LIBRARY
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
SANTA BARBARA
PRESENTED BY
MRS. MACKINLEY HELM
UCSB LIBRARY
THE
NATURAL HISTORY OF BIRDS.
THE
NATURAL HISTOR1 OF BIRDS:
|nta)totlion ta
THOMAS RYMER JONES, F.R.S.
.-..OFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY AND COMPABAnVB ANATOMV
KING'S COLLEGE, LOXDOX.
p unn , . , DI8KCTION OF THK COMMITT8K OF LITE1UT1 .
AND EDUCATION, APPOINTED BY THK .SOCIETY FOB
PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.
LONDON :
)CIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.
SOLD AT THE DEPOSITORIES'-
", CHEAT QUEEX STREET, LINCOLN'S-I.VN FIELDS -
4, HOYAL EXCHANGE,- 48, PICCADILLY ;
AND BT ALL BOOKSELLERS.
1867.
WYMAN AND SONS, PEINTERS,
GREAT QTBEN STBEET, LINCOLN'S-INN FIELDS,
LONDON, W.C.
TO
GEORGE ROBERT GRAY, F.R.S.,
TO WHOSE ZEALOUS LABOURS
ORNITHOLOGY IS SO DEEPLY INDEBTED,
THE FOLLOWING
POPULAR INTRODUCTION TO THE NATURAL HISTORY OP
BIRDS
IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED.
PREFACE.
THE Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge
being naturally desirous of promulgating as
extensively as possible sound information relative
to the works of ALMIGHTY GOD, issued some time
ago a series of " Tabular Views/' illustrative of the
modern Classification of Animals, containing en-
graved figures of typical forms, representing the
families and sub-families composing the Animal
Creation.
These Tables, arranged by the highest autho-
rities in their respective departments, and illus-
trated by eminent artists, ' have however proved
insufficient for the purpose intended, inasmuch a>
tin 1 history of the objects represented could only
l>e derived from extraneous sources, sometimes
not easily attainable by the general student.
To obviate this deficiency, the Society have re-
solvfd upon the publication of a series of volumes,
combining with the portraits of the animals de-
scribed an account of tlic /.oolo^-ical character^
Till PREFACE.
whereby they are distinguished; and also a concise
history of their habits and general importance in
Creation.
The present volume, containing the Natural
History of Birds, is based upon the Tabular View
arranged by George Robert Gray, Esq., F.R.S.,
Director of the Ornithological department of ihe
British Museum, and is in conformity with the
classification adopted in our National Collection, to
the study of which it will be found a useful guide.
B I R D -S.
INTRODUCTION.*
THE feathered tribes, as they are emphatically
called, have at all times been favourite objects
of study to the naturalist. The beauty of their plu-
mage, the elegance of their forms, the gracefulness
of their movements, and above all, the cheerfulness
which everywhere surrounds them, tempt his obser-
vation, and impart to the thinking mind no small
share of that exuberant happiness expressed by the
gaiety of their demeanour and the chorus of their
song.
Inhabitants of the air, lightness and activity are
the characteristic features of their economy. Some,
borne on rapid wing, skim onwards like the meteor's
flight, and are by far the SAviftest of the animal
creation. Some soar aloft, till, lost to human vision,
only their voice is heard like music from the sky.
Others frequent the woods, making the trees their
residence, where, as they hop from spray to spray,
they pour forth streams of melody ; or gorgeously
attired, glancing like fairy visions in the sunny land-
scape, seem the very gems and ornaments of Nature's
lovely dress.
Races of stronger wing and sterner attributes
obtain their food by waging active war on living
animals, their destined prey, swooping upon their
quarry from afar like falling thunderbolts ; or else 1 >y
night, prowling on muffled wings, invade the dark-
* See " Animal Creation," page 407.
B
2 . INTRODUCTION.
ness, and approach stealthily their unsuspecting
victims. By far the greater number of birds, how-
ever, have been appointed, in one way <>r another,
t6 feed on insects that abound on every side, and
which, without such check, would, from their undue
increase, become seriously detrimental. Some catch
them on the wing. The Swallows and the Swifts,
from early morning till the close of day, ply their
untiring pinions in pursuit of such as fly abroad
by daylight ; and when evening comes, only give
up the chase to kindred species, that prefer the
gloom of twilight or the silence of the night.
Xor do they live on winged insects only ; but in
all the stages of their growth, the insect hosts are
the appointed food of numerous tribes of birds,
adapted by their structure to obtain such prey
\vh;>rever met with : on the ground, beneath the
bark of trees, in every hole and crevice where they
lurk, their presence is detected. From the upturned
soil, thousands of beaks are ready to pick out the
wingless grubs ; and prying eyes investigate earh
leaf of every tree, in search of caterpillars and the
hungry bands of similar destroyers.
Fed on more dainty fare, the Humming-birds and
Soui-mangas, with their slender bills, explore the
blossoms of a thousand plants, in search of honied
stores, sipping the nectar and the dew from flower-
bells beauteous as themselves. Some feed on fruits,
and in the sunny climes find a perpetual autumn, or
devour the seeds of grasses, and, unasked, approach
the harvest-field to share the abundant corn. Ter-
ivstrial in their habits, not a few scrape from the
ground their vegetable food; while many, raised on
stilted legs, wade in the marsh, and probe the oozy s >il
in search of worms or slugs. Nor are the lakes, the
rivers, or the sea without their feathered occupants;
legions of water-fowl are everywhere provided.
Ducks paddle in the ponds, Swans row their " oary
.-tate," reflected on the tr.tn<|uil bosom of the stream ;
multitudes frequent the shore, crowding the rocks,
INTRODUCTION. :j
or riding on the waves ; while far away at sea,
upborne on outstretched wings, the Albatrosses
sweep along over degrees of longitude, and circle
round the globe itself, in the unbounded freedom
of their flight.
Presenting so much variety in their occupations
and mode of life, it may naturally be supposed that
a corresponding diversity exists in the structure of
their limbs, and in their means of procuring their
subsistence. The feet and claws of a perching bird
could never , be available for swimming, nor could
the bill of a. Snipe be used for the same purposes as
the beak of an Eagle. In the classification of birds,
therefore, the ornithologist is guided by certain
characters^ derived from their general shape and
proportions, the structure of the mouth, bill, tongue,
wings, tail, and legs, all of which are necessarily in
relation with particular habits ; and his constant
endeavour is to detect and define, with brevity and
precision, the most prominent features whereby
different races are distinguishable.
In order to render such descriptions intelligible
to the general reader, it will be necessary, not only
to map out, as it were, the .several parts that charac-
terize the objects of our study, but to employ words
and phrases of distinct and limited meaning, MS
expressions of the peculiarities they exhibit ; we
neecl^tljerefore, scarcely apologize for introducing
our subject by a few preliminary remarks relative
to the nomenclature adopted in the following pages.
The HEAD of a bird consists of the .sAv/7/, and the
bill or beak, and is joined to the body by the neck.
The BEAK or BILL consists of an upper jaw, called
in ornithological language the Upper Mandible (Fig.
1, 12 ), and of the lower jaw, or Loiver Mandible (, 13 ).
The UPPER MANDIBLE contains the orifices of the
nostrils ((}, the shape of which varies in different
birds. Its highest part is called the Culmen (b),
while the corresponding ridge of the lower mandible
is termed the 'Gouys (//).
INTRODUCTION.
FlO. 1. FIGURE OF A BIBD, SHOWING ITS TECHNICAL DIVISIONS.
A, Dorsal region : 12, tipper mandible ; a, the apex ; b, the eulmen ; <% the
nostrils. G, The Head : d, the forehead ; t, the vertex ; /, the occiput. E, The
Nape : comprehending, , the upper neck ; c, the lower neok. C, The Back :
, the interscapular space; y, the back proper; z, the rump. K, The Tail.
B, The Ventral region : comprising, 13, the lower mandible : //, the apex;
k, the gonys. H, The Throat : , the throat proper ; r, the jugufum. A". The
Breast. D, The Abdomen : divided into o, the epigastrium. P, The Belly :
q, the crissum, or vent. The Neck (I) comprehends the whole region between
the head and the trunk. The head is further divided into (m) the ophthalmic
region, (I) the supraciliary region, (le) the cheek, () the parotid region,
and (j) the lorum. The Sides or Flanks (F) are those parts covered by the
wings when closed.
The feathers which cover or which form the wings are distinguished into
Tectricet, or wing-coverts ; Eemiget, or quill-feathers ; and thumb-feathers (2),
the last of which constitute the " bastard wing." The Tertricet are dtriaed
into the small wing-coverts (1), the middle wing-coverts (!), and the large
wing-coverts (I"). The Remit/ft are called primaries (1). r ^.-condaries (3').
The wing itself is divided into' the shoulder (4), and the ellww (5).
The legs, at their junction with the tarsus (6), form the lu-el. The tarsus
may be distinguished into a hinder portion (7), and an anterior portion (8).
The foot is divisible into the thumb, or kailtuc (6), and the toes (10), which
are terminated by the claws (11).
INTRODUCTION. O
The MARGINS of the mandibles are their lateral
edges, which meet when .the bill is closed. In some
birds the margins of the upper mandible overlap
those of the lower, while in others the two edges
exactly meet ; the line thus formed by the meeting
of the mandibles is termed the Commissure.
The commissure may be either straight, as in the
Woodpecker ; festooned, as in the Sparrow-hawk j
undulated, as in the Tanager; arched, as in the
Hoopoe ; or anc/ulattd at its base, as in the Starling.
The UPPER MANDIBLE is sometimes continued over
the forehead, so as to form a sort of helmet. In
rapacious birds and Parrots its base is povered with
a soft skin called the Cere.
The WING of a bird is constructed upon the same
general plan as the human arm, or the fore-leg of
quadrupeds, and when denuded of its feathers, it is
not difficult to perceive the relationship between
these apparently different organs.
The QUILL-FEATHERS of the wing are divided into
three sets, distinguished as the primaries, the
secondaries, and the terti<(fi<-*.
The PRIMARIES are always the longest, and in
swift-flying birds, like the Swallows, are of double
the length of any of the other quills : they are usually
nine or ten in number, sometimes eleven, and are
attached to the metacarpus, or those bones which
represent the hand of the human, skeleton (3).
The SECONDARIES are implanted in the cubit or
fore-arm, and are usually only half the length of
the primaries (3') .
The TERTIARIES are those attached to the upper
arm, or humerus.
The origins of the quills are overlapped, and pro-
tected by smaller feathers, arranged something like
the tiles of a house, and called the WiNG-CovEhTS
(i r i").
The power of flight possessed by any bird depends
upon the arrangement, the proportionate size, and
the shape of the wings : hence it will be necessary
B 2
6 INTRODUCTION.
to explain the principal modifications observable in
these admirable structures.
PlG. 2. FIGtTBE OP WING, SHOWING THE ORIGINS OF THE QtTILL-TEATHEKS.
(h) The humerus ; (r) the radius ; (c) the cubital bone, the outer side of
which is entirely occupied by the insertion of the secondary quills (S), which
are separated by a small space from the primaries (P), all of which take
their origin from the metacarpal bone representing the hand. The joint
(x) representing the wrist-joint, indicates the point of separation between
the primary and the secondary quills. The bastard quills, or those attached .
to the thumb, are indicated by the letter 6.
The formation of the wing in reference to its
office depends almost entirely upon the arrange-
ment, the proportions, and the shape of the quills ;
and these again determine the powers of flight.
The principal modifications in the structure of
these important organs are therefore briefly ex-
pressed by simple epithets, the precise meaning of
which it will be necessary to remember.
In regard to their comparative length, a wing,
however otherwise constructed, is termed long when
INTRODUCTION. /
it extends beyond the middle of the tail ; moderate,
when it reaches nearly or quite to that member;
and short when it does not extend to the base of
the tail.
As relates to their shape
ACUMINATED wings are those adapted for the most
rapid and long-continued flight. In wings of this
description the first quill is generally the longest,
although it sometimes happens that there is scarcely
any perceptible difference between that and the
FlG. 3. ACUMINATED WING. SWALLOW.
second ; the rest, however, rapidly diminish at
almost 'equal intervals, until they reach the lesser
quills, which are little more than one-third the
length of the exterior primaries.
It is obvious that in wings of this description
nearly the whole power of the stroke is thrown into
the primary quills, which are those principally em-
ployed in flight.
FALCATED or SWORD-SHAPED wings are only pos-
sessed by the Humming-birds. In these, the two
FlG. 4. FALCATED WIX
f HVMMI>'G-BIHD.
or three primaries are curved towards the ends,
which are rather suddenly rounded off, while all the
succeeding ones are straight.
POINTED wings come nearest to those termed acu-
minated, and the passage from one of these forms
to the other is susceptible of numerous gradations,
almost too refined for popular explanation.
8 INTRODUCTION.
Pointed wings may be divided into two sorts.
In the first, the outermost quill is either the longest,
or nearly equal to the next one or two; but the
secondaries and tertiaries are of the ordinary length ;
that is, they are two-thirds as long as the primaries.
In the second description of pointed wing the
first quill is little more than half the length of those
which are longest, which are generally the fourth or
fifth.
EMAEGINATED wings are characterized by having a
sudden notch, or sinuosity more or less abrupt, on
the margin of the inner shaft of the longest quills ;
FlG. 5. EMARCrlN'ATED WIXGS.
a, Falcon. 6, Sparrow hawk.
this notch, in some cases (True Falcons), is situated
near the end of the shaft; in others (the ignoble
Hawks) it is placed near the base (Fig. 5).
ROUNDED wings are always shorthand there is so
little difference between the last six or seven prima-
ries and the secondaries, that the distinction between
the two series is scarcely perceptible. The tertiaries
also are nearly of the same dimensions, so that when
the wing is fully expanded, the contour forms a
semicircle.
RASORIAL wings are characterized by their peculiar
shape, and by the great development of the se-
condary quills ; these latter being so long as nearly
to equal the primaries. The primary quills in their
substance have an unusual strength and rigidity;
their shape is almost falcate, and they are very
narrow; their curved shape gives to the wing a
great degree of convexity, and also indicates much
strength. ,
INTRODUCTION.
AMPLE wings have the primaries short, and the
secondaries and tertiaries remarkably broad. The
flight of birds possessing wings of this description
is slow and heavy, but regular, lofty, and can be
long sustained. By this broad expanse of wing the
Heron mounts high in the air, flying steadily, but
slowly, to its distant retreat.
ABORTIVE wings are such as are incapable of being
used as instruments of flight. These are of two
kinds ; the first belongs to land birds of the Ostrich
race, the second to the Penguins, Auks, and other
swimming birds.
The tail of a bird is a very important auxiliary in
flight, during which it is expanded, and used as a
rudder. There are very few species without this
FlG. 6. TAIL-FEATHERS.
Upper surface of the tail of a bird,
showing the disposition of the twelve
quill-feathers of which it is usually
composed. The feathers of the tail
are counted from the outer to the
inner ; consequently the first tail-
feather (1) is the most external, from
which they are named 2nd, 3rd, 4th,
and 5th, to the 6th, or middle feathers
of the tail (6). The feathers which
cover the roots of the tail-feathers
are the tail-coverts (t t) .
ornamental appendage, though in some it is ex-
tremely short. The terms short and long, however,
being very indefinite, it is usual, when speaking of
the comparative length of this part, to call that a
short tail which does not exceed half the length of
10 INTRODUCTION.
the wings; a moderate tail is about equal to the
length of the body; and all longer than this are
called long tails.
A PERFECT tail consists of twelve feathers ; but in
some Gallinaceous birds the number amounts t<>
eighteen ; while in a very few species there are
only eight.
The root or base of the tail-feathers is protected
both above and below by others, which are termed
the upper and under tail-coverts.
In speaking of the various forms of the tail, it
will be necessary in the following pages to make uso
of terms, such as even, rounded, Jan-shaped, <//W-
ated, cuneated, arcuated, spatulatc, slender, forked,
&c. : these we will briefly explain.
An EVEN TAIL implies that the feathers when ex-
panded are all of the same length.
A ROUNDED TAIL has the outermost feathers pro-
gressively shorter than those in the middle.
A FAN-SHAPED TAIL, as its name indicates, is so
much rounded, that the two middle feathers are the
longest, all the others gradually diminishing in
length.
GRADUATED TAILS not only exhibit a greater degree
of circularity than those which are simply rounded,
but they possess this peculiarity, that the external
feathers, instead of being very slightly shorter than
those in the middle, are abruptly abbreviated, so as
to resemble the steps in a flight of stairs.
A CUNEATED or WEDGE-SHAPED TAIL has each fea-
ther gradually narrowed from, the middle, and ter-
minating in a point.
ARCUATED or ARCHED TAILS somewhat resemble
the last ; but the feathers, instead of beiiiir straight,
are gently arched ; and those in the middle are so
convex, that they lap over, as if to protect the
others. The common Pheasant exhibits this form
in perfection.
SPATULATE or RACKET- SHAPED TAILS. The pecu-
liarity of this tail is that the middle feathers have
.INTRODUCTION. 11
their shafts, for a certain space towards their ends,
entirely destitute of webs on either side ; the webs
suddenly appearing again only at the top, giving the
feather the appearance of a spoon or battledore.
SLENDER TAILS are generally of moderate length,
the feathers being slender throughout, and some-
times so abruptly truncated, that their extremities
appear to be cut off.
In FORKED TAILS the two outer feathers are by far
the longest ; the inner ones gradually shortening
until the gradation terminates in the central pair.
In LYRE-SHAPED TAJLS the gradation in the length
of the feathers is precisely similar to that in a simply
forked tail, but they are curved outwards, so as to
resemble in some sort the frame of an ancient lyre.
BOAT- SHAPED TAILS' are still more extraordinary ;
their sides, when expanded, are bent up like the
sides of a boat, so as to leave the central part hollow
and very concave. This appearance is generally lost
in preserved specimens.
COMPRESSED or. ERECT TAILS are well exemplified
in that of the barn-door cock.
Lastly, FASCICULATED or PLUMED TAILS are those
in which the feathers seem to have no regular or de-
terminate arrangement, but form bunches of plumes,
like that of the Ostrich.
The hinder limb or LEG of a bird is composed
of, 1. the tibia, generally but erroneously called
the thigh; 2. the tarsus, or shank, usually deno-
minated the leg; and 3. the toes or digits. Of
these last, one, which when present is usually turned
backward, or in opposition to the rest, is distin-
guished as the liatlux. The toes are all of them
terminated by claws, variable in their size and shape,
and of great importance in the classification of
different races.
The TARSUS by which name we shall designate the
shank, is either feathered, as in many of the birds of
prey (Fig. 7), or naked, as in the generality of birds.
A NAKED tarsus is protected by SCALES (scutel-
12 INTRODUCTION.
lated); and next to the relative length of the tarsus,
the form and disposition of these scales supply us
with the best discriminative characters taken from
this part of the bird. The generality of naked-
footed birds have the tarsus protected by three
series of scales, each of which is frequently of a
peculiar form. The first series is in front, the second
occupy the two sides, and the third is at the back
of the leg.
The front sea les, called also the anterior, are either
composed of one or several pieces. When the ante-
rior scale is simple, or composed of one piece, it
extends from the front of the knee as far as the
hinder toe, and its external surface is quite smooth.
Generally, however, this front plate is marked by
transverse divisions, or composed of pieces, which
sometimes overlap each other. In many birds, both
the front and sides of the tarsus are covered with
numerous small scales that do not touch each other,
but are so disposed that the interstices, or spaces
between them, resemble the lines of a net : such a
tarsus is said to be reticulated.
The lateral scales of the tarsus are not always
present; frequently their office is supplied by the
anterior scales, which are then extended round the
leg, so as nearly to envelop it.
The posterior scales are very frequently wanting,
and when present seldom extend much below the
upper part of the tarsus.
The TOES of birds, l?y their leading variations,
furnish the primary characters whereby the whole
class is divided into orders, and the subordinate
modifications of their structure indicate for the
most part natural groups.
The great majority have four toes on each foot,
three of which are usually placed before, and one
(the halhtx) behind. TJie exceptions to this number
of toes and to their disposition are comparatively
few. They will be noticed when speaking of the
particular races in which they exist.
BIRD S.
ORDER I.
ACCIPITKES* (Linncuus).
BIRDS OF PREY.
THE Birds of Prey hold the same position among
rlic feathered tribes as the Lion, the Tiger, the
Hyaena, and other carnivorous races among mam-
miferous quadrupeds. They live upon flesh, and
for the most part, pursue and destroy the animals
that constitute their food. Their flight is therefore
powerful, and the weapons with which they are
armed of a most formidable character. Their beak
is strong, sharp, and curved downwards towards the
tip, and their feet are furnished with hooked talons
well adapted to pierce and secure their struggling
quarry. The muscles of their thighs and the
strength of their legs indicate the power of their
claws, while the length and expanse of their wings
testify to the velocity of their flight. Their general
appearance is indicative of the ferocity of their
nature, and their whole life is devoted to carnage
and rapine. The Raptorial Birds are divisible into
two sections, those that fly only in the daytime,
and those that are nocturnal in their habits. To the
first of these divisions belong the Eagles, the Vul-
tures, and the Falcons, distinguished by having
* Accipiter, a hawk, from nrcijiio, to take by force.
C
14 ACCIPITEKS.
their eyes placed upon the sides of their head, so
that they can see in every direction ; while in the
nocturnal Birds of Prey both the eyes are directed
forwards.
SUB-ORDER.
ACCIPITRES DlURNI.*
DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.
In addition to the lateral position of the eyes
referred to above, the diurnal birds of prey are
recognisable by having the base of their beak
covered with a soft skin, called, from its wax-like
appearance, the " cere," in which the orifices of the
nostrils are generally situated. Their feet are fur-
nished with three toes in front and one behind, all
quite destitute of feathers ; their plumage is close -
set, their wings strong, and their flight rapid.
They form two great groups, the first embracing
those that feed principally on animals killed by
themselves, the second including such as live more
or less upon carrion. The former were classed by
Linnaeus under the general name of Falcons, the
latter, constituting an equally natural group, em-
braces the Vultures, those unclean birds that must
first occupy our attention as constituting the type
of the rapacious- order to which they belong. t
* Diurnus, belonging to the day.
f It may seem strange to the unscientific reader that these
ignoble birds should be selected as the type or pattern of the
rapacious tribes, in preference to the more highly gifted Eagles
and Hawks ; aud it may therefore be necessary to explain in this
place what is the exact meaning attached to the words " type,"
" typical form," and " typical species," which will occur so fre-
quently in the following pages. The type of any given tribe or
family of Birds is by no means that genus or species which is the
most remarkably endowed with any particular faculty or attribute,
but, on the contrary, is selected rather from its want of any extra-
ordinary or exaggerated development of the peculiarities charac-
VITLTTRIDJE. 15
FAMILY I.
VULTUBID^E. T/te Vultures.
GENEBAL CHABACTBBISTICS. Beak somewhat lengthened; upper mandiMe
nearly straight, curved at the point only ; head and neck in a greater or less
degree naked, or clothed only with a thin down ; talons comparatively weak.
Food exclusively the flesh of dead animals.
The birds belonging to this widely distributed
family present considerable diversity in their habits,
as well as in their general conformation. Some
differ from the rest of the vulturine race, by having
their head and neck completely clothed with feathers;
thus combining, to a certain extent, the habits of
the Vulture with the garb of the Eagle. The
American Vultures are remarkable for the posses-
sion of fleshy appendages, that surmount the base
of their beak, and give a very distinctive character
to their physiognomy. It is to the true Vultures
only the types of the family that the above
general description is strictly applicable ; from which
the rest are more or less aberrant.
Equally diversified are their modes of life. In
teristic of the group which it typifies. If, for example, the zoologist
is asked to select a species which shall be the type or exemplar of
Birds generally, he will, in all probability, point to the Crow, as
possessing in a medium degree of perfection the qualities belonging
to all races of Birds concentrated in itself. It is true that it
cannot soar so high as the Eagle, or fly with the swiftness of the
Swallow ; but it can fly very well, and with moderate rapidity. It
does not run with the fleetness of an Ostrich, or hop with the
vivacity of many of the smaller birds ; but it can both walk and hop,
when it thinks proper, with considerable alacrity. It is not a
wading bird, but it has no objection to wade into the water either
of the marsh or of the sea-shore, in search of food. It is equally at
home when perched upon a tree, and feeds indiscriminately upon
all sorts of substances, whether animal or vegetable; thus com-
bining the characteristics of all the feathered races.
In the same way the Vulture is selected as the type of the
Rapacious Birds. It is not the monarch of the sky, but its powers
of flight are very respectable ; and although it is too weak to do
battle with animals possessed of much strength, it wi!l never-
thaless kill and devour such feeble game as its cowardice permits
it to attack.
c 2
16
ACCIPITRES.
hot climates they are more frequently seen upon
plains than in elevated situations ; sometimes they
approach villages, and at early dawn spread them-
selves through the streets and lanes, rendering much
service by devouring all kinds of carrion. In
temperate climates they only frequent the highest
mountains and most inaccessible cliffs, where some
of them prefer killing their own game. Such dif-
ferences, both in their appearance and mode of lite ,
have rendered it expedient to divide them into
several Sub-families, each distinguished from the
rest by certain characteristic peculiarities. Thus
we have the Bearded Vultures (Gypaetince), tin-
Condors (Sarcorampliince) , the Vultures proper
(Vulturinee) , and the Eagle- Vultures (Qypohiera-
< !' ft>), each of which will require separate notice.
Fl<.. 7. FOOT OF KAGLK.
VCL'ITHID.K.
SUB-FAMILY I.
GYPAETI.VK."' The Bearded Vidtures.
GKN. CHAHAC. Head and neck completely clothed with feathers ; cere of tin
base of the upper mandible entirely hidden by projecting bristles.
FlG. 8. THE I. \MM1I! GEYEB.
( Crypuetox Itiirbaluf )
The type of this sub-family
The Bearded Vulture (Gypcttos-\- barbatus], well known
on the continent of Europe as the Lammer Geyer, <r
Lamb Vulture, is the largest of the birds of prey fcmnd
* Tt will be observed, that while the Families of Birds are desig-
nated by the Greek patronymic idw, the Sub-families are distin-
guished by the diminutive <
t yt''!', gyps, i vulti'.i-'. 1 : lieTof, aetos, OM eagle ; Eagle-Vulture.
18 ACCIPITKES.
in the Eastern hemisphere. Its usual mode of killing
the animals that constitute its food is to drive them
over the edge of some precipitous cliif, and devour their
remains when shattered by the fall : hence it \vas
known to the ancients under the name of the "bone-
breaker '' (ossifraga). From the descriptions given of
this formidable bird, it is not to be wondered at that
much exaggeration has crept into its history. Fourteen,
and even eighteen, feet in the extent of its wings have
been attributed to the Lammer Geyer, and an amount of
strength correspondent with such Roc-like dimensions.
A distinguished naturalist, however, Picot la Perouse,
who has observed this species in the Pyrenees, and de-
scribed it veiy carefully, considerably reduces the magni-
tude attributed to it by earlier writers. He gives it the
following dimensions : Extent across the wings, eight
feet and a half; total length, three feet ten inches ;
weight, about ten pounds. The beak is four inches long ;
it is covered above at its base as far as the centre with
numerous long black hairs directed forwards, while
underneath hangs a tuft of similar hairs forming a true
beard an inch and a half in length : it is from this last
extraordinary appendage that its specific name, barbatus,
bearded, is derived. As may easily be imagined, a bird
of such proportions, and possessing an appetite corre-
spondent with its size, is terribly destructive to the nocks
that pasture in the Alpine valleys, where it wages cruel
\var on sheep, lambs, she-goats, and even calves ; while
the chamois, the hare, the marmot, and other wild qua-
drupeds, also become its victims ; even children,* occa-
sionally, have been the objects of the indiscriminating
rapacity of these marauders ; and man himself is not >ate
should he incautiously approach their wild retreats.
The nest of the Lammer Geyer is usually built on the
most inaccessible heights, and constructed of larch -
branches intertwined with wool, hair, and feathers ; its
surface is flat, and its superficies about four feet in dia-
meter. Upon this nest, or rather platform, the female
deposits two or three eggs of a bluish-white colour, spotted
with reddish-brown or ochreous yellow.
* In 1819 these birds were numerous in Saxe Gotha. They
killed two children, and Government was induced to offer a reward
for their destruction.
VULTDEID2E.
19
SUBFAMILY II.
SARCORAMPHIN.E.*
The Condors.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill lengthened and rather slender, with the basal portion
niore or less covered with a soft cere ; the apical part strong, much curved,
and acutely hooked at the tip; nostrils placed in the cere, with the opening
large, exposed, oblong, and longitudinal ; wings lengthened and pointed ;
tarsi long, and covered with small reticulated scales; the middle toe length-
ened, the lateral ones short, equal, and united with the midd'e toe by a
membrane ; hind toe generally short and weak.
FlG. 9. THE CONDOR.
(Sarcorampkiit Grypkn*.)
The sub-family of the Condors embraces birds
met with in countries very remote from each other,
and differing much in size ; but agreeing in their
appetite for carrion. Some of them (Neophron) are
found in Africa and India, where they live in large
flocks, and in Egypt, where they are held in great
respect, on account of the services they render to
the country by purifying it from the garbage upon
beak,
<rdp
it;, sarx, sarcos, rtesh ;
, ramphos, acr<i<>k<'l
20 ACCIPITRES.
which they feed. Others (Cathartes) are migratory,
and are found scattered over the various parts of
the American continent, the 'West Indies, and the
Falkland Islands, where they may be often seen at
a great height, wheeling round and round, and per-
forming the most graceful evolutions. Here, like-
wise, they devour dead carcases, and every kind of
filth, during the hot season ; while those that inhabit
the sea-coasts and islands, subsist on dead seals and
various kinds of refuse, cast up by the waves :
small animals, however, and eggs, more especially
those of alligators, also form a portion of their food.
The typical species, and the giant of the race, is
The Condor (Sarcoramplms Gryphus)* generally re-
garded as the largest of predaceous birds. The name
Sarcoramphus is derived from the circumstance that the
head of the male, in addition to a broad fleshy crest,
which extends over the top of its head, has another
beneath its beak, somewhat resembling the wattles of the
barn-door fowl. The nostrils are pierced completely
through the fleshy cere from side to side ; the skin of the
head and neck is quite naked, and thrown into voluminous
folds, while round the base of the neck is a frill of white
feathers.
The Condor has been rendered celebrated by exagge-
rated accounts of its size and ferocity. It is, in reality,
not much larger than the Lammer Geyer of Europe,
which it also resembles in its habits. It frequents the
highest mountains of the Cordilleras of the Andes, in
South America. Of all bii'ds its flight is the most lofty ;
and even the situation that it chooses for its breeding-
place varies from 10,000 to 15,000 feet above the level of
the sea. These birds generally live in pairs ; but among
the inland basaltic cliffs of Santa Cruz they sometimes
collect together in great numbers ; and it is a grand spec-
tacle to see twenty or thirty of them start heavily from
their resting-places and wheel away in majestic circles.
So aerial and buoyant is their flight, that except when
rising from the ground they are scarcely ever observed to
move their wings.
* Oryphus, a griffin, from ypvirof, grypos, having a hooked beak.
VL'LTUKIU.E.
21
The Condor feeds upon dead and putrefying carcases,
but two or more will sometimes unite to overpower the
llama and other large animals. They will even attack
a heifer ; they pursue it for a long time, wounding it with
their beak and talons until the poor animal sinks to the
ground breathless and overwhelmed with fatigue.
The female Condor makes no nest, but lays her eggs
upon the bare rock, simply selecting a spot where there
are cavities large enough to prevent them from rolling
down when she descends upon or rises from them. The
situations chosen for incubation are always nearly inac-
cessible. The eggs ai*e white, and are said to be usually
two in number.
22
ACCIPITRES.
SUB-FAMILY III.
VULTURIN.E. The Vultures projter.
GKX. CHARAC. Bill long, strong, more elevated than broad, the sides more or
less compressed, the base covered with a cere for nearly half the length of
the bill, and the tip suddenly hooked over the lower mandible; no<trii>
placed in the cere, with their openings oblique and exposed ; wings length-
ened ; tarsi covered with small scales ; the middle toe longer than the tarei,
while the lateral toes are mueh shorter.
( Vitltur momickH*.)
This sub-family comprehends a number of
birds peculiar to the warmer parts of the Old World.
VULTURIDJ-;. 23
They speedily collect in troops around the body of
any dead animal, on which they glut themselves
until they are incapable of moving : they will, how-
ever, sometimes attack living prey. Their flight is
slow ; but they are capable of mounting to a con-
siderable height, by means of a series of circular
evolutions, which serve them, not only in ascending,
but in descending. Their nest is slightly formed of
sticks, on the most inaccessible parts of rocks, and
the parents nourish their young by disgorging into
their throats a portion of their own half-digested food.
The true Vultures are at once distinguishable by
the peculiarity of their aspect. A part of their
head, of greater or less extent, and sometimes the
neck also, is denuded of feathers ; thus ensuring
the comparative cleanliness of the bird, and pre-
serving it from the filth that would accumulate were
the head and neck clothed as in other birds. The
strength of their talons is not proportionate to their
size ; so that they make more use of their beak than
of their claws in procuring food. Their wings are
so long that, when upon the ground, they are
obliged to hold them in a half-extended position.
They are all cowardly in their habits, and generally
feed upon carrion, rarely upon living prey. When
satiated with food, their distended crop projects, a
fetid fluid runs from their nostrils, and they become,
from very repletion, reduced to a state of helpless
inactivity. Among filth and putridity they seem to
be in their native element, and they, themselves,
have a rank and disagreeable odour. When they
first rise from the ground, their flight is heavy and
embarrassed ; but after a few circuits it becomes
rapid and well-sustained ; so that when fairly on the
wing they can rise to a considerable elevation.
There is something ignoble in the gait of the whole
race, and the vileness of their disposition is indicated
by their attitude. Their wings hang down, and
their tail drags on the ground : their whole ap-
pearance is repulsive. Nevertheless, in hot climates
24 ACCIPITRES.
their presence is of essential service, in removing
filth, which would otherwise pollute the atmosphere.
Hence, in some countries, laws are enacted for their
protection, and they may be seen upon the roofs of
houses, or even frequenting the streets, where their
presence is not only tolerated, but encouraged.
Indeed, besides their usefulness when living, they
have an additional security in their utter worthless-
ness when dead.
Vultures are gregarious, and often associate in
flocks of from twenty to thirty, or more, seeking in
concert the carrion upon which they feed. When
thus employed, they wheel in large circles that seem
to intersect each other, as if forming an immense
chain of rounded links, and thus inspect a consi-
derable extent of country. A flock of twenty can
in this manner easily survey an area of two miles.
Some fly at a considerable altitude, whilst others
keep near the ground, so that not a spot is left
unexamined. The moment a dead animal is dis-
covered, the lucky bird rounds to, and by the im-
petuosity of its movements attracts the notice of
its nearest companion, who immediately hastens to
share the feast, and is successively followed by all
the rest. Thus, the furthest from the discoverer,
although at a considerable distance, goes in a
straight line towards the spot indicated by the flight
of the others, as though attracted by an extraor-
dinary acuteness of smelling, erroneously attributed
to these birds. If the object discovered is large,
lately dead, and covered with a skin too tough to
be torn asunder, they remain about it, or linger in
the vicinity, perched on the dead branches of high
trees. In this conspicuous position they are easily
seen by other Vultures, who through habit , well
know the meaning of such stoppages, and join the
first flock. Around the spot they remain, some
of them from time to time examining the dead
body, giving it a tug in those parts most accessible,
until they find its putridity sufficiently advanced.
Vl'LTURIDJE. 25
Tin- accumulated number then fall to work, exhibit-
ing a most disgusting picture of famished voracity,
the strongest driving off the weakest, and the latter
harassing the former with all the animosity that a
disappointed hungry stomach can excite. They may
then be seen jumping off the carcase, re-attacking
it, entering it and wrestling for portions partly
swallowed by two or more of them ; hissing at a
furious rate, and every moment clearing their nos-
trils from the filth that enters there and stops their
breathing. The carcase is soon reduced to a mere
skeleton, no portion of it being now too tough to be
torn apart and swallowed, so that nothing is left but
the bare bones. The repast finished, the gorged
Vultures slowly fly to the highest branches of the
nearest trees, and remain there until the full diges-
tion of all the food they have swallowed is com-
pleted. This takes, oftentimes, more than a day,
when successively, and very often singly, each Vul-
ture is seen to depart.
The type of this sub -family
The Arabian Vulture (VuUur monachus) measures
about four feet in length, and the extent of its wings
is proportionately wide ; nevertheless, in spite of its
lai-ge size and great muscular strength, it is not a dan-
gerous neighbour even to the farmer ; for unless pressed
by hunger, it seems to have a dread of living animals,
and contents itself with feeding upon any carrion that
may come in its way.
The specific name of monachus, or monk, was given to
it by Linnaeus, on account of the hood-like rafl' round its
neck, its bald head, and the general colour of its dress,
much resembling the garb of the monastics formerly so
numerous in Arabia and Palestine.
Its nest is built upon the most inaccessible cliffs, where it
forms a flat mass of sticks three or four feet in diameter.
Upon this platform the female deposits two or rarely
three eggs, which are white, with a taint bluish tinge.
The range of the Arabian Vulture extends over the
whole of northern Africa, Arabia, Persia, India, and the
more mountainous parts of the^ south of Europe.
26
ACCIPITRES.
SUB-FAMILY IV.
GYPOHIERACIN^E.* The Eagle- Vultures.
GEN. CHAKA.C. Bill lengthened, much compressed on the sides, and the base
covered with a cere for one-third of the length of the bill ; wings lengthened
and pointed ; tarsi covered with rather large reticulated scales.
FlG. 11 THE ANf.OI.A VULTUBB.
(Oypohieriu: Aiiyi>lru*i*.)
The type of this sub-family
The Angola Vulture (Gypohierax Angolensis) is sup-
posed to be peculiarto Western Africa, but its habits ;uv,
on account of its rarity, at present entirely unknown.
* fty, gyP 8 > a vulture; tipaK, hierax, a hawk ; Hawk- Vulture.
FALCON IDJ-:. 2/
FAMILY II.
FALCOXID.E. The Falcons.
GK\. CHARAC. Bill partly covered at the base by a cere, compressed on the
sides, with the culmen curved from the cere to the tip, which is hooked and
acute, and the lateral margins either toothed or festooned ; wings long and
pointed ; tail moderate and broad ; tarsi and toes of various lengths and
strong ; claws long, curved, and acute, especially those of the inner and
hind toes. The head and neck are covered with feathers, and the eyes
placed laterally, deep'y sunk, and protected by a bony b.-ow.
The Falcons, as a group, are easily to be recog-
nized among the other birds of prey. Their head and
neck are covered with feathers, and their eyes, placed
upon the sides of their head, are overshadowed
and protected by a prominent eyebrow, which gives
them the appearance of being deeply sunk, and thus
imparts to their physiognomy a peculiarly ferocious
and determined expression. For the most part they
subsist upon prey killed by themselves ; but they
differ widely in the amount of courage displayed in
the pursuit of their quarry; there are, however, a few
species that will share with the Vultures their dis-
gusting meal. The Falcons usually seize and carry
off their victims by means of their powerfully-armed
feet, and their beak is, in most cases, only used for
tearing it to pieces. Some of them feed almost
exclusively on birds and small quadrupeds ; others
upon snakes, frogs, and lizards ; there are a few that
live upon fishes, while a considerable number derive
a great portion of their nourishment exclusively from
insects. Their mode of capturing prey is also greatly
diversified. Some hover in the air or sail slowly
along until the quarry appears in sight, when they
plunge down upon it with the rapidity of lightning.
Some pursue their game with the greatest pertina-
city, until they get an opportunity of clutching it
with their murderous talons ; whilst others frequent
woods and thickets, where, like cats, they appear to
lie in wait for their victims.
28
ACCll'ITlIKS.
The plumage of the young birds is often very
different from that of the adults, a circumstance
which has caused the number of species to be mis-
takenly multiplied. They make their nests of dried
sticks among rocks or in tall trees, wherein they lay
from two to five eggs. The females are generally
larger than the males, but inferior to them in the
beauty of their plumage.
This family includes the Caracaras, the Buzzards,
the Eagles, the Falcons, the Kites, the Sparrow-
hawks, and the Harriers.
FALCOXlIi.K.
SUB-FAMILY I.
POLVBORIN.E.*
The C'aracaras.
GEN. CHAHAC. Bill compressed at the sides, slightly hooked at the tip, and the
lateral margins slightly festooned ; wings long, with the third to the fifth
quills the longest ; tarsi long, slender, and covered with irregular scales ; toes
moderate, strongly scaled above, and all armed with strong acute claws.
FlG. 12. THE BRAZILIAN KITE.
(Poli/bom* Brarttientit,)
The birds composing this sub-family are all pecu-
liar to the warmer parts of South America and the
adjacent islands. Their flight is heavy and indolent,
and they do not soar into the air, but only fly from
place to place. On the ground they are very active,
and run with great quickness, after the manner of
* 7ToXi'/36poe, polyboros, much-devouring, voracious.
30 ACCIPITRES.
the gallinaceous birds. Their food consists of car-
rion, worms, larvae of insects, and even the roots of
plants ; while some frequent the sea-shore, or the
borders of lakes and swamps, seeking for small fishes.
Sometimes they may be seen in small parties attack-
ing birds and other animals, especially those that
are in a sickly state. After they have gorged them-
selves with food their craws become protuberant like
those of Vultures.
The type of the group
The Caracara (Polyborus Braziliensis), called also the
Carancha, derives its vernacular name from its peculiar
cry, which resembles the sound of the Spanish guttural
G, followed by a rough double r r. This bird is about
the size of our common kite, and has a tail nine inches
in length ; it is generally met with throughout South
America, to which continent it is peculiar.
The Carancha feeds indifferently upon carrion, insects,
or snails, and will sometimes attack new-born lambs.
It does not generally give chase to birds, but, on the
contrary, is attacked by them whenever It flies ; chickens,
however, are not safe from its depredations, and it will
even seize upon game shot by the sportsman. It is
rather an indolent bird, especially when gorged with
food, and never flies to any great height, but, on the
ground, it runs with facility. Along the banks of the
Rio de la Plata, they may be seen upon the ground
watching the slaughter-houses, and devouring the offal,
or they will track the course pursued by the hunters, in
hopes of obtaining the rejected portions of the animals
slain. They likewise frequent the sea-shore, where they
eat crabs, dead fish, and other garbage thrown up by the
waves. They have, however, been known to kill par-
tridges, and during the breeding season they destroy the
eggs of various birds.
Their nest is commonly built upon trees or upon tin-
ledges of rocks ; the female lays five or six eggs, which
are pointed at one end, and of a reddish-brown colour,
spotted with red.
Under the name of the Mexican Eagle, the figure
of the Caracara is embroidered on the banners of the
Mexican Government.
FALCON 1D.V..
31
SUBFAMILY II.
BUTEONIX.E.
The Buzzards.
GKN. CHAHAC. Bill short, broad at the base, with the culmen much curved to
the tip, which is acute, and the lateral margins festooned ; the cere covers
more than the basal half of the beak; wings long, the third and fourth quills
generally the longest ; tarsi lengthened, generally naked, and covered both
in front and behind with broad transverse scales ; toes, including the hind
one, rather short.
FlG. 13. THE COMMON BUZZAHD.
(Buffo culyari*,)
These birds are found in most parts of the world :
they have a heavy and indolent appearance, and
generally inhabit woods and forests. Their flight,
which is sometimes performed during the twilight,
is easy and buoyant, and generally taken in exten-
sive sweeps over meadows and marshes, near the
surface of the ground. They live upon small birds,
32 ACCIP1TRES.
quadrupeds, and reptiles, which they either seize
while flying or strike upon the ground, darting upon
them from the top of a tree or hillock, from whence
they have been watching. They breed in woods, or
sometimes upon rocks, or on the sides of deep ra-
vines. Their nest is composed of sticks, and lined
with wool, hay, and other soft materials, or occa-
sionally they will take possession of the nests of
other birds. Their eggs are usually two or three in
number.
The typical species,
The Common Buzzard (Buteo* vulgaris) is met with
in many parts of Em-ope, and is well known in the
British Isles. It is rather an inactive bird, but may !>
often seen soaring to a great height, and sailing round in
circles. When in pin-suit of prey, it glides over the
fields at no great distance from the ground, and pounces
down upon any victim that may come within the range
of its vision. It lives upon small birds, and is most
destructive to young grouse and partridges ; nothing.
however, seems to come amiss to its appetite, and small
quadrupeds, reptiles, and even earthworms, are equally
acceptable, but it does not often pursue feathered prey
upon the wing. The Buzzard is a bird of very sylvan
habits, delighting in the most extensive chases and parks,
where there is abundance of aged timber. It has often
been described as being in the habit of watching from an
eminence or lofty tree, and thence sweeping down on
prey that may happen to come into its vicinity ; for this
purpose it is said to remain for hours in one situation ;
it is probable, however, that these long stationary peivhes
are simply the result of repletion, or for the purpose of
rest after the exertion of hunting.
The nest of the Buzzard is composed of sticks mixed
with heath, and lined with wool and grass. The eir^s
are three or four in number, oval in shape, and of a dull
or slightly bluish-white, sometimes nearly spotless, but
usually spotted with rusty brown. The young accom-
pany the old birds for some time after quitting their nest,
a circumstance unusual amongst liirds of prey.
* Buteo, a buzzard.
FALCOXID.E.
33
S US- FAMILY III.
The Eagles.
GEX. CHAEAC. Bill moderate, culmen elevated and straight at the base, and
then much arched to the tip, which is hooked and acute, the side* much
compressed, and the lateral margins more or less festooned; nostrils placed
in front of the cere, large, and generally oval; wings lengthened and acute,
with the third, fourth, and fifth quills usually the longest ; tail long, ample,
and mostly rounded at the end : tarsi long, clothed with feathers to the base
of the toes, or naked and covered with variously- formed scales; toes long,
stroni;, united at the base (especially the two outer) ; lateral toes unequal
both in length and strength, the inner being the strongest ; claws long,
strong, much curved, and acute, that of the inner toe the strongest.
FlG 1+. THE GOLDEJT EAGLE.
(Af/lliln rhi-llfitflnn )
34 ACCIPITRES.
These noble birds are to be met with in most
parts af the world, regardless of temperature, but
preferring the mountainous districts. They usually
soarto a great height in the air, and from this eleva-
tion they will descend upon their victims. They may,
however, sometimes be seen sailing along at no
great altitude over woody valleys, ravines, and the
declivities of mountains, as well as over cultivated
land, or seated on a rock, patiently awaiting the
approach of some quadruped or bird upon which
they can prey. Although usually addicted to live
upon much nobler game, lizards, insects, and even
carrion, are not always beneath their notice. Their
flight is easy, and usually performed in lofty cir-
cuitous sweeps. Their nest is composed of branches,
sticks, heather, and other materials, and covers a
large space of ground : it is generally placed upon a
projecting part of some inaccessible cliff, or on the
summit of a large tree. The eggs are ordinarily two
in number.
The type of the race
The Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos}* is amongst the
largest of European birds ; the female, which thn mghout
the Falcon family is larger than the male, often measure-
three feet and a half in length, and upwards of eight
feet across when the wings are extended. Bewick men-
tions a very large specimen killed at Warkworth, in
Northumberland, which measured eleven feet in its
extent of wing. Its prey consists of large quadrupeds.
and birds, fawns, lambs, black and red grouse : and it is
only under the extremity of hunger that it will teed
ui>on carrion, or attack a dead carcase. The stoop of
the Eagle is one of the grandest displays of force in the
whole range of animated nature, and is generally at once
fatal from the violence of the shock : should it, however,
fail in destroying life, the clutch instantly follows ; in
giving which the whole strength of the bird, in the
utmost excitement, with the head elevated, the neck
* X.P vl *uGi chrysos, gold; dtrop, aetoa, a?i eagle; Golden Eagle.
FALCONID.E. 35
stiff, the feathers of the head and neck erected, and the
wings shivering, so as to keep up the pressure on the
instruments of death, is concentrated on the talons, with
which alone these birds kill their victims. In general
the prey is borne off, but in some cases it is devoured
upon the spot.
The ordinary habits of the Eagle are thus graphically
described by Mr. 'MacGillivray : " There he stands,
nearly erect, with his tail depressed, his large wings
half raised from his sides, his neck stretched out, and his
eye glistening as he glances around. Like other robbers
of the desert, he has a noble aspect, an imperative mien,
a look of proud defiance ; but his nobility has a dash of
clownishness, and his falconship a vulturine tinge. Still
he is a noble bird, powerful, independent, but ferocious,
regardless of the weal or woe of others, and intent solely
on the gratification of his own appetites ; without gene-
rosity, without honour, bold against the defenceless, but
ever ready to sneak from danger. Such is his nobility,
about which men have so raved. Suddenly he raises his
wings, for he has heard the whistle of the shepherd in
the corry, and bending forward he springs into the air.
Hardly do those vigorous flappings serve at first to
prevent his descent ; but now, curving upwards, he
glides majestically along. As he passes the corner of
that buttressed and battlemented crag, forth rush two
ravens from their nest, croaking fiercely. While one
flies above him, the other steals beneath, and they essay
to strike him, but dare not, for they have an instinctive
knowledge of the power of his grasp, and after following
him a little way they return to their home, exulting in
the thought that they have driven him from their neigh-
bourhood. Bent on a far journey, he advances forwards
in a direct course, flapping his great wings at regular
intervals, then shooting along without appearing to move
them. In ten minutes he has advanced three miles,
although he is in no haste. Over the moors he sweeps,
at the height of two or three hundred feet, bending his
course to either side, his wings wide spread, his neck and
feet retracted, now beating the air, and again sailing
smoothly. Suddenly he stops, poises himself for a
moment, stoops, but recovers himself before reaching the
ground. The object of his regards, a Golden Plover,
36 ACCIPITRES.
has eluded him, and he cares not to pursue it. Now he
ascends a little, wheels in short curves, presently rushes
down headlong, assumes the . horizontal position when
close to the ground, and prevents himself from being
dashed against it by expanding his wings and tail ; he
now thrusts forth his talons, and grasping a poor terrified
Ptarmigan that sat cowering among the grey lichens,
squeezes it to death. He raises h'is head exultingly,
emits a shrill cry, and springing from the ground pursues
his journey. In passing a tall cliff that overhangs a small
lake, he is assailed by a fierce Peregrine Falcon, which
darts and plunges at him, as if determined to deprive him
of his booty or drive him headlong to the ground. This
proves a more dangerous foe than the Raven, and the
Eagle yelps, screams, and throws himself into postures of
defence ; but, at length, the Falcon, seeing that the
tyrant is not bent on plundering her nest, leaves him to
pursue his course unmolested. Over woods and scattered
hamlets speeds the Eagle, and now the long narrow
valley of the Dee appears in sight, near the upper end of
which is dimly seen, through the grey mist, the rock of
his retreat. About a mile from it he meets his mute,
who has been abroad upon a similar errand, and is return-
ing with a white Hare in her talons ; they congratulate
each other with loud yelping cries, which rouse the
drowsy shepherd in the strath below, who, mindful of
the lambs carried off in spring time, sends after them his
maledictions. Now they reach their nest, and are greet -d
by their young with loud clamour. The locality where
the nest is situated is the shelf of a rock, concealed by
a projecting angle, so that it cannot be injured from
above, and too distant from the base to be reached by a
shot. The nest is a bulky fabric, five feet at least in
diameter, rudely constructed of dead sticks, twigs, and
heath, flat in the centre, where it is a little hollowed, and
covered with wool and feathers. Slovenly creatures you
would think those two young birds, covered with white
down, amongst which the feathers project, and you see
that if the nest had been formed more compactly and of
softer materials it would have been less comfortable.
Strewn around are fragments of lambs, hares, grouse, and
other birds, in various stages of decay. Alighting on the
edges of the nest, the Eagles deposit their prey, partially
FALCONID.E.
37
pluck off the hairs and feathers, and rudely tearing off
the flesh, lay it before their hungry young."
FIG. 15 EAGLE'S NEST.
The Golden Eagle seems formerly to have been by no
means an uncommon bird in the British isles, but the
increase of population, and the cultivation of the land,
have driven it to the remoter parts of the kingdom, and
it is now only to be found in the Highlands of the North,
the wildernesses of Ireland, and occasionally in Wales.
On the Continent it is more abundant, particularly in the
northern and hilly countries, as in Norway, Sweden, and
some parts of Russia. It is also found, but more rarely,
in Germany and France, and still less frequently in Italy
or farther southwards.
The extensive sub-family of the Eagles includes
a great number of birds more or less agreeing in
their habits with the description of the Golden Eagle
given above, but nevertheless divisible by certain
peculiarities into several distinct groups, distin-
guished by different names ; among these it will be
D
38 ACCIPITRES.
necessary to select one or two of the most remark-
able, in order to exemplify the general character of
this formidable race.
The Sea-Eagles (Haliaetus*) are large and powerful
birds inhabiting both the Old and New Worlds. They
are usually found in mountainous districts near the sea,
or on precipices that border inland lakes. Fishes consti-
tute their principal food, which are generally obtained, as
described hereafter, in no very honest manner ; but they
likewise prey upon large quadrupeds and aquatic birds.
or even feed freely upon carrion. The borders of inland
lakes, and the rocky margins of the larger rivers, are in
turn made the scenes of their predatory exploits. " In
such situations, this ruthless tyrant may be seen perched
in an erect attitude on the highest summit of the tallest
tree, from whence his glistening but stern eye looks
down on the scene beneath. He listens attentively to
every sound, glancing now and then around, lest even the
light tread of the fawn should pass unheard. His mate
is perched on the opposite bank of the river, and should
all be silent, warns him by a cry to remain patient. At
this well-known call, the male partly opens his broad
wings, inclines his body a little downwards, and answers
to her voice in tones not unlike the laugh of a maniac.
The next moment he resumes his erect attitude, and all
is again silent. Ducks of many species, the Teal, the
Widgeon, the Mallard, and others, are seen passing and
following the course of the current ; but the Eagle heeds
them not, they are at this time beneath his attention.
The next moment, however, the wild trumpet-like scream
of a yet distant but approaching swan is heard. A shriek
from the female Eagle comes across the stream, for she is
fully as alert as her mate. The latter suddenly shakes
himself, and with a few touches of his beak arranges his
plumage. The snow-white bird is now in sight, her
long neck is stretched forward, her eye is on the watch,
vigilant as that of her enemy she approaches, however,
and the Eagle has marked her for his prey. As the
Swan is passing the dreaded pair, the male Eagle stalls
from his perch with an awful scream, that to the Swan's
ear brings more terror than the report of a gun. Now
* u'Af , the sea ; atrof, an eagle ; Sea-Eagle.
FALCONIDjE.
39
is the moment to witness the Eagle's powers ; lie glides
through the air like a falling star, and comes upon the
timorous quarry, which, in an agony of despair, seeks by
various manoeuvres to elude the grasp of his cruel talons.
It mounts, it doubles, and willingly would plunge into
the stream, were it not prevented by the Eagle, which,
FlG. 16. THE SKA-EAGLE.
(Halinetits Albicilla.)
long possessed of the knowledge that by such a stratagem
the Swan might escape him, forces it to remain in the
air by attempting to strike it with his talons from
beneath. The poor Swan has now become much ex-
D 2
40 ACCIPITRES.
hausted, and its strength fails it it is almost at its last
gasp, when its ferocious pursuer strikes with his claws
the under side of its wing, and with unresisted power
forces the bird to fall in a slanting direction upon the
nearest shore. And now the Eagle presses down his
powerful feet, and drives his talons deep into the heart
of the dying Swan he shrieks with delight as he feels
the last convulsions of his prey, and the female who has
watched every movement of her mate, now sails to the
spot to participate in the gory banquet." (Audubon.)
The nest of these birds .is of considerable size, and
composed of the branches of trees and sticks. The eggs
are white, and two in number.
The Ospreys (Pandion*), more commonly known as
the Fish-Hawks, only reside in the vicinity of the sea,
or of lakes and rivers abounding with fish, upon which
they principally subsist. Their slender form is admi-
rably adapted to this pursuit, and their strong talons
enable them to seize with a firm grasp their scaly and
slippery prey. Their flight is heavy but easy, and they
fly equally well either in a straight line or in circles high
in the air, where they may be seen wheeling round and
round, apparently without the least exertion, and rarely
even moving their wings.
A rencontre between the Fish-Hawk and the Sea-
Eagle, so eloquently described by Wilson, equally illus-
trates the habits of both these tyrants of the sky.
" Elevated on the high dead limb of some gigantic
tree that commands a wide view of the neighbouring
shore and ocean, the Sea-Eagle seems calmly to con-
template the motions of the various feathered tribes that
pursue their avocations below; the snow-white (nills
slowly winnowing the air ; the busy Sand-pipers coursing
along the sands j trains of Ducks streaming over the sur-
face ; silent and watchful Cranes intent and wading ;
clamorous Crows, and all the winged multitudes that
subsist by the bounty of this vast magazine of nature.
High over all there hovers one whose action instantly
arrests his whole attention. By his wide curvature of
wing and sudden suspension in air, he knows him to be
the Fish-Hawk settling over some devoted victim in the
* The name of a king of Athens.
PALCONID^E.
41
deep. His eye kindles at the sight, and balancing him-
self with half-opened wings on the branch, he watches
the result. Down, rapid as an arrow from heaven,
descends the distant object of his attention, the roar of
his wings reaching the ear as it disappears in the deep,
making the surges foam around ! At this moment the
eager looks of the Eagle are all ardour, and levelling his
neck for flight, he sees the Fish-Hawk emerge, struggling
with his prey, and mounting in the air with wild screams
of exultation. These are the signals for our hero, who,
FlG. 17. THE OSPBEY.
(PandioR.)
launching forth, instantly gives chase, and soon gains 011
the Fish-Hawk, while each exerts his utmost to mount
above the other, displaying in these rencontres the most
elegant and sublime aerial evolutions. The unencum-
bered Eagle rapidly advances, and is just on the point of
reaching his opponent, when, with a sudden scream of
despair and honest execration, the latter drops his fish.
The Eagle, poising himself for a moment, as if to take a
42 ACCIPITRES.
more certain aim, descends like a whirlwind, snatches it
in his grasp ere it reaches the water, and bears his ill-
gotten booty silently away to the woods."
The nest of the Osprey is usually built on the top of
a decayed tree. It is composed entirely of sticks from
half an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, and two
or three feet in length, piled to the height of four or five
feet. These are intermixed with straw, sea-weed, and
pieces of turf heaped together in large quantities, and
lined with dry sea-grass. These materials are sojwell
put together as often to adhere in large fragments, after
being blown down by the wind.
FALCON I MS.
4:3
SUB-FAMILY IV.
FALCONING.
The, Falcons proper.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill short, the culmen curved from the base to the tip, which
on the sides is more or less toothed ; cere covering the nostrils, sometimes
rounded, and sometimes long and linear ; wings lengthened and pointed,
with the second and third quills generally the longest ; tail lengthened, and
more or less rounded ; feet of various proportions ; toes usually long and
slender.
FlG. 18. THE PEREGRINE ^ALCOX.
(Falco ptregrima.)
These birds are, in proportion to their size, the
most courageous of the feathered race, a quality
which is in perfect correspondence with the strength
of their armature and the velocity of their flight.
The length of their wing-quills causes their forward
course, in a calm atmosphere, to be very oblique,
so that they are obliged, when they wish to mount
44 ACCIPITEES.
directly upwards, to fly against the wind. Never-
theless, there is an elegance in their port and a bold-
ness in their aspect, which distinguishes them at a
glance, while their astonishing power of wing and
great muscular strength render them the noblest of
predaceous birds. They are extremely docile : they
may be taught to pursue game, and to return, when
called, to the hand of their master ; qualities of
which man has not failed to avail himself. Among
the most celebrated species is the type of the race
The Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus). This noble
bird is at once recognizable by a broad triangular mous-
tache of black feathers on the cheeks. It usually mea-
sures from fifteen to eighteen inches in length, and the
female is considerably larger than the male. Such is its
power of flight, that it may almost be said to be ubi-
quitous. It extends its range over the northern part of
both hemispheres, and is equally to be met with in the
United States of America, the south of Europe, India,
the Straits of Magellan, and the Cape of Good Hope. It
is from this celebrated species that the chase of game by
means of birds of prey derives its name. It descends
upon its prey vertically, as if it fell from the sky ; hence
it catches birds on the wing. In most districts, grouse
and partridges constitute its favourite food, and it is at
such game that it is taught to fly ; but in the vicinity of
water it destroys numbers of aquatic birds, swooping
down and carrying them off in its talons. Rabbits and
leverets are also frequently destroyed by these marauders,
and their boldness is such that they have been known
to strike grouse sprung by the sportsman's dog before
they had risen high enough to be shot at.
When searching after prey, this Falcon often adopts a
flight resembling that of the tame pigeon, until perceiving
its victim, it redoubles its flappings, and pursues the
fugitive with a rapidity scarcely to be conceived. Its
turnings and windings through the air are now surprising.
It follows and nears the timorous quarry at every turn
which the latter attempts. Arrived within a few feet of
the prey, the Falcon extends his powerful legs and talons
to their full stretch ; his wings almost close for a moment,
and the next instant he grapples his prize, which, if too
FALCONIOE. 45
heavy to be carried off directly, he forces obliquely
towards the ground, -sometimes a hundred feet from the
place where it was seized, to kill it and devour it on the
spot.
Under other circumstances, when the female Falcon
comes within sight of her quarry, she bounds upwards,
every stroke of the wings producing a perpendicular
leap, as if she were climbing those gigantic stairs into
which Nature moulds her basaltic rocks, and when she
lias " got the sky" of her prey to a sufficient height for
gaining the necessary impetus, her wings shiver for a
moment, as she works herself into perfect command and
poise. Then, prone she dashes, with so much velocity
that the impression of her path remains on the eye, in
the same manner as that of the shooting meteor or the
flashing lightning. The observer fancies that there is a
torrent of Falcon rushing for fathoms through the air.
The stroke is as unerring as the motion is fleet. If it
take effect in the body, the bird is trussed, and the hunt
is over ; but if a wing only is broken, the maimed bird is
allowed to flutter to the earth, and another is marked for
the collision of death.
The Falcon's command of the air is truly wonderful ;
a few strokes of its powerful wing will send it up till it
is hardly visible, or bring it from the top of its flight to
within a short distance from the ground. At times it
will ride motionless, as if anchored in the sky, and anon,
with hardly any perceptible movement of the wings,
shoot down with the rapidity of an arrow. The collision
with their prey is terribly effective. It is no slight force
which can break a wing, strike off a head, or burst a
bird asunder, when it is not merely suspended in the
air but in rapid motion, away from the striker. If the
Falcon misses, we need not wonder that the game escapes
before its pursuer recovers himself. (Mudie.}
The Peregrine Falcon usually builds a nest amongst
nearly inaccessible rocks on the sea-coast, but sometimes
selects an inland station. The nest is a bulky structure,
composed of sticks and dried plants, and in it the female
lays three or four eggs, of a dull light red colour, with
darker spots.
D o
46
ACCIP1TRES.
SUB-FAMILY V.
MILVJX-E.
The Kites.
GKX. CHARAC. Bill short, weak, with the tip hooked and acute, and the lateral
margins sinuated ; nostrils basal and lateral, with the opening mostly in
the form of an oblique slit ; wings long and pointed ; tarsi hardly longer than
the hind toe, and robust ; toes moderate, broad, and padded beneath.
FlG. 19. THE COMMON KITE.
(3/i7ru regal if.)
The shortness of their legs and the feebleness
of their talons, conjoined with a beak equally dis-
proportioned to their size, causes the Kites to be the
most cowardly of the Falcon race ; while, on the
other hand, the excessive length of their wings and
their forked tail enable them to fly with wonderful
and elegance. These birds, indeed, appear to
FALCONIDJE. 47
support themselves in the air without the least
exertion. They glide smoothly along, rising, de-
scending, and wheeling round in graceful circles,
without any movement of their wings, but simply
by the guidance of their rudder-like tail. It is from
this beautiful gliding motion that they seem to have
received, from our Saxon ancestors, the name of
GM or Glead.
The Kites are met with in various parts of the
world ; in hot climates, more especially, they may
be seen in great numbers watching from some lofty
tree for whatever may present itself in the way of
food, or they sometimes soar to a great height in the
air. Nevertheless they seize their prey upon the
ground. They live chiefly upon young hares, rats,
birds, and lizards, but are by no means averse to
carrion. Their nest is built in a fork of some large
tree, and is made of sticks, lined with various soft
materials.
The type of this sub -family,
The Common Kite (Milvus regalis), although now be-
come scarce in England, is still seen occasionally in the
Lake districts of Cumberland, and in the south-eastern
parts of Scotland. On the Continent of Europe it is not
uncommon, its range extending eastward into Siberia.
In the more northern regions it is only a summer resi-
dent, migrating southward in the autumn. The Kite is
a bird of considerable size, measuring from twenty-five to
twenty-seven inches in length, including the long forked
tail witli winch it is furnished. It has been usual to
divide the rapacious birds into two great sections, one
comprising the noble races, or such as feed exclusively on
prey killed by themselves, and the other the ignoble spe-
cies, whose appetite, not so fastidious, permits them to
feast upon carrion. The Kites must certainly be placed
in the latter category, feeding as they do not only upon
dead animals, but even upon the vilest garbage. Indeed,
there was a time when these birds appear to have ren-
dered the same service in the thoroughfares of London as
the Vultures do at the present day in some of the crowded
cities of the East. We read that not longer ago than the
48 ACCIP1TRES.
reign of Henry VIII. our metropolis swarmed with Kites,
attracted thither by the offal thi-own into the streets, into
which they fearlessly descended to perform, the scavenger's
office, it being forbidden to kill them. Shakespeare makes
Hamlet say, "Ere this I should have fatted all the
region Kites with this slave's offal," and the words had a
significance in those days which fortunately, in modern
times, is but imperfectly appreciated.
While on the wing, performing its aerial evolutions,
the Kite will sometimes hover for a long time over the
same spot with very little exertion of the wings, even if
there should be a fresh breeze. There are times, how-
ever, probably when it has lost sight of some prize on
the ground, at which it will " give itself to the wind,"
and drift to leeward in very beautiful style, apparently
with complete self-possession. This manoeuvre, though
held in great contempt by the Falcons, is by no means
ungraceful or uninteresting ; the bird rides lightly on the
gale, but retains its self-command, so that it can take a
new direction whenever it pleases.
The nest, built with sticks, and lined with feathers
and moss, is placed in some lofty tree. The eggs are from
four to six in number.
" The Indian Kite (Jfilvus Govinda} is one of the most
abundant and common birds in India, found at all ele-
vations up to 8,000 feet, especially near large towns and
cantonments, and its vast numbers and fearlessness
surprise the stitmger from England, where birds of prey
are so rare. Eveiy large town, cantonment, and even
village, has its colony of Kites, which ply their busy
vocation from before sunrise to some time after sunset.
Every large camp, too, is followed by these useful
scavengers, and the tent even of a single traveller is
daily visited by one or more, according to the numbers in
the neighbourhood. As is well known, Kites pick up
garbage of all kinds, fragments of meat and fish, and
generally the refuse of man's food. When a basket of
refuse or offal is thrown out into the streets to be carted
away, the Kites of the immediate neighbourhood, who
appear to be quite cognizant of the usual time at which
this is done, are all on the look-out, and dash down on
it impetuously ; some of them seizing the most tempting
morsels, by a rapid swoop, others deliberately sitting
FALCONID.E. 49
down on the heaps, along with the dogs and crows, and
selecting their scraps. On such an occasion, too, there
is many a struggle to retain a larger fragment than usual ;
for the possessor no sooner emerges from its swoop than
several empty-clawed spectators instantly pursue it eagerly,
till the owner finds the chase too hot, and drops the bone
of contention, which is generally picked up long before
it reaches the ground, again and again to change owners,
and perhaps finally to revert to its original proprietor. On
such occasions there is a considerable amount of squealing
going on. Though it is generally on sufficiently good
terms with the crows in company on a heap of garbage,
yet I have frequently seen it pursue a crow and force it
to relinquish a coveted morsel. The Crows, however,
often tease a Kite, apparently without any object but
that of a little amusement to themselves. The food of
the Kite is usually devoured on the wing, or if too large,
carried to the nearest house or tree. Mr. Blyth notices
their collecting in numbers without any apparent object,
especially towards evening. This I have frequently
observed at all large stations, where all the Kites of the
neighbourhood, before retiring to roost, appear to hold
conclave." Jerdan, " Birds of India."
50
ACCIPITRES.
SUB-FAMILY VI.
ACCIPITRINJS. The Sparrow-Haufc.
GKIT. CHAKAC. Bill short, much arched from the base to the tip, which is
acute, the sides compressed, and the lateral margins greatly festooned ;
wings generally long ; tail ample ; tarsi lengthened and shielded in front ;
toes of various length, and generally slender ; claws long, and very acute.
FlG. 20. THE SPABHOW-HAWK.
(Accipiter nisus.)
These birds are found in various parts of the
world, generally frequenting valleys and wooded
districts. They are very courageous : their flight is
low, sweeping near the ground with much rapidity,
and they pounce upon their prey while on the wing
with deadly certainty. Their food consists almost
exclusively of birds, such as partridges and pigeons ;
but sometimes they devour lizards and other small
animals. Their nest is built upon low trees, or in a
FALCONJD.E. 51
bush, and is composed of slender sticks. They lay
from four to six eggs.
The type of the race is
The Sparrow-Hawk (Acdpiter nisus), one of the
must abundant of our British Hawks. It is exceedingly
elegant in its form, and active in its habits, the length
of its wings permitting it to fly with great rapidity,
while its broad and powerful tail enables it to perform
astonishing evolutions. When hunting for its prey, it
usually glides swiftly along at the height of only a few
feet from the ground, occasionally passing up one side of
a hedge and down another. It sometimes pursues birds
upon the wing, but usually pounces upon them while
resting either upon the ground, or on the branch of a
tree or bush.
Of all the smaller European birds of prey, the Spar-
row-Hawk is one of the boldest and most intrepid ;
unlike many of the time Falcons of its own size, which
live in a great measure upon insects, it preys almost
exclusively \ipon feathered game, and hence is peculiarly
obnoxious in preserves, especially during the breeding
season. Quick-eyed and rapid, it darts upon its quarry
like an arrow, and pursues it with unrelenting perti-
nacity, undaunted eyen by the presence of man, to whom
the terrified fugitive has often been known to trust in
the desperate emergency indeed many instances are on
record of the Lark or the Pigeon rushing into houses
through the open windows, followed by their undaunted
foe.
The flight of the Sparrow-Hawk is not of that soaring
character which distinguishes the true Falcons. Instead
of descending on its prey from aloft, and striking it
down, or, if missing the stroke, mounting again and
repeating the assault, it darts at it without rising to any
altitude, and follows up the chase until able to effect its
capture.
The Sparrow-Hawk is universally but moderately
distributed throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa. It
builds its nest in trees ; the eggs are generally four in
number, of a dull bluish-white marked with angular red
blotches.
52
ACCIPITRES.
SUB-FAMILY VII.
ClRCIN.E.
The Harriers.
GK>". CHAR AC. Bill moderate, short, with the culmen much curved to the tip,
which is hooked ; sides compressed, and the lateral margins festooned ; wings
lengthened and pointed ; tail long, broad, and even or rounded at the end ;
tarsi usually lengthened and slender ; toes rather short.
FlG. 21. THE HEX-HAEBIEK.
(Circus cyantut,)
The Hawks to which the name of Harrier is
applied, of all the diurnal predaceous birds, make the
nearest approach to the Owls. The softness of their
plumage, accompanied in certain species by a
radiated arrangement of the feathers of the face,
give some of them a very owl-like appearance.
They are described by many writers as deriving
their name of " Harriers " from their mode of seek-
ing their prey. When thus engaged, they fly
FALCONID.E. 53
slowly, at but a little distance from the ground,
beating over every part of the surface like a dog
hunting for game. Others, more familiar with
north-country language, derive the name from the
Border word to " harry," which means to make a
raid upon cattle.
The type of the race is
The Hen-Harrier (Circus* cyaneus), a British bird
usually met with in flat marshy districts, or on low
moors and commons, where it finds abundance of small
quadrupeds, such as young rabbits, leverets, i-ats, and
mice, as well as snakes, frogs, and unfledged birds.
Upon these it pounces suddenly, when it finds them
among the herbage. It does not hesitate upon occasions
to attack a grouse or a partridge, and has even been
known to seize upon a pheasant. Indeed, we rather
suspect that its name of Hen-Harrier would indicate its
propensity for plundering that is, " harrying," the
poiiltry-yard when an oppoi-tunity presents itself.
The flight of the Hen-Harrier while in qxiest of its
prey is altogether peculiar. It is light and buoyant, but
performed at no great elevation from the ground, which
it quarters with the utmost regularity, traversing a cer-
tain extent of country, and returning nearly to the same
place at a given time for many days together. While
thus skimming along with noiseless wiugs, it strongly
reminds us of the Owls, and, like them, it pounces down
upon its prey with unerring precision.
The Hen-Harrier makes its nest upon the ground in
wild and solitary situations among the tufted herbage
most prevalent upon the spot selected, and here it incu-
bates and rears its young. The eggs very much resemble
those of an Owl, but are larger. They are of a dull,
dirty white colour, without any spots.
* icipKoc, kirkos, a kind of hawk, which flies in circles.
ACCIPITRES.
SUB-ORDER II.
ACCIPITRES NOCTURNI.
NOCTURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.
Tins sub-order comprises but one
STRIGID.E. The Owl*.
GKN. CHABAC. Bill short, -with the sides compressed, and the base concealed
by projecting bristles; culmen much arched to the tip, which is hooked;
wings usually moderate and rounded ; tail broad and of various length; tarsi
generally short and feathered to the toes ; toes usually short, and either
clothed with plumes or slightly covered with hairs ; claws long, and very
acute; eyes laree and encompassed with a radiated circle of slender hairy
feathers forming a facial disk.
The plumage of the Owls is peculiarly soft and
downy, rendering their flight perfectly noiseless,
so that they steal unperceived upon their prey.
Their eyes, which are of large size, as though to
receive every ray of light that may be available for
vision, look directly forwards. In a strong light
their sight is very imperfect, so that they stand in a
state of complete bewilderment, staring in a most
ludicrous manner at any object presented to them,
and taking every opportunity of concealing them-
selves in some obscure corner. The ears are more
conspicuous than those of any other birds, and are
usually furnished with a sort of lid. The head is
large, and there is no ridge over the eyes, as in the
Falconidse. The feathers of the face project more
or less forwards, and conceal the cere at the base
of the bill. The outer toe is reversible, and capable
of being turned backwards like that of a parrot.
These birds are recluse in their habits, living in
pairs in the holes of trees, or in old buildings and
other retired places, where they hide during the day-
time; but in the evening issue forth to seek their
prey, which consists principally of small quadrupeds
and birds. The smaller Owls frequently catch such
STRIGIDJ5. ):>
insects as come abroad in the twilight, more par-
ticularly moths and beetles. The indigestible por-
tions of their food are disgorged in the shape of
pellets, composed of the bones, hair, and fur of their
victims. Their voices are generally loud and dis-
cordant. The Owls have been arranged in four
sub-families ; namely, the Hawk-Owls, the Horned
Owls, the Owlets, and the Owls proper.
ACCJPITRES.
SUB-FAMILY I.
SURNINJE.
The Hawk-Owls.
GEN. CHARAC. Head small, without tufts, and the facial disk imperfect over
the eyes.
FlG. 22. THE CANADA OWL.
(Surnia Ulula.)
These birds inhabit the northern parts of Europe
and America, but are by no means peculiar to cold
climates, as they are likewise met with in the southern
parts of Africa. Their food chiefly consists of mice,
birds, and insects ; but during the winter, those of
the northern latitudes feed principally on ptarmigans.
Their nest is built on trees, and is composed of sticks,
grass, and feathers. The female lays two eggs.
STRTGID^. 57
The type of this sub-family,
The Canada Owl (Surnia Ulula), is very common in
the northern parts of North America, where it is remark-
able for its daring disposition.
In Canada it is almost impossible to travel eight or
ten miles in any of the retired woods without seeing
several of them even in broad day ; and at the approach
of night their cries are heai-d proceeding from every
part of the forest. Should the weather be lowering,
and indicative of the approach of rain, their vociferous
hootings are so multiplied, especially in the evening, and
they respond to each other in tones so strange, that one
might imagine some elfish revelry in progress. On ap-
proaching one closely, its gesticulations are seen to be of
a very extraordinary nature. The position of the bird,
which is generally erect, is immediately changed. It
inclines its body to watch the motions of the intruder,
throws forward the lateral feathers of its head, which
has thus the appearance of being surrounded by a broad
ruff, looks towards him as if half blind, and moves its
head to and fro in such a manner as almost to induce
a belief that it is separated from the body. It follows
the stranger with its eyes, and should it suspect any
treacherous intentions, flies off to a short distance,
alighting with its back to the intruder ; but immediately
turning about with a single jump, recommences its scru-
tiny. In this way it may be followed to a considerable
distance ; but if shot at and missed, it removes itself out
of reach, after which its whah, whah, wliah is uttered
with ludicrous pomposity.
These Owls will answer the imitation of their own
ci'ies, and are frequently destroyed by this artifice. Their
flight is smooth, noiseless, and greatly protracted. They
have been seen to pursue a direct course for more than
two miles until they were lost in the distance. So very
lightly do they fly, that they are frequently discovered
while passing over a person only a few yards distant by
their shadow on the ground cast by the clear moonlight,
when not the faintest rustling of their wings can be
heard.
53
ACC1PITRES.
SUB-FAMILY II.
BUBONIN.E. The Horned Owh.
GEN. CHABAC. Head large, broad, flat on the top, and furnished with two
prominent tufts ; facial disk imperfect above the eves.
FlG. 23. THE EAGLE-OWL.
(Bubo maximus.)
The Owls belonging to this sub-family inhabit
most parts of the world, regardless of climate. They
frequent old buildings, holes in the sides of trees,
precipitous hills, and ravines of the mountains, or
they may be seen in the deep shades of the swamps
of large forests. Their food is sought for principally
during the night, and consists of small quadrupeds,
STB1GID.E. 59
birds, lizards, and the larger insects. Some of the
species have been observed to catch fish, which they
strike at and seize with their foot : during the night
they emit a loud prolonged hoot, and when alarmed
hiss at their assailant and make a loud snapping
noise with their beak. Their nest is built amid
ruins, in rocks, in the hollows or upon the fork of a
tall tree it is composed of sticks piled in consider-
able quantities, lined with dry leaves and a few
feathers. The members of one genus (Ketupa) be-
longing to the continent and archipelago of India,
fly well by day, are constantly found on the banks
of rivers, and live principally upon fish and crabs.
The typical species,
The Great Eared Owl, or Eagle-Owl (Bubo* maximus),
is an inhabitant of Europe, where it is tolerably com-
mon, but it is only a rare and occasional visitor to the
British islands. When full grown, it measures from
twenty-four to twenty-eight inches in length. The head
is ornamented with two large tufts of feathers, which
stand iip abov^e the eyes like horns. It can endure light
better than some of its allies, but the season of its
activity is principally during the night.
" Along the mountainous shores of the Ohio, and
amidst the deep forest:* of Indiana," says Wilson, " this
ghostly watchman has frequently warned me of the
approach of morning, and amused me with his singular
exclamations, sometimes sweeping down and around my
fire, uttering a loud and sudden ' Waiigh ho ! Waugh
ho ! ' sufficient to have alarmed a whole garrison. He
has other noctm-nal solos no less melodious, one of which
very strikingly resembles the half-siippressed screams of
a person suffocating or half-throttled, which cannot fail
to be exceedingly entertaining to a lonely benighted
traveller in the midst of an Indian wilderness."
When hard pressed, this Owl is said to throw itself
upon its back and defend itself vigorously with its claws :
it has even been described as contending successfully with
the Eagle.
At all events, it may be considered as one of the
* Bubo, a long-eared owl.
60
ACCII'ITRES.
most powerful of its race, boldly preying upon the largest
game. Perched upon some branch, and obscured by the
shadows of evening, it marks its ili-fated quarry, the
fawn reposing among the fern, the hare nibbling the
grass, the grouse crouching among the heath. Silently
and rapidly down it pounces, strikes its victim, and
commences the work of destruction. Less noble game,
such as moles, rats, and lizards, may be also ranked
among the articles of its food. This fine bird chooses
the clefts of rocks, or the hollows of decayed trees of
antique growth, for the pxirpose of nidification, laying
three eggs of a rounded shape and white colour.
01
SUB-FAMILY TIL
The Owleta.
GEN. CH ABAC. Head large, smooth, and furnished with two small tufts; facial
disk moderate and complete, or nearly so.
FlG. 24. THE BROWN OWL
(Syrnium Aluco.)
The Owlets are found in various parts of the
world, even in very high latitudes, hunting in the
shady woods and thick plantations for a short time
before the sun sinks below the horizon, but hiding
themselves during the day in ruins and hollow trees.
In the northern latitudes they may frequently be
seen flying about even at midday, and their flight is
gliding and noiseless. They live upon small quadru-
peds, birds, and fish, all of which they strike with
their foot. They build amidst rocks or upon lofty trees,
and the nest is composed of a considerable quantity
62 ACCIPITRES.
of sticks, lined with a few feathers. Some species,
however, lay their eggs in the deserted nests of other
birds or scrape a slight hollow on the ground in the
midst of heath; while the nests of others (Nycfuli-)
are built of grass, and generally placed in holes or
clefts of pine trees.
The typical species,
The Brown Owl (Syrnium A luco), sometimes called the
Tawny Owl, is not uncommon in England. It is strictly
nocturnal ; the glare of day dazzles and renders it quite
helpless, and it shows the wisdom that might have been
expected from the favourite of Minerva, by retreating
during the bright hours to the gloom of some thick wood,
where it reposes among the dense foliage. In the evening,
however, it quits its concealment to satisfy its somewhat
indiscriminate appetite. Flitting along with noiseless
wing, it surprises the smaller quadrupeds, and even seizes
young rabbits and birds, varying this supper sometimes
with frogs, insects, and even fish, which it will capture
in shallow water : it likewise will devour earthworms.
While engaged in its predatory excursions it emits a
loud doleful cry, resembling /too, /too, /too, and occasionally
utters a shrill scream.
The nest of the Brown Owl is composed principally of
the dried pellets of undigested bones and fur or feathers,
which all Owls are in the habit of disgorging. It is
usually placed in a hollow tree, and here the female lays
about four eggs, from which emerge, in due time, as
many grotesque- looking bodies, enveloped in a soft plusli,
which are destined, in time, to become Brown Owls.
The eggs are of large size, measuring nearly two inches
in length by an inch and a half in their transverse
diameter. They are equally round at both ends, and
perfectly white. The females begin to sit as soon as
. they have laid their first egg ; so that the nestlings are
usually of different ages. The parent birds attend upon
their brood with great assiduity, and supply them plenti-
fully with mice, shrews, moles, and the young of various
other quadrupeds.
The nestlings of the Brown Owl are easily brought up
by hand, and are very useful in bams and granaries,
being most excellent mousers.
STRIGID.E.
68
SUB-FAMILY IV.
STRIGIN^E.
T/ie Owls proper.
GEN. CHARAC. Head smooth, with the facial disk very large, subtriangular,
and complete.
/
Fl ;. 25. THE BAKN OWL.
(Strix fl-i.in>t,ea, )
The Owls belonging to this sub-family are dis-
tributed throughout most climates. They are strictly
nocturnal. The softness of their plumage and the
peculiar form of their quills give them a buoyant
and noiseless flight, which enables them to steal upon
their prey unsuspected. They live principally upon
mice and other small quadrupeds, which they swallow
whole ; the hairs, bones, and other indigestible parts
being subsequently disgorged in oval pellets. Some
species live on crustaceous animals. They build
their nests on old towers, in the roofs of churches,
E 2
64 ACCIPITRES.
the thatch of barns, or in the hollows of trees. The
female lays from two to five eggs.
The type of this sub-family is
The Barn Owl (Strix* flammea), sometimes called the
Screech Owl, commonly met with in the British islands
and generally throughout the Eastern hemisphere. It
is from fourteen to fifteen inches in length, the females
being slightly larger than the males. The Barn Owl
approaches boldly to the dwell ing-places of man, and
seeks for food in the midst of towns and villages, and in
the cultivated fields surrounding them. His chosen
abode is some dark hole or corner of an old building, the
tower of a church, or the roof of a bam, or sometimes a
hollow tree. In this retreat he dozes away the bright
hours, and if driven from his concealment in the day-
time, is so dazzled by the light as to be quite bewildered
and helpless. As evening approaches, his sight becomes
keen enough, and he glides out on noiseless pinions
in search of prey. He may then be seen dashing round
the stacks and buildings in the farm-yard, or skimming
over the fields and along the hedgerows, in pursuit of
small animals that are abroad at night. While thus
upon the wing, he drops suddenly down upon his prey,
seizes it in his claws, and uttering a loud cry or screech,
flies off with it to his nest. In this way rats, mice, and
small animals of all kinds, including young hares and
rabbits, are captured by this nocturnal marauder. The
Barn Owl also destroys larks and other small birds, and
often catches the moths and beetles so abundant during
summer evenings. His principal food, however, consists
of mice, which abound in stackyards and cornfields.
These are swallowed whole, their .bones and other in-
digestible parts being disgorged as pellets, which accumu-
late in the roosting-place of their destroyer. The benefits
these birds confer upon the farmer by destroying vermin
are therefore considerable. The nest consists of sticks
and straws, and the number of eggs varies from
to five.
* arpiyZ, strinx, an owl.
PASSERES. 65
ORDER II.
PASSERES.
THE birds belonging to this order are frequently
termed Insessores, or Perchers, seeing that they are,
for the most part, expressly adapted for a life
among the branches of trees or bushes, upon which
they perch, and hop from twig to twig. Their feet
are, consequently, more or less constructed for this
purpose. Their legs are of moderate length, and
the toes, usually placed three in front and one
behind, are provided with sharp and slender claws,
and of sufficient strength to secure the bird firmly
on its perch. This arrangement of the toes is,
however, subject to certain exceptions, as we shall
see wlien speaking of particular species. There are
other general characters, which, taken in conjunction
with those given above, will, in doubtful cases,
frequently enable us to determine whether a bird
belongs to this order or not. The tarsi are covered
with shield-like horny plates, so disposed that while
in front there are several of these pieces, the back
of the leg is usually covered by a single long shield.
The outer toe of each foot is generally united to
the middle one for a greater or less extent, some-
times only at the base, but occasionally nearly to
the extremity. The claws with which the toes are
armed are either of moderate length or very long
and slender. The wings are well developed, so that
many of the Passerine races fly remarkably well.
The primary quill-feathers in the wings are usually
ten in number, and the number of quill-feathers in
the tail is likewise generally ten.
This Order is divided into the following Tribes.*
* See " Animal Creation," page 418.
66 PASSERES.
TRIBE I.
FlSSIROSTRES.*
The Fissirostral Passerine birds constitute a small,
but very natural group, distinguished by the
structure of their beak, which is broad at the base,
short, hooked at the tip, and opening with a very
wide gape, extending to beneath, or even beyond,
the eyes, and thus adapted to catch and swallow
insects while on the wing. It comprises two prin-
cipal sections ; the first including those species that
fly by night, Fissirostres Nocturni ; the other com-
prehending such as seek their food in the daytime,
Fissirostres Diurni. The first of these sections
embraces the Goatsuckers, or Nightjars ; the second,
the extensive race of Swallows and Swifts.
SUB-TRIBE I.
FISSIROSTRES NOCTURNI. Nocturnal Fissirostres.
The birds belonging to this sub-tribe are re-
markable for the size of their eyes, which are very
large, and easily dazzled by the light of day, though
well fitted to descry objects in the obscurity of the
evening. Their plumage is generally soft and fleecy,
like that of the Owls; thus enabling them to fly
without noise.
FAMILY I.
CAPRIMULGID.E. The Goatsuckers.
GBJC. CHAKAC. Bill short, depressed, very broad, gape extending beneath the
eyes ; toes long and rather strong, hind toe united to the base of the inner
toe.
* Fissus, cleft, and rostrum, a beak ; Cleft-beaks.
CAPRIMULGIDJK.
SUB-FAMILY I.
STEATORXIN.E.*
T/te Oil-birds.
GEN CHAR AC. Beak short,' generally strong, and curved to the tip, which
is hooked ; the sides are dilated* and the gape very wide ; the base of the
bill is covered with projecting plumes and bipectinated bristles.
FlG. 26. THB OIL-BIKI).
(Steatornis Caripeniis.)
The principal localities where these birds are
known to exist are certain caverns on the sea-shore
of the islands of Guadaloupe and Trinidad, and also
in several parts of South America. Their food
consists of the fruits of a plant called Semilla del
Guacharo, upon which they become so excessively
fat that their grease is compared to olive-oil, and,
as such, is used as an article of food. .Their voice
is hoarse and sharp : they avoid the light of day,
* oTfanoi', steation, fat ; opvig, ornis, a bird; Fat-birds.
68 PISSIKOSTRES NOCTURXI.
and only sally from their hiding-places during the
night, or at least after sunset. Their nests are built
on the rocky walls of caverns, in which they ivar
their young.
The typical species
The Guacharo, or Trinidad Goatsucker (Steatorni**
Caripensis), known in the tropical regions of America as
the " Oil-bird," is about the size of a pigeon. Unlike the
other species of Goatsuckers, the Guacharos feed entirely
upon fruits and seeds. For the sake of the oil which they
furnish, numbers of the young are destroyed every year.
The nestlings are immediately opened, and the fat re-
moved from them ; it is afterwards melted in clay pots
nud stored up for use. The oil thus obtained is semi-
fluid, transparent, and inodorous, and so pure that it may
be kept more than a year without becoming rancid.
The most noted locality for this oil-harvest is a cavern at
Caripe, called the Cueva del Guacharo. Into this cave.
as we are told by Humboldt, the Indians enter once a
year, about the festival of St. John. They take with
them long poles, with which they destroy all the nests
within reach, and thus kill many thousands of the young
brood, while the poor Oil-birds, as if to defend their nest-
lings, sail over the heads of their assailants, uttering the
most discordant cries.
This celebrated cavern is pierced in a vertical rock ;
its entrance measures eighty feet in width, and seventy-
two in height, while through its gloomy labyrinths there
runs, far removed from the light of day, a subterranean
torrent. For a distance of upwards of four hundred feet
the daylight still struggles with the darkness, and the
seeds brought in by the birds to feed their young, but
accidentally dropped by the way, germinate in the scanty
soil of the floor, producing etiolated shoots, which might
be taken for the phantoms of plants banished from the
outer world. Further in, the loud and discordant cries
of the Guacharos are heard, repeated and increased by
the echoes on every side. The seeds found in the crops
of the young birds are supposed by the Indians to possess
medicinal virtues, and are carefully preserved under the
name of Semilla del Guacharo.
* oriartop, steation, fat ; opvif, ornis, a bird; Fat-bird.
CAPRIMULGID.K.
69
SUB-FAMILY II.
CAPRIMULGIX.E.
T/ie Goatsuckers y'oper.
GBX. CHARAC. Bill short and weak, with the gape extending under each eye,
extremely broad, and furnished with more or less lengthened bristles ; the
wings long and usually pointed ; the tail more or less lengthened, and round
or graduated, and sometimes forked ; the tarsi more or less short, and
almost clothed throughout with short plumes, or entirely denuded and
scaled ; the toes moderate, with the lateral ones shorter than the middle
toe, and of equal length ; the claws of the middle toe large and pectinated
on the sides, those of the other toes small.
FlG. 27. THE NIGHT-JAB.
(Capriwulgu* Europteus.)
The Goatsuckers constitute a very numerous
race, distributed in all parts of the habitable world.
They are migratory, and generally live in woods, or
on dry tracts of habitable land : they feed on moths
and beetles, which they catch on the wing, either
in the dusk of the evening, or at early dawn, re-
tiring to some dark retreat among the brushwood
E 3
70 FISSIROSTRKS HOCTCEXI.
during the day. When seizing prey, their mouth
is widely opened, and the long rigid hairs with
which its base is surrounded materially assist in the
capture of insects. The flight of these birds is
exceedingly rapid, and accompanied by graceful
evolutions similar to those of the Swallow, but per-
formed with even greater ease and facility. Their
eyes are large and of the true nocturnal character.
Although the beak is small, the gape is enormous,
extending below the eyes, and reminding us of the
mouth of a toad ; hence these birds are called by
the French " Crapauds volants." The pluma_
full and soft> and beautifully variegated with a
bars, dashes, and zig-zag markings, of mingled
grey, brown, fawn-colour, black, and white ; difficult
to describe, and almost as difficult to imitate. Rapid
and abrupt as is the flight of these birds, it is noise-
less, resembling in that respect the flight of the
Owl, although from the form of their wings it is of
a different character.
The Goatsuckers form no nest ; but generally
deposit two eggs on some dry spot beneath the
shelter of ferns and other underwood.
The type of this family
The European Goatsucker (Caprimulgu** Europoeu*),
is not uncommon in England ; it is, however, a bird of
passage, retiring to the warm regions of the South in the
autumn, and returning in the month of May. It measures
about ten or eleven inches in length, including the tail,
which is rather long. The bill and legs are short and
feeble, so that it perches with difficulty, and when resting
on the bough of a tree, places itself lengthways upon the
branch, upon which it crouches, as if fearful of felling
oft The middle anterior toe is considerably longer than
the others, and terminated by a claw singularly toothed,
so as to resemble a comb. The Goatsucker is usually*
met with about moors, heaths, and commons ; but it also
frequents woods. Its period of activity is the twilight,
when it may be seen hawking after its favourite food,
pro, a she-goat ; mvlgeo, to milk ; Goat-milter.
CAPRIMULGID,*;. 7]
sweeping swiftly round trees frequented by beetles and
moths, which it devours in great numbers. It frequently
emits a sort of whin-ing sound, resembling the noise made
by a spinning-wheel : hence it is known as the Wheel -
bird in some districts, and in others as the Night-charr,
Xight-jar, and Churn Owl. It is likewise called the
Night-hawk, and the Dor-hawk, from its appetite for
night-flying beetles, called Dors ; and likewise the Fern
Owl, from its frequenting fern brakes. The name Goat-
sucker is derived from its supposed habit of sucking the
milk of goats during the night, a false suspicion, which
has doubtless given the bird a bad character in the eyes
of farmers, whilst by the destruction of vast quantities of
Cockchafei-s, it is, in reality, one of their best friends.
"When the moon shines bright," says Mr. Waterton,
" you may have a fair opportunity of examining the
Goatsucker ; you will see it close by the cows, goats, and
sheep, jumping up every now and then under their bellies.
Approach a little nearer ; he is not shy : ' he fears no
danger, for he knows no sin.' See how the nocturnal
flies are tormenting the kine, and with what dexterity
he springs up and catches them as fast as they alight on
the belly, legs, and udders of the poor animals. Observe
how quietly they stand, and how sensible they seem of
his good offices ; for they neither strike at him, nor hit
him with their tail, nor tread on him, nor try to drive
him away as an uncivil intruder. Were you to dissect
him, and inspect his stomach, you would find no milk
there ; it is full of the flies that have been annoying the
herd." Doubtless the same habit thus noted by Mr.
Waterton must have been observed by the ancients in
southern Europe, who, mistaking the object of the bird,
bestowed on it its vernacular name.
The cries uttered by many species of these birds
are very peculiar. " A Goatsucker inhabits Demerara
(about the size of an English wood-owl), whose voice is
so remarkable that, when once heard, it is not easily to
le forgotten. A stranger would never believe it to be
the cry of a bird, but would say it was the departing
voice of a midnight-murdered victim, or the last wailing
of poor Xiobe for' her children, before she was turned to
stone. Suppose a person in hopeless sorrow, beginning
with a high loud note, ' ha, ha ; ha, ha ; ha$ ha, ha ;' each
72
FISSIEOSTRES XOCTUJRNI.
note lower and lower, till the last is scarcely heard,
pausing a moment or two between each exclamation, and
you will have some idea of the moaning of the Great
Goatsucker of Demerara. Other species articulate some
words so distinctly, that they have received their names
from the sentences they utter, and absolutely bewilder a
stranger on his arrival in their vicinity. One sits down
close to your door, or flies and alights three or four yards
FIG. 28. CHCCK WILL'S WIDOW.
before you as you walk along the road, crying, who are
you, who, who are you. Another bids you work away,
work, work, work away. A third cries mournfully,
' WUly-come-go, Willy, Willy, WUly-come-go;' and a fourth
CAPEIMDLGID.E.
73
tells you to Whip poor Will, Whip poor Will, in tones
wonderfully clear and startling." Waterton.
The appended figure represents another of these voci-
ferous birds, named from its cry " Chuck Will's widow."
The eggs of the Goatsucker are deposited in a depres-
sion or cavity on the surface of the groundj under the
shelter of a bush, generally without any attempt at a
nest. They are usually two in number, of a white
colour, clouded with bluish-grey.
PISSIEOSTBBS NOCTUENI.
SUB-FAMILY III.
PODAGKIK-E.
The Podayers.
GKN. CHABAC. Bill much flattened, curved, and compressed at the sides of
the tip, which is hooked ; the gape is furnished with stiff hairs, as in the
Goatsuckers; the wings are long and pointed, and the tail broad ; the tarsi
are more or less plumed, or, when devoid of feathers, covered in front with
transverse scales ; the inner toe is generally longer than the outer, and both
inner and outer toes are more or less united to the middle one, which ig the
largest of all, and armed with a large serrated claw.
--t-r^j-^==r--^s=: -sk3-^^^:.- '^""1
--"- ""' --'- .-.'-: ':' '- -
FlU. 29. GUILDS PODAGKR.
(Puduger Gouldii.)
The Podagers are met with in the wanner ]>art-
of South America and Australia, where they fre-
quent fields and moist places, usually in pairs,
although they have sometimes been observed in
troops of a hundred together, chasing insects in
broad daylight. The female deposits two eggs on
the bare ground, without any kind of nest. As an
example of the race we have selected
Gould's Podager (Podager
HIRUXDINID.E.
SUB-TRIBE II.
FISSIROSTRES DIURNI. Diurnal
The Fissirostral birds that fly by day are at once
distinguishable from the nocturnal species by the
closeness of their plumage, which is quite devoid of
that fleecy appearance so eminently characteristic of
the preceding tribe.
FAMILY I.
HIRUNDINID.E. The Swallows.
GEN. CHAHAC. Bill short and weak, very broad at the base, and suddenly
compressed towards the tip ; the wings are long, narrow, and pointed ; the
tail forked ; and the tarsi very short and feeble. This group comprises the
Swifts and the Swallows.
These birds are remarkable for their powers of
flight and insectivorous appetite. Their legs are
short, and comparatively feeble ; but the toes are
furnished with sharp hooked claws, constructed for
the purpose of clinging to walls or the sides of
rocks. In the Swifts, the toes are all directed
forwards ; in the true Swallows, the hind toe is
reversible. The wings are long and pointed, and
the quill-feathers of a firm texture ; the general
plumage is close-set, smooth, sometimes polished
and glossy. The beak is small, depressed, broad at
the base, and with a wide gape. Their food, con-
sisting of the smaller species of insects, is always
taken on the wing, and they often completely fill
their throat with insect prey, so as to distend it like
a pouch, doubtless in order that their nestlings may
have a full supply at each visit. The whole of the
artive existence of these birds is passed in the air.
/O, FISSIROSTRES DIURNI.
They skim along with marvellous rapidity, and
quarter their ground over meadows, lakes, and
rivers, wheel round barns and steeples, and dash
along apparently as untired when evening closes as
when they began their aerial exercise with the first
dawn of day. They feed and drink on the wing,
and pursue each other in sportive chase, performing
the most rapid and beautiful evolutions.
'"-:',
<.
SUB-FAMILY I.
CYPSELIX.E.
The Swifts.
GBJJ. CHARAC. Bill short, depressed, broad at the base, the sides suddenly
compressed to the tip, and the margins inflected ; the nostrils large and
longitudinal on each side of the culmen ; the wings extremely long and
curved ; the tarsi short and weak ; the toes short, thick, and armed with
short, strong, and much-curved claws ; the hind toe usually directed
forwards.
FIG. 30. THE SWIFT.
(Cyptelut aput.)
The Swifts are all birds of migratory habits.
They pass most of their days in the air, for which
their slender forms and powerful wings are ad-
mirably adapted. Their flight is rapid, performed
in lengthened sweeps, or in extensive curves, with
marvellous ease and grace. The height to which
they ascend is regulated by the state of the at-
mosphere. On fine days they fly in numbers
together, at a great elevation ; but during gloomy
78 FISSIROSTRES DIURNI.
or damp weather perform their evolutions closer to
the ground, or they sometimes skim the surface of
lakes and rivers, in pursuit of their food, which
consists entirely of insects. They usually rest and
pass the night in a hole in some high building or
lofty tree, and in such places they also rear their
young. Their nest is composed of straw, and similar
materials, cemented together with a glutinous
secretion, furnished by certain glands that are
peculiar to birds of this sub-family. The eggs are
usually two in number.
The Common Swift (Cypselus* apm} usually arrives
in Europe about the beginning of May. It leaves us
again generally about the middle of August, so that its
stay in Britain hardly exceeds three months. On the
continent of Africa these birds are seen as far south as
the Cape of Good Hope, but their proper winter residence
appeai-s to be between the tropics. Their migratory
instincts are truly wonderful. They wall often return
after an absence of eight or nine months, and a voyage
of several thousand miles, to the very same spot where
they built their nests and reared their young the year
before. On its arrival, the Swift takes up its abode in
holes and other sheltered places, in church steeples,
towere, ruins, or under the eaVes of houses. From these
nooks and corners it dashes forth in fine weather to
wheel about in the air with amazing rapidity in pursuit
of insects, accompanying its headlong flight with loud
screaming cries ; but when the day is unfavourable, and
especially when there is a high wind, the Swifts, not-
withstanding their power of wing, usually keep close
within their snug retreats.
The voice of the Swift is not very pleasing. " He
has no roundelay ; he neither warbles nor carols, he does
not even twitter. His whole melody is a scream, un-
musical, but most joyous ; a squeak would be a better
name, but that, instead of conveying a notion that it
results from pain, it is full of rollicking delight. Some
compare it to the noise made by the sharpening of a saw :
to me it seems such an expression of pent-up joy as little
, kapselos ; the Sand-Martin.
HIRUNDINID.E. 79
children would make if unexpectedly released from
school, furnished with wings, and flung up into the air
for a game at hide-and-seek among the clouds. Such
soarings aloft, such chasings round the pinnacles of the
church-tower and the gables of the farm-houses ; lio
wonder that they cannot contain themselves for joy." *
The food of these birds consists entirely of insects, which
they capture and devour on the wing. They do not at
once gulp down their prey, but, as it usually consists of
gnats, midges, and other compi'essible species, they collect
a number in their mouths before swallowing them. The
insects caught for the nourishment of their young are
stored up in the same way.
Their nest is composed of fragments of straw, dry grass,
and bits of rag, with a few feathers, and these materials
are cemented together by means of their glutinous saliva.
The eggs are usually two in number, but vary from two
to four. The young are hatched about the end of June,
and do not leave the nest till the end of July; during
all this period the parents feed them with great care.
After the young birds have come out they are left to
provide for themselves, which they are well able to do,
and iu the course of a short time are strong enough to
commence their long journey into unknown regions.
The type of this sub-family
The Alpine Swift (Cypselus Melba) can scarcely be
called a British species, although it has been occasionally
killed in this country. Its true home is in the Swiss
Alps and other mountain-ranges in the South of Europe.
Its flight is more rapid than that of the Common Swift.
These birds, indeed, may be said to perform all the
functions of life on the wing, except sleeping and incuba-
tion ; and even when they rest, it is against the perpen-
dicular face of a rock or wall, to which their four toes,
all pointing forwards, enable them to cling.
From the earliest dawn to sundown, and even later,
this Swift is constantly hawking in the air, through
which its various journeys must, at the most moderate
computation, amount to many hundreds of miles in a day.
* See " British Birds and their Haunts," by the Rev. C. A. Johns.
80
FISSIROSTRES DIURNI.
SUB-FAMILY II.
HIRUNDININ.B. The Swallows proper.
GBS. CHAKAC. Bill short, more or less depressed, with the gape very wide,
and the sides gradually compressed towards the tip ; the nostrils basal,
lateral, and rounded; the wings lengthened, with the first quill the longest ;
the tail more or less forked ; the tarsi short, generally naked and scutel-
lated ; the toes usually long and slender ; and the claws moderate and
slightly curred.
(IlintHdo rastica.)
Numerous species of birds belonging to this sub-
family are distributed throughout most parts of both
hemispheres, migrating from clime to clime, in
search of their insect-food. When about to remove
to a country of more genial temperature, they collect
in immense flocks, and may be observed congre-
gating upon trees, or on the roofs of houses, and
other high buildings, before their departure ; at
other times they frequent the neighbourhood of
lakes, rivers, and ponds, over which they fly in small
81
parties, skimming rapidly hi extensive sweeps near
the surface- of the water, and suddenly changing
their course backwards and forwards, being all the
time busily engaged in capturing the insects upon
which they live. Sometimes they may be seen in
the streets of towns, or ranging over plains, fields,
and gardens, while at intervals they repose, after
their exertions, upon the tops of buildings, or upon
the branches of trees. Their nests are usually
composed of clay or mud, mixed up with straws.
They are variously shaped, and generally attached
to the exterior of houses or in chimneys, or the
interior of hollow trees. Some species construct
their nests in holes in the ground, in which case
they consist entirely of loose, dry grass, lined with
feathers. The eggs are generally five or six in
number.
The migration of the Swallows has now been set
beyond a doubt by actual observation, made both
on our own shores and on those of the Mediter-
ranean, where they are seen taking their departure
for the warm regions of Africa, in the autumn, and
also making their way back in spring. In crossing
the sea, they usually fly singly or in small parties of
two or three, and it is remarkable that they arrive
011 the further side in a state of exhaustion, ap-
parently as great as that of other birds of passage,
whose power of wing is far inferior. The Channel
fishermen state, that in hazy weather the Swallows
very frequently alight in their boats, when they are
a little way out at sea, so completely fatigued that
it is with some difficulty that they muster strength
to fly from one end of the boat to the other, when
an attempt is made to seize them. In fine calm
weather they are often seen to descend upon the
smooth surface of the water with their wings widely
extended, rising again after a short time seemingly
much refreshed by their partial bath.
The type of the race
82 FISSIROSTRES DIURNI.
The Chimney Swallow (Hirundo rustica) * is one of
the British species. It is very abundant in all parts of
Europe during the summer, and in some parts of the
Mediterranean district a few individuals remain during
the winter. They arrive in this country early in April.
On reaching its summer quarters the Swallow usually
selects a spot for its place of abode where the habitations
of man lie in the vicinity of water, for, in common with
a considerable majority of the members of this family,
it has a great fondness for skimming over the surface of
large ponds, lakes, and streams. The partiality exhibited
for human habitations by this bird is very remarkable,
and it is a no less curious circumstance that of the two
familiar British species, one, the Swallow, frequents
detached country places, villages, and farm-houses, whilst
the other, the Martin, takes up its abode in towns, so
that Linnaeus denominated the two species H. rustica and
H. urbica.
Although the Chimney Swallow has received its most
general name from the somewhat peculiar position in
which it frequently builds its nest, it by no means con-
fines itself to chimneys, but builds readily in almost any
siiitable sheltered position. Thus the disused shafts of
mines and the sides of old wells are sometimes resorted
to. Occasionally it will build in the roof of a barn or
shed, attaching its nest to the rafters, or in a garret or
passage, to which it may find easy access. In almost
all cases it selects a point where some projection from
the wall, "some coign of vantage ground," forms a
buttress, on which its nest may be supported. The
nest is constructed principally of mud or soft earth,
collected in small pellets from the edges of ponds and
other wet places. These are carried home in the bird's
bill, and plastered on to the spot selected for the nest.
Fresh pellets are then brought and added, together with
numerous straws and leaves of grasses, until the whole
is gradually moulded into the form of an open saucer,
attached by one side to the wall of the chimney, or other
place of retreat. A lining of feathers is then put into
the nest, and upon these the eggs are laid. The eggs
vary from four to six in number, and are of a white
colour, speckled with ash-grey and dark red. Two
* Hi'fundo, a Swallow.
HIRCNDINID.E. S'6
broods are reared in the course of the summer : of these
the first is usually ready to fly by the end of June, and
the second by the end of August.
The Swallows have a short modulated strain, repeated
at intervals, always ending in a shrill note rapidly shaken.
Early in the morning they may be heard twittering from
the " clay -built shed," or from the chimney-top, and pre-
vious to the autumnal migration, when groups collect
together, they are voiceful, as if debating the great event
of their journey, whether the chie time has come, or the
season will admit of lingering a little longer.
*
' - : ?O?
.
84 TENUIROSTRES.
TRIBE II.
TEXUIROSTRES.
In this division of the Passerine, or Perching
Birds, the bill is of varied length and shape, but
always slender, with the tip of the upper mandible
entire, and usually acute. The tarsi are short ; the
toes generally long, especially the hind toe, which
is strong, and armed with a prominent claw.
FAMILY I.
UPUPID.E. The Hoopoes.
GBX. CHARAC. Bill lengthened, slender, curved or straight for its entire
length ; the sides compressed to the tip, which ia acute ; the nostrils basal
and rather small; the wings long and rounded; the tail more or less
long and rounded or even ; the tarsi strong and usually short ; the toes long
and strong ; the outer toe more or less united at its base, the hind toe long ;
the claws strong, long, and curved.
These birds are peculiar to the Eastern hemi-
sphere. They are found in Europe, -Asia, and
Africa, and are migratory at certain seasons. They
prefer low and damp situations that border woods
and forests ; in such places they may be met with
searching on the ground for insects and worms.
They also .seek for caterpillars on the trunks of
trees, or more frequently among the foliage ; and
while in search of these devastators may frequently
be seen hanging from a branch by their feet as they
reach them from the leaves. The nest is generally
placed in a hole of some decayed tree, or occasion-
ally in a crevice of a wall or rock ; it is constructed
of dry grass, and is usually lined internally with
feathers and other soft and warm materials. The
female deposits four or five eggs, or more.
This family includes the Hoopoes and Plume-
birds.
UPUPIDJ..
SUB-FAMILY I.
UPUPIX.E.
TJie Hoopoes proper.
GKX. CHAKAC. Bill long, curved or straight from the base; the culmen
keeled, and the sides generally compressed suddenly at the base towards the
tip, which is entire and acute ; the nostrils basal, small, and mostly covered
by a membranous scale ; the wings long and rounded ; the tail more or less
long, graduated, and even ; the tarsi generally short and strong ; the toes
long, the outer toe united at its base, the hind toe long and strong ; the
claws long, strong, curved, and acute.
FIG. 32. THE HOOPOE.
(Upnpa epops.)
The representative of this sub-family,
The Common Hoopoe ( Upupa epops), breeds in most
parts of Europe, and is sometimes a visitor in the British
Islands. These birds are generally met with in woods in
the vicinity of marshes, where they seek their food. They
walk and run upon the ground, when thus engaged, with
great facility. In the neighbourhood of Bordeaux,
Hoopoes are met with in great numbers upon an extensive
range of marshy ground occupied by pollard willows gro.wn
86
TEXriROSTKEs.
for the sake of their long shoots. The rotting summits of
the aged trunks of these trees are visited by flocks, which
find in them an abundant supply of insects. The ne>t
is made of a few stalks of grass mixed with feathers, and
is placed in the hole of a tree ; the eggs, six or eight in
number, are of a pale lavender-grey colour. The Hoopoe
likewise feeds on grubs and vonns ; hence, in Egypt, it
follows the retreat of the Kile, where the neighbouring
plains swarm with insect life ; it also frequents ploughed
lands and pasture ground, like the Crows. Great numbers
are constantly to be found about the towns and villages
of Egypt, where they become veiy familiar with man, and
build their nests in the immediate vicinity of his habita-
tions.
UPUPIDJ:.
87
SUB-FAMILY II.
EPIMACHIN.E.* The Plumed Birds.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill more or less lengthened, slender, and arched to the tips,
which are acute ; the nostrils lateral, and placed in a broad basal groove,
which is mostly concealed by the projecting plumes of the forehead, leaving
the opening small and exposed ; wings moderate and rounded ; tail of various
lengths, sometimes even or graduated at its end ; tarsi more or less long,
robust, and usually covered with broad scales in front ; toes long and strong,
with the outer toe united at its base, the hind toe very long, strong, and
armed with a powerful claw.
FlG. 33. THE TWELVE-THREADED EPIMACHTJ8.
(Epimachtis albus.)
The entire island of New Guinea, situated almost
beneath the equator, is covered with one vast forest,
composed of trees which from their stately dimen-
sions are well calculated to strike the spectator with
* iirifiaxoe, epimachos ; open to attack, i.e. defenceless.
00 TEXUIKOSTRES.
astonishment, some of them rising to the stupendous
height of a hundred and fifty feet, an elevation to
which the circumference of their trunks is quite
proportionate. Shrubs and bushes have no exist-
ence among this exuberant vegetation; the very
creepers are gigantic ; the lianas, resembling enor-
mous vines, climb to the summits of the largest
trees, twining around them like serpents, and inter-
lacing their stems among the branches. The bril-
liant tints that adorn these virgin forests constitute
by no means their least striking feature. All hues
of green are intermixed with flowers of ample dimen-
sions, diversified with every shade of colour, and
fruits no less remarkable from the singularity of
their shape. Amid this wilderness, the lofty palm-
trees are lost beneath the festoons of parasitic plants
that wreathe around them, and enormous Mimosas
bend beneath the weight of Orchids and gorgeous
Epidendrons. It is in the midst of these solitudes,
screened by the foliage from the intense heat of the
sun, that the Epimachi are found in company with
flocks of Parakeets, Crowned Pigeons, Turtle-do \vs.
and Birds of Paradise, even more splendidly deco-
rated than they themselves. The Plumed Birds, in-
deed, resemble the Birds of Paradise in many parti-
culars, more especially in having some of their fea-
thers greatly developed, and also in the splendour
of their plumage ; they differ from them, however,
in the shape of their bill, which is considerably
attenuated. Most of the species are indigenous to
New Guinea ; but unfortunately, owing to the bar-
barism of the natives, their habits and manners are
as yet unrecorded by naturalists. One species, found
in Australia, is known to ascend the stems of trees
in the manner of the creeping birds, and only exer-
cises its powers of wing in flying from tree to tree,
or to short distances in the forest.
We select as an example of these elegancies of
creation
The Twelve-threaded Epimachus (Epimachus cdbus).
PROilEROPIDJS.
89
FAMILY II.
PROMEROPID.E.
The Sun-birds.
GEN. CH ABAC. Bill more or less lengthened, slender, and curved throughout
its whole length ; the nostrila bare, and covered by a scale ; the wings mode-
rate ; the tail of various lengths, even or graduated ; the toes moderate, and
armed with curved and acute claws.
FlG. 31. THE SUN-BJBD.
The birds belonging to this family are remarkable
for their long slender bills, which are capable of
90 TENUIROSTRES.
penetrating into the nectary of flowers, from which
they principally derive their subsistence. Their
tongue is extensible and bifid at the tip, thus
enabling them more easily to procure their honied
food ; insects, however, and perhaps soft fruits, con-
stitute a considerable portion of their- diet. In the
breeding season the plumage of the male glows with
metallic colours, approaching in splendour those of
the Humming-birds, which indeed the members of
this family seem to represent on the continents of
the Old World, of which they are exclusively natives.
They resemble the Humming-birds in their man-
ners, and almost rival them in the brilliancy of their
appearance as they hover on quivering wings poised
in the air, while they bury their long slender beaks
in the corolla, from which they sip the sweets.
" It was at Singapore/' says Mr. Arthur Adams,
" that I first had the pleasure of seeing these tiny
paragons of the East ; they are ethereal, gay, and
sprightly in their movements, flitting briskly from
flower to flower, and assuming a thousand lovely
and agreeable attitudes. As the sunbeams glitter
on their bodies, they sparkle like so many precious
stones, and exhibit at every turn a variety of bright
and evanescent hues. As they hover round the
honey-laden blossoms, they vibrate their tiny pinions
so rapidly as to cause a slight whirring sound, but
not so loud as the humming noise produced by the
Trochilidce (Humming-birds). Occasionally they
may be seen, clinging by their feet and tail, busily
engaged in rifling the blossoms of the trees. I well
remember a certain dark -leaved tree with scarlet
flowers that especially courted the attention of the
Sun-birds, and about its blossoms they continually
darted with eager and vivacious movements. With
this tree they seemed particularly delighted, cling-
ing to the slender twigs, and coquetting with the
flowers, thrusting in their slender beaks, and probing
with their brush-like tongues for insects and nectar,
hanging suspended by their feet, throwing back
PKOMEROPID^. 91
their little glossy heads, chasing each other on giddy
wing, and flirting and twittering, the gayest of the
gay. Some were emerald-green, some vivid violet,
and others yellow with a crimson wing."
Their nest is usually suspended, and of a hemi-
spherical form, having generally an opening on one
side, nearer the bottom than the top, with a small
roof over it; it is composed of dry fibres mixed
with moss, and lined with down within. The exte-
rior portion is sometimes kept together by means of
a thick spider's web, which the bird uses as a frame-
work whereunto the various materials composing
the nest are attached. The eggs are generally two
in number.
This family comprises the True Sun-birds and
the Quit-gluts.
92
TENUIEO8TRE8.
SUB-FAMILY I.
PROMEROPIN.E.
The Sun-birds proper.
GEN CHAKAC. Bill more or less curved, with the sides compressed to the
tip, which is acute, and the lateral margin sometimes finely serrated ; the
nostrils basal, and the opening closed by a membranous scale ; the wings
moderate; the tail more or less long, with the middle feathers sometimes
prolonged beyond the others ; the tarsi usually short ; the toes moderate,
the outer toe rather longer than the inner, and united at its base ; the claws
moderate, curved, and acute.
FlG. 35. THE KED-BEEASTED 8OUI-MANOA.
( Cinnyris Senegalensi* )
These showy birds are found throughout the con-
tinent of Africa, as well as in India and the adjacent
islands. They are generally seen upon the upper
twigs and smaller branches of trees and bushes ;
hopping quickly about, and moving their wings in a
tremulous manner while searching the blossoms ; or
occasionally hovering on the wing before flowers,
engaged in the same occupation. Spiders also form
PROMEROPID.E. 93
a portion of their subsistence ; these the bird drags
from their hiding-places while fluttering in the air,
and will occasionally snap at an insect whilst flying.
We have selected as the representative of this bril-
liant group
The Red-breasted Soui-manga (Cinnyris Senegalensis}.
Another species represented in the tabular view,
The Famous Creeper (A T ectarinia famosa), called also
the Malachite Sun-bird, is an inhabitant of the Cape of
Good Hope, where it remains throughout the year, and
as it is in the habit of frequenting gai'dens, soon becomes
familiar with the proprietors. Sometimes these lovely
birds may be seen iu flocks of forty or fifty, congregating
upon the branches of a favourite tree, and amusing them-
selves among its blossoms. The male bird, when dressed in
full nuptial costume, is nearly double the size of any other
species of this sub-family, often exceeding nine inches in
length. The whole of its upper sui-face is rich golden
green, marked with a reddish bronze. The feathers of the
throat and forehead ai-e of the same hue, but of so deep a
tone that they appear at first sight to be velvety black.
Whenever the bird moves, even by the act of respiration,
waves of bright hues seem to ripple on its surface, caused
by the peculiar disposition of the feathers, which are black,
and only coloured at their extremities. The wings and
tail are black, and the secondaries and coverts are edged
with green and violet, while a tuft of bright yellow feathers
under each shoulder still further enlivens this goi-geous
costume. The female is much smaller than her mate, of
a dull olive-brown, except the exterior feathers of her
tail, which are tinged with white. The brilliant adorn-
ments of the Sun-birds belong, as a general rule, only to
the male sex, and even in the male the nuptial plumage
has but a temporary existence, becoming developed only
at the commencement of the breeding season, and being
lost at the moult which follows the rearing of the young.
At all other seasons the males are nearly as simply clothed
as their mates. The nest of the Malachite Sun-bird is
composed of very fine fibres, interwoven and lined with
soft cottony down found on the seed-vessels of many plants,
and ingeniously set round with various lichens, so as to
F :)
94 TENUIROSTRES.
give it a close resemblance to the tree in which it is placed.
One species has even been known to make a thick spider's
web the foundation of its domicile, and to cover it with
little bits of moss, lichens, paper, cloth, and all kinds of
miscellaneous substances, so as entirely to desti-oy its nest-
like appearance, and make it look like a chance bundle of
scraps among the branches.
" My house in Colombo," says Sir James Emerson
Tennent, " as is xisual in the East, was surrounded by a
verandah, up which crept, in tropical profusion, several
species of Passiflora ; to ' the flowers of these came the
various Nectarinise for their morning and evening meals,
rarely appearing in the heat of the day. They hovered
about the starry flowers, thrusting in their curved bills,
in search of the minute insects on which they feed; occa-
sionally they would fly into the verandah and seize a
small spider from its web, or from the crevices of the
walls ; then they would betake themselves to the passion-
flowers, or to the branches of a pomegranate close by,
where they plumed themselves and uttered a pleasing song.
If two happened to come to the same flower and from
their numbers this has often occurred a battle always
ensued, which ended in the vanquished bird retreating from
the spot with shrill piping cries, while the conqueror would
take up his position upon a flower or stem, and swinging
his little body to and fro till his coat of burnished steel
gleamed and glistened in the sun, pour out his note of
triumph. All this time the wings were expanded and
closed alternately, every jerk of the body in .A". Asiatica
and N. Latenia disclosing the brilliant yellow plumelets
on either side of the breast."
PBOXBBOPIDJS.
95
SUE-FAMILY II.
CCEREBIN.E.
T/te Guit-guits.
GEX. CH ABiC. Bill longer or shorter than the head, sometimes curved through-
out its length, or straight and acutely conical, the base broad, and the sides
compressed, with the tip usually emarginated ; the nostrils basal and lateral,
and protected by a hard scale ; the wings long and rather pointed ; the tail
short and mostly even ; the tarsi short ; the toes moderate, slender, and the
outer united at its base.
FlG. 36. THE BLUE GUIT-GUIT.
(Coereba cyanea.)
These birds are natives of the warmer parts of
South America, where they are usually seen among
flowers, searching for small insects and honied juices,
which they are able to extract by means of their
tongue. Their nests are suspended from the ends
of slender branches, and are sometimes in the form
of a lengthened pear or chemist's retort, terminated
by a long tube that bends towards the ground. This
beautiful nest is composed of dried grass and slender
96 TENUIROSTKES.
fibres. Other birds belonging to this sub-family build
their nests after a different fashion, but -with the same
admirable skill in their construction. The Carthiola,
for example, suspends its nest from the ends of the
flexible branches of trees that hang over the middle
of a stream. The nest is in the form of an ostrich's
egg, composed of dried moss and dried grass ex-
teriorly, but lined internally with cotton and the
down of plants. The entrance is on the under side,
which faces the water ; and the interior is divided
into two compartments, one of which forms a sort of
antechamber leading to the larger division, wherein
the female deposits her eggs, which are thus securely
protected from the attacks of snakes and other
destroyers.
The type of this sub-family is
The Black and Blue Creeper (Ccereba cyanea], so called
from its feathers being deeply and gorgeously dyed with
azure, verditer, and velvet-black, arranged in bold and
striking contrast. This beautifully coloured species is an
inhabitant of Cayenne, Guiana, and other neighbouring
localities. It is about the size of a comnion Sparrow, and
frequents the various flowering trees and shrubs of its
native land. The nest is pensile, and neatly woven, upon
the extremity of some slender twig, which sways to and
fro. Its shape resembles that of a Jargonelle pear, the
lower extremity being produced into a long tube, with the
mouth below, and the eggs placed in the upper dilated
portion. The birds of this sub-family are gregarious, de-
lighting to associate in large flocks, and haunting flower-
bearing plants for the purpose of feeding on the sweet
nectar and tiny insects found within the blossoms. In
feeding, they thrust their long bill and tongue to the very
bottom of the flower-bells, much after the manner of bees.
TROCHILID.E.
97
TROCHILID.E.
FAMILY III.
The Humming-birds.
GKX. CHABAC. Bill generally long, slender, straight, or curved, usually
rounded, and the tip acute; the nostrils are basal, and covered by a large
scale, which is sometimes plumose; the wings are generally long and of
various forms ; the tarsi very short and generally slender; the toes long and
slender, the lateral toes united at their base, hind toe moderate, and fur-
nished with a more or less lengthened claw.
FlG ST. Ill 1C LONG-TAILED HUMMING-BIRD.
(Troi-hiltit lvnyica*da j
98 TENUIROSTRES.
The Humming-birds, some of which are the
smallest of the feathered tribes, are peculiar to the
New World, in the tropical parts of which they
abound, adorning the gardens, fields, and woods,
and even the mountain-side to a considerable height,
with their swiftly-glancing, fairy-like forms, and
brilliant, sparkling colours. Hovering in the air,
with its wings in such rapid motion as to be quite
invisible or only apparent like a grey mist on each
side of the bird, the little Humming-bird buries its
long bill in the interior of a flower, and then pro-
truding its forked tongue, readily seizes the little
beetles and other insects that are attracted by the
nectar. While thus occupied, the rapidly-vibrating
wings produce a humming sound ; whence the origin
of their name. Some of the species capture flies on
the wing, by taking up a post of observation upon
the tip of a dead branch or twig, and flying off in
pursuit of their prey as soon as it comes in sight.
Wherever a creeping vine opens its clusters, or
wherever a tree-flower blooms, these little fairies
may be seen. In the garden or in the woods, over
the water, everywhere, they are darting about.
Sometimes they are seen chasing each other in sport
with a rapidity of flight and intricacy of path that
the eye can scarcely follow, or, circling round and
round, they rise high in mid-air, and then dart off
like sparkles of light to some distant attraction.
Now perched upon a little twig, they dress their
plumes, and seem to delight in the dazzling hues of
their glowing breasts ; then starting off, they skim
leisurely along, stopping capriciously to kiss the
coquetting flowers. Often two meet in mid-air, and
fight furiously, their crests and the feathers upon
their throats erected and blazing, and altogether
pictures of the most violent rage. Sometimes they
may be seen battling with large black bees that fre-
quent the same flowers, and may be supposed often
to interfere provokingly. Like lightning, the little
heroes come down, and again and again renew the
TROCHILID.E. 99
attack, until their anger lias expended itself by its
own fury, or until the bee, roused from its apathy,
puts forth powers that drive the invader from the
field.
The domestic architecture of the Humming-birds
is amongst the most interesting of the many singular
features in their history. In form and size the nests
vary much in different species, and a similar difference
exists in the situations where they are placed. Some
of these fairy cradles are not larger than the half of
a walnut-shell, and such coracle-shaped structures
are amongst the neatest and most beautiful. The
members of the genus Trochilus and their allies
exhibit the greatest ingenuity, not so much in the
construction of their nests as in the lavish decoration
FlG, 38. NEST OF HUMMIXG-lilKD.
of their outer walls. With the utmost skill they fasten
to the exterior morsels of flat lichen, the larger pieces
in the middle, and the smaller on the part attached
to the branch. Now and then a pretty feather is
intertwined or fastened to the outer side, the stem
being always so disposed that the feather stands out
beyond the surface. These little cup-shaped nests
are frequently placed on the bifurcation of some
horizontal branch near the ground, or, at other times,
higher up towards the summit of the bush in which
they are built.
100 TENUIKOSTRES.
" The Humming-birds in Jamaica," says Lady
Emineline Stuart Wort ley, "are lovelylittle creatures,
and wonderfully tame and fearless of the approach of
man. One of these charming feathered jewels had
built its delicate nest close to one of the walls of the
garden belonging to the house where wo were
staying. The branch, indeed, of the beautiful little
shrub in which the fairy nest was suspended almost
intruded into the walk, and, every time we sauntered
by, there was much danger of sweeping against this
projecting branch, with its precious charge, and
doing it some injury, as very little would have de-
molished the exquisite fabric. In process of time
two lovely little pear-shaped eggs appeared, and,
while we were there, we had the great pleasure of
seeing the minute living gems themselves disclosed,
looking like two very small bees. The mother bird
allowed us to look closely at her nest and to inspect
her little nurslings, when she was flying about near,
without appearing in the least disconcerted or
alarmed. I never saw so tame or so bold a little
pet. But she did not allow the same liberties to be
taken by every one unchecked. One day, as Sir C.
was walking in the pretty path beside which the
fragile nest was delicately suspended amid sheltering
leaves, he paused in order to look at its Lilliputian
inhabitants. While thus engaged, he felt a sharp
rapping on the crown of his hat, which considerably
surprised him. He looked round to ascertain from
whence the singular and unexpected attack pro-
ceeded, but nothing was to be seen. Almost think-
ing he must have been mistaken, he continued his
survey, when a much sharper and louder rat-tat-tat-
tat-tat seemed to demand his immediate attention,
and a little to jeopardize the perfect integrity and
preservation of the fabric in question. Again he
looked round, far from pleased with such extra-
ordinary impertinence, when what should he see but
the beautiful, delicate Humming-bird, with ruffled
feathers and fiery eyes, who seemed by no means
TROCHILID.E.
101
inclined to let him off without a further infliction of
sharp taps and admonitory raps from her fairy beak.
She looked like a little fury in miniature, a winged
Xantippe. These pointed attentions apprised him
that his company was not desired or acceptable. As
to me and V., the darling little pet did not mind us
in the least. She allowed us to watch her to our
heart's content, and rather appeared to like our
society, and to have an air of saying, ' Do you think
I manage it well, eh ? ' '
These beautiful birds are divisible into three sub-
families, named respectively the Wedge-tailed, the
Curve-billed, and the Straight-billed Humming-
birds.
102
TENUIROSTRES.
SUB-FAMILY I.
The Wedge-tailed Humming-birds.
GBST. CHARAC. Bill more or less long, slender, and generally curved through-
out its whole length, with the culmen heeled at the base, and then rounded
to the tip, which is acute, the lateral margins dilated and overlapping the
lower mandible ; the nostrils basal and covered by a scale ; the wings long
and pointed; the tail long, broad, and generally cuneated; the tarsi
short and slender ; the toes long, slender, and sometimes united at their
bases, the hind toe more' or less long and slender; the anterior claws long
and slender, and that of the hind toe sometimes very small.
/
FlO. 39. PRETREUS'S HKKMIT.
(Phoetornis Pretrei.)
These Humming-birds are remarkable among
their glittering race for being destitute of metallic
brilliancy, and, as their common name of " hermit"
implies, for affecting dark and gloomy situations.
They constitute perhaps the only group of the
family which frequent the interior of the forests, and
there obtain their insect food, some from the under
side of the leaves of the great trees, while others
TROCHILID.E. 103
assiduously explore their steins in search of such
lurking insects as may be concealed in the bark. It
is said that spiders constitute the principal food of
many species of this group ; and the structure of
their bills seems admirably adapted for the capture
of prey of this description. To individualize by
name any particular country in South America in
which these birds are found is unnecessary, for they
are generally distributed over its temperate and
hotter portions, but they are not to be met with
either very far north or very far south of the
equator; that is to say, their range is bounded
northwardly by Southern Mexico and southwardly
by Bolivia. Within these limits the high and the
low lands are alike tenanted by them ; it, however, is
in the equatorial regions that they are most nume-
rous, and there all, or nearly all, the genera have
representatives. In the colouring of their plumage
the sexes are alike.
The Spotted Hermit (Grypus nazvius} is common in all
parts of the province of Santa, Catherina in Brazil, but is
more frequently met with in woody situations than else-
where. Its flight is exceedingly noisy, very vigorous, and
capable of being sustained for a gi-eat length of time, the
bird rarely alighting. Its cry is so loxid and piercing as
to be heard above eveiything else, while it flutters around
the various species of Orchids, from whence it derives its
principal sustenance.
This Humming-bird builds a nest composed of fine
vegetable fibres woven together, so as to look like an open
network purse, the outer walls being so loosely made as
to permit the eggs and lining to be visible : leaves, mosses,
and lichens are also woven in, and are packed rather
tightly under the eggs ; the edge, however, is always left
loose. This nest is suspended at the end of a leaf, usually
that of a palm.
104
TENUIEOSTRES.
SUB-FAMILY II.
TROCHJLIN.E. Tlie Curved-billed Humming-birds.
GKX. CHAR AC. Bill more or less long, slender, and curved, the lateral margins
usually dilated and overlapping the lower mandible ; the nostrils basal, the
opening covered with a large scale, which is sometimes entirely concealed
by the projecting plumes ; wings long and pointed ; tail more or less long,
and of various forms ; tarsi very short ; toes long and slender, with the
lateral ones united at their base, the hind toe long, and armed with a more
or less lengthened claw.
FlG. 40. THE EAGLE HUMMING-BIRD.
(Polytmui aqtiilii.)
The Humming-birds belonging to this sub-family
are inhabitants of the central and warmer regions of
America and of the West Indies ; one of the prettiest,
The Topaz Humming-bird (Topaza pella), is an
inhabitant of the low districts of Cayenne, Trinidad, and
Surinam, and also of the countries bordering the lower
Amazon. The male measures about six inches in length,
exclusive of a pair of elongated tail-feathers that are
wanting in the female, which is also smaller than her
TROCHILID.E. 105
mate. The whole of the back and wing-coverts in the
male are deep crimson-red, verging to orange towards
the tail, and gradually giving place to bronzed green in
the upper tail-coverts. The head is deep violet-black,
and from it a broad band passes down the sides of the
neck and across the throat, enclosing a large space of the
most brilliant golden green, glowing in the centre with
the sheen of a topaz. The general colour of the female is
bronzed green. "This species never shows his beauty to
the sun. Residing close by the densely-wooded sides of
rivers, and dark and lonely creeks, he leaves his retreat
before sunrise to feed on insects near the water ; but
returns to its shelter as soon as the sun's rays become
powerful, and only comes out again for a short time
after sunset. The nest is built on a twig over the
water in unfrequented places, of a material that looks
like tanned cow-leather. This nest is of a deep cup-like
form, with very thin walls, composed, apparently, of
a sort of fungus resembling German tinder held together
by cobwebs."
106
TENUIEOSTRE8.
SUB-FAMILY HI.
MELLISUGIN.E.* The Straight-billed Humming-birds.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill more or less lengthened, slender, and straight, the lateral
margins more or less dilated over the lower mandible ; the nostrils l>asul,
with the opening sometimes concealed by the projecting plumes ; winjjs
long and pointed ; tail of various length and forms ; tarsi very short ; toes
more or less long, the outer toe united at its base, and the hind toe long,
and armed usually with a long claw.
FlO. 41. THE RACKET-TAILED II I MM I.M.-HI U l> .
The Humming-birds belonging to this division
frequent tubular flowers, before which they suspend
themselves on the wing so steadily that their wings
* Mel, Iwney ; sngere, to suck.
107
become invisible, or appear only like a mist. When
one of these birds is thus poised, even the pupil of
his eye is plainly distinguishable, looking round with
great quickness and circumspection. When he
alights, he always prefers the small dead twigs of a
tree or bush, where he dresses or arranges his
plumage with great nicety. His only note is a single
chirp, not much louder than that of a cricket or
grasshopper : this is generally uttered while passing
from flower to flower, or when engaged in fight with
his fellows ; for when two males meet at the same
bush or flower, a battle invariably ensues, and the
combatants ascend into the air, chirping, darting,
and circling round each other, till the eye is no
longer able to follow them. The conqueror generally
returns to the place to reap the fruits of victory.
The flight of these birds much resembles that of a
bee, but is so much more rapid that the insect
appears to be a mere loiterer in comparison. It has
generally been supposed that the food of the
Humming-birds consists entirely of honey or the
liquid sweet that they gather from the flowers ; but
observation has given rise to the belief that it is
rather upon the minute insects that feast upon the
farina of tubular flowers that they subsist. Some-
times, indeed, they may be seen employed, for half
an hour at a time, in darting among the little groups
of insects that dance in the air on a summer's even-
ing, and then retiring into an adjoining bush to rest,
renewing the attack at intervals with a dexterity far
surpassing that of the ordinary Fly-catchers.
Their nest is usually fixed to the branch of a tree,
at the distance of a few feet from the ground. It is
a beautiful structure, very small, and composed ex-
ternally of lichens taken from the trunks of trees or
from palings : these are thickly glued on with the
saliva of the bird, so as to give firmness and consist-
ency to the whole fabric, and effectively to keep out
moisture. Within this are thick matted layers of
the fine wings of certain seeds, closely laid together ;
108 TENUIROSTRES.
and, lastly, the downy substance from the great
Mullein and from the stalks of the common Fern
lines the whole. The base of the nest entwines the
stem of the branch, to which it closely adheres. The
eggs are two in number, and the female rears two
broods in the course of the same season.
The Little Humming-bird (Mellisuga, minima] may be
regarded as tbe smallest species of the family. It i* an
inhabitant of St. Domingo and Jamaica. Of this little
feathered fairy, Mr. Gosse observes : " It is the only
Humming-bird, with which I am acquainted, that has a
real song : the others have only a pertinacious chirping.
I have sometimes," he says, " watched with great
delight the evolutions of this little species at a Maringa
tree. When only one is present, he pursues the round
of the blossoms soberly enough, sucking as he goes, and
every now and then sitting quietly on a twig. But if
two are about the tree, one will fly off, and suspending
himself in the air a few yards distant, the other presently
shoots off to him, and then, without touching each other,
they mount upwards, with a strong rushing of wings,
perhaps for five hundred feet. They then separate, and
each shoots diagonally towards the ground, like a ball
from a rifle, and, wheeling round, comes up to the
blossoms again, and sucks and sucks as if it had not
moved away at all. Frequently one alone will mount
in this manner, or dart on invisible wing diagonally
upwards, looking exactly like a ' humble bee.' The
nest is a minute cup-shaped structure, placed upon or
between the twigs of trees. It is composed of silk-cotton
(the down of the Bdmbyx), and ornamented exteraally
with fragments of lichen."
MELIPHAGID.E. 1 09
FAMILY IV.
MELIPHAGIDJE.* The Honey-eaters.
GF.X. CHAKAC. Bill more or less long, curved, and usually acute at the tip,
which is slightly emarginated ; the nostrils placed in a large groove, and
generally covered by a membranous scale ; wings moderate, the first three
quills graduated ; the tail long and broad ; the tarsi rather short and strong,
and the toes more or less long, the outer always united at its base ; the
iDiicrue is extensile, and furnished at the tip with a pencil of short slender
fibres.
The beautiful birds composing the family of the
Honey-eaters, although nearly unknown to Linnaeus,
occupy a prominent and important situation in the
ornithological department of nature. Chiefly, con-
fined to Australia, where they abound in every variety
of form, and in an apparently inexhaustible multitude
of species, they find a sufficient and never-failing
support in the peculiar vegetation of that country.
There the fields are never without blossom, and
different species of plants, particularly the Eucalypti,
afford a constant succession of that food which is
suitable to the tubular and brush-like tongue of these
birds. It must not be supposed, however, that the
food of the Meliphagida3 is restricted, as their name
would imply, simply to the nectar of flowers. They,
indeed, feed upon the honey, but combined with
the numerous small insects lodged in most flowers,
which they extract with their tongues, formed
for that purpose.
This family embraces three subdivisions, named
respectively the Honey-creepers, the Honey-eaters,
and the Honey -feeders.
* /<tXi, meli. honey ; yw, phago, to eat; Honey-eater.
TKXUK'OSTK'KS.
SUB-FAMILY I.
M Y/OMELIX.E.'"" T/ie Honey-creeper* .
iK.v. CHIRAC. Bill more or less long, slender, curved, and acute at the tip.
which is slisrhtly enMrgiMtoa; t he nostrils basal, and the opening cim-ivi!
l>y a membranous scale ; the wings rather short, with the third and fourth
quill- 1 usually the longest; the tail short and even; the tarsi short ; tor*
moderate, the outer toe longer than the inner, and united at the l>a^:\
FlG. 42 THE SANGUINEOUS HOXEY-CREKPEB.
(Myzomela chermetinia.)
The Honey-creepers are found only in Australia,
where they frequent various plants, from the flowers
of which they collect the nectar, as well as the small
insects found in them. They exhibit great activity,
and are continually moving from flower to flower,
and from branch to branch, in search of their sub-
-istcnce. Occasionally they may be seen perched on
a dead bough, and uttering a weak, plaintive note.
* pvZuta, myzao, to suck ; fit\i, meli. /tone;/ ; Honey-suckers.
MKLIPHAGID-*:.
Ill
Their nest is composed of grasses, wherein the female
deposits two eggs.
The type of this sub-family,,
The Sanguineous Honey-creeper (Myzomela cher-
mexinia), is a beaxitiful little bird, an inhabitant of the
thick brushes of New Scnith Wales, particularly those
near the coa-T. and those clothing the hilly portions of
the interior. It i.s rarely, if ever, found among the
trees in the open part of the country ; and there is reason
to believe that the south-eastern side of the continent is
its natural and restricted habitat. It gives a decided
preference to those parts of the forest that abound with
flowering plants, whose fragrant blossoms attract large
numbers of insects of various kinds, upon which, and the
pollen of the flower-cups, it chiefly subsists.
112
TENUIKOSTI;K>.
SUB-FAMILY II.
MELIPHAGIN^E. TJie Honey-eaters proper.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill more or less long and slender, with the tip slightly emar-
ginated, and usually acute ; wings moderate and rounded, with the fourth to
the sixth quills generally the longest ; tarsi generally short and strong ; toes
moderate, with the outer toe longer than the inner, and united at its base,
the hind toe long and strong ; the claws moderate, curved, and very acute.
FlO. 43. THE PLAIN TROPIDORHYNCHUS.
(Tropidorhynchu* inornui/'*.)
The Honey-eaters likewise belong to the Aus-
tralian continent, though a few have been discovered
on islands that present almost a tropical climate.
Wherever the Ein-ali/fifi and the Bank*!"* are in
flower, there these birds maybe seen, sucking the
nectar from their blossoms. They ;ilso feed on the
small insects that lie concealed in flowers and on the
fVnits and berries of various plants. Their move-
ments among the branches are active and graceful,
MKLIPHAGID.T-:. 113
but their rapid and jerking flight is only extended
from tree to tree. Their note consists of a loud
whistle, which in many species is agreeable to the
ear. Their nest is usually built in some low tree or
bush ; it is composed of small twigs, coarse grass,
moss, and chips of bark, lined internally with soft
materials principally derived from plants. The eggs
are two or three in number:
The type of the race,
The Tropidorhynchus inornatus, is found in most parts
of Au*tnilia and New Guinea. They are usually seen
on the various trees iu blossom, the flowers of which they
search for the purpose of extracting the pollen, and for
the various insects which frequent them for a similar
purpose. Berries, wild figs, and the juice which exudes
from wounds in trees, are also said to form a part of their
subsistence. They are often observed in small parties
on the upper branches, to which they cling, and hang in
various graceful positions while seeking their food : whilst
thus engaged, they emit a loud and monotonous cry. The
eggs are deposited by the female of one species on the top
<>t' the domed nests of the Poniatorhini, whilst others form
suspended nests, of a large size, in the form of a cup, and
composed of stringy bark, wool, and twigs, lined with
itra^s and fibrous roots. The eggs are usually two or
three in number.
114
TKXU1KOSTRES.
s IT-FAMILY III.
MELITHKEPTIX.E."" The Honey-feeders.
(IKS. CHABAC. Bill short, sub-conic, slightly curved, and the sides much
compressed towards the tip, which is sometimes emarginated and acute ;
the wings more or less long, with the fourth to the seventh quills genendly
the longest; the tarsi short and strong; the toes more or les* lona. the
lateral toes unequal, the outer the longest, and united at its base ; the claws
moderate, compressed, and acute.
FlG. 41. THE WHITK-THKOATED HONEY FEEDER.
(Helitkreptut gularit.)
The Honey-feeders constitute another group
peculiar to Australia, where they may be seen, in
small parties, frequenting the Eucalypti and Acacias.
They usually creep about the leafy and flower-bear ing-
branches with perfect ease and great rapidity, search-
ing for insects and the pollen of flowers ; they also
frequent orchards, to feed upon the fruit, amongst
which they commit great havoc. Sometimes they
* fiiXt, meli, /tcny : Qptvog, threptos, nourished.
VIELIPHAGID.E. 1 1 5
may be seen motionless upon the topmost dead or
bare boughs, uttering a loud whistling note, which
at once betrays their locality.
The Lunated Honey-feeder (Me&tfireptus lunatus),
distinguished from the [(receding Honey-eaters by the '
possession of a stronger and more conical bill, is abundant
in many parts of the Australian continent. The nest <>f
this bird is usually attached to the slender twigs which
-row at the top of the prodigious Eucalypti, and at this
great height it is only discernible to an experienced
observer. The fabric is ingeniously constructed of the
inner rind or ''liber" of the "stringy-bark," and other
gum-trees, a material resembling the "bass" used by
gardeners. The hair of various animals is mixed with
the bark ; and since sheep have been introduced into
Australia, the bird has availed itself of their wool,
finding that it can be worked well into the side, and
seems to bind the walls firmly together. As the nest is
always hung by the rim to the twigs, strength of sub-
stance is an absolute necessity ; so that the toughness of
fibre, and the felting property of the wool, make it a
most valuable addition to the building material employed.
For the lining of the nest, the Lunated Honey-eater
uses the fur of the Phalanger, which has the advantage of
being very soft, very warm, of retaining its elasticity,
and of not adhering to the claws of the inmates, as would
be the case with wool.
The typical form is the White-throated Honey-
feeder (Mdithreptus gularis).
1 1 G TEXUIROSTRES.
FAMILY V.
CERTHIAD^E. The Tree-creepers.
GBN. CHABAC. Bill more or less long, and generally slender, with tho tip
entire and slightly arched ; nostrils usually small, and covered by a mem-
branous scale ; the wings sometimes rounded and sometimes rather pointed ;
the tail varying very much in length and form ; the tarsi and toes differ
much in length, especially the latter, forming characters whereby the sub-
families of this large group are distinguished.
The Creepers somewhat resemble the Wood-
peckers in the mode of progression, which is by
extremely rapid short hops or starts upon the bark
of trees, to which they cling with their sharp claws,
at the same time using their tail to assist them in
climbing. To adapt it to such an office, the tail-
feathers are stiff and strong, and the shafts project
as sharp points beyond the webs. The tarsi are
generally short, the toes long, and armed with long
curved claws. This is especially the case with the
more typical species, which are organized for running
on the trunks and branches of trees in search of
insects that constitute their food. It is from this
circumstance they have received their name of
" Creepers." Indeed, their movements and geiii-i-al
aspect, when engaged in hunting for their sub-
sistence, are so like those of small quadrupeds, that
at the first glance they might be easily mistaken
for mice. Many of them make a nest in the holes
of trees, where they rear a numerous progeny.
This family, which is rather numerous, embraces
the Oven-birds, the Sharp-tails, the Tree-creepers,
the Creepers, the Nuthatches, the Mohouas, and the
Wrens.
CERTHIAD.*:.
1J7
SUB-FAMILY I.
FUKXARIX.E.
The Oven-birds.
GEN. CHARAC. Toes rather long, the lateral ones unequal, the outer one?
rather the longest, and slightly united at its base, the inuer toe tree at it*
bue.
FlG 45. THE BLACK-TAILED ENICOBNIS.
(Enicornig melanura.)
These small birds are found in the warmer parts
of South America, especially in bushes, on the banks
of the rivers, or near the dwellings of man, or even
in open places. They are always seen in pairs, are
very active, and capable of running and walking
with great rapidity. Their flight is only from bush
to bush, which they minutely examine for insects,
chiefly those of the coleopterous kind, although
they occasionally feed on seeds.
The male utters a series of loud shrill notes, of
a very peculiar character. Their singular nest, from
G 3
118 TENTJIKOSTRES.
which they derive the name of Oven-birds, is gene-
rally built in an exposed situation on a thick leafless
branch or on the top of a paling ; sometimes, even,
in the interior of houses. Both sexes labour at its
construction, each alternately bringing a lump of
clay, a piece of straw, or of the dry stems of pLuits.
This remarkable structure, when finished, has tin-
appearance of an oven, six or eight inches in
diameter, and about an inch in thickness. From
the entrance, which is on one side, a passage reaches
to the roof, and terminates by a circular opening in
an inner chamber, where the eggs are deposited 'on
a bed of feathers or grass.
The species figured in the Tabular View,
The Patagonian Cinclodes (Cinclodes Patagonica), is
found principally upon the western coast of South
America, especially towards the southern extremity of
that continent.
The type of this sub-family is
The Black-tailed Enicornis (Enicornis melanin-<n.
represented in our engraving.
CEKTHIAM-:.
119
SUB-FAMILY II.
SYNALLAXIN.E.*
T/ie Sharptails.
ri:v. CHARAC. Toes moderate and strong, with the lateral toes unequal, the
outer one the longest and united to near the first joint, and the inner slightly
united at the base, the hind toe strong and long; the claws strong, com-
pressed, and curved.
FlG. 46. THE CHILIAN SYXALtAXIS
(St/naUaxis ritfieapilla.)
The birds composing this sub-family are likewise
peculiar to South America. They are usually found
in pairs, but sometimes in little flocks of twelve or
fourteen, on the borders of lakes and rivers, or oil
rushy inundated places, where they may be seen
flitting from reed to reed, upon which they run up
and down in search of minute insects. They
usually carry their heads erect, and utter, at in-
tervals, a shrill note, quickly repeated. Their flight
is jerking, and they walk on the ground with con-
ffw, synallasso, to associate together.
120 TENUIROSTRES.
siderable ease and activity, collecting food from the
withered herbage. Their nests are cylindrical, very
large, and generally placed in the middle of a
compact bush. They are composed outwardly of
prickly twigs, with the entrance at the upper end,
from which a curved passage leads to the interior,
which is lined with feathers and hair.
Some species build a nursery for their young of
very elaborate construction, placed at the extremity
of the branch of a prickly tree, or occasionally in the
middle of an isolated bush : the size of this nest is
enormous when we take into account the small
dimensions of its little artificers ; it measures some-
times two feet in height, and a foot and a half in
diameter. This large structure is of an elongated,
oval form, having the broadest part below. Exter-
nally it is protected by many large thorny branches,
intertwined with such art that they cannot be pulled
asunder without destroying the entire fabric, which
is lined with feathers, hair, and straws. Internally
it consists of two chambers, of which one is ratlin-
spacious, and opens on the side or top. In this
chamber there is a corridor, which at first ascends,
and then leads down to a second compartment,
better furnished with feathers and other warm
materials, on which the female lays four or five
eggs. The parent birds take great care of these
nests, in the repair of which they seem to be con-
stantly engaged, and fropi which they drive their
young as soon as they are able to take care of
themselves.
In the woodland scenery of Bahia, in. Brazil, the
nests of these birds form very striking objects, being
sometimes three or four feet long, and resembling
at a distance thick twists of bean-stalks, thrown
amongst the branches by accident. Both the male
and female may generally be seen near their remark -
abk' domiciles, uttering a shrill monotonous chirp.
The type of this sub-family is the
Chilian Synallaxis (fynallaxis rujtcajnlla).
CEKTHIADJK.
12J
SUB-FAMILY TIL
DENDROCOLAPTIN./E."""
The Tree-creepers proper.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill of various length and form, more or less curved, and
compressed on the sides to the tip, which is usually entire ; the nostrils
basal, lateral, small, and exposed ; the wings moderate and generally
rounded ; the tail long, broad, and graduated, with the shaft of each feather
prolonged beyond the web, and acute ; the tarsi moderate, strong, and
broadly scaled ; the toes long, the outer toe rather longer than the middle
one, and united for some distance from the base, the inner short and slightly
united at the base, the hind toe long ; the claws long, compressed, much
curved, and acute.
FlG. 47. THE STRIPED-HEADED TREE-CREEPEB.
(Dendrocolaptet li*eatocephalus.)
The Tree-creepers are distinguished by the
structure of their tail, which is long, broad, and
graduated. The typical species inhabit the vast
forests of the warmer parts of South America. They
are usually observed clinging to the trunks and
* SevSpov, dendron, a, tree; KoXaTrrw, colapto, to peck; Tree-
peckers.
122
TENDIKO8TBE8.
branches of trees, by means of their strong curved
claws, and supported by the rigid points of their
tail-feathers, examining the cracks in the bark, and
prying among the foliage for insects or their larva 1 ,
upon which they principally subsist. Their manners
and habits closely assimilate to those of our Common
Creeper. The female deposits three or four eggs
in the hollow trunk of a tree.
The type of this Sub-family is the Dendrocotaptea
UneatocephahiA.
CEETHIAD.E.
123
SUB-FAMILY IV.
CERTHINJ3.
The Creepers.
GKS. CHAR AC. Toes very long and slender, the outer toe longer than the inner,
united beyond the first joint, and the innertoe as far as the first joint of the
middle toe, the hind toe very long and slender ; the claws long, much com-
pressed, and curved.
FlG. 48. THE COMMON CREEPER.
(Certhia famtliaris )
The Creepers constitute a group of beautiful
small birds, inhabiting Europe, Asia, and the tem-
perate parts of North America. They are met
with wherever trees are abundant, where they may
be seen creeping upon the trunks, generally com-
mencing at the bottom and running upwards in a
straight or spiral direction, using their stiff-pointed
tail to assist them in the ascent. Sometimes they
124 TE&UIROSTRES,
may be noticed on the brandies, along the under
surface of which they are able to run with perfect
facility, in search of the insects that lie concealed in
holes and crevices of the bark.
The type of this sub-family,
The Common Creeper (Certhia familiaris), is a most
active and restless little bird, ever on the alert, and
climbing about the trunks and branches of trees, intent
on picking up its insect food. Though comparatively
common, and a constant resident in Britain, it is not
easily seen, for its celerity in shifting its ]K)sitioii make-
it very difficult to follow it with the eye. At one instant
it is before the spectator, and the next is hidden from
his view by the intervening trunk or branch, to the oppo-
site side of which it has passed in a moment. The form
of the tail, and structure of the feet, are beautifully
adapted for this sort of rapid locomotion.
CERTHIAD.E.
125
SUB-FAMILY V.
SlTTIN.E.
T/ie Nuthatches.
GEX. CHABAC. Toes slender, with the outer toe shorter than the middle one,'
and united at the base to the first joint, the inner toe shorter than the outer
one, and slightly united at the base.
FlG. 49. THE EUROPEAN NUTHATCH.
(Sitta Europaea.)
The Nuthatches are found throughout Europe
and North America, and some species have been
met with in various parts of India and the adjacent
islands. They prefer forests and dense woods,
where they may be seen moving rapidly about on
the trunks of trees, running both upwards and
downwards in a spiral direction, or creeping round
the small branches, probing into the cracks, and
occasionally removing pieces of the bark in search
of spiders and insects. In severe weather they
sometimes approach the dwellings of man, when
they do not refuse to feed upon grain. The seeds
126 TENU1ROSTRES.
of the pine-cone, and the kernels of filberts and
hazel-nuts, also form a portion of their subsistence.
These latter they break by placing the nut in a
chink .and striking it with their bill until they have
made a hole in the shell sufficiently large to enable
them to get at the kernel. They deposit their e^,u->
in the hole of a tree, or in the deserted nest of a
woodpecker, upon a small collection of dead leaves,
principally those of the oak.
The type of the race,
The European Nuthatch (Sitta Europcea), has astouto-
and straighter bill than the generality of the Creepers.
It is a small bii-d, measuring little more than five inches
and a half in length, and is common in many parts of
Europe, especially in the South.
CERTHIAD.E.
127
SUB-FAMILY 17.
ORTHONYCIN.E.*
The Mohouas.
( < } . \ . CIIARAC.- Toes long and very strong, the outer toe nearly as loiig as the
middle one, and united slightly at the base, the hind toe moderate and very
stroni; ; the flaws remarkably long, strong, slightly curved, and acute.
I'll.. .30. THE YELLOW-HEADED ORTttOXYX.
(Ortkoxyx ochroitpkaitts.)
This sub-family embraces a small group of birds
found in the islands of the South Seas, aud also in
New Zeala'nd. Like the true Creepers, they are
usually seen running upon the trunks of trees,
searching for their subsistence, which chiefly consists
* 6p66s , orthos, straight ; ovv, onyx, a claw ; Straight-clawed.
128
TEXUIROSTKES.
of minute insects, though they occasionally feed on
small seeds.
The typical species,^-
Tbe Spine-tailed Orthonyx (Ortkonyx spinicauda], is
rather more than eight inches in length. It has the
shafts of the tail-feathers prolonged beyond the vol.
forming, as indicated by the name, a set of spines at tin-
apex of the tail. This bird is found in the most retired
spots in the bushes skirting the coast of the south-
eastern angle of Australia. Here it is seen running
over the fallen trunks of trees, ' and mossy stones, in
search of the insects, principally beetles, which constitute
its food.
CERTHIAD.E.
129
SUB-FAMILY VII.
MENURIX.E.'
The Wrens.
G-KN. CHARAC. Bill more or less long and slender, with the culmen usually
slightly curved, and the sides compressed to the tip, which is scarcely emar-
t;inated; the nostrils lateral, with the opening protected by a horny scale or
membrane; the wings more or less short and rounded ; the tail of various
lengths, but generally rounded ; the tarsi more or less long and slender ; the
toes generally long, with the outer toe longer than the inner, and slightly
united at the base, the hind toe long and strong ; the claws long, and more
or less curved.
FlG. 51. THE LYBE-B1KW.
(Jlenttra nHperba.}
//i>; ; mene, the crescent moon; ovpa, oura, a tail; the Lyre-bird.
130 TEXUIROSTBES.
The birds belonging to this sub-family are gene-
rally seen in pairs, examining the low thickets or
coarse herbage in open plains, or on the outskirts and
open places of woods and forests, and even in the
neighbourhood .of houses. Their flight is low and
short, and they are in the habit of concealing them-
selves amongst the foliage of thickets, or in holes
and crevices, and reappearing unexpectedly in
another quarter. Various kinds of insects, either
in the perfect state or that of the larva, form their
principal subsistence, and some species thus render
infinite service to gardens and cultivated places.
Most of them possess a sweet, lively, and powerful
whistling song, which they utter with great anima-
tion, often repeating the same note over and over
again. Their nest is placed against the branch of a
tree, a bank, the wall of a house, or any place that
offers warmth and security for their young. It is
composed of moss and other soft materials, put
together usually in an oval form, leaving only a
small entrance on one side, near the top. The eggs
are generally four in number. Although the birds
belonging to this sub-family are ordinarily of small
dimensions, the selected type of the race is a large
and handsome species, called from its peculiar
plumage
The Lyre-bird (Menura snperba). The Lyre-bird is
a native of New South Wales, where it inhabits the
brushwood upon the coast and upon the mountains in
the interior. It equals in. size our own common
Pheasant ; but its limbs are longer in proportion, and its
feet much larger. In the male, the feathers of the head
are elongated into a crest, and the general plumage is
full, soft, and downy. The most striking feature, how-
ever,- is the tail, which is converted into a beautiful
plume-like ornament, representing, when erect and
expanded, the figure of a lyre; whence is derived the
name of its possessor. This ornamental appendage,
however, is confined to the male ; in the female, the tail
is long and graduated, and the feathers are perfectly
webbed on both sides of the shaft.
1:51
TRIBE III.
DENTIROSTRES.
THE birds forming this division of the Passerine
order are distinguished by having a more or less dis-
tinct tooth or notch on each side of the upper man-
dible, near the tip, which is usually more or less
hooked.* The bill is sometimes slender and weak,
sometimes stout and powerful ; in the latter case, the
tooth-like projections are generally strong, and the
birds as predacious in their habits as some of the
smaller hawks. The feet are slender, but usually
armed with curved and acute claws.
FAMILY I.
LUSCINID--E. The Warblers.
x. CHAKAC. Bill subulate, more or less slender and straight, with the
ipper mandible curved and emarginated, the base sometimes broad, but the
nil always compressed towards the tip ; the nostrils basal, and placed in a
iiembranous groove, with the opening exposed ; the wings more or less long,
ometimes rounded and sometimes pointed ; the tail of various lengths,
runeated at the end, or rounded, and sometimes graduated ; the tarsi more
or less long, always slender ; the toes varying in length, with the outer toe
more or less united to the middle toe.
In these birds the sides of the upper mandible are
but slightly toothed; the wings are long, the tarsi
slender, and the toes terminated by claws of moderate
k-iigth. They are for the most part distinguished
for great power of song. Their food consists almost
entirely of insects and worms, so that those which
inhabit cold and temperate regions are for the most
part migratory.
To this family belong the Soft-tailed Warblers,
the Warblers, the Robins, the Accentors, the Titmice,
the Wagtails, and the Wood- Warblers.
* See Animal Creation, p. 419.
132
DENTIROSTRES.
SUB-FAMILY I.
MALURIN.E.*
The Soft-tailed Warblers.
GBN. CHABAC. Bill moderate, more or lefs slender and straight, with the tip
of the upper mandible curved, and sometimes emarginated, the sides com- .
pressed; the nostrils basal, and placed in a membranous groove, with the
opening exposed ; wings short and rounded ; tail more or less lengthened
and rounded ; tarsi generally long and slender ; toes more or less long, and
always slender, with the outer toe united to the middle one at the base, the
hind toe long, and armed with a strong claw.
FlG. 52. THK YELLOW MEGAI.t KUS.
Those elegant birds generally frequent open spares
scattered over with low brushwood or bushes, espe-
cially in the vicinity of rivers; but in the winter
season they fearlessly approach the abode of in;m.
They are usually seen on the ground in pairs or small
* /mXXo, mallos, wool; ovpu, oura, the tail; Soft-tailed.
flocks, moving rapidly from place to place by a series
of bounding hops, or prying about in search of
insects upon or beneath the fallen trunks of trees.
Their flight is feeble, and only extends over short
distances.
The Malurus cyaneus (named by the colonists the
Superb Warbler, Blue Wren, &c.) is an inhabitant of
New South Wales, where its favourite haunts are of a wild
and sterile character, thinly covered with low scrubby
brushwood, near the borders of rivers and ravines. These
birds are of a very wandering disposition, but seldom
travel far beyond the district where they were bred.
During the winter they associate in small flocks, but as
spring advances they separate into pairs ; the male at this
period undergoing a most remarkable change of plumage,
indeed its whole character and nature seem to receive a
new impulse. The little creature now displays great
vivacity, proudly showing off its gorgeous attire, and
pouring forth an animated song, almost unceasingly, until
the female has completed her work of incubation. Two,
if not three broods are reared in a season. The song is a
hurried strain, something like that of the European
Wren.
The typical form of this sub-family is the Yellow
Megalurus (Megalurus citrinus).
134
DENTIEOSTRES.
SUB-FAMILY II.
The Warblers proper.
GEN. CHAKAC. Bill more or less long, slender, and straight, with the culmeii
curved at the tip, which is slightly emarginated ; the sides compressed, and
the gonys long and ascending ; the nostrils basal, and placed in a mem-
branous groove, with the opening usually exposed; the wings moderate,
and sometimes rounded ; the tail moderate and rounded at the end ; the
tarsi more or less lengthened, slender, and covered with broad scales, the
divisions of which are sometimes obliterated; the toes more or less long,
slender, and covered with broad scales, the divisions of which are sometimes
obliterated, the outer toe generally longer than the inner, and united at its
base ; the claws long, curved, and acute.
FIG. 53. THE Mi.in IM.AM .
(Philomela liigciniu.)
The species that compose this sub-family are
peculiar to the Old World, and are migratory at
certain seasons of the year. They are usually seen
in woods and thickets, in which they hide them-
selves, and through which they flit with great swift-
ness when alarmed. They search actively among the
leaves for insects ; they also feed on the seeds of the
LUSCINID.E. 135
ivy and other soft berries. Some place themselves
on the summit of a bush, and pour forth at intervals
itheir clear and well-defined notes ; others utter their
song on the wing, as they rise from the ground to a
great elevation in the air, and then return slowly to
the spot whence they had started. They build their
nests in low bushes oj among nettles, constructing
them with the stems of plants, and lining the in-
terior with hair and fine fibres of roots. The eggs
are generally four in number.
The type of this musical sub-family is
The Nightingale (Philomela lusdnia). This " Queen
of Song " is by no means remarkable for the beauty of its
plumage, although most elegant in shape. Its general
colour is brown, tinged with red above, and dullish grey-
white beneath. The Nightingale arrives in this country
about the middle of April, the males making their appear-
ance a few days sooner than their mates. They are not
found in the extreme west parts of England, nor in
Ireland ; and they do not penetrate further northward
than Yorkshire, although on the Continent they are seen
in Sweden. They frequent woods, plantations, and
orchards, and feed on insects and spiders. The observa-
tions of Mr. Gould, respecting the migrations of the
Nightingale, lead him to the conclusion that, after
leaving England, it proceeds to the opposite shores of the
Continent, and gradually makes its way southward until
it arrives in Africa, which is its ultimate resting-place
during our winter months. In Africa, moreover, it
seems to be confined to the northern districts, never
having been obtained from the central or southern parts
of that continent. In no part of Europe is it more
abundant than in Spain and Italy, from whence, however,
as from our own climate, it regularly migrates on the
approach of winter. The Nightingale is exceedingly shy,
liviug in low swampy coppices, close thickets, hedges,
and similar situations. It is seldom seen, its retreat
being only discovered by its peculiar call-note, and its
song, which for richness and power is unrivalled.
Unlike most of the smaller birds, Nightingales
never associate in flocks. Their food consists principally
H 2
o DKXTIKOSTUKS.
of insects, small worms, eggs of ants, and berries of
various kinds.
Their nest is made in the lower part of a hedge or a
thick bush, where it is sheltered securely. It is formed
of grass, leaves, and moss, softly lined with hair and
down. Whilst the female is sitting on her eggs, her
mate, perched hard by, pours forth his varied song, to
FIG. 54. NIGHTINGALE'S NEST.
while away the tedious horn's and enliven her bv his
warblings ; but when the brood is hatched, he ceases his
melody, and betakes himself to the active employment
of providing for his family. Sometimes the first brood
is succeeded by a second, and a third, in hot countries
even by a fourth.
The voice of the Nightingale excels that of any other
bird, and is the more delightful, because it breaks upon
us in the stillness of the evening when all else is silent.
Ancients and moderns have alike borne testimony to its
inimitable sweetness. " The Nightingale," says Pliny,
" that for fifteen days and nights, hid in the thickest
shades, continues her note without intermission, deserve-
our attention and wonder. How sin-prising that so great
:i voice can reside in so small a body ! Such persever-
ance in so tiny an animal ! With what a musical pro-
priety are the sounds it produces modulated ! The note
at one time drawn out with a long breath, now stealing
If into a dirtV'tvnt cadence, now interrupted by a break ;
!.l sclNID-i:.
1:57
thru changing into a new note by an unexpected transi-
tion ; now seeming to renew the same strain, then
deceiving expectation. She sometimes seems to murmur
within herself; aud then her song bursts forth full,
deep, sharp, swift, drawling, trembling ; now at the
top, the middle, and the bottom of the scale. In short,
in that little bill seems to reside all that melody which
man has vainly laboured to bring from a variety of
musical instruments. Some even seem to be possessed
of a different song from the rest, and contend with
rnrh other with great ardour."
138
DENTIRO8TRES.
SUB-FAMILY III.
EBYTHACINJB.*
The. Robins.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill moderate, more or less slender, and rather depressed at
the base, with the culmen slightly curved, and the sides gradually compressed
to the tip, which is entire, the lateral margins straight and sometimes
inflexed, the gape more or less furnished with bristles ; wings generally
short and rounded, though sometimes long and pointed ; the tail usually
short and broad, sometimes even and rounded at the end ; the tarsi length-
ened, slender, and covered with an entire scale; the toes moderate, the lateral
ones unequal, and the claws moderate, curved, and acute.
FlO. 55. THE REDBREAST.
(Erythaca rubecttla.)
The Robins are represented by a single species,
found in Europe, where during the summer months
it resides in the thickest woods ; but on the approach
of winter it leaves its solitary abode, and may
generally be observed in the vicinity of human habi-
tatimis. It is of a solitary disposition, never con-
* tpvBaivu, erythaino, to redden.
LUSCJXnXE. o'.t
gregating in flocks, even when performing its partial
migrations. It subsists principally on insects and
their larvte, and also on worms, which it beats to
death and cleanses before eating. It shows great
boldness in attacking other birds, should they ap-
proach the vicinity of its nest or the place that it lias
selected for its own peculiar province during the-
winter.
The type of this sub-family is
The Robin Redbreast (Erythaca rubecula). This
lively and familiar bird is strictly indigenoiis to Europe ;
its range only extending eastward as far as the border--
line of Asia Minor. In Europe, the middle and northern
regions are those in which it appears to be most
abundant, and over which it is universally spread. Its
fearless confidence in man, which leads it to frequent his
gardens and the precincts of his house ; its sprightly
manners, and its animated song, poured forth morning
and evening, even throughout the autumn and colder part
of the year, when all other songsters are silent, make it
a most welcome visitor to his habitation. Attractive as
the Robin is on account of its pleasing manners, it is of
a quarrelsome and pugnacious disposition. Two males
seldom agree to live in the same garden, or within a certain
distance ; the stronger always driving away the weaker.
Daring the greater part of the year its food consists of
worms, grubs, the softer caterpillars, and small insects,
together with berries and fruits when in season ; but in
the depth of winter, when its natural food cannot be
procured, it subsists upon the crumbs freely offered
wherever it presents itself.
In spring, the Robin retiring with his mate to the
woods, begins to build a nest for the use of his future
family. Moss and dried leaves, intermixed with hair,
form the nest, which is cup-shaped and lined with
feathers. It is placed near the ground, sheltered by the
roots of trees, or sometimes in old buildings, but ahvays
hidden as much as possible. While the hen bird sits on
her eggs, the male, perched close by, makes the woods
resound with his cheerful song, and vigilantly looks out
that no intruder shall approach his nest. As soon as the
uo
DENTIROSTEES.
young are hatched and able to provide for themselves, he
leaves the woods, and approaches again the abode of
man ; and when the frost becomes severe, and the snow
covers the ground, he draws near to the house.
" Half afraid, he first
Against the window beats, then brisk alights
On the warm hearth ; then hopping on the floor,
Eyes all the smiling family askance,
And pecks, and starts, and wonders where he is,
Till more familiar grown, the table crumbs
Attract his slender feet." Thomson.
LUSCJX1D.E.
141
SUB-FAMILY IV.
AccEXTORiX-E. :: The Accentors.
GEX. CHARAC. Bill short, straight, and sometimes conical, with the culmen
sloping, and the sides compressed to the tip, which is slightly emarginated ;
the nostrils basal, and placed in a membranous groove with the opening
exposed ; wings more or less long, pointed, and sometimes rounded ; the
tail moderate, and generally rather rounded; tarsi moderate, and rather
strong ; toes rather long, the outer toe united at its base., the hind toe lon^
;)ixl ;iri)j"(i with :i strong <:la\v.
FlG. 56 THE HEDGE SPARROW.
(Acifatoi- aiotlnltiri*.)
The birds composing this sub-family inhabit both
Europe and Asia, migrating according to the season
of the year. They are to be seen beneath low bushes,
searching for worms among the fallen leaves and
stones ; they also feed on seeds and insects of various
kinds. Some species, should the winter be severe,
repair to the neighbourhood of farms and villages.
Their song, which consists of various notes, is sweet,
though feeble, and commences early in the season.
* Accentor, one :lio joins another in singing.
H 3
DEXTIROSTRES.
The nest, generally hidden in a thick bush, is formed
of moss and wool, lined with hair. The female lays
from four to six eggs.
The typical species
The Alpine Accentor (Accentor Alpimis), inhabits the
Alps and Pyrenees, where it selects for its retreat the most
unfrequented places in those wild mountains. In the
patois of the regions it frequents, it is called Pegot or Pee,
which means an idiot, and its claims to the name seem
fully justified by its remarkable stupidity. These birds
never leave then* native mountains except when their
desolate abode is swept by some storm or tempest, to escape
from which, they precipitate themselves into the valleys,
hide in the rifts of the rocks, or take refuge among the
bushes, where, either from fright or simplicity, they even
become the sport of children, who amuse themselves by
killing them with sticks. On the summits of the moun-
tains they may be seen by the adventurous pedestrian
sitting in pairs upon the ground, or climbing among the
rocks with the assistance of their wings. The approach
of man does not seem to frighten them, neither will they
take the trouble to get out of his way. These birds run
like partridges or quails, and do not hop like the rest of
their tribe. They make a circular nest, composed of ni >s>
and grasses, in the cleft of some rock, and alwavs with
a southern aspect. The female lays five or six eggs.
LUSCINID.E.
143
SUB-FAMILY V.
PARIX.E.
The Titmice.
GEN. CHAKAC. Bill strong, slightly compressed ; first primary short, second
shorter than the first, fourth and fifth longest; hind claw strongest and most
hookod ; tarsus short.
FlG. 57. THE MARSH TITMOUSE.
The birds composing this sub-family are distri-
buted throughout Europe, Asia, Africa, and North
America. They usually frequent woods and gardens,
and are very lively little birds, flitting from bush to
bush, running up and down branches with great
celerity, and hanging in various attitudes among the
foliage. Their food consists of insects, grubs, and
caterpillars ; but at times they will peck up grain or
seeds, and even feed upon flesh. They will some-
times attack weak and sickly birds, which they kill,
fracturing their skulls by repeated strokes of their
strong and pointed bill. The nests of some species
144 DENTIROSTRES.
are formed in the holes of decayed trees or old walls,
and are composed of moss and lined with hair and
feathers. Others select the fork of a tree or the
middle of a bush, wherein they construct an oval-
shaped nest, made of lichens and wool intermixed,
and lined with feathers. The eggs are usually from
six to ten in number.
The majority of the Titmice especially those
which frequent woods, thickets, and orchards are
courageous, and even ferocious ; they will attack the
Owl with greater boldness than any other bird, being
always foremost in darting upon him, and trying to
peck at his eyes. They express their little rage
and fury by the swelling of their plumes, by violent
attitudes and precipitate motions. .They peck
sharply the hand that holds them, and seem by their
cries to call others to their assistance an appeal
which usually attracts them in crowds. There are
many traits in their manners . and character resem-
bling those of the Shrikes, Pies, and Crows; they
have the same appetite for flesh, and the same
custom of tearing the food to pieces before they eat
it. Though fierce, they are social, seek out the
company of their own species, and form little flocks,
more or less numerous ; and if any accident should
separate them, they call each other mutually, and are
soon reunited. They seek their food in common ;
visit the clefts of rocks and walls, and tear, with
their bills, lichens or the moss of trees, to find
insects or their eggs. They also feed on seeds, but
do not break them, like the Bullfinches and Linnets ;
they place them under their claws, and pierce them
with their bills, like the Nuthatches, with which they
sometimes associate during the winter.
The type of this sub-family
The Great Tit (Pants major), is a handsome, vivacious
little fellow, common in England ; during the summer
frequenting woods and shrubberies, and in the winter
resorting to gardens and orchards, clinging to the branches,
LUSCINIDJ?.
145
and searching diligently for the insects which, at that
season of the year, are hidden in the crevices of the bark.
These birds feed much upon carrion, and will even kill
small birds by frequent strokes of their sharp, hard bill
upon the head of the unfortunate victim, whose brains
they afterwards pick out and devour. The nest of the
Great Tit is placed in a hole in a tree or wall, and is com-
FlG. 5S. THE GKKAT TITMOL'fli.
(Par u it aiiijor )
posi'd of muss, hair, and feathers. The female lays usually
from eight to ten eggs, although occasionally sixteen, or
even eighteen have been found in one nest. They are
white, with pale red spots. When threatened by an in-
truder, the mother-bird stoutly defends her brood ; she
puffs out her feathers, hissing loudly, and boldly pecks at
the assailant.
146
DENTIROSTRES.
SUB-FAMILY VI.
The Wagtails.
GEN. CHAR AC. Bill slender, angular between the nostrils, the upper man-
dible notched; wings with one of the scapulars as long as the closed wing ;
tail long ; legs long.
FlG. 59. THE WHITE WAGTAIL.
(Mi /> 'frill it alba.)
These well-known birds frequent meadows and
humid or marshy places, delighting in the borders of
rivulets and ponds.
The White Wagtails have a mode of life peculiar
to themselves, and more readily approach man and
his habitation than the rest of their congeners : the
others, more wild, inhabit the vicinity of meadows.
The former prefer stagnant waters; the latter are
generally seen on the borders of springs and running
streams. Both run with the cattle, fly about the
labourer, and follow the plough, in pursuit of sinal
147
worms and larvae, of which the newly-turned furrows
present a vast abundance. These birds, indeed, are
as useful as the Fly-catchers and the Swallows ;
sometimes during their flight, but more frequently
on the ground amidst the herbage, they seize upon
the flies and gnats which have escaped the bills of
their other pursuers in the air. The insect population
of ponds and marshes, however, constitute their
chief nourishment. Their slight forms, small head,
delicate feet, and long tail, distinguish them at once
from all the other Dentirostral birds.
The type of this sub-family
The White Wagtail (Motacllla alba), is everywhere to
be seen frequenting the margins of ponds and streams.
It does not hop, Like most of its near relatives, but runs
about in search of its insect food, which it pecks from
the ground, or occasionally rising with a short jerking
flight, snaps at it in the air.
When on the ground, they are constantly employed in
beating the surface with their tails, probably to rouse the
insects upon which they feed. They delight in being
near the edge of the water, and often approach the
washerwomen ; and, moi-eover, seem to imitate with
their tails the beating of linen. Hence the French have
given them the name of Lavandieres ; while, in England,
they are not unfrequently called by the less elegant name
of Dish-washers. They run lightly with very nimble
steps upon the strand, and their long legs enable them
to enter the water to a small depth ; but they are usually
seen upon stones, or little hillocks in the stream. This
Wagtail constructs its nest on the ground, under roots
of trees, or at the edge of the water, under some hollow
bank, in elevated piles of wood by the side of the river,
and sometimes in heaps of stones. It is composed of
dry grass, fibrous roots, and moss, connected carelessly
together, and lined with horsehair and feathers in
abundance. The eggs are of a bluish-white, spotted
with brown. There are usually two broods in. the year.
The male relieves the female during some hours of the
day from the confinement of incubation.
148
DENT1ROSTRE3.
The Wood Warbler (Sylvia sylvicola), regarded l>y
some as the type of another sub-family, is generally
distributed throughout England. It usually appears iu
April, and takes up its abode in woods and plantations.
Its food consists of insects and their larva*. This bird
FlG. 60 THB WOOD WABBLE R
(Sylcia tylcieola.)
builds a domed nest upon the ground, amongst the
herbage, forming it of diy grass, leaves, and moss ; and
lining it with fine grass and hair, but with no feathers.
The eggs are six in number, white, spotted all over with
deep red and ash-colour.
TURDIDJK. ]49
FAMILY II.
TURDID.*. The Thrushes.
GEIT. CHARAC. Bill of various lengths, and more or less strong, with the
culmen generally keeled, curved, and the sides compressed to the tip, which
is emarginated ; the nostrils lateral, basal, and generally protected by a
membranous scale ; the wings more or less long and rounded or pointed ;
the tail mostly of moderate length; the tarsi more or less short, and usually
covered with transverse scales ; the toes of various lengths, and the outer
toe generally longer than the inner one.
These birds are distributed in all parts of the
world. Their food consists principally of insects,
worms, and terrestrial mollusca, and also partly of
fruits. Many of them possess great power of song-.
This family includes the Ant -Thrushes, the
Thrushes, the Babblers, the Orioles, and the
Bulbuls.
150
DEXTIROSTBES.
SUB-FAMILY I.
FORMICARIX.*:. T/ie Ant-Thrushes.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill more or less long and straight, with the culmen curved
to the tip, which is emarginated and sometimes slightly hooked, the sides
compressed, and the gonys moderate and ascending; the nostrils lateral,
placed in a membranous groove, with the frontal plumes projecting to the
opening, which is exposed ; the wings generally rather short and rounded ;
the tail more or less short, and usually rounded ; the tarsi rather long, and
mostly covered in front with slightly-divided scales ; the toes long and
slender, with the outer toe longer than the inner, and more or less united at
the base.
-
FlG. 61. THB BLUB PITTA.
(Pitta lynuea.)
These birds inhabit the tropical portions of
America, where they are usually seen on the ground,
or on the trunks of trees, on which they support
themselves by means of their tails, searching for
ants and other kinds of insects.
The Ant-Thrushes are so called from their ant-
eating propensities : they form a small, but remark-
TURDIDJE. 151
able group of birds, differing greatly in colour and
dimensions, but resembling each other considerably
in their general form. Some species are sombrely
clad in black, brown, and white ; while the plumage
of others is adorned with the brightest scarlet, blue,
and purple.
The Garnet-coloured Pitta (Pitta granatina) is found
in India, and the neighbouring islands, and also in
Western Africa. These birds frequent the jungles and
thick bushes, and, in India, sometimes visit the gardens
and cultivated districts. Their food consists of insects
and worms, which they usually seek for on the ground
by scratching among the fallen leaves ; they are believed,
also, occasionally to feed upon berries and fruits. They
seem to prefer the neighbourhood of water, and are seen
wading up to their knees in the shallow streams. If
disturbed, they either seek safety by running away,
which they do very quickly, or by flying to a branch
of some neighbouring tree, and remaining concealed for
a time amidst the foliage. Like the Thrushes, the male
and female closely resemble each other ; but it is curious
to find that the young are plumed and coloured exactly
like the adult from the time they leave the nest. Most
of the species of Pitta are very beautifully ornamented ;
the colours being generally in bright contrast. Some
seek their insect-food among the thick cane-beds near
the coast ; others (P. cyanea), common in the islands of
the Eastern Archipelago, run veiy quickly, and keep in
the most sombre places. The adults fight like quails
whenever they meet. The nest of the Garnet Pitta is
formed among the bushes near the ground, and is
frequently concealed from view by orchids and other
parasitical plants.
DENTIROSTRES.
SUB-FAMILY II.
The Thrushes proper.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill moderate, compressed at the point, upper mandible
notched and bending over the lower one ; gape furnished with a few bristles ;
nostrils basal, lateral, oval, partly covered with a naked membrane ; tarsus
longer than the middle toe ; wings and tail moderate, first primary very
short or almost abortive, second shorter than the third or fourth, which are
the longest.
FlG. 62 THE MISSEL THRUSH.
(Turdtis ciivicorus.)
The true Thrushes are inferior to the Shrikes in
the structure of their bill, which is much less toothed ;
their feet, however, are stronger, and as much adapted
for walking as for perching. The Blackbird raid the
Fieldfare are familiar examples of this perfection of
structure. They make their way upon the ground,
on trees, or in the air, with equal facility. The form
of their bill shows a superior adaptation for general
purposes ; the notch near the point is much slighter
than in the Shrikes, yet it is sufficient to enable
them to retain a firm hold of their pivy, while the
TURBID^E. ] 53
superior length of the beak enables them to obtain
food beneath the surface of the soil. Thus we see
them accompanying the Crows during autumn, in
large flocks, spread over new-ploughed fields, and
traversing the ground in search of the same kind of
food. The Thrushes devour fruits quite as much as
they do insects. In sweetness, compass, and versa-
tility, their song surpasses that of most of the
feathered race. These birds are found in all parts of
the world ; they are of a shy disposition, and more
or less migratory. The European species retire in
large flocks to temperate regions in the winter
season, returning to the northern countries as sum-
mer approaches. Some frequent the forests, out-
skirts of woods or thickets, and bushes in meadows
and pastures, while others retreat to rocky, moun-
tainous districts. Worms, Iarva3 of insects, and
mollusks form their chief summer subsistence ; while
in the winter they pluck the berries of various plants.
Many of them utter a loud whistling note, which in
certain seasons is exchanged for a pleasing song,
poured forth from the highest branches of small
trees.
The type of this sub -family is
The Missel Thrush (Turdus viscivorus). Of all the
Thrushes, this species is the most extensively spread
over the old Continents ; being not only found in Europe,
but also in the Himalaya mountains, and the high
lands of Asia, at an altitude which affords a temperature
similar to that of our own climate. Thinly dispersed
over the British isles, the Missel Thrush is a solitary
and unsocial bird, differing considerably in its habits
from the common favourite, the Song Thrush, which
delights to dwell in the cultivated precincts of our
shrubberies and gardens. Affecting remote situations,
it retires from human society to pasture lands, wide
commons, or meadows, skirted by orchards or groves,
feeding, like its congeners, on snails, worms, and the
larvae of insects during the spring and summer ; but
resorting to berries, especially those of the mountain ash,
DEXTIROSTRES.
the haw, and the mistletoe, when autumn and winter
deprive it of its more esteemed fare. The Missel Thrush
is one of our earliest breeders ; the commencement of
March being with it the season of incubation. It builds
its nest sometimes in orchard trees, at others in those of
more lofty growth, such as the elm or oak ; ami the
nest, with a view to its concealment, is artfully placed
either close against the stem, or in a fork of one of the
large branches ; being composed, on the outside, of
coarse lichen, grey moss, or such dried vegetation as may
be found on the spot, corresponding with the colour of
the tree. The materials are carelessly interwoven ; but
within this outside covering is placed a layer of mud.
neatly lined with fine grasses. The eggs are live in
niimber, of a pale bluish- white, spotted with dull red.
XMI OP SOKG THRCSH.
TURDID>.
155
SUB- FAMILY III.
TlMALIX.K.
The Babblers.
GEIC. CHAHAC. Bill moderate, with the culmen much curved and the sides
compressed to the tip, which is generally entire or only slightly emarginated,
the gonys long and ascending ; the nostrils basal, and more or less exposed ;
the wings short and much rounded ; the tail of various lengths and gra-
duated; the tarsi lengthened, robust, and covered usually with an entire
scale ; the toes long, strong, and strongly scutellated above ; the claws
more or less long, compressed and acute.
FlG. 63. THE WHITE-NECKED BABBLES.
(PottatorUmu tillticolli*. )
These birds are found in small flocks in the open
jungles or in cultivated places round the villages of
India and Java. They are generally seen on the
ground, more especially near the trunks of large
trees, searching for various kinds of seeds and in-
sects : while thus employed, they continually utter a
low chattering noise, which is occasionally changed
into a low guttural cry ; but sometimes they may be
156 DENTIKuMKES.
found perched upon a tree, pouring forth a remark-
ably sweet song. Their nest is built in trees at no
great elevation ; it is composed of small twigs care-
lessly put together : the female usually deposits four
eggs-
The Common Grey Babbler (Timalia grisea) is one of
the commonest birds of the Indian Peninsula, where it
may be seen in every garden, and aboiit the hedge-row
avenues, trees, and topes * throughout the Camatic.
They may often be seen in flocks of six, eight, ten, or
more. They feed chiefly on the ground, to which they
may be seen to drop one after the other from the tree
they may have perched on, and hop briskly about, picking
up various seeds and insects, occasionally seeking the
latter from heaps of manure. On being driven from the
ground, or leaving it from choice, they flty up successively
as they dropped down, and hop and climb upon the large
branches of the nearest tree, seldom stopping till they
have nearly reached the top or the other side, from
which, if still watched, they fly off one after the other
to another tree. These birds have an incessant loud
whispering kind of chatter, which they all repeat at
once, especially when feeding, or on being observed by
any one. The nest of this species is placed in a tree
at no great height : it is made of small twigs and roots
carelessly put together.
The type of this sub-family is the White-necked Bab-
bler (Pomatorhinus albicollis).
* "The vast numbers of plantations made of mango-trees, espe-
cially throughout Bengal, afford ample range to their feathered
inhabitants. Some of these plantations, or ' topes,' are of such
extent, that an army of ten or twelve thousand men might encamp
under shelter. In the hot season, the shade is both pleasant and
salutary ; in the cold months, these woods afford shelter by keeping
off the bleak winds ; and during the rainy portion of the year, those
trees which have the thickest foliage throw the water off from
certain spots, and render them inhabitable.'' Wallace, " Will
Sports of the West."
TURD1RK.
157
SUBFAMILY IV.
ORIOLIX.E.
The Orioles.
GKJJ. CHABAC. Bill as long as the head, broad at the base, and compressed on
the sides, with the culmen more or less elevated at the base and curved at
the tip, which is emarginated ; the nostrils lateral, basal, exposed, and
partly covered by a membrane ; the wings long, with the first three quills
equally graduated, and the third or fourth the longest ; the tarsi short and
strongly scaled ; the toes moderate, and the lateral toes usually unequal.
FlG. 61. THE WEDGE-BILLED ORIOLE.
(Oriolut acrorhynchu*.)
These migratory birds are met with in all parts of
the world ; they are usually found solitary or in pairs,
but occasionally in small flocks, frequenting the
skirts of forests, gardens, and orchards, in quest of
various kinds of fruit and insects. Their flight is
undulating, as they fly from one tree to another, to
search the foliage for caterpillars. They emit a loud,
mellow, plaintive cry. The nest is sometimes saucer-
i
158 DENTIKOSTEES.
shaped, and generally placed in the fork of a bough,
to both branches of which it is firmly attached ; but
in some species is long, purse-shaped, and pendu-
lous, -hanging from the high branches of trees :
it is constructed of sheep's wool and long slender
stalks of grass. The eggs are usually four or five
in number.
The Golden Oriole (Oriolus galbula) is a shy and suspi-
cious bird, haunting lonely groves, and thickets on the
skirts of woods, excepting in the fruit season, when it
always frequents orchards, to the no small loss of their
owners. It is difficult to get near these birds, though
they are sometimes approached by the sportsman, under
ths deception of his imitative whistle ; but it requii-es
great accuracy both of lips and ear to perform this fraud,
for the least mistake or one false note will send the bird
off at once. The food of the Golden Oriole consists of
insects and their larvae, berries, and fruits, among which
figs, grapes, and cherries are favourites. Its whistle is
loud and flute-bike. Bechstein expresses the sound by
the word puhlo.
When about to construct its nest, the Golden Oriole
selects the forked extremity of the lower branch of some
high tree, and wreathing the two forks round with straws,
grasses, and other vegetable fibres proper for the purpose,
at length connects the two ends ; and then, continuing
the straws from one side to the other, and crossing and
interweaving them, forms a kind of basket, which is
afterwards thickened with the stems of the finer grasses,
intermixed with mosses and lichens, and lined with
feathers and still softer materials. Almost the whole
genus of Orioles build pensile nests. The Baltimore
Oriole is so solicitous to procure the best materials for
this purpose, that in the season for building, the women
in the country are under the necessity of narrowly
watching their thread that may be out bleaching, and the
farmer of protecting his young grafts ; as the " Baltimore,"
finding the former, and the strings which enwi-ap the
latter, so well adapted to the construction of its nest, fre-
quently carries off both, or, should the one be too heavy,
or the other too securely tied, he will tug at them for a
considerable time before he gives up the attempt. Skeins
TURDIDJE.
159
of silk and hanks of thread are often found after the
leaves have fallen, hanging about the nest, but so woven
up and entangled as to be quite unreclaimable. Before
the introduction of Europeans, no such materials could
FlG. 65. NEST OF BALTIMORE ORIOLE.
have been obtained in America ; but, with the sagacity of
a good architect, the bird has turned them to account, and
the strongest and best threads are uniformly found in
those parts by which the fabric is supported. The " Bal-
timore " inhabits North America, from Canada to Mexico,
and even as far south as Brazil. Since the streets have
been planted with Loinbardy poplars, these birds are con-
stantly in the habit of boldly entering the towns, where,
amid the noise and tumult of coaches, drays, wheelbar-
rows, and the din of the multitude, they are heard chanting
" their native wood-notes wild."
I 2
160
DENTIROSTEE8.
SUB-FAMILY V.
PYCNONOTIN.E. *
The
GEN. CHABAC Bill usually short, with the culmen curved, and the sides com-
pressed to the tip, which is emarginated ; the gape furnished with more or
less lengthened bristles ; the nostrils basal, and placed in a short membranous
groove ; the wings moderate and rounded ; the tail long, broad, and gene-
rally rounded at the end ; the tarsi as long as, or shorter than, the middle
toe, and generally covered by an entire scale ; the toes moderate, the outer
toe sometimes longer than the inner, and united at the base, the hind toe long
and strong.
FlG. 66. THE YELLOW PTCNONOTUS.
(Pycnonotu* Jlavnla )
These birds are found in the southern parts of
Mil rope; also in Africa, Asia, and the Indian Archi-
pelago. They frequent trees in the open country, in
pairs or in small parties, and are usually seen hopping
from branch to branch- in search of fruits, berries,
and insects ; they sometimes commit great depreda-
" TTUICI/OC, pycnos, broad ; vwrog, notes, the back ; Broad-backed.
TUEDID.E. 161
tions in gardens, flying in a direct line from tree to
tree, with a quick flapping of the wings, and usually
uttering at the same time a whistling note ; they
have also the power of imitating the cries of various
birds. The Bulbuls, so well known by repeated
references to them in Oriental writings, are many of
them possessed of remarkably sweet voices, and are
popularly called Nightingales. They are easily
tamed, and can be taught to perform many interest-
ing tricks. . One species is kept for the purpose of
fighting, and is trained with this object, as game-
cocks were formerly trained, for the amusement of
their cruel owners. In a wild state, they are gene-
rally found in the woods and jungles, but are in the
habit of visiting gardens for the sake of feeding upon
the ripened fruits and insects. They are all exotic-
birds, and are all natives of the Eastern hemisphere.
The Jocose Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus) is an Indian
species, a constant visitor both in woods and gardens ; it
is active and lively, always on the move, and continually
warbling its pleasant notes, which are possessed of con-
siderable sweetness. The food of these birds consists
principally of fruits and seeds, but they also eat insects.
They are great favourites with the Hindoos, who train
them to sit upon the hand, and carry them to their
bazaars and other places of resort.
. The type of this sub-family is
The Yellow Pycnonotus (Pycnonotus flavula}.
162 DEXTIROSTRES.
FAMILY III.
MUSCICAPID.E.* The Flycatchers.
GEJT. CHAEAC. Bill of various lengths, generally broad and depressed at the
base, with the culmen more or less curred, and the aides compressed to the
tip, which is emarginate ; the gape usually furnished with long and strong
bristles; wings generally long; tail more or less long, and the outer toe
generally united at the base.
The Flycatchers, as their name imports, feed
exclusively upon insects, which are captured by
their bill during flight ; their organization is, there-
fore, in strict conformity with this habit. The
wings are not formed for such rapidity of movement
;i< those of the Swallows, since the Flycatchers do not
pursue their prey to any distance; but this deficiency
is compensated by a very unusual breadth of the
mouth, the sides of which are moreover furnished
with long rigid bristles pointing forwards . Thus pro-
vided, the Flycatcher darts upon an insect with
unerring certainty, since, if it fails to get a rinn
hold of it with its beak, the bristles standing out
on each side restrain the struggles of its victim,
and at the same time prevent either its eyes or face
from being injured by the claws or wings of tin-
insect. This structure is slightly developed in
several groups of the Warblers, and, indeed, tlu>
two families are so closely related, that Ornithologists
are perpetually confounding the one with the other.
Both are fly-catching families, but with some re-
markable differences. The Warblers pursue the
chase from tree to tree, they are continually
wandering about and hunting up their game ;
whereas the true Flycatchers are sedentary ; they
choose some convenient station, generally near their
nest, from which they dart upon their prey, and
after every capture almost invariably return to the
same perch. The family of the Flycatchers in-
cludes the Mourners, the Alectrures, the Tyrants, the
Becards, the True Flycatchers, and the Greenlet-.
* Mnsca, a fly ; capio, to catch.
MUSCICAPUXE.
16:3
SUB-FAMILY I.
QUERULIN.E.
The Mourners.
GEN. CHAEAC. Bill rather long, slightly depressed, and broad at the base,
with the culmen gradually curved, and the sides gradually compressed to
the tip, which is emarginated ; the gape furnished with short bristles ; the
nostrils oval, and more or less covered by the frontal plumes ; the wings
more or less long, with the third and fourth quills the longest ; the tail long
and broad ; the tarsi short ; the toes rather short, the outer toe the longest
and united at the base ; the claws long, much curved, and acute.
FlG. 67. THE BRIGHT-SIDED QUEEULA.
(Lipangus lateralit.)
These birds inhabit Guiana, where they reside in
the woods, and live upon insects and fruits. They
are of a lively disposition, and constantly in motion ;
collecting together in flocks, and seem particularly
to cultivate the society of the Toucans, generally
flying before these birds and uttering their sharp
cry, " pi-au-hau," from which they derive their
164
DENTIROSTRES.
vernacular appellation. Their nest is placed on
high inaccessible branches of the forest trees. The
female is said to lay four eggs.
The type of this sub-family is
The Bright-sided Querula (Lipangus lateral}.
MDSCICAPID.E.
105
SUB-FAMILY II.
ALECTRURIN.E.* The Akctrures.
GE.\. CHABAC. Bill of various lengths, broad at the base and rather depressed,
with the culmen sloping and rounded, the sides gradually compressed to the
tip, which is emarginated ; the gonys long and slightly ascending ; the nos-
trils basal, rounded, and exposed ; the wings more or less long ; the tail of
various lengths and forms ; the tarsi more or less long and slender ; the toes
usually moderate, and armed with long, acute, curved claws.
FlG. 68. THE BLUE-BEAKED Al.l-.i. TKl lih.
(Fluvicola cyaiiirogtrii.)
The Cock-tailed Flycatchers are so called from
their habit of raising their long and curiously-formed
tail, in a manner similar to that of the domestic
fowl. They are only found in South America, and
are all of small dimensions, their average length
being about six inches. There are many species of
* Alector, a poetical name for the barn-door cock ; ovod, oura,
a tail ; Cock-tailed.
i 3
166 DENTIROSTRES.
this group, and they differ considerably in theii
habits and in the localities they frequent ; some are
fond of forest lands, perching upon lofty branches,
and fluttering from their post in search of passing
insects.; while others shun the wooded districts, and
are only found upon low-lying ground, where water
is plentiful, and where they find their insect food
upon the leaves and stems of aquatic plants. Among
these
The Pied Alectrurns (Aledrurus tricolor] is re-
markable. It is a native of tropical South America,
and nearly six inches in length, pied with black and
white, but with its back ash-colour. It generally
inhabits the vicinity of water, flies lightly, and
perches upon rushes and other slender stems, but
not upon the branches of trees. The male some-
times rises perpendicularly to a height of thirty or
forty feet by rapid beats of its wings; and when
thus engaged, he looks more like a large black-and-
white butterfly than a bird.
The typical form of this sub-family is
The Blue-beaked Alectmre (Fluvicola cyanirostna).
MUSCICAPID.E.
K37
SUB-FAMILY III.
TYRAXNIX.E.
The Tyrants.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill more or less long, broad, and depressed at the base, and
the sides gradually compressed to the tip, which is hooked and emarginated ;
the gape sometimes furnished with long and strong bristles ; the nostrils
basal, with the opening small, usually rounded, and hidden by the pro-
jecting feathers and bristles ; the wings more or less long, and generally
pointed ; the tail moderate, and sometimes emarginated ; the tarsi short and
covered with broad scales ; the toes generally rather short, the outer longer
than the inner, and united at the base, the hind toe moderate and padded
beneath; the claws rather short, and very acute.
FlG. 69 THE LIZABD-BATEB.
(Saurophagui lictor.)
The birds which constitute the typical sub-family
of the Flycatchers are generally seen sitting 011
trees, or on some prominent place, watching the
approach of any insect rover, in pursuit of which
they make a sweep, and having seized it, return t< >
the same perch. It is not uncommon to see them
168 DENTIROSTRES.
take post on a twig overhanging water, into which
they will dive repeatedly, and then remain for some
time quiet to dry and dress their plumage in the sun.
They also prey on small fish and reptiles, and oc-
casionally feed on berries. Their flight is quick and
rapid, and they may sometimes be observed hovering
over the fields and rivers, as if watching for their
food, which, having espied, they secure by a sudden
swoop. Some of the species are remarkable for
their courage, especially during the breeding season.
Should a crow, hawk, or even an eagle, approach
their nest, they launch into the air, mount to a con-
siderable height above him, and dart down on his
back, sometimes to the great annoyance of the
intruder, who endeavours by various evolutions to
rid himself of his Lilliputian adversary. The nest
is built in trees, at no great height from the ground ;
exteriorly it is composed of twigs, well woven
together with tow and wool, and lined with dry
fibres, grass, and horsehair. Some species collect
together loose hay, feathers of birds, hog's bristles,
pieces of cast-off snake's skins, and dog's hair, in
the hollow of a tree. The eggs are usually four or
five in number.
The hero of this sub-family
The Tyrant Flycatcher (Tyrannus intrepidus), called
also the King-bird, is an example of an American group
of Flycatchers in which the bill is large and strong, approx-
imating that of the Shrike. The names of king and
tyrant bestowed upon this bird refer to the extraordinary
authority which he arrogates to himself during the breed-
ing season, over all the rest of the feathered creation. " A.t
this period," says Wilson, " his extreme affection for his
mate, and for his nest and young, makes him suspicious of
every bird that happens to pass near his residence, so that
he attacks, without discrimination, every intruder. In
the months of May, June, and part of July, his life is one
continued scene of broils and battles, in which, however,
he generally comes off conqueror. Hawks and Crows,
the Bald Eagle and the Great Black Eagle, all equally
MISCICAPID.E. 169
dread an encounter with this dauntless little champion,
who, as soon as he perceives even one of these last ap-
proaching, launches out into the air to meet him, mounts
to a considerable height above him, and darts down on his
back, sometimes fixing there, to the great annoyance of
his sovereign, who, if no convenient retreat or i-esting-
place be near, endeavours in vain to rid himself of his
merciless adversary. He teases the Eagle incessantly,
sweeps upon him from right to left, remounts, that he
may descend on his back with greater violence, all the
while keeping up a shrill and rapid twittering, and con-
tinuing the attack, sometimes for more than a mile, till
he is relieved by some other of his tribe, equally eager for
the contest." This quarrelsome demeanour is laid aside
by the King-bird at the close of the breeding season, and
he then becomes a peaceable denizen of the wood or of the
orchard. The nest of the Tyrant Flycatcher is built on
the branch of a tree, and composed of small twigs and
dried flowers, interwoven with hemp and wool, and made
very compact : the lining consists of fine grass and horse-
hair. The eggs, which are usually five in number, are
cream-coloured, with a few large purple spots, and small
pale-brown markings, chiefly at the larger end. The only
song of this bird is a shrill twitter. His food consists
principally of insects, which he captures, sometimes by
flying steadily over the fields, and sometimes in the manner
of the ordinary Flycatcher, by taking his position on the
summit of a post or rail, and sweeping off after them as
they pass.
The typical form of this group of birds is
The Lizard-eater (tiauropliagus fictor}.
17o
DEXTIROSTRES.
SUB-FAMILY IV.
TlTYRIN.K.
GEX. CHAKAC. Bill generally short and broad at the base, with the culnien
slightly depressed, rounded, and curved, and the sides suddenly compressed
to the tip, which is emarginated ; the nostrils lateral, rounded, and exposed ;
the wings long and pointed ; the tail short and rounded on the sides ; the
tarsi short, and covered in front with narrow scales ; the toes moderate,
with the lateral ones nearly equal ; the claws moderate, curved, and acute.
FlG. 70. THB WHITE-BACKED TITYRA.
(Tityra lenconoiut.)
The birds composing this sub-family are found in
the warmer parts of South America and the islands
of the West Indies. They migrate from place to
* " Tityre, tu patulae recnbans sab tegmine fagi,"-
in allusion to their sylvan habits.
MUSCICAPID.E. 171
place, and are usually seen perched upon the highest
branches of the lofty trees of the primeval forests.
Insects form their chief subsistence ; these they
capture by short flights, and return again to the
same perch, to watch for others passing within a
certain range.
We extract from Mr. Gosse's beautiful work on
the Birds of Jamaica the following account of
The White-tacked Tityra (Tityra kuconotus). " This
species of Tityra is not uncommon in the mountain dis-
tricts of Jamaica, where, from 'the remarkable diversity in
the appearance 1 of the male and female, they are distin-
guished by separate local names. The black male is
known by the feminine appellation of Judy, while the
chestnut-headed female i-ecerves the masculine soubriquet
of Mountain Dick. Though more frequently seen at a
considerable elevation from the sea, we occasionally meet
with these birds in the lowlands ; they are, however,
rather recluse, affecting woods and lonely places. Here,
as they hop from one twig to another, or sit hidden in the
foliage of a thick ti'ee, they utter a rapid and not un-
musical succession of notes, as if attempting to compress
them all into one. The notes are occasionally poured
forth in the air, as the bird flits from tree to tree, but are
very frequently heard from the mule and female alternately,
seated on two trees, perhaps on opposite sides of the i-oad,
thus : The Mountain Dick calls, and the Judy immedi-
ately answers ; then a little pause, another call from
Mountain Dick, and an instant answer from Judy, until,
after a succession of such salutations, the Judy gallantly
yields the point, and flies over to the other tree to join
his friend. This species is fierce and bold in self-defence.
When shot, and but slightly wounded, it would make
vigorous efforts to escape by running ; but on being taken
in the hand, and held by the legs, it would elevate the
crown feathers, turn the head up, and bite fiercely at the
fingers, pinching the flesh with all its force ; striving, at
the same time, to clutch with its claws, and screaming
vociferously. It does not appear to pursue other birds,
after the manner of the true Tyrants, nor capture insects
in the air, notwithstanding that the gape is defended by
172 DEXTIROSTEES.
stiff bristles. Stationary insects are usually the contents
of its stomach, particularly the large field-bugs (Peutatoma),
and caterpillars, and sometimes the eggs of insects. In
the winter, the berries of the JJursera, or Tropic Birch,
constitute a large portion of its food. In April, the Judy
begins to arrange the domestic economy of the season.
and if the cradle of his young be not so elaborate a struc-
ture as some others, it makes up in quantity what it
lacks in quality. On a branch of a small cedar that
overhangs the high road," says Mr. Gosse, " I had noticed,
early in June, what appeared to be a heap of straw t< >>-< 1
up by a fork and lodged there, which the action of the
weather had in some degree* smoothed at the top, the ends
trailing downwards. One day, however, as I was looking
at it, I saw the brown female of this species emerge from
the bottom, and presently return, entering at a narrow
hole beneath. As it was not more than twelve feet from
the ground, I immediately sent my lads to climb the tree
and cut the branch, which they accordingly brought me,
with the huge nest attached. The boys reported that it
was empty, and that it had four entrances; but on exam-
ination, I found that every one of these was merely a
hollow in the immense walls, produced by the receding
of one part of the loose materials from another. While
they held it up in the position it had occupied on the nve.
I searched beneath for the true entrance, which, when I
had found it, I had much difficulty to fiud again, so con-
cealed was it among the draggling ends of the mass. On
inserting my finger, however, I felt the soft and warm
plumage of young birds, and pulled out three almost fully
fledged." The nest was a flattened oblong mass ; flattened
on two sides, measuring in height about two feet and a
half, though the ends hung down to the length of four
feet; in width more than two feet, and in thickness <>i 11-
foot. It was composed almost entirely of the stems and
tendrils of passion-flowers, mixed, however, and that all
through the structure, -with bright yellow silky spiders'
nests, and the downy filaments of some cottony ht-rlis.
The cavity was not larger than a man's two fists, and
was not in any way lined. It descended within the
entrance, although the latter faced the ground.
Ml'SCICAI'ID.K.
173
SUB-FAMILY V.
MUSCICAPIN.E.
The Flycatchers Proper.
EN. CHARAC. Bill moderate, broad at the base and narrowing to the tip,
which is emarginated ; the culmen more or less depressed and curved
at the end ; the gonys usually long and ascending, and the gape furnished
with bristles ; the wings generally long, and more or less pointed ; the tarsi
usually short and slender, and the toes short, with the outer toe longer than
the inner one, the hind toe prominent ; and the claws moderate, compressed,
and acute.
FlG. 71. THE SPOTTED FLYCATCHER.
CMuscicapa grisola.)
The true Flycatchers are found in most parts of
the Old Continent. They appear in the temperate
regions during the winter, and retire to the colder
climates during the summer, mostly frequenting
wooded districts, cultivated grounds, gardens, and
orchards. Their food consists entirely of insects,
which they watch for, seated on a decaying bough
or post, and catch on the wing, when they approach
within a certain distance. The nest is formed in
the forks of branches, or in the holes of trees. It is
1.74 DEXTIROSTRES.
composed of leaves, moss, or hay, and small twigs,
lined with hair and feathers. The female lays four
or five eggs. These birds are of small size, and weak
in their general conformation; none are so large
as a sparrow. Their bill is flattened, and their
whole structure light and delicate. Their colouring,
though elegant, is devoid of vivid tints.
We select for description
The Spotted Flycatcher (Muscicapa grisola). This
pretty little bird is one of our summer visitors, arriving
in our island in May, and departing at the close of
September. The Flycatcher is retired in its habits, fre-
quenting embowered retreats, shady gardens, orchards
and groves, where the foliage affords it concealment ; not,
indeed, that it is timid, for, if not rudely disturbed, it
will allow itself to be closely watched during the per-
formance of its aerial evolutions in pursuit of its insect
food. It generally chooses for its percli and observatory,
the bough of a fruit-tree, or one of the lower branches
of the elm ; whence it takes short, abrupt, circling nights,
returning to the same, or to an adjacent twig ; darting
in chase of its prey at almost regular intervals for half
an hour together, and returning after each flight to the
same post of observation. The note of the Flycatcher is
a weak chirp, which is seldom uttered after the appear-
ance of the young brood. Its nest is built in various
situations, as convenience may dictate ; sometimes between
the branch of a trained fruit-tree and the wall, or in holes
in the wall, hidden by foliage. It will also build in the
holes of aged trees, or upon the ends of beams in outhouses,
or, in short, in any appropriate place of concealment. The
eggs are five in number, of a greyish- white, marked with
pale orange-brown spots. When the young are able to fly,
the parents lead them to some branch, and supply them
with food ; but they soon learn to chase their own prey,
and become expert and quick in the pursuit Pennant
and other writers state that the Flycatcher is partial
to cherries and various fruits ; this is unquestionably a
mistake ; soft insects are its only food ; but gardeners
seem to think that all birds devour fruit, and frequent
their gardens only for that purpose.
MUSCICAPID.E.
175
SUB-FAMILY VI.
VlREOXIX.E.
The Greenlets.
GEN. CHAHAC. Bill rather short and straight, with the culmen slightly curved,
and the sides compressed to the tip, which is curved and einarginated ; the
gonys long and ascending ; the gape furnished with short weak bristles ;
the nostrils rounded and exposed ; the wings rather long and pointed ; the
tail moderate; the tarsi moderate, and covered with broad" scales ; the toes
moderate, the lateral ones equal, and united at the base, especially the
outer.
FlG. 72 THE GREENLET.
(Vireo virescena.)
The Greenlets are so called on account of the
constant presence of green on some part of their
plumage. They are all little birds, and are confined
to the New World, inhabiting the United States,
Brazil, Guiana, and the West India islands. They
are mostly insect-feeders, but will vary their diet
with fruits, berries, and other vegetable food. Many
species are known, and some are remarkable for
176
DENTIEOSTEES.
their eccentric habits and curious mode of nesting.
Some of them build a neat nest, in the form of an
inverted cone, suspended by the upper edge. The
materials of which the walls are composed are frag-
ments of rotten wood, dry stalks, and similar articles ;
and it is remarkable that amongst these, pieces of
paper are always found. Wilson says that the bird
exhibits so great a predilection for fragments of
newspapers, that some of his friends gave it the
name of " The Politician." The materials of this
pretty nest are held together with the silk of cater-
pillars, and the lining consists of fine dry grass and
hair.
The typical species is
The Greenlet ( Vireo virescens).
AMPELID.E. 177
FAMILY IV.
AMPELID.E. T/ie Chatterers.
GEX. CHAHAC. Bill moderate, more or less broad at the base and more or
less depressed, with the sides gradually compressed to the tip, which is
emarginated ; the wings long, and generally rounded ; the tail moderate,
and usually even at the end; the tarsi generally short and slender; the toes
moderate, with the outer more or less united to the base of the middle one ;
the claws short and curved.
Iii the members of this family, the notches,
characteristic of the dentirostral birds, though
small, are always distinctly to be seen on each side
of the tip of the bill, which is rather short, broad,
and depressed at the base, so that, when viewed
from above, it is nearly triangular. The wings are
generally long and the tail short ; the feet are
slender, and the toes terminated by curved acute
claws grooved along their lower surface. Most of
them are met with in the warmer latitudes, where
they feed upon insects and fruits. Their plumage
is often very beautiful and brilliant in its colouring.
The Chatterers are remarkable for the width of
their gape, which, in many, is nearly as wide as that
of a Goatsucker : they live almost entirely on soft
berries and small fruits, which, being swallowed
whole, require a very wide passage down the throat.
They are perpetually hopping about among the
branches of fruit-bearing trees, and seem to know,
by wonderful instinct, the period when each species
yields its fruit. They never walk upon the ground,
the structure of their feet being only adapted for
grasping boughs. These birds are most of them con-
fined to the American continent ; many of them are
remarkable for the splendid tints of azure and purple
with which, in the pairing season, the males are be-
dizened, but during the rest of the year the two sexes
are equally clad in grey or brown plumage.
To this family belong the Thick-heads, the Mana-
kins, the Chatterers proper, the Caterpillar-eaters,
and the Drongo Shrikes.
178
PEXTIROSTRES.
SUB-FAMILY I.
PACHYCEPHALIN.E.* T/te Thick-heads.
KX. CHABAC. Bill broad at the base and compressed to the tip, which is
emarginated ; the gape furnished with a few slender bristles; the wings
moderate and more or less rounded ; the tarsi lengthened and slender ; the
toes long, with the outer one slightly united at the base to the middle one ;
the claws short and curved.
FlG. 73. THE BED-BBEASTED THICK-READ.
(Pternthiut riifictntru.)
Many of these birds are peculiar to Australia ;
some are met . with in the East Indies and in South
America; others in New Guinea and the islands
of the South Seas. They are generally observed,
solitary or in pairs, creeping and hopping among
* va\vc, pachys, thick ; KiQaXi'i, cephale, the head ; Thick-heads.
1 79
the foliage of the upper part of lofty trees in thick
forests, or on shrubs. Their food consists of berries
and of the larvae of insects. The nest is formed on
the small horizontal branches of large trees or in
bushes, and is composed of interwoven twigs or
fibrous roots. The eggs are three or more in
number. Some species excavate a hole just large
enough to admit the passage of their body, extending
two or three feet in a nearly horizontal direction :
at the end of this tunnel a chamber is formed,
wherein the nest is constructed. In such cases, the
nest itself is a beautiful structure, formed of strips
of the inner bark of Eucalypti, and lined with
finer fibres of the same or similar material.
As an example of the group we select
The Yellow-breasted Thick-head (Pachycephala gut-
turalis), an inhabitant of South Australia. " This species
is rather abundantly dispersed over tlie forests of Eu-
calypti and the belts of Acacia, among the flowering
branches of which the male displays himself to the
greatest advantage, and shows off Ms rich yellow breast,
as if desirous of outvying the -beautiful blossoms with
which he is sui-rounded. Its principal food consists of
insects of various genera, which are sought for and
captured among the flowers and leaves as well as on the
ground. It is generally met with in pairs, but the males
are more shy than the females. It flies in short and
sudden starts, and seldom mounts far above the tops of
the trees. The voice of the male is a single note seven
or eight times repeated, and terminating with a sharp
higher note, much resembling the smack of a whip. That
>f the female is very different, being a series of running
half-notes, forming a rather plaintive tune." Gould.
The typical form is
The Red-breasted Thick-head (Pteruthius rufiventris).
180
IiKXTIROSTKKS.
SUB-FAMILY II.
PIPKINS.
The M anal; ins.
GEN. CHAKAC. Bill moderate, or short, and rather depressed, with the base
very broad; the culmen curved, and the sides compressed to the tip, which
is emarginated ; the nostrils lateral, and more or less hidden by the pro-
jecting plumes ; the wings moderate and pointed ; tail very short and even ;
tersi more or less long and rather slender, with the outer toe united to
beyond the second joint of the middle toe, and the inner slightly united.
I'll.. 74. THE STKKAKED HAKAKIK.
(Pipru xtriiiliitii.)
Most of these birds are found in the tropical
regions of America, or the forests of Sumatra and
Singapore. They inhabit hot humid woods, in the
skirts of which they live in flocks, searching for
insects and small fruits. They are very lively and
restless, and are frequently seen on the ground or
sometimes perched on trees. The note of one
species has been compared to the cracking of a nut.
AMl'KLIKK. 181
Some of them dwell in extensive woods, or in pre-
cipitous places formed by torrents ; these are most
usually seen on the fallen trunks of trees that have
been rooted up by hurricanes. Their flight is low,
and they seem restless, continually making quick
and fluttering movements while on the branches.
Their food consists principally of the fruits of a
species of laurel and other shrubs. Their note is a
hoarse repetition of the syllable " ket, ket, ket,"
forcibly uttered in a very sharp tone. The female
builds her nest in a sinuosity of the rocks, shelter-
ing it under some projecting point. It is properly
of a circular form, but occasionally the shape is
varied with the windings of the rocks. The nest
is composed of a tissue of the fibres of roots
plastered externally with moistened earth, and lined
internally with fine vegetable fibres and hair. The
young do not quit the nest until nearly full grown.
The type of this race is
The Streaked Manakin (Plpra striotatu).
182
DENTIROSTRES.
A.MPELIN.E.
SUB-FAMILY III.
The Chatterers proper.
GBN. CHABAC. Bill more or less long, with the gape very wide, the culmen
rather depressed and curved to the tip, which is emarginated, the sides com-
pressed towards the apex; the gonys long and ascending; the nostrils
lateral, mostly exposed, and somewhat oval ; the wings moderate, with the
second to the fourth quills generally the longest ; the tail generally short
and even ; the tarsi mostly short ; and the toes long, the outer toe slightly
united at the base.
FlG. 75. THE BOHEMIAN CHATTERER.
(Ampelit garnda.)
The birds composing this sub-family inhabit the
northern parts of Europe, Asia, and North America,
and are migratory, according to the seasons, making
their appearance in more temperate latitudes on the
approach of winter, and returning to their northern
haunts in the summer. They are usually met with
in small parties, but sometimes assemble in large
AMPELID.E. 183
flocks, consisting of many hundreds, especially
when on their* migrations. Their food consists of
various kinds of fruit ; and as the fruits become
scarce they feed on insects, capturing them in the
same way as the Flycatchers. Their nest is placed
in the fork of a tree some few feet from the ground ;
it is composed of coarse grass, lined within with
fine materials, on which are deposited three or four
eggs.
The only European example, and the type of the
race, is
The Bohemian or Wandering Wax-wing (Ampelis
garrula), so called on account of its migrations. In its
habits, the Wax-wing resembles the Tits, and it feeds on
fruits, berries, and seeds, as well as insects. Its most
distinctive feature, however, is, that in the adult bird
four of the secondary quills, and several of the tertials.
are terminated by flat palettes, resembling red sealing-
wax, attached to the extremity of the shaft of each
feather ; and from this circumstance it has received the
appropriate name of Wax-wing.
The Wax-wings are gregarious birds, assembling in
large flocks, and congregating so closely together that
numbers have been killed by the discharge of a single
gun. " Near Christiauia, in Norway," writes a corres-
pondent to the Field newspaper, " there have been for
the last month immense flocks of Wax- wing Chatterers
quite close to the house. They are not at all shy,
allowing a person to approach easily within shot. They
come into all the gardens round, by thousands, in quest
of the berries of a tree, which I believe is the mountain
ash. Some of the flocks contained several thousands,
but are now diminished in numbers, on account of some
having gone southwards, and others having been killed.
They make a great noise when sitting together, as they
do in large numbers. On one occasion I killed twenty
at one shot, at another eighteen, and at another seventeen.
So exactly do the red ornaments of the wings and tail
resemble sealing-wax, that it is difficult to persuade an
unaccustomed observer that they are the gifts of nature,
and not rather purposely attached to the bird by some
one desirous to impose on his credulity."
K 2
184
DENTIUOSTRES.
SUB-FAMILY IV.
CAMPEPHAGIN-E.* The Caterpillar eaters.
GES. CHAKAC. Bill short and rather depressed, with the culmen slightly
curved, and the sides compressed to the tip, which is emarginated, and
sometimes hooked ; the gape furnished with a few short bristles ; the nostrils
basal, rounded, and more or less exposed ; the wings moderate, with the
third, fourth, and fifth quills the longest ; the tail long and rounded on the
sides ; the tarsi short and covered with transverse scales ; the toes generally
short, and the lateral ones unequal ; the claws moderate, compressed, and
much curved.
FlG. 76. THE BRACELETBD CATERMLLAH-EATEK.
(Ptiloffonyt anxillattt*.)
These birds are found in Africa and Australia, aa
well as in India and the neighbouring islands.
They are shy and wary, and are usually seen upon
trees slowly and carefully searching among tin-
foliage and examining the leaves for all kinds of
* Kapirtj, campe, a caterpillar; Qayta, phago, to cat ; Caterpillar-
eater.
AMPELIDJE. 185
soft insects, such as caterpillars, rnantides, and gra>>-
hoppers ; moreover, they occasionally feed on the
fruit of the banyan tree. They continue their search,
hopping from branch to branch, until every bough
has been carefully inspected, when they fly off
together to another tree. Their flight is undulating,
powerful, and performed with few vibrations of the
wings. They rarely fly, except to pass from one por-
tion, of the forest to another, or occasionally to take
insects on the wing as they pass within a certain
distance from them when perched. Their eggs are
usually two in number, and are deposited in a nest
placed on the fork of a bough. It is composed of
small dead twigs firmly matted together with a very
fine white downy substance like a cobweb, inter-
mixed with a species of lichen, and is extremely
shallow.
The typical species is
The Braceleted Caterpillar-eater (PWogonys artnil-
lattts).
186
DENTIROSTRES.
SUB-FAMILY V.
The Drongo Shi-ikes.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill of various lengths, broad at the base, with the culmen
more or less keeled and curved to the tip, the sides compressed ; the nostrils
usually concealed by short compact plumes, and the gape furnished with
strong bristles; the wings long, with the fourth and fifth quills generally the
longest ; the tarsi and toes short, and strongly scutellated.
FlG. 77. THE AZUBE-BBEASTED IKENA.
(Irena cyanogatter.)
The Drongos are inhabitants of India, its Archi-
pelago, and the continent of Africa. They are
usually seen singly, in pairs, or in small parties,
perched on some elevated spot or upon the backs of
cattle when grazing. From these stations they
watch passing insects, and when they observe one,
give rapid chase after it, sometimes returning to
* Sic, dis, double ; oupa, oura, a tail ; Having a forked tail.
AMPELID.E. 187
the same perch to await the approach of other
victims. Some are said to hunt in small parties,
though at a distance from each other ; others fly from
tree to tree at a great elevation, making swoops
after insects in their progress. They show much
courage in attacking birds far superior to them-
selves in size, and their great speed of flight enables
them to attack and retreat with ease and safety.
Some species, when about to seek a new locality,
congregate in hundreds during the evening, and all
roost together in bamboo and other thick jungles.
All kinds of insects fall a prey to their beaks.
Their ^nest is placed in the fork of a tree. It is
composed of roots and twigs carelessly put together,
and not lined interiorly. The eggs are about three
in number.
The typical species is
The Azure-breasted Irena (Irena cyanog aster).
I SS DENTIROSTRES.
FAMILY V.
LANIID^E. The Butcher-birds.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill more or less long, strong, and straight, with the culmen
curved, and the sides compressed to the tip, which is generally hooked and
emarginated ; the gonys long and ascending ; the gape sometimes furnished
with short bristles ; wings moderate, rounded, or pointed ; tail more or less
lengthened, and usually rounded; the tarsi strong, and more or less long ;
toes moderate, with the hind toe long and broadly padded beneath; the
claws long, curved, and very acute.
The majority of the species belonging to this
family are inhabitants of the Eastern hemisphere, a
few only being found in the New World. Their food
consists of insects, worms, and mollusca ; but many
of them, not content with such humble fare, kill and
devour the smaller birds and quadrupeds. In fact,
the hooked tip of the bill, the strong tooth-like
fangs with which the upper mandible is armed, and
the curved and acute claws, seem at once to indicate
that the character of these birds is more predacious
than that of their nearest allies. By Linna3us, and
several of the older naturalists, they were classed
with the Accipitres : indeed the Shrikes almost equal
the Falcons in ferocity and daring. From their
perch upon a bough they will suddenly dart upon their
prey, which they kill with their beak, not with their
feet. They have, moreover, the singular habit of
impaling their victims upon a thorn, or hanging up
small birds by the tendons of their wing : hence they
have received the name of " Butcher-birds." They
resemble the Thrushes, with which they insensibly
blend, and, like them, are generally met with in
woods and coppices. These birds live in companies,
fly with unequal and precipitate flight, uttering
sharp cries; they construct their nests with much
neatness upon trees, and lay five or six eggs. They
possess the faculty of accurately imitating the notes
of the birds living in their vicinity.
This family comprehends the Butcher-birds and
the Bush Shrikes.
LAXi I
189
LAXIIN.E.
I.
The Butcher-birds proper.
GEN. CHAKAC. Bill moderate and strong, with the culmen curved, and the
sides generally much compressed near the tip, which is mostly hooked and
emarginated ; the gape sometimes furnished with short bristles ; the nostrils
lateral and rounded ; the wings more or less long, and generally rounded ;
the tail of various lengths, and usually rounded; the tarsi rather short and
strong; the toes rather long and strong, with the lateral ones generally
unequal, the outer toe the longest, and united at its base, the hind toe long
and broadly padded.
FlG. 78 THE LONG-TAILED BUTCHER BIRD.
(LiiiitHS collitri >.)
The Butcher-birds are found throughout Europe,
Asia, Africa, and America. They are usually seen
singly or in pairs, in woody or in bushy places.
Their food consists of various kinds of insects, which
they usually seize on the ground or from among the
foliage, and even occasionally pursue while on the
wing; they also attack lizards, small birds, and
quadrupeds, which they destroy by strangulation.
190
DENTIROSTRES.
When life is extinct, tliey fix their prey on a thorn
while feeding on it. Their courage is very great,
and prompts them to attack birds of far superior
size, should they approach their haunts. Their
flight is undulating, usually performed by jerks ; and
while perched on a branch their tail is in constant
motion. Their nest is placed in trees or bushes,
and is composed of moss, wool, and dry grass, lined
internally with hair. The eggs are five or seven in
number.
The type of this sub-family is
The Long-tailed Butcher-bird (Lanius collurio).
LANIIDJE.
191
SUB-FAMILY II.
THAMNOPHILIN.E. The Bush Shrikes.
ed on the sides ; the
the Inrsi moderate, and covered with broad scales; the toes moderate, the
lateral ones unequal, and the outer toe united to the middle one at the base.
FlO. 79. THE MANY-COLOURED BtSH SHRIKE.
(Laniariug multicolor.)
Most of these birds inhabit the tropical parts of
America, yet a few of the species extend northwards
as far as Canada. They usually reside in the forests,
searching the foliage of the low bushes and the trunks
of trees for the Coleopterous and other insects upon
which they subsist. Their nests are usually placed
in thick bushes, at no great distance from the ground;
the exterior is frequently made of small spinous
192 DEXTIROSTRES.
branches, the interior lined with hair. Their eggs
vary from two to five in number.
One of the best-known species is
The Spotted Bush Shrike (Thamnophiliis ntvvius),
sometimes called Battara, from the name applied to them
in their native country. The Spotted Battara inhabits
Cayenne and Brazil, dwelling among the bushes, usually
in paii-s, and exhibits much familiarity, often approaching
the dwellings of men. The food of this, and other species,
consists of insects and their larvae, which they generally
capture among the branches : they rarely descend to the
ground.
The typical form is
The Many-coloured Bush Shrike (Luniarim multi-
color).
193
TRIBE IV.
CONIKOSTRES.
THIS numerous division comprehends many well-
known families, distinguished by their short, thick,
conical bill, which is stronger and stouter in pro-
portion as they feed more exclusively on seeds.*
They are most numerous in temperate and cold
climates, of which they are generally permanent
inhabitants.
The bill of the conirostral birds varies a good
deal in length and thickness, and is sometimes more
or less curved. The tip of the upper mandible is
generally straight, and its margin unarmed ; never-
theless, in some of the forms mtfst nearly allied to
the preceding section, the edges of the upper man-
dible are notched near the extremity, and the tip
itself is slightly hooked. The food of the majority
of the species belonging to this group, especially
those with straight and stout conical bills, consists
principally of seeds, for breaking which this form of
beak is peculiarly adapted. There are, however, few,
if any of them, which do not live partially on animal
food, such as insects and their larvae, whilst some
appear to devour almost anything fitted to afford
them nourishment.
* See Animal Creation, p. 428.
194 i "XIROSTRES.
FAMILY I.
The Crows.
GKX. CHABAC. Bill strong, with the base of the culmen covered with pro-
jecting bristling plumes, arched, and the sides compressed to the tip, which
is more or less emarginated ; the nostrils basal, and more or less concealed
by the basal plumes; the wings generally long and pointed; the tail mode-
rat* or lengthened ; the tarsi and toes moderate.
This family includes the numerous species of
Crows and other allied forms. They have a more
or less elongated, strong, and compressed conical
bill, in which the ridge of the upper mandible is
curved, and its tip slightly notched on each side.
The nostrils are placed at the base of the upper
mandible, and concealed beneath a group of small
feathers that grow there. The wings are generally
long and powerful, and the feet of moderate length
and size. These birds seem almost equally adapted
to a terrestrial ancl an aerial existence ; they walk
and run upon the ground with equal facility, rise
easily from the earth, fly well, and display consider-
able activity among the branches of trees. Tlu-y
are very generally distributed over the face of the
globe, and everywhere readily find the means of
living ; for most of them are by no means particular
about their diet; some even attacking and de-
vouring small birds, and such weakly animals as
they can conveniently overcome. They are, for the
most part, very noisy, with much slyness and
drollery in their disposition, and many of them,
especially when tame, exhibit a strong inclination
for thievery and mischief.
The birds composing this sub-family bear so
strong a resemblance to each other, that the most
unpractised observer can scarcely fail to recognize
them. They manifest a corresponding similarity of
instinct, being shy, easily alarmed, vigilant, and
cunning. Omnivorous in the fullest sense, they
CORVID.E. 195
devour flesh, fish, mollusca, grubs, insects, grains,
seeds, and other animal and vegetable substances.
When searching for food, they betake themselves to
open places, walk in a sedate manner, keep a good
look-out, and on the slightest appearance of danger
fly off to a distance. Their flight is steady, mode-
rately rapid, and performed by regular beats. Their
cry varies from a hoarse croak to a caw or chatter,
and none of them, with the exception perhaps of
the Piping Crows, can be called musical. They
nestle in high places, trees, towers, buildings of
various kinds, or rocks, and produce from three to
nine eggs, which are deposited very early in the
season. They repose at night in similar retreats, and
when alarmed by day generally betake themselves
to heights. Some species are gregarious, others are
unsocial, the latter being the most carnivorous.
They are all easily tamed, and may be taught to
imitate the human voice, so as to produce a few
articulate sounds.
To this family belong the Piping Crows, the
Jays, the Tree Crows, the Crows, the Fruit Crows,
and the Choughs.
196
CONIEO8TEE8.
SUB-FAMILY I.
PHONEGAMIN^E.*
Tlie Piping Crowst
GBN. CHARAC. Bill lengthened, with the base broad, the sides compressed,
and the culmen broad, rounded, projecting on the forehead, and more or
less straight to the tip, which is more or less emarginated ; the nostrils
basal, much exposed, and usually in the form of a long, narrow slit in
the substance of the bill; the wings usually long and pointed or rounded ;
the tail long and even or rounded; the tarsi and the toes strong and strongly
scaled, with the outer toe united at its base.
FlG. 80. THE WHITE-BACKED GYMNOKHINA.
(Oymnorhina, leuconotut.)
The Piping Crows are inhabitants of the primeval
forests of New Guinea and of New South Wales,
where they may be seen perched on the upper
* <f><i>}>{], phone, voice ; ya'jtoj, gamos, marriage ; So called because
they are especially noisy during the breeding season.
CORVID.E. 197
branches of the large trees, the fruits of which
form their principal subsistence. One species is
said to make the whole forest vibrate with its various
musical notes, which are clear, distinct, sonorous,
and pass nearly through the whole gamut. Some
species are found only in Australia, where they fre-
quent cultivated places, and even approach the
dwellings and stock-yards of the colonists ; but they
prefer cleared lauds, and open flats and plains
skirted by belts of trees. These feed chiefly on
insects, for which they search the ground ; and they
devour immense numbers of locusts and grasshop-
pers. Their nests are formed outwardly of sticks,
leaves, wool, &c., and lined with fine materials. The
eggs are usually three or four in number.
An example of this race of birds is
The Piping Crow (Phonegama, viridis), common in
New South Wales, inhabiting the Blue Mountains in
small ' flocks, and building in trees a nest composed of
sticks lined with grass. It is said to make a loud
whistling noise while perched on some lofty branch, early
in the morning, and not to be migratory. In captivity
it is very amusing from its powers of mimicry : it imitates
the voices of men and animals, and easily learns to
whistle tunes ; its notes being clear and powerful.
The typical form of the sub-family is
The White-backed Gymnorhina (Gynmorhina kuco-
notus).
198
C'OXIROSTRES.
SUB-FAMILY II.
GTARRULIN.E.
The Jays.
GEJI. CHABAC. Bill moderate, strong, laterally compressed, and the cultnen
straight, but suddenly curved-near the tip, which is emarginated ; the nos-
trils generally concealed by projecting plumes; the wings moderate and
rounded; the tail of various lengths, graduated or rounded; the tarsi
moderate and much scutellated ; and the toes long and strongly sealed.
FlG. 81. THE JAY.
( Garrului ylamlariug.)
The Jays are peculiar to the Old World, and are
usually found in pairs or small societies in forests,-
or wherever trees are growing together, preferring
the thickest and closest parts, as they are very ar-
boreal in their habits, and hop actively from branch
to branch. It is on the trees that these birds find
most of their food, which consists of various fruits
and seeds ; but they also visit cultivated grounds
and orchards for the fruits and certain vegetables
to which they are partial. They sometimes suck the
CORVIP.K. 199
eggs of birds in their nests, and even young birds
do not escape them, especially those that are feeble
and sickly ; in preying upon these they place them
under their feet, and with their bills tear them to
pieces, swallowing each piece separately. The vocal
imitations of quadrupeds, as well as birds, which are
practised by the common species, are most exact
and ludicrous. Their nest is composed of sticks,
and lined with fibrous roots of plants : it is usually
placed in the most unfrequented parts of the forest.
The eggs are generally from five to six in number.
The type of this sub-family is
The Common Jay (Garrvlus glandanus) ; a hand-
some bird, well known in England and the south part of
Scotland. It is abundant in the forests of Europe. The
Jay inhabits thick woods ; its food consists partly of
insects and worms, and partly of vegetable matters,
especially beech-nuts and acorns : its predilection for the
last is alluded to in its specific name Glans, an acorn.
200
CONIEO8TRES.
SUB-FAMILY I IT.
CALLEATIN^E.""" The Tree Crows.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill short, with the culmen elevated at the base and much
curved to the tip, the sides compressed, and the gonys long and straight ;
the wings short and rounded; the tail lengthened and graduated ; the tarsi
more or less long, and covered in front with broad scales ; the toes moderate,
and the lateral ones unequal.
FlO. 82. THE PBOXTED DKfiDHOCITTA.
(Detidroeitta frontulit.)
The Tree Crows are found in both the islands of
New Zealand, where they may be seen walking upon
the ground, searching for the larvae and grubs of
insects. Occasionally they frequent trees of various
* icdXXof, callos, beauty ; So called from the symmetry of their
shape.
CORY ID.*:. 201
kinds, for the purpose of plucking their fruits and
berries : they are also said to devour young birds.
Some species inhabit the Australian continent, where
the}' live in small companies of three or four toge-
ther, on the topmost branches of the trees. They are
extremely quick and restless, the whole company
leapiug from branch to branch in rapid succession,
at the same time throwing up and expanding their
tails and wings, actions which are generally accom-
panied by a harsh and unpleasant cry. Others
inhabit the jungles of India, where their peculiar
metallic or harsh rattling notes betray their pre-
sence, even among the thickest foliage.
The best-known species
The Cinereous Wattle-bird (Callceas cinerea), is an
inhabitant of India ; it measures fourteen or fifteen
inches from the beak to the extremity of the tail, and
is remarkable for the possession of two fleshy, wattle-like
appendages, dependent on each side from the base of the
lower mandible. These wattles are of a blue colour at
their ba.se, but elsewhere of a bright orange-yellow,
giving the bird a very singular appearance. The Wattle-
bird sometimes perches on trees, but is more frequently
seen upon the ground, where it seeks its food, which con-
sists of insects, worms, and berries. It is accused of
killing young birds. Its voice is a sort of whistle, some-
times accompanied by a low murmuring sound, and is
rather of an agreeable character.
The typical form is
The Fronted Dendrocitta (Dendrocittafrontalig).
202
CONIKOSTRES.
CORVINE.
SUB-FAMILY IV.
The Crows proper.
GKS. CHABAC. Bill of various lengths, the base broad and the sides com-
pressed, with the culmen more or less curved to the tip, which is usually
entire; the nostrils entirely concealed by the projecting frontal plumes,
except when the head or cheeks are denuded of feathers; the wings long and
slightly rounded ; the tarsi long, lengthened, and covered in front with broad
scales; the toes moderate, strong, ami the lateral ones of equal length.
G. O3. THK BAVBN.
(Cortut Corax.)
The birds belonging to this sub-family are found
in most parts of the globe. Some remain stationary
within a certain district, while others migrate from
COKVII'.K.
203
place to place on the change of season. They are
generally observed in flocks in cultivated grounds,
seeking carrion, or worms, grubs, caterpillars, small
animals, and the eggs and young of birds, which
they destroy in great numbers. Some species are
more commonly noticed at the sea-side searching
for dead fishes, which the waves continually cast up.
In such places they also find shell-fish, which they
carry high into the air and drop on the rocks, in
order to break the shells. Their cries are hoarse
and discordant, especially during their first flight in
FIG. 84. THE BOOK.
( Corcu frugilegut.)
the morning, before they scatter themselves into
smaller flocks in search of their food, and again
on their re-assembling in the evening, and while
selecting their separate roosting-places. The nest
is generally built on the topmost branches of lofty
204 CONIROSTKKs.
trees; it is composed outwardly of sticks, moss, and
small pieces of bark cemented together with moist
earth, and the interior is usually lined with horse-
hair and some wool, whereon the female deposits
four eggs.
Of all birds, some members of the Crow family are
the most social ; for although numerous others live
in companionship the greatest part of the year, yet
when the period of incubation arrives, they generally
separate and disperse. With the Rooks, however,
rlic social principle is perfect, and they accordingly
form aerial villages, fabricated on the summit > ft'
the loftiest trees, and rear their young in a perpetual
scene of bustle and excitement. Their attachment
to these spots is very remarkable, and has frequently
given rise to obstinate battles between the last j As-
sessors and a stranger flock that has attempted \c
usurp the domain.
The type of the race
The Raven (Cvrvus Corax), is the largest and most
powerful of all the Corvidse, the adult male measuring
about twenty inches in length. It has a long and strong
bill of a black colour ; the feathers springing from the base
of the upper mandible and covering the nostrils are about
an inch and a half long. This bird is found in all parts
of the Northern hemisphere, extending its range rvm
into the frozen regions of the Arctic zone. It is usually
an inhabitant of the wildest and most secluded distrk-t>.
haunting the rocks of the sea-coast or the sides of moun-
tains or forests, near extensive plains; and from it-
vigilance and sagacity, its destruction is by 'no mean> ra-y.
205
SUB-FAMILY V.
GYMNODERIN^.* The Fruit-Crows.
GKN. CHARAC. Bill strong, rather depressed and straight, with the culmen
curved and the sides compressed to the tip, which is emarginated ; the nos-
trils lateral, and placed in a membranous groove ; the wings long and rather
pointed ; the tarsi more or less long, and covered in front with transverse
scales ; the toes rather long, with the outer toe nearly as long as the middle
toe ; the claws long, curved, and acute.
FlG. 85. THE OEONOCO FRUIT-CROW.
(Coracina Orenocensit.)
The members of this group are found in Cayenne,
Louisiana, and Guiana, where they inhabit forests,
and at times visit the plantations for the purpose of
bare.
of, gymnos, naked ; cspog, deros, skin ; Having the neck
L
206
COXIROSTRES.
procuring food, which consists of various fruits and
berries. Other species are inhabitants of the north-
ern parts of South America, where they may be seen
in the forests leaping from branch to branch. They
wander from place to place in search of their food,
and are restless and mischievous ; but if observed,
they conceal themselves among the foliage. Their
nests are said to be constructed at the tops of high
trees that border the great rivers.
The type of this sub-family is
The Oronoco Fruit-Crow (Coracina Orenocensi*).
207
SUB-FAMILY VI.
PYRRHOCORACIN.E.*
The Choughs.
GEX. CHAKAC. Bill more or less long, slender, and slightly curved, with the
culmen rounded and curved to the tip, which is rather acute and slightly
emarginated ; the nostrils broad, lateral, and hidden by the projecting
feathers; the wings lengthened and pointed ; the tail long and rounded, or
even ; the tarsi strong and rather short ; the toes moderate, with the lateral
ones nearly equal.
FlG. 86. THE CHOUGH.
(Fregilug graculus.)
The Choughs are not a numerous race; in this
country we have but a single species, and that con-
fined to particular mountainous districts. On the
continent, birds belonging to this sub-family are
met with in the Swiss Alps and the Tyrol, frequent-
ing the loftier regions, where they breed. With us,
* Trvppos, pyrros, red ; Kopa%, corax, a crow ; Having the feet and
beak of a bright red colour.
L 2
COXIEOSTRES.
the Chough is seldom seen far inland, breeding on
the sea-cliffs, or in old castles and the church towers
near the shore. The nest is formed of sticks, and
lined with a great quantity of wool and hair. The
eggs are of a bluish-white colour, speckled with yel-
lowish-brown. These birds are of lively gait, and of
a restless and crafty disposition, like many of the
Crow genus. Their attention is particularly caught
by glittering objects. Their natural food princi-
pally consists of insects, even the smallest of which
they can reach, with their sharp bill, in the crevices
of rocks and the joints of walls.
The type of this race of birds is
The Cornish Chough (Fregilus graculus).
PARADISEID.E.
209
PARADISEID.E.
FAMILY II.
The Birds of Paradise.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill long, strong, with the culmen curved and the sides com-
pressed to the tip, which is emarginated ; the base of the upper mandible
concealed by short feathers, which also cover the nostrils ; the wings long
and rounded ; the tail of various lengths, even or rounded; the tarsi robust,
long, and covered by a single membrane ; the hind toe very long and robust ;
the claws long, strong, and curved.
FlG. 87. BIRDS OP PARADISE.
(Paradiea apoda and P. superba.)
The most remarkable character of this family
consists in the great development, in the males, of
some portions of their plumage, usually of the fea-
thers of the sides of the body and neck, which often
210 CONIEOSTRES.
present the most singular forms, and give their pos-
sessors a very peculiar appearance. In most cases
they are adorned with brilliant colours. The Birds
of Paradise are confined to a very limited portion
of the earth's surface, namely, New Guinea and
the neighbouring islands. Amongst the luxuriant
forests of these regions they live together in large
troops, and their appearance when flitting about is
most beautiful. They are polygamous, like the
gallinaceous birds, which they resemble in the
magnificent attire of the male. Their food consists
principally of fruits. They are lively and active in
their movements, and are usually observed upon
high trees, though they descend in the morning and
evening to the lower branches to search for food,
and to hide among the foliage from the extreme
heat of the sun. The fruits of the teak and fig-tree
form the principal part of their subsistence, and
they occasionally feed on insects, of which, if large,
they reject the legs, wings, and hard parts. Their
cry is loud, sonorous, and poured forth in a rapid
succession of notes. "The first four notes," says
Mr. Lay, " are very long, exactly intonated, very
clear, and very sweet. The last three are repeated
in a kind of caw, a very high refinement of the voice
of a daw or a crow, yet possessing a striking resem-
blance."
There is but one sub-family, of which the type
is
The Emerald Bird of Paradise (Paradisea apoda) ; so
called from the notion formerly universally prevalent in
Europe, that the bird was naturally destitute of feet, and
consequently, that it floated constantly in the air, only at
times suspending itself for a few brief moments, from
some lofty sun-illumined tree, by the peculiar lengthened
feathers with which it is adorned. In accordance with
this belief, it was thought that whatever individuals were
obtained on earth, had fallen from their aerial heights
immediately before their death.
The true residence and breeding-place of these beautiful
PAKADISEID^. 211
creatures seems to be Papua, or New Guinea, from whence
they make occasional excursions to the neighbouring
islands. They fly in flocks of about thirty or forty, under
the guidance of a single bird, which the natives call their
chief. They appear habitually to prefer the most dense
and secluded parts of the forests, where, when the sky is
clear, they perch upon the tops of the highest trees. They
fly with rapidity, but with an undulating motion, as is
usual with birds adorned with long plumage, and always
against the wind, a position which keeps their long
plumes laid flat to their body ; for it is evident that, did
they fly in any other direction, the Avind, by blowing their
plumage about, would materially interfere with the free
play of their wings. When flying, they make a noise
like Starlings, but their common cry rather resembles that
of a Haven, and is very audible in windy weather, when
they dread the chance of being blown to the ground. In
the Aru islands they are captured by the natives in
various ways, with birdlime, snares, and blunted arrows.
Though many are taken alive, they are always immedi-
ately killed, embowelled, and their feet cut off : the
plumed skins, fumigated with sulphur, are then dried for
sale. They are said to feed on fruits and berries, and
Linnaeus says they devour the larger butterflies.
212 CONIROSTRES.
FAMILY III.
STURNJD.E. The Starlings.
GEN. CHA.BAC. Bill more or less long, with the sides compressed, the culmen
slightly curved or straight to the tip, which is sometimes emarginated, and
the gape often angulated; the wings long and pointed; the tail generally
long and even, or graduated ; the tarsi more or less long, and covered in
front with broad scales ; the toes long and strong, the hind toe very long
and robust ; the claws long, curved, and acute.
The birds of this family are nearly related to the
Corvidse, both in their structure and habits. They
are for the most part sociable, collecting in flocks,
especially during the autumn and winter, and even
during the breeding season they are generally to be
seen in company. Their food consists of worms, in-
sects, fruit, and grain, articles which also constitute
a considerable portion of the diet of Crows ; but the
Starlings do not appear to imitate the latter birds
either in their taste for carrion or in their predatory
propensities ; they are, however, very sagacious,
and become docile and amusing in captivity, when
some of them may be taught various tricks, and even
to speak a few words.
To this family belong the Glossy Starlings, the
Grakles, the Beef-eaters, the Starlings proper, the
Boat-tails, the Hang-nests, and the Troop-birds.
STURNJD.E.
SUB-FAMILY I.
PTILORHYNCHIX.E.* The Glossy Starlings.
GEIT. CHABAC. Bill strong, moderate, with the sides compressed, and the
culmen curved to the tip, which is emarginated ; the wings moderate and
pointed ; the tail of various length, and graduated or even ; the tarsi strong
and covered with broad scales ; the toes long, strong, the lateral ones
unequal, and hind toe long and strong.
FlG. 88. THE SATIN BO\VER-BIUI>.
(Ptilofhynchus holosericiu.)
These remarkable birds, called by Mr. Gould the
Bower-birds, are peculiar to Australia, where they
are found in the forests that border the principal
rivers, as well as in the cedar bushes. When perched
011 the lofty branches of the trees, they emit loud and
harsh notes, which, with regard to one of the species,
can only be compared to the noises of the domestic
* TtTiXov, ptilon, a 'feather ; pu~[xG> rynchos, abeak.
L 3
214
CONIEOSTRES.
cat. In the autumn they congregate in small flocks,
and are then often seen on the ground. The adult
males of the Satin Bower-birds are more rarely seen
than the females and old males, and these latter are
supposed to be from two to three years old before
they exhibit their rich glossy black plumage. They
feed on various berries and fruits, especially wild
figs and the native cherry, which, when ripe, forms
their chief food. They are very destructive to the
ripening crops of the settlers.
The typical species is named
The Satin Bower-bird (PtUorhynchus holosericus). The
localities favourable to the habits of the Satin-bird are
the luxuriant and thickly-foliaged brushes stretching
along the coast of the Australian continent, from Port
Phillip to Moreton Bay. It is not migratory, but ranges
from one district to another, either for the purpose of
varying the nature of its food or of obtaining a more
abundant supply. It appears to be wholly granivorous
or frugivorous, or, if not exclusively so, insects form but
a small portion of its diet. Independently of numerous
berry-bearing plants and shrubs, the brushes it inhabits
are studded with enormous fig-trees, some of them
towering to the height of two hundred feet. Among the
lofty branches of these giants of the forest, the Satin
Bower-bird and several species of Pigeons find, in the
small white fig with which the branches are loaded, an
abundant supply of a favourite food ; they also commit
considerable depredations on ripening corn. These birds
have the remarkable habit of forming a bower-like struc-
ture, which seems to serve them as a play ing-ground or
hall of assembly. Their bowel's are usually placed under
the shelter of the branches of some overhanging tree, in
the most retired part of the forest. The base consists of
an extensive and rather convex platform of sticks, firmly
interwoven, on the centre of which the bower itself is
built. This, like the platform on which it is placed, and
with which it is interwoven, is formed of sticks and twigs,
but of a more slender and flexible description, the tips of
the twigs being so arranged as to curve inwards, and
nearly meet at the top. In the interior of the bower the
STUKNID.E. 215
materials are so placed that the forks of the twigs are
always presented outwards ; by which arrangement not
the slightest obstruction is afforded to the passage of the
birds. The interest of this curious bower is much
enhanced by the manner in which it is decorated, both at
and near the entrance, with the most gaily-coloured
articles that can be collected ; as the blue tail-feathei's of
the Rose-hill and Pennantian Parrots, bleached bones,
the shells of snails, &c. Some of the feathers are stuck
in among the twigs, while the bones and shells are
strewed about near the entrances. The propensity of
these birds to pick up and fly off with any attractive
object is so well known to the natives, that they always
search their bowers for any small missing article, such as
the bowl of a pipe, &c., that may have been dropped acci-
dentally in the brush. Mr. Gould found, at the entrance
of one of them, a small neatly-worked stone tomahawk,
of an inch and a half in length, together with some slips
of blue cotton rags, which the birds had doubtless picked
up at a deserted encampment of the natives. For what
purpose these curious bowers are made is not yet fully
understood ; they are certainly not used for a nest, but as
a place of resort for many individuals of both sexes,
which, when there assembled, run through and around
the bower in a sportive and playful manner, and that so
frequently, that it is seldom entirely deserted.
" Another species, the Chtamydera maculata* nearly
allied to the Satin Bower-bird, constructs a bower even
more extraordinary than that just described, and in
which the decoi-ative propensity is carried to a far greater
extent. The bowers of this bird are considerably larger,
and more avenue-like than those of the Satin Bower-bird,
being in many instances as much as three feet in length.
They are built of twigs, and beautifully lined with tall
grasses, so disposed that their heads nearly meet ; the
decorations, moreover, are very profuse, and consist of
bivalve shells, crania of small mammals, and other bones.
Evident and beautiful indications of design are manifest
throughout the whole of this strange edifice and its deco-
rations, particularly in the manner in which the stones
are placed within the enclosure, apparently to keep the
* x^ fl /* l ''j chlamys, a mantle ; epo, deros, the skin ; So called
because they have a rose-coloured band at the back of the neck.
216
COXIROSTEES.
grasses with which it is lined fixed firmly in their places :
these stones diverge from the mouth of the run on each
side, so as to form, little paths, while the immense col-
lection of decorative materials, bones, shells, <fec., are
placed in a heap before the entrance of the avenue ; this
arrangement being the same at both ends. In some of
the larger bowers, which had evidently been resorted to
for many years, nearly half a bushel of bones, shells, and
similar objects had accumulated at each of the entrances.
FlG. 89. THK SPOTTED BOWBK-B1KD.
(Chlamydera maculata.)
These structures are frequently found at a considerable
distance from rivers, from the borders of which alone
the birds could have procured the shells and small round
pebbly stones employed in their decoration. The col-
lection and transportation of these must therefore be a
task of great labour and difficulty ; and as these birds feed
almost entirely upon seeds and fruits, the shells and bones
cannot have been collected for any other purpose than
ornament ; besides, it is only those that have been bleached
in the sun, or such as have been roasted by the natives,
and by this means whitened, that are made use of.
STURNID.E.
217
SUB-FAMILY II.
GRACULIX.E.
Tfie Grakles.
GKN. CHABAC. Bill more or less long, broad at the base, much compressed
on the sides, with the culmen rather curved to the tip, which is slightly
emarginated; the nostrils basal, lateral, rounded, exposed, with the frontal
plumes advancing to or covering the opening ; the wings long, with the first
quill short, and the third and fourth the longest ; the tail short, and even
or slightly graduated ; the tarsi short ; the toes long and strongly scutel-
latt-d.
FlG. 90. THE CROWNED GBAKLB.
(Gracula coronata.)
The true Grakles inhabit the lofty jungles of
India. They are generally seen in pairs, or small
parties of five or six individuals, frequenting the*
tops of the highest trees, seeking fruits, chiefly ber-
ries of various kinds. They are sometimes found in
newly-made gardens where a few large trees are left
standing, flying cheerfully from tree to tree, resting
218 CONIROSTEES.
a few minutes and whistling, and then flying off
again. Their song is rich, varied, and pleasing ; they
have, however, several harsh notes, often heard in
the jungles.
The Mina-bird (Gracvla religiose?) is a native of India
and the Indian islands, where it is highly valued for its
powers of imitation ; indeed, it easily learns to repeat,
not only words, but whole phrases, and that with .sur-
prising distinctness. Marsden says that it has the faculty
of imitating human speech more perfectly than any other
bird. In captivity, the Mina is lively, confident, and
docile ; it is about the size of a Thrush, and lives indis-
criminately on insects and fruits. The Jungle Mina is
often seen in cages in the South of India, where it is very
highly prized, both for its powers of song and speech.
Another species, called
The Paradise Grakle (Gracula tristis), also a native of
India and the Philippine islands, is very voracious, and
particularly fond of locusts and grasshoppers. In con-
nection with these birds, Buffon relates the following in-
structive anecdote. " The Isle of Bourbon, where they
were unknown, was overrun with locusts, which had been
unfortunately introduced from Madagascai', their eggs
having been imported in the soil brought with some plants
from that island. In consequence of this, the governor and
the intendant deliberated anxiously on the means of ex-
terminating these noxious insects, and for that purpose
caused several paire of Grakles to be introduced into the
island. The plan promised to succeed, but unfortunately
some of the colonists observing the birds eagerly thrusting
their bills into the earth of the new-sown fields, imagined
that they were in quest of the grain, and reported that
instead of proving beneficial, the Grakles would, on the
contrary, be highly detrimental to the country. The case
was considered in form. On the part of the birds it was
argued that they raked in the newly-ploughed fields, not
for the sake of the grain, but of the insects, and were
therefore worthy of protection. They were, however,
proscribed by the council, and in the space of a few hours
after the sentence was pronounced, not a Grakle was to
be found in the island. This prompt execution was,
STURNIDJE.
219
however, followed by speedy repentance ; the locusts
gained the ascendancy, and the people, who only viewed
the present, regretted the loss of the Grakles. In a few
years afterwards a few pairs were again introduced, their
preservation and breeding were made a state affair, the
laws held out protection to them, and the physicians on
their part declared their flesh to be unwholesome. The
Grakles accordingly multiplied, and the locusts were
destroyed."
The type of this sub-family is
The Crowned Grakle (Gracula coronafa).
220
COXIROSTEES.
SUB-FAMILY III.
BUPHAGIN.E/
The Ox-peckers.
GBJT. CHARAC. Bill moderate, broad, with the culmen slightly depressed
and curved to the tip, which is entire ; the lateral sides of the lower man-
dible broad, and the gonys short and ascending ; the nostrils basal, small,
and partly closed by a membrane ; the wings long and pointed ; the tail
long and graduated, with the end of each feather pointed ; the tarsi short
and strong; the toes moderate, strong, and armed with moderate, much
compressed, curved, and acute claws.
FlG. 91. TBB OX PECKBR.
(Bupkaga .lfri<-:ina.)
The Ox-peckers are found on the continent of
Africa. They are always in company with cattle.
on whose backs they are generally seen clinging
/3owf, boas, an ox ; 0<ryu>, phago, to eat ; Beef -eater.
STCRN1DJE. 221
while seeking for the parasitical insects that annoy
those animals.
The type of the race
The Ox-pecker, or African Beef-eater (Buphaga Afri-
cana), is a common bird in many parts of Africa, where
it follows the singular mode of life that has obtained for
it its name. Perching upon the backs of oxen, or other
cattle, it sets to work busily to extract from their skins
the larvae of the (Estridce, or Bot-flies, with which they
are almost constantly infested, and which often give rise
to painful tumours. It creeps about in all directions
upon the body of the ox by means of its powerful feet,
which exhibit some resemblance to those of the Wood-
pecker, although the toes are in the ordinary position.
The bill of the bird is well adapted for digging and
squeezing out these larvae ; it is short and stout, and
inflated towards its extremity. The cattle are said to
submit with exemplary patience to the operation, as if
aware of the benefit to be derived from it. The Ox-pecker
measures between eight and nine inches in length ; it lives
in small bands, consisting of seven or eight individuals,
and is very shy.
Besides the larvae of the Breeze-fly, for which they show
a decided preference, these birds eat all kinds of insects,
bird-lice, and similar creatures.
2-2-2
COXIROSTRES.
STURNINjE.
SUB-FAMILY IV.
The Starlings proper.
GEN. CHABAC. BiD more or less long, with the culmen curved or straight to
the tip, which is obtuse and somewhat flattened ; the nostrils basal, placed
in a membranous groove, and sometimes clothed with short feathers ; the
wings moderate ; the tail rather short, and even or rounded ; the tarsi
rather long, strong, and covered with broad scales ; the toes long and strong,
armed with strong acute claws.
FIG. 92. THE COMMOX STAHLIXG.
(StitrHH* rulgarit.)
These birds are found in most parts of the world,
migrating regularly in vast flocks, which occasions
them to appear in different localities at stated
periods. They mostly frequent swampy places, and
are often seen in company with other birds of similar
habits. While on the ground they walk with
facility. Their food consists chiefly of worms and
insects ; but they also feed upon grain and seeds,
223
which are usually obtained by searching for them
on the ground. Their notes consist of a shrill
whistle, occasionally varied by a chattering noise ;
and they often imitate the cries of birds and animals.
They make their nests of dry grass, in the holes of
trees and buildings, and lay from four to five eggs.
The type of this sub-family is
The Common Starling (Sturnus vulgaris). This well-
known bird appears to be generally distributed over the
whole of the Eastern hemisphere. In the autumn, the
Starlings collect in large flocks, consisting of old and
young birds, which fly together in search of food, and
roost together at night. Sometimes many of these flocks
select some mass of trees as a common roosting-place, to
which they come night after night in thousands. Their
food consists of worms, insects, slugs, and snails, together
with berries and seeds, the latter especially dining the
autumn and winter. In pursuit of insects and worms,
they may be constantly seen in parties upon meadows and
lawns, sometimes in company with Rooks and other birds :
when thus engaged, they do not hop, but run, moving
their feet alternately.
They alight in open pastures abruptly, without prepa-
ratory reconnoitring, and immediately disperse, running
nimbly along in search of mollusca, worms, and other
objects. On discovering traces of a subterranean larva
or worm, they dig for it, with great dexterity, in the
same manner as the Thrushes and the Crows. During
their search they are seldom silent, some individuals
commonly keeping up a chattering noise, and occasion-
ally uttering a low scream ; this scream prolonged and
heightened is the intimation of alarm, and when heard
from one or more of the flock, they immediately cease
their search, look up, and if they jxidge it necessary, fly
off with speed to a considerable distance.
224
CONIEOSTRES.
SUB-FAMILY V.
QUISCALIN.E.
The Boat-tails.
GBN. CHARAC. Bill lengthened, with the culmen straight and slightly curved
at the tip ; the nostrils basal, lateral, and placed in a triangular groove ;
wings moderate and pointed ; tail lengthened and graduated, with the aides
generally curved upwards ; the tarsi and toes strong and much scutellated,
the hind toe long, and armed with a strong curved claw.
FlG. 93. THE BLACK BOAT-TAIL.
(Scaphldurus ater.)
These birds are migratory between the north and
the more temperate parts of the American continent,
according to the change of seasons. In the winter
they assemble in considerable numbers, and entirely
overrun the warmer south-eastern maritime regions,
and are very destructive. In the spring they are
usually seen flying about the swamps and meadows,
or following in the furrows after the plough. At tin's
season they are very useful to the husbandman, as
STURXID.E. 225
they destroy a prodigious number of worms, grubs,
and caterpillars ; on the other hand, they commit
great depredations on the maize or Indian corn as
soon as it appears above the ground, feeding on the
sweet and sprouting stem, and scattering the leaves
around as an evidence of their mischievous mode of
life. This plant is again attacked when the grain is
in the milky state to such an extent that one-fourth
of the crop is supposed to be devoured by these
hungry marauders. Previously to their departure
to the Southern States, they collect from all parts
in such hosts that the air is darkened by their
numbers.
The best-known species
The Purple ftuiscalus (Qtti-scalus purpureus), generally
called the Purple Grakle, is an annual visitor to the
United States of North America, These birds frequent
marshy districts, but in the month of March approach
rural habitations, and pick up food in the farm-yards, or
even at the doors of houses, where they will share the
grain thrown out to the fowls. The woods, and more
especially those of a marshy character, are selected as fit
localities for building their nests, which are composed of
the stems of dried grass, sedge, and fibrous roots, and
strengthened externally with a coat of clay. The eggs
are five or six in number, of a bluish colour, spotted, and
streaked with dark brown or black. Two broods are
reared in the course of the year.
The type of this sub-family is
The Black Boat-tail (Scaphidunu ater).
226
CONIKOSTRES.
SUB-FAMILY VI.
The Hang-nests.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill more or less lengthened, with both mandibles straight or
slightly curved towards the tips, which are acute and entire ; the wings
lengthened and pointed; the tail long and generally wedge-shaped; the
tarsi as long as, or shorter than, the middle toe, and broadly scaled ; toes
moderate and formed for grasping.
PlG. 94. THE BED-RTJMPED CA5SICAN.
(Cassicus h&morrhous.)
These are American birds, in their manners ap-
proximating to the Starlings, living, like them, in
flocks, and constructing their nests near each other
with singular skill and artifice, and suspending them
from the horizontal branches of trees. Each nest
is about a yard long, and resembles an enormous
purse, with the lower end hemispherical and ten
* itcTtpoQ, icteros ; a bird, mentioned by Pliny, of a yellowish-
green colour.
STTJKNIDJE. 227
inches wide. The male and female jointly manufac-
ture this gigantic structure by interlacing or knitting
together shreds of the bark of a species of aloe named
Caraquata, small rushes, and the fibres of a para-
sitical plant called Tallandsia usneoides, or Old
man's beard. The bottom is lined with a thick layer
of large dry leaves plucked from the tree itself. In
this rocking-cradle the female lays three eggs, and
feeds her young with worms till they have attained
maturity, when they prefer to live on oranges and
pine-apples.
The best-known members of the group are
The Cassicans* (Cassicus), so called from the inge-
nuity with which they construct their pensile nests,
crowding them together in such numbers as to form
quite a feature in the landscape. Upon one tree,
standing in the middle of a lake, and not more than
ten feet high, forty-five of these nests have been
counted, some depending one from another, and
completely concealing all the upper branches except
a few of the outermost leaves : at a distance, the
whole resembled an immense basket. Often in such
situations large trees are seen with hundreds of these
nests hanging from their boughs, and swaying in
the wind. " The Cassican," says Mr. Waterton,
" in size is larger than a Starling, and courts the
society of man, but disdains to live by his labours.
When hungry, he repairs to a neighbouring forest,
and there partakes of fruit and seeds ; when his
repast is over, he returns to man, and pays the little
tribute that he owes him for protection ; he takes
his station on a tree close to his house, and there,
for hours together, pours forth a succession of imi-
tative notes. His own song is sweet, but very short.
If a Toucan be yelping in the neighbourhood, he
drops his own notes and imitates him. Then he will
amuse his protector with the cries of the different
* Kaaavu), cassuo, to sevj together ; So called because they form
their nests of interwoven vegetable fibres.
228 CONIROSTRES.
species of Woodpecker ; and when the sheep bleat,
he will distinctly answer them. Then conies his
own song again; and if a puppy-dog or a guinea-
fowl interrupt him, he takes them off admirably,
and by his different gestures while doing so, you
would think that he enjoys the sport ; indeed, he
imitates any sound so exactly, that he goes by no
other name than that of the Mocking-bird among
the colonists. At breeding-time, a number of these
pretty choristers resort to a tree near the planter's
house, and from its outside branches weave their
pendulous nests ; so conscious do they seem that
they never -give offence, and so little suspicious are
they of receiving any injury from man, that they
will choose a tree within forty yards of his house,
and occupy the branches so low down that he may
peep into their nests."
The proportions of this bird are so fine that lu
may be said to be a model of symmetry in Orni-
thology.
The type of this sub -family is
The Red-romped Cassican (Cassicus hcemorrhous).
STURNIDJ3.
229
AGELAIX.E.
SUB-FAMILY VII.
The Troop-birds.
GEX. CHAKAC. Bill the length of the head, or shorter, completely conical,
with the sides gradually compressed towards the tip ; the culmen straight,
flattened, and more or less broad ; the tarsi usually the length of the middle
toe ; the toes lengthened, slender, the outer united at the base with the
middle one, the hind toe long, and all armed with long and rather curved
claws.
FlG. 95. THE CAPPED TBOOP-BIBD.
(Chrysomus front ali.)
These birds are peculiar to the continent of Ame-
rica. The North-American species are migratory,
and in winter visit the southern States in large
nocks, especially frequenting the vicinity of the sea-
coast near large fields of rice and corn. Wilson
relates that he has frequently been amused by their
aerial evolutions. Sometimes they appear driving
alxmt like an enormous black cloud carried before
230 CONIROSTRES.
the wind, and varying its shape every moment ;
sometimes suddenly rising from the fields around
him with a noise like thunder, then descending like
a torrent and covering the branches of some de-
tached grove or clump of .trees, the whole congre-
gated multitude commenced a chorus which he could
plainly distinguish at the distance of more than two
miles. They arrive in Pennsylvania in the begin-
ning of March in immense flocks, and commence
their attack on the grubs, caterpillars, and other
larvas ; for these they search in the ground at the
roots of plants, in orchards and meadows, as well as
among buds, leaves, and blossoms ; and from tin -ii-
known voracity, the multitudes of insects destroyed
by them must be immense. During August and
September they pour down on the low countries
near the coast in prodigious multitudes, wheeling
and driving over the devoted cornfields, and filling
the air with their numbers. Then commences the
work of destruction on the corn, till little is left for
the industrious husbandman, and on the seeds of
the reeds and wild oats, and other plants that abound
on the banks of the great rivers. In April they
separate in pairs to begin their family preparations.
The nest is sometimes placed among the high grass
of a watery meadow, or in a tussock of rushes in a
marsh, but more frequently about six or eight feet
from the ground in a thicket of alders, or in a
detached bush. The exterior is formed of rushes
and long tough grass twined securely around the
neighbouring twigs, to prevent its falling from its
flexible support : a similar precaution is used when
the nest is made amongst rushes. When placed on
the ground, less care is necessary, and fewer mate-
rials are employed, the nest being much lighter and
more simple : the lining is of fine bent. The female
deposits five eggs.
The Cow-pen Bird, or Cow Bunting (Molothnts* bona-
* fioXtlv, molein, to transplant ; from the habit of depositing
its eggs in the nests of other birds.
STURNID.&. 231
riensis), is remarkable for its habit of depositing its eggs
in the nest of some other bird, like our Cuckoo. It is
migratory at certain seasons, making its appearance in
tlif middle States of the American Union at the end of
March or the beginning of April, but it passes the winter
in the southern States. The name Cow-pen Bird giA-en
to this species is due to its habit of frequenting the
inclosures in which cattle are confined, where it seeks for
seeds, worms, and insects. It is never known to build a
nest, but drops its eggs singly in the nests of numerous
species of small birds. The young Cow-bird, like the
young of the European Cuckoo, is always found alone in
the nest of its foster-parents, and probably resorts to the
same means of getting rid of the rightful tenants that
is adopted by the Cuckoo, as it is found that when the
egg of the parasite is deposited before those of the owner,
the latter deserts its .nest, and thus the object of the
intruder is defeated. It has been observed that the young
of this bird, like that of the Cuckoo, seems to possess
some power of attaching to itself the affections of almost
all small birds, as these cannot see it in a helpless state
without administering to its necessities. Wilson placed
a young bird of this species in the same cage with a
Cardinal Grosbeak, and the latter, as soon as his compa-
nion began to be clamorous for food, set to work to satisfy
its appetite, and tended it like an affectionate nurse ;
when he found that a grasshopper which he brought to
his nurseling was too large for it to swallow, he broke
it into small pieces, which he passed through his bill to
soften them, and then placed in the expectant mouth of
the little Cow-bird with the greatest gentleness. The
length of the Cow-pen Bird is about seven inches ; its
plumage is black with a greenish gloss. The female is of
a brown colour, paler below.
The type of this sub-family is
The Capped Troop-bird (Chrysomw frontalis).
M 'I
232 CONIROSTRES.
FAMILY IV.
FRINGILLID.E. The Finches.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill short, thick, strong, and more or less conical, without
emargiuation at the tip, but generally angular and thick at the base.
In the family of the Finches, to which belong the
Sparrow, the Bunting, the Greenfinch, the Gold-
finch, and all our little thick-billed birds, the form
of the bill is more decidedly conical than in any
other Passeres. Their beak is generally short and
stout, but tapering to a fine point ; and the edges of
the upper mandible are destitute of those notches
near the tip, which, although specially characteristic
of the Dentirostral tribes, occur in a less marked
degree in many Conirostral species : in only one
sub-family (the Tanagers), the upper mandible is
distinctly notched, and bent over the lower. Their
tongue is rather fleshy, but horny towards the tip,
where it usually presents a slit. The feet are slender,
the tarsi generally covered in front with seven horny
plates, which, however, are sometimes conjoined so
as to form a single long shield. The toes are of mode-
rate length, and terminated by rather slender curved
claws. The tail is composed of twelve feathers.
The Finches are all small birds, and exhibit much
activity as they hop along upon the ground, or leap
from twig to twig among the trees and bushes.
Their flight is undulatory, rising as by an effort
through a certain space, and then sinking, as the
wings are closed, for a similar distance. Their food
consists principally of seeds, for the consumption of
which the form of their bill is peculiarly adapted ;
but they also pick up insects and worms, especially
during the breeding season. Their adaptation to a
diet of hard vegetable substances is further shown
liy the structure of their digestive organs, their
FRINGILLID.E. ZQQ
oesophagus being dilated into a small crop, in which
seeds are stored and partially softened; and they
are possessed of a powerful gizzard for the commi-
nution of their food. In some species, the colours
of the plumage are exceedingly rich and beautifully
combined, but the majority are clad in dull and
homely attire. The race of Finches is distributed
throughout all the temperate parts of the world, and
some are even met with in the Arctic regions, since
wherever vegetation exists seeds are produced, and
these, as we have seen, constitute their principal
food.
The birds belonging to this family usually frequent
open and cultivated places, but some prefer wild
mountainous districts. They live in flocks, several
species sometimes associating together, especially
during the winter months. Those that reside in the
more northern parts of Europe migrate periodically
to the warmer provinces ; and those that frequent
the mountains seek the lower ground on the approach
of winter. Their song consists of three or four
notes, which in some, though short, possess great
sweetness, and are varied in delivery. Their nest is
placed upon trees and in the bushes of mountainous
districts, or else in those of gardens, orchards, and
plantations. It is composed of grass, moss, and
lichens interwoven with wool, and lined interiorly
with feathers and hair. The eggs are four or five in
number.
This extensive family comprehends the Weaver-
birds, the Hawfinches, the TanauxTs, the Finches,
the Buntings, the Larks, the Bullfinches, the Cross-
bills, and the Plant-cutters.
234
CONIEOSTRES.
SUB-FAMILY I.
FLOCKING.*
The, Wearers.
EX. CHAKAC. Bill strong and conical, with the culmen projecting on the
forehead and arched to the tip, which is entire ; the wings somewhat rounded,
with the first quill remarkably short ; the legs and toes robust, and strongly
scaled, and the hind toe strong and nearly as long as the middle toe.
- - -,
FlG. 96. THE PHILIPPINE WEAVBK-BIBD.
(Ploceut Philippinus.)
* TT\OKTI, a web ; So called from the skill with which their nests
are woven.
235
These birds inhabit India and Africa, where they
are to be seen on trees near the banks of rivers :
they feed on small fruits, rice, and seeds, and do
considerable damage in gardens during the summer.
Several species build curious hanging nests, com-
posed of the stalks of grasses, very neatly and
closely interwoven, and have thus earned for them-
selves the name of Weaver-birds.
The Philippine Weaver-bird (Ploceus Philippinus] is
described as suspending its nest by a cord of considerable
length from the branch of a tree, so as to be inaccessible
to snakes and monkeys. This elegant structure is said to
contain a chamber for the male, and another for the
female, the former being situated close to the opening at
the bottom of the nest, through which the birds obtain
access to their snug apartments. Here the male stations
himself, and the natives believe that he attaches to the
walls of his chamber a patch of soft clay, to which he
fastens a fire-fly to serve as a night-light. The Baya of
India, which, if not identical with, is very nearly allied
to the Philippine species, is better known, and, from the
observations of European residents in India, we obtain
more accurate information of its proceedings. The nest
of this species is usually suspended from the tips of the
leaves of the fan-palm, where it hangs perfectly secure
from all plunderers, or sometimes from the leaves of the
Babul, a species of mimosa, whose formidable thorns
serve to keep all intruders at a distance. It is composed
of dried grass, closely interwoven, and resembles a gradu-
ally enlarging purse of thirteen or fourteen inches in
length, and about seven inches in diameter at the lowest
part, where the true nest is situated. This consists only
of a single chamber, the opening of which is at one side.
access to it being obtained by means of a cylindrical
passage hanging down from the bottom of the nest. The
male has a separate, but less perfect nest of his own, and
in this Mr. Layard always found two masses of clay
attached on each side of the perch occupied by the bird.
The Cingalese asserted that these were for the reception
of the fire-flies, which they believe the male bird takes
into his abode on the approach of night ; but Mr. Layard
was unable to verify this supposition.
236 CONIKOSTRES.
Many other species belonging, to this sub-family
are equally remarkable for the beauty and unusual
structure of their nests. Some are gregarious even
during the breeding season, hanging their nt-sts
close together on the same tree ; and as each bird,
on building a new nest, places it in close juxtaposition
with the old ones, an apparently solid mass of uusts
is at length collected, consisting of numerous apart-
ments each tenanted by a pair of birds, but having
the external appearance of one single dwelling.
Of these
The Sociable Grosbeak (Ploceus socius), an inhabitant
of the interior of Africa, near tbe Cape of Good Hope, is
one of the most remarkable. These birds build their
nests in mimosa trees, which grow to a large size, and
FlG. 97. SEST OF THE SOCIABLE GBOSBKAK.
(PlocfMt tociut.)
appear to be peculiarly adapted for the purpose, as the
smoothness of their trunks prevents the occupants from
being attacked by monkeys and other noxious animals.
" On one tree," says Mr. Paterson, " there could not
be less than from eight hundred to a thousand of these
nests, under one general roof. I call it a roof because
it resembles that of a thatched house, and projects over
FRJNGILLIDJE. 237
the entrance of the nest below in a very singular manner.
The industry of these birds seems almost equal to that of
the bee. Throughout the day they appear to be busily
employed in carrying a species of fine grass, which is the
principal material they employ for the purpose of erecting
this extraordinary work, as well as for additions and
repairs. Though my very short stay in the country was
not sufficient to satisfy me by ocular proof that they
added to their nest as they annually increased in numbers,
still, from the many trees that I have seen borne down
by the weight, and others which I have observed with
their boiighs completely covered over, this would appear
to be really the case. When the tree which is the support
of this aerial city is obliged to give way to the increase of
weight, it is obvious that they are no longer protected,
and are under the necessity of rebuilding in other trees.
One of these deserted nests I had the curiosity to break
down to inform myself of the internal structure, and
found it equally ingenious with that of the external.
There are many entrances, each of which forms a regular
street, with nests on both sides at about two inches' dis-
tance from each other. The grass with which they build
is called the Bushman's grass, and I believe the seed of it
to be their principal food, though, on examining their
nests, I found the wings and legs of different insects.
From every appearance, the nest which I dissected had
been inhabited for many years, and some parts were more
complete than others. This, therefore, I conceive to be an
additional proof that the animals added to it at different
times, as they found necessaiy from the increase of the
family, or rather, of the nation or community."
But the most celebrated of these ingenious architects
is the " Tailor-bird," whose nest is a perfect curiosity.
When about to build a cradle for their progeny, the
Tailor -bii-ds first select a plant with large leaves, and
then, gathering real cotton from the cotton-plant, spin it
into a thread by means of their bill and feet, and literally
sew the leaves together so as to form a sort of pensile
bag, in which the young are reared. Much obscurity
hangs over the true affinities of this little bird ; it is gene-
rally known by the name of Sylvia sutoria, or Tailor
Warbler. Dr. Latham describes its nest as composed of
a single leaf of a fibrous rough texture, about six inches
M 3
238
COXIROSTRES.
long and five inches and a half in breadth, ending in a
point. The sides of this leaf are drawn together >> as
to meet within three-quarters of an inch ; within this
is the nest, which is about four inches deep and two bi-oad,
opening at the top ; and the bottom of the leaf is drawn
upwards to assist in supporting it. This inward nest is
composed of white down, with here and there a feather.
The stalk of the leaf, from which the whole fabric hangs.
is about five inches long. The specimen above described
was brought from China.
Fl6. 93. SZBT Of TAILOR-BIRD.
FRINGILLID.E.
239
SUB-FAMILY II.
COCCOTHRAUSTIN.E.* The Hawfinches.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill large, short, strong, conic, and very broad at the base ;
the culmen and gonys more or less equally curved at the tip ; the lateral
margins more. or less angulated at their base; the wings lengthened and
more or less pointed ; the tail in general short ; the tarsi as long as or shorter
than the middle toe, robust, and strongly scaled, and the hind toe as long as,
or rather shorter than, the inner one, and strong.
FlG. 99. THE HAWFINCH.
(Coccothrautteg vulgaris.)
These birds are found in various parts of Europe,
North America, and the northern parts of India,
where they migrate periodically in search of the
seeds and fruits on which they feed. The great
strength of their bills allows them to break cherry -
* KOKKo9pai?ri]c, coccothraustes, a
240 COXIROSTEES.
stones and almonds for the kernels ; they likewise
feed upon haws and other winter berries.*
The type of this sub-family,
The Hawfinch (Coccotkraustes vulgaris), from its
general conformation, is evidently adapted to some labo-
rious occupation. Its short tail and wings unfit it for
long aerial voyages, and its thick neck and ponderous
bill denote great muscular power. Hawfinches may be
seen in winter diligently picking up and cracking the
stones of laurel cherries, from which Blackbirds hail, a
few months before, stripped the pulp. They are not un-
common in cherry orchards, where their visits may l>e
detected by the ground being covered with halve> f
cherry-stones, which these birds split with then- powerful
beaks, as cleverly as a workman could divide them, with
his chisel ; they likewise feed on hazel nuts, the kernels
of the fruit of the hawthorn, seeds of various kinds, and,
when they can get them, green peas.
The nest is built sometimes in a bush, and sometimes
among the branches of a tree : it is composed of t\\ iir>.
intermixed with a larger or smaller quantity of fragments
of grey lichen. The latter is never wanting, and some-
times constitutes the greater part of the nest. The mate-
rials are loosely put together, and the cavity is lined with
fine roots and hair ; the eggs are from four to six in
number, of a pale olive colour, spotted with brown and
streaked with grey.
* Hence the Hawfinch is called by the Germans, Kernbeisser,
Kirsch Kernbeisser, Kerschfink. Nussbeisser. Jcc.
FRINGILLID.*:.
241
SUB-FAMILY III.
The, Tanayers.
GEN. CHAEAC. Bill more or less triangular at the base, with the culmen more
or less arched to the tip, which is more or less emarginated ; the wings
moderate and somewhat pointed ; the tarsi and toes short and slender, the
hind toe rather lengthened and strong, with the claws strong and curved.
FlG. 100. THE BED-HEADED ^YRANGA.
(Pyranga rubiceps.)
The Tanagers are distinguished from the other
Finches by their bill having a distinct and well-
defined notch near the end of the upper mandible.
They are all natives of the warmer parts of America,
abounding most in those regions which lie nearest
to the equinoctial line. They are in general small
birds, the largest being intermediate in size between
a sparrow and a thrush, while the majority do not
exceed the size of a linnet : some are smaller. It is
242 CONIROSTRES.
quite evident, from the great strength of the bill
possessed by some, and by the notch which is con-
spicuous in all, that these birds feed both upon seeds
and insects, picked from the branches of trees ; for
they are rarely seen upon the ground. Their colours
are generally bright, and in many species particularly
rich and beautiful ; some, indeed, are ornamented
with the most vivid hues, or glossed with rich
reflections of gold, rendering them inferior only to
the Humming-birds. A few possess considerable
vocal powers, and the notes of the sub-genus E apho-
nia, as its name implies, are particularly musical.
The impossibility of providing Tanagers with their
native insect food has prevented them from ever
being brought alive to Europe.
The type of this sub-family is
The Red-headed Pyranga (Pyranga iitbiceps).
FRINGILLID.E.
243
SUB-FAMILY IV.
FRIXGILLIX.E. The Finches proper.
GEN. CHAHAC. Bill short, conic, and more or less broad at the base, with
the culmen sloping and the sides compressed to the tip, which is generally
entire ; the gonys long and advancing upwards ; the wings more or less
lengthened and pointed ; the tail varying in length, sometimes with the end
of the feathers acuminated ; the tarsi as long as, or shorter than, the
middle toe, slender and transversely sealed ; the toes more or less long and
slender, the hind toe moderate ; the claws generally long, curved, and acute.
FlG. 101. THE CHAFFINCH.
(Fringilla caelebs.)
Birds belonging to this sub-family are found in
various parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, both North
and South America, and Australia. They generally
frequent open and cultivated places, but some prefer
the wild and mountainous districts; they live in
flocks, several species sometimes congregating to-
gether, especially during the winter months. Those
that reside in the more northern latitudes migrate
southwards during the cold season, and those inha-
biting the higher altitudes of the mountains seek
the lower grounds on the approach of winter. Their
244 CONIROSTRES.
food consists, during the winter months, of seeds of
various plants and trees, such as the alder, maple,
&c. ; they likewise feed upon grains, which they
seek for on the ground, especially in stubble lands ;
many, however, live on insects and their larva 1
when procurable. Their song consists of three or
four notes, which, though short, frequently po>-
great sweetness, and are agreeably varied. The
nest of some is formed upon trees and in bushes of
mountainous districts, while others prefer gardens,
orchards, and plantations ; it is composed of grass,
moss, and lichens, interwoven with wool, and lined
with feathers and hair. The eggs are four or five
in number.
The type of this sub-family is
. The Chaffinch is gene-
rally spread through Europe from Sweden to Gibraltar,
and is even found on the coast of Africa. Some of these
birds migrate in great numbei-s in autumn ; but these
flocks are said to consist of females only, while the males
remain in their native country ; indeed, the specific
name (Coelebs, or the bachelor), given by Linnanis to this
bird, is in allusion to the lonely condition of the deserted
males. It is not impossible, however, that there may be
some mistake in this, for, from the moulting time to the
month of February, and more particularly in autumn,
the two sexes exhibit colours nearly similar. At all
events, it is quite certain that many females remain, as
well as males, and assist in forming, together with the
Tree-finches, Gi*eenfinches, Buntings, and other birds,
those innumerable flocks which during winter are seen in
our fields, and which, when the earth is covered with
snow, come before our bams to share the daily food of
our domestic fowls. From the early days of spring they
begin to pair, and the mated couples isolate themselves.
Some resort to our gardens and orchards, others retire
into coppice- woods, which they animate by their gaiety,
and also by their song, which is by no means devoid of
melody ; indeed, the Chaffinch, when taken from the
nest, will imitate the notes of the Canary and of the
FKIXGILLIDJE.
245
Nightingale, if kept near those birds, and can even be
taught to articulate some words.
Their song usually consists of a sharp repetition of a
sound resembling the word " Fink" or " Pink," and it is
from the former of these that the word Finch is derived.
Although his musical powers ai*e by no means perfect, the
note of the Chaffinch is always heard with pleasure, being
associated with early spring ; and the sprightliness of the
little bird renders him a universal favourite except with
gardeners, whose radish-seed, sowed at a period when
food is usually rather scarce, is too great a temptation for
him to resist, and which he will frequently steal, almost
before it has been covered by the soil.
XEST OF GOLDFINCH.
2 Pi
CONIROSTRES.
SCB-FAMILY V.
E.MBERIX1X.K.
The
GKX. CHARAC. Bill conical, acute, compressed, with the eulmen more or less
straight to the tip, the lateral margins sinuated, and more or less inflected ;
the interior of the upper mandible furnished with a palatine knob, which is
more or less apparent ; the wings moderate and somewhat pointed ; the
tarsi about the length of the middle toe, and scuteUated ; the hind toe longer
than the inner, and robust ; the claws slender, and more or less curved.
FlG. 102. THE YELLOW AMMEK
(Emberiiu cUrinell.)
The birds which compose this family are met
with both in the Old and New World, but especially
in the former. They collect together in flocks by
themselves, or in company with other seed-feeding
birds, at the approach of winter, and remain in
society till the return of spring, when they sc-.-ittt-r
themselves singly or in pairs over the open country.
Tliry do not remove to any great distance in their
migrations ; their flight is undulating and quick ;
FKINGILLIDJE. 247
their food consists of the seeds of plants, grasses,
and reeds, and, in warm weather, insects. They
build in low bushes, or on the ground, behind tufts
of grass. Their nest is composed of dried grasses
lined with softer materials. They lay from four to
six eggs.
The Buntings are distinguished from other Pas-
serine birds by their conical, short, and straight
bill, but more especially by the existence of a knob
in the roof of the upper mandible, which is made
use of as an anvil on which to break and comminute
hard seeds. They do not, however, feed exclusively
on vegetable matter, but, like most of their order,
subsist partly upon animal substances.
The type of the race is
The Yellow Ammer (Emberiza citrinella). Few of
our native birds are more delicately or more beautifully
coloured than the Yellow Ammer, or Yellow Bunting,
Imt. being very abundant, it is less noticed than it
deserves, except as an intruder, with other granlvorous
liirds. into the stack-yard. During the winter the
Yellow Ammers collect in small flocks, or associate with
nocks of the Common Bunting (Emberiza miliaris). In
spring, during the pairing season, the male may often be
ol (served on the topmost twig of a hedgerow, uttering a
monotonous chirp : if approached, it flies oft*, keeping along
the hedge, and settles at a little distance ; if followed, it
re]K.-ats this short flight again and again. The Yellow
Ammer builds on the ground, in low bushes, in beds of
nettles or other herbage : its nest is formed of dried
grasses, with a lining of hair. The eggs are of a pale
| >urplish white, with streaks and waving marks of choco-
late-colour. This species is to be met with throughout
the greater part of Europe.
We owe to Mr. Yarrell the restoration to this bird of
its original name Yellow Ammer, so often printed and
pronounced "Yellow Hammer." The word " Ammer "
is the common German word for Bunting ; as, for example,
" Schiiee Ammer," Snow Bunting ; " Garten Ammer,"
Garden Bunting ; " Rohr Ammer,'' Reed Bunting, ic.
'2 1-S CONIROSTRES.
Our mode of prefixing the letter H to the word is erro-
neous. In Italy these bii'ds are caught in great numbers
and fattened for the table, in the same way as the
Ortolan.*
* The Ortolan Bunting (Eniberiza hortulanus), so esteemed as
a dainty, appears to be confined to the southern parts of Europe,
where, however, it is to a certain extent migratory. When they
first arrive in France they are far from fat ; but human ingenuity
soon makes them in good condition. They are taken in great num-
bers with nets, and fattened by shutting them in a dark chamber,
in which is placed a lantern surrounded plentifully with oats and
millet. The darkness seems to have the effect of confining the
whole attention of the bird to its favourite food, thus placed within
view ; and it is said they will thus die of suffocation from their own
fat. if left entirely to themselves. Another mode is by confining
them in cages which admit a little light only to the box containing
their food. When thus fattened, the Ortolan is said to be one of
the most exquisite morsels in the epicure's carte du jour.
Kl.MNCILLII'.K.
SUB-FAMILY VI.
ALAUDIN.E. The Lark*.
GKX. CHAR xc. Bill short, and more or less lengthened and conical ; the wings
with tho tortials generally a* long as the primaries ; the claws lengthened,
more or less curved, and the hind one very long and generally straight.
Jb*i(i. 1U3. THE WOOliLAKK.
(Alauila urborea.)
The birds composing this sub-family are peculiar
to the Old World. They are generally found in
opi-n arable land, or on plains, though some seem
to prefer cultivated ground. As the winter ap-
proaches, they migrate southwards, congregating in
flocks. Some of the species sing while rising into
the air, mounting to an immense height. Their
tiio-ht is undulating, and they walk and run on the
ground with ease. They delight to roll in the dust,
(i rain and various seeds form their principal food,
but in summer they procure grasshoppers, gnats,
250
CONIEOSTEES.
and small worms. Their nests are of very simple
construction, and placed upon the ground.
The type of the race is
The Skylark (Alauda arvensis), the musician of the
fields ; its delightful song, like a hymn of joy, announces
the approaching spring, and accompanies the earliest
blush of morning. It is heard from the very commence-
ment of those fine days which succeed the cold and gloom
of winter, and its notes are the first to welcome the
ploughman to his task. During the noontide of day it is
silent, but when the sun declines towards the west, the
lark tills the air with his varied and tuneful warblings.
FlG. 104. THE 8KTLAHK.
(Alaudit urcenrit.)
" Rising, as it were by a sudden impulse, from its nest or
lowly retreat, it bursts forth, while but yet a few feet
from the ground, into exuberant song; and with its head
turned to the breeze, now ascending perpendicularly, now
veering to the right or left, but not describing circles, it
pours forth an unbroken stream of melody, until it has
FRINGILLID.E.
25]
readied an elevation computed to be about a thousand feet :
to an observer on the earth it has dwindled to a mere speck.
It then begins to descend, not with an uniform down-
ward motion, but by a series of droppings, with intervals
of simple hovering, during which it seems to be resting on
its wings. Finally, as it draws near the eai-th, it ceases
its song, and descends more rapidly ; but before it touches
the ground, it recovers itself, sweeps away with an almost
horizontal flight for a short distance, and disappears in
the herbage." Rev. C. A. Johns.
252
ON1RO8TBES.
- FAMILY VII.
PYRRHULIX.fi.*
The
GEJT. CHARAC. Bill very short, strong, more or less compressed, and entire,
with the culmen arched and convex ; the wings moderate and somewhat
rounded ; the tail moderate and slightly emarginated ; the tarsi short and
scutellated ; and the toes moderate, the lateral ones generally unequal.
FlG. 105. THE BITLLFIXCH.
(Pyrrkula rubici/ln.)
The birds composing this sub-family are inha-
bitants of Europe and the northern parts of India,
where they are usually found in the woods and
jungles. They are generally seen in pairs during
the spring, and afterwards congregate in small par-
ties for the remainder of the year. Their food
varies with the season; in the spring it consists
principally of buds, and at this time the Bullfinches
occasion much injury to the fruit and other i:
* iri'pp'oi'Xoc, pyrroulas, from jrvppof, pyrros. /<."/, r/> HOC- <-.'
while during the summer and autumn they seem to
prefer the seeds of various plants. Their nest is
carelessly put together and shallow, formed of small
twigs lined with fibres of roots, and placed in the
forked branch of a tree. The eggs are from four
to five in number.
The type of this sub -family is
The Bullfinch (Pyrrhula rubicilla), A bird equally re-
markable for the simple elegance of its plumage and the
variety of its song ; it is, moreover, but too well known
from the devastation which it causes among our fruit-
trees. During winter the food of the Bullfinches consists
exclusively of seeds of various kinds, either picked \ip
from the ground or gathered from herbs and shrubs. In
spring, unfortunately for the gai'dener, their taste alters,
and nothing will satisfy them but the blossoms of fruit-
trees, especially those which are cultivated. They attack,
indeed, the buds of the sloe and hawthorn as well, but
of these, being valueless, no one takes any note. Keeping
together in small family parties, all uninvited, they pay
most unwelcome visits to gooseberries, plums, and cherries,
and, if undisturbed, continue to haunt the same trees until
all hope of a crop is destroyed. Gooseberry bushes are
left denuded of flower-buds, which have been deliberately
picked off and crushed between their strong mandibles ;
while the leaf-buds, situated principally at the extremity
of the branches, are neglected. Plums and cherry trees
are treated in like manner, until the ground is strewed
with the bud-scales and rudiments of flowers.
The Bullfinch builds its nest in some secluded copse or
thick hedge, employing as mateiials small twigs and dry
grass, with a lining of fibrous roots : it usually lays five
eggs. Less frequently it places its nest in a shrubbery
or garden hedge.
The oixlinary notes of the Bullfinch are not musical ;
but these birds possess a remarkable talent for imitation,
and, when taken young, may be taught to whistle many
tunes with considerable accuracy. Their musical instruc-
tion is generally communicated by means of a bird-organ,
and requires considerable time and care, as the birds must
be in the habit of hearing the tunes they have to learn for
many months, in oi'der that they may acquire them per-
N
204 CONIROSTRES.
fectly ; and when they begin to exert their musical
powers, they must be kept from hearing other birds, and
from time to time assisted in their recollection, lest they
should transpose the passages in any way, or mix two airs
together. Hence a good piping Bullfinch necessarily
fetches a high price. Great numbers of them are, how-
ever, trained in Germany, and imported into London
every year.
FRIXGILLIKK.
SUB-FAMILY VIII.
LOXIAX.E.*
The Crossbills.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill more or less broad, but compressed towards the tips,
which sometimes cross each other, and curved, or the upper overhanging
that of the lower mandible ; the wings more or less lengthened, pointed, and
sometimes rounded j the tail moderate and emarginated, or graduated ; the
tarsi short, with the toea moderate.
;-
FlG. 106 THE COMMON" CROSSBILL.
(Lox'ui cnrrirosira.)
Tlu'se birds are found in the North of Europe,
America, and Asia, migrating in summer to the
higher latitudes, where they frequent the great
forests of pine and fir trees, the seeds of which
form their principal subsistence. These seeds are
detached by means of the strong lever they possess
in the remarkable formation of their bill, which is
* Aoo. loxos, slanting, cross-tcise ; So called from the shape of
the beak.
x 2
256 CONIROSTRES.
admirably adapted for wrenching asunder the scales
of the cones ; it also enables them to slit open apples
and pears for the purpose of obtaining the pips,
and they thus occasionally commit great havoc in
orchards.
Their nest is built among the branches of pine-
trees, and is composed of straws, with a few twigs
upon the outside, and a lining of fine grass and hair
within. The young birds, while in the nest, do not
present the peculiar crossing of the mandibles cha-
racteristic of the adult, this being unnecessary to
them so long as they are supplied with food by their
parent. In confinement these birds are very parrot-
like in many of their actions, frequently climbing
about the wires of the cage with their hooked bill ;
hence they are sometimes called German Parrots.
In Germany, where they are abundant, Crossbills
constitute 5, favourite article of food, and are regu-
larly exposed for sale in the markets.
The Common Crossbill (Loxia curvirostra) is by no
means of unfrequent occurrence in the northern parts of
our own country. These birds feed principally on the seeds
of various kinds of firs, which they extract from the cone
by the joint action of their beak and tongue. The alder
and other trees are sometimes visited, and they have been
noticed to resort to thistles and pick out the seeds from
them. Their mode of operation is this : they first fix
'themselves across the cone, then bring the points of their
mandibles from a crossed or lateral position to be imme-
diately over each other ; in this reduced compass they in-
sinuate their beak between the scales, and then opening
them, not in the usual manner, but by drawing the
inferior mandible sideways, force open the scales. At
this stage, the end of the tongue becomes necassary, and
this organ is no less admirably adapted for the service
required. 4 While the points of the beak press the scale
from the body of the cone, the tongue is enabled to direct
and insert its cutting scoop underneath the seed, and the
food thus dislodged is transferred to the mouth. When
the mandibles are separated laterally in the performance
<>f this operation, the bird has an uninterrupted view of
FKINGILLIM:. 257
the seed in the cavity, with the eye on that side to which
the under mandible is curved, and thus can direct the
movements of its tongue with the greatest precision.
The beak of the Crossbill, then, far from being a defect
in the organization of this bird, is a perfect instrument
always at its owner's command ; faultless alike in design
and execution, and exquisitely adapted to its work not
an easy one of performing, by a single process, the
offices of splitting, opening, and securing the contents of
a fir-cone ; and he must be a bold man who would venture
to suggest an improvement in the mechanism.
" The nest of the Crossbill is placed on two small
branches of a young spruce-pine tree, or at the end of a
leafy bough, often at a considerable height from the
ground. It is circular, and composed of the small twigs
of the spruce-pine. This nest is of large dimensions, the
diameter being two feet or more. The entrance is round,
but se small that the bird must nece.-sarily squeeze itself
into it : the interior is not larger than a man's fist. Such
are the nests prepared for the winter. Those intended
for the summer are much less in size, more open, and of a
much lighter construction. This bird, therefore, builds
its nest differently according to the season of the year and
the temperature. The female lays from three to four
eggs of a somewhat small size, and of a dirty white colour,
thickly marked with brown spots. When the young
leave the nest, they follow the mother, who feeds them,
but at this period the male deserts the family : he is
never seen in company with a female that has newly-
fledged young. These accompany their mother ; they
keep up a terrible noise, screech most unmercifully, and
flutter their wings. When feeding the young, the female
allows the cone to fall to the ground. The young follow
her to the cone, out of which she plucks the seeds, while
they, gaping and screeching, surround her on all sides."
Lloyd's Scandinavian Adventures.
258
CONIROSTEES.
SUB-FAMILY IX.
PHYTOTOMIN.E.* The Plant-cutters.
GEN. CHAEAC. Bill short, conical, with the lateral margins serrated.
FlG. 107. THE CHILIAN PLANT- CUTTEE.
(Phytotoma rara.)
The Plant-cutters constitute another group of the
large-billed Finches. These birds are peculiar to
the temperate regions of South America, where
they frequently visit the environs of inhabited and
cultivated places. They live in pairs or in small
troops, despoiling gardens and orchards, and devas-
tating plantations by cutting off the buds and fruits.
Their flight is short and low, but sometimes pro-
longed, and their habits resemble those of the
Tanagers. Their note is excessively disagreeable,
* ipvTov, phyton, a, plant ; fopr], tome, a cut or incision.
FRINGILLUXE.
approaching the noise made by the sharpening of a
saw. They feed on grains, buds, and insects. They
are generally of moderate size, about equalling the
Bullfinch in their dimensions. In order to enable
them to obtain their food, the margins of the upper
mandible are finely toothed.
The type of this sub-family
The Chilian Plant-cutter (Phytotoma rctra), is rather a
large species, being equal to a thrush in its dimensions. It
is a common bird in its native country, and is most
destructive to the crops. It is very fond of sprouting
com, and, not content with eating the green blades, it
seems to find such pleasure in the exercise of its bill, that
it cuts down hundreds of stalks, as if in mere wantonness,
and leaves the green steins strewed upon the ground. On
account of these destructive propensities, it is greatly
persecuted by the agriculturists, who assiduously shoot
and trap it ; and further aid in its extermination by
setting a price on its head, giving a certain sum to any one
who will bring in a dead bird. The nest is made on the
summit of a tree, and in some very i-etired situation ; so
that, in spite of all the persecution which it meets with,
the Plant-cutter still holds its ground against the farmers.
Its ciy is rough, and resembles the name Rara, given to
it by the inhabitants of Chili.
260
CONIEOSTRES.
FAMILY V.
The Colies.
GE>'. CHABAC. Bill moderate, with the culmen elevated at the base, and the
sides compressed to the tip, which is acute ; the nostrils placed in the middle
of a large membranous groove, with the opening small and exposed ; the
wings short ; the tail much lengthened and graduated ; the tarsi robust, and
the toes lengthened, the outer as long as the inner, the hind toe moderate,
united at the base of the inner toe, and directed forwards.
FlG. 108. THE WHITE-BACKED COLT.
(Coliuo leuconotiir.)
These birds are peculiar to the continent of Africa,
where they perch upon trees, amongst the branches
COLIDJE. 201
of which they may be seen hopping from one to
another .in search of the fruits or freshly-formed
buds. Their flight consists of little more than
flitting from tree to tree ; and they have a peculiar
habit of suspending themselves by one foot, with the
head hanging downwards. Their feet are constructed
like those of the Swifts, with all four toes turned
forward. The tarsus, considering the size of the
bird, is unusually thick and strong ; and the claws
of all the toes are more curved than in ordinary
birds. They are rarely observed on the ground, the
peculiar formation of their feet not permitting them
to walk with ease. They build their nests in society,
closely packed together on the same branch. The
nest is composed of flexible twigs, and lined with
feathers. Their eggs are from four to six in
number.
The White-backed Coly (Coliits leuconotus) is found in
Africa. It is a pretty bird, and as it traverses the
branches has a peculiarly elegaut appearance, its long
tail seeming to balance the body, in the extraordinary
and varied attitudes it assumes ; and its highly rnoveable
crest being continually raised and depressed, gives it a
very spirited aspect. It is gregarious, living in little
companies of four or five in number, and is continually
running and jumping from bough to bough in search of
its food, which consists of fruit and buds. The grasp
of its feet is veiy powerful, as much so as that of
the Parrot, so that it may often be seen hanging by its
feet, with its head downwards, and occasionally remaining
for some time suspended by a single foot ; indeed, Le
Yaillant says that this bird, in common with other
members of the same family, is in the habit of sleeping in
this singular attitude ; and that in the early morning it
may be often found so benumbed with cold, that it may
be taken by hand before it can loose its hold from the
bough, which it grasps so firmly. Owing to the structure
of its feet, which are almost wholly formed for climbing,
it is seldom seen on the ground, and when it has alighted,
is awkward in its movements. Among the boughs, how-
ever, it is all life and energy, leaping about with a vivacity
N 3
262
CONIROSTRES.
that reminds the observer of our common long-tailed
Titmouse. In mounting from branch to branch, as in
lowering themselves, the Colies frequently use their beaks
to aid them, after the well-known practice of the Parrots.
The nests of the Colies are large and rounded, and are
generally placed in close proximity to each other, five i >v
six being often found on the same branch. They arc
constructed of slender twigs externally, and lined with
mosses and soft feathers. The number of eggs is from
four to six. When fat and in good condition, the flesh
of these birds is said to be delicate and tender.
MUSOPHAGID.E. 263
FAMILY VI.
MUSOPHAGID^;.* The Plantain-eaters.
Gws. CHABAC. Bill moderate, broad at the base ; the culmen much elevated,
curved, and the sides much compressed towards the tip, which is strongly
emargiuated ; the wings more or less lengthened and rounded ; the tail long
and broad ; the tarsi moderate, strong, and covered in front with broad
transverse scales ; the toes long, and the outer one sometimes versatile.
Among the many adaptations of a more general
character whereby the ornithologist is'enabled, from
the mere examination of a skin, or a glance at a stuffed
specimen, to indicate the usual food and general
habits of birds submitted to inspection, it occasion-
ally happens that special peculiarities are observable,
tin- object of which it is difficult to understand
without a knowledge of the circumstances under
which a given species subsists. Many localities
produce delicious fruits in rich abundance, and to
obtain these more conveniently, the birds appointed
to feed upon them present remarkable modifications
of structure. The plantains, for example, throughout
many regions of tropical countries, afford a supply
of food so plentiful, that a whole family of the
feathered creation has been named from its predi-
lection for this particular diet.
This family embraces the Plantain-eaters and the
Hoaitzins.
* Musa, the plantain ; 0ayw, phago. to eat.
COXIROSTKES.
SUB-FAMILY I.
MusoPHAGiN.fi. T/te Plantain-eaters proper.
GBS. CHAEAC. The outer toe capable of being placed posteriorly.
FlG. 109. THE TIOLBT PLAKTJUX-EATZ*
(Mutopkaga ciolacea.)
These birds are natives of Africa, where they are
not at all uncommon, and may be often seen in the
forests, flitting among the branches of lofty trees,
gliding among the boughs with great adroitness,
and displaying their silky plumes to the best ad-
vantage. They are wary birds, and seem to have
tolerably accurate ideas respecting the range of shot;
for they generally keep to the higher parts of the
trees, and seldom allow themselves to be approached
within the range of a gun. Their food consists
almost entirely of plantains and other fruits, which
their large beak seems especially formed to procure.
MUSOPHAGID-E. 265
They are all handsome birds, their dimensions
resembling- those of the European Jay, and their
plumage glancing with violet, green, purple, and
red of different shades.
The type of the race is
The Violet Plantain-eater (Musophaga violacea). This
bii-cl is found about Senegal and the Gold Coast. It is
remarkable for the extraordinary shape and dimensions
of the beak, which is everywhere large and prominent,
but especially swollen towards the base, where it expands
into a large shield-like mass of horny substance, which
spreads over the forehead as far as the crown, where it
terminates in a semicircular thickened line. The ridge
of the beak is greatly arched, and its sides are much com-
pressed. Its colour is as singular as its shape a fine
golden yellow, passing into crimson on the upper part of
the base. The top of the head is crimson, not unlike
that of the beak, and the feathers are very soft and fine,
having a velvety or plush- like aspect. The general colour
of the plumage is very deep violet, appearing black in the
shade, and glossed with rich green in certain lights.
Another species found in Southern Africa and in the
extensive eastern forests, Le Vaillant represents as being
of so inquisitive a disposition, that it spontaneously
approaches a man or a quadruped, leaping from tree to
tree, and uttering a cry of satisfaction, which is expressed
by the syllable cor uttered with a prolonged and guttural
articulation, and with a quiver of the tongue. Its love-
call has been represented by the word corouw uttered
eight or ten times in succession, and its note of alarm has
been compared to the abrupt sounds of a military trumpet.
The female lays four bluish-white eggs in the large holes
of trees.
266
CONIROSTRES.
SUB-FAMILY II.
OPISTHOCOMIX.E.* TJie Honitzins.
GKS. CHABAC. Toes lengthened, and the outer toe not capable of being placed
posteriorly.
FlG. 110. THB HOAITZIX.
(OpiMocontu* cristatus.)
These remarkable birds are peculiar to the northern
parts of South America. They live in small flocks
on the banks of rivers, and are by no means shy,
allowing the hunters to approach very near. If
alarmed at the report of a gun, the flock takes
flight, crying era, era, and they all alight on the
same branch a few paces further off. Their food
consists of the leaves of a tree, called by the natives
Avingo, or of those of the Arum arborescens, which
* oiriaQf, opisthe, behind; ico/iij, kome, a lock of hair ; So called
from the crest at the back of the head.
MUSOPHAGID^E. 267
causes the flesh to have a musky smell, and to be
used as a bait for certain fishes.
The Hoaitzin (Opisthocomus cristatus}. The true posi-
tion of this curious bird must still be considered as doubtful.
Originally described as a Pheasant by Linnaeus, it has been
shifted about by different authors between the Gallina-
ceous and Passerine birds, its singular structure presenting
a combination of both. It has a large convex bill, with
the nostrils pierced in the middle of the upper mandible.
The mandibles are denticulated within the margins, and
the head is furnished with a large erectile crest. In
these, and some other particulars the Hoaitzin would
seem to appi-oach the Musophagidse, with which Mr. G.
K. Gray has placed it.
Whatever may be its due systematic position, the
Hoaitzin is a very remarkable bird. It is nearly as large as
a Peacock, which it resembles in many of its movements.
Its plumage is tawny-brown, with numerous white spots
and streaks upon the wings and tail. The naked skin
about its face and throat is bluish, and the elongated
slender feathers which form its crest are white upon one
side and black, on the other. These birds exhibit little
fear of man, and as their flesh possesses such a dis-
agreeable odour, compounded of musk and castoreum, as
to be quite useless for food, they are probably seldom
disturbed.
268 SYXDACTYLi.
TRIBE V.
SYNDACTYLE.
THE Fifth Tribe of Passerine birds comprehends
several families, recognizable by the peculiar con-
formation of their feet.* Their external toe is
almost as long as the middle toe, to which it is
joined by a membrane that reaches as far as the
last joint but one, a structure obviously intended to
give great firmness to the grasp while in the act of
perching. In this division Cuvier included the Bee-
eaters, the Todies, the Motmots, the Kimjn*1i< />', and
the Hornbilh, with which various other birds have
been associated by subsequent writers, f
FAMILY I.
CORACIDJE. The Rotters.
GKS. CHARAC. Bill more or less lengthened and broad at the base, with the
sides compressed towards the tip, which is hooked ; the nostrils basal,
lateral, with the opening linear or oval ; the wings long and pointed ; the
tail generally short and even ; the tarsi short ; the toes moderate, sometimes
free, or the outer toe united at the base with the middle one.
These birds are distinguished by great beauty of
plumage ; they are for the most part confined to hot
countries, a few only being inhabitants of the more
temperate regions. Their food consists mostly of
insects, but some of them subsist wholly or in part
upon vegetable substances.
To this family belong the Rollers proper, the
Todies, the Boatbills, and the Motmots.
* See " Animal Creation," p. 431.
t In the Tabular Views these birds will be found arranged with
the FISSIEOSTRES.
CORACID/K.
209
SUB-FAMILY I.
CORACIASIN.E. The Rollers proper.
GEN. CHARAC. The Rollers have the wings of moderate dimensions; the tail
moderate, with the side feathers sometimes lengthened; the tarsi short;
the toes moderate, and free at the base.
FlG. 111. THE GABBULOUS JAY, OE COMMON BOLLEB.
(Coracias garrula.)
These birds are indigenous to Africa, India, New
Guinea, and Australia, but, owing to their migratory
habits, are sometimes met with in various parts of
Europe, and even in England. As their food consists
of insects and fruits, they are obliged to move from
place to place, according to the ' seasons. They
mostly frequent wooded districts, where they may
be met with, either singly or in pairs, perched on
the dead branch of some tree, from whence they
occasionally take flight to a short distance to capture
270 SYXDACTYLJK.
an insect, and having seized it, return to the same
spot. Their nest is placed in a hole of some decayed
tree. The female lays four or five eggs.
The Garrulous Jay, or Common Roller (Coracias gar-
rula), is an inhabitant of Africa, but visits Euroj>e, and
even Great Britain, in the summer time. On the stepj>es
of Southern Russia it is abundant, and goes by the name
of the Steppe Parrot, partly on account of its squalling
voice, partly on account of its beautiful plumage, in
which green, blue, yellow, and black strive for supre-
macy ; indeed, it is described as " resembling a moving
rainbow " when flying in the sunshine. In Malta and
the Mediterranean islands it stays throughout the summer,
and breeds. In central Europe it usually inhabits dense
forests, where it builds its nest in the holes of trees, gene-
rally preferring the birch ; whence it is known in Germany
as the Birch Jay. Where trees are scarce, as in Malta,
it breeds upon the ground, or in holes of old buildings ;
and in the treeless regions of Southern Russia it makes
its nest in holes in the clay banks of rivers. Its eggs,
which are usually four in numbei', are exactly similar in
shape and in their pure white colour, to those of our
common Kingfisher and Bee-eater, to which it is nearly
related. It is a noisy and restless bird. In the autumn
the yo\ing become very fat, and acquire a good flavour,
so that they are eagerly sought after for the table.
CORACID.E.
SUB-FAMILY II.
TODIX.E.
The Todies.
GEN. CHAHIC. Bill lengthened, much depressed, and slightly compressed
towards the tip, which is rounded or pointed; the gonys long, slightly
ascending and rounded beneath ; the nostrils lateral, with the opening ante-
rior and exposed ; the wings short and rounded ; the tail moderate, and
rather emarginated ; the tarsi moderate and slender ; the toes unequal, the
outer toe longer than the inner, and both more or less united at the base,
the hind toe short ; the claws small.
FlG. 112. THE GBEEN TODT.
(Todus cirijif.)
These birds are found in the tropical parts of
America, and in the West-India islands. They are
SYNDACTYL.E.
usually seen singly, in lone and moist places, sitting
in a crouching manner on the branch of a bush, with
the head drawn in between the shoulders. They
exhibit little timidity, and may be approached so
near as sometimes to be caught by the hand. They
live principally upon orthopterous and other insects,
which they seize with avidity.
The typical species is
The Green Tody (Todus viridis), a very small bird,
scarcely bigger than a wren, common in all parts of
Jamaica, where, conspicuous from its bright grass-green
coat and crimson velvet gorget, it hops about the trees,
searching for minute insects, and occasionally uttering a
querulous sibilant note ; but more usually it is seen sit-
ting patiently on a twig, with the head drawn in, the
beak pointing upwards, and its loose plumage puffed out,
so that it appears much larger than it really is. and pre-
sents a general aspect of stupidity. But this abstraction
is more apparent than real ; if we watch it, we shall see
that its odd-looking grey eyes are glancing hither and
thither, and that ever and anon the bird sallies forth upon
a short flight, snaps at something in the air, and returns
to his twig. " One captured with a net, and turned into
a room, began immediately to catch flies and other minute
insects that flitted about, particularly the destructive little
clothes-moths. At this employment he continued inces-
santly from earliest dawn till dusk. He would sit on
the edge of the table, on shelves, or on the floor, ever
glancing about, and now and then flitting into the air,
when the snap of his beak announced a capture, and he
would return to the same station to eat it. He would
peep into the lowest and darkest corners, even under the
tables, for the little globose long-legged spider, which he
would drag from their webs and swallow. He sought
them also about the ceiling and walls, and found very
many. I have said that he continued all day at this
employment without intermission, and though I took no
account, I judged that on an average he made a capture
per minute : we may thus form some idea of the immense
number of insects destroyed by these and similar birds,
bearing in mind that this was in a room where the human
CORACID^E. 273
eye scarcely recognized half a dozen insects altogether,
and that in the free air insects must be much more nume-
rous.'' Mr. Gosse.
The Green Tody is exclusively an insect-feeder, and
burrows in the earth to breed. The banks of ravines,
and the scarps of dry ditches, are excavated by its feet,
in which two out of the three front toes are united toge-
ther, having only the terminal joint free. The hole runs
into the bank some eight inches or a foot, forming a
winding gallery, rounded at the bottom and terminating
in a sufficiently wide lodging lined with pliant fibres, dry
moss, and cotton. In this retreat four or five grey-brown
spotted eggs are laid, and the young are fed till they are
fully fledged. Mr. Gosse observes that the inhabitants of
Jamaica are not in the habit of domesticating many of
the native birds, else there is one of the species that would
become a favourite pet. In a state of liberty it attracts
the admiration of the most unobservant, and an European
is charmed with it. As it sits on a twig in the verdure
of spring, its grass-green plumage is sometimes undistin-
guishable from the leaves in which it is embowered ;
itself looking like a leaf, a little change of position bring-
ing its throat into the sun's rays, the light suddenly
gleams as from a glowing coal. Occasionally, too, this
crimson plumage is puffed out into a globose form, when
it might easily be mistaken for a beautiful fruit.
274
SYNDACTYL.K.
SUE-FAMILY III.
EURYLAIMIX.E.* The Boatbills.
GEX. CHAHAC. Bill large, more or less depressed, and extremely broad at the
base, with the culmen curved, and the sides gradually compressed to the
tip, which is slightly emarginated ; the gonys long and ascending; the
nostrils lateral, more or less near to the base, and exposed; the wings
moderate, with the third and fourth quills equal and longest ; the tail gene-
rally moderate, graduated, or forked ; the tarsi short ; and the toes long,
with the lateral ones unequal, and the outer toe united to the middle one for
some distance.
Fie; 113 THE COLLAKED 11KM. UMl.v
(Eurylaimut ockromalttt.)
These birds are found in India and the neighbour-
ing islands : they reside in small flocks in tlu- humid
* (vpvf t earns, broad ; Aac/xof, laimos, the tli,-,,,tf.
CORACIDjE.
275
forests and jungles, especially such as abound with
rivers and marshes. Their food consists of insects
and worms ; at times they feed also on berries and
fruits.
The typical species is
The Collared Eurylaimus (Eurylaimus ochromalus),
described only from stuffed specimens.
Sir Stamford Raffles says, " The Eurylaimus Javan-
icus frequents the banks of rivers and lakes, feeding on
insects and worms. It builds its nest pendent from the
branch of a tree or bush which overhangs the water."
Mr. Horsfield found it in Java, in one of the most dis-
tant and inaccessible parts, covered with extensive forests,
and abounding with rivers and marshes. Nothing further
is known of the habits of these birds.
276
SYNDACTYLE.
SUB-FAMILY IV.
MOMOTIX.E.
The Mot-mots.
'GBN. CHARAC Bill rather long, straight, more or less elevated and broad at
the base, with the sides compressed to the tip, which is slightly hooked and
obtuse, the lateral margins more or less strongly serrated ; the gonys long
and slightly ascending ; the nostrils basal and lateral, with the opening
small and rounded ; wings moderate and rounded, with the fourth, firth, and
sixth quills nearly equal and longest ; tail lengthened and graduated, with
the two middle feathers usually longer than the others ; tarsi as long as the
middle toe, and covered in front with narrow transverse scales ; toes
unequal, the inner toe short, and slightly united, the hind toe rather short
and weak ; the claws moderate, much compressed, and curved.
FIG. 114. IHB MOIMOI.
(Prionitei Momota.)
CORACIDJE. 277
The Motmots are distinguished from the Todies
by having the margins of the mandibles distinctly
serrated for a considerable portion of their length ;
they also possess a pectinated tongue. Their tail is
long, and the shafts of the two middle feathers,
which are the longest, are entirely bare of barbs for
a considerable portion of their length ; the base is
furnished with barbs, then comes the bare portion,
and the tip again presents the ordinary appearance
of a feather.
The Motmots are peculiar to the tropical parts of
America, and to some of the West India islands.
They seem to prefer the deep shade of the forests,
or the dark recesses of buildings. They are usually
seen perched on a branch or on some projection,
keeping their head drawn in between the shoulders,
with a peculiarly solemn expression, uttering from
time to time a melancholy croak. Early in the
morning, and in the dusk of the evening, they
appear more lively, watching for any passing insect
that may approach sufficiently near, upon which they
dart with a short flight. They likewise feed on
frogs, lizards-, and small snakes : these are seized
with the point of the bill, and then, by a toss of the
head, jerked into the throat and swallowed. The
eggs of birds also form a portion of their food. The
nest of one species is stated by Sir W. Jardine to
have been found at the end of a long gallery exca-
vated in a bank of mud, and running for five feet in
a direct line into the ground, terminating in another
gallery of similar length placed at an angle with the
first. The end of this long passage was enlarged,
and in the enlargement were three young Motmots,
huddled up on the top of a moving heap of maggots,
mixed with the remains of beetles and other insects.
It is probable that the barbs of the tail feathers of
the old birds may be worn away by friction against
the walls of the narrow tunnel leading to their nest.
Occasionally they will build in the deserted burrow
of a Cavy or Armadillo.
278
SYX DACTYL.*:.
Dr. Azarii describes some of these birds kept in
captivity as heavy and stiff in their movements,
shuffling along on the ground by sudden and oblique
leaps, with their legs very wide apart ; their tail
was in constant motion. They were fed with bread
and raw meat, the latter of which they preferred.
If a small bird or a mouse were let loose in the
chamber in which the Motmots were kept, they
would pursue it in a determined manner ; and when
possessed of their prey, would strike it violently
against the ground with their bill. This did not
appear to be done merely for the purpose of killing
it, but to break the bones, in order to swallow tin-
whole more easily.
The type of this sub-family is
The Motmot (Priorities Momota).
MEROPID-E. 279
FAMILY II.
MEROPID.E. T/ie Bee-eaters.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill longer than the head, with both mandibles curved and
acutely pointed, the sides compressed and sloping from the culmen ; nostrils
basal, lateral, rounded, and partly hidden by short bristles ; wings more or
less long and pointed ; tail long, broad, and the middle feathers sometimes
prolonged beyond the lateral ones ; tarsi very short ; toes long, with the
lateral ones more or less united to the middle toe, the hind toe long and
broadly padded beneath.
These birds, remarkable from the brilliancy of
their plumage, are found in most parts of the Old
Continent. They seek the warmer climates during
the winter, and in summer visit temperate localities
in pursuit of their food, which consists almost ex-
clusively of insects. They usually perch singly, or
in small parties, on some prominent branch, or on
any objects from which they can see to a distance
around them. When an insect is observed, they fly
off, capture it on the wing, and then generally
return to the perch just quitted, where they again
station themselves to await the approach of* another
victim. During the morning and evening they
sometimes congregate in companies, flying about
with much activity, and catching insects after the
manner of Swallows. Their flight is graceful and
capable of being sustained during a lengthened
migration. Their cry is loud, and consists of harsh
whistling notes, continually repeated during their
morning and evening excursions. The young are
reared in holes, excavated horizontally in the sandy
banks of rivers, or in cliffs which are sufficiently
soft to be easily penetrated : these excavations are
prolonged interiorly to the depth of a yard and
more. The entrance is small, and the further end
expanded into a chamber of such dimensions that
the bird can turn in it with facility. Here the eggs,
usually four or five in number, are deposited on the
bare sand, or on a bed of moss or other soft material.
2
280
SYNDACTYLA;.
MEROPIN^E.
SUB-FAMILY.
The Bee-eaters proper.
FlG. 115 THE THKOATKD BEE-EATER.
(MelMophagus gularit.)
This, the only sub-family, embraces numerous
species common in Africa and the East, but one
only is accustomed to show itself in Europe, named
by English writers
The Common Bee-eater (Merops Apiaster). It is in
this country, however, one of the rarest of the feathered
race. It arrives in the southern parts of the Continent
in March, and departs to warmer regions in September.
It flies in flocks, usually at a considerable elevation, and
MEROPID.E. 281
utters, with hoarse and guttural voice, in startling clits-
accordance with its slender aspect, a continual cry of
yra ! gra ! gra ! Tt builds in. deep horizontal holes in
sandy banks, which it excavates in whole or in part,
working vigorously with its feet and bill, and kicking out
the dry earth behind it with great perseverance. It lays
six or seven eggs, white, lucid, and almost spherical.
When the young are partly fledged, but not able to fly,
they creep to the mouths of their hole, where they seem
to enjoy the happy summer light and genial sunshine; but
on the least alarm they retreat, tail foremost, into the
recesses of their burrow, where they lie concealed. So
accustomed do they seem to this peculiar movement,
that when taken from the nest and placed in any more
exposed position, they endeavour to escape by running
backwards ; indeed, for a time, they seem unable to walk
in any other direction. The Bee-eaters are exclusively
insectivorous, and prey almost entirely upon the hyme-
nopteroxis tribes. Although they often take their food
upon the wing, they also gather it from the ground ; and
whenever they espy the small hole which leads into the
nest of Wasp or Bembex, they place themselves close
beside it, and snap up the industrious tenants on their
exit or arrival. The appearance of these birds in England
is accidental, and they are unknown in America.
The type of the sub-family is
The Throated Bee-eater (Melittopliagiis gularw).
282
SYNDACTYLJE.
FAMILY III.
TROGONID.E.
The Trogons.
GEN. CHAKAC. Bill short, strong, subtriangular, broader at the base than
elevated, with the tip and the margins generally toothed ; the gape furnished
with bristles ; the nostrils basal, lateral, more or less concealed by the pro-
jecting feathers ; the wings moderate and rounded, with the fourth and fifth
quills usually the longest ; the tail long and even, with the lateral feathers
graduated ; the tarsi short, and more or less covered with feathers ; the toes
placed two anteriorly and two posteriorly, each pair unequal.
FlO. 116. THE GOLDEN-HEADED CALUEUS.
(Calunis auriceps.)
TROGONID.E. 283
SUB-FAMILY.
TROGOXIN.K. The Trogons proper.
The Trogons proper (the only sub-family of this
group), like the Toucans and the Cuckoos, have two
toes in front and tAvo behind, and on this account
are not unfrequently regarded as belonging to the
Scansorial order ; but the hinder toes are placed
perfectly posteriorly, and as, from the manner of
their connection with the foot, they are incapable
of being moved from their ordinary position, the
Trogons may be regarded as the or*/ birds whose
toes are absolutely in pairs. They are perhaps the
most sedentary birds in creation, and hence their
feet are the weakest, and seem to be constructed
for the sole purpose of sitting still. In addition to
their toes being in pairs, it may be remarked that
the two anterior are by far the longest, and are
connected together for nearly hah their length : the
two posterior toes are separated, and the outer one
is nearly half the length of the inner.
These splendid birds are many of them peculiar
to tropical America, but several species are met
with in India and the Eastern islands, as well as in
South Africa. They live solitarily in the gloomy
shades of forests, where they may be seen motion-
less on the branches, among the thickest foliage,
during the heat of the day ; but early in the morning
and in the evening they seek the more open though
still shady parts, and take up some position from
which they can see and dart after the insects flying
near, on which they principally subsist. Their flight
is rapid and undulating, but is not prolonged to any
considerable distance.
On the banks of the Amazon these birds are very
numerous, differing in size from the Trogon r/'/'/W/x, a
small species whose body is scarcely bigger than one
284 SYNDACTYLJ-:. .
of our sparrows, to the Curugua grande (Calitnts aur!-
wps), twice the size of a jay. All have spreading tails,
and their loose plumage makes them look of greater
dimensions than they really are. At intervals, they
utter a mournful note, well imitated by their common
name, Owrvgua. This cry would inevitably betray
them to the hunter, but they are admirable ventrilo-
quists, and it is often impossible to discover them,
even when directly above the head of their pursuer.
The species vary as much in colour as in size, but
the backs of all are of a resplendent green or blue,
while beneath they are conspicuously ornamented
with red, or pink, or yellow. In the pairing season,
the male has a very melancholy note, which is never
uttered at any other time than when the female is
sitting. They begin to pair about April, when they
take possession of the hole of a rotten tree, or the
excavations made by ants ; and here the female lays
three or four white eggs in the decayed wood and
dust ; or, if there be no dust, they bruise the wood
into powder by means of their strong beak. The
young, when first hatched, are quite destitute of
feathers, and the old birds feed them with small
worms, caterpillars, and insects.
The type of the sub-family,
The Peacock Trogon (Troyon pavonine*), is a native <>t'
the Amazonian forest, and well deserves its name, as it
is not only splendid in the colours of its plumage but
elegant in form. On account of the looseness of its fea-
thers, it is not able to chare insects in the air with as
much adroitness as is exhibited by some other Trogons
having firmer plumage ; hence it feeds chiefly upon ber-
ries, fruits, and the insects it can pick off the branches
without being obliged to pursue them on the wing. While
engaged in search after food it is an active bird, running
about the boughs with great agility, and clinging with its
powerful feet in every attitude, seeming to care little
whether it be sitting on a branch after the custom of umst
liirds, or hanging with its head downwards like the Par-
rots. Although brilliant in its bedizenment, it is not so
TROGONIDJ3.
285
easily seen as might be supposed, for its colour harmonizes
well with the foliage and bark of the trees among which
it dwells, and even the rich carmine of its under surface
FlG. 117. -THE PEACOCK TROGOJT.
(Trogon pacoitinuo )
is. not very conspicuous in that land of flowers. Its head
is decorated with a curiously-shaped tuft of slight and
elastic feathers that spring from the forehead, and by
o 3
286
SYXDACTYL.K.
their peculiar curve overshadow the nostrils and a con-
siderable portion of the beak. This crest, together with
the head, the throat, the back, wing-coverts, and upper
tail-coverts, is of the richest imaginable green shot with
gold, and glowing with a changeable sheen as the breeze
plays with the delicate fibres of the plumage. The quill
leathers of the wing are black, as are the central feathers
of the tail. The upper tail-coverts are very long, flowing
gracefully over the stitfer feathers by which they are sup-
ported, and contrasting beautifully with their glossy black.
The breast and remainder of the under surface of the body
are of a rich carmine.
287
FAMILY IV.
ALCEDINID.E.* 7746 Kingfishers.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill more or less lengthened, generally straight, broad at the
liase, with tke tips of both mandibles usually acute; the nostrils lateral ;
the wings more or less long and rounded ; the tail mostly short and rounded
at the sides ; the toes long, sometimes three before and one behind, some-
times two and two,- and of various lengths.
This family includes, not only the Kingfishers,
but other nearly allied forms, characterized by the
shape of the beak, which is elongated and generally
quite straight, stout, broad at the base, and sharp at
the point ; they are likewise remarkable for the small
size of the tail and the shortness of the tarsi. The
toes are variable both in number and arrangement ;
sometimes there are three in front and one behind,
as in birds in general, while in rare instances one
toe is altogether deficient, and the foot has only two
toes in front and one behind. The wings are long
and rounded, and consequently these birds possess
considerable powers of flight. They all live upon
animal substances ; some, like our common King-
fisher, capture fish with great dexterity, whilst many
feed upon insects or upon small reptiles. In other
respects they exhibit great variety of habit.
To this family belong the Puff-birds, the Crab-
hunters, the true Kingfishers, and the Jacamars.
* Alcedo (Lat.), the Kingfisher.
288
SYNDACTYL.E.
SVB-FAMILY I.
BUCCONIN.E.
The Pu/-bir,l#.
GEX. CHABAC. Bill of various lengths, elevated and broad at the base, with
the tip curved, and sometimes hooked over that of the lower mandible ;
nostrils lateral, basal, and hidden by the frontal plumes and bristles ; wings
more or less lonp, with the third to the fifth quills usually the longest; tail
mostly of moderate length ; tarsi short and robust, with the toes two before
and two behind, and of various lengths, the outer anterior toe the longest.
FlG. 118. THB VARIEGATED PfFF-BIED.
(Buceo terticolor.)
These birds are found in the tropical parts of
America ; they appear to live solitary, pensive, and
silent in the most retired parts of the forests, where
they choose some branch upon which they perch
for a long time, with their large head resting upon
their shoulders ; they are, however, soon called into
activity by the appearance of some coleopterous
insect, after which they dart, and having secured it,
ALCEPINID.E.
289
return to the same perch, which they are said to
frequent for months. They make their nests in the
holes of trees.
The best-known species is
The Greater Pied Barbet (Bucco macrorhynchvs}. In
shape these birds bear a close resemblance to the King-
fishers. Their food consists chiefly of insects, which they
procure much after the manner of the Woodpeckers,
prying into the hollows of trees, and striking away the
bark in their endeavours to secure the concealed prey.
They can cling to the perpendicular trunk of a ti-ee, and
support themselves by the pressure of their short stiff
tails against the bark. They also possess some of the
habits that belong to the Flycatchers, and, taking their
perch upon a twig, will wait patiently until an unfor-
tunate insect passes within a short distance, when they
launch themselves on the devoted creature, and return to
the twig from which they started.
The type of this sub-family is
The Variegated Puff-bird (Bucco versic.olor).
290
.SYXDACTYL.K.
SUB-FAMILY II.
The Crab -hunters.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill broad at the base, and gradually compressed towards the
tip, the lateral margins straight or turned upwards towards the end of the
upper mandible ; the gonys lengthened and gradually ascending, or curved
upwards to the tip of the lower mandible.
FIG. 119 LINDSAY'S CBAB-HUSTKB.
{Halcyon LMtayi.)
These birds are very widely distributed; they
occur in India and its Archipelago, in Africa, Aus-
tralia, and the islands .of the South Sea. They
generally reside in open forests and in jungles, by
the sides of rivers and brooks ; some species, how-
ever, are rarely observed in the vicinity of water,
while others frequent cultivated plucrs and plains.
They will often sit for a long time on a pole or the
* d\KV(!>v, halcyon, the Kingfisher, from <?Ar, hals, the sec, and
KV<>}, kuo, to conceire ; So called because the Kingfisher was said by
the ancients to hatch its eggs upon the sea.
ALCEDIXIDJ:.
291
lower branch of a tree, watching the space around
for the appearance of small reptiles, fish, crabs, or
insects, from all of which they derive their sub-
sistence : some species examine, the flowers of the
cocoa-nut for insects contained within them. Their
nest is built in the hollow trunk of a tree, and the
eggs are usually three or four in number.
One of the best-known species belonging to this
sub -family is
The Gigantic Kingfisher (Dacelo* gigas). This remark-
able bird is not uncommon among the wooded mountain
districts in many parts of the Australian continent, where
it may frequently be observed sitting in solitary
V
-
FlO. 120. THE LAUGHING JACKASS.
(Dacelo gigat.)
watching for its prey. Unqualified for plunging into
water, the Dacelo is vigilant in pursuit of reptiles and
insects. Snakes are its favourite food, and it may be
often seen Hying to a tree with one of these reptiles in its
beak, holding it just behind the head, and thus securing
* A fanciful name, made by transposing the letters of the word
Alcedo.
292 SYNDACTYL.E.
immunity from its bite. Generally the snake is killed
before being carried away, but sometimes the bird is
observed to break the creature's head to pieces on a branch
by means of its powerful beak. Occasionally the Gigantic
Kingfisher will kill young chickens, and carry away eggs ;
but its services in destroying reptiles abundantly compen-
sate the settler for these petty depredations. The most
striking feature, however, in the history of the Dacelo is
its peculiar cry ; ever and anon it breaks out into a sin-
gular abrupt laiigh, somewhat resembling the syllables
yah ! yah ! yah ! commencing in a low, and gradually
rising to a high and loud tone, that is perfectly startling
when heard amidst the solitudes of the forest. From this
wild and discordant cry it has obtained from the colo-
nists the names of the " Laughing Jackass," " Feathered
Jackass," and " Laughing Kingfisher." The Laughing
Kingfisher, or " Settler's Clock," as it is sometimes called
by the colonists, was for many years a doomed bird in
Australia, merely from ignorance of its natural habits ;
for having been seen occasionally to pounce upon and
devour a chicken in the absence of its usual supply uf
snakes or mice, it was regarded as one of the destroyers
of the poultry-yard ; and from the general destruction of
these birds that was instituted, a corresponding inci'ease
of reptiles and vermin of all kinds was experienced on
every farm. Its utility being better understood, it is
now seldom or never molested ; its peculiar laugh and
singular scream are again heard, and the "Settler's
clocks " set a-going again, prove a benefit to the com-
munity, and have even become useful domesticated ani-
mals; they have, indeed, very much the habits of birds
of prey, and, when kept as pets about a house or gai'den,
will watch for small game like a cat. It is veiy common
to see ten or twelve of these birds perched upon the
branch of a large gum-tree (Eucalyptus), and on the tra-
veller trying to imitate their peculiar note, instead of
flying away, one of the party will set up its laugh ; this
is immediately followed by a second ; a third will then
take up the cry, and bark away until they all chime in
with a most extraordinary compound of noises.
The typical form of this sub-family is
Lindsay's Halcyon (Halcyon Lindsay i), of which, how-
ever, little is known but the skin.
ALCEDIMD.K.
293
SUB-FAMILY III.
ALCEDIXIX.K.
The Kingfishers proper.
GEX. CHARAC. Bill more or less long, straight, and slender, with the eulmen
sloping to the tip, which is acute, the sides much compressed,- and the gouys
long and ascending.
FIG. 121. THE cojmos KINGFISHER.
(Alcedo Itpida.)
The race of the true Kingfishers is distributed
over most parts of the world. They frequent the
banks of rivers, and are usually seen perched solita-
rily upon a branch that overhangs the stream, or
flying near the surface of the water in quest of their
prey, which consists principally of fish. They may
sometimes be observed fluttering over the stream,
and then suddenly precipitating themselves upon
294 SYNDACTYL.E.
some poor minnow that happens to come into their
vicinity.
The type of this sub-family is
The Common Kingfisher (Alcedo Ispida), the only
European representative of the group. It is one of the
most beautiful of our British birds, and its appearance
as it dashes along in the sunshine is extremely brilliant.
It is an inhabitant of all parts of Europe except the
extreme north, and is also widely spread over Asia and
Africa. This species is always found in the vicinity of
water, over which it may be seen shooting along like a
little meteor. Its food consists not only of small fishes,
but also of aquatic insects and leeches.
The appetite of the Kingfisher is voracious, and his
manners shy and retiring ; dwelling near lonely and seques-
tered brooks and rivers, he sits for hours together, motion-
less and solitary, on some bough overhanging the stream,
patiently watching the motion of the smaller fishes which
constitute his food, waiting for a favourable moment to
dart with the velocity of an arrow upon the first that
comes near enough to the surface, and seldom failing in
his aim. He then returns to his former station on sonn
large stone or branch, where he kills his captive by shifts
ing its position in his bill, so as to grasp it firmly near
the tail, and striking its head smartly against the object
on which he rests ; he then reverses its position and
swallows it, head foremost : the indigestible parts are
afterwards ejected in a manner analogous to that of Owls
and other birds- of prey. The Kingfisher, however, does
not confine himself to this mode of watching in motion-
less solitude ; but should the stream be broad, or uo
favourable station for espionage present itself, he may be
seen poising himself over it at an altitude of ten or fifteen
feet, scrutinizing the element below for his food, and
plunging upon it with a velocity which often carries him
considerably below the surface. For these habits his
muscular wedge-shaped body, increasing gradually from a
long pointed bill, and his sleek plumage, which, while it
passes freely through the water, is impervious to wet,
seem expressly to adapt him ; and his wings are short
but powerful : hence his flight is smooth, even, and ex-
ceedingly rapid. Silent, except during the pairing and
ALCEDIXID.E. 295
breeding season, when lie occasionally utters a sharp
piercing cry, indicative perhaps of attachment, and equally
solitary and unsocial in his habits, the Kingfisher dwells
alone, seldom consorting with others^ or even with his
mate except during the rearing of the young, when both
sexes discharge with assiduity the duty of procuring
requisite supplies of food. The places selected for incu-
bation are steep and secluded banks overhanging ponds
and rivers, where in a hole, generally at a considerable dis-
tance above the surface of the water, and extending to
the depth of two or three feet into the bank, the female,
without making a nest, lays five or six eggs, of a beau-
tiful pinky white. As soon as the young are hatched,
the parent birds may be seen incessantly passing to and
from the hole with food, the ejected remains of which in
a short time accumulate around the unfledged brood.
The young do not leave the hole until fully fledged, when,
seated on some neighbouring branch, they may be known
by their clamorous twittering as they greet their parents,
from whom, they impatiently expect supplies of food.
Jn a short time, however, they commence fishing for
themselves, assuming at that early age a plumage nearly
ivx'inbling the adult. The young appear to possess
habits of partial migration, at least in our own island ;
they wander from the interior of the country along the
rivet's to the coast, and in the autumnal and winter
months frequent the mouths of small rivulets and dykes
near the sea.
296
SYrTDACTYLuB.
SUB-FAMILY IV.
GALBULIir.E.
The Jacamars.
GKJT. CHAKAC. Bill long, slender, straight, or slightly curved and acute ; tail
long and graduated ; tarsi short ; toes either arranged in two pairs or two
toes in front and one behind, the anterior toes united.
FlG. 122. THE BED-TAILED JACAXAB.
(Galbula rttficauila.)
These birds, remarkable for their brilliant plumage,
inhabit the tropical parts of the Western hemisphere.
They are met with most numerously in Brazil and
Guiana, where they live in the penetralia of the
forest, and pass their lives in solitude. They are
all of moderate size, and feed entirely upon insects,
ALCEDINIM). 297
which they pursue by short and rapid flights. Their
eggs are deposited in hollow trees.
The typical species,
The Red-tailed Jacamar (Galbida rufaauda), inha-
bits South America, frequenting trees in damp and
shady places. They generally sit on the low naked
branches in the forests, from which they dart upon
butterflies, spearing them with their long bills ; their
haunts, indeed, may frequently be discovered by the
ground being strewn with the beautiful wings of their
victims.
" A bird called Jacamar," says Mr. "Waterton, " is often
mistaken for a kingfisher, but it has no relationship (in
its habits) with that tribe ; it frequently sits on the
trees overhanging the water, and as its beak bears some
resemblance to that of a kingfisher, this may probably
account for its being taken for one. It feeds entirely
upon insects, sits on a branch in motionless expectation,
and as soon as a fly, butterfly, or moth passes by, it darts
at it, and returns to the branch it had just left. It seems
an indolent, sedentary bird, shunning the society of all
others. It never visits cultivated grounds, but remains
all the year round in the woods. There are four species
of Jacamar in Demerara ; they are all beautiful, the
largest superb. Its plumage is of so fine a changing blue
and golden-green, that it may take rank with the choicest
of the Humming- birds."
298
SYNDACTYL.E.
FAMILY V.
BUCEROTID.E.* f
The Hornlills.
ty. CHAKAC. Bin more or less lengthened, curved, broad at the base and
compressed to the end, with the culmen furnished with a singularly-formed
helmet, or only curved to the tip, which is acute : the nostrils basal, and
usually rounded ; the wings moderate ; the tail generally long, broad, and
more or less graduated ; the tarsi, in most, short and strong ; the toes
moderate, strong, and more or less united at their base, especially the outer
one ; the claws short and rather obtuse.
FlG. 123. THE CBESTED HORXBILL.
(Buceros corona tut.)
The birds of this family are at once distinguished
by the great size of their bills, which are often so
* /3ofc, boas, an ox ; pc> keras, a horn ; So called because the
bill somewhat resembles the horn of an ox.
t In the Tabular View this family is placed with the CONI-
KO8TRES.
BUCEROTID33. 299
enormous as to appear almost a deformity ; whilst
in many species the disproportion of this part to the
rest of the body is increased by the presence of a
singular helmet-like swelling at the base. The bill,
with this appendage, looks like a ponderous and un-
wieldy burden for the slender neck of the bird ; but
the whole structure is composed of very light mate-
rials, a thin outer case supported by an interlacing
bony network filled with air, and so tender is the
helmet-like protuberance in some species, that after
the death of the bird, pressure with the thumb and
finger is often sufficient to crush it. This remarkable
beak is long, curved, and pointed, with the margins
of the upper mandible often irregularly toothed, as
if small fragments had been hacked out. The ante-
rior toes of the stout powerful feet are more or less
united together, the outer one, especially, being
attached to its neighbour to such an extent as to
lead Cuvier to place the Hornbills with the King-
fishers and Bee-eaters in his group of Syndactyle
birds. These birds have tolerably large wings, and
possess considerable powers of flight.
The only sub -family,
BUCEROTIX.E, TJie Hornbills proper,
have the characters given above.
These birds are inhabitants of the warmer parts
of the Old World, most of the species being found
in the Eastern islands and in Africa. They are gene-
rally of large size. In a state of nature their food
consists principally of fruits, but they are said by
some writers to feast upon carrion ; and specimens
in confinement have been seen to capture rats and
mice, which they swallow whole, after crushing them
a little with their enormous mandibles. They pro-
bably feed on almost anything that comes in their
way. Lesson thinks that the eastern species are
very fond of nutmegs, from which their flesh derives
a delicious flavour. They usually live in flocks in
300 SYNDACTYIJE.
the forests, where they perch upon the highest
branches. During flight, their head is drawn back,
and the movement of their wings is very rapid, pro-
ducing a considerable rushing sound as the birds
pass through the air. This is heightened by a
constant clattering of their large mandibles, and
the occasional utterance of a loud croak. In fact,
according to Lesson, the noise produced by a flock
of Hornbills when passing along in the air is very
alarming to those who are unaware of its origin, for
it has no distant resemblance to one of those sudden
and violent winds which often come on unexpectedly
in tropical climates. " Their voice is composed
of the transient blast of a bugle and the sudden
hiss of an exploding sky-rocket ; they seem to
utter these calls periodically, without any obvious
reason, as if to relieve the monotony of their still
and melancholy lives." An Abyssinian species is re-
ported by Major Denham to live upon insects, fish,
and serpents, to the latter of which it is directed by
a special instinct. " It discovers their vicinity while
they are yet under ground, digs on the spot, destroys
the nest, and feeds on the venomous inhabitant and
its eggs." The Hornbill makes its nest in the hole
of some decaying tree, plastering up the entrance
with mud, so as to leave a very small aperture. The
following account of the nest of the Red-breasted
Hornbill is given by Dr. Livingstone : <( The first
time that I saw this bird was at Kolobeng, where I
had gone to the forest for some timber. Standing
by a tree, a native looked behind me, and exclaimed,
f There is the nest of a KorweV I saw a slit, only
about half an inch wide and three or four inches
long in a slight hollow of the tree. Thinking the
word ' Korwe ' denoted some small animal, I waited
with interest to see what he would extract. He broke
the clay which surrounded the slit, put his arm into
the hole, and brought out a Tockas or Red-breasted
Hornbill, which he killed. He informed me that
when the female enters her ne<t -lie submits \ real
BUCEROTIP.t:.
301
confinement; the male plasters up the entrance,
leaving- only a narrow slit by which to feed his mate,
and which exactly suits the form of his beak. The
female makes a nest of her own feathers, lays her
eggs, hatches them, and remains with the young till
they are fully fledged. During all this time, which
is stated to be two or three months, the male con-
tinues to feed her and the young family. The
prisoner generally becomes fat, and is esteemed a
very dainty morsel by the natives, while the poor
slave of a husband gets so lean, that on the sudden
lowering of the temperature which sometimes
happens after a fall of rain, he is benumbed, falls
dt>\vn, and dies."
The type of this sub-family is
The Crested Hornbill (Buceros cor&natus), delineated
in the fisnire riven above.
302 SCANSOKES.
ORDER III.
SCANSOBES.
THE Scansorial or Climbing Birds are distinguished
ly the structure of their feet. The outer toe is
turned backward, so that the foot exhibits two toes
in front and two behind.* This is really the only
character common to all the birds placed in the
order Scansores; the structure of the other parts
from which distinctive characters are usually derived
varying greatly in different members of the group,
so that it includes species of very different aspects
and modes of life. It will, moreover, be observed
that in many of the Passerine birds, the outer toe,
although not permanently reversed, is capable of
assuming the Scansorial character, adding not a
little to the difficulty of drawing a clear line of
demarcation between the two orders.
The structure of their feet enables most of tin-
Scansorial birds to cling with great tenacity to the
branches and trunks of trees, and to climb up the
steepest surface. Few of them are possessed of
great powers of flight ; they spend most of their life
among trees, and find on them their favourite food.
In some of the families this consists of berries and
other fruits ; in others almost exclusively of insects
and grubs. Most of them rear their young in the
holes of rotting timber, simply depositing their eggs
among the debris of the wood, without any nest.
The Scansores are divisible into four families, of
\\ li ifh the Toucan, the Parrot, the Woodpecker, and
the Cuckoo are familiar examples.
* See " Animal Creation," page 437.
..'AMPHASTIDJE.
303
FAMILY I.
RAMPHASTIDvE.*
The Toucans.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill much prolonged, broad at the base, with the culmen
curved, the sides compressed to the tip, and the lateral margins more or
less serrated.
FlG. 124 THE BED-BEAKED TOUCAN.
(Siimphaetos erythrorhynchus.)
The Toucans are remarkable for the great develop-
ment of their bill, which is sometimes nearly as large
as the bird itself. The general form of the beak is
* pan<pd^ofiat, ramphazomai, to have a beak.
p 2
304 SCANSORES.
very similar to that prevailing in the Hornbills, but
usually less tapering towards its extremity. It is
also destitute of those remarkable protuberances
which give some of the Hornbills such a singular
aspect. As in the Hornbill, however, the substance
of the beak is cellular or spongy; so that, notwith-
standing its apparently unwieldy bulk, it is too light
to present any obstacle to the tolerably active
movements of its possessor. The margins of both
mandibles are denticulated throughout their length,
and the curved tip of the bill is ordinarily sh;trp.
The tongue in these birds is even more remarkable
than the bill, being shaped exactly like a feather.
A strong cartilaginous stalk runs up the centre,
bordered on each side with long and slender barbs,
placed close together, and increasing in length as
they approach the extremity of this singular tongue.
The Indians of South America attribute extraordinary
virtues to this feather-like organ, and employ it ;;s a
remedy in various diseases. The tarsi are short, but
terminated by long and powerful toes ; and the pro-
portions of the legs and feet adapt the Toucans but
badly for moving on the ground, where they cannot
walk, but hop along with a very awkward gait. The
Toucans are exclusively inhabitants of the warmer
regions of South America, where they abound in
many parts of the forests. They are usually seen in
small flocks, hopping from branch to branch of the
highest trees. They are shy and cautious in their
habits, and feed principally upon fruits, especially
bananas, which they swallow whole. They do not
migrate, but wander about, making their appearance
in greater numbers in certain districts where some
favourite food happens to be ripe. Fruits, however,
are not their only diet ; they feed freely upon animal
substances, killing and devouring small birds and
reptiles, plundering the nests of other birds of their
eggs, and even occasionally making a meal upon
li-!i, worms, and the larvse of insects.
Even when in motion among the branches of the
RAMPHASTinJE. 305
trees, the large beaks of the Toucans give them a
certain air of gravity ; but this is vastly increased by
the attitude they assume in repose. When they
perch quietly, they puff out their plumage until they
look like a round ball of feathers ; at the same time
the tail is thrown up over the back, the head is re-
tracted, and the enormous bill laid sometimes on one
side, sometimes on the other, or moved from side to
side, and raised and depressed in a manner re-
sembling so much the gesticulations of an orator
addressing a numerous assembly, that, coupled with
the serious aspect of the birds, it has obtained for
them, from the French Creoles in Guiana, the name
of oiseaux precheurs, or preaching birds. They breed
in the holes of trees, usually taking possession of
such as have been enlarged by the Woodpeckers.
Here they lay two eggs of a white colour and round-
ish form. Toucans occur in vast numbers through-
out the forests along the course of the Amazon.
When they alight, and begin climbing the trees, one
of them acts the part of a sentinel, uttering a loud cry
of tnri'mo, from which their name is derived. When
the whole flock raise their loud and not over-
melodious voices in concert, they produce a harsh
screiiin that may be heard at the distance of a mile.
Mr. Edwards tells us that these birds, when tamed,
may be taught as many tricks as a parrot, but they
are destitute of the faculty of speech.
The type of this family is
The Beauharnais, or Curl-crested Toucan (Pteroglossus
BeauJiarnaisii).
306 SCANSORES.
FAMILY II.
PSITTACID^E. The Parrots.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill more or less large and strong, with the culmen arched
to the tip, which is prolonged and acute, the lateral margins sometimes
dentated, and the base covered by a cere, of greater or less size, in which
the nostrils are placed ; the wings and the tail generally long ; and the tarsi
usually very short and robust.
The feet of the Parrots are furnished with two
toes pointing forward and two backward, and, in
most of the genera, are expressly formed for firm
prehension and climbing, evidently indicating that
woods and trees are the appropriate and natural
habitat of the race. It is accordingly in those
regions where the trees are clothed with perpetual
verdure, and where a constant and never-failing
succession of fruits and seeds can always be procured,
that the Parrots are found in the greatest numbers.
Thus the recesses of the interminable . forests of
South America are enlivened by the presence of the
superb Macaws ; those of India and its islands by
the elegantly-shaped and scarlet-clothed Lories ;
while those of Australia resound with the harsh
voice of the Cockatoos, and the shriller screams of
the long- tailed Parrakeets. In these, their natural
situations, their movements are marked by an ease
and gracefulness we can never see exhibited in a
state of confinement. They are represented as
climbing about the branches in every direction, and
as suspending themselves from them in every possible
attitude, in all which movements they are greatly
assisted by their hooked and powerful bill, which is
used both as an organ of prehension and for support.
The pointed and ample wing, which prevails among
the Parrots, indicates a corresponding power of
flight ; and, accordingly, we learn from those who
have enjoyed the enviable opportunity of seeing and
studying them in their native wilds, that it is rapid,
PSITTACID.E. 307
elegant, and vigorous, capable of being long sus-
tained, and that many of the species are in the habit
of describing circles and other aerial evolutions,
previous to their alighting upon the trees which
afford them food. Many of the species are grega-
rious, and, except during the breeding season, are
always seen in numerous bodies. Others, as the
Black Cockatoos, are met with only in pairs or
families. The places selected for hatching and
rearing their young are the hollows of decayed
trees : they make little or no nest, but deposit their
eggs, which, according to the species, vary from two
to six in number, upon the bare rotten wood. In
these hollows they frequently roost for the night.
The natural cry of the tribe consists entirely of
hoarse, shrill, and piercing screams frequently re-
iterated; some species possess the power of imitating
the human voice and learning to articulate a variety
of words and sentences; but this faculty seems to be
principally confined to the short and even-tailed
parrots, in which the tongue is large, broad, and
fleshy at the tip. These birds are tender and well-
flavoured, and are frequently used as food in the
districts they inhabit.
To this family belong the Ground-Parrots, the
Macaws, the Lories, the true Parrots, and the
Cockatoos.
8( AN SORES.
SUB-FAMILY I.
PEZOPORIN.E.* T/te Ground-Parrots.
GEIC. CHABAC. Bill moderate, with the culmen usually rounded and arched
to the tip, which is sometimes dentated ; the tarsi more or less short and
robust ; and the tail broad, lengthened, and more or less graduated, with
the ends of the feathers narrowed, and rounded or pointed.
(/,> it I oil /not.
FlU. 125 THE HOB.VKU GitOUND-PABROT.
(Platycercug cornttttu.)
pezo-poros, o pedestrian, one who goes over '/
PSITTACID.E. 309
The birds composing this sub-family are mostly
found in Australia, where they inhabit shrubby or
bushy places, and are usually seen on the ground
searching for the seeds of the grasses on which they
subsist. When disturbed, they generally seek safety
by a rapid flight, continued for a short distance, to
the nearest trees, where they remain perched till
the cause of their alarm has disappeared. Some
species, met with most numerously in India, fre-
quent the jungles and are often to be seen on culti-
vated ground and in gardens, where they commit
great devastation, devouring various kinds of grain
and fruits. During their migrations they generally
keep close to the tops of the large trees, and on
discovering food, take a short circle round the tree
with a steady sailing flight, and, alighting on the
branches, speedily commence their attack on the
fruit.
A well-known species is
The Beautiful Ground-Parrot (Pezoporusformosus). It
is never seen to fly into a tree, or to take shelter among
the branches, so that it is uncertain whether it 'possesses
the power of perching. It usually frequents sandy sterile
districts covered with tufts of rank grass and herbage, or
low swampy flats abounding with rushes, where, from its
very restless habits and great powers of limning, it is
seldom seen until it is flushed, and then only for a short
time, as it soon alights and runs off to a place of seclusion,
often under the cover of the Grass-tree (XanthorrliCKO),
that abounds in the districts it frequents. It flies near
the ground with great rapidity, often making several
zigzag turns in the short distance of a hundred yards,
beyond which it seldom passes without resting on the
ground. Its flesli is excellent, being much more delicate
than that of the Snipe, and equalling, if not surpassing,
in flavour that of the Quail. Its white eggs are deposited
on the ground. This species is met with both in Aus-
tralia and Van Diemen's Land. . .
The typical form is
The Horned Ground-Parrot (Platycercus cornutuy), of
which a tixire is iven above
310
SCAXSOEES.
SUB-FAMIL Y II.
ARAIXJE.
The Macan:g.
GEX. CHAKAC. Bill large, the cnlmen of the upper mandible much arched to
the tip, which is prolonged and acute, the lower mandible deeper than long,
and rather broader at the base than the upper, with the gonys advancing
upwards and rounded ; the tail lengthened, graduated, and the tip of each
feather narrowed.
FlG. 126. THE BLUB A3fD TELLOW MACAW.
(Ara cterulfa )
The Macaws are natives of the warmer regions of
South America and the West Indies, and are anionir-t
PSITTACID.E. 311
the largest of the Parrot race. They are easily do-
mesticated, and become very familiar, but in their
powers of imitation they fall very far short of the
true Parrots. Their natural cries are harsh, dis-
cordant, and piercing ; and the few words they are
occasionally taught to utter are pronounced in a
disagreeable tone. Their beak is of enormous size
and strength, and their plumage remarkable for
gaudy colouring. They perch on the highest part
of lofty trees, preferring those that border the forests,
and yet seldom show themselves at the extremity of
the branches. They are generally seen in pairs,
but sometimes in parties of six or eight together.
When disturbed they shake themselves, and utter a
scream, which is piercing, strong, and disagreeable.
They are rarely noticed on the ground, but some-
times climb from branch to branch in quest of the
fruits of the forest trees, and also of the palms in
which they usually live. Their flight is horizontal,
and not very elevated. They build their nest in
hollow trees, or on large branches near the trunk,
and lay two eggs. These birds are distinguished
by the enormous size of their bills, of which the
upper mandible is so much curved as to describe
nearly a semicircle, and also by the naked skin,
furnished with only a few scattered and minute
feathers, which covers their cheeks. The natives of
South America give the general name of Ara, or
Aracara, to the Macaws, a denomination which is
evidently in imitation of their note.
The type of this sub -family is
The Blue and Yellow Macaw (Ara ccerulea), figured in
the preceding page.
312
SCANSORES.
SUB-FAMILY III.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill large and slender, with the culmen curved to the tip,
which is prolonged and pointed, the lateral margin sometimes sinuated and
slightly notched, and the gonys of the lower mandible lengthened and more
or less curved and advancing upwards.
FlG. 127. THE BLUE-STBIPED LOBY.
(Eoi cyanoftriata.)
PSITTACIDjE. 313
Several small species of Parrots which inhabit the
Eastern Islands and Polynesia are commonly called
Lories. The characters upon which they are sepa-
rated from the rest of the family, consist principally
in the comparative weakness of the bill, and the
peculiar structure of the tongue, which, instead of
terminating in a soft fleshy cushion as in the true
Parrots, is furnished with elongated papillas, the
latter sometimes even forming a sort of brush at the
extremity of the organ. These birds live partly
upon pulpy fruits, and partly upon the sweet juices
of flowers : in collecting the latter, the papillae of the
tongue come into use. They are all remarkable for
their brilliant colours, and for the softness of their
plumage. They are lively, active birds, and do not
lose their gaiety even in captivity. They are held
in great estimation in many parts of the East.
The type of this sub-family is
The Blue-striped Lory (Eos cyanostriata).
314
-IRES.
PSITTACIX-E.
SCIi-FAMILY IV.
The True Parr..t*.
GEN. CHAKAC. Bill more or less large, broad at base, and the sides com-
pressed, with the culmen much arched to the tip, which is acute and pro-
longed, the lateral margins dentated or festooned ; the nostrils basal, lateral,
and rounded ; the wings more or less long and pointed ; the tail usually
short and squared; the tarsi short and covered with small scales; the toes
moderate.
FlG. 128. THE Al'GUST PlRKOT.
(Ptittaciu august at.)
The True Parrots are natives of the continent of
Africa, and of the warmer parts of South America.
They inhabit forests, and are found on clusters of
tivi-s, especially those that grow in the neighbour-
hood of riviT< ; to these they resort for protection
from the scorching heat of the sun, and as roosting-
PSITTAC1D.E. 315
places during the night. On the first appearance
of dawn, these birds are in the habit of assembling
from their nocturnal retreats in vast flocks, and
perching on dead trees, where they may be observed
preening their feathers in the early rays of the sun,
as if to dry them from the dew of the night. They
then separate into small parties, and scatter them-
selves in search of their food, which consists chiefly
of various fruits : they sometimes commit great
destruction among the orange plantations. After
having satisfied their hunger, they invariably pro-
ceed to the banks of the rivers to bathe, until the
heat of the day drives them to seek the thick foliage
of the trees, where they enjoy the refreshing coolness
of the shade, and remain so quiet that their presence
is not discoverable. At any alarm, however, the
whole flock flies off" hastily, uttering loud discordant
screams, to another retreat. Towards evening they
leave the trees, for the purpose of obtaining their
second daily supply of food, after which all the flocks
reassemble with much noise, and again visit the
river to perform their second ablutions ; and before
going to rest, revisit the trees to preen and dry
their plumage by the last rays of the sun. This
completed, they separate and retire each to its own
peculiar roosting-place, until the dawn of day again
awakens them into active life. On the approach of
the rainy season, these birds migrate to the warmer
districts, and, during their migration, rise to so
great an elevation in the air, that they are not visible
to the naked eye, though their discordant notes are
distinctly heard. They seek the quiet solitudes of
the forests for rearing their young, and feed their
nestlings by disgorging into their mouths half-mas-
ticated fruit, after the manner of Pigeons. The
female deposits from two to four eggs on the bare
wood in holes of trees.
The Ash-coloured, or Grey Parrot (Psittacus erythacus),
is one of the species most frequently kept in England, and
is familiar to all. It inhabits the woods of tropical Africa.
316
SCANSOKES.
SUB-FAMILY V.
CACATUIX.E.
The Cockatoos.
GEX. CHARAC. Bill generally large, of various lengths, broad at the !>a-:t>.
more or less compressed on the sides, and the culmen usually much arched
to the tip, which is very acute ; the wings generally rather long and pointed ;
the tail more or less long, broad, and mostly even; the tarsi short, robust,
and covered with small scales ; the toes unequal.
FlG. 1:8. THE Sl'LPHCB CRESTED COCKATOO.
tiilphurm.)
The Cockatoos are readily distinguished from the
preceding Parrots by the presence of a large crest,
which the birds are alile t<> elevate or depress at
pleasure. Their name is an imitation of the peculiar
cry of the species. These birds are found in the
PSITTACnXE. 317
Molucca Islands and on the continent of Australia.
Some prefer the lofty trees that border large rivers,
and such as are located in swamps ; other species
frequent such as grow in the open plains and clear
lands. They are very shy, and it is therefore rather
difficult to get near them ; but though not usually
seen, their presence is easily discovered by their loud
screaming notes, the effect of which is much in-
creased by their vast numbers. They subsist entirely
on vegetable substances, such as hard seeds, nuts,
and small tuberous and bulbous roots, and they
generally swallow stones along with their food.
They commit great depredations in the fresh-culti-
vj! ted lands, and on the smaller branches of trees,
by stripping off the bark, which they sometimes cut
into small pieces : the appearance of this work of
devastation generally indicates that their nest is in
a neighbouring tree.
o!8 SCAN SORES.
FAMILY III.
PICID^E. . The Woodpeckers.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill generally lengthened, acute, and straight, with the base
more or less broad, and the sides much compressed towards the tip, which
is usually obtuse.
The birds of this family have a rather long straight
bill, of which the tip is commonly obtuse or trun-
cated, and the sides marked with a longitudinal
ridge.* Their feet are organized for running upon
the bark of trees, being furnished with long spreading
toes, armed at the extremity with strong sharp
curved claws, which enable them readily to seize
any small inequality of the bark ; whilst the tarsus
is so placed as to form a sort of sole, which gives
the bird great firmness in its usual position. The
tail also is of service in climbing ; for this purpose
it is rather short, and composed of stiff feathers,
pointed at their extremities, which are generally
more or less worn away. These birds, especially
the more typical species (for some, as we shall see,
differ from the rest in their habits), reside in the
woods and forests of both hemispheres, principally
in the warmer regions. They run with great
activity and in every direction upon the trunks and
branches of trees, searching for the insects that con-
stitute the greater part of their food, and may be
constantly seen tapping the bark with their bills, in
order to discover soft or rotten places, such as ;m>
usually inhabited by bark-feeding insects. On
meeting with a favourable spot, they immediately
dig vigorously into the bark, and seize the insects
or larvse concealed beneath. The capture of the
smaller insects is effected by means of their tongue,
which, with its appurtenances, exhibits a beautiful
structure. For the capture of the smaller insects,
* See " Animal Creation," page 439.
P1CID.E. 319
which abound both under the bark and among the
crevices at its surface, the tongue is sharp, pointed,
barbed, and endued with a glutinous matter, fur-
nished by large glands situated in the throat, and
communicating with the front of the mouth by two
long ducts j so that the glutinous coating is renewed
every time the tongue is drawn within the bill. These
birds feed also upon fruits and seeds. The Wood-
peckers roost and breed in holes in trees, which they
are able to enlarge by means of their strong, sharp
beaks; their only nest consists of the chips and
J>'bris at the bottom of the excavation. Their eggs
arc variable in number, smooth, shining, and of a
pure white colour.
This family embraces the Barbets, the Piculets,
the Woodpeckers proper, the Green Woodpeckers,
the Black Woodpeckers, the Ground Woodpeckers,
and the Wrynecks.
320
SCAXSORES.
SUB-FAMILY I.
CAPITONIN.E.
The Burbets.
GKJT. CHARAC. Bill large, broad at the base, usually furnished with bristles
and compressed towards the tip; the tail generally short, even, and the
feathers rounded at the ends.
FIG. 13'J. RICHARDSON'S BAKBET.
(Capita Sic\ardso*i.)
This sub-family embraces several genera, some of
which inhabit the forests of Africa, where they live
u pini insects and fruits. They select a hole in some
< {craving tree, in which the female deposits her eggs
on the bare wood. On quitting the nest, the young
accompany their parents, and all live together in
perfect harmony. These bands are so devoid of
fear that it is easy to find the nest, it beinir only
necessary to follow the little family to the hole where
they reside, and to which they always retire to p;i>s
PICLOE. yli
the -night. Others are extremely abundant in most
parts of the continent of India, where they seem to
prefer open spaces in the jungles, or wherever a few
trees are to be found upon which they can perch ;
or, being far from shy, they frequently approach
gardens and groves. Their food consists of various
fruits and insects, which they obtain whilst hopping
amongst the branches. When roosting singly on
the uppermost branch of a tree, they usually utter a
monotonous note, that lasts for ten minutes or more :
this note is very peculiar, and somewhat resembles
a distant hammering of metal. Some of them have
been observed picking holes in a horizontal rotten
branch, wherein they build their nest, precisely in
the manner of the Woodpeckers. Owing to the
shortness of their Avings, their general proportions
are heavy, and their flight is low.
The type of the race is
Richardson's Barbel (Capita Richardsoni}.
322
SCANSORES.
SUB-FAMILY II.
The Picnkts.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill short, straight, the sides compressed towards the tip,
which is rather acute; the gonys of the lower mandible lengthened, and
advancing upwards ; and the tail short, with the tip of each feather broad
and round.
FlG. 131. THE PIGMY PICUMNUS.
(PieumHim pyymaim.)
These little birds inhabit the forests of South
America and India. They are seen perched singly
or in pairs on small trees, firmly grasping them with
their toes. They possess the power of leaping from
one branch to another, but they do not usually
employ their tail in supporting themselves on the
trunks, as is the case with the true. Woodpeckers.
They build their nest in rotten trunks of trees, in
PICIDJS.
323
which the females deposit two eggs. In a few
Indian species, the feet are furnished with only
three toes, two in front and one behind.
The type of this sub-family is
The Pigmy Picmnnus (Ficumnua pygmanis), repre-
sented above.
:324
SCANSOKES.
PlCIN.E.
SUB-FAMILY III.
The True Woodpeckers.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill more or less long, broad at the base, much compressed
towards the tip, which 'is truncated, the sides of the upper mandible sloping,
and furnished with a lateral ridge that springs from the middle at the base,
gradually bends towards the lateral margin, and then extends above it to
the tip ; the outer posterior toe generally longer than the outer anterior toe.
.
FlG. 132. THE GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER.
(Picuit major.)
The True Woodpeckers feed upon insects, which
they capture in the woody structure and beneath tin-
bark of trees. Their large and strong toes arranged
in pairs give them great facility in maintaining their
footing on a perpendicular surface, a faculty which
is aided by their stiff and horny tail, composed of
strong feathers, ending in sharp points, which act
a-s a prop. Their beak is shaped like a wedge,
PICID.E. 325
almost as strong and hard as steel, terminated by a
sharp, chisel-like extremity, wherewith, by repeated
blows, the bird strikes off the bark of trees, and
lavs bare the insidious grubs beneath.
" All Woodpeckers are extremely expert at dis-
covering insects in their lurking-places. No sooner
have they alighted, than they stand for a few moments
motionless and listening. If no movement is heard
beneath the bark, the Woodpecker gives a smart
rap with its bill, and bending its neck sideways,
lays its head close to the tree, when the least crawl-
ing motion of a beetle, or even of a larva, is instantly
discovered, and the bird forthwith removes the bark,
and continues to dig until it reaches its prey, when
it secures and swallows it. This mode of obtaining
food is observed particularly during the winter,
when few forest fruits are to be found. Woodpeckers
are, however, by no means restricted to insect diet ;
cherries, peaches, pears, apples, figs, mulberries, and
even peas, constitute a considerable part of their
nourishment. They likewise suck the eggs of small
birds, and thus sometimes commit serious depreda-
tions/' A udubon.
The type of this sub-family is
The Greater Spotted Woodpecker (Picus major), deli-
neated above.
326
SCANSORES.
GECIXIN.E.""
SUB-FAMILY IV.
The Grreen Woodpeckers.
GEJT. CHAHAC. Bill more or less long, strong, and straight, with the base
broad and the sides compressed towards the tip, which is truncated and
acute, the sides sloping, and furnished with a lateral ridge, which springs
from above the nostrils and runs along near the culmen towards the end of
the upper mandible for two-thirds of its length.
FlG. 133. THE GKKKN WOODPECKER.
( GfciHitt ciriilis.)
These birds are found in most parts of the Old
World. They reside singly or in pairs in forests
and jungles.
The type of this sub-family,
* y'h &> th e earth ; Kivim, kineo, to disturb ; So called because
it scratches up the earth in search of food.
327
The Green Woodpecker (Gednus viridis), is the most
common of our limited number of British Woodpeckers ;
on the continent of Europe it is widely distributed, inha-
biting forests and woody districts, where its loud cry may
be often heard though the bird itself remains unseen. In
some of its habits this species differs from the Wood-
j>eckers generally, especially in the circumstance of its
often leaving the trunks of trees and descending to the
ground, where it searches for ants' nests, being extremely
partial to those insects and their larvse, picking them up
very dexterously by means of its long tongue. It must
not be supposed, however, that these bii'ds seek their food
wholly on the ground ; they search for insects under the
bark of trees, or in the decaying wood, which they easily
shiver by blows of their strong wedge-shaped bills. They
scale the trunks of trees with great rapidity, climbing
either straight up or in a spiral direction, but they descend
tail foremost, moving as it were backwards. Their flight
is rapid and undulating, and in flying from trunk to
trunk, if the trees are not far from each other, they take
only a single sweep. These Woodpeckers make their
nests in hollow trees ; or, if they meet with no natural
hole fit for their purpose, they excavate one with their
bills. In the performance of this duty the male and
female labour by turns, hammering away with wonderful
assiduity, their bills, while they are at work, going so
fast that the strokes cannot be counted, either by the eye
or the ear.
Q 2
SCATfSORES.
SUB-FAMILY V.
MELANERPIKJS.* The Black Woodpeckers.
GBIC. CHAKAC. Bill more or less long, compressed, and the lateral ridge
placed nearly half-way between the culmen and lateral margin.
FlO. 134. THB BUSTY MELASKKPKS.
(Melanerpet rubiginotut.)
These birds are found both in North and South
America. They are seen in the woods*, the orchards,
and even on the fences in the neighbourhood of
houses. Their chief food consists of insects, but
they commit great devastation on fruits, berries, and
Indian corn, and are said to enter dovecots for the
* pt\ag, /zsXavoc, melas, melanos, black ; S^TTW, herpo, to >
PICIOE.
32<
purpose of sucking the eggs of pigeons. Their
note is lively, and so much resembles that of a
species of tree-frog which frequents the same places,
that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the one
from the other. They migrate during the night
from north to south, flying high up in the air, and
far apart, propelling themselves by flaps of their
wings repeated at the end of each successive curve
as they rise and sink in their flight. At the dawn of
day they alight on the tops of dead trees about the
plantations, and remain searching for food until the
approach of sunset, when they again, one after the
other, mount into the air and continue their journey.
The nest is formed in the trunk or large branches
of a tree. The female deposits six eggs, generally
on the bare wood.
The type of this sub-family is
The Rusty Melanerpes (Melanerpes rubiginosus-).
.
330
-ORES.
SUB-FAMILY VI.
COLAPTIX.E.* The Ground Woodpeckers.
GEX. CHABAC. Bill broad at the base, and the sides compressed to the end,
with the culmen much curved to the tip, which is acute, the sides of the
upper mandible sloping, and the lateral ridge scarcely visible or entirely
wanting.
FlG. 135. lilt GOLUbN-WIN'GED WOODPECKER.
The denomination of Cuckoo-Woodpeckers would
not be inappropriate to the members of this sub-
family, seeing that in their structure the character*
of both these birds seem to be combined. Thev
ha vi', in fact, the tail-feathers of the Woodpecker,
KoXairrw, colapto, to peck with the It ill.
PICID.E. :>31
and a rounded, slightly-arched, and pointed beak,
resembling that of the Cuckoos. They differ
from the preceding Woodpeckers in having their
tongues much less extensible, and also in many of
their habits. They are very generally seen upon
the ground, and do not climb trees, although they
sometimes cling to their trunks by means of then-
claws, but without changing their position ; never-
theless, they perch readily upon the branches, and
leap with facility from one twig to another ; indeed
they may sometimes be seen upon tall shrubs, upon
the berries of which they feed with avidity, notwith-
standing that insects and worms constitute their
principal diet. They usually frequent coppices ; they
will approach villages during the winter, but in the
spring they withdraw into the forests, where they
avail themselves of the holes of other Woodpeckers
in which to build their nests, seeing that they are
without the means of excavating them for themselves.
These birds are found in North and South
America, the West Indies, and South Africa. They
may be seen on the ground, examining the manure
of cattle for insects, or turning over the hillocks of
ants, which yield their favourite food. Occasionally
they frequent trees for ants that make their nests in
them, and penetrate decayed or dead branches in
search of wood-lice and the larvae of insects. They
live likewise on fruits, seeds, and grains. Their
flight is strong and prolonged. They propel them-
selves by numerous beats of the wings, with short
intervals of sailing, during which they generally
keep in a straight line. The nature of their chief
food causes them to migrate from place to place.
The female lays six eggs, which she deposits in the
hole of a tree, on chips and dust of wood. The
young soon leave the nest, and are enticed by the
parents to the highest branches, where they arc
assiduously fed.
The type of this sub-family is
The Golden-winged Woodpecker (Cola-pies <iuralv).
332
SCANSORES.
SUB-FAMILY VII.
YUNCIN.E.
The Wrynecks.
GBN. CHABAC. Bill short, straight, with the tip acute ; the wings moderate
and pointed ; the tail moderate, rounded, and composed of soft and flexible
feathers ; the tarsi short ; and the toes moderate.
FlG. 136. THK WKYNIi K.
(Yunx torquilla.)
These birds are found in Europe, India, and
Africa. In this country they make weir appearance
at the same time as the ants upon which they chiefly
live. They obtain their favourite food by removing 1
the earth with their bill, and then inserting their
long, extensile, and glutinous tongue, to which tin-
insects adhere. They are rarely seen on trees, as
PICID.E. 333
their soft tail is not strong enough to support them
in climbing, although they make their nests in
holes in an old tree trunk.
The type of this sub-family
The Wryneck ( Yunv torquilfa), a pretty little bird,
about the size of a lark, is a summer visitor to our island ;
but though common in the southern and eastern counties,
it is very rare in the north and west ; and in Ireland, we
believe, it is never seen. It arrives in this country in
April, a few days before the appearance of the Cuckoo ;
aud its loud cry of peep ! peep ! peep ! monotonously
repeated, is first heard when the leaves of the elm-tree
are as large as a silver sixpence. Groves, orchards, and
woods are the favourite resorts of the Wryneck, as also
the lines of tall beech-trees along hedge-rows. Ants are its
favourite food, and in search of them it traverses the
trunks of trees, examining every crevice, and picking
them up by means of its long worm-like tongue. In search
of its insect prey it also visits the ground, where it hops
and walks with considerable facility, searching for the nests
of ants ; and it is astonishing to see with what rapidity
it devours its tiny victims, launching its long tongue at
them, and withdrawing it so rapidly that the eye can
scarce] v follow its movements. Col. Montague informs
us, that having captured a female Wryneck, which he con-
fined for some days in a cage, he was enabled to watch
its manners very minutely. "A quantity of mould with
emmets and then* eggs was given to it, and it was curious
to see how the tongue was darted forth and retracted
with such velocity, and such unerring aim, that it never
returned without an ant or an esrg adhering to it, not
transferred by the horny point, as sonic have imagined,
but retained by a peculiar tenacious moisture provided
for the purpose. While feeding, the body is motionless,
the head only is turned to every side, and the motion of
the tongue is so rapid that an ant's egg, which is of a light
colour, and more conspicuous than the tongue, has some-
what the appearance of moving to the mouth by attrac-
tion, as a needle flies to a magnet. The bill is rarely
used, except" to remove the mould in order to get more
readily at these insects. Where the earth is hollow, the
tongue is thrust into all the cavities to arouse the ants,
y 3
334
SCANSORES.
and for this purpose the horny appendage at its extremity
is exceedingly serviceable."
The Wryneck breeds in the holes of decayed trees, but
does not excavate a chamber like the Woodpecker, the
strength of the beak being very inadequate for that pur-
pose. The eggs, nine or ten in number, are laid upon
the bare wood ; they are of a pure transparent white
colour. When surprised upon her eggs, the Wryneck
defends herself with great spirit, erecting the feather* at
the top of her head, and hissing like a snake.
In provincial language, this bird is sometimes called the
" Long-tongue," and " Emmet-hunter." The name Wry-
neck is given to it from its singular habit of twisting and
writhing its neck with odd contortions when alarmed or
irritated.
CUCULI I>JK. 000
FAMILY IV.
CUCULID.E. The Cuckoos.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill of various lengths, generally slender, and more or less
compressed on the sides, the culmen curved to the tip, which is more or less
emarginated ; the nostrils lateral, and placed in a membranous groove ; the
wings long and generally pointed ; the tail lengthened and rounded ; the
tar<i more or less long, and covered with broad transverse scales ; the toes
long and unequal ; the claws moderate, and more or less curved.
The Cuckoos have feet somewhat resembling
those of the Parrots, but there is no breadth of sole;
the tarsus is much more lengthened, and the toes,
instead of being thick and strong, are slender and
weak. These birds never climb, but as they sit
much, and often for a long time, upon branches, it
is necessary that their feet should be of such a form
as to enable them to maintain an equal hold on all
sides.
The members of this family occur in both hemi-
spheres, and, indeed, in most parts of the world.
They are especially abundant in warm climates, and
those which are met with in cold or temperate
countries are generally only summer visitors. They
all feed principally upon insects. In their breeding
habits they exhibit a remarkable dissimilarity.;
for whilst many species build a nest and bring up
their progeny, others, amongst which are our own
Cuckoos, make over the labour of incubation and
the care of rearing their young to other birds, in
whose nests they deposit their eggs. With certain
exceptions, the Cuculidse have long and pointed
wings, and are distinguished by great powers of
flight.
This family comprehends the Indicators, the Eain
Cuckoos, the Ground Cuckoos, the Aiiis, and thf
Cuckoos properly so called.
336
SCANSORES.
SUB-FAMILY I.
INDICATORIN^E. The Indicators, or Honey-guides.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill short, broad at the base, with the culmen curved, and the
sides compressed to the tip, which is entire ; the nostrils lateral and placed
near the culmen in a membranous groove ; the wings long and pointed ; the
tail moderate and emarginated ; the tarsi very short, and covered with trans-
verse broad scales ; the toes unequal, and the outer anterior toe the longest ;
the claws moderate and strong.
FlG. 137. THE SPOTTED HONEY GUIDE.
(Indicator mtirulti/itx.)
These birds inhabit the wooded districts of Africa,
the forests of India, and the island of Borneo ; they
are usually found in pairs near the nests of wild
bees, which are located in the trunks of trees. The
honey stored up in these nests constitutes their
chief food, and they often pay dearly for their
CUCULID-E. 337
dainty fare, being sometimes found , in the hives
stung to death. In such a case, the bees cover the
body with a vault of wax, that they may not be in-
commoded by its presence. Their flight is heavy,
and continued only for a short distance at a time ;
but they run upon the trunks and branches of trees
with great facility, in the manner of the Wood-
peckers. From the observations of M. Verreux, it
would appear that they have the parasitic habits of
the common Cuckoo, introducing their eggs into the
nests of Woodpeckers, and sometimes into those of
Orioles. The most celebrated species,
The White-beaked Honey-guide (Indicator albiros-
tris), is so called because it is said to serve as a guide
to the inhabitants of the districts it frequents in their
search for honey. We are told that this bird, finding it
rather a matter of difficulty to obtain the honey, of which
it is extremely fond, has the remarkable instinct of calling
Man to its assistance, and indicating the whereabouts of
the nests of the bees by constantly repeating a sharp and
peculiar cry, which, according to some travellers, may be
compared to the words wicki, wicki, which in the lan-
guage of the Hottentots means honey. In the deserts of
Africa this cry may be heard in the morning and evening,
and is eagerly watched for by the natives, who imme-
diately reply to it in a graver tone, and hasten in the
direction indicated. As soon as the bird perceives them
coming, it places itself upon the tree in which a hive is
concealed, and should the honey-seekers not advance
quickly enough, flies to them, and by repeatedly going
backwards and forwards, shows them in an unniistake-
able manner the position of the coveted treasure. Whilst
the human marauders are rifling the contents of the hive,
the Indicator remains perched in the vicinity, patiently
waiting for the share of spoil which the Hottentots never
fail to leave for its gratification. This strange instinct of
the Honey-guide, we are told, is of essential service to
the poor Africans, and they regard with no good will any
person who kills one of these birds.
The type of this sub-family is
The Spotted Indicator (Indicator maculatus).
338
SCAN8ORE8.
SUB-FAMILY II.
SAUROTHERIN.E.* The Rain Cuckoos.
GES. CHAHA.C. Bill long, with the culmen nearly straight towards the tip,
which is suddenly carved and hooked ; the sides much compressed, and the
gonys long and slightly ascending ; the nostrils lateral and partly exposed ;
the wings moderate and rounded ; the tail lengthened and graduated ; the
tarsi morfe or less long, and covered in front with transverse scales; th<' toes
more or less unequal; the claws moderate, curved, and acute.
FlO. 138. THE LONG BILLED RAIN CUCKOO.
(tiiiarnt.lii-ru nhila.)
The Rain Cuckoos are found in the islands of tin-
West Indies, and in South America. They frequent
woods and hedges throughout the year, feeding on
seeds, small worms, and Caterpillars ; moreover, t hex-
are said to kill snakes, frogs, young rats, and small
birds. On the ground they move by leaps. Their
* aavpdJTi]f>, sauroter, a spike ; So called on account of its long
tail.
CUCULID^:. 339
flight is weak and short, extending only from bush
to bush.
The type of this sub-family,
The Long-tilled Rain Cuckoo (frmrothera vetula), is
common in St. Domingo, where it is known by several
familiar names ; such as the " Tacco," after one of its
cries, and the " Pie," from another of its notes. It is
generally known as the " Rain-bird," because it redoubles
its noisy exclamations shortly before rain. It has like-
wist- obtained the cognomen of the " Laugher," from the
resemblance of its voice to a hearty laugh as it pronounces
the syllables qua, qua, qua ! or era, era, era ! sounds
which it frequently gives utterance to when flying. In
pronouncing its cry of tacco, the first syllable is loud and
full, the second an octave lower. The Tacco frequents
indifferently the cultivated lands or the broad savannas,
or it may be met with in bushes or in forests. It feeds
principally upon caterpillars and lizards, or gives chase
to young rats, snakes, frogs, or even small birds. Its
nest IS Composed of dry routs, nio. and leaves, and is
generally constructed in the forked branch of a tree. The
eggs are four or five in number, of a dingy white colour
spotted with black.
340
SCANSORES.
SUB-FAMILY 1JI.
COCCYZIN^E.* The Ground Cuckoos.
GEN. CHAKAC. Bill generally elevated at its base, with the culmen arched,
and the sides much compressed to the tip, which is entire; the gonys usually
long and straight; the nostrils basal, with the opening generally linear and
partly closed by a scale ; the wings moderate and more or less rounded ; the
tail long and graduated ; the tarsi lengthened, and covered with broad
scales ; the toes unequal, and armed with variously-sized claws.
FlG. 139. THE KKIi-ll F: UHili (,K()I Mi Cl ( KOO.
(Coua nificept.)
These birds are found both in Central and North
America, and sometimes in Europe. They make
their abode in the densest woods, the borders of soli-
tary swamps, and in orchards, seeking the thickest
foliage for concealment. Their food consists of
caterpillars and insects, shell-fish, snails, and small
* KOKKI'I'M. coccyzo, to cry like a cuckoo.
CUCULJPJ:. 341
frogs ; they feed, likewise, on berries and fruits,
and are accused of sucking the eggs of other birds.
In their migrations northwards they move singly,
but when returning to warmer latitudes they appear
to be gregarious, flying high in the air, and in loose
flocks.
The best -known species is
The Carolina Cuckoo ( Coccyzus A mericanus). A stranger
who visits the United States for the purpose of examining
their natural productions, and passes through the woods
in the month of May or June, will sometimes hear, as he
traverses the borders of deep, retired, high-timbered hol-
lows, an uncouth guttural sound or note, resembling the
syllables kowe, kowe, kowe, kowe, kowe ! beginning slowly,
b\it ending so rapidly that the notes seem to run into
each other. He will hear this frequently without being
able to discover from whence it proceeds, as the bird pro-
ducing it is both shy and solitary, always seeking the
thickest foliage for concealment. From the sound of its
note it is known in many parts by the name of the
" Cow-bird ;" it is also called in Virginia the " Rain-
crow," being observed to be most clamorous immediately
before rain.
This bird (unlike the Eiiropean Cuckoo) builds its own
nest, hatches its own eggs, rears its own young, and in
conjugal and parental affection seems nowise behind any
of its neighbours of the grove. Early in May they begin
to pair, when obstinate battles take place among the
males. The nest is usually fixed among the horizontal
branches of an apple-tree, sometimes in a solitary thorn,
crab, or cedar, in some retired part of the woods ; it is
constructed with little art, and scarcely any concavity, of
small sticks and twigs, intermixed with green weeds and
blossoms of the common maple. On this almost flat bed
the eggs, usually three or four in number, are placed :
these are of an uniform greenish-blue colour, and of a
size proportionable to that of the bird. While the female
is sitting, the male is generally not far distant, and gives
the alarm by his notes when any person is approaching.
The female sits so close that you may almost reach her
with your hand, and then precipitates herself to the
ground, feigning lameness to draw you away from the
342
SCANSORES.
spot, fluttering, trailing her wings, and tumbling over,
after the manner of the Partridge, Woodcock, and many
other species. Both parents unite in providing food for
the young : this consists, for the most part, of caterpillars,
particularly s\ich as infest apple-trees : the same insects
constitute the chief part of their own. sustenance. They
are accused, and with some justice, of sucking the eggs
of other birds, like the Crow, the Blue Jay, and other
pillagers. They also occasionally eat various kinds of
berries ; but from the circumstance of destroying such
numbers of very noxious larvae they prove themselves
the friends of the farmer, and are highly deserving of his
protection. Wilson.
The typical form is
The Red-headed Ground Cuckoo (Coua rvfice^s).
CUCULIDJE.
:343
SUB-FAMILY 7T.
.* The Aids or Tick-eaUrs.
GEX. CHAEAC. Bill more or less lengthened, with the culmen arched, and the
sides iniu-h compressed ; the iutrils basal, lateral, and pierced in the sub-
stance of the bill ; the wings short and rounded ; the tail lengthened, broad,
and graduated ; the tarsi long, and covered with broad transverse scales ;
the toes long, placed two and two, and the two outer ones the longest ; the
rhius short and curved.
FlG. 140. THE GKEATKR TICK-EATER.
(Crotofihuga major.)
Those birds inhabit the islands of the West Indies
and the tropical parts of South America, preferring
places under cultivation, and more especially land in
the neighbourhood of clear pastures or low shrub-
beries and swamps. They easily make their way
among the thickest foliage or grass by means of
their sharp-edged bills, with which they scatter the
* K-p<urwi , croton, a tick (parasite) ; <bafta, phago, to eat.
344 SCANSORES.
herbage on each side in their search after grass-
hoppers and other insects. They have been seen on
the dead carcase of a sheep, but whether attracted
by the flesh or by the larvee of insects is uncertain.
In the daytime they have been noticed in flocks of
twenty or thirty individuals, about small rivulets,
seeking for tadpoles, which they greedily devour.
At other times they may be seen flying from shrub
to shrub, uttering their peculiar note. Their nest
is built in the fork of a tree, or in a bush covered
with thick mistletoe ; it is rudely constructed of
coarse materials, chiefly small sticks with the pliable
portion placed inside, and totally destitute of any
soft lining. The eggs are from five to seven or more
in number. The young evince much activity in
hopping from branch to branch : long before they
are able to fly, they leave their nests, and may
frequently be seen perched on the top of a shrub
or thicket of vines, in company with a congregation
of adult birds ; and when the parents escape from
an intruder by taking flight, the young, by long
and rapid leaps, reach the ground and run off with
great quickness.
These birds live chiefly upon ticks and other
small vermin, and may frequently be seen jumping
about cows and oxen in the fields; nay, they ;nv
often observed to fly upon their backs, and the
cattle will even lie down for them if much troubled
with ticks ; but if the beast be heedless, they hop
once or twice round it, looking it very earnestly in
the face every time they pass, as if they seemed to
know that it was only requisite to be seen to be
indulged. They are very noisy birds, and one of the
commonest sorts in all the pastures of Jamaica. Their
flight is low and short. (Brown, Hist. Jamaica.)
The type of this sub-family is
The Greater Tick-eater (Crotophaga major).
3 1-:,
CUCULIN.E.
SUB-FAMILY V.
The Cuckoos proper.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill broad, and rather depressed at the base ; the culmen
curved, and the sides compressed to the tip, which is entire or slightly emar-
jlinaU'd ; the nostrils basal and membranous, with the opening erposed; the
wings long and generally pointed ; the tail long and usually graduated ; the
tarsi short, partly clothed with feathers, and partly covered with broad
FlG. 141. THE COMMON CUCKOO.
(Ciiatlits Cdiioritf.)
These birds are peculiar to the warmer portions
of the Old World. They are migratory and of soli-
tary habits, frequenting woody places and gardens
in quest of their subsistence ; and generally perch in
bushes, or on the lower branches of trees, flying occa-
sionally from one to another at short distances. Their
food consists principally of caterpillars, which they
346 SCANSOKES.
kill by pressing them with their bill before swallow-
ing them, usually cutting off the hinder end of the
insect, and by repeated jerks freeing it from extra-
neous matter ; they sometimes feed on perfect lepi-
dopterous insects. Their note is loud, and uttered
in a lengthened and melancholy manner, especially
early in the morning and at the decline of day,
sometimes even during the night. It is remarkable
that the females of our common species do not form
any nest, but mostly deposit their eggs in the nests
of sylvan birds, leaving to the foster-parent the
entire charge of hatching and rearing the young
Cuckoo, which, if it finds itself incommoded by the
rightful owners of the nest, casts them out to perish
on the ground ; so that the entire care of the foster-
parent is ultimately bestowed upon the intruder.
The reason of this strange proceeding seems to be
that the Cuckoos produce their eggs only at inter-
vals of several days, and as their residence in tem-
perate climates is but short, the young could hardly
be brought to maturity by their own parents in time
to take their departure with them. The egg of the
Cuckoo is of very small size in comparison with the
bird ; its weight does not exceed that of a Skylark's
egg, although the comparative size of the two birds
is as four to one. Hence the egg of the parasite is
readily introduced into the nest of its intended
foster-parent, and the latter is not alarmed, ;is ir
might be, by the presence of an egg so large as to be
positively inconvenient. This is of some consequence,
as the birds whose nests are selected by the Cuckoo
for the reception of its eggs are all much less than
itself. The Cuckoo's egg is hatched in a shorter
period than those of its foster-parent, and tlms the
young Cuckoo commonly makes its appearance before
many of the eggs of the latter are hatched ; moreover,
as it has to grow rapidly, it requires to be supplied
with a much larger quantity of food than would fall
to its share if the insects and worms collected l>y
the old birds had to be divided among a nestful of
CUCULIDJE.
347
hungry claimants. With this exceedingly selfish
object in view, the young Cuckoo begins operations
by gently insinuating his tail under the body of one
of the young birds, which he then, with the assistance
of his wings, contrives to hoist upon his back. With
his load properly poised, the young Cuckoo goes
backing until he reaches the edge of the nest, when,
with a sudden jerk, he throws it out to perish. The
other birds soon follow, and he then betakes himself
to the unhatched eggs, which are disposed of in the
same way.
The type of this sub-family,
The Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), is with us only
a summer visitant ; it arrives about the beginning of
April, and during the whole of its sojourn in this country
leads a wandering life, building no nest, and attaching
itself to no particular locality.
348 GALLING.
OEDEK IV.
GALLING.
THE Gallinaceous birds are all terrestrial. They
have a short or moderately long beak, which is
vaulted above. Their body is heavy, and their wings
generally short. They all live upon grain, and are
furnished with a strong muscular gizzard ; they
delight in seeking their food upon the ground, and
in scratching among the dust. To this order belong
our game-birds and most of our poultry ; their flesh
supplies a light and wholesome meat, and their
feathers are applied to various purposes both orna-
mental and useful.
This order is divided by Cuvier into two sections
The GALLING properly so called, and the Co-
LUMBJE.*
SECTION I.
GALLING properly so called.
GEN. CHAKAC. Tarsi lengthened, robust, and sometimes armed with a spur or
spurs ; the toes more or less lengthened, hut always connected at their base
by a membrane, the hind toe more or less developed, and when present more
or less elevated from the ground.
The Gallinaceous birds are so named because
they present a general resemblance, both in their
structure and habits, to our common barn-door
fowls. They are usually of a moderate or rather
large size, and of a stout and somewhat heavy shape.
They have a small head, often partially or wholly
denuded of feathers, and a bill of moderate length,
of which the upper mandible is distinctly arched,
and overhangs the lower both at the tip and along
* See " Animal Creation," page 443.
GALLIN2E. 349
the margins. As they are all essentially terrestrial
in their habits, their legs are always strong and well-
developed. The tarsi are stout, and very commonly
armed with a spur, or even with two or more such
weapons, which are especially developed in the
males. The toes are three in front and one behind,
the latter being usually small and slightly elevated
on the back of the tarsus, but sometimes more elon-
gated, and then placed upon the same level as the
other toes, so as to be efficient in grasping. The
anterior toes are not very long, but stout, and often
united by webs at their base ; they are armed with
strong and rather blunt nails, which are of great use
in scratching up the ground in search of food,
a habit common to most of the species, from which,
indeed, many ornithologists give them the name of
Rasores or Scrapers. The feathers of the legs are
continued down to the articulation of the tarsus, and
sometimes extend beyond this point, even to the
extremities of the toes. The wings are generally
short and weak in comparison with the weight of
the body, so that they fly heavily, and only to short
distances. Their plumage is firm, and often adorned
with brilliant colours ; and parts of it, especially in
the males, are frequently developed to an extra-
ordinary extent, sometimes giving them a grotesque
appearance. The feathers are distinguished by the
great development of the accessory plumules spring-
ing from the base of the stem, at its junction with
the quill.
The Gallinaceous birds are spread over all parts
of the world, but the finest species are inhabitants
of the warm regions. Their food consists of fruits,
seeds, herbage, insects, and worms. They are gene-
rally polygamous, each male collecting around him
a seraglio as numerous as he can keep together. In
keeping off the attentions of intrusive rivals, he is
engaged in almost incessant combats. The females
lay their eggs, which are generally numerous, upon
the ground in some sheltered situation. The young
350 GALLING:.
are usually able to run as soon as they leave the egg,
but at night, or on the approach of danger, they
shelter themselves under the wing of their mother.
The Gallinae may be generally described as being
that order more especially set apart by their
Great Creator for the service of man. Hence they
are more easily domesticated than any other birds ;
their flesh is the most palatable, and their fecundity
the greatest. They live almost entirely on the
ground, which consequently affords them their chief
nourishment in the seeds and grains of different
plants. Their flesh and their eggs are universally
wholesome and very nutritious, while their feathers
are employed for a variety of uses. They are pecu-
liarly attentive to their offspring; and that tin-
increase of the different races should keep pace with
the wants of man, they are much more prolific than
ordinary birds. They are social, live in societies,
and are polygamous. They prefer escaping from
danger by running, and only take to flight when
compelled by necessity. They are fond of rolling
in the dust; some nestle on the ground and live
only on plains, whilst others reside in forests and
make their nests only in trees.
CKACID.K. 351
FAMILY I.
<'KACID,E. The Curassows.
('IN. CHARAC. Bill moderate, of various forms, with the eulmen more or less
arched to the tip ; the nostrils basal, lateral, and exposed ; the wings short
and much rounded ; the tail lengthened and very broad ; the tarsi length-
ened and robust, with the toes lengthened and more or less slender, the
hind toe long, and placed on the same plane with the others.
The first family of the Gallinae includes a small
number of species peculiar to South America, and
known under the names of Guans and Curassows.
These birds reside in the luxuriant forests of tropical
America j they live chiefly on the ground, where
they pick up the seeds and insects which constitute
;i great portion of their food. Their powers of flight
an 1 rather limited, but they rise freely into the trees,
upon the branches of which they often roost and
breed.
K 'I
352
GALLIN.E.
SUB-FAMILY I.
PEXELOPIJLE.
Tlte Guans.
GEIT. CHABAC. Bill moderate, weak, slender, longer than high, with the
culmen at the base straight, and then vaulted to the tip ; the nostrils large,
covered with a membrane, and the opening large, anterior, and ovte ; the
sides of the head and throat more or less naked.
~
FIG. 142. LORD DERBY'S <;rix.
(Oreopkatit Dfrbtantu.)
These birds are only found in the warm parts of
South America. They are generally seen in forests
on trees, near the tops of which they reside during
the heat of the day. but in the cool of the morning
and evening they are busily engaged in searching
for fruits and insects. Their flight is heavy, and
performed with difficulty, owing to the shortness of
their wings. They build their nests on the summits
of trees : the female lays from two to five eggs.
CRACIDJE.
353
Their note resembles the syllable pi uttered in a
sharp tone, and so loud, that when numbers are col-
lected near the same spot, they make the woods
resound with their clamorous cries.
The type of this sub-family is
Lord Derby's Guan (Oreophasis Derbianus).
354
GALLIN.E.
CRACIN.K.
SUB-FAMILY 11.
The. Curassows proper.
GEX. CHARAC. Bill more or less long, and generally elevated at the base, the
culmen curved and the sides compressed to the tip, which is obtuse ; the
nostrils lateral and large, with the opening p'artly closed by a membrane
orescent-shaped or rounded.
FlG. 143. THE CBKSTKD CCBASSOW.
(Cfa* crMatiu.)
The Curassows are large fowls resemblingTurkcvs,
hut having a rich plumage of glossy black, and bright
red beaks. Unlike all other Gallinaceous birds, they
iv<ide habitually in the crowns of the lofty forcst-
trccs, where the males with their numerous partners
iimvc ; i bout hidden in the foliage. These flocks,
indeed, only betray their presence by uttering, nmv
and then, a long-drawn whistling note resembling a
sigh. Five distinct species of these magnificent
birds inhabit the forests of the Amazon, where they
CRACID.E. 355
are much sought after by the natives, both as food
and as pet animals. Like the rest of the order, they
subsist indiscriminately upon worms, insects, fruits,
and the seeds of plants. Their nests are built on
fives, and formed of sticks interlaced with stalks of
herbaceous plants, and lined with leaves. The eggs
are five or six in number.
Tin 1 Common Curassow (Crax Alector) is nearly as large
as a Turkey, measuring about three feet in its total height.
Its plumage is of a shining black, exhibiting purple and
green tints according to the direction in which the light
falls upon the feathers. The bill is stout and black, but
the basal part of both mandibles is occupied by a large
yellow cere, and the eyes are surrounded by a naked skin
of the same colour. These birds, which are also called
" Hoccos," are found in great flocks in the forests of
tropical America. They exhibit very little fear of man,
but when in the vicinity of human habitations they
become more cautious, and are seldom seen moi-e than
two or three together. They are easily domesticated,
and then become very familiar, recognizing those who
feed them, and even pulling at their clothes when they
think themselves neglected. This bird has bred freely in
Holland ; it lays its eggs on the ground, and the young
run as soon as tliev are hatched.
356 GALLIX-E.
FAMILY II.
MEGAPODID.E.* The Megapodea.
GES. CHAKAC. Bill more or less robust, with the apical portion vaulted, and
the tip rather obtuse ; the wings moderate and much rounded ; the tarsi
long, robust, and usually covered with large scales ; the toes lengthened,
strong, and covered above with strong scales, the hind toe long and entirely
resting on the ground ; the claws long, robust, and slightly curved.
The birds of this family are all inhabitants of the
islands of the Eastern Archipelago and Australia.
In their general conformation they have considerable
relationship with the Cracidse, especially in the
position of the hind toe, which is placed on the
same level as the anterior ones ; so that, in walking,
its whole lower surface is applied to the ground.
The habits of these birds are most singular. They
deposit their eggs in a heap of sand, or an accumu-
lation of dead leaves, and trust to the heat of the
sun, assisted in the latter case by the warmth pro-
duced by the decay of vegetable matter, to maintain
the temperature necessary for the maturation of the
young. The eggs are of enormous size, those of
the common Megapode exceeding in bulk the eggs
of the Swan. The eggs of the Talegalla are smooth
and white, about the size of those of the Pelican.
Those of Leipoa and Megapodius are covered with
a sort of epidermis, or sandy-coloured chalky layer,
which is readily removed from the true shell beneath.
With respect to the size of these eggs, the intent is
evident ; they are destined to imprison and afford
food to the young chick, till it has grown to a com-
paratively large size. The young bird possesses
great strength, and when it breaks the strong shell,
it emerges completely clad, and works its way
through the substance of the mound in which the
egg was buried.
This family consists of the Talegallas or Brush
Turkeys, and the Mound-birds.
* (ifyaf, megaa great; irovf, grooc, poua, podos, afoot; Great-
foot.
MEGAPODID^:.
357
SUB-FAMILY I.
TALEGALLIN^E.
The Talegattas.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill moderate and robust, with the culmeu elevated at the
base and curved towards the tip, which is obtuse, the sides compressed, the
lateral margins curved, and the gonys moderate and slightly ascending.
FlG. 144. THE BED-FOOTED TALEGAILA.
hatuii rujipes.)
These birds are found in the dense brushes,
scrubby gullies, and primeval forests of Australia
and New Guinea, where they are met with in small
flocks on the ground ; they are shy and fearful, and
when disturbed endeavour to escape by running
into the thick " brush," or by flying on to the
branches of trees, and then ascending to the top,
which they gain by leaping from bough to bough;
and having attained the summit, sometimes fly off
R 3
358 GALLING.
to a new locality in the underwood. During the
mid-day sun they generally seek the shady branches
of trees for shelter from the heat, often uttering a
low clucking noise. They also dust themselves on
the ground, after the manner of other Gallinaceous
birds. Their food consists of seeds, berries, and
insects. The Australian species forms a remarkable
heap of decayed vegetables in a retired and shady
place. The vegetables are collected by their feet,
until they have formed a heap of sufficient size, by
completely destroying the plants growing in the
neighbourhood. After a certain time has been
allowed for the vegetables thus accumulated to en-
gender some degree of heat, several female birds
deposit their eggs in the mound at a little distance
from each other, and cover them to a depth of three
feet. They are placed perfectly straight, with the
large end upwards, and are thus left until they arc
hatched by the artificial heat of this remarkable
hotbed. The young birds force their way out of the
mound, and at the moment of their escape, they are
completely clothed with feathers. The old birds
are said to frequent the vicinity of the nest at the
time when the young may be expected to appear,
and frequently to uncover the eggs and cover them
up again. This has been confirmed by the breeding
of a pair in the London Zoological Gardens ; the
male (not the female) being assiduous in attending
to the eggs and assisting the young birds to make
their escape.
The type of this sub-family is
The Wattled Talegallus (Talegallus Lathami).
MEGAPOD1DJE.
359
SUB-FAMILY IT.
MKUAPODIX.E. The Mound-birds,
GEJT. CHAKAC. Bill moderate and rather weakened, with the basal portion of
the eulmen depressed, and the apical part rather strong and slightly raulted,
the sides compressed, and the gonys curved upwards or slightly ascending.
FlG. 145. THE MOUXD-B1BD.
(Ifegapodiiti.)
The birds belonging to the typical genus (Mega-
j>o<?/*) are found in all the islands of the Eastern
Archipelago of Asia and the north-western parts of
Australia. They are exclusively met with in pairs,
in thick woods in the immediate neighbourhood of
the sea ; and if disturbed, very quickly hide amongst
the brushwood. They seek their food, which con-
si<ts of fibrous roots, seeds, berries, and insects, on
the ground.
Some species hide their eggs, to the number of a
360
GALLINJE.
hundred or more, in holes, which they excavate to the
depth of two or three feet, on the sea-shore. Others
deposit their eggs in immense conical mounds, com-
posed of sand and shells, with a large mixture of
black soil and vegetable matter, the base generally
resting on the sandy beach within a few feet of high
water-mark. Some of these mounds measure from
twenty to sixty feet in circumference, and from five to
fifteen in height. The female lays her eggs in the
night, at intervals of several days, in perpendicular
holes dug near the middle of the mound, to the depth
of several feet. When she has deposited one, she col-
lects a quantity of sand in the hole, until the cavity is
filled up. The young are supposed by some to effect
their escape from the mound unaided, while, on the
other hand, it has been asserted that the parent birds,
knowing when the young are ready to emerge from
their confinement, scratch down and release them.
PHASIANID,E. 361
FAMILY III.
PHASIANJD.E. The PJwasants.
GBJT. CHABAC. Bill moderate, with the culmen arched to the tip, which over-
hangs that of the lower mandible, and the sides compressed ; the wings
moderate and much rounded ; the tail more or less lengthened and broad ;
the tarsi moderate, usually armed with a spur or spurs ; the toes moderate,
the anterior toes united at their base by a membrane, the hind toe short
and elevated.
The birds of this family, some of which are among
the most elegant and splendid of their class, are
nearly all inhabitants of the Eastern hemisphere,
only two species being found in America ; and even
in the Old World their distribution is almost exclu-
sively restricted to tne warmer parts of the Asiatic
continent and its dependent islands. They may all
be classed under the following sub-families : the
Peacocks, the true Pheasants, the Jungle-fowls, the
Turkeys, and the Monauls.
362
GALLING.
SUB-FAMILY I.
PAVONINE. T/ie Peacocks.
GEN. CHAEAC. Tail and its coverts much developed and depressed.
FlG. HI. THE COMMON PEACOCK.
(Paro crittatuis.)
These magnificent birds inhabit various parts of
India, Thibet, and some of the islands in the Imli.-ui
Ocean. They abound most in the woody districts in
the low jungles, but are met with even in gardens,
in which they seek their food. The severe cold of
PHASIANID.E. 363
the mountainous parts of Northern India does not
hurt them. The male is three years old before he
attains his full plumage. Their nest is formed
amongst the thickest shrubs, or on high garden
walls or roofs. When the young are bred in an
elevated situation, they are said to be carried down
to the ground by the parent on her back.
The type of the.race,
The Common Peacock (Pavo cristatus\ is perhaps
adorned with a more gorgeous plumage than any other
bii-d. Nearly all his feathers exhibit more or less metallic
lustre ; his head is crowned with an elegant tuft of slender
stems, each supporting at its extremity a small brilliant
palette ; his neck and breast are of the deepest metallic
blue, with surface tints of golden green ; and his tail-
coverts, enormously elongated, form a most magnificent
train, adorned with hundreds of splendid eye-like spots.
His general form also is exceedingly elegant ; and when
he elevates and spreads his gorgeous train to the sun,
displaying it in every way, as if conscious of the admira-
tion he is exciting, the beholder is constrained to admit
that there is no creature ujxm which Nature has lavished
her powers of adornment with a more unsparing hand.
The voice of the Peacock is exceedingly harsh and dis-
cordant, closely resembling the word paon, which is its
French name. The colours of the female, or Peahen, are
plain and unobtrusive, and in her the train is wanting.
The introduction of this bird into Europe is ascribed to
Alexander the Great, but the date at which it was first
brought to this country is unknown. Peacocks formed
a favourite dish amongst the Romans, and also found a
place in the feasts of the middle ages, when they were
served up with great pomp.
364
GALLIX.E.
SUB-FAMILY II.
PHASIANIKLE. The True Pheasants.
GBN. CHABAC. Tail more or less lengthened, greatly cuneated, and composed
of narrow and cuneated feathers.
FlO. 147. THE COMMON PHEASANT,
(Phaxianiig Colckicui.)
The native countries of these birds are the moun-
tainous districts of Asia, extending even to Japan,
but some of the species have become naturalized in
the temperate parts of Europe. They are found
PHAS1ANID,E. 365
lying concealed during the day in the jungles, covers,
and long grass, living in divided societies of different
sex. Towards the spring they separate in families,
consisting of a male and several females ; and the
party generally takes possession of a certain locality,
from which the commander is very particular in
driving away all male intruders. When suddenly
disturbed, they endeavour to escape by using their
legs rather than their wings. Their flight is rapid
and noisy when first started, but sustained only
for a short distance. Various kinds of grain and
insects form their principal food : these are usually
sought for at sunset. They also seek for bulbous
roots, which are obtained by means of their bill and
feet. Their eggs are deposited on long grass,
without any kind of nest, and are about ten in
number.
The typical species,
The Common Pheasant (P/iasianus Colchicus), although
abundant in most parts of Britain, is not a native of this
country, but has been introduced here, and into the
southern parts of Europe generally, from the south-west
of the Asiatic continent. The particular district from
which the progenitors of the Pheasants now inhabiting
Europe were derived, is supposed to have been the banks
of the river Phasis, in the ancient kingdom of Colchis,
on the eastern shore of the Black Sea, and the bird is
still abundant in a wild state in the Caucasian provinces.
Its scientific name, Pha-sianus Colchicus, is derived from
the river and kingdom above mentioned.
The favourite resort of the Pheasant is thick underwood
abounding in brambles and long grass ; and here it lies
concealed during the day, its time for feeding in the
adjoining fields being at dawn and at sunset. In its
progress to its feeding-ground it always runs, and on this
account is very easily taken by wire snares set in the nar-
row paths that it makes through the long grass which it
constantly frequents. Its habit of roosting upon trees is,
however, still more fatal, since, being an object of con-
siderable size, readily distinguished by its long tail, and
ot easily frightened from its perch, it offers a sure mark
366 GALLIX.T-:.
dui-ing moonlight nights to the gun of the poacher. The
roosting-place of the male bird is very easily discovered,
for he invariably "chuckles" when he first "trees," or
goes to perch; and the female usually utters a faint chirp
on the same occasion. During summer and the period of
moulting the Pheasant rarely perches, but retires for the
night to the longest grass, or other thick cover, and does
not begin to " mount ' again until towards the end of Sep-
tember or the beginning of October, having at that period
renewed its plumage. Where pheasants are numerous,
the males are in general found associated during tin-
winter, separate from the females ; and it is not until
about the end of March that they allow the approach
of the latter without signs of displeasure, or at least
of indifference. At the above-mentioned time, however,
the jnale bird assumes an altered appearance ; the scarlet
of his cheeks, and around his eyes, acquires additional
depth of colour, and he walks with a more measured step,
with his wings let down, and his tail carried in a more
erect position. Being polygamous, he now takes p<
sion of a certain "beat," from whence he drives every
male intruder, and commences his " crowing,"' attended
with a peculiar clapping of his wings as a note of invita-
tion to the other sex as well as of defiance to his own.
The female makes a very inartificial nest upon the ground,
in long grass or thick underwood, and not unfrequently
in fields of clover ; she lays from ten to fourteen eggs of a
clear oil-green colour. The young are hatched dining
the months of June or July, and continue with the hen
until they begin to moult and assume the adult plumage ;
after this }>eriod the young males are only to be distin-
guished from the older birds by the comparative shortness
and bluntness of the tarsal spur.
PHAS1ANID.E.
367
GALLIN.E.
SUB-FAMILY III.
The Jungle-Fowls.
GEN. CHABAC Bill moderate, with the apical half vaulted and arched to the
tip, which is obtuse ; the nostrils placed in a large membranous groove,
with the opening large, nearly semicircular, and protected by a scale ; the
wings moderate, concave, much rounded, with the secondaries the length of
the quills, ample and broad ; the tail compressed, and genei ally arched ; the
tarsi :i< Inn;; as, or longer than, the middle toe, robust, and armed with a
spur ; the toes long, and the front ones united at their base by a membrane.
FIG. 148. HORSEFIELD'S JUGGLE-FOWL.
(Euplocomus Honefieldii.)
These birds are found in the forests of India and
the neighbouring islands. They frequent the close
brushwoods that cover the precipitous and rugged
gorges of the mountains, but some species prefer
level ground. They are generally seen in coveys of
eight or ten individuals. When alarmed, they do not
take wing, but endeavour to hide themselves among
368 GALLING.
the covers, running with great rapidity. Their note
is a subdued melancholy chuck. Their food consists
of seeds, wild berries, roots, insects, &c.
A beautiful species,
The Javan Fowl (Gallus Bankiva], is generally believed
to be the original stock of our domestic poultry. It closely
resembles in plumage some of the dunghill cocks of this
country, although it is considerably less in size. This bird
appears to have been domesticated in the East at a very
early period, and must have been introduced into Europe
in very ancient tunes. It was well known to the Greeks
and Romans, who, like our own people at a very recent
period, and many eastern nations at the present day, de-
lighted in the cruel spectacle of a cock-fight. During the
day they generally frequent the outskirts of forests and
thick jungles, but on the least alarm conceal themselves
in the thickest coverts. Their food consists of seeds,
fruits, and the larvae of insects ; the females construct a
rude nest on the ground composed of grass.
The type of this sub-family is
Horsefield's Jungle-Fowl (Euplocomus Horsefieldii}.
PHASIANID.E.
369
SUB-FAMILY IV.
MELEAGRIN.E.
The Turkeys.
GEN. CHABAC. Tail more or less short and pendent; the head and neck
denuded of plumes, or only covered with scattered hairs or carunculated ;
the base of the lower mandible sometimes wattled.
FlG. 149. THE COMMON TURKEY.
(Mfleagrii Galli-pavo.)
The wandering habits of these birds occasion them
to be found in the forests, prairies, and open tracts of
various parts of the northern continent of America.
The males live in small societies of ten to a hundred,
370 GALLINJE.
and seek their food apart from the females, who are
occupied in feeding their young and concealing them
from the attacks of the other sex ; but should the
parties meet in some ground where their favourite
food is very abundant, they intermix and partake of
the repast. Turkeys are found in a wild state
throughout North America, from Canada to the
Isthmus of Panama; and far from being improved
by the care of man, they have become remarkably
degenerated in a state of domesticity. The wild
bird when at liberty will weigh from twenty to sixty
pounds, and when standing upright will measure at
least three feet in height. Formerly these birds
were common in Canada and in the central parts of
the United States, but they have gradually fallen
back before the advance of cultivation, although they
seem to yield their country to the husbandman only
inch by inch. Still, it is not difficult to predict that
the time of their complete extirpation is not remote.
The wild Turkeys live for the most part in the
forests, where they feed upon fruits. During the
summer time they associate in little bands, but in
the winter unite to form flocks, which issue from
their retreat and approach inhabited districts. This
season is called by the North American Indians Tin-
Turkey month, and during its continuance great
numbers are killed, and preserved in a frozen state
to be transported to the European settlements. It
is only in the remote parts of the country that these
birds can be said to be met with in abundance.
They are very wild ; and although much larger than
the domesticated race, are not easily met with except
by accident, in their chosen retreats ; for, on tin-
slightest alarm, they at once hide themselves among
the long grass and impenetrable brushwood, whk-h
is likewise their usual defence against birds of prey.
Moreover, they are naturally in the habit of acting
as guardians to each other; the first who pereeive>
the approach of a stranger, even at a distance, utters
a cry of alarm, and in an instant they vanish among
PHASIANHXS:. 371
the herbage. The sportsman has no chance of
getting within reach of them during the day, at
least without the assistance of a dog well trained for
the purpose ; and even then he must fire very close,
so as to kill them on the spot; for if they are only
wounded, they run so quickly with a sort of half-
flight, that the fleetest Indian cannot overtake them.
About sunset, however, they may be assailed with
better success, as at that period of the day they
betray the place -of their retreat by incessant
" gobblings," whereby they collect their scattered
flocks. When they have all got together, they
make their way in perfect silence to their accustomed
roosting-places, where they perch themselves close
together upon the large trees, particularly upon
Avithered boughs or branches stripped of their
leaves. When, thus perched, so secure do they
think themselves, that they are readily approached ;
indeed, neither the sight of a man nor the report of
a gun seems to cause the slightest feeling of alarm.
They will even see their companions fall from their
side, killed by an arrow or still more murderous
bullet, without stirring from their place. Their only
indication of concern is a sort of low murmur, more
indicative of surprise than fear ; indeed, they remain
so stupidly immoveable, that under these circum-
stances they may all be killed one after the other,
however numerous. At break of day, the Wild
Turkeys make the woods echo with their gobblings,
as they call to each other from tree to tree ; but as
the sun rises they come down from their perch, and
the males, in the breeding season, proceed to display
their plumage to the other sex, when fierce battles
often take place.
The most beautiful species of this sub-family,-
The Ocellated Turkey (Meleagris ocellatua), is a native
of Honduras, where it does not seem to be very abundant.
It is about the size of the common Turkey, but far more
splendid in its tints. The typical form is
The Common Turkey (Meleacjrls Galliyavd).
372
GALLIC ..
SUB-FAMILY V.
LOPHOPHORIN^E.*
The Monauls.
GBX. CHABAC. Bill moderate, broad at the base, and the tip of the upper
mandible projecting over the lower ; the nostrils partly exposed and partly
covered with feathers and a membranous shield ; the wings moderate; the
tail ample ; the tarsi short, strong, and covered with divided shields ; the
toes lengthened, and the lateral ones united with the middle one ; the claws
short and curved ; lores clothed with small feathers.
FlO. 150. THB MuXAUL, OK IMPEYAJJ PHEASAJCT.
(Lophopkortu Impeyanut.)
The single species constituting this sub-family is
abundant in the inner margins of the Himalaya
Mountains. When disturbed, these birds take wing
* X60oc, lophos, a crest ; <j>ipo>, phero, to carry ; Crest-bearer.
PHASIANIDJE. 373
rapidly, uttering a loud and musical note, which
they repeat at short intervals till they again alight.
They are very fond of perching on some bare rock
or stone, and from thence surveying the ground
around them. In the morning and evening, while
feeding, it is difficult to get at them, as they are
very wary ; but during the heat of the day they are
found lazily reposing among the brushwood covers,
and unwilling to rise. It is known when they are
in any particular locality by the holes they make in
the ground in search of food, which consists of
bulbous roots and insects. The males are three
years in attaining their showy plumage : when first
fledged they are scarcely distinguishable from the
females.
The only species,
The Monaul, or Impeyan Pheasant (Lophophorus Im-
peyanus), is a splendid Indian bird, an inhabitant of the
mountains of Nepaul and the Himalayas.
374 GALLIXJE.
FAMILY IV.
TETRAOXID.E. The Grouse.
OBIT. CH ABAC. Bill more or less long, broad at the base, and the sides com-
pressed, with the cohnen arched to the tip, which is obtuse ; the nostrils
basal, lateral, sometimes covered with feathers, or protected with a naked
hard scale ; the wings short and rounded ; the tail more or less lengthened
and rounded ; the tarsi strong, sometimes clothed with plumes, or naked
and scutellated ; the hind toe moderate and elevated.
The birds of this family are generally of smaller
size than those of the preceding group, and far less
striking, either for the elegance of their form or the
brilliancy of their colour : they are very generally
distributed over the surface of the globe, but the
typical genera of the family inhabit the forests and
heaths of mountainous countries. Their food consists
of fruits, seeds, and the young shoots of plants and
trees, and occasionally of worms and insects. Some
of them are polygamous, but many pair ; and, in the
latter case at least, both the males and females assist
in rearing their young.
In this family are arranged the Partridges, the
Francolins, the Bush-Quails, the American Par-
tridges, the Grouse proper, and the Sand Grouse.
TETRAOXID.E.
375
SUB-FAMILY I.
PERDICIN.E.
The Partridges.
GEN. CHARAC. Margin of the bill entire, and the nostrils protected by a naked
hard scale ; the tarsi long, naked, covered in front with divided scales, and
sometimes armed with spurs or blunt tubercles.
FlG. 151. THE RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE.
(Perdue ntfa.)
The true Partridges are peculiar to tlie temperate
climates of the Old' World, remaining sedentary in
some places, and in others migrating according to
the season. Some species frequent cultivated lands,
while others are found in forests, where they may
occasionally be seen perched on the branches of
trees. They search the ground during the early
portion of the morning, and again before the sun
disappears, for their food, which consists of grain,
bulbous roots, and insects.
Partridges are, fortunately for the sportsman, very
s 2
376 GALLING.
prolific, their eggs being from twelve to twenty in
number. The nest is merely a hole scratched in the
dry mould, generally under the shelter of some bush
or tuft of grass : the incubation lasts three weeks.
The female sits exceedingly close on her nest during
this period, especially towards the end of it, and
offers a bold resistance to any birds seeking to
plunder her ; but being quietly approached, both
she and her eggs may be gently removed, and
she will hatch her brood in confinement, departing
with them to the fields as soon as the young are
able to accompany her. The male Partridge takes
no part in the labour of incubation, but, like all
birds that pair, he is attentive to his mate, assists
her in the defence of the brood, and uses many arts
to lure visitors from the nest. The young ones
generally leave the nest on the same day that they
break the shell, for their legs are at that time as
strong, in proportion to the weight of their bodies,
as those of mature birds, although the wings are
scarcely developed.
The young feed on small insects, Iarva3, and the
eggs of insects : the old ones lead them to the places
where these are deposited, and scrape away the
mould. An ant-hill in a friable soil is a fat pasture,
and multitudes of the ants and larvae are eaten by
young partridges.
TETRAONID.E.
377
8 US-FAMILY II.
FRANCOLIXIN.E. The Francolins.
FlG. 152 THE COMMON FRANCOLIJf.
(Frmicolinus culgarit.)
The Francolins are found in the warmer parts of
the Old World, especially on the continent of Africa.
Some species inhabit level plains, while others live
in forests, perching sometimes on trees : if alarmed,
they hide in the brushwood in the thickest part of
the jungle, not venturing out again till all danger
has gone by. If no hiding-place is near, they
endeavour to escape by running, and have only
recourse to their wings when they have no other
means of escape. In their general habits they very
much resemble the true Partridges ; they breed at
the same season, manifest the same care of their
young, and are equally prolific. They differ, how-
0?8 GALUVK.
ever, from Partridges, inasmuch as they do not
frequent cultivated grounds ; on the contrary, they
prefer the neighbourhood of woods, where they
seem to select damp localities abounding in reeds.
They live upon berries quite as much as upon grain,
and seek eagerly for worms and insects, sucli as
abound in marshy soil ; they likewise feed exten-
sively on small bulbous roots, which they dig from
the ground with their beaks. Moreover, they are
very fond of perching upon trees, more especially
during the night ; and their call is much more
harsh and noisy than that of the Partridge. Their
flesh is excellent ; indeed, the European species is
regarded as one of the most dainty dishes.
The typical species of this sub-family is
The Common Francolin (Francolinus vulgaris). Unlike
its African congeners, which feed on bulbous roots, for
procuring which their beak is specially adapted, our
European kind differs little in form and food from the
true Partridge ; it however exhibits a decided preference
for moist and humid districts, and perches on trees. In
Europe its habitat appears exclusively confined to the
southern regionb, as Sicily, Malta, and the Neapolitan
territories ; but it is also found in the North of Africa and
over -the greater portion of the Asiatic continent ; it has
also been received in collections from the Himalaya
mountains. Its flesh is very delicate, and much esteemed
i:i India.
These birds generally repair to trees on the approach
of night, and remain there till the break of day again
invites them to their feeding-places, which are commonly
the banks of rivers. Among the grass which clothes
such localities these birds wander during the greater part
of the day, and when they are surprised in their retreats
they run with considerable speed ; as, unless when sharply
pressed, they generally prefer that manner of en'eetin^
their escape to flying. The slightest alarm causes them
to bend their course towards the jungle, in the densest
parts of which they conceal themselves until the danger
is past ; and on such occasions they not unfreqnently
upon shrubs which are fully covered with foliage.
TETRAONID.E.
379
When feeding, particularly early in the morning, and also
occasionally towards evening, they utter their harsh and
frequent calls, and these are often responded to by others
of the species who may be scattered at a distance in the
surrounding valleys. They feed upon small bulbs .and
insects, and also swallow a considerable quantity of
gravel. timith, " Illus. of the Zool. of S. A/rica."
380
GALLING.
SUB-FAMILY III.
The Busk Quails.
GFW. CHABAC. Bill moderate, straight, and the sides compressed to the tip,
which slightly overhangs that of the lower mandible ; the nostrils lateral,
and placed in a nasal groove that reaches beyond half the length of the bill,
with the opening linear and protected by a long scale ; the wings rather
short and rounded; the tail short, and almost concealed by the dorsal
feathers ; the tarsi moderate and strong ; the toes usually three in number,
long, and free at their base, the outer toe longer than the inner.
FlO. 153. THE AFRICAN BUSH QUAIL.
(Turnix Africanus )
The Bush Quails are found in Southern Europe,
India, Africa, Madagascar, and Australia. They
are generally met with in small parties or in pairs,
and frequent open places near rivers, or such as
are thinly covere.d with grasses. They usually lie
so close to the ground that it is difficult to discover
them; and when flushed they make off with a rapid
flight, but only to a short distance, flying within
TETRAONID.E. 381
two or three feet from the ground, and then drop-
ping to the earth to conceal themselves among the
herbage, or run with great swiftness until they con-
sider themselves safe from pursuit. The nest is
composed of grasses, and is placed in a hollow on
the surface of the ground, under the shelter of a
tuft of grass. The female lays four eggs.
The type of this sub-family is
The African Bush Quail (Turnix Africanus). The
Turnix is a small bird resembling the Quail both in size
and plumage, but well distinguished by the absence of a
hind toe. It is found in many parts of Sicily and Spain,
and stragglers ai'e sometimes seen in the plains of Lan
guedoc ; it is met with also in the North of Africa, espe-
cially among the thickets and dwarf palms of Mount
Atlas. The birds of this sub-family are inhabitants of
the intertropical regions of the Old World ; two species,
it is true, have been discovered in the southern parts of
Europe, but in such limited numbers as to prove satis-
factorily that the northern part of Africa is their true
habitat ; consequently, the southern parts of Spain, Italy,
and the islands of the Mediterranean, are among the
utmost limits of their range northwards. They differ
from the true Quails (Coturnix) in the total absence of
the hind toe, and in the long and slender form of their
bills. These are the most diminutive birds of the galli-
naceous tribe, being not more than half the size of the
common Quail. They are polygamous, and they give a
preference to sterile lands and the confines of deserts,
over which they run with surprising quickness.
s 3
GALLIXJC.
SUB-FAMILY IV.
ODOKTOPHORIN.E.* The American Partridges.
GBN. CHARAC. Bill short, more or less compressed on the sides, and the culmen
generally elevated at the base, and arched to the tip, which is obtuse, and
prolonged over that of the lower mandible, the margin is bidentated on each
side ; the nostrils basal, and placed in a short and rounded groove, with
the opening covered by a membranous scale ; the wings moderate, concave,
and rounded ; the tail more or less long, broad, and rounded ; the tarsi
generally slender, long, and covered by divided scales ; the toes long,
and the inner shorter than the outer toe; the claws moderate, slightly
curved, and acute.
FlG. 154. THE BLACK-THROATED AMERICAN FARTBIDGB.
(Ortyx nigrogularit.)
The Odontophorinae are found in the tropical parts
of the New Continent. They frequent the forests
or thick woods, especially those that border upon
rivers. Their usual food consists of grain and
* ocovc, oooiroc, odous. odontos, a tooth ; tyipw, phero, to c<(/vv ,-
Having the bill toothed.
TETRAONID-E. 383
insects, which they pick up among the dry leaves.
All the members of this group are strictly American,
and by far the greater number of them are natives
of that portion of the continent lying between the
thirtieth degree of north latitude and the equator.
Four species are now included in the fauna of North
America, and four have been discovered in Brazil.
Some few extend their range to the larger West-
India islands, and several others inhabit the vast
mountain-range of the Andes. They form a large
and well-defined family, distinguishable from the
Partridges and Quails of the Old World by the
absence of any spur or spurlike appendage on
the tarsi, and by the toothlike processes on the
upper mandible. They are pugnacious in their
disposition, semi-arboreal in their habits, and de-
posit their eggs in a depression of the ground,
or in a very inartificial nest. Their food consists
of seeds, berries, fruits, and the tender leaves
of grass, and other vegetables. Their flesh is
white, tender, and well-flavoured. In the morning
and evening twilight they perch on a low branch
very near each other, when the males frequently
give utterance to their cries, which reverberate
through the forest to a great distance. If alarmed
while on the ground, they usually hasten to a low
branch, along which they run, and, crouching down,
conceal themselves among the foliage. The nest is
formed on the ground, in a thicket, or beneath a log.
The female lays from eight to fifteen eggs.
The type of the race is
The Black-throated American Partridge (Ortyx nigro-
gularia).
384
GALLINJ:.
SUB-FAMILY V.
TETRAONIN^E. The Grouse proper.
GEN. CHAKAC. Bill short, broader than long, elevated at the base, the sides
gradually compressed to the tip ; the nostrils entirely clothed with small
feathers ; the wings moderate and rounded ; the tail ample and of various
forms ; the tarsi moderate, more or less clothed with feathers ; the toes
. long, and sometimes covered with feathers.
FlG. 155. THE BLACK GROUSE.
' (Tftrao Tetrix.)
These birds are found in the northern parts of
Europe and America, inhabiting the great pine and
spruce forests, especially of the higher mountains.
During the autumn -and winter they live har-
moniously in flocks, till the return of sprinir,
\\hrn the males separate, and each chooses some
particular spot, to which he entices a female, who
TETRAONID^. 385
attends entirely to the hatching of the young. They
reside principally on the ground during summer,
but in the winter they seek the trees, whereon they
chiefly find their food, which consists of seeds and
berries of alpine plants and trees, and the tender
shoots of pines, firs, and birch, &c. They often
visit arable lands in the vicinity of their retreats,
and even approach the habitations of man during
winter, sharing in the food of the poultry. The
nest is composed of a few stalks arranged on the
ground in marshy places, and concealed by a tuft of
tall grass or a low bush. The female deposits from
six to ten or fifteen eggs.
The type of this sub-family is
The Black Grouse or Black Cock (Tetrao Tetrix), still
met with in the mountainous districts of the North of
England, and pretty abundantly in those of Scotland. It
also occurs commonly in the North, and in the mountains
of the South of Europe. The bases of the hills in heathy
and mountainous districts, which are covered with a
natural growth of birch, alder, and willow, and intersected
by morasses clothed with long coarse herbage, are situa-
tions best suited to the habits of these birds, as are also
the dee}) and wooded glens so frequently occurring in such
extensive wastes.
During the months of autumn and winter the males
associate and live in flocks, but separate in March or
April, and each individual chooses some particular station
from which he drives all intruders, and for the possession
of which, when the birds are numerous, desperate con-
flicts often take place. At this station he posts himself
early every morning and evening during the pairing
season, repeating his call of invitation, and displaying a
great variety of attitudes, not unlike those of a turkey-
cock, accompanied by a crowing note, and by another
similar to the noise made by whetting a scythe. At this
season his plumage exhibits the richest glosses, and the
red skin of his eyebrows assumes a superior intensity of
colour. The pairing season over, animosity ceases, and
the male birds again associate and live harmoniously
386
GALLIXJK.
together. The female deposits her eggs in May, from six
to ten in number, of a yellowish-grey colour blotched
with reddish-brown. The nest is veiy artlessly con-
structed, on the ground, of a few dried stems of grass,
under shelter of a tall tuft or low bush, genei'ally in
marshy places, where long and coarse grasses abound.
-
TKTHAOXID.i:.
387
SUB-FAMILY VI.
I'TEROCUX.E. The Sand Grouse.
GEX. CHAHAC. Bill short, with the ciilmen curved to the tip, and the sides
compressed ; the wings and tail lengthened and pointed ; the tarsi longer
than the middle toe, robust, and more or less covered with feathers ; the
toes moderate and robust, the lateral toes more or less united to the middle
one, and the hind toe rudiiuental.
FlG. 156. THE PARADOXICAL SASD-GBOUSB.
Syrrkiipte* paradoxut.)
These singular-looking birds inhabit Southern
Europe, Africa, and Asia, living in dry, sandy
deserts, bare or rocky plains, or bushy and woody
grounds, especially in the neighbourhood of low
hills. They are usually found singly or in pairs,
except when those of the desert resort to water,
which they do in flocks. When flushed, they
rise with a low chuckling call, take a short flight,
388 GALLING.
and alight ; then, if followed, run along the ground
to a short distance, and with difficulty rise again.
Others, however, according to Dr. Smith, " fly to a
great height, and suddenly descend when they
approach the water or their feeding-grounds ; and
sometimes the descent is not commenced till they are
directly over the spot on which it is their purpose
to alight. On such occasions they are obliged to
make a semicircular or circular sweep before they
can reach the desired locality. Their food consists
of hard seeds, bulbs, and insects, mixed with fine
gravel." The female lays from two to four eggs on
the bare ground.
The best-known species,
The Pintailed Sand Grouse (Pterocles alchata), a native
of the southern portion of Europe, the North of Africa,
and the level and arid plains of Persia, is particularly
abundant in Spain, Sicily, and through the whole of the
Levant, visiting, at uncertain seasons and in small num-
bers, the southern provinces of France. It is a bird of
migratory habits, and, like its congenei-s, prefers wild
and barren districts. These birds abound in the stony dis-
tricts beyond Jordan, and are there known by the name
of "Katta." Burckhardt says, "The quantity of Kattas is
beyond description ; the whole plain seemed sometimes
to rise, and far off in the air they were seen like large
moving clouds. In the mountains of Edoni they are in
such numbers that two or three are often killed at a time
by a stick thrown among them by the Arab boys ; and
such is their abundance in some parts of the year, that an
ass-load may be taken at one shutting of the clasp-net."
Their flesh being black and hard, is never seen at the
tables of the Franks, but it is nevertheless eaten by the
Turks.
This grouse lays two or three eggs at a time, placed on
the ground, without any nest ; they are as large as those
of a pigeon, and of a greenish-black : the Arabs eat them
fried in butter.
Hasselquist and Burckhardt are both of opinion that
this bird is the Quail (Sclav) of the ancient Israelites.
CHIONIDID.E. 389
FAMILY V.
CHIOXIDID.E.* The Sheath-bills.
GKX. CHARAC. Bill moderate, the culmen much arched to the tip, the sides
much compressed ; the nostrils basal, lateral, and protected by a bony
covering, or only partly closed by a horny membrane ; the wings long and
pointed ; the tail moderate ; the tarsi short and strong ; the toes long, and
the anterior ones united at their base, the hind toe short and elevated.
This is a family containing a few species whose
characters are so curious as to have rendered their
position in the ornithological series somewhat doubt-
ful. They have a short and stout bill, which is
compressed at the tip and considerably arched.
The nostrils are situated at the base of the upper
inaudible, and protected by a more or less inflated
cartilaginous plate, an appendage the use of which
is rather obscure. Like the birds of the preceding
family, they have long and pointed wings ;' their
tarsi are of moderate length and thickness, naked
and reticulated quite up to the articulation, and
terminated by four toes, .of which the anterior are
tolerably long, and the posterior small and slightly
elevated upon the back of the tarsus. These singular
birds are met with upon the sea-shores of Patagonia,
Ni'\v Zealand, and Australia, and also upon many of
the islands of the Antarctic Sea.
* xioViof, chionios, snowy.
390
GALLING.
SUB-FAMILY I.
THIXOCORIN.E.* The Shore Larks.
GBK. CHAKAC. Bill short, rather slender, broad at the base, and compressed
on the sides; the nostrils baal, lateral, and exposed, with the opening
lunate and mostly closed by a horny membrane, which is covered by short
feathers.
FIG. 167. LATEBILLB'S SHOKK-LARK.
(Attagi* Latreillli.)
The Shore Larks inhabit South Africa and South
America, spreading over at least twenty-three deor< lea
of latitude. They are found in the elevated valleys
of mountainous districts and inland plains, preferring
the most desolate places. They are seen in pairs,
or in small coveys of five or six, and sometimes
* Qir, 0u'6f, thin, thinos, the shore; Kopiu, coreo, t<> tv
sweeping over the shore.
CHIONIDIDJE.
391
during the winter in flocks, consisting of many
individuals. These birds frequent the same place
for a long time.. When flushed, they take a rapid
and circular flight, often returning to the spot
whence they arose ; but if suddenly alarmed, they
lie close to the ground, from which they can scarcely
be distinguished. Their food consists of grass, of
seeds, of plants, and sometimes of insects. The
nest is said to be placed on the borders of lakes,
although the bird itself is an inhabitant of the desert.
The female lays from four to five
tt
The best-known species is
D'Orbigny's Shore Lark (Thinocorus OrUgnyanus).
These birds live in small troops in the valleys between
the mountains of Chili, frequenting the most desolate
spots, and feeding upon plants, seeds, and insects. They
have very much the appearance of small Snipes.
The typical form is
Latreille's Shore Lark (Att%gis Latreillii).
392
GALLIN.K.
SUB-FAMILY II.
The Sheath-bills proper.
-KS. CHABAC. Bill short, strong, compressed, with the sides and basal half
coated by a horny covering which conceals the nostrils.
FlG. 156. THE WHITE SHEATH-BILL.
(CfttONtf 0/4a.)
These singtdar birds are found on the islands of
the Antarctic Ocean, and at the southern extremity
of South America. Their flight resembles th.-it of
pigeons. They frequent the shores, searching for
their food, which consists of shell-fish, chiefly
Limpets, seaweeds, and the remains of animals r;i>t
up by the sea, usually mixed up with a fe\v small
stones. These birds have been observed by southern
voyagers in the open ocean at a great distance from
land, where they are supposed to rest and feed on
CHIONIDIDJ:. 393
the seaweed and other refuse cast on the icebergs.
The Sheath-bills are so called on account of the
remarkable sheath of horny substance which is
situated on the base of the bill, and under which lie
the nostrils. The use of this appendage is unknown.
The whole of the bill is short and stout, and it is
considerably arched towards the tip.
The typical, and also one of the best-known
species of this group, is
The White Sheath-bill (Cldonis alba], a native of
Australia, New Zealand, and the neighbouring islands.
This bird is almost exclusively found upon the coasts,
deriving its subsistence from the mollusks, small crusta-
ceans, bestranded fish cast upon the beach, and other
similar substances. Perhaps, under some circumstances,
it may subsist on carrion, and thereby give an evil flavour
to its flesh, as there are very contradictory reports as to
its value for the table ; some specimens having been of so
vile an odour, that even the sailors, with their proverbial
appetite for fresh meat, could not touch the ill-savoured
dish ; while in other cases the bird is reported to be of
excellent quality, and equal to Duck in tenderness and
flavour. The legs of the Sheath-bill are rather long in
proportion to its body, and as it always frequents the
sea-side, running in and out of the water in search of its
food, and possesses many of the habits of the Waders, it
has been classed by some naturalists with those birds.
The White Sheath-bill is a pretty bird, its whole plumage
being pure white, and its legs reddish-black. The general
name C/iionis is derived from a Greek word* signifying
"snow," and is given in allusion to its snow-white
plumage.
* X'^v, chion, snow.
394
GALLING.
FAMILY VI.
TINAMID.E.
The Tinamous.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill as long as, or shorter than, the head, the culmen more or
less straight, flattened, and covered at the base with a membrane, which
also envelopes the nasal grooves, the tip generally suddenly hooked and
overlapping that of the lower mandible ; the nostrils large and more or less
basal ; the wings short, concave, and rounded ; the tarsi moderate, and
shielded in front ; and the toes usually long, mostly four, but sometimes
only three.
FIG. 159. PENTLAND'S TINAMOTIS.
(linumoti* PtHtlandii.)
The only sub-family
TINAMIN^E, The Tinamous proper,
have the characters given above.
The Tinamous are only found in South America,
where they are tolerably common. The word Tina-
mou is the native name for these birds, and as they
TINAM1D.E. 395
bear some resemblance to Bustards, the generic
title of Tinamotis,* although rather a barbarous
combination of languages, has been conferred upon
some species. The Tinamous are found in the
open fields, preferring those which lie on the bor-
ders of woods. Thev are seldom known to perch,
and are not very willing to use their wings, trusting
to the swiftness of their legs. Of one species of
Tinamou Mr. Darwin writes as follows :
" These birds do not go in coveys, nor do they
conceal themselves, like the English partridges. It
appears a very silly bird. A man on horseback by
riding round and round in a circle, or rather in a
spire, so as to approach closer each time, may knock
on the head as many as he pleases. The more
common method is to catch them with a running
noose or little lasso, made of an ostrich feather,
fastened bv the end to a long stick. A boy on a
A
quiet horse will frequently thus catch thirty or forty
111 a day."
The food of the Tinamous consists mostly of
grain ; and after the fields of corn and maize are
sown, they do considerable damage by running
over the ground and picking out all the seeds which
have not been entirely covered by the soil. The eggs
of these birds are about seven or eight in number,
and are laid in the centre of some convenient tuft of
herbage.
The type of this sub -family is
Pentland's Tinamotis (Tinamotis Pentlandii}.
* Compounded of Tino.rnf'U. and otis, a bustard.
396
SECTION II.
COLUMB-E.*
The" Second Section of the Gallinae comprehends
a numerous race of 'birds, which however constitute
but one family, f
COLUMBID.E. The Pigeons.
GBJT. CH ARAC. Bill short, straight, and compressed, with the apical half of
the mandibles more or less vaulted and strong, and the base more or less
weak, and covered by a soft fleshy membrane, in which are placed the nos-
trils ; the wings moderate ; the tarsi more or less long and robust ; the toes
lengthened, divided, and padded beneath.
The place which the Pigeons ought to occupy in
the zoological system has been a very fertile subject
of dispute. Linnaeus classed them with the Passeres;
Buffon, Pennant, and Latham arrange them as an
order by themselves ; while Cuvier and others place
them in the category of Gallinaceous birds. The
settlement of this question is indeed a matter of
considerable difficulty, as the habits of the entire
race are in many respects very peculiar. Like the
Passerine birds, they associate in pairs during the
nuptial season, work together in the construction of
their nest, and mutually assist in the incubation
of their eggs and the care of their progeny ;
which latter, blind and helpless when they are first
hatched, are fed in the nest that forms their cradle,
and which they never quit until fully fledged; indeed,
for some time afterwards, they are unable to supply
their own wants, and depend entirely upon the
assistance of their parents. The features in which
they differ from the Passerine race are, however,
equally well marked : these consist in their manner
* In the " Tabular View " this ig given as a separate Order,
f See " Animal Creation," p. 448.
COLUMBID.S:. 397
of drinking and of administering food to their young
family, in the singularity of their caresses, in the
nature of their plumage, and in their vocal capa-
bilities. They neither sing nor utter any cry; their
only voice, in the adult state, consists of a full,
rolling sound, generally designated by the term
" cooing." Other dissimilarities separate them
from the Gallinaceous races, with which they have
little in common, either in their instincts, their
manner of life, or their mode of pairing. The
Gallinge, as the reader will have noticed, are almost
all of them polygamists, and the females by laying
numerous eggs produce a covey at a single brood.
Moreover, in temperate climates this happens but
once in the year. The Pigeons, on the contrary,
are all of them strictly monogamous, and the female
lays but two eggs for each sitting, although she has
several broods. In the Gallinaceous tribes the male
renders no assistance to the female, either in the
construction of the nest or in the care of their
progeny. The chickens are born with their eyesight
perfect, and as soon as they escape from the egg-
shell are able to run about, and to procure for
themselves their own food.
The principal distinctive character of the Columbae
is furnished by the structure of the bill. The upper
mandible consists of a horny apical portion, which
is often of considerable length and strength, but its
base is formed by a convex cartilaginous plate, in
the anterior portion of which the nostrils are situated.
The skin covering the cartilaginous portion is of a
soft texture, very different from the rest of the bill.
It is sometimes smooth, and clothed with a sort of
scurf, but in other cases it is warty, or even deve-
loped into a fleshy wattle. This is especially the
case in some domesticated varieties of the Pigeon.
The Cblumbge are provided with short tarsi and
moderately long toes, all scutellated. The toes are
four in number, three in front and one behind. The
anterior toes are not united by a membrane at the
398 COLUMB.E.
base. The hinder toe is placed on the same plane
with those in front, and the whole sole of the foot is
formed of soft papillated pads, which are usually a
good deal wider than the scutellated upper portion
of the toes. The wings, which are generally long
and pointed, contain ten primary quills, and the
tail usually consists of twelve feathers, although in
some cases there are sixteen. Another important
character distinguishing these birds, as compared
with the Gallinae, is that their feathers are des-
titute of the plumules, or accessory plumes, which
are greatly developed in Gallinaceous birds. The
form of the wing in Pigeons is sufficient to indicate
that they are capable of powerful flight, and many of
them are remarkable for the speed with which they
traverse the air, especially when engaged in their
migrations. Most of them are arboreal, and nestle
in the holes of trees ; others frequent rocks, but all
perch with great facility ; nevertheless, they gene-
rally seek their food upon the ground, and walk or
run without difficulty. They are also remarkable
for their mode of drinking, in which they differ
from all other birds. The general practice of birds
in drinking is to take up a small portion of water in
the bill, and then by raising the head allow it to run
down into the throat. The Pigeons, on the con-
trary, dip their bills into the water and hold them
there till they have quenched their thirst. These
birds are inhabitants of the warmer and temperate
regions of the earth, but they are found in most
abundance in hot climates, where, also, their plumage
attains a brilliancy of which that of our native
species gives us but an imperfect idea.
This extensive group has been divided by
naturalists into five sub-families, the Tree Pigeons,
the Pigeons proper, the Ground Pigeons, the Tooth-
billed Pigeons, and the Dodos ; the last of which,
although existing up to a very recent period, are
now, in all probability, extinct.
COL CM BID.E.
399
SUB-FAMILY I.
The Tree Pigeons.
GB'N. CHABAC. Bill short, with the ends of both mandibles vaulted, and of
nearly equal thickness ; the tarsi very short, and more or less feathered ;
the toes divided at the base, the inner much shorter than the outer, and the
claws short and curved.
FlG. 160 THB CAPPED TEEK-PIOEON.
(PtUomeftH occijiitalif.)
The birds to which the name of " Tree Pigeons "
has been given, are distinguished by their generally
short, stout bill, in which the ridge of both man-
dibles is nearly equally arched, and by their very
short tarsi, which are usually clothed with feathers
* Tpf)piav. treron, fa'woro?/.*, .//;/.
T 2
400 COLUMB.E.
for a greater or less distance below the heel. The
inner front toe is also shorter than the outer one.
The shortness of the tarsi in these birds indicates
that they are but little adapted for walking on the
ground ; consequently, in their habits they are pre-
eminently arboreal, passing nearly their whole time
amid the branches of trees, and feeding principally
upon the fruits which they find in such situations.
They are confined to the warmer parts of the
Eastern hemisphere, and the majority of the species
are inhabitants of Southern Asia and Australia ; a
few other species, however, are met with in Africa.
One of the best known is
The Green-bellied Pigeon (Ptilanopus porphyreus).
These showy birds are found principally in Malacca,
Celebes, the north-west coast of Australia, and the islands
of the Pacific Ocean. Their habits are peculiarly arboreal
and solitary, living entirely in the deep forests, where
they are only discovered by their incessant and loud
cooing. The fruits of various trees form their food, espe-
cially that of the banyan.
The type of the sub-family is
The Capped Tree-Pigeon (Ptilonopus occipitalis), deli-
neated above.
COLUMBID.E.
401
COLUMBINE.
SUB-FAMILY II.
The, Pigeons proper.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill moderate, slender, the basal portion covered with a soft
tumid skin, and the apical part hard, and slightly vaulted and acute at the
tip ; the nostrils forming a longitudinal slit in the fore part of the soft basal
portion of the bill ; the wings moderate and pointed ; the tail of various
lengths, and usually rounded ; the tarsi generally short ; the toes length-
ened, the lateral ones mostly equal, and the hind toe about the length of the
tarsus.
FlG. 161. THE WOOD-PIGEON.
(Cnliimba Paltnnbux.)
These birds are widely distributed throughout the
world. During the summer months they are gene-
rally seen in pairs, but on the commencement of
winter they congregate in flocks, and migrate to
more southern latitudes. Most of the species feed
402 COLUH1LE.
on buckwheat and acorns, for which they frequent
those localities that furnish the best supply ; and
when this kind of nourishment fails, they resort to
cultivated fields. For this purpose they take their
way early in the morning from then 1 roosting-places
in the woods, and when satisfied, fly to rest on the
nearest trees, till the hour of their evening meal,
after which they again retire to the woods. Some
species always inhabit rocky places and precipitous
cliffs, especially those on the sea-coasts of Great
Britain and Asia.
The type of this sub-family,
The Ring-Dove (Columba Palumbus), called also the
Cushat and the Wood-Pigeon, is the largest of the Euro-
pean species, some specimens measuring seventeen inches
in length. It inhabits the woods both of this country and
of the continent of Europe, but is most abundant in the
south, being only a summer visitor to the more northern
countries, such as Norway and Sweden. It is particularly
fond of thick plantations of fire, in which it delights to
build ; and here its tender cooing notes may be heard
throughout the spring and summer. The food of these
birds consists of young leaves and seeds of various kinds,
according to the season of the year. In spring and
summer they subsist principally on the tender leaves of
growing plants, and often commit great ravages in fields
of beans and peas. Spring-sown corn is attacked by
them both in the grain and the blade, and as soon as
young turnips have put forth their second pair of leaves,
they, too, become objects for devastation. As the season
advances, they visit the cornfields, especially those in the
neighbourhood of their native woods. They are vrrv
partial to oily seeds of any kind. At the approach of
autumn, they assemble in small flocks, and resort to oak
and beech woods, where acorns and beech-mast swallowed
whole afford an abundant and nourishing diet. In winter
the Hinall flocks unite to form larger ones, so large, indeed,
in severe seasons, that it becomes probable that their
n umbei-s are considerably augmented by arrivals from
colder climates.
This pretty Dove is one of the commonest of on-
COLUMBID.E.
403
British birds, breeding in almost every copse of trees,
and inhabiting the larger forests in great numbers. At
the approach of the breeding season, and during its con-
tinuance, its soft complacent cooing, coo-goo-roo, coo-goo-
roo-o-o-o, is heard in every direction ; and with a very
slight search its nest may be found. It is a strange nest,
and hardly deserving that name, being nothing more than
a mere platform of sticks resting upon the fork of a bough,
and placed so loosely across each other, that when the
parent bird is away the light may sometimes be seen
through the interstices of the nest, and the outline of the
eggs made out. Generally the Ring-Dove chooses a rather
lofty branch for its resting-place, but it occasionally builds
at a very low elevation.
COLCMB.E.
GOURIN.E.
SUB-FAMILY III.
Tfte Ground Piyeons.
GBJT. CHIRAC. Bill moderate, more or less slender, straight, with the apical
portion generally strong and vaulted ; the wings moderate and pointed ; the
tail moderate and rounded on the sides; the tarsi as long as, or longer than,
the middle toe, and robust ; the toes long, and margined on their sides with
a membrane, and the hind toe usually long and slender ; the claws short
and curved.
FlG. 162. TH CHOWS BD PIG FOX.
(Goara coronata.)
These handsome birds are found in the large
islands of the Indian Archipelago and in Nr\v
Guinea. They live in the dense forests, and feed
upon berries, seeds, and grains, which they seek for
COLUMBID/K. 405
on the ground. The nest is formed upon a tree.
The female lays two eggs for each sitting.
The type of this sub-family is
The Crowned Pigeon (Goura coronata). This splendid
Pigeon is indisputably the most conspicuous of its tribe,
its great size and splendid crest rendering it a most
striking object, even at a considerable distance. So large
and so un-pigeon-like is this bird, that few, on first seeing
it, would be likely to recognize its relationship to the rest
of the race. It is a native of Java, New Guinea, and
Japan. In the Zoological Gardens in the Regent's Park
there are several of these birds, whose manners are very
curious and interesting. Their walk is quite of a royal
chai-acter, stately and majestic, and well according with
the beautiful feathered crown which they wear upon their
heads. The crest seems always to be held expanded.
They have the habit of sunning themselves upon the hot
pavement of their prison by lying on one side, laying the
head flat on the ground, tucking the lower whig under
them, and "spreading the other over their bodies, so as to
form a very shallow tent, each quill-feather being sepa-
rated from its neighbour, and radiating around the. body.
Sometimes the bird, varies this attitude by stretching the
other wing to its full length, and holding it from the
ground at an angle of twenty degrees or so, as if to take
advantage of every sunbeam and Avaft of air. While
lying in this unique attitude, it might easily pass at a
distance for a moss-covered stone, a heap of withered
leaves, or a rugged tree-stump with one broken branch
projecting from the side : no one would think of taking it
for a bird. (Rev. J. G. Wood.]
406
COLUMB.E.
SUB-FAMILY IV.
DIDUNCULINJE. Tooth-billed Pigeons.
GBN. CHAKAC. Bill nearly as long as the head, with the culmen depressed
close to the forehead and then suddenly arched to the tip, which is hooked
and acute, the sides slightly compressed, the lower mandible armed with
three distinct angular teeth near the tip, which is truncated ; the nostrils
pierced in the middle of the basal membranous space, with the opening
oblique and linear ; the wings moderate and concave ; the tail rather short ;
the tarsi moderate and rather strong ; the toes rather long, and the lateral
ones equal ; the claws long and curved.
. 163. THE OWL-BEAKED DIDUXCULUS.
(Diduneulus ttrigirottrit.)
This sub-family includes only a single species,
The Didnnculus (Diduncvlus strigirostris), which,
moreover, presents a most extraordinary combination of
diameters.' The Didunculus is rather larger than our
common Partridge ; it lias the head, neck, and breast of
a glossy greenish-black, and the remainder of its plumage
COLUMBIA.
407
deep chestnut. The bill and the naked skin surrounding
the eyes are bright flesh-colour. This singular bird in-
habits the Samonan Islands in the Pacific Ocean. It is
described as dwelling principally upon the branches of
trees, and feeding upon fruits and berries. It flies well,
and is said to breed among the rocks in the interior of
the islands. The chief interest attaching to the Didun-
culus, however, is its near approach, especially in the
form of the bill, to that most remarkable extinct bird,
the Dodo of the Mauritius, described in the next page.
408
COLUMB.E.
SUB-FAMILY V.
DlDINJS.
The Dodos.
GRIT. CHAEAC. Bill longer than the head, with the basal portion, for two-
thirds of its length, covered by a membrane, and the apical part corneous
and vaulted, with the tip hooked and acute, the tip of the lower mandible
overlapped by that of the upper mandible, and the gonys short and curved
upwards ; the nostrils placed in the fore part of the membranous portion of
the bill, and near the lateral margin, with the opening exposed ; the wings
and tail imperfect ; the tarsi short, robust, and covered with small irregular
scales ; the toes moderate, the fore ones free at their base, and the lateral
ones equal, the hind toe long and strong.
FIG. 164. THE DODO.
(Didtu iHfpftt* )
The Dodo (Didus ineptus), the extinct representative
of this sub-family, formerly inhabited the island of
Mauritius : it is supposed to have lived in the dense
forests of palms that once covered the island, wandering
from tree to tree, tearing with its powerful beak the
fruits which strewed the ground, enjoying tranquillity
COLUMBIDJE. 409
and abundance until the arrival of man destroyed the
balance of animal life, and put a term to its existence.
The nest is stated by old voyagers to have been made of
herbs and gi-ass, heaped together in the depth of the
forest ; and the female is said to have laid but one egg.
Of this bird Bontius gives the following description :
" The Dronte- or Dod-aers is, for bigness, of mean size
between an Ostrich and a Turkey, from which it partly
differs in shape, and partly agrees with them, especially
with the African Ostriches, if you consider the rump,
quills, and feathers ; so that it was like a pigmy amongst
them, if you regard the shortness of its legs. It hath a
great ill-favoured head, covered with a membrane resem-
bling a hood, great black eyes, a bending, prominent, fat
neck, an extraordinary long, strong, bluish-white bill ;
only the ends of each mandible are of a different colour,
that of the upper, black, that of the nether, yellowish ;
both sharp-pointed and crooked. Its gape huge wide,
as being naturally veiy voracious. Its body is fat and
round,, covered with soft grey feathers, after the manner
of an Ostrich's ; in each side, instead of hard wing-feathers
or quills, it is furnished with small, soft-feathered wings
of a yellowish ash-colour ; and behind the rump, instead
of a tail, is adorned with fine, small, curved feathers of
the same colour. It hath yellow legs, thick, but very
short ; four toes on each foot, solid, long, as it were scaly,
armed with strong black claws.
" It is a slow-paced and stupid bird, and which easily
becomes a prey to its pursuers. The flesh, especially of
the breast, is fat, esculent, and so copious, that three or
four Dodos will sometimes suffice to fill one hundred
seamen's bellies. If they be old or not well boiled, they
are of difficult concoction, and are salted and stored up
for provision and victual. There are found in their
stomachs stones of an ash-colour of divers figures and
magnitudes ; yet not bi'ed there, as the common people
and seamen fancy, but swallowed by the bird, as though
by this mark also, nature would manifest that these fowls
are of the Ostrich kind, in that they swallow any hard
things though they do not digest them."
This singular bird, therefore, was an inhabitant of the
island of the Mauritius at the time of its discovery in the
year 1598, and was subsequently brought alive to Europe,
410 COLUMB-E.
on several occasions, by the Dutch navigators. Its ex-
ternal appearance is portrayed in a few pictures, into
which its unwieldy form was fortunately introduced by
the Dutch painters, at the beginning of the seventeenth
century. The only parts of its structure still to be found
in Europe consist of two heads, a foot, a few feathers,
and some of its bones, which are scattered about in various
museums in England and on the Continent. From the
pictures above mentioned and the descriptions of the
early voyagers, it appeal's that the Dodo was a bulky and
heavy bird, larger than a Swan, and weighing sometimes
as much as fifty pounds ; it had a long and strong bill,
with the basal portion of the upper mandible depressed
and membranous ; the apical part of this mandible was
strong, horny, much arched, hooked, and acute, giving
the organ so much resemblance to that of a Vulture,
that the Dodo was at one time regarded as allied to those
birds of prey. The nostrils were placed in the sides of
the basal part of the upper mandible ; and in all respects
the structure of the upper bill presents so great a .simi-
larity to that occurring in the Didunculus, that on the
discovery of the latter bird, the resemblance could not be
overlooked. The feet of the Dodo were short and exceed-
ingly stout, and although presenting a certain resemblance
to those of a Pigeon, indicated clearly enough that their
possessor was a strictly terrestrial bird. Indeed, its
wings being very short, and furnished only with soft de-
composed feathers, like the well-known Ostrich plumes,
were quite incapable of raising it from the ground.
The body of the Dodo seems to have terminated in a
rounded extremity, and to have been destitute of true
tail-feathers ; but a tuft of plumes, similar to those of the
wings, existed low down on its back, and probably repre-
sented the tail-coverts. The plumage was blackish, with
the light feathers of the wings and so-calk-d tail pal*'
fawn-colour. That the occurrence of a large and sluggish
bird like the Dodo upon the distant Island of the Mauri-
tius must have been a welcome phenomenon to the Dutch
sailors who discovered it, cannot admit of doubt ; and we
can easily understand that in their subsequent voyages to
the East Indies, they were only too glad to avail them-
selves of the abundant supply of fresh meat afforded by
the Dodos, after being restricted for months to the salt
COLUMBID.fi.
411
provisions of their ship's stores. It is, however, remark-
able that the only relics of so singular a bird, which was
certainly living two centuries ago, and of which specimens
were undoubtedly imported into Europe, should be of so
fragmentary a description. This is still more strikingly
the case with two other species allied to the Dodo, of
which only a few bones are known to exist : these are
The Solitaire (Didus solitarius), described by a French
sailor named Leguat, and attaining a weight of forty -five
[founds ; and
The Nazarene (Didus Naziremts), described by another
Frenchman named Francois Coache. It is said to have
had only three toes. The bones which are supposed to
have belonged to this bird indicate that it must have
been twice the bulk of the Dodo.
412 CURSORES.
ORDEK Y.
CURSORES.
IT has long been the wish of Ornithologists to
unite as a distinct Order, and under a common
designation, certain birds that are strictly terres-
trial in their habits, and are entirely deprived of
the power of flying. Nevertheless, notwithstanding
the high authority of those naturalists who have
endeavoured to establish such an Order, it is
obvious, from the uncertainty of its" limits as de-
fined by different authors, that it is not by any
means marked out by any special peculiarities of
structure, and forms rather an arbitrary assemblage
than a group distinguishable by clearly recognizable
features. In Cuvier's classification they form a
simple division of the Order of Stilted Birds (Gral-
latores) characterized by the shortness of their
wings, and hence named Brevipennes. It is quite
evident that, owing to their great size, any natural
exertion of muscular power would have been insuf-
ficient to raise them from the ground, and hence
the power of flight has been denied to them alto-
gether.*
They form but a single family
STRUTHIONID.E. T/te Ostriches.
This family comprehends the true Ostriches, the
Bustards, and the. Apteryx.
* See " Animal Creation," page 449.
STKUTHIONID,*:.
413
SUB-FAMILY I.
STRUTHIONJN^E. The true Ostriches.
EX. CHABAC. Bill broad, depressed ' and rounded in front; the toes two or
three in number, and all placed anteriorly.
FlG. 10. THE OSTRICH
(Struthio Camelut.)
This giant of the race is distinguished from all other
birds by the structure of its feet, which have only two
toes, of which the outer one is considerably shorter than
the inner. Over the boundless African desert the Ostrich
roams in flocks, trusting, like the antelopes, to swiftness
of foot for security from animals of prey or the pursuit
of man. So rapid is its course, indeed, that the swiftest
horse is unable to keep up with it.
414 CUESORES.
" The Ostrich is generally seen qiiietly feeding on some
spot where no one can approach him without being de-
tected by his wary eye. As the wagon moves on far to
the windward, he thinks it is intending to circumvent
him, so he rushes up a mile or so to the leeward, and so
near to the front oxen, that one sometimes gets a shot at
the silly bird. When he begins to run, all the game in sight
follow his example. I have seen this folly taken advan-
tage of when he was quietly feeding in a valley open at
both ends. A number of men would commence running,
as if to cut off his retreat from the end through which
the wind came ; and although he had the whole country
hundreds of miles before him by going to the other end,
on he madly rushed to get past the men, and so was
speared : he never swerves from the course he once
adopts, but only increases his speed. When the Ostrich
is feeding, his pace is from twenty to twenty-two inches,
and when terrified, as in the case noticed, it is from eleven
and a half to thirteen or fourteen feet in length. Only
in one case was I at all satisfied of being able to count
the rate of speed by a stop-watch, and, if I am not mis-
taken, there were thirty in ten seconds : generally, one's
eye can no more follow the legs, than it could the spokes
of a carriage-wheel in rapid motion. If we take the
above number and twelve feet stride as the average
pace, we have a speed of twenty-six miles an hour. It
cannot be very much above that, and is therefore slower
than a railway locomotive. They are sometimes shot by
the horsemen making a cross-cut to their undeviating
course ; but few Englishmen ever succeed in killing them.
The Ostrich begins to lay its eggs before she has fixed on
a spot for a nest, which is only a hollow a few inches
deep in the sand, and about a yard in diameter. Solitary
eggs, named by the Bechuans ' losetla,' are thus found
lying forsaken all over the country, and become a prey
to the jackal. She seems averse to risking a spot for a
nest, and often lays her eggs in that of another Ostrich ;
so that as many as forty-five have been found in one nest.
Some eggs contain small concretions of the matter which
forms the shell, as occurs also in. the case of the common
fowl : this has given rise to the idea of stones in the eggs.
Both male and female assist in the incubation ; but the
number of females being always the greatest, it is probable
STRUTHIONIDiE.
415
that cases occur in which the females have the entire
charge. Several eggs lie out of the nest, and are thought
to be intended as food for the first of the newly-hatched
brood, till the rest come out, and enable the whole to
start in quest of food. I have seen several times newly-
hatched young in charge of the male bird, who made a
very good attempt to appear lame in the Plover fashion,
in order to draw off the attention of pursuers. The
young squat down and remain immoveable, when too
small to run far, but attain a wonderful degree of speed
when about the size of common fowls. It cannot be
asserted that Ostriches are polygamous, though they
appear to be so. The egg is possessed of great vital
power ; one kept in a room during more than three
months, in a temperature about 60, when broken, was
found to have a partially developed live chick in it. The
food of the Ostrich consists of leaves of various kinds,
with pods, seeds of different species of leguminous plants ;
and as these are often hard and dry, he picks up a great
quantity of pebbles, many of which are as large as
416 CURSORES.
marbles. He picks up also some small bulbs, and occa-
sionally a wild gourd to afford moisture ; for one was
found with a melon, which had choked him by sticking
in his throat. The plumage is of a glossy jet-black colour,
with the single exception of the white feathers which are
the objects of trade. Nothing can be finer than the
adaptation of these feathers for the climate of Kalahare,
where these birds abound ; lor they afford a perfect shade
to the body, with free ventilation beneath them. The
hen is of a dark brownish- grey colour, and so are the
half-grown cocks. The organs of vision in this bird are
placed so high, that he can detect an enemy at a great
distance ; but the lion sometimes kills him. It seeks
safety in flight : but when pursued by dogs, it may be
seen to turn upon them and inflict a kick, which is
vigorously applied and sometimes breaks the dog's back."
Livingstone's Missionary Travels in South Africa.
The American Ostrich (Rhea Americana], called also
the Nandu, is not more than half the size of the African
species, from which it differs structurally in having three
toes upon each foot, and the head and neck clothed with
downy feathers, also in the total absence of tail-feathers.
The plumes of the wings are elongated and decomposed,
somewhat resembling in structure those of the African
Ostrich, to which, however, they are very far inferior in
delicacy, and are only employed in the manufacture of
light brooms. These birds are fovind abundsintly in the
great plains of South America nearly down to its southern
extremity. They live in flocks, and are polygamous ; the
male bird scratches a hole for the reception of the eggs,
which he collects from the scattered places where they are
frequently deposited by the females, and afterwards sits
upon them. According to Mr. Darwin, the males when
thus engaged sit so closely that they may almost be ridden
over before they will stir ; but at the same time they are
so fierce that if disturbed they will often attack the in-
truders, and have been known to leap up and endeavour
to kick a man on horseback. These birds, Mr. Darwin
informs iis, show no reluctance to take the water, but
will swim easily, but slowly, across even broad and rapid
rivers, or from island to island in bays. They are hunted
by men on horseback, and captured either by means of the
lasso, or with an instrument composed of two large balls, or
STRUTHIOXIDJ..
417
heavy stones, united by a long leather thong. The latter
instrument is thrown at the legs of the bird, which
it binds together, and of course prevents all further
progress.
FlG. 166. THE AMERICAN OSTRICH.
(Rhett Americana.)
In New Holland the Ostiich is represented by the Emu
(Dromaku XUVCB Hollands}. In the Emu the feet have
three toes. Its distinctive characters consist in the posi-
tion of the nostrils, which open not far from the tip of
the upper mandible, in the complete concealment of the
wings iinder the hair-like feathers of the body, and in the
claws of all the toes being nearly of equal length. This
bird is inferior in size only to the African Ostrich, mea-
suring from five to seven feet in height. The crown of
418
CURSOKES.
its head and the back of the neck are clothed with fea-
thers, but the throat is naked, and the plumage, which
hangs down like long hair on each side of the body, is of
a mixture of brown and grey tints. The Emu is abun-
dant in the southern parts of Australia, but is rapidly
becoming extinct in the British colonies. Its flesh is
J!^
vR'aagMfe^y
'. "*
' '''"t.-!./ '. -^ ^ ~ "^a\SVV*ta^
V
FlG. 1(57. THE EMU.
(Dromaius Noctp Hullanda.)
very good, that of the young bird being exceedingly
delicate. The eggs, which are of a green colour, are also
eaten both by natives and colonists ; and the natives of
some districts are said to live principally upon Emus'
eggs during the breeding season of these birds. Unlike
the Rhea, the Emu pairs, b\it the male hatches the eggs.
STRUTHIONID.E.
419
SUE-FAMILY II.
OTIDIX.E.
The Bustards.
GE jr. CHAKAC. Bill more or less lengthened and compressed on the sides, with
the culmen straight above the nasal groove, and then vaulted to the tip,
which is strongly emarginated ; the nostrils basal, lateral, and placed in a
large membranous groove, with the opening large and sub-oval ; the wings
moderate and rather pointed ; the tail moderate, broad, and rounded ;
the tarsi long and covered with small scales ; the toes short and covered with
small narrow scales above ; the claws short, broad, and blunt.
FlG. 168 THE GREAT BUSTABD.
(Oti* tardu.)
Bustards are found on the dry, sandy, or grassy
plains, and the open cultivated lands of Europe and
Asia. They are shy and wary ; when alarmed, they
easily escape by flight, which is strong, swift, and
at no great distance from the surface of the ground.
420 CURSORES.
Sometimes they alight after flying a little distance,
and run off with considerable speed until they are
at a sufficient distance to defy pursuit. The female
and young generally conceal themselves by squatting
down close among the tufts of brushwood and grass.
They feed on grain and seeds, and are very destruc-
tive to young wheat and tops of turnips. Insects
and worms also form a portion of their subsistence,
and sometimes they swallow small quadrupeds. The
females lay from two to five eggs on the bare
ground, under cover of the herbage. The young, as
soon as they are excluded, follow their parent, but
for a long time are incapable of flying.
The type of this sub-family,
The Great Bustard (Otutarda), was formerly abundant
in many parts of this country, but is now quite extinct
in Britain. It occurs in Germany and France, and more
or less abundantly throughout Southern Europe, always
frequenting the wild and open parts of the country. The
Bustard is the largest of European land birds. The male,
when full grown, measures nearly four feet in length, and
about nine feet from tip to tip of the extended wings ;
its weight in on an average twenty-five pounds. The
female is smaller. The general colour of the plumage
of the upper surface is buff, with numerous delicate
transverse bars ; the lower surface is white, and the head
and neck are white with a greyish tinge. Bustards were
formerly hunted with dogs in our own island. On the
Continent they are now frequently shot with a rifle ; and
as they are very shy and wild, the sportsman has often
great difficulty in stalking them. The flesh, of the young
birds especially, is highly esteemed, and in many European
countries they are often seen in the markets for sale.
Bustards are polygamous, and the females lay two or three
eggs in a small hollow in the ground. Their food consists
partly of vegetable matter ; but, in addition to worms and
insects, they are said to kill and devour small quadrupeds
and reptiles.
STRITHIOXIIXK.
421
SUB-FAMILY III.
APTERYGIX.E.
The Kims.
GEX. CHABAC. Bill lengthened, very slender, the base covered by along cere,
broad, and rather depressed, with the tip hanging over that of the lower
mandible ; the nostrils placed at the tip, small and sublinear.
FlG. 19. THE NBW ZEALAND APTEKTX.
(Apteryx Auttrali* )
The birds which constitute this family are distin-
guished from the Ostriches by the shortness of their
legs, and the presence of a short hind toe armed
with a strong claw on each foot. A further dis-
tinction is afforded by the form of the bill, which is
elongated, nearly cylindrical, and slightly curved.
The nostrils are situated quite at the tip of the upper
mandible. The wings are rudimentary, and com-
pletely concealed beneath the feathers of the body.
422 t.TRSORES.
The type of the race is
The New Zealand Apteryx (Apteryx Australia). In
this remarkable bird there is scarcely the slightest trace
of wings, a peculiarity which has gained for it the title
of Apteryx, or wingless. It is chiefly met with in the
southern parts of the interior of New Zealand, where it
is called by the natives " Kivi Kivi," in imitation of its
cry. When seized, it defends itself vigorously with its
powerful feet. Its activity is nocturnal, and it feeds
principally upon earthworms, which it captures by
driving its long bill into the soil, first of all, according to
some authors, stamping upon the ground to ascertain the
presence of its prey. These birds live in pairs, and con-
struct a rough nest in the holes which they ordinarily
frequent ; in this the female lays a single egg, about the
size of that of a goose.
The favourite localities frequented by the Apteryx arc
those covered with extensive dense beds of fern, among
which it conceals itself during the day. In running, it
sets its head rather back, raises its neck, and plies its legs
\vith a vigour little inferior to that of the Ostrich ; it is
remarkably fleet of foot, and dives among the heavy fern-
eaves with singular adroitness. While undisturbed, the
head is carried far back in the shoulders, with the bill
l>ointing to the ground ; but when pursued it runs with
great swiftness, carrying its head elevated like the Ostrich.
It is asserted to be almost exclusively nocturnal in its
habits, and it is by torchlight that it is hunted with
spears by the natives, by whom it is sought for with the
utmost avidity. Its flesh is much esteemed by the New
Zealanders, but a still higher value is placed upon the
tea there and skins, which are employed in the manufac-
ture of dresses for the chiefs, and no inferior person is
permitted to wear them ; indeed, so much are they prized,
that the natives cannot be induced to part with them.
The feathers are also employed to construct artificial flies
for the capture of fish, precisely after the European
manner.
When attacked, the Apteryx defends itself very vigor-
ously, striking rapid and dangerous blows with its power-
ful feet. The plumage is composed of rather curious ly-
>haped flat feathers, each being wide, and furnished with
STKUTHIONIDjE.
a soft shining silky down for the basal third of its length,
and then narrowing rapidly towards the extremity, which
is a single shaft with hair-like webs at the sides..
The birds of this family acquire additional interest
from their obvious relationship with the extinct gigantic
birds of New Zealand known by the name of Moa, one
species of which must have stood nearly as high as the
Giraffe. The bones of these giants of the feathered
creation examined by Professor Owen are not fossil, and
it is supposed that the last of the race has not been dead
many years, the genus, like the Dodo, having been exter-
minated by the natives at a very recent period. Frag-
ments of egg-shells have been found in some quantity in
the detritus brought down by rivers ; and the aborigines
not only say that their fathers and grandfathers have often
.seen and killed them, but assert that some are still existing
in the mountains ; it is even reported that an Englishman
one day saw one, but was so frightened that he threw
down his gun and ran away.
U 'I
424 GEALLATORES.
ORDER VI.
GRALLATOEES.*
THE word Grallatores,t which literally means Stilt-
walkers, is synonymous with the French term Les
Echassiers, which Cuvier has given to the present
order, and which is generally applicable to the birds
included in it. They have by many naturalists been
termed WADERS, a title which is strictly correct so
far as regards the greater number of the species,
but not all. The birds of this order, says Cuvier,
are characterized by want of feathers at the lower
part of the thighs, and by the great length of the
tarsi, two circumstances which permit them to
wade to a certain depth without wetting their
plumage, and thus to procure food by means of their
neck and beak, the length of which is generally
proportionate to that of their legs. Such as have
the beak strong live on fish and reptiles ; those
in which it is feeble on worms and insects. A few
feed partially on grains and herbage, and these live
at a distance from water, frequenting open plains
and extensive downs.
The principal food of the whole race consists of
animal substances ; so that they have membranous
r.tomachs and not gizzards, though some have a
slight approach to that structure. These last occa-
sionally feed upon vegetables ; they pick up seeds
from the tops of high plants, and eat the leaves and
tender shoots.
The Gralla3 in their general haunts are associated
with wildness and infertility. They give life to
those places which man neglects. They take up
the ground where the field birds end, and occupy it
as far as a walking foot can go in search of food
to the uppermost part of the hill that will bear bent
* Grallse, stilts; so called from their stilt-like legs,
f See " Animal Creation," p. 452.
GRALLATORES. 425
and rushes to the farthest shallow in the lake and
the river through the sedges and reeds by the
marsh, and on the beach as far as the ebbing tide
retires. Mountain-ward they approach the haunts
which are occupied in succession by the Black-game,
the Grouse, and the Ptarmigan. Fieldward they
border with the Partridge and the Rook, and nearer
the waters they are the immediate neighbours of the
swimming birds. The pastures which they occupy
are more under the influence of the seasons than
either the richer or more cultivated parts of the
country. The supply of food along the shores is
most abundant in the winter, as the waters, being
in a state of stronger agitation, detach and cast to
the strand a greater number and variety of esculent
matters ; so that though the birds may be driven
inland during the violence of a storm, they speedily
throng back to the beach when it is over, to feast
on the supplies which have been there collected.
Their food consists of various matters, of the spawn
of fishes, of fry in a very young state, and of innu-
ji 1 1 Table small animals that come ashore upon
uprooted seaweeds, or are to be found under loosened
stones, and in the general accumulations of sand,
ooze, and other debris, which the troubled waters
roll about while in agitation, and ultimately leave
on the beaches, deposited in order of gravitation,
and consequently with the organic portion upper-
most. Nor are the land floods unserviceable -in
adding to this winter store of food, for they sweep
from the beds and out of the torn banks of the rivers
a vast multitude of little animals, which are then
found in great abundance upon the oozy banks and
m the slimy beds of the shallows of estuaries and
creeks. It is in such localities only that the full
value of the Grallatorial birds can be estimated, or
the part that they act in the grand economy of f
Nature properly seen. (Mudie.)
To this extensive order belong the Plovers, the
Herons, the Snipes, the Screamers, and the Rails.
420 GKALLA'IORLS.
FAMILY I.
CHARADRIID.E.* The Plovers.
GETS. CHARAC. Bill short, with the base of the culmen rather depressed and
weak and the apical part strong and swollen ; the nostrils placed in a deep
longitudinal groove of various length ; the tarsi lengthened ; the hind toe
totally wanting, or small and "elevated.
The habits of the Charadriidag vary. Some, which
approach in structure the Gallinaceous birds, are
attached to the land, while other families live on
the sea-coast, or in places immediately contiguous
to water, obtaining their food, in a great measure,
from that element. The more terrestrial species,
on the contrary, reside in the interior of the country,
preferring open grounds and plains; whilst some of
them even inhabit the arid sands of the desert. A
great proportion of this family feed at twilight, or
during the night, and have the eyes large, which is
necessarily attended with a corresponding expansion
of the socket, giving the head a bulky appearance ;
and, indeed, this is one of their characteristic
features. Their flight is in general strong and
rapid, the wings being long, and usually brought to
a point. Most of them moult twice in the yc;ir,
undergoing a change of plumage immediately before
the season of pairing.
This family includes the Thick -knees, the Coursers,
the Pratincoles, the True Plovers, the Oyster-
catchers/ and the Turnstones.
* \a.pa$pio, charadrios, the name of a bird, so called from its
living in clefts or gullies, \apu3pai, cliaradrai.
CHARAURJ1D.K.
427
SUB-FAMILY I.
The Thick-knees.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill as long as, or longer than, the head, with the eulmen
slightly depressed at the base and swollen at the tip, and the gonys more or
less angulated; the tarsi lengthened, with three rather short toes in front.
FlG. 170. THE THICK-KNEE.
((Edicnemus crepitans.)
The Thick -knees are migratory" birds, inhabiting
all parts of the world except North America, seeking
the more temperate regions to rear their young, and
the warmer latitudes to pass the winter. Their
periodical nights are performed in flocks during the
night with great swiftness. These birds are gene-
rally found in uncultivated open moorlands. Their
* oicitjj, oideo, to swell ; KJ/JJ/UJ/, kneme, the leg ; Having swollen
legs.
428 GRALLATORES.
food is sought for during the evening or at night.
It consists of small quadrupeds and reptiles, but
especially of worms and insects. During the day
the Thick -knees sit closely squatted beneath a stone,
or any other object sufficiently large to hide them ;
but if disturbed, they fly to a short distance, and
then run off with great rapidity to some place of
refuge. The female deposits two eggs on the bare
surface of the ground. The young are capable of
following their parent as soon as they escape from
the egg-shell.
The type of this sub-family,
The Common Thick-knee ((Edicnemus crepitans), or,
as it is frequently called, the Norfolk Plover and Stone
Curlew, is a migratory bird, and one of our regular
summer visitors. It generally arrives in England about
the end of April or the beginning of May, and after per-
forming the duties attendant upon incubation, as autumn
advances, collects into flocks, and soon after retires into
Africa, and the warmer latitudes of Europe, to pass the
winter months. Wide hilly downs seem to afford
situations that suit the economy of this bird, and in such
localities it passes the period of its residence with us.
The Thick-knee is not destitute of courage, and it has
been seen to defend its nest with vigour against the
approach of sheep, or even dogs ; yet it is singularly shy,
and carefully avoids human beings. When disturbed, it
runs rapidly, and if it does take wing, flies for a consider-
able distance near the ground before mounting into the
air. It utters a note which resembles the syllables
"Curlui," and from this, and its habit of frequenting
waste and stony places, it has been called the Stone
Curlew.
CHARADRIID.E.
429
SUB-FAMILY II.
CURSOKINJS *
The Coursers.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill moderate, slender, with the base of the culmen weak and
somewhat cultrated above the nostrils, beyond which it is slightly arched to
the tip ; the nostrils lateral, placed in a short subtriangular membranous
groove, with the opening longitudinal and exposed ; the wings lengthened
and pointed ; the tail short ; and the legs lengthened, scutellated in front
and behind, and with only three slender toes in front.
FlG. 171. THE GAULISH COURSER.
(Curgorius Gallicus.)
Tliese birds are inhabitants of Europe, Asia, and
Africa. They are found on sandy deserts or on
open, stony, and grassy plains. In such places
they are generally seen searching for insects and
their larvio. Their flight is rapid and powerful ;
while on the ground they are able to run with
incredible speed.
* Cursor, n
TJ 3
430 GliALLATORES.
The most interesting species is
The Cream-coloured Courser (Cursarius isabelHniu\
one of the rarest visitors to our shores ; indeed, only
three or four instances have been recorded of its appear-
ance in Great Britain at various intervals since 17 80.
Some years ago one was shot in Kent, and the following
account is all that we possess of its history :
It was first met with running over some light land.
and so little fearful was it, that the person who after-
wards shot it had time to send for a gun, which did not
readily go off, having been charged some time, and in
consequence he missed his aim. The report frightened
the bird away ; but after making a turn or two it again
settled within a hundred yards, and was despatched. It
was observed to run with incredible swiftness, and at
intervals to pick up something from the ground, and was
so bold as to render it difficult to make it rise, in order
to shoot it while on the wing. The note was not like
that of a Plover, nor, indeed, to be compared with that
of any known bird.*
The Cream-coloured Courser is a native of Syria, Egypt,
and Abyssinia, where it seems generally to frequent
pools and other moist situations. Its winter residence is
supposed to be the central lakes of Africa, from which it
returns to the countries named above eai'ly in autumn,
and disappears at the approach of winter. Nothing is
known of its nidification.
The type of this sub-family is
The Gaulish. Courser (Cursonus Gallicus), figured at
the head of the chapter.
* This specimen found its way into the Leverian Museum, at the
sale of which it was purchased by Fichtel, who afterwards disposed
of it to Dr. Donovan for the sum of eighty-three guineas. It is
now in the British Museum.
CHARADRIlDjE.
431
SUB-FAMILY III.
GLARIOLIN^:.* The Pratincoles.
GBX. CHARAC. Bill short, broad at the base, and laterally compressed to the
tip ; the wings very long, with the first quill the longest ; the legs moderate,
with the tip of the tibia naked; the toes three in front and one posteriorly,
which is elevated.
FlG. 172. THE MILKY PRATINCOLE.
(Glareola lactea.)
The Pratincoles inhabit the temperate and warmer
climates of the Old World. They frequent the
borders of rivers, lakes, and mountains. Their food
consists chiefly of insects, which they take on the
wing, like Swallows, and on the ground, where they
can run very quickly. They form a slight nest
among rushes and thick herbage in the marshes.
The eggs are three or four in number.
* Diminutive of glarea, gravel, indicative of the soil they gene-
rally frequent.
432 GKALLATOKES.
The best-known species,
The Austrian Pratincole (Glareola pratincola), called
on the Continent Perdrix de tner, or Sea Partridge, is a
rare visitor to Great Britain, inhabiting for the most part
the north of Africa, and the countries in the vicinity of
the Don, the Volga, the Caspian, and the Black Sea, In
some of its habits it resembles the Plovers, as it frequents
open plains, and runs with great rapidity ; in nidification,
also, and in the shape, colour, and markings of its c^s
it is associated with that tribe ; while in its mode of
night and habit of catching flies while on the wing, it
approaches the Swallows. Its true place is, undoubtedly,
among the Waders, several of which not only feed on
insects, but are expert in catching them in the air-.
The eggs are deposited in the midst of a tuft of rushes
or other herbage.
The typical form Is
The Milky Pratincole (Glareola l<<cted).
'
CHARADRIID.E.
433
SUB-FAMILY IV.
CHARADRIIX.E. The True Plovfrs.
GKN. CHABAC. Bill more or less long and slender, the culmen depressed at
the base but vaulted at the tip, the sides compressed and grooved ; the nos-
trils basal, linear, and placed in the groove of the upper mandible ; the wings
long and pointed ; the fail moderate, broad, and generally even ; the tarsi
usually long and rather slender; the toes sometimes three and sometimes
four in number, the outer toe longer than the inner, and more or less united
at the base : the claws small, compressed, and curved.
FlG. 173. THE KIM. Mi PLOVKB.
(Churadrias Hiaticula.)
The True Plovers are found in most parts of the
world. They are usually seen in small Mocks in the
neighbourhood of the sea-coast, frequently near
creeks and the mouths of rivers, where the shore is
composed of gravel; but during the summer months
they separate in pairs, and frequent the banks of
rivers, inland lakes, elevated mountains, and open
moors. Their food consists of small insects and
434 GRALLATORES.
molluscous animals of various kinds. These they
seek in the evening or by night. Their flight is
strong and rapid, but does not extend far at a time ;
they sometimes run with great swiftness. Their
note is a plaintive whistle often repeated. The nest
is a slight hollow, lined with a few stems of dry
grass. The eggs are usually four in number, and
when they are hatched, the parents protect the young
brood with great courage and cunning till they are
able to fly. If disturbed by an enemy, they gene-
rally run for some distance from the nest, and then
usually pretend that they are wounded, tumbling
over on the ground, or feigning lameness.
The type of this sub-family is
The Ringed Plover (Charadrius Hiaticula), a small
ami prettily-marked bird, found throughout the year upon
all the coasts of Great Britain.
CHARADRIID.E.
435
SUB-FAMILY V.
H.EMATOPODIN^.* T/te Oyster-catchers.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill lengthened, strong, and with the apical half much com-
pressed to the tip, which is obtuse ; the nostrils linear, and placed in a
membranous lateral groove ; the wings long and pointed ; the tail moderate ;
the tarsi robust, and covered with small scales ; the toes three, the lateral
toes united at the base by a membrane, especially the outer one ; the claws
strong, broad, and curved.
FlG. 174. THE OYSTER-CATCHER.
(Jltematopits ontralegttt.)
The Oyster-catchers frequent rocky promontories,
or the broad banks of mud, sand, and ooze which
stretch out into the sea from low portions of the
coast. Here they feed on mussels and other bivalves,
* alfia, a'/juaroc, heema, haematos, Hood; irovc, TroCof, pous,
podos, afoot; Red-footed.
430 GRALLATOKES.
limpets, worms, Crustacea, and small fishes. When
the mud-banks are covered by the tide, they move
to a short distance inland, and pick up slugs and
insects in the meadows. Their eggs are laid in a
slight depression among the shingle above high-
water mark; but on rocky shores they make an
attempt at a nest by collecting a few blades of grass
or scraps of seaweed. They lay three or four eggs,
and the young are able to run after breaking the
shell. They are sometimes called " Sea Pies/'
The only species is
The Pied Oyster-catcher (Hcp.matopus ostrnlegus).
This singular bird, although nowhere numerous, inha-
bits almost every sea-shore, both ou the Old and New
Continent, but is never found inland. It is the only one
of its genus hitherto discovered, and from the conforma-
tion of its parts one might almost be led to suppose that
it had borrowed the eye of the Pheasant, the legs and
feet of the Bustard, and the bill of the Woodpecker.
During the summer the Oyster-catchers frequent the
sandy sea-beach of all parts of the Atlantic coast, roving
about in small parties of two or three pairs together.
They are extremely shy, and, except about the season of
breeding, will seldom allow a person to approach within
gunshot. They walk along the shore in a watchful,
stately manner, at times probing it with their long
wedge-like bills in search of shellfish. The small crabs,
called "fiddlers," that burrow at the bottom of inlets,
are frequently the prey of the Oyster-catchers, a.s also are
limpets, mussels, and cockles. The former it can hitch
from the rocks with great certainty by an oblique tap
with its bill. Bivalve shells, when closed, it opens by
striking them at the hinge, and in the case of the cockle
by holding the shell steadily with its foot and wrenching
with its bill, as with a crowbar.
It is said that this bird frequents oyster-beds and
watches the opening of the shells, that it may drag out
the unfortunate mollusks, and for this purpose its bill
seems very well adapted. This account is, however,
contradicted by dwellei's on the coast, who state that
the bird does not resort to the oyster-beds, but is always
CHAKADRI1DJ-:.
437
seen on the smooth beach bordering the ocean, and on
the high, dry, level sands just beyond the reach of the
summer tides. When the shores are flat and of a reten-
tive nature, so that the surface remains covered with a
shallow stratum of water after the tide has ebbed, the
Oyster-catcher finds its prey readily, as the shells of the
bivalves are then partially opened, and it can easily
insert its wedge-shaped bill and wrench them asunder ;
but where the sand soon dries, and there are no rocks on
which limpets can be had, it follows the line of the water
both in its retreat and its advance.
438
GRALLATORES.
SUB-FAMILY VI.
ClXCLIX.E.
T/ie Turnstones.
GBJT CHABAC. Bill rather short and straight, with the culmen straight and
sometimes vaulted at the apical portion, the sides compressed to the tip,
which is obtuse or acute ; the nostrils placed in a membranous groove, with
the opening linear and longitudinal ; the wings lengthened, with the first
quill the longest ; the tail rather short ; the tarsi short, robust, and covered
with small scales ; the toes long, the lateral ones unequal and free at their
bases, the hind toe rather long, slender, and elevated.
FlG. 175. THE TVRXSTOXE SANDPIPER.
( Ci net u interpret.)
The Turnstones, owing to their migratory habits,
are met with in most parts of the world. At certain
seasons of the year they frequent the sea-si
where they may be seen in small flocks of five m-
six individuals following the retreating waves in
quest of shellfish, or searching amongst the sea-
weeds left by the tide for small Crustacea. The
females are said to deposit their eggs on the >and
of the sea-coast.
CHARADRIIDJ!:.
139
The type of this sub -family,
The Turnstone Sandpiper (Cinclus internes), is a
regular annual visitor to the shores of Great Britain, and
indeed of almost every maritime country, having been
observed as far north as Greenland, and as far south as
the Straits of Magellan, but it is never seen inland. It
is a bird of elegant form and beautiful parti-coloured
plumage, active in its habits, a nimble runner, and an
indefatigable hunter after food. In size it is almost as
big as a thrush. It is difficult to get near enough to
these birds to observe their manoeuvres while engaged in
the occupations from which they have derived their
name, though their industry is often apparent from the
number of pebbles and shells found dislodged from their
sockets in the sands in places where a flock has been
feeding.
440 GRALLATORES.
FAMILY II.
ARDEID.E. The Herons.
GEN. CHAKAC. Bill more or less long, and generally compressed on the sides,
with the culmen curved at the tip, which is sometimes emarginated and
acute ; the wings moderate and rounded ; the tail mostly short and rounded
on the sides; the tarsi lengthened and rather slender; the toes more or less
long and rather slender, with the outer toe longer than the inner, and both
united at their bases, the hind toe more or less short, and generally placed
on the same level with the anterior toes.
The members of this family inhabit most parts
of the world, making regular migrations according
to the change of seasons and the scarcity of food.
They are usually seen standing solitary in swamps,
shallow rivers, or pools of water, with their necks
drawn down between the shoulders, quietly waiting
the approach of a fish, which they no sooner observ*
than they suddenly dart their bill upon it and swal-
low it in an instant. They also feed upon sin; .
quadrupeds, frogs, and various kinds of insects ; am.
some species have been observed perched on the
backs of cattle, and feeding on the larvae of inserts
that infest their hide. The nest is usually built on
the loftiest trees, and on elevated buildings, or
among the tall reeds on the borders of lakes and
rivers, and is formed of sticks lined with small
twigs loosely put together, which causes it to be
large and flat. The eggs are usually four or five in
number.
Belonging to this family are the Trumpeters, the
Cranes, the Herons proper, the Storks, and the
Ibises.
ARDEID.E.
SUB-FAMILY I.
PSOPHIN.E."
The Trumpeters.
(TEN. CHABAC. Bill moderate, with the culmen compressed at the base, vaulted
at the apical portion, and curved to the tip, which overhangs the lower
mandible and is obtuse ; the nostrils placed in a membranous groove, with
the frontal plumes advancing to the opening ; the toes moderate or short,
and the two outer ones united at their bases, the hind toe short and rather
elevated above the base of the anterior toes.
FlG. 176. THE GOLD-BBEASTED TRUMPETER.
(Psophia erepifaiin.)
These remarkable birds inhabit the tropical forests
of South America, where they search for grain and
fruits. They are usually discovered by their pecu-
* \L6<poQ, psophos, a noise.
442 GRALLATORES.
liar noisy cry, which has procured them the nnuu 1
of "Trumpeter." If disturbed, they seek safety
by running with expanded wings. The nest is
usually formed on the ground at the foot of a tree ;
the eggs are two in number.
The typical species
The Gold-breasted Trumpeter (Psophia crepitans),
called also the Agami, is an inhabitant of the Antilles,
and of the tropical parts of South America. In its wild
state, it inhabits the densest recesses of the forests, far
remote from all human habitations : here it resides in
small flocks, consisting of ten or twelve individuals, and
feeds upon wild fruits and seeds. It walks and runs
much better than it can fly ; indeed its flight is so heavy
that it seldom rises more than a few feet from the ground.
Like the Stork, it sleeps while standing upon one leg,
keeping its head drawn back between its shoulders.
When suddenly surprised, it runs away with great swift-
ness, uttering a sharp ciy, resembling that of a Turkey.
Its most striking characteristic, however, is the loud
and trumpet-like sound which it sometimes produces, six
or seven times in succession, without opening its beak, a
sound so deep and sonorous that it seems to proceed from
its whole body. This noise results, according to Pallas,
from a peculiar construction of the wind-pipe, which is
at first as thick as a swan's quill, but becomes more slen-
der as it enters the chest, when it gives off two mem-
branous semicircular sacs, or air-bags, of which that on
the right is the more extensive, and divided into three or
four cells. The hollow internal drumming, preceded by
a wild cry, is evidently produced by the vibration of the
air forced into these air-bags from the lungs by the action
of the muscles of the chest and back. During the per-
formance the chest heaves, as in birds when singing.
The Agami, when under the protection of man, soon
becomes exceedingly tame and familiar ; indeed, it seems
to have an instinctive love for human society. It repre-
sents among the feathered races what the Dog is amongst
quadrupeds, and appears equally susceptible of affectionate
attachment. It obeys the voice of its master, follows
him wherever he goes, and appears delighted at receiving
ARDEIDjE. 443
his caresses ; it welcomes his return with alacrity, and
seems to repine at his absence. In the same proportion
it appreciates the favours bestowed upon it ; it is jealous
of any rival, should even a dog approach, it immediately
assails it with its beak, and drives it to a distance with
every demonstration of displeasure. It presents itself
regularly at the dinner -table, from which it chases all the
domestic animals ; sometimes even the negroes who wait
at table, should they happen to be strangers, and only
asks for a share of the dinner when it has expelled from
the room all who might aspire to favovu'able notice from
the members of the family. It is remarkably courageous ;
dogs of ordinary size are obliged to cede to its authority.
It walks out alone without any danger of losing itself, and
returns home when it thinks proper : it is even asserted
that the A garni may be trusted with the care of a flock
<>f sheep, and that every morning it will drive ducks and
fowls to their pasture, and bring them home at night
after carefully collecting any stragglers. As for the bird
itself, it is never shut up, but sleeps just where it pleases,
upon the roof of a barn or in the farm-yard. In short,
the Agami is a faithful servant, intelligent, docile, and
affectionate, and, like the Dog, to a considerable extent
susceptible of education. The female, when about to lay,
scrapes a hole in the earth at the foot of some large tree,
in which she deposits her eggs without making any nest.
The eggs are from ten to sixteen in number, according to
the age of the bird ; they are of a spherical shape, larger
than those of a fowl, and of a clear green colour. The
flesh of the Trumpeter when young is tender and pa-
latable, but that of the old birds is dry and generally
tough.*
* Vicillot et Gudart. " Galorie de? Oiseaux.'
GRALLATORES.
SCIi-FAMILY II.
The
GEN. CHARAC. Bill more or less lengthened, straight, strong, with the tips of
both mandibles pointed and equal in length ; the nostrils placed in a deep
groove, which extends beyond the middle of the bill ; the wings long, and
the tertials lengthened and pendent ; the tail short and eren ; the tarsi very
long and slender ; the toes rather short.
FlG. 177. THK COMMON CEANK.
(Grut cinerea.)
The Cranes which constitute the members of this
sub-family are large and handsome birds, inhabiting
for the most part the warmer regions of the globe.
ARDEID.E. 445
They have a large and strong bill, which is some-
times straight and pointed, sometimes more or less
arched at the extremity ; their nostrils are placed
in large grooves, and generally near the middle of
the upper mandible. Their legs are of great length
and rather slender, with the tarsi compressed and
covered in front with broad shields, and the naked
skin continued upwards to a considerable distance
on the tibia. The toes are rather long, with the
exception of the hinder one, which is small and
elevated on the back of the tarsus, so that it does
not touch the ground in walking ; the two outer
anterior toes are united at the base by a small mem-
brane. The tail is usually very short, and in the
true Cranes the tertiaries are greatly developed,
forming elegant floating plumes, which hang grace-
fully over the hinder part of the bird, and often
give it a most graceful appearance. The head is fre-
quently adorned with a crest. The favourite haunts
of the Crane are marshy districts, where it finds in
abundance the worms, mollusks, and frogs that con-
stitute a great part of its nourishment. Its nest is
generally placed among the thick reeds, osiers, and
luxuriant herbage of the marsh, but occasionally on
the top of some ruined building. The female lays
only two eggs.
The type of this sub-family,
The Common Crane (Grus cinerea), is common in many
parts of the Eastern Continent, passing the summer in
temperate climates, and returning southwards on the
approach of winter. The periodical migrations of these
birds are remarkable for their punctuality, it having been
observed that during a long series of years they have
invariably traversed France in the month of October,
returning during the latter half of the month of March.
On these occasions they always fly in large flocks.
They move with rapidity, and alight during the day
to rest and feed. At other seasons these birds cease to
be gregarious, and repair to swamps and morasses, where
in spring each pair builds a rude nest of reeds and rushes
X
446 GRALLATORES.
on a bank or stump of a tree, in which the female lays
two eggs. Cranes may be called omnivorous, as they live
indiscriminately upon animal or vegetable substances.
Their note is loud and sonorous, but harsh. During their
migrations, these birds always fly in two lines, which in
front meet in an acute angle, thus forming a figure some-
what resembling the Gi'eek letter y, which indeed from
this very circumstance is said to have derived its >hape :
one of the company, therefore, always flies in advance of
the rest, and thus constitutes the vertex of the angle ;
and if the movements of the flock are watched, it may
readily be observed, that when this individual becomes
fatigued by being the first to cleave the air, it falls to the
rear, and leaves the next in succession to take its post.
It has been noticed, moreover, that when the Cranes, in
these their migratory flights, meet with a lofty mountain,
they utter shrill cries, appear anxious and restless, and
fly without any kind of order. Gradually, and each for
itself, they now ascend spirally until such time as they
have attained sufficient height to pass over the obstacle,
when, assuming their original formation, they proceed on
their course. At times their flight is so very high, that,
notwithstanding each individual occupies a considerable
space, the birds themselves, though heard in the air. an-
not perceptible to the naked eye. Their shrill, loud, and
trumpet-like note is audible far and near, and if at a short
distance, is almost deafening. Their voices are rendered
more powerful by the peculiar conformation of the wind-
pipe, which forms several curvatures in the breast-bone
before descending into and joining the lungs. The Cram-
is a tall and stately bird ; when it stands upright it
reaches to the breast of a man, and the wings, when
x tended, are about seven feet in breadth. It is of a shy
and wary disposition ; and when a large flock alight in a
field, either for the purpose of feeding or resting, one or
more of the party is always seen standing, at some little
distance, with head erect, and evidently on the watch.
On the approach of danger, this individual is the first to
give the alarm, and to take wing, on which the rest forth-
with follow its example. (Lloyd's "Scandinavian A<l<-> //
tares," vol. ii.)
While congenial localities still existed. Cranes regularly
\ i-ited our own island: but cultivation and drainage
ARDEHXiE. 44 /
have deprived them of their ancient haunts, and they are
now but rarely seen in this country, although they were
formerly esteemed valuable guests, and fines were im-
posed upon any who should take away the eggs of a
Crane or of a Bustard. Willoughby tells us that " Cranes
roiiu' often to us in England, and in the fen counties of
Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire there are great flocks of
them." No less than two hundred and four were served
up at a feast given by Archbishop Nevill in the reign of
Edward IV.
FlG. 178. THE AUSTRALIAN CBANE.
(Gr/tf Aitfti-dlix.)
X 'I
448
GRALLATORES.
SUB-FAMILY III.
ARDEIX.E.
The Herons proper.
GrEtr. CHARAC. Bill more or less lengthened, and generally acute, with the
gape extending beneath each eye ; the nostrils placed in the lateral groove,
with the opening usually longitudinal, and partly closed by a membrane ;
the wings usually long, and the first quills more or less graduated ; the tail
short and even ; the tarsi long, slender, and covered with transverse scutel-
lations of reticulated scales ; the toes long and more or less slender, the
outer toe usually united at the base, sometimes both toes are united at the
base for some distance.
FlS. 17i THE COMMON HERO*.
(Ardea ci:;erea.)
Birds of this sub-family inhabit most parts of
the world, migrating according to the change of
AEDEID^E. 441
seasons and the supply of food. Their usual haunts
are swamps, shallow rivers, or pools, where they
stand with their necks drawn down between their
shoulders, quietly watching the approach of a fish,
which they no sooner observe than they suddenly
dart upon it with their bill, and swallow it in an
instant ; they also feed upon small quadrupeds, frogs,
and various kinds of insects. Some species have
been observed perched upon the backs of cattle,
and feeding upon the larvae which infest their hide.
The nest is usually built upon the loftiest trees, or
on elevated buildings, or among the tall reeds on
the borders of rivers and lakes : it is formed of
sticks lined with small twigs loosely put together,
so as to form a large flat expanse. The -female lays
from four to five eggs.
The type of this sub-family,
The Common Heron (Ardeacinerea), though measuring
three feet in length from the point of its beak to the
extremity of the tail, and four feet and a half from the
tip of one wing to that of the other, weighs but three
pounds and a half; consequently, though not formed for
rapid flight, its wings present so large a surface that it
can support itself aloft witli little exertion, and is enabled
without fatigue to mount high in air when pursued by
its natural enemies, the Falcons, to whom it would fall
an easy prey if it could only skim along the plains, on
account of the lai'geness of the mark presented to their
downward swoop. The Heron is a successful fisher, but
a fisher in shallow waters only, to human anglers a very
pattern of patience and resignation ; up to its knees in
the water, motionless as a statue, with the neck slightly
stvetched out, and the eye steadily fixed but wide awake
to the motion of anything that has life, the Heron may
be seen in the ford of a river, the margin of a lake or
sea-side pool, or on the bank of an e-tuary. Suddenly its
head is darted forward with unerring aim, a small fish
is captured and instantly swallowed head foremost ; an
eel of some size requires different treatment, and is
brought to land that it may be beaten to death on the
shingle. A large fish is impaled on its daggei*-like beak,
450 GRALLATORES.
and, if worth the labour, is carried off to some safe retreat
to be devoured at leisure. A frog is swallowed whole ;
a water-rat has its skull split before it discovers its
enemy, and speedily is undergoing the process of diges-
tion. Shrimps, small crabs, newts, water-beetles, share
the same fate, all is fish that comes to its comprehensive
net. If, however, notwithstanding its watchfulness, the
look-out be unsuccessful, the Heron rises a few feet into
the air, and slowly naps itself away to some little dis-
tance, where perhaps, slightly altering its attitude, it
stands on one leg, with its head thrown back, and awaits
better fortune. While thus stationed, it is mute ; but as
it flies off it frequently utters its note, a harsh, grating
scream, especially when other birds of the same species
are in the neighbourhood. In the month of March
Herons begin to congregate, and soon after repair to their
breeding-places, called Heronries : these are often clumps
of lofty trees or groves, frequently near some old family
mansion. The nests huge masses of sticks a yard across,
lined with a little grass and other soft materials are
placed near each other, as many, sometimes, as a hundred
in a colony; or more rarely they are placed among ivy-
clad rocks, old ruins, or on the ground. Each nest con-
tains four or five eggs, on which the female sits almost
three weeks, constantly fed by her partner during the
whole period of incubation. The capability of walking
would be of little use to a young bird hatched at an ele-
vation of fifty feet from the ground ; the young Herons
are consequently helpless till they are sufficiently fledged
t<> perch on the branches of the trees, where thev arc ted
l>y their parents, who themselves are able to perch with
the facility of a rook. Indeed, the favourite station of
these birds during a considerable part of the day is on tin-
upper branches of a lofty tree, whither also they often
repair with a booty too large to be swallowed at once.
ARDEID-E.
451
SUB-FAMILY IV.
ClCOXIX.E.
The Storks.
GEN. CHAKAC. Bill lengthened, usually straight and conical, with the sides
ened, and usually covered with reticulated scales ; the toes moderate, with
the anterior toes more or less united at the base, the hind toe long, elevated
and partly resting on the ground.
FlG. ISO. THE WHITE fcTOKK.
(Ci'Mn'm alba.)
These birds, in their migrations, visit various
marshy districts in Europe, Asia, and Africa. They
usually seek their food on the borders of rivers and
streams, or in marshes. They live upon fishes, rep-
tiles, small quadrupeds, and young birds, and some-
times search on open dry plains, or on cultivated
ground, for grasshoppers and other insects. Their
4-j2 GSALLATORES.
nest, composed of sticks and twigs, is placed on
buildings, or on the decayed stump of a tree. The
female lays from three to five eggs.
The typical species,
The White Stork (Ciconia alba), is a well-known
European bird, but is seldom seen in Britain. It is
migratory, passing the summer in temperate or cold lati-
tudes, but retiring during the winter to the banks of the
Nile and the African swamps. It is a large and hand
some species, measuring about three feet and a half in
length, and is of a white colour, with the extremities of
its wings black. The Stork frequents marshes and the
banks of rivers, devouring indiscriminately any aquatic
animals that may come in its way, and not even sparing
the young of water-fowl ; it also feeds freely on offal or
carrion, and for this reason in many places its visits are
regarded with great favour ; and it may be seen, even in
the crowded streets of large towns, stalking about with
perfect confidence. On the continent of Europe, indeed,
the Stork is a welcome visitor everywhere ; and the pea-
sants, so far from wilfully injuring it, protect it to the
utmost of their power. This kindly feeling is cai-ried to
such a length, as not only to subject a person ill-using it
to unpleasant remarks but to actual danger ; in some
parts, indeed, it is looked upon as a sort of sin to molest
it. In consequence of being thus favoured, the Stork
becomes exceedingly tame, and will hardly get out of the
way of the passer-by. It frequently makes its nest in
the wilds of the forest, or, in the manner of the magpie,
in detached trees immediately above human habitations ;
but it builds just as often on the roof, or it may be on
the chimney of the cottage itself, where, to facilitate its
operations, the peasants not unfrequently affix a broken
cart-wheel. The nest is composed of sticks and similar
materials ; and as it is often made use of for several
generations, it becomes at length, from annual repairs and
additions, of a most goodly size ; occasionally, it is said
to be from four to six feet in height. Numbers of spar-
rows usually breed in the sides of these gigantic struc-
tures. The Stork, according to popular belief, is not
unmindful of the kindness shown to it ; and the eggs, or
young ones, as the case may be, that are frequently found
ARDEID.E.
outside the nest, are considered by the peasants to be
tokens of its gratitude. The female lays from four to five
oval-shaped eggs, of a dirty white colour ; they are t\v< i
inches and seven- eighths in length, by two inches in their
transverse diameter.
When the winter sets in, the morasses and swamps art-
frozen, and food is scarcely to be found ; the Storks then
assemble in multitudes, and prepare for their southern
journey, which, like that of other birds of passage, is
probably begun in the night.
STOBK'S M->T
164
GRALLATORES.
SUB-FAMILY V.
TAXTALIX.E.
The
GEJT. CHAHAC. Bill lengthened, more or less slender, and curved throughout
its whole length, the sides gradually compressed to the tip, which is obtuse :
the nostrils lateral, and sometimes placed in a lengthened groove, with the
opening always linear and exposed ; the wings rather long : the tail moderate
and even ; the tarsi of various lengths, usually robust, and covered in front
with transverse or hexagonal scales ; the toes long, the inner toe shorter than
the outer, both more or less united at the base, the hind toe long and usually
strong.
FlG. 181. THE EGYPTIAN IBIS.
These birds are met with in the warmer part> if
Asia, Africa, and America. They are to be seen in
small and large flocks on the banks of rivers, lakes,
< >r swampy places, or on land that has been recently
overflowed, wading knee-deep in search of their
food, which consists of frogs, water-lizards, various
ARDEID.E. t-.JO
insects, and snails. Some species frequent the
plains and open dry places, subsisting chiefly on
insects and worms ; while others have been ob-
served standing on the decayed trunks of trees as
they float down the streams, watching the approach
of fish, on which they pounce with their long bills.
Having satisfied their hunger, they usually perch
on the exposed and elevated branches of the neigh-
bouring trees, where they stand in an erect posture,
resting their h^avy bill upon their breast : in such
situations they are extremely cautious and watchful.
Their flight is usually performed in sweeps high up
in the air ; but when migrating, which they often do
in search of food, or on the change of season, they
usually arrange themselves in two lines diverging
from a leader. Their nest is placed on some lofty
tree, or, by some species, upon the ground in marshy
places.
The typical species,
The Egyptian Ibis (Geronticus sEthiopicim), is also
called " the Sacred Ibis," because it figures largely in an
evidently sacred character on the hieroglyphics of ancient
Egypt. It is a migratory bird, arriving in Egypt as soon
as the waters of the Nile begin to rise, and remaining in.
that land until the waters have subsided, and thereby
deprived it of its daily supplies of food. The bird, indeed,
probably owes its sacred character to the fact that its
appearance is coincident with the rising of the Nile, an
annual phenomenon on which depends the prosperity of
the whole country. Sometimes the Ibis stalks in solitary
state along the banks of the river, or the many water-
courses that intersect the low country, but sometimes
associates in little flocks of eight or ten in number. Its
food consists mostly of mollusks, both terrestrial and
aquatic ; but it will eat worms and insects, and probably
small reptiles. The Ibis was, at one time, thought to
kill and eat snakes, and this idea was strengthened by
the fact that Cuvier detected the scales and bones of
snakes within a mummied corpse of an Ibis ; recent
specimens, however, seldom contain anything but mol-
lusks and insects. Some species of Ibis feed entirely on
456 GRAL1ATORES.
fishes and aquatic reptiles, of which they destroy an
enormous quantity, in fact, more than they eat ; for if
they have been killing fish for half an hour, and have
gorged themselves, they suffer the rest to lie on the water
untouched, when it becomes food for alligators, crows,
and vultures. To procure food of this description, they
walk through shallow muddy lakes in numbers together.
As soon as they have discovered a place abounding in
fish, they dance, as it were, all through it until the water
becomes thick with the mud stirred from the bottom
by their feet. The fishes, on rising to the surface, are
instantly struck by the beaks of the Ibises, and being
deprived of life, they turn over, and so remain. In the
course of ten or fifteen minutes hundreds of fishes, frogs,
young alligators, and water-snakes, cover the siirface, and
the birds greedily swallow them until they are completely
gorged.
SCOLOPAC1D.E. 457
FAMILY III.
SCOLOPACID.E. The Snipes.
the nostrils basal, longitudinal, closed by a membrane, and placed in the
groove; the wings long and pointed; the tail usually short and even ; the
tarsi more or less long and slender ; the toes generally long and slender, the
lateral ones sometimes much united to the middle by a membrane, the hind
toe short, resting on the ground, or entirely wanting.
These birds are among the smaller species of the
order ; their bills are long, slender, and nearly
cylindrical, obtuse at the end, and generally some-
what flexible and of a softer texture than in most
birds. The upper mandible is a little longer than
the lower, and usually grooved on each side ; the
nostrils are small, and situated at the base of the
bill in the lateral grooves. In the development of
the legs, the members of this sub-family differ con-
siderably among themselves, some having their
tarsi longer and more slender, in proportion to their
size, than any other birds, whilst others are sup-
ported upon comparatively short limbs. The ante-
rior toes are of moderate length, and frequently
connected at their base by membranes ; the poste-
rior toe, when present, is small and slightly ele-
vated, but sometimes this toe is entirely wanting ;
the wings are well developed, and these birds gene-
rally possess considerable powers of flight.
The members of this family are all inhabitants of
111:1 i-shy lands, the borders of swamps, lakes, and
rivers, and the shores of the sea. Their food con-
sists of worms, slugs, aquatic mollusca, &c. Most
of the genera procure their subsistence by thrusting
their bill into the soft earth or the mud of the shore,
whence they extract their prey. To facilitate this
operation, their bill is at once a probe, a feeler, and
an organ of prehension ; an extraordinary develop-
458 GBALLATOKES.
ment of nerve is distributed over its surface, but
more especially at the tip, the membrane covering
which is soft and pulpy, and endowed with an ex-
quisite sense of touch. In many species the bill is
further provided with a peculiar muscle, which
operates so as to expand the pulpy points of the
upper mandible, enabling the bird, with its bill
buried in the ground, to seize prey the moment
it is felt. From this peculiar mode of searching for
their food, many species of the Snipe, the Woodcock,
&c., have been called birds of suction. The distri-
bution of the Scolopacidee is very general ; their
powers of flight are considerable, and they are all
more or less migratory in their habits. They incu-
bate on the ground ; the eggs are four in number,
of a peculiar form, being small and pointed at one
end, large and obtuse at the other ; and they are
usually placed in the nest in a circle, with the acute
ends meeting in the centre, so as to occupy as small
a space as possible. The flesh of many is in high
estimation.
This family comprehends the Godwits, the Long-
shanks, the Avocets, the ' Sandpipers, the Snipes
proper, and the Phalaropes.
SCOLOPACID.E.
459
SUB-FAMILY 1.
Ll.MOSIN.E.
The. Godwits.
FKX. CHAKAC. Bill generally long, slender, entirely curved or straight from
the base, with tbe sides more or less grooved towards the tip, which usually
overlaps that of the lower mandible, and is obtuse; the nostrils basal, and
placed longitudinally in the lateral groove; the wings long and pointed ;
the tail usually short and even; the tarsi lengthened and slender ; the toes
long, the lateral ones united at the base to the middle toe, the hiqd toe
short, and sometimes wanting.
FlG. 18.J. THE BED GODWIT.
(Liuiumi nifa.)
The Godwits are birds of considerable size ; they
inhabit marshes and the banks and mouths of rivers,
where the muddy deposit is soft and deep, and in
which, by probing with their long and semi-flexible
bills, they find the materials upon which they feed.
When thus engaged, these birds are frequently seen
with their head entirely under water, and accord-
ingly they are amply provided with the gland situ-
4b'0 GRALLATORES.
ated above the eye, whose function appears to be
that of lubricating and defending this delicate organ
from the effects of saline and other fluids. They are
subject to a double moult, and their nuptial dress is
very different from the plumage they wear during
the other parts of the year. The females are much
larger than the males. Like the other Scolopacidae,
they are migratory, and their passage takes place at
the same periods.
The birds of this sub-family have some resem-
blance to the Snipes, and also to the Tringas ; but
their legs are longer, and perhaps also stouter, in
proportion to their size, and their bodies more
lightly made. The chief difference, however, is in
the bill, which in birds that, as regards their haunts,
are such close neighbours, is the most important.
The bills of the Godwits are very long, soft, and
flexible for their whole length, rather compressed
and triangular at the base, depressed in the rest of
the length, and dilated and obtuse at the tip, but
not enlarged into a knob like that of the Snipes,
nor having the upper mandible in the least hooked
and projecting over the under. It is not a snapping
bill, nor a boring bill, neither is it a scooping or a
dabbling bill. It is not very easy to find a single
epithet descriptive of the function that it performs,
or rather of the manner in which it performs that
function. It is not shovelling or scooping, for it
does not remove from its place the sludge and sedi-
ment of the water among which it seeks its food;
and it does not dabble and wash the mud, as Ducks
do, till it finds the substance of which it is in quest.
" Poking " is the nearest epithet, but does not
express the action exactly, as the bird " tries
about," and selects its food by the sense of touch,
and not by sight. These birds are more of a wading
habit than Snipes, as Snipes are more of waders
than Woodcocks ; yet the food is not found in the
water, but in the ooze ; and if that ooze is soft
enough to be penetrated by the bill, the fact of its
SCOLOPACIDJE. 10 I
being- with or without a small stratum of water over
it is of little consequence. That food is chiefly
mud worms, mud insects, and mud larvae ; and the
places which the birds frequent are those in which
these most abound. The banks of the eddies of
slow-running streams, or the accumulations of
sludge that are left bare in the estuaries and creeks
upon the shores of low and rich land, on the ebbing
of the tide, and especially the runs of mud from the
richer grounds into the pools of fens, are the fa-
vourite places with these birds. They breed in the
fens, at a considerable distance inland if the ground
is suitable, but they descend nearer to the sea in
winter. In their inland haunts they hide themselves
during the heat of the day among the long grass,
where they have their nests ; but when near the sea,
their resting-time varies with that at which the tide
leaves their feeding-places in the best condition.
Godwits run very fast, more rapidly than Snipes or
Tringas, and make their escape to a considerable
distance on foot before they take wing ; when they
do, they yelp and clamour in a very loud and
rather harsh and bleating strain.
The type of this sub-family is
The Red G-odwit (Limosa rufci). These birds usually
dwell in small societies, frequenting the mud-banks of
river-mouths, or inlets of the sea abounding in oozy
shores, where they readily meet with their usual food,
worms, aquatic animals, and the smaller mollusca. Their
flight is powerful though not very rapid, and when dis-
turbed and raised on the wing, they utter a cry not unlike
the bleat of a goat. In April the males have acqxiired
their nuptial plumage, after which period they entirely
desert our shores, retiring to more northern countries,
Iceland, Lapland, and Sweden, to breed.
In Holland and the level parts of France, which afford
them a congenial residence, they abound much more than
in England, and are annually killed in great numbers for
the London market.
462
GRALLATORES.
SUB-FAMILY II.
TOTANIN.E.
Tlie Lonyshanks.
GEN. CHAR AC. Bill long, slender, compressed, and grooved on the sides, with
the culmen more or less straight, curved, and acute at the tip ; the nostrils
linear and placed in the lateral groove, which extends to or beyond the
middle of the bill ; the wings long and pointed ; the tail moderate, and even
or rounded; the tarsi more or less long, slender, and covered in front with
narrow transverse scales ; the toes usually long and slender, the lateral
ones unequal, and generally united at the base to the middle toe, especially
the outer, the hind toe long, slender, and hardly touching the ground.
FlG. 183 THE i DM M. is RKDSHA.NK.
(Totanm calidrij.)
These migratory birds are found in both hemi-
spheres, especially in the temperate and northern
regions. They are usually seen in pairs, or in small
flocks, on thebanks of'lakes and rivers, or sometimes
<>n the shores of the ocean; but at certain seasons they
resort to moist woods and marshes for the purpose
SCOLOPACIDJ5.
of rearing their young. Their food is sought for on
the ground, or among the gravel and stones, on the
margins of lakes and rivers : it consists of insects,
worms, small mollusks, and fishes. The nest is
usually formed in a tuft of grass, or in a slight
depression in the earth, lined with dry grass and
other vegetable remains. The female lays four eggs,
and if disturbed while incubating them, generally
flies round the intruder, uttering a succession of
shrill notes for the purpose of engaging his atten-
tion, and leading him from the vicinity.
The birds belonging to this sub-family are dis-
tinguished by having the bill hard, with its tip
pointed and sharp, and without the particular tactile
structure possessed by the Snipes and Woodcocks.
This difference in so important an organ indicates a
correspondent diversity in their economy and mode
of life ; consequently, instead of seeking their food
by probing in the soft sand or mud, they seize it
upon the surface of the earth, or search for it among
gravel or stoaes, on the shores of lakes and rivers,
or 011 those of the ocean. Some of the species live
entirely in the interior, and are but accidentally, if
ever, found upon the sea-coast, which is to others
the place of habitual resort.
Some of these birds swim well, and even the
young, before they are able to fly, will take to the
water when threatened with danger. They can
also dive with facility, and remain under water for
a considerable time, coming up at a distance from
the place where they went down : they are said t<>
progress under water by the agency of their wings.
The typical species is
The Redshank ( Totanus calidris). During the winter
the Redshank is found upon the sea-coast, and about the
mouths of rivers, in small flocks ; but on the approach of
spring it retires inland to the fenny jjarts of the country,
where it breeds. Its nest is placed in some large tuft of
grass in the marshes, or on the ground in moist meadows,
and is there formed by lining a shallow hole or depression
464 (iRALLATORES.
with dry grasses and other vegetable remains. The eggs,
four in number, are of a deep oil-green colour, blotdu-d
with blackish-brown, the spots being most numerous at
the larger end. During incubation, when disturbed from
its nest, this bird is very vociferous, flying round the
intruder, and unceasingly uttering its shrill and piping
notes. Upon the coast it is very wild and wary, and as
it always gives a loud whistle on first rising, it spreads
the alarm amongst all other birds near at hand, and
thereby often disappoints the shooter in his expectations
<>t' sport ; hence it is a constant subject of malediction,
and has received the name of the " Tell-tale."
SCOLOPACIDA:.
465
SUB-FAMILY III.
RECURVIBOSTBINJB. The Avocets.
GEN. CHABAC.-Bill lengthened and slender, with the sides grooved to the
middle, and compressed towards the tip, which is acute ; the nostrils linear
and membran-us ; the wings long and pointed ; the tail rather short and
rounded ; the tarsi long, slender, and covered in front with reticulated
scales ; the tibia long and denuded of feathers for some distance above the
knee ; the toes moderate, sometimes free and sometimes entirely united liv
a web to the ends of the toe, the hind toe extremely short or wanting ; the
ohixvs short.
FlG 18-1 THE SCOOPING AVOCET.
(litcarriruxtru Acoc^ttn. )
These birds are found in most parts of the globe ;
they frequent swampy places on the margins of
rivers, or in salt marshes, where they are usually
seen in pools of shallow water, fluttering their wings,
and shaking their half-bent legs, which causes them
to appear as if they would tumble over, while at the
same time they utter a sharp note, like the syllable
466 GRALLATORES.
<-lic1t often repeated. Sometimes they may be no-
ticed, collected in small parties, on open do AVI is
thinly covered with grasses and other kinds of vege-
tation, running very gently, when, if alarmed, they
frequently fly off in a straight line, and very close
to the ground. Their mode of feeding is by scoop-
ing, or, as it seems, beating the soft ground with
their flat and upturned bill ; and when thus engaged,
they are frequently seen wading up to their breasts
in the pools left by the receding tide. They never
swim voluntarily, although furnished with feet so
extensively palmated as to have induced the early
systematists to place them amongst the swimming
birds ; nevertheless, this structure is an admirable
provision for enabling them to traverse the soft and
yielding mud in which they find their food.
The nest is generally formed of dry grasses, sea-
weeds, and small twigs, heaped up to the thickness
of several inches, and placed among thick tufts of
grass, in the neighbourhood of shallow water. The
eggs are four in number.
The typical species is
The Scooping Avocet (Recurvirostra AvoceWi). The
npcurved form of the bill, which gives so singular an
appearance to this bird, is most remarkable, being nn-
suited to pi-obe the ground, like that of the Snipe or
Woodcock, or to break the shell of ordinary-sized mol-
lusks ; the slightest frost, therefore drives the Avocet to
the oozy muddy flats of estuaries, bays, and similar situ-
ations, where it can patter about with its wide- webbed
feet, and gather small crustaceans and sea-worms. Those
who have seen a Stork, or a Crane, with a frog at the tip
of its long mandibles, and witli an upward movement of
the head drop it into its throat, will have a good idea of
the actions of the Avocet when it has captured a small
shrimp, a marine insect, or any other small object upon
which it lives, and will at once perceive that with such a
peculiarly-formed beak it could not feed in any other
manner.
SCOLOPACTD^:.
K>7
sr is. FAMILY IV.
TRIXGIX.E.
The Sandpipers.
GKN. CHABAC. Bill generally longer than, or as long as, the head, slender,
compressed on the sides, with the culmen near the tip slightly depressed
and enlarged ; the nostrils basal, and placed in a nasal groove that extends
for two-thirds of tlie liill ; the wings long and pointed ; the tail moderate
and rounded ; the tarsi usually long and slender ; the toes more or less long,
and united at the base.
r\
tin 180. THE KSOT SAM DPI FEB.
(Tringa canutus.)
These birds frequent marine marshes and the sea-
shores as well as the borders of lakes and rivers.
They visit the temperate climates during the winter,
and return in large flocks to the colder latitudes to
spend the summer months. Like many other birds
which have this habit, they are common to both
hemispheres, of which they seem to inhabit all the
northern parts. During the recess of the tide, they
may be seen upon the sea-shore collecting their food
468 GRALLATORES.
from the refuse of the ocean, or quietly and intently
probing the moist sands in search of worms and
small shell-fish ; sometimes running quickly before
the advancing surge, and profiting by what the wave
leaves on its retreat. Their plumage is renewed
twice in the year, and their summer, or, as it has
been called, their nuptial attire, is very different
from that with which they are clothed during the
rest of the year. The upper plumage is black, with
the feathers margined with reddish-brown and
white, and the whole lower surface rich reddish-
chestnut. In the winter it is ashy-grey above, and
white shaded with grey beneath. The colour of
the two sexes is nearly alike, but the females are
distinguished by their superior size.
The typical species,
The Knot Sandpiper (Tringa canntus), is a winter
resident in Great Britain ; numbers of them arriving early
in autumn, and spreading along our shores, take up their
residence in bays, or at the mouths of rivers and other
flat parts of the coast covered with ooze and sand, in
which they find abundance of minute shell-fish, that con-
stitute their usual food. In such situations, collected in
immense flocks, whose evolutions upon the wing are
curious and very beautiful, they reside till the latter
part of April or the beginning of May, when they
again depart to the Arctic regions for the purposes of
incubation and of rearing their young. Their polar
migration extends to very high latitudes, as the Knot is
enumerated by voyagers as inhabiting the icy shores of
Greenland and Spitzbergen.
When searching for food, the Knot Sandpiper tru< < -
the flow and recession of the waves along the beach with
great nimbleness, wading and searching among the loose
sand for its favourite food, which consists of the small,
thin, oval, bivalve shell -fish, of a white or pearl colour,
and not larger than the pips of an apple, which are
common on the coast. These usually lie at a short depth
below the surface, but in some places are seen at low
water in heaps, like masses of wet grain. During the
latter part of summer and autumn these minute shell-fish
SCOLOPACID^E.
469
constitute the food of almost all those busy flocks that
run with such activity along the sands among the flowing
and retreating waters. They are always swallowed
whole, but the action of the bird's stomach, assisted by
the shells themselves, soon reduces them to a pulp, which
must be very nutritious, as the tribes that feed on these
little niollusks are, at this season, generally extremely
tat. Digging for these in the hard sand would be a work
<f considerable labour, whereas, when the sand is loosened
by the flowing of the sea, the birds collect them with
great ease and dexterity. It is amusing to observe with
what adroitness they follow and elude the tumbling surf,
while at the same time they seem wholly intent on col-
lecting their food. They are plump birds, and by those
accustomed to the sedgy taste of their flesh, are esteemed
excellent food.
GRALLATORES.
SUB-FAMILY V.
ScoLOPACiN-E. The Snipes proper.
GEN. CHABAC Bill long, straight, rather slender, compressed on the sides,
and rather depressed and turned down near the tip, which is obtuse and bent
over that of the lower mandible ; the nostrils placed in a narrow longitudinal
groove, with the opening linear and covered by a membrane; the wings
moderate and pointed ; the tail short and rounded ; the tarsi more or less
long, and covered in front with narrow transverse scales ; the toes long,
rather slender, with the hind toe short, elevated, and reaching to the
ground.
FlG. 186. TUK COMMON SNIPS.
(Scoloptuc gallimigo.)
These birds frequent swampy woods, marshes,
morasses, and the borders of rivers. Their usual
time for seeking their food is early in the morning
and during the twilight of the evening. They sub-
sist principally upon insects and worms ; for these
SCOLOPACID.E. 471
they search among the decayed leaves, and probe
the mud and ooze with their lengthened bills. When
alarmed, they generally lie close to the ground, or
among the grass, or, suddenly starting on the wing,
escape by flight, which is short but elevated, rapid,
and irregular. The eggs, which are four in number,
are deposited on the ground. In the Snipe, and all
its immediate allies, the bill is thickened, soft, and
very tender at its extremity; so that this part, which
is richly supplied with nerves, serves as a delicate
organ of touch, and is used for searching in the soft
ground for the insects and worms that constitute the
food of these birds. It is migratory in its habits,
and generally breeds in high northern latitudes;
nevertheless, it is truly indigenous in this country,
in all parts of which it is known to rear its young,
but more especially towards the north.
The Common Snipe (Scolopax gallinago} is a small
bird, weighing about four ounces. The bill is nearly
three inches long, rather flat, and very smooth at the tip
in the living bird, but after death it soon becomes shrunk
and corrugated. The Snipe frequents marshy places and
wet meadows, and in frosty weather the edges of rushy
hill*, where it is almost constantly probing and nibbling
in the soft mud. Its food consists of worms, insects, and
slugs, which abound in such places. In these retreats
the Snipe, when undisturbed, walks leisurely with his
head erect, but when alarmed it usually springs and takes
flight beyond the reach of the gun, turning nimbly in a
zigzag direction for two or three hundred paces, and
sometimes soaring out of sight. The Snipe, like the
Woodcock, shuns the extremes of heat and cold, by keep-
ing upon the bleak moors in summer, and seeking the
shelter of the valleys in winter. In severe frosts and
storms of snow, driven by the extremity of the weather,
these birds seek unfrozen marshy places, springing rills,
or any open streamlet of water, and there they will some-
times sit till nearly trodden upon before they will take
flight. Although it is well known that numbers of
Snipes leave Great Britain in the spring, and return in
the autumn, yet it is equally well ascertained that many
Y 2
17-2
GRALIATOKES.
constantly remain and breed in various parts of the
country, for their nests and young ones have been so
often found as to leave no doubt of the fact. The female
makes her nest, which is very inartificially composed, of
withered grasses and a few feathers, in some retired spot,
generally under the stump of an alder or willow. The
eggs, which are large and usually four in number, are
pale yellowish- or greenish-white, with rather elongated
rusty spots at the larger end. Sir Humphry Davy de-
scribes the parent birds as being extremely attached to
their young, and says that if any one approaches the nest.
they make a loud and drumming noise above the head of
the intruder, as if to divert his attention. The young
run off soon after they leave the shell, but they art-
attended by their parents until their bills have acquired
sufficient firmness to enable them to provide for them-
selves.
SCOLOPACHXE.
473
sl'li-FAMlLY VI.
PHALAROPODIN.K. *
The Plialaropes.
GKX. CHABAC. Bill as long as, or longer than, the head, more or less slender,
and straight, the culnien straight, except at the tip, which is curved, the
sides of the upper mandible curved for nearly its whole length; the nostrils
placed in the lateral groove, with the opening linear ; the wings long and
pointed ; the tail short and rounded ; the tarsi short and more or les
robust ; the toes moderate, united at the base, and more or less lobed on the
<i<lfs to the tips, the hind toe short, elevated, and margined slightly by a
narrow membrane.
FlG. 187. THE OBEY PHiLAROPE.
(Phuliirope hyperborealif.)
These birds are inhabitants of the northern re-
gions, but migrate to more temperate climate's
during severe winters. They are usually seen in
pairs, or in small parties, swimming rapidly about
>ii the sea, or on lakes, ponds, and streams of fresh
water, generally near the margins, in search of
floating seeds, aquatic insects, or small crustaceous
* 0aXapo, phalaros, ><:hit>/ ; TTOV<;. pous, a fot ; White-footed.
474 GRALLATORES.
animals on which they subsist. They swim with
great facility and swiftness, and their flight is rapid
and elevated.
In the Phalaropes the formation of the bill is
nearly the same as that of the Knot, but it is more
depressed throughout its length, and the tip comes
to a sharper and more determinate point. The
general contour of the body is also similar to that of
the Tringas, but the extensive development of the
web connecting and bordering the margins of dit-
toes, as well as the thick and closely-set plumage of
the under parts of the body, indicate more aquatic
habits ; and accordingly we find that these birds are
often seen upon the surface of the ocean, even in
the midst of the roughest waves. Their plumage is
thick and closely set, and the toes, besides being
united together at the base by a web, are bordered
by a continuation of that membrane, so as to make
the feet efficient paddles, although they are equally
adapted for progression on dry land ; so that these
are birds of varied accomplishments, flying rapidly
like the Snipes, running after the fashion of the
Sandpipers, and swimming with the facility of
Ducks. Their usual habitat is in the Arctic and
Northern Seas. During the breeding season they
repair to the coast, where they build a neat in-st,
composed of grass and weeds, upon the sea-shore,
in some slight hollow on the ground. The eggs
are four in number.
The type of this sub-family is
The Grey Phalarope, or Lobe-foot (Phalaropus hyper-
boreus). These birds are inhabitants of the north-east ci-n
parts of Europe and Northern Asia, where they are
numerous upon the large lakes and rivers of Siberia ;
they also abound in North America, biit their range,
vni during their migrations southward, does not seem
to extend far beyond the limits of the Arctic circle. In
their habits they are much more aquatic than the Tringas,
passing the greater part of their lives upon the water,
where they swim with great buoyancy and ease. But it
SCOLOPACID^:. I7">
does not appear that they have ever been seen to dive,
either while feeding OK when endeavouring to escape
from threatened danger. They fly with great strength
and swiftness, and when on the wing are not easily dis-
tinguished from the Tringas, although when on land they
are inferior to them in lightness and agility. The lobed
feet of the Phalaropes give them, however, a great advan-
tage in enabling them to walk on the soft and oozy nmd
which covers the sides of creeks and estuaries, among
which they find their principal food, consisting of insects,
worms, and minute mollusca. Their most remarkable
luibit seems to be that of alighting at sea on beds of
floating sea-weed, upon which they run with light and
nimble pace, after the manner of a Wagtail : they are
often met with thus employed a hundred miles from land.
The Phalarope builds a nest of grass in the marshes, or
on the islands of inland lakes, and lays four eggs, of a dark
olive-colour closely spotted with black.
The length of this species is seven inches.
476 GRALLATORES.
FAMILY IV.
PALAMEDEID^E.* The Screamers.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill generally long and slender, with the culmen depressed,
straight at the base, the apical parts vaulted, and the tip overhanging that
of the lower mandible, the gonys short and sometimes angulated ; the nos-
trils lateral, generally placed near the middle of the bill, and longitudinal ;
the wings long, and generally armed at the shoulder with an acute spine or
blunt tubercle ; the tail generally short and slightly rounded ; the tarsi long
and slender; the toes very long and slender, and furnished with long and
straight, or short and slightly-curved claws, the hind toe long, and furnished
with a more or less long and acute claw.
Widely as we have already seen the feathered
tribes distributed, there are still localities to be met
with as yet unfurnished with appropriate occupants.
The surfaces of lakes and ponds, for' example, in
tropical countries are frequently covered over with
luxuriant vegetation to such a degree that they
might almost be said to be carpeted with verdure
too unstable to support the weight of birds of ordi-
nary construction, and at the same time too dense
to give passage to swimming water-fowl. To meet
the requirements of such situations, which 1'nmi
their great extent are by no means unimportant, a
numerous family has been specially constructed,
able, by means of their lengthened toes, to walk-
over the floating leaves, and to give animation
by their cries and their quarrels to regions which
without such contrivance would remain silent and
desolate.
This family includes the Jacanas, or Tank-runners,
and the Screamers properly so called.
* From iraXdfiTi, palame, the palm of the hand ; So called from
their great extent of foot.
PALAMKDEID2E.
SUB-FAMILY I.
PARRIN.K.
The Jacanas.
GEN. CHIRAC. Bill lengthened, slender, with the culmen straight at the l>;i-i'
and vaulted at the tip, which is entire; the nasal groove long and narrow,
and the opening of the nostrils placed in the middle of the bill, small, and
oval ; the wings more or less long and pointed ; the tail generally short ;
the tarsi long and slender; the toes very long, slender, and armed with long
slender claws, especially the hind toe.
FlG. 188. THE JACANA.
(Parni Jaeann.)
These remarkably-footed birds are found in the
warmer parts of Asia, Africa, and America. They
frequent marshes and the sides of rivers and ponds,
generally in pairs or small flocks. Their shy and
timorous habits induce them, when alarmed, to dive
into the water, and skulk among the reeds and other
kinds of herbage : occasionally they seek safety l>y
a short flight. The remarkable length of their toes
Y :j
478 GRALLATORES.
and claws enables them to run with great facility
over plants that float on the surface of the lakes
and marshes in broad patches. Their food con-
sists of aquatic insects and the buds and seeds of
vegetables. The female makes her nest among
reeds ; her eggs are four in number.
An African species, whose body is not larger than
that of our common Snipe, has such enormous feet
that its fore toes measure no less than three inches
and a quarter, and its hind one two inches and a half
in length. By this remarkable structure the Jacana
is enabled to walk upon half-floating leaves, and
thus appears at a distance, where its support is not
seen, to walk upon the surface of the lake. It is
precisely upon the same principle that the snow-
shoes are constructed, whereby the Canadians are
enabled to walk with ease upon the yielding snow.
The type of this sub-family is
The Common American Jacana (Parra Jacana), met
with abundantly throughout the warmer regions of the
Western hemisphere.
PALA.MEDEJD.fi.
17!'
SUB-FAMILY II.
PALAMEDEIN.E. TJie Screamers proper.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill short, with the culmen sloping and curved to the tip, and
the sides compressed ; the nostrils large, and placed in a membranous groove,
lateral, and exposed ; the wings rather lengthened, with the shoulder armed
with two strong spurs ; the tail moderate ; the tarsi lengthened, robust,
and covered with numerous small scales ; the toes lengthened, the anterior
"lies united by a short membrane ; and the claws long and curved.
FlG. 189. THE HORNED SCREAMER.
(Palamedea cortutta.)
These birds inhabit the marshy grounds of the
northern parts of South America, especially those
that are situated near the sea. They are generally
480 GRALLATORES.
found associated in pairs, and are very shy and
timid, but soon betray themselves by their vocifera-
tion. When at rest, they generally perch on tlu>
branches of lofty trees. Seeds and the leaves of
aquatic plants constitute their usual diet. Their
wings are armed with formidable claws, capable of
being used with much effect as weapons of offence.
The typical species,
The Horned Screamer (Palamedea comuta), is found
in Cayenne, Guiana, and Siirinam, amid vast swamps and
savannahs teeming with animal life. Here a continual dis-
cord of jarring sounds arises from the contending voices of
the multifarious inhabitants; but above them all is heard
tho startling voice of the Horned Screamer, vylioo .' vi/1ioo .'
loud, clear, and shrill. But it is not for its voice alone
that this bird is remarkable ; on the elbow of each wing
are two large hard spurs, projecting directly forwards.
Snakes of various sizes, all rapacious, and all to be
dreaded, lurk in the haunts frequented by the Screamer,
and these formidable weapons enable the bird to defend
itself and its young against their assaults. If not at-
tacked, the Screamer molests neither reptiles nor birds ;
its habits are shy, its manners are gentle, and it lives in
pah's united for life. It wades in search of the leaves
and seeds of aquatic plants, on which it feeds, and for
which its muscular gizzard is adapted, though some have
asserted that reptiles constitute its food. Its flight, as
might be expected from the length and spread of its
wings, is strong and sweeping, and when on the ground
it walks with an air of pride, keeping its head elevated,
so that it was formerly regarded by many as an aquatic
kind of eagle. Upon its head is a curious horn-like
appendage, from three to four inches in length, and about
as thick as a goose-quill : the use of this remarkable horn
is quite unknown. The voice of the Horned Screamer
is loud, shrill, and uttered so suddenly, and witli such
vehemence, as to have a very startling effect. The female
is said to build her nest on the ground at the foot of a
tree, and to lay two eggs, resembling those of a Goose.
RALLID^. 481
FAMILY V.
RALLID^E. The Rails.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill more or less long, with the culmen sometimes advancing
on the forehead, but always curved at the apex, and the sides compressed,
the gonys usually ascending ; the nostrils lateral, and placed in a mem-
branous groove ; the wings moderate and generally rounded ; the tail more
or less long and rounded ; the tarsi long and rather slender ; the toes mostly
lengthened and slender; the claws short, compressed, and acute.
This family consists of several genera of birds,
most of them of aquatic or semi-aquatic habits,
ranging in this respect from the diving and swim-
ming Coot to the terrestrial Land-Rail, and exhi-
biting modifications of the typical form according
to the nature of the locality tenanted, be it lake,
morass, or meadow. The members of this family
are so constructed as to be able to thread their way
through beds of the thickest stems of reeds, bul-
rushes, and other aquatic plants, among which they
seek shelter or concealment, or, as in the case of
the Land- Rail, through the tall grass of the meadow,
and that so rapidly and noiselessly, that they elude
pursuit with great ease, and seldom can be forced
to take wing. To adapt them to such a mode of
life, the shape of their body is much compressed
on the sides, owing to the structure of the breast-
bone, which is very narrow. In all, the toes are
long and spreading, enabling them to pass over soft
ooze, or even the flat leaves of the plants which
float in close array upon the surface of the water.
Their beak is generally strong, often remarkably so ;
but in this respect there is much variety in different
genera. Many of them swim habitually and with
facility. The feet of most of the species, however,
are divided, and without webs ; but in some (the
Gallinules) the toes are bordered along their sides
by a narrow edging, which is an extension, as it
GRALLATOKES.
were, of the sole of the foot. The plumage of the
Rallidae is soft and loose, and their wings, with few
exceptions, are short and rounded. They feed on
aquatic plants, grasses, and seeds, as well as on
worms, insects, and mollusca. They generally make
a large nest, and lay numerous eggs.
They are divisible into two sub-families, one of
which comprehends the Rails proper, the other the
Gallinules, or Moorhens.
RALLID.E.
483
SUB- FAMILY I.
KALLIN^E.
T/ie Rails proper.
isx. CHARAC. Bill more or less long and slender, with the culmen keeled
and curved at the apex, and the sides compressed ; the nostrils lateral, with
the opening placed in a membranous groove ; the wings moderate, with the
first quills usually graduated ; the tail mostly short and rounded ; the tarsi
long and slender ; the toes more or less long and slender, and free at their
FIG. 190. THE WATI:K-KAIL
(Rallug aquathug.)
The birds composing this sub-family are found in
all temperate climates. They inhabit marshes and
the borders of rivers, more especially those fringed
with reeds or aquatic plants adapted to afford them
refuge, and between which the compressed form of
their body enables them to pass with facility. Their
flight is awkward and slow, but they are capable of
swimming and diving, and, from the length of their
toes, can run over the surface of the water, supported
484 GRALLATORES.
by the floating vegetation. Their food consists of
worms, slugs, and insects, as well as the leaves
and seeds of water-plants. The nest is composed of
sedge and coarse grass. The eggs are usually from
ten to twelve in number.
The typical species,
The Water-Rail (liattus aqwtiiciu), is permanently
resident in this country, where it is to be found at all
times of the year, although, from its shy and solitary
habits, and the peculiar localities that it frequents, it is
not so frequently seen as might be expected. The haunts < if
the Rail ai'e marshes, pools, and water-courses, particu-
larly such as are covered or bordered with dense aquatic
herbage and reeds, in which it finds shelter and refuse.
being enabled, by the narrow form of its head and body,
to pass through the closest beds of these plants with great
facility. To the above property is owing its principal
security, as when forced upon wing its flight is awkward
and slow, with the legs hanging down, and offering an
easy aim to the sportsman. Few dogs are able to force
it into view before it has gained its retreat, which is not
unfrequently a rat-hole, or amidst the entangled n>ot> of
a stunted willow or alder-bush. When disturbed, it will
occasionally run along the surface of the water, supported
by the floating herbage, for which purpose its feet art-
well adapted, covering, when expanded, a large area. It
can also dive with readiness. Worm-, slugs, and in-ei -t>
are its food, to which may be added the leaves and seeds
of particular water-plants. The nest of the Water-Rail
consists of a mass of sedges and coarse grass, collected
amidst the thickest herbage of its haunts. The eggs are
seven or eight in number, and their colour is buti'y-white
spotted with brown ; the young are odd little creatures,
round, and covered with a soft thick down. Almost
immediately after their emancipation from the egg-shell,
these little puffy balls of down tumble into the water.
and swim about as merrily as if they had been accust<
to the exercise for years.
KALLID-E.
485
SUB-FAMILY II.
GALLINULIX.E. The Gallinules, or Moorhens.
KX. CHARAC. Bill short, with the culmen more or less elevated and advancing
on the forehead, and the sides compressed; the wings short and rounded;
the tail short and rounded; the tarsi long and slender; the toes very long,
slender, and more or less margined on their sides, and the hiud toe long ;
the claws generally long and slightly curved.
FlG. 1(11. THE COMMON MOOKHEN.
(Gdllhiulu chloropug.)
These birds are much more aquatic in their habits
than the Rails ; they swim with ease in a singular
floating manner, continually striking the water with
their tails. When approached and alarmed, they
have recourse to diving, using their wings to assist
their progress under water, or they take wing, skim-
ming along the surface to the first cover that may
be available, where they remain concealed. On the
land these birds walk about with facility, flirting up
486 GRALLATORES.
their tails at intervals, and are enabled, by the com-
pressed form of their bodies, to run swiftly through
covert and entangled herbage, and even to ]>ass
through very narrow openings. From the length
of their toes they can walk over considerable spaces
of still water, supported on the floating foliage of
aquatic plants. Their food consists of slugs, worms,
and insects, together with various kinds of grain
and vegetable substances. Their nest is usually
formed in a retired spot, among the reeds by the
side of the water : it is a thick mass of interlaced
decayed herbage, rushes, and flags. These birds
frequent the borders of rivers, lakes, and brooks,
especially where the current is slow and deep, and
the stream bordered with reeds and sedges, amongst
which they retire during the day.
The typical species is
The Common Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus). The
situations affected by the Moorhen are the sedgy banks
of lakes and rivers, reedy ponds, moats, beds of osiers,
wet ditches, &c. It is naturally shy and rechise, avoid-
ing the presence of man by immediately retreating from
the open parts to the thick covert, or shrouding itself
from observation by diving and remaining half submerged
vintil the apprehended danger has disappeared. This
natural shyness, however, is frequently overcome, and
the bird rendered semi-domesticated, when its singular
but graceful actions contribute to our pleasure and amuse-
ment. On the water the Moor-fowl is as buoyant as a
cork, and its powers of swimming are as perfect as those
of most of our water-birds ; neither is it \>y any means
ungraceful on the land. Its neatly-trimmed body, richly-
coloured bill, and red-gartered green legs, contrast strongly
with the sombre tint of its plumage. It frequently leaves
the sedgy coverts and walks quietly over the grassy
meads, lawn, pleasure-ground, or garden, with all the
ease of a land-bird, flirting its tail from side to side, and
conspicuously display ing the white coverts, especially
during the season of courtship. At this particular period
the Moorhen becomes animated and noisy ; the short
harsh cry of the males is then heard from the midst of
KALLID.E.
487
the thick reeds, and if a closer inspection were admissible,
many battles and skirmishes between them would be
witnessed for the choice of a mate. The Moorhen's
energies are also aroused in an extraordinary manner
when a rat swims across the river, and perchance lands
in the neighbourhood of its nest. " I have seen," says
Mr. Gould, " a Moorhen furious at such an intrusion ;
and from the manner in which the rat has been assailed,
I suspect he would avoid that locality for the future.
Boldness and pugnacity appear to be part of the Moor-
lien's nature, and its quarrelsome disposition renders it
an unpleasant neighbour to any peaceful bird that may
live in close contiguity." His food consists of aquatic
insects and their larvae, mollusks of various kinds, every
species of grain, and the shoots of young wheat and other
cereals. The nest is sometimes placed on the flat branch
of a tree, at others on stumps near the water's edge,
among reeds, or on large floating masses of weeds. It
is usually made of rushes, and is somewhat carelessly
constructed. The eggs, which, are from six to eight
in number, are of a reddish-white, thinly spotted and
speckled with dull orange-brown.
488 PALMIPEDES.
OEDER VII.
PALMIPEDES.*
THE birds belonging to this Order display deci-
dedly aquatic habits. They swim with facility,
haunting rivers, lakes, and seas, and their whole
structure adapts them for such stations ; hence they
have obtained the expressive name of water-fowl. As
a rule, they are awkward on land, and the more ><>
the more exclusively they tenant the water, for in
order to render the stroke of their paddle-feet
effective, their legs are placed behind the centre of
gravity,. and thrown as far back as possible ; hence,
on the ground, these birds have either to maintain
their balance by dint of muscular exertion, as we
see in the Swan when it labours over the grassy
bank, or, as in the Grebe, they are obliged To
assume an erect attitude. The feet are webbed,
but in a different manner in different families. The
form of body in the water-birds is boat-like, and in
those that dive the ribs are strong, and carried
down so as almost entirely to surround and defend
the internal viscera from undue pressure. The
plumage is thick, close, and waterproof. There is
a dense under-garment of down overlaid by 1;.
sometimes silky feathers, which throw off the water
as if their surface was oiled. In many the neck is
long and the tail very short ; in some the tail, coin-
posed of rigid plumes, acts as a rudder in the act of
diving. A few are utterly incapable of flight, and
use their wings as paddles in the water. From
among these birds man has reclaimed several spe-
cies for the sake of their flesh, which is excellent.
This Order comprises the Ducks, the Divers, the
Auks, the IVnvls, the Pelicans, and the Gulls.
* In the " Tabular View " this order is named ANSERES.
ANATID.*:. 489
FAMILY I.
The Ducks.
GEK. CHARAC. Bill generally depressed, broad, and alwaj-s laminated on the
sides, the lamination being more prominent in some species than in others.
The birds belonging to this family, of which the
Geese and Ducks are familiar examples, are easily
distinguished from all the rest of their order by the
peculiar structure of their bill,* which is broad, and
furnished with a covering of soft skin ; the edges of
both mandibles, moreover, exhibit a series of fine
tooth-like lamella), or plates, which interlock when
the mandibles are nearly closed, so as to form a sort
of strainer. The feet are well developed, and the
anterior toes are united by an ample web. The
hinder toe is small, free, and raised more or less on
the back of the tarsus. The wings are tolerably
large and powerful, enabling the birds, notwith-
standing their bulky and rather heavy bodies, to fly
with considerable ease and rapidity ; many of them,
indeed, are migratory, and perform long journeys
to and from their breeding-places, often at a con-
siderable elevation. They are generally gregarious,
and most of them frequent fresh water, although
they are often seen on the sea-shore in the winter
season. Their food consists chiefly of worms, aqua-
tic insects, and mollusca, which they obtain by
st mining the mud and water through the fine la-
mellae of their bills. For this purpose they have
tlu-ir tongues very largely developed, soft, and
fleshy ; and when we consider the particular use
th;it the Duck makes of this organ, we shall per-
ceive that it is endowed with great and unusual
sensibility. The Duck, unlike other birds, discri-
minates its food, not by sight or by smell, but by
* See "Animal Creation," page 471.
490 PALMIPEDES.
the touch of its tongue. It thrusts its bill into the
mud just as a fisherman casts his net into the sea,
and brings up whatever it contains; from this
mouthful of stuff it selects, by the tongue alone,
what is good for food, and everything else is re-
jected. The gizzard of the Anatida3 is muscular,
and lined with a tough skin, so as to be able to
grind down the substances on which they feed. The
framework of the body of the Natatorial Birds is
differently constructed from that of the Terrestrial
Orders. In the aquatic tribes, the breast-bone and
ribs extend along the entire length of the thorax
and abdomen, and thus that part of them which is
in the water does not move in the act of breathing,
but remains perfectly steady. They are ribbed
much in the same way as the hull of a ship, and
any change of form which they undergo while swim-
ming takes place in that part of their body which
is raised above the water. Moreover, in their shape
these birds are fashioned in strict conformity with
the kind of life to which they are appointed. If their
principal occupation requires them to remain nearly
stationary, floating and dabbling in the water, their
body is shaped somewhat like a punt ; if they arc
to fly rapidly through the air, their form is narrowed
posteriorly, as in the Terns, or Sea Swallows ; and
if destined to dive and shoot along wholly immer>cd
in the water, they taper towards the forepart, as
is exemplified in the Divers.
The nests of the Anatidse are generally placed
upon the ground, amidst coarse herbage, by the
bank of a lake or river ; they are principally com-
posed of grass and other vegetation, and lined more
or less carefully with down and feathers.
To this family belong the Flamingoes, the Spur-
winged Geese, the Geese proper, the Swans, the
River-Ducks, the Sea- Ducks, the Spine-tailed
Ducks, and the Mergansers.
ANATIDjE.
491
SUB-FAMILY I.
PHCEMCOPTEUIN.E.* The Flamingoes.
EW. CHABAC. Bill large, compressed, suddenly bent downwards in the
middle, and the lateral margins laminated ; the tarsi very long, slender,
with the tibia also lengtheiid and naked; the toes short, the anterior ones
united by a membranous web.
FlG. 192. THE FLAMINGO.
(Phoenicopterus ritber.)
* 0oii'i<foi,', phoenikeos, pu'rple (rose-coloured) ; -jcrtpor, pteron,
icing ; Eed-wiuged.
492 PALMIPEDES.
These remarkable birds are widely distributed
throughout the warmer parts of the world. They
are usually observed upon the sea- shore, or in the
salt marshes, in flocks,' consisting of many indi-
viduals, one of which generally acts as sentinel
while the others are feeding or resting. They fly
in a triangular phalanx, but alight in a straight line,
and generally remain so while seeking their food.
They are capable of running quickly, but when
walking sometimes assist themselves by placing
their upper mandible on the ground. They live
upon shell-fish, the spawn of fishes, and marine
animals, which they procure by means of their
curiously-shaped bill, turning the upper mandible
towards the ground, and using it as a scoop. As
the Flamingo stalks about upon its long stilt-like
legs, or wades in the shallow waters, it holds down
its long neck towards the ground, and the peculiarly-
formed upper mandible is thus turned back down-
wards, and constitutes a receptacle for any small
objects in the mud or water. These are strained out
l'\ the lamellae of the mandibles, assisted by the
spines which fringe the fleshy tongue ; and the
Flamingo is thus enabled to retain the small fishes,
mollusca, and Crustacea that constitute its food. The
Flamingo is an inhabitant of southern Europe, Africa,
and Asia ; it is a large bird, old males often stain 1-
ing nearly five feet in height ; and as it is gregarious
in its habits, collecting in large flocks upon the sea-
coast, its bright red wings give these parties a close
resemblance to bodies of soldiers standing in line.
The nest is a very curious structure, being a small
hill of mud, about a foot and a half high, with a con-
cavity in its summit. In this the female lays two or
three eggs, of about the size of those of a goose,
which she hatches by sitting astride upon the hil-
lock. The young do not fly until they have nearly
at rained their full growth, though they can run very
swiftly a few days after their exclusion from the
egg-
493
The typical species,
The Bed Flamingo (Phcenicopterus ruber), is common
oil the American continent and in the West Indies.
They abound on the island of Cuba, more especially on
the southern side, either on its shores, or where many
islets at some distance from the mainland afford them
ample protection. In their flight they resemble Ibises,
and they usually move in lines with the neck and legs
fully extended, flapping the wings for twenty or thirty
yards, and then sailing smoothly over a like space. Before
alighting they generally fly in circles round the place for
several minutes, when their glowing tints become more
conspicuous. They very rarely alight on the shore itself,
unless during the breeding season, but usually in the
water and on shallow banks, whether of mud or sand,
from which, however, they often wade to the land
Their walk is stately and slow, and their caution extreme,
so that it is very difficult to approach them, as their great
height enables them to perceive and watch the movements
of their various enemies at a distance. When travelling
over water, they rarely fly at a greater distance than
eight or ten yards from the surface ; but when passing over
the land, no matter how short the distance, they mount
to ;i considerable elevation. The Red Flamingo builds
upon the ground ; the nest is an irregular mass of earth, dug
in the saltpouds, and entirely surrounded by water it is
scooped up from the immediate vicinity to the height of
two or three feet, and is hollow at the top : there is no
lining, nor anything but the bare earth. The number of
eggs is almost always two ; the incubation is not known.
The eggs are white, but on scraping the shell it has a
bluish tinge. The colour of the young is nearly white,
and they do not attain their full scarlet livery until two
years old.
'494
PALMIPEDES.
SUB-FAMILY II.
PLECTROPTERINJS.* The Spur-winged Geese.
GEX. CHABAC. Bill long, generally of equal width throughout, and armed at
the tip with a strong broad nail, the apical part of the tibia and knee naked ;
the tarsi lengthened, compressed, and covered with small subquadrate
scales ; the toes moderate, and the anterior ones more or less united by a
membrane, the hind toe long, simple, and generally elevated.
\
FiG. 193. THB FOX-GOOSE.
(Chenalopex jubatut.)
The Geese belonging to this sub-family are re-
markable on account of the structure of their wings,
which are armed at the wrist with one or two sharp
* TrXijKTpor, plektron, a cock's spur; irrepov, pteron, awing;
Spur-winged.
ANATIDJ;. 495
spurs, somewhat resembling those on the legs of a
fighting cock, wherewith they are able to inflict
ugly wounds. Their flight is easy, and performed
by slow flappings of their wings ; and some of them
have the faculty of perching, or even of roosting,
upon trees. Most of the species are conspicuous
on account of the glowing green colour of their
wings and the varied tints of their plumage. They
walk well, and are generally found in the neighbour-
hood of extensive marshes, where, on account of
the length of their legs, they seem to prefer walking
to swimming. The best-known species,
The Semi-palmated Goose (Anseranus melanolencus),
is peculiar to Australia. " When New South Wales was
first colonized, this fine species was very abundant on the
Hawkesbury ; it is, however, no longer a denizen of that
river, nor of any of the streams within the colony ; afford-
ing another proof that the progress of civilization inva-
riably leads to the gi'adual extirpation of the more con-
spicuous of the natural productions of the countries over
which it extends its sway. It is still abundant in such
parts of the Port Phillip district as are unlocated by the
settler, and as we progress northwards gradually becomes
more numerous until we reach the rivers and lagoons
which empty themselves into Torres Straits. Here it
occurs in such countless multitudes that it forms one of
the chief articles of the food of the aborigines. So dense
are the flocks that occur in the northern parts of the
country, that the natives are enabled to procure multi-
tudes of them by spearing ; they only spear them when
flying, and always crouch down when they see a flight of
them approaching ; the geese, however, know their ene-
mies so well, that they immediately turn upon seeing a
native rise and put his spear into the throwing-stick.
(Gould, " Birds of Australia")
The type of this sub-family is
The Fox-Goose (Clwnalopex* jubatus), so called, appa-
rently, on account of the tawny colour of many parts of
its plumage.
* xhv, chen, a. goose; aXu>7rij4', alopex, a fox.
z 2
196
PALMIPEDES.
SUB-FAMILY III.
ANSERINE.
The True Geese.
GUST. CHARAC. Bill as long as, or shorter than, the head, the culmen much
elevated at the base, and gradually sloping to the tip, which is armed with
A large broad nail, the sides compressed, and the marginal laminae more or
less apparent ; the wings lengthened ; the tarsi longer than the middle toe,
and the knee naked; the toes short and strongly webbed, with the hind toe
short, elevated, and scarcely lobed.
FlG. 194. TUB WHITK-FKO5TBD GOOSE.
(Anier alb{fron.)
Those birds seek the higher latitudes during the
summer months, and as the winter appears, they
ANATID^E. 497
return to the more temperate parts of Europe, Asia,
and America.
From the central position of their legs, the mode-
rate size of their feet, and the length of their tarsi,
the Geese walk readily on land, and, indeed, are
much more frequently seen there than on the water.
They swim, however, with buoyancy and ease, but
rarely dive, and only in cases of great emergency,
when wounded or otherwise unable to escape.
In diet they are graminivorous as well as grani-
vorous, that is, live upon grass as well as upon
grain, indeed, chiefly on the former ; and for pro-
curing such kind of food their laminated bill is
admirably adapted. For this purpose they seek tlu j
meadows of the interior of the country, and resort
much to fields of young wheat and other grain.
From the great size of their wings, their flight is
strong, and they make rapid progress during their
migratory journeys, as they can move at the rate <>f
fifty or sixty miles an hour. In these flights they
advance in a diagonal line, or in two lines, meeting
in a point like the letter V. They breed in the
marshy districts of the countries to which they
retire during the summer months, laying several
eggs of a white or sullied white colour.
Many schemes are had recourse to in the north of
Europe to capture wild geese. In Lapland they
are taken during the spring in steel traps. These
are set near to natural openings in the ice, where
the birds are known to resort, and baited with the
roots of the river horse-tail (Eyuisetum fluviatile) , or
of the Ranunculus aquatilis. When feeding iii
stubble-fields, or elsewhere, wild geese are also not
unfrequently shot with the assistance of a stalking-
horse ; and if the animal be well trained, great
execution may thus at times be done. But in lieu
of a steed, a so-called Skjut-Ko, or shooting-cow, is
made use of. This apparatus, M. Grieff tells us, " is
composed of strong canvas, in the form of a cow,
and painted brown. For its easier transport, it is
498
PALMIPEDES.
rolled up, and when used, is distended by means of
several sticks. One of these is placed lengthwise,
and one in each leg, and there is besides an unat-
tached stick, which serves to support the Skjut-Ko,
when resting on the ground. At the shoulder there
is a hole for the protrusion of the gun-barrel. The
accompanying humorous sketch gives no bad idea
of the device in question.
The type of this sub-family is
The White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons).
ANATID.K.
490
SUB-FAMILY IV.
CYGXIN.K.
The tiwana.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill nearly the length of the head, higher at the base than
broad, and covered with a soft cere, which in most extends to each eye, the
breadth of the bill uniform throughout ; the tarsi moderate, and the toes
lengthened, with the anterior one united by a full web, the hind toe short
and not margined with a membranous lobe; the neck very long.
FIG. ]9o. THE SWAN.
(Cygnus Olor.)
These graceful birds are principally distributed
in the northern latitudes of Europe, Asia, and
America. They appear, however, in the more genial
portions of these three continents during extreme
winters ; and there are certain species peculiar to
the southern parts of South America. They live
in the lakes and rivers, in small parties of from
five to thirty individuals. Various fishes and aquatic
plants form their chief food, in seeking for which,
500 PALMIPEDES.
they have the power of submerging their heads for
some depth below the surface of the water, where
they retain them for a considerable time. Their
nest is formed of a heap of dry vegetable matter,
and the female lays .from five to seven eggs.
About the 1st of September, the Swans leave the
Polar Sea, and resort to the lakes and rivers in
and about the latitude of Hudson's Bay, where
they remain preparing for a departure for the
winter till October ; when they collect in flocks of
from twenty to thirty, and seizing a favourable
opportunity, with the wind not opposed to the
direction of their flight, they mount high in the air,
form a prolonged wedge, and with loud screams
depart for more genial climes. When making
either their semi-annual transmigration, or on
shorter expeditions, an occasional scream, equal to
" How do you all come on behind ?" issues from the
leader, which is almost immediately replied to by
some posterior Swan, with an " all's well " vocifera-
tion. When the leader of the party becomes fatigued
with his extra duty of cutting the air, he falls into-
the rear, and his neighbour takes his place. When
mounted, as they sometimes are, several thousand
feet above the earth, with their diminished and
delicate outline hardly perceptible against the clear
blue of heaven, this harsh sound, softened and
modulated by distance, and issuing from the im-
mense void above, assumes a supernatural character
of tone. (Franklin.)
11 In flying, these birds make a strange appear-
ance ; their long necks protrude, and resemble at a
distance long lines with black points, their heavy
bodies and triangular wings seeming mere appen-
dages to the prolonged neck. When thus in motion,
their wings pass through so few degrees of a circle,
that, unless seen horizontally, they appear almost
quiescent, their movements being widely different
from the semicircular sweep of the Goose. The
Swan when migrating, with a moderate wind
ANATID.E. 501
in his favour, and mounted high in the air, travels
at the rate of 100 miles or more in an hour. I
have often timed the flight of the Goose, and found
one mile a minute a common rapidity ; and when
the two birds, in a change of feeding-ground, have
been flying near each other, the Swan invariably
passed with nearly double the velocity." (Lloyd's
"Scand. Advent."}
The typical species,
The Mute Swan (Cygnus Olor), so called from its pos-
sessing only a soft and rather imisical voice, very different
from the harsh notes of the Wild Swan, is the well-known
and graceful species so often seen adorning with its white
plumage and elegant form the surface of our lakes, rivers,
and ornamental waters. It is the only species which
permanently resides in this country, where, however, it
is generally met with in a half-domesticated condition.
During the breeding season Swans live in pairs, each
pair keeping to its own locality. At this time the male
becomes exceedingly fierce, attacking any animal that
intrudes upon his domains. The nest is formed of a
mass of reeds, rushes, and other plants, and is placed
close to the edge of the water, or amongst the plants
growing upon some small bank which is hardly above
the surface. The male is very attentive to his mate,
assists her in making the nest, and when a sudden rise
of the river renders such a step necessary, joins her with
great assiduity in raising their cradle sufficiently high
to prevent the eggs from being chilled by contact with
the water. In this proceeding they sometimes exhibit
a very remarkable degree of foresight. A female Swan,
who had constructed her nest on the river at Bishop's
Stortford, was sitting on four or five eggs, and was
observed to be very busy in collecting weeds, gi*asses,
and such-like materials ; a farming man was ordered to
take down half a load of haulm, with which she most
industriously raised her nest and the eggs two feet and
a half : that very night there came down a tremendous
fall of rain, which flooded the country and did great
damage. Man made no preparation, the bird did. In-
stinct showed itself a faithful guardian ; the Swan's eggs
were above, and only just above, the water. In localities
z 3
502
PALMIPEDES.
subject to sudden inundations, the nest of the 8 wan is
an immense pile of reeds, grass, and down ; and at the
end of the season, when the last-mentioned material is
blown about by the wind, the floating flakes sometimes
resemble a snow-storm. The eggs are six or seven in
number ; when hatched, the young birds accompany
their parents, and occasionally the mother will take her
young brood upon her back and swim about with them.
The whole family remains together throughout the
winter.
SWAN'S XKST.
AX ATI D.i:.
,503
SUB-FAMILY V.
ANATIX.E.
Tlie River Dudes.
GEN. CHASAC. Bill lengthened, more or less broad, depressed towards (he
tip, which is furnished with a hard nail, and the inner portions of the lateral
margins more or less lamellated ; the tarsi compressed, and generally the
length of the inner toe ; the hind toe lengthened, and slightly bordered with
a membranous lobe from the base to the tip.
FlG. 196. THE WILD DUCK.
(Anas Buichas.)
The birds composing this sub-family are too well
known to need description.
The most beautiful of the race is
The Chinese Teal, or Mandarin Duck (Aix galericu-
lata), than which, when the male is in full nuptial dve.
a more uiagnificeiitly-clothed species can hardly be found.
These birds are natives of China, where they are held in
such esteem that they are scarcely obtainable at any price.
504 PALMIPEDES.
They have the power of perching, and it is a curious sight
to see them on the branches of the trees that overhang
the pond in which they live ; the male and female being
always close together, the one gorgeous in purple, green,
white, and chesnut, the other soberly apparelled in brown
and grey. This handsome plumage of the male is lost
during four months of the year, i. e. from. May to August,
when the bird throws off his fine crest, his wing-fans, all
his brilliant colours, and assumes a sober-tinted dress,
resembling that of its mate. The Mandarin Duck has
been successfully reared at the Zoological Gardens in
London, some being hatched under the parent bjrd, and
others under a domestic hen, the latter hatching the eggs
two days in advance of the former. The eggs are of a
creamy-brown colour. These birds are regai-ded by the
Chinese as emblems of conjugal fidelity, and are usually
carried about in their marriage processions, a distinction
of which they are by no means unworthy, as is abun-
dantly proved by the following anecdote. " A drake of
this species was stolen one night, along with some other
birds, from the aviary of Mr. Beale, of Macao, of which
mention has already been made. The beautiful male
only was taken, the poor duck was left behind. The
morning following the loss of her husband, the female was
seen in a most disconsolate condition, brooding in secret
sorrow in a retired part of the aviary. While she was
thus giving herself up to grief, a gay prim drake, who had
not long before lost his dear duck, which had been acci-
dentally killed, trimmed his beautiful feathers, and ap-
pearing quite handsome, pitying the forlorn condition of
the bereaved, waddled towards her, and after devoting
much of his time, and all his attention, to the poor lady,
offered her his protection ; she, however, refused all his
offers, having apparently made a solemn vow to live and
die a widow if her mate did not return. From the day
when she met with her loss she neglected her usual avo-
cations, her plumage became ragged and dirty, she was
regardless of her appearance, foi-sook her food, and no
consolation that could be offered had the least effect.
Some time had elapsed since her bereavement, when a
person accidentally passing a hut overheard some Chinese
of the lower class conversing together, and understood
sufficient of their language to know that one said, ' It
ANATID.E. 505
would be a pity to destroy so handsome a bii-d.' ' How^
then,' said another, ' can we dispose of it ] ' The hut was
noted, as it was immediately suspected that the lost Man-
darin Duck was the subject of conversation. A servant
was sent, who, after some trouble, recovered the lost drake
by paying handsomely for him, and he was brought back
to the aviary in one of the usual cane cages. As soon as
the bird recognized the aviary, he expressed his joy by
quacking vehemently and flapping his wings. An interval
of three weeks had elapsed since he had been taken away
by force ; but when the poor forlorn duck heard the note
of her lost husband, she quacked, even to screaming, with
ecstasy, and flew as far as she could in the aviary to greet
him. Being let out of the cage, the drake immediately
joined his spouse ; the happy couple were again united.
They quacked, crossed necks, bathed together, and then
are supposed to have related all their mutual hopes and
fears after their long separation ; the female, in a most
ungrateful manner, informing her drake of the gallant
proposals made to her by the widower during his absence.
It is merely a supposition that she did so, but at all
events the result was, that the recovered drake attacked
the other the day subsequent to his return, pecked his
eyes out, and inflicted on him so many injuries as to occa :
sion his death in a few days." (Dr. Bennett's " Wanderings
in New South Wales" vol. ii. page 64.)
506
PALMIPEDES.
SUB-FAMILY VI.
FULIGULINM:.
Tfie Sea-Duck*.
KS. CHARAC. Bill of various lengths, elevated at the base, and more or less
broad and depressed towards the tip, which is armed with a broad strong
nail ; the wings moderate and pointed ; the tail generally short, and more
or less wedge-shaped ; the tarsi much shorter than the middle toe, and com-
pressed ; the toes long and united by a full web, the outer as long as the
middle toe, the hind toe short and deeply margined with a broad mem-
branous web.
FlG. 197 THE TUFTED SKA-DUCK.
(Fulii/*la crutata.)
These birds are inhabitants of the northern
regions of Europe, Asia, and America, migrating to
the temperate districts on the approach of winter.
One species, however, is peculiar to New Zealand.
They are met with in pairs and small societies, fre-
quenting fresh-water lakes and rivers, but some are
more especially found on the sea- shore. Their food
consists principally of small univalve and bivalve
mollusca, for which they dive, or seek in the pools
left on sand-banks after the tide has receded.
ANATID2B.
507
SUB-FAMILY VII.
ERISMATURIN.E.* The Spiny-tailed Ducks.
GEJ.-. CHABAC. Bill elevated at the base, and the anterior half much depressed
to the tip, which is furnished with a nail : the wings short and concave, with
the ends of the quills incurved ; the tail lengthened, and composed of narrow
rigid feathers, which are but slightly protected with coverts both above and
below; the tarsi shorter than the middle toe, and compressed; the toes
lengthened, the anterior ones united by a full web, and the hind toe long
and furnished with a broad web.
~V\\\N\^V
FlG. 198. THE FEBBCGINOUS SPINY-TAILED DUCK.
(Erismatura ferruginea.)
The Ducks belonging to this sub-family are met
with in various parts of both hemispheres. They
are peculiarly aquatic birds, living in large sheets of
saline waters and rivers, especially in the vicinity of
the sea. In such places, they are generally seen in
* tpifffia, erisma. a cause of strife ; ovpd, oura, a tail.
508
PALMIPEDES.
small societies of five or six individuals, and mostly
apart from other races of water-birds. While
swimming, their bodies are entirely hidden beneath
the surface of the water, nothing but the head and
neck being visible. Their form makes them very
expert in diving, when seeking for the molluscous
animals and fishes which constitute their principal
food. Their nest is a half-floating cradle, con-
structed of reeds and other water-plants.
The type of the race is
The Ferruginous Spiny -tailed Duck (Erismatura
ferruginea).
AXATID.l-..
509
MERGING.
SUB-FAMILY VIII.
The Mergansers.
GEN. CHAHAC. Bill straight, and much compressed on the sides, with the
culmen elevated at the base and convex towards the tip, which is armed
with a broad and much-hooked nail, the lateral margins of both the mandibles
more or less serrated ; the wings moderate and pointed ; the tail short and
rounded ; the tarsi short, and the toes moderate, the outer as long as the
middle, the three anterior ones united by a full web, and the hind toe moae-
rate, elevated, and margined by a broad web.
FlG. 199. THE GOOSANDER.
(Her/jut 3ferganger.)
The members of this sub-family are distinguished
by the narrowness of their bill, as compared with its
length, and by the structure of its laminated edges,
which assume the form of distinct conical teeth,
pointing backwards. The food of the typical species
consists principally of fishes, for securing which
this form of the bill is admirably adapted. The
510 PALMIPEDES.
Mergansers are eminently aquatic, and swim well, but
from the weight and flattened form of their bodies
appear deeply immersed in the water, the head,
neck, and back only being visible. They are also
excellent divers, moving, or rather flying beneath the
surface with great rapidity, and to a considerable
distance : it is during these submarine . excursions
that they capture their finny prey. Their flight is
strong and swift, and they have great endurance of
wing ; but from the shortness and backward position
of their legs, are awkward upon land. They are
natives of the coldest climates, and may be found
during the summer or breeding season in very high
latitudes. They build their nests on the margins of
\vater, either concealed under a large stone, or
placed under the cover of bushes. The nest is com-
posed of grass and other vegetable materials, mixed,
and lined with any kind of soft substances, and in it
the female deposits from eight to twelve eggs.
The type of this sub-family,
The Dun Diver, or Goosander (Mergus Merganser), is
widely distributed throughout the Arctic regions, Utth of
the Old and the New World. In Europe, dining its
.southern migration, it visits France, Holland, ami <;<>i-
inany, and is also a well-known winter visitant upon the
coasts, lakes, and rivers of the United States. During
the summer the great body of these birds retire very far
north for the purpose of reproduction, and at that time
they are found in Iceland and Greenland. In Asia, they
visit Sibeiia and Kamtschatka ; and in America, duriui:
the breeding season, they are spread through the northern
districts of that vast continent. Their nest is there con-
st meted, near the edge of the water, of a mass of grass,
nuits. and other materials, and lined with down. It is
placed sometimes among stones, and sometimes in the
long grass, or under the cover of bushes, and, when the
locality affords them, in the stumps or hollows of decayed
trees. The eggs are from twelve to fourteen in number,
of a cream-yellow colour ; their form is a long oval, both
ends being equally obtuse. The Goosander, except when
ANATIDJE.
511
on the wing, is almost always seen upon the water, being
unable to make much progress upon land in consequence
of the backward position of its legs ; its activity, how-
ever, in the former element makes ample amends for this
deficiency. It rises with difficulty into the air, but when
once on the wing its flight is swift, and can be sustained
for a considerable time. The Goosander is a bird of wild
disposition, and very wary habits ; from its dexterity and
quickness in diving, it is not easily shot. The flesh, from
the nature of its food, is ill-flavoured and oily.
512 PALMIPEDES.
FAMILY II.
COLYMBID^E. The Divers.
GEJT. CH AH AC. Bill more or less long, much compressed, straight, and acute ;
the nostrils placed in a longitudinal groove, with the opening basal, linear,
or rounded ; the wings moderate, with the first quill longest ; the tail very
short ; the tarsi short and much compressed ; the toes long, and the three
anterior ones more or less united together by a membrane, the hind toe
short, and margined by a small membrane.
The birds of this family display a fitness for diving
even more decided than is to be found either in the
diving Ducks or in the Mergansers, having the
characteristics with which such habits are connected
carried out to a still greater degree of completeness.
Their plumage is deep, close, silky, and extremely
glossy. The bill is long and sharp, the wings, small,
concave, and composed of stiff feathers, are used for
the purpose of giving additional impetus to the
body when diving. The legs are placed as fin-
back as possible, the tarsus is flattened so as to cut
the water, and the toes, either lobated or webbed,
are so arranged as to fold up into a small compass
when drawn towards the body, in order to give the
back stroke. The tail is short or wanting, and the
body flat ; hence it appears to float deeply on the
surface of the water. Necessarily embarrassed and
awkward upon land, the Colymbidse are (alert and
vigorous in their congenial element, from which
they can seldom be forced to take wing, trusting
rather to diving than to flight for safety ; they rise,
indeed, with difficulty, but having attained a due
elevation, sweep along very rapidly, and are capable
of a long-sustained flight. Their nest is always
placed on the immediate margin of the water, amid
the floating herbage that abounds in the localities
they generally inhabit. These birds swim and dive
with equal ease, and can . remain submerged for a
long period. This family includes the True Divers,
the Grebes, and the Sun -Grebes.
COLYMBID.E.
513
COLYMBIX.E.*
SUB-FAMILY I.
The True Divers.
GE>'. CHARAC. Bill long, straight, with the tip curved, and the sides com-
pressed ; the nostrils basal, lateral, and placed in a groove, with the opening
linear and pervious ; the wings long and pointed ; the tail very short ; the
tarsi short and much compressed ; the toes long, the fore toes united
together by an entire web, the hind toe short, and slightly margined by a
membrane.
FlG. 2lX>. THE GREAT SOKTHEBX DIVER
(Colymbnf giafiaUt.)
These birds are found in the Arctic circle, but
migrate to the more temperate climates during
severe winters. They are observed on the sea-
* icyXii/i/3//->/c, colymbetes. a
to swi>i> in.
- ; whence colymbus,
514 PALMIPEDES.
coast, as also on lakes and ponds. They are usually
met with in pairs, or in small parties, swimming
about in search of fish and other aquatic animals,
which constitute their food. Owing to the flatness
of their bodies, they lie deep in the water, so that
when resting on the surface little more than their
neck is visible. They swim and dive with wonder-
ful velocity, but they rarely fly, and then their flight
is performed heavily and high in the air. The eggs,
which are two to three in number, are deposited on
the bare ground, or in a nest composed of dry
weeds ; in either case they are placed near the
water's edge.
The type of this sub-family,
The Northern Diver (Colymbus glacialis), is common
on all the coasts of the North Sea, as well as on the inland
lakes of high latitudes. Its principal food consists of fish ;
md when inhabiting the ocean the different species of
herring afford it an abundant supply. Its powers of
swimming and diving are very remarkable, particularly
the latter, which it is constantly exercising, either in
pursuit of prey or to escape observation.
"To see them from some promontory, against which the
air and the sea are setting full wind and tide, and driving
before them myriads of herrings and other surface- fishes,
is a glorious sight. They dash along the surface, they
dart under it, they bounce \ip again, they bore through
the advancing waves, and when the billow breaks in foam,
and thunders over them, and the spectator naturally con-
cludes that they are buried for ever in the deep, up they
spring to the surface of the unbroken water further from
the land, as though exulting in the tumults of the ele-
ments." (Mudie. )
One of these birds will frequently make its way under
water for a hundred or a hundred and fifty yards without
rising for respiration ; and when it comes up to breathe,
a moment's exposure of the head and bill is sufficient for
the purpose. In swimming, its body is deeply immersed,
owing to its weight and flatness, a position which allows
this bird to dive with little apparent exertion, the mere
depression of its head, and a slight propulsive effort with
COLYMBIB.E.
515
the feet, being sufficient to enable it to plunge into the
sea. From the backward position of its legs, it cannot
walk ; its only mode of progression, therefore, when on
land, is that of shoving itself forward by lying on its
breast and striking the ground with its feet. The
Northern Diver rarely flies, as it rises with difficulty from
the surface of the water ; but when once upon the wing
its flight is swift, and frequently in a circle round those
who intrude upon its haunts. Its cries have been com-
pared to those of a man in distress, but it also utters
occasionally a low hoarse croak. Its plumage is close,
and the skin tough, on which account it is much used by
the natives of northern countries in the manufacture of
comfortable articles of clothing. The flesh is hard, and
of a rank fishy flavour.
MG
PALMIPEDES.
SUB-FAMILY II.
Grebes.
GES. CHABAC. Bill long, straight, compressed on the sides, with the culmen
slightly curved at the tip, which is acute and entire, the gonys ascending ;
the nostrils pierced in a groove, and oblong; the wings short, with the tirst
quill the longest ; the tail not apparent ; the tarsi short and much com-
pressed; the toes Jong, the outer longer than the others, the anterior ones
broadly lobed on the sides, especially on the inner side ; the claws short,
very broad, and obtuse.
FlG. 2l'l. THE CRESTED GKKBE.
(PoJiffpr t-riflntiif )
The birds composing this sub-family are metwirh
in most parts of the world. They are usually found
in flocks near the sea-coast, or on the sides o*f lakes,
* Podex. tli>- ,-innp; peg, a fnot ; so called from the legs being
placed near the hinder part of the body.
COLYMBID2E. 517
fresh-water rivers, and marshes, hut are rarely seen
on the land, owing to the difficulty they have in
walking. On the water, they swim and dive with
the greatest facility, and are thus enabled to pursue
fish at a great depth. If fearful of danger, they
either hide among the reeds or dive beneath the
floating water-plants, where, with only their bill
above the surface, they lie concealed until the cause
of their alarm is removed. At certain seasons
they migrate, proving that, although they seldom
take wing, their flight can be sustained for a
lengthened excursion. They live upon fish, insects,
and occasionally water-plants. Their nest is com-
posed of grass, lined with down : it is usually built
amongst reeds and other aquatic vegetation, so that'
it sometimes seems to float on the surface of the
water. The eggs are from three to four in number.
The type of this sub -family is
The Crested Grebe (Podiceps cristatiis), sometimes
called the " Loon." " The movements of this bird in the
water are most graceful. In swimming it vies with the
Swan, and it is a skilful diver. When on dry land its
form is ungainly, but in its native element it might serve
as the standard of perfection among water-birds. The
legs, compressed so as to present a sharp edge, cut the
water with a minimum of resistance ; the webbed feet
are placed so far backwards that they fulfil at once the
office of propellers and rudder. The body is conical in
its shape, and covered with satiny plumage, which throws
off water as perfectly as the fur of the otter. The long
neck tapers to exceedingly narrow dimensions, and ter-
minates in a small head produced into a slender beak.
The conformation of the Greyhound is not better adapted
for fleet running than that of the Grebe for rapid diving
after the fishes that constitute its ordinary food ; the
Loon, however, will likewise feed on frogs, tadpoles, or
any small animals that come in its way. It frequents
fresh water during the summer months, but on the ap-
proach of winter resorts to the sea, not, it would seem,
from any desire to vary its food, but simply to avoid
being frozen up. The Loon is found in lakes throughout
2 A
518
PALMIPEDES.
a great portion both of the Eastern and Western hemi-
spheres, but not very far to the north. It rarely flies,
except at the period of migration, when it passes swiftly
through the air with neck and feet extended to their full
length. It builds its nest amongst rashes and decaying
reeds, but little above the level of the water, and lays
four white eggs, the male assisting his partner in the
work of incubation. The young can dive and swim
immediately that they are hatched ; but if the mother
lie ^uddenly alarmed while they are with her, she take*
tin-in under her wing and dives with them." (Rev.
('.A. Johns.)
COLYMBID.*:.
519
S US-FAMILY III.
HELIORNIN-E.'" The Sun-Grebes.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill long, straight, and compressed, with the tip slightly
curved and emarginated, the gonys of the lower mandible short and
advancing upwards ; the wings moderate and rounded ; the tail long and
much rounded ; the tarsi short, and the toes margined with a membrane,
which is more or less united to the middle one.
FlG. 202. THE SENEGAL FIX-FOOT.
(Heliornis Seiiegaleiisii.)
These birds are chiefly seen on the sides of rivers
and creeks. In such places they search for small
fish and insects, more especially flies, in catching
which they show great dexterity. They are very
active, keeping their head and body continually in
motion, and frequently expanding their tail and
wings. The type of this sub-family is
The Senegal Fin-foot (Heliornis Seneyalensis).
* ijXiof, helios, the sun ; opvtf, ornis. a lirJ.
2 A 2
520 PALMIPEDES.
FAMILY III.
The Auks.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill more or less long, generally compressed on the sides, and
the culmen usually curved to the tip, which is sometimes hooked ; the wings
generally short, and more or less imperfectly formed ; the tail short and gra-
duated; the tarsi usually short and compressed; the toes entirely webbed,
with the hind toe small or wanting.
The birds belonging to this family are distin-
guished by having only three palmated toes, and
where a fourth or hind toe does exist, it is very small,
without any web, and inclined forwards. The Alcidae
are distributed in most parts of the world, but most
numerously in high northern and southern latitudes.
They are found upon the barren rocky shores of the
Arctic and Antarctic lands and islands, often in
flocks consisting of vast numbers of individuals.
They pass the greater part of their time in the sea,
whence they obtain an abundant supply of food,
which they procure by diving. In these birds,
shortness of wing, and consequent deficiency in
their powers of flight, are carried to the greatest
extreme, the wings of the Penguins and other allied
genera being so small and imperfectly developed as
to be totally unfit for flying, and adapted to act
merely as fins to aid their progress beneath the
water. As in the Colymbidse, the legs of these
birds are placed far backwards, but at scarcely so
great an angle with the body. In consequence of
this, they are enabled to sit in an upright attitude,
resting equally on the foot and on the whole length
of the tarsus. They are all birds of the ocean, never
resorting to fresh water, as the Divers do. Many
of the species that are able to fly, nestle on the rocks
and precipices, where they lay a single egg of
conical form, a shape which prevents it from rolling
away, or moving except within a circle of the
diameter of its own length, on the bare ledge of
ALCID.E.
rock where it is deposited. Some burrow in the
light sandy soils of the small islands they frequent,
and the Penguins, and other species that have not
any power of flight, incubate upon the shore, imme-
diately above high-water mark. Their food consists
entirely of fish and other marine animals.
This family comprehends the Auks proper, the
Starakis, the Penguins, and the Guillemots.
522
PALMIPEDES.
ALCIXJE.
SUB-FAMILY I.
The Auks proper.
GV.X. CHAHAC. Bill more or less short, and much compressed on the sides,
with the culmen and gonys keeled, the tip of the upper mandible acute and
hooked; the nostrils linear; the wings more or less long and perfectly
formed, with the first quill the longest ; the tail short and graduated ; the
tarsi short and compressed ; the toes entirely webbed, with the hind toe
wanting.
FlG. 203. THE PUFFIN.
(Pitffiaut arcticut.)
These birds frequent high northern latitudes, but
at certain seasons visit the more temperate parts of
Europe. They resort in great multitudes to barren
rocks, on the ledges of which, or in a subterranean
burrow, the female deposits a single egg. They
live chiefly on the water, where they are very expert,
swimming and diving with great rapidity. The
shortness of their wings does not admit of much
ALCIDJE. 523
power of flight. They feed on various kinds of
small fish, and whatever else they can procure near
the surface of the sea.
The most familiar examples of this remarkable
sub -family are
The Puffins (Fratercola), well known on the northern
coasts of our own island. On a first glance at a Puffin
we cannot fail to be struck by the short and inelegant
contour of its figure, and by the strange shape and brilliant
colour of its beak, features which impart a singular aspect
to the physiognomy of this inhabitant of the ocean, where,
however, as if to belie its round and awkward appear-
ance, it displays great agility, and an arrow-like quick-
ness of motion. Its beak, deep, compressed, and pointed,
with a sharp-ridged keel above and below, affords the
beau ideal of an instrument for cutting through the water,
a circumstance the more necessary when considered in
connection with a form of body apparently ill adapted for
diving. The plumage, moreover, of these birds is thick,
close, and smooth, so completely throwing off every par-
ticle of water as to render it impervious to wet.
The Puffin arrives on our coasts some time in April,
but as it is not able to contend with storms, the time of
its arrival is not certain. On its first appearance on our
shore it is generally lean, but in a week or two becomes
excessively fat, aud begins to seek for a proper place to
deposit its solitary egg in security.
These birds leave this country towards the end of
August. When the time comes for them to depart, they
assemble in immense multitudes on the rocks, from which
they are supposed to fly for a considerable distance, and
then to complete their migration by swimming on the sea.
They usually fly very near the surface, and are frequently
observed to dip their wings into the water, which seems
to strengthen them in their flight.
Their diet consists principally of sprats and other
small fishes ; they retain the food intended for their
young until partially digested, and then disgorge it into
their mouths. Their bite is very severe, and they take
such secure hold that the most common way of catching
them is by introducing a stick into their holes, which
-524 PALMIPEDES.
they eagerly seize, and will suffer themselves to be drawn
out with it rather than quit their hold.
As is the custom with most diving birds, the Puffin
lays only one egg, and always deposits it in some deep
burrow.
The appearance of an island frequented by these birds
is thus graphically described by Audubon : " On every
crag or stone stood a Puffin, at the entrance of every hole
another, and yet the sea was covered and the air filled by
them. The burrows were all inhabited by young birds of
different ages and sizes, and clouds of Puffins flew over
us, each individual holding a small fish by the head. The
burrows all communicated in various ways with each
other, so that the whole island was perforated as if by a
multitude of subterranean labyrinths, over which we could
not run without the risk of falling at almost every step.
The voices of the young sounded beneath our feet like
voices from the grave, and the stench was extremely Jis-
agreeable. During the whole of our visit the birds never
left the place, but constantly attended to their avocations.
Here one would rise from beneath our feet ; there, within
a few yards, another would alight with a fish, and dive
into its burrow, or feed the young that stood waiting at
the entrance."
The typical species df this sub-family is
The Arctic Puffin, or Coulternel) (Puffinua arcticus).
ALCID-E.
525
SUB-FAMILY II.
PHALERIDIN.E.' :
TJie Starakis.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill short, broad at the base, with the sides gradually com-
pressed, and the culmen curved to the tip, which is emarginated, the lower
mandible grooved on the sides, and the gonys ascending ; the nostrils
lateral, and pierced in the bony covering of the broad nasal groove, with
the opening linear; the wings moderate and pointed; the tail short and
rounded; the tarsi short, compressed, and covered with s" all scales ; tbe
toes three, and all united together by an entire membrane ; the claws mode-
rate, compressed, and acute.
FlG. 20-1. THE KNOTTY-BEAKED STABAKI.
(Phaleria uodirottrit.)
The Starakis are found in the Arctic regions, and
especially in the islands that lie between China and
* 0aX?;p6f, phaleros.
2 A
< ".-hite patch.
526
PALMIPEDES.
North America. They live in small flocks, swimming
with ease and celerity while in quest of their food,
which consists of Crustacea, niollusca, and other
marine animals. As the night approaches, they
seek the shore, where, under the. ledges of the rocks,
or in burrows dug with their bill and feet, they
retire to rest ; and it is in such places that rln-
female deposits her single egg.
The type of this sub-family is
The Knotty-billed Staraki (PJialeris nodirostris).
ALGID.*:.
SU3-FAMILY Iff.
SPHENISCIN^E.*
The Penguins.
GEN. CHARAC. Bill more or less long and straight, with the sides compressed
and grooved, the culmen rounded and curved at the tip, which is acute ; the
nostrils placed in the lateral groove, and linear ; the wings short, imperfect,
being only covered with scale-like plumes ; the tail more or less short, and
composed of narrow rigid feathers ; the tarsi very short and depressed ; the
toes moderate and depressed, with the anterior toes united by a web, the
hind toe very small and united to the side of the tarsus.
Ufitv...
FlG. 203. PENGUINS.
These birds are found on the rocky islands of
the Southern Ocean, and the southern portions of
* <T0ij', sphen, a icedge; so called from the shape of their bodies.
528 PALMIPEDES.
South America and Africa ; they are also frequently
observed on the floating masses of ice that are
scattered over that dreary region. Penguins are
utterly incapable of flight ; their paddle-like wings
are covered with short rigid feathers resembling
scales, disposed in regular order. The tarsi are
placed so completely at the hinder end of the body,
that, in resting, these birds naturally assume an
upright attitude ; the toes are webbed, and the
tarsi very short and stout, so that they are es-
sentially aquatic, seldom visiting the shore, except
during the breeding season. From the weight
of its body and the density of the plumage, the
Penguin swims very deep in the water, the head,
neck, and upper part of the back only being seen
above the surface. Its powers of progression in
its proper element are truly astonishing. It bounds
through the sea like a porpoise, and uses its short
fin-like wings to assist its progress : with these it
stems the most turbulent waves with the greatest
facility, and during the severest gale descends to
the bottom, where it paddles about in search of
crustaceans, small fish, and marine vegetables, upon
which it feeds. A considerable portion of the
year is employed by these birds in providing for
their young, in consequence of its being necessary
that their progeny should acquire sufficient vigour
to resist the raging element on which they are
destined to dwell, and which they most probably
never leave, until by the impulse of nature they in
their turn seek the land for the purpose of repro-
duction. Notwithstanding this care for the preser-
vation of the brood, heavy gales of wind frequently
destroy them in great numbers. From their inca-
pacity for running, and their total inability to fly,
the parent birds, when on land, are very easily
captured ; indeed, they offer no resistance, except a
smart peck with the bill. The young, until nearly
as large as the adult, are covered with a thick
coating of long down, which, as they arrive at
ALCID.E. 529
maturity, is replaced by short stiff feathers ; these
must be perfectly developed before the bird ventures
upon the sea.
The type of this sub-family is
The Patagonian or King Penguin (Aptenodytes
Pennantii). These birds are very numerous in high
southern latitudes. Mr. G. Bennet has particularly
described a colony which covered an extent of thirty or
forty acres, at the north end of Macquarrie Island, in
the South Pacific Ocean : " The number of Penguins
collected together in this spot is immense, it would be
almost impossible to guess at it with any near approach to
tiiith, as during the whole of the day and night thirty or
forty thousand of them are continually landing, and an
equal number going to sea. They are arranged when on
shore in as compact a manner, and in as regular ranks, as
a regiment of soldiers, and are classed with the greatest
order, the young birds being in one situation, the
moulting birds in another, the sitting hens in a third, the
clean birds hi a fourth, &c. ; and so strictly do birds in a
similar condition congregate, that, should a bird that is
moulting intrude itself among those that are clean, it is
immediately ejected from among them. The females
hatch the eggs by keeping them close between their
thighs, and if approached during the time of incubation,
move away, carrying the eggs with them. At this time
the male bird goes to sea to collect food for the female,
which soon becomes very fat. After the young is hatched,
both parents go to sea and bring home food for it, and it
soon becomes so fat as to be scarcely able to walk, the
old birds getting very thin. They sit quite upright in
their roosting-places, and walk in the erect position until
they arrive at the beach, when they throw themselves on
their breasts to encounter the very heavy sea which
awaits them."
530
PALMIPEDES.
SUB-FAMILY IV.
The Guillemots.
KX. CHARAC. Bill moderate, more or less strong, with the eulmen curved
and the sides compressed to the tip, which is emarginated ; the nostrils
basal, and placed in a broad groove, more or less clothed with plumes, with
the opening exposed ; the wings rather short and pointed ; the tail short
and rounded ; the tarsi short, more or less compressed ; the toes moderate,
and the anterior ones united by a broad web, the outer toe as long as the
middle toe, the hind toe wanting ; the claws short and curved.
FlG. 206. THE LITTLE Al'Jf.
(Arctim alle.)
The Guillemots are found in the northern regions,
from whence they migrate to more temperate lati-
tudes during the winter.
The type of this sub-family is
ALCIDJE. 531
The Little Auk, or Guillemot (Arctica alle). " This
interesting little bird inhabits the countries extending
northwards from our latitude to the regions of perpetual
ice, occurring equally in the polar regions of both con-
tinents. In these high latitudes the Guillemots congre-
gate in almost innumerable flocks. Great quantities of
them are destroyed by the crews of vessels, as well as by
the Esquimaux, their flesh being considered both whole-
some and delicate, and at the same time affording a
beneficial change of diet to the mariner. They are said
to be very tame, and easily captured, a circumstance
readily accounted for, as the persons engaged in the whale
fisheries, and the limited race of natives inhabiting the
borders of the Arctic seas, are the only human beings by
whom they are ever disturbed. Like the rest of its
family, the Little Auk passes a great portion of time on
the ocean, where it sports with great ease and fearless self-
possession, feeding upon small Crustacea and fishes, diving
for its prey with great celerity and adroitness." (Gould,
/s of Europe.'')
532 PALMIPEDES.
FAMILY IV.
PROCELLARID.E. The Petrels.
GKX. CHARAC. Bill more or less lengthened, straight, more or less com-
pressed and grooved, as if composed of several pieces, with the tip strong,
arched, suddenly hooked and acute, and the nostrils tubular and erposed.
The birds of the Auk family are very scantily
furnished with wings, and some of them are totally
incapable of flight, but those to which we have
now to advert possess large wings, and fly with
great ease and rapidity.* Their body is tolerably
short, supported upon moderately long legs, which
are placed less backward than in many of the
preceding groups, so that these birds walk with
more grace than most of their allies. The anterior
toes are well developed, and united by large webs,
but the posterior toe is rudimentary or entirely
wanting. The structure of the bill serves to distin-
guish them from the family of the Gulls, which they
resemble in general form. The apical portion of
both mandibles is distinct, separate from the basal
part, and the upper surface of the base of the upper
mandible is usually occupied by a pair of tubes,
generally united together, at the extremity of which
are the openings of the nostrils. The nostrils are
always of a tubular form. These birds are strictly
oceanic in their habits, passing nearly their whole
time in flying over the sea, and even apparently
delighting in rough weather. Few of them ever
visit the shore except for the purpose of breeding,
when they deposit their eggs, and rear their young
in holes or upon the ledges of the rocks. Their food
consists of fishes and other marine creatures,
together with fragments of animal matter that they
find floating on the waves.
This family comprehends the Petrels proper and
the Albatrosses.
* See " Animal Creation," p. 467.
PROCELLARID.E.
533
SUB-FAMILY I.
PROCELLARIN^E. The Petrels proper.
GEN. CHABAC. Nostrils placed on the basal portion of the culmen, tubular,
and generally opened in front.
FlG. 207. THE STORM PETBEL.
(Procellaria pelagica.)
These birds live in the higher latitudes of both
hemispheres during the summer, and, as the winter
approaches, migrate in numerous flocks to the more
temperate seas. Their flight is usually rapid and
continuous, or performed in graceful curves near
the surface of the ocean, where they seek fishes and
other marine animals, on which they prey. It is
indeed an interesting sight to observe these little
birds in a gale, coursing over the waves, down the
declivities, and up the ascents of the foaming surf,
that threatens to burst over their heads ; sweeping
along the hollow troughs of the sea, as in a sheltered
534 ^.PALMIPEDES.
valley, and again mounting with the rising billow,
occasionally dropping their feet and striking the
water, and sometimes leaping with both legs parallel
on the surface of the roughest waves, for several
yards at a time. When any greasy matter is thrown
overboard from a ship, the Petrels instantly collect
around it, facing to windward, with their long wings
expanded and their webbed feet patting the water.
In calm weather, they perform the same manoeuvre
by keeping their wings just so much in action as to
prevent their feet from sinking below the surface.
According to Buffon, it is from this singular habit
that these ocean birds have obtained the name of
" Petrel," in allusion to St. Peter, who also walked
on the water.
The type of this sub-family,
The Storm Petrel (Procellaria pelagica), is the
smallest, not only of its race, but of the whole order of
web-footed birds, measuring less than six inches in length.
It is of a sooty black coloiir, with the outer margins of
the tertiary quills and the upper tail-covers white ; the
bill and feet are black. This bird is met with thi-oughout
the European seas.
The Storm Petrel makes its nest in a burrow,
excavated to the depth of about a foot. It lays but a
single egg, which is white and of small dimensions. The
young resemble puffs of white down. The parent attends
to its chick with great assiduity, feeding it with the oily
fluid produced in great abundance in its crop. So large,
indeed, is the amount of this oil, that in some part- <>t'
the world the natives make the Storm Petrel into a lain}),
by the simple process of drawing a wick through its body.
The oil soon rises into the wick, and burns freely. The
Peti-el only feeds its young by night, remaining on the
wing during the day, and flying to vast distances from
the land. Owing to this habit, and its custom of taking
to the sea during the fiercest storms, it has long been an
object of dread to sailors, who fancy that the Petrels, or
" Mother Carey's chickens," call up the storm around
them. They also believe that the Petrel never goes <>n
shore nor rests, and that it holds its egg under one wing,
PROCELLARIU.E.
535
and hatches it while engaged in flight. This bird is
essentially a storm-lover, for by the violence of the wind
the substances upon which it feeds are brought to the
surface, and can be snapped up before they sink again.
Throughout the breeding season, the Petrel is indefati-
gable in search of food, and will follow ships for con-
siderable distances, in hopes of obtainiug some of the
offal that is thrown over by the cook. During the night,
it mostly remains with its offspring, and makes a curious
grunting noise like the croaking of frogs. The ordinary
cry is low, short, and something like the quacking of a
young duck. By day, these birds are silent. The burrow
in which the young Petrel is hatched is exceedingly
odoriferous, the food on which they live having a very
rancid and unsavoury smell, so that both the habitation
anil its inmates are abominably offensive to the nostrils.
The young one is at first very helpless, and remains in its
excavated home until several weeks old.
536
PALMIPEDES.
SUB-FAMILY II.
DlOMEDEIN.E.
The Albatrosses.
GEN. CHAKAC. Xostrils short, tubular, widest anteriorly, and placed near
the base of the lateral groove.
FlG. 206. THE WANDERING ALBATROSS.
(Diomedea exulam.)
These, the largest of marine birds, are found
throughout both hemispheres, but more especially in
the neighbourhood of Cape Horn, the Cape of Good
Hope, and throughout the Southern Ocean generally.
They are seen sometimes at a great distance from
land, skimming over the surface of the sea with great
rapidity, or resting on the waves. During strong
gales and stormy weather, they soar into the higher
region of the air. They feed most voraciously on
fish, especially the flying-fishes, as also on mollusca
and gelatinous animals. To such an extent do they
cram themselves, that they are frequently unable to
PROCELLARIDjE. 537
fly ; and in this state they are often attacked by
Gulls and other sea-birds, who compel them to dis-
gorge their food, that it may be shared by their
feathered enemies. Their nests are built on the
islands of the South Sea ; they are composed of
clay, mixed with vegetable remains, are of a round
form, and two or three feet high. These birds
deposit only one very large egg : the parent is said
to provide for her offspring during the space of nine
months.
The type of the sub-family is
The Wandering Albatross (Diomedea eoculans). The
Wandering Albatross is by far the largest and most pow-
erful species of its tribe, and from its great strength and
ferocious disposition is held in terror by all the birds by
which it is surrounded. It is most abundant between
the 30th and 60th degrees of south latitude, and appears
to be equally numerous in all parts of the Southern
Ocean. It is confined to no particular locality, but would
seem to be constantly engaged in making the circiiit of
the globe in that particular zone allotted by nature for its
habitation. The open sea is, in fact, its natural range,
and this it never leaves except for the purpose of breed-
ing, when it usually resorts to rocky islands the most
difficult of access. " The powers of flight of the Wandering
Albatross," says Mr. Gould, " are much greater than those
of any other bird that has come under my observation.
Although in calm or moderate weather it sometimes
rests on the surface of the water, it is almost constantly on
the wing, and is equally at ease while sailing over the
glassy sea during the stillest calm, or when sweeping
with arrow-like swiftness before the most furious gale ;
and the way in which it just tops the ragbag billows and
sweeps between the gulfy waves has a hundred times
called forth my wonder and admiration." Although a
vessel running before the wind frequently sails more than
two hundred miles in the twenty-four hours, and that for
days together, still the Albatross has not the slightest
difficulty in keeping up with the ship, but also performs
circles of many miles in extent, returning from these
excursions to hunt up the wake of the vessel for any sub-
538 PALMIPEDES.
stances thrown overboard. Like other species of the
genus, the Albatross is nocturnal as well as diurnal in its
activity, and no bird takes so little repose ; it appears to
be perpetually on the wing, scanning the surface of the
ocean for mollusks, medusae, and the other marine animals
that constitute its food. So frequently does the boldness
of its approach cost it its life, that hundreds are anmially
killed without the numbers being apparently in any degree
lessened. It readily seizes a hook baited with fat of
any kind ; if a boat be lowered, its attention is imme-
diately attracted, and while flying round it is easily shot.
Many exaggerated and marvellous accounts have been
published respecting the weight and the dimensions of
the bird, particularly as relates to the extent of its wings
from tip to tip. Mr. Gould, after killing numerous
examples of both sexes and of all ages, found the average
weight of the Diomedea exu/ans to be 17 lb., and the
extent of the wings from tip to tip ten feet and one inch ;
examples, however, have been met with weighing as
much as 20 lb., the extent of whose outstretched wings
Pleasured twelve feet. The Wandering Albatross breeds
.u the rocky islands of the Southern Ocean, in the months
of November and December. The grass-covered decli-
vities of the hills, above the thickets of wood, are the
spots selected for its nest, which consists of a mound of
earth intermingled with grass and leaves matted together,
eighteen inches in height and six feet in circumference at
the base.
The following account of one of the breeding-places
of this feathered monarch of the Southern Hemisphere
is from the pen of Mr. Augustus Earle : " Yesterday
being a fine morning, accompanied by two of the men, I
determined to ascend the mountain. As several parties
had before gone up, they had formed a kind of path, at
least ; we endeavoured to trace the same way, but it
required a great deal of nerve to attempt it ; the sides of
the mountain are nearly perpendicular, but after ascend-
ing about 200 feet, it is there covered with wood, which
renders the footing much more safe ; but, in order to get
to the wood, the road is so dangerous, that it almost
makes me tremble to think of it ; slippery grey rocks,
and many of them unfortunately loose, so that when we
took hold, they separated from the mass, and fell with a
PROCELLARHXE. 5^9
horrid rumbling noise ; here and there were a few patches
of grass, the only thing we could depend iipon to assist
us in climbing, which must be done with extreme caution,
for the lea.st slip or false step would dash one to atoms on
the rocks below. By constantly looking upwards, and
continuing to haul ourselves up by catching firm hold of
the grass, after an hour's painful toil we gained the
summit, where we found ourselves on an extended plain
of several miles' expanse, which terminates in the peak
composed of dark grey lava, bare, and frightful to behold.
We proceeded towards it, the plain gradually rising ; but
the walk was most fatiguing, over strong, rank grass, and
fern several feet high. A death-like stillness prevailed
in those high regions. The prospect was altogether
sublime, and filled the mind with awe. The huge Alba-
tross here appeared to dread no interloper or enemy,
for the young were on the ground completely uncovered,
and the old ones were stalking around them. They lay
but one egg upon the ground, where they make a kind of
nest by scraping the earth around it. The young is
entirely white, and covered with a woolly down, which is
very beautiful. As we approached, they snapped their
beaks with a very quick noise, the only means of defence
they seem to possess."
540 PALMIPEDES.
FAMILY V.
PELECANID.E. The Pelicans.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill more or less long, broad at the base, straight, and com-
pressed to the tip, which is sometimes hooked ; the nostrils linear, and
sometimes scarcely visible ; the wings long, and the first quill the longest ;
the tarsi short and robust ; the toes long, and all four connected together
by a broad membrane ; the face and throat more or less naked, the latter
sometimes furnished with a naked dilating skin, or pouch, from the base of
the lower mandible.
The Pelecanidae are distinguished from the pre-
ceding families by the peculiar structure of their
feet, which are furnished with four toes, all united by
a continuous web, the hind toe being situated upon
the inner part of the tarsus, and rather directed
towards the front. The bill in the various genera is
strongly formed, and generally longer than the head;
in many the tip is bent downwards, and armed with
a very strong hook ; in others it is straight and
sharp-pointed. In the latter case the tail is long
and forked, and the legs very short, as in many of
the Raptorial order. The feet are small, and the web
connecting the toes so curtailed as to be inadequate
for swimming. These birds live almost entirely in the
air, and take their food upon the wing, swoopingdown
upon the flying-fishes as they spring out of the sea,
or harassing other aquatic birds, till they disgorge
their prey, which is caught ere it reaches the surface
of the water. In those genera that in their habits
approach nearer to the typical Swimmers, we find
another modification of form. Thus the Cormorants,
well known for their aquatic powers, have the body
long and flattened, and the wings, although equal to
vigorous flight, much shorter than in the section
last mentioned. Their legs also are placed near to
the extremity of their body, and have not the same
freedom of action ; in consequence of which they are
compelled both to sit and walk almost in a perpen-
PELECANJOE.
541
dicular position ; such birds catch their prey under-
neath the water, being endowed with a power of
diving little short of that of the typical Alcidae.
Yet strange to say, notwithstanding the webs on
their feet, many of them perch with facility on trees ;
and in the Gannets the claw of the middle toe is
serrated like that of the Heron.
To this family belong the Tropic Birds, the
Darters, and the Pelicans properly so called.
FOOT OF HKI.ICAX.
2 H
542
PALMIPEDES.
PHAKTONIIMS.
FAMILY I.
The Tropic Birds.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill as long as the head, and broad at the base, with the
culmen elevated, keeled, curved, and the sides much compressed to the tip,
which is acute, the gonys long and ascending ; the nostrils-basal, linear, and
exposed; the wings long and pointed; the tail moderate, graduated, with
the two middle feathers prolonged and linear ; the tarsi short ; the toes
long, and all united by a membrane.
FlG. 2(19. THE BED-TAILED TROPIC BIRD.
(Phaeton rubricauda.)
These birds are only met with in the Tropical
Seas, where they are frequently seen, at a great
distance from land, flying with outstretched pinions
<>vcr the ocean, and seizing fishes and other ma-
rine animals that approach the surface, but more
especially preying upon the flying-fish, as it bounds
nut of the sea. Notwithstanding the distance to
PELECANID^:. 543
which they roam, they are said by voyagers to
return every night to roost upon dry land, and to
breed upon the rocks of tropical shores. Some of
them, as the Frigate-birds, resemble the Raptores
in their habits, being endowed with a sight remark-
ably piercing, with an immense expanse and power
of wing, and with the most determined audacity.
They attack other birds nearly of their own size,
forcing them to disgorge or relinquish the fish they
have caught. It is difficult to imagine a more im-
posing sight than half a dozen of these aerial
tyrants sailing in mid-air, and suddenly swooping
down upon a shoal of fish that may have approached
near the surface of the sea. At other times, during
a storm, they will soar to such a height as to appear
but as specks in the firmament; indeed, all their
powers of motion seem to be concentrated in their
wings, for their feet are so short and imbecile that
when upon the ground, they may be approached
with perfect ease ; but in their proper element their
speed is wonderful.
" The Frigate Pelican is possessed of a power of
flight superior, perhaps, to that of any other bird.
The swiftest of our Hawks are obliged to pursue
their victims at times for half a mile at the highest
pitch of their speed before they can secura them ;
but the Frigate Pelican comes from on high with
the velocity of a meteor, and on nearing the object
of its pursuit, which its keen eye has epied while
fishing at a distance, darts on either side to cut off'
all retreat, forcing it to drop or disgorge the fish
which it has just caught. Yonder over the waves
leaps the brilliant dolphin as he pursues the flying-
fishes which he expects to seize the moment they
drop into the water. The Frigate-bird who has
marked them, closes his wings, dives towards them,
and immediately ascending, holds one of the tiny
things across its bill. Already fifty yards across
the sea, he spies a porpoise in full chase, launches
towards the spot, and, in passing, seizes the mullet
544 PALMIPEDES.
which had escaped from its dreaded foe ; but now
having caught a fish too large to be at once swallowed,
he rises with it into the air, as if bound for the skies.
Three or four of his own tribe have watched him,
and observed his success. They shoot towards him
on broadly extended pinions, mount upwards in wide
circles, smoothly, yet as swiftly as himself. They
are now all at the same height, and each, as it over-
takes him, lashes him with its wings, and tugs at
the prey. See ! one has robbed him ; but before he
can secure the contested fish, it drops. One of the
other birds has caught it ; but he is pursued by all.
From bill to bill, and through the air rapidly falls
the fish, until it drops quite dead on the water, and
sinks into the deep." (Audubon.)
The type of the race is
The Eed-tailed Tropic Bird (Phaeton rubricauda).
Linnaeus has bestowed upon these birds the generic name
of P/iaeton, or Birds of the Sun, probably both from their
soaring to great elevations under a tropical sun, and from
the circumstance that they seldom or never quit the
warm regions of the tropics, where, distinguished by
their peculiar jerking flight, they are seen, during calm
weather, hovering in mid-air, watching for prey ; or,
when stronger breezes prevail, skimming gently over
the surface of the ocean. They are amongst the most
l>eautiful of all the oceanic birds, and excite the admira-
tion of the mariner as the rays of a bright sun shine upon
their chaste <and satiny plumage. They are as gentle in
manner as graceful in flight, and it is pleasing to watch
their easy evolutions. When soaring to a great height,
the action of their wings is slow, accompanied by a jerking
motion as they rise and fall by starts, and at the same
time utter their peculiar shrill notes.
" The Tropic Bird is the very reverse of the heavy,
gigantic Albatross, and might well be called the fairy of
the ocean ; seen as it is in the genial latitudes of the
warmest climates of the globe, now a stationary speck,
elevated as far as the eye can reach, contrasted with the
dark blue of the sky, like a spangle in the heavens ; then
suddenly descending, like a falling star, and as sxiddenly
PELECANID^I.
545
checking its course to hover for a while over the topmost
point of a vessel's masts, sometimes darting like a meteor,
with its two long projecting tail-feathers streaming in
the air, downwards on a shoal of flying-fish ; and anon
rising gracefully with its prize, again to soar aloft and
take its rest above the clouds." (Bishop Stanley's
" History of Birds")
FlG. 210. THE FRIGATE-BIRD.
(Tachypefes Aquila )
:> K;
PALMIPEDES.
SUB-FAMILY II.
The Darters.
GKN. CHABAC. Bill lengthened, very slender and acute, with the lateral mar-
gins finely serrated, and the gonys long and scarcely ascending ; the nostrils
basal, and covered by a shield ; the wings long ; the tail lengthened and
widening towards the end ; the tarsi short, very strong ; the toes long and
united by a broad web ; the claws short and curved.
FlG. ill. THJJ BLACK-BELLIED DARTER.
(Plotus melanoganter.)
These birds are met with in the warmer parts of
America, Asia, Africa, and also in Australia ; they
generally frequent rivers and lakes, on which they
swim rather deep in the water. When at rest or
w.i tching for their food, which consists of fish,
* 7r\wrjf, plotes, a swimmer.
PELECANJD.E. 547
they mostly select a dead branch overhanging the
stream, from which they dart on their prey. They are
extremely shy and cautious. If alarmed while sitting
by the river- side, they silently glide into the water
with so little effort that they scarcely produce more
agitation than would be caused by an eel, and reappear
at a distance, where, from the serpent-like appearance
of their head and neck, they are easily mistaken for
snakes, as these parts only usually appear above
the surface. During the heat of the day they may
be occasionally seen sailing very high in the air.
Their nests are constructed of sticks, and placed on
trees. The eggs are from four to eight in number.
The species which has been best described is
The Black-bellied Darter (Plotus melanogaster). The
habitat of this singular bird, so far as we yet know, is
eonrined to the colonies of Southern Africa and New
South Wales, where it is thinly but generally dispersed in
all situations favourable to its habits ; such as the upper
parts of armlets of the sea, the rivers of the interior,
extensive water-holes, and deep lagoons. It usually takes
up its abode in localities little frequented by man, seeks
its prey in the water, dives with the greatest ease to the
bottom of the deepest pools, and is as active in this ele-
ment as can well be imagined. It ordinarily swims with
a considerable portion of the body above the surface ; but
upon being disturbed immediately sinks it below the
water, leaving the head and neck only to be seen, which
from their form, and the motion communicated to them-
by the action of swimming, present a close resemblance
to those of a snake. Its food consists of fish, aquatic .
insects, newts, frogs, and other aquatic animals. After
feeding, it perches on a snag of some fallen tree in the
forest, nigh to its haunts, where it sits motionless for
hours together. While thus perched, it is more easily
approached and shot than on the water, where it is
extremely watchful and circumspect. Dr. Livingstone
says -" Their chief time of feeding is by night ; and as
the sun declines, they may be seen flying from their
roosting-places to the fishing-grounds. This is a most
difficult bird to catch when disabled. It is thoroughlv
548
PALMIPEDES.
expert in diving, and goes down so adroitly, and
up in the most unlikely places, that the people, though
most skilful in the management of the canoes, can rarely
secure them. The tail of the Darter is remarkably pro-
longed, and capable of being bent so as to act both as a
rudder in swimming and as a lever to lift the bird high
enough out of the water to give scope for its wings, so
that it can rise at will by means of this appendage."-
(" Missionary Travels in Soiith Africa")
The typical species of the sub-family is
The White-bellied Darter (Ploti>s Anhiarja).
PELECANID.E.
549
SUB-FAMILY III.
PELECANIX.E. The Pelicans proper.
ES. CHARAC. Bill lengthened, slender, depressed on the culmen, the sides
much compressed, and the tip hooked and more or less compressed; the
nostrils placed in the lateral grooves, and scarcely visible; the wings
lengthened and pointed ; the tail rather short, and generally wedge-shaped ;
the tarsi short and robust ; the toes lengthened, with the outer one equalling
the middle one, and all four united together by a membrane ; the lower
mandible and throat furnished beneath with a membranous pouch, more
or less capable of extension.
FlG. 212. THE WHltE PELICAN.
(Pelfcaints Onocrotalus.)
These large birds are very widely distributed over
the world. In the northern parts of America they
are found as far as 61. They live in the vicinity
of rivers or lakes, and on the sea-coast. In the
2 B 3
550 PALMIPEDES.
morning and evening they are seen in small flocks
of from six to fourteen individuals, engaged in fish-
ing until their pouch is sufficiently filled. They
then retire to some secluded retreat among the
rocks and shoals, or doze on the surface of the water,
while leisurely digesting their freshly-caught meal.
" It is a pleasant sight," says Mr. Grosse, " to see
a flock of Pelicans fishing. A dozen or more are
flying on heavy flagging wings, over the sea, the
long neck doubled on the back, so that the beak
seems to protrude from the breast. Suddenly a
little ruffling of the water arrests their attention,
and with wings half-closed down each plunges, with
a resounding splash, and in an instant emerges to
the surface with a fish. The beak is held aloft, a
snap or two is made, the huge pouch is seen for a
moment distended, then collapses as before, and
heavily the bird rises to wing, and again beats over
the surf with his fellows. It is worthy of observa-
tion that the Pelican invariably performs a summer-
sault under the water ; for, descending as he does,
diagonally, not perpendicularly, the head emerges
looking in the opposite direction to that in which
it was looking before. "When the morning appetite
is sated, they sit calmly on the heaving surface, -look-
ing much like a miniature fleet. Towards evening
they fly in long ranks to the trees near the shore."
Often the Pelicans skim over the surface of the sea
or balance themselves in the air at a moderate eleva-
tion, and then pounce headlong on their prey. It
has been remarked that they occasionally congregate
in large flocks, and encircling a piece of water, beat
the surface with their wings, until the affrighted fish
are driven into a small space, and deprived of all
means of escape. Their flight is generally low and
heavy, but they are capable of rising to a consider-
able height. They deposit their eggs on rocks,
sometimes in an excavation near the water, or on
the banks of a cascade, generally choosing places
which are difficult of access.
PELECANIDtf. 551
The typical species,
The White Pelican (Pelecanus Onocrotalus), is of abcmt
the size of a Swan ; its .plumage is white or slightly flesh-
coloured, with the hook at the end of its beak of a cherry-
red. These birds are common throughout the warmer
regions of the Old World, and equally, or perhaps more,
numerous on the American continent. They inhabit
marshy places, and live upon fish. Their habits are gra-
phically described in the following sketch :
" Ranged along the margins of the sand-bar," says
Audubon, " in broken array, stand a hundred heavy-
bodied Pelicans pluming themselves and awaiting the
return of hunger. Should one chance to gape, all, as if
by sympathy, in succession open their long and broad
mandibles, yawning lazily and ludicrously. But when
the red beams of the setting sun tinge the tall tops of the
forest trees, the birds rise clumsily on their short legs and
heavily waddle to the water, and plunge into the stream.
Lightly they float as they marshal themselves and extend
their line ; and now their broad paddle-like feet propel
them onwards. In yonder nook the small fry are dancing
on the quiet water. Thousands are there, and the very
manner of their mirth, causing the waters to sparkle,
invites their foes to advance. And now the Pelicans at
once spread out their broad wings, press closely forward,
with powerful strokes of their feet, drive the little fishes
towards the shallow shore, and then, with their enornunis
pouches spread like so many bag-nets, scoop them out and
devour them. These birds are altogether diurnal ; when
gorged, they retire to the shores of small islands in bays
and rivers, or sit on logs floating in shallow water at a
good distance from the beach, in all which situations
they lie or stand closely together. The White Pelicans
appear almost inactive during the greater part of the day,
fishing only after sunrise, and again an hour before sunset,
though at times the whole flock will mount high in the
air, and perform extended gyrations."
The Brown Pelican procures its food on the wing, and in
a manner quite different to that of the White Pelican. " A
flock will leave their resting-place, proceed over the waters
in search of fish, and when a shoal is perceived, separate
at once, when each from an elevation of from fifteen
552 PALMIPEDES.
to twenty-five feet, plunges in an oblique and some-
what winding direction: spreading its wings, it stretches
its lower mandible and pouch as it reaches the water, and
suddenly scoops up the object of its pursuit, immersing
the head and neck, and sometimes the body, for an
instant. It immediately swallows its prey, rises on wing,
dashes on another fish, seizes and devours it ; and thus
continues, sometimes plunging eight or ten times in a few
minutes, and always with unerring aim. When gorged,
it rests on the water for a while ; but if it has a brood,
or a mate sitting on her eggs, it flies off at once towards
them, no matter how heavily laden it may be. The
generally-received idea that Pelicans keep fish or water
in their pouch, to convey them to fcheir young, is quite
erroneous. The water which enters the pouch when it
is immersed, is immediately forced out between the
partially closed mandibles ; and the fish, unless larger
than those on which they usually feed, is instantly
swallowed, to be afterwards disgorged for the use of the
young either partially macerated or whole, according to
the age and size of the latter. They, at times, follow the
porpoiee, whan that animal is in pursuit of prey, and as
the fishes rise from the deep water towards the sxirface,
come in cunningly for their share, falling upon the
frightened shoal and seizing one or more, which they
instantly gobble up." (Audubon.)
The nest of the Pelican consists of a mass of grass,
sedges, and other aquatic plants, and is generally placed
quite close to the edge of the water. The eggs are two
or three in number. During the process of incubation,
the male is said to furnish his partner with food, and
when the young are hatched, both parents are assiduous
in attending upon them. In disgorging their prey for
the nourishment of the young, the birds are described as
pressing the pouch against their breast, and it is probable
that the notion prevalent among the ancients, that the
Pelican in times of scarcity nourished her young with
her own blood, must have originated in the gesture above
mentioned, when the bright red tip of the bill, strongly
contrasted with the white plumage of the breast, would
have the appearance of being dipped in blood.
LAKID.K. 553
FAMILY VI.
LARID.E. The Gulls.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill of various forms, more or less straight and compressed
on the sides ; the nostrils lateral, generally longitudinal, and sub-medial ;
the wings lengthened and pointed ; the tail more or less long and of various
forms; the tarsi generally moderate, strong, and covered in front with
transverse scales ; the toes moderate, with the anterior ones united by a
ftjll web, the hind toe usually short and elevated.
In this family, of which our Sea-gulls furnish
well-known and characteristic examples, the wings
are well developed, and the birds possess consider-
able powers of flight. The bill is variable in its
form, but generally rather elongated and com-
pressed, not furnished with a distinct tip, as in
the Procellaridee ; while the nostrils form linear
or oval slits in the sides of the upper mandible,
without any trace of tubular structure. The feet,
which are* placed moderately forward, so as to
enable the bird to walk with ease, are generally
small ; the three anterior toes are well united by
a complete web, and the hinder toe is small, and
raised above the level of the rest.
The Sea-gulls are very generally distributed, and
numerous in most parts of the world, but are most
abundant in the northern and southern latitudes.
They fly well, and float very lightly and buoyantly
over the surface of the waves, but do not swim
much, and are incapable of diving. They are ge-
nerally noisy, screaming birds, living together in
considerable flocks. Their food consists chiefly of
fishes, but they by no means confine themselves to
this diet ; indeed, Sea-Gulls feed upon all kinds of
animal matter thrown up by the tide or discovered
floating on the surface of the ocean ; thus fulfilling
the same duty on the shores of the sea as the
Carrion Crow does in the interior of the country.
No substance is too putrid to afford them a meal.
55.4 PALMIPEDES.
They may be seen in winter associating with Rooks
and Crows, searching for worms and insects, fre-
quently at a great distance from the sea. The whole
race is proverbially gluttonous, frequently taking
so much food as not to be able to fly till they have
disgorged part of their repast ; this, indeed, they
will readily do when alarmed, and frequently when
slightly wounded. The nest of the Gulls is formed
of sea-weed, at the distance of a few feet from the
water, and is mostly placed on a shelving rock.
This family includes the Gulls proper, the Skim-
mers, and the Terns.
LARID.*:.
555
SUB-FAMILY I.
LARIN.E.
The Gulls proper.
GEN. CHABAC. Bill more or less lengthened, straight, compressed on the
sides, with the culmen straight at the base and curved to the tip, which is
acute ; the nostrils lateral, sub-medial, and oblong ; the wings lengthened
and pointed ; the tail moderate and usually even ; the tarsi moderate and
strong; the toes moderate, the fore-loes united by a web, and the hind toe
generally short and elevated.
FlG. 213. THE COMMON GULL.
(Larus caiius.)
These birds are scattered over the seas of all coun-
tries throughout the world. Sometimes, during the
556 PALMIPEDES.
spring and summer, they may be seen in flocks, in the
marshes, on the borders of rivers, and on cultivated
lands, where they seek for worms, insects, and larvae.
They return to the sea-coast on the approach of
autumn and winter, subsisting principally on small
fish and worms, which they obtain from the refuse
left on the shore after the tide retires, and are espe-
cially fond of the spawn of crustaceous animals.
The larger kinds attack the weaker species, darting
down upon them as soon as they have been fortunate
enough to catch a fish, and causing them instantly
to disgorge their prize. If the winter proves severe,
the Gulls retire further south, until they find a more
genial climate. Their flight is easy and buoyant,
and when about to migrate, the flock ascends to a
considerable height, and then moves off in a con-
tinuous line to its destination. The nest is formed
of dry coarse grass or sea-weeds, wherein are depo-
sited three or four eggs.
The type of this sub-family,
The Black-backed Gull (Larus marinus), is met with,
but by no means plentifully, upon our coasts, usxially
alone or in pairs, and rarely in a flock of more than
eight or ten together. Like its congeners, it is of a very
waiy disposition, and must be taken by surprise, as it
rarely admits of a near approach. It is of very voracious
appetite, and preys upon all kinds of animal substances
that may happen to be cast ashore. It also keeps close
watch iipon the lesser Gulls, whom it drives from any
food they have discovered, appropriating the whole to
itself; it will even sever and devour the fish .from the
hooks of the fishermen, if left dry by the ebbing of the
tide. Its flight is slow, but light, without much exertion
of its pinions, and, as in other species of the genus, always
opposed to the wind. Its voice is a strong and hoarse
cackle, that may be heard at a great distance when the
bird is sailing in the air ; but this is more frequently
repeated during the spring and breeding season than at
any other times.
On the water, this Gull is extremely light, swimming
with little exertion, gracefully rising and falling with the
LARIOE.
00 /
undulating waves of the ocean ; it is capable of sustaining
a long and continued flight, and while constantly wan-
dering over the surface of the water, or searching along
the coast with every rising and receding tide, it seldom
fails to find a plentiful supply of materials for the grati-
fication of its omnivorous appetite.
The Black-backed Gulls build their nests on inac-
cessible rocks, or sometimes in marshes near the sea,
reserving the place selected entirely to themselves, and
not even permitting birds of their own species to intrude
upon their privacy ; nevertheless, they are not always
suffered to go unmolested, seeing that their eggs are re-
garded as dainties, being thought to resemble those of
the Plover.
YOUNG GULLS COVERED WITH DOWN.
558
PALMIPEDES.
SUB-FAMILY II.
RHYNCHOPSIN^E.* The Skimmers.
GBK. CHARAC. Mandibles unequal, the upper one always shorter than the
lower, which is only received in a narrow groove, their sides suddenly much
compressed from the base ; the wings lengthened, acute, and curved at the
tip ; the tail moderate and forked ; the tarsi rather longer than the middle
toe, and covered with transverse scales; the toes moderate, and the anterior
partly united by an indented web.
FlG. 214. THE BLACK SKISCMEB.
(Khynchopt iiii/i-n.)
The Skimmers differ from the true Gulls in the
form of their bill, which is so remarkable as to dis-
tinguish them at once from all other birds. Their
beak is elongated and compressed, so as almost to
resemble the blades of a pair of scissors placed one
* P"7XC> rhynchos, a beak; a>\l/, ops, the face ; Beak-faced.
LARIDJE. .V> ( .)
above the other. The upper mandible is considerably
shorter than the lower one, which consequently
projects to some distance beyond it. The wings are
long and pointed, indicating great power of flight,
and the tail is forked. These birds are peculiar to
the tropical parts of both hemispheres. They prefer
the sheltered inlets and estuaries of rivers, over the
smooth water of which they fly, near the shores at
the flood-tide, seeking for small fish and molluscous
animals. These they obtain by skimming the sur-
face of the prolific sea with their lower mandible,
while the upper one is kept out of the water. Their
flight is swift and undulating. When on the ground,
they walk very awkwardly, and though they possess
webbed feet, they rarely swirn or even float 011 the
surface of the water. During the day, they collect
in flocks on the isolated shoals left bare by the re-
cess of the tide. When the breeding season comes,
they visit the low sand-bars and dry flats of the
coast, for the purpose of scratching out a slight
hollow in the sands, wherein the female usually
deposits three eggs. The female only sits on the
nest during the night, or in wet and stormy weather.
The young are scarcely distinguishable from the
sand, on account of the similarity of their colour ;
and before they leave the nest may often be seen
basking in the sun, and spreading out their wings
upon the warm beach.
The type of this sub-family,
The Black Skimmer (Rhynchops nigra), is an inhabitant
if the coasts of America, from the Straits of Magellan
to the United States. It is about nineteen inches long,
black above and white beneath, with a white band on
each wing ; the bill and legs are red. Supported by its
long and pointed wings, which sometimes extend fully
forty inches, the Skimmer darts swiftly over the 'surface
of the ocean, dipping the extremity of its curious bill into
the water as it moves along, for the purpose of capturing
the small fishes and Crustacea upon which it feeds. " This
truly singular bird is the only species of its tribe hitherto
560 PALMIPEDES.
discovered. Its favourite haunts are low sand-bars,
raised above the reach of the summer tides, and also dry
flat sands on the beach in front of the ocean. The re-
markable conformation of the scissor-like bill has excited
much surprise, and some writers, measuring the divine
proportions of nature by their own contracted standards
of conception, in the plenitude of their vanity have
pronounced it to be 'a lame defective weapon.' Such
ignorant presumption, or rather impiety, ought to hide its
head in the dust, on a more attentive examination of the
peculiar construction of this singular beak, and the wisdom
by which it is so admirably adapted to the purposes and
mode of existence for which it was intended. This bird
is formed for skimming, while on the wing, the surface of
the sea for its food, which consists of small fish, shrimps,
young fry, <fec., whose usual haunts are near the shore,
and towards the surface. That the lower mandible when
dipped into the water may not retard the bird's progress,
it is thinned and sharpened like the blade of a knife ; the
upper mandible, being at such times elevated above the
water, is curtailed in its length, as being less necessary,
but tapering gradually to a point, that, on shutting, it
may offer less opposition. To prevent inconvenience from
the rushing of the water, the mouth is confined to the
mere opening of the gullet, which, indeed, prevents mas-
tication from taking place there ; but the stomach or
gizzard, to which this business is solely allotted, is of un-
common hardness, strength, and muscularity, surpasMnu'.
in these respects, any bird with which I am acquainted.
To all these is added a vast expansion of wing, to enable
the Rhynchops to sail with sumcient celerity while dipping
in the water. The general proportion of our swiftest
Hawks and Swallows is as one to two; but in the pi-esent
case, as there is not only the resistance of the air, but
also that of the water to overcome, a still greater volume
of wing is given. The Black Skimmer measures mm-tcfii
inches in length, and upwards of forty-four in extent.
In short, whoever has examined this curious apparatus,
and observed the possessor, with his ample wings, long
bending neck, and lower mandible occasionally dipped
into and ploughing the surface, and the facility with which
he procures his food, cannot but consider it a mere playful
amusement, when compared with the dashing immersions of
LARID.E.
561
the Tern, the Gull, and Fish-hawk, who, to the superficial
observer, appear so superiorly accommodated." (Wilson.)
The Skimmer does not begin to lay till early in June,
at which time these birds form themselves into small
societies, fifteen or twenty pairs freqiiently breeding
within a few yards of each other. The nest is a mere
hollow formed in the sand, without other materials. The
female lays three eggs, almost exactly oval, of clear white
marked with large round spots of brownish -black, and
intermixed with others, the colour of pale Indian ink.
I'Al.MIPEBES.
SUB-FAMILY III.
STERNIJMS.
The Terns.
GEN. Cn.iRAC. Bill more or less lengthened, generally slender, straight, with
the culmen sometimes curved at the tip, which is acute; the nostrils basal,
lateral, and linear; the wings very long and pointed; the tail long, and
more or less forked ; the tarsi usually short and slender ; the toes of various
lengths and more or less webbed, the hind toe long and slender.
FlG. 215. TllK lOMMO.N 1ER.V.
(Sterna Hiruinlo.)
These birds are distributed throughout both hemi-
spheres, migrating in flocks from place to place,
according to the season. They usually frequent the
M'M-ro.-ists <>r s;i It -marshes, but are occasionally seen
on the borders of inland lakes and rivers. They are
continually en tin- \\ing, and their flight is lofty, of
long continuance, and extended far from land.
\\ lini srrkinir tlu-ir food, they generally wheel
round in large circles, or hover over their prey, and
563
then suddenly dart straight upon it. At other
times, they sweep the surface of the water, seizing
with their bill any objects that may be drifting
about on the sea. They float with buoyancy on the
waves, but rarely, if ever, exercise their power of
swimming. When seeking rest, they resort to the
sandy beach, or they may be seen on shallow reefs,
rocks, or even trees. Fishes form their chief sub-
sistence, though they also feed on various kinds of
marine animals, or on any offal cast upon the shore.
The larger species sometimes destroy the young
and eggs of other sea-birds. Their eggs are from
two to four in number,, and are usually deposited in
a slight hollow on insulated rocks. The hatching of
the eggs is mostly left to the influence of the sun,
the parent only sitting on them at night and during
cold weather ; yet the young, when hatched, are
most carefully fed, and protected from the attacks
of other birds.
The Terns are distinguished from the Gulls by
their long, straight, and pointed bills, small slender
feet, very long wings, and forked tails; from the
latter character, and incessant activity on the wing,
they are frequently known as Sea Swallows.
The type of this race,
The Common Tern (Sterna Hirundo), is smaller than
any of the ordinary Gulls. It is more lively and active
in its movements, and does not generally fly in circles,
but "rambles" through the air, frequently diverging to
the right or left, now skimming the surface of the sea,
and anon sweeping aloft to a considerable elevation. Its
mode of taking its prey is totally different from that of
any of the Gulls. Very frequently a single Tern may be
observed pursuing its course in a line with the breakers
on a sandy shore, at the distance of from fifty to a hundred
yards from the beach. Its beak is pointed downwards,
and the bird is evidently on the look-out. Suddenly it
descends perpendicularly into the water, making a per-
ceptible splash, but scarcely disappearing. In an instant
it has recovered the use of its wings, and ascends again,
564
PALMIPEDES.
swallowing some small fish, and continuing its course as
before. Often, when the sea is calm, a cruising party of
Terns comes in sight. Their course is less direct than in
the instance last mentioned, as they seem to hunt after
the fashion of spaniels. Suddenly one of the party arrests
its flight, hovers for a moment, like a hawk, and descends
as if shot, making a splash in the water. If unsuccessful,
it rises at once; biit if it has captured the object at which
it aimed, it remains floating on the sea, till it has got rid
of its victim by the summary process of swallowing it.
Terns are by no means shy ; they will frequently fly
directly over a boat, uttering from time to time a short
scream, which, though not melodious, is in strict keeping
with the scene around, harmonizing well with the dashing
of the billows and the music of the breeze.
CONCLUSION. 565
SUCH are the feathered tribes ; thus widely are
they spread through every region, whether to orna-
ment the loveliness of Nature or fulfil, each in its
separate sphere of usefulness, the will of HIM who
sends them forth on their respective missions.
Before the curtain falls on this grand spectacle,
we may remark how very simple are the means
employed to obtain such infinite results, such
strange diversity of forms, of habits, and of in-
stincts as adapt each race to its appointed place
of residence. The works of GOD exhibit a perfec-
tion so divine, that as in Chemistry an atom more
or less of any element will change throughout, the
nature of the product, so by the slightest means,
an altered feather, or a sharpened claw, His
winged agents are equipped for every duty, and
become the beauties and the safeguards of the
world.
i c
A N A L Y T I C A L I N D E X.
ORDER I. ACCIPITRES.
SUB-ORDER L ACCIPITRES DIUENI.
Fam. I. Vui/ruBnxE. The Vultures - - - - j' ' U
Gypaetinae - The Bearded Vultures - - 17
Sarcoramphinse - The Condors - - - - 19
Vulturinae - - The Vultures proper - - - 22
Gypohieracinae - The Eagle Vultures - - - '2(J
Fam. II. FALCONIDJE. The Falcons 27
Polyborinae - The Caracaras - - - '2!>
Buteoninae - The Buzzards - - - - 31
Aquilinae - - The Eagles - - - - 33
Falconinae - - The Falcons proper - - - 43
Milyinae - - The Kites - - - -40
Accipitrinae - The Sparrow-hawks - - - 50
Circinae - - The Harriers - - - - 52
SUB-ORDER II. ACCIPITRES NOCTUBNI.
Snrninae - - The Hawk Oicls
- 56
Buboninae
- The Horned Owls
- 58
Syrninae -
- The Owlets
- 61
Striginse -
- The Owls proper
- 63
ORDER 1 1. P A S S E R E S.
TRIBE I. FISSIROSTEES.
SUB-TRIBE I. FISSIBOSTBES NOCTDBNI.
Fam. I. CAPRI JJTTLGID.S:. The Goatsuckers - - - 66
Steatominae - The Oil-birds - - - - 67
Oaprimulginae - The Goatsuckers proper - - 69
Podagrinse - The Podagers - - - - 74
SUB-TRIBE II. FISSIBOSTBES DIUBNI.
Fain. I. HIBUNDINID2E. The Swallows - - - - 75
Cypselinae - T)ie Swifts - - 77
Hirundininae - The Swallows - - - - 80
ANALYTICAL INDEX. 5(57
TRIBE II. TENUIEOSTBES.
Fam. I.
UpuPiD.ffi. The Hoopoes - - - ' - page
84
Upupinaa - - The Hoopoes proper - - , -
Epimachinae - The Plumed Birds ...
85
87
Fam. II.
PROMEROPID^:. The Sun-birds -
89
Promeropinae - The Sun-birds proper
Ccerebinae - The Guit-guits
95
Fam. III.
TROCHiLiD^;.-^-The Humming-birds -
97
Grypinaa - - The Wedge-tailed Humming-birdf 102
Trochilinae - The Curved-billed Humming -birds 104
Mellisuginae - TheStraight-billedHumming-birdslOlj
Fam. TV.
MELIPHAGID^E. The Honey-eaters
109
Myzomelinae - The Honey-creepers -
Meliphaginaa - The Honey-eaters proper
Melithreptinae - The Honey-feeders -
110
112
114
Fam. V.
CERTHIAD.S:. The Tree-creepers ....
116
Furnarinas - The Oven-birds
117
Synallaxrnae - The Sharp-tails
Dendrocolaptinae The Tree-creepers proper -
Certhinaa - - The Creepers
Sittinaa - - The NutJiatches
119
121
123
125
Orthonycinse - The Mohouas -
127
TEIBE III. DENTIEOSTEES.
Fam. I.
LUSCINID.<E. The Warblers
131
Malurinaa - - The Soft-tailed Warblers -
Luscininae - The Warblers proper- -
Erythacinaa - The Robins - -
Accentorinas - The Accentors -
132
134
138
141
Parinae - - The Titmice ....
143
Motacillinae - The Wagtails ....
146
Fam. II.
TURDID^:. The Thrushes
149
Formicarinae - The Ant-Thruslies
150
Turdinae - - The Thrushes proper -
Timalinae - The Babblers ....
152
155
Oriolinae - - The Orioles ....
157
Pycnonotinae - The Bulbuls ....
160
Fam. III.
MrscieApiix*;. The Flycatchers -
162
Querulinae - The Mourners - - - -
Alectrurinae - The Alectrures - - -
163
165
Tyrannina; - The Tyrants ....
Tityrinae - - The Becards ....
Muscicapinas - The Flycatchers proper
Vireoninse - - The Greenlets -
167
173
175
568 ANALYTICAL INDEX.
Fam. IV.
AMPELID.S:. The Chatterers -
page 177
PachycephalinjB - The Thick-heads
- 17S
Piprinae - - The Manatins -
- 180
Ainpelinae - - The Chatterers proper
- 182
Campephaginas - The Caterpillar-eaters
- 184
Dicrurinae - - The Drongo Shrikes
- 186
Fam. V.
LANIID.S:. The Butcher-birds
- 1>-
Laniinae - - The Butcher-birds proper -
- 189
Thamnophilinae - The Bush Shrikes -
- 191
TRIBE IV. CONIKOSTRES.
Fam. I.
CORVID.S:. The Crows
- 194
Phonegaminae - The Piping Crows
- 196
Garrulinae - - The Jays - - - -
- 198
Calleatinse - - Ttie Tree Crows
- -200
Corvinse - - The Crows proper
- L'O-J
Gymnoderinse - The Fruit Crows
- 205
Pyrrhocoracinae - The Chortghs ~
- 207
Fam. II.
PARADISEID.S. The Birds of Paradise -
- 209
Fam. III.
STURNID.S:. The Starlings ....
- 212
Ptilorhynchinaa - The Glosgy Starlings
- 213
Graculinae - - The Grakles
- 217
Buphaginaa - The Ox-peckers
- 220
Stnrninae - -The Starlings proper
- 222
Qoiscalinae - The Boat-tails -
- 224
Icterinaa - - The Hang-nests
- 226
Agelainae - - The Troop-birds
- 229
Fam. IV.
FRINGILLUXE. The Finches
- 232
Ploceinae - - The Weavers -
- 2:U
Coccothraustinae- The Hawfinches
- 239
Tanagrinaa - The Tanagers - - -
- 241
Fringillinae- - The Pinches proper -
- 243
Emberizinae' - The Buntings -
- 246
Alaudinae - The Larks ...
- 249
Pyrrholinae - The Bullfinches
- 2:. 2
Loxianaj - - The Crossbills -
- 2.-.:,
Phytotominae - The Plant-cutters
- 258.
Fam. V.
COLID.E. The Colics
- 260
Fam. VI.
MUSOPHAGIDJE. The Plantain-eaters -
- 263
Musophaginae - The Plantain-eaters proper
- -j-;t
Opisthocominse - The Hoatzins -
- 266
TEIBE V. SYNDACTYLE.
Fam. I.
CORACIDJE. The Boilers ...
OQ
Coraciasinae - The Rollers proper -
- 269
Todinaj - - The Todies
- 271
Eurylaiminas - The Boat-bills -
- 271
Momotina. 1 - The Mottnots -
- 276
ANALYTICAL INDEX. 569
Fam. II.
MEROPID^; The Bee-eaters - Jjctge
279
Meropinas - - The Bee-eaters proper
280
Fam. III.
TROGONID-E. The Trogons - -
282
Trogoninaa - Tlie Trogons proper -
283
Fam. IV.
ALCEDINIDJE. The Kingfishers ....
287
Bucconinaa - The Puff-birds - - - -
Halcyoninas - The Crab-hunters ...
Alcedininas - The Kingfishers proper
Galbulinae - - The Jacamars - - - -
288
290
293
296
Fam. V.
BUCEROTID.S:. The Hornbills -
298
ORDER III. SCANSORES.
Fam. I.
BAMPHASTID.S:. The Toucans -
303
Fam. II.
PSITTACID*. The Parrots
306
Pezoporinas - The Ground Parrots
308
^i n
Lorinae - - The Lories -
oiu
312
Psittacinae - - The True Parrots
314
Cacatuinae - - The Cockatoos -
316
Fam. III.
PICIDX. The Woodpeckers
318
Capitoninae - The Barbets -
Picumninae - The Piculets -
320
322
Picinas - - Tlie True Woodpeckers
Gecininae - The Green Woodpeckers -
Melanerpinae - Tlie Black Woodpeckers -
Colaptinae - - The Ground Woodpeckers -
Yuncinaa - - The Wrynecks ...
324
326
328
330
332
Fam. IV.
CUCULID.S:. The Cuckoos - -
335
Indicatorinae - The Indicators, or Honey-guides
Saurotheriuas - The Ro.in Cuckoos ' -
336
338
Coccyzinas - - The Ground Cuckoos
Crotophaginae - The Anis, or Tick-eaters - -
Cuculinae - - The Cuckoos proper -
340
343
345
ORDER IV. GALLIN^E.
SECTION I. GALLING (properly so called).
Fam. I. CRACID.E. The Curassows 351
Penelopinae - The Guans .... 352
Cracinae - - The Curassows proper - - 354
Fam. II. MEGAPODIDJE. The Megapodes .... 356
Talegallinaj - The Talegallas- - - -357
Megapodinae - The Mound-binls - - - 359
2 c 2
r )70 ANALYTICAL INDEX.
Fam. III. PHASIANID-ZE. The Pheasants - - - page 361
Pavoninae - - The Peacocks - ' -
- 362
Phasianinaa - The True Pheasants -
- 364
Gallinae - - The Jungle-fowls
Meleagrinse - The Turkeys
Lophophorinae - The Monauls -
- 367
- 369
- 372
Fam. IV.
TETRAONID.S;. The Grouse -
- 374
Perdicinse - - The Partridges
- 375
Francolininae - The Francolins
- 377
Fam. V.
Turnicinae - The Bush Quails
Odontophorinaj - The American Partridge.-:
Tetraoninaa - The Grouse proper -
Pteroclinae - - The Sand Grouse
CmoNiDiD-iE The Sheath-bills -
- 380
- 382
- 384
- 387
389
Thinocorinas - The Shore Larks
- 390
Chionidinae - The Sheath-bills proper
- 392
Fam. VI.
TINAMUX&. The Tinamous -
- 394
SECTION II. COLUMB.E.
Fam. I.
COLUMBID.S:. The Pigeons -
- 396
Treroninae - - The Tree Pigeons
Columbinaa - The Pigeons proper -
Gourinse - - The Ground Pigeons
Didunculinaa - The Tooth-billed Pigeons -
Didinse - - The Dodos
- 399
- 401
- 404
- 406
- 408
ORDER V. CURSORES.
Fain. I.
STRUTHIONID.E. The Ostriches -
- 412
Struthioninse - The True Ostriches -
- 413
4,1 Q
Apteryginae - The Kivis
- -121
ORDER VI. GRALLATORES.
Fam. I.
CHARADRIID.E. The Plovers
- 426
(Edicneminao - The Thick-knees
- 427
Cursorinaa - - The Coursers
- 429
Glariolinae - - The Pratincoles
- 431
Charadriinoj - The True Plovers
- 433
Hfematopodinse - The Oyster-catchers -
Cincliuaa - - The Turnstones
- 435
- 438
Fam. II.
ARDEID*:. The Herons - - . -
- 440
Psophinae - - The Trumpeters
Gruinaa - - The Cranes
- 441
- 444
Ardeinse - - The Herons proper -
Ciconinae - - The Storks
- 448
- 451
Tantalinaj - The 1
- 454
ANALYTICAL INDEX. 571
Fam. III. SCOLOPACID^;. The Snipes .... page 457
Limosinaa - - The Godwits ... - 459
Totaninaa - - The Longshanks - - . - 462
Recurvirostrinaa - The Avocets .... 465
Tringinaa - - The Sandpipers ... 467
Scolopacinas - The Snipes proper - - - 470
Phalaropodinaa - The Phalaropes - - - 473
Fam. IV. PALAMEDEID^;. The Screamers - . -
Parriuaa - - The Jacanas ...
Palamedeinaa - The Screamers proper
Fam. V. RALLID.S:. The Rails
Rallinaa - - The Rails proper
Gullinulimu - The Gallinules, or M<>,-/ir,i.-i - 485
ORDER VII. PALMIPEDES.
Fain. I. ANATID^E. The Ducks - - 489
Phcenicopterinaa - The Flamingoes - - - 491
Plectropterinaa - The Spur-winged Geese - - 494
Anserinae - - The True Geese - - - 496
Cygninaa - - The Swans - - - - 499
Anatinaa - - The River Ducks ... 503
Fuligulinaa - The Sea Ducks .... 506
Erismaturinaa - The Spiny-tailed Ducks - - 507
Merginaa - - The Mergansers ... 509
Fam. II. COLYMBID.E. The Divers 512
Colymbinae The True Divers - - - 513
Podicepinaa - The Grebes - - - - 516
Heliorninaa - The Sun-Grebes ... 519
Fam. III. ALCID^:. The Auks 520
Alcinas - - The Auks proper - - - 522
Phaleridinas The Starakis - - - - 525
Spheniscinaa - The Penguins - - - 527
TJrianinaa - - The Guillemots - - - 530
Fam. IV. PKOCELLARID^E. The Petrels - - - 532
Procellarinaa - The Petrels proper - 533
Diomedeinaa - The Albatrosses - - - 536
Fam. V. PELECANIDJE. The Pelicans - 540
Phaetoninaa The Tropic Birds - - - 542
Ploteinaa - - The Darters .... 546
Pelecaninaa - The Pelicans proper - - - 549
Fam. VI. LAEIDJE. The Gulls ... - 553
Larinaa - - The Gi'lls proper - - 555
Rhynchopsinaa - The Skimmers - - - - 558
Sterninaa - - The Terns .... 562
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
Accentorinaa, 141.
Accentors, 141.
Accipitres, 13:
Diurni, 14.
Nocturni, 54.
Accipitrinae, 50.
Agelainae, 229.
Alaudimc, 249.
Albatrosses, 536.
Alcedinidae, 287.
Alcedininaa, 293.
Alcidae, 520.
Alcinae, 522.
Alectrures, 165.
Alectrurinae, 165.
Ampelidae, 177.
Ampelinae, 182.
Anatidae, 489.
Anatinaa, 503.
Anis, or Tick-eaters. 343.
Anserinae, 496.
Apteryginaa, 421.
Aqnilinaa, 33.
Arainaa, 310.
Ardeidae, 440.
Ardeinaa, 448.
Auks, 520.
proper, 522.
Avocets, 465.
Babblers, 155.
Becards, 171.
Bee-eaters, 279.
proper, 280.
Birds of Paradise, 209.
Boat-bills, 274.
Boat-tails, 224.
Buboninae, 58.
Bucconinaa, 288.
BucerotidaB, 298.
Bulbuls, 160.
Bullfinches, 252.
Buntings, 246.
Buphaginsa. 220.
Bush Shrikes, 191. ,
Quails, 380.
Butcher-birds, 188.
proper, 189.
Buteoninae, 31.
Buzzards, 31.
Cacatuinae, 316.
Calleatinae, 200.
Campephaginaa, 184.
Capitoninae, 320.
Caprimulgidaa, 66.
Caracaras, 29.
Caterpillar-eaters, 184.
Certhiadae, 116.
Certhinae, 123.
Charadriidae, 426.
Charadriinaa, 436.
Chatterers, 177.
proper, 182.
Chionididae, 389.
Chionidinae, 392.
Choughs, 207.
Ciconinae, 451.
Cinclinae, 438.
Circinae. 52.
Coccothraustinaa, 239.
Coccyzinas, 340.
Cockatoos, 316.
Coarebinaa, 95.
Colaptinaa, 330.
Colidaa, 260.
Colics, 260.
Columbaa, 396.
Columbidaa, 396.
Columbinae, 401.
Colymbidaa, 512.
Colymbinaa, 513.
Condors, 19.
Conirostres, 193.
Coraciacinaa, 269.
Coracidaa, 268.
Corvidae, 194.
Corvinaa, 202.
ALPHABETICAL IM'KX.
Coursers, 429.
Crab-hunters, 290.
Cracidae, 351.
Cracinse, 354.
Cranes, 444.
Creepers, 123.
Crossbills, 255.
Crotophaginaa, 343.
Crows, 194.
Fruit, 205.
Piping, 196.
proper, 202.
Tree. 200.
Cuckoos, 335.
Ground, 340.
proper, 345.
Rain, 338.
Cncnlidse, 335.
Cuculinje, 345.
Curassows, 351. '
proper, 354.
Cursores, 412.
Cursorinaa, 429.
Cygninae, 499.
Cypselinaj, 77.
Darters, 546.
Dendrocolaptiuaj, 121.
Dentirostres, 131.
Dicrurinaa, 186.
Didinae, 408.
Didunculinaa, 406.
Diomedeinae, 536.
Divers, 512.
true, 513.
Dodos, 408.
Drongo Shrikes, 186.
Ducks, 489.
River, 503.
Sea, 506.
Spiny-tailed, 507.
Eagles, 33.
Emberizinie, 246.
Epimachinae, 87.
Erismaturinae, 507.
Erythacinaj, 138.
Eurylainiiuiu. 274.
Falconidse, 27.
Falconinaa, 43.
Falcons. -J7.
proper, 43.
Finches, 232.
proper, 243.
Fissirostres, 66.
Diurni, 75.
Nocturni, 66.
Flamingoes, 491.
Flycatchers, 162.
proper, 173.
Formicarinae, 150.
Francolininaa, 377.
Francolins, 377.
Fringillidae, 232.
Fringilliiuv. 243.
Fuligulinaa, 506.
Furnariuas, 117.
Galbulinaj. 296.
Gallinse, 348, 367.
Gallinules, or Moorhens, 485.
Gallinulinaj, 485.
Garrulinaj, 198.
Gecininaa, 326.
Geese, true, 496.
Glariolina?, 431.
Goatsuckers, 66.
proper, 69.
Godwits, 459.
Gourinaj, 404.
Graculinaa, 217.
Grakles, 217.
Grallatores, 424.
Grebes, 516.
Sun, 519.
Greenlets, 175.
Grouse, 374.
proper, 384.
Sand, 387.
Gruinaa. 444.
Grypinae, 102.
Guans, 352.
Guillemots, 530.
Guit-guits, 95.
Gulls, 553.
proper, 555.
Gymnoderinae, 205.
Gypaetinae, 17.
Gypohieracinae, 26.
Halcyonnue, 290.
Hang-nests, 226.
Harriers, 52.
Hawfinches, 239.
574
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
Hawks, Sparrow, 50.
Heliorninaa, 519.
Hematopodinaa, 435.
Herons, 440.
proper, 448.
Hirundinidaa, 75.
Hirundminaa, 80.
Hoatzins, 266.
Honey-creepers, 110.
Honey-eaters, 109.
proper, 112.
Honey-feeders, 114.
Honey-guides, 336.
Hoopoes, 84.
proper, 85.
Hornbills, 298.
Humming-birds, 97.
Curved-billed, 104.
Straight-billed, 106.
Wedge-tailed, 102.
Ibises, 454.
Icterinae, 226.
Indicatorinae, 336.
Indicators, 336.
Jacamars, 296.
Jacanas, 477.
Jays, 198.'
Jungle-fowls, 367.
Kingfisher, 287.
proper, 293.
Kites, 46,
Kivis, 421.
LaniidaB, 188.
Larks, 249.
Shore, 390.
Laridaa, 553.
Larinaa, 555.
Limosinae, 459.
Longshanks, 462.
Lophophorinae, 372.
Lories, 312.
Lorinae, 312.
Loxianaa, 255.
Luscinidas, 131.
Luscininae, 134.
Macaws, 310.
Malurinae, 132.
Manakins, 180.
Megapodes, 356.
Megapodidae, 356.
Megapodinae, 359.
Melanerpinaa, 328.
Meleagrinas, 369.
Meliphagidaa, 109.
Meliphaginae, 112.
Melithreptinaa, 114.
Mellisuginae, 112.
Menurinaa, 129.
Mergansers, 509.
Merginae, 509.
Meropidaa, 279.
Meropinaa, 280.
Milvinaa, 46.
Mohouas, 127.
Momotinae, 276.
Monauls, 372.
Moorhens, 485.
Motacillinae, 146.
Motmots, 276.
Mound-birds, 359.
Mourners, 163.
Muscicapidae, 162.
Muscicapinae, 173.
Musophagidae, 263.
Musophaginaa, 264.
Myzomelinae, 110.
Nuthatches, 125. .
Odontophorinaa, 382.
(Edicneminae, 427.
Oil-birds, 67.
Opisthocominaa, 266.
Orioles, 157.
Oriolinaa, 157.
Orthonycinae, 127.
Ostriches, 412.
true, 413.
Otidinae,' 419.
Oven-birds, 117.
Owlets, 61.
Owls, 54.
Hawk, 56.
Horned, 58.
proper, 63.
Ox-peckers, 220.
Oyster-catchers, 435.
Pachycephalinaa, 178.
Palamedeidaa, 476.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
O/O
Palamedeinas, 479.
Palmipedes, 488.
Paradiseidae, 209.
Parinae, 143.
Parrinse, 477.
Parrots, 306.
Ground, 308.
true, 314.
Partridges, 375.
American, 382.
Passeres, 65.
Pavoninse, 362.
Peacocks, 362.
Pelecanidas, 540.
Pelecaninae, 549.
Pelicans, 540.
proper, 549.
Penelopina?, 352.
Penguins, 527.
Perdicinas. 375.
Petrels, 532.
proper, 533.
Pezoporinae, 308.
Phaetoninae, 542.
Phalaropes, 473.
Phalaropodinae, 473.
Phaleridinse, 525.
Phasianidae, 361.
Phasianinaa, 364.
Pheasants, 361.
true, 364.
Phonegaminae, 196.
Phcenicopterinae, 491.
Phytolominje, 258.
Picidae, 318.
Picinae, 324.
Piculets, 322.
Picumninae, 322.
Pigeons, 396.
Ground, 404.
proper, 401.
Tooth-billed, 406.
Tree, 399.
Piprinae, 180. .
Plantain-eaters, 263.
proper, 264.
Plant-cutters, 258.
Plectropterinaa, 494.
Ploceinae, 234.
Ploteinae. 546.
Plovers, 426.
true, 433.
Plumed Birds, 87.
Podagers, 74.
Podagrinaa, 74.
Podicepinas, 516.
Polyborinse, 29.
Pratincoles, 431.
Procellaridae, 532.
Procellarinae, 533.
Promeropidae, 89.
Promeropinae, 92.
Psittacidae, 306.
Psittacinae, 314.
Psophinae, 441.
Pteroclinje, 387.
Ptilorhynchinae, 213.
Puff-birds, 288.
Pycnonotinae, 160.
Pyrrhocoracinae, 207.
Pyrrhulinae, 252.
Quails, Bush, 380.
Querulinae, 163.
Quiscalinaa, 224.
Bails, 481.
proper, 483.
Eallidaa, 481.
Rallinaa, 483.
Ramphastidas, 303.
Eecurvirostrinaa, 465.
Ehynchopsinae, 558.
Eobins, 138.
Boilers, 268.
proper, 269.
Sandpipers, 467.
Sarcoramphinae, 19.
Saurotherinae, 338.
Scansores, 302.
Scolopacidae, 457.
Scolopacinae, 470.
Screamers, 476.
proper, 479.
Sharp-tails, 119.
Sheath-bills, 389.
proper, 392.
Shore Larks, 390.
Shrikes, Drongo, 186.
Bush, 191.
Sitting, 125.
Skimmers, 558.
Snipes, 457.
proper, 470.
576
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
Spheniscinae, 527.
Starakis, 525.
Starlings, 212.
glossy, 213.
proper, 222.
Spur-winged Geese, 494.
Steatorina3, 67.
Sterninae, 562.
Storks, 451.
Strigidae, 54.
Striginaa, 63.
Struthionidae, 412.
Struthioninae, 413.
Sturnidse, 212.
Sturninae, 222.
Sun-birds, 89.
proper, 92.
Swallows, 80.
Swans, 499.
Swifts, 77.
Synallaxinae, 119.
Syndactylae, 268.
Syrninae, 61.
Talegallas, 357.
Talegallinae, 357.
Tanagers, 241.
Tanagrinae, 241.
Tantalinae, 454.
Tenuirostres, 84.
Terns, 562.
Tetraonidae, 374.
Tetraoninae, 384.
Thamnophilinae, 191.
Thick-heads, 178.
Thick-knees, 427.
Thinocorinae, 390.
Thrushes, 149.
Ant, 150.
proper, 152.
Tick-eaters, 343.
Timalinae, 155.
Tinamidae, 394.
Tinamons, 394.
Titmice, 143.
Tityrinae, 170.
Todies, 271.
Todinaa, 271.
Totaninaa, 462.
Toucans, 303.
Tree-creepers, 116.
proper, 121.
Treroninaa, 399.
TringhuE, 467.
Trochilidaa, 97.
Trochilinaa, 104.
Trogonidaa, 282.
Trogoninse, 283.
Trogons, 282.
proper, 283.
Troop-birds, 229.
Tropic-birds, 542.
Trumpeters, 441.
Turdidae, 149.
Turdinae, 152.
Turkeys, 369.
Turnicinae, 380.
Turnstones, 438.
Tyranninae, 167.
Tyrants, 167.
Upupidae, 84.
Upupinas, 85.
Urianinae, 530.
Vireoninae, 175.
Vultures, Bearded, 17.
Eagle, 26.
proper, 22.
Vulturidae, 15.
Vulturinae, 22.
Wagtails, 146.
Warblers, 131.
proper, 134.
Soft-tailed, 132.
Weavers, 234.
Woodpeckers, 318.
Black, 328.
Green, 326.
Ground, 330.
true, 324.
Wrens, 129.
Wrynecks, 332.
Yuncinae, 332.
66^