and greater posterior rectus and inferior oblique act along 
 with the left complexus and sterno-mastoid, the head is 
 rotated to the right shoulder ; the opposite rotation being 
 due to the action of the corresponding muscles on the 
 other side of the body. 
 
 In the formation of the walls of the abdomen proper, 
 
 bones and joints play but a small part. The lumbar 
 vertebrae behind, the expanded wings of "the iliac bone* 
 below, and the false ribs above, are the only bones to be 
 considered. Three pairs of greatly expanded muscles — 
 the external oblique, internal oblique, and transverse — lie 
 at the side3 and in front, and two pairs of muscles tb» 
 recti and pyramidales — are situated wholly in front. The 
 internal oblique and the transverse muscles are attached 
 above to the ribs, behind to the lumbar spine, below to the 
 iliac crest and to a strong band, Pouparf a ligament, extend- 
 ing from the crest of the ilium to the pubic spine; the ex- 
 ternal oblique has similar connections above and below, but 
 is not attached behind to the lumbar Bpine. The muscles 
 all terminate in front in strong expanded tendons, called 
 the anterior abdominal aponeuroses, winch blend together in 
 the middle line anteriorly to form the band called linea 
 alba, which stretches longitudinally from the xiphi- ternum 
 to the pubic symphysis. These expanded tendons enclose 
 the recti muscles, which pass from the pubis upwards to 
 the cartilages of the lower true ribs, and the pyramidal 
 muscles, which pass from the pubis to be inserted into the 
 linea alba. The entire arrangement is admirably adapted 
 for completing the walls of the great abdominal chamber, 
 and for enabling the muscles to compress the ablominal 
 viscera, an action which takes place when the contents of 
 the bowels and bladder are being expelled during defseca- 
 tion and micturition. 
 
 Bones and joints play a more important part in the 
 formation of the walls of the thoracic than of the abdo- 
 minal cavity. Not only are there thoracic vertebrae behind, 
 and the sternum in front, but on each side the twelve ribs 
 arch more or less completely forward from the spine ; each 
 rib is articulated behind to one or two vertebrae, and the 
 seven upper ribs, through their costal cartilages, articulate 
 with the sternum. 
 
 The Costo-vertebral Joints are situated between the head Co«t»l 
 of the rib and the vertebral body; also, except in the float- ) oilAa - 
 ing ribs, between the tubercle of the rib and the transverse 
 process of the vertebra, the joints being diarthrodial, and 
 completed in the usual manner by ligaments and synovial 
 membrane. The Costo-sternal Joints are also diarthrodial 
 (except the first costal cartilage, which is directly united to 
 the prae-sternum), a capsular ligament, lined by a synovial 
 membrane, connecting the cartilages of the true ribs to the 
 sternum. The cartilages from the sixth to the ninth ribs 
 are also united by ligamentous fibres. 
 
 The movements of the ribs and sternum at the costo- 
 vertebral and costo-sternal joints are of the utmost import- 
 ance in the process of breathing. Breathing or respiration 
 consists of two acts — breathing in, or inspiration,and breath- 
 ing out, or expiration. During inspiration, the air rushes 
 through the nose or mouth down the windpipe, and dilates 
 the air-cells of the lungs ; together with the expansion of 
 the lungs the walls of the chest rise, so that the capacity 
 both of lungs and chest at the end of a full inspiration is 
 nearly doubled. During inspiration the following changes 
 occur in the walls of the chest : the ribs are elevated and 
 rotated, the lower borders of their shafts are everted, 
 while their surfaces are at the same time rendered mors 
 oblique, and the width of the intercostal spaces is thereby 
 increased ; the elevation and rotation of the ribs thnw 
 the sternum upwards and forwards, and make the thoracie 
 part of the spinal column straighter; the diaphragm is 
 depressed, and the anterolateral walls of the abdomen are 
 thrown forward. The muscles which cause these move- 
 ments are as follows : — In each of the spaces between 
 the different ribs a pair of intercostal muscles is situated ; 
 these elevate and rotate the ribs, and the movements are 
 assisted by the levatores costarura, and, in the case of the 
 upper and lower ribs, by the scaleni and eerrati pcttici
 
 83G 
 
 ANA T M Y 
 
 [mUsCLES OF 
 
 muscles ; and by these agents the transverse ana antero- 
 posterior diameter of the chest is increased. The increase 
 in its vertical diameter is duo to the action of the dia- 
 phragm or midriff, the great muscle which, arising by its 
 circumference from the xiphi-stemum, sis lower ribs, and 
 bodies of the lumbar vertebra;, forms the floor of the thoracic 
 and the roof of the abdominal cavity. It constitutes a 
 great ar^h, with its convexity directed to the cavity of the 
 chest. By the contraction of its fibres the arch is rendered 
 less convex, and the floor of the chest is thereby depressed. 
 Under cireums'.ances which require more powerful efforts 
 of inspiration, the muscles which pass from the walls of 
 the chest to the upper limbs may, by taking their fixed 
 points at the limbs, act as elevators of the ribs. During 
 expiration the ribs are depressed, their lower borders in- 
 verted, the width of the intercostal spaces diminished, the 
 sternum depressed, the suine more curved, and the dia- 
 
 fio. 19— The concave abdominal surface of the diaphragm, a, 4th lumbar 
 vertebra; b, c, 12 h and utli libs; d, xiphi-stemum j «,/ crura of diaphragm ; 
 g, h, arched tendons of origin of diaphragm; t, aorta; /, oesophagus; m. 
 Inferior vena cava; n, psoas; o, qusdratus muscle; qqq u central tendon of 
 diaphragm, into v/hicli tbe muscular fibres are inserted. 
 
 phragm more convex. These movements are principally 
 due to the recoil of the elastic tissue of the lungs previously 
 rendered tense by the inflation of the air-cells, and to the 
 untwisting of the ribs when the inspiratory muscles cease 
 to elevate and rotate them. Muscular action plays but a 
 small part in quiet expiration, but the expulsion of the 
 air from the lungs may be facilitated by contracting the 
 abdominal muscles, which, pressing the abdominal viscera 
 against the under surface of the diaphragm, force that 
 muscle upwards. 
 
 The Temporo-maxillary Joints are the only diarthrodial 
 articulations in the head. The condyle of the lower jaw on 
 each side is received into the glenoid fossa of the temporal 
 bone ; each joint is enclosed by a capsular ligament, and 
 between the articular surfaces is a meniscus, which sub- 
 divides the interior of the joint into two cavities, each lined 
 by a synovial membrane. The movements of the lower 
 jaw take place simultaneously at both its articulations 
 during mastication and speech, through the action of the 
 several muscles which are inserted into it. This bone is 
 elevated by the temporal muscles, inserted into the coronoid 
 processes ; and by the masseterics, inserted into the outer 
 surface, and the internal pterygoids, into the inner surface of 
 each angle. It is depressed partly by its own weight and 
 partly by the action of the digastrics and genio-hyoids; in- 
 serted close to the symphysis ; by the platysma, inserted into 
 the outer surface of each horizontal ramus; and the mylo- 
 
 hyoids, into their inner surfaces. The elevators of the jaw 
 are much more powerful than the depressors, ior they not 
 only have to overcome the weight of the boue, but during 
 mastication have to exercise force sufficient to cut or break 
 down the food between the teeth. In carnivorous animals, 
 more especially those which, like the tiger or hyama, crack 
 tha bones of their prey, these muscles attain a great size. 
 The lower jaw can be projected in front of the upper by the 
 external pterygoid muscles, inserted into the neck of the 
 bone on each side ; but excessive movement forward is 
 checked by the action of the stylo-maxillary ligaments, 
 which pass from the styloid processes to the angles of the 
 bone ; when projected forward, the jaw is drawn back by 
 the posterior fibres of the temporal muscles. When tht 
 elevator, depressor, protractor, and retractor muscles are 
 successively brought into action, the lateral or grinding 
 movements of the bone, so important in mastication, arq 
 produced. 
 
 Along with the movements of the lower jaw those of the 
 hyoid bone and larynx must be considered, for the digastrics, 
 the genie- and mylo-hyoids, which depress the lower jaw, 
 act, when their action is reversed, along with the stylo- 
 hyoid muscles in elevating the hyoid bone and larynx, 
 which structures can be depressed or drawn downwards by 
 the action of the sterno-hyoids, sterno-thyroids, thyro- 
 hyoids, and omo-hyoids ; the elevation of the hyoid, when 
 drawn down by its depressor muscles, is effected by the 
 elastic stylohyoid ligaments attached to its small cornua, 
 which, by their recoil when the depressor muscles have 
 ceased to contract, draw the bone up to its former position. 
 
 Numerous muscles are situated immediately beneath the 
 skin of the scalp and face. They are not of so deep red a 
 colour as the muscles of the trunk and limbs, and whilst 
 they arise from one or other of the bones of the head, they 
 are inserted into the deep surface of the skin itself. Hence 
 when they contract they move the skin of the scalp and face, 
 and as they are the instruments through which the various 
 passions and emotions are expressed, they are grouped to- 
 gether as the Muscles of Expression (Plate XV., figs. 2 and 
 3). The occipitc-frontalis, or great muscle of the scalp, 
 passes from the occipital bone over the vertex to the fore- 
 head ; \vhen it contracts, the skin of the forehead is wrinkled 
 transversely, the eyebrows 1 are elevated, and an expression 
 of amazement or surprise is produced. Some persons have a 
 greater power over this muscle than others, and by the alter- 
 nate contraction of its occipital and frontal portions can 
 move the hairy sca'p to and fro with great rapidity. A pair 
 of muscles, the corrugatores supercilii, arises from the supra- 
 ciliary ridges, on the frontal bone, to be inserted into the 
 eyebrows : they draw the eyebrows downwards and in- 
 wards, wrinkle the skin of the forehead longitudinally, 
 and contract with great vigour in the act of frowning. 
 The auricle of the external ear has three small muscles 
 inserted into it, one behind, the posterior, one above, the 
 superior, one in front, the anterior auricular muscle : in 
 man, as a rule, these muscles are feeble, and have little 
 action ; but in many mammals they are large, and by them 
 the animal pricks its ears to detect the faintest sound of 
 danger. The eyelids are drawn together, so as to close the 
 eye as in the act of sleep, by the orbicularis palpebrarum, 
 the fibres of which lie in the eyelids and on the borders of 
 the orbit, and surround the fissure between the- eyelids. 
 This muscle is a characteristic specimen of the group of 
 sphincter muscles, i.e., muscles which surround orifices, and 
 by their contraction close them. When the upper fibres of 
 the muscle alone contract, the uoper eyelid is depressed, — 
 a movement which takes place almost involuntarily and 
 with great frequency during our waking hours, so as to 
 wash the tears over the exposed part of the eyeball and 
 keep it moia£. In expressing § " knowing wiii." Ut-
 
 HEAD AND NECK.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 837 
 
 lower fibres alone of the orbicularis contract, and the lower 
 lid is elevated. The elevation of the upper lid, as in 
 opening the eye, is due to the levator palpebne superioris, 
 which, arising withia the orbit, is inserted into the upper 
 eyelid. Muscles are inserted into the framework of the 
 nostrils so as to increase or diminish the size of their 
 orifices, and thus to promote or impede the passage of air 
 into the nose. The size of the orifice is increased by 
 two elevator muscles inserted into the ala', or side of the 
 nostril ; and when violent exercise is being performed, or 
 respiration is from any cause impeded, the nostrils are 
 always widely dilated. One of these elevator muscles, 
 which also sends a slip down to the upper lip, and is con- 
 sequently called the common elevator, is the muscle by 
 the contraction of which a sneer is expressed. A partial 
 closure of the nostril can be effected by small muscles 
 which depress and compress the ate of the nose : in man 
 these muscles are rudimentary as compared with the seal 
 and other aquatic mammals, in which a powerful sphincter 
 muscle closes the nostrils in the act of diving. The lips 
 can be elevated or depressed so as to close or open the 
 mouth ; they can be protruded or retracted, or the corners 
 of the mouth can be drawn to one side or the other, by 
 the action of various muscles which are inserted into 
 these movable folds of the integument. The orbicularis 
 oris is a sphincter muscle, the fibres of which lie both 
 in the upper and lower lip3; by its contraction the 
 mouth is closed and the lips pressed against the teeth, 
 as when a firm resolution is intended to be expressed. 
 The mouth is opened by the elevator muscles of the upper 
 and the depressors of the lower lip ; it is transversely elon- 
 gated by the zygomatic and risorius muscles, which pass to 
 its corners, and which are brought into action in the acts 
 of smiling and laughing. But the muscles of the lips also 
 play an important 
 part in connection 
 with the reception 
 of food into the 
 mouth, and with 
 the act of articula- 
 tion. 
 
 The cavity of 
 the mouth forms 
 the commence- 
 ment of the ali- 
 mentary canal, 
 and is lined by a 
 soft mucous mem- 
 brane. In it the 
 teeth and tongue 
 are situated, and 
 into it the secre- 
 tion called saliva 
 is poured. It 
 opens behind into 
 the pharynx. The 
 side walls of the 
 mouth are called 
 the cheeks, and 
 into the formation 
 of each cheek a 
 flattened quadrila- 
 teral muscle, the 
 buccinator, enters. 
 This muscle is at- 
 tached above and 
 below to the upper 
 and lower jaw- 
 bones, behind to 
 constrictor muscle 
 
 Fio. 50.— Profile of check and pharyn*. a, buccinator ; 
 6, tensor; e, levator palatl; d, «,/, superior, middle, 
 and Inferior constrictors; g, tbyro-hyold; A, hyo- 
 glo&sus; I, mylo-hyoid; m, crlco-thyroid ; n, stylo- 
 pharyngeal o, stylo-glossus; q, fibrous band which 
 gives origin to buccinator and superior constrictor; 
 1, glosso-pharyngeal nerve; 2, superior laryngeal 
 artery ; 3, superior laryngeal nerve ; 4, Its branch to 
 crico- thyroid; 5, Inferior laryngeal nerve and artery. 
 
 a fibrous band, to which the upper 
 is also connected, so that the walls of 
 
 the mouth and pharynx are continuous witrt each otiier, 
 whilst in front the buccinator blends with the structures in 
 the lips. It compresses the cheeks, and drives the air out 
 of the cavity of the mouth as in playing a wind instru- 
 ment j hence the name, " trumpeter's muscle." 
 
 The aperture of communication between the mouth and 
 pharynx is named the isthmus of the fauces. It is bounded 
 below by the root of the tongue, on each side by the tonsils, 
 and above by the soft palate. The soft palate is a structure 
 which hangs pendulous from the posterior edge of the hard 
 bony palate. From its centre depends an elongated body, 
 the uvula, and from each of its sides two folds extend, one 
 downwards and forwards to the tongue, the other down- 
 wards and backwards to the pharynx. These folds are 
 called the anterior and posterior pillars of the fauces or 
 palate. Between the anterior and posterior pillar, on each 
 side, the tonsil is seated. The soft palate and its pillars are 
 invested by the mucous lining of the mouth and pharynx, 
 and contain small but important muscles. The muscles of 
 the soft palate and uvula, termed the elevators and tensors,, 
 raise and make them tense during the process of deglutition. 
 The muscles of the posterior pillars, or palato-pharyngei, by 
 their contraction, approximate the walls of the pharynx to 
 the soft palate and uvula, whilst the muscles of the anterior 
 pillars, or palato-glossi, diminish the size of the fauces. 
 
 The pharynx is a tube with muscular walls, lined by a Musclea «f 
 mucous membrane, which communicates above and in front pharyui. 
 with the cavities of the nose, mouth, and larynx, whilst 
 below it is continuous with the. oesophagus or gullet. It 
 serves as the chamber or passage down which the feed 
 goes from the mouth to the oesophagus in the act of 
 swallowing, and through which the air is transmitted from 
 the nose or mouth to the larynx in the act of breathing. 
 It lies immediately behind the nose, mouth, and larynx, 
 and in front of 
 the five upper 
 cervical verte- 
 brae. Its length 
 is from 4J- to 5\ 
 inches; its widest 
 part is opposite 
 the back of the 
 mouth. The prin- 
 cipal muscles in 
 its walls are call- 
 ed the constric- 
 tors, and are 
 named, from 
 above down- 
 wards, superior, 
 middle, and in- 
 ferior. They are 
 arranged in 
 pairs, and arise 
 from the cartil- 
 ages of the 
 larynx, from the 
 hyoidbone,lower 
 jaw, and internal 
 
 Pterygoid pro- F[(j j, _| nterl0r of , ne ^i7 sr yn*, teen by opening It* 
 cess -of the sphe- posterior Tall, a, a, Eustachian tube: 6, 6, tensor; e, 
 _ ,;j, -inj ( iL. levator palatl; ilcvolor uvula"; e,«, pnlatopharynceir"; 
 UOlU, williil/ me j palatoglossus ; g, K t. Uie three constrictors; {, f, u»n- 
 
 superior also «"«• 
 
 springs from the fibrous band to which the buccinator is 
 attached ; their fasciculi curve backwards to the middle Line 
 of the posterior wall of the pharynx, to be inserted into a 
 tendinous band which extends longitudinally along this 
 wall of the tube. 
 
 The action of the muscles of the moutn, paiate, and 
 pharynx may now be considered in connection with th#
 
 838 
 
 A N A T O A I K 
 
 [JOINTS AND MUSCLE3 — ■ 
 
 process of deglutition or swallowing. When the food is 
 received into the mouth, it is moistened by the secretion of 
 the salivary and other buccal glands, and is broken down 
 by the grinding action of the molar teeth. The buccinator 
 muscles press it from between the gums and the cheek, 
 and, along with the movements of the tongue, aid in col- 
 lecting it into a bolus on the surface of that organ. Dur- 
 ing the process of mastication the palato-glossi contract so 
 as to close the fauces. When the bolus is sufficiently tritu- 
 rated and moistened, the palato-glossi relax, the tip of the 
 tongue is pressed against the roof of the mouth, and by a 
 heave backward of that organ the bolus is pressed through 
 the posterior orifice of the mouth into the pharynx, where 
 it is grasped by the superior constrictor muscles, and forced 
 downwards by them and the other constrictor muscles into 
 the oesophagus, and thence into the stomach. As both 
 the nose and larynx open into the pharynx, the one imme- 
 diately above, the other immediately below the orifice of 
 the mouth, it is of great importance that none of the food 
 should enter into these chambers, and obstruct the respira- 
 tory passages. To guard against any accident of this kind, 
 two valvular structures are provided, — viz., the soft palate 
 and the epiglottis, — which, whilst leaving the orifices into 
 their respective chambers open during breathing, may 
 effectually close them when deglutition is being performed. 
 As the bolus is being projected through the fauces into the 
 pharynx, the soft palate and uvula are elevated and made 
 tense, and at the same time the wall of tho pharynx is 
 brought in contact with it by the contraction of the palato- 
 pharyngei; the part of the pharynx into which the nose opens 
 is thus temporarily shut off from that into which the mouth 
 opens. If laughter, however, be excited at this time, the 
 tension of the soft palate is destroyed, and part of the food 
 may find its way upwards into the nose. The closure of 
 the larynx by the epiglottis is due partly to the depression 
 of that valve and partly to the elevation of the larynx. 
 The backward heave of the tongue relaxes the ligaments 
 •which connect the front of the epiglottis to that organ, and 
 enables the small epiglottidean muscles to depress the 
 valve. The elevation of the hyoid and larynx is due to the 
 action of the mylo-hyoid, digastric, and genio-hyoid muscles, 
 which pass from the lower jaw to the hyoid, and of the 
 thyro-hyoid, which pass from the hyoid to the thyroid 
 cartilage of the larynx; preliminary to their action, the 
 lower jaw must be fixed, which is done by the closure of 
 the mouth prior to the act of swallowing. The aperture of 
 the larynx is thus brought into contact with the depressed 
 epiglottis, which is adapted more exactly to the opening 
 by a change in its form due to the projection of a cushion- 
 liko pad from its posterior surface. By these ingenious 
 arrangements the adaptation of a single chamber to the 
 very different functions of breathing and swallowing i3 
 effectually provided for. 
 
 Joints and Muscles of tiie Upper Limb. 
 
 The upper limb is jointed to the trunk at the sterno- 
 clavicular articulation. This is a diarthrodial joint: the 
 bones are retained together by' investing ligaments; a 
 meniscus is interoosed batween the articular surfaces; so 
 that the joint possesses two synovial membranes. A strong 
 ligament, which checks too great upward movement, con- 
 nects the clavicle and first rib. The two bones of the 
 shoulder girdle articulate with each other at the diarti 
 acromioclavicular joint ; but, in addition, a strong ligament, 
 which checks too great displacement of the bones, passes 
 between the clavicle and coracoid. The movements of the 
 upper limb on the trunk take place at the sternoclavicular 
 joint, and consist in the elevation, depression, and forward 
 and backward movement of the shoulder. The movements 
 el th« acromioclavicular joint occur when the scapula is 
 
 rotated on the clavicle in the act of elevating the arra. 
 above the head. Tho muscles which cause these movej 
 ments are inserted into the bones of the shoulder girdle; 
 the trapezius into the clavicle, acromion, and spine of the 
 scapula; the rhomboid, levator anguli scapula;, and serratua 
 magnus into the vertebral border of the scapula; the 
 pectoralis minor into the coracoid; and tho subclavius into 
 the clavicle. Elevation of the entire shoulder, as in 
 shrugging the shoulders, is due to the contraction of the 
 trapezius, levator scapula;, and rhomboideus; depression 
 partly to the weight of the limb and partly to the action of 
 the subclavius and pectoralis minor; movement forward to 
 the serratus and pectoralis; and backward to the trapezius 
 and rhomboid. In rotation of the scapula on tho clavicle, 
 the inferior angle of the scapula is drawn forward by the 
 serratus and lower fibres of trapezius, and backward by the 
 levator seapulie, rhomboid, and lesser pectoral. 
 
 The Slioulder Joint is a ball-and-socket joint, the ball 
 being the head of the humerus, the socket the glenoid fossa 
 of the scapula. A large capsular ligament, which fa 
 pierced by the long tendon of the biceps muscle, and lined, 
 by a synovial membrane, encloses the articular ends of 
 the two bones, and is so loose as to permit a range of 
 movement greater than takes place in any other joint in 
 the body. , The muscles which cause these movements are 
 inserted into the .humerus ; the supra-spinatus, infra- 
 spinatus, and teres minor into the great tuberosity; the 
 sub-scapularis into the small tuberosity; the latissimus 
 dorsi and teres major into the bottom of the bicipital 
 groove; the pectoralis major into its anterior border; the 
 coraco-brachialis into the inner aspect, and the deltoid, 
 which forms the fleshy prominence of the shoulder, into 
 the outer aspect of the shaft. Abduction and elevation or 
 extension of the arm outwards at the shoulder joint are 
 due to the supra-spinatus and deltoid; adduction or de- 
 pression, to the coraco-brachialis, latissimus, and teres 
 major, assisted by the weight of the limb; movement for- 
 wards and elevation, to the anterior fibres of the deltoid, 
 pectoralis, and subscapularis; backward movement to tho 
 latissimus and teres; rotation outwards to the infra-spinatus 
 and teres minor; rotation inwards to the subscapularis, 
 pectoralis, latissimus, and teres. A combination of abduo- 
 tion, movement forwards, adduction, and movement back- 
 wards, produces the movement of circumduction. Certain 
 movements of the upper limb, however, take place not 
 only at the shoulder joint, but between the two bones of the 
 shoulder girdle ; for in elevating the arm, whilst the supra- 
 spinatus and deltoid initiate the movement at the shoulder 
 joint, the farther elevation, as in raising the arm above the 
 head, takes place by the trapezius and serratus, which 
 rotate the scapula and draw its inferior angle forward. The 
 free range of movement of the human shoulder is one of 
 its most striking characters, 
 so that the arm can be moved 
 in every direction through 
 space, and its efficiency as aD 
 instrument of prehension is 
 thus greatly increased. The 
 movement of abduction, or 
 extension, which elevates the 
 arm in line with the axis of 
 the scapula, is characteristi- 
 cally human, and a distinct Fl0 22 ._ outline «kp.teh of human im- 
 articular area is provided on ""="»«• T*" articular a™ rot ™m- 
 
 i r plcte extemion lie* to the right o/ tin 
 
 the head of the humerus lor dotted ime. (4/<«- oooaur.i 
 this movement. 
 
 The Elbow Joint is the articulation between the humerus, 
 radius, and ulna : the great sigmoid cavity of the ulna to 
 adapted to the trochlea of the humerus, and the cup of 
 the radius to tho capitellnm. The joint is endusea by a
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 PLATB XVI« 
 
 (VCYU0P40IA B8ITAOIC*. MIOTH EDIII8I.
 
 UPPEE LIMB.J 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 839 
 
 capsular ligament lined bj a synovial membrane, which is 
 subdivided into anterior, posterior, internal, and ex- 
 ternal bands of fibres. Flexion and extension are the 
 two movements of the joint, and the range of movement is 
 limited by the locking at the end of flexion of the coronoid 
 process into the coronoid fossa of the humerus, and at the 
 end of extension of the olecranon process into the olecranoid 
 fossa. The elbow joint is a hinge with screwed surfaces ; 
 the path described by the hand and fore-arm is a spiral, so 
 that during flexion they are thrown forwards and inwards. 
 The muscles which cause the movements are inserted into 
 the bones of the fore-arm. The flexors are the brachialis 
 anticus, inserted into the coronoid of the ulna ; the biceps, 
 which forms the fleshy mass on the front of the upper arm, 
 into the tuberosity of the radius ; the supinator longus into 
 the styloid process of the radius. The only extensor is the 
 triceps anconeus, which forms the fleshy mass on the back 
 . of the upper arm, and is inserted into the olecranon. 
 lata cm' The Radio-ulnar Joints are found between the two bones 
 »wn. of the fore-arm. The head of the radius rolls in the lesser 
 sigmoid cavity of the ulna, and is retained in position by 
 a ring-like ligament which surrounds it ; the shafts of the 
 two bones are connected together by the interosseous 
 membrane, their lower ends by a capsular ligament and a 
 triangular fibro-cartilage or meniscus. The radius rotates. 
 round an axis drawn through the centre of its head and 
 the styloid process of the ulna; rotation of the fore-arm 
 and hand forward is called pronation, — rotation backwards, 
 supination. The supinator and pronator muscles are all 
 inserted into the radius : the supinators are the longus and 
 brevis and the biceps ; the pronators are the teres and 
 quadratus. Where delicate manipulation is required the 
 fore-arm is semi-flexed on the upper arm, for the cup- 
 shaped head of the radius is then brought into contact 
 with the capitellum of the humerus, and the rotatory 
 movements of the bone can be performed with greater 
 precision. 
 1st. The Wrist or Radio-carpal Joint is formed above by the 
 
 lower end of the radius and the triangular meniscus, below 
 by the upper articular surfaces of the scaphoid, semi-lunar, 
 and cuneiform bones. An investing ligament, lined by a 
 synovial membrane, and subdivided into anterior, posterior, 
 internal, and external bands of fibres, encloses the joint. 
 It is the oblong form of hinge-joint, and possesses two 
 axes, a long and a short ; around the long axis movements 
 occur which bend the hand forwards, or bring it in line 
 with the fore-arm, or bend it backwards ; around the short 
 axis the hand may be moved towards the radial or ulnar 
 margins of the fore-arm. The flexors forward are the 
 palmaris longus, inserted into the palmar fascia ; the flexor 
 carpi radialis into the metacarpal bone of the index; the 
 flexor carpi ulnaris into the pisiform bone; the extensors 
 and flexors backwards are the longer and shorter radial 
 extensors inserted into the metacarpalbones of the index 
 and middle fingers, and the ulnar extensor into the meta- 
 carpal bone of the. little finger; the flexors and extensors 
 of the fingers have' also a secondary action on the wrist 
 joint. The ulnar flexor and ulnar extensor of the wrist 
 draw the hand to the ulnar side, and the radial flexor and 
 extensor, together with the extensors of the thumb, draw 
 the hand towards the radial border of the fore-arm. 
 
 The Carpal and Carpo-metacarpal Joints are constructed 
 thus : — The articular surfaces are retained in contact by 
 certain ligaments passing between the dorsal surfaces of 
 adjacent bones, by others between their palmar surfaces, 
 and by interosseous ligaments between the semi-lunar and 
 cuneiform, semi-lunar and scaphoid, os magnum and unci- 
 form, os magnum and trapezoid; lateral ligaments also 
 attach the soaphoid to the trapezium, and the cuneiform to 
 the unciform. Similarly, the trapezuid, os magnum, and 
 
 unciform are connected to the metacarpal bones of tin 
 fingers by dorsal, palmar, and interosseous ligaments, and 
 the metacarpal bones of the fingers have a like mode of 
 union at their carpal ends ; further, a transverse ligament 
 extends between the distal ends of the metacarpal bones of 
 the fingers, and checks too great lateral displacement The 
 range of movement at any one of these carpal joints is very 
 slight, but the multiplicity of joints in this locality con- 
 tributes to the mobility of the wrist, and makes the junction 
 between the hand and fore-arm less rigid in its nature. 
 The metacarpal bone of the thumb is not jointed to the 
 index, and has a distinct saddle-shaped articulation with 
 the trapezium, invested by a capsular ligament, so that its 
 range of movement is extensive. 
 
 The Metacarpophalangeal and Inter-phalangeal Jointt 
 are connected by lateral ligaments passing between the 
 bones, and by an arrangement of fibres on their dorsal and 
 palmar surfaces. 
 
 In studying the muscles which move the digits, it will 
 be advisable, on account of the freedom and importance of 
 the movements of the thumb, to 
 examine its muscles indepen- 
 dently. These muscles either 
 pass from the fore-arm to the 
 thumb, or are grouped together 
 at the outer part of the palm, 
 and form the elevation known 
 as the ball of the thumb ; they 
 are inserted either into the 
 metacarpal bone or the pha- 
 langes. The thumb is extended 
 and abducted, i.e., drawn away 
 from the index, by three ex- 
 tensormusclesdescending from 
 the fore-arm, and inserted one 
 into each of its three bones, 
 and a small muscle, specially 
 named abductor pollicis, in- 
 serted into the outer side of 
 the first phalanx : its bones 
 are bent on each other by a 
 long and short flexor muscle ; 
 it is drawn back to the index 
 by an adductor muscle ; and 
 the entire thumb is thrown fln i^ueepmusci 
 across the surface of the palm 
 by the opponens pollicis, 
 which is inserted into the 
 shaft of the metacarpal bone. 
 
 The four fingers can be 
 either bent, or extended, or 
 drawn asunder, i.e., abducted 
 adducted. The ungual phalanges can be bent by the 
 
 Mho palm of 
 the band. 1. abductor poinds eat 
 short ; 2, opponent ; 3 and 4. sua*. 
 diTislons of flexor breeia; 6. ad- 
 ductor; 6, C, tendon of Ion- flexor 
 pollicis; 7, abductor of the little 
 linger: 8, ahort flexor; 9, opponenn 
 
 10, tendon of flexor carpi ulnarte; 
 
 11. tendon of lone supinator; H 
 transverse metacaipal ligament 
 
 or drawn together, «.«., 
 
 Fto. 24.— Tendons attached to a flnjter. o. the extensor tendon; k, deep flexor. 
 C Bupcrficiiii flexor; d. a lumbrical muscle; c an Interosseous muscle; 
 /, tendinous expansion from the lumbrical and Interosseous muscles joining 
 the extensor tendon. 
 
 action of the deep flexor muscle, the four tendons of which 
 are inserted into them ; the second phalanges by the super- 
 ficial flexor, also inserted by four tendons, one into each 
 phalanx ; these muscles descend from the front of the fore- 
 arm into the palm in front of the wrist, where they are
 
 840 
 
 ANA T O M Y 
 
 (joints and MUSCLES 
 
 9*cro-ihac 
 
 |OUlt. 
 
 enclosed in a canal by a strong band, tlic anterior annular 
 ligament, and their surfaces are invested by a synovial 
 membrane, which facilitates their movements to and fro 
 beneath that ligament ; as they pass downwards in front of 
 the fingers they are enclosed in a strong fibrous sheath 
 lined by a synovial membrane, and the tendon of the super- 
 ficial flexor is pierced by the deep flexor, so that the latter 
 may reach the third phalanx into which it i3 inserted. 
 Four rounded muscles, the lumbricales, arise in the palm 
 from the deep flexor tendons, turn round the radial borders 
 of the first phalanges, and are inserted one into the extensor 
 tendon on the dorsum of each finger ; these muscles bend 
 the first phalanges on the metacarpal bones, but from their 
 insertion into the extensor tendons they also extend the 
 second and third phalanges on the first ; as they are much 
 used in playing stringed instruments, they have been called 
 "fiddlers'muscles." Thefingers are extended or straightened 
 by muscles inserted into the back of the second and third 
 phalanges ; the extensor muscles descend from the back of 
 the fore-arm, — one, the common extensor, subdivides into 
 four tendons, one for each finger, but in addition the index 
 and little have each a separate extensor muscle, the tendon 
 of which joins that of the common extensor. The index 
 finger possesses more independent movement than the 
 other digits — hence its more frequent use as a " pointer;" 
 the extensor tendons of the little and ring fingers are 
 usually united together, so that these digits are associated 
 in their movements. Abduction and adduction of the 
 fingers are caused by seven small muscles situated in the 
 intervals between the metacarpal bones, — hence called 
 interossei ; four of these lie on the back of the hand, three 
 on its palmar surface ; they are inserted into the sides of 
 the first phalanges, and either pull the fingers away from a 
 line drawn through the middle finger or approximate them 
 to that line. Too great abduction is checked by the trans- 
 verse metacarpal ligament. The human hand is a perfect in- 
 strument of prehension; not only can the individual fingers' 
 be bent into hooks, but the thumb can be thrown across the 
 front of the palm so that it can be opposed to the several 
 fingers, and objects can therefore be grasped between it and 
 them ; but further, this power of opposing the thumb permits 
 objects to be held in the palm of the hand, which may be 
 hollowed into a cup or made to grasp a sphere. The 
 movements of the joints are indicated on the surface of 
 the palm by tegumentary folds, — an oblique fold for the 
 thumb, and two oblique folds for the metacarpo-phalangeal 
 joints of the fingers ; the joints of the second and third 
 phalanges are also marked on the surface by folds. 
 
 Joints and Muscles of the Lower Limb. 
 
 The innominate bones are connected to the spinal column 
 by the sacro-iliac joints and the sacro-sciatic ligaments. 
 The Sacro-iliac Joint is between the side of the sacrum and 
 the internal surface of the ilium, the articular surfaces of 
 which bones are covered by" cartilage, and connected 
 together by short, strong ligaments. The sacro-sciatic 
 ligaments stretch from the side of -the sacrum and coccyx 
 to the spine and tuberosity of the ischium. The two 
 innominate bones are atao connected together at the pubic 
 symphysis, which is an amphiarthrodial joint. The sacro- 
 iliac joints and pubic symphysis permit only slight move- 
 ment; .that at the former is around an imaginary axis, 
 drawn transversely through the second sacral vertebra, which 
 allows the base of the sacrum to be thrown forward and its 
 apex backward in -the stooping position of the body; but 
 too great movement backward of the apex is checked by 
 the sacro-sciatic ligaments. As the weight of the trunk, 
 or of what may be carried in the arms or on the back, is 
 transmitted through the haunch-bones to the lower limbs, 
 
 the sacro-iliac ligaments require to be of great strength, 
 because the sacrum, and with it the entire trunk, are sus- 
 pended by them on the two innominate bones. 
 
 The II ip Joint is a ball-and-socket joint; the ball is the 
 head of the femur, and the socket the cup-shaped acetabu- 
 lum in the haunch bom, the depth of the cup being in 
 creased by a ligament which is attached around the brim. 
 A large capsular ligament, which is especially strong in 
 front, encloses the articular surfaces. The ligament is 
 lined by a synovial membrane, which also invests the neck 
 of the thigh bone. Within the joint is the round or sus- 
 pensory ligament attached to the head of the thigh bone 
 and to the sides of the depression at the bottom of the 
 acetabulum. Whilst the hip joint possesses considerable 
 mobility, it has much moro stability than the shoulder, 
 owing to the acetabulum being deeper than the glenoid 
 fossa, and the greater strength and tension of the fibres of 
 its capsular ligament. The muscles which move the thigh 
 at the hip joint are situated either behind the joint, where 
 they form the fleshy mass of the buttock, or at the front 
 and the inner side of the thigh. They are inserted either 
 into the femur or fascia lata, and the great and small 
 trochanters serve as their principal surfaces of attachment. 
 The thigh can be bent on the abdomen by the action of 
 the psoas, iliacus, and pectineus, which lie in front of the 
 joint ; it can be extended or drawn into line with the 
 trunk by the gluta.-us-maximus and medius ; it can be 
 abducted or drawn away from the opposite thigh by the 
 glutaeus maximus, medius, and minimus, which muscles 
 are of large size, and form the fleshy mass of the buttocks. 
 It can be adducted or drawn to touch its fellow, or, if 
 slightly bent, drawn in front of its fellow, by the adductor 
 longus, brevis, and magnus, which muscles are inserted, 
 into the linea aspera, and form the fleshy mass on tho 
 inner side of the thigh ; and by the pectineus and quad- 
 ratus femoris. It can be rotated outwards by the obturatur 
 and gemelli muscles, the gluta;us maximus. p/j if oralis, and 
 quadratus femoris; and rotated inwards by the glutanis- 
 medius, minimus, and tensor fascial femoris. In standing 
 erect the hip joints are fully extended, and the mechanical 
 arrangements in and around these articulations are such 
 a3 to enable them to be retained in the extended position 
 with but a small expenditure of muscular power. As the 
 weight of the body in the erect attitude falls behind the 
 joints, the strong anterior fibres of their capsular liga- 
 ments are made tense, and the extended porition of the 
 joints is preserved. So long as the centre of gravity falls 
 within the basis of support of the body, ie., the space 
 between the two feet when standing on both legs, the body 
 will not fall. If the body is made to lean forward, then 
 the capsular ligament is no longer tense, and the glutaeal 
 muscles are put in action to re-extend the trunk on tho 
 thigh, and prevent it from falling forward ; if the body is 
 made to lean to one side or the other, the round ligament 
 is made tense, or the strong ilio-tibial band of the fascia, 
 lata of the thigh, which stretches from the ilium to the 
 tibia, is put on the stretch, and falling sideways is pre- 
 vented. When, in standing erect either on one or both 
 feet, the balance of the body is disturbed, then various 
 muscles both of the trunk and lower limb are brought into 
 action to assist in preserving the erect position. In the 
 erect position the weight of the trunk is transmitted 
 through the acetabula to the heads of the thigh-bones, but 
 the position and connections of the round b'gameut enable 
 it to suspend that portion of the trunk the weight of which 
 is thrown upon it, and to distribute the weight over the 
 head of the femur. 
 
 The Knee is the largest and most complicated joint in 
 the body. It consists of the femur, tibia, and patella. 
 The patella moves up and down the trochlear surface of
 
 L0WKK.LIS1B.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 841 
 
 the femur, whilst the condyles of tb'o femur rull upon the 
 semilunar cartilages and articular surfaces of the tibia. 
 A powerful investing ligament encloses the articular sur- 
 faces. This ligament is subdivided into bands, one on 
 each side of the joint — the internal and external lateral liga- 
 ments — a posterior and an anterior. The anterior extends 
 from the patella to the anterior tubercle of the tibia, and 
 serves both as a ligament and as the tendon of insertion of 
 the extensor muscles of the leg. Within the investing 
 ligament two interarticular or crucial ligaments pass from 
 the inter-condyloid fossa to the upper surface of the tibia ; 
 and interposed between the tibia and femoral condyles are 
 two menisci, which from their shape are called the semi- 
 lunar cartilages. The synovial membrane not only lines 
 the investing ligaments, but covers the front of the femur 
 for some distance above the trochlea, and forms folds or 
 pads within the joint itself, which in certain movements 
 are interposed between the articular surfaces of the bones. 
 The movements'at this joint are those of flexion and exten- 
 sion. The flexors are the three great muscles on the back 
 of the thigh, called the ham-strings ; they all arise from 
 the ischial tuberosity, and are inserted — the biceps into 
 the head of the fibula, the semi-tendinosus and semi-mem- 
 branosus into the upper end of the tibia. The extensors 
 form the fleshy mass on the front and outer side of the 
 thigh ; one muscle, the rectus, arises from the ilium — the 
 others, the vasti, from the shaft of the femur ; and they are 
 all inserted by a powerful tendon into the patella, and 
 through the anterior ligament of the knee into the tibia. 
 The patella is indeed a sesamoid bone, developed in the 
 tendon of these muscles (Fig. 18). The knee can be bent 
 so that the calf can touch the back of the thigh, and in 
 this position the pateHa is drawn down in front of the 
 joint, as in kneeling. The articular surface of the patella 
 is divided into seven areas or facets, and in passing from 
 the bent to the extended position of the joint, these facets 
 come successively into contact with the articular surface of 
 the femur, until, when the leg is fully extended on the 
 thigh, the whole of the patella is raised above the femoral 
 trochlea, except the lowest pair of narrow facets. It is in 
 order to provide a smooth surface for the patella in this 
 position that the synovial membrane of the joint covers 
 the front of the lower end of the femur. At the com- 
 mencement of flexion a slight rotation inwards of the leg 
 and foot takes place through the action of the sartorius, 
 gracilis, and semi-tendinosus, which are inserted close 
 together into the tibia ; whilst the extensor muscles cause, 
 at the completion of extension, a slight rotation outwards 
 0. the leg and foot. The movements of flexion and exten- 
 sion are not simply in the antero-posterior plane, but 
 along oblique paths which are determined by the screwed 
 configuration of the femoral condyles. In complete exten- 
 sion of the leg the joint is " screwed home ;" and as this 
 position is necessary for the preservation of the erect 
 attitude, the lateral, the posterior, and the anterior crucial 
 ligaments are then all tense, to prevent displacement of 
 the bones. The muscles which rotate the leg and foot 
 inwards initiate the act of flexion by unlocking the joint. 
 
 The Tibio-fibular Joints are found between the upper 
 r and lower ends of the bones, and in addition a strong 
 interosseous membrane fills up the interval between their 
 shafts. The movement between the two bones is almost 
 inappreciable. 
 
 The Ankle Joint is formed by the convex upper and the 
 lateral surfaces of the astragalus fitting into the concavity 
 fornied by the lower end of the tibia and the two malleoli. 
 An investing ligament, lined by synovial membrane, 
 encloses the joint ; the lateral portions of this ligament 
 form distinct bands, and are much stronger than the 
 anterior and posterior fibres. A diarthrodial joint also 
 
 1—28* 
 
 exists between the astragalus and os calcis, between which 
 bones a powerful interosseous ligament passes. Between 
 the astragalus and scaphoid, and the os calcis and cuboid, 
 important diarthrodial joints are found, which are enclosed 
 by ligamentous bands. The remaining tarsal bones are 
 connected together usually by dorsal, plantar, and inter- 
 osseous ligaments, and a similar mode of union is found 
 between the distal row of tarsal bones and the metatarsals, 
 except between the great toe and ento-cuneiform, whero 
 there is no interosseous ligament. The four outer meta- 
 tarsals are also connected at their proximal ends by distal, 1 
 plantar, and interosseous ligaments; and further, a trans- 
 verse metatarsal ligament passes between the distal ends 
 of all the metatarsal bones. The metatarsal bones articu- 
 late with the phalanges, and the phalanges with each other, 
 in a similar manner to that described in the corresponding 
 bones of the hand. 
 
 At the ankle joint movements of flexion and extension 
 take place. The dorsum of the foot is bent towards the 
 front of the leg by the direct action of the muscles on the 
 front of the leg, more especially the tibialis anticus, inserted 
 into the ento-cuneiform and metatarsal of great toe, and 
 the peroneus tertius, inserted into the metatarsal of little 
 toe ; the opposite movement, the so-called extension of the 
 foot, is due to the action of the gastrocnemius and soleus, 
 the great muscles of the calf of the leg, which are inserted 
 by the Tendo Achillis into the posterior prominence of the 
 os calcis or heeL This movement is made at every step in 
 walking or running, and the great size of the calf-muscles 
 is in relation to their use in the act of progression. The 
 foot cannot, however, be drawn so far back as to be brought 
 into direct line with the leg. In standing erect the foot is 
 at right angles to the axis of the leg, the astragalus is 
 locked in between the two malleoli, and the fibres of the 
 lateral ligaments are tense, so as to check movement 
 forwards or backwards, and prevent displacement 
 
 Between the several bones of the tarsus a certain amount 
 of gliding is permitted, more especially between the os 
 calcis and cuboid and the astragalus and scaphoid, 60 that 
 it is possible to invert or evert the foot, it., to raise its 
 inner or outer borders from the ground. The inversion is 
 performed by the tibialis anticus and by the tibialis 
 posticus, which latter is inserted into the scaphoid bone ; 
 the eversion by the peroneus longus and brevis muscles, 
 situated on the outer side of the leg, the tendons of which 
 pass behind the outer malleolus, — the brevis to be inserted 
 into the metatarsal bone of the bttle toe, the longus into 
 the plantar surface of the metatarsal bone of the great toe. 
 The individual toes are bent on the sole by the action of 
 the flexor muscles inserted into the plantar surface of the 
 phalanges, and they are straightened by the extensor 
 muscles inserted into their dorsal surfaces ; the toes also 
 can be drawn asunder or abducted, and drawn together 
 or adducted, chiefly by the action of the interossei 
 muscles. The hallux or great toe is the most im- 
 portant digit; a line prolonged backwards through it to 
 the heel forms the proper axis of the foot, and the sole 
 chiefly rests upon the pads of integument situated beneath 
 its metatarso-phalangeal joint and the heeL The hallux 
 is much more restricted in its movements than the thumb: 
 the configuration of its tarso-metatarsal joint and the 
 attachment of the transverse metatarsal ligament prevent 
 the great toe from being thrown across the surface of tho 
 sole as the thumb is thrown across the palm in the move- 
 ment of opposition ; an object can, however, be grasped 
 between the hallux and second toe by the action of its 
 adductor muscles, and persons can be trained to write with 
 a pen or pencil held in this position. 
 
 The act of walking consists in the movement forward* 
 of the trunk by the alternate advancement of the lower
 
 842 
 
 A N A T O M Y 
 
 [anatomy 
 
 limbs. Suppose a person to be standing erect, with one 
 leg a little in advance of the other ; the body, being 
 inclined slightly forwards, is pushed in advance by the 
 extension of tho hindmost limb, so that the weight falls 
 more and more upon the advanced leg, which at the same 
 time is shortened by bending the knee and ankle. The 
 heel of the hindmost limb being then raised by the action 
 of the muscles of the calf, the toes press against the ground 
 so as to push the trunk so far in front of tho advauced 
 limb as to be no longer safely supported by it; the hind- 
 most limb is then raised from the ground by muscular 
 action, and allowed to swing forward by its own weight, 
 but guided by the muscles, until the toes touch the ground 
 in.fronfof the opposite limb. A step has now been made, 
 and the limbs are in a corresponding but opposite position 
 from that in which they were when the step commenced : 
 a repetition of the act constitutes another step, and so tho 
 alternate action continues. At one moment in each step 
 both feet touch the ground at the same time, i.e., when 
 the hind foot presses against the earth. The act of running 
 consists in a repetition of the movements of walking per- 
 formed with so much greater rapidity that the feet never 
 touch the ground at the Rame moment; the heels also are 
 never brought to the ground. The propulsive action is 
 also greatly increased by the extension of the hip and knee 
 joints, so that a succession of small leaps on to alternate 
 feet takes plica In leaping from the standing position 
 the joints ot both lower limbs, previously flexed, are suddenly 
 and simultaneously extended, and the body is projected 
 forwards with a rapid impulse. 
 
 Development and Homologies of the Voluntary Muscular System, 
 
 The voluntary muscles, like the bones and joints with whirh 
 aiey are so intimately associated, are developed out of the middle 
 of the three layers — the meso-blast — into which the germinal area 
 or blastoderm of the young embryo is divided. The muscles of the 
 axial skeleton are capable of subdivision into a group situated 
 outside the endo-skelcton, i.e., between it and the integument — 
 which muscles have recently beem called epi-skelctal — and a group 
 lying on the ventral surface of the vertebral bodies and within the 
 rib arches, which have been termed the luemal or hijpo-skclclal 
 muscles. The epi-skeletal muscles, like the vertebra themselves, 
 ire developed within the proto-xierUbroz, but it is not known if the 
 hypo-skeletal group have the same origin. In fishes the epi- 
 skeletal muscles preserve their fundamental arrangement with but 
 little modification. They are disposed in transverse segments or 
 myotomes, which equal in number the vertebrae. These myotomes 
 are separated from each other by bands of fibrous tissue, the inter- 
 muscular septa. In man and the higher vertebrates the simple 
 transversely segmented arrangement is to a large extent lost. Traces 
 are preserved, bowever, in the interspinales and intertransversales 
 muscles, situated in the intervals between the spines and transverse 
 processes of some of the vertebral segments ; in the external inter- 
 oostals and in the recti abdominis muscles, in the last-named of 
 which tendinous bands subdivide the muscle into several transverse 
 eegments. More usually, the intermuscular septa either are not 
 formed or disappear, and adjacent myotomes become blended into a 
 continuous mass of muscle. In some instances the fibres of this 
 muscle run longitudinally, and the entire mas3 subdivides longi- 
 tudinally into separate and distinct parallel muscles, as is seen in 
 the subdivision of the great erector spina? into the sacro-lumbalis, 
 musculus accessorius, ccrvicalis ascendens, longissimus dorsi, trans- 
 versalis cervicis, trachelo-mastoid, and spinalis dorsi muscles. In 
 other instances the muscles run obliquely ; some on the back of 
 the body pass obliquely from bolow upwards and outwards, as the 
 gplenius and obliquus inferior ; others obliquely from below, up- 
 wards and inwards, as the complexus, obliquus superior, semi- 
 spinal is, multifidus and rotatores spinas ; others again, as the external 
 and internal oblique muscles of the abdomen, extend obliquely from 
 behind forwards to the ventral mesial line. 
 
 Of the hypo-skeletal group of muscles, the internal intercostals dis- 
 play the transverse segmentation. As a rulo, however, the muscles 
 of this group extend longitudinally, andform the pra-vertebrai group, 
 named anterior recti, longi colli, and psoae ; though the diaphragm, 
 triangulares sterai, transversi abdominis, and levatores ani, wjiich 
 lie in relation to the inner surfaces of the ribs and visceral cavities, 
 are not longitudinal, but are specially modified in arrangement for 
 functional reasons. The plane of demarcation between the hypo- 
 and "riskelotal groups of muscles, where they form together the 
 
 w lis of the Cleat visceral cnamDere, — the thorax and abdomen, — 
 is marked oil by tho position and course of tho intercostal scries of 
 spinal nerves. 
 
 The muscles of the appendicular skeleton are either limited to 
 the limbs (purely appendicular, therefore), or pass from the axial 
 
 Sart of the body to the limb (axi-appcndicular). The axi-appen- 
 icular grcap are undoubt«ll) prlnngutions of the axial system of 
 muscles. They are in the uppci" limb derived from the epi-skelctal 
 subdivision, and form the trapezius, rhomboid, levator anguli 
 scapula;, htissimus dorsi, serrntus magnus, greater and smaller 
 ilk, and subclavius muscles of «nch superior extremity. In 
 the lower limb they are in part derived from the hypo-skeletal 
 subdivision, and form the psoas and piriformis; and in part, as the 
 gluteus maximus, from the epi-skeletal subdivision. It ia not 
 Improbable that the purely appendicular muscles are also prolon- 
 gations of the axial system, and that as the limbs, in their develop- 
 ment from their fundamental bud-like lappets, undergo both a 
 transverse and a longitudinal segmentation, so the muscular mass, 
 prolonged into them, ditrereutiates both transversely and longi- 
 tudinally into a motor apparatus, fitted for the performance of the 
 special functions of each extremity. 
 
 Anatomy of the Textures ok Tissues. 
 
 Introductory. 
 
 Before proceeding to the description of the other organic 
 systems of which the human body i3 built up, it may be 
 well to enter iuto the consideration of the minute or 
 microscopic structure of its constituent parts. These parts 
 may primarily be divided into fluids and solids. The fluids 
 are the blood, the lymph, the chyle, the secretions of the 
 various glands, and of the serous and synovial membranes. 
 The solids form the framework of the several organic 
 systems, and assume different appeal aucPS' in different 
 localities. Sometimes they are arranged in compact solid 
 masses, as in cartilage ; at others they are elongated into 
 fine threads or fibres, as in muscle, tendon, nervo ; si 
 others they are expanded into thin membranes, as in the 
 fasciae or aponeuroses, the serous, synovial, and mucous 
 membranes ; at others they are hollowed out into distinct 
 tubes for the conveyance of fluids, as in the blood-vessels, 
 the lymph and chyle vessels, and the ducts of glands. To 
 the solids of the body, whatever their form may be, the 
 general name of Tissues or Textures is applied. Each 
 organic system may be regarded as in the main composed 
 of a tissue or texture peculiar to and characteristic of it- 
 self. Thus, the bone3 are essentially composed of the 
 osseous tissue, the muscles of the muscular tissue, the 
 nervous system of the nervous tissue, fibrous membranes of 
 the fibrous or connective tissue, <fcc. But though the- 
 essential constituent of each organic system ia a tissue 
 peculiar to that system, yet in most localities certain other 
 tissues are mingled with that which is to be regarded as 
 the characteristic texture of the part. In a muscle, for 
 example, not only ^is the muscular tissue present, but 
 mingled with it are connective tissue, nerve tissue, blood- 
 vessels, and lymph- vessels. A gland also not only consists 
 of its proper tissue, the secreting cells, but of more or less 
 connective tissue, nerves, blood and lymph vessels, and 
 gland ducts. Indeed, there are few localities in which, 
 along with the proper tissue of the part, blood and lymph 
 vessels, nerves and connective tissue, are not found ; and to 
 a part built up of two or more tissues the name of an 
 Organ is applied. Thus the muscular system consists of 
 the series of organs which we call the muscles, the gland- 
 ular system of the several organs called glands, and so on. 
 Each tissue and each organ, into the construction of which 
 that tissue enters as 'the characteristic texture, possesses 
 not only distinctive structural, but also distinctive functional 
 properties. Thus the muscular tissue is characterised by 
 the property of contractility, and the muscles, of which 
 it forms the essential texture, are organs of motion or 
 locomotion ; the osseous tissue is characterised by its
 
 raxruBBs.] 
 
 ANA T O M Y 
 
 843 
 
 lewdness and atrenrtb, and tbe bones, of which it forms 
 the essential texture, are organs of protection and support. 
 But the study of the textures embraces an inquiry not 
 only into the special, structural, and functional properties 
 of each tissue and organ — into the special part which each 
 plays in the animal economy — but the consideration of 
 their properties as living structures. It would be out of 
 j>Laco in this article to enter into a discussion of the mean- 
 ing of the term Life, or Living, or to attempt an analysis 
 of the various definitions of the term which have been 
 suggested from time to time by different philosophers, 
 which will naturally find a place in the article Physiology. 
 It will suffice for our present purpose to adopt the old 
 Aristotelian definition, and to speak of Life as the faculties 
 of self-nourishment, self-growth, and self-decay. All the 
 tissues, over and above the special properties which they 
 possess, have the power of growing and of maintaining 
 themselves in full structural perfection and functional 
 activity for a given period of time. After a time they 
 begin to exhibit signs of diminished perfection and activity, 
 they degenerate or decay ; ultimately they die, and the 
 entire organism of which they form the constituent parts 
 is resolved by the outrefactive process into more 6imple 
 forma of matter 
 
 Central Considerations on Cells. 
 
 The simplest form of organic matter capable of ex- 
 libiting the phenomena of life is called Cyto-blastema or 
 Protoplasm. It possesses a viscous or jelly-like con- 
 sistency. Under the highest powers of the microscope it 
 seems to be homogeneous, or dimly granulated, like a 
 sheet of ground glass. Not only can it assimilate nutri- 
 •ment and increase in size, but it possesses the power 
 of spontaneous movement and contractility. It enters in 
 a very important manner into the structure of the bodies 
 of the lower animals. The elongated processes, or pseudo- 
 podia, to which Dujardin applied the 
 name of sarcode, which the Rhizopoda 
 can project from their surface into the 
 surrounding medium, and again with- 
 draw into their substance, consist of 
 protoplasm, and may be cited as fur- 
 nirhing excellent examples of its 
 motive and contractile power. From 
 the recent researches of Haeckel it 
 would appear that protoplasm is 
 capable of forming, without the super- 
 addition of any other structure, inde- 
 pendent organisms, which stand at 
 the lowest grade of organisation, and from their extreme 
 simplicity are named by him Monera. To the group 
 Monera belong the genera Protanioeba, Protogenes, and 
 Eathybius. Of these, Bathybius is that 
 ■which has attracted most attention. It has 
 teen regarded a3 a layer of soft slimy un- 
 differentiated protoplasm covering the bot- 
 tom of the deep sea, and capable of exhibit- 
 ing the phenomena of contractility, growth, 
 Assimilation of food, and reproduction. 
 Doubts, however, have been expressed re- 
 garding the nature of this Bathybius, so 
 that it cannot now be cited as so definite 
 in organism as the freely-swimming Pro- Fio. 26.— a simple 
 tamceba and Protogenes. Haeckel has re- oSm&b. °K 
 ferred these simple organisms to a sub- protopium ceii- 
 Lingdom of Protist £, which he considers SiciwS'V; on- 
 to Iib on the confines of both the animal ckoiua. 
 and Vegetable kingdoms. To a mass of protoplasm, whether 
 it forms, as in one of these Protist.e, an independent 
 ©rg.niism ot i» merely a portion of the substance of the 
 
 Flo. 25 — Undifferentiated 
 cytode m&ss of proto- 
 plasm. 
 
 boay of a higher organism, he has given the general nam* 
 of a Cytode. Sometimes a cytode is a naked clump of 
 soft protoplasm, without a trace of differentiation either 
 on its surface or in its substance, as in the freely-moving 
 Monera ; at others the peripheral part of the cytode 
 hardens, and differentiates into a more or less perfect 
 envelope, as in the genera Protomonas and rrotumyxa. 
 So far back as 1861, Lionel Beale had described, uuder 
 the name of germinal matter (BiojAatm), minute living 
 particles of vegetable protoplasm, and in 18G3 he demon- 
 strated the presence of extremely minute particles of living 
 matter in the blood. More recently Strieker has also 
 called attention, in the bodies of the higher animals, to 
 minute detached clumps of protoplasm which exhibited 
 the phenomena of life. 
 
 As a rule, however, in both vegetable and animal 
 organisms the specks or clumps of protoplasm assume 
 definite shapes, and show evidence of an internal dif- 
 ferentiation. In the midst of a minute clump of tLia 
 substance a sharply-defiued body called a nucleus is 
 found, which differs from the surrounding protoplasm 
 in not being contractile; and sometimes a minute speck, 
 or nucleolus, exists within the nucleus. "When a definite 
 clump of protoplasm contains a nucleus in its interior, 
 whether a nucleolus be present or not, it is called a 
 Nucleated Cell Cells are definite anatomical and 
 physiological units, and exhibit all the phenomena of 
 life. Some of the lowest organisms consist merely of a 
 single cell, others of two or more cells united together, 
 and these are called uni- or multi-cellular organisms. 
 Cells also enter in the most material manner into the 
 constitution of the textures of all the higher forms of 
 plants and animals. Not unfrequently the peripheral 
 part of the protoplasm of the cell differentiates into a 
 distinct investing envelope, technically named a ceil vndl 
 or cell membrane. 
 
 In the earlier periods of investigation into the minute 
 structure of cells it was believed that a ccD wall was con- 
 stantly present, and that each cell was a minute micro- 
 scopic vesicle or bladder, which in its typical shape waa 
 globular or ovoid, but Capable of undergoing various modi- 
 fications both in form and chemical composition. The 
 material enclosed by the cell wall was termed the cell con- 
 tents, and either in the midst of these contents or in con- 
 tact with the cell wall was the nucleus, which might or rnuht 
 not contain a nucleolus. Schwann believed that the cell 
 wall was the most active constituent of the cell, i.e., pos- 
 sessed the power not only of producing chemical and 
 physical changes in its own substance and in the cell 
 contents, but of separating materials from the surrounding 
 media, — of secreting them, as it were, into the interior of 
 the celL In this manner he accounted for the formation 
 in some cells of fat, in others of pigment, in others of the 
 characteristic secretiop of glands, and so on. 
 
 It was then maintained by John Goodsir that the 
 nucleus was the part of a cell which in all probability was 
 concerned in separating and preparing its characteristic 
 cell contents, and in its nutrition. Martin Barry and 
 Goodsir also contended that the reproduction and multi- 
 plication of cells were due to self-division of the nucleus, 
 which was thus the source of successive broods of young 
 cells. They gave to the nucleus, therefore, an importance 
 in the economy of the cell greater than bad previously 
 been assigned to it. 
 
 As the investigations into cell strncture became more 
 extended, it was ascertained that a cell wall was by no 
 means always present; that in many of ths cells in which 
 it had been supposed to exist it could not satisfactorily be 
 demonstrated, and that in others, more especially in youLg 
 actively-growing cells, no trace of an investing envelop*
 
 844 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [anatomy 
 
 OTUIT: 
 
 Cell 
 
 s-*ne-is 
 
 Ci'iJd be observed Hence Die importance of tLe cell wall as 
 <in essential coinpt nent of a cell was still further diminished ; 
 and Leydig then defined a cell to be a little mass composed 
 of a soft substance enclosing a central nucleus. 
 
 But a most important advance in our conceptions 
 of the essential structure of a cell was made when 
 Briicke pointed out that the contents of cells not unfre- 
 quently possessed the property of spontaneous move- 
 ment and contractility, and when Max Schultze deter- 
 mined that the contractile substance termed sarcode, 
 which forms so large a part of the bodies of the lower 
 animals, was analogous and apparently homologous with 
 the contents of young actively-growing animal and vege- 
 table cells, before a differentiation of these contents into 
 special secretions or other materials had taken place. As 
 the term "protoplasm" had been introduced by Von Mold 
 to express the contents of the vegetable cell, which under- 
 goes changes in the process of growth, it was adopted by 
 the animal histologist; and Max Schultze suggested 
 that a cell should be denned to be a nucleated mass 
 of protoplasm, — a definition which is adopted in this 
 article. Now, as protoplasm, whether it occurs along with 
 a nucleus in the form of a cell, or in independent clumps 
 or cytodes, exhibits not merely the property of contrac- 
 tility, but the power of growing and maintaining itself, it 
 is regarded as the functionally active constituent of the 
 cell. And thus our conceptions as to the part of the cell 
 in which its functional activity resides have passed through 
 three phases. In the first, the cell wall ; in the second, the 
 nucleus; in the third, the protoplasm cell contents, or cell 
 •ubstance, has been regarded as the active constituent, not 
 only as regards it9 nutrition, but the reproduction of 
 young cells. But though the protoplasm can of itself 
 perform these offices, yet there can be no doubt, as Barry 
 and Goodsir were the first to show, that the nucleus of the 
 cell plays a part not ^infrequently in the multiplication of 
 cells by self ^division. 
 
 One of the most characteristic cells is the mammalian 
 ovum. In it a cell wall exists, known 
 as the zona pellucida or vitelline 
 membrane ; within this envelope is 
 the granular yelk or cell contents, 
 in the midst of which is imbedded 
 the nucleusor germinal vesicle, which 
 in its turn contains the nucleolus 
 or germinal spot. _ The granules of r 'w 7 l^°^or' zlt P ?{. 
 the yelk are a special metamorphosis 
 of the protoplasm cell substance. 
 
 Schwann made the important 
 generalisation that the tissues of the animal body 
 are composed of cells, or of materials derived from 
 cells, " that there is one universal principle of develop- 
 ment for the elementary part of organisms, however 
 different, and that this principle is the formation of 
 cells." The ovum is the primordial or fundamental cell, or 
 germ-cell, from which, afteT being fertilised by the male 
 sperm, the tissues and organs of the animal body are 
 derived. Within the fertilised ovum multiplication of 
 cells takes place with great rapidity. It is as yet an un- 
 settled question how far the original nucleus of the ovum 
 participates in tkis process of multiplication; but there 
 can be no doubt that the protoplasm cell contents divide, 
 first into two, then four, then eight, then sixteen segments, 
 and so on. Each of these segments of protoplasm con- 
 tains a nucleus — is, in short, a nucleated cell, and the 
 plasm of these cells exhibits the property of con- 
 tractility. The ovum or germ-cell is therefore the imme- 
 diate parent of all the new cells which are formed within 
 it, and mediately it is the parent of all the cells which, 
 In the subsequent processes of development and growth, 
 
 lucid*: P. protoplasm of 
 J^eUc : # nucleus, or (Ter- 
 minal reside; AT, nucleolus, 
 or germinal spot. 
 
 are descended I rum those produced by tne segmentation 
 of the yelk. The process of development of young celle 
 within a parent cell, whether it occurs in the ovum or in 
 a cell derived by descent from the ovum, is called the 
 endogenous reproduction of cells. But cells may multiply 
 by a process of Jissian — 1>., a constriction, gradually deep- 
 ening, may take place in a cell until it is subdivided intq 
 two ; the nucleus at the same time participating in the 
 constriction and subdivision. A third mode of multipli- 
 cation of cells is by budding : little clumps of protoplasm 
 bud out from the protoplasm of the parent cell, become 
 detached, and assume an independent vitality. If a 
 nucleus differentiates in the interior of such a clump, it 
 becomes a- cell ; if it remains as a mere clump of proto. 
 plasm, it is a cytode. 
 
 These various methods of multiplication are all con- 
 firmatory of Schwann's generalisation of the descent of 
 derivation of cells from pre-existing cells. But as the 
 nucleated cell, either with or without a cell wall, is not, in 
 the present state of science, regarded as the simplest and 
 most elementary unit capable of exhibiting vital pheno. 
 mena, and as these phenomena can be displayed by indi- 
 vidual clumps of protoplasm, without the presence of a 
 nucleus, some modification of the doctrine, as regards the. 
 formation of the tissues from nucleated cells, seems to b< 
 necessary. For, although there can be no doubt that al] 
 the tissues are mediately derived from the ovum or funda- 
 mental cell, and that most of the tissues are derived 
 directly from nucleated cells, yet there is reason to think 
 that a differentiation of a cytode clump of protoplasm into 
 tissue may take place, so that the direct formation of such 
 a tissue would be, not from a nucleated cell, but from the 
 more simple cytode. Hence a more comprehensive gene- 
 ralisation, to which observers have gradually been led 
 from the consideration of numerous facts, has now been 
 arrived at, — that the tissues and organs of the body, what- 
 ever may be their form and composition, are formed of 
 protoplasm, or produced by its differentiation ; and that 
 the protoplasm itself is derived by descent from the proto- 
 plasm substance of the primordial germ-cell. Some, in- 
 deed, have contended that protoplasm, cells, and their 
 derivatives can arise by a process of precipitation or 
 aggregation of minute particles or molecules in an organic 
 infusion, and that living matter may be thus spontane- 
 ously generated. But the evidence which has been 
 advanced in support of this hypothesis is by no means 
 satisfactory or conclusive, whilst the correctness of the 
 theory of the direct descent of protoplasm from pre-exist- 
 ing living protoplasm is supported by thousands of 
 observations made by the most competent inquirers. 
 
 In the process of conversion of protoplasm into the 
 several tissues, there takes place a differentiation of form 
 and structure (i.e., a morphological differentiation), and of 
 composition (i.e., a chemical differentiation), as the result 
 of which a physiological differentiation is occasioned, 
 whereby tissues and organs are adapted to the performance 
 of special functions. Hence arise the several forms of 
 tissue which occur in the human body and in the higher 
 animals. Many of the tissues consist exclusively of cells 
 which present in different parts of the body characteristic 
 modifications in external configuration, in composition, and 
 in properties, as may be seen in the fatty tissue, pigmentary 
 tissue, and epithelium. Other tissues, again, consist partly 
 of cells, and partly of an intermediate material which sepa- 
 rates the constituent cells from each other. Here also the 
 cells present various modifications; and the intermediate 
 material, termed the matrix or intercellular tubslance, 
 varies in structure, in composition, and in properties 
 in the different textures, as h seen in the connective 
 cartilaginous, osseous and muscular tissues
 
 JF.XTURES.J 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 845 
 
 It is not an easy matter to devise a classification of the 
 tissues, based on their structural characters, which shall 
 be in all respects logically perfect ; but a convenient basis 
 of arrangement for descriptive purposes may be found by 
 dividing them into those which consist — 1st, of cells sus- 
 pended in fluids ; 2d, of cells placed on free surfaces ; 3d, 
 of cells imbedded in solid tissues. 
 
 1st Group. — Cells Suspended in Fluids. 
 
 The fluids of the body which have cells or other minute 
 solid particles suspended in them are the blood, the lymph, 
 and the chyle. Sometimes cells are found floating in the 
 secretions of glands. 
 
 The Blood. — The blood is the well-known red fluid 
 which circulates throughout the blood-vascular system. 
 A3 its composition and general properties will be described 
 in the article Physiology, the solid particles only, which 
 are suspended in the liquor sanguinis, will be considered 
 here. If a drop of human blood be examined under the 
 microscope, crowds of minute bodies, the blood corpuscles, 
 or blood globules, may be seen in it. These present two 
 different appearances, and are distinguished by the names 
 of red and white blood corpuscles. 
 
 The red corpuscles, which are by far the more numerous, 
 are minute circular discs, slightly concave on both surfaces. 
 Their average diameter is about 33V 5th of an inch, and 
 their thickness about Jth of that measurement; hence they 
 are not spheres, as the old name blood globules would imply. 
 They are non-nucleated. Single corpuscles have a faint 
 fawn-coloured hue, but collectively they give to the blood 
 its characteristic red colour. This colour is due to the 
 presence in the corpuscles of the substance termed 
 hcemoglobin. It has been estimated by Vierordt and 
 Welcker that 5,000,000 red corpuscles are present in 
 every cubic millimetre of healthy human ilood. The 
 red corpuscles in the blood of all mammals, except the 
 tribe of camels, are circular bi-concave discs ; but in these 
 exceptional mammals they have an elliptical outline. In 
 all manjmals the red corpuscles are non-nucleated, though 
 appearances of nucleation have been seen in exceptional 
 individual cases; for EoOeston saw a nucleated appearance 
 in a small proportion of the dried red blood corpuscles of 
 a two-toed sloth; and Turner observed in a proportion of 
 the red blood discs of a Hoffmann's sloth an appearance 
 pf a central nucleus. 
 
 In all bird3, reptiles, and amphibia the red corpuscles 
 are oval or elliptical, and in each corpuscle an oval or 
 elliptical nucleus is situated. In all fishes they are nu- 
 cleated and also elliptical in form, except in some of the 
 Cyclostomata, which 
 possess circular discs. 
 In the elliptical nu- 
 cleated corpuscles the 
 surfaces are not bi- 
 concave, but have 
 central projections, 
 which correspond in 
 position to the nu 
 cleus (2, 4, 5, Fi 
 23). The red co 
 puscles vary mate- 
 rially in size in dif- 
 ferent vprteVirati Fl °- 8a_ L ni crposctfi of homan blond ; 2, red 
 lMeu " veneoraia, corpuscles of blood of common fowl, seen on 
 and these Variations tl,e »»r'«e and edeeways: 3, red corpuscles of 
 , 1 . frog; 4. of Squalut iquatina; 5, of Lophittt 
 
 nave Deen especi- piseatoriui; 6, corpuscles of ine blood of 5 Mor- 
 ally studied by Gul- t" 00 - 
 
 liver. He has found them to vary in mammals from an 
 average diameter of 5 T 'i 5 th of an iuch in the elephant, and 
 j J,,th in Orycleropus capensis, to ni^th in Tragulus 
 jauanicus. and he concludes that the smallest blood discs 
 
 occur in the small species of an orfler or family, the largest 
 in the large species. In birds they are larger than in 
 mammals, and vary in length from an average of TI > SS inch 
 in Casuarius javanicus to ^jVjth in Linarict minor. In 
 reptiles they are still larger, and vary in length from an 
 average of ^^th in Anguis fragilis to tjji' q ' n Lacerta 
 viridis. In amphibia the largest corpuscles, according to 
 Gulliver, are about T £ T inch in length in Proteus and 
 Siren, though Riddell states that in Amphiuma tridactylum 
 they are ^d larger ; whilst the smallest, as in the common 
 frog, average in length -j-jVj inch. In cartilaginous fish 
 the corpuscles are larger than in osseous. In Lamna cor- 
 nubica Gulliver found their long diameter to be ? ^ 3 inch ; 
 while in the Salmonidae, which have the largest blood discs' 
 among osseous fish, the long diameter in the salmon and 
 common trout is only about -j-fVo" i ncn - 
 
 The white or colourless corpuscles are comparatively few' 
 in number in the healthy human blood. Welcker has 
 estimated the normal relative number as one white to 
 335 red ; in pregnant and menstruating women the pro- 
 portion is increased to about 1 to 280. In some forms of 
 disease the proportion is so very materially increased that 
 they appear to be almost as numerous as the red. They 
 are rounded in form, finely granulated or mulberry-like in 
 appearance, and nucleated — the nucleus becoming more 
 distinct after the addition of acetic acid ; moreover, they 
 are larger than the red corpuscles, their average diameter 
 being from 2 -j I 5': tn t0 sAti'-h °f an iicb- Corpuscles of 
 a similar form are found in the blood of all vertebrata. 
 They do not vary so much in size in different animals a3 
 do the red corpuscles. In Triton, according to Gul- 
 liver, their average diameter is -j-jVo-thi whilst in Herpestet 
 griseus they are not more than ^Vf inch. The white 
 blood corpuscles are minute nucleated clumps of proto- 
 plasm ; they are therefore minute cells. It is very doubt- 
 ful if they possess a cell wall, the evidence being against 
 rather than in favour of its presence. 
 
 The red blood corpuscles in all vertebrata, except the 
 mammalia, are nucleated clumps of protoplasm ; they are 
 therefore minute cells. In mammals, owing to the ab- 
 sence of a nucleus, they do not accord with the definition 
 of a cell adopted in this article, and they are not therefore 
 morphologically identical with the red corpuscles in other 
 vertebrates. What their precise homology may be is some- 
 what difficult to say, owing to the obscurity which prevails 
 as to their exact origin. If they are merely clumps of 
 specially modified protoplasm, budded off from the white 
 corpuscles, then they are cytodes. If, as some have sup- 
 posed, they are the nuclei of the white corpuscles, specially 
 modified in composition, then they are free nuclei. If, 
 again, they are the white corpuscles, the cell substance of 
 which has undergone a special differentiation, and the 
 nucleus has disappeared, then they are potentially cells, 
 though no nucleus is visible. Whatever may be their exact 
 homology, there can be no doubt that the non-nucleated 
 mammalian red corpuscle, and that part of the nucleated 
 red corpuscle which lies outside the nucleus, are function- 
 ally identical with each other ; the protoplasm having 
 undergone a special chemical differentiation into haemo- 
 globin, a proximate principle characterised by containing 
 iron as its essential constituent. The action of water, 
 spirit, acids, alkalies, various gases, heat, cold, and electri- 
 cal currents, on the red corpuscles has been studied by 
 several observers, and the conclusion has been reached that 
 the corpuscles consist of a " stroma," with which the 
 colouring matter is blended, but from which it may be 
 separated without the stroma affording any evidence of the 
 presence of an investing envelope or membrane. Whet 
 blood is drawn from the vessels the red corpuscles, in about 
 half a minute, run together into piles, like rouUaux of coins
 
 «4(j 
 
 A N A T M Y 
 
 [anatomy or 
 
 I Fig. 29), which arrange themselves into irregular meshes. 
 n inflammatory diseases, and in the blood of pr< 
 women, the piles of corpuscles form mon and at 
 
 the same time sink rapidly below the surface of the fluid, 
 
 a as 
 
 Ma. 29.— 1, red corpuaclea of healthy human Wood; 2, red corjiptcles beginning 
 to form roultaus; 3. mcsh-llke arrangement In healthy blood; 4. nitsh-hke 
 arranguaeat In buify blood, where the niesht-a are larger than la healthy 
 Ulood. 
 
 ao as to cause the "buffy coat" seen in the blood coagulum. 
 In the healthy blood of horses a buffy coat is formed as a 
 natural condition of the coagulation. 
 
 One of the most curious properties possessed by the 
 living white blood corpuscle is that of protruding delicate 
 processes from its circumference, which processes may, 
 change their shape, or be again withdrawn into the sub- 
 stance of the corpuscle, which then resumes its former 
 circular outline. These processes resemble the satcode 
 prolongations which Amoeba and other Khizopods can pro- 
 ject from various- parts of their circumference; and as a 
 white blood corpuscle, like an Amozba, can by the move- 
 ments of the processes change its position, the term 
 "amoeboid movements" has been applied to the pheno- 
 mena in question. Like an Ammba, also, a white corpuscle 
 can by these movements include within its substance 
 minute particles of solid matter which it may come in 
 contact with in its path Thirty years ago W. Addison 
 stated that the white blood corpuscles could pass through 
 the walls of the blood-vessels into the .surrounding tissue, 
 where they formed mucus corpuscles, and, under certain 
 pathological conditions, the corpuscles of pus or inflam- 
 matory "lymph. The passage of white blood corpuscles 
 through the wall of the capillaries was seen in 1846 by 
 A. Waller; and though for many years his observations 
 were ignored, yet the mor§ recent inquiries of Cohnheim 
 and others into the subject have anew directed attention 
 to them. It is now generally admitted that the migration 
 of these corpuscles from the blood through the wall of the 
 capillaries into the tissues does take place, and that they 
 may then " wander " to and fro, owing to the mobility of 
 their contractile protoplasm. These migrated corpuscles 
 aio also believed to play an important part in many 
 j hysiological and pathological processes. 
 
 But the blood contains, in addition to the red and white 
 corpuscles, still more minute particles, which are, however, 
 inconstant in number. Minute globules have been de- 
 scribed by Beale and Max Schultze, whica are probably 
 detached fragments of protoplasm budded off from the 
 white corpuscles; and Zimmermann has described, as 
 elementary corpuscles, minute particles, which are appar- 
 ently derived from broken-up red corpuscles. 
 
 In the very young embryo the blood corpuscles, like 
 ;.iilary blood-vessels themselves, are formed by special 
 differentiation of certain of the cells of the embrjo, and 
 these young corpuscles seem to have the power of mu tiply- 
 ing by fission. At first they are colourless, but afterwards 
 assume a red colour. Even in mammals the earliest red 
 
 blood corpuscles are nucleated ana larger thou the future 
 red discs, but as development goes on, non-nucleated red 
 corpuscles appear, and as their number increases, both 
 absolutely and relatively with the progress of the foetus, in 
 course of time all the nucleated red corpuscles have dis- 
 red, and are replaced by the non-nucleated discs. In 
 adults. the red corpuscles are believed to be derived from 
 the white corpuscles, though the exact process of meta- 
 morphosis has not been satisfactorily ascertained. It is 
 also believed that red corpuscles may be new-formed in tlio 
 spleen, and Neumann has recently stated that the red 
 marrow of the bones may serve as a centre of origin for 
 the red blood corpuscles. In the fcetus the liver apparently 
 serves as a centre of origin for the white corpuscles, but its 
 blood corpuscle forming function ceases at the time of 
 birth. Throughout extra-uterine life the spleen and the 
 lymphatic glands are without doubt organs of formation 
 of the colourless corpuscles,- those produced in the lymph- 
 atic glands, under the name of lymph corpuscles, being 
 mingled with the blood-stream where the fluid lymph flows 
 into the venous system. When mixed with the blood, the 
 lymph corpuscles become the white blood corpuscles. 
 
 Corpuscles are also found in the blood of the inverte- 
 brata. They are as a rule colourless, but R. Wagner 
 pointed out that in the Cephalopods they are coloured' 
 They are sometimes round, at others oval or fusiform, and 
 in worms and insects have even branched processes. They 
 are always nucleated. 
 
 The Lymph and Chyle. — The lymph is the fluid found 
 in a subdivision of the vascular system namui the lymph 
 vascular system. It is transparent and colourless, and con- 
 tains numerous corpuscles floating in it, which correspond, 
 in appearance, structure, and the possession of the pro- 
 perty of amoeboid movements, to the white corpuscles of 
 the blood The lymph corpuscles are formed in the glands 
 situated in the course of the lymph vessels, and are carried 
 away Lorn the glands by the etream of lymph which flows 
 through them. 
 
 The chyle is a milky fluid found during the period of 
 digestion in the delicate lacteal vesseh) which pass from the 
 walls of the intestine. The lacteals join the lymphatics at 
 the back of the abdomen to form the thoracic duct in 
 which the lymph and chyle become mingled together. The 
 chyle contains corpuscles similar to the lymph corpuscles, 
 which are apparently derived from the lymph glands in 
 the mesentery, through which the chyle flows on its way to 
 the thoracic duct. The fluid of the lymph, the chyle, and 
 the blood, in which the corpuscles are suspended, is some- 
 times described as a fluid intercellular substance. Cor- 
 puscles possessing the type of structure of the lymph 
 corpuscles, are named lymphoid cells or leucocytes. 
 
 Cells are also met with floating free in the secretions 
 formed in the interior of some of the glands. They are 
 more particularly found in the secretion of mucus from 
 the mucous glands, and of saliva from the salivary glands. 
 They are "round, colourless, nucleated corpuscles, not unlike 
 the white corpuscles of the blood, and have been detached 
 from their original position in the gland follicles. 
 
 2d Group. — Cells placed on Free Surfaces. 
 
 By the term free surface is meant a surface which is not 
 blended with or attached to adjacent structures, but is frea 
 or separable from them without dissection. Every free 
 surface is covered by one or more layers of cells. Some- 
 times these cells are named an Epithelium, at others an 
 Endothelium. By the term Epithelium is meant the cells 
 situated on free surfaces which, are exposed either directly 1 
 or indirectly 'to the air. By the term Endothelium is 
 meant the cells situated on free surfaces which are not ex* 
 posed either directly or indirectly to the air.
 
 TEXTURES.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 iithe- epithelium. — The free surfaces osvered by an epithe- 
 
 ■o"- lium are the skin and the membranes, named, from the 
 
 character of their secretion, mucous membranes. The 
 neons Mucous Membranes line internal passages and canals, and 
 9m " are continuous at certain orifices with the skin, — e.g., the 
 
 ttues ° mucous membrane of the alimentary canal opens on the 
 surface at the mouth and anus ; the respiratory mucous 
 membrane opens on the surface at the nostrils, and is 
 continuous in the pharynx with the alimentary mucous 
 membrane — it is also prolonged through the Eustachian 
 tube into the tympanum, and is continuous through the 
 nasal duct with the conjunctiva; the genito-urinary mucous 
 membrane opens on the surface at the orifice of the urethra 
 and vagina. Mucous membranes also line the ducts, of the 
 various glands which open on the surface either of the skin 
 or the several mucous membranes. The epithelial cells are 
 as a rule arranged in layers or strata, and the shape of the 
 cells is -by no means uniform in the different layers. The 
 cells of the deeper strata are usually smaller, softer, more 
 rounded, and more recently formed than those of the super- 
 ficial strata, though sometimes, as in the bladder, conjunc- 
 tiva, and some other mucous surfaces, they may be irregular 
 in form and size, or even elongated into short columns. 
 The celk next the free surface have a tendency to be shed, 
 and their place is then taken by the cells of the deeper 
 layers, which become modified in form as they approach 
 the surface. The form of the cells of the superficial layer 
 varies in different localities, which has led to a division of 
 epithelium into groups bearing appropriate names. Epithe- 
 lium is distinguished further by being devoid of blood- 
 vessels, i.e., it is non-vascular; and also, with some excep- 
 tions, devoid of nerves, i.e., non-sensitive. 
 
 The epithelial cells, whether arranged in one or several 
 strata, rest upon a subjacent tissue, which, from its rela- 
 tion to the cells, may be called sub-epithelial. The sub- 
 epithelial tissue is a delicate modification of the fibrous 
 form of connective tissue, to be subsequently described, and 
 in it the nerves and the blood and lymph vessels of the 
 skin and mucous membranes ramify; hence it i3 sometimes 
 described as a fibro-vascular tissue or corium. It was for 
 a long time believed that between the deeper surface of 
 the epithelium and the corium a homogeneous continuous 
 membrane, named by Bowman a basement membrane, 
 intervened. Bowman, however, himself admitted that in 
 some of the localities where this membrane was theoreti- 
 cally supposed to exist it could not satisfactorily be demon- 
 strated ; and the general opinion of anatomists now is, that 
 a distinct separable membrane docs not intervene between 
 the epithelium and the fibro-vascular corium, but that the 
 cells of the former rest directly upon the surface of the latter. 
 The corium is also the seat of the numerous glands, with the 
 blood and lymph vessels and the nerves belonging to them, 
 found in connection with both the skin and the" mucous 
 membranes ; and the epithelial lining of the g'ands is con- 
 tinuous at their orifices with the epithelial investment of 
 the corium. The surface both of the skin and mucous mem- 
 branes is usually more or less undulated — somct::::es it is 
 thrown into strong folds or rugs, at others it is elevated into 
 minute, frequently conical, processes, named in some locali- 
 ties papilla?, in others villi; but in all these cases the epithe- 
 lium is prolonged as a continuous covering over the undulat- 
 ing free surface. The free surface of all mucous membranes 
 is kept moist by the secretion or mucus which lubricates it. 
 Tessellated, pavement, scaly, or squamous epithelium is 
 situated on the free surface of the mucous lining of the 
 mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, vestibular entrauce to the 
 nose, ocular conjunctiva, and entrance to the urethra and 
 vagina. It forms, under the special name of the homy 
 layer of the cuticle or epidermis, the superficial investment 
 of the skin. Its cells are nucleated flattened scales, varying 
 
 847 
 
 Those in the same 
 
 } Scaly epithelium from the 
 
 mucous membrane of tlie mouth. 
 
 in diameter from 5 J jth to -n^^th inch, 
 layer, being in contact by their 
 edges, form a tessellated, pave- 
 ment-like arrangement, whilst 
 the cells in adjacent layers have 
 their flattened surfaces in con- 
 tact with each other. Sometimes 
 the cells have jagged, serrated 
 edges, or fluted surfaces, and 
 usually they contain scattered 
 granular particles. In the forma- F, i, 
 tion of this epithelium a morpho- 
 logical differentiation of the protoplasm of the rounded 
 cells of the deeper strata into flattened scales, and at the 
 same time a chemical differentiation of their soft contents 
 into a horny material, have occurred. 
 
 Columnar or cylindrical epithelium i3 situated on the 
 free surface of the mucous lining of the alimentary canal 
 from the oesophageal orifice of the stomach to the anus, it 
 is prolonged into the ducts of various glands which open on 
 the alimentary mucous membrane ; it covers the mucous 
 lining of the urethra and the mucous membrane of the 
 gall bladder. Its cells are elongated, cylindrical columns, 
 about rJ-fth inch long, placed side by side like a row of 
 palisades, and with their 
 long axes perpendicular r~S~Y-y*y V"? 
 to the surface on which 
 the cells rest. Some- 
 times the cells are uni- 
 
 f~_~.1.. ^L'-JJ 1 . „+ Fio. 31. — Columnar epithelium. A, sfrfe vtew 
 
 formly cylindrical ; at of „ ^p of cem V B , , arger free tnd „, , 
 other times they are g™°p o' c eii>; c. a striated columnar ceil 
 
 . , , . J . . from intestinal villus. 
 
 compressea at the sides; 
 
 at others they vary in circumference, — the broader end, 
 lying next the surface, being rounded or polygonal; 
 the deeper extremity being narrower and more pointed. 
 The nuclei are distinct, and the cell contents are finely 
 granular. Usually this epithelium forms only a single 
 layer of cells. The columnar cells which cover the intes- 
 tinal villi have a clear space at their broad free ends, 
 which is often streaked with fine parallel lines. Inter- 
 mingled with the cells of the columnar epithelium of the 
 alimentary canal are small goblet-shaped cells. 
 
 Ciliated epithelium is situated on the free surface of the 
 nasal mucous membrane, which extends into the air-sinuses 
 within the cranial bones, into the nasal duct and lachry- 
 mal sac, into the Eustachian tube and tympanum ; on the 
 free surface of the mucous membrane of the windpipe as 
 far as the terminal branches of the bronchial tubes; on 
 the mucous surface of the uterus and Fallopian tubes ; on 
 the mucous lining of the commencement of the vas deferens, 
 and on the lining membrane of the ventricles of the brain 
 and central canal of the spinal cord. It generally cousista 
 of- columnar cells, which have at their free ends extremely 
 slender, soft, pellucid, hair-like processes, or cilia. These 
 cilia are specially differentiated at the 
 free ends of the epithelium cells from 
 which they project. Beale states that 
 the soft bioplasm (protoplasm) of the 
 body of the cell is prolonged along the 
 axis of each cilium, whilst the peri- 
 phery possesses the firmer consistence fio.32.— ciliated epithelium 
 of formed or differentiated material « u * > 
 
 During life these processes move rapidly to and fro 
 in the fluid which moistens the surface of the mem- 
 brane on which this form of epithelium is situated. In 
 the human body the cilia, are not more than from jiVn^ 
 to j 7 VTJ tn mcn m length ; but in various marine in. 
 vertebrata they are both longer and stronger. Sometimes, 
 as in the lining membrane of the cerebral ventricles and 
 central canal of the spinal cord, the (ells carrying the cilia
 
 848 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [anatomy of 
 
 ■re either spheroidal or cylindrical; but as the cavities lined 
 by these cells are shut off from the air, the cells ought rather 
 to be referred to the endothelial than the epithelial series 
 of structures. Cilia occasion currents in the fluid in which 
 they move, and play an important part in the economy of 
 many animals; in some of the invertebrata they serve as 
 organs of locomotion, in others they propel currents over 
 respiratory surfaces, and in others aid in bringing food 
 within the animal's reach. 
 
 Spheroidal or glandular epithelium is situated on the free 
 surface of the follicles or ultimate secreting apparatus of 
 glands, and the commencement of gland ducts. The cells are 
 often spheroidal in form, though not unfrequently they are 
 polyhedral. Theircontentsarespeciallydifferentiated intothe 
 secretion of the particular gland in which they are situated. 
 
 The epithelial cells of a Secreting Gland rest upon a sub- 
 epithelial tissue. Not unfrequently this tissue has the 
 appearance of a membrane; it represents, indeed, the base- 
 ment membrane of Bowman, and is called manbrana pro- 
 pria. Deeper than this apparent membrane is a delicate 
 connective tissue in which the blood and lymph vessels and 
 the nerves of the gland -ramify. The anatomical structures 
 necessary for secretion are cells, blood-vessels, and nerves- 
 The blood-vessels convey 
 the blood from which the 
 secretion has to be derived ; 
 the cells, as Goodsir showed 
 by a variety of proofs, are 
 the active agents in separat- ^ S3 _^ po , yhcdrll e , and « Us (rora 
 
 ing the Secretion from the the liver ; B, spheroidal gland cella from 
 
 blood ; the nerves regulate the Mi * v *' 
 the size of the blood-vessels, and therefore the amount of 
 blood which circulates through the gland, and perhaps also 
 exercise some direct influence on the activity of the cells. 
 The connective tissue and the membrana propria are merely 
 supporting structures for the ceils, vessels, and nerves. All 
 secreting glands hav-3 the same general type of structure, 
 though they differ from each other, as will be pointed out 
 when the individual glands are described, in the degree of 
 complexity in which their constituent parts are arranged. 
 
 Transitional epithelium is the name applied to epithelial 
 cells, situated on some free surfaces, which possess transi- 
 tional forms either between the columnar and tessellated 
 epithelia, or the columnar and spheroidal. The epithelium 
 of the mucous lining of the bladder is transitional between 
 the columnar and scaly varieties ; and in many glands 
 the continuity of the epithelial layer from the spheroidal 
 epithelium of the gland follicles to the columnar epi- 
 thelium of the ducts is preserved by the interposition of 
 intermediate transitional forms of cells. 
 
 The epithelial surfaces of the upper part of the mucous 
 lining of the nose and of the back of the tongue are 
 specially modified in connection with the senses of smell 
 and taste localised in those regions, as will afterwards be 
 considered when their anatomy is described. 
 
 Endothelium. — The free surfaces covered by an endo- 
 thelium are the serous membranes, the inner surface of 
 the walls of the lymph and blood vessels and of the heart, 
 the synovial membranes of the joints and of synovial 
 bursse, the free surface of the osseous and membranous 
 labyrinth of the internal ear, and the free surface of the 
 ventricular cavities of the brain and central canal of the 
 spinal cord. The tubes, canals, and cavities lined by 
 an endothelium are shut off from all communication with 
 the external atmosphere. The cells of the endothelium 
 are arranged so as to give perfect smoothness to the sur- 
 face which they cover. • In the blood and lymph vessels 
 this smoothness of surface is in order to facilitate the flow 
 of the blood and lymph in the course of the circulation. 
 The serous and synovial membranes are found covering 
 
 the surfaces 01 parts which .move on cacn other, and the 
 smoothness of their respective surfaces, by permitting free- 
 dom of movement, diminishes the friction. 
 
 Each Serous Membrane consists of a portion which invests 
 the viscus or organ, named the visceral layer, and a portion 
 which lines the walls of the cavity in which the organ is 
 situated, named the parietal layer. Between these two 
 layers is the so-called serous cavity, the wall of which is 
 formed by the smooth surfaces of both the parietal and the 
 visceral layers. The serous membranes are as follows: — The 
 two pleural situated in thd cavity of the chest, one invest- 
 ing each lung, and lining the interior of that part of the 
 thoracic cavity in which the lung is situated; the pericar 
 dium, which invests the heart, and lines the bag in which 
 the heart is contained; the peritoneum, which invests the 
 abdominal viscera, and lines the abdominal cavity ; and 
 the arachnoid membrane, which invests the brain and spinal 
 cord, and is regarded by many as lining the dura mater, which 
 encloses these important organs. The smooth free surfaces 
 of the serous membranes are moistened by a limpid fluid, 
 or scrum, which facilitates their movement on each other, 
 just as the free smooth surfaces of the synovial membranes 
 are lubricated by the viscid synovia which they secrete. 
 
 Endothelial cells form usually only a single layer, and are, 
 as a rule, flattened scale-like cells, arranged after the manner 
 of a tessellated epithelium. Endothelium, like epithelium, 
 is non-vascular, and, so far as is known, non-nervous. 
 
 The endothelial cells rest upon a sub-endothelial tissue, 
 consisting of a delicate modification of the fibrous form of 
 connective tissue. Here, as in the surfaces covered by 
 epithelium, a basement membrane was at one time sup- 
 posed to intervene between the cells and the connective 
 tissue ; but it is now believed that the cells are in direct 
 contact, by their deeper surface, with the connective tissue 
 itself. In the serous membranes and in the coats of the 
 larger blood-vessels elastic fibres are present in considerable 
 numbers in the sub-endothelial tissue, which serves as the 
 framework of support for the blood and lymph vessels and 
 the nerves of the part. In the serous membranes the lymph- 
 vessels are very abundant in the sub-epithelial tissue, where 
 they form a layer parallel to the free surface of the mem- 
 brane, from which short vessels pass vertically to open by 
 minute orifices into the serous cavity. The serous mem- 
 branes are attached by the sub-endothelial connective tissue 
 to the organs which they invest. 
 
 The endothelium of the Serous Membranes consists of 
 irregular and squamous cells, the edges of which may be 
 smooth or slightly serrated. The cells are closely adapted 
 to each other by their edges, so as to form a continuous 
 smooth layer, which forms 
 the free surface of the serous 
 membrane. Scattered irre- 
 gularly over this surface are 
 the minuteorifices, OTstomata, 
 which open into lymphatic 
 vessels. The cells which sur- 
 round the stomata differ in 
 form and appearance from 
 the ordinary endothelium; F, °- 1 ^~, En,1 ° lf '. eli ' 11 " lta fr0 ™ """ 
 
 J > peritoneal serous membrane. Three 
 
 they are smaller, and are stomata may be seen sun ounded by 
 
 polyhedral, their contents are l^Tlln ™ C ZT fflgS'tSS 
 
 granular, and the nucleus is marks the position of a vertical lvm- 
 , . ' . phatic vessel (A/ltr Elein.t 
 
 more distinct. 
 
 The endothelium lining the Lymphatic Vessels consists 
 of flattened cells, which, instead of having an irregular 
 shape, are elongated spindles, slightly sinuous in outline. 
 The endothelium of the lymphatics is continuous with 
 that of the serous membranes through the stomata, so that 
 the cavities of the serous membranes are now regarded as 
 great lymph-sacs. 

 
 TEXTURES.! 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 849 
 
 The endothelial lining of the Blood Vessels corresponds 
 in general characters with that of the lymphatics. In the 
 small blood capillaries the cells are fusiform ; in those of 
 larger size, more irregular : in the veins they are broader, 
 more irregular, and less distinctly fusiform than in the 
 arteries. The endothelial covering of the endocardial 
 lining of the heart consists of a layer of flattened cells 
 with irregular outlines. The endothelial lining of the 
 blood-vascular system is continuous with that of the 
 lymph-vascular system, where the thoracic duct and other 
 large lymph-vessels open into the great veins, and thus a 
 continuity of surface is established between the serous 
 membranes and the lining membrane of the blood-vascular 
 system through the lymphatics. 
 
 The endothelium of the Synovial Membranes is formed 
 of roundish, or polygonal, or tessellated cells, arranged after 
 the manner of a stratified epithelium. Not unfrequently 
 processes of the sub-endothelial vascular connective tissue 
 covered by the endothelium project into the cavities of 
 joints and synovial bursae. They have been called synovial 
 fringes, and contribute to the formation of the synovia 
 which lubricates the surfaces of a synovial membrane. 
 
 The endothelium of the Cerebral Ventricles and Central 
 Canal of the spinal cord is, as already stated, formed of 
 spheroidal or cylindrical cells, possessing cilia on the free 
 surface. The endothelial lining of the osseous labyrinth 
 consists of flattened scales, whilst the membranous laby 
 tinth possesses a layer of polygonal cells. 
 
 3d Group. — Cells imbedded in Solid Tissues. 
 
 The cells which are imbedded in the solid tissues are 
 either grouped together in considerable masses, or, as 
 not unfrequently happens, are more or less separated by 
 an intermediate matrix or intercellular substance. The 
 matrix substance varies in its character in different tissues, 
 and sometimes is so abundant as to obscure the cells. 
 The textures which are constructed on this plan are of 
 great importance, and constitute by far the larger propor- 
 tion of the tissues not only of the human body, but of the 
 bodies. of animals generally. Sometimes these tissues are 
 elongated into delicate threads or fibres, at other times they 
 are expanded into thin membranes, at others they form 
 6olid masses of considerable thickness. 
 
 Connective Tissue. — By the term connective tissue is 
 meant a group of tissues which, though the members of 
 the group differ in various respects from each other, both 
 in naked eye and microscopic characters, yet agree in the 
 property of binding or connecting together other tissues 
 or parts of the body, and in serving as a supporting frame- 
 work for more delicate tissues. This group of tissues is 
 the most extensively diffused of all the textures, for there 
 is no organ in the body which does not contain one or other 
 of its forms. The following varieties, based on modifica- 
 tions in their appearance and structure, may be recognised. 
 
 a. Neuroglia. This name, which means nerve glue, has 
 been applied by Virchow to the delicate tissue in the cen- 
 tral organs of the 
 nervous system, 
 and of the retina, 
 which supports 
 the nerve cells, 
 
 nerve fibres, and 
 blood-vessels of 
 those parts. Mi- 
 croscopically it 
 consists of small 
 round or ovoid 
 corpuscles, im- 
 bedded in a soft 
 undifferentiated protoplasm. -A form of tumour, named 
 
 Fio. 85.— Section of die white mutter of the cerebrum 
 The neuroglia, iioito fibres, and capillary blood-vessels 
 are represented. 
 
 Glioma, is sometimes produced by the excessive growth in 
 the brain or retina of this variety of connective tissue. 
 
 b. Retiform connective tissue constitutes the stroma or 
 supporting framework of the lymphatic and other glands 
 which possess the adenoid type 
 of tissue. It also forms the middle 
 subdivision of the enamel organ 
 of the teeth. It consists of stel- 
 late branching cells, the branches 
 of which blend with each other, 
 
 and form a delicate anastomosing Fin. 30.— itctiturm connecti™ 
 network or reticulum. In the tissuc rrom a | / m P |lalic ei»n<L 
 lymph glands, the colourless lymph corpuscles are set in 
 the meshes of this network. In the solitary and Peyer's 
 glands of the alimentary canal, in the tonsils, the back of the 
 tongue, the posterior wall of 
 the nasal partof the pharynx, 
 the palpebral conjunctiva, the 
 thymus gland, the pulp and 
 Malpighian bodies of the 
 spleen, colourless lymph-like 
 corpuscles are also included in 
 themeshcsofareticulum. The 
 name adenoid or lymphoid 
 tissue is sometimes employed 
 in describing this type of 
 structure, and in some forms 
 of disease the tissue increases 
 in certain localities so largely fie- 37.— Lymphoid cells, included in .» 
 
 in n„ nn t;tn no +~ t . n reticular mesh of connective tissue 
 
 in quantity a3 to form well- lrom a lymphoid tumour of the 
 defined lymphoid tumours. mediastinum. 
 
 c Gelatinous or mucous connective tissue (Sckleimgewebe), 
 forms the connective tissue of the embryo, the vitreous 
 humour of the 
 eye-ball, and the 
 jelly of Wharton, 
 which invests the 
 blood-vessels of 
 the umbilical 
 cord. It is soft 
 and jelly-like in 
 consistency. Mi- 
 croscopically it 
 consists of round- 
 ed, or spindle- 
 like, or stellate 
 cells, imbedded 
 in a soft gela- 
 tinous intercel- 
 lular substance. 
 Sometimes the intercellular substance is in part differenti- 
 ated into short delicate fibres. Under some pathological 
 conditions, this form of tissue increases largely in quantity 
 in some parts of the body, and forms a kind of tumour 
 named Myxoma. 
 
 d. Fibrous connective tissue presents four modifications 
 in appearance. It may be soft and delicate, with the 
 fibres short and«but faintly marked, as in the sub-epithelial 
 tissue of the skin and mucous membranes. It may be 
 loose, flocculent, and filamentous, and may contain small 
 spaces or areola: (when it is called areolar tissue), which is 
 well seen in the subcutaneous tissue of the adult, and in 
 the omenta. ■ It may be expanded in the form of a fibrous 
 membrane, as in the fasciae or aponeuroses, and the threads 
 or fibres, strong and well marked, sometimes run parallel, 
 sometimes cross each other at various angles. It may bo 
 collected into rounded or flattened bands, as in tendons and 
 ligaments, where it forms the tendinous and ligamentous 
 tissues. Here also the threads or fibres may be distinctly 
 recognised and seen to run in parallel bundles, so as to 
 
 Fig. 38.— Gelatinous connective tissue. Thefuslfonn si 1 
 stellate cells, and the paitial differentiation Into fibres 
 of the intercellular substance, are shown.
 
 S50 
 
 A N A T M Y 
 
 [anatomy ok 
 
 White 
 fibrous 
 
 tissue. 
 
 connect together the two structures between which the 
 tendon or ligament passes. 
 
 In the fibrous form of connective tissue, both cells and 
 intercellular substance, the latter of which is differentiated 
 into fibres, may be recognised. The cells are, as a rule, 
 cither elongated, or fusiform, or caudate, or stellate branches 1 
 rells, and are familiarly known as the connective tissu: 
 corpuscles. In these cells the nucleus is round or oval, and 
 usually well marked. It is surrounded by granular proto- 
 plasm, but it is very doubtful if the protoplasm is invested 
 by a cell wall. Not unfrequently, more especially where the 
 cells are stellate, the delicate branched protoplasm processes 
 of adjacent cells appear to blend at their extremities with 
 each other, and fo»m an anastomosing network. In tend- 
 ons the cells are arranged in linear rows, which lie parallel 
 to the long axis of the tendon itself. In adults these cells 
 are flattened, but in younger tendons they are mon 
 gcmal in form. There seems reasoi. to think, indeed, as 
 Thin has shown, that the bundles of connective tissue are 
 invested by a layer of flattened cells. The wide dif- 
 fusion of the connective tissue throughout the body, and 
 the great importance of its cellular elements, have been 
 especially dwelt on by Virchow as sources of origin of the 
 new cell forms which arise in various pathological processes. 
 The intercellular substance consists of fibres, which are 
 not uniform in shape, and are divided into the two groups 
 of white and yellow fibres. 
 
 The white fibres of connective tissue constitute the 
 most common form, and make up the great bulk of most 
 ligaments, tendons, and fibrous membranes. 
 They consist of excessively delicate filaments, 
 varying from 7T i To -th to TT $ TT th inch in 
 thickness, which are united together in 
 bundles or fasciculi of variable size. The 
 bundles, as well as the filaments of which 
 they are composed, have a wavy course, and 
 the filaments in each bundle lie almost 
 parallel to et.ch other. The bundles also 
 in some cases are parallel, though in others 
 they cross at various angles. Not only the '^ 
 filaments in each bundle, but the bundles " 
 themselves, are cemented together ; the firm- 
 ness of the adhesion varies in the different *>° »<— FucfcoJi 
 modifications of the fibrous connective tissue, °! "wnncrti™ 
 being much more decided in the tendons, tlssne - 
 ligaments, and fasciae, than in the lax areolar tissue. 
 
 The yellow fibres of connective tissue, named elastic 
 fibres, from their elasticity, make up the mass of the liga- 
 mentum nucha?, the ligamenta sub-flava, and the yellow 
 elastic coat of the arteries. They are also found, mingled 
 with the white fibres, in the fibrous membranes, the skin, 
 mucous and serous membranes, the areolar tissue, in ten- 
 dons, and some ligaments. In the liga- 
 menta sub-flava and nuchas the yellow 
 fibres are arranged in bundles, the in- 
 dividual fibres of which are comparatively 
 broad, with a distinct dark outline. They 
 branch, and their branches readily break 
 across, and the broken end then curls 
 upon itself. Their diameter is about 
 j-sV^th inch. In the coats of the arteries 
 the elastic fibres form an anastomosing 
 network. When mingled with the white 
 fibres they are much finer, and sometimes 
 do not exceed T iH7 tn incl > in diameter. 
 They possess, however, a distinct and de- 
 finite outline; they branch and occasion- 
 ally anastomose; and the individual fibres, possessing a ring- 
 like, spiral, or twisted course, are wound around the bundles 
 of the white fibres. The white fibres yield gelatine on boil- 
 
 [O. 40. — Fasciculus 
 of fibres of yellow 
 elastic tissue from 
 ligamcntum nucha;. 
 
 ing, but the elastic fibres do not. The white fibres sweE up 
 and become so transparent under the action of acetic acid 
 as to be no longer recognisable. The yellow fibres, again, 
 are not affected by that reagent Quckctt pointed out that 
 the clastic fibres of the Lgamentum nuchae of the giraffe 
 were marked by transverse striae, and M. Watson has seen 
 a similar appearance in the elastic pericardiac ligament of 
 the elephant. These transverse striae are apparently cracks 
 in the fibre; and, as Beale ha3 shown, are not unfrequently 
 seen in the elastic fibres in beef and mutton which have 
 passed through the alimentary ca 
 
 Bearing on the mode of nutrition of the tendons, and 
 other fibrous forms of connective tissues, the existence of 
 plasma, or juice, canals has been described, along which, 
 not blood, but the liquor sanguinis is supposed to flow. 
 Virchow conceived that the connective tissue corpuscles 
 formed an anastomosing network for this purpose. Briicke 
 believed that delicate channels or lacunae existed between 
 the bundles of connective tissue, whilst ltccklinghausen 
 maintained that serous canaliculi were situated in the 
 homogeneous substance which connects the fibrous fasciculi 
 and lamellae of the connective tissue with each other. 
 These lacunae or canaliculi are, in all probability, the root- 
 lets of origin of the lymphatic system of vessels. There 
 can indeed be no doubt, as the recent injections of Ludwig 
 and Schweigger-Seidel have shown, that tendons and fasciae 
 are well provided with lymph vessels, for they have in- 
 jected in them a minute net- 
 work, consisting in part of 
 polygonal meshes, and in port 
 of vessels running longitudin- 
 ally and parallel to the con- 
 nective tissue bundles, and 
 the walls of these vessels were 
 formed of endothelial cells. 
 Recklinghausen and others 
 have recently described cor- 
 puscles in the connective tissue 
 which resemble in size and 
 appearance the white cor- 
 puscles of the blood and 
 lymph. These corpuscles are believed to move about in 
 the juice canals already referred to, and it is possible that 
 they may have migrated into the tissue through the walla 
 of its nutriont blood- vessels. 
 
 The vascularity of the connective tissue varies in differ- 
 ent localities. The periosteum and perichondrium are very 
 vascular; but their numerous vessels are concerned in the 
 nutrition not merely of these fibrous membranes, but of 
 the bone and cartilage which they invest. The sheath of 
 connective tissue which invests a tendon is more vascular 
 than the substance of the tendon itself. As a rule, it may 
 be stated that the fibrous connective tissues are not highly 
 vascular, and that the nutritive changes which take place iu 
 them after their growth is completed are not very active. 
 
 The mode of development of the connective tissue has 
 been much discussed by anatomists, and various views have 
 been advanced as to the changes which lead to its pro- 
 duction. It is now, however, generally admitted that it 
 arises from the embryonic cells by a special morphological 
 heinical differentiation of their protoplasm, but the 
 degree to which this differentiation may proceed varies with 
 the particular form of the texture. In the neuroglia the 
 tissue is apparently a simple nucleated protoplasm. In the 
 retiform connective tissue the cells have assumed a stellate 
 shape, and their branches anastomose. In the gelatinous 
 and fibrous forms an intercellular matrix is extensively pro- 
 duced, and exhibits a differentiation into fibres. In these 
 last-named forms, which are the most characteristic varie- 
 ties of the tissue, the cells of the embryo change thi u 'una. 
 
 Flu. si. — Connective tissue of the 
 omentum of the foetus, showing the 
 characteristic fuslfonu corpuscle*. 
 A capillary blood-reset] crosses the 
 fifrure, and near It are scvcial blood 
 corpuscles which have prouabl/ 
 migrated from the vessel.
 
 TEXTURES.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 Hoi 
 
 and assume a fusiform, caudate, or stellate shape ; and, 
 subsequently a delicate fibrillated structure appears between 
 them, which assumes the characters of the bundles of 
 ■white fibrous tissue, and by separating the cells from each 
 other forms the fibrous intercellular matrix. It has been 
 much disputed whether these white fibres take their rise 
 immediately from the peripheral portion of the cells by a 
 direct differentiation of their protoplasm, or whether this 
 protoplasm is not in the first instance converted into a 
 homogeneous matrix in which the fibrous differentiation 
 then occurs. There can be no doubt that the fibres are 
 formed by a metamorphosis of the protoplasm of the cells ; 
 whether the metamorphosis takes place directly, or through 
 the intermediate stage of a homogeneous matrix, is a 
 secondary question, and in all probability both modes of 
 conversion take place at different times and in different 
 localities. As the differentiation into fibres progresses, the 
 tissue becomes firmer and tougher, and the proportion of 
 the cellular to the fibrous element diminishes. Hence, say 
 in a young tendon, the rows of connective tissue cells are 
 not only closer together, but are much more readily seen 
 than in an adult tendon, in which the increased production 
 of fibres obscures the cellular element. 
 
 The mode of origin of the yellow elastic fibres has also 
 been much discussed. At one time it was believed that 
 they were derived from nuclei, and on this supposition they 
 were named nuclear fibres. But from more recent observa- 
 tions there is reason to believe that they are produced, like 
 the white fibres, by a special differentiation of the proto- 
 plasm of the embryonic cells, or of a homogeneous matrix 
 derived from that protoplasm. In such localities as the 
 ligamentum nuchae, where the fibres are both large and 
 numerous, the whole of the cell protoplasm appears to 
 become converted into elastic tissue. In tendons, and those 
 parts where these fibres are slender and scanty, and coil 
 round the bundles of white fibrous tissue, they apparently 
 arise from a differentiation of the protoplasm on the sur- 
 face only of the formative embryonic cells. 
 
 Adipose Tissue. — The adipose or fatty tissue varies in 
 its amount in different individuals. It is especially found 
 in the marrow of the .bones ; as a layer beneath the skin, 
 differing in thickness in different individuals; and collected 
 in the cavity of the abdomen in the folds of peritoneum, 
 known as the mesentery and omenta, in which, and indeed 
 in the other localities where it occurs, it is intimately 
 associated with the connective tissue. It consists of cells, 
 which vary in size from jj-jth to 5 J T th 
 inch, usually ovoid or spherical in form, 
 though when collected into masses they 
 may be laterally compressed. These cells 
 are sometimes isolated, though most 
 isually arranged in rows or clusters to 
 lobules of fat. The number of cells 
 i.. n given lobule varies with f,he size 
 of the lobule. The distinctive contents 
 of these cells is a minute drop of oil, 
 which, when examined by transmitted 
 light, presents a bright appearance; but 
 when seen by reflected light, looks, as F,8- ^ 7 a Vu£ a 1 " lld 
 Monro primus described it long ago, like 
 a cluster of pearls. Each fat cell possesses a distinct wall, as 
 can be readily demonstrated by digesting these cells in ether, 
 when the oil is dissolved out and the membranous wall 
 remains. The nucleus of the fat cell is more difficult to 
 demonstrate, and when seen is found attached to the inner 
 surface of the cell wall. In the fat of old persons, and in 
 specimens of this tissue which have been removed from 
 the body for a length of time, a stellate group of acicular 
 crystals is not unfrequently to be seen in the interior of 
 the cell, which consists either o< margario or margaric 
 
 acid, one of the constituents of human fat. The lobulea 
 of fat cells are included between bundles of the areolar 
 variety of connective tissue, which form their supporting 
 framework. But in addition, they are more or less per- 
 fectly surrounded by a network of capillary vessels, which 
 not only serves to convey to them blood for their nutrition, 
 but aids in retaining them in position. 
 
 The close anatomical relation between the adipose and the 
 connective tissue points to a genetic relationship between 
 them. It has now been ascertained that the first stage in 
 the formation of a fat cell consists in the appearance of 
 extremely minute drops of oil in the protoplasm of the con- 
 nective tissue corpuscles of the part ; as these run together 
 larger drops are produced, a cell wall at the same time- 
 differentiates from the peripheral part of the protoplasm, 
 and as the cell becomes distended with oil, by the conver- 
 sion into fat of its substance, it swells out into a spherical 
 or ovoid cell. Klein has recently shown that the fatty 
 tissue of the omentum and mesentery is formed by the 
 production of oil drops within the branched cells, which 
 form the reticular tissue that supports the lymphoid cells 
 found so abundantly between these folds of peritoneum. 
 
 Pigmentary Tissue. — In some parts of the body a 
 yellow, brown, or black pigment is found in the interior of 
 cells, which gives to the tissue and organ a characteristic 
 colour. In the coloured races of mankind, and in certain 
 parts of the body of the white races, pigment is produced 
 in the cells of the cuticle or epidermis, more especially in 
 the cells of the deeper strata or rete Malpighi. In the con- 
 nective tissue corpuscles, also, more especially in the dermis 
 of fish, amphibia, and reptiles, pigment is found in con- 
 siderable abundance. The choroid coat of the eyeball owes 
 its dark brown or black colour to the presence of pigment 
 in the interior of the cells. The $&g£&B)4&&&Ml±> 
 pigment cells of the choroid are 
 usually polyhedrons, 5 or 6-sided, 
 and are arranged to form a mosaic 
 pattern. In the centre is a nu- ria «.— c™ip of 6-si.irj .-hop 
 cleus, and the cell substance is 
 
 occupied by numbers of minute brown granules. In Uir 
 connective tissue on the outer surface 
 of the choroid, the pigment is contained 
 in stellate cells. In the skin of fishes 
 and amphibia, the stellate pigment cells 
 branch and subdivide so as to form highly 
 complex patterns, and the cells are crowd- 
 ed with brown or yellow granules. The 
 production of pigment, either in the in 
 terior of epidermal cells, in the poly- 
 hedral cells of the choroid, or in the 
 stellate connective tissue corpuscles, is 
 owing to a special metamorphosis or dif- , 
 ferentiation of the protoplasm substance *N™V cot 'ir.™"i 
 of these cells. .ki„ oi a couw,. 
 
 Cartilaginous Tissue. — By the term cartilage, ot 
 cartilaginous tissue, is meant a group of tissues which, 
 though usually found in the form of plates or bars, yet 
 differ in various aspects from each other, both in naked eye 
 and microscopic characters. They agree, however, in 
 forming solid textures, opaque when seen in mass, I ', 
 in thin slices, translucent, pearly, or bluish white, firm in 
 consistence, but easily cut with a knife, endowed with 
 considerable elasticity, and yielding chcn>' 
 Cartilage is of greater importance in die foetus nnd in Hit 
 immature condition of the body than in the adult, for in 
 early life the bones are in a great measure formed of it. 
 Aa development and growth proceed, a considerable pro- 
 portion of the cartilage becomes converted into bone, and 
 is called, therefore, temporary cartilage, whilst the remain- 
 ing portion continues as cartilage throughout life, and is 
 
 Fio. U-StcllnH DlCi
 
 852 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 ASATOMY OP 
 
 termed permanent. The following varieties of cartilage, 
 based on modifications in structure and appearance, may be 
 recognised 
 
 Celluiar cartilag 
 
 Cells with matrix substance. 
 
 Matrix homogeneous. 
 (Hyaline cartilage.) 
 
 Matrix fibrous. 
 (Fibro-cartilage.) 
 
 White fibro-cartilage. 
 
 I ellow fibro-cartilage. 
 
 T":a. 45. — Cells of the chorda dor- 
 ial s of the lamprey. 
 
 The Cellular or Parenchymatous Cartilage does not exist 
 in the adult human body. It occurs, however, in the 
 human embryo, in the embryos of all the vertebrata, and 
 ii the larval stage of development of the tunicata, as the 
 slender rod named chorda dorsalis or notochord. In all 
 the higher vertebrata the chorda dorsalis disappears as 
 development advances, but in the lWer vertebrates it per- 
 sists throughout life as a more or less perfect stru:ture. In 
 the lamprey and myxine it forms a continuous rod in the 
 vertebral region. In fish gene- 
 rally, but more especially in the 
 cartilaginous group, it forms a 
 jelly-like mass, occupying the 
 concavities between the bodies 
 of the vertebrae. The cells lie 
 in contact with each other. 
 They are comparatively large in 
 size, are sometimes rounded, but 
 more usually compressed late 
 rally. The nucleus is often very 
 distinct, though at other times more difficult to detect, 
 and the cell wall is well marked. Sometimes a little inter- 
 cellular substance is found. By some anatomists the chorda 
 dorsalis is regarded as a variety of connective tissue, and 
 not of cartilage 
 
 The cartilaginous framework of the ear of some small 
 mammals — as the mouse, the bat, and the rat — is formed of 
 cellular cartilage, the cells of which 
 are smaller in size than those of the 
 chorda dorsalis, irregularly poly- 
 gonal, and closely packed together 
 so as to form a solid tissue. 
 
 The Hyaline Cartilage consfsts 
 of cells imbedded in a pellucid or 
 hyaline matrix, which, under some 
 conditions, however, may assume 
 a dimly granulated appearance. The 
 xiphoid and costal cartilages, the encrusting cartilages at 
 the articular ends of the bones, the cartilages of the nose, 
 those of the windpipe, except 
 the epiglottis and coruicula 
 laryngis, belong to this var- 
 iety, as also the temporary car- 
 tilages. In hyaline cartilage 
 the cells are ovoid or poly- 
 gonal, or even fusiform, and 
 sometimes flattened, the flat- 
 tened form of cell being 
 found next the surface of the F, °' «-***■ ™* "*' : "^ 
 cartilage. They lie singly, or in groups of two, or three, 
 or four ; sometimes they are arranged in linear series, at 
 other times they arc irregularly grouped together. The cell 
 contents are dimly granular, with a well-defined nucleus 
 containing a nucleolus. Not unfrequently two or more 
 nuclei are present in a cell ; and in old cartilage the con- 
 tents are often coarsely granular, or even infiltrated with 
 drops of oil. 'Eeidenhain has shown that powerful induc- 
 tion shocks cause contraction of the protoplasm of the cells 
 towards the central nucleus. The cells be in cavities in 
 the matrix substance, and the part of the matrix which 
 forma the immediate wall of the hollow is named the 
 
 Flo 46.— Cells of i!it ciuill.igl- 
 nocs framework of the car 
 of the mouaa 
 
 Two or more cells may sometime 1 ? lie 
 
 Flo. 43.— Ycitldl section 
 through an encrusting 
 cai Hinge. R. the bfin» 
 on which tho cartilage 
 rests. 
 
 capsulo of the cell, 
 in the same hollow, 
 
 The matrix of hyaline cartilage is usually homogeneous. 
 In some animals the matrix appears to have a concentric 
 arrangement around the cells, and Rollett has stated that 
 by the use of dilute sulphuric acid or chromic acid the 
 matrix may be made to split up into concentric layers. 
 Sometimes the matrix appears granulated, a change which 
 is very apt to occur in sections of cartilage which have 
 been removed for some time from the body. In the costal 
 cartilages of old persons the matrix becomes fibrous; and 
 it is by no means uncommon to find in advanced age these 
 bars of cartilage converted into bone. 
 
 In the articular or encrusting cartilages the arrangement 
 of the cells is quite distinctive. If a vertical p'ection be 
 made through a plate of this carti- 
 lage, the cells next the bone are 
 seen to be arranged in parallel rows 
 perpendicular to the surface of the 
 bone on which the cartilage rests; 
 the cells are smaller than those of the 
 costal cartilage, oblong in form, and 
 the adjacent rows are separated by 
 intermediate hyaline matrix. Near 
 the free surface of the cartilage the 
 cells are flattened, placed parallel to 
 the plane of the surface, and so 
 closely packed together that the 
 proportion of matrix is much re- 
 duced. In the intermediate parts 
 of the cartilage the cells lie irregularly in the matrix, and 
 are rounded in form. It was from the study of the 
 changes which take place in articular cartilage in disease 
 that Goodsir was enabled to establish the production of 
 new cells by the multiplication of the normal pre-existing 
 cells of the cartilage, — an observation which formed the 
 starting-point of the modern doctrine of cellular pathology. 
 
 Fibro-cartilages are divided into white and yellow. 
 Wjiile fibro-cartilage may form the connecting medium 
 between the articular surfaces of an 
 amphiarthrodia] joint, as in the inter- 
 vertebral discs; or it may form plates in 
 the interior of joints, as in the semi- 
 lunar cartilages of the knee and other 
 menisci in diarthrodial joints; or it may 
 extend around the margin of the socket 
 of a joint, as in the cotyloid ligament of 
 the hip; or it may invest the surfaces of 
 bones over which tendons have to play, 
 as where the tendons of the peronei 
 muscles play in the groove on the back 
 of the external malleolus. In the intervertebral discs, 
 which give the best illustrations of the structure of white 
 fibro-cartilage, the cells are ovoid in form and distinctly 
 nucleated. Sometimes two or three are grouped together, 
 but not unfrequently they occur singly. They are sepa- 
 rated from each other by short fibres. In these discs the 
 fibrous matrix is always stronger and more distinct in the 
 peripheral than in the central part. The other forms of white 
 fibro-cartilage are transitional , between the true cartilage 
 and connective tissue, i.e., the cells possess the characters 
 of cartilage cells, whilst the fibrous matrix approximates to 
 the matrix of the connective tissue. 
 
 The yellow elastic fibro-cartilagcs are the epiglottis, the 
 cornicula laryngis, the cartilaginous framework of the auricle 
 of the human ear, and the cars of mammalia generally, 
 and the cartilaginous wall of the Eustachian tube. The 
 cells are rounded or ovoid, distinctly nucleated, ard usually 
 arranged singly or in pairs. The matrix its distinctly 
 fibrous; the fibres, which form a close intersecting cct- 
 
 o. 4*. — w ti 1 1 e 
 flbro-carlilngc of 
 an lr.:c7TtruhroJ 
 
 disc.
 
 TEXTURES.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 853 
 
 ■work, branch and sometimes anastomose. They resist the 
 action of acetic acid like the yellow fibres of connective 
 tissue; and Donders has described a continuity between 
 them and the elastic fibres of the connective tissue, which 
 forms the investing perichondrium of this form of cartilage. 
 The yellow fibro cartilage has no tendency to ossify. 
 
 The bars and plates of cartilage, — except the encrusting 
 hyaline cartilages, and the interarticular, marginal, and in- 
 vesting white fibro-cartilages, — are surrounded by a fibrous 
 nembrane or perichondrium. In the adult human body 
 jartilage is not penetrated by blood-vessels, but is nourished 
 by the vessels which ramify in its investing perichondrium. 
 In the foetus, however, and in the large masses of cartilage 
 which are found in the skeletons of the cetacea and of the 
 cartilaginous fishes, the cartilage is permeated by canals in 
 which blood-vessels ramify. In the encrusting cartilages, 
 the cartilage is nourished by the blood-vessels of the 
 synovial membrane of the joint, which, in the case of the 
 articular cartilage, form a vascular ring around its margin ; 
 and, both in it and in the forms of white fibro-cartilage 
 that do not possess a perichondrium, by the vessels of 
 the bone, to which these cartilages are as a rule attached. 
 In the movable joints, after the child has begun to use its 
 limbs, the synovial membrane is not continued over the 
 free surface of the articular cartilage, but stops at its 
 margin along the line of the vascular ring. In the foetus, 
 however, it has been stated that both blood-vessels and 
 synovial membrane are prolonged over the free surface of 
 the articular cartilage. 
 «relop- In the development of hyaline cartilage the contents of 
 °.' ot the embryonic cells of the part, where the cartilage is to be 
 a * e ' produced, become clear, and a cell wall differentiates around 
 the exterior t)f the cell. The nuclei in the cells divide and 
 subdivide, so that a multiplication of the cells by endo- 
 genous reproduction takes place. Hyaline matrix sub- 
 stance then appears between the cells, and is concentrically 
 arranged around them; it is believed to be formed by a 
 special conversion of successive layers of the cell proto- 
 plasm into a substance which yields chonarine on boiling. 
 The fibro-cartilages, both white and yellow, but especially 
 the latter, yield but little chondrine on boiling, for the 
 fibrous matrix of the white fibro-cartilage is a gelatine- 
 yielding substance, like the white fibres of connective 
 tissue, whilst the fibres of the yellow fibro-cartilage partake 
 of the nature of elastic tissue. The fibro-cartilages, there- 
 fore, form a group which links together the connective and 
 'cartilaginous tissues. 
 
 Osseous Tissue. — The osseous tissue, or bone, is that 
 ■which constitutes the hard framework of the skeleton. 
 Each bone consists of a hard, more or less dense, tough, 
 and but slightly elastic material. The elasticity of the 
 bones is more marked in young than in adult and aged 
 persons. From differences in their external configuration, 
 bones are divided into long or cylindrical, e.g., femur; 
 short, e.g., carpal or tarsal bones; flat or plate-like, e.g., 
 scapula; irregular bones, e.g., vertebrae. These variations 
 in shape do not, however, involve differences either in 
 composition or minute structure. Bone consists chemically 
 of an earthy and an animal substance intimately blended 
 together. The earthy matter forms about two-thirds of 
 it, and consists chiefly of phosphate of lime, which, from 
 its abundance in bone, is frequently called "bone earth." 
 Carbonate of lime and a small proportion of soda and 
 magnesia salts are also present. The hardness of bone is 
 due to the presence of the earthy matter. The animal 
 matter forms the remaining third, and yields gelatine on 
 boiling; it imparts elasticity and toughness to the bone, 
 and binds together the particles of earthy matter. 
 
 Bone presents two different structural characters to the 
 naked eye. The outer part of a bone is its hardest part, 
 
 and forms a dense external Shell, technically called the 
 compact tissue. The interior of a bone is much less firm, 
 and is made up of thin delicate plates or bare, or trabecles, 
 which intersect each other at various angles, and form a 
 lattice-like arrangement, technically called the spongy or 
 cancellated tisme. The' plates and bars of the spongy 
 tissue are continuous with the inner surface of the compact 
 tissue. Iu the long bones the interior of the shaft is hol- 
 lowed into a canal, named the medullary canal, the walls 
 of which are formed by the compact tissue, and the can- 
 cellated tissue is found only at the articular ends of these 
 bones; the thickness of the compact tissue in a long bone 
 is always greater at the centre of the shaft than at or near 
 the articular ends. 
 
 If the outer surface of the compact tissue of a long bone 
 and the wall of the medullary canal be examined with a 
 pocket lens, they will be seen to be riddled by multitudes 
 of minute orifices, which are the mouths of minute tubular 
 passages or canals that traverse the compact tissue. These 
 passages are named Haversian canals, and their arrange- 
 ment may be studied by making thin sections through 
 the compact tissue, and submitting these to microscopic 
 examination, when they will be seen to pass longitudinally 
 or very obliquely through its substance, so as to terminate 
 by rounded orifices cither on its outer surface, or on the 
 inner surface, which forms the wall of the medullary canaL 
 These canals are connected together at intervals by short 
 transverse or oblique canals. Owing to these communica- 
 tions the dense osseous tissue is permeated by an anasto- 
 mosing network of canals, which, as they contain blood- 1 
 vessels, may be named vascular canals. These canals ar« 
 circular in section, and vary in diameter from about y^tb 
 to - r5 1 5!J ta inch. They not unfrequeutly are dilated at 
 the inner end, where they open into the spaces of the 
 cancellated tissue. The compact tissue of all bones possessel 
 a system of canals similar to those found in the long bonesj 
 but when bone occurs in the form of very thin plates the 
 canals may be absent. In addition to the Haversian canals, 
 irregular spaces, named Haversian spaces by Tomes and 
 De Morgan, may also be seen in sections through the com- 
 pact tissue. They are met with not only in young but in 
 adult bones, and are regarded as produced by absorption 
 of the bone in those particular localities. In thin sections 
 through bone, more especially when the Haversian canals 
 are transversely divided, the dense tissue or matrix of tLe 
 bone which surrounds the canals is seen to be arranged in 
 concentric rings, as if it were built up of a series of lamella; 
 superimposed on each other. These lamellae do not at all 
 times form complete circles, and the number which sur- 
 round a canal may vary from two or three to half a dozen; 
 they are sometimes called the Haversian lamellae. Other 
 lamellae lie in relation to the periosteal surface of the bone, 
 and are called peripheral lamellae ; whilst others again are, 
 as it were, intercalated between adjacent Haversian systems 
 of lamellae, and are named intermediate or interstitial. It 
 has been pointed out by Sharpey that a bone lamella, 
 after the earthy matter has been dissolved out by the 
 action of an acid, is made up of multitudes of fine trans- 
 parent fibres, which intersect each other and form a net- 
 work. But he has further shown that the lamellae are 
 perforated by fibres, or bundles of fibres, which pass through 
 them either perpendicularly or obliquely, so as to bolt 
 adjacent lamella? together. With a little care, the per- 
 forating fibres of Sharpey may be drawn out of the holes 
 or sockets in which they arc lodged. 
 
 When thin sections through a macerated and dried bone 
 are examined under the higher powers of the microscope, 
 the lamellated matrix is seen to exhibit a very peculiar 
 appearance, which is characteristic of the osseous tissue. 
 Between the surfaces of adjacent lamellae irregularis
 
 354 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [anatomy or 
 
 
 the 
 
 elongated spaces, called lacuna, are to be seen in con- 
 siderable numbers ; these lacuna?, like the lamella? be- 
 tween which they aro situated, have a concentric arrange- 
 ment around tho Haversian canals. Tho lacuna?, the 
 
 lamella;, and the Haver- r •zLa^i.^t^XHt^ LJSXfJiiiri— 
 sian canal which they -ffn&flbaS 
 surround, aro sometimes 
 named a Haversian sys- 
 tem. From the ends and 
 sides of any one of theso 
 lacunae very minute 
 branching canals, termed 
 
 «ina/lWt,prOceed,which Flo. M -Transverse section through .he 
 
 '£ , . pact tissue Of the shaft of a Ion,* t one. 
 
 penetratethe lamellseand Haversian canals, lamell-c, lacunss, 
 
 anastomose with the MD ' ulcuJ ' ' ro 5hown - 
 canaliculi proceeding from adjacent lacuna;, whilst 
 canaliculi, springing from the sides of those lacuna? which 
 lie nearest to the Haversian canal, open on the wall 
 of the canal itself. The lacunae average in length 
 TH ^ 7 th inch, and their transverse diameter is about 
 iiVitth inch ; the canaliculi vary from ttu Truth *° Tnr}"!FiT t h 
 inch in diameter. When examined in a dried bone by 
 transmitted light, the lacunas look like solid, black bodies, 
 and the canaliculi seem to be processes branching off from 
 them, hence they were erroneously called by the earlier 
 observers bone-corpuscles. But if a little turpentine be 
 added to the section, the fluid displaces the air which 
 the lacuna? and canaliculi contain in the dried bone, 
 renders the part more transparent, and affords a satisfac- 
 tory demonstration that they are, in a macerated and dry 
 bone, not solid bodies, but a minute system of spaces and 
 anastomosing little canals; and that all those which lie in 
 the same Haversian system not only freely communicato 
 with each other, but, eitlfer directly or indirectly, with Qui 
 Haversian canal which they surround. 
 
 But a macerated and dried bone, such as one sees in 
 museums and in articulated skeletons, and the structure of 
 which has just been described, is 
 a bone which has been deprived 
 of several soft tissues by the pro- 
 cess of putrefaction, which tis- 
 suesareof theutmost importance 
 in the economy of the bone in tho 
 living animal. A living bone is 
 a complex organ, andamacerated 
 bone is only the skeleton of a 
 living bone. It is essential, 
 therefore, in studying the struc- 
 ture of bone, that the attention 
 should not be limited to the ap- 
 pearances presented by the macerated bone, but that the 
 arrangement and structure of its soft tissues should be con 
 sidered. The soft tissues of a bone are the periosteum and 
 iU prolongations, the marrow, 
 the minute masses of nucleated 
 protoplasm which occupy the 
 lacuna? of the bone, the blood and 
 lymph vessels, and the nerves. 
 
 The Periosteum is a strong 
 fibrous membrane which invests 
 all the exterior of a bone, except 
 where the encrusting cartilage 
 is continuous with its articular 
 end. It is subdivided into two 
 layers : a, a firm external fibrous 
 layer, consisting of bundles 
 of connective tissue, which de- 
 cussate with each other in 
 various directions, and amidst 
 
 r'to. 51. — Longitudinal %scction 
 through the compact tissue of a 
 long bone, to slio.v the passage 
 of blood-\ csscls from tho peri- 
 osteum P, Into the Daveriiun 
 canals II II. 
 
 Fio. 52,--Seclon fnrmigh the peri- 
 osteum and compact tl&suc of a 
 J'oung bone. S P, superficial fibrous 
 ayer of periosteum; 1> P, docpei 
 cellular layer prolonged into II II. 
 the wide Haversian canals ; V, 
 a vessel of the periosteum e71ie1li.fi 
 a canal 
 
 which a network of 
 small blood-vesseb is freely distributed prior to their 
 
 passage into the Havc~?[an canals ; 6, a softer internal 
 layer, which is especially well marked in young growing 
 bones. This soft layer partly consists of very delicate 
 connective tissue, in which rounded or oval cells are found, 
 which give off slender processes at various points of their 
 periphery, and partly of larger granular cells, which lie 
 next the bone itself. Processes of the soft inner layer are 
 prolonged into the Haversian canals, in which, as Goodsir 
 pointed out, a layer of cellular substance lies between tho 
 wall of tho canal and its contained blood-vessel, so that 
 these canals are not, as in macerated bones, empty passages, 
 but are tilled up by the blood-vessels and the cellular layer. 
 
 The J farrow occupies the medullary canal of a long 
 bone arid the spaces in the cancellated tissue of bone3 
 generally. It occurs in two furms, red and yellow 
 marrow. Red marrow is found in the bones of the foetus 
 generally, and in the cancelli of the plate-like, short, and 
 irregular bones at a more advanced period. It consists 
 principally of large many-nucleated masses of protoplasm, 
 the myeloid cells of Kolliker and Robin, lying in a very 
 delicate areolar tissue, and supplied by a network of 
 capillary blood vessels. It contains little or no fat. Yel- 
 low marrow, again, is composed of fat cells lying in a 
 delicate areolar tissue with accompanying blood-vessels. 
 The areolar tissue, which supports the marrow cells, lines 
 the medullary canal and cancelli, and is named the medul- 
 lary membrane, or the endosteum. 
 
 In the fresh bone the lacuna? are not empty spaces as in 
 the macerated bone. They are filled up by nucleated clumps 
 of protoplasm, and are therefore, as Goodsir was tho first 
 to show, the seats of Little masses of nucleated cells, which 
 cells are the true bone-corpuscles. The protoplasm of these 
 cells is apparently prolonged into the canaliculi Hence 
 the hard part of the osseous texture has within it a system 
 of nucleated cells, some of which occupy the lacuna? ar.d 
 canaliculi, while others form a lining to the Haversian canals. 
 
 The blood-vessels of a bone are abundant. It receives 
 its arteries partly from the small arteries which ramify in 
 the periosteum, the fine branches of which enter the 
 Haversian canals, and form within them an anastomosing 
 network of capillaries ; partly through a special artery 
 which enters the nutrient canal in the bone, to be distri- 
 buted chiefly to the marrow; partly through small arterie3 
 which enter openings in the compact tissue near the 
 articular extremities. The veins of bones are also abun- 
 dant. In the cancellated tissue they are large, and leave 
 the interior of the bone partly through foramina situated 
 near the articular ends, and partly by a vein which accom- 
 panies the artery that traverses the nutrient canal. In 
 the plaU-like bones of the skull the veins lie in distinct 
 channels in the diploe, and in the bodies of the vertebra? 
 the veins pass out through large holes in the posterior 
 surface. Bones possess lymph-vessels, but their exact 
 mode of arrangement has not yet been ascertained. Fine 
 nerve3 have been traced into bones accompanying the 
 arteries which enter the nutrient and Haversian canals. 
 
 It is clear, therefore, that a bone, hard and dense 
 though its texture seems to be, is yet hollowed out by 
 spaces, passages, and canals which, under the several 
 names of medullary canal, cancellated spaces, nutrient 
 canal, Haversian canals, Haversian spaces, lacunae, and 
 canaliculi, are occupied by blood-vessels or other soft tis- 
 sues. By the penetration of blood-vessels into the bone, 
 blood is conveyed not only to the medulla, but into the 
 very substance even of the compact tissue ; and there can 
 be no doubt that the nucleated masses of protoplasm which 
 occupy the lacuna? and canaliculi, and line the Haversian 
 canals, are, as Goodsir long ago pointed out, centres con- 
 cerned in the nutrition of the matrix substance of the 
 bono in their immediate neighbourhood. These nelk.
 
 TEXTURES.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 855 
 
 together with the periosteum, the medulla, and their blood- 
 vessels, are active agents in the development, growth, and 
 nutrition of the osseous tissue. 
 
 In the description of the development of the skeleton, 
 it was stated that the bones are formed by ossification in 
 cartilage and fibrous membrane, so that bones are pro- 
 duced by secondary changes in a pre-existing material. 
 TLo mode of production of the osseous tissue in the car- 
 tilaginous and fibrous tissues will now be considered, and 
 it should be clearly understood at the outset that, in normal 
 ossification, bone is not formed by a mere calcification of 
 the matrix of the pre-existing tissue, and a conversion of 
 the cartilage or connective tissue corpuscles into bone 
 corpuscles; but, as the researches of Sharpey, Bruch, 
 H. Muller, Loven, and Gegenbaur have made known, is 
 due to a development of new corpuscles, which Gegenbaur 
 has named osieo-blasts, accompanied by an abundant forma- 
 tion of blood-vessels. 
 
 When the process of ossification in temporary cartilage 
 begins, a change takes place in the arrangement of its cells 
 at the centre, or point, or nucleus of ossification. The cells, 
 instead of preserving their irregularly scattered arrange- 
 ment in the matrix, are now collected into longitudinal 
 parallel rows, not unlike what was described in a pre%'ious 
 section, in the deeper cells of encrusting cartilage. In each 
 row the cells lie with their long axes transverse, and 
 apparently multiply by a process of fission. The cells at 
 the end of the rows which lie nearest the centre of ossific 
 change swell out and become more rounded. Calcification 
 of the matrix substance, which separates not only the 
 parallel rows of cells, but also the cells in the same row, 
 from each other, then takes place, which calcification in- 
 » ludes also the capsules of the cartilage cells. A general 
 rpacity of the cartilage is the result of this calcification, 
 find the further progress of ossification is rendered obscure. 
 Tt is necessary, therefore, to dissolve out by an acid the 
 calcareous matter, in order to follow the steps of the process. 
 
 Spaces or canals now form in the ossifying cartilage, 
 into which blood-vessels, continuous with the vessels of 
 the perichondrium, are prolonged. These spaces are lined 
 by concentric layers of small rounded cells, not unlike lym- 
 phoid cells in size and appearance, and form the medullar!/ 
 ipaces of fcetal cartilage, whilst the cells and blood-vessels 
 form the medulla. Respecting the source of origin of 
 the cells of this medulla, there have been difficulties in 
 arriving at a correct conclusion. Some have believed 
 them to be descended from the cartilage cells, though no 
 demonstration of their derivation from this source has 
 ever been obtained. Henke conceived that they might be 
 blood corpuscles migrated from the blood-vessels within 
 the spaces. But the recent observations of Stieda seem 
 satisfactorily to show that the layers of medulla cells, are 
 continuous with similar layers beneath the perichondrium, 
 which layers are prolonged along with the blood-vessels into 
 the medullary spaces as they form in the ossifying cartil- 
 age. But, whatever be their derivation, there can be no 
 doubt that these cells undergo certain modifications which 
 are of the utmost importance in the further stages of tl e 
 ossific process. A few become elongated into fusiform or 
 stellate corpuscles, like those of connective tissue ; others 
 have oil drops fqrming in their interior, and become the 
 cells of yellow marrow; others become the corpuscles of 
 red marrow ; others, again, which form the osteo-blasts, 
 properly so-called, are the direct agents in tae production 
 of the osseous tissue itself. 
 
 The formation of the medullary spaces in cartilage is 
 owing to an absorption of the calcified cartilaginous tissue. 
 K oilier points out that the absorption is effected through 
 the agency of colossal, many-nucleated cells (myeloplaxes), 
 which he beheves to be derived from the osteo-blastic cells 
 
 of the medulla already described, so that a destruction of 
 the calcified cartilage precedes the formation of the proper 
 osseous tissue. As the absorption of the cartilage goes on, 
 an irregular series of medullary spaces communicating 
 more or less freely with each other is produced. But 
 along with the destructive changes in the cartilage the pro- 
 duction of the new osseous tissue takes place. Certain of 
 the cells of the medulla are arranged in layers around the 
 walls of the medullary spaces, and undergo an important 
 change both in composition and shape. They become 
 granular, their protoplasm hardens from the periphery 
 towards the nucleated centre of the cell, so as to give 
 origin to the dense matrix substance of a bone lamella . 
 but the nucleus, and the protoplasm immediately investing 
 it, do not harden, 
 — they form the 
 soft contents of the 
 lacunas and canaliculi. 
 A second layer of 
 osteo-blastic medulla 
 cells then passes ,' JZfijS 
 through a similar 
 metamorphosis, and 
 a second lamella 
 formed. By a repeti- \y ; 
 tion of this process 
 around the walls of •/! 
 the several medullary jB 
 spaces, the lamellae of 
 
 the bone are produced. Fi(j M ^ e ^ thr ,,^'a'r it«!bone to Utatfnu 
 
 Hence it Would appear its development B, B, the dense osseous tissue. 
 In which the- lacunas, with their Bolt nncr-atcd 
 contents, may he seen. M, M, the medullary 
 tissne in the medullary spaces. OB, OB layei 
 of osteo-blastic cells of the medulla, nest the 
 osseous tissue, some of which In places are 
 obviously becoming included In it. V,V, trans- 
 versely divided blood-vessels, surrounded by 
 medulla cells, situated in medullary spaces which 
 axe assuming the form of Haversian can-ils. 
 
 that the dense solid 
 matrix of the osseous 
 tissue is produced by 
 a special hardening of 
 the protoplasm of the 
 osteo-blastic cells in 
 the medullary spaces, and as layer after layer of these 
 cells is ossified successive lameite are produced. The per- 
 sistence, however, of the nucleus of each osteo-blast, and 
 of a small portion of its investing protoplasm, preserves 
 within the hard matrix a certain amount of soft material, 
 which being destroyed when a bone is macerated, leaves 
 the lacunary and canalicular system already described. 
 The formation of successive lamella? diminishes the size of 
 the medullary spaces, which then form the Haversian 
 canals. The vascular and cellular contents of these canals 
 are therefore the remains of the contents of the medullary 
 spaces of the fcetal cartilage, and are continuous with the 
 deeper layer of the periosteum. 
 
 So long as any cartilage remains in a foetal or, young 
 bone the process of replacement of the cartilaginous tissue 
 by the proper osseous tissue goes on, until none of the 
 cartilage is left, except the thin layer of encrusting cartil- 
 age at each articular extremity. Bones grow in length by 
 an ossification in cartilage ; and a provision for their 
 longitudinal increase is furnished up to, and even beyond 
 the age of puberty, by the plate of cartilage which separ- 
 rates the epiphysis from the shaft of a bone. The ossifica- 
 tion of this plate of cartilage marks the period when 
 growth ceases in the long axis of the bone. But bones 
 also grow in thickness, and this addition to their girth 
 takes place by an ossification of material situated at their 
 circumference. It has already been pointed out that a 
 bone is invested by a fibrous membrane, the periosteum, 
 which fulfils for it the same purpose as does the peri- 
 chondrium for the cartilage. On the deeper surface of the 
 periosteum, i.e., next the bone itself, are csteo-blastic cells, 
 similar to those which lie in the medullary spaces of the 
 fatal cartilage. These cells p-iss through a similar series
 
 85(5 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [anatomy oj 
 
 of changes, and produce successive layers of new bone at 
 the periphery. The importance of the periosteum as a 
 centre of origin of new bono>has, indeed, long been recog- 
 nised by both surgeons and pathologists. The parts of this 
 membrano in which the special bonc-p'oducing power 
 resides is the deep layer of osteo-blastic cells, whilst the 
 blood-vessels furnish the pabulum for their nutrition. If 
 strips of periosteum be removed, along with the cells of 
 the deeper osteo-blastic layer, from a bone, and transplanted 
 to other parts of the living body, bone will continue to be 
 produced by their agency. 
 
 The intra-membranous ossification of bone was first 
 recognised by Ncsbitt, and has been worked out in most 
 of its details by Sharpey, Kolliker, and Gegenbaur. The 
 tabular bones of the skull offer the best illustration of 
 this mode of ossification. Shaqiey has pointed out that a 
 network of minute spicula of bone forms in the membrane, 
 and extends in radiating lines from the centre of ossifica- 
 tion towards the circumference of the bone. The ossify- 
 ing tissue consists of fibres, of multitudes of granular cor- 
 puscles or osteo-blasts, and of blood-vessels. The osteo-blasts 
 invest the fibres, but as the investing osteo-blastic cells 
 calcify, from the periphery towards the nucleus, they assume 
 a stellate configuration, and pass through a series of changes 
 similar to those described in the intra-cartilaginous mode 
 of ossification. The fibres, which are in the first instance 
 soft, also calcify, and contribute to the formation of the 
 bone. Here, however, as in the intra-cartilaginous ossifica- 
 tion, the active agents in the ossific process are the osteo- 
 blastic cells. The lamellated structure is due to ossifica- 
 tion of successive layers of these cells, and the formation 
 of the lacunae and canaliculi is owing to the persistence of 
 their nuclei with a small proportion of unossified investing 
 protoplasm. The increase in thickness of a membrane 
 bone, like that of a cartilage bone, takes place through 
 ossification in a deep periosteal layer of osteo-blasts. Hence 
 it follows that, though the tissue which precedes the 
 appearance of bone in the skeleton is not uniformly the 
 same, in some cases being membrane, in others cartilage, 
 there is an identity in the ossific process in the two forms 
 of pre-existing tissue, in both of which the osteoblastic 
 cells are the active agents in ossification. The chemical 
 differentiation which takes place in the protoplasm of the 
 osteo-blasts during bone-formation is not merely a calcifica- 
 tion, but a coincident production of a gelatine-yielding 
 substance, within which the minute calcareous particles are 
 deposited. 
 
 Stress has been laid by some anatomists, in discussing 
 the homologies of the several bones of the skeleton, on the 
 differences met with in the place of their formation. Thus, 
 it has been supposed that a bone originally developed in 
 cartilage cannot be homologous with one originally de- 
 veloped in membrane, and that a fundamental morpho- 
 logical distinction should be drawn between cartilage bones 
 and membrane bones. But when it is considered that, 
 though the place of formation may vary, the method of 
 formation is the same in all localities, it does not appear 
 that so much importance should be attached to the distinc- 
 tion between cartilage and membrane bones as it has some- 
 times received. Moreover, the differences between these 
 two varieties of bones are, during the growth of the bone, 
 still further diminished, for in both cases increase in thick- 
 ness takes place in the same kind of pre-existing tissue, 
 and in the same way, viz., by ossification of the de*j) 
 periosteal layer of osteo-blasts. 
 
 In the description of the development of bone in the 
 foetus and young person, the formation of medullary spaces 
 was referred to. But the production of spaces in bone is 
 by no means limited to its early stages of growth. The 
 medullary canal in a long bone can scarcely be said to 
 
 exist in the bones of an infant's limbs. The hollowing 
 out of the shaft of a long bone into a large canal, and tho 
 enlargement of the spaces of the cancellated tissue, goes on 
 not only up to the period of adult life, but even to ad- 
 vanced years ; so that in an old person the relative size ol 
 this can; i is greater than in the prime of life. The Haver* 
 sian spaces also, as Tomes and De Morgan pointed out, 
 are produced by the absorption of the lamellae of the 
 osseous tissue surrounding the Haversian canals, and the 
 production of these spaces is constantly going on during 
 the life of the bone. The air-sinuses in the cranial bones 
 are also formed by the absorption of the diploe, and con- 
 sequent separation of the two tables of the skulL Bones, 
 therefore, are organs which are continually undergoing 
 change. During growth additions are being made to their 
 length and thickness, and additional lamellae are being 
 formed in the walls of the Haversian canals. At the same 
 time a hollowing out of spaces in their interior is going 
 on, so that an increase in weight commensurate with their 
 growth does not take place. The interstitial absorptivo 
 changes, whether occurring during growth or after growth 
 is completed, are due, as Kolliker has shown, to the action 
 of many-nucleated colossal cells which line the walls of the 
 spaces where absorption is going on, which cells he has 
 named oslcoklasts. The development and configuration 
 of a bone is therefore, as has been well expressed by 
 Kolliker, the product of the formation of osseous tissue by 
 the agency of the osteo-blasts, and of its absorption or 
 destruction by the action of the ostco-klasts. 
 
 From the fact that osseous tissue may be produced either 
 in the cartilaginous or in the fibrous tissues, and that all 
 three contribute to the formation of the skeleton, it is 
 evident that these tissues are closely allied. To express 
 this alliance they have all been grouped together under the 
 common term connective substances. 
 
 Muscular Tissue. — The muscular tissue is that which 
 is actively concerned either in the movement of parts of 
 the body on each other, or in the movement of the entire 
 body from place to place ; it is the active agent, therefore, 
 both in motion and locomotion. It forms a large pro- 
 portion of the general mass of the body, is the essential 
 constituent of the muscles or flesh, and enters into the 
 formation of the walls of the hollow viscera. It consists 
 structurally of threads or fibres, some of which are distin- 
 guished by being marked with transverse stripes or striae ; 
 others have no such markings. Hence it is customary to 
 divide the fibres of the muscular tissue into transversely 
 striped fibres and non-striped fibres. As a rule, the striped 
 fibres are collected together to form those muscles which 
 are under the influence of the will, so that both the muscles 
 and the fibres of which they are composed are called volun- 
 tary. One important exception to this rule is, however, 
 met with, for the muscular fibres of the heart, though 
 transversely striped, are involuntary ; the will exercises no 
 control over the action of the heart. The non-striped fibres, 
 and the muscles into the construction of which they enter, 
 are in no instance, however, subject to the influence of tho 
 will ; so that, without exception, they may be named in- 
 voluntary. 
 
 The Non-striped or Involuntary fibre, sometimes called 
 pale or smooth muscular fibre, enters into the forma- 
 tion of the walls of the hollow viscera — e.g., stomach, 
 intestines, bladder, uterus — of the walls of the air-tubes, 
 gland-ducts, blood and lymph vessels, of the skin, and 
 various mucous membranes. The fibres are usually col- 
 lected into bundles or fasciculi, which arc not aggregated 
 together into such compact red masses as in the voluntary 
 muscles, but are of a paler red colour, and are set farther 
 apart, and often cross and interlace with each other in the 
 walls of the tubes and hollow viscera, in which this forn>
 
 TEXTURES.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 »f>7 
 
 of muscle js found. The fasciculi are separated from each 
 other by a delicate, areolar connective tissue, ox perimysium. 
 The size of the fasciculi varies in different localities; in the 
 hollow viscera they are so large that their 
 arrangement can be observed with the naked 
 eye; but in the skin, the walls of gland- 
 ducts, &c, they can only be seen with the 
 aid of the microscope. If a fasciculus be 
 carefully torn up with needles it can be 
 resolved into its constituent fibres, and 
 the number of the fibres varies with the 
 size of the fasciculus. The non-striped 
 fibres are pale and almost colourless, with 
 6oft, ill-defined outlines, from jj S 5th to 
 T"b'55* u ' ncQ m diameter; they are rounded 
 in form or laterally compressed, and are so 
 easily flattened by artificial pressure, that 
 they have erroneously been regarded as flat 
 or ribbon-shaped fibres. When digested Fl °, 54 T A ' B . fasd ; 
 lor a few hours in dilute nitric or hydro- muscular fibre; n, 
 chloric acid, and sometimes even without "rm^l™^™ 
 any reagent, the fibres may be resolved into MgMj mugniati. 
 elongatedfusiform cells — the contractile fibro-cells of Kolliker 
 — which vary in length from j| 7 th to ^^-jth inch, and 
 vhich taper off usually into attenuated ends. In the 
 middle of each cell is a characteristically elongated, rod- 
 shaped nucleus, and sometimes the substance of the cell is 
 finely granular, or even faintly longitudinally striped. No 
 tell wall or sarcolemma can be distinguished. In some 
 localities, as was pointed out by Lister in the minute 
 arteries in the web of the frog's foot, isolated contractile 
 fibro- cells are- wound spirally around the wall of the 
 vessel; 
 
 The Transversely Striped fibre is the characteristic tissue 
 of the voluntary muscular system, and is found wherever 
 energetic movements are to be performed. In these muscles 
 the fibres are collected together in fasciculi, which bundles 
 usually lie parallel to each other, and extend from the 
 tendon of origin to the tendon of insertion. Each muscle 
 is invested by a membranous sheath formed of connective 
 tissue, the perimysium externum, which sheath gives off 
 processes that dip into the substance of the muscle, so as 
 to form delicate partitions between the fasciculi, and from 
 these partitions still more slender prolongations of connec- 
 tive tissue, named perimysium internum, pass between the 
 fibres. The number and size of the fasciculi vary with 
 the size. and texture of the muscle ; in some, as the deltoid 
 and glutoeus maximus, the fasciculi are large and coarse ; 
 whilst in others, as the gracilis and omohyoid, they are 
 much finer. The number of fibres in a fasciculus varies 
 with its length and thickness, and the fibres which are 
 adjacent to each other in a fasciculus lie parallel 
 The striped fibres are cylindrical or laterally com- 
 pressed; they usually taper off at their extremities, and 
 apparently do not, even in muscles with long fasciculi, 
 exceed 1£ inch in length. The transverse diameter of the 
 striped fibres varies, in different localities in the human 
 body, from T ^ Tr tb to ^Vs 1 " mc ''> according to the measure- 
 ments of Kolliker. Much wider differences in diameter 
 are found in the animal series, in insects the fibres "being 
 of extreme minuteness, whilst in cold-blooded animals 
 they are much larger than in man and mammals. 
 
 If a fibre be carefully separated from a fasciculus, and 
 examined microscopically by transmitted light, transverse 
 stripes may be readily seen to extend across it from side 
 to side. These transverse stria? are not mere surface 
 marks, but, as Bowman pointed out, pass through its 
 entire thickness, and lie parallel to each other. The stria- 
 tion is due to the structure of the fibre, which consists 
 of dark and light bands or discs, alternately dark and 
 
 light. The discs differ in optical properties, for, as 
 Briicke's observations show, the light discs refract light 
 singly — are isotropic; whilst the dark discs refract light 
 doubly, and consist of an anisotropic substance. Busk 
 and Huxley described in 1853 a dark line 
 passing across the light disc, so as to sub- 
 divide it into two halves ; and this appear- 
 ance has also been figured by Sharpey, 
 Krause, and others. It is believed to be duo 
 to the presence of a strongly refracting stripe 
 in the middle of the feebly refracting disc. 
 More recently Hensen has directed attention 
 to a slender, feebly refracting stripe passing 
 transversely across the strongly refracting 
 disc, so as to subdivide it also into two 
 halves. In addition to the transverse 
 striae, the fibres not unfrequently show 
 markings which extend longitudinally, but 
 these are irregular in position, do not cor- 
 respond to the whole length of the fibre, or 
 necessarily pass through its entire thickness. 
 
 The transverse and longitudinal mark- y.'rseiy itri|«d 
 ings indicate that a muscular fibre has a muscujiu ' abrc - 
 disposition to split up transversely or longitudinally 
 into smaller particles. The transverse subdivision of 
 the fibre is promoted by digesting a piece of muscle 
 for some hours in dilute hydrochloric acid. If the 
 fibres be then examined, gaps or fissures will be seen 
 to extend transversely into the substance of the fibre ; 
 and, if the digestion has been sufficiently prolonged, the 
 fissures have extended completely across the fibre, and 
 have subdivided it into a multitude of plate or disc shaped 
 bodies — -the muscular -fibre discs. These discs are tho 
 strongly and feebly refracting discs already described, and 
 the transverse diameter of each disc corresponds to that of 
 the fibre from which it has been derived. The longitudinal 
 marks in the fibre are best seen by digesting a piece of 
 muscle in strong spirit of wine, or in a solution of chromic 
 acid. If a fibre so treated be teased out with needles, and 
 the thin covering glass be smartly tapped, the fibre will 
 split up longitudinally into multitudes of minute, elongated 
 threads — the muscular-fibre fibrillar. A fibrilla may be 
 regarded as equalling in length the fibre of which it formed 
 a part, and like the fibre is transversely striped ; but its 
 breadth is not definite, and depends upon the minuteness 
 with which the fibre has been split up in the longitudinal 
 direction. If in the same fibre the processes of transverse 
 and longitudinal splitting were to go on simultaneously, 
 then the fibre would be resolved into an immense multi- 
 tude of rectangular particles — the sarcous elements of 
 Bowman. If these particles be regarded as the ultimate 
 subdivisions of the fibre, then the discs may be conceived 
 to be built up of a number of these particles, possessing 
 similar optical properties, arranged side by side, so as to 
 occupy the entire diameter. of the fibre in any transverse 
 plane: whilst the fibrilla? are built up of the partides 
 arranged end to end, so as to correspond to the entire 
 length of the fibre ; but in this longitudinal arrangement, 
 particles with different optical properties, the one singly 
 refracting, the other doubly refracting, alternate with each 
 other with the utmost regularity. 
 
 Another view of the structure of muscular fibre- has just 
 been advanced by E. A. Schafer. He describes the dark, 
 or, as seen in a living fibre, the " dim discs," as traversed 
 by multitudes of excessively fine, dark, rod-shaped particles, 
 parallel in their direction to the fibre itself, which extend 
 into the contiguous bright discs, near the middle of which 
 each muscle rod ends in a knob-like extremity, and the 
 series of knobs form a line of minute dark dots, passing 
 transversely across each bright disc. The muscle rods are
 
 858 
 
 A N A T M V 
 
 [nervous 
 
 imbedded in a "ground substance," that forms tho alter- 
 nating dim and bright discs, which substance he believes 
 to be anisotropous, whilst the muscle rods are isotropous. 
 lie regards the ground tubstance as the true contractile 
 part of the fibre. 
 
 Each transversely striped fibre is invested by a homo- 
 geneous membrane, the sarcolemma or myolcmma, which 
 is so transparent as to allow the characteristic transverse 
 stria; to be distinctly seen through it. The sarcolemma is 
 so closely incorporated with the periphery of the fibre, that 
 its isolation and demonstration as a distinct membrane are 
 attended with some difficulty, but when water is added to 
 a living fibre it is absorbed, and elevates the sarcolemma 
 from the sarcous contractile particles. If acetic acid be 
 added to a muscular fibre the transverse striae become less 
 distinct, and a number of oval bodies come into view. 
 These are especially to be seen next the periphery of the 
 fibre in relation to the inner surface of the sarcolemma, 
 though some apparently lie deeper in the substance of the 
 fibre. These bodies have long been known as the nuclei 
 of the striped fibre. More recent investigations have, how- 
 ever, showu that each nucleus lies in a little finely-dotted 
 protoplasm, which often extends in a fusiform manner 
 beyond the ends of the nucleus. These nuclei, with their 
 investing protoplasm, have the anatomical characters of 
 nucleated cells, and are called the muscle corpuscles. 
 
 Some peculiar modifications of the striped muscular fibre 
 are met with in certain localities. As a rule, this form of 
 fibre does not branch ; but in the muscles of the tongue 
 and lip, and other muscles of the face, these fibres usually 
 branch prior to their insertion, and the branches taper off 
 to finely attenuated ends. In the heart also the fibres 
 branch ; and the branches of adjacent fibres anastomose, 
 so that the muscular wall of this organ consists of a com- 
 pact network of fibres. The individual fibres are smaller 
 than those of the voluntary muscles, the transverse stria- 
 tion is much less distinct, and it is doubtful if au investing 
 6arcolemma be present. 
 
 Some difficulty has been experienced in determining the 
 exact mode of connection of the fibres of tho belly of a 
 ruusclc with those of its terminal tendons. By some it has 
 been supposed that the fibres of the one are directly con- 
 tinued into those of the other ; whilst Weismann has de- 
 scribed the muscular fibre as terminating in a sharply- 
 defined, rounded, or pointed extremity, to which the fibres 
 of the tendons are closely apposed. 
 
 Both the striped and non-Striped forms of muscle are 
 well provided with blood-vessels, which ramify in the sub- 
 stance of the muscle lying in the areolar connective tissue 
 that separates the fasciculi and fibres, from each other. 
 Tho capillaries form an elongated network, the principal 
 Btranda of which lie parallel to the muscular fibres, but 
 never penetrate the sarcolemma. Hence, though the belly 
 of a muscle is a highly vascular organ, its individual fibres 
 are extra-vascular. The vascularity of the fleshy belly is 
 much greater than that of the terminal tendons of attach- 
 ment, and the nutritive changes are much more active in 
 it than in them. 
 
 The contractile fibro-cells of the non-striped muscular 
 fibre are formed by the gradual elongation of the rounded 
 celbj of the middle germinal layer of the embryo into 
 spindle-shaped cells, the oval nuclei at the same time be- 
 coming elongated, so as to assume a rod-shaped form. 
 Usually the spindle cells which be in tho same linear series 
 become cemented together into the smooth fibres of this 
 form of muscle. 
 
 The mode of development of the striped fibro is more 
 difficult to follow out, and various statements have been 
 made as to the successive stages of its formation. Schwann 
 believed that a fibre was built up of lis mbryonic cclL of 
 
 the part, which arranged themselves in linear series, coalesc- 
 ing with each other at their surfaces of contact; thct the 
 cor.tcnts of the cells then became transversely striated, and 
 that the cell walls formed the sarcolemma. Savory and 
 Lockhart Clarke maintained that a formation of blastema 
 took place around free nuclei, and that this blastema 
 gradually assumed the etriated character. Remak, KblJikcr, 
 Wilson Fox, and Frey have, however, by studying the 
 earliest stages of development in the very young embryo, 
 established the fact that the striped fibres are developed from 
 the cells of the embryo, though not in tie manner described 
 by Schwann. Tho process, briefly stated, is as follows : 
 The embryonic cells elongate, the nucleus may remain 
 single, but more usually it divides and subdivides, so that 
 many nuclei appear in the interior of the elongated cell. 
 The nuclei lie in linear series, and may cither be separated 
 from each other, or two or more may be in contact, and 
 they may lie cither near the periphery of the elongated 
 cell, or in its axis. With this multiplication of the nuclei, 
 the cell increases in length and assumes the form of a fibre. 
 The cell protoplasm, both in the single and many-nucleated 
 fibres, then differentiates into the sarcous particles of the 
 transverse stria}, and as this progresses the fibre assumes 
 its characteristic striped appearance. The whole amount of 
 the protoplasm docs not, however, assume the transversely 
 striped appearance, for a small quantity remains around 
 each nucleus and forms with it a muscle corpuscle. Tho 
 differentiation of the protoplasm occasions an anatomical 
 and chemico-physical change in the fibre, and confers on 
 it the property of energetic contractility. W. Engelmann 
 has endeavoured to show that the opaque anisotropic discs 
 of the fibre are those in which the power of contractility 
 resides, and that the clear isotropic discs possess only elastie 
 properties. The mode of development of the sarcolemma is 
 still somewhat obscure. By some it is regarded as the wall 
 of the embryonic cell, which has become metamorphosed 
 into a muscular fibre ; by others it is regarded as a special 
 differentiation of the protoplasm at the periphery of the 
 fibre taking place at the time when the transverse striae 
 are being formed ; whilst by others it is considered to be 
 a special modification of connective tissue formed around 
 the fibre. In the development of the muscular fibres of 
 the heart, the cells of the embryo heart branch and anasto- 
 mose, and the nuclei multiply. By the transverse striation 
 of the protoplasm of these cells the branched muscular fibres 
 of the heart are produced. 
 
 La the growth of a muscle the individual fibres increase 
 in size, so that they are bigger in the adult than at the 
 time of birth. The observations of Budge, Weismann, and 
 Beale show that new fibres may also form in a muscle. 
 Weismann believes that this increase may be due to a 
 longitudinal splitting of a pre-existing fibre ; but Beale 
 maintains that the new fibres are produced in the muscle 
 in the same manner as the original fibres of the part. 
 
 Nervous System. 
 
 The Nervous System consists of a number of organs 
 which are named respectively Nerve Centres, Nerves, and 
 Peripheral End-organs. The largest and most important 
 Nerve Centres are the brain and spinal cord, which together 
 constitute the cerebro-spinal nervous axis, and are lodged 
 in the cranial cavity and spinal canal. But, in addition, 
 numerous small bodies, usually oval in form, technically 
 culled ganglia, are situated in the axial part of the body, 
 and form smaller nerve centres. The Nerves are white 
 <;ords which traverse the different regions of the body, both 
 axial and appendicular, for a greater or less distance, for 
 the purpose of connecting together the other sub-divisions 
 of the nervous system, Tlio Peripheral End-organs axe
 
 8YSTEM.] 
 
 A K A T O 11 T 
 
 859 
 
 minute structures connected with the peripheral extrem- 
 ities of the nerves. These end-organs are situated in the 
 skin and other organs of sense, in the glands, blood-vessels, 
 and muscles. The nerves establish communications and con- 
 duct nervous impulses, either between different nerve centres, 
 or between nerve centres and peripheral end-organs, so as 
 to associate together in their action parts of the nervous 
 system often widely separated from each other. Nerves, 
 therefore, are internuncial structures. When a nerve con- 
 nects two nerve centres together it is intercentraL When 
 a nerve connects a nerve centre with a peripheral end- 
 organ, and conducts impulses from the centre to the 
 end-organ, it is a centro-peripheral or centrifugal ncrv'e. 
 When a nerve connects a peripheral end-organ with a 
 centre, and conducts impulses from the end-organ to 
 the centre, it is a periphero-central or centripetal nerve. 
 Owing to the different directions in which impulses are 
 conducted by nerves, the varying nature of their end- 
 organs, and the functional differentiation of the nerve 
 centres, or portions of the nerve centres in which their 
 central extremities terminate, nerves vary so in their 
 functions, that a classification of the nerves, based upon 
 their functional properties, has been proposed. Of the 
 centro-peripheral nerves, those which end in the muscles 
 are motor nerves ; those which end in the muscular coat 
 o: the blood-vessels are vaso-motor nerves ; whilst some 
 physiologists have named nerves which they believe to 
 terminate in connection with the secreting cells of a gland, 
 secretory nerves; and others, which they believe to terminate 
 in the tissues and to be concerned in the regulation of their 
 nutrition, trophic nerves. It should be stated, however, 
 that it is not yet absolutely determined that the secreting 
 cells of glands and the cell elements of the tissues have 
 special nerves terminating in connection with them for the 
 purpose of exercising a direct influence over secretion and 
 nutrition. Should these special nerves be non-existent, then 
 the secretory and nutritive functions would be influenced 
 solely by the vaso-motor nerves, which regulate the size of 
 the blood-vessels and the amount of blood which flows 
 through a part in a given time. Of 'the periphero-central 
 nerves, those which arise in the end-organs in the skin, 
 terminate in a nerve centre, and excite in. it the 
 sense of touch, are nerves of common sensation; those 
 which arise in the end-organs in the eye, ear, nose, and 
 tongue, and excite in their appropriate nerve centres the 
 sensations of sight, sound, smell, and taste, are nerves of 
 special sense ; whilst nerve3 which conduct impulses 
 from peripheral end-organs to a nerve centre, and, instead 
 of exciting in the latter a sensation, have the impulses 
 reflected to motor nerves, are reflex or excito-niotory 
 nerves. 
 
 The nerve centres, nerves, and peripheral end-organs are 
 arranged in two groups or systems — a Ccrebro-spinal and 
 a Sympathetic. The Cerebro-spinal nervous system con- 
 sists of the brain and spinal cord, the nerves which arise 
 from or terminate in these large centres, the small ganglia 
 connected with these nerves, and the end-organs at their 
 peripheral terminations. The Sympathetic nervous system 
 consists of the sympathetic ganglia, with their nerves and 
 end-organs. 
 
 Nervous Tissue. — The several parts of the nervous 
 system ,iro not uniform in colour, some being white, 
 others grey* . The nerves, at least those of the cerebro- 
 spinal system, are invariably white, and white masses, 
 variable in size, are met with in the brain and spinal cord.; 
 they constitute the white matter of the nervous system. 
 In the. nerve centres, both of the cerebro-spinal and sym- 
 pathetic systems, grey matter is found, sometimes in con- 
 siderable quantities'. This grey colour is so characteristic, 
 
 that it may be regarded as marking the position of a.nervi 
 centre. 
 
 The nervous system possesses a characteristic form of 
 tissue — the nervous tissue — which in part consists of fibres 
 (Nerve Fibres), and in part of cells (Nerve Cells). The nerve 
 cells are found in the grey matter — that is, in the nerve 
 centres— and sometimes also in the peripheral end-organs. 
 The nerve fibres constitute the nerves, enter into the nerve 
 centres, and pass into the peripheral end-organs; they form 
 the white matter. But in addition to the characteristic 
 nervous tissue, the nervous system also contains a con- 
 siderable quantity of connective tissue, numerous blood- 
 vessels, and some lymph vessels. 
 
 Nerve Fibres. — Nerve fibres are of two kinds : a, the 
 white, medullated, or dark-bordered fibres, which are the 
 characteristic fibres of the cerebro-spinal nervous system, 
 though they do also sparingly occur in the sympathetic 
 system ; b, the pale, non-medullated, or gelatinous nerve 
 fibres, which are the characteristic fibres of the sympa- 
 thetic nervous system. 
 
 Medullated Nerve Fibres. — To examine the structure of 
 these fibres, a portion of a cerebro-spinal nerve may be 
 selected. In the first place, it will be seen to be invested 
 by a sheath of connective tissue, the perineurium, which 
 gives off processes that pass into the nerve, and subdivide 
 it into fasciculi or funiculi. Each fasciculus is in its turn 
 composed of nerve fibres, which are separated from each 
 other by bundles of delicate connective tissue, prolonged 
 from the perineurium, in which the nutrient blood- 
 vessels of the nerve ramify. The size of a nerve is in 
 relation to the number and size of its fasciculi, and the 
 size of a fasciculus is in relation to the number of its fibres. 
 The fibres and the fasciculi lie parallel to each other in the 
 same nerve ; but as nerves branch at intervals, the more 
 external of the fasciculi diverge from the main stem to 
 form the branches. In the white matter of the brain and 
 spinal cord the nerve fibres are not arranged in such 
 definite fasciculi as in a distributdry nerve, and the con- 
 nective tissue between the fibres is the soft, delicate form 
 called neuroglia. 
 
 A medullated nerve fibre is an elongated cylinder, which, 
 when examined in the body of a, living animal, or im- 
 mediately after removal from the living body, consist* 
 apparently of a soft, homogeneous, or glassy-looking sub- 
 stance enclosed within a limiting membrane. When ex- 
 amined some time after death, or after the addition of re- 
 agents, such as water, spirit, ether, collodion, acetic acid, etc., 
 it loses its homogeneous aspect, and the following struc- 
 tures can be distinguished in it : A (Fig. 56), a delicate trans- 
 parent investing membrane, 
 — the so-called tubular or 
 primitive membrane, or neuri- 
 lemma ; C, a delicate thread, 
 extending along the axis of 
 the fibre, — the axial cylinder 
 or central band of Kemak ; 
 B, a substance which lies be- 
 tween the primitive mem- 
 brane and the axial cylin- 
 der, — the white substance of 
 Schwann, or 
 
 sheath. Within the external 
 outline of the fibre, formed by 
 the investing membrane, is a 
 second line, not quite parallel 
 to the first, and the presence 
 of these two lines gives to 
 the fibre a characteristic double-contoured appearance. Th( 
 investing membrane is a perfectly pellucid, homogeneout 
 structure, with nuclei arranged at intervals in it. It i/ 
 
 | 
 
 the medullary Fl J 10 5 w in K he double contour. 
 
 1. Medullated nerve fibre*, 
 2. A 
 similar fibre in which A is tbe pri 
 mitivc membrane. B the medullary 
 sheath, the axial cylinder, pro- 
 truding beyond the broken end *if 
 the fibre. 3. Transverse section 
 through lhe medullated fibres of * 
 nerve, showinc the axial cylinder In 
 aach tii.ie. Between the fibres Ut)« 
 inteifibrous connective tissue.
 
 yoo 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [nervous 
 
 believed to be absent from the nerve fibres in the Drain 
 and spinal cord, as well as at the peripheral terminations of 
 many nerves. The medullary sheath is a fatty and albu- 
 minous substance, which refracts the light strongly. Not 
 unfrcquently it collects into little ball-like masses, and 
 Bometimes causes irregular bulgings on tho fibre, and pro- 
 duces a knotted, varicose appearance; at other times it 
 becomes granular, and makes the fibre opaque. By gentle 
 pressure it can bo squeezed out of tho broken end of a 
 fibre. The axial cylinder is a pale, grey, cylindriform band, 
 usually about one-third or one-fourth the diameter of tho 
 fibre, which possesses more tenacity than the medullary 
 sheath, and not unfrcquently, as in Fig. 56, 2, projects for 
 some distance beyond the broken end of a fibre. Mas 
 Schultze showed that it is not homogeneous, but exhibits a 
 very delicate longitudinal fibrillation, and at the ends of the 
 nerves these primitive fibrillar may separate from each other. 
 
 Although from its great delicacy the axial cylinder can- 
 not be seen in the living fibre of a cerebro-spinal nerve, 
 yet there are many reasons for regarding it as a structure 
 existing in the living nerve, and not the product of a post 
 mortem change. It is the part of a fibre which first appears 
 in the course of development, the medullary sheath and 
 primitive membrane being secondary investing structures, 
 superadded as development proceeds. It forms not un- 
 frcquently the only constituent of a nerve fibre at its 
 central and peripheral terminations, and is therefore the 
 part of the fibre which is anatomically continuous with the 
 nerve cell, or with the peripheral end-organ. As it is the 
 solo constituent of many nerve fibres at their terminations, 
 and of all nerve fibres in the earlier stage of development, 
 and as it forms the medium of connection between them 
 and tho structures in which they terminate, it is obviously 
 of primary importance, both anatomically and physiologi- 
 cally, and is believed to be tho part of the fibre 'directly 
 concerned in the conduction of impulses; whilst the 
 investing structures serve the purpose of insulating mate- 
 rials. Lister and Turner pointed out, in 1859, that essential 
 differences in chemical composition existed between the 
 axial cylinder and the medullary sheath ; the former being 
 unaffected by chromic acid, though the latter is rendered 
 opaque and browii, and concentrically striated under its 
 influence; while, on tho other hand, the axial cylinder is 
 stained red by an ammotriacal solution of carmine with 
 great facility, although the medullary sTieath is unaffected 
 by it They further showed that these differences in the 
 mode of action of chromic acid and carmine might 
 advantageously be employed in the demonstration of tho 
 structure of nerve fibres. Ranko has subsequently stated 
 that the axial cylinder possesses an acid, and the medullary 
 sheath an alkaline reaction. 
 
 Medullated nerve fibres vary materially in diameter in 
 different parts of the nervous system. In tho brain, for 
 instance, they are sometimes as fine as the ig{ f gth inch; 
 whilst, in the distributory nerves, fibres of T *Visth of an 
 inch in diameter may be seen ; though it should be stated 
 that, evsn in the nerves of distribution, fibres of great 
 minuteness are often placed in the same bundle with those 
 of the largest size. Nerve fibres do not branch in their 
 course, but only at their central or peripheral terminations, 
 and much more frequently at the latter than the former. 
 
 Non-nudullated Nerve Fibres. — These fibres, which are 
 characterised by the absence of a medullary sheath, are 
 chiefly found in the sympathetic nervous system, but they 
 occur also in the cerebro-spinal system. The fibres of the 
 olfactory nerve are non-medullated, so also are the peri- 
 pheral terminations of the cerebro-spinal nerves, and indeed 
 all nerve fibres in the first stage of their development. In 
 Pelromy:on it has been stated that all the nerve fibres are 
 distinguished by tho absence of a medullary sheath. 
 
 This form of ncrvt n ts of pate grey, translucent, 
 
 flattened bands, the uoV^th to rxiW 1 > nc h ' n 
 diameter. They usually appear ns if homo- 
 geneous or faintly granular ; but Schultze 
 showed that, when carefully examined, they 
 present a delicate fibrillated appearance, like 
 that seen in the axial cylinder of a medul'ated 
 nerve ; so that, liko that cylinder, thej' aro 
 supposed to be composed of multitudes (>f 
 extremely delicate primitive fibrillar imbedded 
 in a finely granulated material. Sometimes 
 these fibres consist solely of this fibrillated 
 material, at other times they are invested by 
 a sheath similar to the primitive membrane 
 of a medullated fibre. Nuclei are also found 
 both in the substance of the fibre and in 
 relation with the primitive membrane. The fic. B7. — Nou 
 presence of multitudes of fibres in the sym- n "' <1 °" *' c ' 
 pathetic nervous system, formed either en- from ti.e »vu > 
 tirely, or almost entirely, of a material ^ m '. c " c '"" 
 precisely similar in structure to the axial 
 cylinder of a medullated fibre, and by which the proper 
 function of the fibre can alone, therefore, be exercised, i3, 
 of course, an additional argument to those previously 
 advanced, in favour of the existence of the axial cylinder 
 as a normal constituent of the fibre, and of its functional 
 importance. 
 
 Nerve Cells. — Nerve cells constitute an important division 
 of the nervous tissue. They are the characteristic structures 
 in the nerve centres,aresusceptible to impressions, or nervous 
 impulses, and are the texture in which the molecular changes 
 occur that produce or disengage the special form of energy 
 named nerve energy, the evolution of which is the distinc- 
 tive mark of a nerve centre. The central extremities of tho 
 nerve fibres He in relation to, and are often directly con- 
 tinous with, the nerve cells. It was at one time thought 
 that nerve cells were globular in forr" ; but it is now gene- 
 rally understood that, though the body of the cell is not 
 unfrcquently globular, two or more processes or poles 
 project from it, and are continuous with its substance. 
 Nerve cells are distinctly nucleated ; the nuclei are usually 
 large, and contain one, and often two nucleoli. The cell 
 substance is granular, and not unfrcquently brown or 
 yellow pigment is collected around the nucleus. A cell 
 wall is sometimes apparently present, though at others it 
 cannot be demonstrated. The nerve cells in the grey 
 matter of the brain and spinal cord are imbedded in the 
 neuroglia. In the smaller nerve centres, as the syinpatl iut ic 
 ganglia and the ganglia on the posterior roots of the 
 spinal nerves, *»he nerve cells are surrounded by a capsule 
 of connective tissue. Friintzel, Kolliker, and others, have 
 described this capsule as lined by an endothelium formed 
 of flattened cells ; and it should be stated 
 that Ranvier has described a similar endo- 
 thelium in relation to tho connective tissue 
 investment of the cerebro-spinal nerves. 
 It is not improbable that these endothelial 
 cells form the walls of delicate capillary 
 rootlets of the lymphatic vascular system. 
 Nerve cells from which two poles or pre 
 cesses proceed are called bipolar. Charac- 
 teristic specimens of these cells, as was first 
 pointed out by Robin and R. Wagner, may 
 be recognised without difficulty in the gan- 
 glia on the posterior roots of the spinal 
 nerves of fishes, and it is probable that f'^ ^^^[JJ 
 similar cells exist in the corresponding nerve abrca con- 
 centres in other vertebrates. These cells !h "2p*n*ai l gaogooo 
 usually possess a globular body, though o' a «kate. 
 sometimes it may bo elongated; and from opposite points
 
 SYSTEM.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 8(51 
 
 nerve celL SI, 
 straight nerve fibre; 
 Sp. spiral nerve 
 fibre; C, capsule of 
 connective tissue 
 around nerve cell. 
 {Afttr Dealt.) 
 
 of the surface of the body a strong process is given off, 
 which is directly continued ».ik> a n ir n fibre. The axial 
 cylinder of the fibre is cont'iiuou* with vhe cell substanco, 
 and Schultze has shown that both exhibit a delicate fibril- 
 lated structure. The medullary sheath ai d the primitive 
 membrane are also usually continued from the fibre over 
 the nerve celL Hence these bipolar cells x^em to be, as 
 Schultze expressed it, nucleated enlargements of the axial 
 cylinder. 
 
 A remarkable modification of the bipolai nerve cell, 
 carefully studied and described by Lionel 
 Beale, is found in the sympathetic ganglia 
 of the frog. The cells are pear-shaped, 
 and from the narrow end of the pear two 
 nerve fibres arise, one of which, called the 
 straight fibre, forms, as it were, the stalk 
 of the pear ; whilst the other, or spiral 
 fibre, Winds spirally round the straight 
 fibre, and then passes away from the cell 
 ; n the opposite direction. Both fibres are 
 nucleated, and at their origin consist, 
 apparently, of axial cylinder substance 
 only ; but in their course they may 
 acquire both a medullary sheath and a 
 primitive membrane. The straight fibre 
 passes into the interior of the cell sub- 
 stance, and Arnold and Courvoisier be- fio. sd. — Pyrifo 
 lievi that they have traced it into the 
 nucleus ; but the spiral fibre apparently 
 arises nearer the periphery of the cell. 
 The pyriform cells are invested by a dis- 
 tinct capsule of connective tissue. The 
 nerve fibres of these pyriform cells, although they both 
 arise close together from one end of the cell, represent its 
 poles. Should one of the poles, either in this, or in the 
 bipolar form of nerve cell described in the preceding 
 paragraph, be from any cause removed or not developed, 
 then the cell would be unipolar ; and if both poles were 
 absent it would be apolar. 
 
 In other localities, as in the sympathetic ganglia of man 
 and many other vertebrates, and in the several subdivisions 
 of the cerebro-spiual nervous axis, the nerve cells have more 
 than two .poles or processes projecting from them. Cells 
 of this kind are called multipolar, and in many localities 
 they present characteristic forms. In the grey matter of 
 the spinal cord, more especially in its anterior horn, they 
 give rise to numerous processes, and have a stellate or 
 radiate form. In the grey matter on the surface of the 
 convolutions of the cerebrum they are pyramidal in shape. 
 The apex is directed to the surface of the 
 convolution, the base towards the white 
 matter. The processes arise from the 
 base, apex, and sides of the pyramid. 
 In the grey matter on the surface of the 
 cerebellum the body of the celi is almost 
 globular. From that aspect of the cell 
 which is directed towards thewhite matter fio.co.— Multipolar ceil 
 a slender central process arises; from the {£E c h ™XnTc,' 
 opposite or peripheral aspect of the cell capsule of connective 
 two strong, many-branched processes ex- 
 tend for a considerable distance. In the human sympa- 
 thetic ganglia, again, the stellate form of cell prevails, and 
 the existence of a capsule of connective tissue around the 
 individual cells can be recognised. The processes which 
 arise from a multipolar nerve cell, as a rule, divide and 
 subdivide as they pass away from the body of the cell, 
 until at last they give rise to branches of extreme tenuity. 
 These branching processes apparently consist exclusively of 
 cell protoplasm, and have been called protoplasm processes. 
 Oerlach has described the protoplasm processes of the 
 
 multi-polar nerve cells of the brain and spinal cord as 
 forming an excessively 
 minute network, from 
 which minute medullated 
 nerve fibres arise; and F. 
 Boll conceives that a simi- 
 lar arrangement occurs in 
 the cells of the cerebellum. 
 One, at least, of the pro- 
 cesses of a multipolar 
 nerve cell does not branch, 
 but becomes directly con- 
 tinuous with a nerve fibre, 
 and has been named the 
 axial - cylinder process. 
 This process was first re- 
 cognised byDeiters in the 
 cells of the spinal cord ; 
 
 but Hadlich and Kosch- Fic.Cl.— Multipolar cell from the grey ma'tci 
 
 .. « , . j of anterior coinu in the spina] cord. AC, 
 
 enniKOtt nave Since ae- non-bianchedaxiaKyllnderprocessiUiectljr 
 
 scribed the central process continuous »M> » nen e fibre, 
 of the cells of the cerebellum as continuous with a medullated 
 nerve fibre; and the latter observer has pointed out, that 
 from the base cf a pyramidal nerve cell in a cerebral con- 
 volution a process may be traced directly into a nerve fibre 
 Hence it would appear that the multipolar nerve cells may 
 have two modes of union with nerve fibres — one directly 
 through the passage of the non-branched axial-cylinder pro- 
 cess into a fibre, the other through the origin of fibres from 
 the minute network in which the branched protoplasm 
 processes terminate. The branched processes of adjacent 
 aerve cells may also blend with each ol ler, so as to form 
 iin anastomosing cell network, though Ihese anastomoses 
 are, in all probability, not so frequent as was at one time 
 supposed. Schultze has pointed out that not only the 
 protoplasm substance of the body of a multipolar nerve 
 cell, but both the non-branched and branched processes, 
 possess a fibrillatcd structure similar to thai described by 
 him in the axial cylinder of the nerve fibres. 
 
 Peripheral End-Organs or End Bodies. — Nerve fibres at 
 their peripheral extremities terminate in connection with 
 peculiar structures, named end-bodies, terminal bodies, ox peri- 
 pheral end-organs, which are situated in the several organs of 
 the body. The motor nerves end in the voluntary and in- 
 voluntary sriuscles; the vaso-motor nerves end in the mus- 
 cular coat of the blood-vessels; the sensory nerves end in 
 the skin, mucous membranes, and organs of special sense; 
 and it has been stated that secretory nerves terminate in 
 connection with the ultimate cell elements of the secreting 
 glands. These end-organs possess certain structural pecu- 
 liarities, which are by no means uniform in the different 
 parts, so that the end-body connected with the peripheral 
 termination of a &erve is distinctive of the organ in which 
 it is situated. It will be a matter of convenience to defer 
 the consideration of the peripheral end-bodies in the skin, 
 organs of special sense, coats of the blood-vessels, and the 
 several glands, until these parts are described. In this 
 place the mode of termination of the motor nerves in the 
 voluntary and involuntary muscles, of the sensory nerves 
 in the mucous membranes, and of the ending of the nervc3 
 in the remarkable bodies .named Pacinian corpuscles, will 
 alone be examined. 
 
 After a nerve has entered a voluntary muscle it ramifies 
 in the connective tissue, which lies between the fasciculi, 
 and at the same time divides and subdivides into smaller 
 branches. These branches interlace with each other and 
 form plexuses, from which slender nervous twigs, often 
 consisting of only a single medullated nerve fibre, pro- 
 ceed, which ramify in the connective tissue, separating the 
 individual muscular fibres from each other. The siu^'lu
 
 8G2 
 
 AN ATOMY 
 
 [nkuvous 
 
 nerve fibres in their turn branch, accompanied by a 
 splitting of the axial cylinder, and theso branches usually 
 lose the medullatcd character. The mode of termination 
 of theso very delicate branches has been a subject of much 
 dispute. Beale described them as forming a minute net- 
 work, situated on the exterior of the sarcolemma, but in 
 contact with it, and the fibres of this nervous network were 
 distinctly nucleated. Other observers have, however, 
 described peculiar bodies, called motorial end-plates, at 
 the extremity of these nerves. These end-plates consist 
 of a clump of richly nuolpated protoplasm, somewhat oval 
 or perhaps irregular in form, into which the axial cylinder 
 of the nerve fibre penetrate. The exact position of these 
 end-plates in relation to tho muscular fibres is difficult to 
 determine. Krause holds that they lio outside tho sarco- 
 lemma, but adherent to it; whilst Kiihne, Margo, and 
 Rouget maintain that tho end-plate lies within the sarco- 
 lemma, and that the nervo fibre has to pierce that mem- 
 brane before it can enter tho end-plate. After the axial 
 cylinder has entered the end-plate it subdivides into very 
 minute branches. Each muscular fibre has apparently 
 only a single end-plate, and consequently only a single 
 axial cylinder in connection with it. 
 
 In the non-striped muscles the nerves are distributed in 
 the connective tissue which separates the fasciculi from 
 each other. Here they form plexuses, which in some loca- 
 lities, as in the myenteric plexus of Auerbach in the mus- 
 cular coat of the intestines, have collections of nerve cells, 
 forming microscopic ganglia lying in them. From these 
 plexuses fibres arise which subdivide into delicate non- 
 medullated fibres possessing nuclei. These delicate fibres 
 form still finer plexuses, which in their turn give origin to 
 minute fibres, which pass between the muscular fibre cells 
 to form a still more minute intra-muscular network. 
 Frankenhauser maintains that the delicate nerve fibrils 
 which arise from this terminal network penetrate the 
 muscular fibre cells, enter the nucleus, and terminate in 
 the nucleolus; but Arnold considers that, after having 
 entered the nucleus, the fibril again gives off a filament, 
 which passes out of tho cell to join tho intra-muscular 
 plexus; the ending of the nerve, therefore, within the 
 nucleus is only apparent, and is rather to be regarded as 
 tho nodal point of a fine intra-nuclcar plexus. 
 
 The termination of the sensory nerves in the mucous mem- 
 branes has been especially studied in the conjunctiva, the 
 mucous membrane of the soft palate, &nd the glans of the 
 penis and clitoris. In these parts Krause discovered oval or 
 globular end-bodies, which consisted of a soft, homogeneous 
 substance invested by a nucleated capsule of connective 
 tissue. A nerve fibre piercc3 tho capsule and terminates in 
 the interior of the end-body, which forms a bulbous enlarge- 
 ment at the end of the nerve, and is called tho end-bulb. 
 After the nerve has entered the end-bulb, it may consist 
 only of tho axia' cylinder and terminate in a pointed 
 extremity, or it may twist upon itself and form a coil 
 within tho end-bulb. When the structure of the skin is 
 described, it will be seen that the ending of the nerves in 
 the cutaneous papillae bears a general resemblance to 
 their termination in the end-bulbs of a mucous mem- 
 brane. 
 
 But in certain of th". mucous membranes delicate nerves 
 have been traced into the layer of epithelium, situated on 
 tho free surface of the membrane. Petennoller described 
 nerve fibres continuous with tho nerves of the cornea pass- 
 ing into the layer of conjunctival epithelium on tho front 
 of the cornea. Klein recognised an intra-epithelial nervou3 
 network in the same locality. Chrschtschonovitsch traced 
 nun - medullated nerve fibres proceeding from a sub- 
 epithelial network into the deeper epithelial layers of the 
 vaginal mucous membrane, »nd similar nerve fibres have 
 
 been seen by Elin to end in tho epithelial investment of 
 the mucous membrane of tiie mouth. 
 
 Connected with the sensory nerves in some localities are 
 the remarkable bodies named the Corpuscles of Tacini, 
 which wore the first terminal organs discovered in connec- 
 tion with the peripheral distribution of the nerves. ThcRO 
 corpuscles have been found attached to tho nerves which 
 pas3 to the skin of the fingers and toes, to tho nerves 
 which supply the skin of the neck and arm, to. the inter- 
 costal nerves, to the nerves of the joints, to the nerves of 
 the periosteum, to the nerves of the genital organs, and 
 to the mesenteric nerves. In cats they arc often extremely 
 abundant both in the mesentery and omenta. A Faciciaa 
 
 
 t'io. C2.— 1. Nerves oftino nnjrer wlt!» 
 tlic Tacinlnn Corpuscle* attached. 
 2. a Pacinian corpuscle X 8fi0] o. 
 Stalk or peduncle; ft, nerve HoM in 
 stalk; c, external layers of cnpsule; 
 «\ Inner layers; f, non-mcdulluted 
 nerve fibre In tho central core; f % 
 bmncliInK of Irrminul end ol ncrfo- 
 fibre, (from A. Kollittr.) 
 
 corpuscie can be seen by the naked eye, and looks like :i 
 minute grain from -^th to ,yh inch long. It is elliptical 
 in form, and may either be sessile or attached to the nerve 
 stem by a slender stalk. Examined microscopically, it is 
 seen to consist of numerous layers of connective tissue 
 concentrically arranged, which form its capsule, and 
 surround a central core. Numerous connective tissue cor- 
 puscles may be seen in the concentric layers, and Hoyer 
 has recently shown that an endothelial-like appearance exists 
 on the inner surface of the corpuscle. Entering one polo 
 of the corpuscle is a nerve fibre which extends along the 
 arial core for a considerable distance, and usually termi-
 
 SYSTEM.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 8fl3 
 
 nates in & slight bulbous enlargement. 'The nerve fibre 
 parts with its perineurial sheath after it enters the Pacinian 
 corpuscle; and as it lies in the core it loses its medullary sub- 
 stance, so that its terminal part consists only of the axial 
 Cylinder. Sometimes the nerve fibre dividesinto two branches 
 within the corpuscle. Capillary blood-vessels are distributed 
 to the concentric layers of the Pacinian corpuscle. 
 
 The mode of origin of the nervous tissue in the course 
 of development of the embryo is still involved in some 
 obscurity. It is, however, believed that the nervo cells are 
 .derived from the embryo cells, which multiply, and the 
 young cells then grow and assume characteristically granular 
 and finely fibrillated contents. Processes or poles then 
 appear at the periphery of -the cells, which, according to 
 the observations of Bcale, connect adjacent cells together. 
 As the growth of the part goes on, the cells are more 
 widely separated from each other, and the anastomosing 
 processes in consequence become considerably elongated, 
 and form the axial cylinder of the nerve fibre. In the course 
 of time the medullary sheath and the primitive membrane 
 may form around this axial cylinder so as to insulate it. 
 The exact mode of formation of the medullary sheath is 
 not properly understood; but it is believed that the primi- 
 tive membrane, and the perineurial connective tissue, are 
 derived from those surrounding embryonic cells which 
 differentiate into connective tissue. Of the two originally 
 contiguous cells from which the nerve •fibre is, as it were, 
 i>pun out, one, as Hensen conceived, may form a cell iii a 
 nerve centre, the other may differentiate into a peripheral 
 end-organ. In the tail of the tadpole the formation and 
 growth of nerve fibres have been studied by Kolliker and 
 others,- and it has been seen that the terminal part of a 
 fibre may have fusiform or tri-radiate cells connected with 
 it, the processes of which cells gradually differentiate into 
 nerve fibres. The young cerebro-spinal nerve fibres are 
 distinctly nucleated, and correspond in appearance and 
 structural characters to the uon-medullated nerve fibres of 
 the adult. If in a young or adult person a nerve be cut 
 across, its conducting power is destroyed; but after a time 
 it reunites, and its function is restored. ■ The part of the. 
 nervo which lies between the place of section and its 
 peripheral extremity, undergoes, as Waller pointed out, 
 degenerative changes. To how great an extent the de- 
 generation affects the various constituents of each fibre, it 
 is difficult to determine; for whilst some experiments 
 would seem to show that only the medullary sheath broke 
 up iiito granular particles and was absorbed, in others both 
 it and the axial cylinder disappeared. In process of time, 
 however, these parts may be reproduced, and the nerve 
 then recovers its functional activity. 
 
 Descriptive Anatomy of the Ceeebso-spixai 
 Nervous System. 
 
 In this section the anatomy of the Brain and Spinal 
 Cord, and of the numerous distributory Nerves which arise 
 from them, will be described. The brain and spinal cord 
 are the largest and most important of all the nerve centres. 
 They occupy the cranial cavity and spinal canal, and are 
 continuous with each other through the foramen magnum 
 Jn the occipital bone. As the arrangement of the struc- 
 tures which compose the brain and spinal cord is extremely 
 complex, and as the names applied to the several parts ere 
 numerous aud often very arbitrary, it may bo well, before 
 commencing a detailed description, to make a few general 
 observations on their mode of development. 
 
 Development of the Cercbro- Spinal Nervous Axis. — Tho brain and 
 spinal cord are developed in the cranio-spinal groove of the embryo, 
 and appear originally as a thin hand extending along the whole 
 length of this groove. About the time when tho walls of the 
 groove meet posteriorly to complete the cranio-spinal cavity, tho 
 margins of this hand become elevated, Lend backwards, and meet, 
 
 8yst;ia. 
 
 80 that the originally simple band becomes converted intoacylindri- Develop 
 form cerebrospinal lube. In \he walls of this tube the nervous me nt «« 
 structures of the brain and epinal cord are formed, whilst the axis cecebrw 
 of the tube forms a central canal. In the part which" becomes the spinal 
 Spinal Cord the central canal persists as the central canal of the 
 spinal cord, and around it a layer of ciliated cylindrical endothelium 
 is developed. Outside this layer a mass of grey matter containing 
 nerve cells is formed, which is subsequently divided into two lateral 
 crescent-shaped masses. Outside the grey matter white matter if 
 produced, which ultimately becomes arranged in the form of longi- 
 tudinal columns of nerve fibres. With the formation and growth 
 of these columns and of the internal grey matter, a longitudinal 
 mesial fissure appears on the anterior and another on the posterior 
 surface of the cord, which gradually increase in depth until the 
 cord is almost completely divided into two lateral halves. At the 
 bottom of the anterior median fissure tho nerve fibres of the anterior 
 commissure are developed, and at the bottom of the posterior median 
 fissure those of the posterior commissure. These commissures unite 
 the two halves of the cord together. 
 
 The upper or cerebral end of the cerebro-spinal tube becomes 
 the Encephalon, or Brain. At first the cerebral part of the tube is 
 uniform in appearance with the spinal part, but it soon expands 
 into three vesicular dilatations — the primary cerebral vcsiclci. 
 These vesicles, named (from before backwards) anterior, middle, 
 and posterior, are separated from each other by constrictions, and 
 as the development progresses the vesicles bend on each other and 
 on the upper end of the spinal cord. As each vesicle is an expan- 
 sion 'of the cerebro-spinal tube, it is necessarily hollow, and the 
 space in its interior is continuous with tho central canal of the 
 spinal cord. In the walls of the vesicles the nervous structures are 
 produced, which form the several subdivisions of the encephalon. 
 
 The posterior cerebral vesicle bends first forwards from the up|«r 
 end of the spinal eord, and then backwards ; the part which 
 bends forward becomes the medulla oblongata; that which bends 
 backward the cerebellum, whilst the pons is developed at the angle 
 where these two parts are continuous with each other; the central 
 hollow forms the central canal of the medulla oblongata and 
 the dilated space called the fourth ventricle. In the medulla 
 oblongata shallow anterior and posterior median furrows then appear 
 continuous with those in the cord, and each lateral half dilleren- 
 tiates into grey matter and into a longitudinal arrangement of nerve 
 fibres continuous with the corresponding structures in the cord. A 
 large proportion of these fibres are continued upwards through the 
 pons as its longitudinal fibres. The cerebellum consists at first of 
 a central lobe, and in the lower vertebrates its development does 
 not proceed beyond this stage; but in mammals, including man, 
 a lateral lobe or hemisphere is superadded on each side,, and with 
 the growth of these lateral lobes numerous transverse fibres, which 
 connect the two hemispheres together, are developed in the pons. 
 Tho cerebellum is alsj connected below with the medulla oblongata 
 by the pair of restiform bodies, or inferior peduncles, end above 
 with the corpora quadrigemina by the pair of superior peduncles. 
 
 The middle cerebral vesicle bends forwards from the posterior 
 vesicle. In its roof the optic lobes are formed ; in its floor the 
 crura cerebri; whils't the central hollow becomes the aqueduct- of 
 Sylvius. At first the optic lobes form a single structure,' but a! cut 
 the sixth month of embryo life a median furrow divides this struc- 
 ture into two lateral halves (the corpora bigemina), . and in the 
 lower vertebrates the development does not proceed beyond this 
 stage : Hit in the seventh month of embryo life of the human foetus 
 each lateral half is subdivided into two by a transverse fissure, so 
 that four bodies (the corpora quadrigemina) afe produced. The 
 crura cerebri form the two ccrebnl peduncles, which, diverging 
 from each Other, pass upwards to the hemisphere of the cerebrum. 
 They consist almost entirely of nc/ve fibres continuous with tho 
 longitudinal fibres of the pons, a few of which go to the corpora 
 quadrigemina, but the greater number ascend to the cerebrum. 
 
 The anterior cerebral vesicle beads downwards from the middle 
 vesicle. The. posterior part of this vesicle forms at first a simple 
 hollow sac, but subsequently divides into tho two optic thalami, 
 one on each side of the central hollow, which hollow becomes 
 the third ventricle. _ This ventricle is prolonged downwards intt 
 a funnel-shaped process, the infundibulum, which is connected 
 with the pituitary body, or hypophysis cerebri, lodged in the pitui- 
 tary fossa in the sphenoid bone, whilst posteriorly it is continuous 
 with the aqueduct of Sylvius. In its uppi-r and posterior wall th« 
 pineal body, or epiphysis cerebri, is developed, and from this body 
 two white peduncles run forwards on the sides of the optic thalami. 
 Immediately below these peduncles the transverse fibres of the 
 posterior commissure are developed, which pass between the two 
 optic thalaiui. Tho anterior wall of this ventricle is closed in by. 
 tho lamir.a cinerca or lamina tcrminalis, and behind it are formed 
 the transverse nerve fibres of tho anterior corAmissure, and the 
 vertical fibres of the anterior pillars of the fornix. These fornix 
 fibres pass to the base of the brain, and form the corpora albicanlia, 
 prior to entering the optic thalami, The posterior part of the antcrio 
 Vesicle gives olf from each side a Qask-shaDcd prolongation, thj
 
 SG4 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [nervous 
 
 primary optic reside. The stem of the prolongation, at first hollow, 
 becomes solid, and forma the optic nerve and trad, whilst the 
 txpanded distal end forma the nervous elements of the retina. 
 
 The antero-lateral part of the anterior cerebral vesicle is prolonged 
 forward es two hollow processes, the hemisphere vesicles, which 
 becomo the cerebral hemispheres, and are separated from each other 
 by a median longitudinal fissure ; whilst the hollow in tho iiitirinr 
 of each forms the lateral ventricle. In the floor of each hemisphere 
 reside is developed a large grey mass, striated with bundles of 
 nerve fibres, the corpus striatum, which lies immediately in front 
 and to the outer sido of the optic thalamus; a curved band, t lie 
 iosnia semicircularis, is formed along the junction of the thalamus 
 fcith the corpus striatum, and at the inner and anterior end of this 
 band, immediately behind the anterior pillars of the fornix, the 
 two lateral ventricles become continuous with each other and with 
 the third ventricle through tbc/bromen of Monro. The roof and 
 tido walls of each hemisphere vesicle form a grey expansion or mantle, 
 Irhicb. is at first smooth, but subsequently becomes divided into 
 iobes and convolutions, separated from each other by fissures. A 
 tcep gap or fissure now appears on the inner wall of each liemi- 
 jphere vesicle, and is bounded above by a longitudinal band of 
 libros, which, continuous anteriorly with the anterior pillar of the 
 fornix, joins its fellow in the middle line to form the body of the 
 ornix, and then again diverging from its fellow passes backwards, 
 lownwards, and forwards as the posterior pillar of the fornix or the 
 ixnia hippocampi. A transverse arrangement of fibres then forms 
 (n each hemisphere vesicle, above the plane of the fornix, which, 
 reaching tho mesial plane, joins its fellow, connects tho two hemi- 
 ipheres together, and forms the corpus callosum. In the hinder 
 part this corpus rests upon the upper surface of the fornix, but more 
 anteriorly it lies some distance above the fornix, and then bends 
 lown in front of \t. Hence thero is enclosed between the fornix 
 and the antero-inferior part of the corpus callosum two thin layers 
 of grey matter, one belonging to the inner surface of each hemisphere 
 vesicle, and called the septum lucidum. between those two layers 
 Is a narrow epace, the fifth ventricle, which, unlike the other 
 ventricles, is not derived from the cerebro-spinal tube, but is merely 
 a portion of the longitudinal median fissure shut in by the develop- 
 ment of the corpus callosum and fornix. Each hemisphere vesiclo 
 also gives off from its anterior part a hollow process, which expands 
 in front into a bulbous dilatation, named the olfactory bulb, from 
 which the nerves of smell arise, whilst the stalk of the bulb solidifies 
 and forms the olfactory peduncle. 
 
 Owing to the great development of the mantle of tho hemisphere 
 vesicles in the human brain, and the size and complexity of tho 
 convolutions, these parts of tho hemispheres grow forward so as to 
 overlap the olfactory bulbs and peduncles, and backward, so as to 
 conceal not only the corpora striata and optic thalami, but also t lie 
 corpora quadrigemina, crura cerebri, cerebellum, pons, and medulla 
 oblongata, so that when the human brain is looked at from above, 
 none of these structures can be seen. It is only whon the brain is 
 turned over and its base exposed that the medulla, pons, cerebellum, 
 and crura are visible ; and before the corpora quadrigemina, optic 
 thalami, and corpora striata can be exposed, portions of tho hemi- 
 sphere substance must be removed. The great growth of the hemi- 
 sphere vesicle leads also to a great expansion of the central hollow 
 or lateral ventricle, which is prolonged forwards, backwards, and 
 downwards as tho anterior, posterior, and descending cornua. In tho 
 descending cornu is a projection, tho hippocamus major, along which 
 the taenia hippocampi of the fornix runs ; in the posterior cornu is a 
 imaller eminence, the hippocampus minor; and at the junction of 
 these two cornua is a third elevation, the eminentia collateralis. 
 
 Immediately investing the spinal cord and encephalon a vascular 
 membrane, tho pia mater, is developed, processes from which dip 
 into the fissures between the two halves of the cord and between 
 fhe cerebral convolutions. A broad band, tho velum interporitum, 
 which possosses two marginal fringes, the choroid plexuses, is 
 (dmittcd into the lateral ventricle through the gap or fissure in 
 the inner wall of each hemisphere vesicle. This fissure is bounded 
 ibove by tho arch-shaped fornix, with its taenia hippocampi. When 
 ;he two hemispheres are in situ, and the two halves of the fornix are 
 |oined together to form tho body of that structure, the fissure, with 
 ^ts contained velum interpositum, passes across the mesial plane 
 rom one hemisphere to tho other, having the fornix and taeniae for 
 its roof, and the optic thalami and corpora quadrigemina for its floor; 
 it is known as the great transverse fissure of the cerebrum. 
 
 Membranes of Brain and SriNAL Cord. — These nerve 
 :entre3 are invested by three membranes or meninges, 
 which lie between them and the bones that form tho wails 
 of the cranial cavity and spinal canal. The membraues. ate 
 named dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater 
 
 Dura mater. — The most external membrane, named 
 d-tirn from its firmness, consists of a cranial and a spinal 
 subdivision. The cranial part is in contact with the inner 
 
 tablo of the cranial bones, and is adherent along the lines 
 of the sutures and to the margins of the foramina, which 
 transmit tho nerves, more especially to the foramen mag- 
 num. It forms, therefore, for these bones an internal 
 periosteum, and the meningeal arteries which ramify in it 
 are the nutrient arteries of the inner table. As the growth 
 of bone is more active in infancy and youth than in tho 
 adult, the adhesion between the dura matcrandthecrani.il 
 bones is greater in early life than at maturity. From tho 
 inner surface of the dura mater strong bands pass into tho 
 cranial cavity, and form partitions between certain of the 
 subdivisions of the brain. A vertical longitudinal mesial 
 band, named, from its sickle shape, falx cerebri, clips between 
 the two hemispheres of the cerebrum. A smaller sickle- 
 shaped vertical mesial band, the falx cerebelli, attached to 
 the internal occipital crest, passes between the two hemi- 
 spheres of the cerebellum. A large band arches forward 
 in the horizontal plane of the cavity, from the transverse 
 groove in tho occipital bone to the clinoid processes of tho 
 sphenoid, and is attached laterally to tho upper border 
 of the petrous part of each temporal bone. It separates 
 the cerebrum from the cerebellum, and, as it forms a tent- 
 like covering for the latter, is named tentorium cerebelli. 
 Along certain lines the cranial dura mater splits into two 
 layers, to form tubular passages for tho transmission of 
 venous blood. These passages are named the venous blood 
 siriuses of the dura mater, and they aro lodged in the grooves 
 on the inner surface of the skull referred to in the descrip- 
 tion of the cranial bonea Opening into these sinuses are 
 
 FlO. G3. — Dura mater and cranial sinuses. 1, Ffltx cerebri; 2, tentorium- 3, •. 
 superior longitudinal all. us; 4, lateral sinus; 6, Interna] Jugular vein; 6, occt- 
 pltnl sinus; 6', torcular llcro|>)illi ; 7, Infe-'or longitudinal sinus; K, veins of 
 
 . Galen; 9 and 10, superior and Inferior petr.t-al sinus; 11, cavernous sinus ; 12, 
 Circular slous, which conncctB the two cavernous sinuses together ; 13, ophthal- 
 mic vein, from U, the eyeball ; 14, crista gall] of ethmoid hi. no. 
 
 numerous veins, which convey from the brain the blood 
 that has been circulating through it; and two of these 
 sinuses, called cavernous, which lie at the sides of the body 
 of the sphenoid bone, receive the ophthalmic veins from 
 the eyeballs situated in the orbital cavities. These blood 
 sinuses pass usually from beforo backwards : a superior 
 longitudinal along the upper border of the falx cerebri as 
 far as the internal occipital protuberance; an inferior 
 longitudinal along its lower border as far as the tentorium, 
 where it joins the straight sinus, which passes back as far 
 as the same protuberance. One or two small occipital 
 sinuses, which lie in the falx cerebelli, also pass to join the 
 straight and longitudinal sinuses opposite this protuberance ; 
 several currents of blood meet, therefore, at this spot, and 
 as Herophilus supposed that a sort of whirlpool was 
 formed in the blood, the name toradar Ilerophili has 
 been used to express the meeting of these sinuses. From 
 the torcular the blood is drained away by two large
 
 SYSTEM.] 
 
 ANA T O M Y 
 
 8G5 
 
 sinuses, named lateral, which curve forwards and down- 
 wards to the jugular foramina to terminate in the internal 
 jugularveins. In its course each lateral sinus receives two 
 petrosal sinuses, which pass from the cavernous sinus back- 
 wards along the upper and lower borders of the petrous 
 part of the temporal bone. 
 
 The spinal part of the dura mater hangs loosely in the 
 Bpinal canal. It does not form a periosteum for the vertebrae, 
 but i3 separated from their bony rings by loose fat and a 
 plexus of veins. It gives off no bands from its inner surface, 
 and it does not split into two layers for the lodgment of 
 venous blood sinuses. The spinal dura mater forms a tubu- 
 lar envelope for the spinal cord and the origins of the spinal 
 nerves. It extends from the fcramen magnum, where it is 
 continuous with the cranial dura mater, to the lower end of the 
 sacral canal, ends below in a funnel-shaped prolongation, and 
 is pierced laterally J}y the roots of the several spinal nerves 
 in their passage outwards to the intervertebral foramina. 
 
 Both the cranial and the spinal parts of the dura mater 
 consist of a tough, fibrous membrane; somewhat flocculent 
 externally, but smooth, glistening, and free on its inner 
 surface. The inner surface has the appearance of a serous 
 membrane, and when examined microscopically is seen to 
 consist of a layer of squamous endothelial cells, similar to 
 those drawn in fig. 34. Hence the dura mater is some- 
 times called a fibro-serous membrane. The dura mater is 
 well provided with lymph vessels, which in all probability 
 open by stomata on the free inner surface. Between the 
 dura mater and the subjacent arachnoid membrane is a fine 
 space containing a minute quantity of limpid serum, which 
 moistens the smooth inner surface of the dura and the 
 corresponding smooth outer surface of the arachnoid. It 
 is regarded as. equivalent to the cavity of a serous mem- 
 brane, and is named the arachnoid cavity, or, more 
 appropriately, the sub-dural space. 
 Rchnoid Arachnoid mater. — The arachnoid is a membrane of 
 rane. great delicacy and transparency, which loosely envelopes 
 both the brain and spinal cord. It is separated from these 
 organs by the pia mater; but between it and the latter 
 membrane is a distinct space, called sub-arachnoid. The 
 sub-arachnoid space is more distinctly marked beneath the 
 spinal than beneath the cerebral parts of the membrane, 
 which forms a looser investment for the cord than for 
 the brain. At the base of the brain, and opposite the 
 fissures between the convolutions of the cerebrum, the 
 interval between the arachnoid and the pia matter can, 
 however, always be seen, for the arachnoid does not, like 
 the pia mater, clothe the sides of the fissures, but passes 
 directly across between the summits of adjacent convolu- 
 tions. The sub-arachnoid space is subdivided into numerous 
 freely .tommunicating loouli by bundles of delicate areolar 
 tissife , which bundles are invested, as Key and Retzius have 
 6hown, by a layer of squamous endothelium. The space 
 contains a limpid cerebrospinal fluid, which varies in quan- 
 tity from 2 drachms to 2 ounces. The fluid is alkaline, of 
 sp. gr. TODS, contains a little albumen, and a substance 
 which, as Turner pointed out, reduces blue oxide of 
 copper to the state of yellow sub-oxide. The arachnoid 
 membrane is made up of delicate connective tissue. 
 The free surface next the sub-dural space is smooth, 
 like a serous membrane, and covered by a layer of squam- 
 o - ia endothelium. This layer is reflected on to the roots 
 of the spinal and cranial nerves,-and, when they pierce the 
 dura mater, it becomes continuous with the endothelial 
 lining of that membrane. As the arrangement and struc- 
 ture so closely correspond with what is seen in the serous 
 membranes, many anatomists regard the arachnoid as the 
 visceral layer of a serous membrane, and the endothelial 
 lining of the dura mater as the parietal layer, whilst tho 
 f ub-dural space is the intermediate cavity. 
 
 1—29 
 
 When the skull cap is removed, clusters of granular 
 bodies aro usually to be seen imbedded in the dura mater 
 on each side of the superior longitudinal sinus; tlio.-e are 
 named the Pacchionian bodies. When traced through the 
 dura mater they are found to spring from the visceral or 
 proper cerebral arachnoid. The observations of Luschka 
 and Cleland have proved that villous processes invariably 
 grow from the free surface of that membrane, and that when 
 these villi greatly increase in size they form the bodies 
 in question. Sometimes the Pacchionian bodies greatly 
 hypertrophy, occasion absorption of the bones of the cranial 
 vault, and depressions on the upper surface of the brain. 
 
 Pia mater. — This membrane closely invests the wh-.h 
 outer surface of the brain. It dips into the fissures 
 between the convolutions, and a wide prolongation, 
 named velum interpositum, lies in the interior of the 
 cerebrum. With a little care itr can be stripped off the 
 brain without causing injury to its substance. The pia 
 mater invests the spinal cord, and is more intimately 
 attached to it than to the brain, for not only does it semi 
 prolongations into the' anterior and posterior fissures of the 
 cord, but slender bands pass repeatedly from its inner 
 surface into the columns of the cord. Hence it cannot be 
 stripped off tho cord without causing injury to its sub- 
 stance. The pia matter is prolonged on to the roots both of 
 the cranial and spinal nerves, and on to the filum terminalo. 
 This membrane consists of a delicate connective tissue, in 
 which the arteries of the % brain and spinal cord ramify and 
 subdivide into small branches before they penetrate the 
 nervous substance, 'and in which the veins conveying the 
 blood from the nerve centres lio before they open into the 
 blood sinuses of the cranial, dura mater and the extra- < 
 
 dural venous plexus of the spinal canal. The arteries 
 which pass from the pia mater into the brain and spinal 
 cord are invested by a loose sheath, which has been de- 
 scribed as forming the wall of a peri-vascular lymphatic 
 vessel ; but Key and Retzius have shown that the space 
 between the blood-vessel and the sheath opens into the sub- 
 arachnoid space, and contains cerebro-spinal fluid. A net- 
 work of lymph vessels ramifies rroely in the pia mater. It 
 is also well provided with nerves, which arise from the 
 posterior roots of the spinal nerves, from some of the 
 cranial nerves, and from the carotid and vertebral plexuses 
 of the sympathetic. The epi-cerebral and epi-spinal spaces 
 described by His as existing between this membrane and 
 the brain and spinal cord are in all probability artificial 
 productions. 
 
 In the spinal canal a slender fibrous band projects from Ligamen 
 the pia mater covering the side of the cord, and, pushing turn dent; 
 the arachnoid membrane in front of it, is attached by culatum 
 about twenty-two pairs of denticulated processes to the 
 inner surface of the dura mater. It is named ligamentitn 
 denticulatum, and its teeth alternate with the successive 
 pairs of spinal nerves. 
 
 SriNAL Cord. — The Medulla Spinalis, or Spinal 
 Cord, occupies the spinal canal, and extends from the 
 foramen fnagnum to opposite the body of the first lumbar 
 vertebra. In the early fcetus it equals in length the canal 
 itself ; but as the spinal column grows at a greater pro- 
 portional rate than the cord, tho latter, when growth has 
 ceased, is several inches shorter than the column. The cord 
 is continuous above with the medulla oblongata, whilst it 
 tapers off below into a slender thread, the fitum terminate, 
 which lies in the axis of the sacral canal, and is attached 
 below to the back of the coccyx, or to the fibrous mem- 
 brane which closes in below the sacral canaL The length 
 of the cord is from 15 to 18 inches. It approaches a 
 cylinder in shape, but is flattened on its anterior and pos- 
 terior surfaces, and presents two enlargements which have 
 a greater girth than the rest of the cord. The upper.
 
 8CG 
 
 ANA T O M Y 
 
 [nervous 
 
 Called tlio cervical or brachial enlargement, extends from 
 opposite the third cervical to the first dorsal vertebra, and 
 from it arise the nerve3 which supply the upper limbs ; the 
 lower, called the crural or lumbar enlargement, is. opposite 
 the last dorsal vertebra, and supplies with nerves the 
 lower limbs. The cord is almost completely divided into 
 right and left lateral halves by two fissures, named' re- 
 spectively anterior and posterior median fissures, which do 
 not quite reach the centre of the cord, for at the bottom of 
 the anterior fissure are the transverse fibres of the anterior 
 white commissure, and at the bottom of the posterior fissure 
 he fibres of the posterior grey commissure. By these com- 
 missures the two halves of the cord are united together. 
 The fibres of tho posterior commissure surround a canal, 
 called tho central canal, which extends along tho whole 
 length of the cord, and even passes into the upper end of 
 the filum terminale. This canal is lined by a ciliated 
 columnar endothelium, and expands superiorly into the 
 cavity of the fourth ventricle. Each lateral half of the cord 
 is subdivided into three columns by two depressions, which 
 mark the points of emergence of the roots of tho spinal 
 nerves. The anterior nerve roots pass through the 
 antero-lateral depression or fissure, and between it and the 
 antero-median fissure is the anterior column of tho cord. 
 The posterior nerve roots pass through tho postero-lateral 
 fissure, and between it and the postero-median fissure is 
 the posterior column, whilst between the anterior and 
 posterior nerve roots lies the lateral column. In the 
 cervical region, the part of the posterior column which lies 
 next tne postero-median fissure is marked off by a fissure 
 into a email internal or postero-median column. The sub- 
 division of each 
 lateral half of the 
 cord into the 
 columns, and the 
 arrangement of its 
 nervous tissues, are 
 well seen in trans- 
 verse sections 
 through its sub- 
 stance. The cord 
 is composed of 
 white and grey 
 matter. The white 
 
 matter is external, Fjo. G I.— Transverse section through the spinal cord, 
 nrwl f-irms flip no- AK,antero-median, and PF,;iostei-o-mcdian fissures; 
 
 lumns of the cord. 
 The grey matter is 
 surrounded by the 
 white, and has 
 in each lateral 
 half of the cord a crescentic shape. The horns of the 
 crescent are directed towards the fissures of emergence of the 
 nerve roots ; the anterior horn is rounded ; the posterior 
 long and narrow. The proportion of grey matter to the 
 white varies in different parts of the cord. At the com- 
 mencement of the filum terminale there is scarcely any 
 white matter; but the white matter increases in amount 
 from below upwards, so that its absolute quantity is greatest 
 in the cervical part of the cord. The grey crescents are 
 thicker in the upper and lower enlargements than in the 
 intermediate part- 
 
 The cord contains both nerve fibres and nerve cells. The 
 external, columnar, white part of the cord consists of nerve 
 fibres, with a supporting reticular framework of connective 
 tissue and blood-vessels derived from the pia mater. Well- 
 formed Etellate connective tissue corpuscles lie in this sup 
 porting framework. The nerve fibres of the various columns 
 extend longitudinally, and lie parallel to each oth^r, so that 
 in transverse sections through the columns the fibres are 
 
 PC. posterior, LC, lateral, and AC, anterior columns; 
 AR. anterior, and Pit. posterior nerve roots; C, 
 central canal of cord, with, its columnar endothelial 
 lining. The pia mater is shown investing the cord, 
 sending processes into the anterior and posterior 
 fissures, as well as delicate prolongations into the 
 columns. The crescentic anangement of the grey 
 matter is shown by the darker shaded portion. 
 
 transversely divided. The individual fibres vary much in 
 diameter, but in all the axial cylinder and medullary sheath 
 can be distinctly Been. Wherever the nerve roots enter 
 into the cord, the fibres of these roots pass transversely or 
 obliquely in their course inwards to the grey matter. 
 Horizontal fibres are also found in the white anterior com- 
 missure, and a similar appearance can be seen in the 
 posterior commissure. Horizontal fibres have also been 
 traced from the lateral columns into the adjacent part of 
 the grey matter. 
 
 The grey crescentic portion of the cord contains con- 
 nective tissue, blood-vessels, nerve fibres, and nerve cells. 
 The nerve fibres in the grey matter arc numerous ; and 
 whilst some possess a medullary sheath, others consist 
 only of the axial cylinder ; they divide and subdivide, 
 and, as Qerlach'has shown, form a narrow -meshed 
 network of extremely minute fibres. The nerve cells are 
 multipolar, and are chiefly collected in the anterior and 
 posterior horns of each crescent. The cells of the an- 
 terior cornu are large, distinct, and stellate, and form 
 a well-defined group of nerve cells. Those of the pos- 
 terior cornu are smaller in size, more elongated in shape, 
 but with stellate branched processes. They are not so 
 distinct as in the anterior horn, owing to the connective 
 tissue with its corpuscles being so abundant. This tissue 
 is best marked at the tip of the posterior horn, where it 
 forms the substantia gelatinosa of Kolando. Lockhart 
 Clarke has described an intermedio-laleral group of nerve 
 cells situated at the outer side of the grey matter, about 
 midway between the anterior and posterior horns, in the 
 upper part of the cervical portion of the cord, and in the 
 thoracic part between the brachial and crural enlargements. 
 
 The course of the fibres in the cord and their relations 
 to the nerve cells should now be considered. There can 
 be no doubt that of the longitudinal fibres some ascend 
 from below upwards, and conduct either excitd-motory 
 impulses to the regions of the spinal cord itself, or sen- 
 sory impulses to the brain. Other longitudinal fibres again 
 descend from tho brain and higher regions of the cord to 
 the lower, and conduct motor and vasomotor impulses 
 from above downwards. The horizontal and oblique fibres 
 of an anterior or motor nerve root enter the grey matter of 
 the anterior cornu, and seem to have the following arrange- 
 ment : some become directly continuous with the axial cylin- 
 drical processes of the nerve cells; others pass into the an- 
 terior commissure; others extend as far as the grey matter 
 of the posterior horn. The nerve cells of the anterior cornu 
 give origin, therefore, directly to nerve fibres by their un- 
 branched processes. Gerlach's observations show that the 
 branched processes of these cells become continuous with 
 the network of extremely minute fibres already described 
 in the grey matter; from this network medullated fibres 
 appear to arise which leave the grey matter; some enter the 
 lateral column, "and ascend as the fibres of this structure; 
 others pass as fibres of the anterior commissure to the 
 opposite side of the cord, and ascend as the anterior column 
 of that side. The anterior and lateral columns, therefore, 
 are constantly receiving accessions of fibres from the 
 enclosed grey matter. 
 
 The fibres of a posterior or sensory nerve root on entering 
 the cord subdivide into two bundles; one does not enter the 
 gTey matter, but applies itself to the posterior column, of 
 which it furms some of the vertical fibres. These fibre3 
 may ascend to the brain, or they may at some higher point 
 in the cord enter the grey matter of the posterior horn. The 
 other bundle of posterior root fibres at once enters the 
 posterior horn of grey matter. The connections and ulti- 
 mate arrangement of these fibres in the grey matter have 
 not been satisfactorily made out. Gerlach states that, as 
 they frequently subdivide on entering the grey matter, if
 
 SYSTEM.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 H(u 
 
 is possible they may form the fine nerve fibre plexus of' the 
 grey substance ; but a direct continuity between them and 
 the axial-cylinder processes of the cells of the posterior 
 horn does not seem to have been observed. From the 
 plexus, formed by the much subdivided processes of these 
 cells, fibres arise, which, forming the fibres of the pos- 
 terior commissure, pass both in front of and behind the 
 central canal to the opposite side, where they ascend towards 
 the brain, " partly in the vertical fasciculi of the posterior 
 enrnua and partly in the posterior columns." 
 
 The structure of the spinal cord shows it to be both a 
 nerve centre and a conductor of nervous impulses. The 
 nerve cells in its gTey matter give rise either directly, 
 or through the delicate plexus formed by their branching 
 processes, to nerve fibres, which may either pass out of 
 the cord as the anterior and posterior roots of the spinal 
 nerves, or may ascend to the brain as the columns of the 
 cord. Hence the cord is anatomically continuous, on the 
 one hand, through the nerves which arise from it, with the 
 peripheral end-organs in the skin, and muscular system in 
 which those nerves terminate; and, on the other hand, it is 
 continuous with the brain. It serves, therefore, to conduct 
 the impulses of touch-sensation from the skin upwards 
 to the brain, and the motor impulses from the brain 
 downwards to the muscles. But further, the cord is the 
 great nerve centre concerned in reflex excito-motory 
 actions. It must, also, be remembered that the two halves 
 of the cord are anatomically continuous with each other 
 through the nerve fibres of the commissures, so that it acts 
 as a single organ, and not as two organs. Experiments 
 have shown that sensory impulses are conducted upwards 
 through the cord, not by that half from which the nerves 
 arise that have been excited, but by the opposite half of 
 the cord, which is obviously due to the crossing of the 
 fibres of the posterior commissure. Motor impressions 
 are, however, conducted downwards by that half of the 
 cord from which the nerves arise that pass to supply the 
 muscles to be moved. 
 
 The spinal cord is well supplied with blood by numerous 
 arteries, which terminate in a diffused cap'illary network. 
 The capillaries are much more numerous in the grey matter 
 of the cord than in the white columns, 
 spina. Origin, Akrangement, and Distribution of the 
 
 **"*' Spinal Nerves. — The spinal cord gives origin to thirty- 
 one pairs of Spinal nerves, which pass out of the spinal 
 canal through the intervertebral foramina. These nerves 
 are arranged in groups, according to the region of the 
 spine through the foramina in which they proceed. 
 There are eight pairs of cervical nerves; the first or 
 sub-occipital emerges between the occipital bone and the 
 atlas, the eighth between the seventh cervical and first 
 dorsal vertebrae. Twelve dorsal or thoracic nerves pass out 
 on each side in relation to the dorsal vertebrae : five pairs 
 of lumbar nerves in the region of the loins; five pairs of 
 sacral nerves through the sacral foramina; and one pair 
 of coccygeal nerves through the lowest openings, in the 
 spinal canal. Each spinal nerve arises by two roots, an 
 anterior and a posterior, from the side of the cord. These 
 roots are distinguished from each other both anatomically 
 tnd physiologically. The posterior root has a swelling or 
 ganglion on it, whilst no ganglion exists on the anterior 
 root . The posterior root consists of sensory nerve fibres, 
 i.e., of fibres which conduct impulses from the periphery 
 into the nerve centre; whilst the anterior root is composed 
 of motor nerve fibres, -ie., of fibres which conduct im- 
 pulses from the centre to the periphery. The ganglion is 
 situated on the posterior root, as a rule, in the interverte- 
 bral foramen ; but the lower sacral nerves have the. ganglia 
 on their posterior roots in the spinal canaL These ganglia 
 Contain bipolar nerve cells, and the nerve fibres, >"-3 they 
 
 pass through each ganglion, are apparently connected with 
 the poles of the cells. The roots of the spinal nerves vary 
 in direction and length. Those of the cervical nerve:! 
 are short, and run almost horizontally outwards to their 
 respective intervertebral, foramina; those of the dorsal are 
 longer and more oblique; whilst the roots of the lumbar 
 and sacral nerves, owing to the cord ending much above 
 the foramina through which the nerves proceed, are very 
 long, and form a leash of nerves in the lower part of the 
 spinal canal, which surrounds the filum terminate, and, fror.i 
 its general resemblance in arrangement to the hairs of a 
 horse's tail, has been named cauda equina. 
 
 The anterior nerve root joins the posterior immediately 
 outside the ganglion, and by their junction a spinal nerve 
 is formed. This nerve contains a mixture of both motor 
 and sensory fibres, and is compound therefore in function. 
 Almost immediately after its formation the nerve separates 
 into two divisions, an anterior and a posterior, and each 
 division, bike the nerve itself, contains both motor and 
 sensory fibres. 
 
 The Posterior Primary Divisions of the spinal nerves, 
 smaller than the anterior, are distributed both to tho 
 muscles and skin on the back of the axial part of the body. 
 Their general arrangement i3 as follows : each division; 
 with some three or four exceptions, subdivides into an 
 internal and an external branch. In the back of the ncc!' 
 and the back of the upper part of the chest, the external 
 branches of these nerves supply the deep muscles; the 
 internal branches pierce the muscles close to the spines 
 of the vertebrae, and end in the skin; the internal branch 
 of the second nerve, called great occipital, and that oi 
 the third cervical, pass to the- skin over the occipital bone. 
 In the back of the lower part of the chest and of the loins, 
 the internal branches supply the deep muscles, the external 
 branches pass to the skin, those of some of the lumbar 
 nerves extending as far as the skin of the buttock. 
 
 The Anterior Primary Divisions are not so uniform 
 either in arrangement or distribution as are the pos- 
 terior. They supply the 
 front and sides of the axial 
 part of the neck and trunk, 
 and the extremities. The 
 anterior divisions of the 
 twelve thoracic nerves have 
 the most simple arrange- 
 ment. Each nerve, called 
 from its position an inter- 
 costal nerve, runs out- 
 wards, immediately below 
 the lower border of a rib, 
 and gives origin to three 
 series of branches, named 
 communicating, muscular, 
 and cutaneous. By the 
 Communicating branch 
 each intercostal nerve is 
 connected with an ad- 
 jacent ganglion on the thoracic portion of the sympathetic 
 system. By the Muscular or motor branches these nerves 
 supply the intercostal muscles, the levatores coftarum, and 
 the triangularis sterni, whilst the lower intercostal nerves 
 run forwards and downwards into the wall of the abdomen, 
 and supply the two oblique, the transverse, rectus, and 
 pyramidahs muscles. The skin of the sides of the thorax 
 and abdomen receives its nervous supply from the Lateral 
 Cutaneous branches, whilst the skin on the front of tho 
 trunk is supplied by the Anterior Cutaneous terminations pf 
 these nerves. The lateral cutaneous branches of the second 
 and third intercostal nerves are comparatively large in size, 
 and assist in the supply of the skin of the inner sidocf 
 
 [O. 65. — Diagram of the aiTsngcment of s 
 pair of thoracic spinal nerves. SC. spinal 
 cord; AR, anterior nerve root; PR, pos- 
 terior root, with Its ganglion; PD, i ■*- 
 terior primary division ; AD, anteilor 
 primary division, or Intercostal nerve; 
 SG, sympathetic ganglion, with the com- 
 municating brandies between it and the 
 anterior division; M, muscles, with the 
 motor branches entering them ; IX, 
 lateral cufancous, and AC, anterior 
 cutaneous nerves.
 
 mz 
 
 ANA T O M Y 
 
 [nebvous 
 
 the upper arm; hence they are called intercosto-humcral 
 nerves. 
 
 In the regions of the neck, loins, and pelvis, the anterior 
 divisions of the spinal nerves do not pass simply outwards 
 to their distribution. In each region adjacent nerves in- 
 terlace with each other, and form what is technically called 
 a nervous plexus. AYhen a branch arises from a thoracic 
 nerve, it contains fibres derived from that nerve only ; but 
 ■when a branch arises from a plexus, it may contain fibres, 
 not of one only, but of two or more of the nerves which, 
 by their interlacement, form the plexus. Hence the parts 
 which are supplied by these branches are brought into con- 
 nection with a greater number of nerves, and consequently 
 with a greater extent of tne spinal cord or nerve centre, 
 than are the parts which receive branches from a single 
 nerve only. These plexuses are especially found in con- 
 nection with the nerves which supply the extremities, 
 where, owing to the complexity of the muscular move- 
 ments, the co-ordination of these movements through the 
 nervous system is rendered necessary. 
 
 The anterior divisions of the eight cervical nerves' are 
 arranged in two plexuses, named cervical and brachial 
 
 The Cervical plexus (PI. XVII.) is formed of tho four 
 upper cervical nerves, which make, by interlacement with 
 each other, a series of loops in front of the transverse 
 processes of the cervical vertebrae. Arising either directly 
 from these nerves, or from the plexus which they form, are 
 communicating, muscular, and cutaneous branches. The 
 Communicating branches connect these nerves with the 
 large superior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic Bystem, 
 also with the vagus, accessory, and hypoglossal cranial 
 nerves, and with the descending branch of the hypoglossal 
 The Muscular branches supply the anterior recti muscles 
 of the neck, the levator scapula;, the posterior scalenus, 
 the diaphragm, and in part the sterno-mastoid and trape- 
 zius. The branch to the diaphragm, or the phrenic nerve, 
 is the .most important (PI. XVII. <p) ; it springs from the 
 third, fourth, and fifth cervical, and passes down the lower 
 part of the neck, and through the thorax, to supply its 
 own half of the diaphragm. The Cvtaneous branches are 
 as follows: — the occipitalis minor, to the skin of the 
 occiput j the auriculo-parotidean, to the skin over the 
 paroUd gland and the adjacent part of the auricle ; the 
 transversalis colli, to the skin of the front of tho side of 
 the neck; the supra-clavicular nerves, to the skit: of the 
 lower part of the side of the neck, and upper part of the 
 chest. 
 
 The Brachial plexus (PL XVII. 1, 2, 3, 4) is formed 
 of the four lower cervical nerves, and of the larger por- 
 tion of the first intercostal, called also first dorsal nerve. 
 It is of large size, and is principally for the supply 
 of the upper limb. Its exact mode of arrangement 
 presents many variations, but the following is not un- 
 frequently found : — The fifth and sixth nerves join to 
 form a large nerve, which, after a short course, is joined 
 by the seventh ; in this manner the upper cord of the 
 plexus is formed. The eighth cervical and the first 
 dorsal then join, to form the lower cord of the plexus. 
 These cords then pass behind the clavicle and subclavius 
 muscle into the axilla, where they become modified in 
 arrangement. From each a large branch arises, and these 
 two branches then join to form a third cord. These three 
 cords have special relations to the axillary artery : the one 
 Vhichlies to its outer side is named the outer cord ; that to 
 the inner, the inner cord; that behind, the posterior cord. 
 These nerve3 and the cords formed by them give origin to 
 communicating, muscular, cutaneous, and mixed branohes. 
 The Communicating branches join the middle and in- 
 ferior cervical and first thoracic ganglia of the sympathetic 
 syutcuL Tho Muscular brunches Bupply the scaleni, lon<rus 
 
 colli, rhomboid, and subclavius muscles; the cupra and 
 infra-spinatus muscles, through a branch called supra- 
 scapular ; the serratus magnus, through the posta-ior 
 thoracic branch ; the greater and lesser pectorals, through 
 the two anterior thoracic branches ; and the subscapu- 
 laris, teres major, and latissimus dorsi, through the thret 
 subscapular branches. The Cutaneous branches arise from 
 the inner cord, and are the lesser internal cutaneous, 
 which ends in the skin of the inner side of the upper 
 arm, and joins the intercosto-humeral ; and the internal 
 cutaneous, which not only sends branches to the skin of 
 the upper arm, but supplies the skin of tho inner side 
 of the forearm, both on its. anterior and posterior surfaces. 
 The Mixed branches are large and very important: — 
 a, The Circumflex, from the posterior cord, supplies the 
 deltoid and teres minor muscles, the skin over tho del- 
 toid, and the shoulder joint, b, The Musculo-Spiral, also 
 from tho posterior cord, supplies tho triceps and anconeus, 
 the supinator longus and extensor carpi radialis longior 
 muscles ; and by its external cutaneous branch, the skin of 
 the outer side of the back of the forearm. It then divides 
 into the radial and posterior interosseous branches. The 
 radial passes through the forearm to the hand, and supplies 
 the skin on the back of the thumb, index and middle digits, 
 and radial side of the ring digit. The posterior interosse- 
 ous supplies the muscles on the back of the forearm and the 
 articulations of the carpal joints, c, The Musculocutane- 
 ous branch of the outer cord of the plexus supplies the 
 biceps, brachialis anticus, and coraco-brachialis muscles, 
 and ends in an external cutaneous branch, which supplies 
 the skin of the outer sido of the forearm, both in front and 
 behind, d, The Ulnar nerve arises from the inner cord, 
 passes through the upper arm, and enters the forearm be- 
 tween the inner condyle and olecranon, where it supplies 
 the elbow joint. Here it may easily be compressed, when 
 a pricking sensation is experienced in the course of its dis- 
 tribution. In this spot it is popularly called the " funny 
 bone." In the forearm the ulnar nerve supplies the flexor 
 carpi ulnaris and inner part of the flexor profundus digi- 
 tonmi muscles. In the hand it supplies the muscles of the 
 ball of the Little finger, the two inner lumbricales, the inter- 
 ossei muscles, and the adductor and deep part of the short 
 flexor of the thumb. It also supplies a dorsal cutaneous 
 branch to the back of tho hand, and the back of tho little 
 and of the ulnar side of the ring digits. Palmar cutaneous 
 branches are also given to the palm and the palmar aspects 
 of the same digits, e, The Median nerve arises by two roots, 
 one from the inner, the other from the outer cord of the 
 plexus. It enters the forearm in front of the elbow joint, 
 supplies, either directly or through its anterior interosseous 
 branch, all the flexors and pronators, except thoso supplied 
 by the ulnar ; is continued to the hand, where it supplies 
 the abductor, opponens, superficial part of the short flexor 
 of the thumb, and two outer lumbrical muscles. It also 
 supplies a palmer branch to the skin of the palm, and gives 
 digital cutaneous branches to the thumb, index atid middle 
 digits, and radial side of the ring digit. 
 
 The Lumbar plexus, of large size, is situated at the back 
 of the abdominal cavity in the region of the loins, and is 
 formed by the four upper lumbar nerves, which form a 
 series of loop-like interlacements in front of the transverse 
 processes of the lumbar vertebrae. It gives origin to com- 
 municating, muscular, cutaneous, and mixed branches. 
 The Communicating branches join the four upper lumbar 
 ganglia of the sympathetic system. The Muscular 
 branches supply the quadratua lumborum muscle, and 
 give branches to the psoas. The Cutaneous branches are 
 named — a, Ilio-hypogastric, which gives an iliac branch to 
 the skin of the buttock, and a hypogastric branch to the 
 okin of the abdomen abova the pubio symphysis; V
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 Waves of t/u. FaJo and, Tfumai 
 
 PLATE XYLT. 
 
 CKCYCIOP^DIA BRITAJIHICA. NINTH EDITIOH.
 
 SYSTEM.] 
 
 A N A T U 1 
 
 ms 
 
 Ilioinguinal, which supplies the skin of the groin; this 
 nerve is by some said to send a branch to the internal 
 oblique muscle ; c, External Cutaneous, which supplies the 
 skin on the outer aspect of the thigh. The Mixed branches 
 are as follows : — a, Genito-crural, which supplies the cre- 
 uiaster muscle, and a cutaneous branch to the skin of the 
 groin, b, Anterior Crural, a large nerve which enters the 
 thigh by passing behind Poupart's ligament, and supplies the 
 great extensor muscles of the knee-joint, and also the sar- 
 torius, the psoas-iliacus and the pectineu3, which act as 
 flexors of the hip-joint; it gives off the following cutaneous 
 branches : — An internal cutaneous to the skin of the inner 
 side, a middle cutaneous to the skin of the middle of the 
 front of the thigh, and the long saplienous nerve, which 
 supplies the skin of the inner side of the knee-joint, the 
 inner side of the leg and the foot, c, Obturator nerve, which 
 leaves tbo pelvis through the obturator foramen, and sup- 
 plies the obturator externus and adductor muscles of the 
 thigh, and sends a branch to the pectineus; it also supplies 
 the hip and knee joints, and not unfrequently gives a 
 branch to the skin of the lower part of the inner side of 
 the thigh, d, An Accessory Obturator nerve is sometimes 
 present, which goes to the pectineus, to the hip-joint, and 
 aiju joins the obturator nerve. 
 
 fro. W-— Lumbar, sacral, and sacro-coccygea. plexuses. DXII, the lowest thoracic 
 nerve of the intercostal series; I.I to IV, the nerves of the lumbar plexus: V, 
 the fifth lumbar, with 8, the lurabo-sacral cord; SI to IV, sacral nerves eyine 
 to form the sacral plexus; V and CI, the aacro-coccygeal plexus; o, chalo of 
 ganglia of the sympathetic system, showing thocommunlcatlng branches with 
 the spinal nerves; c, the last of these ganglia, callerl coccygeal gangiion. or 
 ganglion impar; o, position of solar plexus; I. ilio-hypngastric nerve; 2. Ilio- 
 inguinal; 3, external cutaneous; 4, genito-crural; 6, anterior crural; 6, 
 obturator; 7, superior glutxdl. 
 
 The Lumbosacral Cord is formed of the fifth lumbar 
 nerve and of a branch from the fourth lumbar. It joins the 
 sacral plexus. Before the junction it gives origin to a com- 
 municating and a muscular branch. The Communicating 
 joins the fifth lumbar ganglion of the sympathetic. The 
 Muscular branch, named the superior glutaeal nerve, sup- 
 plies the gluteus medius and minimus and the tensor fascia? 
 femoris muscle. 
 
 The Sacral plexus is situated in the cavity of the pelvis, 
 »uJu tho largest of all the plexuses. It is formed by the 
 
 junction of the lumbo-sacral cord, the first, second, third, 
 and partof the fourth sacral nervcs,and appears as aflattened 
 mass in front of the sacrum. It gives origin to com- 
 municating, muscular, and mixed branches. The Com- 
 municating branches join the upper sacral ganglia of the 
 sympathetic system. The Muscular branches supply the 
 upper fibres of the glutaeus maximus, the pyriformis, 
 gemelli, quadratus femoris, and obturator interims 
 muscles. The Mixed nerves are as follows : — a, l'udic, 
 which supplies the muscles and skin of the external organs 
 of generation, b, Small Sciatic, which supplies not only the 
 lower fibres of the glutaeus maximus muscle, but the skin of 
 the buttock, the back of the thigh, of the popliteal space, 
 and of the leg ; it also gives a long pudendal branch to 
 the skin of the perineum, c, Great Sciatic; this is tho 
 largest nerve in the body. It leaves the pelvis through 
 the great sciatic foramen, and passes down the back of the 
 thigh, when it divides into external and internal popliteal 
 branches. Before dividing it supplies the hamstring 
 muscles, and gives a branch to the adductor magnus. 
 The external popliteal branch gives offsets to the knee- 
 joint, passes down the outer side of the leg, supplies the 
 peronei longus and brevis, gives off the communicant 
 peronei branch to the skin of the outer side of the back of 
 the leg, and ends as the external cutaneous nerve for the 
 dorsum of the foot and the dorsal surfaces of all the toes, 
 except the outer side of the little and the adjacent sides of 
 the great and second toes. The internal popliteal branch 
 gives offsets to the knee-joint, and supplies the communi- 
 cant tibialis nerve, which joins the communicans peronei. 
 and forms with it the external saphenous nerve that paf jts 
 to the outer side of the foot and little toe. The internal 
 popliteal also supplies the muscles of the calf and the 
 popliteus muscle, and is prolonged downwards as the 
 posterior tibial nerve. The anterior tibial passes to tht 
 front of the leg, supplies the tibialis anticus, peroneus ter- 
 tius, and extensor muscles of the toes, and terminates as the 
 cutaneous digital nerve for the adjacent sides of the great 
 and second toes. The posterior tibial nerve passes down 
 the back of the leg, supplies the tibialis posticus and long 
 flexors of the toes, gives off a cutaneous branch to the 
 skin of the heel, and terminates by dividing into the 
 internal and external plantar nerves. The internal plantar 
 nerve supplies the skin of the sole and sends digital branches 
 to the skin of the great, second, third, and tibial side of the 
 fourth toes ; it also supplies the abductor pollicis, flexor 
 brevis digitorum, flexor brevis pollicis, and two inner 
 lumbrical muscles. The external plantar nerve supplies 
 digital branches to the skin of the little and fibular sides 
 of the fourth toes, and branches to all the muscles of the 
 sole of the foot which are not supplied by the internal 
 plantar nerve. 
 
 The Sacro-Cocrigeal is the smallest plexus belonging to 
 the anterior divisions of the spinal nerves. It is formed by a 
 part of the fourth sacral, the fifth sacral, s.nd the coccygeal 
 nerves. It lies in front of the last sacral and the first coccy- 
 geal vertebras, and gives origin to communicating, visceral, 
 muscular, and cutaneous branches. The Communicating 
 branches join the lower sacral and the coccygeal ganglia of 
 the sympathetic system ; the Visceral pass to the pelvic 
 plexus of the sympathetic, and through it to the bladdei 
 and rectum ; the Muscular to the levator ani, coccygeus, 
 and sphincter ani externus muscles ; the Cutaneous to the 
 skin about the anus and tip of the coccyx. 
 
 The Brain. — By the term Brain or Encephalon is 
 meant all that part of the central nervous axis which is 
 contained within the cavity of the skull. It is divided 
 into several parts, named medulla oblongata, pons, cere- 
 bellum, and cerebrum. The medulla oblongata is directly
 
 870 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [nervous system — 
 
 continuous with the spin;J cord through tho foramen 
 magnum. The cerebellum lies above, and immediately 
 •"ekmd the medulla oblongata, with which it is directly 
 continuous. The pons lies above and in front of the 
 medulla, with which it is directly continuous. The cere- 
 brum is the highest division, and lies above both pons and 
 cerebellum, with both of which it is directly continuous. 
 Several figures of the brain are given in Plate XVIIL 
 
 The Medulla Oblongata rests upon the basi-occipitaL 
 It is somewhat pyramidal in form, about 1^ inch long, and 
 1 inch broad in its widest part. It is a bilateral organ, and 
 is divided into a right and a left half by shallow anterior 
 and posterior median fissures, continuous with the corre- 
 sponding fissures in the spinal cord ; the posterior fissure 
 ends above in the 4th ventricle. Each half is subdivided 
 into elongated tracts of nervous matter. Next to, and 
 parallel with the anterior fissure is the anterior pyramid 
 (PL XVIIL figs. 1 and 2, P). This pyramid is continuous 
 below with the cord, and the place of continuity is marked 
 by the passage across the-fissure of three or four bundles of 
 nerve fibres, from each half of the cord to the opposite 
 anterior pyramid; this crossing is called the decussation, of 
 the pyramids. To the side of the pyramid, and separated 
 from 'it by a faint fissure, is the olivary fasciculus, which 
 at its upper end is elevated into the projecting oval-shaped 
 olivary body (PI. XVIII. figs. 1 and 2, 0). Behind the olive, 
 and separated from it by a faint groove, is the strong tract 
 named rcstiform body; as it ascends from the cord it 
 diverges from its fellow in the opposite half of the medulla 
 oblongata. By this divergence the central part of the 
 medulla is opened up, and the lower half of the cavity of 
 tho 4ih ventricle is formed. Internal to the restiform body 
 is the posterior pyramid, which is continuous with the 
 postero-median column, and bounds the postero-median 
 fissure. Where the restiform bodies diverge from each 
 other, there also the posterior pyramids diverge outwards 
 from the sides of the postero-median fissure. At the upper 
 part of the floor of the 4th ventricle a longitudinal tract of 
 nerve fibres, the fasciculus teres, ascends on each side of 
 its median furrow (Fig. 68, 7). Slender tracts of Derve 
 fibres, the arciform fibres, arch across the side of the medulla 
 immediately below the olive ; and white slender tracts 
 emerge from the median furrow of the 4th ventricle, pass 
 outwards across its floor, and form the striae medullares or 
 acoustical, the rootsof origin of the auditory nerve (Fig. 68,8). 
 
 The medulla oblongata, like the spinal cord, with which 
 it is continuous, consists both of grey and white matter. 
 But the exterior of the medulla is not so exclusively formed 
 of white matter as is the outer part of the cord, for the 
 divergence from each other of the restiform bodies and 
 posterior pyramids of opposite sides opens out the central 
 part of the medulla, and allows the grey matter to become 
 superficial on the floor of the 4th ventricle. The nerve 
 fibres which enter into the formation of the pyramids and 
 the other tracts just described, are partly continuous below 
 with the columns of the spinal cord, and are prolonged 
 upwards either to tho pons and cerebrum, or to the cere- 
 bellum, or they partly take their rise in the medulla 
 oblongata itself from the cells of its grey matter. As the 
 medulla is a bilateral organ, its two halves are united 
 together by commissural fibres, which cross obliquely its 
 mesial plane from one side to the other, and as they decus- 
 sate in that plane, they form a well-marked mesial band 
 or raphe. Further, the medulla is a centre of origin for 
 several pairs of the more posterior encephalic nerves, and for 
 the vase-motor nerves. In the passage upwards through 
 the medulla of the columns of the cord, a re-arrangement 
 of their fibres takes place ; just as in a great central railway 
 station, the rails, which enter it in one direction, intersect 
 And we rearranged before they emerge from it in the opposite 
 
 direction. The fibres of the posterior median column of 
 the cord are prolonged upwards as the posterior pyramid. 
 The fibres of the posterior column of the cord are for the 
 most part prolonged upwards into the restiform body, 
 though some fibres pass to the front of the medulla to 
 participate in the decussation of the anterior pyramids. 
 The lateral column of the cord divides into three parts : 
 o, the greater number of its fibres pass inwards across the 
 anterior median fissure, to assist in forming the anterior 
 pyramid of the opposite side, so as to produce tho decussation 
 already referred to ; b, others join the rcstiform body ; c, 
 others form the fasciculus teres situated on the floor of tie 
 4th ventricle. The ante- 
 rior column of the cord 
 also divides into three 
 parts : a, some fibres 
 form the arciform fibres 
 and join the restiform 
 body ; b, others assist in 
 the formation of tho 
 olivary fasciculus ; c, 
 others are prolonged up- 
 wards in the anterior 
 pyramid of the same 
 side (Fig. 67). 
 
 The anterior pyramid 
 consists partly of fibres 
 of the anterior column 
 of the cord of the same 
 side, partly of decus- 
 sating fibres of the ante- 
 rior commissure, partly 
 of decussating fibres 
 from the posterior co- 
 lumns and posterior cor- 
 nu of grey matter, but 
 principally of the decus- 
 sating fibresof thelateral 
 column of the opposite 
 side of the cord. The 
 fibres of the anterior 
 pyramid are prolonged 
 through the pons to the 
 cerebrum. Owing to 
 the decussation of the 
 lateral columns of the cord in the formation of the pyramids, 
 the motor nerve fibres from one-half of the brain arc trans- 
 mitted to the opposite side of the t.ord, so that injuries 
 affecting one side of the brain occasion paralysis of the 
 motor nerves arising from the opposite half of the cord. 
 The olivary fasciculus is formed partly of fibres of the 
 anterior column of the same side, and partly of fibres 
 arising from the grey matter of the olive. It is continued 
 upwards through the pons to the cerebrum. The restiform 
 body is formed principally of fibres of the posterior column 
 of the same side, but partly of fibres of the lateral column, 
 and also of the arciform fibres from the anterior column, 
 and from the grey matter of the superior and inferior 
 olives. As the restiform body is continued upwards to 
 the cerebellum, and forms its inferior peduncles, the arciform 
 fibres have been called by Solly the superficial cerebellar 
 fibres of the medulla. Through the restiform body the 
 cerebellum is connected with the posterior, lateral, and 
 anterior columns of the cord as well as with the olivary 
 nuclei in the grey matter of the medulla oblongata. The 
 posterior pyramid consists of the posterior median column 
 of the cord, and is prolonged through the pons to the 
 cerebrum. The fasciculus teres is formed of a small part 
 of the lateral column of the cord, and is also prolonged 
 through the pons to the cerebrum. 
 
 Fig. 67. — Diagrammatic dissection of the me- 
 dulla oblongata and pona to show the course 
 of the fibres, a, supet ficial, <f, deep transverse 
 fibres of the pons; 6, 6, anterior pyramids 
 ascendiugat t/ through the pons; c, c.olivaiy 
 bodies; e f , olivary fasciculus in the pons; 
 dy d, anterior columns of cord; «, Inner part 
 of the right column Joining the anterior 
 pyramid ; / the outer part going to the 
 olivary fascicules: ff, lateral column of cordi 
 A, the part which decussntea at t the decussa- 
 tion of the pyramids; 1, the part which joins 
 the resllfortn body ; m, that which forms the 
 fasciculus teres; n, arciform fibres. 1 and 2, 
 sensory and motor roots of fifth nerre; 
 3, sixth nerre; 4. portlo dura; 0, portio 
 Intermedia; 6, portio mollis of seventh nerve; 
 7, glosso-pbaryngeal ; 8. pneumo-gastric ; 9, 
 spinal accessory of eighth nerve ; 10, hypo- 
 glossal nerve.
 
 VOL. 1. 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 Tfe Snan. F <9 $ 
 
 PLATE XVIIL 
 
 „ - Itbres of Cortma, Radiata, 
 £IICYCLOP*OIA BRHANNICA, NINTH EDITI0*
 
 BRAIN. 
 
 A N A T M Y 
 
 ^7! 
 
 The grey matter of the medulla oblongata, which contains 
 numero'is multipolar nerve cells, is in part continuous with 
 the grey matter of the Spinal cord, and in part consists of in- 
 dependent masses. As the grey matter of the cord enters the 
 medulla,it loses its crescentic arrangement. The posterior 
 cornua are thrown outwards towards the surface, lose their 
 pointed form, and dilate into rounded masses named the 
 arey tubercles of Rolando, whilst portions are prolonged 
 into both the posterior pyramid and the restiform body. 
 The grey matter of the anterior cornua and of the intermedio- 
 Jateral tracts loses its continuity, and becomes subdivided 
 into numerous small masses, owing to being traversed by 
 bundles of nerve fibres, which give rise to a network termed 
 formatio reticularis, in the meshes of which the groups of 
 nerve cells are contained. In the lower part of the medulla 
 a central canal continuous with that of the cord exists, but 
 when the restiform bodies and posterior pyramids on the 
 opposite aides of the medulla diverge from each other, the 
 central canal loses its posterior boundary, and dilates into 
 the cavity of the 4th ventricle. The grey matter in the 
 interior of the medulla appears, therefore, on the floor of the 
 ventricle; that which corresponds to the anterior cornua 
 being situated immediately on each side of the median fur- 
 row, whilst that which is continuous with the grey tubercles 
 of Rolando and the posterior cornua is some distance ex- 
 ternal to it. This grey matter forms collections of nerve 
 cells, _ which are the centres of origin of several important 
 encephalic nerves. 
 
 Of the independent masses of grey matter of the medulla, 
 that which forms the corpus dcntatum within the olivary 
 body is the most important, and constitutes the nucleus of 
 the inferior olive. It is folded on itself in a zig-zag or 
 denticulated manner, and forms a sort of capsule open on 
 the inner aspect, through which openings a bundle of nerve 
 fibres from the interior of the capsule proceeds. These 
 fibres aid in the formation of the olivary fasciculus, and as 
 Deiters and Meynert have pointed out, in part arch across the 
 mesial plane and join the restiform body on the opposite side, 
 whilst some apparently join the posterior pyramid. The 
 nerve cells of the olive are multipolar and flask-shaped, and 
 in all probability give origin to the nerve fibres proceeding 
 from the interior of the capsule. Separated' from the inner 
 part of the olive by a layer of reticular substance is a smaller 
 grey mass, called by Stilling nucleus olivaris accessoriug. 
 Crossing the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata, 
 immediately below the pons, in the majority of mammals 
 is a transverse arrangement of fibres forming the trapezium, 
 which contains a grey nucleus, named by Van der Kolk 
 the superior olive. In the human brain the trapezium is 
 concealed by the lower transverse fibres of the pons, but when 
 sections are made through it, as L. Clarke pointed out, the 
 grey matter of the superior olive can be seen. Meynert 
 dtates that its nerve cells give origin to some fibres, which 
 run straight backwards to the restiform body of the same 
 side, and to others which pass across the mesial plane to 
 ;he opposite corpus restiforme. 
 
 ■ The Pons Varolii or Bridge (PL XVHI. figs. 1 , 2, 3, N) 
 is cuboidal in form : its anterior surface rests upon the 
 Jorsum selta of the sphenoid, and is marked by a median 
 longitudinal groove ; its inferior surface receives the pyra- 
 midal and olivary tracts of the medulla oblongata ; at its 
 superior surface are the two crura cerebri; each lateral 
 surface is in relation to a hemisphere of the cerebellum, 
 and a peduncle passes from the pons into the interior of 
 each hemisphere ; the posterior surface forms in part the 
 upper portion of the floor of the 4th ventricle, and in part 
 is in contact with the corpora quadrigemina. 
 
 The pons consists of white and grey matter ; the nerve 
 fibres of the white matter pass through the substance, of 
 the nons. cither in a transverse or a longitudinal direction. 
 
 The transverse fibres go from one hemisphere of tha 
 cerebellum to that of the opposite side ; some are situated 
 on the anterior surface of the pons, and form its superficial 
 transverse fibres, whilst others pads through its substance 
 and form, the deep transverse fibres. The transverse fibres 
 of the pons constitute, therefore, the commissural or 
 connecting arrangement by which the two hemispheres of 
 the cerebellum become anatomically continuous with each 
 other. The longitudinal fibres of the pons ascend or pass 
 vertically upwards from the medulla oblongata, ad consist 
 of the fibres of the anterior pyramids, olivary fasciculi, 
 fasciculi teretes, and posterior pyramids. They leave the 
 pons by emerging from its upper surface as fibres of the 
 two crura cerebri. The pons possesses a median raphe 
 continuous with that of the medulla oblongata, and formed 
 like it by a decussation of fibres in the mesial plane. 
 
 The grey matter of the pons is scattered irregularly 
 through its substance, and appears on its posterior surface : 
 but not on the anterior surface, which is composed exclu- 
 sively of the superficial transverse fibres. It is traversed 
 both by the longitudinal and deep transverse fibres, which 
 form a well-defined formatio reticularis. To a portion of 
 grey matter, containing nerve cells charged with dark 
 pigment, the name of locus cceruleus is applied. The locus 
 lies on the floor of the 4th ventricle, close to the entrance 
 to the aqueduct of Sylvius, and serves as the origin of the 
 sensory root of the 5 th, and perhaps of the posterior root of 
 the 4th cranial nerve. The nerve cells of the pons are multi- 
 polar and stellate. The pons acts as a conductor of 
 impressions through. its nerve fibres, and as a centre of 
 origin of nerve fibres from nerve cells. Meynert states that 
 some of the fibres of the crura cerebri end in the nerve 
 cells of the pons, which cells again give origin to fibres 
 that pass outwards to the cerebellum. 
 
 The Cerebellum, Little Brain, or After Braqj (PL 
 XVIII. fig. 2, c), occupies the inferior pair of occipital fossae, 
 and, along with the pons and medulla oblongata, lies below 
 the plane of the tentorium cerebelli. It consists of two hemi- 
 spheres or lateral lobes, and of a median or centrallobe, which 
 in human anatomy is called the vermiform process. It is 
 connected belowwith the medulla oblongata by the two resti- 
 form bodies which form its inferior peduncles, and above to 
 the corpora quadrigemina of the cerebrum by two bands, 
 which form its superior peduncles; whilst the two hemi- 
 spheres are connected together by the transverse fibres of the 
 pons, which form the middle peduncles of the cerebellum. 
 On the superior or tentorial surface of the cerebellum the 
 median or vermiform lobe is a mere elevation, but on its 
 inferior or occipital surface this lobe forms a well-defined 
 inferior vermiform process, which lies at the bottom of i deep 
 fossa or vallecula ; this fossa is' prolonged to the posterior 
 border of the cerebellum, and forms there a deep notch 
 which separates the two hemispheres from each other; in this 
 notch the falx cerebelli is lodged. Extending horizontally 
 backwards from the middle cerebral peduncle, along the 
 outer border of each hemisphere is the great horizontal 
 fissure, which divides the hemisphere into its tentorial and 
 occipital surfaces. Each of these surfaces is again sub- 
 divided by fissures into smaller lobes, of which the most 
 important are the amygdala or tonsil, which forms the 
 lateral boundary of the anterior part of the vallecula, and 
 the flocculus, which is situated immediately behind the 
 middle peduncle of the cerebellum. The inferior vermiform 
 process is subdivided into a posterior part or pyramid ; an 
 elevation or uvula, situated between the two tonsils ; and 
 an anterior pointed process or nodule. Stretching between 
 the two flocculi, and attached midway to the sides of the 
 nodule, is a thin, white, semilunar-shaped plate of nervous 
 matter, called the posterior medullary velum. 
 
 The whole outer surface of thi owsMlira po waw
 
 872 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [nervous system— 
 
 characteristic foliated or laminated appearance, due to ita 
 subdivision. into multitudes of thin plates or lamellae by 
 numerous fissures. The cerebellum consists both of grey 
 and white matter. Tho grey matter forms the exterior or 
 cortex of the lamellae, and passes from one to the other 
 across the bottoms of the several fissures. The white 
 matter lies in the interior of the organ, and extends into 
 the core of each lamella. When a vertical section is made 
 through the organ, the prolongations of white matter 
 branching off into the interior of the several lamellae give 
 to the section an arborescent appearance, known by tho 
 fanciful nameof arbor vi'te(PL XVIII. fig. 3,c). Independent 
 massss of grey matter are, however, found in the interior 
 of the cerebellum. If the hemisphere be cut through a 
 little to the outer side of the median lobe, a zig-zag arrange- 
 ment of grey matter, similar in appearance and structure 
 to the nucltus of the olivary body in tho medulla oblongata, 
 and known as tho corpus dentatum of the cerebellum, is 
 seen ; it lies in the midst of the white core of the hemi- 
 sphere, and encloses white fibres, which leave the interior 
 of the corpus at its inner and lower side. Stilling has de- 
 scribed, in connection with the anterior end of the in- 
 ferior vermiform process, which projects forwards into the 
 valve of Vieussens, and aids in the formation of the roof 
 of the 4th ventricle, two grey masses, named roof nuclei. 
 They possess flask-shaped nerve cells like those of the 
 corpus dentatum. The white matter is more abundant in 
 the hemispheres than in the, median lobe, and is for the 
 most part directly continuous with the fibres of the 
 peduncles of tho cerebellum. Thus the rcstiform or inferior 
 peduncles pass from below upwards through the white core, 
 to end in the grey matter of the tentorial surface of the 
 cerebellum, more especially in that of the central lobe ; on 
 their way they are connected both with the grey matter of 
 the corpus dentatum and of the roof nuclei. The superior 
 peduncles, which descend from the corpora quadrigemina of 
 tho cerebrum, reach the grey cortical matter, more especially 
 »n the inferior surface of the cerebellum, though they also 
 form connections with the corpus dentatum. The middle 
 peduncles form a large proportion of the white core, and 
 their fibres terminate in the grey matter of the foliated 
 cortex of the hemispheres. But, in addition to these 
 peduncular fibres, which connect the cerebellum to other 
 subdivisions of the encephalon, its white matter contains 
 fibres proper to the cerebellum itself. The fibres propria 
 have been especially described by Stilling ; some, which he 
 nas termed the median fasciculi, lie near the mesial plane, 
 and connect the grey matter on the tentorial aspect of the 
 middle lobe with that of tho inferior vermiform process, 
 whilst others cross directly the mesial plane to unite opposite 
 and symmetrical regions of the hemispheres. Further, the 
 auditory nerve was said by Fovillo to derive some of its 
 fibres of origin from the cerebellum ; the connection of this 
 nerve with the cerebellum has been strongly insisted on by 
 Meynert, ai/.l this anatomist has also ascribed a cerebellar 
 origin to a portion of the sensory root of the 5th cranial 
 nerve. 
 
 The grey matter of the cortex is divided into two well- 
 defined layers, an external grey, and an inner rust coloured 
 layer of about equal thickness. The rust coloured layer is 
 distinguished by containing multitudes of so called " gran- 
 ules," the well-defined nucleus in which, as described by 
 Strachan, is invested by a small quantity of branched 
 protoplasm. These "granules" are, therefore, minute 
 stellate cells. Where the rust coloured layer joins tho 
 grey layer the characteristic nerve cells of the cerebel- 
 lum, named the corpuscles of Purkinje, are situated. A 
 slender central process arising from each cell enters the 
 rust coloured layer, and, as the observations of Hadlich 
 and Koscheunikoff show, becomes continuous with the 
 
 axial cylinder of a medullated nerve fibre ; for the nerve 
 fibres of the white core enter this layer, divide into minute 
 fibres, and ramify amidst the granules. From the oppo- 
 site aspect of each cell two peripheral processes arise, 
 and ramify in an antler-like manner in the external grey 
 layer. Obersteiner and Hadlich maintain that the finer 
 branches of these processes curve back towards the rust 
 coloured layer, where, according to Boll, they form a net- 
 work of extreme minuteness, from which it is believed 
 that nerve fibres may arise. The substratum of the grey 
 layer, in which the branched processes of the cells of 
 Purkinje lie, consists of a very delicate neuroglia, in which 
 scattered corpuscles are imbedded ; but, in the outer part 
 of this layer, delicate supporting connective tissue-like 
 fibres are also met with. 
 
 Tho Fourth Ventricle is the dilated upper end of the ccn- Fourth 
 tral canal of the medulla oblongata. Its shape is like anVentricu 
 heraldic lozenge. Its floor is formed by the gicy matter of 
 
 Fin. 68.— Floor of the fotuth ventricle and adjacent structures. 1, pine 
 gland; 2. the nates, and 3, the testes of the corpora quadrigemina; 4, 4 
 middle peduncles, .\ 0, superior peduncles, 9, 9, inferior peduncles of tb» 
 cerebellum; 6, 6, valve of Vieussens divided; 7. 7, fasciculi teretes; 8. 8, root* 
 of the aartlrory nerves; 9', corpus dentatum; 10, 10, posterior pyramids; 11, 
 calamus scilptorlus. 
 
 the posterior surfaces of the medulla oblongata and pons; 
 its roof partly by the inferior vermiform process of the cere- 
 bellum, the nodule of which projects into its cavity, and 
 partly by a thin layer, called valve of Vieussens, or anterior 
 medullary velum ; its lower lateral boundaries, by the diver- 
 gent restiform bodies and posterior pyramids ; its upper 
 lateral boundaries, by the superior peduncles of the cere- 
 bellum ; the reflection of the arachnoid membrane from the 
 back of tho medulla to the inferior vermiform process closes* 
 it in below, but allows of a communication between its cavity 
 and the sub-arachnoid space ; above, it communicates with 
 the aqueduct of Sylvius, which is tunnelled through the sub- 
 stance of the corpora quadrigemina. Along the centre of 
 the floor is the median furrow, which terminates below in 
 a pen-shaped form, the so-called calamus scriptorius. 
 Situated on its floor are the fasciculi teretes, striae acous- 
 ticae, and deposits of grey matter described in connection 
 with the medulla oblongata. Its endothelial lining is con- 
 tinuous with that of the central canaL 
 
 The Cerebrum or Great Brain lies above the plane 
 of the tentorium, and forms much the largest division of 
 the encephalon. It is customary in human anatomy to 
 include under the name of cerebrum, not only the convo- 
 lutions, the corpora striata, and the optic thalami, developed 
 in the anterior cerebral vesicle, but also the corpora quadri- 
 gemina and crura cerebri developed in the middle cerebral 
 vesicle. The cerebrum is ovoid in shape, and presents 
 superiorly, anteriorly, and posteriorly a deep median long^u,-
 
 BRAIN.] 
 
 A In! A T OBI ^ 
 
 873 
 
 dinal fissure, which subdivides it into two hemispheres. 
 Inferiorly there is a continuity of structure between the 
 two hemispheres across the mesial plane, and if the two 
 hemispheres be drawn asunder by opening out the longi- 
 tudinal fissure, a broad white band, the corpus callosum, 
 may be seen at the bottom of the fissure passing across the 
 mesial plane from one hemisphere to the other. The outer 
 surface of each hemisphere is convex, and adapted in shape 
 to the concavity of the inner table of the cranial bones ; 
 its inner surface, which bounds the longitudinal fissure, is 
 flat and i3 separated from the opposite hemisphere by the 
 fabx cerebri; its under surface, where it rests "on the 
 tentorium, is concave, and is separated by that membrane 
 from the cerebellum aad pons. From the front of the pons 
 two strong white bands, the crura cerebri or cerebral 
 peduncles, pass forwards and upwards to enter the optic 
 thalami in their respective hemispheres. Winding round 
 the outer side of each crus is a flat white band, the optic 
 tract. These tracts converge in front, and join to form 
 the optic commissure, from which the two optic nerves arise. 
 The crura cerebri, optic tracts, and optic commissure enclose 
 a lozenge shaped space, which includes — a, a grey layer, 
 called pous Tarini, which, from being perforated by seve- 
 ral small arteries, is often called locus perforatus posticus; 
 b, two white mammillae, .the corpora albicantia ; c, a grey 
 nodule, the tuber cinereum, from which, d, the infundi- 
 bulum projects to join the pituitary body. Immediately in 
 front of the optic commissure is a grey layer, the lamina 
 iinerea or lamina terminalis of the 3d ventricle; and 
 between the optic commissure and the inner end of each 
 Sylvian fissure is a grey spot perforated by small arteries, 
 the locus perforatus anticus. 
 
 The peripheral part of each hemisphere, which consists 
 of grey matter, exhibits a characteristic folded appearance, 
 known as the convolutions or gyri of the cerebrum. These 
 •convolutions are separated from each other by fissures or 
 sulci, some of which are considered to subdivide the hemi- 
 sphere into lobes, whilst others separate the convolutions 
 in each lobe from each other. In each hemisphere of the 
 human brain five lobes are recognised : the temporo-sphe- 
 noidal, frontal, parietal, occipital, and the central lobe or 
 insula. Passing obliquely on the outer face of the hemi-. 
 sphere from before, upwards- and backwards, is the well- 
 marked Sylvian fissure, which is the first to appear in the 
 development of the hemisphere. Below it lies the tem- 
 poro-sphenoidal lobe, and above and in front of it, the 
 parietal and frontal lobes. The frontal lobe is separated 
 from the parietal by the fissure of Rolando, which extends 
 on the outer face of the. hemisphere from the longitudinal 
 fissure obliquely, downwards and forwards towards the 
 Sylvian fissure. About two inches from the hinder end 
 of the hemisphere is the parieto-occipitdl fissure, which, 
 commencing at the longitudinal fissure, passes down the 
 inner surface of the hemisphere, and transversely outwards 
 for a short distance on the outer surface of the hemi- 
 sphere; it separates the parietal and occipital lobes from 
 each other. 
 
 The Temporo-Sphenoidal Lobe presents on theouter surface 
 of the hemisphere three convolutions, arranged in parallel 
 tiershom above down wards, and na.medsupe7-ior,middle,and 
 inferior temporo-sphenoidal convolutions. The fissure which 
 .separates the superior and middle of these convolutions is 
 called the parallel fissure. The Occipital Lobe also con- 
 sists from above downwards of three parallel convolutions, 
 named superior, middle, and inferior occipital. The 
 Frontal Lobe is more complex ; immediately in front of the 
 fissure of Rolando, andforming indeed its anterior boundary, 
 is a convolution named ascending frontal, which ascends 
 obliquely backwards and upwards from the Sylvian to the 
 .longitudinal fissure. Springing from the front of this con- 
 
 1— 2»" 
 
 volution, and passing forwards to the anterior end of the 
 cerebrum, are three convolutions, arranged in parallel tiers 
 from above downwards, and named superior, middle, and 
 inferior frontal convolutions, which are also prolonged on 
 to the orbital face of the frontal lobe. The Parietal Lobe 
 is also complex; its most anterior convolution, named 
 ascending parietal, ascends parallel to and immediately 
 behind the fissure of Rolando. Springing from the upper 
 end of the back of this convolution is the postero-parietal 
 convolution,vrhich, forming the boundary of the longitudinal 
 fissure, extends as far back as the parieto-occipital fissure; 
 springing from the lower end of the back of this convo- 
 lution is the , supra -marginal convolution, which forms 
 the upper boundary of the hinder cart of tho Sylvian 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 Figs. 69 and 70.— Profile and vertex views of cerebrum. Fr. the fiootal lobct 
 Par, parietal; Oc, occipital ; Ts. temporo-sphenoidal lobe ; 55, Sylvian vls<uiv ; 
 RR, fissure of Rolando; PO. parieto-occipital fissure; IP, intra -parietal fivtan ; 
 PP. Parallel fissure ; SF and IF, supero- and tnfero-frontal fissnva; 1,1,1, 
 Inferior, 2, 2, 2, middle, and 3, 3, 3, superior frontal convolutions; 4. 4, 
 ascending frontal convolution ; 5, 5, 5. ascending parietal, 6', pustero-parietaC 
 and 6, 6. angular convolutions ; A, supra-marginal, or convolution of the parietal 
 eminence; 7, 7, superior. 8, 8, 8, middle, and 9, 9, 9, inferior temporo- 
 sphenoidal convolutions; 10, superior, 11, middle, and 12, inferior occipital 
 convolutions; a, p, y, i, four annectent convolutions. 
 
 fissure ; as this gyrus occupies the hollow in the' parietal 
 bone, which corresponds to the eminence, it may appro- 
 priately be named the convolution of the parietal eminence. 
 Continuous with the convolution of the parietal eminence 
 is the angular convolution, whichliends round the posterior 
 extremity of the Sylvian fissure. Lying in the parietal lobe 
 is the intra-parielal fissure, which separates the convolution 
 of the parietal eminence from the postero-parietal con
 
 67* 
 
 A JN A T O M Y 
 
 NErtVOUS SYSTEM — 
 
 Tolution. The occipital is connected with the parietal lobe 
 by two annedent or bridgirg gyri, which bridge across the 
 transverse external part of the parieto-occipital fissure ; the 
 
 Fio. 71. — Side view of the Brain in the 6kuU. 1 
 
 depth and extent of this fissure vary in different brains in 
 proportion to the size of these bridging convolutions. The 
 superior annectent gyrus passes between the postero-parietal . 
 and the superior occipital convolutions, whilst the second an- 
 nectent gyrus connects the middle occipital with the angular 
 gyrus. Two annectent gyri also pass from the inferior occi- 
 pital convolution to the lower convolutions of the temporo- 
 sphenoidal" lobe. These lobes of the cerebrum, though 
 named after the bones which form the vault of the skull, are 
 not exactly co-terminous with them. The frontal lobe not 
 only lies under cover of the frontal bone, but extends back- 
 wards under the anterior part of the parietal ; for the fissure 
 of Rolando, which forms its posterior boundary, lies from 
 1 £ to 2 inches behind the coronal suture. The occipital lobe 
 is not limited to the upper tabular part of the occipital 
 bone, but extends forwards under cover of the posterior 
 part of the parietal, for the parieto-occipital fissure lies 
 about | inch in front of the apex of the lambdoidal fissure. 
 The temporo-sphenoidal lobe not only lies under the 
 squamous-temporal and great wing of the sphenoid, but 
 passes upwards under cover of the lower part of the parietal, 
 for the Sylviaaiissure passes from below obliquely upwards 
 and backwards across the line of the squamous suture near 
 its middle. The area covered by the parietal bone so far, 
 
 1 The above view of the brain in situ shows the relations of the sur- 
 face convolutions to the regions of the skull. R, fissure of Kolando, 
 which separates the frontal from the parietal lobe. TO, parieto-occi- 
 pital fissure between the parietal and occipital lobes. SS, fissure of 
 Sylvius, which separates the temporo-sphenoidal from the frontal and 
 parietal lobes. SF, MF, IF, the supero-, mid-, and infcro-frontal sub- 
 divisions of the frontal area of the skull ; the letters are placed on the 
 superior, middle, and inferior frontal convolutions ; the inferior frontal 
 region is separated from the middle frontal by the frpntal part of the 
 curved line of the temporal ridge; the mid- from the supero-frontal by 
 an antero-posterior line through the frontal eminence. SAP, the supero- 
 antero-parietal area of the skull ; S is placed on the ascending parietal 
 convolution, AP on the ascending frontal convolution. IAP, the infero- 
 anteroparietal area of the skull; I is placed on the ascending parietal, AP 
 on the ascending frontal convolution. SPP, the supero-postero-parietal 
 ares, of the skull ; the letters are placed on the angular convolution. 
 1PP, the infero-postero-parietal area of the skull ; the letters are placed 
 ou the mid-temporo-sphenoidal convolution; the temporal ridgeseparates 
 the supero- and infero-parietal regions from each other; a vertical line 
 arawn through the parietal eminence separates the antero- and postero- 
 parietal regions. X, the convolution of the parietal eminence, or supra- 
 marginal gyrus. 0, the occipital area of the skull ; the letter is placed 
 on the mid-occipital convolution. Sq, the squamoso'iemporal region 
 of the skull ; the letters are placed on the mid-temporo-sphenoidal con- 
 volution. AS, the alisphenoid region of the skull ; the letters are 
 placed on the tip of the supero-temporo-sphenoidal convolution. The 
 black linee mark the boundaries of different cranial regions. 
 
 then, from being co-terminous with the parietal lobe of the 
 cerebrum is trenched on anteriorly by the frontal, poste- 
 riorly by the occipital, and inferiorly by the temporo- 
 sphenoidal lobe. The convolutions of the parietal lobe 
 itself are grouped around the parietal eminence, and in the 
 interval between it and the sagittal suture. The inner 
 table of the cranial bones is an almost exact mould of the 
 convolutions of these lobes ; but this is not so with the ex- 
 terior of the skull, the configuration of which is modified 
 by the formation of ridges and processes for the attachment 
 of muscles, by variations in the thickness of the diploe, 
 and by the development of the frontal and mastoid air- 
 sinuses. Hence the outer surface of the skull does not 
 correspond in shape to the outsido of the brain. 
 
 The Central Lobe of the hemisphere, more usually called 
 the insula or island of Reil. does rot come to the surface 
 of the hemisphere, 
 but lies deeply within 
 the Sylvian fissure, 
 the convolutions 
 forming the margin 
 of "which conceal it. 
 It consists of four or 
 five short convolu- 
 tions, which radiate 
 from the locus per- 
 forates anticus, situ- 
 ated at the inner 
 end of the fissure. 
 This lobe is almost 
 entirely surrounded 
 by a deep sulcus, 
 which insulates it 
 from the adjacent 
 convolutions. It lies 
 opposite the upper 
 part of the ali- 
 sphenoid, where it 
 articulates with the 
 parietal and • squa- 
 mous-temporal. 
 
 Convolutions also 
 exist on the inner 
 surface of the hemi- 
 sphere, and on the 
 under surface which 
 rests on the tento- 
 rium, but these have 
 no relation to the bones of the cranial vault. They may 
 be studied in connection with the corpus callosum or 
 great transverse commissure, which connects the two 
 hemispheres, and with certain fissures situated on theso 
 surfaces of the hemisphere. The small convolutions which 
 lie behind the internal part of the parieto-occipital fissure 
 form the inner convolutions of- the occipital lobe, or the occi- 
 pital lobule (Fig. 73). Those which lie immediately in front 
 of the same fissure belong to the inner face of the parip* 
 lobe, and form the quadrilateral lobule. It is custoraa., 
 however, to name the convolution which extends forwards 
 from that fissure along the margin of the longitudinal 
 fissure to the anterior end of the hemisphere, and which 
 then turns back to the locus perforatus anticus as the 
 marginal convolution. This is separated by a fissure called 
 calloso-marginal, from the callosal convolution or gyrus 
 fornicalus, which, commencing at the locus perforatus an- 
 ticus, turns round the anterior end of the corpus callosum, 
 extends parallel to its upper surface, and then turns round 
 its posterior end. It is separated from the corpus callosum 
 by the callosal fissure, at the bottom of which the grey matter 
 of the gyrus fornicatu3 termintes in a well-defined edge. 
 
 Flo. 72— OrMtal surface of the left frontal lot... 
 end the bland of Kell ; the tip of the temporo- 
 sphenoidal lobe has been removed to display ths 
 latter. 17, convolution of the margin of t lie longi- 
 tudinal fissure; 0, olfactoiy Assure, over which 
 the olfactory peduncle and lube are situated ; 
 Tit, tri-radiate Assure ; 1" 1'", convolutions on tlie 
 orbital surface; 1, 1, 1, 1, under surface of Infero- 
 frontal convolution; 4, under surface of ascend- 
 ing frontal, and 6, of ascending parietal convolu- 
 tions; C, central lobe or Insula.
 
 BRAIN. | 
 
 ANATOMY 875 
 
 The callosal convolution encloses the corpus callosum [ the sunace of tlio corpus callosum a few Circs the stria! 
 ithin the -concavity of its arch, and from its direction is Iwjitudiuales, run in the anteroposterior or longitudinal 
 
 He. T-i.— Convolutions of the inner and tentorial surfaces of the left hemi- 
 sphere. •', t, i, calloso-marcinal fissure; /, (, calcarine assure; m, m, hlppo- 
 campal fissure; n, n, collateral fissure; PO, partcto-occipital fissure; 17, 17, 
 marginal convolution; 18, 18, gyrus foinicatus; IS', quadrilateral lobule; 
 13, hippocampal cyrus; 19', its recurved end; 25, occipital lobule; 9, 9, infe- 
 rior temporo-sphenoidal convolution. 
 
 appropriately called fornicatus (arch-shaped). The pos- 
 terior end of the callosal convolution curves downwards 
 and then forwards, under the name of gyrus hippocampi, 
 to the tip of the inner surface of the temporo-sphenoidal 
 lobe. This gyrus is separated anteriorly by a narrow 
 curved fissure called hippocampal fissure, from a white 
 band, 'the taenia hippocampi, which band possesses a free 
 curved border, round which the pis. mater and choroidal 
 artery enter the lateral ventricle through the great transverse 
 fissure of the cerebrum. The hippocampal fissure is con- 
 tinuous round the posterior end of the corpus callosum 
 with the callosal fissure, and at the bottom of the hippo- 
 campal fissure the grey matter of the gyrus hippocampi 
 terminates in a well-defined dentated border (fascia den- 
 tata). The hippocampal fissure on this surface of the 
 hemisphere marks the position of an eminence in the de- 
 scending cornu of the ventricle called hippocampus major. 
 The gyrus hippocampi is separated posteriorly from the 
 adjacent temporo-sphenoidal convolution by a fissure, named 
 collateral, which marks the position on this surface of the 
 hemisphere of the collateral eminence in the interior of the 
 ventricle. From the lower end of the parieto-occipital 
 fissure an offshoot, called the calcarine fissure, passes almost 
 horizontally backwards in the occipital lobe, which fissure 
 marks on this surface of the hemisphere the eminence named 
 calcar avis, or hippocampus minor, in the posterior cornu of 
 the ventricle. 
 
 If a horizontal slice be removed from the upper part of 
 each hemisphere, the peripheral grey matter of the convo- 
 lutions will be seen to follow their various windings, whilst 
 the core of each convolution consists of white matter con- 
 tinuous with a mass of white matter in the interior of the 
 hemisphere. If a deeper slice be now made down to the 
 plane of the corpus callosum, the white matter of that 
 structure will be seen to be continuous with the white 
 centre of each hemisphere. The corpus callosum doe3 not 
 equal the hemispheres in length, but approaches nearer to 
 their anterior than their posterior ends (PI. XVIII. fig. 3, 
 B.) It terminates behind in a free rounded end, whilst in 
 front it forms a knee-shaped bend, and passes downwards 
 and backwards as far as the lamina cinerea. If the dissec- 
 tion be performed on a brain which has been hardened in 
 spirit, the corpus callosum is seen to consist almost entirely 
 of bundles of nerve fibres, passing transversely across the 
 mesial plane between the two hemispheres ; these fibres 
 may be traced into the white cores and grey matter of the 
 convolutions, and apparently connect the corresponding 
 convolutions in the opposite hemispheres. Hence the 
 corpus callosum is a connecting or commissural structure, 
 which brings the convolutions of the two hemispheres into 
 anatomical and physiological relation with each other. On 
 
 Flo. 74.— To show the right ventricle and the left half of tne corpus caUosom 
 a. transverse fibres, and 6, longitudinal fibres of corpus callosum; c, anteiior. 
 and d. posterior cornua of lateral ventricle; e, septum lucidum; /, corpus 
 striatum ; g, taenia semicircular^ ; h, optic thalamus; t, choroid plexus; 1. tenia 
 hinpocampi; r/i, hippocampus major; n, hippocampus minor; o, eminent:* col- 
 lateralis, 
 
 direction. If the corpus callosum be now cut through on 
 each side of it3 mesial line, the large cavity or lateral 
 ventricle in each hemisphere will be opened into. 
 
 The lateral ventricle is subdivided into a central space 
 or body, and three bent prolongations or cornua ; the 
 anterior cornu extends forwards and outwards into the 
 frontal lobe ; the posterior cornu curves backwards, 
 outwards, and inwards into the occipital lobe; the de- 
 scending cornu curves backwards, outwards, downwards, 
 forwards, and inwards, behind and below the optic tha- 
 lamus into the temporo-sphenoidal lobe. On the floor of 
 the central space may be seen from before backwards the 
 grey upper surface of the pear-shaped corpus striatum, and 
 to its inner and posterior part » small portion of the optic 
 thalamus, whilst between the two is the curved flat band, 
 the tamia semicircularis. Eestiug on the upper surface of 
 the thalamus is the vascular fringe of the velum interposi- 
 tion, named choroid plexus, and immediately internal to 
 this fringe is the free edge of the white posterior pillar of 
 the fornix. The anterior cornu has the anterior end of tho 
 corpus striatum projecting into it. The posterior cornu 
 has an elevation on its floor, the hippocampus minor, and 
 between this cornu and the descending cornu is the eleva- 
 tion called eminentia collaterals. 
 
 Extending down the descending cornu and following 
 its curvature is the hippocampus major, which terminates 
 below in a nodular end, the pes hippocampi ; on its inner 
 border is the white tania hippocampi, continuous above 
 with the posterior pillar of the fornix. If the tenia bo 
 drawn on one side the hippocampal fissure is exposed, at 
 the bottom of which the grey matter of the gyrus hippo- 
 campi may be seen to form a well-defined dentated border 
 (the so-called fascia dentata). The choroid plexus of tho 
 pia mater turns round the gyrus hippocampi, and enters the 
 descending cornu through the great transverse fissure be- 
 tween the tenia hippocampi and optic thalamus. The 
 lateral ventricle is lined by a cylindrical endothelium*,,
 
 876 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 |_NERYOTJ8 system— 
 
 which is in many parts ciliated, and which rests on a layer 
 of neuroglia. This lining is continuous through the fora- 
 men of Monro •with that of the third ventricle, which 
 egain is continuous with the lining of the fourth ventricle 
 through the aqueduct of Sylvius. A little fluid is con- 
 tained in the cerebral venti cles, which,' under some patho- 
 logical conditions, may increase greatly in quantity, so 
 as to occasion considerable dilatation of the ventricular 
 cavities. 
 
 If the corpus callosum be now divided about its middle 
 
 Pio. 75. — A deeper dissection of the lateral ventricle, and of the velum Inter- 
 position, a, under surface of corpus callosum, turner] back ; 6, 6, posterior 
 pillars of the fornix, turned back ; c, e, anterior pillars of the fornix ; d, velum 
 interposltum and veins of Galen; t, fifth ventricle; /, /, corpus striatum; 
 (7. £7. tsnia eemlcircularis; h, A, optic thalamus; A, choroid plexus; /. tsnla 
 hippocampi; m, hippocampus major In descending cornu; n, hippocampus 
 minir; o, eminenlla collateral!!. 
 
 oy a transverse incision, and the posterior half of this 
 structure be turned back, the body of the fornix on which 
 the corpus callosum rests is exposed. If the anterior half 
 of the corpus callosum be now turned forward, the grey 
 partition, or septum lucidur.:, between the two lateral ventri- 
 eles is exposed. This septum fits into the interval between 
 the under surface of the corpus callosum and the upper 
 surface of the anterior part of the fornix. It consists of 
 two layers of grey matter, between which is a narrow ver- 
 tical mesial space, the fifth ventricle. If the septum be 
 now removed, the anterior part of the fornix is brought 
 into view. 
 
 The fornix or arch is an arch-shaped band of nerve fibres 
 extending in the antero-posterior direction. Its ante- 
 rior end forms" the anterior piers or pillars of the arch, its 
 posterior end the posterior piers or pillars, whilst the inter- 
 mediate body of the fornix forms the summit or crown of 
 the arch. It consists of two lateral halves, one belonging 
 to each hemisphere. At the summit of the arch the two 
 lateral halves are conjoined to form the body; but in front 
 of the body the two halves separate from each other, and 
 form two anterior pillars, which descend in front of the 
 third ventnclj to the base of the cerebrum, where they 
 form the corpora c'Mcantia, and then enter the substance 
 of the optic thalamus, Behind the body the two halves 
 diverge much more from each other, and form the posterior 
 pillars; each of which curves downwards ind outwards 
 into the descending cornu of the ventricle, and, uiidsr the 
 
 name of tamia hippocampi, forms the free border of the 
 hippocampus major. If the body of the fornix be now 
 divided by a transverse incision, its anterior part thrown 
 forwards, and its posterior part backwards, the great traus- 
 verse fissure of the cerebrum is opened into, and the velum 
 interpositum lying in that fissure is exposed. 
 
 The velum interpositum is an expanded fold of pia mater, 
 w hich passes into the interior of the hemispheres through 
 the great transverse fissure. It is triangular ia shape; its 
 base is in a line with the posterior end of the corpus callosum, 
 where it is continuous with the external pia mater ; its 
 lateral margins are fringed by the choroid plexuses, which 
 are seen in the bodies and descending cornua of the lateral 
 ventricles, where they are invested by the endothelial 
 lining of those cavities. Its apex, where the two choroid 
 plexuses blend with each other, lies just behind the 
 anterior pillars of the fornix. The interval between the 
 apex and these pillars is the aperture of communication 
 between the two lateral ventricles and the third, already 
 referred to as the foramen of Monro. The choroid plexuses 
 contain the small choroidal arteries, which supply the cor- 
 pora striata, optic thalami, and corpora quadrigemina; and 
 the blood from these bodies is returned by small veins, 
 which join to form the veins of Galen (Fig. 75). These veins 
 pass along the centre of the velum, and, as is shown in Fig. 
 63, open into the straight sinus. If the velum interpositum 
 be now carefully raised from before backwards, the optic 
 thalami, thif d ventricle, pineal gland, and corpora quadri- 
 gemina are exposed. 
 
 The optic thalamus is a large, somewhat ovoid body 
 situated behind the corpus striatum, and above the cms 
 cerebri. Its upper surface is partly seen in the floor of 
 the body of the lateral ventricle, but is for the' most part 
 covered by the fornix and velum interpositum. Its postero- 
 inferior surface forms the roof of the descending cornu of 
 the ventricle, whilst its inner surface forms the side wall 
 of the third ventricle. At its outer and posterior part are 
 two slight elevations, placed one on each side of the optic 
 tract, and named respectively corpus geniculatum internum 
 and externum. 
 
 The third ventricle is a cavity situated in the mesial 
 plane between the two optic thalami Its roof is formed 
 by the velum interpositum and body of fornix; its floor, 
 by the pons Tarini, corpora albicantia, tuber cinereum, 
 infundibulum, and optic commissure ; its anterior bound 
 ary, by the anterior pillars of the fornix, anterior commis- 
 sure, and lamina cinere'a ; its posterior boundary, by the 
 corpora quadrigemina and posterior commissure. The 
 cavity of this ventricle is of small size in the living head, 
 for the inner surfaces of the two thalami are connected 
 together by intermediate grey matter, named the middle 
 or soft commissure; but in taking the brain out of the 
 cranial cavity this commissure is usually more or less torn 
 through, and the cavity is consequently enlarged. Imme- 
 diately in front of the corpora quadrigemina, the white 
 fibres of the posterior commissure pass across between the 
 two optic thalami. If the anterior pillars of the fornix be 
 separated from each other, the white fibres of the anterior 
 commissure may be seen entering the two corpora striata. 
 
 The pineal body is a reddish cone-shaped body, enveloped 
 by the velum interpositum, and situated upon the more 
 anterior pair of the corpora quadrigemina. From its broad 
 anterior end two white bands, the peduncles of the pineal 
 body, pass forwards, one on the inner side of each optio 
 thalamus. Each peduncle joins, along with the taenia 
 semicircularis, the anterior pillar of the fornix of its own 
 side. In its structure this body consists of a vascular 
 stroma of connective tissue, in the meshes of which 
 lymphoid cells are contained. Branched corpuscles are 
 also found not unlike nerve cells- Amylaceous and gritty
 
 BRAIN.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 877 
 
 calcareous particles, constituting the brain sand, are also 
 found in it. Usually it is hollowed out into two or more 
 email cavities. The function of the pineal body is not 
 understood, but both it and the pituitary body, which 
 possess a certain structural correspondence, are usually 
 referred to the type of the ductless glands. 
 
 The corpora quadrigemina or opdc lobes are situated 
 behind and between the two optic thalami, and rest upon 
 the posterior surface of the crura cerebri The division 
 into two lateral halves is marked by a shallow longitu- 
 dinal fissure, and the subdivision of each half into an an- 
 terior and a posterior eminence, by a shallow transverse 
 fissure. The anterior pair of eminences are called nates; 
 the posterior, testes. From each testis a strong white 
 band, the superior peduncle of the cerebellum, passes back- 
 wards to the cerebellum, and stretching between the pair 
 of peduncles is the valve of Vieussens or anterior medullary 
 velum. The corpora quadrigemina are tunnelled in the 
 antero-posterior direction by the aqueduct of Sylvius, which 
 opens anteriorly into the third ventricle immediately below 
 the posterior commissure, and posteriorly into the fourth 
 ventricle under cover of the valve of Vieussens. It is 
 lined by a cylindrical ciliated endothelium. 
 
 Internal Structure of the Cerebrum.- — The cere- 
 brum is composed both of grey and white matter , the 
 general relations of these two forms of nerve matter to 
 each other may be seen by making sections through the 
 cerebrum. The determination, however, of their minute 
 structure, and of the relations and connections of the 
 nerve fibres to the nerve cells is, owing to the delicacy 
 of the organ, one of the most difficult departments of ana- 
 tomical study. Several anatomists have endeavoured to 
 trace out the course of the nerve fibres in the organ, and 
 though our knowledge is by no means complete, yet many 
 important facts have undoubtedly been ascertained. These 
 facts, have been summarised, and numerous valuable addi- 
 tions made to them by Meynert in a recent elaborate 
 memoir, which has been frequently consulted and made use 
 of in writing the following description. 
 
 The Grey Matter of the cerebrum is disposed in three 
 great groups : a, The grey matter of the cortex of the hemi- 
 spheres ; 6, the grey matter of the great ganglia of the base 
 of the cerebrum ; c, the central grey matter which forms 
 the wall of the cerebral end of the cerebro-spinal tube. 
 
 a, The grey matter of the cortex of the hemisphere forms 
 the superficial part of the convolutions, and is known as 
 the great hemispherical ganglion, but in some localities, as 
 at the loci perforati antici and the septum lucidum, it has 
 received distinctive names. When a convolution is divided 
 vertically the grey matter is seen to be confined to the 
 surface and to enclose a white core. The grey matter 
 presents a laminated appearance, and as a rule • consists of 
 five or six layers, which are composed of the characteristic 
 pyramidal nerve cells of the cortex of the cerebrum, of nerve 
 fibres, of matrix or neuroglia, and of blood-vessels. The 
 most superficial layer consists of neuroglia, in which nerve 
 fibres extend parallel to the surface of the convolutions. 
 In the deeper layers are found the pyramidal nerve cells, 
 which lie with their long axes vertical to the surface of 
 the convolutions, and which contain angular nuclei. From 
 the observations of Lockhart Clarke, Arndt, Cleland, and 
 Meynert, there can be no doubt that the pyramidal nerve 
 cells vary in relative size and in numbers in the different 
 Jayers of the grey cortex, and that the largest sized pyra- 
 midal cells lie in the third and fourth layers. L. Clarke 
 stated that the cells of all the layers of the posterior or 
 occipital lobe were small and of nearly uniform size, whilst 
 in the convolutions anterior to it numerous cells of a much 
 larger kind were found ; but though it is undoubtedly true 
 that large pyramidal cells are found in the frontal lobe in i 
 
 considerable numbers, and that the greater number cf the 
 cells of the occipital lobe are small and nearly uniform in 
 size, there is no difficulty in recognising in the occipital 
 lobe a small proportion of cells, quite equal in magnitude 
 to the largest cells of the frontal lobe, interspersed amongst 
 the smaller pyramidal cells. The nerve fibres which ascend 
 into the grey matter from the white core of the convolution 
 radiate into its several layers, and are apparently continuous 
 with the basal axis-cylinder processes 1 of the nerve cells. 
 According to Cleland, the elongated apices of the cells, 
 which are directed to the surface of the convolution, are 
 continuous with the nerve fibres situated in the superficial 
 layer of horizontal fibres. Immediately subjacent to the 
 large pyramidal cells numerous small, irregularly shaped 
 nerve corpuscles, like those of the internal granule layer of 
 the retina, form the so-called granule layer of the grey matter. 
 Fusiform cells, which give off lateral processes, are found 
 in the deepest layer of the grey matter, and i form the 
 claustral layer of Meynert. Gerlach has described here, 
 as in the spinal cord, a network of extremely minute nerve 
 fibres, with which the branched lateral processes of the 
 nerve cells are apparently continuous. The neuroglia con- 
 tains multitudes of small rounded corpuscles. In it also 
 are found small stellate cells, provided with minute branched 
 processes, which cells, as Meynert states, are so pellucid, 
 that in the healthy brain they seem to be only free nuclei ; 
 it is difficult to say whether these cells belong to tho 
 neuroglia, or are nerve cell elements. The grey cortex of 
 the cerebrum is much more vascular than the white matter. 
 The arteries derived from the pia mater pass vertically into 
 it, and end in a close polygonal network of capillaries ; but 
 it is also traversed by the arteries, which terminate in the 
 capillary network of supply for the white matter. 
 
 In the grey matter of the cortex of the occipital lobe 
 eight layers have been described by Clarke and Meynert. 
 The increase in number is due to the intercalation of two 
 additional granule layers, which coalesce and form a dis- 
 tinct white band in the grey matter, owing, as Meynert 
 states, to the absence of pigment in the cells of the granule 
 layers. 
 
 The grey matter of the cortex of the island of Eeil and 
 of the convolutions bounding the Sylvian fissure contains a 
 very large proportion of fusiform cells. They form the chief 
 constituent of the grey claustrum, situated deeper than the 
 grey matter of the island, and separated from the outer part 
 of the corpus striatum by a thin layer of white matter. 
 Fusiform cells also occur abundantly in the nucleus amyg- 
 dala?, a grey mass situated below the corpus striatum, 
 which in some sections seems as if isolated, but in reality 
 is continuous with the grey matter of the inferior temporo- 
 sphenoidal convolution. 
 
 The grey matter cf the cortex of the gyrus hippocampi 
 and of the hippocampus major is apparently destitute of 
 both the granule and claustral layers of cells. Its super- 
 ficial layer has been named the nuclear lamina, and contains 
 small and scattered nerve corpuscles. Next this lamina 
 lies the striatum reticulare, in which the apices of the 
 numerous pyramidal cells of the third layer branch and 
 again unite to form a delicate network. Deeper than tne 
 pyramidal cells is a thick layer of so-called "granules,' 
 which A. B. Stirling recognised some years ago as liko 
 the granules of the rust coloured layer of the cerebellum ; 
 like them they consist of a well-defined nucleus invested 
 by delicate branched protoplasm. The grey matter of the 
 two layers of the septum lucidum, though included be- 
 tween the corpus callosum and fornix, is yet in the same 
 plane, as the' grey matter of the cortex of the inner surface 
 of the hemispheres, but is cut off from it by the develop 
 ment of the transverse fibres of the corpus callosiu.\. 
 The grey matter of the locus perforatus anticus contain*
 
 378 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [nervous bystbx- 
 
 clustere of minute granules and a compact arrangement of 
 small nerve cells. 
 
 6, The great ganglia of the base of the cerebrum are the 
 corpora striata, the optic thalami, the corpora geniculata, 
 the corpora quadrigemina, and the locus niger in each crus 
 cerebri. 
 
 The corpus striatum cerebri consists of two masses of 
 prey matter separated from each other by numerous stria; 
 of white fibres, which ascend from below upwards through 
 its substance. The upper mass of grey matter projects 
 into the lateral ventricle, and is called the intra-', entricular 
 portion or nucleus caudatus. The lower extra-ventricular 
 portion or nucleus lenticulans forms the outer and lower 
 part of the corpus striatum, and is separated by the 
 claustrum from the island of Reil: Multipolar nerve cells 
 are found in both the caudate and lenticular masses, and in 
 the Litter cells of large size have been seen. Tho optic 
 thalamus forms an almost continuous mass of grey matter 
 traversed by nerve fibres, which are not, however, collected 
 into definite strue. The nerve cells in the grey matter are 
 both multipolar and fusiform. The external corpus geni- 
 culatum consists of alternate layers of grey and white 
 matter, due to the zig-zag folding of the grey matter; the 
 nerve cells are multipolar, and contain pigment In tho 
 internal corpus geniculatum the cells are smaller in size 
 and fusiform. The grey matter of the corpora quadrigemina 
 consists of two distinct masses. One, the zonular layer, 
 lies near the surface, and contains small multipolar nerve 
 cells; the other, the Sylvian or central layer, lies at the sides 
 of the Sylvian fissure and belongs to the grey matter of the 
 wall of the cerebro-spinal tube, and serves as a centre of 
 origin for the roots of both the 3d and 4th cranial nerves. 
 The grey matter of the crus cerebri occupies the centre of 
 the cerebral peduncle. Its cells are multipolar, and contain 
 dark brown or black pigment, so that the name locus niger 
 is applied to this collection of nerve cells. 
 
 c, The central grey matter of the cerebrum is in series 
 with the grey matter of the floor of the 4th ventricle and 
 the grey matter of the spinal cord. It is situated around 
 the Sylvian aqueduct, and at the sides and floor of the third 
 ventricle, which form the cerebral portion of the cerebro- 
 spinal tube. That which is situated in relation with the 
 aqueduct of Sylvius forms the Sylvian or central layer just 
 described in the corpora quadrigemina. That which lies in 
 relation to the third ventricle forms the middle or soft com- 
 missure, and the well-defined grey layer which covers the 
 inner wall of each optic thalamus; also the grey masses 
 situated at the base of the brain between and in front of the 
 crura cerebri, viz., the pons Tarini, tuber cinereum, lamina 
 cinerea, infundibulum, and the grey matter of the pituitary 
 body. By some anatomists the grey matter of the pineal 
 body is referred to the same category, but Arnold has pointed 
 out that it is separated by its peduncle from the soft com- 
 missure ; and Meynert is disposed to regard it as a ganglion 
 of origin of the tegmentum. Both the pituitary and pineal 
 bodies contain, besides the nervous matter, structures of 
 the type of the glands without ducts. 
 
 The White Matter of the cerebrum consists of tracts or 
 fasciculi of nerve fibres, of which — a, some connect the cere- 
 brum with the lower divisions of the encephalon; b, others 
 connect the two hemispheres together ; c, others connect 
 different structures in the same hemisphere; d, others serve 
 as root3 of origin for the more anterior encephalic nerves. 
 
 a, The tracts of fibres which connect the cerebrum' with 
 the lower divisions of the encephalon are called peduncular 
 fibres. The largest of these peduncles are the two crura 
 cerebri or cerebral peduncles. Continuous below with the 
 longitudinal fibres of the pons they ascend into the optic 
 thalami and corpora striata, and their fibres are named the 
 peduncular fibres. From the corpora striata and optic 
 
 thalami fibres radiate into the convolutions of the lobes ol 
 the hemisphere and form the corona radiata. To some 
 extent the fibres of tho corona are directly continuous with 
 those of the cerebral peduncles, but there can be no doubt 
 that a larire portion of the peduncular fibres terminate in 
 the grey matter of the ganglia of the base of the cerebrum, 
 and that a still larger number arise from their nerve cells 
 to aid in the formation of the corona radiata. The direct 
 continuity, therefore, of many of the peduncular fibres with 
 those of the corona is broken or interrupted by the inter- 
 position of the cerebral ganglia, which Meynert has named 
 ganglia of interruption. The peduncular fibres and those 
 of the corona constitute the cerebral portion of the projection 
 system of fibres of Meynert, a term devised to express that 
 they conduct upwards to the grey cortex of the hemispheres 
 sensory impulses derived from the external world, tho 
 image of which is projected upon the cortex. But it should 
 also not be forgotten that many of the fibres of this system 
 conduct motor impulses downwards to be propagated along 
 the motor cranial and spinal nerves. The peduncular fibres 
 of the crura cerebri are arranged in two groups, named 
 respectively crusta and tegmentum, which are separated 
 from each other by the nerve cells of the locus niger. The 
 crusta forms the superficial or anterior part of the crus, 
 Its fibres are in greater part continuous with the longi- 
 tudinal fibres of the pons derived from the anterior 
 pyramids of the medulla; but it receives additional fibres 
 from the grey matter of the locus niger, and from tho cells 
 of the Sylvian layer in the corpora quadrigemina. Some 
 of the fibres of the crusta pass directly upwards as radiating 
 fibres to the grey cortex of the occipital and temporal lobes, 
 but the larger number terminate in the nucleus caudatus 
 and nucleus lenticularis of the corpus striatum. From 
 these nuclei a great mass of fibres radiates into the cortex 
 of the fronto-parietal lobes, more especially the frontal, but 
 a few also, bearing the special name of stria cornea, pass to 
 the grey matter of the apex of the temporal lobe ; fibres 
 also enter the convolutions of the insula. In addition to 
 the radiating fibres, the grey matter of the corpus striatum 
 gives origin to fibres of the middle root of the olfactory 
 peduncle, and to connecting fibres with the grey matter of 
 the septum lucidum. The tegmentum forms the posterior 
 or deeper part of the crus cerebri. Its fibres are continuous 
 with the longitudinal fibres of the pons derived from the 
 olivary fasciculi, fasciculi teretes, and posterior pyramids 
 of the medulla. A few of the fibres of the tegmentum 
 enter the corpora quadrigemina and corpora geniculata, but 
 the great majority enter the optic thalami, in the grey matter 
 of which many evidently terminate, though some may pass 
 through into the cortex of the hemispheres as fibres of the 
 corona radiata. But the grey matter of the thalamus gives 
 origin to numerous radiating fibres : those which arise in 
 its posterior part radiate into the occipital and temporal 
 lobes, whilst those proceeding out of its anterior part radiate 
 into the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes, and the insula. 
 In the optic thalamus the fornix arises. Its fibres emerge 
 from the under surface of the thalamus, form the corpus 
 albicans, and then pass backwards as the upper boundary 
 of the great transverse fissure to end as the taenia hippo- 
 campi in the gyrus hippocampi ; hence this convolution has 
 a special connection with the optic thalamus through the 
 fornix In the corpus albicans the fibres of the fornix are 
 arranged in loops, in the concavities of which nerve cells 
 are situated. The optic thalamus also gives origin to the 
 middle root of the optic tract. Owing to the connections 
 of the locus niger, nucleus caudatus, and nucleus lenticu- 
 laris with the crusta, Meynert has named them the ganglia 
 of the crusta; whilst the optic thalami, corpora quadrige- 
 mina, and geniculata are the ganglia of the tegmentum. 
 The comparison of the human brain with those of different
 
 BRAIN.] 
 
 A N A T M Y 
 
 87& 
 
 mammals has shown that the development of the hemi- 
 spheres bears a direct relation to the size of the crusta and 
 it3 ganglia, whilst the development of the hemispheres is 
 in inverse relation to the size of the tegmentum and its 
 ganglia. 
 
 The superior peduncles of the cereDellum connect that 
 organ with the cerebrum. They arise in the grey matter 
 of the vermiform process, ascend to the corpora quadri- 
 gemina, and some fibres are even prolonged apparently 
 into the tegmentum, and through it doubtless into the optic 
 thalamus. 
 
 b, The fibres which connect together the two hemispheres 
 are called commissural fibres. The largest of these com- 
 missures is the corpus callosum, which, as has already been 
 described, connects corresponding convolutions in the 
 opposite hemispheres. As its fibres lie on a plane superior 
 to those of the corona radiata, the two systems of fibres 
 intersect with each other on their way to the convolutions. 
 The anterior commissure, though often described as con- 
 necting the two corpora striata, yet, as Spurzheim pointed 
 out half a century ago, passes through these bodies to the 
 convolutions around the Sylvian fissure, and gives a root 
 of origin to the olfactory nerve. The posterior commissure 
 passes into the two optic thalami ; some of its fibres are 
 said to extend into the tegmentum, and others into the sub- 
 stance of the hemisphere. 
 
 c, The tracts which connect different convolutions in the 
 same hemisphere are named arcuate fibres, ovfibra propria. 
 The arcuate fibres are situated immediately beneath the 
 inner surface of the cortex of the hemispheres, and connect 
 together the grey matter of adjacent convolutions. In 
 eome localities they are strongly marked, and have received 
 special names. 
 
 The fascicilus uncinatus passes across the Sylvian fissur.e, 
 traverses the claustnim and amygdala, and connects the 
 convolutions of the frontal with those of the temporo- 
 gphenoidal lobe. The fillet of the gyrus fornicatus extends 
 longitudinally in that convolution, immediately above the 
 corpus callosum, from its anterior to its posterior ends, and 
 connects two different parts of its grey matter together. 
 The longitudinal fibres of the corpus callosumy or nerves 
 of Lancisi, also connect the anterior and posterior ends of 
 the callosal convolution. The longitudinal inferior fasci- 
 culus connects the convolutions of the occipital with those 
 of the temporal lobe. Longitudinal fibres lie on the inner 
 surface of the septum lucidum, and extend into the gyrus 
 fornicatus. 
 
 The corpora quadrigemina are connected with the optic 
 thalami by nervous tracts called brachia, and smaller tracts 
 also connect the thalami with the corpora geniculata. The 
 peduncles of the pineal gland connect that body with the 
 fornix, and are probably continued into the optic thalamus. 
 The taenia semicircularis is also at one end apparently con- 
 nected with tho optic thalamus, but its posterior termination 
 if. not well ascertained.- 
 
 The great cerebral ganglia and the central masses of grey 
 matter are centres of origin for sensori-motor nerves. The 
 hronispherical ganglia, again, are the parts of the brain 
 associated .with the intellectual processes. The question 
 has often been put, Are not the individual convolutions 
 distinct organs, each endowed with special properties ? and 
 various arguments based on physiological, pathological, and 
 anatomical grounds have been advanced in support of this 
 proposition. In connection with the anatomical branch of 
 the argument it may be stated that the convolutions possess, 
 not only in man, but in all animals with convoluted brains, 
 great regularity both in position and arrangement ; but 
 specialisation of form is not in itself a sufficient test of 
 specialisation of function. A gain, though the convolutions 
 Lave definite forms they are not disconnected from each 
 
 other, for the grey matter form? a continuous layer over 
 the whole surface of the hemisphere. Hence a group of 
 cerebral convolutions differs from a group of muscles, each 
 member of which is undoubtedly a distinct organ, for each 
 muscle is isolated from those around it by a definite invest- 
 ing sheath. As regards internal structure, evidence has 
 already been given that all the convolutions are not con- 
 structed on precisely the same plan, and it has also been 
 pointed out that the convolutions are not all connected in 
 the same way with the great cerebral ganglia. These 
 structural modifications unquestionably point to functional 
 differences in the several parts in which they are found. 
 But further, special connections through the arcuate fibres 
 are established between certain convolutions and not be- 
 tween others, and it is possible not only that particular 
 combinations of convolutions through an interchange of 
 internuncial fibres may condition a particular state of 
 intellectual activity, but that these combinations associate 
 various convolutions together in the performance of a given 
 intellectual act, just as in the muscular system several 
 muscles are as a rule associated together for the performance 
 of a given movement. A clue to the special functions of 
 the convolutions may perhaps be obtained by studying 
 their connections, just as the action of the members of 
 a group of muscles is ascertained by examining the direc- 
 tion of their fibres and the attachment of their terminal 
 tendons. 
 
 Mass a-ND Weight of the Brain. — The human brain 
 is absolutely bigger and heavier than the brain of any 
 animal, except the elephant and the larger whales. It is 
 also heavier relatively to the bulk and weight of the body 
 than are the brains of lower animals, except in some small 
 birds and mammals. Considerable variations, however, 
 exist in the size and weight of the human brain, not only 
 in the different races of mankind, but in individuals of the 
 same race and in the two sexes. The heaviest brains occur 
 in the white races. The average weight of the aduk Euro- 
 pean male brain is 49 to 50 oz., that of the adult female 
 44 to 45 oz. ; so that the brain of a man is on the average 
 fully 10 per cent, heavier than, that of a woman. The 
 greater weight of the brain in man as compared with woman 
 is not in relation merely to his greater bulk, but is a funda- 
 mental sexual distinction ; for, whilst there is a difference 
 of 1 per cent, in the brain weight, the average stature of 
 women is, as Thurnam has calculated, only 8 per cent, less 
 than that of men. Dr Boyd states that the average weight 
 of the brain in the newly born male infant is 11 '67 qz.; in 
 the female only 10 oz. The exact age at which the brain 
 reaches its maximum size has been variously placed at from 
 the 3d to the 8th years by different authors ; but it con- 
 tinues to increase in weight to 25 or 30, or even, 40. 
 After 60 the brain begins to diminish in weight ; in aged 
 males the average weight is about 45 oz.> in females about 
 41 oz. In some cases the adult brain considerably exceeds 
 the average weight. The brains of several men distinguished 
 for their intellectual attainments have been weighed : the 
 brain of Cuvier weighed 64 J oz. ; of Dr Abercrombie, G3 
 oz.; of Professor Goodsir, 57 J oz.; of Spurzheim, 55 oz. ; 
 of Sir J. Y. Simpson, 54 oz. ; of Agassiz, 53'4 oz. ; and of 
 Dr Chalmers, 53 oz. But high brain weights have also been 
 found where there was no evidence of great intellectual 
 capacity. Peacock weighed four male brains which ranged 
 from 62-75 to 61 oz.; Boyd, a specimen of 6075 oz.; and 
 Turner has recorded one of a boy aged fifteen which 
 weighed 60 oz. In the brains of the insane high brain 
 weights have also been observed. Bucknill met with a 
 brain in a male epileptic which weighed 64§ oz. ; Thurnam, 
 one which weighed 62 oz. ; and in the West Riding Asylum, 
 out of 375 males examined, the weight of the brain in 30 
 cases was 55 oz. or upwards, and the highest weights were
 
 880 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [nervous system— 
 
 CI oz. in a case of senile dementia, 60i oz. in a case of 
 dementia, and 60 oz. in one of melancholia. No case has 
 as yet been recorded of the weight of the brain in a woman 
 possessing intellectual eminence; but Boyd met with a 
 woman's brain as high as 55 - 25 oz., and many instances of 
 upwards of 50 oz. in women where there was no evidence of 
 high mental endowment. Skae, in a female monomaniac, 
 observed a brain which weighed 61i oz.; and of 300 
 females examined in the West Riding Asylum the weight 
 of the brain in 26 cases was 50 oz. or upwards, the highest 
 weights being 56 and 55 oz. in two cases of mania. The 
 size and weight of the brain do not therefore, per se, give 
 an exact method of estimating the intellectual power of the 
 individual, and a high brain weight and great intellectual 
 capacity arc not necessarily correlated with each other. It 
 seems certain, if the human brain, even amongst the most 
 uncultivated peoples, falls below 30 oz., that this low weight 
 is not merely incompatible with intellectual power and 
 activity, but is invariably associated with idiocy or imbe- 
 cility ; so that the human brain has a minimum weight 
 below which intellectual action is impossible. Amongst the 
 more cultivated races the minimum weight-limit of intelli- 
 gence is, however, in all probability higher than 30 oz. It 
 has been placed by Broca at 32 oz. for the female, and 37 oz. 
 for the male brain ; and Thumam's numbers are almost the 
 same. To how low a weight the brain in the microcepha- 
 lous idiot may fall is well shown in a case recorded by Theile, 
 where it weighed only 106 oz., in Gore's case of 10 oz. 5 
 grs., and in Marshall's case, 8 J oz. But instances are not 
 wanting in which the brains of idiots have exceeded even 
 50 oz. Langdon Down observed the brain of a male idiot 
 aged 22, which weighed 59 1 oz.; and J. B. Tuke has 
 recently met with a brain of 60 oz. in a male idiot aged 37, 
 the capacity of whose cranium was 110J cubic inches. In 
 the West Biding Asylum tables the brain weights in 10 
 idiots were not less than 34 oz., and in 5 cases exceeded 40 
 oz. As yet the opportunities of weighing the brain in the 
 coloured races of men have been but scanty. But from a 
 very extensive series of observations made by Barnard Davis, 
 not on the brains themselves, but on the cubic capacities of 
 crania, from which an approximate estimate of the brain 
 weight may be obtained with a fair measure of accuracy, 
 the following facts are derived : — The average weight of 
 the male brain in the African races is 45'6 oz.; of the 
 female brain, 427 oz. : the average weight of the male 
 brain in the Australian races is 42 8 oz. ; of the female 
 brain, 39 p 2 oz.: the average weight of the male brain in 
 the Oceanic races, 46'5 oz. ; of the female brain, 43 oz. 
 The conclusions which may legitimately be drawn from an 
 analysis of Barnard Davis's observations are as follows : — 
 1st, That the average brain weight is considerably higher 
 in the civilised European than in the savage races ; 2d, 
 That the range of variation is much greater in the former 
 than in the latter ; 3d, That there is an absence, almost 
 complete, of specimens heavier than 54 oz. in the exotic 
 races, so that the higher terms of the series are not repre- 
 sented ; 4th, That though the male brains are heavier than 
 the female, there is not the same amount of difference in 
 the average brain weight between the two sexes in the 
 uncultivated as in the cultivated peoples. 
 
 No reliable determinations have as yet been made of the 
 exact proportion, as regards bulk and weight, which the 
 convolutions bear to the corpora striata, optic thalami, and 
 corpora quadrigemina, but data are obtainable of the rela- 
 tive weight of the pons, cerebellum, and medulla to the 
 entire encephalon. Between the ages of 20 and 70 the 
 ratio of weight of the pons, cerebellum, and medulla, to the 
 entire brain, is as 13 to 100, and this relative weight is 
 virtually the same in both sexes. 
 
 Origin. Arrangement, and Distribution op the 
 
 Encephauo Nerves. — Several pairs of nerves, called 
 Cranial or Encephalic, arise from the under surface oi 
 base of the encephalon, and pass outwards through foramina 
 situated in the floor of the cranial cavity. Continental 
 anatomists usually enumerate twelve pairs of cranial nerves; 
 but because in one locality two of these nerves lie together 
 and pass through the same foramen, and in another spot 
 three of these nerves emerge together from the skull, British 
 anatomists have restricted the number to nine pairs. 
 These nerves are numbered from before backwards, in the 
 order in which they are seen at the base of the brain. 
 The names applied to the individual nerves, and their 
 numerical designations, according to both the Continent^} 
 and British methods, are given in the following table : — 
 
 Olfactory Nerves, 1st 
 
 Optic Nerves 2d 
 
 Oculo-motor Nerves, 3rd 
 
 Trochlear Nerves, 4th 
 
 Trifacial or Trigeminal Nerves,... 5th 
 
 Abducent Nerves, 6th 
 
 Facial Nerves (Portio dura), 7th 
 
 Auditory Nerves (Portio mollis), 8th 
 
 Glosso-pharyngeal Nerves, 9th 
 
 Pneumogastric Nerves (Vagus), 10th 
 
 Spinal Accessory Nerves, 11th 
 
 Hypoglossal Nerves 12th 
 
 pair 
 
 II 1 
 
 British. 
 1st pair 
 2d „ 
 3rd „ 
 4th „ 
 6th „ 
 6th „ 
 
 7th „ 
 
 8th „ 
 9th „ 
 
 These nerves may be arranged in three groups according 
 to the presence or absence of motor and sensory fibrea 
 
 First group. — Sensory nerves, or nerves of special sense: 
 a, olfactory, the nerve of smell ; b, optic, nerve of sight; 
 c, auditory, nerve of hearing. 
 
 Second group. —Motor nerves : a, oculo-motor, the prin- 
 cipal nerve of supply for the muscles of the eyeball; b, 
 trochlear, the nerve for the superior oblique muscle ; e, 
 abducent, the nerve for the external rectus ; d, portio dura, 
 the nerve for the facial muscles of expression ; e, spinal 
 accessory, the nerve which gives a motor root to the 
 pneumogastric, and supplies the sterno-mastoid and tra- 
 pezius muscles ; /, hypoglossal, the nerve for the muscles 
 of the tongue. 
 
 Third group. — Mixed nerves : a, trifacial, distributed to 
 the muscles of mastication, the skin of the face, various 
 mucous membranes, and to the anterior and lateral surfaces 
 of the tongue, where it may play the part of a nerve of the 
 special sense of taste ; b, glosso-pharyngeal, distributed to 
 the mucous membrane of the pharynx, to certain palato- 
 pharyngeal muscles, and to the mucous membrane of the 
 back of the tongue, where it acts as a nerve of the special 
 sense of taste; c, the pneumogastric, conjoined with the 
 internal division of the spinal accessory, is distributed 
 to several muscles, mucous membranes, :uid internal 
 organs. 
 
 The consideration of the 1st group of cranial nerves 
 may appropriately be deferred until the organs of sense, 
 in which they terminate, are described. The anatomy of 
 the motor nerves i3 as, follows : — 
 
 The Oculo-motor or third nerve springs out of the inner 
 surface of the eras cerebri When its fibres are traced into 
 the cms, some are seen to pass to the nerve cells of the 
 locus niger, whilst others sink into the corpora quadri- 
 gemina, and extend as far as the Sylvian group of large 
 nerve cells. The nerve, after it has emerged from the 
 cms, runs forwards in the outer wall of the cavernous 
 sinus, and enters the orbit through the sphenoidal fissure. 
 It supplies the levator palpebrae superioris, the superior, 
 inferior, and internal recti muscles, and the inferior oblique. 
 It contributes the short or motor root to the ciliary ganglion, 
 and through it influences the iris and ciliary muscles within 
 the eyeball. It also communicates with the cavernous 
 plexus of the sympathetic
 
 CEANIAL NEEVE9.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 88) 
 
 The Trochlearis or fourth, the smallest cranial nerve, 
 lies at the outer side of the crus cerebri. When traced 
 backwards to its origin it is seen to sink into the valve of 
 Vieussens, where it3 fibres divide into three roots : one 
 decussates across the valve with a root of the corresponding 
 nerve on the opposite side; another passes backwards to 
 the locus cseruleus; the third sinks into the corpora quadri- 
 gemina and reaches the Sylvian group of nerve cells, from 
 which the third nerve also arises. The fourth nerve runs 
 forward in the outer wall of the cavernous sinus, entera 
 the orbit through the sphenoidal fissure, and ends in the 
 superior oblique muscle. It also communicates with the 
 cavernous plexus of the sympathetic. 
 
 The Abducent or sixth nerve springs out of the groove 
 between the lower border of the pons and the anterior 
 pyramid of the medulla oblongata. Its roots sink deeply 
 into the pons, and arise from a nucleus of grey matter at 
 the floor of the fourth ventricle, common to it and the portio 
 dura. The sixth nerve runs forward in the inner wall of 
 the cavernous sinus, enters the orbit through the sphenoidal 
 fissure, and ends in the external rectus muscle. It com- 
 municates with the carotid plexus of the sympathetic. 
 
 The Portio dura or motor facial portion of the seventh 
 nerve springs out of the groove between the lower border 
 of the pons and the restiform body. Its roots sink deeply 
 into the pons, and whilst some of its fibres arise from a 
 grey nucleus, at the floor of the fourth ventricle, common 
 to it and the sixth nerve, othera ascend from a nucleus 
 which, according to Meynert, lies just on the outer side of 
 the superior olivary body, and others again decussate 
 across the median raphe of the pons. An accessory por- 
 tion, called portio intermedia, which is said to arise from 
 tha lateral^ columns of the cord, joins the portio dura. 
 The portio dura enters the internal auditory meatus in the 
 petrous-temporal bone along with the auditory nerve; but 
 at the bottom of the meatus it leaves that nerve and enters 
 the aqueduct of Fallopius along which it is conducted 
 through the bone to emerge at the stylo-mastoid foramen. 
 When' in the aqueduct it forms a knee-shaped bend, and 
 expands into a small ganglion, which is joined by the 
 great, small, and external petrosal nerves, and through the 
 external petrosal it communicates with the sympathetic. 
 The portio dura gives off — a, a minute branch to the sta- 
 pedius muscle ; b, the chorda tympani, which, entering the 
 tympanum, passes across tha,t cavity, emerges through the 
 Glaserian fissure, and joins the lingual branch of the fifth 
 nerve, which it accompanies as far as the submaxillary 
 ganglion ; it gives a branch to the ganglion, and one to 
 the lingualis muscle. After the portio dura has passed 
 through the stylo-mastoid foramen it gives off — c, the poste- 
 rior auricular branch to the occipital belly of the occipito- 
 frontalis and to the retrahens aurem muscle, and d, the 
 digastric branch to the posterior belly of the digastric and 
 etylo-hyoid muscles ; and then runs forwards through the 
 parotid gland to the face, where it breaks up into numerous 
 (e) facial branches to supply the facial muscles of expres- 
 sion and the buccinator muscle. The facial is also the 
 secretory nerve for the salivary glands. Through the 
 chorda tympani it influences the secretion of the submaxil- 
 lary and sublingual glands, and through the connection 
 between its lesser petrosal nerve and the auriculotemporal 
 in the otic ganglion it influences the parotid gland. 
 
 The Spinal Accessory is the lowest division of the eighth 
 nerve. It springs out of the side of the medulla oblongata, 
 and from the lateral column of the cervical part of the 
 spinal cord as low as the fifth cervical nerve : its roots 
 arise from the intermedio-lateral group of nerve cells in 
 the cord, and from a nucleus of grey matter in the floor of 
 the fourth ventricle. The spinal fibres of origin enter the 
 skull through the foramen magum, join the fibres from the 
 
 medulla, and leave the cranial cavity through the jugular 
 foramen. This nerve, purely motor in function, is sub- 
 divided into two parts, an internal and an external The 
 external passes obliquely outwards across the side of the 
 neck, pierces the sterno-mastoid, and ends in the trapezius, 
 both of which muscles it supplies. The internal joins the 
 pneumogastric nerve, of which it forms the motor or acces- 
 sory root, and is distributed along with it. 
 
 The Hypoglossal or ninth nerve springs out of the groove 
 between the anterior pyramid and olivary body of the 
 medulla oblongata, .in series with the anterior roots of the 
 spinal nerves. Its roots pass through the medulla to the 
 floor of the fourth ventricle, to arise from the nerve cells 
 in two nuclei of grey matter situated close to the median 
 furrow. This grey matter is in series with the anterior 
 cornua in the spinal cord. The nerve passes out of the 
 skull through the anterior condyloid foramen, and arche3 
 across the side of the neck to the tongue, to end in glossal 
 branches for the supply of the intrinsic and extrinsic 
 muscles of the tongue. It also gives off — a, the descendens 
 noni branch, which, after been joined by the communicantes 
 noni from the cervical plexus, supplies the omo-hyoid, 
 sterno-hyoid, and sterno-thyroid muscles ; b, the thyro-hyoid 
 branch to the thyro-hyoid muscle ; c, the genio-hyoid 
 branch to the genio-hyoid muscle. It communicates in the 
 neck with the sympathetic, vagus, lingual branch of the 
 fifth, and cervical plexus. 
 
 The group of mixed nerves will now be considered. 
 
 The Trifacial or fifth is the largest cranial nerve. It 
 springs by two distinct roots out of the side of the pons. ' 
 The smaller or motor root arises from the nerve cells of a 
 nucleus of grey matter situated in the back of the pons, 
 near the floor of the upper part of ■ the fourth ventricle. 
 The larger or sensory root has, according to Meynert, a 
 complex origin — a, from a nucleus of grey matter in tLe 
 pons to the outer side of the origin of the motor root ; b, 
 by descending fibres which arise from nerve cells in tho 
 substance of the corpora quadrigemina, from the grey 
 matter of the locus csruleus, and from the longitudinal 
 fibres of the pons ; c, by ascending fibres which apparently 
 arise from the grey tubercle of Rolando ; d, probably by 
 fibres which traverse and embrace the superior peduncle of 
 the cerebellum. As the large sensory root of the fifth lies 
 on the petrous bone it expands into the Gasserian ganglion, 
 which resembles in structure the ganglion on the posterior 
 root of a spinal nerve. From this ganglion three largo 
 branches arise, named respectively the 1st, 2d, and 3d 
 divisions of the ganglion. 
 
 The 1st or Ophthalmic division is the upper sensory nerve 
 of the face, and divides into three branches, which pass 
 out of the cranial cavity through the sphenoidal fissure. By 
 its lachrymal branch it supplies the lachrymal gland, and 
 the outer part of the skin and conjunctiva of the upper eye- 
 lid ; by its frontal branch, the inner part of the skin and 
 conjunctiva of the upper lid, and the skin of the forehead; 
 by its oculo-nasal branch, it gives long ciliary nerves to tho 
 eyeball, and a nasal nerve to the mucous membrane of 
 the nose, and the skin of the side of the nose. From the 
 oculo-nasal nerve arises the long or sensory root of the 
 ciliary ganglion, which lies in the cavity of the "orbit, and 
 which receives also a motor root from the third nerve, and 
 a root from the sympathetic. This ganglion gives origin to 
 the short ciliary nerves for the eyebalL 
 
 The 2d or Superior Maxillary division is the senso y 
 ner^e for the middle part of the face. It leaves the skull 
 by the foramen rotundum, passes across the spheno-maxillaiy 
 fissure, then lies in the canal in the floor of the orbit, froffl 
 which it smerges on the face through the infra-orbitT 
 foramen as the infra-orbital nerve. It gives off a small 
 orbital branch to a small part of the skin of the' temple.
 
 882 
 
 •A N A T M Y 
 
 [.VF.RVOUS 
 
 and tbat over the check bone ; denial branches to {he teeth 
 in the upper jaw ; paljiebral branches to the skin and con- 
 junctiva of the lower eye-lid ; nasal branches to the skin 
 and mucous membrane of the nose ; labial branches to the 
 nkin and mucous membrane of the upper lip. It also 
 gives off, when in the sphenomaxillary fossa, splieno- 
 palatine branches, which form the sensory root cf the 
 spheno-palatine or Meckel's ganglion. This ganglion receives 
 a motor root through the great petrosal nerve from the 
 knee-shaped bend of the portio dura, and a sympathetic 
 root from tho carotid plexus, which runs along with the 
 great petrosal, and forms with it the vidian nerve. The 
 ganglion gives origin to — <i,an orbital branch, which supplies 
 a layer of non-striped muscular fibres, described by H. 
 Miiller and Turner as developed in connection with the 
 periosteum of the orbit, where it covers the spheno-maxillary 
 fissure ; b, -upper nasal and naso-palatint branches to the 
 mucous membrane of the nose and hard palate ; c, descend- 
 ing palatine branches to the mucous membrane of the hard 
 and soft palate; d, pterygopalatine to the mucous mem- 
 brane of the upper part of the pharnyx. 
 
 The 3c? or Inferior Maxillary division passes out of the 
 skull through the foramen ovale, and as it does so is joined 
 by the motor root of the 5th. By the junction a mixed 
 nerve is formed, which is the sensory nerve for the lower 
 part of the face, and the skin of the temple, and the motor 
 nerve for the muscles of mastication. Immediately after 
 passing through the foramen this nerve divides into a 
 small and large division, in each of which motor and 
 sensory fibres are found. The small division supplies motor 
 masticatory branches to the massetcr, temporal, external, 
 and internal pterygoid muscles ; but further it gives off a 
 long buccal branch, which, though often described as the 
 motor nerve for the buccinator muscle, is really a sensory 
 nerve for the skin and mucous membrane of the cheek. 
 The sensory nature of this nerve is proved, not only by 
 physiological and pathological experiments, but by tracing 
 its fibres through the buccinator muscle to the mucous 
 membrane. Turner has also recorded two cases in which 
 the long buccal nerve arose as a branch of the sensory 
 superior maxillary nerve. The large division separates 
 into three branches — a, auriculotemporal, which ascends to 
 supply the parotid gland, the skin of the auricle, external 
 meatus, and temple, and the temporo-maxillary joint ; 6, in- 
 ferior dental, which enters the dental canal in the lower jaw, 
 and supplies the lower set of teeth and the skin and mucous 
 membrane of the lower lip; it also gives off a mylo-hyoid 
 branch to the mylo-hyoid and anterior belly of the digas- 
 tric muscle; c, lingual or gustatory, which runs forward 
 along the side of the tongue to end in the filiform and 
 fungiform papi.'loe of its mucous membrane. The lingual 
 branches are sensory nerves of touch, though some physiolo- 
 gists believe that they are also nerves of taste. Connected 
 with the branches of the inferior maxillary division are 
 two small ganglia, which, like the ciliary and spheno-pala- 
 tine ganglia, are of a greyish colour, contain nerve cells, 
 and receive roots from motor, sensory, and sympathetic 
 nerves. The submaxillary ganglion lies under cover of the 
 mylohyoid muscle, and receives a root from the motor 
 chorda tympani nerve, a root from the sensory lingual, and 
 a sympathetic root. It gives branches to the sub-maxillary 
 and sublingual salivary glands. The otic ganglion lies close 
 to the Eustachian tube, and receives a root from the mus- 
 cular nerve to the internal pterygoid, a root from the 
 sensory auriculotemporal, and a sympathetic root. It also 
 receives the smalt petrosal nerve, by which it is connected 
 to the knee-shaped bend of the portio dura and. to the 
 glosso-pharyngeal nerve. It supplies the tensor tympani 
 and tensor pulati musclea The branches of the three divi- 
 sions jol the fifth cranial warn, which uass to the skin ol 
 
 tho temple, forehead, and face, freely communicate with 
 the branches of the portio dura, which supply the muscles 
 situated in those regions. 
 
 The Glosso-plutryngeai or uppermost division of the eighth 
 nerve springs out of the side of the medulla oblongata 
 between the olivary and restiform bodies; its roots arise 
 from two small masses or nuclei of grey matter in the Hoof 
 of the 4th ventricle. The nerve passes out of the skull 
 through the jugular foramen, where it possesses two small 
 ganglia, named jugular and petrous. It then passes 
 across the side of the neck and gives off carotid branches, 
 which run along the internal carotid artery; pharyngeal 
 branches to the mucous membrane of the pharynx; tonsil- 
 itic branches to the tonsil ond soft palate; glossal 
 branches to the base of the tongue and the circumvallate 
 papilla', which branches are unquestionably nerves of the 
 special sense of taste; muscular branches to the stylo- 
 pharyngeus and perhaps the constrictor muscles. Through 
 the jugular and petrous ganglia the nerve communicates 
 with the vagus and sympathetic. The petrous ganglion 
 gives off the tympanic branch or nerve of Jacolison, which 
 enters the tympanic cavity, supplies its mucous membrane, 
 and gives off three communicating branches — one to the 
 sympathetic; a second to the great petrosal, and through it 
 to the knee-shaped bend of the facial ; a third to the small 
 petrosal, and through it to the otic ganglion. 
 
 The Pneurnogastric or Vagus is the middle subdivision 
 of the eighth cranial nerve. It springs out of the side of the 
 medulla oblongata, between the olivary and restiform 
 bodies ; its roots arise from a nucleus of grey matter in 
 the floor of the 4th ventricle, which nucleus, along with 
 those for the glosso-pharyngeal nerve, is in series with the 
 posterior cornu of grey matter in the spinal cord. It goes 
 through the jugular foramen, is joined by the inner divi- 
 sion of the spinal accessory which is its motor root, then 
 passes down the side of the neck, enters the thorax, reaches 
 the outer wall of the cesophagus, accompanies that tube 
 through the diaphragm, and terminates in the wall of the 
 stomach. The left nerve lies on a plane anterior to the 
 right : it crosses in front of the arch of the aorta, and is dis- 
 tributed to the anterior wall of the stomach, whilst the right 
 nerve supplies the posterior wall. Each nerve possesses 
 high in the neck two enlargements, named upper and loiver 
 ganglia. The branches of the vagus are numerous and im- 
 portant. The upper ganglion gives origin to the auricular 
 branch, which traversing a small canal in the petrous tempo- 
 ral bone, is distributed to the skin of the back of the auricle. 
 The lower ganglion gives origin to — a, the pharyngeal 
 branch, which forms a plexus with the glosso-pharyngeal 
 and sympathetic nerves, from which the muscles of the 
 pharynx are supplied ; 6, the superior laryngeal, which 
 divides into ah external branch to supply the crico-thyroid 
 muscle, and an internal, which pierces the thyro-hyoid mem- 
 brane, and supplies the mucous lining of the larynx and the 
 mucous covering of the epiglottis. The trunk of the nerve 
 gives origin to — a, the recurrent laryngeal branch, which on 
 the right side turns round the subclavian artery, and on the 
 left round the arch of the aorta, and ascends to the larynx to 
 supply its intrinsic muscles except the crico-thyroid ; b, 
 cardiac branches, which arise from the nerve partly in tb\j 
 neck and partly in the chest, and join the great cardiac 
 plexus for the heart ; c, pulmonary branches, which arise 
 in the chest, pass into the substance of the lungs, and forn. 
 along with the sympathetic an anterior plexus in front of, 
 and a posterior plexus behind the root of the lung ; d, 
 esophageal branches, which supply the coats of the 
 cesophagus ; e, gastric, branches, which supply the coats 
 of the stomach, and give important offshoots to the great 
 solar plexus of the sympathetic situated at the pit of the 
 stomach.
 
 SYSTEM.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 383 
 
 Descriptive Anatomy of the Sympathetic Nervous 
 System. 
 
 The Sympathetic Nervous System consists of a pair of 
 gangliated cords, situated one on each side of the spinal 
 column ; of three great gangliated prevertebral plexuses 
 situated in the thoracic and abdominal cavities ; of nume- 
 rous smaller ganglia lying more especially in relation with 
 the thoracic and abdominal viscera ; of multitudes of fine 
 diatributory nerves. 
 
 Each Gangliated Cord of the sympathetic extends along 
 the side of the spine from the base of the skull to the 
 coccyx. In the neck it lies in front of the transverse 
 processes of the vertebra? ; in the thorax, in front of the 
 heads of the ribs ; in the abdomen, on the sides of the verte- 
 bral bodies; and as it descends in front of the sacrum it 
 approaches its fellow, so that in front of the coccyx the two 
 are united in a single ganglion, the ganglion impar (Fig. 
 C6, c). Each cord consists of a number of ganglia united into 
 a continuous cord by intermediate nerves. As a rule, the 
 ganglia equal in number the vertebras of the region. Thus, 
 in the sacral region there are five ganglia, in the lumbar 
 five, and in the thorax twelve ; but in the neck there are 
 only three, named superior, middle, and inferior; of these 
 the superior is very large, and represents without doubt 
 Beveral smaller ganglia. From the superior cervical ganglion 
 the cord is prolonged upwards by an ascending or cranial 
 offshoot through the carotid canal into the cranial cavity, 
 and forms a plexus around the internal carotid artery, both in 
 the carotid canal, named the carotid plexus, and in the inner 
 wall of the cavernous sinus, named the cavernous plexus. 
 Through branches derived either directly or indirectly from 
 these plexuses the sympathetic roots for the ciliary and 
 spheno-palatine ganglia, described in connection with the 
 fifth nerve, are derived. 
 
 From the gangliated cord and its ascending or cranial 
 prolongation a communicatiiig and a distributory series of 
 branches are derived. 
 
 By the Communicating branches this portion of the 
 sympathetic is connected with most of the cranial and 
 with the anterior divisions of all the spinal nerves, so as to 
 bring the cerebro-spinal and sympathetic systems into close 
 anatomical and physiological lelation with each other. 
 It is important also to observe that each communicating 
 branch contains not only non-medullated nerve fibres from 
 the sympathetic system to the cerebro-spinal nerves, but 
 inedullated fibres from the cerebro-spinal to the sympa- 
 thetic, so that a double interchange takes place between 
 the two systems. The cranial prolongation of the sympa- 
 thetic and the superior cervical ganglion communicate with 
 the 3d and 4th nerves, the Gasserian ganglion of the 5th, the 
 6th, the portio dura of the 7th, the glossopharyngeal and 
 pneumogastric of the 8th, and the 9th cranial nerves, and 
 with the anterior divisions of the four upper cervical spinal 
 nerves. The middle cervical ganglion communicates with 
 the 5th and 6th cervical nerves, the inferior cervical gan- 
 glion with the 7th and 8th cervical nerves, the twelve 
 thoracic gangtia with the series of intercostal nerves, the 
 five lumbar ganglia with the series of lumbar spinal nerves, 
 the sacral and coccygeal ganglia with the sacral nerves and 
 the coccygeal nerve. 
 
 The Distributory branches of the gangliated cord are as 
 follows: — a, Pharyngeal branches from the superior cervical 
 ganglion, which join the pharyngeal branches of the glosso- 
 pharyngeal and pneumogastric nerves, to form the pharyn- 
 geal plexus, which supplies the muscles and mucous 
 membrane of the pharynx, b, Articular branches from the 
 upper thoracic and the lumbar ganglia to the articulations 
 between the adjacent vertebra?, c, Pulmonary branches from 
 the 3d or 4th thoracic ganglia, which join the posterior 
 
 pulmonary plexus, d, Vaso-motor branches or nervi m&lles, 
 which supply the muscular coat of the arteries : those which 
 arise from the cranial prolongation of the superior cervical 
 ganglion supply the internal carotid artery and its branches 
 to the brain and eyeball : those which arise from the 
 superior cervical, ganglia itself supply the external carotid 
 artery and its branches; from the branch accompanying 
 the facial artery the submaxilliary ganglion derives its 
 sympathetic root; from that accompanying the middle 
 meningeal artery the otic ganglion derives its sympathetic 
 root : the vaso-motor nerves which arise from the middle 
 cervical ganglion supply the inferior thyroid artery, and pass 
 to the thyroid gland : the vaso-motor branches of the inferior 
 cervical ganglion supply the vertebral and basilar arteries and 
 their several branches, which pass to the spinal cord and 
 the hinder part of the encephalon. Vaso-motor nerves alad 
 arise from the thoracic ganglia, which pass to the thoracic 
 aorta, from the lumbar ganglia to the abdominal aorta, and 
 from the sacral ganglia to the middle sacral artery ; tht 
 ganglion impar gives branches to a peculiar vascular struc- 
 ture, named the coccygeal body, developed in connection 
 with the end of the middle sacral artery ; a body of similar 
 structure, called inlercarotic body, situated in the angle oi 
 bifurcation of the common carotid artery, receives branches 
 from the superior cervical ganglion, e, Cardiac branches 
 from the superior, middle, and inferior cervical and the 1st 
 thoracic ganglia, which pass into the thorax to join the pre- 
 vertebral cardiac plexus. /, Splanchnic branches as follows : 
 great splanchnic nerve, by the union of branches from the 
 thoracic ganglia, the 3d to the 10th inclusive ; it pierces the 
 cms of the diaphragm, and passes to the prevertebral solar 
 plexus ; small splanchnic nerve, also to the solar plexus 
 from the 10th or 11th thoracic ganglia ; smallest splanchnic 
 nerve, from the 12th thoracic ganglion to the renal plexus. 
 g, Hypogastric branches, from the lumbar and sacral ganglia 
 to the prevertebral hypogastric plexus. 
 
 The Prevertebral Cardiac plexus (PI. XVII. c) is situated Gangliated 
 at the base of the heart, and is divided into a superficial P rever - 
 part, which lies in the concavity of the arch of the aorta, Jj e ™ ae4 _ 
 and a deep part between the aorta and trachea. It receives 
 the cardiac branches of the pneumogastric and the cervical 
 ganglia of the sympathetic. It contains collections of 
 nerve cells and a dense plexiform arrangement of nervo 
 fibres. It gives off branches to the heart, which wind 
 around the surface of that organ and penetrate its muscular 
 substance : on these branches minute ganglia are found 
 which regulate its rhythmical movements. Through these 
 branches and the cardiac plexus the heart is brought into 
 connection with both the cerebro-spinal and sympathetic 
 systems of nerves. The sympathetic apparently regulates 
 its contraction, for when this nerve is stimulated the action 
 of the heart is accelerated. The pneumogastric again exer- 
 cises an inhibitory or restraining influence on the contrac- 
 tions of the organ, for when this nerve is irritated the 
 activity of contraction is diminished, but when divided it 
 is greatly increased. The cardiac plexus also sends offsets 
 to the anterior and posterior pulmonary plexuses for the 
 supply of nerves to the lungs. 
 
 The Prevertebral Solar or Epigastric plexus is situated at 
 the pit of the stomach around the cceliac axis, a branch of 
 the abdominal aorta. It receives the great and small 
 splanchnic nerves from the thoracic ganglia of the sympa- 
 thetic, and some of the terminal branches of the pneumo- 
 gastric nerve. It contains large collections of nerve cells, 
 which form the two semilunar ganglia, and a dense plexi- 
 form arrangement of nerve fibres. It gives origin, either 
 directly or indirect]}, to numerous plexiform branches, 
 which accompany, and are named after, the abdominal 
 aorta and its various branches given off to the wall's and 
 viscera of the abdomen oroper. In this manner, not only
 
 884 
 
 A N A T O M V 
 
 [oiiuANB OV .SC.NSK — 
 
 do tlie arteries which supply the abdominal viscera receive 
 their vaso-motor nerves, h^it the muscular and mucous 
 coats of the stomach, intestines, gall bladder, bile ducts, 
 ureters, and seminal ducts, and the glandular structures of 
 tlio liver, pancreas, kidneys, spleen, a..d supra-renal cap- 
 sulcs. It is important also to observe that these plexuses 
 of distribution not unficquently contain small ganglia, 
 and the branches which supply the muscular coat of the 
 stomach and intestines have minute microscopic ganglia, 
 with stellate nerve cells lying amidst them. The distribu- 
 tion of the pneumogastric nerve to the stomach, and its 
 connection with the solar plexus, enables that nerve to 
 stimulate its peristaltic contraction, and, according to some 
 experimenters, that of the small intestine also ; but the 
 precise action of the sympathetic on these organs is still a 
 disputed question. 
 
 The Prevertebral Hypogastric plexxis is situated in front 
 of the last lumbar vertebra. It receives branches from the 
 lumbar ganglia of the sympathetic, and from the plexus 
 surrounding the abdominal aorta. It divides into two 
 parts, which lie one on each side of the rectum, and are 
 called the pelvic plexuses ; these plexuses are joined by 
 branches from the sacral ganglia of the sympathetic, and 
 from the . 3d and 4th sacral spinal nerves, and contain 
 sinan gangliform collections of nerve cells. From the 
 pelvic plexuses numerous, plexiform nerves arise, which 
 accompany the internal iliac artery and its branches to the 
 walls and viscera of the pelvis, and are named after them. 
 These nerves not only supply the vaso-motor nerves for 
 these blood-vessels, but also the muscular coat and mucous 
 membrane of the bladder, rectum, and urethra, besides 
 the prostate gland in the male, and the \iterus and vagina, 
 and in part the ovary, in the female ; in connection with 
 their distribution to these viscera, minute ganglia are 
 found lying amidst the nerves the nerve cells in which 
 act undoubtedly as centres of reinforcement for the origin 
 of additional, nerve fibres. 
 
 From the distribution of the branches of the gangliated 
 cord of the sympathetic, and of the gangliated prevertebral 
 plexuses, it will be seen that this nerve is especially related 
 to the blood-vessels and to the viscera . contained within 
 the great cavities of the body. As the cerebro-spinal sys- 
 tem is engaged in the supply of nerves to the voluntary 
 muscles, the sympathetic is the medium of supply for the 
 involuntary muscular apparatus, both in the coats of the 
 vessels and in the walls of the hollow viscera. But 
 though the vaso-motor nerves branch from the sympathetic 
 ganglia, it must not be supposed that they have no con- 
 nection with the cerebro-spinal system. The communicat- 
 ing branches between the sympathetic ganglia and the 
 anterior divisions of the spinal nerves establish a connection 
 between them and the cerebro-spinal nervous axi3. By 
 recent experiments, the tract of transmission of the vaso- 
 motor fibres has bceh traced along with the anterior roots 
 of the spinal nerves, through the lateral columns of the 
 cord to the medulla oblongata, in which the vaso-motor 
 nerve centre lies a little to one side of the mesial plane, 
 above the calamus scriptorius. In the distribution of the 
 sympathetic to the glandular viscera, not only is it im- 
 portant to attend to their terminations in the muscular 
 coat of the blond-vessels of the glands, but the termina- 
 tion of the nerves in connection with the secreting cells 
 themselves must be taken into consideration. The com- 
 munications between the cerebro-spinal and sympathetic 
 systems, not only through the spinal nerves, but also 
 through the pneumogastric, are to be kept in mind in con- 
 nection with the effects produced by varying mental con- 
 ditions on the secretions of the glands. 
 
 Ougans of Sense. 
 
 Tho organs of sense aro the organs through the interme 
 diatiou of which the mind becomes cognisant of the appear- 
 ance and properties of the various objects in tho external 
 world. These organs aro severally named nose, eye, car, 
 tongue, and skin. For the excitation and perception of a 
 sensation three sets of structures are necessary : o, a 
 peripheral end-organ ; 6, a sensor)' nerve ; c, a central 
 organ. The peripheral end-organ is the part of the appa- 
 ratus to which the stimulus necessary for the production of 
 the sensation is applied. This stimulus causes nervous 
 impulses to be propagated from the end-organ along the 
 fibres of the sensory nerve to the central organ, in which 
 that nerve terminates at its central extremity. These ner- 
 vous impulses occasion molecular changes in the nerve cells" 
 of the brain, and the mind becomes conscious of a sensation. 
 The shape and construction of each organ of sense is adapted! 
 to the application of the stimulus required for the produc- 
 tion of the particular sensation to which the organ is sub- 
 servient. Bach organ of sense possesses its own character- 
 istic form of end-organ. The touch corpuscles of the skin, 
 the end bulbs found in several mucous membranes, and the 
 Pacinian corpuscles, are the end-organs occurring in their 
 several localities; they have the peripheral ends of the 
 sensory nerves terminating in their substance, and the 
 axial cylinder of the nerve fibre ends in their interior. 
 The rods and cones of the retina, the rods of Corti in 
 tho cochlea, the olfactory cells of the nose, and the gus- 
 tatory bodies in the tongue, are the end-organs belong- 
 ing to their several organs of sense ; the sensory nerve 
 fibres which terminate in relation with them have rx>t 
 yet, however, been traced into actual continuity with 
 their substance. A stimulus, whatever may be its nature, 
 applied to any organ of sense can excito only that kind of 
 sensation for the production of which the organ is subser 
 vient. Thus a stimulus applied to the eye, whether it bo 
 the natural stimulus of the waves of light, the mechanical 
 stimulus of a blow, or an electric stimulus, can only excite 
 the sensation of light. Stimuli applied to the ear can only 
 excito the sensation of sound, and in like manner with the 
 other senses. In studying the anatomy of tho organs of 
 sense the arrangement of numerous accessory structures, 
 which assist either in conducting stimuli or in modifiying 
 their effects, the arrangement and structure of the peripheral 
 end-organs, and the origin, course, and distribution of the 
 sensorv nerves, will have to be considered. 
 
 The Nosb or organ of smell is a large cavity situated in Nosti. 
 the face, between the orbits, above the mouth, and below 
 the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. It communicates 
 by the anterior nares, or nostrils, with the external atmo- 
 sphere, by the posterior nares with the pharynx, and through 
 it with the larynx, trachea, and lungs.. It is the proper 
 entrance to the respiratory passage, is accessory to the pro- 
 duction of the voice, aids in the sense of taste, and forms 
 one of the most important features of the face. It is sub- 
 divided into a right and a left chamber by a vertical mesial 
 partition, the septum nasi, so that the nose is a double 
 organ in the same sense as the eyes or cars are double. 
 The walls of the cavity of the nose are formed partly of 
 bone and partly of cartdage. The osseous walls are referred 
 to on page 82C. The cartilages form the point, tho ala?, and 
 a part of the septum nasi. The mesial or septal cartilage is 
 triangular in shape, and fits into the interval between the 
 vomer, the'iesial plate of the ethmoid, and the nasal spine 
 of the superior maxilla. Anteriorly and inferiorly its border 
 is free, projects on to the face, and forms the columna of 
 the nose. The lateral cartilages form the tip and aire. 
 On each side is an upper lateral cartilage attached by its
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 Organs of Sense 
 
 PL A TE XIX. 
 
 Ncn-es of £jebatt 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRUANNICA. NJNTH EDITION 
 
 Auditory Hervt in lahyrtnth.
 
 NOSE.] 
 
 A N A T O M Y 
 
 885 
 
 outer margin to the free edge of the nasal bone and supe- 
 rior maxilla, whilst by its inner it is continuous with the 
 anterior border of the septal cartilage. The lower lateral 
 cartilage curves inwards upon itself, touches its fellow in 
 the mesial plane at the tip, and forms the anterior and 
 lateral boundary of the orifice of the nostril It is con- 
 nected by fibrous membrane above to the upper lateral 
 cartilage, and behind to the anterior edge of the superior 
 maxilla. In this membrane two to five small cartilaginous 
 plates, called the epaclal cartilages, are often found 
 imbedded. The skin of the nose which covers the lower 
 lateral cartilages contains numerous sebaceous follicles, 
 which open by comparatively large orifices on the surface. 
 It is closely connected to these cartilages, and to the 
 muscles of the alse. The lower lateral cartilage forms the 
 wall of the vestibule or entrance to the nasal chamber, and 
 the vestibule is lined by a prolongation of the integument, 
 which 13 studded with numerous short hairs or vibrissa;. 
 Each nasal chamber is lined by a mucous membrane called 
 the pituitary or Schneiderian. This membrane is prolonged 
 into the meatuses and the air sinuses which open into 
 them; posteriorly it is continuous with the mucous lining 
 of the pharynx, and anteriorly it blends with the cutaneous 
 lining of the vestibule. The pituitary membrane is thick 
 and soft, and diminishes the size of the meatuses and the 
 openings of the air sinuses as seen in the skeleton. The 
 mucous membrane is divided into a respiratory and an 
 olfactory region. The respiratory region corresponds to the 
 floor of the nose, to the inferior turbinated bone, and to 
 the lower third of the nasal septum. It is covered by a 
 ciliated columnar epithelium, and contains numerous race- 
 mose glands for the secretion of mucus or pituita. It is 
 also vascular, and the veins which ramify in it have a 
 plexiform arrangement. The mucous lining of the air 
 sinuses is also ciliated, but almost devoid of glands, except 
 in the antrum, in which region the glands sometimes dilate 
 into cystic tumours. 
 
 The olfactory region is the seat of distribution of the 
 olfactory nerve and of its peripheral end-organs. It corre- 
 sponds to the roof of the nose, to the superior and middle 
 turbinals, and the upper frds of the septum. 
 The mucous membrane is thick, soft, easily 
 destroyed, of a yellowish brown colour, and 
 blended with the periosteum. When vertical 
 section. 1 , through this membrane are examined 
 microscopically the tubular glands discovered 
 by Bowman may be seen in its vascular con- 
 nective tissue layer. These glands contain 
 roundish secreting cells with yellowish-brown 
 pigment-stained contents. The epithelium is 
 cylindrical, but not usually ciliated, though 
 patches of ciliated epithelium cells are said 
 to occur in man. Long, slender, and even 
 branched processes proceed from the deeper 
 end of each cell towards or even into the sub- 
 epithelial connective tissue. The cells usually 
 contain pigment granules. Between the epithe- 
 lium cells the characteristic olfactory cells of 
 Schultze are situated. Each olfactory cell con- ^"-^f""™ 
 sists of a globular or fusiform body, from which olfactory mu- 
 two long processes arise : one, the peripheral £J^ C ^JJjI 
 process, passes vertically between the adjacent uieiium ceil; 
 cylindrical epithelium cells to the free surface c ' c ii; e, its pai- 
 of the mucous membrane: in amphibia, rep- f^ er c a e ' n ; tr 8 a " d T {: 
 tiles, and birds it projects beyond the plane ncosa process, 
 of the epithelium as a simple hair-like struc- W«- &»««"•> 
 ture, or subdivided into several slender "olfactory hairs;" 
 in fish and mammals, man inclusive, it ends, without form- 
 ing a hair like prolongation, on the general plane of the 
 mucous surface. Ths second or central process of the olfac- 
 
 tory cell extends towards the sub-epithelial connective 
 tissue : it is finer than the peripheral process, and has not 
 nnfrequently a varicose appearance like a nerve fibre. 
 
 In the description of the developmentof the brain (p. 864), 
 the origin of the olfactory bulb and peduncle from the 
 hemisphere vesicle was referred to. In the adult brain the 
 olfactory peduncle is in contact with the under surface of 
 the frontal lobe. It is a white band, which divides in 
 front of the locus perforatus anticus into three so-called 
 roots of the olfactory nerve. The external or long root 
 passes outwards across the .Sylvian fissure to the gyrus 
 hippocampi, and perhaps also to the insula : a few fibres 
 are continuous with the anterior commissure; but in 
 mammals, where the olfactory peduncle forms a good- 
 sked lobe, it receives many fibres from the commissure. 
 The middle or grey root contains white fibres which 
 proceed from the corpus striatum. The internal ot 
 short root has been traced into the anterior end of the 
 gyrus fornicatus; hence the inner and outer roots of 
 .the olfactory peduncle are connected with the anterior 
 and posterior extremities of the arch-shaped gyrus. The 
 olfactory bulbs rest on the upper surface of the cribri- 
 form plate of the ethmoid, one on each side of the 
 crista galli. The bulb consists both of grey and white 
 matter, and sometimes retains the central cavity lined by 
 a ciliated epithelium. The grey matter contains fusi- 
 form and pyramidal nerve cells imbedded in neuroglia (the 
 stratum gelatinosum of L. Clarke). Between it and the 
 central cavity is the white matter formed of nerve fibres 
 interspersed with "granules," similar to those seen in 
 the rust coloured layer of the cerebellum. Between the 
 grey matter and the surface is the stratum glomerulosum of 
 Meynert, which apparently consists of coils of the olfactory 
 nerve fibres with interspersed "granules." The olfactory 
 nerve fibres form the first pair of cranial nerves or nerves of 
 smell; they leave these glomeruli in from 15 to 25 bundles, 
 and enter the roof of the nose through the holes in the cribri- 
 form plate (PI XIX. figs. 1, 2); they lie in grooves in the 
 bones of the olfactory region, and form a network from which 
 bundles of fine non-medullated fibres arise that enter the 
 mucous membrane and run between the glands into the 
 epithelial layer. These nerves have a varicose appearance, 
 and though their terminations have not been precisely 
 ascertained, it is believed that they are connected with 
 the central processes of the olfactory cells, which cells are 
 therefore regarded as the peripheral end-organs of the 
 olfactory nerve fibres. The mucous membrane of the noso 
 also receives branches from the 1st and 2d divisions of the 
 5th cranial nerve. Their mode of termination in that 
 membrane is not known, but they are associated with the 
 sense of touch, and not with the special sense of smelL 
 
 The Eyeball, globe of the eye, or organ of vision, is a EyebaB 
 complex optical apparatus situated in the cavity of the 
 orbit, imbedded to a large extent in loose fat, and with 
 several muscles attached to it. Its form approximates to 
 the spheroidal, but it actually consists of segments of two 
 spheres, the posterior of which is the larger. 
 
 The eyeball consists of three coats or tunics, which 
 enclose three translucent refracting media. The first or 
 external coat consists of a posterior, white, opaque part, 
 the sclerotic, which corresponds in its area with the posterior 
 larger segment of the ball, and of an anterior, translucent 
 part, the cornea, which corresponds in its area with the 
 anterior smaller segment of the -eyeball Piercing the 
 sclerotic coat is the optic nerve, which enters the globe 
 about £th inch to the nasal or inner side of its antero- 
 posterior axis. The second or middle coat, or tunica 
 vasculosa, consists of a posterior part or choroid, the area 
 of which corresponds almost exactly with the sclerotic;
 
 886 
 
 A N A T M Y 
 
 [organs of sense — 
 
 this coat possesses anteriorly numerous folds, the ciliary 
 pi ocesses, which are continuous with the iris, a structure 
 which lies behind the cornea. The third or internal or 
 nenrous coat is named the retina, and in it the optic nerve 
 
 r*fo\ 77.— T^scrammoMc section through the ercoaX O, conjunctiva; to, corned, 
 be, selenitic; ch, choroid; pc, ciliary piocesses; mc, ciliary muscle; 0, oj»tic 
 nerve; K, retina; 1. ins; aq, aotciior chamber of aqueous humour; L, lens; 
 V, vitreous body ; /, zonule of £inn, the ciliary process beliiR removed to sbovr 
 R; p, renal 01 1'etit ; ft*, yellow (pot. 'ihc dolled line behind the cornea re* 
 ■presents ita posterior epithelium. 
 
 terminates. The enclosed refracting media occupy the 
 axis of the globe, and are named from before backwards 
 the aqueous humour, crystalline tens, and vitreous body. 
 
 The Sclerotic coat, called from its white appearance the 
 white of the eye, is a firm, unyielding fibrous membrane, 
 which forms the posterior fths of the outer coat of the 
 eyeball. It is thicker behind than in front, and where 
 pierced by the optic nerve it has a cribriform structure, as 
 the bundles of nerve fibres do not pass through one large, 
 but several small openings. The sclerotic consists of the 
 white fibrous form of connective tissue, intermingled with 
 a small proportion of elastic fibres. The bundles of white 
 fibres lie in two directions; some pass in the meridian of 
 the globe from the optic nerve towards the cornea, others 
 lie parallel to its equator. The sclerotic is joined by 
 accessory fibres behind, derived from the perineurium of 
 the optic nerve, where the nerve pierces it ; and in front 
 from the tendons of the recti and obliqui muscles, which are 
 inserted into it. In the cctacca the sclerotic possesses extra- 
 ordinary thickness. In fish and amphibia it consists largely 
 of cartilage, and in birds a ring of bone is developed around 
 its anterior margin. It is the protecting coat of the eyeball. 
 
 The Cornea forms the translucent anterior Jth of the 
 outer coat of the eyeball. It is almost circular in form, 
 and is blended at its circumference with the anterior border 
 of the sclerotic. Its anterior surface is convex, and covered 
 by the conjunctival epithelium. The forward projection 
 of the cornea is always greater in young than in aged 
 persons. Its posterior surface is concave, and bounds the 
 chamber in which the aqueous humour is contained : if the 
 chamber be punctured, and the humour evacuated, the 
 cornea loses its translucency, its tension, and its forward con- 
 vexity, and becomes flaccid and opaque. It has considerable 
 thickness, and can be readily split up into laminse. When 
 antero-posterior sections are made through it and the 
 epithelium on its anterior and posterior surfaces, four 
 distinct series of structures may be seen, viz., the anterior 
 rpithsiium, the proper tissue of the cornea, the posterior 
 elastic lamina, and the posterior cpi-(endo)-thelium. 
 
 The anterior epithelium of the cornea, often called the con- 
 
 junctival epithelium, is stratified. The deepest layer, which 
 lies next the cornea, is formed of elongated cells, which lie 
 vertically to the plane of the surface of the cornea. The 
 more superficial layers are squamous cells, often with fluted 
 surfaces and serrated or spinous edges. Tho intermediate 
 layers are irregular in shape, and often possess, as Cleland 
 pointed out, long digitate processes, which interlock with 
 those of the adjacent cells. 
 
 The proper tissue of the cornea is a modified form of 
 connective tissua When examined fresh it appears as if 
 perfectly homogeneous, but after a time, and more espe- 
 cially if hardened in alcohol, chloride of gold, and othei 
 reagents, it is seen to consist of cells and an intercellular 
 matrix. The cells consist of two kinds, — those which 
 belong to the cornea, and those which have migrated 
 into it. The proper cornea cells or cornea corpuscles were 
 first seen by Toynbee, and have been carefully studied 
 by numerous subsequent observers. They are large stel- 
 late, flattened cells, and lie with their surfaces parallel to 
 the surfaces of the cornea ; they possess many branching 
 processes, and the processes of adjacent cells anastomoso 
 to form a cell network. They consist of nucleated masses 
 of protoplasm, which Kiihne showed to be contractile, and 
 are apparently destitute of a cell wall. In vertical sections 
 through the cornea the corpuscles seem as if shaped like 
 elongated spindles. The migrating cells of the cornea were 
 first seen by Von Recklinghausen. They resemble white 
 blood corpuscles, and possess active amoeboid movements, 
 so that they can wander through the corneal tissue. In a 
 healthy cornea they have migrated out of the marginal 
 blood-vessels; but in an inflamed cornea, where their num- 
 ber is greatly increased, they are in part white corpuscles 
 derived from the blood, and in part produced by prolifera- 
 tion of the proper cornea corpuscles. The intercellular 
 matrix of the cornea consists of a laminated substance, the 
 lamellae being arranged parallel to the surfaces of the cornea. 
 The lamellae consist of fasciculi of extremely delicate fila- 
 ments ; immediately under the anterior epithelium the 
 fasciculi decussate with each other, and at the circumference 
 of the cornea the fasciculi run into the connective tissue of 
 the sclerotic. Bowman described a translucent structureless 
 layer or anterior elastic lamina between the conjunctival 
 epithelium and the cornea proper, but it is doubtful if this 
 layer exists as a constant arrangement. Bowman and 
 other observers have injected tubular spaces in the cornea 
 which are apparently situated between the lamellse. The 
 exact nature of these spaces is somewhat doubtful, but 
 Thin believes them to be lymph-vessels traversing its sub 
 stance, for he has seen an endothelial lining similar to the 
 endothelial cells of the lymphatics. It is probable that 
 these spaces serve as the channels for the migrating cor- 
 puscles to wander through. Thin also describes the proper 
 cornea corpuscles as lying in lacunas, which communicate 
 with each other and with the lymph-vessels. The posterior 
 elastic lamina forms a distinct translucent, structureless 
 layer adherent to the back of the proper tissue of the cornea, 
 from which it may be stripped off without much difficulty. 
 When torn 'across, the edges curl inwards towards the 
 corneal tissue. It is from 2-5V0- to 37 rV 7 th inch thick, and 
 resists the action of various reagents. This lamina thins 
 off at its circumference and splits into fibres, which become 
 continuous with the pectinate ligament of the iris. 
 
 The posterior epithelium of the cornea, also called the 
 endothelium of the aqueous humour, forms a single layer of 
 polygonal cells on the back of the posterior elastic lamina. 
 It is continuous with the endothelial covering of the pec- 
 tinate ligament and of the anterior surface of the iris. 
 
 The cornea is not in the adult traversed by blood-vessels, 
 though in the foetus a layer of capillaries lies near its 
 anterior MjrfacG. In the adult, however, the margin a-
 
 EYE.J 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 887 
 
 the cornea 13 penetrated by a zone of capillary loops' derived 
 from the arteries of the conjunctiva ; these loop3, according 
 to Lightbody, are invested by perivascular lymph spaces. 
 The venous canal of Schlemm runs round the circumference 
 of the cornea, at the junction of its deeper layers with the 
 sclerotic. Leber states that it is not a simple canal, but 
 a plexiform arrangement of veins. The nerve3 of the 
 cornea first seen by Schlemm have been carefully examined 
 by recent observers. They arise from the ciliary nerves, 
 and enter the margin of the cornea in from twenty to forty 
 fasciculi, which nln from the circumference to the centre 
 and to the anterior surface of the cornea, and give off 
 numerous branches. The nerve fibres soon lose their 
 medullary sheath, and branch ; adjacent branches then 
 communicate, and form plexuses which possess nuclei at 
 the points of intersection of the nerves. From these 
 plexuses delicate branches again arise, some of which 
 penetrate between the cells of the anterior epithelium, 
 whilst others end in the proper tissue of the cornea. 
 Kiihne stated that the terminal fibres ended in the cornea 
 corpuscles, but this statement has not been confirmed. 
 
 The Choroid coat forms the largest portion of the middle 
 coat of the eyeball. It lies immediately internal to the 
 sclerotic, and extends as far forward as the corpus ciliare, 
 or annulus albidus, where it forms the ciliary processes ; it 
 is pierced posteriorly by the optic nerve. It has a deep 
 black colour, from the numerous pigment cells it contains, 
 and is abundantly provided with blood-vessels and nerves. 
 The Corpus ciliare, or annulus albidus, is a greyish-white 
 ring which surrounds the anterior border of the choroid 
 close to the junction of the sclerotic and cornea. It consists 
 of two portions — an external, the ciliary muscle, which lies 
 next the sclerotic, and an internal, the ciliary processes 
 (Plate XIX. fig. 4). These processes, about 80 in number, 
 are folds, separated from each other by furrows which 
 extend forwards in the meridional direction as far as the 
 Lis, and form collectively a zone-Like plated frill around 
 the circumference of the iris. On the one hand, they are 
 continuous with the vasculo-pigmentary structures of the 
 choroid ; on the other, with the vasculo-pigmentary struc- 
 tures of the iris. 
 
 The Iris is a circular, flattened disc-shaped diaphragm, 
 situated behind the cornea, in front of the crystalline lens, 
 and bathed by the aqueous humour. By its circumference 
 or ciliary border the iris is not only continuous with the 
 ciliary processes, but is connected by fibres, termed 
 ligamentum pectinatum, with the posterior elastic lamina of 
 the cornea. The his is the structure which gives the 
 characteristic colour to the eye — blue, grey, brown, hazel, 
 as the case may be. It is perforated at, or immediately to 
 the inner side of, its centre by a circular aperture, the 
 pupil, the size of which is regulated by the contraction or 
 relaxation of the muscular tissue of the iris. 
 
 The structure of the several divisions of the middle coat 
 will now be considered. Tl e Choroid coat has its- inner or 
 anterior surface formed by a distinct pigmentary layer of 
 hexagonal pigment cells (Fig 43). In the eyes of Albinos, 
 though the cells are present, they contain no pigment In 
 many mammals also, the pigment is absent from the' inner 
 surface, so that the choroid possesses a beautiful iridescent 
 lustre, the tapetum lucidum. In ruminant animals and in 
 the horse the iridescence is due to the reflection of the light 
 by the bundles of the connective tissue stroma, but in cats 
 from polygonal nucleated cells, which Schultze states con- 
 tain double refracting crystals. Next the inner pigmen- 
 tary layer is the lamina vitrea, the elastic layer of Kolliker. 
 It forms a translucent membrane, described by some as 
 structureless, but by Kolliker as faintly fibrous, which is 
 intimately connected with the stroma of the choroid. The 
 stroma consists of a plexiform arrangement of bundles 
 
 of connective tissue, in the intervals between which nume- 
 rous stellate pigment cells are situated, which give to the 
 entire thickness of the choroid its black appearance. This 
 stroma connects the outer surface of the choroid with the 
 inner surface of the sclerotic, and forms the lamina fusca. 
 Ramifying in the stroma are the blood-vessels and nerves. 
 The vessels of the choroid are arranged in two layers. Next 
 the lamina vitrea is a plexiform capillary layer, the meshes 
 of which are so minute, and the vessels so compacted to- 
 gether, as to give the appearance of avascular membrane, long 
 known as the membrana Ruyschiana. The capillaries radi' 
 ate like minute stars from the terminal twigs of the choroidal 
 arteries and veins. The choroidal arteries and veins form 
 a layer external to the capillaries, i.e., next the lamina fusca. 
 The arteries are the short posterior ciliary branches of the 
 ophthalmic artery, which pierce the sclerotic close to the 
 entrance of the optic nerve, and, running forwards in a tor 
 tuous manner, divide dichotomously before ending in the 
 capillaries. The veins of the choroid are arranged in a 
 series . of remarkable whorls, named the vence vorlicosce, 
 which receive the blood not only from the capillaries of the 
 choroid proper, but from thpse of the iris and ciliary body ; 
 they discharge their blood by means of from 4 to 6 veins 
 into the ophthalmic vein. The ciliary muscle is the greyish 
 white structure which forms the outer part of the ciliary 
 body. It was at one time called the ciliary ligament, but 
 its muscular nature was discovered almost simultaneously 
 by Bowman and Briicke. It consists of smooth involuntary 
 muscle, the fibres of which are arranged in two layers. 
 The outer and thicker part of the muscle consists of fasci- 
 culi, which arise close to the canal of Schlemm, i.e., opposite 
 the junction of the sclerotic and cornea, and radiate from 
 before backwards in the meridian of the eyeball, between 
 the ciliary processes and the sclerotic. The inner part of 
 the muscle forms a ring-like arrangement of fasciculi close 
 to the circumference of the iris, and is often called the 
 annular muscle of Miiller. Iwanoff has shown that in 
 long-sighted persons (hypermetropic) the annular muscle 
 is strongly developed ; whilst in short-sighted (myopic) 
 eyes its fasciculi are very feeble. The Ciliary Processes 
 have on their inner surface a black pigmentary layer of 
 cells continuous with that of the choroid. The vitreous 
 layer is also present, but according to H. Miillsr is no 
 longer smooth but reticulated. The stroma does not con- 
 tain so large a proportion of stellate pigment cells as in 
 the choroid. The arteries have been carefully studied by 
 Leber; they are the long posterior ciliary branches of the 
 ophthalmic, and the anterior ciliary branches of the muscu- 
 lar branches of the ophthalmic. They pierce the sclerotic 
 run forwards, and at the auterior border of the ciliary 
 muscle form by their anastomoses the circulus artei-iosus, 
 which gives origin to the arteries for the ciliary processes 
 and the iris. The arteries for the ciliary processes ate 
 short, and divide into tortuous branches, which frequently 
 anastomose, and form highly complex vascular plexuses, 
 from which arise veins that join the venae vorticosae. 
 Before the long ciliary arteries contribute to the formation 
 of- the arterial circle they send branches to the ciliary 
 muscle, and recurrent branches to the anterior part of the 
 proper choroid coat. 
 
 The iris has its anterior surface covered by a layer of 
 cells continuous with the endothelium of the aqueous 
 humour. This layer is continuous at the pupillary border 
 with a thick layer of cells filled with black pigment granules, 
 the uvea, which covers the posterior surface of the iris, and 
 is continuous at its ciliary border with the pigmentary layer 
 of the ciliary processes. The connective tissue stroma of 
 the iris also contains stellate pigment cells. The variations 
 in colour of the iris in different eyes depends upon the dia- 
 tribution and amount of the pigment in the uvea and the
 
 888 
 
 a tf A T M V 
 
 [ORGANS OF SENSfc — 
 
 etellato cells: in dark-coloured eyes, both are filled with 
 dark pigment granules ; whilst in light-coloured eyes the 
 stellate cells of the stroma are either devoid of pigment or 
 only faintly coloured. The iris contains numerous fasciculi 
 of involuntary or non-striped muscular fibro arranged in 
 two directions. Circularly arranged fibres surround the 
 aperture of the pupil, and form the sphincter muscle, by 
 the contraction of which the size of the pupil is diminished. 
 Smooth muscular fibres also radiate from the pupillary to 
 the ciliary border of the iris and form the dilatator muscle. 
 The muscular nature of these fibres in the human iris was 
 long disputed, but was satisfactorily demonstrated in 1852 
 by Lister. Jeropheef has also described circular fasciculi 
 surrounding the ciliary border. In birds and reptiles the 
 muscular tissue of the iris consists of transversely striped 
 fibres. The arteries of the iris arise from the circulus 
 arteriosus, and run radially forwards towards the pupil, 
 where they anastomose and form the circulus iridic minor. 
 They possess relatively thick external and muscular coats. 
 The capillaries form a plexus not so compact as that of the 
 choroid coat. The veins of the iris end in the vena; vorti- 
 cosaa. In the fcetus the pupil is closed in by a delicate 
 membrane, membrana pupillaris, into which the blood- 
 vessels of the iris are prolonged. This membrane disap- 
 pears by absorption during the later months of embryo life. 
 The nerves of the middle coat of the eyeball are the long 
 ciliary branches of the ophthalmic division of the 5th and 
 the short ciliary branches of the ciliary ganglion (PL XIX. 
 fig. 7, \). They pierce the sclerotic near the optic nerve, 
 and run forward in the lamina fusca of the choroid. They 
 give off branches to the choroid which form in it a plexus 
 in which H. Miiller found nerve cells. From this plexus 
 delicate branches pass to the muscular coat of the choroidal 
 arteries. The ciliary nerves then enter the ciliary muscle, 
 and form plexuses with interspersed nerve cells, from 
 which branches pass to the muscular fibres. Other branches 
 of the ciliary nerves enter the iris, and form plexuses, from 
 which branches proceed to the muscular tissue. 
 
 The Retina is the delicate nervous coat of the eyeball 
 which lies immediately internal to the choroid, and extends 
 
 FIR. 78— niacrammatlc section throuch the retina to show the several laj-ers 
 which arc numbered as In the teit CI, the radial flbreB of the supporting con- 
 nective tissue. 
 
 from the plice of entrance of the optic nerve as far forward 
 as the ciliary processes, where it forms a jagged border, the 
 oi a serrata. In the living eye it is translucent and colour- 
 less, -but shortly after death it becomes grey : it is soft and 
 so easily torn that it is difficult to display it in a dissection 
 without injury. Its inner or anterior surface, concave 
 forwards, is moulded on the vitreous body, and presents 
 the following appearances : — Almost exactly in the antero- 
 posterior axis of the eyeball is a transversely oval yellow 
 spot, about ^th inch in its long diameter, which amongst 
 mammals is found only in man and apes, though, as Knox 
 and Hulke have shown, it exists in reptiles ; in the centre 
 of this spot is a depression, the fovea centralis ; about Jth 
 inch to the inner side of the yellow spot is a slight elevation, 
 the papilla optica, which marks the disc-like entrance of 
 the optic nerve into' the retina ; here the fibres of the nerve 
 radiate outwards and forwards to the ora serrata, and 
 branches of the arteria centralis retina accompany then. 
 The retina is highly complex in structure, and consists 
 
 of nerve fibres and cells, of peripheral end-organs, of con- 
 nective tissue, and of blood-vessels, arranged in several 
 layers. Max Schultze, who is tho chief authority on the 
 subject, recognises ten layers, but includes among these the 
 layer of hexagonal pigment cells just described as the inner 
 pigmentary layer of the choroid. If this layer be omitted, 
 nine layers may then be recognised, and, following Schultze, 
 be named from before backwards as follows: — 1. Mem- 
 brana limitans interna; 2. Layer of optic nerve fibres ; 3. 
 Layer of ganglion cells ; 4. Internal granulated (molecular^ 
 layer; 5. Internal granule layer; C. External granulated 
 layer ; 7. External granule layer ; 8. Membrana limitans 
 externa; 9. Bacillary layer (Fig. 78). 
 
 Tho nervous elements of the retina will first be con- 
 sidered. The optic nerve fibres (2), where they pierce the 
 sclerotic, as a rule lose the medullary sheath, and radiate 
 outwards as non-medullated fibres from the optic disc to the 
 ora serrata immediately behind and parallel to the mem- 
 brana limitans interna. These fibres vary greatly in size, 
 and are frequently varicose. When any of the optic nerve 
 fibres retain the medullary sheath the retina is there ren- 
 dered opaque. Immediately behind the nerve fibres is the 
 layer of ganglionic nerve cells (3). These ells are either bi- 
 polar or multipolar. In the Living eye the cell substance 
 is hyaline and the nucleus transparent, but after death the 
 substance both of the body of the cell and the processes 
 assumes a fibrillated appearance, like the axial cylinder of 
 an optic nerve fibre. One process, the central process, 
 extends into the layer of optic nerve fibres ; and another, 
 the peripheral, into the internal granulated layer. The 
 internal granulated layer (4) contains the branching pro- 
 cesses of the nerve cells, some of which apparently become 
 continuous with an arrangement of excessively fine fibrils, 
 probably nervous in their nature. These fibrils are inter- 
 mingled with a delicate plexus of connective tissue. The 
 internal granule layer (5) contains numerous fusiform 
 nucleated enlargements, the so-called internal granules, 
 arranged in superimposed strata ; from each fusiform 
 enlargement a fibre proceeds in two directions, one centrally 
 into the internal granulated layer, and one peripherally into 
 the external granulated layer. These fibres possess vari- 
 cosities, and resemble the optic nerve fibres. The external 
 granulated layer (6) is very thin, and consists of an ex- 
 panded network of minute fibres, with nuclei situated at 
 the points of intersection of the fibres. Krause has called 
 it the membrana fenestrata. The external granule layer 
 (7) contains numerous fusiform nucleated enlargements, 
 the so-called external granules, arranged in superimposed 
 strata : from each enlargement a fibre proceeds in two 
 directions, one centrally into the external granulated layer, 
 and one peripherally through the membrana limitans externa 
 to the bacillary layer, where it becomes continuous with 
 the anterior end of either a rod or a cone, as the case may 
 be. Hence these fibres of the external granule layer are 
 called by Schultze rod and cone fibres, and the external 
 granules are nucleated enlargements of these fibres. These 
 fibres possess varicosities like those. of the internal granule 
 layer. 
 
 The bacillary layer (9) or membrane of Jacob consists 
 of multitudes of elongated bodies arranged side by side 
 like rows of palisades, and vertically to the surfaces of 
 the retina.. Some of these bodies are cylindrical, and 
 are named the rods of-the retina ; others flask -shaped, and 
 named the cones of the retina : the rods equal in length 
 the entire thickness of the bacillary layer ; the cones are 
 shorter than the rods, and are interspersed at regular 
 intervals between them ; the apex of each cone is directed 
 towards, but does not reach, the plane of the posterior or 
 choroidal surface of the retina. The posterior or outer end 
 of each rod rests against the pigmentary lay^r of the choroid.
 
 EVE.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 889 
 
 The anterior or inner ends of both rods and cones are con- 
 tinuous with the rod and cone fibres of the external granule 
 layer, as already described. Each rod and cone is sub- 
 divided into an outer strongly refractile and an inner feebly 
 refractile segment. By the action of various reagents the 
 outer segments both of the rods and cones exhibit a trans- 
 verse striation, and ultimately break up into discs. Hensen 
 has described a longitudinal striation in the outer segments, 
 and Ritter has stated that both in the outer and inner 
 segments of the rods an axial fibre exists. Max Schultze 
 lias also seen the inner segments of both rods and cones 
 longitudinally striped on the surface. Modifications in the 
 relative numbers and appearances of the rods and cones 
 have been seen in the eyes of various vertebrata. In birds, 
 for example, the cones are much more numerous than the 
 rods, whilst the reverse is the case in mammals generally. 
 In the cartilaginous fishes the cones are entirely absent ; so 
 also, as Schultze has shown, in the bat, hedge-hog, and 
 mole ; whilst in reptiles the bacillary layer is exclusively 
 composed of cones. In all the vertebrata, except the 
 mammalia, the twin or double cones described by Hannover 
 probably exist. In the amphibia, lens-shaped bodies have 
 been described in the inner segments of the cones. The 
 rods and cones are the peripheral end-organs in connection 
 with the fibres of the optic nerve, and their apparent rela- 
 tion to these fibres is as follows : — The optic nerve fibres 
 are continuous with the central processes of the ganglion 
 cells of the retina, the peripheral branching processes of 
 which pass into the internal granulated layer, where they 
 may possibly become continuous with the central processes 
 of the inner granular layer. The peripheral processes of 
 the inner granular layer eater the external granulated layer, 
 but it is difficult to say whether or not they become con- 
 tinuous with the central processes of that layer. There 
 can, however, be no doubt that tho peripheral processes of 
 this layer are directly continuous with the rods and cones 
 of the bacillary layer. The entire arrangement is sometimes 
 called the radial nervous fibres of the retina. 
 
 In addition to the nervous structures just described, the 
 retina contains a delicate supporting connective tissue like 
 the neuroglia of the brain and spinal cord. Not only does 
 it lie between the fibres, cells, and so-called granules in the 
 several nervous layers, aud form in them a radial arrange- 
 ment of supporting fibres, but it constitutes the two limitary 
 membrai^ of the retina. The membrana limitans externa 
 (8) is excessively thin, and appears in vertical sections 
 through the retina as a mere line between the bacillary and 
 external granular layers, continuous on the one hand with 
 the connective tissue which passes for a short distance be- 
 tween the rods and cones, and on the other with the connec- 
 tive tissue framework of the external granule layer. 
 
 The membrana limitans interna (1) covers the anterior 
 surface of the retina, and lies next the vitreous body ; its 
 posterior surface blends with the radial arrangement of 
 connective tissue between the optic nerve fibres, but its 
 anterior or hyaloid surface, as J. C. Ewart has recently 
 6Qown, possesses a mosaic appearance, like that of a layer 
 of squamous endothelium. 
 
 The yellow spot exhibits some structural differences from 
 the rest of the retina. It owes its colour to the presence 
 of yellow pigment deposited in the more anterior layers of 
 the retina. Except at its central depression, the fovea 
 centralis, it is thicker than the surrounding parts of the 
 retina ; but it is much softer, a condition which is due to 
 the almost complete absence of the layer of optic nerve 
 fibres, and a diminution in the amount of the supporting con- 
 nective tissue; the membrana limitans interna is, however, 
 felatively stronger In the fovea centralis itself the rods of 
 the bacillary layer have entirely disappeared, and are 
 replaced by cones which are distinguished by their close 
 
 arrangement, and the more slender form and increased 
 length, especially of their outer segments. The external 
 granule layer is well marked, and the central fibres belong- 
 ing to it, instead of passing vertically forwards, incline very 
 obliquely or almost horizontally outwards to the internal 
 granule layer, which, together with the layers anterior to it, 
 is so thin as almost to have disappeared In the yellow spot 
 surrounding the fovea the bacillary layer is also composed 
 of cone3 which are not, however, so slender or so long as 
 at the fovea itself. The layer of nerve cells and the inner 
 part of th3 external granule layer are thicker than in the 
 rest of the retina. The yellow snot is the part of the 
 retina most sensitive to light. 
 
 At the ora serrata or anterior border of the retina the 
 nervous layers, including the rods and cones, cease to 
 exist. The radial connective tissue and internal limiting 
 membrana are present ; from the radial tissue a layer of 
 cells is prolonged forward in contact with the deep surface 
 of the ciliary processes as the pars ciliaris retina?. 
 
 The retina is supplied with blood by the arteria centralis, 
 which, traversing the axis of the optic nerve, reaches the 
 retina at the optic disc. In the retina it branches dicho- 
 tomously in the nerve fibre layer, avoiding however the 
 yellow spot, and its terminal twigs reach the ora serrata. 
 The capillaries form in the more anterior layers of the 
 retina a distinct network, which does not enter the external 
 granule and bacillary layers, but penetrates the yellow 
 spot, though not the fovea centralis. The blood is conveyed 
 from the retina by the central vein which accompanies the 
 artery in the optic nerve, and opens either into the 
 ophthalmic vein or directly into the cavernous sinus. The 
 veins and capillaries of the retina have been described by 
 His as comphtely invested by perivascular lymphatic 
 sheaths, whilst the arteries only possess such sheaths for a 
 limited part of their course. 
 
 The Optic Nerve itself passes'from the orbit through the Nerve ol 
 optic foramen into the cranial cavity, where it arises from si S llt - 
 the optic commissure. This commissure is a flattened band 
 formed by the junction of the two optic tracts. Each tract 
 winds backwards around the tuber cinereum and cms 
 cerebri to arise from the optic thalamus, corpora quadrige- 
 mina, and geniculata ; and some observers also state that 
 it derives fibres from the tuber cinereum and lamina cinerea. 
 In the commissure an interchange takes place between the 
 fibres of opposite nerves aud tracts, so that not only does 
 an optic nerve contain fibres derived from the tract on its 
 own side, but from the opposite tract, and it has even been 
 stated that fibres pass across the commissure from one optic 
 nerve to the other, and from one optic tract to the other. 
 
 The Aqueous Humour is a limpid watery fluid, containing Refracting 
 a little common salt in solution, which occupies the space nicdia. 
 between the cornea and the front of the crystalline lens 
 In this space the iris lies, and imperfectly divides it into 
 two chambers, an anterior and a posterior, which commu- 
 nicate with each other through the pupiL The anterior 
 chamber, of some size, is situated between the iris and 
 cornea ; but as the iris is in contact with tho front of tho 
 lens, the posterior chamber is reduced to a mere chink 
 between the circumference of the iris and that of the lens. 
 
 The Crystalline Lens is situated behind the iris and 
 pupil, and in front of tho vitreous body. It is a trans- 
 parent bi-convex lens, with its. antero-posterior diameter Jd 
 less than the transverse, its posterior surface more convex 
 than the anterior, and with its circumference rounded It 
 consists of a capsule and the body of the lens enclosed by the 
 capsule. The lens capsule is a transparent, smooth, struc- 
 tureless, and very elastic membrane, about twice as thick 
 on the anterior as on the posterior surface of the lens. It 
 is non-vascular in tho adult, though in the foetus a branch 
 of the central artery of the retina which traverses the
 
 I ■ 
 
 uo 
 
 A IN A T O 1M \ 
 
 [organs of sesse- 
 
 vitroous humour, ramifies in its posterior portion. A 
 single layer of polygonal cells lies between the body of the 
 lens and the anterior portion of the capsule. The lens body 
 is softer at its periphery than in its centre. It is built up 
 of concentric layers, and on both the anterior and posterior 
 surfaces lines are to be seen radiating from the centr.il pole 
 of each surface towards the circumference of the body. 
 The radiated pattern varies in different animals. In the 
 human foetus there are usually three lines, but in the adult 
 they are more numerous. The lines on one surface. do not 
 lie immediately opposite those on the other, but are inter- 
 mediate. By the action of strong spirit and other reagents 
 the body of the lens can be split up from the periphery 
 towards the centre in the direction of these lines, so that 
 they mark the edges of apposition of its concentric lamina?. 
 Each lamina consists of numerous hexagonal fibres about 
 IsVi! tn mc ^ "ide, which extend from one surface to the 
 other over the circumference of the lens, so that a fibre 
 which begins at the polar end of a radius on the one surface 
 terminates at the circumferential end of a radius on the 
 opposite. The edges of the fibres are sinuous in man, but 
 denticulated in many animals, especially fishes, so that the 
 fibres, not only in the same, but in superimposed layers, 
 are closely interlocked. The lens fibres are nucleated, a 
 structural fact which gives a clue to their true nature, and 
 they are now regarded as peculiarly modified elongated 
 cells. Babuchin states that he can trace the transition from 
 the cells of the layer between the lens-body and capsule 
 to the proper lens fibres. The lens-body is non-vascular 
 and non-nervous. The surfaces of the lens become more 
 flattened in old age, and its substance hardens and is less 
 transparent. 
 
 The Vitreous Body is much the largest of the refracting 
 media, and occupies the largest part of the space enclosed • 
 by the tunics. Anteriorly it is hollowed out to receive 
 the posterior convexity of the lens, but posteriorly it is 
 convex, and ths retina is moulded on it. It is as trans- 
 lucent as glass, jelly-like in consistency, and when punctured 
 a watery fluid drains out. Its minute structure is difficult 
 to ascertain, but as it, like the subcutaneous tissue of the 
 embryo, contains rounded, stellate,, and fusiform cells, it is 
 customary to refer it to the gelatinous form of connective 
 tissue; concentric lamellae, and even a radiated arrangement 
 of fibres, have also been described. It has been customary 
 aLo to consider it as invested by a delicate structureless 
 membrane, the hyaloid membrane ; but this is now regarded 
 as belonging to the retina, where it is known as the mem- 
 brana limitans interna. Almost opposite the ora serrata a 
 membrane springs from the vitreous body, passes forwards 
 for some distance in relation to the deep surface of the 
 ciliary processes, but separated from them by the pars 
 ciliaris retinae, and then inclines inwards to become attached 
 to the anterior surface of the capsule of the lens close to its 
 circumference. It is so closely connected at its origin with 
 the membrana limitans that it is difficult to recognise it as 
 a distinct membrane. It is named the suspensory ligament 
 of the lens, or zonule of Z inn, and contains fibres, which run 
 in the meridional direction. Where it leaves the vitreous 
 body a narrow space is enclosed between it and that body, 
 which space surrounds the circumference of the lens, and 
 is called the canal of Petit. From the relation of the 
 suspensory ligament to the ciliary processes it has a plicated 
 Eurface, and when these processes are torn away from it a 
 portion of the pigment of the processes is often left behind, 
 so that the zonule is sometimes named the ciliary processes 
 of the vitreous body. 
 
 The Eyeball is an optical instrument, constructed on the 
 plan of the camera obscura. The sclerotic forms the wall 
 of the chamber. The choroid represents the black lining 
 lot absorbing the surplus rays of light. The cornea, 
 
 aqueous humour, leua, and vitreous body are the trans- 
 lucent media which, like the glass lens of the camera 
 obscura, bring the rays of light to a focus. The retina is 
 the sensitive plate on which the optical picture is thrown. 
 In considering the relation of the retina to the visual rays, 
 it must be kept in mind that the place of entrance of 
 the optic nervo is insensible to light, and that the most 
 sensitive part of the retina is the yellow spot, with its 
 fovea centralis, where the optic nerve fibres are absent, but 
 where the bacillary layer reaches its maximum size. It is 
 clear, therefore, that tho rods and cones of this layer, and 
 not the optic nerve fibres, are the structures in the retina 
 -which are .stimulated by the light; and it is probable, as 
 was suggested many years ago by Goodsir, that these rods 
 and cones are impressed by the light, not as it enters the 
 eye directly, but as it is reflected backwards from tho 
 choroid along their axes. The iris is the diaphragm which, 
 by opening or closing tho pupil, admits or cuts off the 
 rays of light. • The ciliary muscle represents the adjusting 
 screw of the camera ; through its attachment to the ciliary 
 processes and their relation to the suspensory ligament of 
 the lens, it is able to act upon the lens and modify the 
 curvature of its anterior surface ; for when the eye is to be 
 accommodated to the vision of near objects the anterior 
 surface of the lens becomes more convex than when distant 
 objects are being examined. 
 
 It has already been stated on p. 8C4 that the retina is Develop 
 formed in the primary optic vesicle, which grows forwards ment tt 
 to the integument. By the involution and growth -of the 
 skin at this spot a hollow is produced at the front of the 
 vesicle, which gradually deepening forms a pouch, the 
 secondary optic vesicle, in which the involuted part of the 
 skin is lodged. From the included sub-epidermal tissuo 
 the vitreous body is derived ; from the included epidermis, 
 the lens ; whilst the cornea sclerotic and iris are produced 
 by the subcutaneous connective tissue. The optic nerve 
 and retina are formed from the primary optic vesicle and 
 its peduncle, and it is probable that the bacillary layer is a 
 special development of its internal epithelial lining. The 
 choroid coat again is derived fiom the pia mater. Hence 
 the eyeball is compounded A structures derived partly from 
 the integument and partly from the embryo brain. 
 
 Accessory Parts to the Eyeball. — In relation to the 
 eyeball several accessory parts are found. 
 
 The Eye-Brows are projections of the integument, from 
 which short, stiff hairs grow. 
 
 The Eye-Lids, or palpebrce, are two movable curtains, Eyelid*, 
 an upper and a lower, which protect the frsnt of the globe. 
 Between each pair of lids is a horizontal fissure, the palpe- 
 bral fissure. From the free margins of the two lids project 
 short hairs, the eye-laskes or cilia; the upper set curve 
 downwards and forwards, the lower set upwards and for- 
 wards ; they also protect the front of the globe. Each 
 eye-lid consists of skin ; of the fibres of the orbicular 
 sphincter musclo ; of a thin plate of fibre-cartilage, the 
 tarsal cartilage, to the inner end of which a fibrous band, 
 the tendo palpebrarum, is attached, this tendon springing 
 from the ascending process of the superior maxilla ; and 
 of the conjunctiva. Between the conjunctiva and the tarsal 
 cartilage is a layer of glands, the Meibomian glands ; each 
 gland consists of a short duct, which expands at its sides 
 into small sacculi.. The sacculi contain short columnar 
 cells ; these secrete a sebaceous material, which escapes 
 through the orifice of the duct at the border of the eye-lid. 
 
 The Conjunctiva is a mucous membrane, which forms the 
 posterior layer of the eye-lid, and is reflected on to the 
 anterior part of the sclerotic. At the inner angle of junc- 
 tion of the eye-lids is a soft reddish elevation of tie 
 conjunctiva, the caruncula lachrymalis, and immediately 
 external to it is a vertical fold, the plica semilunaris, the
 
 EAR.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 891 
 
 rudiment of the third eye-lid, or membrana nictitans, so 
 (veil developed in birds. The palpebral conjunctiva has 
 small papillae scattered over its surface ; its epithelium is 
 stratified, with scaly cells on the free surface and elongated 
 cells in the deepest layer. In the sub-epithelial tissue are 
 small branched mucous glands, which are .numerous in the 
 caruncula. Little masses of adenoid tissue (p. 849) with 
 lymphatic vessels are also found in it, and the conjunctiva 
 of the front of the eyeball is thinner than the palpebral part. 
 It is not glandular, and its nerves terminate in end-bulbs 
 (p. 862). The palpebral conjunctiva, and in part that of 
 the eyeball, receive their blood-vessels from those of the 
 eye-lids, but the portion of the conjunctiva next the cornea 
 is supplied by the arteries of the sclerotic coat. 
 
 The Lachrymal Apparatus is engaged in the secretion 
 of the tears, and in conveying them away from the front 
 of the globe. The lachrymal gland occupies a depression 
 in the outer part of the roof of the orbit. It is smaller 
 than an almond, is sub-divided into lobules, and belongs to 
 the group of compound racemose glands. It consists of 
 the ramifications of short ducts, which terminate in small 
 sncculi. The wall of each sacculus consists of a delicate 
 membrana propria, and the cavity contains the polyhedral 
 secreting cells. Outside the membrana propria is a 
 cipillary network derived from the lachrymal artery, but 
 (iiannuzzi and Boll have recently described a space between 
 this network and the membrana propria which they believe 
 to be continuous with the lymphatic system. Pfliiger has 
 described nerves as terminating in connection with the 
 secreting cells. The excretory ducts of the gland are from 
 six to eight, and open on the back of the upper eye-lid. 
 The tears are washed over the surface of the globe by the 
 involuntary wink- 
 ing of this lkl. 
 When the secre- 
 tion is increased 
 in quantity, in 
 the act of crying, 
 the tears flow over 
 the cheek, but in 
 ordinary circum- 
 stances they are 
 conveyed away by 
 two slender tubes, 
 the lachrymal 
 canals, which open 
 by minute orifices, 
 the puncta lachry- 
 media, one at the 
 
 inner end of the f ia .79.— Lachrymal canals and dart. I. orblcnlarmuscle: 
 
 freeborderof each 2 - lQc hrymal canal; 8, punctura; 4. caruncula; 6, 
 
 ... „,, lachrymal sac ; 6, lachrymal duct : 7, angular artery. 
 
 eye - lid. These 
 
 tubes open at their opposite ends into a small reservoir, 
 the lachrymal sac, situated in a hollow in the lachrymal 
 boue. From this sac a duct, the nasal or lachrymal duct, 
 proceeds which opens into the inferior meatus of the nose, 
 and here the tears mingle with the mucous secretion of 
 that cavity. 
 
 Muscles of the Eyeball. — The sclerotic coat of the eyeball 
 has six muscles inserted into it. Four of the muscles are 
 called recti, and are situated, one superior, one inferior, one 
 external to, another internal to, the globe. They all arise 
 from the rim of bone which bounds the optic foramen ; the 
 external and internal muscles are inserted \ ertically into the 
 sides of the sclerotic, but the superior and inferior recti 
 have oblique insertions into its upper and lower aspects. 
 The other two muscles are called obliqui. The superior 
 oblique arises along with the recti, passes to the inner end 
 of the upper border of the orbit, where its tendon goes 
 through a pulley,, and is. directed back to bo inserted 
 
 obliquely into the upper and outer part of the sclerotic 
 The inferior oblique arises from the lower border of the 
 orbit, passes outwards and upwards to be inserted obliquely 
 into the sclerotic. These muscles roll the eyeball in the 
 orbit, and, without entering into a minute analysis of their 
 actions, their office may be stated generally as follows : — 
 The internal rectus rolls it inwards, the external outwards, 
 about its vertical axis ; the superior rectus rolls it upwards, 
 the inferior downwards, about its transverse horizontal axis, 
 though from the obliquity of their insertions they give 1 it 
 at the same time a slight inward or outward movement an 
 the case may be ; the superior and inferior oblique roll the 
 globe around its anteroposterior or sagittal axis, the superior 
 upwards and outwards, the inferior downwards and out- 
 wards. 
 
 Periosteal Muscle of the Orbit. — The periosteum of the 
 orbit contains, as H. Miiller and Turner have described, a 
 layer of non-striped muscular fibre in the part which covers 
 over the spheno-maxillary fissure. In man it is rudimen- 
 tary, but in the sheep, deer, elephant, 4c, where the 
 osseous wall of the orbit is deficient, this muscle forms a 
 well-defined structure. It has been suggested that it acta 
 as a protractor muscle of the globe. 
 
 The Eae, or organ of hearing, is a complex acoustic ap- 
 paratus, situated in connection with the temporal bone. 
 It is divided into three parts, named external, middle, and 
 internal ear. 
 
 The External Ear consists of the pinna or auricle and nxtanu 
 the external auditory meatus. The auricle is the oblong ear 
 convoluted body situated at the side of the head. Ita 
 incurved outer border is named the helix. Within this lies a 
 curved ridge, the anti-helix, in front of which is a deep 
 hollow, the concha, which leads into the external meatus. 
 The concha is bounded in front by a prominence, the 
 tragus, and behind by a smaller prominence, the anti-tragus ; 
 below the anti-tragus is the lobule, which forms the most 
 depending part of the auricle. The framework of the 
 auricle is formed of yellow elastic fibro-cartilago invested 
 by integument, except the lobule, which consists merely of 
 a fold of integument containing fat Attached to the car- 
 tilage are not only the three auricular muscles referred to od 
 
 Fio. 80.— The ear as seen In section, a, helix; \ antl-trsgus: e. antl-halli : «t 
 concha; e, lobule; /. mastoid process; g, portio dura; A. styloid process; *, 
 Intern A carotid artery; /, Eustachian tube; m p tip of petrous process; «, exter- 
 nal auditory meatus; o, membranl tympanl; j>. tympanum; 1, points to tnal- 
 leus; 2, to incus; 3. to stapes; 4, to cochlea; 5, 6, 7, the three ecmlclrculaf 
 canals; 8 and 9, portio dura and portio mollis. 
 
 page 836, but also certain smaller muscles called the proper 
 muscles of the pinna. Thus the greater muscle of the helix 
 is placed on its anterior border ; the lesser muscle of the
 
 892 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [organs of sense — 
 
 helix is situated where it arises out of the concha ; the 
 muscle of the tragus lies on the front of that prominence ; 
 the muscle of the anti-tragus is placed on the back of that 
 prominence ; the transverse muscle on the pusterior or 
 cranial surface of the auricle. 
 
 The External Meatus leads from the bottom of the concha 
 into the temporal bone, and is separated from the tympanum 
 or middle ear by the membrana tympani. It is a crooked 
 passage one and quarter inch long, inclined at first forwards 
 and upwards, then downwards and inwards. The wall of 
 the outer end of the passage is formed of fibro-cartilage 
 continuous with the cartilage of the auricle, whilst that of 
 the deeper end is formed of the plate-like tympanic part 
 of the temporal bone. The passage is lined with integu- 
 ment continuous with the skin of the auricle, in which are 
 situated numerous hairs, together with ceruminous glands 
 which secrete the well-known yellow " wax." 
 
 The Tympanum, or Drum, or Middle Ear, is a chamber 
 irregularly cuboidal in form, situated in the temporal bone 
 between the bottom of the meatus and the internal car. 
 The outer wall is formed of the membrani tympani, which 
 inclines obliquely downwards and inwards at the bottom 
 of the external meatus, at an angle of 55° to the axis of 
 the meatus, whilst tho membranes in the two ears form 
 with each other an obtuse angle of 130° to 135°. The tym- 
 panic membrane is attached to a groove at the bottom of 
 the meatus, and is concave on its outer, convex on its inner 
 surface. It consists of three layers : an external tegumen- 
 tary, continuous with the skin of the meatus, which con- 
 tains no hairs or glands ; an internal mucous, continuous 
 with the mucous lining of the tympanum ; and an inter- 
 mediate membrana propria, which consists of unyielding 
 fibres arranged both radially and circularly. The radial 
 fibres radiate from the point of attachment of tho handle 
 of the malleus. The membrana propria is usually said to 
 be destitute both of nerves and vessels, but Kessel states 
 that nerves, blood, and lymph vessels exist in it as well as 
 in the mucous and tegumentary layers. Immediately in 
 front of the' membrana tympani is the Glaserian fissure. 
 The inner wall separates the tympanum from the labyrinth, 
 and presents the following appearances : a rounded elevation 
 or promontory caused by the first turn of the cochlea, on ' 
 the .surface of which promontory are grooves for the 
 lodgment of the tympanic plexus of nerves ; above tho 
 promontory is an oval opening closed in by a membrane, 
 the fenestra ovalis, which corresponds with the vestibule ; 
 behind and below the promontory is a round opening closed 
 in by a membrane, the fenestra rotunda, which corresponds 
 with the tympanic passage in the cochlea. The floor of 
 the tympanum is a narrow chink between the inner and 
 outer walls ; and the roof is formed by the anterior surface 
 of the petrous-temporal bone. At its anterior wall the 
 tympanum opens into the Eustachian, tube, a. canal which 
 communicates with the nasal compartment of the pharynx 
 immediately behind the inferior turbinal. The wall of the 
 tympanic end of this tube is formed of bone, that of the 
 pharyngeal end of a curved plate of hyaline cartilage, 
 which is connected to the bone by fibro-cartilage ; its 
 pharyngeal orifice is dilated into a trumpet-shaped mouth ; 
 through this tube the ciliated mucous membrane of the 
 nasal part of the pharynx is prolonged into the tympanum. 
 Tho cartilaginous wall of the tube does not completely 
 surround it, but is completed by a fibrous membrane, and 
 a layer of .voluntary muscle, named by Kiidinger the dila- 
 tator tubae. Above the tympanic orifice of the Eustachian 
 tube is a fine canal, through which the tensor tympani 
 muscle enters the .tympanum. At its posterior wall the 
 tympanum communicates with the air-siuuses in the mastoid 
 temporal ; here also is found a small hollow eminence, 
 the pyramid, through a hole at the apex of which the ten- 
 
 don of the stapedius muscle passes ; and a foramen which 
 transmits the chorda tympani nerve. 
 
 The tympanic cavity contains three small bones, named 
 malleus, incus, and stapes, arranged so as to form an 
 irregular chain, stretching across the cavity from the outer 
 to the inner wall. 
 
 The Malleus or hammer is the most external bone. In 
 it may be recognised a head separated by a constricted neck 
 from an elongated handle. Close to the' junction of tho 
 neck and handle along slender process projects downwards 
 and forwards to be inserted into the Glaserian fissure, and 
 near the root of the long process a short process project') 
 outwards. By its handle the malleus is intimately con- 
 nected with the centre of the membrana tympani ; by its head 
 it articulates with the incus ; whilst ligamentous fibres 
 pass from it upwards, forwards, outwards, and backwards 
 to the tympanic walls. 
 
 The Incus, or anvil-shaped bone, possesses a body and 
 two processes ; on the anterior surface of the body is a 
 saddle-shaped hollow in which the head of the malleus fits; 
 the short process projects almost horizontally backwards, 
 and is attached by a ligament to the posterior wall of 
 the tympanum ; the long process extends at first down- 
 wards and then inwards, to end in a rounded projection, 
 named os orbiculare, through which it articulates with the 
 stapes. 
 
 The Stapes, or stirrup-shaped bone, possesses a head and 
 neck, a base and two crura ; the head articulates with the 
 os orbiculare of the incus ; from the constricted neck the 
 two crura curve inwards to the base, which is attached to 
 the fenestra ovalis. The joint between the malleus and 
 incus is diarthrodial and saddle-shaped, and the articular 
 surfaces are enclosed by a capsular ligament. The joint 
 between the incus and stapes is also diarthrodial, and pos- 
 sesses an investing capsular ligament. Toynbeo and Rild- 
 inger have described the base of the stapes and the margin 
 of the fenestra ovali3 as each invested by hyaline cartilage. 
 Between these plates elastic fibres extend in a plexiform 
 manner, and the intervals between them are occupied by 
 fluid ; the joint seems, therefore, a modified amphiarthrosis. 
 The bones are moved on each other at these joints by small 
 muscles. The tensor tympani arises from the apex of the 
 petrous temporal, and the cartilage of the Eustachian tube 
 enters the tympanum at its anterior wall, and is inserted 
 into the malleus near the root. The laxator tympani 
 muscle arises from the spine of the sphenoid, and tho car- 
 tilage of the Eustachian tube enters the tympanum through 
 the Glaserian fissure, and is inserted into the neck of tho 
 malleus. The stapedius arises within the pyramid, enters 
 the tympanum through the .hole at its apex, and is inserted 
 into the neck of the stapes. The tympanum is lined by a 
 mucous membrane continuous with that of the Eustachian 
 tube, which invests the tympanic ossicles, ligaments, and 
 muscles, and is prolonged backwards so as to line tho 
 mastoid air-sinuses. The epithelium covering this mem- 
 brane, where it lines the floor and the adjacent part of the 
 anterior, posterior, and internal walls, consists of ciliated 
 columnar cells ; but the epithelium covering the roof, the 
 promontory, the membrani tympani, and the tympanic 
 ossicles, is tessellated. In the sub-epithelial connective 
 tissue the blood and lymph vessels and nerves of the 
 tympanum ramify. Kessel has recently described in it 
 certain peculiar bodies, which consist of a central axial 
 band with a series of capsules, possessing, a fibrillar struc- 
 ture, arranged concentrically around the axis ; the function 
 of theso bodies is not known. 
 
 The formation of the auriclo and external meatus is well 
 adapted for collecting and transmitting sound-vibrations 
 inwards to the middle ear and labyrinth. These vibrations 
 strike the membrana tympani, and are propagated by tha
 
 EAR.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 893 
 
 chain of bones across the tympanic cavity to the labyrinth. 
 The pressure of the vibrations on the tympanic membrane 
 forces that membrane inwards, so that its inner surface 
 presses on the handle of the malleus, the effect of which is to 
 rotate the hammer about its axis; but by the ligamentous 
 attachment of the malleus to the tympanic walls and to the 
 incus, and, as Helmholtz has shown, by the interlocking of 
 cog-like ■ processes connected with the articular surfaces of 
 the two bones, the range of movement is so limited that the 
 pressure on the malleus is transmitted through the incus 
 upon the stapes, which presses, therefore, on the mem- 
 brane of the fenestra ovalis, bo that the movements of 
 the membrana tympani txe thus transmitted to fluid within 
 the labyrinth. The tensor tympani muscle tightens the 
 tympanic membrane by drawing the handle of the malleus 
 inwards, and still further adapts the structures for the 
 transmission of sound- vibrations. An antagonistic muscle, 
 the laxator tympani, has also been described. There is 
 some difficulty in determining the action of the stapedius, 
 bat if, as is probable, it draws the stapes from the fenestra 
 ovalis, it will diminish the pressure of the chain of bones 
 on that membrane. 
 
 The Internal Ear, named the Labyrinth, from its com- 
 plex construction, is the part of the ?uditory apparatus in 
 which the nerve of hearing is distributed, and where the 
 peripheral end-organs are situated. It is imbedded in the 
 petrous bone, and is divided into three parts, viz., vestibule, 
 semicircular canals, and cochlea, each of which consists of an 
 osseous and a membranous portion (PL XIX. figs. 8, 9, 10). 
 
 The Vestibule lies immediately internal to the tympanum, 
 between it and the bottom of the internal auditory meatus ; 
 behind it are the semicircular canals, and in front is situated 
 the cochlea. It ia the part of the labyrinth which first 
 appears in animals, and is therefore the most constant part 
 of the organ. In the myxinoid fishes a single semicircular 
 canal is superadded to the vestibule, in the lamprey two 
 canals, but in other fishes and in the higher vertebrates three 
 canals exist. In amphibia, reptiles, and birds the cochlea 
 is small and rudimentary in comparison with its develop- 
 ment in mammals. The osseous vestibule is an ovoid 
 chamber about £th inch in diameter. In it3 outer or 
 tympanic wall is the fenestra ovalis ; in its inner are small 
 auditory foramina, which transmit from the internal 
 meatus the vestibular branches of the auditory nerve ; 
 behind these holes is the opening of a minute canal, the 
 aqueduclus vestibuli ; its anterior wall communicates with 
 the scala vestibuli of the cochlea, and into its posterior 
 wall open the five orifices of the three semicircular canals. 
 
 The Semicircular Canals are named superior, posterior, 
 and external. The superior and posterior are sometimes 
 called the vertical canals, and the external the horizontal 
 canal, but, as Crum Brown has shown, the superior and 
 posterior lie in planes equally inclined to the mesial plane 
 of the head, and the external is in a plane at right angles 
 to the mesial plane. Further, the canals in the two ears 
 have definite relations to each other ; for whilst the superior 
 canal of each ear is nearly parallel to the posterior canal 
 of the other, the external canals in both ears lie nearly 
 in the same plane. The canals are bent, forming nearly 
 §ds of a circle, and would have had six openings into 
 the vestibule had not the contiguous ends of the superior 
 and posterior blended together to open by a common orifice. 
 The opposite end of each of these canals and the outer end 
 of the external canal dilate close to the vestibule to twice 
 their usual diameter, and form an ampulla. The osseous 
 vestibule and semicircular canals are lined by a periosteum 
 invested by a tessellated endothelium, and contain a little 
 fluid, the perilymph. In this fluid the membranous laby- 
 rinth is suspended. 
 
 The membranous vestibule is formed of two small sac- like 
 
 dilatations, the walls of which are directly continuous with 
 each other, though the cavities are separated by an inter- 
 mediate partition. The upper and posterior dilatation, 
 named utricultis, is larger than the lower and anterior, 
 named sacculus. The sacculus is continuous with the 
 ductus cocklearis of the membranous cochlea, and both 
 sacculus and utriculus communicate by slend ; tubes with 
 a short diverticulum lodged in the aqucductus vestibuli, to 
 which the name of ductus vestibuli may be given. The 
 membranous semicircular canals are about Jd the diameter 
 of the osseous. Their walls are continuous with that of 
 the utriculus, and they open by five orifices into it. Each 
 has an ampulla within the ampulla of the osseous canaL 
 Both the sacculus and utriculus are in places attached to 
 the periosteal linings of the osseous vestibule, and delicate 
 ligamentous bands connect the 
 membranous semicircular canals 
 to the periosteal lining of the 
 tubes in which they are con- 
 tained. The wall of the mem- 
 branous vestibule and canals con- 
 sists of a delicate fibrous mem- 
 brane lined by a tessellated endo- 
 thelium. The inner part of this 
 membrane has a vitreous or hya- 
 line lustre, and gives origin in the 
 canals to short papillae which pro- 
 ject into the lumen. The mem- 
 branous vestibule and canals are 
 distended with the fluid endo- 
 lymph. The sacculus, utriculu.n, 
 and ampullae are specially modified 
 in connection with the peripheral 
 termination of the vestibular 
 branches of the auditory nerve. 
 The membranous wall forms in 
 each of these dilatations a project- 
 ing ridge, the crista acousli&i, to 
 which - calcareous particles, the 
 otoliths, which may be either amorphous or crystalline, 
 are adherent. The endotheliil investment of the crista 
 is elongated into columnar ceL's, and intercalated between 
 them are fusiform cells, the auditory cells, each of which, as 
 Schultze and other observers liave described, possesses a 
 peripheral and a central process. The peripheral process 
 projects beyond the plane of the free surface of the endo- 
 thelium into the endolymph as the auditory hair, whilst 
 the central process extends into the sub-endothelial tissue, 
 where the nerve plexus belonging to the terminal branches 
 of the auditory nerve ramifies, and with which it is probably 
 continuous. These auditory cells are, therefore, the peri- 
 pheral end-organs of the vestibular branches of the auditory 
 nerve, and their general arrangement is not unlike that of 
 the olfactory cells of the nose. 
 
 The Cochlea is by far the most complex part of tho 
 labyrin'h. It is about 
 }th inch long, and 
 shaped like the shell 
 of a common snail ; 
 its base lies near the 
 internal meatus, and 
 its apex is directed 
 outwards. The osse- 
 ous cochlea is a tube 
 wound spirally two 
 and a half times round 
 a central pillar or 
 modiolus. Both the pillar and the tube diminish rapidly 
 in diameter from the base to the apex of the cochlea. 
 The tube ia imperfectly divided into two passages by e 
 
 Fio 81.— <l columnar cell 
 covering the crista acov$t*~at 
 p. peripheral, and e, cectr* 
 processes of auditcry cells, 
 n. nerve fibri s. {JJttr Hud 
 ivger.) 
 
 Fio. 62. — Diagram of the membranous labyril th. 
 DC, ductus cochlearts; dr. ductus reunicns; 3, 
 eucculus; U, utriculus; dv. ductus vestibuli; 
 SC, semicircular canals. {Afttr Waldeytr.)
 
 894 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [oRfl.vNS OP SKXftE — 
 
 plate of bone, the ossecus spiral lamina, which, springing 
 from the modiolus, winds spirally around it, and pi 
 into the tube. 'When the membranous cochlea is in its 
 place the division is completed by a membrane, the vie m- 
 branous spiral lamina, or basilar membrane, which bridges 
 across the interval between the free edge of the osseous 
 epiral lamina and the outer wall of the tube, to which 
 it is attached by the spiral cochlear ligament. These 
 passages are called scala tympani and scala vestibuli. 
 But another membrane, the membrane of Heissner, also 
 arises from a denticulated spiral crest, limbus or crista 
 spiralis, attached to the vestibular border of the free edge 
 of the osseous spiral lamina, and extends to the spiral liga- 
 ment at the outer wall of the tube, on the vestibular aspect 
 of the.basilar membrane, so as to enclose a passage between 
 it and the basilar membrane, called scala intermedia or 
 ductus cochlearis. The membrane of Reissner is formed 
 of delicate vascular connective tissue, with an endothelial 
 
 Fin. 8S.— Transverse section through the tube, of the cochlea, en, modiolus; 0. 
 outer wall of cochlea; SV. scala vestibuli; ST, acala tympani; DC, ductus 
 vmhlearls; mH membrane. of Riissncr; 6m, basilar membrane; cs, crlota 
 spiralis; i', spiral ligament ; sg, spiral ganglion of auditory nerve; oc, organ of 
 of Corti 
 
 layer on each of its two surfaces. The scala tympani or 
 lower passage, widest at the base of the cochlea, begins at 
 the inner wall of the tympanum, into which it would have 
 upened through the fenestra rotunda, had not the fenestra 
 been closed up by a membrane. The scala vestibuli or 
 upper passage, also widest at the base, communicates with 
 the cavity of the osseous vestibule. At the apex of the 
 cochlea these .two scalae communicate with each other 
 through a small hole, the helicotrema. As the scala vestibuli 
 opens into the osseous vestibule, the perilymph is continued 
 into it, and through the helicotrema into the scala tympani. 
 The ductus cochlearis is the membranous cochlea, and its 
 walls are formed of the basilar membrane next the scala 
 tympani, of the membrane of Reissner next the scala 
 vestibuli, and of the spiral ligament next the wall of the 
 cochlea, which connects the two membranes together. It 
 follows the spiral windings of the coch.'ea, terminates at the 
 apex of the spiral in a closed end, whilst at the 'base it 
 communicates with the sacculus of the membranous vesti- 
 bule by a slender tube, the canalis reuniens ; hence the 
 membranous cochlea contains endolymph. The termina- 
 tion of the cochlear branches of the auditory nerve and the 
 arrangement of the peripheral end-organs in relation to 
 
 them are to bo looked for in the basilar membrane. These 
 parts have been repeatedly investigated and described iu 
 elaborate monographs, tho titles of which are given as ao 
 appendix to Waldeyers article on the cochlea in Strieker's 
 Handbuch der Lchre von den Geweben, Leipsic, 1872. The 
 general results only of these investigations will be given 
 here, and the original memoirs may be referred to for 
 further details. 
 
 On the surface of the basilar membrane directed to the 
 ductus cochlearis a remarkable arrangement of cells exists, 
 which presents an appearance that has been compared with 
 the key-board of a pianoforte, and has been named the organ 
 ofCorti ; it consists of the following parts: — Some of these 
 cells, distinguished by their elongated curved form, aro 
 arranged in two groups, an inner and an outer. The cells 
 of tho inner group rest by a broad foot on the inner part of 
 the basilar membrane, close to its attachment to the spiral 
 lamina, project obliquely forwards and outwards, and 
 expand into a dilated head : tho cells of the outer group 
 also rest by a broad foot on the same membrane, incline 
 forwards and inwards, and fit into a depression in the head 
 of the cells of the inner group : these two groups of cells 
 form the rods or pillars o/Corti, and by their juxtaposition 
 arch over an excessively minute canal enclosed between 
 them and the basilar membrane, which may be named tho 
 canal of Corti. The inner rods are, however, more numerous 
 than the outer, and Pritchard has shown that the rods 
 increase in length from the base to the apex of the cochlea. 
 Immediately internal and almost parallel to the inner group 
 of these rods, and adjacent therefore to the crista spiralis, 
 is a row of compressed conical cells, which possess at theii 
 anterior ends short stiff hair-like processes; they are the 
 inner hair cells of Deiters. Immediately external and 
 almost parallel to the outer gToup of rods are four or five 
 rows of hair cells, the outer hair a lis, which are attached 
 by their bases to the basilar membrane, whilst from the 
 opposite extremity a brush of hairs projects through the 
 reticular membrane. The outer hair cells are, according to 
 Waldeyer, relatively of large size in man. The reticular 
 membrane of Kbllikcr is a delicate framework perforated 
 
 SV «iR 
 
 Fio. 84. — Vertical transverse section through the basilar membrane end orgas of 
 
 t:m. cs, st, Ac, as In fig. 83; {, Inner hair cell; ir. Inner, and or, outer 
 
 rod of Cortl; o, outer hair cells; tp, supporting cells; en, cochlear nerve; «, 
 
 canal ot Corti; rm, reticular membrane; mr, membiana tecturta. {Adapted 
 
 from Waldeyer,) 
 
 by rounded holes. It extends parallel to the basilar mem 
 brane from the inner rods of Corti to the external row'ot 
 outer hair cells, and through the holes in it the hairs of the 
 latter project. It obviously acts as a support for the 
 anterior ends of these cells, and binds together these 
 important elements of the organ of Corti. The interval 
 between the outer hair cells and the spiral ligament is 
 occupied by cell3 of a more or less columnar form, the 
 supporting cells of Hensen. Covering over the organ of
 
 TONGUE.] 
 
 A N A T M Y 
 
 89fj 
 
 Corti, and separating it from the endolymph of the ductus 
 cochlearis, is the membrana tectorial., which springs from 
 the crista spiralis close to the attachment of the membrane 
 of Reissner, passes outwards superficial to the membrana 
 reticularis, and ends externally at the spiral ligament. 
 
 The origin, course, and distribution of the auditory nerve 
 in the labyrinth will now be considered. The auditory 
 uerve is the portio mollis of the seventh cranial nerve. It 
 appears at the base of the brain at the lower border of the 
 pons Varolii. Traced to its origin its roots wind round the 
 restiform body to the floor of the 4th ventricle, where they 
 form the striaa acoustica;, and sink into the grey matter of 
 the floor. Some of the fibres arise from an inner, others 
 from an anterior collection of nerve cells, whilst others again 
 are connected with the cells in the restiform body, and 
 probably with the flocculus of the cerebellum. Where the 
 nerve emerges at the lower border of the pons it contains 
 a cluster of nerve cells. The auditory nerve passes down 
 the internal meatus, and divides into a vestibular and a 
 cochlear division. The vestibular division enters the vesti- 
 bule, and divides into five branches for the sacculus, utricu- 
 lus, and three ampulla? of the membranous semicircular 
 canals. Each branch enters a crista acoustica and forms a 
 plexus, in the meshes of which nerve cells are imbedded. 
 From this plexus fine non-medullated fibres arise, which 
 enter the layer of cells on the surface of the crista, where 
 they anastomose and form a very delicate plexus, from 
 which fibres spring that in all probability join the central 
 processes of the auditory cells. 
 
 The cochlear division enters a canal in the axis of the 
 modiolus, and gives off lateral branches, which pass into 
 the canals situated in the osseous spiral lamina. Here they 
 radiate outwards to the membranous spiral lamina, and 
 have connected with them collections of nerve cells forming 
 the spiral ganglion. Beyond the ganglion they form a flat 
 plexiform expansion, from which delicate nerves pass 
 through a gap in the edge of the osseous' lamina into the 
 organ of Corti. In this organ the nerves, as Gottstein and 
 Waldeyer have described, are arranged in two groups of 
 fibres ; the inner group become continuous with the deep 
 end of the inner hair cells ; the outer group pass across 
 the canal of Corti and end in the outer hair cells. Hence 
 these cells are the peripheral end-organs of the cochlear 
 branch of the auditory nerve, or the auditory cells of the 
 cochlea. 
 
 The perilymph of the labyrinth is set in vibration by the 
 movements of the tympanic ossicles and the fenestra ovalis; 
 motion is thus communicated to the membranous labyrinth 
 and the endolymph which it contains. The auditory hairs 
 and cells would thus be set in motion, and the vestibular 
 branches of the auditory nerve would be stimulated to con- 
 duct sound-impulses to the brain. The movements of the 
 perilymph in the scala tympani and of the endolymph in 
 the ductus cochlearis would set in vibration the basilar mem- 
 brane, and the auditory cells resting on it, by which the 
 cochlear branches of the auditory nerve would be stimulated 
 to conduct sound-impulses to the brain. It has been custom- 
 ary for physiologists to regard the vestibule as the part of 
 the labyrinth by which -sound or mere noise is determined ; 
 the cochlea, as the part which determines variations and 
 degrees of sound, as musical notes or harmony ; the semi- 
 circular canals, as determining the directions from which 
 sound proceeds. But within the last two years experiments 
 and arguments have been advanced almost simultaneously 
 by Crum Brown and Mach in favour of the view that the 
 semicircular canals act as peripheral end-organs for the sense 
 of rotation, by which sense the axis about which rotation 
 of the head takes place, the direction of that rotation, and 
 its rate, are determined. 
 
 In the account of the development of the skeleton, p. 
 
 831, it wa3 stated that the external meatus, tympanum, 
 and Eustachian tube are the remains of the first branchial 
 cleft of the embryo, that the tympanic ossicles are formed 
 in the first and second visceral arches, and that the petrous 
 bone is ossified in the cartilaginous basis cranii. The 
 membranous labyrinth apparently arises as an invagination 
 of the integument at the upper end of the second branchial 
 cleft. The invaginated fold then closes in to form a shut 
 sac, the primary auditory vesicle. Out of this vesicle the 
 three divisions of the labyrinth are successively produced, 
 and become enclosed by the petrous cartilage, which when 
 ossified forms the osseous labyrinth. The epidermal invest- 
 ment of the invaginated tegumentary sac becomes trans- 
 formed into the special cell structures within the mem- 
 branous labyrinth, and the sub-epidermal connective tissue 
 forms its fibrous wall. The cochlear and vestibular nerve? 
 form at the same time as the labyrinth, and become 
 connected through the trunk of the auditory nerve with the 
 brain. 
 
 The Tongue, situated on the floor of the cavity of the 
 mouth, is the chief organ provided for the excitation of 
 the special sense of taste, but the under surface of the soft 
 palate participates to some extent in this property. The 
 tongue is also highly endowed with the sense of touch. 
 The structures concerned in the excitation of taste and 
 touch are situated in the mucous membrane which envelopes 
 the tongue. The tongue is also a muscular organ, and 
 plays an important part in articulation, mastication, and 
 deglutition. Its shape is flattened from above downwards, 
 so that it presents an upper surface or dorsum and a lower 
 surface. Its posterior part is broad, forms the base or root 
 of the organ, and is attached to the hyoid bone. Its ante- 
 rior extremity or tip is more or less pointed, and its lateral 
 margins or sides are rounded. 
 
 The muscles connected with the tongue are arranged in 
 pairs, and form three distinct groups, viz., accessory, extrin- 
 sic, and intrinsic muscles. The accessory muscles are the 
 stylo-hyoid, digastric, mylohyoid, genio-hyoid, omo-hyoid, 
 sterno-hyoid, and thyro-hyoid, already referred to on page 
 836, which act upon the hyoid bone, and thus indirectly are 
 concerned in the movements of the tongue. The extrinsic 
 muscles pass from adjacent parts into the substance of the 
 tongue, and are as follows : — The stylo-glossus arises from 
 the tip of the styloid process and the stylo-maxillary liga- 
 ment ; it runs forwards :ilong the side of the tongue to the 
 tip. The hyo-glossus is divided into three parts ; a, basi- 
 glossus, which arises from the body of the hyoid ; b, ceratc- 
 glossus, from the great cornu of the hyoid ; c, chondro- 
 glossus, from the small cornu of the hyoid. The fibres 
 from these origins ascend into the side of the tongue. The 
 genio-hyo-glossus arises from the upper tubercle of the 
 symphysis of the lower jaw, its fibres radiate into the sub- 
 stance of the tongue along its whole length from base to 
 tip ; this muscle is separated from the corresponding muscle 
 of the opposite half of the tongue by a mesial septum of 
 fibrous tissue. The palato-glossus arises in the substance of 
 the soft palate, and descends to the tongue in the anterior 
 pillar of the fauces. The intrinsic muscles lie in the sub- 
 stance of the tongue itself, and are as follows : — The lingua- 
 lis superior (noto-glossus), consisting of longitudinal fibres, 
 which extend from the base to the tip beneath the mucous 
 membrane of the dorsum ; the lingualis inferior, consisting 
 of longitudinal fibres, which extend from the base to the tip 
 along the under surface lietween the hyo-glossus and genio- 
 hyo-glossus ; transversa inusculai fibres, which spring from 
 the mesial fibrous septum ajid curve outwards and upwards 
 to the sides of the tongue; vertical fibres, which pass through 
 the substance of the tongue from the dorsum to the under 
 surface. The extrinsic and intrinsic musdes can not jdIj
 
 896 
 
 A N A T U M Y 
 
 [organs of SENSE — ' 
 
 move the entire torttmn within tho cavity of the mouth, 
 protrude it between me lips, and again retract it, but can 
 modify its form ; thus the dorsum can be flattened, made 
 convex or concave, the margins can bo raised or depressed, 
 and the tip elevated or depressed. 
 
 The mucous membrane of the tongue forms a part of the 
 general mucous lining of tho mouth ; it covers the dorsum, 
 tip, sides, and under surface ; is reflected from the under 
 surface to the floor of the mouth, where it forms thafrovnum 
 or bridle of the tongue, and is reflected also from the base 
 to the epiglottis as the frcena of the epiglottis, as well as 
 over the tonsils and anterior palatine pillars. This mem- 
 brane has its free surface elevated into multitudes of fine 
 processes, called the papillae of the tongue, some of which 
 are simple, others compound. The simple papillae are 
 situated on the back part of the dorsum and the under sur- 
 face of the mucous membrane, as well as scattered between 
 the compound papillae; they arc simple conical elevations 
 of the membrane. The compound papillae are arranged in 
 three groups, named filiform, fungiform, and circumvallate 
 papillae. The filiform papilla!, elongated and thread-like, 
 are the smallest and most numerous, and cover the dorsum 
 in front of the circumvallate papillae. The fungif/rm or 
 club-shaped are scattered over the anterior and middle 
 parts of the dorsum, and at the tip and sides. The 
 circumvallate papilla, seven to twelve in number, form a 
 V-shaped figure on the dorsum towards its base ; a depres- 
 sion in the mucous membrane, called foramen caecum, 
 marks the apex of the V. Theso are the largest papillae ; 
 each is sunk in a vallum or trench-like depression of the 
 mucous membrane, which isolates it from the surrounding 
 surface. The compound character of these papillae is due 
 to each having projecting from it numerous small secondary 
 papillae. The epithelial covering of the filiform papillae is 
 characterised by the peculiar modification which the tessel- 
 lated epithelium of the mouth has undergone; the cells 
 have become cornified and elongated into dense, imbricated 
 brush-like processes. In the carnivora the epithelium is so 
 hardened as to form sharp spines, with the points turned 
 backwards, which give to the tongues of these animals a 
 rough prickly character. In the fungiform and cifcumval- 
 late papillae the inequalities between the secondary papillae, 
 which project from them, are filled up by the tessellated 
 epithelium, so that the surface of the compound papilla? 
 has a smooth appearanca Both the simple and compound 
 
 Flo. S5.— Section throoKh a gnatatory lamella of the rabbit'a tonpie. 0. gusta- 
 tory bulbs situated In En, the epithelial layer of the mucous membrane; V. capil- 
 lary blood-vessels In tho sub-epithelial connective tissue. (From a preparation 
 by A. B. Stirling.) 
 
 papilla are highly vascular; the lingual artery not only 
 supplies the muscular substance of the tongue, but gives 
 off fine branches to the mucous membrane. These branches 
 end in capillaries, which form simple loops in the simple 
 papilla;, but in the compound papillae the capillaries are so 
 multiplied that each secondary papilla has a capillary loop 
 within it. The tongue is provided with several nerves. 
 The hypo-glossal nerve supplies its muscular structure, but 
 
 Fio. 86.— i. anperfletal 
 com- iinc cells ol • 
 gustatory bulb; 0, 
 jrustatoiy cell, with 
 p, Ita peripheral, and 
 c, ita central protest 
 
 the inferior ling-ralis apparently receives a branch from the 
 chorda tympani of the facial. The lingual branch of th* 
 fifth is distributed to the mucous membrane of the anterior 
 two-thirds of the tongue : it breaks up into minute branches, 
 which enter the fungiform and filiform papillae, but their 
 exact mode of termination has not been precisely ascertained, 
 though end-bulbs and gustatory bodies are said to have 
 been seen in connection with some of the terminal branches. 
 The glossal branch of the glossopharyngeal is distributed 
 to the mucous membrane of the root of the tongue and of 
 the circumvallate papillae. In ijonnection with its terminal 
 branches peculiar flask-shaped organs, called gustatory bulbs 
 or bodies, have recently been described by Loven, Schwalbe, 
 and Engclmann, in the sides of the circumvallate papilla;. 
 These have been found in large numbers in lamcllated 
 folds of the mucous membrane of the posterior part of the 
 side of the rabbit's tongue, which folds may appropriately 
 therefore be called gustatory lamello?. When sections are 
 made through one of these folds, or through a circumval- 
 late papilla and the trench which surrounds it, numerous 
 flasksbaped gustatory bulbs may be 6een 
 in the epithelium, which covers the side 
 of the papilla and the opposite side of 
 the trench. The bottom of each flask is 
 next tho sub-epithelial tissue, whilst its 
 short neck opens on the surface by a 
 mouth, the gustatory pore ; similar bodies, 
 though in much smaller numbers, have 
 also been seen in the fungiform papillae. 
 Each gustatory body consists of two diffe- 
 rent forms of cells, named covering cells 
 and gustatory cells. The covering cells 
 are elongated, nucleated spindles, which, 
 arranged in layers, form the envelope of 
 each gustatory bulb, and reach from the bottom to the 
 mouth of tho flask ; they enclose the gustatory cells. 
 The gustatory cells are attenuated, homogeneous, and 
 highly refractile cells, which possess an elliptical nucleated 
 body with two processes, a central and peripheral. These 
 cells occupy the axis of the gustatory bulb. The peri- 
 pheral process, broader than the central, sometimes ends 
 in a short hair-like tip, which almost reaches the gus- 
 tatory pore ; the central process extends to the base of 
 the flask, and often divides into small branches. This 
 process is varicose, and not unlike the axial cylinder 
 of a nerve fibre. The branches of the glossopharyngeal 
 nerve, which are distributed to the back of the tongue, 
 enter the circumvallate papillae, and form a minute plexus, 
 with groups of nerve cells interspersed in it, from which 
 bundles ioth of medullated and non-medullated fibres pass 
 to the basis of the gustatory bulbs ; and it is believed that 
 the finest non-medullated fibres are continuous with the 
 peripheral processes of the gustatory cells, which are there- 
 fore regarded as the peripheral end-organs of the nerve of 
 taste, and by the excitation of these bodies gustative or 
 taste sensations are produced. As the glosso-pharyngeal 
 is the nerve distributed to the circumvallate papillae, where 
 these gustatory bulbs are especially found, it is therefore 
 the special nerve of taste ; but as these bulbs have also 
 been sparingly seen in the other papillae, where the lingual 
 nerve is distributed, that nerve probably acts in a minor 
 degree as a nerve of taste, though its special function is 
 undoubtedly that of a nerve of touch. The gustatory 
 bulbs are not penetrated by blood-vessels, but, as Fig. 85 
 shows, the vascular sub-epithelial tissue is prolonged 
 upwards along the sides of the bulbs almost as far as the 
 plane of the gustatory pore. Key, Beale, and other 
 observers have described special modifications of the 
 epithelium in connection -with the terminations of the gusta- 
 tory nerves in the frog. Tho mucous membrane of the
 
 AKIN.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 897 
 
 tongue contains numerous email tubular or branched 
 glands, more especially on the dorsum near its root, which 
 secrete mucus. Depressions also occur in this part of the 
 mucous membrane, around the walls of which groups of 
 lymphoid cells are collected in the sub-epithelial connective 
 tissue, which have an arrangement closely resembling the 
 structure of the adjacent tonsils, and form an example of 
 adenoid tissue. 
 
 , The Skht, or Integument, invests the entire outer surface 
 of the body, and contains structures by the excitation of 
 which the properties of things are determined by the sense 
 of touch. The skin also contains accessory structures, as 
 the nails, hairs, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands. The 
 skin consists of a non-vascular cuticle or epidermis, and of 
 a. vascular and sensitive corium, or cutis vera. 
 
 The Cuticle, Epidermis, or scarf shin, forms the outer 
 covering of the skin, and protects the cutis. It is a 
 laminated structure, and consists of numerous layers of 
 cells superimposed on each other. As these cells cover 
 a free surface exposed to the air, they belong to the epithe- 
 lium group. The thickness of the cuticle varies in diffe- 
 rent localities from -r^th to j-J^th inch ; where the skin 
 is frequently exposed to pressure, as in the soles of the 
 feet, the cuticle is the thickest and hardest ; and the 
 hands of those accustomed to manual labour have a hard 
 »nd horny cuticle. The increase in thickness in these 
 localities is for the purpose of protecting the highly sensi- 
 tive cutis from injury. The outer surface of the cuticle in 
 many parts of the body, especially the palm of the hand and 
 the fingers, is marked by ridges and furrows ; the ridges 
 indicate the position and arrangement of the papilla? of the 
 cutis, whilst the furrows are due to the sinking of the 
 cuticle into the spaces between the rows of papilla?. The 
 mouths of the sweat glands open on the surface of these 
 ridges. The cuticle is divided into two strata. The super- 
 ficial horny stratum consists of layers of flat, polygonal scales 
 like a tessellated epithelium; the cells in the superimposed 
 layers firmly adhere to each other by their surfaces, and in 
 vertical sections this stratum presents a fibrous appearance ; 
 but the cells may be readily isolated by digestion, in a caustic 
 alkali. The deeper or mucous stratum, or rete Malpiykii, 
 lies next the cutis, and closely follows the undulations of 
 its papillary surface. The cells forming the layer next the 
 cutis are columnar in shape, those in the layers immediately 
 succeeding are rounded or cubical, whilst those next in 
 order are polygonal, and not unfrequently possess pointed 
 processes or prickles projecting from them, hence the 
 name, prickle cells, employed by Schultze. The cells which 
 lie next the horny stratum assume the scale-like form. It 
 is in the cells of the mucous stratum that the colouring 
 matter of the skin is found, which in the fair races of men 
 forms the isolated coloured spots called freckles and moles, 
 but in the dark races the pigment granules are uniformly 
 distributed through the celL of this stratum. The super- 
 ficial cells of the horny stratum of the cuticle are continually 
 being shed, so that the cells of the deeper layers gradually 
 approach the surface, and new cells are continually being 
 formed in the deeper part of the rete Malpighii. The 
 cuticle is closely adherent to the cutis in the healthy living 
 skin, but on the application of a blister, or when putrefac- 
 tion sets in after death, it separates from it. 
 
 The Cutis vera. — When the cuticle is removed the surface 
 of the cutis is seen to be studded with multitudes of minute 
 elevations, the papilla? of the skin. These papilla? are 
 either simple conical structures, or compound with two or 
 three branches. They are largest in the palm and sole, 
 being from i-J-jth to yj-wth of an inch high, and are arranged 
 in ridges, but more usually they are much shorter and 
 irregularly distributed. The cutis is formed of connec- 
 
 1—30 
 
 )no. 87. — Vertical section through the akin and sutcuu. 
 Leous tisane, hi, horny stratum, an J rm. rete Malplght 
 of cuticle; pp. papille of cutis; (, a touch corpuscle. 
 with n, a nerve fibre ; 6c, a blood and Ic, a lymph 
 capillary; et, -connective subcutaneous tissue;/, fat 
 lobule; i, a sweat gland with its duct. 
 
 tive tissue, in which stellate connective tissue corpuscles 
 and elastic fibres are abundant. The deeper surface of th« 
 connective tis- 
 sue of the cutis 
 is reticulated, 
 and is continu- 
 ous with the 
 bundles of con- 
 nective tissue 
 that form the 
 areolar subcu- 
 taneous tissue. 
 In the papillae 
 themselves the 
 fibres of the 
 connective tis- 
 sue are not so 
 well marked, 
 and the surface 
 of the papillae 
 possesses more 
 of a homoge- 
 neous aspect, 
 which gives 
 rise to the ap- 
 pearance de- 
 scribed as a 
 basement 
 membrane. 
 The cutis is 
 highly .vascu- 
 lar ; the small arteries which go to the skin give off branches 
 to the lobules of fat in the subcutaneous tissue, then pene- 
 trate the cutis, and form a plexus from which capillaries 
 arise, which enter the papilla*, and form vascular loops within 
 them. The lymphatic vessels of the skin are numerous; 
 they form a plexus in the cutis, which lies beneath the 
 vascular plexus, forms, as Neumann's injections show, a 
 network around both the sebaceous and sweat glands, and 
 gives off capillary loops into the papillae. The nerves of 
 the skin are the cutaneous branches both of the spinal and 
 of certain of the cranial nerves, the origin and distributiou 
 of which have already been described. They run through 
 the subcutaneous tissue, and enter the deep surface of the 
 cutis, where they divide into branches. As these pass Kerv 
 towards the papilla? they unite to form a nerve plexus, touei 
 from which smaller branches arise to enter the papillae, 
 and terminate, more especially in the skin of the palm of 
 the hand, fingers, and sole, which are the surfaces most 
 sensitive to touch impressions, in the tactile or touch 
 corpuscles. , The touch corpuscles discovered by Wagner 
 and Meissner are the peripheral end-organs of the nerves 
 of touch. They may be single or compound ; are usually 
 ovoid inform, not unlike a minute fir cone; and are trans- 
 verse 1 y marked, from the transverse direction of the nuclei 
 of fusiform cells which form an investing capsule. Each 
 single corpuscle and each division of a compound corpuscle 
 is penetrated by one, and, according to Thin, by never 
 more than one, medullated nerve fibre, but the exact mode 
 of termination of the axial cylinder of the fibre has not 
 been ascertained. Virchow and other German observers 
 have stated that the papilla? which contain capillaries do 
 not contain nerves or touch corpuscles, and vice versa ; but 
 Dalzell and Thin have shown that certainly tne majority 
 of papillae that conUin nerve fibres and touch corpuscle* 
 are also vascular papillae. Non-medullated nerve fibre* 
 ascend to the surface of the cutis, and, according to Lan- 
 gerhans, pass into the rete Malpighii between the cells of thq 
 mucous layer. 
 
 Sails. — On the back of the last phalanx of each thumb.
 
 898 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [organs OP SE.nSB. 
 
 hnger^ and toe is situated a firm horny curved plate, the 
 nail Each nail rests on a bed, the sin face of which is 
 formed of the cutis, which also overlaps the side and root 
 of the nail ; thus the nail fi^s into a groove formed of the 
 cutis something after the manner in which a watch-glass 
 fits into its rim. A nail is merely a special modifica- 
 tion of the cuticle, the cells of the superficial stratum 01 
 which are more horny, harder, and more firmly adherent 
 to each other than in the cuticle proper. Deeper than the 
 horny stratum is the rete Malpighii of the nail, the cells of 
 which are soft, as in the cuticle itself. The cutis forming 
 the bed of the nail is studded with papillae, which are 
 arranged in almost parallel rows, and are highly vascular. 
 Naib grow both in length and thickness : the increase in 
 thickness is due to the formation of nerve cells on the bed 
 of the nail ; the increase in length takes place through the 
 formation of nail cells at its root, and as the nail is thus 
 slowly pushed forward it requires to bo cut at intervals. 
 At the root, sides, and below the free border of the nail the 
 cuticle is continuous with the substance of the nail itself. 
 
 Hair. — Projecting from the surface of the skin are multi- 
 tudes of elongated cylindrical horny structures, the hairs. 
 In the skin of "the scalp, the armpits, and the pubis, they 
 are long and numerous ; but in the eye-brows, eye-lasbes, 
 vibrissa of the nostrils, and surface of the body generally, 
 they are short.. They are stronger and thicker in the skin 
 of man than of woman, more especially on the cheeks, 
 lips, and chin. Hairs do not grow from the skin of the 
 palms and soles, the back of the ungual phalanges, and the 
 surface of the "upper eye-lids. Each hair is partially em- 
 bedded in a depression of the skin, called a hair follicle. The 
 deeper end of the follicle is somewhat dilated, and has in it a 
 papilla, the hair papilla. The wall of the hair follicle is 
 formed of the constituent structures of the skin ; the outer 
 part of the wall belongs to the cutis, and has been described 
 as arranged in three layers, the external, middle, and inner 
 layer of the hair follicle. The external and middle layers are 
 formed of connective tissue, with blood-vessels ; whilst the 
 inner, sometimes called the vitreous layer, is transparent 
 and homogeneous, and continuous with the so-called base- 
 ment membrane of the cutis. The inner part of the wall of 
 the hair follicle, or the root-sheath, belongs to the cuticle, 
 and consists of two layers, the outer and inner root-sheaths. 
 The outer root-sheath is continuous with the rete Malpighii, 
 and consists of cells similar to those of that stratum. The 
 inner root-sheath is continuous with the horny stratum of 
 the cuticle, and consists of elongated scale-like translucent 
 cells in which no nuclei can be seen. 
 
 A hair possesses ' a root, a shaft, and a tip ; the root is 
 embedded in the hair follicle, whilst the shaft and tip form 
 the free projecting part of the hair. In the human hair 
 the substance of the hair is composed of & fibrous-looking 
 horny material, which by the action of strong sulphuric acid 
 is resolved into elongated, closely compacted, fusiform cells, 
 which in coloured hairs contain 'pigment granules. In the 
 thicker hairs the cells in the axis of the hair are polygenal, 
 contain air, and form a central pith or medulla. The hair 
 b invested by imbricated scale-like cells, which form the 
 hair cuticle. In different animals the size and relative pro- 
 portion of the cells of the cuticle, medulla, aud fibrous part 
 of the hair present many modifications. The wool of the 
 sheep has its cuticle scales, with well-defined serrated 
 margins, so that the hair of this animal is well adapted for 
 felting into cloth ; in the bat, also, the cuticle cells are 
 large and strongly serrated. The bristles of the pig, again, 
 have the fibrous part of the hair largely developed. In 
 the deor tribe the hair consists of polygonal medulla-like 
 eells, which contain air. The root of the hair dilates at ite 
 deeper end into a bulb which embraces the hair papilla, 
 it is softer in texture than the shaft, so that the cellular 
 
 structure of the hair is more easily demonstrated. Nert 
 the papilla the cells are like those of the rete Malpighii, 
 but when traced onwards to the shaft they are seen to 
 become differentiated, both in structure and composition, 
 into the proper hair cells. The root is enveloped in a special 
 sheath, termed the sheath of Huxley, composed of nucleated 
 cells, which sheath, in the more superficial part of the 
 follicle, blends with the internal root-sheath. The hair 
 papilla bears to the hair the same relation as a papilla of 
 the cutb has to its investing cuticle, so that a hair is to be 
 regarded as a specially modified cuticular structure. The 
 human hair papilla is vascular, but no nerves have been 
 traced into it. In the tactile hairs of the mammalia, how- 
 ever, nerves have been traced into their papillae. 
 
 The bristles, feathers, claws, hoofs, the homy envelope of 
 the horn cores in the hollow horned ruminants, and various 
 tegumentary spines and scales, present in many animals, 
 are, like ' hairs and nails, special modifications of the 
 tegumentary system. 
 
 Each hair follicle has opening into it the excretory duct 
 of a small gland, named a sebaceous gland. This gland 
 consists of the excretory duct, and of from two to twenty 
 grape-like saccular expansions which open into the duct. 
 The wall of the sacculi and of the duct is continuous with 
 the vitreous layer of the outer wall of the hair follicle. 
 Capillary blood-vessels are distributed on the outer wall of 
 the sacculi. The sacculi are almost entirely filled with 
 polygonal cells containing drops of fat, which cells are 
 continuous with the epithelial lining of the gland duct and 
 the cells of the outer root-sheath. These glands secrete a 
 fatty material, which lubricates the surface of the hair. 
 Sometimes a small parasite, called Acarus follictdorum, is 
 found in a sebaceous gland. 
 
 Some years ago Kolliker described one or two bundles 
 of smooth muscular fibres extending from the wall of the 
 hair follicle to the deep surface of the cutis; these muscles, 
 named arrectores pili, by their contraction erect the hairs, 
 that is, cause them to become more prominent, and produce 
 the condition of skin, called cutis anserina or goose skin, 
 well known to occur when cold is apf bed to the surface of 
 the body. 
 
 Hairs are developed about the 4vh month of embryo life, 
 within depressions in the cutis, which form the future hair 
 follicles, filled with cells similar to, and continuous with, 
 those of the rete Malpighii A papilla forms at the bottom 
 of this depression, around which the cells become arranged 
 in a bulbous expansion. The cells, in line with the bulb, 
 elongate and harden, and group themselves so as to form 
 the shaft of the young hair, which at this stage b com- 
 pletely buried within the follicle. A rapid production of 
 new cells takes place at the bulb, the hair consequently 
 increases in length, and b pushed outwards through the 
 superficial horny stratum of the cuticle, which had closed 
 in the mouth of the depression or follicle in which the hair 
 is produced. At the same time, the more external cells 
 within the follicle are pushed outwards towards its wall, 
 and form the celb of the root^sheath. When a hair b 
 pulled out of its follicle the cells of the root-sheath are 
 drawn out' along with it. A new hair will be developed 
 at the bottom of a follicle from which the hair has been 
 shed as long as celb continue to be formed around the 
 papilla. When the growth of celb ceases within the hail 
 follicles then permanent baldness is the result. 
 
 The sebaceous glands are developed as bud-like offshoots 
 from the hair follicles, filled, like the follicles themselves, 
 with celb continuous with those of the rete Malpighii 
 Instead of the celb it) theso buds differentiating into a 
 hair, they become filled with fatty particles, and the wall 
 of the bod ««um» the characteristic sacculated form of 
 the gland.
 
 VOL. J. 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 PL A TE XX 
 
 Hy.2 
 
 F'S I 
 
 F:;i J 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA. NINTH EDITION
 
 VA&tUiAU SYSTEM.] 
 
 ANA T M Y 
 
 899 
 
 Sweat Glands, or sudoriparous glands, are found gene-ally 
 distributed throughout the skin, but are ni06t abundant in 
 the palms and soles, where they number 2500 to 3000 in 
 each square inch. In the skin of the back, again, there 
 are only between 400 and 500 in the square inch. Each 
 gland consists of a ball-like body lying in the subcutaneous 
 tissue, from which a tubular duct proceeds through the 
 skin to open on its free surface. The ball is composed of 
 a convoluted tube continuous with the tubular duct, and 
 terminfting in a blind end. The wall of the gland tube 
 consists of a delicate nucleated membrane lined by columnar 
 necreting cells. It is surrounded by connective tissue 
 •ontaining capillary blood-vessels. As the gland-duct 
 pierces the cutis it passes between the papilla?; in its course 
 through the cuticle it pursues a spiral direction, and has its 
 walls formed, not of a distinct membrane, but of the cuticle 
 cells themselves. The epithelial lining of the duct is 
 continuous with the celte of the rete Malpighii of the cuticle. 
 In the axilla and groin the sweat glands are much larger 
 than in the skin generally. The sweat glands arise as 
 flask-shaped pouches of the rete Malpighii projecting into 
 the cutis, which in course of time become elongated into 
 tubes, and the cells contained in which become the secreting 
 •ells of the gland. « 
 
 Vascular System. 
 
 The human body and the bodies of all the more highly 
 organised animals are traversed by numerous tubes or pipes, 
 technically called Vessels, some of which in man are nearly 
 an inch in diameter, others so small as to require a micro- 
 scope for their examination, others again of every interme- 
 diate size. In connection with the vessels is a central organ, 
 the Heart The heart and the vessels collectively constitute 
 the Vascular System. Of these vessels some contain blood, 
 and form the Blood-vascular system ; others contain lymph, 
 and .form the Lymph-vascular system. The lymph-vascular 
 system is not independent of the blood-vascular system, 
 but communicates with it at several points. The vascular 
 system is a hydraulic apparatus, possessing a pump, pipes, 
 and valves. The heart is the pump, which works, not by 
 the movements of a piston, but by the contraction of its 
 muscular walls ; the vessels are the pipes, which convey 
 the contained fluid, and they are provided in certain locali- 
 ties with valves for modifying its flow. 
 
 Blood-Vasctjlak System. — The movement of the blood 
 in the blood-vascular system is called the circulation of the 
 blood. In the lower Vertebrata the heart is a single organ, 
 and the blood flows from it through the vessels back again 
 into the part of the heart from which it had proceeded, 
 forming a simple circulation. In man and the higher ver- 
 tebrates the heart is a double organ, i.e., it consists of a 
 right and left portion, intimately united to, but not directly 
 communicating with, each other. The blood which flows 
 from its right side passes through vessels which traverse 
 the lungs, and is conveyed to the left side of the heart ; 
 whilst the blood which flow3 from the left side passes 
 through vessels which traverse the body generally, and is 
 conveyed to the right side of the heart. This is called a 
 double ciradation ; that which appeilains to the lungs is 
 the pulmonic circulation ; that which appertains to the 
 I body generally is the systemic circulation. The vessels 
 which carry the blood away from the heart are called 
 arteries; those which convey it back to the heart are veins. 
 The arteries and veins do not communicate directly with 
 each other, but through the intermediation of a network 
 of extremely minute vessels, the capillaries. Hence, both 
 in the pulmonary and systemic circulation, the blood in its 
 p:issage from the arteries into the veins must go through 
 capillaries. The blood which flows from th6 left side of 
 the heart into the systemic arteries is pure or arterial blood ; 
 
 as it traverses the systemic capillaries it parts with certain 
 of its constituents to nourish the organs and tissues, and 
 as it receives from them waste products it becomes impure 
 blood ; in which condition it flows back to the right side ui 
 the heart by the systemic veins as venous blood ; hence 
 the right side of the heart is often called the venous side. 
 The blood which flows from the right side of the heart 
 along the pulmonary artery is this impure blood ; as it 
 traverses the pulmonary capillaries it is purified by the 
 action of the air in the lungs, and is changed into arterial 
 or pure blood, in which condition it flows back by the 
 pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart, which conse- 
 quently is called the arterial side. The object of the 
 pulmonary circulation, therefore, is to reconvert into pure 
 blood the blood which has been rendered impure during iu 
 passage through the systemic capillaries. 
 
 The I/cart. — The heart is a hollow muscle contained 
 in the cavity of the chest, and enclosed within a bag called 
 the Pericardium. The pericardium, with its enclosed heart 
 occupies the space called mediastinum, between the twe 
 lungs ; it lies therefore behind the sternum, and in front of 
 the spinal column, but projects more to the left than to the 
 right side of the mesial plane. The bag of the pericardium 
 is formed externally of a strong fibrous membrane, which is 
 attached below to the central tendon of the diaphragm, but 
 blends above with the sheaths of the great vessels which pass 
 to and from the heart. When the bag is cut open its inner 
 surface is seen to possess a smooth glistening serous aspect, 
 for it is lined by a layer of squamous endothelium, which 
 layer is continuous with the serous membrane that invests; 
 tHe heart, and forms the visceral layer of the pericardium. 
 The continuity of the serous lining of the bag with the 
 serous investment of the heart takes place where the great 
 blood-vessels pierce the fibrous bag. 
 
 The heart lies obliquely from above downwards, from 
 right to left, and from behind forwards. For descriptive 
 
 Flo. 88.— The Thoracic Viscera. 
 
 •• In this diagram the lnnga are turned to the aide, end the pertaarHhjjn rs 
 moved to disj.lay the heart. <i, upper, <r\ lower lobe of left lung; o, upper. 
 V, middle, f, lower loba of right lung; c, trachea; ct, arch of aorta- a 
 superior vena cava; /, pulmonary artery; g. left, and ft, right auricle; «, njhl. 
 and /, left ventricle; m, inferior vena cava; n, descending aorta; 1, Innominate. 
 artery; 3, right, and 4, left common carotid artery; 3, right, and 5, left into. 
 elavian artery; 6, 6, right and left Innominme vein; 7 and 9, left and neat 
 internal Jugular reins; 8 and 10, left and right snnclavlan veins; \\. 12. 13, led 
 pulmonary artery, bronchus, and vein ; 14. 16, 16, right pulmonary areockaa? 
 artery,. and vein; 17 aad IS, lea and right coronary arteries. 
 
 purposes it may be regarded as possessing a base, »n apex, 
 an anterior and i posterior surface, a right and Jeft border. 
 The base lies backwards, upward.-. ?.nd to the right, opjioeite
 
 900 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [vASCCUU 
 
 the 4 th to the 8th dorsal vertebrae. Tho apex is directed 
 forwards, downwards, and to the left, opposite to the inter- 
 val between the 5th and Gth left ribs. The heart has on 
 its surface grooves which indicate its division internally 
 into four chambers, two in its right half, two in its left 
 half. The right chambers are the right auricle and right 
 ventricle. The left chambers are the left auricle and left 
 ventricle. All these chambers are lined by a smooth 
 membrane, the endocardium, which is continuous on the 
 one hand with the lining membrane of the veins, on the 
 other with the lining membrane of the arteries. 
 
 The Bight Auricle occupies the right part of the base of 
 •the heart. It consists of a large dilated portion, the sinus 
 vennsus, and of a small ear-shaped appendage, the auricula. 
 Its muscular wall is smooth internally, except in the auri- 
 cula and adjacent anterior wall of the sinus venosus, where 
 It is thrown into parallel ridges like the teeth of a comb, 
 and named musculi pectinati. Into the sinus venosus open 
 the great systemic veins or venas cavae. The superior vena 
 cava conveys to the auricle the systemic blood that has 
 been circulating in the body above the diaphragm ; it opens 
 by a patent mouth into the upper and back part of the 
 sinus venosus. The inferior vena cava conveys to the 
 auricle the blood that has been circulating in the parts of 
 the body below the diaphragm ; it opens into the lower and 
 back part of the auricle, and at its mouth is a rudimentary 
 valve, the Eustachian valve. Close to its orifice is the 
 mouth of another large vein, the coronary venous sinus, 
 which also possesses a small valve. Several minute open- 
 ings, the foramina Thebesii, scattered over the inner wall 
 of the auricle, are the mouths of small veins ramifying in 
 the wall itself. Through these various orifices the venous 
 blood pours into the auricle, and then flows into the right 
 ventricle through a large orifice of communication between 
 them. The right auricle is separated by a partition, the 
 auricular septum, from the left auricle. On the surface of 
 this septum is a depression, the fossa ovalis, surrounded by 
 a raised border, the annulus ovalis, with which border the 
 inner end of the Eustachian valve is continuous. Before 
 the birth of the child the septum is perforated by a hole, 
 called foramen ovale, through which the blood flows directly 
 into the left auricle, , but this foramen is obliterated after 
 the birth of the child. 
 
 The Right Ventricle forms the right border, a large part 
 of the anterior surface, but only a small part of the posterior 
 surface oi the heart. It is shaped somewhat like a flattened 
 cone, its apex being directed downwards towards the apex 
 of the heart, its base to the corresponding auricle. The 
 inner surface of its wall is very irregular, owing to the 
 muscular bundles being elevated into strong ridges, called 
 columnar cameo?. Two, or it may be three, of these fleshy 
 columns project like nipples or big papilla; into the cavity of 
 the ventricle, and are called musculi papillares. Attached 
 to the free apex of each papillary muscle are several fibrous 
 threads, the chorda; tendinew, which, by their opposite extre- 
 mities, are connected to the segments of a large valve situ- 
 ated around the opening between the right auricle and 
 ventricle. The right auriculo-ventricular opening, situated at 
 the base of the ventricle, is sufficiently large to admit three 
 fingers, and possesses a valve which consists of three large 
 pointed segments or cusps (hence the name tricuspid given to 
 |t), between which three small intermediate cusps lie. One 
 of the large cusps lies opposite the anterior wall of the ven- 
 tricle, another opposite the posterior, whilst the third is 
 between the auriculo-ventricular and pulmonary openings. 
 The cusps are flattened triangular folds of membrane con- 
 pected by their bases around the opening ; when the valve 
 [a not in action the apex of each cusp hangs pendulous in 
 \he ventricle : one surface is smooth, and looks to the cavity 
 of »hp, rentricle, the other surface is rouyh and directed to 
 
 its wall ; to this rough surface, to the apex, and to the edge* 
 of the cusp, the chordae tendinese are attached. As the 
 musculi papillares, from which the chordae tendineae sprin-', 
 lie opposite the intervals between the cusps, the chordae 
 tendiueae from any given papillary muscle divide them- 
 selves into two groups, one for each of the two cusps 
 between which it is situated. Attention has recently beoo 
 
 Flo. 89.— Cavities of the right side of the Heart 
 
 o. superior, and 6, Inferior vena can i e, arch of aorta ; d, pulmonary artfrri t 
 right, and / left auricular appendage; g. f«ssa ovalU: A. Eustachla. .valtn 
 *. month of coronary vein; I. m, n, cusps of the tricuspid valve; o, o, i opU- 
 lary muscles; p, semilunar valve; o, corpus Arantll ; r, lunula. 
 
 drawn by Rolleston to a band which passes from the base 
 of the anterior papillary muscle to the septal wall of the 
 ventricle. As it prevents over-distension of the ventricle, 
 he has named it the moderator band. The base of this 
 ventricle forms to the left and in front of the auriculo- 
 ventricular opening, a funnel-shaped prolongation, the conuc 
 arteriosus, from which the pulmonary artery arises, through 
 the intermediation of a strong fibrous ring. Surrounding 
 the mouth of this artery is a valve called semilunar, which 
 consists of three semilunar segments. Each segment is 
 attached by its convex border to the artery where it springs 
 from the ventricle. The opposite border is free, and pos- 
 sesses at its centre a minute nodule, the corpus Arantii, 
 from which slender threads curve outwards at the free 
 border and in the substance of the valve to strengthen it. 
 A thin lunated portion lies immediately within the free 
 border. One surface of the valve is convex, and directed 
 to the lumen (i.e., the space contained by the walls) of the 
 artery; the other is concave, and directed to the wall of the 
 artery, and between it and the wall is a pouch named sinus 
 of Valsalva. The pulmonary artery extends upwards and 
 to the left for about 1J inch, and then divides into tw^ 
 branches, one for each lung. The right ventricle is com 
 pletely separated from the left by the ventricular septum, 
 which passes obliquely from left to right, and from before 
 backwards, so that it forms the posterior wall of the right 
 ventricle and the anterior wall of the left. 
 
 The Left Auricle occupies the left part of the base of 
 the heart, and, bike the right auricle, consists of a dilated 
 sinus venosus and an ear-shaped auricula. Its muscular 
 wall forms a smooth surface internally, except in the 
 auricula, where the ridge-shaped musculi joectinali occur. 
 Opening into the sinus are the orifices of the four pulmonary 
 vetns, two from the right, two from the left lung : these
 
 SYSTEM.] 
 
 orifices are without valves. At the lower part of tha 
 auricle is the large orifice of communication between it 
 and the ba3e of the left ventricle. 
 
 The Left Ventricle forms the left border, the apex, a 
 large part of the posterior surface, but only a small part 
 of the anterior surface of the heart. It is conical in form, 
 its apex is at the apex of the heart, the base at the corre- 
 sponding auricle. As in the right ventricle, the inner surface 
 of its wall is elevated into fleshy columns, two of which 
 project like nipples into the cavity and form musculi 
 papillares, which have chordae tendinece connected with 
 them. The 'eft auriculo-ventricular opening is large enough 
 to admit two fingers. It possesses a valve, which consists 
 of two large pointed segments or cusps, between which two 
 small intermediate cusps lie, hence it is called the bicuspid 
 valve ; and as these cusps are placed one in front of the 
 other like the segments of a bishop's mitre, the name mitral 
 valve is often given to it. The cusps agree in shape, general 
 arrangement, and mode of attachment with those of the 
 tricuspid valve, but they are stronger; and as the more 
 anterior segment Kes obLiquely between the auricular and 
 aortic orifices, both its surfaces are smooth. From the base 
 of this ventricle the great systemic artery or aorta arises 
 through the intermediation of a strong fibrous ring. The 
 mouth of the aorta is surrounded by a three segmented 
 semilunar valve, similar to the semilunar pulmonary valve, 
 but with thicker and stronger segments, and possessing 
 more strongly marked sinuses of Valsalva. The base of 
 each ventricle has therefore two openings in it, one for 
 communication with the auricle, the other with the great 
 artery arising from the ventricle. The auriculo-ventricular 
 openings are .the most posterior, and almost in the same 
 plane"; the aortic opening lies in front of the interval 
 between the two auriculo-ventricular, and the pulmonary 
 opening is in front of the aortic. 
 
 The walls of the cavities of the heart are formed of 
 striped muscular fibre, over the contractions of which the 
 will exercises no control. The fibres are collected into 
 fasciculi, which have a reticulated arrangement, and the 
 fibres themselves branch and again unite to form a compli- 
 cated network. The fibres of the walls of the auricles are 
 distinct from those of the ventricles, so that the auricular 
 and ventricular compartments are connected together, not 
 by an interchange of muscular tissue, but by an intermediate 
 ring-like arrangement .of fibres of connective tissue. The 
 muscular fasciculi of the auricles are arranged in two strata. 
 The deeper stratum consists of fibres proper to each 
 auricle, some of which run obliquely in the wall, others 
 form the musculi pectinati, surround the auricula, and are 
 prolonged in rings into the coats of the venae cavae and 
 pulmonary veins, whilst fibres extend longitudinally and 
 obliquely along the wall of the coronary venous sinus. The 
 superficial stratum consists of fasciculi, which run obliquely 
 from one auricle to the other on both the anterior and 
 posterior surfaces, and are said to be prolonged into the 
 auricular septum. 
 
 The muscular wall of the ventricles is much thicker than 
 that of the auricles, and the wall of the left ventricle 
 is about three times thicker than the right. The 
 fibres vary in their direction in different parts of the 
 thickness of the ventricular walls. The superficial ex- 
 ternal fibres run obliquely from above downwards, and 
 from right to left, and on the anterior surface of the ven- 
 tricles dip into the anterior ventricular groove to enter the 
 septum, whilst on the posterior surface they extend across 
 the posterior ventricular groove ; at the apex of the heart 
 they turn inwards in a whorl-like manner, and, as was 
 known to Lower and Gerdy, become continuous with 
 superficial fibres on the inner wall of the ventricle; at the 
 bnse of the ventricles they turn round the border of the 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 901 
 
 auriculo-ventricular openings, and, as Pettigrew haa shown, 
 become continuous with these superficial internal fibres, 
 which run in the reverse direction. The internal fibres are 
 also prolonged into the musculi papillares, the chords 
 tendineae springing from which serve therefore as tendons 
 of insertion for these muscles. If the substance of the 
 wall be now dissected the fibres situated in the centre of 
 the wall are seen to lie ia the horizontal plane. Various 
 anatomists have described these fibres of the ventricles as 
 arranged in layers. Lower recognised two layers spirally 
 crossing each other ; Haller, three ; Wolff, three in the right 
 and six in the left ventricle. Pettigrew at one time 
 believed he could dissect nine layers, but has subsequently 
 reduced the number to seven — three external, a fourth or 
 central, and three internal. He conceives that the fibres 
 of the three external layers run in a spiral direction from 
 left to right downwards, the first layer being more vertical 
 than the second, and the second than the third, whilst the 
 fibres of the fourth or central layer are horizontal The 
 three internal layers also run spirally, but in the reverse 
 direction from the external, with which they become con- 
 tinuous both at the base and apex. The subdivision of the 
 ventricular wall into such precise and determinate layers 
 as is implied in the descriptions of Pettigrew is, however, 
 to some extent an artificial procedure. There can be no 
 doubt, as his dissections so beautifully show,- that the 
 direction of the fibres in the ventricular wall varies at 
 different depths ; but owing to the reticulated arrangement 
 of the fibres, not only are those connected together which 
 lie in one of the so-called layers, but they also anastomose 
 with the fibres in the layer contiguous to it on either 
 aspect. Hence when one layer is peeled off, that imme- 
 diately subjacent exhibits, not a smooth face, which it 
 would have done had the definition of the layers been dis- 
 tinct, but a rough appearance, due to the tearing through 
 of intermediate connecting muscular fibres. Owing to 
 these connections the substance of the wall of the ventricle, 
 as Henle's dissections show, may, with the exception of 
 the superficial internal and external fibres, be split up into 
 lamellae, which extend either horizontally, obliquely, or in 
 an arched manner through the wall between its two sur- 
 faces ; and the surfaces of those lamellae are not parallel to 
 the wall of the ventricle, but are directed upwards and 
 downwards. 
 
 Except at the fibrous rings, where both the white and 
 yellow fibres are distinct, the connective tissue of the heart 
 is small in quantity. The endocardial lining consists of 
 connective tissue with elastic fibres, with a layer of endo- 
 thelium on the free surface ; and Schweigger-Seidel has 
 also described smooth muscular fibres in it. Hence, as 
 Luschka has stated, the endocardium represents not merely 
 the inner coat of the blood-vessels but all the structures of 
 the vascular wall Purkinje described fibres beneath the 
 endocardium, which are now regarded as imperfectly formed 
 striated muscular fibres. The valves are folds of the endo- 
 cardium, enclosing fibres continuous with those in the 
 fibrous rings : the cuspidate auriculo-ventricular valves 
 receive fibres from the chordae tendineae. 
 
 The heart is well supplied with blood, not by the blood 
 which flows through its cavities, but by two special coro- 
 nary arteries which ramify in its walls, and end in nume- 
 rous capillaries lying between the fibres. 7rom these 
 capillaries the coronary veins arise, which join to form the 
 coronary venous sinus. Lymphatic vessels occur both in 
 the endocardium and pericardium, and apparently ramify 
 in the muscular wall. The nerves of the heart have been 
 dissected especially by Scarpa, Remak, Lee, and Pettigrew, 
 and numerous small ganglia described in connection with 
 them (see p. 883). 
 
 The blood flows along the great veins into the auriclca.
 
 902 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [vascular srsTEH 
 
 and is forocd by the contraction of their muscular walls 
 through the auriculo-ventricular openings, the valves of 
 which open outwards, into the ventricles. When the ven- 
 tricles are distended their muscular walls contract and force 
 the blood into the arteries — the right ventricle into the 
 pulmonary artery, the left into the aorta — the valves at the 
 mouth of each artery opening outwards to allow of the 
 free passage of the fluid. To prevent, during the ventricular 
 contraction, the regurgitation of blood into the auricles, the 
 auriculo-ventricular valves are floated away from the sides 
 of the ventricle across their respective openings, and by the 
 apposition and slight overlapping of their edges temporarily 
 close the openings. The tilting upwards.of the valves into 
 the auricles is prevented by the contraction of the musculi 
 papillarcs, and their connection with the cusps of the valve 
 through the chordae tendineae. PettigTew has shown that 
 casts of the ventricular cavities, more especially of the left, 
 have the form of a double cone, spirally twisted from right 
 to left, and has described the blood as forced in spiral 
 streams against the under surface of the segments of the 
 valve, which are twisted and wedged into each other so as 
 to prevent regurgitation. The propulsion of the blood into 
 the arteries distends the elastic walls of those tubes ; but 
 when the ventricular contraction has ceased, the elastic wall 
 recoils, and the blood is propelled onwards in the circula- 
 tion. The regurgitation of the blood into the ventricles ia 
 prevented by the closure of the semilunar valves, the seg- 
 ments of which are thrown across the arterial orifices 
 through the pressure exercised on the column of blood in 
 the lumen of the artery and in the sinuses of Valsalva, 
 
 The Arteries. — These vessels were named arteries by the 
 older anatomists, on the supposition, now known to be 
 erroneous, that they contained air. The term ia now 
 omployed to express a blood-vessel, which, arising either 
 directly or indirectly from the heart, conveys blood away 
 from that organ. Arteries divide and subdivide into smaller 
 vessels in their course, and to the individual branches 
 descriptive names are applied. Some of these names 
 express the position of an artery, as subclavian, axillary ; 
 others, the organ in which it is distributed, as pulmonary, 
 hepatic ; others a peculiarity in its course, as circumflex, 
 coronary. The branches of arteries may be-either collateral 
 or terminal. The collateral branches arise from the sides 
 of the parent artery either at an acute, a right, or an obtuse 
 angle. Terminal branches arise at an acute angle by the 
 bifurcation of the parent artery, which is the most common 
 form, or by the breaking ■ up of the artery into a cluster 
 of branches. Branches which arise either from the same 
 artery or from different arteries may be distributed in a 
 common locality, may there unite together, and form what 
 js called an inosculation or anastomosis, so that the blood 
 from one artery may thus flow from it into another. The 
 most common anastomosis is by the formation of loops 
 between adjacent branches, but sometimes, as when the <vo 
 vertebral arteries join to form the basilar, a convergence 
 of two almost straight arteries takes place ; and in other 
 cases, as where the two anterior cerebral arteries are joined 
 together by the anterior communicating, a connecting 
 branch passes transversely across the mesial plane. A more 
 complex form of anastomosis is when an artery (and a 
 similar arrangement i3 sometimes found in veins) rapidly 
 subdivides into numerous branches, which may again join 
 to form a trunk either with or without the formation of a 
 plexus. This is called a rett mirabile, an arrangement not 
 uncommon in the cetacea, in the internal carotid arteries 
 of ruminants, in the mesenteric arteries of the pig, in the 
 arteries of the limbs of the sloths and lemurs, and in the 
 arterial Bystera of fishes. The only examples of a rete in 
 the human body are the convoluted Malpighian tufts of the 
 kidney and the arterial distribution in the coccygeal body. 
 
 The distribution of the pulmonary artery will be con- 
 sidered in the anatomy of the lungs. That of the aorto 
 will now bo briefly described. 
 
 The Aorta (11 Lte X X. figs. 2, 3, a) lies in the cavities of the Aorta, 
 thorax and abdomen, and arises from the base of the left ven- 
 tricle. It ascends forwards, upwards, and to the right as far 
 as the level of the second right costal cartilage, then runs 
 backwards and to the left to reach the left side of the body 
 of the 4th dorsal vertebra, and then descends almost verti- 
 cally to reach the left side of the body of the 5 th dorsal ver- 
 tebra. It forms, therefore, an arch, well known as the arch 
 of the aorta, which arches over the root of the left lung, and 
 which has attached to its concave surface a fibrous cord, 
 known as the obliterated ductus arteriosus, which connects 
 it with the left branch of the pulmonary artery. The aorta 
 continues its course downwards in close relation to the 
 bodies of the lower dorsal vertebrae, then passes through 
 an opening in the diaphragm, enters the abdomen, and 
 descends in front of the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae as 
 low as the 4th, where it is usually described as dividing 
 into the two terminal branches, the common iliac arteries. 
 At the angle of bifurcation, however, a long slender 
 artery, called the middle sacral, is prolonged downwards in 
 front of the sacrum to the end of. the coccyx. In animals 
 with long tails this artery can be recognised as a direct 
 continuation of the aorta, prolonging it downwards in front 
 of the caudal vertebra;, whilst the iliacs are seen to bo 
 collateral branches ; but in man, where the coccyx is rudi- 
 mentary, and the lower limbs largely developed, the iliac 
 arteries which supply those limbs are so big as to obscure 
 the true signification of the middle sacral artery, and appear 
 themselves to be the terminal branches of the aorta. The 
 branches which arise directly from the aorta' may be 
 arranged in four groups. — 1st, Branches for the supply of 
 the viscera of the thorax and abdomen proper ; 2d, branches 
 for the walls of the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis; 3d, 
 branches for the head, neck, and upper limbs ; 4th, branches 
 for the lower limbs, pelvic walls, and viscera. 
 
 The branches of the aorta which supply tho viscera of Visceral 
 the thorax are the coronary, the oesophageal, the bronchial, breaches, 
 and the pericardial. The coronary arteries, two in num 
 ber, are the first branches of the aorta, and arise opposite 
 the right and left segments of the semilunar valve, from 
 the wall of the aorta, where it dilates into the sinuses of 
 Valsalva. The mouths of these arteries are closed by the 
 opening outwards of the aortic valves during the ventricular 
 contraction. The elastic recoil of the aorta following that 
 contraction not only closes the aortic valves, but drives the 
 blood into the coronary arteries. These arteries break up 
 into branches in the muscular walls of the heart, and the 
 sudden turgescence of its walls, which results from the fill- 
 ing of these vessels, is, according to Briicke and Garrod, 
 the cause of the dilatation of the ventricular cavities. 
 
 The bronchial arteries are two in number ; one accom- 
 panies each bronchial tube, and supplies the tissues of the 
 lung. 
 
 The esophageal arteries, three or four in number, supply 
 the coats of the oesophagus. 
 
 The pericardial branches are very small arteries which 
 supply the back of the bag of the pericardium. 
 
 The branches of the aorta which supply the viscera of 
 the abdomen arise either singly or in pairs. The single 
 arteries are the coeliac axis, the superior mesenteric, and the 
 inferior mesenteric, which arise from the front of the aorta ; 
 the paire are the capsular, the two renal, and the two 
 spermatic or ovarian, which arise from its sides. The 
 single arteries supply viscera which are either completely 
 or almost completely invested by the peritoneum, and tho 
 veins corresponding to them are the roots of the vena 
 portee. The pairs of arteries supply viscera developed
 
 ARTERIES.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 903 
 
 behind the peritoneum, and the veins corresponding to them 
 are rootlets of the inferior vena cava. 
 
 The coeliac axis is a thick, short artery, which almost 
 immediately divides into the coronary, hepatic, and splenic 
 branches. The coronary artery subdivides into an oesoph- 
 ageal branch for the lower end of the oesophagus, and a 
 fastric branch for the coats of the stomach. The liepatic 
 artery ends in the substance of the liver ; but gives off a 
 tyslic branch to the gall bladder, a pyloric branch to the 
 stomach, a gastro-duodenal branch, which divides into a 
 superior pancreatico-duodenal for the pancreas and duode- 
 num, and a right gastro-epiploic for the stomach and 
 omentum. The splenic artery ends in the substance of the 
 spleen ; but gives off pancreatic branches to the pancreas, 
 vasa brevia to the great end of the stomach, and a left 
 gastro-epiploic to the stomach and omentum. 
 
 The superior mesenteric artery gives off an inferior 
 pancreatico-duodenal branch to the pancreas and duodenum ; 
 about twelve intestinal branches to the small intestines, 
 which form in the substance of the mesentery a series of 
 arche3 before they end in the wall of the intestines ; an 
 ileocolic branch to the end of the ileum, the caecum, and 
 beginning of the colon ; a right colic branch to the ascend- 
 ing colon ; and a middle colic branch to the transverse colon. 
 
 The inferior mesenteric artery gives off a left colic 
 branch to the descending colon, a sigmoid branch to the 
 sigmoid flexure of the colon, and ends in the superior 
 luxmorrhoidal artery which supplies the rectum. The 
 arteries which supply the coats of the alimentary tube 
 from the oesophagus to the rectum anastomose freely with 
 each other in the wall of the tube, or in its mesenteric 
 attachment, and the anastomoses are usually by the forma- 
 tion of arches or loops between adjacent branches. 
 
 The capsular arteries, small in size, run outwards from 
 the aorta to end in the supra-renal capsules. 
 
 The renal arteries pass one to each kidney, in which 
 they for the most part end, but in the substance of the 
 organ they give off small perforating branches, which pierce 
 the capsule of the kidney, and are distributed in the sur- 
 rounding fat. 
 
 The spermatic arteries are two long slender arteries, 
 which descend, one in each spermatic cord, into the scrotum 
 to supply the testicle. The corresponding arteries in the 
 female, called the ovarian, do not leave the abdomen ; they 
 supply the ovaries. 
 
 The branches of the aorta which supply the walls of the 
 thorax, abdomen, and pelvis, are the intercostal, the lumbar, 
 the phrenic, and the middle sacraL 
 
 The intercostal arteries arise from the back of ,the 
 thoracic aorta, and are usually ten pairs. They run down 
 the sides of the vertebral bodies as far as the commence- 
 ment of the intercostal spaces, when each divides into a 
 dorsal and a proper intercostal 
 branch ; the dorsal branch 
 passes to the back of the thorax 
 to supply the deep muscles of 
 the spine ; the proper inter- 
 costal branch runs outwards 
 in the intercostal space to 
 supply its muscles, and the 
 lower pairs of intercostals also 
 give branches to the diaphragm 
 and wall of the abdomen. 
 
 The lumbar arteries arise 
 from the back of the abdominal 
 aorta, and are usually four 
 pairs. They run down the 
 sides of the lumbar vertebrae, 
 and divide into a.dorsal branch, which supplies the deep mus- 
 <-ies of the back of the loins, and an abdominal branch 
 
 Flo. 90.— Diagram of a pair of Inter- 
 costal arteries. Ao, the aorta ti ans- 
 verscly divided, giving off at each 
 tide an Intercostal artery; PR, the 
 posterior or dorsal branch; AB. the 
 anterior or proper intercostal 
 branch ; IM, a transverse section 
 through the internal mammary 
 artery. 
 
 which runs outwards to supply the wall of the abdomen. 
 The distribution of the lumbar and intercostal arterier 
 exhibits a transversely-segmented arrangement of the vas- 
 cular system, similar to the transversely-segmented arrange- 
 ment of the bones, muscles, and nerves met with in these 
 localities, but more especially in the thoracic region. 
 
 The phrenic arteries, two in number, pass to supply the 
 under surface of the diaphragm. 
 
 The middle sacral artery, as already stated, is rather th« 
 continuation of the aorta than a branch. As it runs down 
 the front of the sacrum it gives branches to the back cf the 
 pelvic walL 
 
 The statement has frequently been made that the visceral 
 and parietal branches of the aorta do not anastomose with 
 each other. Injections made by Turner have, however, 
 shown that, both in the thoracic and abdomiual cavities, 
 slender anastomosing communications exist between the two 
 sets of branches. In the abdominal cavity a wide mefbed 
 plexus of small arteries, named by him sub- or extra yrrir 
 toneal plexus, lies in the fat outside the peritoneum. It com- 
 municates, on the one hand, with the perforating branches 
 of the renal arteries and with slender branches of the capsu- 
 lar, spermatic, colic, and pancreatic arteries, and in the re- 
 gion of the diaphragm with the hepatic artery. On the other 
 hand, it communicates with the phrenic arteries, the lower 
 intercostals, the lumbar branches of the aorta, and with the 
 ilio-lumbar, circumflex ilii, and epigastric branches of U13 
 iliac arteries, which also go to the wall of the abdomen. 
 In the pelvis also the visceral superior haemorrhoidal artery 
 anastomoses with the middle and lateral sacral arteries. 
 The extra-peritoneal plexus supplies the fat and lymphatio 
 glands lying outside the peritoneum, and it also gives origin 
 to vasa vasorum for the coats of the aorta and vena cava. 
 This plexus may, when the visceral branches of the aorta 
 are obstructed, aid in an important manner in carrying on 
 the circulation. In a subject examined by J. Chiene, in the 
 dissecting room of the University of Edinburgh, where the 
 coeliac axis and the superior and inferior mesenteric arte.ies 
 were obliterated at their origins, the blood flowed into these 
 arteries and the viscera they supplied through a great 
 enlargement of the arteries of this plexus. In the thoracio 
 cavity a similar plexus, named the exlra-pleural plexus, lies 
 between the pleura and pericardium, which communicates 
 on the one hand with the internal mammary arteries, and 
 on the other passes in front of the root of the lung to joiii 
 the bronchial system of vessels. Another portion of this 
 plexus joins on the one hand the intercostal arteries near 
 the dorsal vertebras, and on the other passes to the lung 
 at the back of its root. 
 
 The branches for the head, neck, and upper limbs arise 
 as three large arteries from the transverse part of the aorta ; 
 they are named arteria innominata, left common carotid, 
 and left subclavian. The arteria innominata is the largest ; 
 it passes, upwards and to the right, to the root of the neck, 
 and then divides into the right common carptid and the 
 right subclavian. The carotid arteries supply the two sides 
 of the head and neck ; the subclavian arteries the two 
 upper extremities. 
 
 The subclavian artery is the commencement of the great 
 arterial trunk for the upper limb. It passes across the root 
 of the neck and under the clavicle, when it enters the arm- 
 pit, and becomes the axillary artery ; by that name it 
 extends as far as the posterior fold of the axilla, when it 
 enters the upper arm, takes the name of brachial or 
 humeral artery, and courses as far as the bend of the elbow, 
 where it bifurcates into the radial and ulnar arteries. 
 From the subclavian part of the trunk the following 
 branches arise : — a, Vertebral, which enters the foramen at 
 the root of the transverse process of the 6th cervical 
 vertebra, ascends through the corresponding foramina in
 
 1)04 
 
 A X A T O M Y 
 
 [vAs«T-nn 
 
 the vertebrae above, lies in a groove on the arch of the 
 atlas, and enters the skull through the foramen magnum, 
 where it joins its fellow to form the basilar artery ; it 
 gives off muscular branches to the deep muscles of the 
 neck, spinal branches to the spinal cord, meningeal branches 
 to the dura mater, and an inferior cerebellar branch to the 
 under surface of the cerebellum. The basilar artery, 
 formed by the junction of the two vertebrals, extends from 
 the lower to the upper border of the pons Varolii ; it gives 
 off collaterally transverse branches to the pons, auditory 
 branches which accompany the portio mollis to the internal 
 . ear, inferior cerebellar branches to the under surfaco of the 
 cerebellum, whilst it breaks up into four terminal branches, 
 viz., two superior cerebellar to the upper surface of the 
 cerebellum, and two posterior cerebral which supply the 
 tentorial aspect of the tcmporo-sphenoidal lobes, the occi- 
 pital lobes, and the posterior convolutions of the parietal 
 lobes, b, Thyroid axis, which immediately divides nto the 
 inferior thyroid, the supra-scapular, and the transverse 
 cervical branches ; the inferior thyroid supplies the thyroid 
 body, and gives off an ascending cervical branch to the 
 muscles of the neck ; the suprascapular supplies the mus- 
 cles on the dorsum scapulas ; the transverse cervical sup- 
 plies the trapezius and the muscles attached to the vertebral 
 border of the scapula, c, Internal mammary, supplies the 
 anterior surface of the walls of the chest and abdomen, 
 and the upper surface of the diaphragm, d, Superior inter- 
 costal supplies the first intercostal space, and by its deep 
 cervical branch the deep muscles of the back of the neck. 
 
 The axillary artery supplies long and short thoracic 
 branches to the wall of the chest and the pectoral muscles ; 
 an alar thoracic branch to the fat and glands of the axilla ; 
 an acromial thoracic to the parts about the acromion ; 
 anterior and posterior circumflex branches to the shoulder 
 joint and deltoid muscle ; a subscapular branch to the 
 muscles of the posterior fold of the axilla. 
 
 The brachial artery supplies muscular branches to the 
 muscles of the upper arm ; a nutrient branch to the 
 humerus ; superior and inferior profunda branches and an 
 anastomotic to the muscles of the upper arm and the region 
 of the elbow joint. 
 
 The ulnar artery extends down the ulnar side of the 
 front of the fore-arm to the palm of 'the hand, where it 
 curves outwards towards the thumb, and anastomoses with 
 the superficial volar and radial index branches of the radial 
 artery to form the superficial palmar arterial arch. In 
 the fore-arm the ulnar gives off the interosseous arteries, 
 which supply the muscles of the fore-arm and give nutrient 
 branches to the bones ; two recurrent branches to the region 
 of the elbow ; carpal branches to the wrist joint : in the 
 hand it gives a deep branch to the deep muscles of the 
 hand, and from the superficial arch arise digital branches 
 to the sides of the little, ring, and middle fingers, and the 
 ulnar border of the index finger. 
 
 The radial artery extends down the radial side of the 
 front of the fore-arm, turns round the outer side of the 
 wrist to the back of the hand, passes between the 1st and 
 2d metacarpal bones to the palm, where it joins the deep 
 branch of the ulnar, and forms the deep palmar arterial 
 arch. In the fore-arm it gives off a recurrent branch to the 
 elbow joint ; carpal branches to the wrist joint ; and mus- 
 cular branches, one of which, named superficialis voice, 
 supplies the muscles of the thumb and joins the ulnar 
 artery : in the hand it gives off a digital branch to the 
 thumb, and one to the radial side of the index, interosseous 
 branches to the interosseous muscles, perforating branches 
 to the back of the hand, and recurrent branches to the 
 wrist. 
 
 The common carotid artery runs np the neck by the side 
 of the v. indpipo, and on a level with the upper border of 
 
 the thyroid cartilage divides into the internal and external 
 carotid art. 
 
 The internal carotid artery ascends through the caro.tid 
 canal in the temporal bone into the cranial cavity. It 
 gives off an ophthalmic branch to the eyeball and other 
 contents of the orbit, and then divides into the anterior 
 and middle cerebral arteries. The middle cerebral artery 
 extends outwards into the Sylvian fissure, and supplies 
 the island of lleil, the orbital part, and the outer face of 
 the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, and the temporo-sphe- 
 noidal lobe ; it also gives a choroid branch to the choroid 
 plexus of the velum interpositum. The anterior cerebral 
 artery supplies the inner face of the hemisphere from the 
 anterior end of the frontal lobe as far back as the internal 
 parieto-occipital fissure. At the base of the brain not only 
 do the two internal carotids anastomose with each other 
 through the anterior communicating artery, which passes 
 between their anterior cerebral branches, but the internal 
 carotid on each side anastomoses with the posterior cerebral 
 branch of the basilar, by a posterior communicating artery. 
 In this manner a vascnlar circle, the circle of Willis, is 
 formed, which permits of freedom of the arterial circula- 
 tion by the anastomoses between arteries not only on the 
 same side, but on opposite sides of the mesial plane. The 
 vertebral and internal carotid arteries, which are the 
 arteries of supply for the brain, are distinguished by lying 
 at some depth from the surface in their course to the organ, 
 by having curves or twists in their course, whereby the 
 force of the flow of blood is retarded, and by the absence 
 of large collateral branches. Further, as the ophthalmic 
 artery is a branch of the internal carotid, the circulation 
 in the eyeball is in sympathy with that in the brain. 
 
 The external carotid artery ascends through the upper 
 part of the side of the neck, and behind the lower jaw into 
 the parotid gland, where it divides into the internal 
 maxillary and temporal branches. This artery gives off 
 the following branches : — a, Superior thyroid to the larynx 
 and thyroid body ; 4, Lingual to the muscles and mucous 
 membrane of the tongue, and to the sublingual gland ; c, 
 Facial to the face, palate, tonsil, and sub maxillary gland ; 
 d, Occipital to the sterno-mastoid muscle and back of the 
 scalp ; t, Posterior auricular to the back of the ear and the 
 adjacent part of the scalp ; /, Superficial temporal to the 
 scalp in front of the ear, and by its transverse facial branch 
 to the back part of the face ; g, Internal maxillary, giving 
 muscular branches to the mudries of mastication, meningeal 
 branches to the dura mater, dental branches to the teeth, 
 and other branches to the nose, palate, and tympanum ; h, 
 Ascending pharyngeal, which gives branches to the pharynx, 
 palate, and tonsils. 
 
 The common iliac artery, after a short course, divides Iliac 
 into the internal and external iliac arteries. The internal »)'•*< 
 iliac enters the pelvis and divides into branches for the 
 supply of the pelvic walls and viscera, including the organs 
 of generation, and for the great muscles of the buttock. 
 The external iliac descends behind Poupart's ligament into 
 the thigh, where it takes the name of femoral artery. The 
 femoral descends along the front and inner surface of the 
 thigh, gives off a profunda or deep branch, which, by its 
 circumflex and perforating branches, supplies the numerous 
 muscles of the thigh ; most of these extend to the back of 
 the liijib to carry blood to the muscles situated there. The 
 femoral artery then runs to the back of the limb in the 
 ham, where it is called popliteal artery. The popliteal 
 divides into two branches, of which one, called anterior 
 tibial, passes between the bones to the front of the leg, and 
 then downwards to the upper surface of the foot ; the ether, 
 posterior tibial, continues down the back of the leg to the 
 sole of the foot, and divides into the internal and external 
 plantar arteries ; branches proceed from the external plan* 1
 
 SYSTEM.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 905 
 
 tar artery to the sides of the toes, and constitute the digital 
 arteries. From the large arterial trunks in the leg many 
 branches proceed, to carry blood to the different structures 
 in the limb. 
 
 The 'wall of an artery consists of several coats. The 
 outermost is the tunica adventitia, composed of connective 
 tissue ; immediately internal to this is the yellow elastic 
 coat ; within this again the muscular coat, formed of invol- 
 untary muscular tissue, the contractile fibro-cells cf which 
 are for the most part arranged transversely to the long axis 
 of the artery ; in the larger arteries the elastic c *. is much 
 thicker than the muscular, but in the smaller arteries the 
 muscular coat is relatively strong ; the vaso-motor nerves 
 terminate in the muscular coat. Internal to the muscular 
 coat is the elastic fenestrated coat, formed of a smooth elastic 
 membrane perforated by small apertures. Most internal of 
 
 (Flo. 91. — Diagram nf the sttucture of an artery. A. tunica adventitia; E, elastic 
 coat; M, muscular coat;' F, fenestrated coat; Eu, endothelium continuous with 
 the endothelial wall of C, the capillaries. 
 
 'all is a layer of endothelial cells, which form the free surface 
 over which the blood flows. The arteries are not nourished 
 by the blood' which flows through them, but by minute 
 vessels, vasa vasorum, distributed in their external, elastic, 
 and muscular coats. 
 
 The Capillaries. — These are tne minute tubes which con- 
 nect together the terminal branches of the arteries and the- 
 rootlets of the veins. They vary in diameter in different 
 localities from y^uth to js^^th inch. They are arranged 
 in more or less compact networks, which lie in the interstices 
 between the tissues of the part or organ. The vascularity 
 
 ,«». 95 —Capillary Network In the Web of the Foot of the Frog (4. Thomson). 
 
 of a tissue depends upon the relative proportion of the 
 capillaries that it contains. Some tissues, as adult cartilage, 
 the cornea, epithelium, and endothelium, are destitute of 
 capillaries, i.e., are non-vascular. The capillary wall is very 
 simple in structure ; in the smallest capillaries it consists 
 merely of a layer 01 endothelial cells, continuous with the 
 endothelial lining of the arteries and veins ; in the larger 
 capillaries a delicate tunica adventitia is superadded. The 
 
 transition from a capillary to a small artery or a small vein 
 is marked by the development of a muscular and an elastic 
 coat in the wall of the blood-conveying tube. 
 
 The Veins. — The veins convey the blood from the peri- 
 phery back to the heart, and in their course incieasein size, 
 by junction or anastomosis with each other. In most of 
 the veins delicate valves are found, each of which consists 
 of two semicircular segments, and a pouch-like dilatation 
 of the wall of the vein is opposite each segment When 
 the blood flows along the veins, the valves lie against the 
 wall of the vessel, but if pressure be applied to a vein so 
 as to obstruct the onward flow of the circulation, then the 
 blood p""- .o into the pouch between the wall of the vein 
 and the valve adjacent to the seat of pressure, when the 1 
 valve closes so as to stop regurgitation. The valves are' 
 found especially in those veins where the circulation is 
 likely to be interfered with either by the pressure of the 
 muscles on the veins during their action, or by the pres- 
 sure of blood caused by gravity, and are usually seated 
 at the points of confluence of veins. They are absent 
 in the veins of the lungs, of the brain, and of several of 
 the abdominal viscera. Some of the veins lie in the sub- 
 cutaneous fat, and are called superficial veins, others lie 
 amidst the muscles, and form the deep veins. The deep 
 veins accompany the arteries and are named after them ; 
 the superficial veins do not accompany arteries ; frequent 
 anastomoses take place between the superficial and deep 
 veins. 
 
 The veins are arranged primarily into two groups — the 
 Pulmonary veins and the Systemic veins. The distribution 
 of the pulmonary veins will be given in the anatomy of the 
 lungs. 
 
 The Systemic veins consist of the coronary venous system ; 
 of the system of the superior vena cava ; of the system of 
 the inferior vena cava ; and associated with the inferior 
 vena cava is the portal venous system. The arrangement 
 of the coronary vein has been described in the anatomy 
 of the heart. 
 
 The system of the Superior Vena Cava consists qf both 
 superficial and deep veins, and is arranged as follows : — 
 
 The superficial 7eins of the hand commence at the tips 
 and sides of the fingers, from which they proceed along the 
 back of the hand, beneath the skin of which they may be 
 distinctly seen. They then ascend along the fore-arm, form- 
 ing three large veins : the radial, on the outer side ; the 
 ulnar, on the inner ; and the median, in the middle of the' 
 front of the fore-arm. At the bend of the elbow the median' 
 divides into two branches, of which one joins the radial 
 to form the cephalic, the other joins the ulnar t6 form the 
 basilic Into one or other of the two branches of the 
 median the surgeon generally makes an opening when he 
 is desirous of drawing blood from the patient. The cephalic 
 and basilic veins terminate by joining the deep or axillary 
 vein. The communications between the superficial and 
 deep veins are not, however, confined to the poiat of ter- 
 mination of the former, but occur at various parts of their 
 course. 
 
 The deep veins of the hand commence at the tips of the 
 fingers, and pass as digital veins up.«the sides of the fingers 
 to the palm of the hand, where they form an arch cop 
 responding to the arterial arch of the palm ; from this they 
 extend upwards along the front of the fore arm, as far as 
 the bend of the elbow, closely accompanying the arteries of 
 the fore-arm, and receiving from the muscles numerous 
 small branches corresponding to the small arteries sent to 
 those muscles. At the bend of the elbow, two brachial 
 veins result from the junction of these different veins of the 
 fore-arm, which pass up the inner side of the upper-arm, 
 closely accompanying the brachial artery as far as the 
 armpit, where they join to form a single large vein, th*
 
 90G 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 [vascular 
 
 axillary. They receive in their course many small brandies 
 from the muscles. The axillary vein also receives tho 
 cephalic and basilic veins. Thus, a single large trunk con- 
 veys away all the blood that has been circulating through 
 tli3 upper limb. This largo veiu passes as the subclavian 
 vein behind the clavicle, and reaches the lower part of the 
 side of the neck, where it is joined by the large veins that 
 return the blood from the head and neck. 
 
 The veins that return the blood from the inner and outer 
 parts of the head and neck are called the external and 
 internal jugular veins. The external is the smaller, and 
 may commonly be seen beneath the skin on the sido of the 
 neck. It returns the blood that has been circulating on 
 the outer part of the head, and must be regarded as a 
 superficial vein. The internal jugular returns the blood that 
 lias been circulating on the faco, in the brain, and cranial 
 blood-sinuses, and in the deeper parts of the neck. It 
 accompanies the carotid artery, and must thus be regarded 
 as a deep vein. By the junction of tho jugular and sub- 
 clavian veins at the root of the neck a large brachiocephalic 
 vein on each side is formed; these gradually converge, join, 
 and form a single trunk, the superior vena cava, which, 
 after a short course, enters the upper part of the right 
 auricle of the heart. The veins corresponding to the inter- 
 costal arteries, which run between the ribs, do not open 
 directly into either the superior or inferior vena cava, but 
 pass to form the azygos vein, which begins in the cavity of 
 the abdomen, then enters the cavity of the chest, and, as it 
 courses upwards, gradually increases in size by receiving 
 the various intercostal veins, until it finally terminates 
 by joining the superior vena cava. 
 
 The system of the Inferior Vena Cava consists of both 
 superficial and deep veins, and is arranged as follows : — 
 The superficial veins of the foot are separated from the 
 deep veins by the strong membrane or fascia which binds 
 down the muscles. They commence by very fine branches 
 arising from the capillaries of the skin. On the back of 
 the foot the digital veins proceeding from the skin of the 
 toes form an. arch, from the inner side of which a vein, 
 called the long saphena, arises. This passes upwards along 
 the inner side of the leg and thigh, increasing consider- 
 ably in size in its course, owing to the number of veins 
 joining it from the extensive surface of the skin of the 
 limb. It terminates, at the upper part of the thigh, by 
 passing through a hole in the fascia, and joins the femoral 
 vein. From the outer side of the same arch arises the 
 external saphenous vein, which runs up the back of the 
 leg to the ham, and pierces the fascia to join the popliteal 
 vein. The deep veins begin both on the back of the foot 
 and in the sole. Those which arise on the back of the 
 foot form the anterior tibial veins, and accompany the 
 anterior tibial artery ; they receive a considerable number 
 of branches in their upward course, which proceed from 
 the great mass of muscles lying on the outer side of the 
 leg. The veins which begin in the sole of the foot accom- 
 pany the plantar arteries, and then pass upwards, along 
 the inner side of the ankle-joint, to reach the back of the 
 leg, along which they ascend as the posterior tibial veins, 
 closely accompanying the posterior tibial artery, and receiv- 
 ing in their course numerous small veins that proceed from 
 the muscles of the calf of the leg. At the upper part of 
 the leg the anterior tibial veins pass to the back of the leg, 
 and join the posterior tibial veins. The large popliteal 
 vein, formed by their junction, ascends behind the knee- 
 joint, lying in the ham, along with the popliteal artery. 
 It leaves the upper part of this space, and, passing to the 
 inner side of the thigh, ascends as the femoral vein along 
 with the femoral artery as far as Poupart's ligament, when 
 it enters the cavity of the abdomen. At the upper part 
 of the thigh it receives the profunda vein, correspond- 
 
 ing to the deep artery of the thigh, which conveys bacb 
 tho blood that has been carried by that vessel to the 
 numerous large and important muscles of the thigh. The 
 femoral vein is also joined at this spot by the long saphena 
 vein. When the femoral vein enters the cavity of the 
 abdomen it becomes the external iliac vein. The external 
 iliac vein receives the smaller veins which ramify in the 
 lower part of the walls of the abdomen, as well as the large 
 internal iliac vein, which corresponds to the internal iliac 
 artciy, and by their junction the common iliac vein ie 
 formed. The two common iliac veins gradually converge, 
 and, about the level of tho last vertebra of tho loins, juii 
 to form a single largo vein, the inferior vena cava. The 
 inferior vena cava ascends at the back of the abdominal 
 cavity lying on the right side of the aorta. Several veins 
 open into it ; some corresponding with the parietal branches 
 of the abdominal aorta, others with the capsular, renal, and 
 spermatic arteries. The greater number of the veins pro- 
 ceeding from the organs contained in the cavity of tho 
 abdomen do not open directly into the vena cava, but form 
 a large vein called portal. The vena cava passes through 
 the diaphragm, enters the cavity of the chest, and terminates 
 by opening into the right auricle of the heart. 
 
 The Portal system of veins is formed by the vein* 
 which proceed from the large and small intestines, from 
 the stomach, pancreas, and spleen ; they form tho inferior 
 mesenteric, superior mesenteric, splenic, and gastric veins, 
 which join together in the neighbourhood of the pancreas 
 to form the portal venous trunk. The portal vein then 
 ascends to the under surface of the liver, which it enters 
 at the portal transverse fissure. In the substance of the 
 liver it subdivides into branches just like an artery, and 
 the finest branches terminate in the lobules of the liver in 
 a plexus of capillaries. From this plexus the rootlets of 
 tho hepatic veins arise, which joining together form the 
 large hepatic vein, which opens into the inferior vena cava 
 before it pierces the diaphragm. Retzius has pointed out 
 that an extra-peritoneal venous plexu3 exists in the abdo- 
 minal cavity, which connects the rootlets of the portal vein 
 with those of the veins of the parietes of the abdomen. 
 
 The wall of a vein possesses the same number of coats 
 as that of an artery, but the coats are thinner. Veins are 
 also extensively provided with valves, which are absent 
 from the arteries except at the mouths of the aorta and 
 pulmonary artery. 
 
 Lymph-Vascular System. — This subdivision of theLyvph 
 vascular system consists partly of small tubes or vessels, tios - 
 the lymph vessels, and partly of collections of lymphoid or 
 adenoid tissue (p. 849), the lymph glands. The lymph 
 vessels or lymphatics are tubes, with delicate transparent 
 walls, which convey the fluid called lymph and chyle. 
 They arise in the tissues and terminate by joining the 
 venous system, so that their contained fluid flows towards 
 the heart. They resemble veins in having a course from 
 periphery to centre; in possessing valves, which are generally 
 two in number and semilunar in shape ; in being divided 
 into a superficial and a deep set — the superficial lymphatics 
 being situated, like the superficial veins, in the subcutaneous 
 tissue ; the deep lymphatics accompanying the arteries and 
 deep veins. Lymphatics differ, however, from veins in 
 possessing in their course glandular enlargements, in having 
 thinner coats, in being almost uniform in size, and not 
 uniting into larger "vessels as they pass onwards in their 
 course. As a rule they are like fine threads, and their 
 main trunk, the thoracic duct, is not bigger than a crow- 
 quilL The lymph-vessels are divided into lacteal or chyle 
 vessels and lymphatics proper. 
 
 The lacteal or chyle vessels, named from the milk-liko 
 chyle which they contain, arise in the minute processes 
 called intestinal villi, which Droject from the free surfac*
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 Lymphatic Vascular System 
 
 PLATE XXI 
 
 EUCYCLOP-tBU BRITtNNICA. NINTH EDITION
 
 SYSTEM.] 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 907 
 
 ■or the mucous membrane of the small intestine into the 
 lumen of the bowel The lacteals from adjacent villi form 
 a network in the submucous coat of the intestine, from 
 which larger lacteals arise, which pierce the muscular coat, 
 and then run between the folds of the mesentery to the 
 posterior wall of the abdomen, where, opposite the body of 
 the first lumbar vertebra, they join the deep lymphatic 
 vessels of the abdomen to form the thoracic duct. 
 
 The lymphatic vessels proper correspond so closely in 
 their distribution in the extremities and in the head and 
 ■neck with the veins of those parts, that a special descrip- 
 tion of their arrangement is not necessary, the more so as 
 a general representation of these vessels is given in Plate 
 XXL The superficial and deep lymphatics of the lower 
 limbs enter the abdominal cavity, and are joined by the 
 lymphatics of the pelvis. They ascend in front of the 
 bodies of the lumbar vertebra, join the lacteal vessels to 
 form the thoracic duct, the place of junction being marked 
 by a dilatation of the duct called receplaculum c'tyli. The 
 thoracic duct passes through the opening in the diaphragm 
 which transmits the aorta, ascends in front of the bodies 
 of the dorsal vertebra?, receives in its course the deep 
 lymphntics of the left half of the chest, reaches the root of 
 the neck on the left side, is joined there by the deep and 
 superficial lymphatics of the left upper limb and left side 
 of the head and neck, and opens into the great veins at the 
 angle of junction between the left internal jugular and sub- 
 clavian. This duct conveys, therefore, the chyle during 
 digestion, and the lymph contained in the lymph-vessels 
 below the diaphragm and in the lymph-vessels situated to 
 the left side of the mesial plane in the parts of the body 
 above the diaphragm. The lymph-vessels on the right side 
 of the supra-diaphragmatic parts of the mesial plane do nut 
 join the thoracic duct, but converge to the root of the neck 
 on the right side, where they join to form the right lym- 
 phatic duct, which opens into the angle of junction of the 
 right internal jugular and subclavian veins. 
 
 The mode of origin of the lymph-vessels has long been 
 & vexed question amongst anatomists. The lacteal vessels 
 were at one time supposed to arise by open mouths on the 
 free surface of the intestinal villi, and this idea has been 
 revived in a modified form by some recent observers, who 
 conceive that the lacteals are continuous with a network 
 formed' by the anastomoses of processes proceeding from 
 tlje deep ends of the goblet cells, the mouths of which cells 
 open on the free surface of the villus. The lymph-vessels 
 proper are in some localities continuous with the serous 
 cavities (p. 848) ; in others they arise within the textures 
 and organs. The most minute lymph-vessels, called lymph- 
 capillaries, like the blood-capillaries, have walls formed of 
 a. single layer of elongated endothelial cells. These capil- 
 laries take their rise in the connective tissue of a part or 
 organ, and probably spring from spaces, or juice-canals, 
 between the bundles of the connective tissue, which bundles 
 are invested by an endothelial layer of cells. The juice 
 canals are, therefore, a network of minute canals, situated 
 outside the blood-vessels, which allow the lissues to be 
 permeated by a nutrient juice derived from the blood. 
 
 In some localities, as the brain and eyeball, the blood- 
 vessels have been described as enclosed in tubular spaces, 
 called peri-vascular ca7ials, in which cells like the corpuscles 
 of the lymph have been seen, and which are believed to be 
 continuous with the lymphatic system. The researches of 
 Ludwig and some of his pupils into the minute structure 
 of the lachrymal gland, the glands of the skin, and the 
 testis, have shown that lymph-capillaries lie in close rela- 
 tion to the secreting structures of these glands. 
 
 The coats of the lymph-vessels resemble in structure 
 those of the veins, but they are thinner and more trans- 
 parent. The valves are small and numerous. 
 
 The lymphatic glands are small bodies, varying in size 
 from a pea to an almond, situated in the course of the 
 lymph- vessels in several regions of the body. Tliey are 
 found especially in the groin, armpit, mesentery, back of 
 the abdomen, roots of the lungs, and side of the neck (Plate 
 XXI.) Entering one end of each gland are lymph-vessels, 
 named vasa afferentia, and emerging from the opposite end 
 of the gland are the lymph-vessels named vasa efferentia. 
 Each gland is invested by a capsule of connective tissue, 
 which sends processes into the substance of the gland to 
 divide it into compartments; it consists of adenoid tissue, 
 and the meshes of its retiform connective tissue contain 
 multitudes of lymph corpuscles. Each gland is permeated 
 by a network of minute canals, which are continuous with 
 both the vasa afferentia and efferentia; the gland, therefore, 
 is traversed by a stream of lymph which washes the lymph 
 corpuscles out of the meshes of the reticulum, and in this 
 manner these corpuscles find their way into the lymph. The 
 lymph glands are, therefore, centres of origin for the lymph 
 corpuscles. The collections of adenoid tissue, forming the 
 solitary and Peyer's glands of the intestine, and found in 
 the tonsils and other localities (p. 849), are also without 
 doubt centres of formation for the lymph corpuscles. 
 
 Blood- Vascular Glands. — Intimately associated witn Blood 
 the vascular system are certain organs to which the names v ascul»» 
 of blood-vascular glands, or glands without ducts, are clands -- 
 applied. These organs are the spleen, the thyroid gland, 
 the thymus gland, the suprarenal capsules, and portions of 
 the pituitary and pineal glands. The Spleen is situated 
 in the cavity of the abdomen between the stomach and the 
 diaphragm. It is invested by peritoneum, and has a fibre 
 elastic coat in which involuntary muscular fibre-cells are 
 formed. This coat sends multitudes of fine trabecular into: 
 the interior of the organ, which subdivide it into numbers 
 of minute compartments, in which the red, highly vascular 
 spleen pulp is contained. This pulp consists of collectiona 
 of small spherical masses of adenoid tissue, forming the 
 Malpighian corpuscles, of the terminal branches of the 
 splenic blood-vessels, and of the lymph-vessels, together with 
 numerous cells, some of which are red blood corpuscles, 
 others lymph corpuscles, others contain pigment granules 
 or fat, others contain in their interior numerous blood cor 
 puscles. The arteries of the spleen in part end in capil- 
 laries from which the veins arise, but more frequently thej 
 open into lacunae or blood spaces, which give origin to th« 
 veins. The Thymiis gland, best seen in infancy and child- 
 hood, lies in the cavity of the thorax near the base of the 
 heart. It consists of two lobes, each of which is composed 
 of lobules of adenoid tissue, to which numerous lymph: 
 vessels may be traced. In the adult it is converted into a 
 mass of fat. The Thyroid gland is situated in the neck a) 
 the front and sides of the windpipe. It consists of multi- 
 tudes of minute closed follicles, each of which is lined bj 
 a layer of cells. The Suprarenal capsules, two in number, 
 lie in the abdomen one above each kidney. They contain 
 cells, some of which are arranged in columns, others in a 
 reticulated manner, and are well provided with blood- 
 vessels, nerves, and lymphatics. 
 
 Development of the Vascular System. — The vascular 
 system is formed in the middle or mesoblast layer of the 
 early embryo. The cells of the mesoblast lose their origi- 
 nal spherical form and become stellate, the processes of 
 adjacent cells unite together and form a network, and the 
 nuclei rapidly increase in numbers. The peripheral part 
 of the protoplasm of the stellate cells differentiates into a 
 wall of nucleated protoplasm, and forms the wall of the 
 blood-vessels, whilst the central part of the protoplasm 
 liquefies, and the nuclei contained in it become the biood- 
 corpusclca If the vessel remains as a capillary, its waij 
 assumes merely the character of a single layer of endo-
 
 908 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 thelia) cells; but if it becomes an artery or a vein, a further 
 differentiation of the mesobrast cells into the muscular and 
 elastic coats and the tunica adventitia takes place. " The 
 heart appears immediately below the head in the form of 
 a collection of cells in the splanchnopleure layer of the 
 mesobla6t. It is believed that these cells form in the first 
 instance a solid mass, the central part of which liquefies 
 to form blood and blood-corpuscles, whilst the peripheral 
 cells form the wall of a tube. The heart tube now presents 
 two constrictions, which indicate.its division into an auricle, 
 a ventricle, and a bulbus arteriosus. The single ventricle 
 then subdivides into two by the gradual growth of the 
 septum from the apex to the base, and about the eighth 
 week of emhryo-life the right and left ventricles are com- 
 pletely separated from each other. A septum then begins 
 to form in the originally siugle auricle, but its growth ia 
 not completed until after the birth of the child, so that 
 during foetal life the cavities of the right and left auricles 
 communicate with each other through a hole in tho 
 septum, mimed foramen ovale. The primitive aorta?, right 
 and left, arise from the ductus arteriosus, and extend up- 
 wards to the 1st pair of visceral arches, into which they 
 pass and arch backwards to the sides of the spiual column, 
 where they form the dorsal aorta? Four additional pairs 
 of arterial arches then spring from the primitive aortaj 
 below the 1st pair, and the whole are enumerated from 
 above downwards as the 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th pairs of 
 vascular arches. Each arch communicates behind with 
 the dorsal aorta of its own side. The two dorsal aortaj 
 then approximate and blend with each other to form .the 
 descending thoracic and the abdominal aorta. A longitu- 
 dinal septum also forms within the bulbus arteriosus itself, 
 *chich divides it into two vessels : the one, the ascending 
 aorta, becoming continuous with the cavity of the left ventricle 
 
 iVASCTJJ.AH SYSTEM 
 
 and with the 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th pairs of vascular arches 
 the other, the pulmonary artery, becoming continuous witb 
 the cavity of the right ventricle and with the 5th pair o( 
 vascular arches. The 4th left vascular arch enlarges tc 
 form the transverse part of the arch of the aorta, and tht 
 left subclavian artery springs as a collateral branch from it 
 The 4th right arch forms the innominate, and the com- 
 mencement of the right subclavian artery. The 3d paij 
 of arches form the two internal carotid arteries ; each com 
 mon carotid is formed from the part of the primitive aorto 
 which connects the 3d and 4th arches with each other 
 whilst the external carotid is an enlargement of that part 
 of the primitive aorta which runs upwards from the 3d to 
 the 1st visceral arch. From the 5th left vascular arch, 
 which is now. continuous with the pulmonary artery, two 
 collateral tranches arise, which proceed one to each lung, 
 and form the right and left pulmonary arteries, whilst the 
 terminal part" of this arch joins the end of the transverse 
 part of the arch of the aorta, and forms the ductus arteriosus. 
 During foetal life, the lungs being inactive, tho blood ol 
 the right ventricle which passes into the pulmonary artery 
 almost entirely flows through the ductus arteriosus iuto tht 
 aorta. But when the chdd is born, and the lungs come 
 into play as respiratory organs, then the blood of the right 
 ventricle flows iuto the lungs through the right and left 
 pulmonary arteries, and the ductus arteriosus, being no 
 longer required, shrivels up into a slender fibrous cordj 
 The capillaries, veins, and lymphatics are also produced h/ 
 a histological differentiation of the cells of the mesoblaslj 
 
 In order to complete the exposition of the subjcct,1oe 
 Digestive, Respiratory, Reproductive, and Urinary systems 
 of organs have still to be considered. These will be dealtwitb 
 in detail under other headings in the succeeding volume* 
 
 Alphabetical Contents) 
 
 Abdominal muscles. 835. 
 Achlllinl. 806. 
 Adipose [Issue, 851. 
 Albinus, 814. 
 Alexandrian school. 601. 
 Amphiarthroses, 833. 
 Ankle. 830, s II. 
 Aorta, 902. 
 Appendicular skeleton, 
 
 826. 
 Arabian school, 803. 
 Arachnoid mater, 865. 
 Arnntl, 809. 
 Aretajus, 80* 
 Aristotle. 800. 
 Arm, 827: Joints. 839 
 Arteries. 902. 
 Articulation, 832. 
 Ascllius. 81 1. 
 Axial skeleton. 820. 
 Berenger, 606. 
 Bargen. 814. 
 Bichat, 816 
 Blood, 845; circulation of, 
 
 899. 
 Blood-vascular 
 
 907. 
 Bono, 851 
 Bonn, 814. 
 Bruin. 804. 669; 
 
 of, 879 
 Breast-bone. 822 
 Birathing. 835. 
 Bologna school, 805 
 Camper, 815. 
 Capillaries. 905. 
 Carpal bones. 827 , Joint*. 
 
 839. 
 Cartilage. 851. 
 Cells, 843. 
 Cvlsus. 802 
 Corcttcllum, 87L 
 Ccrebro- spinal Dtrrcs, 
 
 863. 
 Cerebrum. 872: IntaroaJ 
 
 structure of, 877 - 
 
 glands. 
 
 •eight 
 
 Cervical vertebra:, 820 
 Check. 625. 
 Chcselden, 815. 
 Chest, 822. 
 Chyle, 846. 
 Circulation of blcod. 
 
 899. 
 Clavicle. 826. 
 Coccyx, 821. 
 Collar bone, 826. 
 Collins. 813. 
 Columbus, 809. 
 Comparative anatomy 
 
 799, 813, 818. 
 Corpuscles, 645. 
 Cortl, organ of, 894. 
 Cowper, 813. 
 Cranium, 822. 
 Cruikshaiik, 815. 
 Cuticle, 897. 
 Definitions. 799. 
 Deglutition. 838. 
 Development. 830. 
 
 853. 858. 86:1 9117. 
 Dinrthroses. 833. 
 Digits. 828; Jalnts of. 
 
 Dinni's, 811. 
 Dorsal vertebrae 821. 
 Drum of ear, 892. 
 Dubois, 807. 
 Dora mater. 8<:4. 
 Duvcrney, 813. 
 Ear. 891. 
 Elbow joint, 8-tH 
 Endothelium, 848. 
 English school. 617. 
 Epn helium, 847. 
 Eiaslstrutu*. 801. 
 Ethmoid bone, 824. 
 Etiennc, 807. 
 Eustarhlus, 80S. 
 Expression, muscles of, 
 
 836. 
 Eyeball, 885; muscle* 
 
 #91. 
 
 842. 
 
 Eyelids. 890. 
 Fabrtclua. 809. 
 liuv, 825. 
 I 'allnpius, 809. 
 
 Fat, 851. 
 
 Femur. 829. 
 
 Fibrous t issuea, 850. 
 
 Fibula, 829. 
 
 Fiddlers' muscles. 840. 
 
 Fingers, 828; Joints of. 
 
 839. 
 Foot, 830: Joints of. 841, 
 Forehead. 824. 
 French school. 807, 816. 
 Frontal bone, 624. 
 Galen. 60^ 
 (ienga, 815. 
 German school. 817. 
 Gllsson, 811. 
 Graaf, 812. 
 Hsir, 899/ 
 Hallcr, 8I4> 
 
 Hand, 827: Joints of. 839. 
 Harvey. 810. 
 Haunch. 828. 
 Head, 622: Joints and 
 
 muscles. 836. 
 Hearing. 895. 
 Heart, 899 
 Hcnlc, 817. 
 Hwophlltn. 802. 
 Hswson. 815. 
 Hip Joint. 640. 
 Hippocrates. 799. 
 History. 799. 
 Humerua, 837. 
 Hunter, J. 615. 
 Hunter. W. 614. 
 Hyoid bone. 825. 
 Ilium. 828 
 Ischium. 829. 
 Jaw, 825. 
 Joints, 832. 
 
 I> 829, 840. 
 
 Lachrymal bonfi, 
 . gland, 89L 
 
 895: 
 
 Lnctcals, 906, 
 
 Leaping, 842. N^ 
 
 Lceuweiihoeok. 812. 
 
 Llcutaud, 814. 
 
 Life, 843. 
 
 Limb, lower, 828: Joints 
 and muscles, 840: up- 
 per, 626; joint* and 
 muscles, 836. 
 
 Lister, J. J., 818. 
 
 Locomotive organs. 820. 
 
 Lumbar vertebrae 821. 
 
 Lymph, 840. 
 
 Lymphatics, 906 
 
 Malar bone. 825. ' 
 
 Malplghl.812. 
 
 Moilnus. 809. 
 
 Marrow. 854. 
 
 Mascagnl, 815. 
 
 MoxUla, 825 
 
 Meckel, 814. 816, 81T. J 
 
 Medulla oblongata, 670 
 
 Metacarpus. 828. 
 
 Microscope. 817. 
 
 M. in. lino, 805. 
 
 Monro. 815. 
 
 Morgugm BlS, 
 
 Moulh. 837. 
 
 Minims membranes, 
 847. 
 
 Muscles, 833. 
 
 Muscular tissue, 856. 
 
 Museums. 819. 
 
 Nails, 897. 
 
 Neck. 821. 
 
 Nerves, cerebrospinal, 
 863. 
 
 Nervous system. S58; 
 sympathetic, 681 
 
 N.is.'. v.>5. 884. 
 
 Nostrils. 820 
 
 No. k. 811. 
 
 Occipital bone. 823. 
 
 Olfactory nerve. 885. 
 
 Optic nerve. 889. 
 
 Orlbaslus, 804. 
 
 Dsseotu system, 820 : 
 
 • tissue. 833. 
 
 Ovum, 844. 
 
 Pacinian corpuscles, 602. 
 
 1'ulute, 825. 
 
 Polfyn, 8(6. 
 
 Parietal bone, 821 
 
 Patella, 829. 
 
 Paul!, 611. 
 
 Pecquet. 81 1. 
 
 Pelvis, 829. 
 
 Periosteum, 854, 
 
 Perspiration. 899. 
 
 Pharynx, 837. 
 
 Pin muter, 8C6. 
 
 Pigment, 851. 
 
 Plexus, nervous, 8CS, 
 
 Polybus, 800. 
 
 Pons Varolii, 671 
 
 Portal vein. 906. 
 
 Protoplasm, 84a 
 
 Pubis, 628. 
 
 Cjunin, 817. 
 
 Itudius. 827. 
 
 Respiratory muscles, 635. 
 
 Ketina, 888. 
 
 Kihs. 822. 
 
 lUdley, 813. 
 
 Pullus, 802. 
 
 Punning. H42 
 
 Jtuysi h, BIS, 
 
 Sacrum, 821. 
 
 Santiniiil. HI3. 
 
 Scapula. 82C. 
 
 Scarpa. 816. 
 
 Secreting glands. 848. 
 
 Sense organs. 884. 
 
 St urns !iioiMl!ianaa,s348. 
 
 Servetua, 810. 
 Shin, 829 
 
 Shoulder. 826; Joint, 838 
 Sight, 889. 
 Skeleton, 820. 
 Skin, 847, 897 
 Skull, 629. 
 
 Swell &te 
 
 SUmmerlng. 816. 
 Special anatomy, 819 
 Sphenoid bone, 823. 
 Spinal- cord, 605; nerve*. 
 
 8G7. 
 Spine, 820: mnscles, «6 
 Splint bone, 829. 
 Slono, 612. 
 Sternum. 822. 
 Sutures. 832. 
 Swallowing. 838. 
 Sweat glands, 899. 
 Tarsus, 830. N 
 Taste, 896. 
 Temporal bone. 824. 
 Tcmiiuology, 799. 
 Thigh, 829. 
 libia, 829. 
 Tissues, 842 ; connect Ke 
 
 849. 
 Toes. 830. 
 Tongue, 89J 
 Tonsil. 837 
 Touch. 897. 
 Tympanum, 892. 
 Ulna. 827. 
 Uvula. 637. 
 Valsalva. 813. 
 Vaiollus, 609 
 Vascular system. Bfl$ 
 
 development, 907 
 Veins, 905. 
 Vertebra;, 820. 
 VesaliuB, 607. 
 Vleussens, 613. 
 Voluntary muscles, ftsty 
 
 Involuntary, 856, 
 Vomer, 825 
 Walking. B4L 
 Wslter, 816. 
 Wealing, 811. 
 Wharton. 811. 
 Willis, 811. 
 Winslow, 814. 
 Wrist. 827; Jolni^S* 
 Zioa 814, 
 
 KUt OT VOLUMI FIBST,
 
 For Reference 
 
 Not to be taken from this room 
 STACK
 
 X SOUTWfW BE010HA1. UBBAflYF Ag"™ 
 llllllf" 
 
 lllllll 
 
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