■diversion of Water from the Great Lakes and Niagara River LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY OF WAR TRANSMITTING WITH A LETTER FROM THE CHIEF OF ENGINEERS, REPORTS BY COL. J. G. WARREN, CORPS OF ENGINEERS, AND THE BOARD OF ENGINEERS FOR RIVERS AND HARBORS, OF AN INVESTIGATION AUTHORIZED BY PUBLIC RESOLUTION NO. 8, SIXTY-FIFTH CONGRESS, OF THE SUBJECT OF WATER DIVERSION FROM THE GREAT LAKES AND THE NIAGARA RIVER, INCLUDING NAVIGATION, SANITARY, AND POWER PURPOSES, AND THE PRESERVATION OF THE SCENIC BEAUTY OF NIAGARA FALLS AND THE RAPIDS OF NIAGARA RIVER. (Including plates 1-57.) LOS ANGELES iS56 LIBRARY GO\/T. PUBS. SERV. WASmNQTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1921 Diversion of Water from the Great Lakes and Niagara River LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY OF WAR TRANSMITTING WITH A LETTER FROM THE CHIEF OF ENGINEERS, REPORTS BY COL. J. G. WARREN, CORPS OF ENGINEERS, AND THE BOARD OF ENGINEERS FOR RIVERS AND HARBORS, OF AN INVESTIGATION AUTHORIZED BY PUBLIC RESOLUTION NO. 8, SIXTY-FIFTH CONGRESS, OF THE SUBJECT OF WATER DIVERSION FROM THE GREAT LAKES AND THE NIAGARA RIVER, INCLUDING NAVIGATION, SANITARY, AND POWER PURPOSES, AND THE PRESERVATION OF THE SCENIC BEAUTY OF NIAGARA FALLS AND THE RAPIDS OF NIAGARA RIVER. (Including plates 1-57.) WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 192: COMMITTEE ON FOREKiN AFl AIIIS. House of Representatives. SIXTT-SIXTH CONGBESS. STEPHEN G. rOETER, JOHN JACOB ROGERS, Massachusetts. HliNR"^' ^V. TEMPLE, Pennsylvania. AMBROSE KENNEDY, Rhode Island. KDWARD E. BROWNE, Wisconsin. MERRILL MOORES, Indiana. WILLIAM E. MASON, Illinois. WALTER H. NEWTON, Minnesota. L. J. DICKINSON, Iowa. ERNEST R. ACKERMAN, New Jersey. FRANK L. SMITH, Illinois. JAMES T. BEGG, Ohio. Pennsylvania, Chairman. ALANSON B. HOUGHTON, New York. HENRY D. FLOOD, Virginia. J. CHARLES LINTHICUM, Maryland. WILLIAM S. GOODWIN, Arkansas. CHARLES M. STEDMAN, North Carolina. ADOLPH J. SABATH, Illinois. J. WILLARD RAGSDALE, South Caioliua. GEORGE HUDDLESTON, Alabama. TOM CONNALLY, Texas. THOMAS F. SMITH, New York. Edmund F. Erk, Clerk. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. Letter of transmittal 11 Letter of submittal 13 Report of Board of Engineers for Rivers and Harbors 15 Letter of Col. J. G. Warren, Corps of Engineers 61 Report of Col. J. G. Warren, Corps of Engineers, United States Army, on investigation of water diversion from the Great Lakes and Niagara River 61 Appendices 103 Letter of transmittal, W. S. Richmond, assistant engineer 10.3- Appendix A. Description of diversions 103 Section A. Diversions for navigation purposes 104 1. St. Marys Falls Canals 104 2. Chicago Sanitary Canal and Illinois and Michigan Canal 108 3. Wetland Canal 116 4. Black Rock Canal 120 5. New York State Barge Canal 123 6. St. Lawrence River Canals 138 7. Proposed Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal 145 8. Otlier proposed navigation canals, Lake Erie to Lake Ontario- 148 9. Proposed canals, Lake Ontario to Hudson River 159 10. Other present or proposed canals diverting water from the Great Lakes or their tril)utaries 160 Section B. Diversions for sanitary purposes 168 1. Chicago Sanitary Canal 168 2. Black River Canal 186 3. Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal 187 4. Diversions of cities 190 Section C. Diversions for power purposes 191 1. St. Marys Falls Canals 191 2. Chicago Drainage Canal 193 3. Welland Canal 195 4. New York State Barge Canal 198 5. Black Rock Canal 207 6. Canadian and United States power plants at Niagara Falls 207 7. St. Lawrence River Navigation Canals 225 8. Massena Canal 22T 9. Little River at W^addington, N. Y 229 10. Long Sault Rapids project 231 11. Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal 233 Appendix B. Field and office operations 234 Appendix C. Preservation of scenic beauty of Niagara Falls and of the rapids of Niagara River 253 Letter of transmittal, First Lieut. Albert B. Jones, Engineers 253 1. The problem 253 2. Allowable diversions around tlie Falls 270 3. Remedial works 273 4. Allowable diversions around the rapids 278 5. Division of proposed diversion and of cost of remedial works 280 Supplementary report Lieut. Jones 281 Appendix D. Propositions for utilizing diversions with greater economy 285- 1. General statement 285 2. Present Niagara Falls plants 292: 3. Proposed plant using entire diversion and total head 304 4. Proposed plants dividing diversion but using full head 315 5. Proposed plants dividing diversion and dividing head 316- 6. Proposed plants using full diversion but dividing head 324 7. Proposed power development combined with ship canal 326- 3 4 T.VBLE OF CONTENTS. Appendix D — Continued. Page. S. rroitoseil Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal 332 9. riants jiroposi'd by various interests 335 10. Coiiiparisoii and disrussion of proposed developments 338 ApiM'ndix E. EtTt'cts of diversion.s upon lake levels 352 1. (JtMieral i»rinciples 352 L!. Outlets of the (Jreat Lakes and formulas of discharge 3.54 3. EfTtMt of ice on river flow and lake levels 360 4. Hydroh.frical data 364 5. Effects of pre.^ent diversions 369 i\. Effects of proposwl diversions 376 7. Remedial works 377 Appendix F. Economic value of diversions 386 1. Effect ui»on navi;ration 386 2. Effect upon riparian interests 395 3. Value to Chicago of its diversion 396 4. Value to public of effect on power production 398 Appendix G. International and interstate matters involved 401 1. International matters involved 401 2. Treaty provisions 405 3. Interests of various States 413 PLATES. ( In portfolio. ) No. 1. Great Lakes Drainage Basin. 2. St. Marys River. 3. St. Marys Rapids, locks, and canals. 4. Chicago Drainage Canal. 5. Sanitary District of Chicago. 6. Niagara River and vicinity. 7. lilack Rock Canal and vicinity. 8. Canals of western New York. 9. Canals of the St. Lawrence River, Galop and Morrisburg Canals. 10. Canals of the St. Lawrence River, Farran Point and Cornwall Canals. 11. Profile of Niagara River, Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. 12. Reproduction of plate 2, Deej) Waterways report nf 1S97. 13. Tuitographi:- map, Niagara Falls and vicinity, sheet No. 1. 14. Topographic map, Niagara Falls and vicinity, sheet No. 2. 15. Lower Niagai'a River profile. 16. Niagara Gorge. American side in vicinity of Lewiston. 17. Tyjiical geologic section of Horseshoe Falls. 18. Crest line of Horseshoe Falls, showing recession. 19. Current directirms, vicinity of Horseshoe Falls. 20. Current velocities, vicinity of Hor.seshoe Falls. 21. Soundings, vicinity of Horseshoe Falls. 22. Rock surface elevations, vicinity of Honseshoe Falls. 23. Discharge of Horseshoe Rapids by float measurements. 24 anst of Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal ' 334 41. Coniiiarative sunimary of estimates of cost of various propositions 339 42. E.0 cubic feet i)or .sec-ond 347 44. Kates of construction interest, showing variation with change in rate of absori>tion of power 348 4.".. Water supjily of the (Jreat Lakes 367 4G. Lowering of Lake levels by diversion of water through the Chicago I>rainage Canal 372 47. Effkit of uncompensated diversions upon Lake levels 375 48. Effect of proposed diversions upon Lake levels -^77 4'J. Erelgbt statistics of important Great Lakes ports 386 5<>. Keconmiendeil draft for Lake freigbters, 1917 387 M. Classification of Lake freighters by size 388 r)2. l>iniensions of largest freighters of Oreat Lakes 3S9 ftS. liuik freight carried in commerce of Great Lakes 389 54. Estimateil Lake freight rates 390 55. Ni't registered tonnage entered and cleared from important ports 393 50. Estimate of value to Chicago of its diversion 398 57. Comparative cost of steam and hydraulic power 399 PHOTOGRAPHS. No. 1. Tvpical bulk freighters of the Great Lakes 112 2. o"ld lock at Sault Ste. Marie 112 3. " State locks " at Sault Ste. Marie 112 4. Fourth lock at Sault Ste. Marie 112 5. Weitzel Lock at Sault Ste. Marie 112 C. Weitzel, Poe, and third locks at Sault Ste. Marie 112 7. Canadian lock at Sault Ste. Marie 112 8. Illinois & Michigan Canal 112 9. Fox Kiver Aqueduct, Illinois & Michigan Canal 112 10. Another view of Fox River Aqueduct 112 11. Lock No. 2, Illinois & Michigan Canal (abandoned) 112 12. Rock .section, Chicago Drainage Canal 112 13. Controlling works, Chicago Drainage Canal 112 14. P.ear Trap Dam, Chicago Drainage Canal 112 15. Itrum Dams and Lock, Chicago Drainage Canal 112 IG. State Dam No. 1, Des Plaines River 112 17. Rock section, present Welland Canal 112 18. Earth cut, present Welland Canal 112 19. Michigan Central Railroad drawbridge, present Welland Canal 112 20. Guard gates and Lock No. 25, present W^elland Canal 112 21. Sorit«5 of locks, present Welland Canal 112 22. Port Dalhousie, Ontario, Lock No. 1, present Welland Canal, on left; Lock No. 1, old Welland Canal, on right 112 23. Sluices admitting water to old Welland Canal 112 24. Lock and viaduct, old Welland Canal 112 25. Junction of Twelvemile Crwk and old Welland Canal 112 20. P.lack Rock ship lock 112 27. P>la<-k Rock Canal, Ferrv Street Bridge 112 28. Giianl Lock No. 72, old Erie Canal, Black Rock 112 NEW YORK STATE BAKGE CANAL. 29. Typical rock se<-tion, under con.struction 112 30. Typical earth section 112 31. CarializeS 34. Exterior of j?asoline power house |1-^'^ 35. Interior of gasoline power liouse ^-^ 36. Old iuul new loc-ks at Lockport, N. Y ^-'^ 37. (Juard ^^ates near I'endleton |-^ 38. 1 )ani and sluices on Mohawk River at Vischers Ferry i-« 39. Movahle dam on INIohawk Kiver at Cranesville 1-'^ 40. Lock, dam, and Taintor jiates 1-^ 4L Lock and movable dam on Mohawk River at Schenectady J-^ 42. Another view of the same j;'^ 43. Crescent dam near mouth of Moliawk River |-» 44. Old and new locks at Waterford ^-^ 45. Bv-pass at Lockport, N. Y |^^ 46. Guard Lock No. 72, old Erie Canal. Buffalo, N. Y J^»- MISCELLANEOUS. 47 St Lawrence canals, waste weir, and gates at Lock No. 27 192 48. St. Lawrence canals. Galop Canal above Iroquois, Ontario 19^ 49. St. Lawrence canals, Lock No. 24 |j^- 50. Head of Black River Canal, Mich j^^ 51. Mouth of Black River, Port Huron, Mich — — i"^ 52. Controlling works and Government power house, Sault Ste. Mane— i^^ 53. Canal of Michiiian Northern Power Co., Sault Ste. Marie IJ- 54. Power house of Sanitary District of Chicago, Lockport, 111 !»- 55. Sector dam at power house of Sanitary District of Chicago IJ^ 56. Power house at Joliet, 111., on Des Plaines River 1-^^ 57. Dam on Illinois River at Marseilles. Ill |^^ 58. Main power canal at Marseilles, 111 tr^ .59. Mills and power hou.ses below Marseilles Dam j^^ 60. Mills near Lock No. 3, old Welland Canal j^^ 61. Mills near Lock No. 2, old Welland Canal 1^^ SURVEYS. 62. Rod floats used in survey of Niagara Rapids 1^2 63. Field parties observing floats from .7 |^- 64. Field parties observing floats from © D |^^ 65. Chippewa gauge "^ 66. International Railway intake gauge i^i^ 67. Suspension Bridge gauge |^^ 68. Prospect Point gauge j^^ 69. Rock soundings, driving a rod |^^ 70. Rock soundings, pulling a rod by machine f^- 71. Rock soundings, pulling a rod with jacks NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY. 72. Panorama of Niagara Falls in summer and winter, from Canadian sifle 2^^ 73. Panorama of Niagara Falls from " Falls View " 256 74. American Rapids from Goat Island Bridge -^o 75. The same ^J^ 76. The same ;^^ 77. The same ^5^ 78. Canadian Rapids from Goat Island f^^^ 79. The sarae- 80. The same- 256 256 81. Canadian Rapids from Canadian side 256 82. American Falls from Canadian side 25b S3. The same- 84. The same. 85. The same. 256 256 256 86. The same_ ^ 256 87. American Falls from Goat Island 256 88. The same 256 89. The same 250 90. The same- 256 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS. No. Page. 91. Horseshoe Falls from Goat Island 256 9\1. The same 256 «».S. Tlie same 256 ^. The same 256 J»."i. West eml of Horseshoe Falls from Canadian side 256 m. The same 256 97. East end of Horseshoe Falls from the " Refectory " 256 9S. The same 256 9*t. The same 256 1(10. East end of Horseshoe Falls from Canadian end 256 101. The same 256 lOi'. East end of Horseshoe Falls from Goat Island 256 1(».S. The .same 256 KM. The same 256 105. Maid of the Mist pool from Michigan Central Railroad bridge 256 106. Head of Whirlpool Rapids 256 107. Head of Whirlpool Rapids, looking upstream 256 lOS. The same 256 109. The .same 256 110. Whirlpool Rapids, looking upstream 256 111. The same 256 112. The .same 256 ll.'i. Near hiwi-r end of Whirlpool Rapids 256 114. The ^^■llirlpool and the Lower Rapids from Canadian Cliff 256 ll.">. Outlet of Whirlpool and head of Lower Rapids 256 116. The same 256 117. Outlet of Whirlpool looking upstream 256 118. The same 256 119. The same 256 120. Lower Rapids at head of Fo.sters Flats 256 121. Lower Rapids abreast Fosters Flats, looking upstream 256 122. Tlie same 256 123. The same 256 124. Head of Fosters Flats, looking downstream 256 125. Lower Rapids, foot of Fosters Flats, looking downstream 256 126. The .same 256 127. The same 2.56 128. Lower Rapids, foot of Fosters Flats, looking upstream 256 129. Foot of Lower Rapids, showing Lower Gorge gauge 256 130. I'andrania of Falls from " Falls View" 272 131. Amerinin Rai)i(ls above Goaf Island bridge 272 132. Canadian Rapids from Goat Island 272 133. American Falls from Canadian side 272 134. American Falls from Goat Island 272 13.5. Horseshoe Falls from Goat Lsland 272 136. West end of Horseshoe Falls from Canadian side 272 137. East end of Horseshoe Falls from " The Refectory " 272 138. East end of Hor.seshoe FMs from Goat Island 272 139. View from (Joat Island in 1885 and to-day, .showing old paper mill 272 140. Map of Niagara p-alls. N. Y., in 18.53, showing proposed hydraulic canal 272 NIAGARA FALLS POWER CO., HYDRAULIC PLANT. 141. Fore bay of station 2. under construction 272 142. Station 2, under construction 272 143. Station 2. roof crushed by ice, .Tanuary, 1904 272 144. Station '_', and water wasteensate for injiiric.us effects of such diversions whether upon scenic beautv or upon the navi^^able capacity ot the Great Lake^ svstem; fourth, the possibility or advantaoje of com- bining the interests of navigation and of ))ower i)roduction in a divei^ion into a navigable canal connecting the ^vaters of Lake i.ne anil Lake Ontjirio: and, iinallv, the provisions of the existing treaty regarding l»oundarv watei-s and suggestions of changes in antl addi- tions to it neoessaVv to pn.mote the interests of both the L nited Stales and Canada and to safeguard them more adecpiately. :.. In tlie following review of the report all existing or proposed diversions of whatever rhararter from each unit of the (neat Lakes system will l>e brit-tlv descril)ed when the corresponding unit is under i-ijnsideration, and thus disposed of finally. In the review and dis- cussion, the nomenclature of the report of the division engineer is adopted, particularlv in regard to the various types of plants for developing power from the Niagara River. As herein used, a "single-stage" water-iH)wer development is one in ^vhlch water is conducted in a eiiannel (.f some kind, whether artificial canal, tunnel, or vertical penstock, from the upper level in the Chippawa-Grass Island pool, at elevatii.n about r.GO. to turbines set practically at the elevation of tiie lower Niagara Kiver. about 24.S feet above sea level. so that the total hea«l due to the ditference between the elevation of the Niagara Kiver just above the Falls and its elevation at or near its mouth, some 'MO feet, is deveh)»ed in a single power house at about the latter level. A "two-stage' develojiment is one in which the total hea<» feet, is developed in turbines set at about the latter level. The toj>ogriiphical coiKlitions of the locality are suc-h that a tunnel, from 2 t<» '\ mdes long, is a necessary feature of tlii'- lower stag!'. The " compotiml two-stage " jdan of the division engineer contemplates tiie devehtpm<'nt of the energy of a diversion of 2ractically in upstream ])rolongati(m of station No. '.\. lioth these stati(»ns would discharge into another tunnel which would h'ad the water to the turbines of the lower stage in a power hou-4' near the river level just above TiCwiston. Tlie *'sinjple two stage" plan (Hscus.'^mI by tlu' f two sets of turbines in series, a pressure tunnel fniin near I*<»rt Day on the ('hip|)awa-(irass Island ))ool con- er stage in a now power DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 17 house near tlie level of the Maid-of-the-Mist pool, aljout michvay between the arched bridj^e at Niaj^ara Falls and kSus})ension Bridf^e. These turbines would discharge into a ])ressure tunnel leadinj^ to a ])0wer station for the lower stage similar to that called for in the preceding plan. 15EVIEW OF REPORT OF DIVISION ENGINEER, PARAGRAPHS 0-G7, INCLUSIVE. C. Diversions from the Great Lakes fall into three classes as con- cerns their effects. These classes are (a) those returned to the same body or level of water from which they are taken and which there- fore do not affect water levels anywhere, and, doing no damage, re- quire no limitation; (h) those which are restored to a lower level of the Great Lakes system and which reduce depths at and above the point of diversion, and all others downstream thereof to, but not in- cluding, the body of water into which they discharge; and (c) those which are permanently removed from the Great Lakes Basin, and lower water levels and do damage at and even upstream from the point of diversion, as well as at every downstream locality as far as tidewater. 7. There are no diversions from Lake Superior of sufficient conse- quence to justify mention. Small amounts of water are taken for the domestic purposes of some of the communities on its shores. Such small diversions find their way back into the lake and therefore do not influence its level even slightly. 8. Lake Superior discharges into the St. Marys River, which, as is well known, has been improved by both Canada and the United States, so that navigation may readily overcome the fall of approxi- mately 20 feet which naturally exists there. The United States has built four large locks and there is one such lock on the Canadian side. In their operation, from 1,000 to 1,500 cubic feet per second is diverted during the season of navigation from the river through canals which conduct the water from the upper level to the locks. This diversion is, of course, necessary for the maintenance of a highly important navigation, but it is so small as compared with the dis- charge of the river that even though uncompensated, but little effect would be produced on the level of Lake Superior and of the river above the points of diversion. There are also three diversions from the St. Marys River for power development; one of these being in Canada and the other two in the United States. The aggregate di- version for power purposes is 43,000 cubic feet per second, which produces about 54,750 horsepower, as follows : Present operation, Sault Ste. Marie power plants. Plant. Water used. Power pro- duced. Horse- power. Over-all efficiency. United States Government Cvbicfret per second. 1 1,030 30, 000 12,000 Horse- poiver. 750 35, 000 19,000 Cubic feet per second. 0.73 1.17 1 58 Per cent. 34 Michigan Northern Power Co 54 Great Lakes Power Co 7S Total, or weighted average 43,030 54,750 1.27 59 1 Including 600 cubic feet per second wasted. 27880—21- IS DIVEKSIOX OF WATER FK0:M GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. This diversion is nearly 00 per cent of the average flow of the river, uliich is 75,000 cubic feet per second, but its elt'ects, and those of tlie diversions for navigation, are fully compensated b}" regulat- ing works — a set of Stone}' gates above the International Bridge. The control a Horded by these gates is so complete that in addition to the diversions for navigation, 60,000 cubic feet per second may be used for power, while Lake Superior is ordinarily held between ele- vations 00*2.1 and 003.0 and its maxinnim range is restricted to 2.5 feet. Since 1800 tiie monthly mean stages of this lake have fluctuated between a low of about 000.50 and a high of 004.10, a range of 4.6 feet. Daily mean stages have, of course, shown a greater range, so that the regulating works are obvioush' beneflcial to navigation. The ailvantage of developing all the water power possible is also plain, for the locality is a remote one and coal is expensive. The regulat- ing works must affect the oscillations of the lakes below, but up to the present this effect has been slight and apparently no damage has been done to navigation. 1). In consequence of an act of Congress, one of the power plants on the United States side of the boundary was acquired by the United States in 1912. It is now operated by the Edison Sault Electric Co., under a lease by the Secretary of War, dated June 25, 11J12. The legal status of this diversion calls for no further comment. The other power plant in the United States is that of the Michigan North- ern Power Co., which was originally built in 1898-1902, under the terms of a permit issued by the Secretary of War, dated December 12, 1902. Its large diversion, amounting to 30,000 cubic feet per second, was the subject of considerable controversy which was finally settled bv a lease executed by the Secretary of AVar, dated May 28, 1914. 10. Under this lease, the Michigan Northern Power Co. is per- mitted to take for a period of 30 jears, beginning July 1, 1914, a continuous flow of water from St. Marys River above the rapids not to exceed a maximum daily aggregate at the average rate of 25,000 cubic feet per second of primary water, with not to exceed 5.000 feet of secondary Avater at sucli times as the level of Lake Superior and the flow of St. Marj's River will permit, conditioned upon certain plant improvements and the construction of remedial and compensating works. A later lease, dated September 10, 1918, permits the use of an additional 3,000 cubic feet per second of water, referred to as excess secondary water, at such time as, in the opinion of the lessor, it is available. 11. A number of diversions for water supply are made from Lake Michigan and the cit}' of Milwaukee uses about 1,000 cub*c feet per second for flushing its harbor, but these are returned to the lake so dose to tlie point of taking as to have no effect upon its levels. There are no diversions from this lake for navigation, and the only really significant diversion from it is that of the Chicago sanitary disti'ict. This diversion is jjrimarily for sanitation, and the protec- tion of the water supply of the city of Chicago, by preventing the discharge into Lake Alichigan of the raw sewage of Chicago and the vicinity, under a plan wherel)y this sewage is intercepted, diluted, and transjxu-ted into another drainage system, that of the Mississippi River, by way of the Des Plaincs and Illinois Rivers, incidentally creating facilities foi- navigation and for the dex-elopment of power. DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 19 This purpose is accomplished by reversing the flow of the Chicago and Calumet RiAcrs, naturally tributaries of Lake ^licliigan, which, through this change, become ordinarily parts of the Alississippi drainage system. The diversion through the Chicago Sanitary Canal averaged 8,800 cubic feet per second in 1917, although some daily averages Avere 10.000 cubic feet per second or more. Of this diver- sion, G,800 cubic feet per second is incidentally used in the develop- ment of power, as will be explained later. Such small navigation as now exists would be ampl}?- served b}^ a diversion of 500 cubic feet per second, and twice that amount would be sufficient for tlie needs of the greatest probable commerce of the so-called Lakes to the Gulf Waterway. 12. The Chicago Sanitary Canal diversion proceeds from Lake Michigan, whose normal elevation above sea level is about 580 feet, by way of the Chicago and Calumet Kivers through cuts excavated in the Ioav divides which separate the lake drainage from that of the Des Plaines River, the two uniting in an artificial channel whose dejDth is over 24 feet and whose width varies between 160 and 202 feet. The Chicago River portion of the diversions begins at Robey Street in the West Fork of the South Branch, and for a length of 32.35 miles has practically the full canal dimensions above given.. This portion of the canal was begun in 1892 and completed in 1900. The Calumet River diversion begins at Stoney Creek on the Little Calumet River and runs a distance of 16 miles through a shallow depression in the divide, called " The Sag," to a point on the main channel 3 miles above Lemont, the cut being in the form of a canal, which eventually is to be 22 feet deep and 70 to 90 feet wide. The main channel or canal is figured for a flow of 10,000 cubic feet per second, and the Calumet Canal for an initial flow of 2,000 cubic feet per second, to be enlarged ultimately to 4,000 cubic feet per seconds The latter was begun in 1911 and is now nearly completed. _ 13. The Chicago Sanitary Canal was constructed without the sanc- tion of Congress, and the only existing authority for this diversion is a permit of the Secretary oi War, dated January 17, 1903, grant- ing permission to divert 350,000 cubic feet per minute, or 5,833 cubic feet per second, during the closed season of navigation prior to jMarcli 31, 1903, and requiring reduction to 250,000 cubic feet per minute, or 4,167 cubic feet per second, thereafter. This permit was issued on the understanding that it was the intention of the Secretary of War to submit all pertinent questions connected with the sanitary district of Chicago to Congress. As yet Congress has taken no action, but meantime the sanitary district has for years greatly ex- ceeded the limits of the permit of January 17, 1903.' 14. In 1908 the Attorney General of the United States caused to be filed in the United States Circuit Court, Northern District of Illinois, a bill to enjoin the sanitary district of Chicago from con- structing the Calumet-Sag Canal, and diverting through it the waters of Calumet River or Lake Michigan, thereby" reversing the current in Calumet River, on the ground that these *acts would impede and obstruct navigation and lower the level of Lake Michigan, thus im- pairing its navigability, all in contravention of section 10 of the river and harbor act of March 3, 1899. The real purpose of this suit was to assert the paramount authority of the United States over the di- version of the Chicago Sanitary Canal, and over all acts such as 20 DR^RSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RH'FiR. woukl tend to injure the navi) (') .01 0.43 .03 (') .01 0.42 .04 (') {.') .02 0.35 .OS .01 (') .03 0.35 .09 .01 (') .05 0.36 .10 .02 (1) 06 0.43 .22 .03 .01 .10 0.41 .21 .03 .01 .10 0.38 .20 Blacl.- Kock Ship Canal Kew York State Barge Tanal .03 .01 .11 .47 .47 .48 .47 .50 .54 .79 .76 .73 Diversion. Amount in cubic feet per second. Niagara River at Cliippewa. Ontario. St. Lawrence River at Lock No. 25. Low. Mean. High. Low. Mean. High. Low. Mean. High 8,800 4. 500 700 1,000 50,885 0.24 .12 0.23 .12 0.21 .11 0.44 0.42 0.39 0.65 0.62 0.60 New York State Barge Canal .03 .63 .03 .60 .02 .57 1.02 .98 .01 .44 .42 .39 .65 .62 .60 ' Inappreciable. Lake Ontario has been raised about 0.50 foot by the construction of the Gut Dam, which is 50 per cent more than the luweriny: caused by diversions at Chicago. stages of the laJces referred to in this table. Michigan- Huron. Erie. Ontario. 579. 6 581. 1 582.6 570. 8 572.3 573.8 244.5 246.0 iligh 247.5 24 DIVER.S^IOX OF WATKR FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. Tahle No. 4S. — Effect in feet at mean i. In leaving Lake Erie, the Niagara River falls with relative rapiool. about 2 miles long, who.se average elevation above sea level is 503 ff-(limission of the main report there liad been no opportunity for obtaining views at ex- tremely low stage. Subsequently, on April 22, 1920. an unusually low stage of Lake Erie occurred, and it became possible to obtain a set of views of the Falls with a discharge of only about 135,000 cubic feet per second. These views accompan}-^ the supplemental re- DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER, 29 port (lilted May 19, 1920, and show the detrimental effects of low- Lake Erie staples, and correspondin<;ly low discharj^es on the scenic beauty of the Falls in their natural condition. The effects of stage upon the scenic beauty of the Falls and the rapids above and below are summarized in the report as follows : 1. The American Rapids are not much affected by stage, but loolv l)e.st with a moderately large flow. 2. The Canailian Kai)id.s are very little aifected by stage except the north- west corner, which rtMiuire an extremely high stage to cover the shoal there. 3. The American Fulls look best at high stage. 4. The " notch "' of the Horseshoe Falls is of small scenic value at any stage. At low stages it is more often visible because there is then less mist. 5. The ends of the Horseshoe Falls look very poor at low stage, and poor enough at the ordinary conditions now prevailing. At very high stages they tire marvelously Improved. 6. The Maid-of-the-Mist Pool and the Whirlpool derive their beauty primarily from the gorge, not the river, and are not affected by change of stage. 7. The Whirlpool Rapids and Lower Rapids are at their best at a compara- tively low stage. As the flow increases much of their attraction is lost. 40. The various power companies at Niagara now divert over 50,- 000 cubic feet per second around the Falls and into the Maid-of-tlie- Mist pool. In addition, the New York State Barge Canal, the Wel- land Canal, and the Chicago Drainage Canal are taking some 12,000 or 13,000 cubic feet per second which would otherwise flow over the Falls and through the Gorge. In the near future, when the new Welland Canal is put in operation and the plants now under con- struction at the Falls are finished, the total diversion affecting the Falls will be nearly 70.000 cubic feet per second. The effect on Horse- shoe Falls of the existing diversions vdll be seen from an examina- tion of photographs Nos. 89 and 99, the former taken with a river discharge of 212,000 cubic feet per second and the latter with a dis- charge of 274,000 cubic feet per second. It seems clear that the scenic beauty of Niagara Falls has been appreciably damaged both by the recession of the apex of the Horseshoe Falls, which is proceeding at a rate of about 4 to 6 feet a year, and by the diversion of water for power and other purposes. At the present time there flows over the central 600 feet of the Horseshoe Falls a volume of approximately 80,000 cubic feet per second, which not only is entirely wasted in that it creates neither scenery nor power, but which is actually the cause of destructive erosion producing the recession referred to. If means were adopted to distribute the flow^ evenly over the Falls, a much greater diversion than the present could be allowed without injury to the scenic effects. 41. The remedial works proposed to improve scenic conditions at Niagara Falls by the division engineer contemplate the following: That the high Canadian end of the Falls and the shoal south of it should be cut down by excavation made in cofferdams; that the high places near Terrapin Point and to the south should be similarly ex- cavated in another cofferdam; that to distribute the flow more uni- formly a submerged weir, curved in plan, should be built across thci central part of the rapids a short distance upstream from the " notch " of the Horseshoe Falls; and that the American channel should be given a flow of 12,000 cubic feet per second by means of a submerged compensating dike extending from Goat Island to Chippawa. It is believed by the division engineer that the cost of remedial works should be equally divided between the United States and Canada. 30 DIVERSIOX OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 42. If these works are constructed, the division enjrineer believes that then a considerable addition to diversions from above the Falls is not onlv pennissil)le but desirable. At present, the greatest detri- ment to the beauty of the Horseshoe is the prevailinir mist, and the constant rece.ssion'of its crest is an ever-present and trrowing menace not only to the appearance of the Horseshoe but also to the perman- ence of the water supply of at least one of the power companies. The greatest volume that can be taken consistent with maximum at- tainable scenic beauty is that which will reduce the obstructive mist to a minimum Avhile j\t the same time insuring adequate ice discharge capacity. With the flow approximately uniformly distributed over the crest of the Horseshoe, this maximum diversion from the Niagara River al)ove the Falls is put at about 80.(»()() culjic feet per second. •43. The table in paragraph 3G shows the very great difference that exists between the efficiencies of the various power plants at Niagara Falls, the range being between 43 and 75 per cent, while 88 ])er cent is predicted for the Chippawa-Q.ueenston development of the Hyclro- electric Power Commission. The efficiencies stated for the existing power stations relate only to the head actually developed, 220 feet more or less, and therefore ignore the now undeveloped head of 90 feet or more. To this extent, these efficiencies are not properly com- parable Avith that predicted for the Chippawa-Queenston develop- ment. In any event, the importance to society of developing the greatest possible amount of power from the volume of water per- mitted to be diverted is evident and the division engineer lays down the rule that future developments should have an overall efficiency of more than 80 per cent, and produce over 20 horsepower ])er cubic foot per second if they discharge into the ^laid-of-the-Mist pool and over 20 horsepower if the discharge is into the river near Lewiston. These figures may well be contrasted with the present development of 635.570 horse p'o AVer, with a diversion of over 50.000 cubic feet per second and an average of only 12.5 horsepower per cubic foot per second. Each additional horsepower developed by these diversions is when continuously used worth at least $30 annually to a consumer who would otherwise be forced to use steam power. The greater the efficiency of development the cheaper the power may be sold. 44. Diversions from the Chippawa-Grass Island pool, by lowering the pool itself and increasing the slope between it and the upjier river, also lower Lake Erie and the waters above it. The three diver- .sions from the Chippawa-Grass Island pool, consisting of about 0,000 cubic feet per second in Canada and 17.000 cubic feet per second in New York, a total of 23,000 cubic feet per second, lower the pool about O.G foot and increase the discharge from Lake Flrie by about one-tentli of the amount of this diversion, thereby lowering that lake about one-tenth foot. The small diversion for navigation and i)ower throMgli the barge canal is also made from the Clni)pawa-Grass Ishuid pool and lias proportionately a similar effect in lowering the pool and Lake Erie. The amount l)y wliich the various portions of the (ircat Lakes are affected is shown in Taljle 47. 45. The diversions from the Niagara Kiver cause diminished depth in many harbors and in the connecting channels, Avhich limit the draft to which the bulk freighters of the Great Lakes may load. Using data based upon conditions existing at the time of his report, the division engineer figures that each tenth of a foot of draft cor- DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 31 responds to freight earnings of $44.57 per trip. AVith an average of 25 trips per season, lie estimates that the fleet of large bulk freighters plying Lake Erie and the waters above loses $5 inches over the level which would obtain durinj^ the continuous diversion of lO.CXX) cubic second-feet at Chicago. Seci>nd. The negative function of maintaining a substantially \uumpaired outtlow capacity for the Niagara lliver for water and ice during the winter st-asDii, and at times when the lake tends to crest at elevations approaching Z)~4 and Hood heights need to be avoided. Third. The throttling, wlien desirable, of perhaps 40,000 cubic feet per second when the sui)i)iy warrants the saving of water for lati>r release to equalize the How. Fourth. The ability to release during certain hour.s of the day a volume of 30,000 cubic second-feet of impounded water. It will be observed that this plan would raise Lake Erie consider- ably more than the amount it is lowered by the existing diversion at Chicago and by all other diversions now made, and that liberal margin would be left for an increase in diversions. 50. Contingent upon the construction of the remedial and com- pensating Avorks proposed by him, tlie division engineer believes that a total of 80,000 cubic feet per second may be diA'erted fi'om aboA^e the Falls, Avliicli shoidd be e({ually divided betAveen Canada and the United States, and that of this total 40,000 cubic feet per second should be returned to the Maid-of-the-Mist pool, this latter condition being for the protection of the scenic beauty and ice discharging capacity of the river below the Falls. 51. The report furnishes an extended discussion of the details and merits of the existing power i)lants at Niagara Falls and of the best — that is, the most economical or ellicient — j)lan for utilizing the exist- ing diversion and any additional one, including the advisability of joint use for navigation and poAver production. 52. As already mentioned, there are at present three American diA'ersions from the Niagara Kiver for poAver purposes. The.se in- clude a diA-ersion of 500 cubic feet per second through Tonawanda Creek and the New "^'ork State Barge Canal for use by i)OAver i)lants at Lockport. N. Y, Thi.x is about a century old and therefore Avas in existence at llie time cognizance Avas first taken by the United States of the harmfid possibilities of diverting Avater from the Niagara Kiver. The use of this diverted Avater at and beloAV I^ockport appears to be inefficient. 53. The other tAvo diversions are made just above the Falls near Orass Island and Port Day. The upper diversion, that of the origi- nal Niagara Falls PoAver Co.. is reported as 9.450 cubic feet per second, from Avhidi about 100.000 horsepower is developed. This company Avas the pioneer in developing Avater power and generating electricity upon a lai'ge scale at Niagara Falls. Its operations Avere begun about ISDO. Avhen the art Avas in its infancy and there appeared no po.ssihiliLy of limitations on the use of Avatcr. The plant consists of two poAver houses fed by a short headrace canal discharging into DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 33 penstocks which conduct the water to turbines installed at the bottom of deep pits, the draft tubes of the turbines connecting wih a tailrace tunnel havin<^ considerable slope anil openinle land and interfere with highways, railways, water supply and sewage .systems, as well as, jK-rhaps. with the most economical development of adjacent real e.state. 59. For an additional diversion of 20.000 cubic feet per second by the sinii)le two-.stage plan, he estimates the total output to be 580,000 horscpowci-. at a cost of $105.60 jier hor.sej)ower. This cost is greater than under any of the .single .stage i)lans, and more than half of the T)IVERSI():sr OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 35 total cost belongs to the second stage Avhich furnishes only about 160,000 horsepoAver out of the total of 580,000. It is plain that the division engineer believes that a second diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second should preferably be in a single stage, thereby making the most economical use of the water that may safely be completely diverted from the Maid-of-the-Mist pool. 60. On the basis of these construction costs, the division engineer figures that the cost on the bus bar will be $10 to $13.90 per annual horsepower for the new diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second, while if only one such amount is to be diverted and existing rights are valid and therefore must be paid for, these figures are increased to from $14.90 to $17, the cheapest development in every case being the single stage power canal. 61. There are numerous diversions for domestic purposes from the Niagara Elver and Lake Ontario, as Avell as from the St. Lawrence,, but as these are immediately returned they produce virtually no effect upon levels. There are, however, no diversions for navigation either from the lower Niagara or from Lake Ontario. 62. Existing diversions from the St. Lawrence River above St. Eegis are utilized for both navigation and water power, and include four lateral canals constructed by the Dominion of Canada, known as the Galop Canal, Rapide Plat Canal (also called the Morrisburg Canal), Farran Point Canal, and the Cornwall Canal. The diver- sions are small, and in each case the water is returned to the river. The diversion by the Galop Canal is between 500 and 1,000 cubic feet per second, of which an average of 200 or less is used for navigation and the remainder for power. The diversion by the Morrisburg Canal is between 1.000 and 1,500 cubic feet per second, of which pos- sibly 200 feet is required for navigation and the remainder for power. The Farran Point Canal diverts about 50 cubic feet per second, all for navigation. The diversion by the Cornwall Canal is about 3,000 cubic feet per second, of which possibly 300 only is required for navigation purposes. These canals were built primarily for the benefit of navigation, and are open for use equally by the vessels of both countries. The development of water power along these canals was originally a secondary and incidental matter, although much of the water is now diverted solely for that purpose. 63. The St. Lawrence canals accommodate vessels 255 feet long, 42 feet beam, and drawing 14 feet. The river is closed by ice for an average of 144 days per annum, from about December 3 to about April 27. 64. In addition to the above-mentioned diversions primarily for navigation, there are two developments solely for water power. These are the Massena Canal, on the United States side of the river,, at the head of Long Sault Rapids, and the development at Wad- dington, N. Y. The Massena Canal extends about 3 miles from the St. Lawrence to a poAver house on the Grasse River, a tributary'- of the St. Lawrence. It has a bottom width of 188 feet and a depth of 25 feet. There is a head of about 43 feet at the powerhouse, for which the Grasse River serves as a tailrace, conducting the water back to the St. Lawrence at a point lOf miles downstream from the point of diversion. Until recently the quantity of water diverted was approximately 30,000 cubic feet per second, developing a 36 DIVKRSIOX OF WATER FROM GREAT LxtKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. maximum of 80,000 liorsepower. Due to improvements undertaken durinfr the war, an output of 60,000 horsepower is now produced with a consumption of only 17,000 cubic feet per second. At AVad- dington, N. Y., a dam 950 feet lon^; was constructed more than 100 years ago across the American channel. The flow through the American channel, known as Little River, is estimated to be 3,000 to 4.000 cubic feet per second, of which about 600 cubic feet is used intermittently and inefficiently in the development of power. A small powerhouse is located at the downstream side of the dam, and a ]jower canal 15 to 20 feet wide leads from the south end of the dam downstream along the bank of the river for about 950 feet, serving four plants. The company owning the rights at this locality has proposed the construction of a new plant to develop 30,000 horse- power, with the use of about 30,000 cubic feet per second. 65. The problem of hoAv the development of power may best be combined with the improvement of the St. Lawrence for naviga- tion is, as stated by the division engineer, at present under considera- tion by the International Joint Commission. It is not, therefore, advisable to discuss further such plans as have hitherto been pro- posed for diverting water from the St. Lawrence. 66. Finally, the division engineer discusses the existing boundary waters treaty with Canada, and recommends that it be amended so as to cover the existing needs and anticipate future requirements more satisfactorily and with more flexibility. 67. The recommendations of the division engineer regarding modi- fications of tlie treaty and the use of diversions are as follows : RecoDinicttiJrd treaty provisions. — It is reconi mended that tlie treaty with Great Britain proclaimed May 13, 1010, be modified in the following particulars: (1) That the wording of the treaty be altered to extend the jurisdiction of the International Joint Commission to include diversions from tributaries of boiiiidary waters except in the case of diversions from a tributary which are returned to the same tributary. (2) That the words, " the scenic beauty of the Falls and Rapids," be inserted in the first sentence of Article V after the word " Erie." (3) That the diver.sion of water from Niacara River below the Falls be spe- cifically limited in the same manner as the diversion from the Niagara River above the Falls. <4) That the treaty provide for the construction and maintenance of re- nieflial works of the nature outlined in section (c) of this report; such works to be built under the supervision of the International .Toint fNunniission, or of some other international body created for the purpose; the remedial works to be so desi^'ned and constructed that the scenic beauty of the Falls wlW be restored and preserved when 80,000 cubic feet of water per second is diverted from the Niagara River above the Falls; the expense of constructing and main- taining .'^aid works to be borne equally by the high contracting parties. (:")) That the limits of diversion from the Niagara River above the Falls, which the high contracting parties may permit within their respective juris- dictloriK, b«' i-ais('d from 20.000 cubic feet of water per second on the United States side to 40,0(X) cubic feet of water per second and from 30,000 cubic feet of water per second on the Canadian side to 40,000 cubic feet of water per second. (•; I That 20,000 cubic feet per second of the water so diverted upon each side f)f tlie river shall be returned to the Niagara River at some point or points upstream from turning jMiitit No. 134 of the iiiternationnl boundary line adopted August If). lUV.i, by the International Waterways ('ommissioii under Article IV of the treaty between the United States of America and the United Kingdom of On-nt I'.rltain and Ireland signed April 11, 190S; and that if any part of the remaining diversior) be returned to the Niagara River at any jioint an eiiual or Biiialler amount may bstimates in detail for a comprehensive system of compensating works for restoring the levels of all the lakes and their outflow rivers, these plans to be submitted to the International Joint Commission for approval, with the intent tluit such works be constructed and paid for jointly by the United States and Canada. 38 Dn-ERSIOX OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE BOARD OF ENGINEERS FOR RHTIRS AND HARBORS, TARAGRAPHS G 8-1 2 9, INCLUSIVE. 68. On June 4, 1920, the Board of Engineers for Rivers and Harbors held a widel.v advertised and numerously attended public hearing at Niagara Falls, X. Y., for the purpose of affording to all concerned or interested a full opportunity for the discussion of di- vei-sions from the Great Lakes and general principles that should be observeil regarding their limitations and utilization. A transcript of the stenographic notes of this hearing is appended hereto, together Avith copies of exhibits then filed by certain of the interested parties. In adtliti(m. on July 27. 1920. the board gave a special hearing to Mr. T. Kennard Thomson, who had been unable to attend the public hearing at Niagara Falls. Mr. Thomson is the advocate of the plan for damming the Niagara River at Fosters Flats, and his arguments in favor of this plan, having been fully heard, are given due -weight in the conclusions that follow. Finally, on August 3, 1920, the board gave another special hearing to ]Mr. Charles A. Pohl, who presented arguments against the "compound two-stage" plan and in favor of a direct diversion from the Maid of the ^Nlist pool, on l^ehalf of the Niagara (Jorge Power Co.. and to Col. H. L. Cooper, whose argu- ments were based upon the large general asi)ects of the diversion problem and the manner in Avliich it should, in his opinion, be treated. The board has. of course, given consideration to these arguments and to all other evidence that has come to its notice. 09. Public resolution No. 8, Sixty-fifth Congress, which directed the making of this investigation, reads in part as follows: I'roriilrd. That the Secretary of War is hereby authorized and direotefl to make a eoinprehensive and thorousjli investigation * * * of the entire sub- ject of water diversion from the Great Lakes and the Niagara River, including navigation, sanitary and power purposes, and the preservation of the scenic beauiy of Niagara Falls and the rapids of Niagara River. 'J'he division engineer — and, in our opinion, correctly — believes that it was the desire of Congress not only to be advised of tlie facts regarding all diversions for the above purposes but also to secure information and recommendations upon which to base a just policy as to present and future diversions for any or all of the purposes enumerated: and it Avas further the obvious Avish of Congress that any such permanent i)olicy should gi^'c due weight to the impor- tance of the scenic beauty of Niagara Falls and the ra])ids. To. At tiie time of the passage of the resolution Congress already knew that many of the diversions then in existence were productive of damage, both to navigation and to scenic beauty, but, as all diver- sions were to a greater or less degree useful or beneficial to those who were making them, there was difficulty in fixing their relative merits. The report now enables this to l)e done witli confidence and reason- able certainty, and tiiei-eby to arrive at the details of the policy appaicntly desired by Congress. We shall therefore briefly discuss the tliree kinds of diversions mentioned in tlie resolution, as well as the jiresiMvatioM of .sc<*nic beauty, give our opinion as to their rela- tive importance and as to the jjcrmissible limits of the three varieties of diversions, and finally state our views as to the orderly steps that should be taken in the execution of what we regard to be the proper policy with respect to divei'sions and scenic beautv. DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 39 71. In advance of the more detailed discussion we may say that we believe that navigation purposes in value and importance take precedence over all other uses to which the waters of the Great Lakes may be put. As a first step in a proper policy, damage already done by diversions should be remedied by the adoption of some plan that will not only restore losses of depth but also increase lake levels so as to alFord "higher stages than would naturally exist. The plan for accomplishing these purposes with a nuixinnim of certainty and bene- fits, both direct and indirect, is the construction of a regulating dam provided with sluiceways at the head of Niagara River which would restore and increase depths in Lakes Erie, Huron, and Michigan and their connecting Avaters, and in the St. Marys Eiver below the locks, and at the same time i)ermit the discharge of the Niagara River hereafter to be made nearly uniform, thereby increasing by 20 per cent or more the natural low-water discharges which have a deter- mining influence on the scenic beauty, power development, and navi- gation and therefore serve to indicate the maximum diversions that may be made from the Niagara River. On the other hand, there should be no limitation on the diversion of water actually needed for the supply of navigation canals, and no difficulty will be experienced in remedying the losses of depth caused by the small diversions of this kind. 72. Diversions of water for "sanitary purposes" include those made by municipal water-supply and sewage systems and, except in the cases of Chicago and Port Huron, the quantities taken are always insignificant, and, as they are immediately restored practically un- diminished to the source from which they are derived, the diversions do no damage either to navigation or scenic beauty, and they there- fore call for no restriction. The United States should, however, do everything in its power to disseminate knowledge as to the pollution of the Great Lakes and to promote the adequate treatment of drink- ing water and of sewage. 73. The diversions for " sanitary purposes " at Chicago and Port Huron do not, however, return the water immediately to its original source. At Chicago the water is diverted to an entirely different drainage basin, the Mississippi, and the Great Lakes are therefore deprived of this much of their natural supply. At Port Huron the Black River Canal takes the water from Lake Huron and discharges it into the St. Clair River some distance below Lake Huron. The diversion is small and its effect correspondingly so. "Were it larger it might be sufficiently detrimental to justify further notice. As it is, the Port Huron diversion may be tolerated but it should not be in- creased, while the Chicago diversion is so large and its effects so im- portant that more positive measures are necessary, the details of which will be given hereafter. 74. There are numerous diversions for " power purposes " on the Great Lakes and the Niagara River and the St. Lawrence. Cheap power is obviously desirable and development of water power should therefore be encouraged so far as is consistent with the more impor- tant or desirable interests of navigation and scenic beauty that it is the public duty to notice and to safeguard. This is the only limita- tion upon the diversion of water for " power purposes" that we rec- ommend. At Sault Ste. Marie practically the entire river is di- verted for "navigation purposes" or for "power purposes." Evi- 40 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT L.VKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. dentlv notliinpr should bo taken for power until navijrntion has been a(le(iuately supplied and until the ilanfrer of lowerin^r Lake Superior has been ade(iuately overcome. As the re()th those localities. The up])er one raised the water level sufficiently to Hood the power house of the Ontario Power Co. Since that time the company has closed the openings through which the water then came so that a similar interruption of its service and damage to its generators could not occur. The stations of the Hj^draulic Power Co. were, however, not harmed, and the only otlier injury was some disturbance of the tracks of the Oorge Eailway. With proper use of the flushing capacity of the Lake Erie regulating works, in con- junction with the minimum discharge of about 90,000 cubic feet per second that we hereafter recommend, ice gorges in the Maid-of-the- Mist pool and lower river should become rare, if not impossible, and with proper interconnection of the power plants in the Niagara dis- trict and efficient arrangements for cutting off nonessential use and reducing essential use to a minimum during such emergencies as arise as the result of ice damage, we feel confident that loss to the public, while improbable, would, in any event, be small. In short, ice gorges in the lower river, never frequent, Avould become far less so. and their evil effects, always comparatively unimportant, would largely be neutralized. 101. The regulating dam at the head of the Niagara Kiver will afford a nearly constant flow of from 180,000 to 200,000 cubic feet per second. If a constant discharge of from 70,000 to 80,000 cubic feet per second would, as we believe, create the greatest attainable scenic beauty at the falls and amply take care of ice above them, there would be available for diversion about 100,000 cubic feet per second. At present, the diversions on the New York side are an average of 1,600 cubic feet per second through the New York State barge canal, and 19,500 cubic feet per second, taken near Port Day into the canals of the Niagara Falls Power Co., the total diversion in New York being, therefore, about 21,100 cubic feet per second. On the Canadian side, the total diversion by the three power com- panies at Niagara Falls is about 33,000 cubic feet per second, and the entire diversion from above the falls may be put at 54.100. All the power diversions, except that at Lockport, N. Y., discharge into the Maid-of-the-Mist pool, which is 220 feet below the ChippaAva- (irass Island pool. 1 he small diversion at Lockport is evidently quite inefficient. Of the five distinct power developments at Niagara Falls, only two are utilizing efliciently anything like the full head of 220 feet, the Ontario Power Co. ta'king about 13,000 cubic feet per second on the Canadian side and station No. 3 and its ex- tension belonging to the Niagara Falls Power Co. diverting about 12,000 cubic feet per .second on the New York side. The others use iji the neighborhood of only 140 feet head. DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT loAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 51 102. While the safe limit of diversion from above the falls would be about 100,000 cubic feet per second after the completion of the regulating dam at Buffalo, we see that for power purposes this rep- resents an increase of but 45,900 cubic feet per second, or only 42,900 cubic feet per second, if Canada be assumed to take the full 36,000 cubic feet per second now permitted under the treaty. We are sure that no sound reason any longer exists for the unequal division of the total diversion. Accordingly, Canada should ultimately receive 18,450 cubic feet per second of additional water for power purposes and the United States 29,450, thereby making the diversion of each country eventually 49,450 cubic feet per second. In the beginning, however, we think it Avise to limit the increases to 20,000 cubic feet per second on the American side and to 4,000 cubic feet per second on the Canadian, postponing further diversions until a sufficient opportunity has been had to observe the effects of the regulating and remedial works. As will be explained hereafter, not even the initial increases should be made until the construction of the regulating dam, upon Avhose operation the increases clearly depend, has been agreed to, funds provided, plans completed and contracts let. 103. We now^ come to the subject of diversions from the Maid-of- the-Mist pool and lower gorge. We have already stated that the division engineer assigns a present limit of 40,000 cubic feet per second to such diversions. He, how^ever, believes that experience and close observation may justify a higher figure. This limitation is based upon his belief that a minimum flow of about 90,000 cubic feet per second is needed below the falls to take care of ice. Accept- ing this volume of 90,000 cubic feet per second as approximately the correct minimum, it is readily seen that the equalizing of the flow of Lake Erie at 180,000 to 200,000 cubic feet per second introduces a condition with which the division engineer did not reckon as does also our provision of 70,000 to 80,000 cubic feet per second as the minimum flow over the falls. 104. As already stated, two of the existing power stations at Niagara Falls are efficient. Because of the relatively short distance between their intakes in the Chippawa-Grass Island pool and their outlets at the head of the Maid-of-the-Mist pool, a mile or less, these plants were economical to construct. Built many years before the outbreak of the World War, it is probable that their construction cost per horse-power at the switchboard Avas less than the cheapest plan of developing the entire head would now afford. It is therefore unlikely that these two plants Avill ever be abandoned. As they dis- charge about 25,000 cubic feet per second into the Maid-of-the-Mist pool, after the plans recommended by us have been completed, the discharge immediately below the falls will be 115,000 cubic feet per second. Furthermore, the Niagara Falls Power Co. is under- stood to claim the legal right to use at least 3,100 cubic feet per second, and possibly 7,500 cubic feet per second in addition to the quantity now used efficiently by its station No. 3, and to be planning to develop power from this added flow. Ultimately, therefore, over 30,000 cubic feet per second may be diverted around the falls and de- veloped efficiently under the head of 220 pertainii\ff to the upper stage, and then the total minimum flow of the Maid-of-the-Mist pool will be about 120,000 cubic feet per second. As 90,000 cubic feet per second is necessary for scenic effect as well as for ice discharge, we 52 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. recommend that not exceeding 30.000 cubic feet per second be per- mitted to be diverted farther down in the Maid-of-the-Mist pool for the development of the second stage of about 90 feet, producing roundly 240,000 horsepower. Such a diversion is now permissible under the treaty, and we reconmiend that it be made at the earliest possible moment, for the demand for power is urgent, and the de- velopment can be made without injury to the scenic beauty of the lower gorge. Construction should probably be under a pressure tunnel plan, and would require not less than two years. 105. Certain other aspects of this first step in our power program are of interest. The best plan for this development is one that would allow the greatest latitude in the choice of licensee, and thereby per- mit a si'lection most favorable to the public interest. The ice and other difficulties which led the division engineer to prefer the " com- pound two-stage " plan are not, in our opinion, sufficient to justify the selection of a plan that limits freedom of choice of licensee, and involves the construction of an extra 5,000 feet of tunnel, costing at least $3,700,000 more than would be necessary were the intake placed in the gorge at an appropriate point above the railroad bridges. The division engineer has estimated the cost of the second stage of his " compound two-stage " plan as $209 horsepower for a diver- sion of 20.000 cubic feet per second producing 164,000 horsepower. Omitting the cost of 5,000 feet of tunnel and of certain other work peculiar to the " compound two-stage " plan, the cost per horsepower becomes about $185. For a diversion of 30,000 cubic feet per second, we are safe in assuming the cost to be about $150 per horsepower. This saving on cost and the other advantage mentioned above justify us in recommending that this diversion from the lower gorge be com- pletely independent of the upper stage. 106. Certain objections arise in connection with this diversion, but they can be met. Because of the much longer tunnels needed in Canada, it is evident that a similar development tliere could be made only at prohibitive cost. This, added to the fact that in diverting 30,000 cubic feet per second, we are taking all that should at present be taken out of the Maid-of-the-lNIist pool direct, might cause the feeling in Canada that we are getting more than our fair share of all the power. Tlie point is perhaps not very important, but it might be met by offering, as an equivalent, the cancellation of the existing contract for 50.000 horsepower, more or less, between the Ontario Power Co.. and the Niagara, Lockport & Ontario Power Co., to be available for use in Canada as soon as this new water power came into operation in the United States. To enable this block of power to be released to Canada would require, of course, that suitable ar- i-angemcnth l)e made with the Niagara, Lockport & Ontario Power Co.. but it is assumed that this should not present insuperable ob- stacles. 107. Another difficulty is financial. This new development will carry a construction cost of $150 per horsepower at the switchboard, whereas a new single-stage development would ])robal)ly cost from $80 to $90, and tiie existing plants have prol)ably cost less than these latter fimircs. In a normal market the most expensive plant might l)e unable to compete with the others, and it might therefore be hard to finance, but as conditions now are it should be comparatively easy to o\ercome this (lifliculty and thereby to attract capital for DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 53 this development. Even with an assured constriiction cost of $150 per horsepower, it shoukl be possible to deliver this power to the consumers at $30 less than the rate now char^jed by efficient central steam stations, and yet to earn a fair profit on the investment. If we arrange to charge the consumer $10 more, i. e., to reduce his saving to about $20 per horsepower, and set aside this $10 annually as a fund to amortize the excess portion of the construction cost, at the end of four or five years, which is the earliest that a new single-stage plant could come into operation, the accumulated sur- charge would, with compound interest, reduce the original capital cost to about that of the single-stage plan. Thereafter this proposed plant and the new single-stage development could compete on equal terms, provided the original franchise for the more expensive plant were made correspondingly longer than that of the single-stage plant. 108. In making this suggestion, we are taking cognizance of the policy laid down in section 10 (d) and (g) of the "Act to create a Federal power commission, etc.," having in mind that in this case the franchise would be of unusual value due to the constant depend- iible flow and to proximity to a market having a large unsatisfied demand for power and every prospect of continued gi'owth. 109. The clanger of ice interruption to a plant in the gorge has been touched on above. Assuming stable and solid construction, the worst that could happen would be that for a greater or less time the supply of water would be cut off and it would therefore be im- possible to generate electrical energy. We have already shown that this danger would be minimized, if not entirely eliminated, by the proper use of the regulating dam at Buffalo. Any interruptions would probably be short, and during this time essential needs might be supplied by the use of interconnections of liberal capacity be- tween the power stations on the United States side. It would, of course, be still better if good interconnection could also be ar- ranged with the Canadian power plants. During the World War it became necessary for the Secretary of War to assume charge of all power systems at Niagara Falls and Buffalo and to administer their power for the greatest benefit of the war program. Though nonessential use was reduced and much essential use, not otherwise possible, was supplied with power by this unified control, the results would have been far better had ample interconnections then existed between the four principal systems. Such interconnections shoulcl now be planned, and before new diversions are authorized the Fed- eral Power Commission should insure their installation, as well as some adeciuate arrangement for unified control, during emergencies,, of all Niagara power and its allocation under some proper priority program such as that set up by the War Industries Board. 110. We have already stated that, contingent upon prior inter- national agreement to construct the regulating dam at Buffalo, the appropriation of the necessary funds by both nations, the comple- tion of definite and detailed plans, and the actual letting of con- tracts for the entire work, we recommend the diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second additional in the United States and 4,000 ( ubic feet per second additional in Canada. Some statement of our views as to the best manner of utilizing this increase is therefore undoubt- edly called for. We agree with the division engineer that the 54 I)Ivp:rsion of water from creat i^vkes and xiagara river. enlnr^red Welland Canal Avill for many years take care of all demands of navigation and. as he has shoAvn that the use of this 20.000 cubic feet per second in a combined power and navigation canal would cost $-20,000,000 more than a separate ship canal of suitable dimensions and a power canal for the above volume of water, we concur in his view that the construction of a combined power and ship canal is inadvisable. "We also are of the opinion that any new diversion of 20.000 cubic feet per second in the United States should develoj) the full head of 310 feet or more. 111. The division engineer estimates that for an assumed diversion of 20.000 cubic feet joer second developing the entire head of 310 feet or more, the construction cost of a power canal would be $12.70 per liorsepower less than that of a pressure tunnel development and $15.70 per horsepower less than that of a tailrace tunnel plan. He, however, draws attention to the omission of certain items affecting the ultimate cost of the canal, such as damages to real estate, interruptions of high- ways and railroads, as well as the difficulties caused to the sewage and water supply systems of a city such as Niagara Falls. All these would add greatly to the final cost of a power canal, and we l)elieve that, in the end, "its cost would fall little below those of the other two types of development. We therefore feel that, as to cost alone, there is little to choose between them and that choice must be based on other considerations. An open canal 5 miles long is more likely to have operating troubles due to the formation of ice in its channel than either type of tunnel. The conclusive objection to this type of development is that it would restrict the National Government in the aAvard of the license and. as a result, the terms secured for the public might not be as favorable as would result from the adoption of either the pressure or the tailrace-tunnel plan. The tailrace tunnel seems, on the whole, to give the greatest latitude in this regard, and as its power house is nearer the probable center of demand for jwwer. thereby reducing transmission losses and the cost of transmission lines, and as, further, its poAver house is safer from danirer of damage by ice gorges, which, though slight, in the lower gorge may at extremely long intervals prove real, we recommend the adoption of the tailrace-tunnel plan. The suggested difficulty as to surges and vacuum effects in a long tunnel can be solved by provid- ing and retaining as vents a sufficient number of construction shafts. 112. Assuming that the conditions antecedent to starting the single-stage diversion would require a period of from 2 to 3 years for iheir fulfillment, and that construction work woidd take 4 years, at the end of aljout 7 years from the commencement of negotiations there would be available in the United States 240.000 horsejwwer from the lower stage, 580,000 horsepower from tiie single stage, and possiblv 00.000 to 150.000 horsepower from the u]5per stage develop- ment, a total of 880,000 to 970,000 horsepower, which wo\dd save at least 10,000.000 tons of coal each year and possibly $30,000,000 or more in the cost of power. 113. Under our power and diversion program above outlined, involving the ultimate taking of 80.000 to 100,000 cubic feet per sec- ond, the total lowering of the Chippawa-Grass Island ])ool would be aV)()ut 2 feet. This would be compensated by the submerged weir proposeolween 100.000 and 110.000 cu])ic feet per second, the inrreas(> being de- pendent on the measure of success attained in operating the regulat- ing d:im :)t Buffalo. As to the diversion at Chicago, we are recom- mending that the existing permit for 250,000 cubic feet per minute be r('pla«<'d by f)ne for 408.000 or G,800 cubic feet per second, and that the Chicago "Sanitary District, and the City of Chicago be required DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 59 to provide appropriate treatineiit for botli sewage and drinking- water. 1'2S. The public need for better navigation and for a greater supply of water power, and the value of improved navigation, scenic beauty, and enlarged power supply, are so very great that we urge that the promptest action be taken to enable our recommendations to be placed in effect. We especially urge that negotiations be at once undertaken looking toAvard the amendment of the existing treaty. 124. The division engineer has recommended certain changes in the treaty with Great Britain, proclaimed May 13, 1910. Except as modified in our recommendations already made, we agree with his views. The changes proposed in his (1), (2), and (8) should be made. The change suggested in (3) should be amplified by adding the words " so as to limit it to a daily rate not exceeding 30,000 cubic feet per second, until such time as further observations may indicate that this amount may be exceeded without detriment to the scenic beauty and the ice-discharging capacity of the Niagara River below the Falls." The modification suggested in (4) should be based upon the navigation and power program recommended by us, namely, an immediate agreement as to the regulating dam at Buffalo, prompt arrangements for its definite design, and joint financial provisions for its construction under an appropriate contract. The remedial works above the Horseshoe Falls, and the compensating weirs at the head of Goat Island and in the upper St. Clair River, and the dredging in Lake St. Clair should be covered by the same agreement, but work on them should not begin until after the regulating dam has been completed. No definite limit should be set upon the critical discharge over the Falls and the amount of water permitted to be diverted other than to state that the remedial works should be de- signed so as to afford the maximum attainable scenic beauty, in our opinion corresi^onding to an ultimate diversion of 100,000 to 110,000 cubic feet per second. 125. The limits set in (5) accord with our views as to what may be diverted after definite provisions have been made for the construc- tion of the regulating dam at Buffalo, but we believe that it will eventually be found desirable to increase these diversions. Accord- ingly, (5) should be amended by inserting the words " wdienever joint arrangements for the regulating dam at Buffalo have been com- pleted, funds appropriated, and contracts for the construction of the dam entered into," to follow the initial word " That." The words " These diversions may be further increased as provided in (8) here- after " should be added at the end of (5). 126. The proposal of (G) will also require modification to make it accord with our power plan. This may be effected by substituting the opening words, " That not less than 30,000 cubic feet per second of the water so diverted shall be returned, etc." The remainder of the provision ma}' remain imchanged. 127. We have already recommended suitable provision for making allowance for peak loads and the load factor. The change proposed in (7) is out of harmony with our recommendations and we suggest the following: "(7) That the limits above given be understood to be daily rates of diversion corresponding to the load factors char- acterizing each individual power station. Whenever ice or other 60 DR'ERSION OF WATER FROIM GREAT LjS.KES AND NIAGARA RIVER. conditions render restrictions necessary in the public interest, steps may be taken by the high contracting parties, either jointly or severally, to reduce all or any authorized diversions until such time as the emergency is considered to have passed." 1'JS. As to tlie use of diversions, as recommended by the division engineer and quoted verbatim in paragraph 67 under the caption '' Recommended use of diversions,'' we agree with the division engi- neer's views as expressed in (1), (3), (4), (5), and (6). We have indicated in the preceding paragraph and in the general discussion the extent to which we differ from (7) and (8), and nothing further as to them seems called for. As to (2), relating to the Chicago sanitary diversion, we believe that the maximum should be G,800 cubic feet ])er second, and that the provision for exacting payment is inexpedient. Otherwise, we agree with the division engineer's recommendations as to Chicago. 129. In closing, we desire again to express our opinion that the report is of great and f)ermanent value. We, therefore, recommend that it be printed in its entirety and that all inclosures and illustra- tions be reproduced, except Appendix I, which has already been printed in connection with hearings held in 1918 before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs. For the board: H. Taylor, Brigadier General^ United States Army^ Senior Member of the Board. REPORT ON INVESTIGATION OF WATER DIVERSION FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. [By Col. J. G. Warken, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army.] War Department, Office of the Division Engineer Lakes Division, Buffalo, N. r., August 30, 1919. From : The Division Engineer, Lakes Division. To : Chief of Engineers, United States Army, Washington, D. C. Subject: Eeport on Investigation of water diversion from Great Lakes and Niagara Kiver, N. Y. There is submitted herewith report on investigation of water diver- sion from Great Lakes and Niagara River as directed by the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, together with eight appendices which treat of various items of the investigation in greater detail. Appendices A, B, D, E, F, and G, contain the eight sections of a report of W. S. Richmond, assistant engineer, on Investigation of water diversion from Great Lakes and Niagara River. Appendix C is a report of First Lieut. Albert B. Jones, Engineers, United States Army, on preservation of scenic beauty of Niagara Falls and of the rapids of Niagara River. Appendix I is copy of interim report submitted March 2, 1918. J. G. Warren, Colonel, Corps of Engineers, United States Army. INVESTIGATION OF WATER DIVERSION FROM THE GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 1. Introductory.— T\\Q following report covers an investigation into the matter of water diversion from the Great Lakes and Niagara River. The duty of making this investigation and report was assigned to me by letter of the Chief of Engineers dated July 20, 1917 (E. D. 57243), in pursuance of public resolution No. 8, Sixty-fifth Congress, which is as follows: Resolved, hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of Am-ei-ica in Congress assembled.. That public resolution numbered 45 of the Sixty-fourth Congress, approved .lanuary 19, 1917, entitled " Joint resolution authorizing the Secretary of War to issue permits for additional diversion of water from the Niagara River," is continued in full force and effect, and under the same conditions, restrictions, and limitations, until July 1. 1918: Provided, That the Secretary of War is hereby authorized and directed to make a com- prehensive and thorough investigation, including all necessary surveys and maps, of the entire subject of water diversion from the Great Lakes and the Niagara River, including navigation, sanitary, and power purposes, and the preservation of the scenic beauty of Niagara Falls and the rapids of Niagara River, and to report to Congress thereon at the earliest practicable date. To carry out the provisions of this proviso, there is hereby appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of $25,000. 2. Progress of the investigation. — The investigation was gotten under way as promptly as practicable and has been prosecuted with 61 62 r»iv?:RSioN of water from great lakes and Niagara river. tlili«ience. A considerable amount of field work required in the vicinity of Xia^jara Falls was completed in February, 1918. Other fielil work was of minor importance. The office Avork which included reductions of field data, the analysis and bringin^: up to date of the trreat amount of existing data, preparation of maps, profiles and diagrams, studies of the engineering matters involved, making de- signs and estimates of proposed works, and preparation of the report, lias proved a task far greater than had been anticipated, and the sub- mission of the final report has been consequently delayed. A de- st-ription of the field and office work is given in Appendix B. 3. Interim report. — In compliance with instructions from the Chief of Engineers an interim report Avas submitted on March 2. 1918. In it certain facts were pointed out and conclusions presented. It is important to note that the subsequent work of the investigation con- firms in every important detail the recommendations and conclusions therein contained. This report, together with the action of the de- partment thereon, is printed in Appendix I.^ 4. Scope of the investigation. — The general scope of the investiga- tion was indicated approximately in the interim report by an outline of subjects and topics given in the thii'd paragraph. In preparing the final report this outline has been adhered to in general, although minor changes in topics and sequence of suljjects have been found advantageous. In the appendices will be found a treatment of each topic and subject in as great detail as is considered essential to a clear and comprehensive exposition, without elaborating historical, technical, or legal details held to l)e immaterial, and without any attempt to exhaust the subject matter. All diversions of water from the Great Lakes Basin of sufficient magnitude to be considered worthy of mention have been included, Avhether for navigation, sanitary, or power purposes, the character, quantity, and effect of each being stated. The Niagara diversions are dwelt upon with special em- phasis, consideration in detail being given to the subjects of preser- vation of the scenic beauty of the Falls and rapids of Niagara River and of further development of water power. 5. Evtent of tei^ntory involved. — The territory involved in a com- prehensive consideration of these diversions is the entire drainage area or basin of the Great Lakes above St. Regis, N. Y., 6G miles above M(jntreal, the place at which the St. Lawrence River pas.ses entirely into Canada. This area is approximately 300,000 square miles, of which 59.5 per cent lies on the United States side of the International b(»undary line. The total area is somewhat larger than that of Texas and about one and one-half times the size of France. The land area on the T'nited States side is greater tlian the combined area of the New England States and New York State. It includes practically all the State of Michigan and ))()rtions of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, IncHana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New ^'ork. Tiie land area on the Canadian side comprises a large part of the Province of Ontario. The water surface area alone is 95,205 stjuare miles, and G0,975 s(iuare miles of this, or 64 ))er cent, is in the United States. The main shore line involved exceeds 8,300 miles in length. 6. Population of t}ir. hamn. — The population of the basin area is estimated to be 15,(X)(),fX)0, of whom about 2,000,000 are in Canada. 'Omitted; b«« par. 129. p. 00 of this document. Appendix I was printed in Part 2 of HoarliiKH l'ic is 220 cubic feet per second. At Chicago most of the water so pumped ultimately paijses down the drainage canal, forming part of the diversion measured at Lockport. At every other city on the Lakes practically all the water so diverted finds its way back within a few miles of the point of diversion, and so produces only a trivial effect upon lake levels. 40. Diversions from tributaries of the Great Lakes. — The. diver- sions enumerated in the preceding paragraphs cover all the im- portant direct diversions of water from the Cireat Lakes and out- floAv rivers, including the diversion of the Illinois & Michigan Canal which formerly was direct and now is indirect, and the condition at Waddington, IS^. Y., which is not a diversion, but a closely allied matter. There are several places along streams naturally tributary to the Great Lakes and outflow rivers where diversions or interfer- ences occur which affect the supply of water to the Great Lakes. Prominent among such diversions are : the Grand River in Ontario, a portion of whose discharge has for many years been diverted through the Port Maitland, or Dunnville, feeder into the Welland Canal, and so into Lake Ontario, Tonawanda and Ellicott Creeks; which natu- rally discharged into Niagara River, diverted into the New York State Barge Canal, and so ultimately into Lake Ontario at Oswego. 41. Supplies from adjacent xoatersheds. — Mention has already been made of the fact that the summit level water supply of the New York State Barge Canal is so arranged that the Oneida and Oswego Rivers, tributaries of Lake Ontario, receive a small amount of water from the Mohawk and Susquehanna watersheds. A similar case is that of the Fox River in Wisconsin, a tributary of Lake Michigan, which receives during high water a small amount of water through the Fox River Canal from Wisconsin River, a tributary of the Mississippi. Formerly the operation of the Ohio and Erie Canal in Ohio caused a small diversion from the Tuscarawas River, a tributary of the Ohio River, into Lake Erie at Cleveland. 42. Other canals in the hasin. — Other canals which now cause a re- distribution of water between adjacent watersheds in the Great Lakes Basin are the Trent Canal, in Ontario, between Lake Ontario and Georgian Bay, and Rideau Canal, in Ontario, between Lake Ontario and the Ottawa River. Abandoned canals which formerly caused such redistribution are the Shenango Canal in Pennsylvania; the •Chenango, Chemung, and Genesee Valley Canals in New York ; and the Miami and Erie Canal in Ohio. Proposed canals which probably would cause such redistribution are the Lake Erie and Ohio River Canal, the Lake Erie-Lake Michigan Canal, and the Georgian Bay ShiD Canal. 43. Proposed navigatio7i canals., Lake Erie to Lake Ontaiw. — Aside from the Welland Canals, and the proposed Erie & Ontario Sanitary Canal, to be mentioned hereafter, the proposed routes of navigation connecting Lakes Erie and Ontario have contemplated using portions of the Niagara River. The first survey for such a canal was made in 1784. Since that date but few years have passed without agitation for the construction of such a canal, and many surveys and estimates have been made. The most recent and also the most elaborate and complete survey and estimate is that of the United States Board of 72 DR^RSION OF WATER FROM GREAT Lu\.KES AND NIAGARA RIVER. Engineers on Deep Waterways, whose report, submitted in 1900, was published as House of Representatives Document No. 149, Fifty-sixth Con^rress. second session. This board surveyed and estimated in detail two routes, known respectively as the Tonawanda-Olcott route and the La Salle-Lewiston route, but recommended the hitter as more economical and otherwise preferable. In the course of the present investigation a careful reconnaisance was made of both routes, and revisory surveys of the La Salle-Lewiston route were made in suffi- cient detail to bring the information up to date. 4-1-. Improvement of the Black Rock Canal, including construction of the new lock at Black Rock, has obviated the necessity of con- structing the works designed by the board for the head of Niagara River. The artificial portion of the route extending from La Salle to Lewiston has been redesigned with more liberal dimensions, and an estimate of the cost has been prepared based on present-day prices. In a later portion of the report this canal is considered in relation to its combination with a project for the development of water power. 4.5. In Section A of Appendix A the matter of a ship canal between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario is treated at considerable length for two reasons: First, to comply with instructions contained in depart- ment letters dated August 4,\916 (E. D. 42608) ; September 29, 1916 (E. D. 101152) ; and April 28, 1917 (E. D. 106256), which cover the preliminary examination on " waterway or ship channel along the most practicable route between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario of suffi- cient capacity to admit the largest vessels now in use on the Great Lakes," ordered by Congress in the river and harbor act of July 27, 1916, which exammation and report were originally directed by the department to be included in the investigation reported herein but are now made the subject of a separate report and, second, to comply with department instructions that such a canal should be treated in this report with special reference to the practicability and advis- ability of making it a combined power and ship canal. 46. For a ship canal Avithout power development the estimated costs are as given in Table No. 3 : Table No. 3. — Estimated cost of ship canal, La Salle-Le^ciston route. Size of prism. 200 feet wide, 25 feet deep . 200 feet wide, 30 feet deep . 300 feet wide, 30 feet deep. Size of locks. 6r>0 feet long, 70 feet wide, 25 feet deep. 800 feet long, 80 feet wide, 30 feet deep. do Cost. $120,000,000 135,000,000 156,662,000 47. It is important to note that the new Welland Ship Canal, only a few miles distant, which is now ])artially completed, and which no doubt will be open before a canal in the United States could be con- structed, will be able to care for all the traffic likely to exist between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario for many years to come, and that accordingly there is no necessity for an additional canal. Moreover, it should be borne in mind that communication between Lake Ontario and the seaboard is still limited by the St. Lawrence canals and the shallow places in St. Lawrence' River. The present commerce through the Welland Canal is only about 5 per cent as large as that DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT L..VKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 73 throufch the Detroit River, and of this small amount not more than 10 per cent is United States commerce. 48. The diversion of water from Niagara River for navigation use in a canal extending from La Salle to Lewiston, would probably be less than 1,000 cubic feet per second. 49. Proposed canals, Lake Ontario to Hudson River. — Four water routes from Lake Ontario to the sea have in the past received con- sideration. These are shown on Plate No. 12. One of them is the natural route by way of the St. Lawrence River. The other three are by way of the Hudson River. Of the routes to the Hudson, one follows the St. Lawrence to Lake St. Louis, an artificial canal from there to the Richelieu River, then up to the Richelieu, through Lake Champlain, and by Woods Creek and Bond Creek to the Hudson; another follows the St. Lawrence to Lake St. Francis, an artificial canal from there to Lake Champlain, and on to the Hudson as be- fore; and the third leaves Lake Ontario at Oswego, following the Oswego and Oneida Rivers to Oneida Lake, across the divide in an artificial canal, and on down the Mohawk River to the Hudson. Only the last route lies entirely in United States territory. 50. The Oswego-Mohawk route was first surveyed for improve- ment in 1791. In 1829, upon opening the Oswego Canal, this route became navigable, the Erie Canal along the Mohawk River having been opened previously. This route was carefully surveyed by the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, and its estimate of cost for a ship canal was presentecl in the report of 1900. The route was recommended by the board in preference to the route via St. Law- rence River to Lake St. Francis, Lake St. Francis to Lake Cham- plain via artificial canal, etc., which route was also carefully sur- veyed by the board, similar estimates being prepared. The build- ing of the New York State Barge Canal along the Oswego-Mohawk route has made the construction of this ship canal as planned impos- sible, and has rendered very difficult the provision of an adequate water supply for the summit level of any ship canal built along this route. 51. Any diversion of water brought about by the operation of such a canal would amount solely to a redistribution of the water at the summit level between the adjacent watersheds of the Hudson River and the Great Lakes Basin. 52. Long Sault Rapids project. — A project to dam the entire St. Lawrence River at the foot of Long Sault Rapids was seriously con- sidered during the years 1907 to 1916. The scheme was primarily one of power development under a head of 40 feet, and secondarily of improvement to navigation under the slack- water system. For this purpose the Long Sault Development Co., a subsidiary of the Alumi- num Co. of America, was incorporated in New York State in 1907. In 1913 the State repealed the act of incorporation as unconstitu- tional, the decision being upheld in the United States Supreme Court in 1916. Congressional authority for the development was sought from 1907 to 1912. but without success. Unsuccessful attempts were also made to secure authority of the Parliament of Canada. 53. Erie <& Ontano Sanitary Canal project. — The project of the Erie & Ontario Sanitary Canal Co. involves a diversion of 26,000 cubic feet of water per second from Lake Erie, with which it is proposed to develop 800,000 horsepower. About 21,000 cubic feet per 4 4 DH'ERSIOX OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES A:!SrD NIAGARA RIVER. second of this is to pass through the main ship, sanitary, and power canal, Avliich is phinned to be 40 miles long, exclusive of the harbors, extending from Seneca Shoal, in Lake Erie, passing south and east of Buffalo and Lackawanna, west of Lockport, and reaching Lake Ontario at Olcott. X. Y. There is to be a ship lock having an 8-foot lift at Lake Erie and two enormous twin lift locks near Lockport, X. v., one of 209 feet lift and the other of 104 feet lift. A branch canal following the line of the old Erie Canal from Black Rock to Touawanda, and extending thence easterly to its junction with the main canal, is to be 13^ miles long and carry a discharge of 5,000 cubic feet per second. The dej)th of the main canal is to be 30 feet and of the branch canal 12 feet. 54. The project of the company is threefold : First to provide a ship canal of ample dimensions connecting Lakes Erie and Ontario, whose control for navigation uses will be turned over to the Federal Government without charge; second, to prevent contamination of the X'^iagara River with sewage from Buffalo and the Tonawandas and eliminate flood conditions from Buffalo River by providing drainage into the new canal free of charge; and, third, to utilize under a high head for power development all the water permitted by treaty to be diverted from X'iagara River for power purposes, there- by earning a revenue sufficient to pay for and maintain the works, and provide a large amount of power in the district. Of the 26.000 cubic feet per second diversion, 6.000 is considered by this comi)any to be a permissible divei"sion for sanitary purposes. The other 20.000 is to be taken from the present permittees, namely 19,500 from the X'iagara Falls Power Co. and 500 from the Hydraulic Race Co. of Lockport, X. Y. These companies are to be compensated for loss of water either by being sup]died with an amount of power equal to that now produced, or their properties are to be condemned and purchased. 55. As a navigation project, assuming that provision for such navi- gation is essential, the proposition is open to two fatal objections: First, the route crosses every railroad and road entering Buffalo from the east, south, and west, some 83 or more altogether, requiring about 70 moval)le bridges, and the consequent obstruction to traffic would be enormous : second, a better and much cheaper canal can be pro- vided along the La Salle-Lewiston route. There are four other seri- ous objections. The first of these is the lowering of Lake Erie of 1.18 feet at mean stage, which would be caused by this direct diver- sion. This lowering could be ])re vented at considerable ex|)ense by the construction of remedial works. The second is the j^roduction of excessive currents in the Black Rock Shij) Canal, and the third is the unduly narrow canal section provided in earth cut. Both these objections could be overcome by canal enlargements, which would be very costly. The fourth is the diflicult and dangerous crossing at grade of the X'^ew York State Barge Canal. 'J'his objection could probably be overcome also at great exi)ense by the use of locics and syphons or by excavation and maintenance of a large basin at the crossing. 5C). As regards the sanitary features of the project, they seem both urii'cononiical and to some extent undesirable. The matter was carefullv investigated by the International »Toint Commission, Avhich rejjorted that the canal would be highly objectionable and dangerous from a sanitary standjioint if raw sewage were discharged into it, .DIVERSION OF WATER FROM (iJlEAT 1.AKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 75 and that the expense and extent of treatment of sewage from Buffalo and other communities ah)no- Niagara Kiver Avouhl be greater to pre- pare the sewage for discharge into the canal than to prepare it for discharge into Niagara Eiver. The report of the commission was udverse^and highly unfavorable to the canal. It is generally con- ceded by sanitarians that water supplies from such streams as the Niagara River must be purified in any event, and money is more wisely expended in purifying intensively the relatively small (pian- tity of water diverted for water supply than in attempting to i)re- vent completely the discharge of impurities into the stream, although nuisances and gross pollution should be prohibited. 57. In regard to the power development features of this project there seems to be no insu])erable obstacle to the development of about 787,000 horsepower, an amount slightly less than the stated 800,000, in the summer time. The probability of serious difficulties with ice in wintertime seems very great, because of the enormous quantities of ice Avhich usually pile up in windrows at the eastern end of Lake Erie. The only estimate of cost of the project submitted by the com- pany is based on prewar conditions and prices, and is obviously very much too small. It is $95,969,000. An estimate comparable to other estimates of power development propositions given in this report has been prepared, the total amount being $401,760,000. On this basis the cost per horsepower of development would be $510.50. It is further estimated that the cost of producing power on the bus bars in the power stations would be at least $65 per horsepower per annum, as against $10 to $16 in the new plans proposed to be constructed at Niagara Falls. 58. Preservation of scenic heauty of Niagara Falls and the rapids of Niagara River. — The Falls of Niagara, with the rapids and whirl- pool in the gorge, constitute what is probably the most famous scenic marvel in the world. Officials of the New York State reservation at Niagara Falls estimate the number of spectators annually at one and one-half million persons, many of wdiom come from great dis- tances. The total expenditure per annum of these tourists is esti- mated at $37,000,000. The destruction or serious defacement of the spectacle or any part of it for power development or commercializa- tion of any kind would, and should beyond doubt, be held almost universally to be intoleralile vandalism. 59. The prohlem of Niagara Falls. — There is much to be said, how- ever, in favor of Niagara power and its great benefits to the TTnited States, and to the world. The development already existing made pos- sible the growth in this country of chemical industries so important that it is difficult to see how they could possibly be dispensed with. It might almost be said that the war could not have been won with- out them. It is true also that the great hydroelectric developments now' existing at Niagara Falls furnish a spectacle of beauty, grand- eur, and sublimity almost rivaling the Falls and rapids themselves. The problem is to develop a policy which will insure preservation of the natural scenery in so far as justifiable, and at the same time har- monize if possible Avith present power development and future indus- trial needs. At first glance it would seem that no harmony was pos- •sible, that power development must give way to scenic preservation. A careful study of all the facts makes it clear that this is not the case; that the utmost harmony can readily be made to prevail be- 76 DR'EKSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA KIVER. tween the two apparently conflicting interests, and, strano:e as it may at first seem, that the scenic preservation may be promoted by a further development of power, with its great enhancement of com- mercial advantages. GO. Character of the Horseshoe Falls. — This very satisfactory con- dition arises because of the peculiar character and growth of the Horseshoe Falls. AVhile this falls discharges 16 times as much water as the American Falls, and has a crest line 2.6 times as long, j'^et it is often held to be inferior as a spectacle to the lesser American Falls. It would seem then that for some reason its production represented waste and inefficienc5^ An analysis of the situation makes the rea- sons apparent. The crest line forms a deep curve which makes it impossible to see more than about half of the falls at a time, except from one viewpoint in Canada. In the central 1,000 feet of the crest line, situated deep in the curve, more than 80 per cent of the flow over this falls plunges down over the cliff behind a thick cloud of mist. This part of the waterfall is seldom more than partially visible, and then only under favorable conditions of wind which blows the spray to one side. It seems to be a fact that perhaps more than half of the water flowing over this cataract adds nothing at all to the grandeur, unless it be somewhat in the form of noise, while it greatly injures the scenic effect by causing a cloud of spray which hides a large por- tion of the falls almost perpetually. Meanwhile the ends of the crest line are never M^ell covered with water, and frequently are bare, leav- ing them very unattractive in appearance. 61. Erosion of the Horseshoe Falls. — Not onh'^ does the present great concentration of water in the apex of the deep notch in the crest line of Horseshoe Falls represent an absolute loss both to power development and to scenery, but it forms a very destructive agent, eroding the crest line at its point of greatest recession at the rate of 5 feet a year. The recession causes a greater concentration of flow, and the greater concentration, in turn, more rapid and more con- centrated recession. It has been remarked aptly that the Horse- shoe Falls is " committing suicide." Not only is this a fact, but furtiiermore, it seems inevitable that if this destructive erosion re- mains unchecked the crest will, in a very few hundred years, have receded to a point where it will receive the water now flowing to the American Falls, thus utterly destroying this beautiful spectacle, probably the best single feature of all the scenic wonders in the lo- calit3^ 62. Horseshoe Falls remedial workf^. — The remedy is to construct a submerged dam or weir in the center of the rapids just above the crest of Horseshoe Falls. This would spread the water from tiie center of the falls toward the ends. Even then it would be ad- vantageous, both to the spectacle and in checking erosion, to divert more water aroimd the falls; and this would be available for generat- ing power. The construction would be unusual and diflicult, but it is simple in principle and there appears no reason why it is not pi'articable. or why it woidd not be reasonably low in cost. It is be- lieved that the works should not be designed until mon^ thorough surveys have been executed, and extensive experiments made on large models. G.'i. It is confidently believed that the works as proposed would greatly reduce erosion of the crest line, increase the beauty of the AVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 77 spectacle, and at the same time permit increased diversion for power production. A submerged weir or dam Avas first proposed in 1906, and the idea was presented to Congress in 1908 in Senate Document No. 105, Sixty-second Congress, First session, page 15, as follows: — The dam, if properly planned, would serve to change the direction of the flow, so as to increase the streams that feed the Falls at Terrapin Point and at the Canadian shore. The decrease in the mighty vohinie that overflows the apex of the Horseshoe would not he nrticeahle. If built, Canada and the United States should do the actual work under some form of international agreement. A very direct result of the construction of this submerged dam would be a diminution in the rate of recession of the apex of the Horseshoe. This in itself is extremely desirable. 64. American Falls remedial uwrks. — It is desirable that the flow over the American Falls be increased slightly, especially if further diversions of water from Niagara River above the Falls are made. The only remedial works required for this purpose consist of loose rock dumped on the bottom of the river above Goat Island and the first cascade. This dump is already partially constructed, and it is believed would be completed by the power companies without expense to the Government, with spoil excavated from such new power de- velopment works as may be constructed later, 65. Present effects of diversions on the Falls and rapids. — It is in- disputable that the present diversions of -water from Niagara Eiver for power development purposes have had some detrimental effect on the Falls, and on the depths of water in Niagara River and Lake Erie. This has been demonstrated as a scientific certainty. The only distinctly visible effects, however, are at the ends of the crest of the Horseshoe Falls, and even there they are masked by the effects due to recession of the apex of the crest line, and by changes in stage of Lake Erie. Statements as to the changed appearance of the Falls are sometimes made by persons whose utterances carry weight, either to show that present diversions have greatly injured the scenic beauty of the Falls, or asserting the contrary. The mere fact of these contradictions point to error. As a matter of fact few if any of these observers have taken into account the changes in stage of Lake Erie at Buffalo, largely due to wind, which cause the volume of flow over the Falls to change from hour to hour, day to day, and year to year. Such an observer might well have seen the Falls on two occasions, on one of which the volume of flow due to lake stage was twice what it was on the other occasion. Such statements have no significance if unaccompanied by data as to the prevailing stages of water. These matters are brought out in Section E — 1, Ap- pendix C, where many photographs illustrative of the facts are pre- sented. The injury already done, which is not extensive, would be repaired by the proposed remedial works. The effects of diversion on the Whirlpool and Lower Rapids are beneficial up_ to a certain point, the spectacle being greatest at moderately low river stages. 66. Allowable diversion around the Falls and rajnds. — If the remedial works whose design has been outlined above are provided, it is believed a total diversion of 80,000 cubic feet per second may be made around the Falls, and 40,000 around the Whirlpool and Lower Rapids without injury to the scenic beauty, and without endanger- ing the ice discharging capacity of the Falls or rapids, these diver- sions to be divided equally between Canada and the United States. 78 DH'ERSIOX OF AVATEE FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. After these diversions have been effected it is quite possible that ob- servation will show that further diversion is permissible, especially should the possibilitv of utilizing further diversions at medium or high stage only be considered. G7. The (juantities stated in the preceding paragraph were arrived at after considerable stud}', as related in Appendix C. The effects at low-water .stages are the critical considerations. Under the very infrequent condition when the total river flow is 130,000 cubic feet per second the flow over the Falls would be 50,000 cubic feet per second, of which 5,000 Avould pass over the American Falls. The flow over the Horseshoe Falls would then be about twice as large per foot of crest line as the flow over the American Falls under average conditions, and more than three times as large as during this very abnonnal low-water condition. The 45,000 cubic feet per second flowing down the rapids above Horseshoe Falls would provide 50 per cent more water per foot of width of channel than past experi- ence has shown necessary in the American channel leading to the American Falls for the prevention of ice jams. The possibility of dangerous ice jams forming in the AMiirlpool Ifapids or Lower Kapids appears much greater than in the rapids above the Falls. It is important also that the scenic beauty should not be injured at very low stages. A careful study of photographs, proliles, gauge records, and other evidence leads to the conclusion that the diversions around these raj^ids should be limited to 40.000 cubic feet per second until the effects of this diversion can be observed. (J8. Propoisltlons for ^itUismg divei'sioiu with greater economy. — It is in the realm of power development that great opportunities lie for the more economical use of water diverted from the (ireat Lakes, and these opportunities are greatest, and of most importance at Niagara Falls. Of the 20,000 cubic feet per second permitted by treaty to be diverted from Niagara River on the United States side above the Fails, 500 is now allotted to the Hydraulic Race Co., of Lockport, and 19,500 to the Niagara Falls Power Co. of Niagara Falls, N. Y. The 500 cubic feet per second delivered to Lockport is used inelHcientiy and inter- mittently. As yet the Niagara Falls Power Co. does not use all of its allotted water and of that a part is not yet utilized efficiently. On the average about 17,290 cubic feet per second are used to develop 245,0(J0 horsepower. This company is now extending its plant under authority of tlie department, and in partial compliance with recom- mendations embodied in the interim report of March 2, 1918. This extension will contain three large, modern generating units of highest efficiency, totaling 100,000 horsepower, and will make pos- sible use of the full 19,500 cubic feet of water per second, and greatly impi-ove the efficiency of the plant as a whole. The head used is that between the ( "lii|)pawa-(irass Island pool, above the Falls, and the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool, dii-ectly below the Falls. With a further extension of the i)laut operating under this head, and another ex- tension covering the head of ^^'hiJ•lpool and Lower Rapids, this di- version of 19,500 cubic feet per second can be made to produce a total of about 580,000 horsepower. 09. On the Canadian side a diversion of 3G,00() cubic feet per second for jjower d('V('l()i)ment is allowed by treaty. At present it is estiniat_ed that 33,325 cubic f(>et per .second are diverted i)roduc- ing 388,570 horsepower, which indicates a poor average efficiency. DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 79 70. It is to be recognized that in the matter of determining methods for securing greater economy and efficiency of water diver- sions, Congress has indicated no apparent intention of delegating decision to the Chief of Engineers or the Secretary of War, hut has provided in pending legishition for a special Federal Power Com- mission to exercise jurisdiction in these matters. Study of methods is however understood to be called for in this report. 71. Several schemes for further development or improvement of present plants at Xingara Falls have been worked out in con- siderable detail during the course of this investigation. They are presented more fully in Section F, Appendix D, together with out- line plans and estimates. What seemed to be the best ideas and suggestions, from whatever source, were utilized. More than 20 other projects which were presented were examined carefully. Data for these studies were obtained largely from surveys for this inves- tigation and partly from the United States Lake Survey and other sources. 72. The fundamental assumptions as to the general character of all the preliminary desigiis and estimates are set forth in Ap- pendix D. There also are given the unit costs adopted, which were arrived at with special care. The matter of economic sizes of principal parts of the projects was given due consideration. It is important to note that such power developments will now cost prob- ably more than tw^ice what they would have cost under the market conditions of 10 years ago. 73. Single-stage and two-stage 'projects. — The most general divi- sion of proposed water-power clevelo])ments at Niagara Falls is into single-stage and two-stage projects. The former contemplates using- the water under a single head of about 310 feet, with the generating machinery all in one station. The latter provides for dividing the total head into two parts at about the level of the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool, using the water first in one station at the side of this pool under a head of about 220 feet, and then again under a head of about 90 feet in a second station situated well down in the Lower Gorge toward Lewiston, A few remarks regarding the relative merits of the two schemes will be presented farther on. 74. Proposed plant using entire diversion and total head. — Three types of installation for utilizing in a single stage the entire diver- sion and total head have been considered. The first provides for a power house somewhere on the upper river with water wheels in a deep pit, the discharge from the Avheels passing to the lower river through a tailrace tunnel. The second calls for an intake on the upper river and a tunnel from it to a power house in the gorge of the lower river. The third is similar to the second, except that the tunnel is replaced b}^ an open canal. Plans providing a combination of these ideas are possible, but seem to offer no advantages. 75. Tailrace tunnel proposition. — In such a project the most eco- nomical location places the intake and power house in Upper Niagara River on or near the shoal just upstream from Grass Island, and the tunnel outfall in the Lower Rapids, not far downstream from the Devils Hole. The location is shown on Plate No. 33, and certain gen- eral outlines of the design on Plate No. 34. A summary of the esti- mate appears in Appendix D. The total estimated construction cost, on the assumptions previously noted, is $52,220,000. The estimated 80 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AXD NIAGARA RIVER. total power output is 584,000 horsepower, making the estimated con- fitruction cost $89.40 per horsepower. The estimated time of devel- opment is three years for first power and five years for completion. 76. Pressure tunnel proposition. — The economic location of this project is much tlie same as that of the tailrace tunnel proposition, the intake being on Grass Island Shoal and the power house in the Lower Gorge below Riverdale Cemetery. The general plan is shown on Plate No. 33 and outline details on Plates Nos. 35, 3G, and 37. The total horsepower developable by this plant at mean stage with 20,000 cubic feet per second would be about 588,000 horsepower. The estimated cost is $50,803,000, or $86.40 per horsepower. 77. Power canal proposition. — A thorough study of possible routes for a power canal led to the selection of the one indicated on Plate !No. 39 as the most economical. It extends from an intake just south of Conners Island to Riverdale Cemetery, just above Fish Creek. A heavy concrete ice diverter is provided across the canal entrance. The power house in the gorge is nearlv identical with that of the pressure tunnel proposition. The estimated total horsepower is 591,000, and estimated cost $43,579,000, making the estimated cost per horsepower $73.70. 78. Compai'ison of preceding projects. — The above-given estimates show the first cost of the canal proposition lower than either tunnel proposition. The cost of operation and maintenance would be greater, but upon the assumptions in the estimates, not enough to overbalance the difference in fixed charges. The Tailrace Tunnel plan has several inherent disadvantages which make it of very doubt- ful advisability. These are tlie expected presence of considerable ground water in the low-level tunnel during construction, the diffi- culty of unwatering the tunnel in case of accident or needed repairs, and the difficulty of regulating surges in the tunnel. The most im- portant objection to the Pressure Tunnel plan is that it will be neces- sary to shut down the entire plant for a short time and drain the tunnel in order to repair or remove obstructions from the penstock valves. This difficulty is not regarded as controlling; it could be obviated by extending' the tunnel up to a surface f(n"e bay, and using long penstocks, or by other means. The only formidable objections to the Power Canal plan is the presence of an open canal through or near the city, and the uncertain costs of maintenance due to climatic conditions. There is no reason, however, why it could not be made less unsightly than the present canal, and. in fact, even attrac- tive in appearance. It would, however, partially prevent the use of valuable land for other purposes, form a dividing line disadvanta- geous to street and sewer systems, and cause the city <)r the company some extra expense for building and maintaining bridges as the city grew. Further consideration and comparison of these propositions are given later when the cost of production of power is taken up. 79. Proposed plants dividinr/ diversion, hut using full head in one stagf. — There seems to be no advantage, but rather a disadvantage in using 2'».0()0 rnl)ic feet per second in two or more plants under the full head rather than in one plant. In case of a total diversion of, say. 40,000 cubic feet per second on the American side in a single stage, the advisability of dividing this into two plants should be given nnreful consideration. For a canal project one plant Avould DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA IXITEU. 81 appear preferable, while for a tunnel project the single tunnel would be too large, making a division into two plants advisable. 80. Proposed plants dividing diversion and dlvidirig head. — A number of schemes have been proposed whereb}^ both the head and the diversion were divided between several plants. There seems to be no advantage in any of these as a wholly new plant. Of those which involve the retention of some of the existing plants, only one seemed to merit further consideration. The project involves the re- tention and use of the present hydraulic canal, and station 3 of the hydraulic plant of the Niagara Falls Power Co., and has been named the " Compound two-stage proposition." The upper stage portion corresponds closely to the project of the Hydraulic JPower Co., which has been apj^roved by the department. 81. Compound two-stage proposition. — This proposition includes retention and use of present station 3 of the hydraulic plant of the Niagara Falls Power Co., a slight enlargement of the present hy- draulic canal by deepening, construction of a tunnel paralleling the €anal from Niagara River at Port Day to a new power house just upstream from present station 3, and construction of a long tunnel of large diameter conducting the w^ater discharged from these power houses to a new power house near Riverdale Cemetery, in the Lower Oorge, where it would be used again under a head of about 90 feet. A portion of the upper stage part of this project has been under construction since June, 1918, under authority of the Secretary of War, including deepening the present canal and building a power house near station 3 containing three generating units of approxi- mately 33,000 horsepower each. Note is made of the fact that plans and estimates have been modified from time to time so that the out- line plans and estimate herein presented do not correspond exactly either to those submitted in the interim report or to those now in force at the Niagara Falls Power Co., successor to the Hydraulic Power Co. The question of using the water released from the Niagara Falls plant in a single development instead of as a part of the com- pound two-phase development under the approved plan is being con- sidered by the Niagara Falls Power Co. 82. The general outlines of the plans herein presented are shown on Plates Nos. 33, 42, and 45. The estimated cost of the upper stage improvement is $21,183,000, which represents a cost of $51.80 per horsepower for the total power then available under the upper stage. The estimated time of development is three and one-fourth years for completion. 83. The lower stage portion of the plant consists of a large tunnel extending from the powerhouses on the shore of the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool to the Lower Gorge at Riverdale Cemetery, a power station at the lower end of the tunnel, and a large spillway just upstream from the lower powerhouse. The estimated cost of the lower stage plant is $34,298,000, and the estimated total horsepower is 164,000, making the cost per horsepower $209.10. 84. There are several reasons why it is preferable to take the water for the second stage development directly from the upper stage powerhouses rather than to permit these latter powerhouses to discharge into the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool and then to divert the water from this pool near the railroad bridges, thus saving 27880—21 6 82 di\t:rsiox of water from great lakes and Niagara river. about one mile of tunnel lenf^th. The first reason is, it will avoid trouble with ice which would undoubtedly be very serious in the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool; second, it will prevent the great losses in power, reduction in efficiency, and difficulties of operiition arising from the large range of stage of this pool; third, it will avoid the costly and ditiicult construction of an intake which would have to be carried down deep to provide against being unwatered when the pool is lowered by diversions of water around the rapids; and fourth, it will avoid agam separating trash and weeds from the water. 85. For the entire combined plant of the compound two-sta*;e proposition the estimated cost is $55,481,000. The power then avail- able will be about 573,000 horsepower, making the cost $96.80 per horsepower for the power then available. 86. The critical element of this scheme is the operation. By means of relief valves, and a bj^-pass at the upper plant, and also by proper electrical interlocking of circuit breakers and controls, it must be positively assured that the supply of water to units operat- ing at the downstream powerhouse does not fail in order to prevent great danger of damage at the lower station. 87. Projyosed plants using full diversion hut dividing head. — ^A two-stage proposition independent of the old power developments was planned in outline, as shown on Plates Nos. 33, 46, 47, and 48, and was named the " Simple two-stage proposition." Its upper stage part is much like the upper stage tunnel portion of the compound two stage proposition, while the lower stage portions of the two proposi- tions are ahnost identical except in length of tunnel. The cost of the full development is estimated at $61,227,000, the total horsepower at 580,000, and the cost per horsepower at $105.60. The estimated time of completion of this project is four and one-half years for the upper stage and four and one-fourth for the lower stage. They might be built simultaneously or separately, as desired. 88. Proposed power development combined with ship canal. — In an earlier part of this report, imder the caption, "Proposed navigation canals, Lake Erie to Lake Ontario," mention was made of various routes for a canal in L'^nited States territory connecting Lakes Erie and Ontario, which have been proposed during the past 100 years or more, and the fact was brought out that the La Sallc-Lewiston route proposed by the United States Board of Engineers on Deep ^Vater- ways in 1900 still offers the greatest advantages for such a waterway and the lowest cost. The estimates given in these earlier paragraphs cover a navigation canal only. The La Salle-Lewiston route offers the greatest advantages also for a combined power and ship canal. In order to provide for a diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second for power through such a canal without dangerously high currents, it is necessary to make the cross section much larger than is necessary for the ship canal which provides for no power development. The cross section proposed is 400 feet wide by 30 feet deep in shallow cuttings, and 300 feet wide by 40 feet in deep cuttings. The mean current in. such u canal would be 2.3 miles per hour. 89. Lnder the plans presented in Appendix D, and on plates Xos. 49 to 51, the water for power generation is taken from the side of the sliip canal about 3,000 feet above the upper locks through a long row of submerged arches piercing a massive concrete wall. From the inlet bay behind the arches a short-power canal conducts the water to a DIVERSION OP WATER FROM GREAT I^KES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 83 fore bay at the edge of the bluff just downstream from Eiverdale Cemetery. The power house in the Gorge is simihir to that of the power canal proposition. The estimated cost of the entire project is $198,412,000, which is $324.70 per horsepower for the estimated total capacity of 646,000 horsepower. The cost of the part necessitated for power purposes, including excavation of the excess cross section of canal, is estimated at $03,000,000, or $97.50 per horsepower. The time of construction is estimated at 8 to 10 years. 90. The combined ship and power canal, described above, is esti- mated to cost $19,833,000 more than the sum of the costs of a 200- foot ship canal for navigation only, and the power-canal proposition previously described ; and to produce 20,000 more horsepower. 91. Plants proposed hy various interests. — Careful consideration has been given to projects presented by the Hydraulic Power Co., Niagara Falls Power Co., Empire Power Corporation, Hugh L. Cooper & Co., Leonard H. Davis for Union Carbide Co., Niagara Gorge Power Co., T. Kennard Thompson, and others. Many of these projects are of great merit, while others appear to have little or none. Brief descriptions and comments are given in Appendix D, section F 9. It is believed that there is nothing of particular value in the projects which is not embodied in the various propositions already presented, some of the ideas already presented having come directly from the propositions submitted by the parties named above in this paragraph. 92. C omparison of proposed developments. — The costs given in the preceding paragraphs covering the various projects do not include the entire capital costs, nor even the whole of what might be termed construction costs. Thus the general overhead items, properly part of construction costs, which have been omitted in each case, are costs of promoting interest in the proposition, of obtaining funds, of or- ganizing a managing company, and of legal services involved in pro- motion, financing, and organizing. The fundamental item of pur- chase of any necessary rights from existing power companies has not been included. The development expense involved in building up a market for power consumption, and making the enterprise a going concern, also properly a part of capital cost, has been omitted. The costs given are called construction costs. They include pur- chase of necessary land and rights of way, and construction required in providing a plant to produce electric energy at generator voltage on the bus bars of the power station. All expense pertaining to trans- formation and transmission of electric energy has been omitted. 93. The omissions just mentioned have appreciable effects on the capital cost of each proposition, and are unequal in their effects on different propositions. There are differences in the probable operat- ing costs also. To make a comparison of the propositions which takes into account in so far as possible the differences thus arising, an estimate has been made of the cost of producing power in each case. 94. Any proposition except the compound two-stage, could be made a 'development of a second 20,000 cubic feet per second, the first 20,000 second-feet having been developed, under a two or more permittee cooperation plan. Assuming a load factor of 90 per cent and a power factor of 90 per cent and omitting fixed charges on the original over- head expenses and also fixed charges on the original development 84 PIVKRSION OF WATER FROM GREAT I^AKES AND NIAG.UIA RIVER. exi)onst\ the cost per horsepower per annum on the bus bars in the power station is estimated as shown in Table No. 4: Tahle No. 4. — Potrcr (lcv(lo[mient by second diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second. No. Proposition. Power OanaHpar. 77) I'ressiire Tunnel (par. 76) . Tailrace Tiinnel (par. 7.5). Simple two-stage (par. 87) Esti- mated cost per horse- power per annum. SIO.OO 11.30 11.60 13. 9( These are rough estimates only, and are not as accurate as the con- struction cost estimates previously given, being based on less reliable data. They ser\'e, however, to indicate the relative advantages of the different propositions and are believed to be worthy of careful con- sideration. They are probably all much loAver per horsepower per annum than the ultimate actual cost of delivering power on the premises of the most favorably situated customer, because of The items of cost which have not been included. 1)5. It is to be assumed that it might be desirable to adopt a one-or- more-permittee independent plan, under which the first diversion of 20,000 cubic feet of water per second is to be regarded as not de- Aeioped. In such case any one of the propositions might be employed, but the costs would necessarily be increased by the amount required to compensate any interests involved. With this condition added to the assumptions involved in table No. 4, production costs have been estimated as shown in table No. 5. Table No. 5. — Power development by first diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second. No. Proposition. Power (anal (par. 77) Pressure Tunnel (par. 76) TailHK-e Tunnel (par. 7.5) , Simple iwo-stage (par. .S7) Conipounl two-stage (par. 81) Esti- mated cost per horse- power per annum. $14.90 16.30 1.5. 70 18.00 17.00 'J'iie comments with regard to Table No. 4 apply with equal force to Table No. 5. *J0. Two-stage versus single-stage project. — As regards financing, a two-stage development has a decided advantage over a single-stage development in that only the upper stage need be developed at first, nearly two-thirds of tlie total ultimate power being provided at about iialf the total ultimate cost. This is approximately true of either the compound or single two-stage propositions, in lessening the capital co.st for the time being and thus keexjing down the fixed DIVERSION OF WATER FROIVI GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 85 charges. Moreover, first power could be produced sooner, and less unproductive expenditure would have to be carried. This would lead to a sounder finanical condition during construction; and so, probably, to the flotation of bonds on better terms. 97. The matter of fixed charges due to costs of promotion, organi- zation, purchase of rights, development of market, and going con- cern, enter into the question of financing to an extent not predeter- minable. 98. In discussing the various propositions, the production cost only has been dwelt upon. A chance for profit is essential to the best interests of such an enterprise in order to induce men to undertake the risks involved, and to spur them on to their best endeavors. As regards profits, and the accumulation of an undivided surplus avail- able for reinvestment in the development, during the period of con- struction, the two-stage plan is superior to the single-stage plan. 99. Ejfect of rate of poioer absorj)tion. — In comparing the relative merits of the single-stage and two-stage propositions, a very impor- tant consideration is the effect of rate of absorption of power. By rate of absorption of power is meant the total" quantity of power which will be demanded and used in any year, over and above what was used in the preceding year. The estimates heretofore given were based on wartime demands for power, assuming that any power developed at Niagara Falls would find immediate use in industry as soon as it was produced. The peace time rate of absorption in the past has been less than half as great. When power is absorbed less rapidly, construction interest ultimately amounts to more. In this respect the two-stage plan is decidedly superior to the single-stage fjian, and the advantage increases as the rate of absorption of power decreases. 100. C omparison of ultimate incomes. — AVhat a hydro-electric gen- erating station has to sell is electric energy, expressed in kilowatt- hours, horsepower hours, or horsepower-years, and the ultimate num- ber of kilowatt-hours produced is a measure of the ultimate income obtained. The two-stage proposition has an advantage, during the first few years after construction is commenced, over the single-stage proposition, because power is produced so much sooner. As time goes on, however, the single-stage production overtakes and sur- passes, the two-stage production unless the rate of absorption of power is very low. If this comparison is made on the basis of total amount of energy produced per dollar of construction cost, the power canal proposition overtakes the compound two-stage proposition in 13| years, and thereafter surpasses it. Such comparisons are depend- ent on the various items of the estimates of cost and time of develop- ment, and are of little value for the reason that the computed time in which one will overtake the other varies a great deal with com- paratively slight changes in these estimates. 101. Smnmary of cortifarhon of single-stage and two-stage prop- ositions. — To sum up the comparison of the single-stage and two- stage propositions : There is shown in favor of the single-stage proposition — 1. Lower construction cost per horsepower. 2. Lower unit cost of power production. 3. Greater total financial return per dollar invested, except in case absorp- tion of the power developed takes place at a very slow rate. 86 DIVEKSIOX OF V.'ATKR FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. TlitM-e is shown iu favor of the two-stage proposition — 1. IiK-reasing advantii.uo as rate of power absorption decreases. 2. Superiority of couipouud two-stage proposition at very low power absorp- tion rate. 3. Easier financing. 4. First power produced sooner. 5. Better credit maintained. 6. Total return from sale of power greater for first few years. 7. In case of suspension of construction activities before completion there would be (a) smaller capital cost per horsepower produced; (b) less unproduc- tive expenditures carried. 102. The foregoing analysis indicates that for utilizing the present authorized diversion of 20,000 cubic feet of water per second from Niagara Kiver there is very little to choose between the compound two-stage proposition and the power canal proposition. 103. The study further shows that for a second development, de- signed to utilize an additional and similar diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second, a power canal proposition similar to that presented is less costly than any other. 104. The power canal proposed would not be navigable, and it could not properly be made a part of a navigable waterway. No combination of power development with navigable canal from upper to lower river is justifiable on the basis of power production. The La Salle to Lewiston route is the best for a ship canal. It would be cheaper to construct this canal of 200-foot width and 30-foot depth for navigation use only, and also construct the canal for power pur- poses only, than to construct the combined power and ship canal. (Far. 90.) 105. Previously in this report, it has been pointed out that 40,000 cubic feet of water per second may safely be diverted around the Whirlpool and Lower Eapids, this being the total for both sides. The wisdom of diverting any more in the light of the present knowl- edge is doubted, and it is felt that this amount should be diverted first, and observation of the resultant effects noted before further diversions are permitted. It was also pointed out that at least 80,000 cubic feet of water per second might be diverted around the Falls from the Chippawa-Grass Island Fool to the Maid-of-the-Mist Fool, this latter diversion being permissible only on condition that adequate remedial works be constructed just above Horseshoe Falls. 106. In dealing with the question of the development of power at Niagara Falls the purpose of this report has been to so present the actual conditions as they exist, the possible solution of the prob- lem as deduced from those conditions and the solutions presented by interested parties independently, as to enable the constituted au- thority to take such action either on the whole subject or any one phase of it, as may seem best. 107. Effects of diversions upon lake Uvels. — It is well understood by engineers who have studied the question, that each of the Great Lakes constitutes a natural storage basin discharging through an outlet, and that any increased flow of water from the basin through an enlarged original outlet, or through a new outlet, causes a lowering of the lake surface. Such increased flow is a diversion of water from the lake. The amount of lowering can not be measured directly by water gauges on the lakes, as the elevation of the lake surface is sub- ject to constantly varying fluctuations due to various other causes. DIVERSIOlsr OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 87 If, however, the laws governing the discharge of the connecting rivers are known, the amount of lowering can be computed by simple mathematical processes. These discharge laws have been determined by the United States Lake Survey from a long series of measure- ments on the outflow rivers. 108. The outlets on tlie lakes. — The outlet of Lake Superior is through the St. Marys River. The natural flow of this river has been changed by the construction of the piers of the International Railroad Bridge, by filling in along both shores, by the construction of canals and locks on both sides of the river, by the diversion of water for power development, and by the construction of regulating works. At the present time only about 25 per cent of the original cross-section of the rapids and 33 per cent of the discharging ca- pacity is open to free flow. Present plans and construction con- template further extension of the regulating works to the full width of the open river. When these are complete the outflow from Lake Superior will be brought under full control. 109. The natural outlet of Lakes Michigan and Huron is through the St. Clair River. This river has but little fall, and the discharge from the lake depends not only upon the elevation of Lake Huron but also upon that of Lake St. Clair, which in turn is affected by changes in the elevation of Lake Erie. There appears to have been no important change in the regimen of this river during the last 24 years, 110. Lake St. Clair discharges through the Detroit River. This river is of the same type as the St. Clair and its flow depends upon the elevations of Lake St. Clair and Lake Erie. ^ Comparatively few discharge measurements have been made on this river, and its h}^- draulic relations are not as accurately known as those of the other rivers. There is some evidence that a change in the regimen of this river occurred about 1890. Another change was made by the build- ing of the Livingstone Channel cofi'erdam in 1908. When the coffer- dam was opened in 1912 it was found that the remaining portions of the dam and the various dumps compensated for the excavation of the channel, and the discharge laws were the same as before the cofferdam was built. 111. The Niagara River is the natural outlet of Lake Erie._ The discharge of this river depends upon the elevation of Lake Erie, but is modified somewhat by the diversion of water from the river itself. Only very minor changes in the regimen of this river have occurred in recent years. 112. The natural outlet of Lake Ontario is through the St. Law- rence River. The controlling section is the Galop Rapids, the dis- charge of which is governed by the elevation of Lake Ontario. Va- rious works in connection with the Canadian improvements to naviga- tion have altered the regimen of these rapids materially at different times. Since 1903 conditions have remained constant. 113. The discharge equations of all these rivers have been deter- mined by the United States Lake Survey, and are presented in Sec- tion G 2 of Appendix E. 114. Effect of ice on Hver floio and lake levels. — The equations for determining the flow through the various connecting rivers of the Great Lakes system apply only during open season conditions. Dur- ing the winter months, when there is more or less ice in the rivers, the 88 DIVERSIOX OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RH'ER. flow is retarded, tliis retardation amoiintino; in some of the rivers at times to as much as 50 per cent of the normal flow. Durinir the three winter months the flow of the St. Marys River is retarded on the averagfe to the extent of about 2,800 cubic feet per second. The effect on Lake Superior is only a few hundredths of a foot. 115. On the St. Clair and Detroit Kivers the effects of ice are more serious. Jams or blockades are of frequent occurrence, and at times hold back large quantities of water. The estimated effect for the two rivers is a reduction in the yearly mean flow amounting to about 10,000 cubic feet per second. The effect is to raise the level of Lake Huron during the winter months and lower Lake Erie. During the summer an increase in the river flow results which tends to restore the normal levels, but before ('(juilibrium is attained an- other winter intervenes, and thus Lake Huron is maintained at a higher level than it would be if no ice were formed. 116. The ice effect on the Niagara River is not very well de- termined, but is known to be quite small. The estimate is that it keeps the yearly mean stage of Lake Erie about seven-hundredths of a foot higher than it would otherwise be. 117. On the St. Lawrence River a good deal of data as to the ice effect is available. The total ice effect is estimated to be equivalent to a reduction of 4,400 cubic feet per second in the j'early mean dis- charge. This leaves Lake Ontario high in the spring, but owing to the small area and large outflow of the lake, normal conditions are practically restored before the following winter. 118. The question of ice effect has not always been well understood, and its incorrect treatment has in the past often led to erroneous conclusions regarding the hydrology of the Great Lakes system. An admirable analysis of these effects is given in section G3 of Ap- pendix E. 119. llydrological data. — An analysis of the hydrology of the Great Lakes was made. This was based on extensive rainfall records of the United States and Canada, the stream run-off reports of the United States Geological Survey and the H^^dro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario, and the river discharge measurements and water gauge records of the United States Lake Survey. The net .supply for each lake was computed for the period 1905-1914, in- clusive, and from this the outflow during the same period was sub- tracted. The result was the evaporation from the lake surface. These evaporation values are reasonably consistent among themselves, and agree with the meager evaporation data available. This indi- cates that the adopted discharge formulas are consistent, and that there are no gross discrepancies or omissions in the hydrologic data. These studies are described and the results tabulated in section G 4 of Appendix E. 120. Effects of present diversiotis. — The ultimate effect of diver- sions upon the levels of the lake from which they are drawn is a func- tion of the rate of diversion and of the law of discharge through the main outlet. When these are known the lowering effect of the di- version can be computed. The discharge laws are well determined from the lake survey measurements, and the rates of diversion have been carefully estimated from all the available data. Using these quantities the effects on the different lakes have been computed for high, mean, and low stages of the lakes. DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 89 121. VV^ith conditions as they were in 1896, Lake Superior would have been! lowered nearly 3 feet by the present diversions for power and navigation. That the surface has not been so loAvered is due to various obstructions placed in the rapids, includinp; the con- trolling works. It is expected that when the controlling works are completed, and the several power canals are enlarged to ultimate proposed capacity, the needs of navigation can be served, a minimum of 60,000 cubic feet per second can be used for power, and the level of Lake Superior can be regulated within a maximum range of 2.5 feet, and ordinarily within a range of 1.5 feet, or between elevations 602.1 and 603.6. 122. The only diversion from Lake Michigan-Huron which has any important effect upon lake levels is that of the Sanitary District of Chicago. This diversion through the Chicago Drainage Canal amounts to a yearly average of about 8,800 cubic feet per second. An ultimate diversion of 14,000 cubic feet per second through this canal and through the Calumet-Sag branch, now under construction, is contemplated. The diversion at Chicago causes a lowering of all water levels from the lower sills of the locks at Sault Ste. Marie to tide water in the St. Lawrence River. The amount of lowering caused by the present diversion at mean stage is shown in table No. 6. Table No. 6. -Lowering in feet at mean stage due to present diversions of ivater from the Great Lakes. Diversion. Amount, in cubic feet per second. mch- igan- Huron. St. Clair. Erie. Niagara River at Chip- pawa. St. Law- rence Ontario. River at Lock No. 25. Chicago Drainage Canal 8,800 4,500 700 1,000 50,885 0.43 .03 0.35 .09 .01 0.41 .21 .03 .01 .10 0.23 .12 0.42 0.62 .03 .60 Niagara power companies .01 .05 Total .47 .50 .76 .98 .42 .62 123. From Lake Erie the Welland Canal diverts about 4,500 cubic feet per second, and the Black Eock Ship Canal about 700 cubic feet per second. These diversions low^er Lakes Michigan, Huron, St. Clair, and Erie. At Niagara Falls six different companies use water for power development. Some of these cause a lowering in Lakes Michigan, Huron, St. Clair, and Erie, while others, which divert water below the first cascade, have only a local effect. The amount of these lowerings is given in Table No. 6. 124. There are no diversions from Lake Ontario or the upper St. Lawrence Kiver except a small amount for the Canadian canals. The building of the Gut Dam in 1903 has permanently raised these waters by about 0.56 foot. Below the Galop Rapids there are several diversions which cause local lowering in certain parts of the St. Lawrence. 125. The whole matter of the effects of present diversions upon lake levels is treated in Section G 5 of Appendix E. 126. Effects of proposed diversions. — The effects of the proposed increases in the diversions at Sault Ste. Marie will be completely 90 Dn*EBSION OF WATER FROM GREAT L.VKES AXD NIAG.VKA RIVER. neutralized by the operation of the completed controllinp; works. At Chicago the proposed increase of the diversion to 14.000 cubic feet per second would increase the present lowering by more than 50 per cent. The completion of the new Welland Canal and the in- creased use of the Barge Canal will cause farther lowerings. If the diversion at Niagara Falls be ultimately increased to 80,000 cubic feet per second and no compensating works provided, there would be a very large lowering of the river, and a notable amount in the lakes above. The computed lowering at mean stage which would result from the various proposed diversions is shown in Table No. 7. Table No. 7. — Effect in feet at mean stage of -proposed diversions from the Great Lakes. Diversion. Proposed increase. Lakes Michi- gan and Huron. Lake St. Clair. Lake Erie. i Niagara i t -,.- j Sf.Law- rence River at l>ock No. 25. Chicago Drainage Canal 5,200 1,000 700 48,000 0.25 .01 0.21 .02 0.23 .05 .01 .22 0.13 0.24 ,03 0.37 .02 Niagara power companies .03 .10 1.25 ' Total eiTect of proposed in- 1 .29 .33 .51 .76 1.43 ! .24 .98 j .42 .37 .47 .50 .62 .76 .83 1.27 2.41 1 .66 i .99 This matter is treated at greater length in section G 6 of Appen- dix E. 127. Remedial worhs. — These lowerings of the lake levels cause a serious loss to the navigation interests and the general public, the nature and amount of wliich is discussed later in this report. The restoration and maintenance of the natural levels therefore becomes a matter of importance. 128. There are three general methods by which a restoration of depths on the lakes may be sought — first, the deepening of all harbors and channels affected by the artificial lowering of water levels; second, the construction of regulating works in the outlets of the lakes to raise the levels of the lakes and to control their elevations witiiin fixed limits; third, the contraction of the outlets by means of fixed obstructions which will raise the levels of the lakes without greatly affecting their natural fluctuations. 129."^ The first method is considered altogether too expensive, and has other unsatisfactory features. It is recommended only for a few special cases. The second has frequently been proposed, but upon inve.stigation it is found to be less simple than it appears. It in- volve.^ obstructions to navigation and difficulties with ice. More- over, it has been shown that efficient regulation of one lake tends to aggiavate the fluctuations of those below it. This system has been adopted at the Soo, where circumstances are particularly favorable to it. l)ut its suitabilitv for the lower lakes is problematical. The third method is the cheapest and simj)lest, and is considered the most desirable. It is already operating successfully in the case of the Gut Dam. DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LiVKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 91 130. In section G 7 of Appendix E the works needed at various places to compensate for the effects of all diversions, present or pros- pective, are considered in some detail It is concluded that the project is entirely feasible and that tlie expense will not be excessive in view of the benefits received. The works involved include wing walls or other methods of narrowing the channels at the head of each of the St. Lawrence Rapids, a long submerged rock weir above the rapids at Niagara Falls, and a series of such weirs near the head of the Niagara Kiver and in the upper reaches of the St. Clair Eiver. To effect the required deepening in Lake St. Clair and at the head of the Detroit River it was thought that dredging would be most satis- factory. 131. The design of these works suggested above must be preceded by extensive surveys and studies. The building of models on a fairly large scale for experimentation prior to final adoption of designs appears desirable. The construction of the final works should be pre- ceded and accompanied by the maintenance of a number of automatic water gauges at critical points on the rivers. It is highly desirable that these gauges be installed as soon as possible in order that sev- eral years' records may be available before construction is com- menced. 132. Economic effect of diversions upon navigation. — The Great Lakes system forms one of the world's greatest highways for water- borne transportation.. The Great Lakes fleet moves more than 100,- 000,000 tons of freight each season. The greater part of this com- merce is in the so-called " bulk freight," consisting of iron ore, coal, grain, and limestone. This is carried in a peculiar type of vessel known as the " bulk freighter." The bulk freighters are highly spe- cialized boats which have been developed by the conditions of the lake trade. These vessels are from 280 to 625 feet in length and have a carrying capacity of from 3,000 to 15,000 short tons. Most of them can be loaded to a draft of about 22 feet. They are the most economical carriers in the world, their rates usually being less than one-tenth of a cent per ton-mile, and sometimes only a third of that amount. Rail rates are several times as much, often being at least 10 times the water rates. The annual saving over the cost of moving this same freight by rail exceeds a quarter of a billion dollars. 133. Under the conditions of 100 years ago, the only ships which could navigate the Great Lakes system and enter the harbors were small vessels drawing about 5 feet of water. The United States has spent about $135,000,000 in improving the harbors, deepening and straightening the channels, and building locks on the St. Marys and Niagara Rivers. The Canadians have done similar work on a smaller scale. As a result there is now available a ship channel through and between the upi^er lakes with a controlling depth of 21 feet at mean stage. All the important harbors have corresponding depths. From Lake Erie through the Welland Canal, Lake Ontario, and the St. Lawrence River to tidewater at Montreal, the controlling depth is 14 feet. 134. The immense traffic of the Great Lakes is a direct result of these improvements of navigation, and the movement of such large amounts of freight at such low rates is directly due to the greater 92 DIVEKSIOX OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AXD NIAGARA RIVER. depths thus made avuihible. Vessel owners keep ck)se track of the staire of water, and take advantaf^e of every period of hi<;h stage to load their boats to greater draft. During times >vlien low stages prevail they are correspondingly handicapped and the carrying ca- pacitj' of the fleet is materially reduced. 18o. As already shown, the existing diversions of Avater from the Great Lakes have caused a considerable lowering of the lake levels, and further diversions, with consequent further lowerings. are con- templated. The average loss caused by a reduction of one-tenth of a foot in the available draft amounts to $44.57 for one trip of a bulk freighter on the upper lakes, or $590,000 per year for the whole fleet. For the smaller vessels engaged in trade through the AVelland and St. Lawrence Canals the average loss caused by a lowering of one- tenth of a foot is $4L40 for each trip and $70,000 per year for the whole fleet. 136. The amounts by which the various lakes have already been lowered by existing diversions have been given in Table No. 6. The total loss to the bulk freight trade caused by this lowering is esti- mated at $4.71:^,000 per year. If all the contemj^lated diversions listed in Table No. 7 should be effected the resulting lowering would increiiSe the annual loss to $7,825,000. 187. Of the loss now occurring, $2,86G,000 per year is due to the diversion of 8,800 cubic feet per second by the Sanitary District of Chicago. This is 60 per cent of the total loss. and is $326 per year for each cubic foot per second of diversion. The diversion of the power companies at Niagara Falls taking water from points above the first cascade, equivalent in effect to the diversion of 23.000 cubic feet per second from the Chippawa-Grass Island Pool, causes an annual loss of $526,000. This is 11 per cent of the total loss and is $23 per year for each cubic foot per second of effective diversion. 138. The total loss to navigation amounts to a direct tax upon the transportation of iron ore. coal, and grain — that is. upon steel, fuel, and food, three fundamental necessities of modern life. The Great Lakes traffic is an absolutely essential part of the American steel industry, and plays an important part in the distribution of grain and coal. The l)ulk freisfhter of the lakes carries each year about 80 per cent of the Nation's production of iron ore, more than 20 per cent of the combined wheat crops of the TTnited States and Canada, and about 5 per cent of the coal i)roduction of the T'nited States. The co.st of all these products to the general public is increased by the diversions. A thorough study of this subject is presented in Appendix II, Section T. 139. Effect upon riparian interests. — The effect of diversions of water from the Great Lakes upon riparian interests on these lakes and their connecting waters is small. The lower lake levels uncover a slightly greater width of beach, but this is usually neither an ad- vantay princijde 3 would be possil)le. but from an economic stand- jjoint they would be undesirable. For this reason it is felt that no further Canadian diversions of this character should be allowed, DIVERSIOX OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 97 and that tlie existinlace a limit on the diversions of water from the Niagara River, but insists that the only right of the Federal Government is to fix a limit to the total diversion, and that it is within the province DIVERSION OF WATER FROM (JREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 99 of the State to allot this diversion to various power companies or utilize the diversion itself, and to regulate the manner in which it may be used. The contrary view is that the (iovernment may akes basin will first be treated under the three divisions of navigation, sanitation, and poAver de- Aelopment. Some di\'eisions pertain to only one of these uses, some to tAvo. and others to all three. Where they pertain to two or more uses they wiU be treated under each division concerned, the remarks in each case 1)eing confined in so far as practicable to the particular use under fonsideration. Kacli diversion Avill be described upon its first mention in the report. Skction a. DIVERSIONS FOR NAVICATION PURPOSES. ]. ST. MARTS FALLS CANAL. The total diversion of Avater from St. Marys River for navigation purposes is about 1,000 cubic feet per second on the average for the entire year, the rate reaching approximately 1,400 cubic feet per sec- DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 105 ond as an average for the busiest month of the season of navigation. In 1887 the average annual rate of diversion was only 150, and the increase to date has been gradual. It is estimated that the fourth lock, to be opened in 1919, will require an annual average divei-- sion of about 350 cubic feet per second. These figures include the diversions on both sides of the river. All these diversions are made at the head of the rapids, and are returned to the river within 2 miles of the points of diversion. In the following paragraphs the char- acter of the diversions is explained more at length. Tliere are other and much larger diversions at the same place for power development, and these are described in Section C of this report. Description of St. Marys River. — St. Marys River forms the out- let of Lake Superior, connecting the eastern end of the lake with the northern end of Lake Huron by a somewhat circuitous route 66 miles long by the westerly channel, and 75 miles long by the easterly channel. Through this passage flow the surplus waters of Lake Superior, a volume averaging 75,000 cubic feet per second. The drop in water level from Superior to Huron averages 20.7 feet (over a period of years), 19.4 feet of this occurring in a rapids three- fourths of a mile long near the head of the river, abreast of the city of Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. The surface levels of the lakes vary con- stantly, causing variations in the volume of water discharged through the river and producing changes in the fall of water level from above to below the rapids. This local fall varies between the limits of 17 and 21 feet. The general outline of the river is shoAvn on the map designated as plate 2. Commerce at Sault Ste. Marie. — There is a large lake commerce between communities on Lake Superior and points on the lower lakes during those months of the year when the harbors and river chan- nels are not choked with ice. The season of navigation on Lake Superior opens late in April and closes early in December. During the season of 1917 there were 22,885 vessel passages past Sault Ste. Marie, made by 1,182 vessels. The total freight carried was 89,- 813.898 tons, valued at $1,196,922,183. The average freight rate Avas 0.121 cents per ton per mile. The type of lake vessel prin- cipally used is shown in photograph No. 1. Sometimes as many as 50 Vessels are tied below St. Marys Eapids in a blockade as in- dicated in the photograph. This commerce follows the natural and improved waterways of the westerly channel of St. Marys River. At Sault Ste. Marie it passes around the rapids in arti- ficial canals about 1 mile long. Locks are provided to overcome the difference in Avater level already described, there being several locks, so that a number of A'^essels may be accommodated at the same time, although each lock oA^ercomes the entire fall in one lift. There are at present three locks on the United States side and one lock on the Canadian side of the river. A single canal serA^es the Canadian lock. On the American side there are two canals, the South canal serving both the Poe and Weitzel Locks, and the North canal noAV serving the third lock and designed also to serve the fourth lock now under construction. The arrangement of locks and canals is well sIioaa^u on the map marked plate 3. Lochs and caiials. — The first canal and lock at the " Soo " as the locality about St. Marys Rapids is known, were constructed in 100 DIVERSION OF WATER FRU.M GREAT I^VKEs AND NIAGARA RIVER. 1797 and 179b on the Canadian side of the river by the Northwest Fur Co. Tlie lock, sliown in photograph No. 2, was 88 feet long, b feet « inclies wide, with a lift of 9 feet. A towpath was made along the shores for oxen to track bateux and canoes through the upper part of the rapids. The picture sliows the lock as restored. It was destroyed by United States troops in 1811. The first canal on the American side was built in lb53 to 1855, and was Iniown as the State Canal. It was IjV miles long, Gl feet wide at tlie bottom, and 100 feet wide at the water surface. There were two tandem locks of masonry, each 350 feet long by 70 feet wide, with a lift of about 9 feet. The depth in the canal was about 13 feet and m the locks about IH feet, at the sta^e of water then prevailing. The locks are shown in photograph No. 8. They were destroyed in 1888 b}^ excavations for the present Poe Lock. The Weitzel Lock, 515 feet long, 80 feet wide in chamber nar- rowing to 60 feet at the gates, with 17 feet depth of water on the miter sills, was built by the United States in the years 1870 to 1881. During the same period the canal w-as correspondingly deepened, and w^as widened to 160 feet at its widest part, narrow- ing at the International Bridge to 108 feet; and the stone slope walls were replaced Avith timber piers having a vertical face. Present depth on miter sills at low water is 13 feet. The Canadian Canal is 1^ miles long, 150 feet wide at the top and 142 feet at the bottom, and has a lock 900 feet long and 60 feet wide. It was built in the years 1888 to 1895. It was con- structed with a depth of 23 feet in the canal and 22 feet on tlie miter sills at the mean stage prevailing at that time. At present stages the upper approach to the lock has a depth of 21^ to 24 feet, the lower approach 19 to 20 feet, and the depth on miter sills is about 19 feet. The Poe Lock, 800 feet long, 100 feet wide, and having 22 feet of water on the sills, was built by the United States in the j^ears 1887 to 1896. Present low- water depth on the miter sills is 18 to 19 feet. Tlie average depth on miter sills in 1917 w^as 20.3 feet. The third lock is 1,350 feet long, 80 feet wide, and has 24J feet of water upon its miter sills at existing stages. It was built in the years 1908 to 1914, and was opened to traffic October 21, 1914. The fourth lock, now under construction, is shown in photograph No. 4 as it appeared May 26, 1917. It is to be of the same dimen- sions as the tliird lock. It is now nearly completed. Since 1892 tlie <'anal leading to the Weitzel and Poe Locks has been widened to 270 feet, except where the width is restricted i)y the pier of the International Bridge and the movable dam to two jiassages of 108 feet each, and deepened to 24 feet in its upper reach. Since 1908 the United States has built another canal, north of the first, leading to the new third lock, and designed to serve the fourth lock also. It is 310 feet wide above the locks, narrowing to 282 feet at the railway bridge, and widening to 300 feet at the up|)er end. Least h No. 5 shows the Weitzel Lock before the building of the Poe Lock. Photograph No. 6 is a view of all three United States locks as they now exist. No. 7 is a view of the down-streani end of the Canadian Lock. DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 107 Considerable dredo^irig has been done in the St. Marys River down- stream from the locks. The Lake George route was first improved. a channel Avith 12-foot draft being provided before 1869. By l'^'*^'' this had been increased to 16 feet. The route via Hay Lake and Mud Lake in the west channel was then improA'ed until in 1894 n 20-foot depth had been provided. Betterment of channels has been continued since that time with a view to providing a 21-foot depth at lowest stage of Avater, and separating upbound from doAvnbouneration Leakage TotaL 1,084 1.367 1 39 39 290 S 98 393 10 9S 396 501 339 : 128 ! 467 128 467 595 141 41 191 41 1S2 232 770 8 ! 306 l.Jol 10 306 2. CHICAG<:> SANITARY CANAL AND ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL. For the past few years there has been no direct diversion of waters of the (rreat Lakes through the Illinois and Michigan Canal. A ••^mall part of the water diverted through the Chicago Drainage Canal enters the Illinois and Michigan Canal at Joliet. Formerly water was diverted directly from Lake Michigan through the Chiciigo River, entering the Illinois and Michigan Canal at Bridgeport. The amount thus diverted seldom exceeded boO cubic feet per second. In addition there was a small diversion from the Calumet River, i. tributary of Lake Michigan. Of this diversion it is believed no more than 3(.\iinatelv IM) feet. The available draft at low water in the Illinois River between La Salle and Peoria is G feet^ though not for the full projected width of 200 feet. Between Peoria and the Mississippi River there is an available depth of 5i feet, re- ferred to level of low water of 1901, except at tw<^ bars, where shoal- in^^ has rechiced the depth to 4 feet. There are four locks in the Illinois River between La Salle and the Alississsippi, each 850 feet louix and 75 feet wide, with 7 feet depth on the miter sills. At each lock the water surface of the uj)])er level is held uj) by a dam. i:)ro- vidino; slack-water navigation. The first two locks below La Salle — one at Henry, 196 miles above the mouth of the river, and one at Copperas Creek, 137 miles above the mouth — are operated by the State of Illinois and tolls are collected. This charge is $1.50 on boats of 150 tons and under, and on larger boats is 1 cent per ton measurement. The other two locks — one at La Grange, 78 miles above the mouth, and one at Kampsville, 31 miles above the mouth — are operated by the United States and are free from tolls. The Illinois and Mississippi Canal connects the Illinois River at a point 2f miles above Hennepin and 13 miles below La Salle with, the Mississippi River at Rock Island. It does not use waters of the Great Lakes Basin. The portion of the Des Plaines and Illinois Rivers between Joliet and La Salle has not been used to any extent for navigation since the ])ioneer days when this natural waterway formed the only practical route to the West and carried the primitive commerce of the times in canoes and bateaux. The fall from above the State dam at Joliet to La Salle is about 100 feet, the distance being G6 miles. At the State dam at Joliet there is a fall of about 11 feet. At Marseilles there is a private dam providing a fall of about 11 feet. There is no lock at the Marseilles dam. These dams and the jiower developments located at them will be described later in this report under the heading of ''Diversions for power pur|iosos." On August 26. 1905. a board of engineers reported to the Chief of Engineers. United States Army, plans and estimates for a navigable v.aterway 14 feet deep from Lockport. 111., by way of the Des Plaines and Illinois Rivers to the mouth of the Illinois River and thence by way of the Mississippi River to St. Louis. Mo. Plans and estimates were also presented for a 7-foot waterway and for an S-foot M-aterway from Ottawa, 111., down the Illinois River to La Salle. 111. The 14- foot waterway was to have locks 600 feet long and 80 feet wide. Below La Salle the locks and dams were to be removed and the 14-foot depth maintained by a minimum discharge of 10,500 cubic feet per second. No opinion Avas expressed as to the advis- r.bility of undertaking any of these projects. The report is pub- lished as IIou.se Document No. 263, Fifty-ninth Congress, first session. A report submitted by another Board of Engineers on August 15, 1913. published as Hou.se Dofument No. 762, Sixty-third Congress, second session, recommends the construction of a navigable Avater- way excavated 1 1 feet deep but calculated to serve vessels draAving 8 or 9 feet, extending from Lockport, 111., by way of the Des Plaines and Illinois Rivers to the mouth of the Illinois, and thence by Avay of the Mississippi to St. Louis. The State of Illinois Avas to' pay the cost of the waterway from Lockport to Utica, 7 miles above La Salle. DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVElt. Ill The remainder of the route was to be constructed at the expense of the United States and Avas estimated to cost $1,050,000 for the portion in the Illinois River, Avith $115,000 annuallv for maintenance; and $3,710,000 for the portion in the Mississippi "River, Avith $125,000 an- nually for maintenance. The old locks beloAA^ La Salle Avere to be altered sliohtly but maintained Avith their present horizontal dimen- sions of 75 by 350 feet. The channel Avas to be 160 feet wide in canal and 200 feet in open river. The board proposed that the new locks above La Salle should be 600 feet lonjx, 80 feet aa ide, and Avitli 11 feet of Avater on the miter sills, but was agreeable to the propo- sition that the State, in its cooperative efforts, should build them larger if it Avished. The State proposed that the portion of the Avaterway which it AA^as to build, namely, that aboA^e Utica, should have a AA^etted channel 300 feet wide and 24 feet deep from the Lock- port poAA'er house for 5-|- miles to the Brandon Bridge, just beloAv Joliet, and from there to Utica a channel 9 feet deep and 200 feet wide at bottom for the present, to be deepened to at least 14 feet later. It proposed the construction of fiA^e locks, the uppermost beside the Lockport poAA'er house at the doAvnstream end of the Chicago Drain- age Canal, the next at Brandon Bridge, and the last at Utica. Each lock Avas to be 80 by 900 feet in horizontal dimensions, with 24 feet of water on the miter sills. On November 3, 1908, the people of the State of Illinois voted for an amendment to the constitution per- mitting a bond issue of $20,000,000 for the construction of such a AA'aterway. Several years later $5,000,000 of this Avas appropriated but no construction AA'ork was undertaken, because the necessary co- operative arrangement with the Federal Government was not effected. It Avas estimated that $20,000,000 would provide for the excavating noted above for the lock at Lockport and for the four dams and power houses at the other lock sites, and possibly for the other four locks also. The Board of Engineers considered a volume of fioAv of water of 1,000 cubic feet per second more than sufficient for such a waterAvay. THE ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL. The Illinois and Michigan Canal extends from a point on the South Branch of the Chicago River in the city of Chicago southwesterly to La Salle, 111., Avhere it enters the Illinois River, Its length is 97 miles and its fall is 142 feet at Ioav water stages of Lake Michigan and the Illinois River. Its point of beginning is 5| miles from Lake Michigan, measured along the Chicago River. From this point it passes westward across the low divide, through the natural depres- sion in the land surface preA'iously described, about T miles to the A^alley of the Des Plaines RiA^er. Following along the southeasterly side of the valley of this river, it enters the river in the city of Joliet 32 miles from its point of beginning. It proceeds but a short distance in the riA-er channel, and then, at the State Dam, leaves the river on its northerly side, following the northwesterly rim of the valley of the Des Plaines RiA^cr to the junction of the"^ Des Plaines Avith the Illinois, and thence along the northerly side of the Illinois RiA^er to La Salle. Construction of the canal "began in 1836 and Avas com- pleted in 1848. The canal had a surface width of 60 feet, a bottom Avidth of 36 feet in earth sections and 48 feet in rock, and a depth of 112 niVERSIOX OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. water of G feet. All bridges over the canal were fixed, the minimum clearance bein«^ about 11 feet. The locks were 110 feet long and lb feet wide, having a depth of 6 feet of water on the sills. There were 15 lift locks and one guard lock. As originally constructed there Avas at the head of the canal a sum- mit le\el -2<>\ miles long Avhich was S feet above the level of Lake Michigan and was fed from the Des Plaines and Calumet Kivers, as Avell as by a lift wheel from the Chicago River. The water from Calumet Iviver was conducted through the Sag Valley in a feeder canal 16^ miles long. The summit level was cut down in 1866 to 1871. While the summit level existed it did not supply sufficient Avater to the reach of canal extending from Ottawa upstream toAvard .Toilet. To make an ade;iuate supply available the Kankakee feeder Avas constructed. This feeder canal received Avater from the Kanka- kee River at a point several miles above its junction witli the Des Plaines, and conducted it to the lUionis and Michigan Canal at a point about 1 mile abo\e the junction. The feeder Avater passed over the Des Plainer River in an aqueduct just before entering the canal. After the summit IcA-el had been cut down this feeder became unnecessary and Avas abandoned. The Fox River feeder receiv^ed water from the Fox River several miles north of Ottawa, and con- roper depth of channel. There Avas some interruption of navigation in the vicinity of Joliet folloAving 1905 due to operations of the Sanitary District of Chi- cago. Tlie canal has fallen into disuse and poor rejmir. In 1916 it was navigated by a very feAV boats, mostly small pleasure craft. Its available draft had been reduced in places to -U feet. In 1918 the Federal (iovernment Avas dredging to restore this 44-foot draft. The Illinois and Michigan Canal is a State ])roject. and is under the State dei)artment of public Avorks and buildings. hivemu/iis. — From the time of the ojiening of the Illinois and Michigan Canal in 1H48 to the opening of the lock of the Main Drainage Canal on July 13, 1910, Avater was diverted from Lake Michigan through the Illinois and Michigan Canal into the Des Plaines River. The diversion was chiefly for sanitary purposes. Photograph Nc. S.— VVEITZEL LOCK AT SAULT STE. MARIE. Before construction of the Poe Lock. Photograph No. 8. — ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL. ■aMiifl .^...Md^^^HIHl ;1BI ^ — -- -^1^ W-\M^ ' ^ '9^-- '^^Wu'' 'Ie ' " i^ '^^^:-._ "^ ■HhI M ^^^^^^i^-y .. ■ '-' '^^'^'.'SVaHI^HIBI Photograph No. 9.— FOX RIVER AQUEDUCT. ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL. Photograph No. 10. -ANOTHER VIEW OF FOX RIVER AQUEDUCT. ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL. i- lt»j|£*32i.., iiii|t|i iituiir" Photograph No. 11.— LOCK NO. 2, ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL. (Abandoned.) Pholopraph No. 12. ROCK SECTIOrj, r/l A I N DRAINAGE CANAL. Photograph No. 1 3. -CONTROLLI NG WORKS. CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL. Photograph No. U. BEAR TRAP DAM, CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL. Photograph No. 15.— DRUM DAMS AND LOCK, CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL. Photograph No. 16.— STATE DAM NO. 1, DESPLAINES RIVER. .^iLL^ f-Motograp' n ■: ROCK SECTION, PRESENT WELLAND CANAL Photograph No. 18.- AND CANAL. Photograph No. 19. M. C. R. R. DRAWBRIDGE, PRESENT WELLAND CANAL. Photograph No. 20. - GUARD GATES AND LOCK NO 25 PRESENT WELLA N L i ..'■IjAL. Photograph No. 21.^SERIES OF LOCKS, PRESENT WELLAND CANAL. Photograpn No. 22.— PORT DALHOUSIE. ONT. Lock No. 1, Present Welland Canal, on left. Lock No. 1. Old Welland Canal, on right. Pr,-:r -rapt No. 23. -SLUICES ADMITTING WATER TO OLD WELLAND CANAL. Pf.otOsfapi' l-i^- 24. LOCK AND VIADUCT. OLD WELLAND CANAL. ^ -+- 1 i.'.rir-.-? ■.." ^^Ai•^ Photograph No. 25.— JUNCTION OF TWELVE - M I LE CREEK AND OLD WELLAND CANAL. I m» *i iiM ss^l'i Photograph No. 26. --BLACK ROCK SHIP LOCK. Photograph No. 27. — BLACK ROCK CANAL, FERRY STREET BRIDGE Photograph No. 28— GUARD LOCK NO. 72. OLD ERIE CANAL, BLACK ROCK. N. Y. •ograph No. 29. — NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANAL. Typiral rr.rU certinn u n Oe r C O n ■- 1 r ur t i n n •Ograph No. 30.— NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANAL. Typical earth section. DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 113 however. The quantity required for navigation is not known, but it was undoubtedly less than 800 cubic feet per second. This was abstracted from Lake Michigan or withheld from the lake by being abstracted from its tributaries — the Chicago and Calumet Rivers. The canal has discharged as much as 2,100 cubic feet per second at Joliet in the spring when 302 cubic feet per second was being pumped in from the Chicago Kiver. In order to cause a large How through the canal it was necessary to close the gates at Chicago and pump water into the canal from Chicago Kiver, raising the water surface in the canal several feet above the river level. A head of 5.7 feet Avas found to be required for a discharge of 1,000 cubic feet per second. Pumps accepted by the city of Chicago in 1886 had a capacity of 1,000 cubic feet per second, but the volume pumped seldom exceeded 850 cubic feet per second, and this was largely for sanitary purposes. Since completion of the Main Drainage Canal and Lock the portion of the Illinois and Michigan Canal above Joliet has been abandoned, and there is no diversion of lake water through it. Some short stretches of the canal near Chicago have been filled in by garbage contractors. The flow in this canal below Joliet comes from the Des Plaines River, wdiose small natural flow is greatly augmented by the large discharge from the Chicago Main Drainage Canal which empties into Des Plaines River just above Joliet. The average discharge of the Des Plaines River is roughly 400 cubic feet per second, but low-water discharges as small as 7 cubic feet per second have been measured and flood discharge as large as 11,900 cubic feet per second. The present discharge of the Illinois and Michigan Canal just below Joliet varies between 300 and 550 cubic feet per second. This is used, up largely by leakage, seepage, evaporation, and power development, and is used only very slightly for locking boats. It is evident from the figures given above that normally only a portion of this water is furnished by the natural flow of the Des Plaines River, the rest coming from Lake Michigan by diversion through the drainage canal. The ])resent general appearance of the canal is shown in photo- graph No. 8. An upstream view of the aqueduct carrying the canal waterway over Fox River is given in No. 9, and a top view of the same in No. 10. A photograph of Lock No. 2 between Joliet and Lockport on the abandoned portion of the canal is given as No. 11. In this last picture it may be noted that there is a very small amount of drainage flowing through this lock. Traffic. — The yearly average tons of freight transported on the canal from 1860 to 1916 was 544,629. The maximum tonnage for one year was carried in 1882 and was 1,011,287. The tonnage car- ried decreased materially from 1895, when railroads were most active in competition. Tolls have always been charged. The rate on coal is 1 mill per ton per mile, on lumber 5 mills per 1,000 board feet per mile, and on merchandise 2 mills per ton per mile. In addition there is a toll on each boat of 3 cents per mile. It is reported by the State superintendent of the division of waterways, under the department of public works and buildings, that there is a widespread demand for improvement of this canal, 27880—21 8 114 DH'EKSIOX OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. and that a company has been formed and financed to construct boats for operation on it as soon as the required depth is avaihible. The canal traverses a popuh)US territory and has many industries that can utilize it located alon^r it. Canal lands. — An interestinjr point to note is that the act of Con- "•ress approved March 2. 1827, grantino- certain lands to the State in aid of buildint; this canal provided that the lands were subject to the disposal of the State legislature '' for the purpose aforesaid and no other," and that " said canal, when completed, shall be and forever remain a public highAvay for the purpose of the (Tovernment of the United States."" The Department of Justice has held that the State should maintain the canal to fulfill its part of the contract, or return the consideration to the United States. CHICACiO SANITARY CANAL. The general location of the Chicago sanitary and ship canal is shown on plates 1. 4. and 5. Description. — The Chicago sanitary and ship canal parallels the Illinois and Michigan canal from a point on the west fork of the south branch of Chicago River to the canal basin in Des Plaines River above Joliet, a distance of 32.85 miles. As projected the depth of water was to be 24.3 feet, the canal prism in rock was to be 160 feet wide at the bottom and 162 feet wide at the top, while in earth the prism was to be 202 feet wide on the bottom and 300 feet at the water surface, Avith side slopes of 2 to 1 under water and li to 1 above. As actually constructed the dimensions are as follows: From Robey street in C'hicago to Summit. T.S miles. 162 feet wide at bottom and 226 feet at water line : Summit to Willow Springs, 5.3 miles, 202 feet wide at bottom and 290 feet at water line; Willow Springs to the controlling works at Lockjx)!!. 14.95 miles, 160 feet wide at bottom and 162 feet at water line. At the controlling works there is a fan-shaped basin with an extreme width of 502 feet. From these works to the lock at the power plant between Lockport and Joliet, 2 miles, the channel is of irregular width, nowhere less than 160 feet. The reach from Robey street to Summit was exca- vated wholly in earth. Originally only the south side of the canal Avas excavated, the bottom width" being 110 feet. In 1912 to 1914 it was widened on the north side to the dimensions given aljove. From Summit to Willow Springs the excavation was mostly in earth, but there was some rock in the bottom of the prism. I rom Willow Springs to Lemont the excavation below water line was largely in rock. From Lemont to the end of the canal the excava- tion was almost entirely in rock. The depth of water in the <-anal upstream from the power house is 22 to 26 feet. The lock is 130 feet long and 22 feet wide, with 12 feet of water over the sills. Its average lift is 36 feet. From the lock to the Illinois and Michigan canalliasin at Joliet, 2.3 miles, through rock, the canal has a mini- mum depth of water of 10 feet, bottom width of 160 feet and top width of 162 feet. It is planned bv the sanitary district to build a larger lock when it is needed, unless the 80 V)y 900 foot lock planned 1)V the State of Illinois and described previously is constructed. ' The entrance of the canal at Robey Street is 6 miles from Lake Michigan, measured along the Chicago River. Originally the Chi- DIVERSION OF WATER FROM CREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 115 caco KiA-er was a sluth inclusive was 572.53 feet al)ove mean sea level, on United States standard datum : while for the same years the mean stage of Lake Ontario was 246.18 feet; making the average drop for those years from upper to lower lake surface 326.35 feet. The present Welland Canal, which is 26| miles long, overcomes this difference in elevation bv means of 25 lift locks and one guard DIVERSION OF WATER FROM CREAT T.AKES AXU NIAGARA RIVER. 117 lock. The locks are 270 feet lon^^ 45 feet wide, and have 14 feet depth of water on the miter sills. Maximum available length for boats is 255 feet. The avera*re lift is 13 feet, the maximum lift at any lock being about 18 feet. The lork valves are in the gates and are operated by hand. The gates themselves are operated electrically. The guard lock is at Port Colborne, one-half mile from the entrance to the canal. From there the canal extends 17 miles at Lake Erie level, except for the slight drop necessary to create a flow of water toward Lake Ontario, to the guard gates just above Lock No. 25. The distance along the canal from the guard gates to Lock No. 1 at Port Dalhousie is 9^ miles. There are no locks in flight, and the levels between locks are in all cases at least long enough and wide enough to permit boats to pass. The depth in the upper level is controlled by the elevation of Lake Erie. At low stages of the lake the depth on the sill of the guard lock at Port Colborne, No. 26, is less than 13 feet, and at extreme low stage this depth has been as small as 10^ feet. The canal prism was excavated in earth except for a short rock cut just north of Port Colborne, shallow rock cuttings south of the guard gates, and shallow to heavy rock cuttings at the lock sites. Bottom width is 100 feet, the side slopes being 1 on 2. At the city of Welland, 8 miles from Lake Erie, the canal is carried over the Welland Kiver on a concrete viaduct. History. — A brief history of the present Welland Canal and its predecessors is as follows: The construction of the first Welland Canal was begun in 1824 by a private corporation. In May, 1833, the canal was opened from Port Colborne to Port Dalhousie for navigation. The depth was 7| feet, the bottom width of prism being 26 feet in earth and 15 fee"t in rock. There was a long summit level 8 feet above the level of Lake Erie, fed from the Grand River iDy a feeder canal 21 miles long, which ran in a northeasterly direc- tion from Dunnville on the Grand River to Welland on the canal. In 1841 the Canadian Government purchased the canal rights and in 1842 began an enlargement which was completed in 1850. As enlarged the canal prism was 8| feet deep and 26 feet wide on the bottom, and the feeder was increased to the same size. Subsequent to 1854, by the addition of copings the navigable depth of the canal, but not of the feeder, was increased to 10 feet. In 1872 the Gov- ernment determined on a scheme for the general enlargement of the canal, the adoption of the Lake Erie level, and the obtaining of a water supply from Lake Erie at Port Colborne, in addition to the limited supply coming through the feeder from Grand River. This canal was an enlargement of the old canal from Port Colborne to Allanburg, about 15 miles, but from there to Port Dalhousie followed an entirely new route somewhat east of the old line. In 1882 this improved canal was opened for 12-foot navigation. When the aque- duct at Welland was completed in 1887 this canal, now known as the present Welland Canal, was made available for 14-foot navigation. The portion of the old canal from Allanburg to Port Dalhousie has been retained and is open to navigation but has been used only a very few times in many years. It is three-fourths mile longer than the line which replaced it and has 26 locks, each 45 feet wide and with 101 feet of water on the sills. Two of the locks are 200 feet long and 24 are 150 feet long. The old canal is used for water-power lis DmERSIOX OF WATKl; FROM GREAT LAKES AXD NIAGARA RIVER. develojmient. as will be explained later. There are numerous rail- road and hifrh"way bridges spanning the canal. These are all swing bridges, which open on signal. Many of them have very little clear- ance above the water surface when closed. Cost and traffic. — The original cost of the old Welland Canal, in- cluding the first enlargement, was $7,693,824. Subsequent enlarge- ments, including construction of the present canal, raised the orimnal cost to $29,431,758. Maintenance, operation, and repairs up to ISitirch 31. 1917, amounted to $10,121,846. The total amount of freight carried in recent vears has been as follows: In 191.",, 3.010.012 t(ms : in 1916, 2,544,964 tons: and in 1917, 2.490.542 tons. Approximately two-thirds of this was eastbound. The maximum yearly tonnage was carried previous to 1915. The number of vessel passages in 1916 was 2.552. Tolls were charged up to 1904, and since that time the canal has been free of tolls. Up to March 31, 1917, the total amount collected from tolls. Avharfage. harbor dues, water rentals, and other rents was $1,560,396. Dive7\sions. — Nothing is known of the quantity of water originally supplied from the Grand River. Evidently the supply was more than the requirement for navigation uses, for leases covering the development of water power at the locks were made as early as 1851. although the first Lake Erie water was not admitted to the canal until 1881. At present the supply through the Dunnville feeder is officially reported to be 40 cubic feet per second. Combining official reports with the results of field inspection, it has been computed that in 1918 the direct diversion from Lake Erie averaged 4.400 cubic feet per second during the navigation season and 4,100 during the closed season. The maximum diversion at any one time ran somewhat above the mean, but is not known. In 1917 the diversion was 200 cubic feet per second greater. The officially reported amount used in lockage and leakage beloAV Allanburg is 1.100 cubic feet per second during the season of navigation and 800 cul)ic feet per second during closed season. Neic Welland Canal. — In 1913 work was commenced on the New "Welland Canal, sometimes called the AVelland Ship Canal. This canal will be just 25 miles long and will overcome the difference in elevation of the two lakes in seven lifts of 46i feet each, and one lift, at the guard lock, which will vary from nothing at all to 12 feet, depending on the stage of Lake Erie. From Lake Erie the new canal follows the line of the ])resent canal to Allanburg. 15 miles, except for two cut-offs, which straighten the alignment some- what. The Iluniberstone cut-off. so-called, begins H miles from the lake and is al)out li miles long. ]:)assing to the west of the present canal. The new guard lock will be located on this cut-off. and the ])resent canal will provide a l)y-pass for the flow of water around the lock. The other cut-off commences at the Welland Aqueduct, and follows the line of Welland River, just east of the present canal, al)out 4 miles to the town of Port Robinson, at which point the Wel- land River turns eastward to the Niagara River. A dam is to be constructed across the Welland River at Port Robinson, raising the Avater level of the i-iver al)out 10 feet. The aqueduct at Welland will be remoxed. The level from the Humberstone guard lock to Lock No. 7 at Thorold, 3 miles north of Allanburg, will ])e maintained at DIVERSION OF WATER FROM tIREAT I^VKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 119 ele\atioii 568 feet above mean sea level. At AUanburg the new canal leaves the present canal, the new route lying to the east of the old as far as the Present Lock No. 25, a distance of about 2^ miles. Just beloAv Lock 25 the two canals are to cross at grade. From there the new route lies west of the old and runs almost due north for 3 nules to another crossing of the present canal at grade a short distance downstream from present Lock No. 11. New Lock No. 7 is at Thor- old. Locks Nos. 4. 5, and 6 are between Thorold and the lower canal crossing. They are in flight and are twins ; that is, six locks arranged two abreast in one mammoth concrete block. From the loAver crossing of the present canal the new route follows the valley of Tenmile Creek in a direction sliglitly east of north a distance of 5 miles to Lake Ontario. At the mouth of Tenmile Creek, 3 miles east of Port Dalhousie, an artificial harbor has been constructed, known as Port Weller. Lock No. 3 is just below the lower crossing of the present canal and Lock No. 1 is near Port Weller, Lock No. 2 beino- approximately halfwav in between. The locks are to have a usabte Avidth of 80 feet and 'usable length of 800 feet, with 30 feet depth of water on the miter sills at extreme low stage. They will be 885 feet long from hinge to hinge of the gates. The lock gates will be of single-leaf type. Guard gates will be installed above Lock No. 7. The canal prism is to be 200 feet wide at bottom, 310 feet wide at water line, and 25 feet deep. It is planned that the canal may ultimately be deepened to 30 feet, and for that reason the locks and all masonry structures, such as retaining walls and piers are designed for the 30- foot depth. The canal excavation is almost en- tirely in earth, and the cutting is something like 30 feet deep on the average, although there is a 50 to 60 foot cut about 2 miles long, the maximum cutting being 66 feet. The locks are founded on either limestone or shale rock. The estimated cost was $50,000,000. On March 31, 1917, construction work on the new canal was postponed indefinitely on account of the war. In organizing the construction work the new route was subdivided into nine sections, which were numbered in order from Lake Ontario. Section 1 included Port Weller, the new harbor on Lake Ontario, and extended about 3 miles from the outer end of the harbor, including Lock No. 1. Section 2 was about 4/j miles long, and included Locks Nos. 2 and 3. Section 3 was about 2 miles long, and included the flight of twin locks, Nos. 4, 5, and 6, and the single lock. No. 7. These three sections cover the route from Lake Ontario up to the Lake Erie level at Thorold. Section 5 extended along the present canal from AUanburg to Port Robinson, the work involving widening and deepening the existing prism. These four sections were placed under contract in the summer and fall of 1913. Up to the date of suspen- sion of operations the progress had been such that sections 1 and 5 were considered two-thirds complete each, section 2 half complete, and section 3 one-third complete. Nothing further has been done to this new canal until recently. The total expenditure upon it to date has been $13,693,923. It is officially reported that the maximum diversion of water from Lake Erie required by the new canal for navigation will be approxi- mately 2,000 cubic feet per second. The general location of the Welland Canal is shown on plate. 1. On plate 6 the old, present, and 120 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. new Welland Canals are shown more in detail, as well as their re- lation to Niagara River. Photographs Nos. 17 to 22. inclusive, are illustrative of the present Welland Canal, -while photoo^raphs Nos. 22 to 25, inclusive, are illustrative of the old Welland Canal. Ex- planations are given beneath the pictures. 4. BLACK ROCK CANAL. Water from Lake Erie is diverted around the head of Niagara River through the Black Rock Canal for a distance of about 4 miles. At the low^er end of the canal some of the water passes into the head of the old Erie Canal. The rest passes through Black Rock Lock out into Niagara River. There is a small leakage from the Black Rock Canal into Niagara River along the upper portions of Bird Island Pier. The amount of this leakage was estimated to be about 250 cubic feet per second. From the lock records the requirement for lockage and waste at Black Rock Lock is approximately' 50 cubic feet per second. In addition to these two quantities there is diverted down the Black Rock Canal whatever water flows in the Erie Canal at Black Rock. This quantity has been as gi'eat as 1.000 cubic feet per second. Since the removal of the dam at Tonawanda in the early spring of 1918 and the construction of the temporary dam across the old Erie Canal at Tonawanda, the flow into the upper end of the Erie Canal at Black Rock has been small, about 400 cubic feet per second. This has been spilled into Niagara River at Tonawanda, except for what was lost by seepage and evaporation. The Erie Canal as improved to form the barge canal now receives its western water supply from Niagara River at Tonawanda. Following is a brief description of the canal and lock of the Black Rock Canal, with statements regarding the navigation features. The old power developments are referred to briefly in Section C. Description. — The general relation of the Black Rock Canal to Niagara River is shown on plate No. 6. The canal and lock are shown better on plate No. 7. The Niagara River breaks out from Lake Erie over a ledge of limestone abreast of the city of Buil'alo, N. Y. Not far from the lake the stream is only 1,600 feet wide at its narrowest place. In this cross section it has a maximum depth of 15 feet at mean stage and a velocity approximating 8 miles per hour. The fall from Horse- shoe Reef Light, at the head of the river, to the foot of Squaw Island, 3f miles, is approximately 5.1 feet, A'arying somewhat with the stage of Lake Erie. From Squaw Island the river slope is com- paratively gentle, for about 15 miles by the shortest route, to the head of the rapids above the Falls. To aid navigation in passing this swift shallow portion of the river a channel, known as the Black Rock Canal, has lipen con- structed along the eastern edge of the river from Buffalo Harbor to the foot of Squaw Island, The upper end of Black Rock Channel is at the foot of Maryland Street, about a mile from the north or main en- trance to Buffalo Harbor. The channel which has been dredged from the main entrance of the harbor to the canal is 21 feet dco]). and is 400 feet wide from the southerly end of the north breakwater to the northerly end of the State breakwater, abreast the foot of Georgia Street, and 500 feet wide from tliere to the head of the canal. On ac- DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RlVEJl. 121 count of shoaling at the Lake entrance, tlie present avaihable depth is about 18 feet. The canal itself is formed by a breakwater largely of rock, known as Bird Island Pier, extending from a point opi)osite the foot of Maryland Street to the head of Scjuaw Island, about 2^ miles, and by the passage between Squaw Island and the main shore. Within this space, which is 3^- miles long, and varies from 220 to 1,400 feet in Avidth, is a dredged channel 21 fleet deep and 200 feet wide extending for ^^ miles from the head of Bird Island Pier to the lock near the foot of Squaw Island. This channel is 240 feet wide on curves, and is only 150 feet wide at the Ferry Street and International bridges. These are the only bridges crossing the canal and they have clear openings of 150 feet in each case, the bridge at Ferry Street being of the bascule type and the International Bridge of the swing type. The clear headroom under these briclges Avhen closed, at mean stage, is 15 feet. The canal water surface is at Lake Jtl^rie elevation at its upper end, and has only a very slight drop to the lock. The Black Rock Lock, connecting the canal with the Niagara Kiver near the foot of Squaw Island, is 650 feet lonp; between hollow quoins and TO feet wide, has a usable length of 625 reet, usable width of 68 feet, depth of 22 feet on the miter sills at low stage, and aver- age lift of about 5 feet. It is electrically operated and lighted. The river portion of Bird Island Pier, extending from the head of Squaw Island up to Bird Island, was constructed by the State between 1823 and 1825 in connection with the building of the Erie Canal. At this time the dike between Squaw Island and the main shore was built also. These structures, in fact, formed a part of the Erie Canal. Between 1829 and 1834 the United States Government extended and repaired the upstream end of Bird Island Pier, and be- tween 1869 and 18T2 extended the pier from Bird Island to a point opposite the foot of Hudson Street. In 1891 and 1892 the pier was extended 900 feet to a point opposite the foot of Maryland Street. About 1825, mills Avere established on the dike between SquaAV Island and the mainland, to develop water power provided by the 5-foot head of water held up by the dike. Water for power development was used in such quantities by these mills as to create a current very detrimental to canal navigation. To remedy this condition the State constructed an intermediate Avail between Bird Island Pier and the main shore, some time betw^een 1854 and 1867, proAdding a separate channel 70 feet wide for the Erie Canal, adjacent to the mainland. It was found that the water passing down this 70-foot channel to supply the navigation needs of the Erie Canal created too great a current, and accordingly, after 1871, the middle wall was moved out for the greater part of its length and the main bank was cut back sufficiently to provide a channel for the Erie Canal 150 feet AA^de. This division wall was ne\^er quite completed at its downstream end. Black Rock Lock. — Some time previous to 1840 a ship lock was built betAveen Squaw Island and the mainland. It was of timber, and soon decayed and leaked badly. In 1841 a new stone lock was commenced, but its construction was greatly delayed by financial difficulties of the State, and was not completed until 1851. This lock, which was sometimes called the "sloop" lock, was in operation until 1913, Avhen it was removed, between July and November, to make room for the new approach channel to the present lock. The 122 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AXD NIAGARA RIVER. old lock was 200 feet loii<;. 30 feet wide, and had about 91 feet of water on the sills at mean lake stajze. Construction of the present lock was commenced in 1907 and com- pleted in 19i;i The deepening and widenin-ust IT. 1914. Cost and trafjic. — The cost of this waterway to the State of New York is not known. The expenditures upon it by the United States from 1826 to June 80, 1918, for new work total $3,945,563, includincr $1,001,578 for the present lock. The United States spent very little for maintenance of it until the openinof of the new lock and channel in 1914. and the maintenance cost to the State is not known. The expense of operation and maintenance has been borne by tlie Ignited States since the openin<^ in 1914, and has amounted to $52,726. The maximum number of vessel passages through the new lock was in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, and was 9,829. The number of vessel passages in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1918, was 6,304. Between 40 and 50 per cent of these passages were by motor boats or craft other than registered vessels. In the fiscal year ending June 30, 1918, the freight carried through the lock amounted to 1.632,846 tons, and this was the maximum carried in any fiscal year since the opening of the improved waterway. The value of this freight was $8,579,217. Divei'sion. — The amount of water diverted ar(jund the rapids at the head of Niagara River has never been known accurately. State- ments made by the chief engineer and canal commissioners of the Erie Canal at the time Bird Island Pier Avas about to be constructed indicate that the natural discharge of the river through the area shut off by this pier was far greater than the flow ever obtaining down Black Rock Harbor and the Erie Canal. In recent years the dis- charge of the Erie Canal just below where it leaves the Black Rock Canal has been as high as 1.000 cubic feet i)er second. This flow was supplied from Lake Erie through the Black Rock Canal, in addi- tion to the small requirements for lockage at the Black Rock Sloop Lock, and whatever water leaked out at the lock and through Bird Island Pier. At the present time the portion of the Erie Canal l)e- twe€n Buffalo and Tonawanda is not in use, the water level being held up ])y a temporary dam at Tonawanda. The flow re(|uii-ed is only that necessary to compensate for leakage, seepage, and evapora- tion in this reach of the old canal. In addition to this, however, there is spilled into Niagara River at the old s])illway at Tonawanda about 400 cubic feet per second. The new Black Rock Channel must carry this water and also enough more to provide for lockage at the new lock, leakage through Bird Island Pier, and evai)oration. It is estimated that the leakage is ai)i)roxiinately 250 cubic feet per sec- ond and the lockage and waste at the lock less on tlie average than 50 cubic feet per second. Ahogether it seems j^robable that the (|uantity of water divertet for the losses by seepage and evaporation this finds its way into Lake Ontario at Oswego. There is also an average of alwut 50 cubic feet ])er second from the Mohawk Valley and 35 cul)ic feet per second from the Susquehanna River drainage basin diverted into this portion of the canal, and thus discharged into the Oreat Lakes system at Oswego. The general location of the New York State Barge Canal is shown on plate No. 1. On plate No. 8 the portion of the canal mainly under discussion is shown more in detail. A description and brief history of the canal with special reference to its navigation features is given in the following paragraphs. In Part C of this report is a short treatment of the power development along the canal. Inscription. — The i-)resent New York State Barge Canal system ])rovides a waterway of 12 feet minimum depth and not less than 94 feet width, except at locks, from Buifalo on Lake Erie, to the Hudson River at Water ford, and thence on doAvn the Hudson pa'^t Troy and Albany to New York City. The Champlain branch from "Waterford to Lake Champlain is of like dimensions, as are also the short lateral branches at Rochester and Syracuse, the Oswego branch, connecting the main canal with Lake Ontario at Oswego, and the Cayuga and Seneca Canal connecting the main canal with Cayuga and Seneca Lakes. The main or Erie branch proper, which is the improved Erie Canal, has its western end in the Niagara RiA^er at the mouth of Tonawanda Creek, at Tonawanda, N. Y,, and its eastern 124 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM (IREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER, end in the Hudson River at AA'aterford. The distance between these two jjoints. as measured alon^ the center line of tlie canal, is 338.4 miles. From Tonawanda the l)ar- of the ni)per k>vel the lift has been reduced several feet, the reduction dependinn; upon the stajre of Lake P>ie, and beinjr nominally from 57 feet to 40. IG feet. There is no other place on the Erie branch of the barji'e canal \vhere the locks are in flifrht without intervening basins, and onlj^ one other place on the barge canal system, namely, at Seneca Falls, on the Cayuga and Seneca branch, where there"^ are two standard locks in flight. As in the case of Lockport, this flight overcomes a difference in elevation of 49 feet. Wasfeicays. — There are numerous spillways and waste gates along the barge canal to facilitate regulating the water level at the desired elevation and to aid in preventing washouts of the banks. On the long level between Lockport and Rochester there are 13 spillways where water may be wasted into small natural Avater courses flowing northward into Lake Ontario. These small streams all pass uncler the canal in culverts, except at Medina, where an ac^ueduct carries the canal over Oak Orchard Creek. Each spillway consists of a Avaste weir 2r) to 170 feet long, having its crest along one side of the canal, 12 feet above canal bed, and of two or more sluice gates. Each waste weir is designed for the use of flashboards to provide for deepening the canal in localities where it may be desirable and it is considered safe to use flashboards 1 foot high. Such use would permit the canal water surface to rise within H feet of the tops of the artificial earth embankments, which is as close as prudence admits, when consideration is given to the Avash and surges caused by wind and passing boats and to a reasonable provision for safety against washouts. Guard gates and bridges. — There are a good many guard gates along the barge canal, to provide for shutting off the flow of water in case of accident to locks, canal banks, aqueducts or bridges. These gates are all of the lift type, and are constructed in two parts with a central pier separating them, so that each gate shuts off half the canal prism. The gates nearest to Niagara River are at Pendleton, where the canal leaves Tonawanda Creek. On the long level, guard gates are located so as to divide the canal into lengths of 4 to 12 miles each. The niunber of bridges crossing the canal runs into the hun- dreds. Some of these are lift bridges, local conditions having re- quired that they should be close to the water surface. Most of the bridges are fixed, however, the required minimum of clearance above canal water surface being 15^ feet. There are no swing or bascule bridges, and the lift bridges are arranged to be raised at both ends and remain horizontal, spanning the canal whether raised or lowered, but providing the required clearance when in raised position. Branch canals. — Cayuga and Seneca Lakes are located in the cen- tral western part of the State of New York, south of the Erie branch of the barge canal. They are long narrow lakes running nearly parallel in a north and south direction, at an average distance apart of about 12 miles. They are deep except at the ends. By doing a small amount of dredging at the shallow ends, and connecting the northern ends to the Erie branch through a fairly short canal, called the Cayuga and Seneca branch, they have been made a part of 128 nm^RSiox of water from great lakes axd xiagara river. the new bartre canal system. Seneca Lake has its water surface at elevation 445 feet. It is 34^ miles long and is 3 miles wide in the place of greatest width. The canal is 12i miles long from the northeast corner of the lake to its junction with the branch from Cayuga Lake, just north of the latter lake, and follows a direction somewhat north of east. It drops 14.5 feet by a lock at Waterloo, and 49 feet by two locks in flight at Seneca Falls, reaching elevation 381.5 feet at the junction. This is the elevation of Cayuga Lake, which is 36 miles long, and has a maximum width of about 3i miles. Just below the junction of the branches from the two lakes is Lock No. 1, having a drop of 74 feet, and bringing the level down to that of the Erie branch of the barge canal, namely 374 feet. It is 4 miles nearly due north from Lock No. 1 of the Caj^uga and Seneca branch to the junction with the Erie branch, about H miles southwest of Montezuma. Tlie Oswego branch follows the OsAvego River, running north- westei'ly 23.4 miles from Three River Point to Lake Ontario at Oswego. The fall is continuous from elevation 363 at Three River Point to Lake Ontario level, assumed by the barge canal engineers as 244.4, making the total drop 118.6 feet. This drop is controlled at seven locks, one at Phoenix having 10.2 feet drop, two at Fulton hav- ing a total drop of 44.8 feet, one at Minetto having a drop of 18 feet, and three at Oswego having a combined drop of 45.6 feet. The work of reconstructing the Erie Canal, Champlain Canal. Oswego Canal, and Cayuga & Seneca Canal, to form the present barge canal system was commenced in the spring of 1905. In the spring of 1918 the entire system was open for navigation, although some Avork still remained to be done, mainly on the western end of the Erie branch, and on the various terminals. (^'osf. — In xVpril. 1900, the State of NeAv York appropriated $200,000 for a complete survey and estimate of cost of a new canal system, embracing the Erie, the Oswego, and the Champlain Canals. The surveys, plans, and estimates were completed in February, 1901. and in 1903 the people of the State voted favorably for the improve- ment and enlargement of these canals at an estimated cost of $101,- 000.000. By another referendum vote in 1909. the Cayuga & Seneca Canal was added to the barge canal svstem. at an estimated cost of $7,000,000. By a third referendum vote in 1911. $19,800,000 was appro])riated for building terminals at various municipalities throughout the State: and by a fourth referendum vote, in 1915. the further sum of $27,000,000 was appropriated to cover the full com- pletion of the canal system. The total appropriation, $154,800,000 will represent verv closelv the cost of the New York State Barge Canal. Traijjc. — The barge canal is to be free of tolls. As yet there is comparatively little traffic upon it, and only a few boats are avail- able for its u.se. The United States (lovernment is now supervising the use of (he canal for navigation purposes, and constiMicting barges to be used upon il. l>y su9. At the eml of 1882 the financial statement regarding the Frie Canal alone was: Erie Canal. .v.eime to ilute - $121,461,871.09 Colei'Uon. suijerintendence, and ordinary re- jMilrs $29,270,301.16 Cout of c«>asiru«.-lioii and improvements 49,591,8.52.08 Total c-osi 78,862,153.84 I>*u\iu« a l»alani-e tn credit of Kri«' t<> - t'xclusi\i' of interest on di'l)t for construction and improve- ment amounting to noarly $70.(M)(I,()(K). and exclusive of vahie of the canul at that date. On the same basis the entire system of State .-..i. ■!< ],;,] to its credit at that time $8,333,457. Before beginning the iigeinent <»f tlu* Frie Canal in 1896 the total canal debt had .«-.-ii M 'iii.rd to about $ir)U.(K>0. In 1877 it was reported that carriers e»n the cajml.s Iiad n'ceived up to that time about $150, ()()() .000, and nienhuiit". uml warchcjuseuien aib<»ut $!(((», 000. 000, while the value ttf lb" ir)«T**nM' in wealth and popuhition was incalculable. I V of the Cavuga & Seneca Canal, the Oswego Cii: iiijdain Canal, is fairly .similar fo that of the Erie ('a: I not Ik- recounted here. " - . ttUiIih for uge. — As already noted, there are, in addi- tion to the new barge canal .syst. 000 Lealiage at aqueducts, culverts, and waste gates- i, .^00, 000 Leakage at lock gates and valves 1.200.000 Loss over waste weirs 5,000.000 Water for power to operate locks 1,000. 000 Water for power for electric light at locks TOO. 000 Water for lockages, at average rate of 59 per day IS. (KK). 00(t Wat.r diverted for industrial uses and agriculture 46,000.000 Tntal during season of navigation !_ 100.900.000 This is equivalent to an average discharge of 1237.27 cubic feet per second. It was considered that this diversion would care for an annual i raflic- of 1(>,()(M),0()0 tons of cargo. The last item in the table — namely, 4t>,(MH >.()(>(» cubic feet per day — was to include such spilling at wusteways for power uses as had been -ustomary at Lockport, Medina. ant of Delta Reservoir and 17 miles northeast of the nearest point f)ri the barge canal. It was foimed In' the construction of a large earth dam, has an area of ^ square miles when full, and impounds DIVERSIOlSr OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 137 the (liaiiia<>e from 372 s(|Uiire milos. Hinckley Reservoir averages somewhat deeper than Delta Reservoir and its capacity is corre- spondinji'ly greater. Its available sui)ply is estimated to be about 280 cubic feet per second, assuming one-third of the flow to pass on down West Canada Creek to supply water powers between Trenton Falls and Herkimer. Water from Delta Reservoir is supplied to tlie Rome summit level at Rome through the Mohawk River. Water from Hinckley Reservoir flows down West Canathi Creek to Trenton Falls, where a portion of it is diverted through an arti- ficial canal 5.7 miles long to Nine Mile Creek, through which it is fed into the summit level between Rome and Oriskany. It has been stated already in this chapter that the portion of the old Erie Canal between Butternut Creek feeder, about 5 miles east of Syracuse, and New London, on the Rome sunnnit level, has been retained as a navigable feeder and connected with the summit level by a new function lock. There are five feeders bringing water from the south into this portion of the old Erie Canal, all of which were constructed years ago for the purpose of feeding the old canal. They are the following: Orville feeder, drawing from Butternut Creek and James- ville Reservoir ; Faj^etteville feeder, delivering from Limestone Creek and De Ru3i;er Reservoir; Chittenango feeder, drawing from Chit- tenango Creek, Erieville Reservoir and Cazenovia Lake ; Cowasselon feeder, delivering from Cowasselon Creek; and Oneida feeder, de- livering from Oneida Creek. It is important to note that most of the water supply to De Ruyter Reservoir is derived by diverting into it the flow of the upper portion of Tioughnioga River, which is a tributary of the Chenango River, which in turn is a branch of the Susqueshanna, and so discharges into Chesapeake Bay. The total supply to the Rome summit level from this source was estimated by Mr. Kuichling to be about 35 cubic feet per second. Another feeder of the summit level is Oriskany Creek, which enters the Mohawk River from the south about 7| miles east of Rome. This creek rises about 25 miles due south of Rome. The upper portion of its drainage area, together with that of some of the upper branches and tributaries of the Chenango River, was formerly used to supply the summit level of the Chenango Canal, and an extensive system of storage reservoirs was established by the State in this locality. On the abandonment of the Chenango Canal, however, its summit level and water resources were retained to feed the old Erie Canal through Oriskany Creek. The reservoirs, all of which are on streams originally tributary to the Chenango River, are as follows: Eaton Brook Reservoir, liatch Lake Reservoir, Bradley Reservoir, Kingsley Brook Reservoir, Madison Brook Reservoir, Leland Pond Reservoir, and several small ponds. These all discharge into the summit level of the Chenango Canal, which, in turn, discharges into the headwaters of Oriskany Creek. The water supply from this source, as estimated by Mr. Kuichling, was about 35 cubic feet per second. The total estimated supply for the Rome summit level is the sum of the quanti- ties given above, or 600 cubic feet per second. The estimated water supply required for the summit level is about 440 cubic feet per second. It is to be noted that of the 600 cubic feet per second con- stituting the supply, 430 cubic feet per second, the portion from Delta and Hinckley Reservoirs, is naturally tributary to the Hudson River, while of the 170 cubic feet per second remainder at least 35 cubic 138 DI^^i:RSION of watei; feom great lakes and Niagara river. feet per second is naturally tributary to the Susquehanna River, leaving only 135 cubic feet per second naturally tributaiy to the Great Lakes. It is estimated by Mr. Landreth that tiie water supply re- quired just we.st of the sunnnit level for conditions pertaining to an annual traffic of 10,000,000 tons of cargo, including evaporation, seepage, leakage, spillvray losses, lockages, and lock operation, is 213 cubic feet per second, and that the corresponding requirement just east of the summit level is 219 cubic feet per second. These values are so nearl}' identical that they may be considered equal, each '220 cubic feet per seccmd. It is evident, then, that none of the water tributary to the Great Lakes escapes by way of the barge canal into the Mohawk Valle}', but that, on the contrary about So cubic feet per second is gained by the Great Lakes Basin, part of this coming from the Mohawk Basin, and part from the eastern headwaters of the Susquehanna River. Photographs Xos. 29 to 46, inclusive, illustrate various feature^ of this notable waterway. Explanations and descriptions are given beneath the pictures. 6. ST. LAWRENCE RIVER CANALS. Description of St. Lawrence River. — The quantities of water di- verted from the St. Lawrence River by the various canals are very small, with exception of the Massena Canal, where the diversion is very large. In every case the water diverted is returned to the river again within a distance of 1;^ to lOif miles. The diversion by the Galop Canal is between 500 and 1,000 cubic feet per second, on the average, of which 200 or less is for navigation use. The diversion by the ^Slorrisburg Canal is between 1,000 and 1,500 cubic feet per second, of which possibly 200 is required for navigation purposes. In both these instances the balance of the diversion is used for power development. The navigation requirement does not exist in winter time, but power is, in general, developed the year around. The Farran Point Canal diverts probably less than 50 cubic feet per second on the average, all for navigation use. The diversion by the Cornwall Canal appears to average somewhat less than 3,000 cubic feet per second. Of this, during the navigation season, an average of perhaps 300 cubic feet per second is required by navigation. The remainder is utilized in power development. The diversion through the Massena Canal is entirely for power de- velopment, and will be treated in section (c) of this report. In the same section the power features of the Galop, Morrisburg. and Corn- wall canals are presented. The flow in Little River, at Waddington is described in this section also. In the following paragraphs the navigation canals of the St. Lawrence River above St. Regis are described, with special refer- ence to the navigation features. On Plates Nos. 9 and 10 these canals are .sliown in their relationship to certain sections of St. Lawrence River. 'J'he St. Lawrence River is the outlet of the Great Lakes to the sea, debouching from the northeasterly corner of Lake Ontario and flowing thence in a northeasterly direction 700 miles to Anticosti Island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is nearly 1,200 miles from Lake Ontario to the open sea at the Strait of Belle Isle. DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 139 For a distance of G2 miles, from Tibbetts Point at the head of the St. Lawrence to Ogdensburg, N. Y., the fall in the water surface is only 0.87 foot at mean stage, and from there to Lock No. 27 at the head of the Galop Rapids, 6 miles, the fall at mean stage is 1.32 feet more. Throughout this reach the river is broad, and, for the greater por- tion of the distance, from the lake down to Brockville, Ontario, is divided into channels by a great number of islands. There is a natural na\'igable channel 28 feet deep or over, except for the possi- bility of undiscovered shoals, and 400 or more feet wide, which is wholly in Ignited States waters except for about 7^ miles, from Cross- Over Island through the Brockville Narrows. From Ogdensburg to Montreal, 120 miles, the river is generally narrow and swift, and is much less cut up by islands. All the rapids of the St. Lawrence occur in this reach, the total fall at low stage being about 224 feet, or from elevation 242 to elevation 18. Fifty miles below Montreal is the head of Lake St. Peter, the most upstream point at which tide is observable. Except for this lake, the reach of river from Montreal to Quebec, 150 miles, is of moderate width and has few islands. From Quebec to the Gulf the stream is very broad. Channel improvements have secured a depth of 30 feet from Montreal to the sea, the dredged channel extending to Father Point, 175 miles below Quebec. The improved channel is 450 feet wide between Montreal and Quebec, being from 600 to 750 feet wide at bends. Below Quebec it is 1,000 feet wide. At St. Regis, N. Y., opposite Cornwall, Ontario, the St. Lawrence passes wholly into Canadian territory and ceases to be a boundary stream, 114 miles from Lake Ontario. It is to be noted that in the total distance from Lake Ontario to the sea. United States waters are comprised in only the upper one-tenth thereof, the remaining nine-tenths being wholly Canadian waters. The mean river eleva- tion at Lock No. 15 at Cornwall is 153.42, showing a fall from Lake Ontario at Tibbetts Point of 92.66 feet. The mean elevation of Lake Ontario at Oswego, N. Y., for the years 1860 to 1917, both inclusive, is 246.18 feet on United States standard datum. The discharge of the St. Lawrence River at this stage, as determined at two gauging sections just below Iroquois, Ontario, is 241,000 cubic feet per second. At this stage the change in discharge per foot change in stage is approximately 21,500 cubic feet per second. At Galop Rapids the river has a fall of about 9 feet in 3 miles, from Adams Island at the head of Galop Canal to Lotus Island. The channel north of Galop Island, in Canadian waters, is navigable by light draft boats. The south channel, which is in American waters, is not navigable. From Lotus Island to Iroquois, about 5^ miles, there is a fall of about 6^ feet. The river follows a tortuous channel and the current is swift. This is all properly a part of the Galop Rapids, although the swiftest portions, namely, those abreast of Cardinal, Ontario, and Point Iroquois, are frequently designated, respectively, as the Car- dinal Rapids and the Point Iroquois Rapids. The Galop Canal, de- scribed later, provides for passing navigation around these rapids. It is 4i miles from Lock No. 25, at Iroquois, to Lock No. 24, at the head of Morrisburg Canal, abreast the head of Rapide Plat, and the fall in this distance is approximately 3 feet. The river has but a 140 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. single channel, and the current is swift. This is the most difficult IDortion of the river for upbound vessels, where a canal is not pro- A^ided. In the Eapide l^lat there is a fall of about 12 feet in approximately 3^ miles. This rapids has a ruling depth of about 12 feet at low water, and a sinuous channel. Ogden Island, which is United States territory, forms the south shore of this rapids. The Morrisburg Canal follows the Canadian shore the full length of the rapids. Between Ogden Island and the main American shore is the " Little Eiver," which is shallow, narrow, and winding, and is not navigable, except by small steam and motor boats, above and below a dam which crosses it at Waddington, N. Y. The dam is a dilapidated timber and rock structure about 950 feet long and 12 feet high. At present the flow through Little River is approximately 1.1 per cent of the total St. Lawrence discharge. From Lock No. 23, at the foot of Morrisburg Canal, at Morris- burg, Ontario, to the Farran Point Canal, 9^ miles, the fall is about 7-^ feet. The channel is winding and the current generally swift. The Farran Point Rapids, on the Canadian side of Croil Island, is little more than a mile long, but is narrow and SAvift, having a fall of 4 feet. Farran Point Canal, along the Canadian shore, over- comes this rapids. It is 5 miles from Lock 22, at the foot of Farran Point Canal to the head of the Cornwall Canal, and the fall in M'ater surface is 0.5 foot at mean stage. In this reach the river is separated into two channels b}^ large islands, and the slopes in the two channels differ considerably. The Long Sault Rapids commence at the head of the Cornwall Canal, near Dickinson's Landing. Ontario, and extend about 10^ miles by the main channel to Lock No. 15 at Cornwall. Ontario. The total fall is 47.4 feet, the fall in the swiftest portion, however, being 281 feet in less than 3 miles. Several large islands divide the river into channels through this reach. What is known as the " South Sault Rapids " is the American channel between the American shore and Long Sault Island. This channel is narrow and sinuous, the current is very swift, and navigation is impracticable. Near the upper end of the South Sault. and not far upsti-eam from the head of the Long Sault Rapids, the Massena Canal diverts water on the United States side for power development. The Cornwall Canal extends along the Canadian shore the full length of the Long Sault Rapids. The only bridge across the St. Lawrence where it borders the United States is at Cornwall. This is a single-track bridge of the New York & Ottawa Railway. There are two parts to this l)ridge. one across the channel to the north of Cornwall Island, the other across the channel south of the island. That across the south or American channel consists of three spans. The middle span is 372 feet, and the two end spans are 370 feet each, all from center to center of piers. The piers are about 12 feet wide at the water line. The spans are fixed and have 37^ feet of headroom al)OAe high Avater dur- ing the season of navigation. T he bridge across the north chaniiel also consists of three spans, the middle span being 420 feet long, the north si)nn 212.5 feet, and the south span 210.5 feet, all from center to center of piers, with the DR-ERSION OF WATEK FROM iiKEAT LAKES A.ND 2aAU.\llA lllVEK. 141 piers about IG feet wide at the water line. The middle span, which co\ers the part oi' tiie river now used by downbound passenger boats, has 60 feet of headroom at hi<^li water. There are no li«ock 18. Locks Nos. 17 and 15 are at Cornwall, at the downstream end of the canal. There is no new lock No. 16. The lift at Lock 21 is u.sually only a few feet. At the other locks the lifts are about as follows: No. 20, 7 feet : No. 19, 6 feet ; No. 18. 7 feet : Nos. 17 and 15, 14 feet each. The locks are operated electrically, and the canal and locks are lighted by electricity. DIYEESION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVEK. 145 The old locks are still available, with the exception of No. 21. They are each 2()0 feet long, 45 feet wide, with 9 feet of water on the miter sills. Each old lock is abreast of the new lock of corre- sponding number, except at the lower end of the canal, where old Locks Nos. 15, IG, and 17 are located near the two new locks. The single-track drawbridge of the New York & Ottawa Railway which crosses the canal just above Cornwall has already been men- tioned. There are also two highway swing (b-awbridges across the canal, one at Cornwall and one at Mille Roches. These have center piers in the canal. A few specially constructed passenger steamers shoot the Long Sault Rapids. All other vessels, both upbound and downbound, take the canal. The original cost of the canal was $1,945,625. Cost of enlarge- ment was $5,300,679. Cost of operation and maintenance to March, 1916, was $3,102,415. Receipts to the same date were $592,038. The freight transported in this canal in the three years 1915, 1916, and 1917 averaged 3,700,000 short tons per annum, about three-fourths of which was eastbound. The nimiber of vessel pas- sages was, in 1915, 8,641; in 1916, 8,325; and in 1917, 8,701. The amount of water diverted from St. Lawrence River by the Cornwall Canal appears to average roundly about 3,000 cubic feet per second. Of this, during the navigation season, an average of perhaps 300 cubic feet per second is required for navigation uses. The remainder is utdized in power development, as will be described in section (c) of this report. The diverted water is returned to the river partly at Mille Roches and partly at Cornwall, all within a distance of 5 to 11 miles of the point of diversion. 7. PROPOSED ERIE & ONTARIO SANITARY CANAL. The Erie & Ontario Sanitary Canal Co. proposes to construct a combined ship, sanitary, and power canal from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, and to divert 26,000 cubic feet of water per second through it. The route is shown on Plate No. 6. Description of canal— The proposed canal is to start from a new harbor south of Lackawanna, N. Y., wdiere new breakwaters and piers are proposed, extending from Woodlawn Beach out into Lake Erie about 4 miles to Seneca Shoal. At the east end of the harbor a lock is to be provided for lowering vessels about 8 feet into the head of the canal. From this lock the route as planned starts toward the east, turns north on a radius of about 15,000 feet, and runs along the eastern outskirts of Buif alo through Hamburg W est Seneca, Cheektowaga, and Amherst Townships. In Pendleton 1 own- ship it crosses the New York State Barge Canal at grade. U then passes through the west edge of Lockport Township, tc^ the top of the Niagara escarpment, just west of the "Lockport Gulf. Here a pair of enormous balanced lift locks of novel design and unprece- dented dimensions are to overcome the drop of 209 feet to the level below The canal then crosses the "Ontario Plain " at an elevation of about 351 feet, through the township of Newf ane to another pair of lift locks, which serve the drop of 104 feet to the level of Lake Ontario in Eighteenmile Creek, about 2 miles from its mouth. 27880—21 10 146 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVEB. A large harbor is planned to be constructed at Olcott, at the mouth of the creek. North of the barge canal the line follows very closely the Tonawanda-Olcott route projected by the Board of Engineers on Deep AVaterways, the main canal is 80 feet deep throughout, and has a berm 5 feet above water level on each side, the berm along one side being 10 feet wide while on the other side it is 40 feet wide. From Lake Erie to the point where the river branch from Tona- wanda and Black Rock enters, the cross sections are designed to be as follows: In rock section the bottom width is 250 feet, and the side slopes 10 on 1 both above and below the berm. Overlying earth is in every case given a slope of 1 on 2, and a berm is left at the rock surface. In sections partly earth and partly rock, if retaining walls are used, the standard rock section is adopted up to rock surface, and vertical faced retaining walls extend from the rock surface up to the berm 5 feet above water line, the excavated areas behind the walls being backfilled. In sections partly in earth and parti}- in rock, where no retaining walls are used, and in sections wholly in earth, the bottom width is 200 feet, the side slopes are 1 on 2, and a berm 10 feet wide and 5 feet below Avater surface is provided on each side of the canal. From the River Branch junc- tion to Lake Ontario the bottom width for each type of section is 50 feet greater, the other characteristics remaining unchanged. Available depth of water in the locks is to be 30 feet. The total length of the main canal, exclusive of the harbors, is 40 miles. It is 17-^ miles from Lake Erie along the route to the River Branch junc- tion, 3^ miles from there to the barge canal crossing. 8 miles fur- ther to the high twin locks, and 9 miles between the two sets of twin locks. The excavation is very heavy and is largely in rock, the overburden reaching a maximum of approximately 140 feet. A branch canal starts at Black Rock and follows the line of the old Erie Canal to Twomile Creek, then turns eastward along the general line of the " State Ditch " and EUicott Creek and joins the main canal near Getzville. This canal has a depth of 12 feet, a bot- tom wndth of 100 feet, and side slopes of 1 on 2 with a 10-foot berm on each side 5 feet under water and another 10- foot berm on each side 5 feet above water. The length of the branch canal is 13^ miles. Diversions. — Of the proposed 26,000 cubic feet per second dis- charge through the canal, 4,800 is to go through the Black Rock Canal and the River Branch Canal, the remaining 21,200 cubic feet per second entering the main channel south of Lackawanna. In each part of the system the velocity will be approximately 3 feet per second. In the greater part of the ship canal, which is through rock, this velocity will delay upbound vessels somewhat, but not exces- sively. The case is different, however, in the 7 or 8 miles of earth section. Mr. Alfred Noble, in his studies for the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, stated that the backwash due to vessels navigat- ing an earth section of a canal should not exceed 3 feet per second, and that a velocity of 3^ feet per second would cause excessively great cost in maintaining the banks. In the earth sections of this canal the backwash from the slowest upbound boat, added to the current of the canal, will produce a veh)city along the banks exceeding this value, and with large steamers moving at 4 miles per hour the DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 147 current along the banks would amount to 4.2 feet per second. As economical operation requires ship speeds of 8 miles per hour or thereabouts, it is evident that the earth section as designed is en- tirely inadequate. The river branch is designed to serve as an extension of the barge canal system, and for the type of boat em- ployed on this system a current of 8 feet per second is much too great. By enlargement of various sections of the canal these diffi- culties could be overcome, but only at considerable expense. The grade crossing near Pendleton of the ship canal and Now York State Barge Canal affords a weak point in the proposed scheme. A volume of flow of 26,000 cubic feet per second is to be discharged into the crossing by the ship canal, and an equal volume abstracted on the opposite side. Similarly a flow of perhaps 1,200 cubic feet per second is contributed by the barge canal on one side and ab- stracted on the other. The resulting eddies and cross-currents would seem to render the crossing diilicult of navigation, particularly by strings of barges in the barge canal. An expensive structure could probably be designed which would protect the crossing by guard gates and carry most of the water beneath the crossing through in- verted syphons, or the cross currents could be reduced by excavating a large and expensive basin at the junction. This grade crossing would be very much more difficult than the grade crossing of the barge canal and Genesee River at Rochester, pailly because the Genesee is very wide at the crossing, but mostly because the volumes of flow to be handled are almost always so verj^ much smaller in the Rochester case. Ohjections. — There are two fatal objections to the proposition as a ship canal. The first is its great length as compared to other avail- able routes. If portions of the Niagara River are utilized the arti- ficial ship canal between Lakes Erie and Ontario need be only 8 miles long by the LaSalle-Lewiston route, or 25 miles long by the Tona- wanda-Olcott route, as these routes were projected by the Deep Waterways Board. From Lewiston to Lake Ontario the Niagara River is wide and deep, and of moderate current, requiring but the removal of a small shoal at its mouth to make it readily navigable by deep draft vessels. Above LaSalle the upper Niagara River re- quires only a moderate amount of improvement to make it navigable for 30-foot draft with far greater speed and safety than any ship canal. The Deep Waterways Board reported that " between Buf- falo and a point common to the two routes in Lake Ontario * * * in a 30-foot channel a steamship of 27 feet draft would be one hour and forty-three minutes longer by the Tonawanda route. Since the cost of maintenance of the Lewiston waterway would be less than for the route from Tonawanda to Olcott. the interest and expense ac- counts will be much less for the former, and as the actual time saved by a steamship on the Lewiston route would be from 11 to IG per cent of the time of passage, it is evident that both economy in construc- tion and cost of transportation definitely determine the Lewiston waterway as the preferable route." The proposed Seneca Shoal- Olcott Route of the Erie & Ontario Sanitar}^ Canal Co. has a length of 40 miles. Every reason which makes the LaSalle route better than the Tonawanda route applies with double force to a comparison between the LaSalle-Lewiston and the Seneca Shoal-Olcott routes. 148 DIVERSION OF V.ATiLrt TKOM GEEAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. The other fatal objection is the fact that the proposed canal route intersects every railroad and road entering Buffalo from the west, south, and east, at each of which crossings a drawbridge would ])e required unless the crossings were abandoned. This is probably the most serious objection of all. North of the State of Georgia the only low pass through the Ap- palachian Eange from the Atlantic seaboard to the interior of the United States is by way of the valleys of the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers. The most important rail routes from New York and New England follow this pass, and they all enter Buffalo, which, because of its strategic position at the junction of the western end of this pass and eastern end of the chain of upper Great Lakes, has become one of the largest, most important, and also most congested railroad centers in the United States. The proposed canal cuts every one of the great lines of communication between the East and West through this pass, and cuts some of them twice. In the first 15 miles from Lake Erie it intersects 10 electric railroad tracks, 21 highways having no trolley tracks, and 52 steam railroad tracks. It is estimated that a total of more than 70 separate drawbridges will be required for the entire route. A drawbridge over a ship canal is always a source of delay to traffic both over the bridge and in the canal. As it is impracticable for large vessels to stop in canals they are customarily given right of way, and land traffic is ac- cordingly delayed. Notwithstanding having the right of way, steam- ers usually find it necessary to reduce speed to a minimum in the vi- cinity of drawbridges, and thus suffer considerable delay. Occasion- ally the bridge operating mechanism fails to work promptly, and then serious accidents often occur. In a current of 3 feet per sec- ond the difficulties would be intensified. Downbound vessels would not ha^e steerage way unless making at least 4 to 5 miles per hour with respect to the bank. At such speed they could not be stopped quickly. In brief, such a condition as would necessarily prevail in the first 15 miles of the route from Lake Erie would be intolerable both from the standpoint of the railroads, and also from that of nav- igation. Other objections are the lowering of Lake Erie 1.18 feet at mean stage which the direct diversion proposed would cause, and the pro- duction of excessive currents in the present Black Rock Canal. The first of these conditions could be remedied by costly remedial works; the second by an expensive enlargement of the Black Rock Canal. As far as navigation is concerned, therefore, this proposition is not believed to be worthy of further consideration. From the stand- ])oint of sanitation it is treated in section (b), and as a power de- velopment enterprise it is dealt with at considerable length in Sec- tion F. 8. OTHER PROPOSED NAVIGATION CANALS, LAKE ERIE TO LAKE ONTARIO, Aside from the new Wellnnd Ship Canal, now partially con- structed, and the proposed Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal, the proposed routes of navigation canals connecting Lakes Erie and Ontario have contemplated using ])ortions of the Niagara River. Attention is directed to Plate No. G, which is a map showing Niagara River in its relation to the Welland Canal and to various DIATiRSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 149 proposed canals, including that of the Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal Co.; and also to Plate No. 11, which frives profiles of the Nia<2;ara River. Before proceedino; to consider the various proi)oso(l canals, i\ brief description of Niagara River and the surrounding terrain will be given. Description of Niagara River. — The country traversed Ijy the Niagara River lies in two plains; separated by a steep bluff called the Niagara escarpment. The upper plain has an undulating sur- face with a general elevation of COO feet above sea level. The lower or Lake Ontario plain is comparatively smooth except wliere streams haA'e washed out narrow- valleys. From its southern edge, which has an elevation of 380 to 400 "feet above sea level, it slopes north- ward to an elevation of about 260 feet at the lake shore, with low bluffs 10 to 30 feet high. A contour map compiled from United States Geological surveys and other sources is published in House Document No. 149, Fifty-sixth Congress, second session, (Report of the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, Plate No. 92.) The Niagara River forms the natural outlet of Lake Erie at Buf- falo, discharging the surplus waters into Lake Ontario at Youngs- town, N. Y. It is 37 miles long by the cliannel on the American side of Grand Island, and 33 miles long by the channel on the Canadian side of Grand Island. The total fall in water surface from lake to lake averaged 326.35 feet for the years 1860 to 1917, both inclusive. Of this total fall about 162 feet is the sheer drop of Horseshoe Falls. The discharge of the river varies from about 110,000 to 400,000 cubic feet per second, depending on the stage of Lake Erie. At the average stage for the years 1860 to 1917, inclu- sive, namely, 572.53, the discharge is 208,000 cubic feet per second. The increment of discharge per foot rise of lake, near mean stage, is 22,000 cubic feet per second. Leaving Lake Erie the river flows over a limestone ledge in a stream about 1,600 feet wide and of 15 feet maximum depth at its most restricted section. At this point the velocity approximates 8 miles per hour. In a distance of 3| miles from the head of the river to the foot of Squaw Island the fall in water surface is ap- proximately 5.1 feet, varying somewdiat with the stage of Lake Erie. This section of the river acts as a control on the discharge of the river, and is equivalent in its hydraulic effect to a submei-ged weir. Changes in water surface elevation at the foot of Squaw Island have about seven-tenths as much effect on the discharge as equal changes on Lake Erie have. That is, a rise of one-tenth foot in Lake Erie produces an increase in discharge of 2.200 cubic feet per second, causing at the same time a rise of 0.082 foot at foot of Squaw Island; while a lowering of 0.1 foot at foot of Squaw Island, Lake Erie ele- vation meanwhile remaining unchanged, would produce only 1.560 cubic feet per second increased flow. The latter condition is possible when the river regimen has been disturbed artificially. The Inter- national Bridge, a single track structure belonging to the Grand Trunk Railroad, crosses the river at Squaw Island and has eight river piers. ^ ^ ^ j.-> • About three-quarters of a mile below Squaw Island the river is divided by Strawberry Island, and farther down by Grand Island. The channel east of Grand Island is known as the American or 150 DIVERSION OF WATER FEOil GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. Tonawanda Channel, while that west of Grand Island is called the Canadian or Chippawa Channel. From the point of tlivision it is 12 miles by the Canadian and 16 miles by the American channel to the point of reuniting below Navy Island, about a mile above Wel- land River. From Squaw Island to Welland River the fall is 4.8 feet. The Chippawa Channel averages between one-half and three- fourths mile wide, and approxhnately 18 feet deep. The Tonawanda Channel for the first 7 miles is about one-third mile wide and 25 feet deep, and for the remainder of the way is about three-fourths mile wide and 10 feet deep. The current averages about 2 to 2| feet per second in these two channels. The International boundary line follows the Chippawa Channel, close to Grand Island. From 1 mile above to 1 mile below Welland River the Niagara River is roughly a mile wide, and averages 8 to 10 feet deep. This reach is known as the Chippawa-Grass Island Pool. Its average elevation is about 563 feet. It discharges over a natural rock barrier in a waterfall averaging 5 to 10 feet in height, and known as the first cascade. Hydraulically, the rock barrier is equivalent to a weir, and the first cascade is a free overfall. Diversions of water below the first cascade can have no effect on the river above the cascade, as for example the diversions on the Canadian side by the Toronto Power Co., Canadian Niagara Power Co., International Railway Co., and City Waterworks of Niagara Falls, Ontario. Diversions from Chippawa-Grass Island Pool are made on the United States side by the plants of the Niagara Falls Power Co. and Hydraulic Power Co., while on the Canadian side the diversion of the Ontario Power Co. is made from the lip of this pool. The first cascade forms the upper portion of a series of cascades and rapids extending to the brink of the falls. This reach of river is about half a mile long and is divided longitudinally bv Goat Island into the Canadian and American Rapids, the former being wide and the latter narrow. The drop from Welland River to brink of Horse- shoe Falls is about 55 feet, while to the American Falls it is only 50 feet. Horseshoe Falls and American Falls are separated by (roat Island. The former is 3,000 feet long and 162 feet high ; the latter is 1,000 feet long and 167 feet high. From the foot of the falls the river flows in a gorge whoso ))anks are 180 to 250 feet high for 6^ miles to Lewiston. At the latter locality the gi-ound falls away very abrupth'^ from an elevation of about C)00 feet to an elevation of approximately 350 feet. From the foot of the falls for about 2 miles the river is roughly 800 feet wide at the water surface, and 100 to 192 feet or more deep. Its velocity is moderate, its surface generally smooth, and its drop in water .sur- face from upper to lower ond of the reach approximately 5 feet at mean stage. This reach is variously known as the Upper Gorge Pool, Pool Below the Falls, Maid-of-the-Mist Pool, etc. In this report it will be designated the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool. All of the j^resent water-power developments discharge into the upstream half of this pool, whose average elevation is aliout 343 feet. A highway bridge known as the I^pper Steel Arch Bridge spans the pool about 1,000 feet downstream from the American Falls. Bolow the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool the next mile of the river is a wild, turbulent rapids called the Whirlpool Rapids, which dis- DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 151 charges into the Whirlpool. The water surface drops 48 feet from upper to lower pool. The average width at water surface in the rapids is 400 feet, and the average depth is roughly 30 feet. At the narrowest section the width is 320 feet and the mean depth 32 feet, while at the shallowest section the width is 410 feet and the mean depth 17 feet. The mean velocity is roughly 25 feet per second, the maximum velocity exceeding 38 feet i)er second. The upper end of the Whirlpool Eapids is crossed by two double track railway l)ridges, one known as the Michigan Central Cantilever Bridge, and the other the Grand Trunk Steel Arch Bridge. The latter is a double deck structure carrying a highway under the railroad tracks. The Whirlpool is 1500 feet long, 1200 feet wide, and, according to the soundings of Dr. J. W. Spencer, 24 to 126 feet deep. Its average elevation is 292 feet. The level of the Whirlpool fluctuates through a greater range of stage than the level of any of the other pools, and the water surface is more disturbed. The Lower Rapids extend from the W^liirl]jool, 3^ miles to Lewis- ton. The total water surface drop in this distance is 46 feet. The rapids vary in width from 310 to 900 feet, and in depth from 40 to at least 150 feet. The slope is not as uniform as in the whirlpool, consisting in several steep pitches connected by sections of consider- ably less sloj^e. About three-fourths mile below the Whirlpool is the beginning of the narrowest section, which extends downstream nearly half a mile. This portion of the rapids is abreast of a low lying piece of ground in the gorge on the Canadian side known as Niagara Glen or Foster Flats, and is sometimes called Foster Flats Eapids. It has a steep slope. At the lower end of the Lower Rapids there is a suspension bridge known as the Lewiston-Queenston Bridge. From the suspension bridge to Lake Ontario is H miles, and the water surface drop is approximately one-half foot. This portion of the river is roughly one-half to one-third mile wide and 30 to 60 feet deep. The current is moderate. The banks are 50 to 100 feet high, becoming lower near the mouth of the river. The general direction of the river is from south to north, although the portion above the Falls, frequently kno^yn as the Upper River, trends more nearly northwest, while the portion below the Falls, the Lower River, flows in general almost exactly north. Just above the falls the river is flowing almost due west and at the foot of the falls it turns more than a right angle, flowing a little east of north. The Canadian Falls is south of the American Falls. Another sharp right angled bend in the river occurs at the Whirlpool, where the direction of flow changes from northwest to northeast. The Niagara River is navigable for boats of considerable size from Lake Erie to the Welland River and to docks behind Conners Is- land. It is navigable also from Lewiston and Queenston to Lake Ontario. In the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool two small steamers operate in summer time, carrying sightseers up close to the foot of the falls, but these boats do not attempt to navigate the rapids below. The Niaqara Route. — The Niagara River route, including a port- age around the Falls and rapids, had been one of the main thorough- fares of the Indians from time immemorial, when, in the seventeenth centurv, it was discovered by the French explorei's of the great natural inland waterway of the Great Lakes system. As early as 1678 the 152 DIVERSIOX OF WATER FROM GRE.\T LAKES AXD NIAGARA RTYER. French had a post which commanded the portage. The frontier passed into the control of the British in 1759. By both nations it was considered of vast importance because of this route between east and west, and its early growth was due to this fact. Toward the end of the eighteenth century, when the era of American canal building began, the idea of a canal to replace the portage was sug- gested several times, and it appears that a survey for a canal was made in 1784. In 1798 a company was incorporated to build such a canal, but nothing further was accomplished. Since that date but few years have passed without agitation for the construction of such a canal, and many surveys and estimates have been made. Examinations and surveys ordered by Congress have been heretofore made and reports thereon pxiblished, as follows: Niagara Ship Canal. Congressional Documents. Annual reports of Engineers. Recommen- v„„. House or Year- 1 senate. No. Con- gress. Session. Year. Pages. dation. Five routes: depth, 10- 1836 I House... 1837 ...do 214 2m 24th... 24th... 38th... 40th... First feet; locks, 200 by 50 feet. Urging need for . Do. Five routes, depth 12 1864 ---do ! fil First ' None. feet; locks, 275 bjM5 feet. Six routes; depth, 14 feet; locks, 275 by 46 feet.. Two routes: depth, 20J 1868 1889 1S92 H. Ex.. 197 Second. . 1868 1889 271-287 2434 Do. Favorable. feet ; locks 400 by 60 feet. Presentation favorable to 1023 423 192 86 149 52d.... 54th... 54th... 55th... 56th... First.... Do. above. i Presentation favorable to 1896 . . .do ...do Do. a canal. General preliminarv ex- 1S97 L..do Second.. Do. amination and data. Four routes; depth 24 feet: locks 530 by60feet. 1897 1900 ...do.... ...do.... First.... 1897 3128-3237 Untovorable. Favorable. and Tonawanda-Olcott route; depth, 21 feet; locks, 600 by 60 feet; depth, 30 feet; locks, 740 by 80 feet. Surveys made under other auspices are enumerated as follows: 1784. First survey made for a canal around the Falls of Niagara; by private interests. 1798. Company chartered by the State of New York to construct a canal around Niagara Falls, capable of passing Iwats of 80 tons burden, said canal to be completed 10 years thereafter. 1808. Survey by James Geddes, under direction of surveyor gen- eral of the State of New York of route for a canal around the falls from Schlosser's to Lewiston. 1808. Secretary of the Treasury, under United States. Senate reso- lution .submitted report of Niagara Ship Canal, Schlossers to Lewis- ton, via The Devils Hole. 1826. Survey by private individuals, with a view to obtaining a charter from the State of New York. 1853. Under charter granted by the State of New York, survey made by Charle.s B. Stuart and Edward W. Serrell for a canal be- tween Tonawanda Creek and Lake Ontario. Proposed dimensions DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 153 of canal, 170 feet wide at top, 130 feet on the bottom and 14 feet depth of water, with locks 300 feet \on0 feet 6(»0 feet Width of locks 60 feet . . Lift of locks, upper flight (each) 40 feet . . one set 80 feet. 40 feet Lift of locks, lower flight (each) 39. 4 feet 39 4 feet Estimated cost $38,611,723 $66,831,857. These costs include a lock at Black Rock which has since been built. They also include the cost of regulating works at the head of the 154 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. river. The amount of water required to be diverted from Niagara River was not stated, but it probably was less than 1.000 cubic feet per second. The report is very exhaustive and represents the latest ideas as to what an Erie-Ontario Canal should be. except that the great size of ships now in use would require that the lo;*ks be made larger than recommended. The estimates of cost are, of course, quite obsolete because of the recent rise in prices. Tlie improvements to the Black Rock Canal, made since the report of the Deep Waterways Board, including construction of the new lock at Black Rock, have been described previously. Downstream from the lock the Niagara River has been improved for a distance of 2^ miles to provide a channel 400 feet wide and 21 feet deep at low water datum, extending to deep water in the Tonawanda Channel, from which point the natural channel is of ample width and depth for 5 miles, or nearly to the head of the Tonawanda-Dlcott route. Further authorized improvement will extend the 21 foot channel downstream 1^ miles to the TonaAvanda Iron & Steel Co. dock. The i-iver thence to the head of the LaSalle-Lewiston route, 3| miles, has lieen improved to provide a channel 200 feet wide, and 10 feet deep at low water datum. Scattered bowlders moved into the channel by ice have reduced the available depth to about 8 feet. Further details of the work, plans, and estimates of the Deep Waterways Board are given in the following quotations from its report : A careful recoiniaissance made by the board in advance of the field work showed that only two of the routes from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario were worthy of investigation, viz : The route from the Niatrara River at Tonawanda to Lake Ontario at Olcott, and from the river at LaSalle to Lewiston and tlience through the Niagara River to the lake. These were thoroughly investigated relative to volmne and kind of material to he excavated, nature and dimensions of structures which will be needed, and character of foundation on which such structures will have to be erected. The difTicuIties to be overcome on the two routes are practic;illy l!ie .same and the real comparative merits of the waterways depend largely upon relative cost to construct and maintain them and the difference in time rctinired by a type steani.ship to traverse the respective routes between points common to each. * * * The question has been raised as to the advisability of constructing locks, which will cost several million dollars, as close to the boundary between the I'liited States and Canada as will be the case at the Lewiston escarpment; but when we consider the important lock and regulating structures which will be needed at the head of Niagara River, the deep channels already excavated in Canadian waters at the mouth of the Detroit River, and the locks and canals at Sault Ste. IMarie, it is diflicult to conceive, if the Lewiston location is objec- tionable for military i-easons, why similar reasons should not have prevented the improvement of the entire upper lake system of waterways. * * * In (he very improbable event of a war with Great Britain, every large ship of war possessed by this country would be requir(>d on the high sea. Such vessels would be unnecessary on the lakes, since the greatest depth of the Canadian waterways is only 14 feet. Tlie survey of the Niagara Ship Canal was conmienced in September, 1897, and, including borings, was completed in April, 1898. The work consisted in develoi)ing two routes from I>ake Krie to Lake Ontario, one from Buffalo, via tlie Niagara River to Tonawanda, and thence by ship canal to Olcott, on Lake Ontario, and the other by the Niagara River to La Salle, near the lower end of Grand Island, and thence by ship canal to the Niagara River at Lewiston, from whlcli place there is a good natural channel to Lake Ontario. The tojiography of the country was determined with sufliclent accuracy to develop contours of 2-foot intervals on the field maps, and borings were ])ut down at such points as necessary to establish the profde of tlie i-o<'k surlaco DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 155 where above canal grade, along the line of the proposed waterway as linally located on the field maps. Fourteen diamond drill l)orings were afterwards put down along the location for these two lines to ascertain the character of material to be excuvatiil, and the ualui\' ol' Inuiuhiliuns on which structures are to be founded. Particular examination was made of the (^scarpment extending from above Lewiston to Lockport, with an average elevation of about 020 feet above moan tide at New York. A little west of Lockport a narrow ravine, known as the "Gulf" cuts through the escarpment, which has Inn-n geiu'rally regarded as the best location for locking down to the lower plateau. Comparative estimates, baseil on accurate surveys, indicate that a better line can be located west of the " Gulf " in which the waterway can be con- structed at less cost. Fi-oia the loot of the escnrpiiieuL al Lockp<»rt the plateau, consisting of red shale, gradually falls toward Lake Ontario. The top of the escarpment above Lewiston has practically the same elevation as at Lockport, but has a .steeper incline to\\ard r>ake Ontario than tiie latter. The construclion of a waterway by either i-oule vvill involve liie construction of locks having high lifts. On the Lewiston route the Niagara River constitutes a first-class natural harbor for the Lake Ontario terminal, whereas for all the other routes artificial harbors will have to be constructed. Tlie La Salle-Lewistou route lias fewer iinimrtaiit railroad crossings than the Olcott route, and does not interfere with manufacturing and private enterprises to the extent that the latter does in the vicinity of Toiiawauda. P'rom an eugiueeriui;' and financial point of view, and from the less danger of delays and accidents to navigation in the comparatively short reach of restricted waterway on the Lewiston line, it appears to be the preferable location on which to construct a ship canal. The Tonwwanda-Olcott route. — This route leaves the Niagara River at the head of Tonawanda Island, with an elevation of 565 feet above tide water at New York for low stage of the river, and continues at that level 13.2 miles to the head of the escarpment west of Lockport, where the ridge to be cut through has an elevation of 636 feet above tide water, or 71 feet above the water surface in the canal. From the top of the escarpment the line descends to Lake Ontario, 11.2 miles, with 2 single and 3 double locks of 40 feet lift each, one single lock with 30.n feet lift, and 3 double locks each with 30 feet lift. At a distance about 1 mile above Lake Ontario the line enters the gorge of Eighteen-mile Creek and follows it to the lake. The proposed harbor at Olcott consists in widening Eighteen-mile Creek to the width of 400 feet from the last lock of the canal to the lake, and protecting the entrance by breakwaters, as shown on the maps. The lake in front of the canal entrance is shallow, with a shale rock bottom, which will have to be excavated for a width of 600 feet and for the required depth. Between Niagara River and the escarpment at Lockport the rock, where above bottom grade of the waterway, is either limestone or Niagara shale, overlaid with silt, sand, gravel, clay, or hardpan. From the head of the escarpment north, the excavation will be through limestone, sandstone and shale, and near Lake Ontario throu.gh soft red shale, overlaid with sand, gravel, clay, or hardpan. La Salle-Leiriston Route. — Tliis rovite starts in Niagara River at the same point as the Touawanda-Olcott route, continues dov.n the river to the head )f Cayuga Island, and thence on a tangent (canal) with a low-water level of 563.5 feet to the escarpment above Lewiston. From the top of the escarpment the route passes down the bluff to the Niagara about one-half mile below Lewi.s- ton, with six double locks of 40 feet lift each and two double locks of 39.4 feet lift each. The fall of the river from the foot of Lock No. 9 to Lake Ontario (6 miles) is about 0.2 feet. The elevation of the top of tlie ridge above Lewiston at the point of maxi- mum cuttting is 620 feet above tide water or 56.5 feet above the projiosed low- water surface of the canal ; and for a distance of 6 miles the prism of the waterway is entirely in rock. From Tonawanda to La Salle, al)out 4 miles, rock composed of Salina shales is from 10 to 20 feet below river level, and from La Salle to the escarpment above Lewiston (7.5 miles) the excavation will be in Niagara limestone over- laid with clay, sand, and gravel. 156 DIVERSIOX OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. The excavation for the six double locks down the escarpment about three- fourths mile will be through limestone, s-andstone, and sliales, and from the foot of this flight to Niagara River, shales covered with sand, gravel, clay. aiKl bowlders. From the lower end of the canal to Lake Ontario (G miles) the river is from 50 feet to GO feet deep and forms one of the tinest harbors on the lakes. The bar in Lake Ontario outside of the entrance to the river has a depth on its crest of 24 feet at standard low water, and is composed of sand and gravel. I'rism dimensions. — From a careful study of the dimensions of the St. Clair Flats Canal, the Suez Canal, the IManchester Canal, the Amsterdam Canal, the Kiel Canala, and the speed which steamships can maintain in these respec- tive waterways, it is the opinion of the board that the cross section of the canal prism should be made such that a speed of 8 miles per hour can be main- tained ou tangents without danger to passing ships or damage to the c:inal banks. Referring to the discussion of the speed of ships in the proposed deep water- way, in Appendix No. 4, it will be noted that for the type of vessels best adapted for the economical transportation of the lake trallic the cross section of canal prism necessary to permit a speed of 8 miles per hour is about 5,500 square feet for a 21-foot waterway and 8,000 square feet for a 30-foot waterway.' The dimensions of lock structures which will best subserve the traffic of the waterway and the design of the lock gates best adapted for operating the locks have been investigated under the direction of the board by specialists in such construction, the results of which are fully discusseil in Appendix Nos. 1 and 2. The single locks, wliicli have been designed for a 30-foot waterway, are to be 740 feet long. SO feet wide, and have lifts to conform with the present de- velopment of water power on the routes. Where flights of locks are necessary, a duplicate set is provide(^l, having a width of GO feet. For a 21-foot waterway the locks, whether single or double, are to be 600 feet long, 60 feet wide, and have lifts the same as in the 30-foot waterway. Consideration has been given to the advisability of making the locks of the 21 -foot waterway SO feet wide, for the purpose of tloating large ships, light, from the lake shipyards to the sea- board. Projiosed ship canal. — In this report the matter of a ship canal betAveen Lake Erie and Lake Ontario is treated at considerable length for two reasons : First, to comply with instructions contained in department letters dated August 4l 1916, E. D. 42608, September 29, 1916, E. D. 101152, and April 28, 1917, E. D. 106256, whicli cover the preliminary examination on " Waterway or ship channel along the most practicable route between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario of suffi- cient capacity to admit the largest vessels now in use on the Great Lakes,-' ordered by Congress in the river and harbor act of July 27. 1916, which examination and report were held by the department to be superseded l)y and included in the investigation reported herein ; and second, to comply with department instructions that such a canal should be treated in the present report with special reference to the practicability and advisability of making it a combined power and ship canal. A summary of the estimates prepared is given in section (f) of this report, where the prf)ject is described in considerable detail in connection with other projects for the development of water power at Niagara Falls. For a ship canal without power development the estimated costs are as follows: * The flgures show, for 21-foot channel: Rock section, bottom width 240 foot. Rides slopes, 10 on 1, area 5,040 square feet. Earth section, bottom width 215 feet. Side slopes, 1 on 2, area 5.497 square f<'et. For .'JO-foot channel : Rock sertlon, bottom width 250 feet. Side slopes. 10 on 1, area 7,500 square feet. Earth section, bottom width 203 feet. Side slopes 1 on 2 ; area 7.990 square feet. DmERSIOHr OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 157 Prism. Locks. Cost. 200 feet wide, 25 feet deep 650 feet long, 70 feet wide, 25 foot deep $120,000,000 200 feet wide, 30 feet deep ' 800 feet long, 80 foot wide, 30 feet deep | 135,000,000 300 feet wide, 30 feet deep 800 feet long, 8U feet wide, 30 feet deep 155,652,000 It is important to note that the new Welland ship canal, only a few miles distant, wliich is now partially completed, and which no doubt will be opened to navifjation lon AXD NIAGARA RIVER. It will be noted that the amount of freight " east and west to United States ports " is small — about 500,000 tons. About one- quarter of this is grain and lumber eastward to Ogdensburg, N. Y., except about one-twentieth to Oswego, X. Y,, and the other three- quarters is the pulp wood above mentioned and general merchandise (railroad freight) from Ogdensburg westward to Chicago and Mil- waukee. The railroad freight movement (70,000 to 100,000 tons) was, however, discontinued in 1915 on the abolishment of the Rut- land Railroad line of freight vessels. There is no passenger service through the Welland Canal, and the number of yachts and motor boats traversing it is small. The United States lighthouse tender for the tenth district and the United States engineer inspection vessel. Buffah* district, use the canal for several trips per year to and from Lake Ontario. To summarize, the present commerce between Lakes Erie and On- tario nuiy be fairly regarded as not exceeding 1.000.000 freight tons per annum, of wliicli not over 10 per cent is United States commerce, coastwise or foreign. A waterway or channel to admit the largest vessels now in use on the Great Lakes involves the dimension of depth or draft, as well as of length and breadth over all. The question of draft involves vessels al)Out as represented in the existing lake fleet whose possible load-draft is greater than 21 feet. The percentage of such vessels in the lake fleet of about TOO large vessels, length 200 to 600 feet, may be fairlv approximated as follows: Load"draft 20 to 21 feet, 10 per cent. Load draft 21 to 22 feet. 25 per cent. Load draft 23 feet, 11 per cent. Load draft 24 feet, 12 per cent. These percentages are derived from molded depth of vessels as given in the official register of vessels, on the assumption that for vessels of the general lake type, the molded depth is practically equivalent to the sum of the draft and freeboard. There appear to be no regulations governing the amount of freeboard required on vessels on the Great Lakes, but considering the amount required on ocean-going vessels and the freeboard of known lake vessels, it has been assumed that such vessels with a molded depth of 28 feet or less should have 6 feet of freeboard, those from 28 to 31 should have 7 feet, and those greater than 31 should have 8 feet. The largest vessel as to draft is therefore taken to be as of a possible 24-foot draft. It is to he noted, however, that owing to existing conditions of channels and basins on the (xreat Lakes, freight tonnage is actually carried in vessels as indicated by the classification of vessels passing through the St. Marys Falls Canals, about as follows: I'ercfiitage of Vessels, net registered tonuage : ^^^ freigbt Under 1,000 1 1,000 to 2,000 2,0fX) to 3,000 9 3,000 to 4,000 28 4,0(^KJ to 5,000 27 .'3,00(J to 6,000 20 6,000 and over 4 100 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GRF-AT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 159 The draft of vessels of 2,000 tons and over, carrying 84 per cent of the frei«>ht was 18 to 21 feet, and those vessels are comprised in the class of vessels that can bo loaded to deeper draft as noted in the table above. They carry nearly all of the bulk freight, while the remainder (hereof and tiie merchandise freiglit is carried in package freighters and smaller vessels whose draft can not be eco- nomicall}' increased. The question of length and breadth over all is taken as that of the largest lake freight vessel, viz, length 625 feet and breadtli 64.2 feet, which excludes only a few side-wheel passenger steamers of breadth up to the maximum of 100 feet over guards. Of a total of 150 ves- sels over 500 feet long and over 50 feet beam over all. there were, in 191G, 34 vessels 600 to 625 feet in length and 58 to 64.2 feet in breadth. For further ti-eatment of the LaSalle-Lewiston Ship Canal, and consideration of correlative power development, reference is made to section (f ) of this report. 9. PROPOSED CANALS, LAKE ONTARIO TO HUDSON RIVER. Four water routes from Lake Ontario to the sea have in the past received consideration. One of these is the natural route by way of the St. Lawrence River. The other three are by way of the Hudson River, which is reached in one case b/ way of the St. Lawrence to Lake St. Louis, artifical canal from there to Richelieu River, up Richelieu River to Lake Champlain, and on to the Hudson by Lake C'hamplain and an artificial canal; in another case by the St. Law- rence to Lake St. Francis, then by artificial canal to Lake Champlain, and on to the Hudson as before; and in the third case by way of the Oswego, Oneida and Mohawk Rivers. Only the last route lies en- tirely in United States territory. All four routes are described in the report of the United States Deep Waterways Commission pub- lished in 1897 as House of Representatives Document No. 192 (54th Cong., 2d sess.) and are shown in plate 2 of that report which is here reproduced on plate No. 12. The route from the ocean to Lake Ontario by way of the Hudson River, Mohawk River, Oneida Lake, and Oswego River is one of the early water routes that has been used since the first settlements. It formed the usual connection between New York and the Lakes before the land route by way of Rochester and Buffalo was developed. A proposal to improve "it bv locks at Little Falls was made by the royal Governor of New York in 1768. In 1791 the first surveys for improving this route were made and some work was done on the eastern part during the following years. During the construction of the Erie Canal there was much agitation in favor of connecting it with Lake Ontario by means of the Oswego River. This was finally successful, and in 1829 the " Oswego Canal " was opened. Since that time it has formed part of the New York State canal system. The Deep Waterways Board considered two routes from Lake On- tario to the sea, one by way of the St. Lawrence River to Lake St. Francis. Lake St. Francis to Lake Champlain by artificial canal, and on down Lake Champlain and the Hudson River; the other by the Oswego, the Mohawk and the Hudson Rivers. It recommended the latter as the more desirable. The length of this route from Lake 160 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. Ontario at Oswego to the Hudson River at the mouth of Normans Kill is 172.9 miles. The line starts 1^ miles west of tiie mouth of the Oswe<;o River and runs south about 6 miles to lock Xo. 4, where it enters the river. It follows the river 5 miles to lock Xo. 5. and then goes across the divide io miles to Oneida Lake. After traversing the length of tlie lake, 21 miles, it follows the line of Wood Creek to Kome, a distance of 13 miles. Thence it continues 89 miles down the -Mohawk River to a point just above Schenectud}', where the line leaves the Mohawk and cuts across the divide, a distance of 11 miles to Xormans Kill and follows the kill for 13 miles to the Hudson River. The standard sections in rock are 240 feet wide for the 2i-foot channel and 250 feet for the 30-foot. The standard earth section has side slopes of 2 liorizontal to 1 vertical, with berms 10 feet wide situated 5 feet above and 5 feet below the water surface. There is slope paving between the berms. The bottom width is 215 feet for the 21-foot channel and 203 feet for the 30-foot. In Oneida Lake the width is 600 feet and in the Mohawk River below Herkimer it varies from 203 to 460 feet. There are 29 locks, the lift of each varying from 3 to 42.8 feet at low water. The total lockage is 512.6 feet. Fourteen of these locks are arranged in five flights of 2, 2, 2, 3, and 5 locks, respectively. These loclis are all double, the others are single. For the 21-foot channel all locks are 600 foet long and 60 feet wide. For the 30-foot channel they are 740 feet lo*ng, the width being 80 feet for single locks, and 80 feet and 60 feet, respectively, for the two chambers of double locks. There is a summit level with a length of 72 miles extending from Lock Xo. 7, west of BreAverton eastward to Lock Xo. 8, near Frank- fort, including Oneida Lake, which is used as a reservoir. Some difficulty was encountered in finding a sufficient water supply for this summit level, but it was finally obtained by diverting part of the Salmon River through a feeder. It was estimated that the sum- mit level would require a supply of about 1,100 cubic feet per second, of which about two-thirds would be water which would normally flow into Lake Ontario. As this water would eventually be divided about equally between the canal east and west of the summit, it foUows that some water would be permanently diverted from the Great Lakes drainage. The route through the Mohawk Valley be- low Frankfort is of the slack water type, to be maintained by 8 large dams. These plans were very carefully worked out by the Deep Water- ways Board and were based on extensive and carefully executed surveys and studies. The building of the New York State Barge Canal system along this route has made the construction of this ship canal as planned impossible, and has rendered very difficult the proposition of providing any ship canal along this route, especi- ally in respect to providing an adequate Avater supply for the sum- mit level. 10. OTHER PRESi:XT OR PROPOSED CAXALS DIVERTING WATER rR0:M THE GREAT LAKES OR THEIR TRIBUTARIES. 77ie Fox liivrr Canal. — This is a canal in Wisconsin between the Fox River, a tributary of Lake Michigan, and the Wisconsin River, DIVERSION or WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 161 a tributary of the Mississippi. It is 2 miles long and affords a passage for boats 137 feet long, 3-1 feet wide, with a draft of 3 feet. The attempt to maintain the Wisconsin as a navigable stream was abandoned in 1887, and the traffic through the canal is very small. In the improved Fox Eiver there is slack Avater navigation witli a draft of 6 feet, except for shoaling, from Green Bay to Montello and of -4 feet from there to the canal. The canal is supplied with water from the Wisconsin Kiver, which is about 5 feet higlier than the Fox; hence there is no diversion of water from the (jreat Lakes system by the canal; on the contrary, a very small addition of water is received from the Mississippi system. The work of improving this waterway from Lake Michigan to the Mississippi was under- taken in 1840 by the State of Wisconsin, which was assisted by a grant from the National (iovernnient of 091,200 acres of land lying along the route. In 1853 the land and works were sold to an im- provement company, and in 1872 the Federal Government assumed control of the waterway by purchase. The Trent Canal. — This is the name applied to a series of natural and artificial waterways from Trenton, Ontario, at the moutli of the Trent River, on the Bay of Quinte, Lake Ontario, to Honey Harbor, about 10 miles north of Midland, on (leorgian Bay, Lake Huron. This chain of lakes and rivers does not, in its present condition, form a connected route for navigation, though various parts have a con- siderable local use. By works now building this will become a through route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron. The route lies in the Trent River, Rice Lake, and Otonabee River, and Clear, Stony, Lovesick, Deer, Buckhorn, Chemong, Pigeon, Sturgeon, and Cameron Lakes to Lake Balsam, which is the summit level, and from Lake Balsam by a canal and the Talbot River to Lake Simcoe. From Lake Simcoe the route is through Lake Couchiching and down the Severn River to Gloucester Pool, leaving Gloucester Pool by the Go-Home Lakes and South Honey Harbor and entering Georgian Bay at Skylark Rock between the^ islands of Beausoleil and Minni- coganashene. Another passage between (xloucester Pool and Geor- gian Bay is provided by a small lock at Port Severn. A branch of the main route extends 'from Sturgeon Lake south along the Scugog River to the town of Lindsay, and thence through Lake Scugog to Port Perry. The total length of the main route is 245 miles, and of the Scugog Branch 30 miles. Another branch along the Holland River from Lake Simcoe to Newmarket, a distance of 12 miles, formed part of the original plan, but work on it Avas discontinued in 1911. There are 46 locks on the main route and one at Lindsay on the Scugog branch and a small one at Port Severn. Two of these locks are of the very unusual " hydraulic lift " type, the one at Peter- borough being noted for its great lift of C5 feet. The 18 locks between Lake Ontario and Rice Lake are 175 feet long, 33 feet wide (available dimensions 150 by 30 feet) and have a clep'th of 8 feet 4 inches on the sills. The depth in the canal reaches is 9 feet. This work is not yet completed and only a portion of the route is navigable. From River Lake to Lake Couchiching the limit- ing dimensions of the locks are 134 feet by 33 feet (available 110 feet by^30 feet) with depths of 6 feet on the sills. This section is open to navigation with a limiting depth of 6 feet. The Scugog branch 27880—21 11 162 DIVERSION OF WATEK FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAG.VRA RIVER. also is open to 6-foot navigation. Its lock is 142 by 33 feet. The section from Lake Couchiching to Georgian Baj^ is under construc- tion. The locks are said to be " large," probably the same as on the Rice Lake division, and have a depth of 8 feet 4 inches on the sills. The lock at Port Severn is 100 feet by 25 feet with G-foot depth. The summit level at Balsam Lake has a loAv-Avater elevation of 840 which is 597 feet above Lake Ontario and 2G2 above Lake Huron. Nothing is known about the Avater supply to this summit level. It probably amounts to only a few hundred cubic feet per second. Presumably part of this is diverted from the Huron watershed to the Ontario or vice cersa, thus decreasing or increasing the flow of the St. Clair, Detroit, and Niagara Kivers by a trifling amount. The matter is of no practical importance in any study of lake levels or allied subjects. This canal was begun by the British Government in 1837, but work was soon suspended. At various times since then local improvements have been made. In 1907 the project from the Bay of Quinte to Rice Lake was adopted bj' the Dominion Government and construction was started in the same vear. The cost of construction up to March 31, 1916, was $15,626,295^ In 1914 the vessel passages were 3,647 and the tons of freight carried were 67,715. In 1915 the figures were 3,433 and 49,904. respectively. The Rideau Canal. — The Rideau Canal or '" Rideau navigation " connects the Ottawa River at Ottawa, Ontario, with the eastern end of Lake Ontario at Kingston, Ontario, by means of a chain of rivers, lakes, and canals 126^ miles in length. From Ottawa the route ascends the Rideau River 63 miles to Rideau Lake, passing by a lock at the narrows into Upper Rideau Lake, which forms the summit level. It then descends through Mud, Clear. Indian, Mosquito, Opinicon, Sand. Whitefish and Cranberry Lakes to the Cataraqui River and 29 miles down this river to Kingston. There is a branch line 7 miles from Beveridges Bay on Rideau Lake, to the town of Perth. From Ottawa to the summit level there are 53 locks with a total rise of 292:^ feet. From the summit to Kings- ton there are 14 locks with a total fall of 165^ feet. The low- water elevations are: Ottawa River at Ottawa, 127.4; Summit level. Upper Rideau Lake, 408; Lake Ontario at Kingston, 243. On the Perth branch there are two locks with a total lift of 26 feet. The locks arc 134 feet long. 33 feet wide, with a depth of 5 feet on the sills. The canal sections have a navigable depth of 5 feet. The bottom width is 54 feet in rock and 60 feet in earth. The total cost of this canal up to March 31, 1916, was $4,657,668, In 1914 the number of vessel passages was 2,635 and the tons of freight carried were 151,739. In 1915 the figures were 2,076 pas- sages and 120,781 tons. Tlie water supply for this canal comes from the Wolf Lake system, the Tag River, and the Mud Lake sy.stem. It can not exceed a few hundred cubic feet per second A certain amount of water is probably diverted from the Lake Ontario drainage to the Ottawa or \dce versa. Tlie amount is so small that it can have no practical effect upon the hydraulic prob- lems of the St. Lawrence River. It is an interesting historical point that this canal was built as a military mea.sure. During the War of 1812 the onlv good com- "DIVERSION OF "WATRR FROM (JREAT LAKES AND XIAOARA RIVFR. 1G3 niunication botweon Monliviil any tlie Ameri- cans Avho hekl the south bank of tl.at river for about iOO miles. In 1815 a captain of the Koyal Enh miles west of Ashtabula, making the total length of the route 101 J miles. On this route the elevation to be ascended from the moutii ni ilic Heaver Kiver to the sunniiit level is li82 feet and the descent fnnn ilie sumiiut level to the lake 827 feet. The number of locks i-eciuired will be 20, with lifts of frojii 10 to 30 feet. The canal should be not less than 12 feet deep, with locks 50 feet in width by 400 feet in length, with depth of 12 feet over miter sills. The bottom width of the canal should be not less than 140 feet and its surface not less than 188 feet. The cost of this canal at prices prevailing in 1914-15 is estimated to be $65,000,000 and its capacity 38,000,000 tons per ainium. This estimate of co.st does not include bi-anches to New ('astle. I'a., and Warren, Ohio, each of which will cost, roughly, $3,500,0(X). The projiosed canal connects Hie two argcst inland waterways in the United States and traverses a distiict through which there is a tonnage movement greater than that of any other district of equal area in the world. The water supply for the summit level of the proposed canal comes from the headwaters of French Creek, Shenango River, and Mosquito Creek, tributaries of the (J)hio River; and from the liead Avaters of Mill Creek and the Ashtabula River, tributaries of Lake Erie. The total supply is estimated at 382 cubic feet per second, or 667 cubic feet per second if the canal be provided with double locks. As this small amount is to be drawn partly from the Erie drainage, but largely from the Ohio drainage, and is to be discharged from the summit level about equally in each direction, it is evident that the resultant effect would be a slight additional supply of water to the Great Lakes system rather than a diversion therefrom. Proposed Lake Erie-Lake Michigan Canal. — A canal to connect the southern end of Lake Michigan with the western end of Lake Erie has latel}'^ been proposed. This canal would shorten the water route from Chicago to the East by about 400 miles. In 1911 and 1912 the National Waterways Commission investigated this route. It recommended that a ship canal should not be considered, but thought that a barge canal along this route might be justified, and urged that the Corps of Engineers make a survey and careful study of a barge-canal project. A special board of engineer officers was appointed. This board reported in 1917 (see II. Doc. No. 313, 65th Cong., 1st sess.). The essential points of the report are as follows: Two types of canal are discu-ssed: The first, a ship canal with a depth of 24 feet ; the second, a barge canal with a depth not to exceed 16 feet. The principal argument advanced in favor of the former is that a ship canal wotdd be necessary to compete with the Georgian Bay Ship Canal, which is contem- plated by Canada, and that it would allow the ordinary lake steanu-rs to pass through without breaking bulk. In support of the barge canal, it is urged that a considerable portion of the traffic of the canal would consist of through freight between Chicago and New York, and that the dimensions of the water- way need not be materially greater than those of the New IL'ork State Barge Canal. The only advantage a ship canal would offer for freight between Chi- cago and New York \\ould be the saving in time over the present route through the Straits of Mackinac. An analysis of the relative time of the route by the canal and by the Straits of Mackinac indicates a saving in favor of the canal for a lake speed of less than 11 miles per hour, but a loss if the lake speed were increased to 11 miles or more. Considering the relative merits of the ship and barge canals, the special board is of opinion that the former does not oifer sufiicient advantages to justify its selection. 166 DIVEKSIOX OF AVATER FROM GREAT LAKES AXD XIAGARA RIVER. The dimensions CMiuteuiplated for tlie ))arge canal conform generally to those of the New York State canal, and for the channel are: Depth, 12 feet; over- head clearance, 18 feet; bottom width. 110 feet, increasing in open water and ar bends; and for the locks, width, 45 feet; length between quoins, 338 feet. These dimensions are considered suitable for a vessel 300 feet long, 42 feet beam, and 10 feet draft. A number of routes were covereti by reconnaissance, and of these two were selected for survey. Both follow the Maumee from Toledo to Fort A\'ayne, whence there is a northern and a southern route to Lake ^Michigan. The Maumee River is canalized by locks and tixed dams. The elevation of the pool at Fort Wayne is 740 feet above sea level, 170 feet above Lake Erie. The length of this section is lOn.5 miles. The northern route is through Elkhart and South Bend to Michigan City. Its summit is 250 feet above Lake Erie ; its length, 00.7 miles, and it has 14 locks and 7 gxiard gates. The total length of the northern route from Toledo to Alichigan City is 242.5 miles; to Calumet Harbor, 275 miles; and to Chicago Harbor, 280.5 miles. The total lift above Lake Erie is 250 feet, and above L.ike Michigan, 241 feet, and there are 23 locks and 14 guai'd gates on the entire route. The southern route is by way of Huntington and Rochester to the neigh- borhood of Gary, thence via Calumet River and Indiana Harbor to Calumet Harbor. Its length is 82.7 miles, its summit, 765 feet above sea level, and it has 9 locks and 10 guard gates. The total length of this route from Toledo to Calumet Harbor is 269.5 miles, and to Chicago Harl)or, 281.5. The total lift above Lake Erie is 195 feet and above Lake IVIichigan, 186 feet, and there are 18 locks and 17 guard gates. From an engineering standpoint either route is feasible, but there are fewer difficulties to be overcome on the northern than on the .southern route, and the water supply system of the northern route is .superior. Navigation condiiions would be practically the same by either route. A larger population and nxa-e manufacturing interests would be served by the northern route, and for various reasons given the special board prefers this routes It is estimated that with the assistance of flash boards, reservoirs, and steam auxiliary it may be practicable to develop ii daily output of 16,089 horse- iwwer from the dams of the Maumee, provided all the power be developed as a whole, and that this might eventually produce a revenue of .S9C,.50^h wooden pipes to the South Side and l^art of the West Side of the city. The North Side was still supplied from wells and carts. The pumpin^r station was at the corner of Lake Street and Michi<>an Avenue and the intake was close to the jnouth of the Chica, authorizing the creation of a drain- age and water supply commission of three members. Mayor Har- rison appointed Rudolph Hering, Benezette Williams, and Samuel (t. Artingstall. A preliminar}' report was made in January, 1887, but the work of the commission was not finished, as the city council was unwilling to provide the necessary funds. The commission recom- mended a drainage canal system very similar to the one afterward constructed, including the Calumet-Sag branch. The system also included the diversion of the flood waters of the upper Des Plaines and North Branch into the lake by a canal through Bowmanville, some distance north of the city. In May, 1889, after two and a half 3'ears of investigation and de- bate the State legislature passed the bill creating the Sanitar}'^ Dis- trict of Chicago. The original district was laid out with an area of 185 square miles and included a number of municipalities which Avere later annexed in large part to the city of Chicago. The project Avas adopted by popular vote in November, 1889. and trustees were elected the following month. The board organized January 12, 1890. The Supreme Court of Illinois affirmed tlie validitv of the act in June, 1890. The North Shore was annexed by the act of 1903, thus extending the district to the north line of Cook County. It comprised the townships of Evanston, Niles, and New Trier and parts of three others, an area of 78.G square miles along the lake shore and in the Chicago River basin, the drainage problems of which are largely identified with those of the original district. The Calumet region, also annexed by the act of 1903, covered the urban district south of Eighty-seventh Street and west of the In- diana State line. It comprised that ])art of Chicago south of Eighty-seventh Street, the town.ship of Calumet, and parts of three other townships, an area of 94.5 square miles, wholly in the Calumet Basin, the drainage problems of which are quite independent of DR^RSIOX OF WATER FRO:\: GREAT LAKES AXD XIAGARA RIVER. 175 those of the Chicago Basin but are complicated with those of tlie urban district of the Cahimet Basin east of the State line in northern Indiana. With the annexed territories, the Sanitary District of Chicago covers the entire water front of Cook County, with a sliore line of some 33 miles. By subsequent annexation of districts to the west., its total area has been increased to 388.14 square miles. Its esti- mated population in July, 1918, was 2,761,000, of wliom iCkOOO live in the C'alumet subdivision. The inluibitants of tlie Calumet drain- age basin in the State of Indiana are estimated at about 108,000. The law of 1889 constituted the sanitary district as a " quasi- municipal corporation" for the purpose of disposing of the diain- age and scAvage of the communities composing the district. It is empowered to lev}^ taxes within the district and issue bonds on the district's credit. It can develop and sell such new water power as its sanitary operations render available and, in general, do all things necessary for or naturally arising from its main purpose. The law prescribed that any drainage canal constructed must have a flow of at least 3^ cubic feet per second for each thousand persons tribu- tary to it, and must be " kept and maintained of such size and in such condition that the water thereof shall be neither offensive or in- jurious to the health of any of the people of this State." Where the canal ran through rock it was to have a capacity of at least 10,000 cubic feet per second, and in earth it could be of half this capacity with provision for enlarging to 10,000. Work Avas commenced on the excavation of the canal in 1892 and on the collateral improvement of the Chicago River in 1890. A de- scription of the canal and the river improvement will be found in Sections A and C of this report. An intercepting sewer system covering the lake front from Eighty- seventh Street to the northern city limits was constructed by the city of Chicago. The northern division discharges through a 10- foot conduit betAveen the lake and the North Branch at LaAArence AA'enue. This conduit is much larger than Avould be required for seAvage alone, and is used to flush the North Branch by pumping water from the lake. The pumping Avorks are on Lawrence AA^enue about three-quarters mile from the lake shore. Pumping began in 1908. In 1917 the mean pumpage from the lake Avas 109 cubic feet per second. The pumps were not operated to pump AA^ater from the lake in February and very little in March, presumably because the spring floods flushed the North Branch sufficiently Avithout artificial aid. The maximum monthly mean pumpage from the lake Avas 314 cubic feet per second. At times as much as 500 cubic feet per second is pumped from the lake for a few hours. The capacity of the pump- ing station and conduit is about 873 cubic feet per second, of Avhich 38 is intended for the dry-weather sewage, "250 for the storm- water flow, and the remaining 585 for lake water. The southern division of the intercepting sewer system discharges through a 20-foot conduit at Thirty-ninth Street. This conduit ex- tends from the lake to the " Stockyard Slip " or east arm of the South Fork. A pumping station on the lake shore at Thirty-ninth Street is intendecl to pump lake water through this conduit to flush the South Fork. Pumping began in 1907. In 1917 very little pump- 170 DIVERSION OF WAihK FHO-M (Jl'.EAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. inofof lake water was Jone: none \\liatever (liiiin. Normally the lake cuirent at the point of disc'har<>e sets to the southeast and carries the pollu- tion awa}' from the C"hica<;o waterworks intakes, hut under certain unusual weather comlitions the current is reversed and the Avater supply to the more southerly intakes may be poisoned. The other thm(i:5 212 li»04 . _ _ 153 1905 _ 224 1906 1907 14S 190S _ __ 96 1909 _ __. . _ 93 1910 . _ - _ 102 1911 167 3912 ' 2S 1913 25 1914 10 1915 1916 1917 11 10 Meau of 6 years 14 Mean of 8 years 149 The International Joint Commission has made a very extended and thorough study of the polhition of boundary waters, including Niagara River. The commission recommends seAvage treatment by Buffalo and other cities along the river to an extent which will abate present nuisances and greatly lessen the dangers from pollution, holding that purification of water supplies will still be required, the sewage-purification processes providing a " margin of safety " for the water-supply purification works. The report of the commission was, in part, as follows : The reference specifically calls for consideration by the commission, of drain- aw canals as a possible way or means of remedyintc «i' preventing the trans- boundary effect of pollution. The only suggestion that lias been made before the commission of a drainage canal project is that promoted by the Erie & Ontario Sanitary Canal Co. This convi)any was organized primarily for power purposes, but among the objects in its application for incorporation is remedy- ing the pollution of tlie Niagara River by the construction of a canal starting at or near the mouth of Smokes Creek in the city of Lackawanna and thence running through a well-settled counti-y to Lake Ontario. It is proposed that the canal should be uscmI f.'-ce of chaige l)y the citi(^s of Lackawanna, Buffalo, Tonawnnda, North Tonawanda, Niagara Falls (United States), and Lockport, and by other municipalities and communities on the United States side of the Niagara River to carry off their sewage and storm flows, which are now dis- charged into Lake P]rie and the Niagara River, provided each city or town make its own connection with the canal without expense to the company. Tlie company applied to the Secretary of War for the LTnited States by applica- tion dated April 28, 1912, for perndssion to divert for its purposes 6,000 second- feet of water from Lake Erie and the Niagara River. The necessary authority for the diversion of this \\ater was denied by the Government of the United States, but the company desired to secure from the commission an approval of the canal as a feasible solution of fhe pollution problem in the Niagara River. Opportunities were afforded the company to appear before the commission on several occasions. The company's president. Mr. filillard F. Bowen; its counsel, i\lr. George Clinton, and others on its behalf made at the different .sittings able and lengthy arguments, and briefs were submitted to the commission contain- ing statements of fact and arguments from Messrs. Randolph, Clinton, Bowen, and Shiras in support of the schema. Quite a large amount of evidence was taken, as will appear on reference to the records of the commission. The finan- cial and sanitary features of the project did not, however, appear to have been sufficiently investigated. The plans and data submitted were conse- quently referred to the consulting engineer foi- further investigation and report. His report was decidedly adverse to the undertaking for two principal reasons: (1) It proposed to receive sewage in its raw condition into the canal, thus creating a large open sewer. A condition, of serious menace would therefore ol)tain throughout its length, and if the sewage were allowed to pass into Lake Ontario conditions there won]0 be at least no less objectionable than they are at present. (2) The treatment required to prevent nuisance in such a canal v.'ould necessarily be more complete and correspondingly expensive than treat- ment required for the protection of rhe Niagara River, a result due to the com- » Filter instaUed. 190 1»IVERSI0X OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AXD XIAGARA RIVER ixiratively small voluiue of diluting water available in the canal and the con- se<^iuent necessity for thorouirh treatment of the sewaire by expensive oxidizing metliods. These ivasdns would aiiply with niuc'ii .mvaler force in the fulure. Buffalo and the towns below are rapidly growinjr. Should their combined popuhition reaeh a total of 1.U i . LAWRENCE CANALS. Waste Weir and Gates at Lock No. 27. Photograph No. 48.— ST. LAWRENCE CANALS. Galop Canal above Iroquois, Ontario. Photograph Nc. 49.— ST. LAWRENCE CANALS. Lock No. 24. Photograph No. 50. — HEAD OF BLACK RIVER CANAL, LAKE HURON. Photograph No. 51. — MOUTH OF BLACK RIVER, PORT HURON, MICH. i J^ Photograph No. 53. CANAL OF MICHIGAN NORTHERN POWER CO,.SAULT STE. MARIE. MICH. Photograph No. 55. -SECTOR DAM AT POWER HOUSE OF SANITARY DISTRICT OF CHICAGO. ILL. Photograph No. 56.— POWER HOUSE AT JOLIET. ILL. Photograph No. 57.— DAM ON ILLINOIS RIVER AT MARSEILLES. ILL. Photograph No. 58.— MAIN POWER CANAL AT MARSEILLES. ILL. Photograph No. 59.— MILLS AND POWER HOUSf MARSEILLES DAM. Photograph No. 60.— MILLS NEAR LOCK NO. i. OLD WELLAND CANAL. Photograph No. 61. -MILLS NEAR LOCK NO. 2. OLD WELLAND CANAL. z . O '^ r o UJ Ui H ^ Z < 4 gm %mM i^***-'- •-■ DIVERSION OF WATEIl FROM (IKKAT I.AKKS AND NIACAltA lllVF.lt. 193 power is used for <)}H'r!itiniippl\iiiLr power for a steel plant, city lin[litin«2: and ])inni)in;r. and ^fcncral roni- mercial purposes. This plant was l)nilt l»y tlie Lake Superior Tower Co. in ls'.)r.-lt>(il, and acquired bv the i)resent owners in IHK), since when it has been greatly enlarged. It is understood that the present |)lant is jjlannecl for the use of about 20,000 cubic feet per second. The power outputs and Avater consumptions given above are only approximate and the gross head is not accurately known, .so the efficiency of the plants can only be estimated rougldy. At the time when these figures were compiled the total fall at the Soo was about 19 feet. Tender this head, with 100 per cent efficiency. 1 cul)ic foot of water ])er second would produce 2.1() horsepower. Table No. 13 shows the efficiency of the various plants. Table No. 13. — Present operation. Siiidt Stc Marie pmrer plantn. Plant. United States Government Michigan Northern Power Co. Great Lakes Power Co Total or weighted average. Water u.sed (cubic feet per second). Power produced (horse- power). Ilorse- powcr per cubic foof per second. 1 1,030 750 30,000 35,000 12,000 19,000 0.73 1.17 1.58 Over-all efn- ciency. PtTcent. 34 54 73 43,030 i 54.750 1.27 .59 1 Including 500 cubic feet per second wasted. The overall efficiency of the Government plant based on the 530 cubic feet per second actually passing through its turbines is 65 per cent. In photograph No. 52 is a rear view of the Government power house. No. 53 is of the canal of the Michigan Northern Power Co. 2. CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL. Lockport plant.— At the downstream end of the Chicago Drainage Canal 6,800 cubic feet of water per second are, on the average, used in the production of hvdroelectric power. The use of this water is secondary and incidental to its primary use in diluting the sewage of Chicago under the present disposal system. This water is a por- tion of that already reported in Section B as being diverted from Lake Michigan for sanitary uses. , x- , The «yeneral location of the power house is shown on plate >o. 4. After the opening of the Chicago Drainage Canal in 1000. the sani- tary district decided to develop the water power which was available at its lower end. As the bed of the Des Plaines River has a stee]) slope immediately below^ the controlling works at Lockport, the canal was extended, mainlv by rock and earth em])ankments, 2 miles to the present site of the power house, and the lock and spillways beside it, which are described in Section A of this report. The channel exten- sion has a depth of 24 feet at lowest prevailing stage and a minimum 27880—21 13 194 DIVERSION OF WATER FKO.M GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. width of 160 feet. The total drop in water surface from Lake Miehi- tran to the Des Phiines River below the power house is about 45 feet at extreme low water in the Des Plaines River. Several feet of head are lost in the canal, the loss varying- with the volume of flow. In the years 1915-1917 the maxinumi head was 41 feet, the minimum 2G, and the mean 34.5 feet. The phint began to generate power in December, 1907. The power house contains seven units. Each unit has six 54-inch runners placed in pairs on a horizontal shaft submerged in an open flume. Access to the bearings is obtained tlirough steel cofferdams or manhole shafts extending to the surface. These units run at 163 revohitions per minute and are rated at 6,000 horsepower each. The generators are direct connected to the turbines. They generate three- phase alternating current at 6,600 volts, 60 cycles, and are rated at 4.01)0 kilowatts each. Each generator has three single-phase trans- formers which raise the voltage to 44,000 volts. There are three exciters, rated at 350 kilowatts, 250 volts, driven by three small turbines. Space is reserved for the installation of one more of the large units. Most of the power developed is transmitted to Chicago, whei-e it carries a large street lighting load and a general commercial load. A small amount is distributed at 6.600 volts in the cities of Joliet and Lockport. During the year 1917 the average output was 17,900 horse- power, the maximum output for one half-hour period being 32.100 horsepower. The average consumption of water by the power plant for the same year was stated by the chief engineer to be 6,850 cubic feet per second, the minimum consumption for any half-hour period being 2,380 cubic feet per second. The cost of the power-development plant, including the 2-mile extension of the canal, was a little more than $5,000,000. Photograph No. 54 is a downstream view of the power house and Xo. 55 is of the main sector dam beside the power house. Attention is also called to Nos. 12 and 15, given previously. Joliet ylant. — The water passing through the drainage canal power house at Lockport is used again by plants at Joliet and Marseilles. At Joliet the power house contains 32 turbines of various sizes, from 48-inch to 68-inch, driving 10 generators having a total rated ca- ])acity of 3,740 kilowatts. Poth alternating and direct current is pr(jduced and sold for general conmiercial and lighting loads. The average amount of water used is re])orted to be 5,250 cubic feet per second and the average power production 3,350 horse power. The dam forms part of the Illinois and Michigan canal system and is owned by the State of Illinois. The head varies from 9 to 13 feet, averaging about 10 feet. It is understood that the water power is leased from the State by the Sanitary District of Chicago. The plant formerly was the property of the Economy Light & Power Co. The power house is shown on ])hotograph Xo. 56. A view of the dam has been given as photograph Xo. 16. MarHeilUiS jjlant. — At ^larseilles, 111., there is a dam across the Illinois River owned by the Alarscilles Land & Water Power Co., affording a head of about 11 feet. The power is used in a number of plants, partly to generate electricity and parti}' in the manufacture of coarse grades of paper. Many of the installations are old and of DIVERSION OF WATKII TUOM OltilAT LAKKS ANI» NIACAItA lilNKi:. ][\i) low efficiency. Tlic ciipacity o( llu-c plants is siicli that to^ri'tluT they use the (lischai el- land Canal falls naturally into two parts. The one treats of the diversion of the De Cew Falls plant of the Hamilton Cataraet Power, Light & Traction Co. This is a large modern plant, with a capacity of over 50,000 horsepower. Its head is by far the greatest of any plant now using the Avaters of the Great Lakes. The other part treats of the remaining plants. These are many in number, but of small individual importance, developing 10 to 2,000 hor.sepowcr each under heads of from 8 to 23 feet. Most of th«' installations are old and \\\- 196 DIVERSION or WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NlACiARA RIVER. efficient and many run only intermittently. Their total capacity does n.ot amount to 15,000 horsepower. Dr Cew Falls plant.— The De Cew Falls plant is owned by the Hamilton Cataract Power. Light & Traction Co. (Ltd.) , which is con- trolled through stock oAvnership by the Dominion Power c^ Transmis- sion Co. (Ltd.). The latter company controls all the electric service companies in the vicinity of Hamilton. The water used bv this company leaves Lake Erie at Port Col- borne and flows down the Welland Canal to Allanburg, a distance of about 16 miles. Here it enters the "old" Welland Canal and shortly thereafter leaves that through the " Government measuring weir."*' Thence it passes through gates into a chain of shallow ponds about 4 miles long, extending to the top of the Niagara escarpment, in the vicinity of De Cew Falls, which is on a small branch of Twelve- mile Creek. \\t this point is a small fore bay with a spillway and rackhouse. From the rackhouse the water is carried down the slope of the escarpment in seven long steel penstocks, which are laid on the surface of the ground and covered with Avooden housings. The oldest one is 7^ feet in diameter and the others are G feet each. The jDower house at the foot of the escarpment contains two groups of machinery. The older group consists of four horizontal-shaft units, all supplied by the 7f foot penstock. Two of these have tur- bines of Italian make, each driving a 2,000-kilowatt Westinghouse o-enerator. The third has a Voith turbine, and its generator is i-ated at 1.000 kiloAvatts. The fourth unit is smaller, being a turbine- driven exciter. The newer group consists of six units, each supplied bv one of the 6-foot penstocks. Each consists of a Voith turbine, rated at 8.000 horsepower, and a 6,000-kilovolt-ampere generator, built by the Canadian General Electric Co. Each turbine has a double runner on a horizontal shaft in a single scroll case and double draft tubes. Each unit is controlled by a Voith governor operating wicket gates. Each penstock is provided Avith a synchi-onous relief valve actuated by the governor and installed on a short by-pass ex- tending from the penstock at the scroll-case connection to one of the draft tubes. A similar by-pass to the other draft tube is pro- vided Avith a pressure-bursting plate relief. The current is generated at 2.400 volts, 3-phase, 66§ cycles per second, a very unusual fre- quencv. From the draft tubes the Avater flows through a tail-bay into TAvehemile Creek. Avhich it folloAvs for 2^ miles to the old Welland Canal level, just beloAv Lock No. 8, at St. Catherines. Most of the poAver is sold in Hamilton and its neighborhood. It is transmitted bv three transmission lines Avith st^el tOAvers. The transmission voltaire is 50,000 volts, and the distance is about 35 miles, in Hamilton is a large steam station, Avhich helps carry the l)eak loads. At present the daytime load of this plant is about 50,000 horsepoAver. At night it is approximately 15,000 horsepoAver, and on Sundavs it is someAvhat less. The gross head on this plant is variously given at 260, 263, 264. and 26S feet. The most authoritative statement is probably that of AVater Powers of Canada, published in 1011 by the Canadian con- servation commission. On page DO is the statement that this plant is oi)erated " under a static head of 263 feet, and under full load each penstock has an operating head of 256 feet." Presimiably this DIVERSIOX OF WATEi; FROM CRKAT I.AKKS ANH NIACAItA KIVKP.. 197 means the net head on the turhinc Kiorii tc-ls of faiily .siinihir machines of the Ily(h-aulic I'owtT Co. at Nia;rara Fall;- it woiihl appear that the combined elliciency of the tiirlunc ami L't'nerators at fnll load is probably al)out N'2 per cent. The powei- jjiodiiccd would then be 28.8 horsepower per cubic foot ])er seconct per second "i'M* It appears that the company diverts at U'a-t 1>1'> iiil>ic feet ja-r second more than is covered by the leases. Construction of the plant was be.inin in 1808 and completed about 1908. This is some time before May 13. 1010. the date on which the boundary waters treaty was proclaimed. It appears from official reports and letters, however, that the plant was not operating'' at full capacity in 1910 or earlier, and that a sultstantial increase in the diversion has been made since that date. WeJland River phirifs. — Of the water that enters the Wellaiid ( anal from Lake Erie a certain amount is sjjilled into the Welland Kiver. part at Welland, and the rest at Port Robinson. Part of this water is or has been used for power develojmient. The 1911 report of the commission of conservation lists one development of 2.') horsepower at Port Robinson, and two developments at Welland, one of GO horse- power and the other of 100 horsepower. In 19 IS the amount sjulled at these two places was estimated l)y the Canadian enefineers to be 440 cubic feet per second. Plants along old canal. — About a mile al)ove ThoroM. in tlie side of a short level of the present canal between the <:uard jrates and Lodc 25. is a submero-ed outlet throufrh Avhich a reublic Avorks. In addition. j^oAver is developed at Ijockport from Avater Ity-passed aroinid the locks to feed the loAver level from Lock- poi't to I^yons. This qiumtity varies consideral)ly and may reach a maximum of approximately 1,500 cubic feet per second. A inap shoAving the barge canal routes is giA-en on plate No. 8. On plate No. 6 the location of the route from Niagara KiA-er to Lockport is shown on a larger .scale. A series of ph<^togra])hs. Nos. 29 to 46, in- DIVERSION OF WATKi; ii:().\i (.r.i.Ai i.AKi.s AM> MA(.Ai;.\ i;i\i.i:. n,9 elusive, with di'si ri|)tivo notes hciicatli, is jriveii l»y \v:iy of illus- trating- distinctive I'eatiires ol" the caiiiih In Section A ol' this report thci'c has already Im-cm iriven a desy-i)asstMl around the flight of locks, from the upper level to the lower level of the barge canal. One is the waterway of the small hydroelectric plant situated between the old and new flights of locks. This plant belongs to the State and furnishes electric energy for lighting and operating the locks. Another is a tunnel on the north side of the canal, roughly 8 feet wide. 12 feet high, and 1,600 feet long, extending from a point just above the old locks to a gatehouse on the brink of the high bank. From there two penstocks convey the water down to the wheels in the pulp mill of tiie LTnited Box Board & Paper Co. The tunnel and appurtenances belong to the Hydraulic Kace Co. The third passage is a tunnel about 15 feet squai-e and TOO feet long, which is on the south side of the barge canal, abreast of the new locks, and leads from a point just above the new locks to a small high level basin Avithin concrete retaining walls. It belongs to the State and forms part of the State's by-pass for discharging water froni upper level to lower level of the barge canal. Gates in the l)asin control the flow through the two outlets, one of which is the remain- ing portion of the State's by-pass and consists of a structural steel flume of large diameter, about 250 feet long, extending clown to and out over the lower level. The other outlet from the small basin is a surface canal about 20 feet wide. 6 feet deep, and 2.800 feet long, which follows the side of the steep bank. This canal is the property of the Llydraulic Kace Co. The drop from upi)er to lower miter sill of the new locks is 49.16 feet. -, , • , The State hydroelectric plant has an installation of two U-mdi w^ater wheels operating under an effective head of 41.7 feet It is estimated that the maximum possible rate of consumption of water is about 50 cubic feet per second. As each unit is capable of carry- ino- the entire load, and a unit will be operated only when necessary to^'provide power for locking operations or for lighting, it is evident that the averaf^e dailv consumption, even for maximum trafhc con- ditions on the canal, will be less than 20 cubic feet iier second. The north tunnel of the Hvdraiilic Kace ( o. supplies two double water wheels in the pul]) mill of the T'nited Box BoanK^ I aper ( o. In 1917 the flow through this tunnel was measured and found to l)e 407 cubic feet per second. At that time the water level m the barge canal from Tonawanda to Lockport was held up by a dam at lona- w^anda with a crest elevation of 570 feet, barge canal datum. Ihe removal of this dam in 1918 brought the level at Tonawanda down to 200 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES A^T> NIAGARA RIVER. that of the Xia^iara River, which varies with the stafre of Lake Erie at Buffalo. The mean stajre of Lake Erie for the years 1800 to 1910. inchisive. was 572.58 United States standard datum. The cor- respon(line sulliiieiil ly in ae- cord Avith the facts for tlie invest juration in liaml. 'I'lic use uf water by most of these phuits is intermittent and b('h)\v capacity. The entire use of water l)y the llydraurK- Race Co. at piesent possible is approximately 200 cubic feet i)er s»>cond through the north tunnel and 773 cubic feet per second throufrh the south race, a total of 973 cubic feet per second. Wafer power along Eif/hfeenmile Creek. — Of the barf.'e (-anal spill- ways on the lonach of 2.800- horsepower capacity. At 80 per cent efficiency and full load the three proposed units will require 1.080 cubic feet per second. The total head to be developed l)y the Western New York Utilities Co. is the sum of the three heads given above, or 180 feet. Between Dam No. 2 and the head of the pond to be formed behind Dam No. 3 is a fall of DIVERSIOX or WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA ItlVER. 203 about 60 feet in nearly 10 miles. Development of the power in this reach is remotely contemplated. Other loater poioers. — At various other spillways of tiie barge canal, or rather of its predecessor, the Erie Canal, power has l)een developed in a small way, jiartly from the spill and partly fi-om the natural flow of the small streams which pass under the canal prism in culverts at these spillways. It is understood that inany of these plants have been abandoned, and all of them seem likely to be. The barge canal crosses the (ienesee Kiver at grade in the city of Eochester. It is intended that the canal shall abstract from the river on the east side a quantity of Avater e<|ual to that contributed on the west side, neither adding to nor subtracting from the river flow. Below this crossing thei-e are four falls in the (Jenesce Kiver, providing a total head of about 250 feet. This is all developed, but much of it not very efficiently. The total installation of power- developing machinery is 54,850 horsepower. Be^'ond the Genesee River none of the Avater diverted from Niagara RiA'er is used in power development, except for lio:hting and operat- ing locks, until the OsAvego itiver is reached. Here Avhatever rem- nant of the original diA'ersion may remain is utilized in the develop- ments on that stream. The small State hydroelectric poAver stations alon^ the portion of the Erie branch of the barge canal falling Avithin tlie ba.^in of the Great Lakes are located at Locks Xos. 34, 33, 29, 28B, 28A, 27. 24. 23, 21, and 20. PoAver is transmitted from No. 34 to No. 35, from No. 33 to No. 32, from No. 29 to No. 30, and from No. 21 to No. 22. This poAver is used only for operating and lighting locks. In almost ever^- case the installation consists of tAVo generating units, each hav- ing a 50-kilowatt 250-volt direct-current generator. The maximum quantity of Avater required at any lock probably does not exceed 100 cubic feet per second, and that' requirement is intermittent. Table No. 17 sIioavs the existing poAver installations on the OsAvego EiAcr. Table No. 17. — Poicer instaUations on the Oswego Hirer. Phoenix . !r"nlton . . Minetto . Oswego. . Total. Place. Total head. Feet. 10.2 14, S IS.O 44.6 Power installation. 117.6 1 Horsepower. 3,000 i.'.,ono a.-wo 4,000 ■Jl,300 These cover the entire developable head. It has been estimated by a State legislative committee that these heads may be developed to yield 63,800 horsepower. It is of interest to note that berause of the construction and operation of the barge canal the Oswego River receiA-es about 50 cubic feet of Avater per second which was naturally tributary to the Hudson River, and about 35 cubic feet per second naturallv tributary to the Susquehanna River. 204 DIVEKSIOX OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. The flow from Seneca Lake is developed at Waterloo under a head of 14.5 feet, producing 1.000 horsepower, and again at Seneca Falls under a head of 49 feet, i^roducing 3,700 horsepower. Leases and perniitfi. — P^xcept in the case of Lockport, it appears that no lease has ever been made or permit granted authorizing the use by individuals or corporations of waters of the western part of the Erie Canal or barge canal, from Niagara River on down along the 60-mile level, for power purposes. Certain other users claim rights on the grounds that, having for many years used water which wasted from the canal, and having invested capital for the pur- pose, they are now entitled to a continuance of this waste, which the State' must furnish them. The State has not conceded any such rights, and some time ago warned the users that such waste was not likely to occur from the new barge canal. In the case of Lockport a lea^se was made January 25, 1826, to Eichard Kennedy and Julius H. Hatch, in consideration of an annual payment of $200 for — All the surplus waters which without injury to navigation, or security of the canal, may be spared from the canal, at the head of the locks, in the village of Lockport, to be taken and drawn from the canal at such place and in such manner, and to be discharged into the lower level, at such places and in such manner as the said canal commissioners shall from time to time deem most advisable for the security of the canal, and for the convenience of the naviga- tion thereof. In 1856 the Lockport Hydraulic Co. was incorporated for a 50-year period, and became the assignee of a part of the rights of this lease, which were, in turn, transferred in Xovember, 1907, to the Hydraulic Eace Co., which was incorporated to succeed the Lockport Hydraulic Co., and which now owns the rights jointly with others who leased original rights prior to the formation of the Lockport Hydraulic Co. After the lease had been in existence and the rent paid for 82 years the canal board, on December 31, 1908, canceled the lease in. the name of the Hydraulic Eace Co., intending that water power at the locks should be used or leased on different terms and under different conditions after the reconstruction of the canal and locks. Thereafter the State comptroller refused for six successive years to accept the annual rent offered. In January, 1915, the courts sustained the validity of the lease and granted a writ of mandamus compelling the comptroller to accept the rents. Under date of Sep- tember 1, 1896, the city of Lockport obtained a permit to construct a channel for the purpose of taking surplus water from the canal, but this was canceled February 2, 1897. On August 16, 1907, the Secretary of ^^'ar granted to the Lockport Hydraulic Co. a revocable permit — To divert water of the Niagara River and its tributaries fi'om the Erie Canal at Lockport, N. Y., above the locks, for power purposes, not exceeding 500 cubic feet per .second. It was to be distinctly understood thai the water so diverted should be returned to the canal l)elow the locks, and that this i)ermit should inure to the benefit of all persons and corporations then using said water for power purpo.ses, whether lessees of the applicant or having the right to be furnished by it with water, and including the persons or corptjrations then diverting water from the Erie Canal at Eight- eenmile Creek. Middleport, Medina, Eagle Harbor, Albion, Holley, and other jilaces. It was stipulated that no right was to be under- DIVERSION OF WATKII FUOM OltKAT F.AKKS AXI> NIACAIIA IMVKi;. 'id') stood as conferred without the consent of the St:ite oi' New York, and that the permit was subject to any and all re.000 cubic feet per second authorized bv the treaty is made available, and the companies are able to utilize the full capacity of their plants. When the first permits were granted in 1906 the Niagara Falls Power Co.. with its tenant, the International Paper Co.. was already using nearly the full 8.600 cubic feet per second granted, and con- tinued to use about this amount until 1916, when it was increased by temporary permits. For the last two years the diversion by this company has usually been lietween 9.000 and 10.000 cubic feet per second. In 1906 the Hydraulic Power Co. and its tenants was diverting only about 2,500 cubic feet per second. As the installation of new units proceeded this amount was gradually increased until by the end of 1911 nearly the full 6.500 of their permit was being used. The diversion continued to exceed 6.000 until the temporary permits of January. 1917. alloAved it to attain its present value of nearly 9.000 cubic feet per second. Supervision of the importation of electrical energy from Canada terminated with the final expiration of the Burton Act. In Canada there has been no legislation limiting the diversion on that side. Canadian Niagara Pouter Co. — This company is controlled by the Niagara Falls Power Co.. which owns all the bonds and all but a few shares of the stock. The cajiital stock is $3,000,000, of which S2.939.600 is outstanding. The bonded debt is 6.480.000, covered by 1hi-ee issues of 6 i)er cent debentuie bonds. The diversion from Ni- agara River by this company is estimated to be 9.600 cubic feet per second. DIVKKSIOX OF WATER FROM CRKAT LAKKS AND N1A(;AKA IJIVKH. 211 Tlie ooinpanv operates under a lease from the Queen Victoria Nia<;ara Falls l*ark Commissioners, dated Maj; 1, 1890. having a life of 50 3'ears and renewable foi' three further periods of 20 years each, Avith the provision that the lieutenant governor in council may re- quire a fourth renewal for a term of 20 years. Tlie company is bound by the lease to pay an annual rental of $15,000 for rol)able consumption of water would be 9,500 cubic feet ))er second. Construction of the plant was commenced in 1901. The fii'st })ower was produced in January, 1905, and the tenth unit, the last to be installed, was placed in service in 1916. The location and general layout of this plant is shown on the map on Plate No. 13. In general the main features of this plant are very similar to those of the plant of the Niagara Falls Power Co. There is a short fore bay leading to a power house 600 feet long by 110 feet wide. Under the power house and running nearly its entire length, is a narrow, deep wheel pit. From the bottom of this pit, at one end, a 212 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AXD NIAGARA RIVER. tailnu-e tunnel about 2.200 feet long leads to the Maid-of-tlie-Mist pool beyond tlie FalLs. The water for this plant is diverted at the Canadian shore of the rapids, about a quarter of a mile upstream from the Horseshoe Falls, through an opening about 370 feet wide and 15 feet deep. This opening has recently been fitted with a set of submerged arches to keep out ice. The fore bay has a length of 270 feet and a depth of 14 or 15 feet. From the entrance described above it narrows to a width of 2S2 feet, at which point it is crossed b}- a highway and elec- tric railwa}' bridge. It then widens to a width of 526 feet along the face of the power house. A row of submerged arches in tiie wail of the power house admits the water to a small inclosed fore bay within the building. Here it passes through racks and enters the 10 pen- stocks. F>om the northwest corner of the outer fore bay an ice run leads to the river. The hydraulic machinery is under tiie power house in a wheel pit 564 feet long and 18 feet wide, with a mean depth of 160 feet. The penstocks are of steel. 10.2 feet in diameter. They enter the pit almost horizontally, and descend vertically down the pit to the tur- bine deck, where they make a right angled turn and enter the tur- bines 116 feet below the fore bay level. The 10 turbines are of three different types. The five constituting the original installation are inward-flow wheels with double runners. The two runners are on a common vertical shaft and discharge into a cast-iron draft chest between them from which the two draft tubes lead. The runners are of bronze and are 5 feet 4 inches in diameter. The consumption of water is regulated by cylinder gates. Each tur- bine has two draft tubes 5 feet 3 inches in diameter and about 50 feet long. These units are rated at 10.000 horsepower each. Two other units are of similar design but are rated at 12,500 horse- power, and are each provided Avith three draft tubes. The remaining three units, also rated at 12.500 horsepower, are of more modern de- sign, Avith single runners and single draft tubes. These last five tur- bines have scroll cases and cylinder gates. The tailrace formed by the bottom of the wheel pit is 18 feet wide and about 32 feet deep at the north end. from wiiich the Ijottom slants up on a 3 per cent grade to the south. The draft tubes enter its sides at an angle of 45° a few feet above the bottom. At the north end is a gate for use when only a few units are operating to prevent the draft tubes becoming unsealed. From the north end of the tail race the water is carried away by a tail-race tunnel 2,164 feet long. Its cross-section is of the horseshoe type. 25 feet high and 18 feet 10 inches greatest width. It is lined with concrete with a facing of brick. The tunnel has a descending grade of 7 feet per 1.000. except near the portal where ot falls 11.2 feet in 103 feet ])y a reverse vertical curve with a radius of 248 feet. The greater part of this portion is lined with granite blocks. The mean velocity through this tunnel is about 24 feet per second. The jjortal is at the water surface in the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool a few hun- (n) horse- lK)\ver each. They operate at '25 cycles per second. Alcoves, or chanihers, in the rock beside the wheel pit at the ele- vation of the turbines contain the ei rated at ^.SHO horse- power each. These can be connected to jrive either 22,000, 38,000. 38,500, or 57,300 volts. The output of the transformer station is used chiefly for transmission to Buffalo at 22,000 volts over a pole line 16 miles lono;, including a river crossing of 2,193 feet span between Fort Erie. Ontario, and Buffalo. Another underground conduit line crosses the Upper Steel Arch Bridge to Niagara Falls, N. Y.. and connects with the Niagara plant of the Niagara Falls Power Co. This plant and stations 1 and 2 of the Niagara Falls Tower Co. are operated as a unit, and machines in the different plants may be run in parallel. The Canadian plant is now^ generating about 100,000 horsepower, of w^hich a little less than one-half is imported into the United States either bv the transmission line to Buffalo or by the 12,000-volt line across the bridge at Niagara Falls. A large part of the power which does not come to the United States is sold to the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario. The gross head on this plant is about 173 feet at mean stage. As the plant is now^ operated about 43 feet of this is lost in the tunnel. From the best data available it appears that this plant is now pro- ducing about 100,000 horsepower from about 0,000 cubic feet of water'~per second. That would indicate the production of 10.4 horse- power^^er cubic foot per second, or an over-all efliciency of 53 per cent. . . 1 , Considerable trouble with ice is experienced nearly every winter, and the company maintains an electric tug in the forebay to keep the ice broken up. . . i tt -x j a^. i. The importation of power from this plant into the United States beo-an on August 1, 1905. The average amount imported that year wa^s about 4,000 horsepower. The next year it was 12,000. From then it increased graduallv, reacliing 61,000 horsepower m 1913, and about 62.000 in 1915. In 1916 the exportation was restricted by Canada so that the average in 1917 had fallen to 37.000 horsepower. In November, 1918, it was about 40.000 horsepower. Ontario Poiner <7o.— The diversion of water from Niagara Kiver by the Ontario Power Co. is estimated to be 11,200 cubic feet per second Extensions to the plant now well under way will increase the diversion to a quantity estimated to be 13,300 cubic feet per sec- ond This company is controlled bv the Hydro-Electric Power Com- mission of Ontario, which owns 90 per cent of the stock. The authorized capital stock is $15,000,000, but the outstanding stock is only $10,000,000. The outstanding bonded debt is $12,678,000 as against $15,000,000 authorized. 214 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. This company came into existence in 1887 under the name of *• Canadian Power Co.," having been incorporated by the Ontario Lciiishiture. It.s name was changed to Ontario Power Co. in 1899. 'J'he privileges granted it included — Full power to c-ou.struct, etiuip, maintain, and operate a canal and hydraulic tunnel from some point in the ^^■e^and Hivcr at or near its conjunction with the Niapira liivcr to a point or points on tlie west bank of the Xia.uara River about or south of the Whirlpool, and from a point or points in the Xiaj^ara Kiver at or innnediately south of the head of the rapids near the Welland River to a i)oint or i)oints on the west bank of the Niagara River about or south of ('lark Hill. None of the works authorized were to be constructed and none of the powers given exercised within the limits of Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park, except with the consent of the lieutenant gov- ernor in council and the park commissioners. It should be pointed out that the park then extended upstream only to include the Dutferin Islands. On April 11, 1900, the first agreement with the park commissioners was made, providing for a double development, the water being diverted from Welland River through a canal to a power hotise in the park, where it would be used under 40 feet of head, and con- ducted from that point partly in an open canal and partly under- ground to a power house in the gorge below the Falls. By a second agreement, elated June 28, 1902, the rights of the first agreement were for the most part stirrenclered, and provision was made for conduct- ing water from Welland and Niagara Rivers underground. This last agreement specified the general terms of the license, which was granted April 1, 1900, and which provides for a yearly rental of $30,000, with $1 per horsepower per annum additional for any power generated above 20,000 horsepower and up to 30,000 horsepower, 75 cents per horsepower per annum for power from 30,000 to 40,000, and 50 cents per annum for each horsepower above 40,000. The leivse covers a term of 50 years, with option of three renewals of 20 j'ears each, and provision to compel a further 20-year period of operation by the company. The rent may be adjusted at each renewal. On August 7, 1902, and subsequently the same year upon submittal of plans, approval was given to constrtict a plant having three under- ground conduits each 18 feet in diameter, conducting water from Niagara River at the Dufferin Islands to a power house in the gorge below the Falls. On August 1, 1017. the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of On- tario took pos.session of the plant upon purchase of 90.000 shares of the capital stock at $80 a share (par value $100) and upon agree- ment to assume the l)ond liability of this and certain subsidiary com- panies, the total of Avhich was stated in the press to be $14,669,000. Payment for the stock was made in 4 per cent, 40 year, bonds of the Hydro-Electric Commission, guaranteed by the Province of Ontario. In the agreements the amount of water which the company may divert is not specified, nor the amount of power which ma}- be gene- rated. The i)lans are said to call for 22 units of 10,000 hor.sepower each, operating under a total head of 180 feet. The reports of the park commissions, and other printed statements set the approval ])lans at 180.000 ho)'sei)Ower, 60.000 from each of the three conduits. In 1906 or earlier the ultimate diversion of water required was va- riously computed to be 11,700 cubic feet per second and 12,000 cubic feet per second. DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 215 The intake of this phmt is situated at the Diifferin Ishmds about 5,000 feet above the Horseshoe Falls, and the power house is in the Gor^e about 1,000 feet below them. The essential feature of the in- take is a submertocks and two small ones lead from the second conduit to the power house. There is also a gate valve and connection bj' which penstock Xo. 7 can be fed from the second conduit instead of the first. Penstocks Xo. 18 and Xo. 14 and the two small penstocks are controlled by "Johnson valves" instead of gate valves. Xo. 18 and Xo. 14 can also be connected to the new wood-stave conduit. The end of the second conduit leads to a "Johnson differential surge tank" with waste tunnel. For the wood-stave conduit a steel surge tank 50 feet in diameter and 80 feet high has been erected in the park. The power house is a concrete building in the (jorge. It is 77 feet wide and about 650 feet long. As originally designed it Avas to have 18 units of 10,000 horsepower each and 4 exciters. It now has 16 units, the last two of which are in process of installation. The first three are rated at 10.000 horsepoAver each, the next four at 12,000 horsepower each, and the next seven at 14.000 horsepower each. They are all of the same general type, though made by different manufacturers and having different details. Each unit consists of two Francis turbines and a generator mounted on a common horizon- tal shaft. The turbines are supplied with water by ascending branches from the penstocks below them. They have scroll cases and wicket gates and discharge through a common draft tube be- tween them into tailraces under the power house. The draft tubes are 10 feet in diameter, and the tailraces at their outer end are vaulted passages 5^ feet high and 20 feet wide. They discharge over a weir into the Maid of the Mist Pool. At full load the elevation of the tail-Avater sibove the weirs is about 853. The generators, which are of the internal-revolving field type, are at the river ends of the horizontal shafts. They operate at 187^ revolutions per minute and produce three-phase alternating current at 25 cycles. 12.000 volts. The two small machines, fed from the first conduit and originally installed as exciters, are now used to generate direct current for run- ning elevators and for other station service. Excitation is provided by a rather unusual system. The tAvo small penstocks from the sec- ond pipe supply Avater to two small horizontal-shaft turbines, each of 1,600 horsepower. Each turbine is direct connected to a small alternator, an induction motor, and an exciter for the alternator. The alternators supply current to 14 small motor-generator sets, one beside each large generator. These supply the direct current to ex- cite the fields of tlieir respective generators. Each direct -current generator of the motor-generator sets is connected up permanently to the field of its corresponding main gen'crator. and its voltage is main- tained automatically by a Tirrell regulator in the oi)crating room, Avliich is shunted across the field of the small machine. The regu- lator connections provide regulation of the power factor of the main generator also. The induction motor on each service unit can be connected to low-A'oltage secondary mains leading from transformers on the main line. It Avas intended oi-iginally that the motor should be in circuit customarily, thus " floating on the line."' to be ready to pick up the service unit load in case the turbine failed, and also to steady the turbine, and thus imj)rove the s])eed control. In practice it has been found more satisfactory to switch the motors off from the line. Thus their rotors merelv rotate idlv on the shafts. Dn^RSlON OF WATRR YROM GRKAT LAKF.S AXI) XIACAKA RIVER. 217 The station is operated from a switchboard in the transformer . house. This is a hir<^e biiiklino; on top of the bhiff. It is about 550 feet behind the powerhouse and 255 feet above it. It contains a lar;hts throu<;h the park. The amount of power to be generated or 'the quantitv of water to be diverted are not specified, but under the charter of the company none of the power nuiy be sold and none may be used except in operat- ing- and lighting the raihvay. In 1906 i't was estimated that the ultimate consumption of water would be l.r)00 cubic feet per second and that the consumption at that time was (300 cubic feet per second. In 1900 the Buffalo Railway Co., of New York State, obtained Canadian incorporati(m, and in April, 1901, its Canadian rights were confirmed and extended. It purchased the properties, rights, etc., of the Niagara Falls Park & River Railway Co., paying $733,000 for the equity and assuming the bonded indebtedness of $6()0,()()0. It was reported in 1906 that at the time of the purchase the poAver plant represented a cash outlay of $141,000, and that $125,000 additional for equipment had been expended up to 190(5. In 1902 the name of the Buffalo Railway Co. was changed to In- ternational Railway Co. This company in October, 1903. applied to the park commissioners for ai)proval of plans to transmit i)ower from tliis plant to the American side to operate the extensive railway sys- tem in the State of New York. The request was not granted. The International Railway Co. operates the electric railways in Buffalo, Tonawanda, and Niagara Falls. N. Y., and elsewhere in Erie and Niagara Counties in New York State, as well as in Welland County, Ontario. It is in turn controlled by the United Gas & Electric Corporation, which controls a large number of public service cor- porations operating in 13 or more States. The intake and ])ower house of this plant are about 500 feet above the Canadian end of the Horseshoe Falls. The intake is simply a channel leading directly from the rapids. It is about 260 feet long, from 62 to 130 feet wide, and about 5| feet deep. Its entrance is guarded by piers and coarse racks. The j^lant contains tAvo small vertical turbines which operate under a head of about 64 feet. These discharge into a tunnel Avhich spills its water into the gorge tlirough a portal in the side of the clifT ui)stream from the Ontario power house at about elevation 420. One of the turl)ines is connected l)y bevel gears and belts to six small direct-current generators rated at 270 horsepower each. The other turbine is direct connected to a ver- tical direct-current generator rated at 2,000 horsepower. These ma- chines are operated in parallel at 650 volts. The average load of this plant is about 570 horsej^ower, of which about 175 horsepower is imported into the Ignited States. The water consumed would seem, fiom the ])est data available, to be a])out 125 cubic feet per second. This corresponds to an over-all efficiency of 45 per cent and a j)ower production of 4.() horsepower i)ei' cubic foot per second. The tunnel spills its Avater far above the IMaid-of-the- Mist Pool. The gross head measured to the surface of this pool is 165 feet, and the over-all efficiency on this basis is only 25 per cent. The location of the power house is shown on Plate No. 13. 222 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. Wafer work^ of X'uigam Fails, Ontario. — The city of Xiairara Falls. Ontario, derives its supply of water for domestic use and tire protection from the intake of the International Railway Co.'s power house. From the north corner of this intake a conduit about 500 feet long leads the water under the park to a small pumpino; station near the crest of the Horseshoe Falls. Here part of the water is pumped into the city mains, the remainder furnishing the power to do the pumping. This latter portion is then discharged through a tunnel Avith an outfall near that of the International Kailway Co. The elevation of the outfall is about 477 feet. The amount of water used is not known, but it certainly does not exceed 50 cubic feet per second. The water wheels are reported to be of 500 horsepower total capacity. The head used by the pumping machinery is about "25 feet. As this diversion is made solely for sanitary and domestic purposes it is not to be included as part of the 3G.00() cubic feet per second permitted to be diverted for power development on the Canadian side of the river, but rather as one of the diversions which are covered by the last sentence of Article V of the treaty. The location of the pumping station is shown on plate No. 18. Xf'ir pJant of Ontario Ihjd ro-Eh'ctrlc Poirfr Conunlssion. — The HA'dro-Flectric Power Commission of Ontario is now building a new power development on the C^madian side. The following de- scription of this project is based largely on an article in the Engi- neering Xews Record for October 31, 1918. and partly on other in- formation. The contemplated diversion is 10.000 cubic feet per second. The water is to ])e taken from the upper river at the mouth of the AVelland River (Chippawa Creek) and flow up the AVoUand River nearly to the village of Montrose. This section of the river is to Ije dredged to a depth of 25 to 30 feet Avith a mean width of about 200 feet. The length of this section is about 3.6 miles. Leaving the river the water passes through a canal nearly 9 miles long to a fore bay at the edge of the Gorge a mile above Queenston. Location of the route is shown on Plate No. 6. The wetted section of this canal is 48 feet wide and 30 to 35 feet deep. It is mostly in rock with chan- neled sides and concrete lining. The cuts on this canal are very heavy. The maximum de])th of rock cut is 85 feet and of earth more than 100. while the greatest total cut is 140 feet, of which about 75 is rock. The canal crosses the deep ravine west of the Whirlpool on an artificial fill. It is worthy of note that the rock surface in this region dips to the west and this canal has a less proportion of rock excavation than one on the American side would have. A few miles farther west the New Welland Canal is being excavated almost entirely in earth. On the otlier hand an American canal would cut across tiie angle of the river and its length from intake to fore bay Avould be only about one-third that of the Canadian route. The fore bay at the top of the cliff is approximately 300 by 1,000 feet. From it the water passes through six penstocks to the power house in the Gorge. Here there are to be six vertical units rated at 52,500 horsepower each, a total of 315,000 horsepower. The '"net" head is 304 feet, and 300.000 horsepower is expected to be ol)tained from 10.000 cubic feet ])er second, or 30 horsepower per cubic foot per second. The estimated cost is only $25,000,000. or $83 per horse- DIVERSION OF WATER FROM (IRKAT LAKKS AND XIAOARA RIVER. 223 power. It is liinted lliat this is only the tiist of a series of such developments (•ontemi)hite(l, Avitli ;in ultimate dixersion of .'>(j,0()() cubic feet per second. In the lio:ht of the studies described in Section F of this report it must be said that these estimates seem altogether too optimistic. A rough computation of the poAver output and cost on a basis com- parable to that of the projects discussed in Section F give a power output of 294,000 horsepower, or 29.4 horsei)ower per cubic foot per second, and a total cost of $42,000,000, or $143 per horsepower. This high cost as compared with tlie .Vmerican projects is due almost en- tirely to the great length of canal re(|uired by this scheme. AVhile the canal is being built large enough foi* a diversion of 10.000 cubic feet per second, it is understood that the Hydroelectric Commission maintains that the present diversions on the Canadian side amount to 30.000 cubic feet per second and intends to install at present onlj^ sufficient machinery to utilize the 6.000 cubic feet per second thus estimated to remain under the treaty. It appears that the present Canadian diversions really amount to about 33,325 cubic feet per second, and that Avhen the Ontario Power Co."s new units are put in service the amount will be more than 35.400. This would leave less than GOO cubic feet per second available for the new plant. Apparently, therefore, the commission must shut down part of the Ontario Power Co. plant when ready to start operating the new plant or else secure an extension of the treaty limit. Xlagnra Falls Power Co. — The two power houses of the Niagara Falls plant of this company take water from a short canal on the American side above Coat Island and discharge it through a long tailrace tunnel into the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool. The 21 units of this plant have a rated capacity of 5.000 horsepower each. The permit from the Secretary of War authorizes the diversion of 10.000 cubic feet of water per second. About 750 cubic feet of this is leased to the International Paper Co., but is not now being used by them. The Niagara Falls plant is now using about 9.450 cubic feet per second, Avith whicli it produces about 100.000 horsepower. This is a pro- duction of 10.6 horsepower per cubic foot per second and represents on the gross head of 219 feet an overall efficiency of 43 per cent. A detailed history and description of the works of this company will be found in Section F of this report. Hydraulic Power Co. — This company has been consolidated with the Niagara Falls Power Co., and the plant is now known as the " hydraulic plant " of the Niagara Falls Power Co. The two power houses are in the Gorge on the American side about half a mile below the American Falls. They get their sujjply of water through a canal from Port Day about a mile above the Falls. Tlie ixn-niit ;uithorizes the diversion of 9.500 cubic feet per second. Of this the Pettebone- Cataract Paper Co. gets 271 cubic feet per second. Station 2 has 9 units, with a total rated capacity of 21.200 horsepower, and station 3 has 13 units, of a total rated capacity of 130,000 horsepower This plant is now producing about 145,000 horsepower from 7.840 cubic feet per second. This is a production of 18.5 horsepower per cubic foot per second and corresponds to an overall efficiency of 75 per cent under the gross head of 219 feet. Three ncAv units with a total capacity of more than 100,000 horsepower are now being installed. 2'24 niVKKSION of water from great lakes and NIAGARA RIVER. A ilotailed history ami description of this phiiit will be found in Section F of this report. The Pettehone-Catanict Paint' To.— The Pettebone-Cataract Paper Co. diverts a small amount of water from the Hydraulic Power Co.'s canal for the manufacture of Hour and paper. Its plant is described in Section F of this report. The company now uses about '111 cubic feet per second, from which it obtains perhai>s "i.OOO horsepinver. or 7.4 horsepower per cubic foot per se ond. As the jrross head of this plant is about O:^ feet, the over-all etliciency is TO per cent, but the tail water is rejected high up the bank, wasting a head of approxi- mately 1'25 feet. The Internatlo)inl Paper Co. formerly diverted about 720 cubic feet per second from the canal of the Xiaav York State authorities to alloAv the replacement of the old headgate of the con- duit by ncAv ones, this development has never been completed, and no water "is now beinir diverted. The plant could probably use between 200 and 300 cubic feet i^er second. Mr. MacDonald is the promoter of the P^mpire PoAver Corporation. Avhich desires to develop a large power plant on the site of the C^itaract Hotel, as de.scribcd in Section F of this report. Comparhon of plants. — The plants described above differ in gross head from 24 to 313 feet. Some make efficient use of the water di- verted under the head which they have and others do not. Table Xo. IS assembles the diversions." outputs, and efficiencies of these plants .so that they may readily i)e compared. It should be noted that the horsejiower per cubic "foot per seconil is the figure Avhich shoAvs the relative success of the different plants in obtaining power from their diversions, while the over-all efficiency shows Avhether or not the installation is up to date. Where this latter figure is less than so per cent the output of the plant is not as great as it should be for the given gross head. DmSRSION OF WATER FROM OREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 225 Table No. IS. — Diversion data on Niagara Falls power plants. Plant. Canadian Niagara I'ower Co Ontaiio Towcv Co Toronto I'ower Co International Ilv. Co Hydro- Klcctric Power Commission i Niapa'a V al l.s Power Co Hydraulic Power Co International Paper Co Pettobonc-Cat arac t Paper Co Cataract Hotel Diversion. Cubic feet per second. 9,600 11,200 12,400 125 1 10, 000 9, 4,-)0 7,840 in Power output. Ilorse- j)mrer. 100,000 1B3,000 125,000 570 1 294, 0(X) 100,000 145,000 Gross head. ITo''sepower per cubit! feet per second. 2,000 Feet. 173 215 is:j '.(1 1 MS 219 219 219 93 24 10.4 14.fi 10,1 4.0 129,4 10. G 18.5 7.4 Overall ellicion- cy. .CI. .53 GO 49 45 >83 4.3 «75 3 70 ' Now under construction. ,, ^ . , „ 2 The Tl vdraulic Power Co. has 3 types of machines with widely diflerent overall elTiciencies, as follows: Station 2, "57 per cent; direct current units in station 3, 77 per cent; alternating current units in station 3 81 per cent. « Gross head taken at mouth of outfall. This table shows that of the five existing large plants, that of the Hj^draulic Power Co. is by far the most efficient, while the Ontario Power Co. is next, and the other three are about equally poor. Any future development ought to be planned for an over-all efficiency of more than 80 per cent, and ought to give over 20 horsepower per cubic foot per second if it discharges into the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool, or over 29 if it discharges into the Lower Eapids. Total diversions.-— The actual total diversion of water by the power plants at Niagara Falls is shown by the above table to be 17,561 cubic feet per second on the Americaii side, and 33,325 cubic feet per second on the Canadian side, a grand total of 50,886 cubic feet per second. This produces 635,570 horsepower, or 12.5 horsepower per cubic foot per second. 7. ST. LAWRENCE RIVER NAVIGATION CANALS. The amount of power developed upon the St. Lawrence Eiver navi- gation canals is very small and the diversions for the purpose corre- spondingly small. 'Because of their slight importance no attempt has been made to determine them with accuracy. It should l)e noted, however, that the potential power in the river at each of these canals is large, and its development in the course of time seems almost cer- tain, p ,1 • 1 For each of the canals considered in the following paragraphs a general description and a statement of its navigation features is to be found in Section A of this report. The canals are shown on plates Nos. 9 and 10, the power sites being indicated. Galop Canal— It is believed that an average di\^rsion of 400 to 800 cubic feet of water per second is made at the Galop Canal for power development. The major portion of this quantity is conveyed down the old canal to a point southeast of the village of Cardinal, where it is used under a 6-foot head by the Edwardsluirg Starch AVorks in its manufacturing process. This installation is reported to be 200 horsepower. At 50 per cent over-all efficiency this development would require a flow of 590 cubic feet per second. The plant is old and it might be even less efficient. On October 6, 1914, the flow to 27880—21 1.5 226 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. this plant was carefully measured and found to be 480 cubic feet per second. The discharge from the mill enters the river through a gap in the old canal wall. At Iroquois there are two small power plants with a 14-foot head. That belonging to M. F. Beach is listed at 40 hoi*sepower, while the other, which is the water-works, pumping and electric-light plant of the town of Iroquois, is listed at 90 horsepower. The plant belong- ing to Mr. Beach contains modern vertical-shaft generating units whose efficiency might be 75 per cent. In this case the maximum quantity of water required is 34 cubic feet per second. The plant is operated only intermittently to run a gristmill and light part of the town of Iroquois. The town plant is old and its efficiency might be 50 per cent or less. At 50 per cent efficiency it would require a maximum of 115 cubic feet of water per second. It is not operated continuously. On October 6, 1914, the flow through the " Cardinal Cut" was accurately measured and found to be 260 cubic feet per second. This volume of flow covered the demand at that time for Eower development at these two plants, the waste over the Aveir at tock 25. any possible lockage at Lock 25, and seepage and evapora- tion. These two plants at Iroquois are located northwest of Lock 25, the chamber of old Lock No. 25 forming part of the common tail- race. Morrishurg Canal. — At the lower end of the Morrisburg Canal there are three small water-power plants owned by the city of Mor- risburg. The head on each is approximately 11 feet. One has an 800 kilo volt- ampere generator, requiring 1,000 cubic feet of water per second for full load; another is a 300-horsepower city lighting plant requiring 300 cubic feet per second; and the third is the city water works, requiring 55 cubic feet per second for power. The total consumption of the three plants, namely, 1,355 cubic feet per second, is not continuous. On October 10, 1914, the flow in the canal was measured and found to be 950 cubic feet per second. This repre- sented the entire use of water just at that time for both naAdgation and power purposes. It is believed that the average use for power development runs from 800 to 1,400 cubic feet per second. In wintertime accumulations of ice downstream sometimes cause a backwater rise which occasionally reaches a height of 12 feet. Cornv^dll Canal. — The flow in the Cornwall Canal has never been measured so far as is known. There is a development at Mille Roche, 5 miles below the head of the canal, and there are 5 developments at Cornwall, as shown in Table No. 19. Table No. 19. — Wafer-pother developments on ComioaU Canal. Location. Nor- mal head. Horse- power devel- oped. Water used. Name of power user. Mille Roches Lock IS Feel. 28 7J 7} 20 20 20 2,000 800 50 2,900 80 50 Cubic feet per second. sno J 50 10 1,800 .50 30 St. Lawrence Power ("o. Toronto Paper Manufacturing Co. Do Cornwall Citv Pumpinp Plant. Lock 17 Ciumila Cotton Co. Do Cornwall Klectric Lifiht i Kv. Co.; Stormont Electric Do Light (V I'ower Co. Hodge Flour Mill. Total ',, KSO 2,H.10 DIVEltSlON OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 227 A total diversion of nearly 3,000 cubic feet of water per second for jJONver purposes is indicated, but the full amount is not used continuously. It is understood that in wintertime the plants at Cornwall are botliered considerably by backwater caused by accumu- lations of frazil ice in the comparatively quiet waters of Lake St. Francis. I'his backwater sometimes rises to a height of 15 to 30 feet above normal le\'el. Other canals. — Considerable power is developed along the Sou- langes Canal and the Lachine Canal. The old Beauharnois Canal is used solely for power development. These canals, as already ex- plained in Section A. are along that portion of the St. Lawrence which is entirely Canadian, •ui to 35 feet. On the mainland, a little below mid length of Little River, is situated the town of Waddington, N. Y.. 18 miles doAvnstream from Ogdensburg, N. Y. At Waddington there is a dam 950 feet long across Little River which was originally built more than 100 years ago. It is reported to have been constructed of stone originally, but the ])resent structure appears to be largely of wooden cribs filled Avith boAvlders. a part of the length being dry rubble wall. It is very dilapidated and leakv. The head of water on the dam is ap])roximately 10 feet. At the downstream side of the dam. near midstream, is a small power house owned by the New York & Ontario Power Co. It con- tains a 39-inch Victor turbine, whose maximum discharge at full gate is about 110 cubic feet per second. It drives a generator Avhich furnishes power for lighting the village of AVaddington from sunset to 1 o'clock a. m. daily. Its power may also be used for pumping water for fire protection and street flushing. A power canal 15 to 20 feet wide leads from the south end of the dam downstream along the bank of the river for aliout 950 feet. It serves four small plants. Beginning near the dam there is a small sawmill owned liy the New York & Ontario Power Co. and oj:)erated by Dimn & Rutherford, of Waddington. It has an old-style, wooden scroll, central discharge wheel which is verj^ wasteful of water, using 230 DRTERSIOX OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 200 to 300 cubic feet per second when operating, but which is run onh' part of the year. Below the sawmill is a blacksmith shop in which small tools are driven by a wooden, central discharge wheel using not more than 50 cubic feet of water per second. Below the blacksmith shop is a plant for separating cream from milk. It uses a wheel similar to that at the blacksmith shop and requires not more than 50 cubic feet per second. The fourth plant is below the separa- tor and is a planing mill which is not in use more than one month a year. It lias a wooden scroll, central discharge wheel requiring not more than 100 cubic feet per second. To recapitulate, the approxi- mate amount of water used in all water-power plants on Little River is eiven in Table No. 20. Table No. 20. — Little River water power — approximate present use of water i cubic feet per second. n Electric lighting and pumping station 110 Sawmill 300 Blacksmith shop 50 Separating plant 50 Planing mill 100 Total • 610 This quantity is about the same as that used in 1899. About 900 feet upstream from the dam and parallel with it, there is a dike built partly of wooden cribs and partly solid fill. Toward the island end there are two openings or gaps in the dike spanned by .small wagon bridges, one opening being 42 feet wide and the other 30 feet wide. On June 15, 1914, the flow of water through these gaps was gauged by current meter. The flow through the north gap was 1,850 cubic feet per second, and that through the south gap T50 cubic feet per second. The drop in water level from upstream to downstream side of the dike was found by leveling to be 1.5 feet. The leakage through the dike was estimated roughly to be 600 cubic feet per second. Altogether the flow through Little River was thus 3,200 cubic feet per second, a quantity which was 1.1 per cent of the total discharge of the St. Lawrence River at that time. The right to construct the dam was originally granted to David A. and Thomas L. Ogden bv act of the New York State Legislature April 1, 1808 (chapter 121", Laws of New York, 1808). This act conferred on these men and their associates for a term of 75 years the right to construct a dam and lock at Waddington, and to use the Avater impounded by the dam for the generation of power for anv commercial purpose. On April 17, 1826, an act was passed (chapter 280, Laws of New York, 1826), setting forth the following: David A. Ogden, of the county of St. Lawrence, being proprietor of both sides of the branch of the lUver St. Lawrence, in the town of Madrid (Wadding- ton), and across which river he has erected a dam and locks in pursuance of an act passed April 1, 1908, shall, and he is horel)y declared to be vested with all the rights of the people of this State to the lands situated l)elow the said dam, and which by reason thereof has been rendered susceptible to improve- ment and extending down the branch of the said river from the said dam to the navigable waters thereof, to have and to hold to the said David A. Ogden, liis lieirs and assigns forever. These two acts therefore vested in David A. Ogden and his suc- cessors in perpetuity all riparian rights on l:)oth sides of Little River, owners! lij) of the bed of the river below the dam, and the right to DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 231 utilize the natural flow of the stream for the development of hydraulic power for any purpose whatsoever. The natural flow of Little Kiver is reported to have been 2G,000 cubic feet per second. The New York & Ontario Power Co. now holds all these ri^^hts and privileges. This company was incorporated in New York State April 18, 1906, to furnish lijrht and power to municipalities jind industries in northern New York. It has an authorized capital .stock of $2,()()(),()00, of which $225,000 is outstandin«r. Its bonded indebtedness is $200,000, the authorized bond issue being $457,000. This company proposes to build a new dam about 1,000 feet down- stream from the old one, remove the old dam and dike, dredge the channel, and construct remedial works, consisting of a submerged rock weir across the liapide Plat at the head of the Morrisburg Canal, and a diversion wall from the foot of Ogden Island to Canada Island. With a use of about 30,000 cubic feet of water per second this coni|)any expects to develop 30,000 horsepower. Ap- plication for a permit has been made to the Secretary of War, and the matter has been referred to the International Joint Commission. A hearing was held by the commission October 1, 1918. About 1911 the New York & Ontario Power Co. made a contract with the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario for the delivery of 15,000 horsepower at a sliding scale of rates varying from $13 per horsepower per annum for the first 2,000 horsepower down to $10.50 for each horsepower per annum above 10,000. The Hydro. Commission constructed a transmission line for a distance along the north side of the St. Lawrence River, and a start was made on construction of the river crossing to Ogden Island, just above Morrisburg. The power company failed to build its plant, however, and to fulfill its part of the contract. The location of this project is shown on plate No. 9. 10. LONG SAULT RAPIDS PROJECT. The Long Sault Rapids of the St. Lawrence River and the South Sault Rapids are shown on Plate No. 10. In the South Sault Rapids from Delany Island to the foot of Long Sault Island there is a tall of 32 feet, and from this point to the foot of Bamhart Island the fall is about 12 feet, giving a total head of 44 feet. The entire fall from Richards Landing to mouth of Grasse River is 48 feet, and from the head of the Cornwall Canal to the mouth of Grasse River it is 45 feet. The average elevation of Lake Ontario for the 59 years, 1800 to 1918, both inclusive, was 246.18 feet. Under present conditions at this stage of the lake the St. Lawrence River discharges 241,000 cubic feet of water per second. Normally about 48,000 cubic feet per second of this went down the South Sault Rapids. At Barnhart Island the division appears to be, roughly. 226,000 south of Barn- hart Island, 12,000 between Barnhart and Sheek Islands, and 3,000 through the Cornwall Canal north of Sheek Island. On May 23, 1907. the Long Sault Development Co. was incor- porated in New York to develop the power of the Long Sault and South Sault Rapids (chapter 355. Laws of New York, 1907). ^ This company was owned by the St. Lawrence Securities Co., which in 232 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. turn is owned bj^ the Aluminum Co. of America. Its authorized capital stock Avas $1,000,000. The plans of this companj^ involved a develoi^ment of the' Long Sault Rapids which reciuired a dam 3.800 feet long across these rapids between Barnhart and Long Sault Islands, a dam 1.450 feet long between Barnhart Island and the bank of the Cornwall Canal at Lock 20. excavation of a channel 1.000 feet wide between Barnhart and Sheek Islands, and excava- tion of a channel through the lower end of Barnhart Island to two power houses at the water's edge. The head at these power houses was to be about 40 feet. The plans also included a development of the South Sault Rapids by a dam and power house at the east end of Long Sault Island, where a head of 35 feet was to be obtained. At mean stage, and 80 per cent over-all efficiency, the indicated horse- power is 1.027.000. At a low-river stage the power ])i'oduction would fall to 600,000 horsepower. The company proceeded to purchase the whole of Barnhart Island, the lower half of Long Sault Island, all of the American main shore from the Massena Canal down to a point opposite the foot of Barn- hart Island, and much other land on the islands and main shores in the vicinity, including all the riparian rights deemed necessary. It also undertook extensive engineering investigations related to the project. To obtain the necessary congressional authority, a bill was intro- duced into the House of Representatives in February. 1907. This was later withdrawn, and in December, 11K)9. another bill was intro- duced. This also was withdrawn. Bills were introduced also in January, 1911, and 1912. but failed of passage, and no Federal au- thority was ever granted for the project. Meantime the authority of the Parliament of Canada was also sought, but without success, there being much opposition to any at- tempt to develop the power of these rapids before Cana (chapter 452, Laws of New York. 1913). This act ai>propriated $36,320 with which to refund the company the money paid by it into the State treasury. On the same date an()ther act was passed empowering the State board of claims to an, r>7(j.4r>4. [Note. — Tlie elevation ^iven on pa^'e 2710 of the (Miief of i:nj.'ineers' Report for 19U3 is 570.6.")0, which is incoirect.] P. B. 11. Sill is on ihe stone sill oi the buseiueut window on the west side of the oltiee of the Bnl'lalo Smelting: Works, at the foot of Austin Street, Black Rock, Buflalo, N. Y., being a smootlied square sunk sliglitly below the level of the sill. Elevation, 574.762. *P. B. M. Tonatrauda Xo. 1 is in Tonawanda, X. Y.. on stone water table on west side of steeple of Chrislian Chapel Church, a red brick building on south- east corner of Broad and Seymore Streets, being the inter.soolion of two cross marks cut in center of large square cm top of stone. I^llevation, ri76.214. *P. B. M. Xorth Tonananda Xo. 2 is in North Tonawanda. N. Y., on stone water table 6^ feet south of entrance tt» tlie old engine house ( marked " 1873 ") of the Tonawanda Iron iV: Steel Co., (Utuated on llie right bank of tlie Niagara River and on the west side of ]\Iain Street, being the top of a small .scjuare in the northeast corner of a large s(|uare cut in corner of stone. Elevation, 578.822. *P. B. M. Whcatflcld is in Wheatfield Township, N. Y., on the .south end of stone water table on oast front of brick schoolhouse, which is in district No. 2, and stands on the right bank of the Niagara River and on the main road 560 yards below the Edgewater Bridge of the International Railway, being a square cut on stone. Elevation, 576.541. *P. B. .\f. La Salle \o. 1 is in La Salle, N. Y., just south of the La Salle sta- tion, on the northwest corner of bridge seat of e;!St abutment of the New York Central Railroad bridge over Cayuga Creek, being the top of a square cut ou stone. Elevation, 571.611. *P. B. M. La Sulle No. 2 is in La Salle, N. Y., on the top of the water table at the southeast corner of brick residence belonging to Mr. E. H. Smith, about one-fourth mile w^est of New Y^irk Central Railroad station, on main road along the river front, being the ton of a brass liolt leaded vertically into the water table Elevation, 580.290. *P. B. M. Lcliotn is in Niagara Falls, N. Y.. on the west end of stone doorsill of west door on soutli side of the New York (I'entral Railroad station, called " Echota," being the top of a small square in the southeast corner of a larger square cut on the stone. Elevation, 572.922. *P. B. M. Xiagara No. 1 is in Niagara Falls, N. Y., on a stone 5i inches square, with a small square cut on northwest corner, used as reference stone for the ceriter line of the tunnel of the Niagara Falls Power Plant, and is set in concrete in the gutter about 10 feet norfhwest of entrance to power house No. 1 of the Niagara Falls Power Co., 10 feet north of north door jamb and 3 feet out from building, being the top of a copper bolt leaded in the center of the stone. Elevation, 566.547. * P. B. M. Niagara No. 2 is in Niagara Falls. N. Y., on window sill of first Avindow west of northeast comer of Niagara Falls Prtwer Co.'s power house No. 1, being the top of a brass bolt leaded vertically in east end of stone, 5} feet from front of building. 5 inches back from front edge of window sill, 7 inches west of east side of window and on side of building facing Buffalo Avenue. Elevation. 571.827. P. B. ^f. Copper Bolt is in Niagara Falls, N. Y., on the retaining wall on the southerly side of the can.il of the Niagara Falls Pow'er Co., 87 feet west of power house No. 2, lieing the top ot a copper bolt leaded into the top of the coping stone. Elevation. 567.216. T. B. M. Paper is in Niagara Falls, N. Y., on the wall on the northerly side of the intake cannl of the Niagara Falls Power Co. at the west end, ))eing the tnth stone above the water table, 43 inches above the platform and 6 inches south of the northwest corner of the buildins:. Elevation, 584.377. P. B. M. Whirl is on the American side of the Niagara Gorge at the whirlpool on the ledge of flat rock extending into the river at the point, only a few inches above mean stage of the river (often submerged), 20 feet from the west edge of the ledge, 35 feet from the north edge and 35 feet from the corner, being the top of a brass bolt leaded vertically into the rock and marked B. M. o WHIRL Elevation, 294.426. P. B. M. Whirlpool is on the Canadian side of the Niagara Gorge at the whirlDool. 750 feet from point at entrance to whirlpool. 275 feet south of u 250 DIVERSIOX OF WATER TKO.M CltKAT I.AK'LS AXU NIAOALA lUVKIl. small creek, beinjr the top of an iron holt leaded vertically intn the top of rock led^c 1-0 feet from its water edse. marked r. s. O p. B. M. "When established in IflOG the aI)ove description was written and the eleva- tion was reported as 207.040. In 1909 it was found that the part of the rock on whicli the bench is situated had been Itroken from the lediie formiuir a large irrefrular fraprnient and that the elevation had been somewhat chansed. In 1917 levelinfr from P. B. M. Pool determined the elevation to l)e 290.977. P. R. M. Pool is on the Canadian side of the Niagara Gorge at the Whirli)ool, about 40 feet north of P. B. M. Wliirlpool, on the same ledge of rook (not broken off here) close to the water's edge, being the top of a brass bolt leaded verti- callv into the ledge, marked B. M. o POOL Elevation, 297.731. * P. li. M. University is about 2 miles north of Niagara Falls, N. Y., and 65 yards east of top of Gorge of Niagara Kiver, in west corner of main building of Niagara I'niversity, being the center of a brass bolt leaded horizontally into stone 4i inches east of corner and 20 inches al)ove ground. Elevation, r)S9 3">2. * T B. M. Xo. 31 is in Lewiston Heights, N. Y., on top of retaining wall on south side of wagon road, 10 feet north of center of track of tlie New York Central Railroad and 39 feet east of northeast corner of Lewist^smj\ Photograph I River discharge m fti I ^M [| 1 ^ III 'TlJ^^I • ri i I 1 ^ij ^^mi \ 1 o o o s LlJ " > V) o CQ LL < ^ (/) > o O n 5 < < E m • 'it i\ ''/i' U" ' j't ; \ ; • • ■ ;. i ',:'.'^'"H/r < n O o O o 2 o O "^ Z 5 . 'Mmmm, o <^ m o o " C' Q. o Photograph No. 85 (Nov. 21. 1907). - AMERICAN FALLS FROM CANADIAN SIDE, River discharge 180,000 cubic feet per second. Approximate flow over Falls 165.000 cubic feet per second. Photograph No. 86 (Nov. 22, 1906). AMERICAN FALLS FROM CANADIAN SIDE. River discharge 266,000 cubic feet per second. Approximate flow over Falls 250,000 cubic feet per second. y^ {■^ HOE F w over "m Oto U. I .- 10 a; Li. een DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 269 serioiislv injured and this injury will be increased by any further diversions. " The diversions have had very little etFect on the lower river and this mostly of a favorable nature. The damage that has been done should be repaired if possible and no further diversions should be permitted unless steps are taken to neutralize the damage that thev will do. , i i • Provosed remedial measures.— li has been shown that the scenic beauty of Niagara Falls has been appreciably damaged both by the recent recession of the apex of the Horseshoe Falls and by the di- version of water for power and for other purposes. The recession of the apex is progressing at an increasing rate and further power diversions are urgently desired and would be of great value to this country and to Canada. On the other hand the destructions or serious impairment of the beauty of this famous cataract will not be tol- erated by the people of the United States and would provoke the expostulations of the whole civilized world. Under these concbtions the question naturally arises, can not something be done which vnll repair the damage already done, prevent the self-destruction of the Horseshoe, and allow increased diversions without noticeable damage ? Such a possibility Avas seen as long ago as 1906 and was pointed out in a report to the Chief of Engineers in 1908, as follows : * * - the damage already done, and that which may be anticipated from further diversions * * *, may be largely, if not entirely remedied by a sub- merged dam placed in the bed of the river inmiediately above the Horseshoe Falls. The dam, if properlv planned, would serve to change the direction of flow, so as to increase the streams that feed the falls at Terrapin Point and at the Canadian shore. The decrease in the mighty volume that overflows the center or apex of the Horseshoe would not be noticeable. * * * A very direct result of the construction of this submerged dam would be a dimunition in the rate of recession of the apex of the Horseshoe. This in itself is extremely de- sirable. (S. Doc. No. 105, 62d Cong. 1st sess. p. 15.) The underlving principle of the design of such works is pointed out bv the fact that while the American Falls carries but one-six- teenth of the floAv over the Falls, it probably furnishes one-half of the spectacle. The American Falls is easily approached from either end and from below and a fine view of its full face is obtained fpom the opposite side of the Gorge. On the other hand, the approachable ends of the Horseshoe are greatly inferior to the American Falls, while the irreat fall of water'^into the notch can not be observed from any pointr As matters now stand, there flows over the central 600 feet of the Horseshoe Falls a volume of approximately 80,000 cubic feet per second, Avhich not only is entirely wasted in that it creates neither scenery nor power but which is actually a detriment in that it is the cause 'of the destructive erosion described above. Photographs Nos. 72 and 73 are pictures taken with the intent of showing the whole Falls at their best. Note in each instance the marked superiority of the American Falls, The cloud of mist which shuts out so much of the Horseshoe is a feature which is always present. The average flow over the American Falls is about 9 cubic feet per second over each linear foot of crest. This iiroduces a waterfall whose beauty and grandeur is admittedly unsurpassed. Over the Horseshoe the average flow per foot is about 57 cubic feet per second over each linear foot of crest, or more than six times as much as the 270 DRTRSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AXD XIAGAEA RIVER. American, but it is unevenly distributed. The whole eastern end of the crest, out as far as a point 200 feet beyond where the crest crosses the international boundary, has a mean flow of 4 cubic feet per foot, or less than half as much as the American Falls; in much of the len