University of California • Berkeley arci^aeological Unjjtitute of amevica PAPERS OF THE School of American Archaeology i^umljer fourteen An Inroductory Paper on the Tiwa. Language, Dialect of Taos, New Mexico BY JOHN P. HARRINGTON 1910 '>|{( |;AK'(.Kn 1 I IDUAUY [Reprinted from the American Anthropologist, Vol. 12, No. i, Jan. -Mar., 1910.] AN INTRODUCTORY PAPER ON THE TIWA LAN- GUAGE, DIALECT OF TAOS, NEW MEXICO' By JOHN P. HARRINGTON n NO fact better illustrates the present fragmentary condition of our knowledge of American aboriginal languages than that the tongues of the Pueblo Indians of the southwestern United States have until now remained uninvestigated. Powell in his Indian Linguistic Families of America, published in 189 1," is forced to base the classification of these languages on a few manuscript vocabularies collected in a haphazard manner by various persons at various times. These vocabularies are at present deposited in the ar- chives of the Bureau of American Ethnology at Washington. The unreliable character of these records and of any classification based on them is best appreciated by one who, like the writer, has had opportunity to compare them directly with the spoken languages. More recently a few Pueblo texts have been published. We possess a specimen of the language of Isleta pueblo recorded by Gatschet,' a rendering of some Christian hymns and doctrines in the Laguna language by the missionaries Bercovitz and Paisano,* and a record of several Zuni songs made by Mrs. Stevenson.'* No study of the phonetics or structureof any of the Pueblo lan- guages was however attempted, as far as we know, previous to the investigations which have been conducted during the past two years by the School of American Archaeology under the Archaeological ' Presented at the Boston meetin of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, December, 1909. 'Powell, Indian Linguistic Families of America North of Mexico, ///; Jttn. ' Rep.. B. A. £., Washington, 1891. ' Gatschet, A Mythic Tale of the Isleta Indians, New Mexico, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc, Dec, iSgr, pp. 208-218. *Bercovitz [and PaisanoT, Hymn Book and Appendix in the Laguna Indian Language,. Laguna, New Mexico. 'Stevenson, The Zuni Indians, 2jrd Ann. Pep., B. A. E., Washington, 1904, pp. 68-72, 73-88, 156, 486, 583. II ii AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. s., 12, 1910 Institute of America. Under the auspices of tWs School the author of the present paper has since July, 1908, been engaged continuously in a study of the group of obviously related languages spoken in the Rio Grande drainage area of New Mexico which Powell has termed the Tanoan.' The Tanoan Languages and Taos Pueblo In the area drained by the Rio Grande which is now known as northern and central New Mexico there are at present eighteen Indian Pueblos. We follow the Indian custom in enumerating these villages, beginning with those farthest north or northwest : Taos, Picuris, San Juan, Santa Clara, San Ildefonso, Nambe, Pojoaque, Tesuque, Cochiti, Santo Domingo, San Felipe, Jemez, Sia, Santa Ana, Sandia, Isleta, Laguna, Acoma. In addition to these should be mentioned Pecos pueblo, located on the Rio Pecos and aban- doned in 1837. There are at Jemez a few aged persons who still retain a knowledge of the dialect of Pecos. Four villages whose inhabitants migrated from this area in historic times should also be included here. These are : Senecu, Isleta del Sur, and Socorro, established at the time of the Pueblo Indian revolt of 1680 south of the present city of El Paso, Texas, and Hano, founded in 1700 beside the Hopi villages of northeastern Arizona. The speech of each pueblo is practically a unit, variations pre- sented by division, clan, family, or individual being here ignored ; but no two of the pueblos have the same dialect, although the de- gree of linguistic diversity varies greatly. Omitting Cochiti, Santo Domingo, San Felipe, Sia, Santa Ana, Laguna, and Acoma, seven villages whose language forms a close unit and has been called Keresan, our preliminary survey leads us to suggest the following classification of the dialects of the remain- ing pueblos. A. Tiwa language : (1) Taos and Picuris dialects. (2) Sandia, Isleta, and Isleta del Sur dialects. * Pronounce Tanoan ; adapted from Tano, the Mexicanized form of a Tewa name applied to the southern Tewa formerly settled about and south of the present Santa Ft, New Mexico. ■\ IK : / MU.JKY HARRINGTON] T/IFA LANGUAGE, DIALECT OF TAOS 1 3 (3) Piro dialect. B. Towa language : (i) Jemez dialect. (2) Pecos dialect. C. Tewa language : (i) San Juan, Santa Clara, San Ildefonso, Nambe, Pojoaque, Tesuque, and Hano dialects. The dialects of Sandia, Isleta, and Isleta del Sur have for three centuries been known to the Mexican population of the region by the name Tigua, obscure in origin. A more continental spelling is Tiwa. The term Tigua or Tiwa has also become commonly applied to the closely related idioms of Taos and Picuris. In a recent paper,' the writer suggested that the use of this name be extended still more widely to include the Piro dialect. Thus all the dialects of group A would be designated as Tiwa. It was also suggested that the dialects of group B be known as constituting the Towa language, since the term tbwa, meaning " native," is applied by the Jemez and Pecos to their own language. The language of group C with its numerous village dialects is known to both Indians and whites as Tewa, this being the word in that language equivalent to Jemez and Pecos towa and likewise meaning " native. " Thus we recognize three languages, Tiwa, Towa, and Tewa. The diagram on the following page shows the relative sizes and positions of the areas occupied by these three languages at a period soon after the coming of the whites. Roughly speaking, the languages still obtain in the areas in which they were then spoken, the Piro dialect of Tiwa forming a notable exception. Piro was formerly spoken in the country im- mediately south of that held by the ancestors of the Sandia and Isleta. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the dialect was heard only in the neighborhood of El Paso, and is probably now extinct. The population of Taos like that of the other pueblos is com- posite in origin. Tradition states that long ago a number of 1 Harrington, Notes on the Piro Language, American Anthropologist, Oct.-Dec, 1909, pp. 563-594. u AMERICAN ANTHR0P0L0GIS7 [N. S., 12, 1910 clans speaking various languages confederated to form the Taos people, and that this people throughout its subsequent history in times of war and peace has grown by adopting individuals or groups of individuals speaking alien tongues. Generations ago, it is said, very many Ute Indians were incorporated into the Taos tribe as the result of a war. Probably such tradition faithfully reechoes the DIAGRAM Showing Tentative Grouping of the Tongues of theTanoan Linguistic Stock, Rio Grande Drainage, Nev/ Mexico, about 1600, A.D. Ti\A/a Landuaoe Towa Language Tewa Language prehistory of Taos. It is certain that the village has long been the melting pot of peoples and that these peoples spoke various lan- guages. The conquering and surviving tongue is Tiwa, a Tanoan language. Taos Tiwa exhibits considerable divergence from the Sandia-Is- leta-Isleta del Sur variety of the language, perhaps indicating long separation. An Isleta man who recently visited Taos preferred to conduct his conversation in Mexican jargon, fluent speech in the dialect of Taos being quite unintelligible to him. And yet com- HARRINGTON! 7IWA LANGUAGE, DIALECT OF TAOS 1 5 parative study reveals the closest relationship between the two dia- lects. When Taos and Picuris people talk together, Tiwa is used, these two dialects differing as little from one another as do the dia- lects of the Tewa pueblos. Piro possibly differed as widely from each of the other subgroups as these differed from each other. A comparative study of the three languages will prove most interesting. Tiwa, when compared with the adjacent Tewa, appears to represent both phonetically and structurally a more archaic form of Tanoan speech. In fact, the relation of Tiwa to Tewa seems not unlike that which Von der Gabelentz would have us believe Tibetan bears to Chinese. Final consonants still retained in Tiwa, have in Tewa decayed or disappeared. Thus Taos nam-, Tewa nd", earth. Diphthongs prominent in Tiwa appear to have become in Tewa simple vowel sounds. Thus Taos sMn-, Tewa sc^, man. Open vowels in Tiwa are generally represented in Tewa by close vowels. Thus Taos pa, Tewa po, thigh. The tongue-raised vowels of Tiwa exhibit in Tewa less raising of the tongue. Thus Taos fo, Tewa fa, to live. Many formative elements which may not be omitted in Tiwa do not make their appearance in Tewa at all. Thus Taos ' a" met hfut, Tewa 'tC nid", you two are going ; Taos sM na na, Tewa se", man. A Tiwa sentence when translated into Tewa usually contains fewer sounds and fewer syllables and requires less strenuous motions of the organs of speech. A marked musical accent has developed in Tewa, possibly as an accompaniment of some of the monosyllabic tendencies described above. This accent is as noticeable and, to the understanding of many words, is as indispensible as are the "tones" of Chinese. For example, the cognates of Taos fa, moon, pld, trail, and p'a, water, are respectively Tewa fo, moon, fo, trail, and p'o, water, distinguishable by their musical pitch only. The vowels of the three Tewa words seem identical in quality, length, and stress. The difference lies in the musical pitch, which in p'o, moon, is high ; in p'o, trail, is lower ; in p'o, river, is low and falling. Such pitch ac- cents of Tewa words are difficult for the foreign ear to recognize ; it is almost impossible for adult foreign organs to correctly repro- duce them. Musical accent is present in Tiwa, as it is in all lan- guages, but is not noticeable and in no case appears essential to the l6 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. s., 12, 1910 interpretation of a word. The writer knows of no other American language in which features salientiy characteristic of Chinese are developed to such a remarkable extent as in Tewa. There are many tendencies in language, and those which result in monosyl- labism are as yet imperfectly understood. The Tanoan languages offer a promising field for the study of the growth of these tendencies. Among various other developments characteristic of Tewa which have not been discovered in the other Tanoan languages, ablaut deserves mention here. Ablaut appears in Tewa noun and adjective elements. Three series occur : u — c, ti" — e', a — i. The u, 7/", or a grade indicates large objects ; the e, e", or / grade indicates small objects. Examples are : hu, arroyo, he, arroyito ; mbu'', big bend, mbe'^, little bend ; p'agi, large and flat, figi, small and flat. Prolonged search has failed to reveal any similar phe- nomenon either in Tiwa or Towa. The German linguist Von der Gabelentz mentions an invention of ablaut in the baby-talk of his little nephew which forms a strik- ing parallel to the Tewa usage. This child expressed itself largely in a language of its own making. Lakail was the name applied to an ordinary chair, hikull meant great arm-chair, likill was used to signify little doll's chair. Again mem was the word for watch or plate, mum referred to a large plate or a round table, vtim was the name for the moon, while mim-mhit-mim-mim meant stars.' The Towa language of Jemez and Pecos, as judged by some of its developments, appears to hold a position intermediate between Tiwa and Tewa. Inasmuch as Tiwa is apparently the most archaic of the Tanoan group as well as the simplest phonetically considered, an outline of that language is here presented, the dialect of Taos having been chosen. The Taos, as is usual, consider themselves superior to all other Indians. They have infinite disdain for their southern neigh- bors, the Tewa, who are regarded as having perverted customs and as speaking a degenerate form of the Taos language. They pride themselves especially on occupying the highest and most northerly of all the Pueblo villages, and the tradition that the Pueblo Indians migrated originally from the north is so impressed upon their minds 'Quoted by Chamberlain, The Child, New York, 1907, p. 134. HARRINGTON] TIWA LANGUAGE, DIALECT OF TAOS IJ that this location alone seems to them sufficient proof that they are the most pristine and uncorrupted of Pueblo villagers. Taos Indians usually speak of their pueblo as TMfa when they are in or above it. When below the village TM bd is used. TM is the equivalent of Tewa te, houses, village ; the affixes have locative force. It is said that an old name of the village is ' lata- p'aifa or 'Iatap°aibd, meaning the place of the red {p'di) willows (^lata). The people of Taos commonly call themselves ToUfa- t 'M n d ma", signifying hterally the people who live at the village. The form Taos is perhaps a Mexican corruption of tod-. The Taos informants were three in number : Manuel Mondragon, Jose Lopez, and Santiago Mirabal. Most of the material was ob- tained from the informant first named. His Indian name is T°d I to, Sun Elk. He is a patient fellow and is deeply interested in the re- cording of his language. Phonology General Phonetic Character The impression which the Tiwa language makes on the ear is smooth and pleasing. There are no harsh consonants and no com- binations of consonants except those caused by elision. The stops are gently exploded. The sounds /, in, and n are frequent. The oral vowels are clear and sonorous. The orinasal vowels have little of the unpleasant nasal resonance which results when the velum is drawn far forward. There is little in the pronunciation which reminds one of the tense, impure vowels of Towa ; of the choking sounds, exces- sive nasalization, and remarkable development of musical accent which characterize Tewa; of the coarse, crackling, half voiced quality of Keresan ; or of the voiced and unvoiced mixed vowels promi- nent in Ute and in some other Nahuatlan dialects. The Individual Sounds It apppears that the Taos distinguish in their speech eleven vowels and twenty-five consonants, making in all thirty-six etymolog- ically distinct individual sounds. These sounds vary considerably according to their setting. Yet with a little practice they can be recognized by the speaker of a European language even when run together in rapid speech, and can be readily imitated. AM. ANTH., N. S., 12 — 2. l8 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. s., 12, 1910 The vowels are presented in the customary form of the vowel triangle. The contact positions of the consonants are given in the order in which these are visited by the exhaled breath. Beside each sound .stands in parenthesis an Indo-Germanic word containing a nearly equivalent sound. Vowels Orinasal vowels : a" (Fr. a«gle, angle) a" (Fr. d/«don, turkey) a" (Fr. dind<7«, turkey) i" (Skt. raqmZwr, rays) u" (Skt. sun««r, sons) Oral vowels : a (Eng. frtther) a (Fr. \a bas, down there) a (Fr. la has, down there) i (Eng. machme) u (Eng. n/le) 6 (Ger. sch^n) Consonants Semi-vowels : j (Eng. halleluyah) w (Eng. atcay) Larynx consonants : ' (may open Eng. vowels beginning words) h (Eng. //ow) Back of tongue consonants : k (South Ger. /l-atze, cat) k' (Eng. too/^ off) X (Ger. ar/ii) g (Eng. ^o) k" (Eng. ^warter) x" (North Eng. ic/^at) Front of tongue consonants : t (South Ger. /ag, day) f (Eng. ha/ off) t° (Eng. swea/-/-/eorn) b (Eng. boy) m (Eng. ;«an) Voiced and voiceless sounds are not as clearly distinguished as in English. The orinasal, i. e., mouth-nose, vowels are pronounced with the velum hanging freely as when one breathes through mouth and nose simultaneously. In their production the voiced breath escapes through both mouth and nose. The calls of the lower mammals are most frequently orinasal. The birth-cry of the human babe is a", and a similar sound is heard in the groaning of the adult. Vowels of this class are very numerous in Tanoan. The oral vowels are produced with the velum drawn toward the rear wall of the pharynx so as to allow little or none of the voiced air to escape through the nose. The sound o has no counterpart among the orinasal vowels. It resembles weakly rounded German o. It sounds Hke the " impure vowel " of Shoshonean dialects which has been variously written 6, o, ii, il. Vowels are accompanied by much breath, especially at the close. Vowels following h, x, f and p° are more breathy than others. A special series of aspirated vowels has not been detected. A voiceless vowel of the quality of a" results when a" is most completely elided within a sentence. J and iv differ from i and 11 respectively only in being much shorter. They have no more fricative quality than do the vowels which they resemble. The explosion produced by closing and then suddenly opening the glottis is one of the commonest sounds in the languages of the world. This sound is heard in coughing and grunting. In English it may occur as an opener of vowels commencing a word. It is un- naturally audible between the words at and all in a current affected 20 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST L"- s., 12, 1910 pronunciation of the phrase at all which distinguishes at all from a tall. This sound may be called the glottal catch or the glottal stop. In Taos it is slightly audible before all syllables which do not begin with any other consonant. It also combines with k, t, p, and t' to form k' , f , p' , t" , described below. It is not heard as a vowel closer. The consonant h is a weak whisper caused by glottal narrowing. It has the timber of a contiguous vowel or vowels. There are five series of mouth stops : ( i ) weakly voiced, k, t, t', p ; (2) with simultaneous closure of the glottis, ^'/'> ^". /'; (3) with following aspiration, T, p" ; (4) with simultaneous « position, k" ; (5) weakly voiced with long and firm contact,,^, d, b. There is perhaps still another series, — long and firm k, t, p, which have been ob- served only as a result of the elision of the syllables ga", da', bd^ respectively. There are indications that the fricative continuants x and jr", now lacking complete closure, are respectively derived from earlier If and k"'', thus making series (3) and (4) more complete ; see below. However, ga" occasionally assumes the form xu, sug- gesting a connection between x and g. The stops k, t, t', p are veiy gently exploded as in South German ; ' voice apparently does not cease and is prominent sooner after the explosion than in the case of English k, t, p. The spell- ings kg, td, pb would suggest the character of the sounds. In pronouncing k", f , t" , p' a closure of the glottis seems to oc- cur simultaneously with the assuming of the stop position by the organs of the mouth. The larynx is then slightly raised, compress- ing the air between the glottis closure and the mouth closure. As a result of the formation of this small chamber of compressed air the mouth explosion when it occurs has slight force and differs in ac- oustic effect from a mouth explosion the air pressure of which is produced directly by the lungs. A slight explosion in the larynx resembling the ordinary glottal stop described above follows immed- iately after the mouth explosion. Some of the makers of Tiwa vocabularies have omitted to write initial k\ t' , p'. They probably heard only the larynx explosion or glottal stop, which as elsewhere 'This pronunciation is illustrated by the much quoted saying that King George I of England was fond of " boetry and art." HARRINGTON] TIWA LANGUAGE, DIALECT OF TAOS 21 they neglected to record. Thus "a," water, instead of p'd. A similar series of stops existing in the Mayan languages of Mexico and Central America have been termed " letras heridas," wounded letters. Perhaps the " fortes " and " velars " of some other Ameri- can languages are in reality such sounds. The Georgian language of the Caucasus possesses stops which sound exactly like these of Tiwa. The nearest English approximates are contained in such combinations as took off, hat off, hats off, cap off, when the vowel of the second word is opened by the glottal stop. A good name for the consonants of this series would be grunted stops. T", p" differ from /, p respectively by being accompanied by more breath. They are not harsh sounds, but the breathy glide following the explosion is very audible. The sign ° is adopted from Bell's Visible Speech. As remarked above, x seems to belong to this series, but is now a continuant resembling German ch. The corresponding Tewa sound is k". Tewa may here be more retentive than Taos. If it should be proved that Taos k" has become x while i" and p" have remained unchanged, the development is paralleled in classic Greek, in which it is believed ;f became a continuant earlier than did and f. K" and ^' are single sounds, being simultaneous pronunciations of k and zv, and x and w respectively. G, d, b have long, firm closure as in English. When gd^, dd', bd^ are ehded the resulting k, t, p have this same kind of closure but less voice, although they have been written in this paper exactly like the k, t, p of different quality and origin. 5' and t are often weakly voiced. The s position is with tongue touching the upper side teeth and gums, allowing breath to escape across the front teeth. The i position is in a way the reverse of that of s. The tongue is pressed against the upper front teeth and gums, but lets breath escape across the side teeth. Usually more of the sound is produced at one side of the mouth than at the other. The sound resembles Welsh //, less closely English thl. It has usually been written s by vocabulary makers. In Tewa, both Tiwa $ and i are represented by a single s-like sound. The contact of /, n, in is long and firm. 22 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. s., 12, 1910 Phonetic Processes The Tiwa syllable consists of a consonant plus a vowel or diph- thong. Syllable-closing consonants and apparent combinations of consonants are due to elision ; see below. Combinations of vowels are, however, frequent. Peculiar diphthongs are largely respon.sible for the strange impression which the language makes on our ear. Each Taos diphthong consists of two rapidly uttered and equally stressed vowels so welded together as to form a single syllable. The duration of the diphthong is not greater than that of an undiphthongized vowel. Therefore in writing these diphthongs a breve has been placed over each of the constitu- ent vowels. The chief difference between Taos diphthongs and those of Indo-Germanic languages seems to be this, that in the former each of the vowels is pronounced with equal force, while in the latter one element invariably bears greater stress than does the other. The majority of the Taos diphthongs admit of no analysis into simpler morphological elements, but correspond as wholes to simple, undiphthongized vowel sounds in the Towa and Tewa languages, in which no diphthongs are known to occur. Compare Taos tna, Tewa su, arrow ; Taos/'f^, Towa/V, mountain. An examination of words borrowed by one Tanoan language from another, mostly personal and place names, makes it seem probable that the diphthongs of Taos Tiwa are not the result of recent vowel-breaking or of combinatory processes, but are rather a feature of archaic Tanoan speech preserved in Tiwa. The development in Towa and Tewa would be comparable to that which rendered the Slavic lan- guages of the Indo-Germanic stock diphthongless. A few of the Tiwa diphthongs, however, clearly originate in a juxtaposition of vowels occasioned by the grammatical processes of the language. Thus 'Ifi im(\ they 3 -|- animate them 3 -f- inanimate saw. But one is also permitted to say 'tumu". The following diphthongs occur in the Taos material gathered : aX a'a, a"? a"l, ai, an la', id, m, dl, fid, I'd, i>a, bi. Taos syllables are pronounced with force so nearly equal that stress accent has not been indicated. Musical accent is probably of even less importance than in English. Like other speech, that of Taos is slurred or elided. There lives HARRINGTON] TIWA LANGUAGE, DIALECT OF TAOS 2$ at the pueblo a man of French and Mexican descent who has a good knowledge of the language, but as often as he speaks it the Indians are greatly amused, chiefly it is said because he does not elide correctly. The law of elision requires that the syllables /rt", wa", xa", gd!", da", la", na", ba" ma" appear only before a pause, usually only at the end of a clause or sentence. Within clauses and sentences they as- sume respectively for reasons which further study must explain either the forms ju, zvu, xu, xu, du, hi, nu, bu, viu, or I, u, k, k, t, I, II, p, m. It should be noted that a" of all the vowels most nearly approximates the Tiwa articulatory basis, and that a non-syllabic unvoiced vowel of the timber of a", which has not been written, can be perceived after most completely elided forms of these syllables. The u forms are remarkable. This law gives rise to all final con- sonants and groups of con.sonants. Ablaut or other regular vowel modification has not been ob- sei-ved except perhaps in the case of the elided elements just re- ferred to. Rapidly pronounced vowels differ in quality from the normal vowels of careful speech. They are apt to imitate the timber of vowels of contiguous syllables. This phenomenon is known as assimilation. Assimilation of consonants is heard even in slow speech. Thus by progres.sive assimilation, f'o n fa, for fb w fa, where she lived; by retrogressive assimilation, '«"«« //<3 rom" , them I the bears saw. (4) If the noun is so used that it require some postfix other than the terminations ; thus with terminations, sing, kod na, plu. kod nd )na'\ bear ; with postfix other than termination, sing. kodhuijii, plu. kodhuijii, like a bear; sing, 'a" nkbd'i.va'i,^\\i. 'a" n kod zva't na", my hesLT. In brief, terminations must be used except with animate proper nouns, nouns used as not last members of compounds, or nouns requiring some postfix other than the termination. Although there are but few noun terminations, they present as much irregularity as do the gender-number-case endings of Indo- Germanic. As distinguished by termination nouns fall into seven classes : 1. Sing, -na, plu. -nd. Many nouns denoting inanimate objects or substances not made by man, especially such as consist notice- ably of particles or parts, are included here. Three types of termi- nation distinguished by the manner of postfixation are illustrated by the following nouns : (a) Sing, -na, plu. -nd. Thus sing, ///ft na, stone, plu. /lift nd, stones, (b) The vowel in which the noun root ends is repeated plus sing, -na, plu. -nd. Thus sing, p'd 'a na, a particle, body, or stream of water, plii. />'d 'a nd, water, (c) Sing. -(«)a na, plu. -{n)d nd. Thus />"a nd na, a particle, flake ,or crystal of snow ; plu. />"a nd nd, snow. 2. Sing, -na, plu. -nd. Nouns of this class signify inanimate objects or substances made by man or by some personified instru- mentality. The terminations are the same as those of nouns of HARRINGTONJ TliVA LANGUAGE, DIALECT OF TAD'S 2/ class I and the same three types of postfixation are distinguished ; but when a noun of this class is compounded or used without a termination or other postfix the indefinite pronoun element na" is prefixed. This same ««" is prefixed to verbs ; see page 34. Thus sing. t°b na, house, plu. t°d ttd, houses ; but without a postfix sing, and plu. «rt" fb, house, houses, as in na' to mit (he) saw houses. 3. Sing. -7ia, plu. -na". This class includes many nouns desig- nating animals and peoples. There are three types of postfixation as in classes i and 2. As an illustration, type (a) sing, p'djd na, beaver, plu. p'dja na', beavers. 4. Sing, -na, plu. -ndma'. In this class are found many nouns signifying human beings and animals, especially those indicating human social groups and animal genera. Three types are distin- guished, (a) Sing, -na, plu. -nd ma'. Thus sing. kM na, bear, plu. kbd nd ma', bears, (b) The vowel in which the noun root ends is repeated plus sing, -na, plu. -nd ma". Thus sing. pod' na, fish, plu. pd'bndma', fish(es). (c) Sing. -(ii)dna, plu. -{ii)dndma'. Thus sing, sod na na, man, plu. sod nd nd ma', men. 5. Sing, -ndma', plu. -na. All that can be said of the nouns which belong here is that they are frequently used in the plural. What appears to be a plural termination is added to the singular ; a singular termination is used in the plural. The verb adjusts itself to the termination, a plural verb accompanying the singular ; a dual verb, the dual ; a singular verb, the plural. Thus sing, tud fid ma"^, arrow, plu. tud na, arrows. 6. Sing, -nd ma', plu. -nd. The usage of these nouns is the same as in class 5. Nouns of this class are rare. Thus sing. xd" ttd ma"", name ; plu. xd' nd, names. 7. Nouns having one termination only are grouped here. They are collective in meaning. Thus zvond, milk. Some nouns have more than one plural. Thus i b, sing, id "o nd spot, elk, leaf of book, book ; 1st plu. to "ond, spots, leaves of books, books ; 2nd plu. to "o nd ma', elks. It is explained that both elk and leaf of a book are called thus because spotted. A noun which is the subject of a verb is never compounded with the verb. Such a noun has its termination except under conditions stated above. 28 ■ AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. s., 12, 1910 A noun which is either the direct object or the referential object of the verb is regularly compounded with the verb. The noun root is then stripped of its affixes. Pronominal elements are prefixed to the compound to give partial expression of gender, number, and person, and to define the relation in which the noun stands to tHe verb. Thus : tikbd mu^, him I bear saw ■,pikua mu", them I bears saw. Both direct and referential objects may be compounded, the referential preceding the direct. Thus : sM ?id na 'a' kdfip'd vim had, the man he-it-him ('«") the horse {kati) water (/ 'a) gives {iviahfid). See prefixed referential object pronouns, p. 34. The singular direct object must be compowuicd. The plural direct object noun is usually compounded, but may be given tlieform which it would have if it tvere the subject, the pronoun elements which accompany the verb defining its case function. Thus one is permitted to say either // kod tnu", them I bears saw ; or kM nd mu pi inu", bears them I saw. The singular direct object permits only one form : ti kM imt, him I bear saw. The singular or plural referential object may or may not be compounded. Prefixed pronoun elements appearing early in the verb cluster govern and interpret these compounding processes. Compounding of nouns with verbs, such as has been described, has often been termed incorporation. W. von Humboldt illustrates " incorporation " by the Nahua sentence ; compounded or incorpor- ated ni nica qua, I-meat-eat ; uncompounded or non-incorporated nic qua in naca tl, I-it-eat meat. Taos exactly parallels these Nahua constructions : compounded or incorporated, 'a tua k'a la", I-meat- ate ; uncompounded or non-incorporated, 'a k'a lu tiid nd, I-it-ate meat.' Incorporation is a very objectionable name for this process since it refers to noun + verb compounding only, and therefore requires us to resort to other terminology in naming other processes of compounding which are grammatically identical. Noun -)- verb compounding describes what actually occurs. Simple and composite postfixes of locative, directional, or rela- tional force are frequently appended to noun elements. A few of these may be used with verb elements also. Elxamples are : ' Fortunately for the sake of this comparison the Taos word meaning meat, tuinS, is commonly plural, the singular, tuina, signifying a morsel of meat. Therefore both compounded and uncompounded object constructions could be employed, as stated above. HARRINGTON] TIWA LANGUAGE, DIALECT 01 TAOS 29 -fa, in, at -ta, down in, down at > used with sing. -na, in -W(f, in, at, used with 2+ plu. -bd, up in, up at -ga'^, down in, down at -plu, toward in horizontal direction -piba", up toward -piga", down toward -pan fa, near -pua 'aja"^, very near -p''lil I ga" , with, denoting accompaniment or association -tolbd, at the side of -xa" nd" t"a, at the end of -pUd bd, at the base of -na"^ t°a, under -««" 7na, under -wa na", on the side of, on the slope of -k'ita, on top of, on (contiguous) -k'odt°a, at the surface of -k'oata, down at the surface of -k'od'aiva", at the surface of, used with 2+ plu. -^'3a 'aga", down at the surface of -k'indl, above (not contiguous) -t'utfa, outside of -xo It mi ina'^, aroun d -piiiwO", through -p'alta, down inside of -pldndU, between, among ■pldnna, in between, in among -pld n fa, between, among -ba, with, denoting instrumentality -htilju, like The etymology of ,^'^^ is of interest. The postfixes containing k'oa listed above mean at the surface of, at the top of The primary meaning of koa is neck. This usage reminds one of the African who says " house-belly " for in the house. . > used with sing. 30 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. s., 12, 1910 Rendering of English Adjectives English adjectives are rendered in Taos either by nouns or verbs. Attributive and predicative constructions are not differentiated. (i) The adjective may be regarded as a ^w7/« root of generaUzed meaning. It adds terminations and is compounded Hke a noun root. Thus la sing, fa xo na, shell, plu. p'a xdiiH, shells ; la sing. p'af'd na, whiteness, plu. p'a fond, whitenesses. Compounded la sing, p' a xo p' a fd na, shell whiteness or white shell, plu. p'axo- p'a fd nd, shell whitenesses or white shells. One of these adjectival noun roots could well be called the Taos "diminutive." This is with termination 4b sing, 'u'una, smallness, prettiness, dearness, oldness, small object, small one, etc., child, plu. 'u 'u nd ma''. Compounded with the word for bear this gives with terminations 4b sing, kba 'u 'u na, bear smallness, small bear, plu. kda 'u 'u nd ma", bear smallnesses, little bears. An ex- ample of noun + noun + verb compounding is: tikoa'u mu", I him bear smallness saw, I saw the little bear. This root 'u is as common and varies as greatly in meaning as German -chen, -kin. (2) The English adjective is expressed by various 'ocrb construc- tions. Beside regular verbs we find the following constructions performing this function : (a) Use of the postfixes 'i or wa 'i, de- noting possesion, with noun + verb compounds. Thus noun root to, spot ; verb root k'uju, be pretty ; compound with possession postfix tok'uju'i, (he) is pretty having spots, prettily spotted, be- side the regular to k'uj'u ma", (he) is pretty as regards spots. (b) Use of verb roots with prefixed possessive pronouns. Thus verb root ma so,. he glad; 'a n ma so /lii (1,my present, gladness or I am glad. English adjective comparison is sometimes rendered by the free adverbs iai", very, more, most, or lia la, almost, less, least. Numeral Expression The numeral root is used now as a noun, now as a verb. The system is decimal. The numerals 2 and 4, 3 and 5, 8 and 9, appear respectively to be etymologically connected. The numeral 6 is said to mean piece, referring to one hand plus one piece or unit. The verb ma" li- means to break or tear to pieces. The HARRINGTON] TIIVA LANGUAGE, DIALECT OF TAOS 31 Indians when counting usually begin again with i after ten units have been enumerated. There are, however, words for the tens up to and including one hundred. Numeral classifiers do not occur. There are several series of numerals in constant use : (i) enu- merative, used in counting ; (2) responsive, used in answering ; (3) adjectival, used with nouns, and having endings denoting animate or inanimate gender, and number ; (4) substantival, used as nouns with endings denoting animate and inanimate gender and number ; (S) ordinal, used to denote relative position or sequence ; (6) multi- plicative, used to designate the number of times ; (7) fractional. Only two fractional numerals are in use; pldndlti, half, and ha lapin ?iai ti, any fraction smaller than a half. Some of the enu- merative, ordinal, and multiplicative numerals are given below. One wa" ma" Two wi 'i na" Three pajoa Four wia na" Five p'anjua Six ma° li Seven t'u Eight x°i li First f'uba" Second jiabata Third pau wa ta Enumerative. Nine x^fa" Ten ta" ma" Eleven ta" m wa" ma" Twenty wita" Thirty pajuata" One hundred ta" ta" or ta" ta" la" One thousand ta" ta" ta" or ta" ta" tii" la" Ordinal. Fourth wia na" wi ta Fifth p'anjua wita Multiplicative. Four times wia na" wi na" Five times p' a n j ua wi na" Once wi ba Twice wiju Three times pau wi na" The Pronoun There are numerous sets of pronouns. First, second, and third person is always distinguished ; a few forms express near, less re- mote, and more remote third person. In some pronoun sets differ- ent forms occur for animate and inanimate gender. Number is either not recognized at all, or singular and 2 -f plural or again singular, 32 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. s., 12, 1910 dual, and 3 + plural is expressed. Subject, object, and referential cases and combinations of these cases find more or less complete expression. Inclusive and exclusive forms for the first person plural are not differently expressed. Pronoun elements are used with nouns or with verbs. The sets of pronouns fall into two groups, free and prefixed. Free Pronouns Free pronouns stand outside the noun or verb cluster, almost anywhere in the sentence. They are usually in apposition with nouns or prefixed pronouns. They may be used subjectively, objectively, and referentially, and may like nouns be provided with postfixes. They often lend a necessary definiteness to the meaning of the sentence. (i) The free emphatic personal pronouns may always be omitted without changing the sentence meaning materially. They are com- mon in answer to questions. Person only is distinguished. They are ««", I, me, we, us ; 'a", thou, thee, ye, you ; 'a^wana", he, him, she, her, it, they, them. When apposite with referential prefixed pronouns the forms «a" m Id, 'a" m ki and 'a" tva 710!" in ki may be used. Compare ki, postfix of purpose infinitives. (2) The free demonstrative pronouns express three positions and two numbers. Some of them are : sing. y« na, plu.ytt nix ma", this ; sing, ja na, plu. jd na nut, that (less remote); sing, wd ti, plu. wa na ma'', that (more remote). (3) Examples of free indefinite pronouns are hi, anything, some- thing ; smg.juniihi, 'p\\i.juandmhi, somebody. (4) An illustration of a free interrogative not used except in questions isp'u", who? All the other free pronouns, especially the indefinite, are also used interrogatively without change in form. Adverbs and Conjunctions Closely akin to the free pronouns but in many instances acting rather as pro-verbs and pro-clauses are numerous unattached words which we may call adverbs and conjunctions. These are difficult to analyze, but some are clearly free pronoun roots with aflfi.xes. (i) Adverbs are : hit, thus ; hii ta, in this manner {ta = in) ; ju, thus ; ja, hither ; Jitju", here ; jctju", there (less remote) ; wdju'', there (more remote) ; hi 'a na", by doing something, how ; hi, per- HARRINGTON] TIIVA LANGUAGE, DIALECT OF TAOS 33 haps (identical with the free indefinite pronoun hi). Adverbs Hke the free pronouns may be interrogative. (2) Conjunctions are either free or must stand at the beginning or end of clauses. Standing almost anywhere : ha da", soon, enough, already, and now, and then, and ; ha ha, but, also, and ; xa", then, when, when- ever, since, because, therefore, you know. Standing at the beginning of clauses and sentences : 'Mtd w«", in that case ; 'dl xd" na", in case, if ; hn xa'\ so then, accordingly. Standing at the end of clauses and sentences : jttd liUl lud na", whenever, as often as ; kinna, as soon as ; k' Al, after ; xuhu (xa" + hu) then so, because ; ndl ti, since (temporal) ; nid" xa", while ; md" na", after. Prefixed Pronouns Pronouns of these series are placed before the root in noun and verb clusters, and in transposed rootless constructions directly before postfixes. They are indispensible to the cluster and with it form a sentence. The elements are slight and two or more are frequently so coalesced as to form a single syllable. Verb prefixed pronouns of definite meaning do not occur in the third person singular subject and object case. Thus md", he, she, or it went ; imi", he, she, or it saw him, her, or them. Elsewhere the pronoun must be formally expressed. (i) Prefixed possessive pronouns are subjoined to noun and verb elements. Person and number are expressed. The noun termination may be replaced by postfixes denoting possession. Thus ka na, mother ; 'a n ka na, my mother ; 'a « ka wa 'i, my (own) mother. If the possessive pronoun refers to the subject of the sentence we have the choice of two constructions : uncom- pounded or untransposed, ' a n pd" zva 'i timu", my deer own him-I saw ; compounded or transposed, tipd" ntu" 'a n wa 'i, him-I deer saw my own. These pronouns plus nouns may also translate English predicate construction. Thus 'a n ka na or 'a n ka iva 'i may have the sense, she is my mother or who is my mother. Only a few verb roots prefix these pronouns. The ordinary verb post- fixes are appended. Thus ma so to be glad; ' anmasohfid, my present gladness or I am glad. AM. ANTH., N. S., 12-3. 34 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [N. s., 12, 1910 (2) Prefixed subject pronouns accompany conspicuously verbs denoting motion or position and the passive form of verbs. Thus 'a mii", I went ; 'a 'a", I sat. The pronouns are only eight in number, person and number being expressed : 'd,\; 'a" fta", we 2 ; '/, we 3 ; '«", you I ; ;«a" ««", you 2 ; ma", you 3 ; , he, she, or it ; '«" tta", they 2 ; '?, they 3. The first and third persons dual and 3+ plural are the same. (3) The prefixed third person subject pronoun indefinite is tut". To illustrate : na^fldja, it is said, or they (indefinite) say ; na" p'a- fi" 'ayaa, it or they fire flash happened, i. e. it lightened. The noun prefix ««" of class 2 is evidently identical. (4) In the prefixed subject + object pronouns combinations of animate and inanimate gender ; singular, dual, and plural number ; subject and object case ; and first, second, and third persons find somewhat incomplete and irregular expression. The subject and object do not refer to the same person or thing. Third person singular subject + third person singular object is not pronominally expressed ; thus tmt, he, she, or it, saw him, her, or it. The pro- noun elements are closely knit together, forming one or two syllables, subject element preceding object element. The number of com- binations is perhaps more than fifty. Examples : ti mu", him, her, or it I saw ; pimu", them 2+ I saw. (5) Prefixed reflexive-reciprocal subject -|- object pronouns are ex- emplified by : ta" mn", I looked at myself; 'imamu", each of them 3-f- looked at himself, or they 3-f looked at one another. In order to separate reflexive from reciprocal meanings a form of the free emphatic personal pronoun must be added. Thus 'a' ica" n ta 'i ma mu", each of them 3 -f- looked at himself ; 'a" iva" n na '/ ma mu', they 3 -I- looked at one another. (6) Prefixed referential object pronouns denote a relation be- tween the subject, the verb, and some person or thing not the direct object. The direct object may or may not be expressed. The person or thing referred to may be expressed by an appositive noun or free pronoun outside the cluster. The reference is vague and English translations for each form are therefore numerous. Gender, number, and person are partially distinguished as in (4) and (5). The number of combinations is great. Thus ;««";«//?" mu', you i HARRINGTON] TIIVA LANGUAGE, DIALECT OP TAOS 35 him with reference to me deer saw, you i saw my deer, you i saw the deer by me, you i saw the deer of which I spoke, you i saw the deer which I shot, you i saw a deer for me, you i saw a deer with me, you i saw a deer before I did, you i saw a deer instead of my seeing a deer, etc. Third person singular subject, and third person singular subject + third person singular object, are sup- pressed as in prefixed pronoun sets (2) and (4). Thus sod no. na 'a" kaap'aioiahiia, the man (he it) with reference to him horse water gives ; soil nd na 'a" kdfip'd haihUd, the man (he it) with refer- ence to him horse water takes away. TU'''U''NA, THE VERB ROOT The Verb The morphology of the verb resembles that of the noun. Poly- .syllabic roots can perhaps be analyzed into simpler elements. Gender, number, case, person, tense, aspect, mood, voice, position, direction, limit, cause, result, etc., may be formally expressed in the verb cluster. The various sets of pronouns prefixed to verb roots have been mentioned above. Tense, mood, and the like, are either not formally expressed, or are brought out by affixes, by the employment of two verb clusters, or by verb -)-verb compounding. Tense is indicated largely by prefixes. Negative forms differ from the corresponding positive forms by having different tense post- fixes and also by prefixing a negative element — a double negative construction such as is used in many languages. Some roots re- quire one suffix to express a certain tense, other roots a different suffix. Tenses commonly heard are illustrated by the following forms of the verb ;««", see. Tense Positive Negative Aorist vm'^, saw wa mu" tni, did not see Progressive pres- mu' hiid, is or was seeing wamu'ma', is not or was ent or imperfect not seeing Immediate future mu' hd', is about to see Indefinite future mu'Ja, will see wa mu"pu', will not see Definite future j« »?«"/«, will see su wa mu' pu' , v/\\\ not see Unreal mu'Ja'a'na', might have seen Ideal mu" mi «a", may see 36 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [N. s., 12, 1910 The forms given above are in the third person singular. Pre- fixed pronouns, if required, are placed before these forms. In the negative the wa may even be omitted ; compare French negation with pas. Other tense postfixes are progressive positive ma^, kd", nega- tive mt". Ma'' denotes permanent state or continuous activity and is employed as tense-postfix with verbs of static meaning. Ma' is also one of the formatives of derivative verbs ; see below. In some of these postfixes an original positional or directional force is probably still felt. The progressive tense of tnff', go, is ma" hied, is going (in a direction away from the speaker). The progressive tense of '«", come, is '«" //«", is coming (in a direction towards the speaker). The forms md" ha" and 'd" had do not exist. To most verb roots, however, both hftd and hd" may be appended, hiia suggesting going, progression, duration of activity, while hd' denotes coming, immediate futurity. The future and passive -Ja calls to mind the adverb ja, hither ; compare hd". The negative progressive -ma" seems to be the same as the verb md", go ; com- pare hi4d. Customary and frequentative aspect is expressed by prefixing ivt", which precedes all other elements in the verb cluster except the prefixed pronoun : thus wi" um'hfid, used to see, saw again and again. The majority of sentences are indicative statements and have no formal expression of mood. When a statement is made according to tradition, report, or other authority outside the speaker the narratival tvi is prefixed, occupy- ing the same position as wi", which it precedes if both are used. Thus wi Jitu", saw, it is related. Quotation, either direct or with shifting of person (indirect) is expressed by the free quotative mu', which appears after, rarely in, the quotation. Thus mu' mu', (he) saw (him), (he) said. There is no imperative. Commands are indicated by tone ot voice. The tense is usually future ; iva of the negative is regularly omitted ; xa', then, often follows the verb. Thus, a' mu'ja xa', you I see then ! Ta' is a hortatory element which precedes first person verbs in exhortations. The future and the negative without ifrt occur as in commands. Thus ta' 't muj'a, let us see. HARRINGTON] TIIVA LANGUAGE, DIALECT OF TAOS 3/ The question requires formal indication unless it contains some interrogative pronoun or adverb. Both positive and negative direct questions are introduced by xa^ or pa, xa" being the more com- mon. If quoted the quotative follows. Ihus xu su zva mu" pji" inu'' , will (he) not see, (he) asked. The indirect question requires two verb clusters ; see below. The following clusters may be used only in conjunction with con- plementary clusters. They may be called infinitive forms. (i) Real infinitives end in Ja'i. Negation must be expressed by the complementary verb. Thus 'dmduhitil tifnu^ja'i, I want to see him. (2) Indirect question infinitives positive end inja 'i ; negative end in mi" 'i. They must be preceded by fa. Thus itidl f'la 'a" fa mii^ja'i, you i me asked whether (he) saw (him). (3) Unreal infinitives end in japua 'i. Negation must be expressed by the complementary verb. Thus Jia" fa'a'a" fi'i mitjapfia'i, it is a pos.sibility that you 2 could have seen them 3 + . (4) Purpose infinitives end mjaki. Negative must be expressed by the complementary verb. Compare ki, postfix of free emphatic personal pronouns. Thus ^dntci^hfid piimi^jaki, I am going in order to see them 2+. Verb + verb compounding also assists in the expression of tense and mood ; see below. What we term the Tiwa passive is a device for emphasizing the subject. The subject, definite or indefinite, must be in the third person, and finds no prefixed pronominal expression. The noun subject may or may not be expressed and if expressed may or may not be compounded. The object, alias subject, must be expressed by a prefixed subject pronoun. The noun object if present may not be compounded, but stands outside the verb cluster and has its proper termination like a true subject. The object may stand in the first, second, or third person. The various verbs form the passive by postfixing between root and tense postfix if present the various elements/io:, ka, ta, la, ma, each verb employing only one of these elements. Examples of the passive construction are : With defi- nite or indefinite subject unexpressed and object expressed by second person singular prefixed subject pronoun, '«" rmtja, you i 38 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [s. s., 12, 1910 were seen by him, her, it, them, somebody, or something. With definite subject expressed by compounded noun and object expressed by second person singular prefixed subject ^ronown^ a" kbd inn' ja, you I were seen by a bear. With definite subject expressed by uncompounded noun and object expressed by second person singu- lar prefixed subject pronoun, '«" tnu"ja kba na, you i were seen by a bear. With definite subject expressed by compounded noun and object expressed by second person singular prefixed subject pro- noun and by uncompounded noun, sod nd na 'a' koa uiu^ja, you i, a man, were seen by a bear. With definite" subject expressed by uncompounded noun and object expressed by second person singu- lar prefixed subject pronoun and by uncompounded noun, sod nd na 'a'ntu'ja kddna, you i, a man, were seen by a bear. Verb -f- verb compounds in which the second element is the root piid, happen, become, also correspond to English passives ; see below. Simple and composite postfixes describe position, direction, limit, cause, result and other adverbial notions with an exactness totally foreign to English expression. These postfixes are comparable to and in some instances identical with postfixes accompanying noun roots. Examples are : piga", towards in a downward di- rection away from the speaker ; -nd" na, down there within a hollow object ; -;r«" na", in an upward direction away from the speaker as far as. Tiwa expresses a large percentage of verbal conceptions by verb -f- verb compounds. The meaning of the compound is usually distinct and the compound is felt as a simple verb as a result of long usage. Two, three, or even four verb roots may be compounded. The last member frequently denotes the chief or causal activity, yet in some compounds it assumes an almost affixal function. To this last member the first or earlier members may stand in most diverse relation. Not infrequently they express attendant, purpose, or result activity. Frequent as last members are the motion verbs nid", go, 'a", come ; the position verbs k'a, lie ; '«", sit, k'i stand, yw, move about in or at a place ; and the verb pfid, happen, become. Examples are : tod, he separated, pulled off, picked up -f- md", he went = tod md", he fetched ; iTod la", he shook his arms or flapped his HARRINGTON] ' T/WA LANGUAGE, DIALECT OE TAOS 39 wings + ;//«", he went = fMlmd", he flew ; 'tt", he said + ntii, he went = 'ti'^ md", " he up and said ; " xu ma", he was taken care of -\- fi'id, he heca.me =xti mpfitl, he became taken care of; x^lcltt, hook with horns -\-'dzvita, I was tossed = 'a x" I diiwi ta, I was hooked and tossed. What may be termed derivative verbs are formed by adding to verb roots certain elements which fundamentally modify the root meaning, the combination behaving as a verb + verb compound. The relation of the derivative verb to the verb + verb compound, is per- haps analogous to that which the noun + noun compound, the last member of which is of adjectival force, bears to the noun componund. Thus m7i", see, may not only be connected with exceedingly nu- merous pronoun elements, tense, mood, and voice elements, posi- tional, directional, limital, causal, and resultal elements and combina- tions of such elements, but may originate a number of verbs of derivative meaning each one of which permits as many forms as does the simple root i/m". Thus mu" ;««", seem ; tnu'Wud" show. The derivative verb may act as a member of verb -|- verb compounds. Thus xtt, care for ; derivative verb xu ma", be taken care of ; />ua, become ; xu mpsa, (he) became taken care of J/rt" of derivative verbs is probably the same as the tense postfix ;««", denoting per- manent state or continuous activity. Unanalyzed verb roots of two or more syllables may prove to be derivative or compounded verbs. T/te Interjection Taos speech is rich in a class of verb roots which express assent, negation, various states of emotion, volition, and the like. These differ from other verb roots in that they take no affixes, but in their affixless form have the same syntactic usage as verb clusters. Thus ha" mu" xa", yes quotative then, means she said that she was willing to do so. Examples are : ha", yes, all right, also said by a listener during a narration to show interest. na '«, no 'a, expression of surprise 'a", expression of pain 'a" n ta, expression of admiration 4° AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. s., 12, 1910 'u xa", expression of scorn or ridicule, (°a 'a exp ession of gratitude w« da", b gone far from here ! saa, or si'i, expression of desire for attention. Greeting, Swearing, Men's and Women' s Language The common greeting is Jau, said on all occasions. Jafi may be translated by hello, how do you do, good bye. The following forms are also much used : sing, 'a" k'u wa nia", dual ma" n k'u wa ma", 3+plu. ma" k'u wa ma", you live well, progressive tense of k'u, thrive, + wa, be alive, live. The reply is the same, always using of course the proper number. Good bye may be rendered by k'u ka- ma", which seems also to contain the element /&'?<. Pm 'u, "friend," is a much employed salutation. The nearest approach to our swearing is such an expression as na" wa xa n na nd, disgust, or ta 'a tu ti, thou male ancestor. A difference between men's and women's language is noted in the expression : What do you want? Men say hai ? Women say hi'i? Text An incompletely analyzed portion of an animal story with interlinear translation and vocabulary follows. The alphabetic order of the vocabulary is : ', 'a, 'a", 'a, 'a", 'a, 'a", b, d, g, h, 'i, 'i°, j, k, k', k°, k", 1, }, m, n, '6, p, p', p°, s, t, t', t\ f, t", u, "u", w, x, X". KalhQ'u hat Pa"}ia'u Old She-Wolf and Old She-Deer 'A"nna°e'iajawa'i with Reference to Them 2 It Is Told Xa" ma^n kaUiu'u wi t°6 m 'a°m 'u p'id 1 ga° Then in earlier time Old She- Wolf she narratival lived her 2-|- little ones with haba pa°nu'u wi t°6 m 'a"!!! 'u p'ialga". Hu xu and Old She-Deer she narratival lived her 2 1- little ones with. So then ma° ka 1 liii 'u wi wa n hiia pa° riti 'ujia after a while Old She- Wolf she narratival approached the old she-deer t°5 n t°a. Hu xu : hi 'a° t'a ht'ia mu" xa" she lived where. So then: "What you 1 are doing ?" quotative then wi '11" ma. she (the wolf) narratival said to her (the deer). HARRINGTON] TIIVA LANGUAGE, DIALECT OF TAOS 4 1 Hi 'awat'ama". Jadu 'at°6m 'a na° m 'up°ia Iga". " Anything I am not doing. Here I live my 2+ little ones with." Ta° t"uaha niu° 'it°6ja mu° xa° kalliu'u Hortatory together quotative they 3-f live shall quotative then Old She-Wolf wi tu° hua. Ha" mu° xa". Hu xu t°6 ji she narratival said. Yes quotative then. So then day every 'a°nnilat°6ama°hua. Hu xu they 2 quotative wood pull off or pick up went. So then ' a° n la t°6a ma" na° ' u ha la they 2 wood pull off or pick up went when, almost wi xua ka hiia. she (the wolf) narratival was biting her (the deer).' Hu xu pa° liu 'u na hu 'i wi 'u 'u" ma° hua : So then the old she-deer thus them 2+ she narratival little ones tell went : Juhi kalliu'u hat ' a wi hu ta ha" . "Perhaps (by) Old-She-Wolf very soon 1 narratival killed be shall soon. Hu XU 'aixa°n hi ja 'uma°na° m tuakaMa" So then incase perhaps hither them 2-|- inanimate she for you 2-f pieces of meat brings n, ma°nxak'iii k fi li li m 16 ja ma", 'aita°n when, you 2 roast put when it in a state of making a s-s-s sound sizzle goes, in that case XU ina°nnak'alpu°. Haba 'a°m'uwa'in then you 2 not eat shall. And (by) her 2+ little ones hi 'an k ma°n tok'uju 'i by (having done) what then you 2 2 + spots are pretty having ma''nt"'ia'a''la n, ka-nkana 'a°nk6ak"il ta ka xu you 2 asked are when, '(By) our 2 mother we 2 ( in ) smoke shut down in were because hu ' a° n to k' u ju ma" mu° ma° pa° n ' u° ma° ja. thus we 2 (as regards) 2 -[-spots pretty are permanently,' quotative you 2 them 2 -(- say go shall. Hu xu 'a°wa°n huta 'imau xu raa'pa" n k°i 1 taja. So then they in the same manner they 3-|-wish then you 2 them 3 -j- shut down in will. Hu'an ma°nu ma° n x°ia p ma" ja wa k ta'alulin^ So (doing) after you 2 run go shall to that far place down the male ancestors 'i'a"naga°. Hu xu nia° n su xu m pua ja. they 3 + sit or stay in where down where. So then you 2 will cared for become will" ' In play. ' It is believed that the ancestors and unborn progeny of deer are kept underground in a lake or kiva situated far northwest of Taos whence they are occasionally driven forth for the benefit of the Indians. 42 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. s., 12, 1910 Vocabulary 'a, in ta'aluli, male ancestor. 'a, in hi'ana", having done something, and hii'ana", so doing. 'ai, in 'ai ta°na°, in that case, 'ai xa° na°, in case. 'ai ta° n, see 'ai ta" na° 'ai ta° na", conjunction, in that case. 'ai xa° n, see 'ai xa° na". ' 5.1 xa" na° conjunction, in case. 'a°, first and third person dual pronoun element in 'a''na°, we 2, they 2. 'a°, second person sing, prefixed subject pronoun, you i. 'a", third person pronoun element in 'a°ma°, his, her, or its, 2+ ani- mate, and 'a"wa°na", he, she, it, they. 'a", in t"ia'a°, ask. 'a°m, see 'a''ma°. 'a°ma'', third person sing. 2+ animate prefixed possessive pronoun, his, her, or its, 2 + animate. 'a''n, see 'a" na° 'a° na°, first and third person dual prefixed subject pronoun, we 2, they 2. 'a°wa°n, see 'a''wa"na°. 'a"wa°na°, third person sing., dual, and plu. free emphatic personal pronoun, he, she, it, they. 'a", verb, sit, stay, be. 'a, first person sing, prefixed subject pronoun, I. 'd, first person sing, pronoun element in 'ana" ma", my 2-|- animate. 'ana"m, see, 'ana" ma". 'ana" ma", first person singular 2+ animate prefixed possessive pro- noun, my 2 4- animate. 'i, first and third person 3+ plural prefixed subject pronoun, we 3+, they 3 + . 'i, prefixed subject -f object pronoun, he, she, or it, them 2 + . 'i, postfix denoting possession or inherent quality, in ma" n t5 k'u ju'i, you 2 2 + spots are pretty having ; often preceded by wa, as in 'a" m 'u wa 'i na", her (own) 2 + little ones. 'u, noun, smallness, little one, little thing; compounded it acts as a "diminutive" expressing smallness, prettiness, dearness, oldness. With terminations 4 b, sing, 'u 'una, plu. 'u'uniima". 'u, third person 2 + plu. inanimate pronoun element in the referen- tial pronoun 'uma"na" ma", them 2+ inanimate he, she, or it, for you 3. HARRINGTON] TIWA LANGUAGE, DIALECT OF TAOS 43 'u, in na" 'u, when. 'u ma° na° m, see 'u ma° na° ma°. 'unia"na°ma°, composite referential pronoun, then 2+ inanimate he, she, or it, for you 2. 'u", verb, say, tell. ba, in ha ba, but. ba°, in x°iaba°, run. da°, in ha da", enough, and ja da", here. ga°, directional and positional postfix, down (to) where. ga", apparently without the meaning "down" in p°ial ga°, with. ha, in ha ba, but, ha da", enough, and ha la, almost. ha, in f'uaha, together. haba, conjunction, but, also, and. ha da", adverb and conjunction, enough, already, soon, and now, and then, and also, and. ha la, adverb, almost, less, least. ha t, see ha da". ha", interjection, yes. ha", tense postfix denoting immediate futurity. hi, free indefinite pronoun, anything, something, what, perhaps. It also occurs in hi ana", by having done what, and juhi, maybe. hi 'an, see hi 'ana". hi 'ana", free indefinite pronoun, by having done something, by having done what, why, how. hu, adverb, thus, so, and so. hu, verb, kill. hu 'an, see hu 'ana". hu 'ana", adverb, so doing. hua, tense suffix denoting progressive or continued activity ; the corresponding negative postfix is ma". hu ta, adverb, in the same manner (hu, thus + ta, down in). ja, adverb, hither ; also in ja da", here. ja, a future, imperative and, passive verb postfix. ja, in 15 ja, make a sizzling sound. ja da", adverb, here. ja du, see ja da". ji, distributive postfix meaning every, as in t°6 ji, every day. ju, adverb, thus, in ju hi, perhaps. ju, in k'uju, be pretty. juhi, adverb, perhaps (ju, thus + hi, something, perhaps). 44 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. s., 12, 1910 k, see ga" and xa°. ka, in ka la°, wolf. ka, noun, mother; with terminations 4 a, sing, kana, plu. kanama"; ka, a passive verb postfix, ka, in xuaka, bite. kala°, noun, wolf; with terminations 4 c, sing, kalana, plu. ka 1 a na ma". kalHu'u, noun compound, little, pretty, nice or old wolf female; used as a proper name, hence without termination. ka°, first person dual pronoun element in ka° na°, of us 2. ka". In ka" la", bring. ka"la°, verb, bring. ka" n, see ka'' na". ka° na°, first person dual sing, animate prefixed possessive pronoun, of us 2. koa, noun, smoke; with terminations i b, sing. k5a'ana, particle or portion of smoke, plu. koa 'ana, smoke. k'a, in k'ala", eat. k'ala", verb, eat. k'u, in k'uju, be pretty. k'ui, verb, place, put. k'uju, verb, be pretty. k''i, in ki la", shut up. k°i 1, see k"i la". k"i la", verb, shut up, enclose. 1, see la". la, in ha la, almost. la, a passive verb postfix. la", in kala", wolf. la", in p°ia 1 ga", with. la", the second syllable of several verb roots. la, noun, wood ; with terminations 1 a, sing. lana, a piece ol wood, plu. fa na, wood. li, in ta 'atuli, male ancestor. Ii,.in t'i X\ li, make a s-s-s sound. liu, noun, female, woman, wife ; with terminations 3 b, sing. Jtiu'una, plu. liu 'una". Id, in to ja. 16 ja, verb, make a sizzling sound, sizzle, boil. lu, in ta 'a lu fi, male ancestor. HARRINGTON] TIIVA LANGUAGE, DIALECT OF TAOS 45 m, see ma°. ma, an aorist tense postfix. maii, verb, wish, want, love. ma°, second person dual pronoun element in ma" na", you 2, ma" pa" na°, you 2 them 3+ , 'u ;««" nat ma", them 2+ inanimate he, she, or it, for you 2. ma", perhaps of plural force in 'an"ma, my 2 + animate, 'a" ma", her 2+ animate, ' u ma" na" wa", them 2+ inanimate he, she, or it, for you 2; ma°, a verb postfix denoting permanence of state or continuity of ac- tivity ; it also forms derivative verbs, as mu", see, mu° ma", be seen, appear, seem ; xu, care for, xu ma", be taken care of ma° n, see mat na". ma" na", second person dual prefixed subject pronoun, you 2. ma" pa" n, see ma" pa" na". ma" pa" na", prefixed subject + object pronoun, you 2 them 2. ma", verb, go ; often used with almost formative force. ma", tense postfix denoting progressive or continued activity used with the negative ; the corresponding positive postfix is hua ; perhaps identical in origin with ma", go. ma", in ma" na", earlier, later. ma" n, see ma" na". ma''na", adverb, denotes difference in time, earlier, later, before, after, ago, from now, a little while ago, after a while. ma" nu", see ma° na". mu", adverb, quotative element following direct and indirect quota- tions; it serves the same purpose as English quotation marks or "said he." n, see na". n, by progressive assimilation for m in t°o n t°a ; see m. na, noun termination in 4 a, sing, ka na, mother, and 4 b, sing, pa" fill 'una, old she-wolf. na, locative postfix used with sing, nouns and with verbs, in, in there, in where. na, by retrogressive assimilation for wa in ma" n na ka 1 pu", you 2 not eat shall. naga", composite locative postfix used with nouns or verbs, in + down, down in there, down in where (na, in -f ga", down). na", noun termination in 3 a, plu. ta 'alu li na", male ancestors ; also used as noun plural sign with possessive pre- and postfixes in 'a" m 'u wa 'i na", her 2+ little ones. 46 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. s., 12, 1910 na", prefixed third person subject pronoun indefinite, it, they (indefinite), as in na"t"iaja, it is said, or they (indefinite) say. na", in the pronouns 'a°wa°na°, he, she, it, they, ka°na", of us 2 sing., ma"na'', you 2, ma° pa° na°, you 2 them 2 animate, 'u ma° na° ma°, them 2+ inanimate he, she, or it, for you 2. na", adverb or conjunction, then, when; also in na°'u, when, 'ii ta° na", in that case, 'ai xa° na", in case, hi 'a na°, by having done some- thing then, hu'ana", so doing then, and ma° na", earlier, later. na", in wa na", approach. na" 'u, adverb or conjunction, when. ni, by retrogressive assimilation for wi in 'a"n nila t°64 ma" hui, they 2 quotative wood pull off or pick up went. nu, see na". p, see ba". pa", noun, deer ; with te minations 4 a, sing, pa" na, plu. pa" na ma". pa", third person 2 + plu. pronoun element in ma" pa" na", you 2 them 2 animate. pa"Iiu'u, noun compound, little, pretty, nice, or old wolf female; used as a proper name, hence without termination ; with terminations 4 b, sing. pa"Iiu 'u'una, plu. pa"nu 'u 'u nama°. piia, verb, happen, become. pu", future and imperative verb postfix used with the negative ; the corresponding postive postfix is ja. p°ia, in pTa 1 ga°. p°ia. 1 ga", noun postfix denoting association or accompaniment, with. su, tense prefix denoting definite future time, placed after the prefixed pronoun and narratival element. t, see da". ta, in ta'aluli, male ancestor. ta, locative postfix used with sing, nouns and with verbs, down in, down at ; it occurs in hu ta, in the same manner, and 'a" n k6ak"i 1 ta ka we 2 (in) smoke shut down in were. ta, a passive verb postfix. ta'alufi, noun, father's or mother's father or more remote male ancestor ; with terminations 3b, sing, ta 'a lu li 'i na, 3a, plu. ta 'a tu \\ na°. ta", hortatory modal element preceding the future of verbs. ta", in 'ai tii" na", in that case. to, noun, spot; with terminations i b, sing, to'ona, plu. to '6 na. tua, noun, meat ; with terminations i a, sing, tui na, morsel of meat, plu. tua na, meat. HARRINGTON] TIIVA LANGUAGE, DIALECT OF TAOS 47 tu°, verb, say. t'a, verb, do. t°a, locative postfix used with sing, nouns and with verbs, in, at, there, where. t°6, noun, day ; with terminations i a, sing. t°o na, plu. fo na. t°6, verb, live in a house, dwell, live ; compare na° fo, house. t°6a, verb, separate, pull off, pick up. t°6ji, noun with distributive postfix, every day. t'i, in t'ilili, make a s-s-s sound, dissimilated from the two following syllables. t'ilifi, verb, make a s-s-s sound (onomatope). t'i li li ma", derivative verb, be in a state of making a s-s-s sound, sizzle. t"ia, verb, say, tell. t"'ia, 'a°, verb, ask. t"ua, in fMha, together. f'uaha, adverb, together. wa, noun postfix denoting posssession. wa, verb prefix denoting negation placed before the root and after the prefixed pronoun and tense prefix, and requiring peculiar tense post- fixes. wa, in wa na°, approach. wan, see wana". wana°, verb, approach. wa°, in a° wa° na°, he, she, it, they. wa, free demonstrative pronoun element denoting greater remoteness. wa ga°, adverb, to that far place down. wa k, see wa ga°. wi, narratival modal element indicating that the statement does not originate with the speaker, placed before the root and the negative and tense prefix and after the prefixed pronoun. xa, verb, roast. xa°, adverb and conjunction then, when, whenever, since, because, therefore, you know. xa°, in 'ai xa" na", in case. xu, see xa°. xu, verb, care for. xua, in xua ka, bite. xiiaka, verb, bite. xu ma°, derivative verb, be taken care of 48 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. %., 12, 1910 x°ia, in x°Ia ba°, run. x°ia ba", verb, run. x°ia p, see x°ia ba". SUMMARY Tiwa is a moderately polysynthetic language of the same general type as Ute or Nahua. Salient features are : phonetic system characterized by clear and not violent sounds with absence of not etymologically synthetic consonant groups ; preponderance of one syllabled root and affix elements ; notable lack of the processes of internal change in elements and unimportance of reduplication ; denoting of root modification both by prefixation and postfixation, the latter process perhaps predominating ; remarkable development of root compounding, the compound forming with its affixes a single cluster ; abundant formal expression of position, direction, and relation, but suppression of shape, quantity, and quality notions ; incomplete and imperfect expression of animate and inanimate gender, of singular, dual and plural number, of subjective, objective, and referential case accomplished chiefly by pronouns and never by case-affixes, of first, second, and third person, and of a great variety of tense and mood ideas ; persistent emphasis of the object by means of compounding or passive construction ; and elaborate development of syntax by means of conjunctive elements. Affinities of Tanoan with Nahuatlan, Kiowan, and Keresan will be discussed in a pre- liminary way in a separate paper. School of American Arch.«ology, Sante Ft, New Mexico.