Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/englislihistoryfoOOgardrich BV S. R. CARni.VHR. ENGLISH HISTORY FOR YOUNG FOLKS. B.C. 55— .A. O. 1880. i6mo. Illustrated. ! INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF ENG- LISH HISTORY. 121110. BV GARDIXER AND MULLINGER. ENGLISH HISTORY FOR STUDENTS. Being the Introduction to the .Study of English Historj'. By .S. R. G.ARDINER. With a critical and biographical account of the Authorities in English History, by J. Bass Mullinger. 8vo. English History for Students BEING THE INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF ENGLISH HISTORY BY SAMUEL R. GARDINER, Hon. LL.D. PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY IN KING'S COLLEGK, LONDON AND HONORARY STUDENT OF CHRISTCHURCH IVI'J H A CRITICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNT OF AUTHORITIES BY J. BASS MULLINGER, M.A. ST. John's college, Cambridge NEW YORK IIKNRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1881 T:)Pr3a BERNARD MOSES CONTENTS. PART L INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. CHAPTER I. Jntrodndory — Tlie Aiuicnt ]Voi la 1. What is history? , , « 2. Savage tribes , < . 3. Introduction of slavery , . . 4. The great Asiatic monarchies 5. Governments established (7 them not perm 6. The Greek republics 7. Rome's cons' itutional system , , 8. Roman patriotism . . , 9. Italy united under Rome . . 10. Rome the head of the nations . 11. The Empire and the Roman Law . 12. Abstract conception of Rome 13. The individual sacrificed to the society . 14. The Christian Church 15. Organisation of the Church , . 10. The Empire and the CliLirch 17. Fall of the Empire in the West . iS. The Church and the feutunic coji'iuer' rs 781088 C0.\ 7I.XTS. CHAPTER II. The English Settlement and the English Kingship, 449-1066 I The Roman province of Britain , , 2. The English settlements . . 3. Institutions of the settlers 4. Changes produced by war . 5. The King and the Witan 6. Administration of justice , . 7. Moral needs of the population . 8. The Christian missionaries in England 9. The monastic system . . , 10. The penitential system , . 11. Church organisation 12. The Church compared with the Empire 13. Church and State 14. Union of the kingdoms under Egbert 15. The Danish wars 16. The struggle of the West Saxon kings with the Danes 17. Growth of kingly authority 18. Growth of a military aristocracy 19. The Eorls superseded by the Thegns 20. The change gradual . 2 1 . The King and the Witenagemot 22. Dunstan's ecclesiastical policy 23. The secular laws of Edgar . 24. Ethelred and Edmund 1 25. Cnut's reign . . 26. Edward the Confessor . 27. The House of Godwin , . CHAPTER III. Norman and Angevin Orga/iisation, 1 066-1 199. 1. North and South ■ . . , , , 2. New ideas in Italy and France .... 3. Norman adaptability ..... 4. Norman organisation in England . • . 5. The national kingship ..... 6. Institutions of the first Norman kings . , , 7. Their imperfection ...... 8. The Cluniac Kelorms . • ' . » COXTKXTS 9. The llildebiandine Paiwcy nml the Conque 10. The spiritual and the temp Tal pow 11. The Church under Wilham Ruius 12. Anselm and Monasticism 13. Anselm and William Rufus 14. Anselm and Henry I. 15. Principles involved in the quan 16. The anarchy of Stephen . 17. The first Acts of Henry H. . 18. Military reforms . 19. Judicial reforms , . 20. Political arrangements , 21. The quarrel with Becket , 22. England and the Crusades 23. Richard I. and Hubert Walter CHAPTER VI. Parliamentary Organisation, 1 199-1327. 1. Contrast between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries 2. King John ..... 3. The three quarrels of the reign . . , 4. The quarrel with the King of France , 5. The quarrel with the Pope , . . 6. The Papacy of Innocent III. , . 7. The quarrel with the baronage . . . b. Magna Carta .... 9. New institutions needed . . 10. Tentative efforts .... 11. Germ of the representative system 12. Accession of Henry III. and the modified Charter 13. Extinction of Papal influence 14. The P>iars ..... 15. Simon de Montfort .... 16. His scheme of a Representative Parliament . 17. The early years of Edward I. 18. The national and the feudal kingship 19. Edward I. and Wales .... Edward I. and Scotland . . . Edward I. and France .... The dispute with the Clergy and the Baronage Confirmatio Cartarum .... Reisin of Edward II. , , , C(hX7E.\ TS. CHAPTER V. Coiislitiilional Kingship, 1327-1485. 1. The Church and Slate of ihe Middle Ages . 2. Decline of the Papacy . . . 3. National unity .... 4. Jhe connexion between England and Flanders 5. The beginning of the Hunted Years' War 6. The Constitution of the House of Commons 7. Unity of the nation 8. Growing strength of the Commons . 9. Chivalry . . . , 10. The labourers . , , 11. Piers the Ploughman 12. The Black Death and the Feasants" Revolt 13. Wyclif's principles 14. Wyclif's failure . . . 15. The Conservative reaction , , 16. The Revolution of 1399 . , 17. Gradual Emancipation of the Serfs 18. The decay of the baronage . 19. Causes of the rise of the Tudor Monarchy CHAPTER VI. The Tudor Munarchy, 1 485 1 60. 1. Reign of Henry VII. , , , 2. The Star Chamber # . . « 3. f:nd of the Middle Ages 4. The Italian Renaissance . . 5 The separation from Rome . . . 6. Growth of despotism .... 7. The Protestants .... 8. Character of the age .... 9. The king's supremacy , , , 10. Edward VI. .... , 11. Mary ..... 12. The religious difficulty at the accession of Elizabeth 13. The Elizabethan Compromise , 14. The Elizabethan Commonwealth 15. Elizabeth on her defence against the Catholics 16. 'Jhe Jesuit Propaganda .... 17. rc:sccuiion of the Catholics . CONTENTS. 18. Elizabeth and the Puritans 19. The Elizabethan Church 20. Elizabeth and the national spirit 21. Elizabeth and the Renaissance 22. England's position in Europe 23. Elizabeth and Parliament 24. Growing importance of Parliament CHAPTER VIL T/ie Struggle between King and Parliament, 1603- 165 3 1. Necessity of liberty 2. The first years of James I. . 3. The Spanish Alliance 4. Domestic Government . . 5. Buckingham and Prince Charles 6. War policy of Charles I. 7. Tlie House of Commons and the Church 8. The King without Parliament 9. The Puritan Opposition . . 10. The Constitutional Opposition , 11. Arbitrary government . , 12. The resistance in Scotland . 13. The beginning of the Long Parliament 14. Breach between King and Parliament 15. The King's supporters . 16. The supporters of the Parliament . 17. The Civil War . 18. Cromwell and the Sects . . 19. Supremacy of the army . , CHAPTER Vni The Protectorate, the Restoration. 1653-1688. 1. Aims of the Protectorate . . 2. The Rights of Minorities 3. Government by the army . . 4. Government of the Restoration . 5. The Divine Right of Kings . , 6. Character of the Restoration 7. Prospects of Toleration . , 8. Antagiinism to France and the Papacy 9. The I^\c!usion Rill . and the Revolution. CO \ TEXTS. 10. Reign of James II. 11. The Revolution of 1688 PAOB 160 161 CHAPTER IX. The Ra'olution Sntlemciit, and the Ride vj the JVh/'g Aristocracy, 1688-17 54. 1. Supremacy of the House of Commons . « • 2. Liberty of the Pulpit a id the Press .... 3. The sphere of Government restricted 4. Immediate results of the predominance of the House of Commoi 5. Cabinet Government ..... 6. Tie Eiouse of Commons and the Nation 7. Effacement of the Tory party . . • . 8. Influence of the large landowners 9. The Whigs and the Dissenters .... 10. Hogarth and Fielding . . . t • 163 J 64 165 166 106 168 169 170 171 173 CHAPTER X. The Restoration of Authority, 1 754-1 y 8g. I. Premonitions o( change ..... 176 2. Wesleyanism ...... '77 3- William Pitt 178 4- The decline of the Whig Aristocracy '79 5- The accession of George III. .... 179 6. Edmund Burke ...... 181 7- The expulsion of Wilkes, and Anurican taxation '«3 8. Comparison between Burke and Bacon . 1S4 9- The new Tories ...... i«5 10. The \merican War ..... 187 II. The Coalition Ministry ..... 188 12. Pitt's Ministry ....•• 189 CHAPTER XI. The hijliieuce of the French Revolution, 1789- 1881. T. New ideas in France ..... 2. The effect in England ..... 3. The last years of Pitt's Ministry .... 4 The war with France ..... 5. The Foreign Policy of the Ministries after the war . . 6. Domestic J olj.jy nfier the war .... 192 193 193 194 196 199 CONTENTS. PART 11. AUTHORITIES. INTRODUCTORY. PAGH Works on the comparative study of language : Plc'ct, Max Miiller, Olijihant, Isaac Taylor. Works on the compakative HISTORY OF institutions: Sir H. Maine, Freeman, Kemble, Stubbs. The Original Sources. — Biographies of our his- torical WRITERS : John Boston, John Leland, John Bale, John Pits, William Cave, Sir James Ware, Thomas Tanner. Later pub- lications : Macray, Prof. Morley, Sir T. D. Hardy. Editors : Archbishop Parker, Sir H. Savile, the Decern Scrip/ores, Henry Wharton, Thomas Hearne, Fulman, Gale, Hall, Sparke, Kennet, the Acta Sanctorum, Migne's Patrologia, Archaeologia, Ellis's Letters. The Rolls Series. Historical societies : Roxburgh, Bannatyne, Maitland, and Abbotsford Clubs; Surtees Society, English Historical Society, Camden Society ; Parker, Percy, and Shakespeare Societies ; Spalding Club ; Aelfric and Chetham Societies ; Caxton and Early English Text Societies. State Papers : Rymer's Foedera ; Rolls of Parliament ; Publications of the Record Commissioners ; Corres- pondence of Henry VIII. ; Calendars of State Papers. Special Subjects : Cobbett's Parliamentary History ; Earlier Collections of Parliamentary Debates ; Hansard ; Journals of the Houses of Parlia- ment ; Strickland's Lives of the Queens of England ; Green's Lives of the I'.vglish Pi-incesses ; Fobs's Lives of the Judges ; Camp\)e\Vs Lives of the Lord Chancellors and oi The Lord Chief Justices ; Le Neve's Fasti ; Macpherson's Annals of Commerce ; Porter's Progress of the Nation ; Leone Levi's History of British Coi/u/ierce ; James's A^aval History, The Uarleian Miscellany 207-231 CHAPTER L Authorities to A.D. 450. Contemporary Writers.— The Classical Writers ; Ltinerariujit o{ Antoninus ; Notitia Dignitatutn. Non-Contemporary Writers. — Gildas ; Bede ; his Ldistoria Ecclesiastica ; editions by Smith, Moberly, Mayor and Lumby. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ; edi- tions by Thorpe and Earle ; GcofTrey of Monmouth ; influence of his CONTENTS. PACK IJistoria; llie de Situ BrUanniac; spuriousness of the work; the Monumenta Hislorica Britaiuiica. Hiibner's Inscriptions. Modern Writers : Works on Roman, British, and Saxon Antiquities by Horsley, Bruce, Algernon Herbert, and Stukeley ; Articles by Dr. Guest ; other Authorities for points in dispute. The Ancient British Church. Camden's Britannia ..... 232-244 CHAPTER n. A.D. 450 to the Norman Conquest. Contemporary Writers. — Growing importance of the Anglo- Saxon 1 hronicle ; Asser, Ethelwerd, the Eminae Encomium, the Vita Aedwardi ; Lives of Wilfrid and St. Cuthbert ; Aldhelm, Alcuin, St. Dunstan, Non-Contemporary Writers.— Marianus Scotus, Simeon of Durham, Henry of Huntingdon, Ralph of Diceto, Peter Langtoft, William of Malmesbury, Florence of Worcester ; Lives of Edward the Confessor ; Penitentials ; Lives of St. Dunstan; Early English Legislation; the Pseudo-Ingulphus. Modern Writers.— Palgrave, Kemble, Stubbs, Freeman, Waitz, Worsaee; Freeman's Norman Conquest; Bright, Milman, and C huich ; Dictio7tary of Christian Biography ; Wright's Biographia ; ^inhh^'s Select Charters', Dagdult' sMouasticon . , , 245-257 CHAPTER HL F?vm the Norman Conquest to the Accession of King yohn. Aithorities for Norman History.— Dudo of St. Quentin, \N'd!iam of Jumieges, the Ro7nan de Ron, William of Poitiers ; the Bayeux Tapestry ; Guy of Amiens. Contemporary Writers on English History. — Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Eadmer, Geoffrey Gaimar, Oidericus Vitalis, William of Malmesbury ; the Gesta Ste- pkani; the Hexham Chroniclers; Aethelred of Rievaulx ; Chronicles of Melrose and Lanerco^t ; William of Newbury ; the Gcsta Regis Hcnrici; Roger Hoveden, Ralph of Diceto, Richard of Devizes, Hugo Candidas, Gervase of Canterbury ; other sources for reign of Richard I. ; Giraldus Cambrensis, Walter Map and John of Salis- bury- ; other works of Giraldus ; Poem on the Conquest of Ireland ; Works relating to the Early History of Ireland ; contemporary Satirists ; Domesday Book ; contemporary Biographies. Dialogns de Scaccario. NoN-CoNTEMPORARY Writer.— John of Bromp- lon. Modern Writers. — Freeman, Stubbs, Guizot, Bryce ; Lives of Lanfranc, Anselm. Beket, and Hugh of Lincoln ; Sismondi ; Cox's Crusades ; Stubbs's Plantagcnets 25S 269 CONTEA'JS, xiii CHAPTER IV. I'/om the Accession of King yohn to the Death of Edn'ard II. PACK Contemporary Writers. — The ' Chronicle ' and the 'History;' advance in historical composition ; the School of St. Albans ; Matthew Paris ; his Historia Major; John de^ Ceila and Roger of Wendover ; William Rishanger, Nicholas Trivet, Walter de Coventry ; the monastic Annales ; the Annals of Burton, the Annals of Winchester, the Annals of Wavcrley, the Annals of Dunstable, the Annals of Osney ; 1 homas Wykes ; the Annals of Worcester ; John of Trokelowe, the Monk of Malmesbury, Thomas de la Moor, Adam of Murimuth, Walter Hemingford. History of Gilds ; the City Records of London,— Z/^fr ^i? Antiquis Lcgibus, Liber Albus, and Liber Custumariim ; other Records of London, — Domesday of St. PauVs, Chroniques de London, the Chronicles of London ; Gregory's C/ironicie. NoN-CoNTEMPORARY WRITERS. — Thomas Walsingham, Samuel Daniel ; Royal and Episcopal Letters ; Papal Letters ; Letters of Grosseteste; Roll of Bishop Swinfield ; Wright's Political Songs', Authorities for Welsh History. Autho- rities FOR Scottish History. Modern Writers. — Freeman, Guizot, Pauli, Stubbs, Brewer, Miiman, Hallam, Mullinger ; Lives of Simon de Montfort; Hook's Archbishops .... 270 283 CHAPTER V. From the Accession, of Ediuard III. to the Death of Richard III. Contemporary Writers. — Adam of Murimuth [contintied], Robert Avesbury, Higden and John of Trevisa, Heniy Knighton, Chronicle by a Monk of St. Albans ; Walsingham's LListoria ; French Chroni- clers on Richard H. ; Adam of Usk, John Capgrave, Thomas Olterbnurne ; Lives of Henry V. ; Chronique de Normandie ; the Siege of Roue7t; John Amundesham, J<'hn Whethamstede ; other Chronicles for Reign of Henry VI. ; Bekynton's Correspondence ; John Harding, Ric ard Grafton, Jean de Waurin, William of Worcester. Jean de Bel, Froissart, Enguerrand de Monstrelet; Robert Blondel ; Historic of the Arrivall of Edward IV. ; the Paston Letters ; Richard of But}-, Reginald Pecock, Continuation of the Croyland Chronicle ; Warkw orth's Chronicle ; More's Richard LIL., Papers of R' chard HI. ; Docket Book of Edward V. ; Robert Fabyan ; contemporary writers on Wyclif and Lollardism, Wright's Poliiual Poeiiis. Non Contemporary Writers.— Polydore Ver- xiv COX TEXTS. PAGB yil, Hall, and Redman. Modkrn Wruf.rs.— Lives by Paiiii, Gaird- nc-r, Longman, Wallon, Freeman, Brougham, Hallam ; Walcott's Ityie^iam; Anstey's Muniiiicnla \ Hook's Archbishops; Shirley, Clairdner, Geficken, Kirk; \\oge\'^'s History of Prices . . 284 301 CHAPTER VI. Froff/ till- Accession of Henry VII. to tJie Deat/i of Elizabeth. Contemporary Writers. — Polydore Vergil and Hall (con- f-nned) ; Bernaid Andre ; -the Venetian 'Relation'; the London Chronicle Harpsfield and Cardinal Pole ; Wriothesley's Chronicle ; More's Utopia and Starkey's England; influence of the Reforma- tion ; Holinshed's Chronicles ; John Stowe, his Stanmary, Annates, and Survey of London ; John Foxe, his Acts and Monuments ; minor works relating to the Reformation; Remains of Edward VI. ; Machyn's Diary; Chcnicle of Queen Jane; I^ives of More and Wolsey ; Hooker's Life of Carew ; Camden's Life of Elizabeth ; the State Papers ; Calendars of the State Papers ; the Zurich Letters ; the Brief Discourse ; Martin Marprelate ; the Reformed Church in Scotland, — Peterkin and Calderwood ; Archbishop Spottis\voode ; Hanlwicke Papers; Digges's Cotnplcat Ambassador; Cabala; the Somers Tracts ; Proceedings of the Elizabethan Parliaments ; the Burleigh Papers ; Granvelle's Correspondence ; Teulet's French Despatches ; Noailles Despatches ; State Papers preserved at Venice and Simancas ; materials for the history of Mary, Queen of Scots; literature relating to the Catholics and Jesuits in England ; Winwood's Memorials ; Sydney Papers; Carew Letters ; Harrison's Description of E^t gland; Stubbes's Anatomie of Abuses \ Stafford's Fxaminaiion. NoN-CoNTEMPORARY WRITERS.— Fuller's Church History; Collier's Church History ; 'Qyxx'd^.'^ History of the Reforma- tion ; Le Grand's Histoire du Divorce ; Strype's Ecclesiastical Memorials and Annals of the Reformation; Neal's Luritans ; Dodd's Clmrch ffistory; Hurd's Dialogue. BIOGRAPHIES. — Lives of Henry VTI. and Henry VIII. by Bacon, Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and Sir John H ay ward ; Fiddes' Life of IVolsey; Lewis's Life of Fisher ; Fu ler's IVorthies ; Strype's J-ives; lAoyUCs State IVorthies ; Wood's Athenae Ox>nienscs ; Nichols's Progresses. Ai'THORlTlES FOR Scottish History. Moukkn Writers. — Froude, Ranke, Lin- ^ard, Haii.-ser, Haweis, Hunt, Marsden, Mot ey. Histories of the JcMiil Order. Cobbelt's State Trials. Bruce's History of the East judia Company. Biogra[>hical works by Wordsworth and Seebohm ; Lives of Cranmer, Parker, Cirindal, Whitgift and Xowell ; Lives of .Sir Ciiris.opher Hatton and Davison by Nicol:■^ ; Life of Sir Philip CON TEATS. XV Sidney; literature reliting to Mary, Queen of Scots; Lives of the Devereux, Sir Walter Raleigh, and John Knox ; Cooper's Athevae Catitabrigienses ; note on Sander, c/c' Origme Schisvialis etc. . 302 330 CHAPTER VTI. From the Accession of James I. to the Protectorate. Contemporary Sources. — State Papers of the period : Camden, Wilson, writings of James I., Melros State Papers ; Carew Letters ; Wallington's Diary; the Thomason Collection of Pamphlets; the ' King's Pamphlets ' ; Clarendon's IIisto}y ; Dalrymple's Memorials. Parliamentary RF.coRDS.-Dehates of 1610 ; debates of 1620 and 1621; Lords' Debates of 1621, 1624, and 1626; Rushvvorth's Collec- tions; Clarendon ^Vrt/i? Papers; Debates of 1625; Protests of the Lords ; Verney Papers ; Whitelock's Metnoi-ials ; Thurloe Papers ; May's History; Verney's Notes; Scobell's Collections ; Parliaments of 1640 ; Naison's Collection ; Ormonde Papers ; Clarendon's Short Viczv; Contemporary History of Ireland. SPECIAL Events, &c. — Gsnpowder Plot (Gerard and Jardine) ; Trial of Somerset (Amos); Spanish Marriage (Fray Francisco); Expedition to Rochelle (Lord Herbert of Cherbury) ; Charles and the Covenanters (Balcanqual and Borough); Balfour's Aiiuales; Guthry's Memoirs; History cf Torture (Jardine) ; Milton on Church Reform, the Freedom of the Press, and the Puritan Policy; Strafford's Letters; Ludlow's Memoirs; Holles's yl/i ■/;/(?/;-.?; Walker's Discourses; Sprigg's Aiiglia Rediviva ; Cromwell and Manchester; Letters of Charles and Hen- rietta ; Register of the Visitors of Oxford; Herbert's Memoirs of Charles the First's last yea-s. Foreign Relations, &c. — De la Boderie, Dumont, WinAood, Bassompierre, Venetian Reports ; Sully's Oeconomi:S Royales ; Birch's Historical Fieiv ; Carleton Letters; Rusdorf Despatches. Biographies.— Materials for Li'xs of Prynne and Laud ; Heylin's Life of I.aud; Lives of Hutchin- son, Williams, Birch, Bedell, and the T^ukes of Hamilton ; Auto- biographies of D'Ewes, Sir R. Carey, L)rd Herbert, Lady HaUet, and Mrs. Alice Thornton. Halliwell's Letters ; Correspondence of the Hatton Family; Fairfax Correspondence ; Hamilton Papers ; Baillie's Letters; Welvvood's Memoirs. Later Writers. — Dr. r.irch, Carte, Brodie, Godwin, Lingard, I aac Disraeli, Carlyle, Guizot, John Forster, Gardinei", Ranke, Sanford, Mozley, Burton ; Bancroft's History of the United States ; Nichols's Progresses ; Spedding's Bacon; Masson's Milton ; Lives of Montrose, Prince Rupert, and P'airfax ; Miss Strickland .nnd Mrs. Eveietl Grem . J31 a CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. From the Protectorate to the Revolution. PAGB Contemporary Writers. — Authorities already described. Green's Calendar of State Papers; Burnet's CJrc'w Times; Rennet's j^f^w/^r; Chamberlayne, Sir William Temple, Sir John Reresby, Sir Joseph Williamson, Evelyn, Pe^ys, Narcissus Luttrell, Burton, Rymer. and Dumont ; Sir John Dalrymple's Memoirs ; Despatches of Barillon, Bonrepaux, and the Comte d'Avaux ; Mignet's Collections relating to the Spanish Succession. Biographies. — Baxter's Autobiography ; Calamy's Ejected Ministers ; Boyer's Life of Temple ; Lives by Roger North ; Memoirs of Sir James Turner ; Letters of Mary II. ; Dryden's Poems. Writers of the Present Century. — Fox's flistory of James LI. ; J. S. Clarke's Life of Jaines II. ; Mackintosh, Ma- caulay, Mr. W. E. Forster, Mr. Paget, Marsden, Mr. Hunt, and Dr. Tulloch ; Histories of the Royal Society, by Sprat, Birch, Thomson, and Weld ; Biographies of Sir W. Temple, Grahame of Claverhouse, Lord Shaftesbury, Blake and Penn ; Writers on Dryden . . 358-370 CHAPTER IX. The Revohition Settlement and the Rule of the Whig Aristocracy. Correspondence and Papers. — Correspondence of the Duke of Shrewsbury; Macpherson's Original Papers; Carstair's State Papers. Contemporary Writers. — Locke On Toleration ; Swift's Journal and History ; his Political Pamphlets ; Bolingbroke's Works and Correspondence; Boyer, Oldmixon, and Tindal ; Fletcher of Saltoun; Lord Hervey's Memoirs, and Horace Walpole's Letters ; Ker of Kers- land ; Dr. King's Anecdotes. Foreign Affairs. —Memoirs of the Duke of Berwick ; Z^/Z^-jof William III. ; Marlborough's Z>?5/aA7i^j ; Literature relating to the Duchess of Marlborough. Non-contem- porary Writer. — Somerville's Reign of Queen Anne. Writers OF THE Present Century. — Archdeacon Coxe, Alison, Earl Stan- hope, and Burton ; Mr. Lecky's England in the Eighteenth Cen- tury. Works 1 elating to the Spanish Succession. The Earls of Stair ; Lives of Carstairs, Pitt, Bentley, and Newton ; Macaulay's Essays ; Nichols's Literary Anecdotes ; Wordsworth's University Life, etc. ; Professor Mayor s Baker ; Mr. Hunt, Leslie Stephen, Messrs. Abbey and Overton ....... 37I-3S3 CONTEXTS. ClIAl'lER X. Contemporary W ki veks. ~ Ca/e^n/ar q/'S/a/c Papas by Mr. Red- ington ; the Grenville. Papers; liie Bedford Correspondence; the Pitt Correspondence ; RTcmoirs of Lord Rockingham ; Correspondence of George III. ; the Mixlnieshtiry Correspondence ; Burke's Correspon- dence, Speeches, and Pamphlets ; the Cormvallis Correspondence ; Romilly's Letters ; Duke of Buckingham's Memoirs of George HI. ; the Rose Correspondence ; the Auckland Correspondence ; Horace Walpole's Memoirs of George II. and George III. ; his Notes on the Debates in Parliament ; the Gentleman^ s Magazine and the Annual Register ; Cavendish's Debates ; the Letters of fiinius ; Bulib Dod- ington's Z'?a;y. Biographies. — Lives oi William Pitt, Burke, C. J. Fox, Clive, Wesley, Lord Mansfield, and Sheridan ; Lord Broug- \y.\w\\ Statesmen of the Reign of George III. LATER Historical ^VR^rERS. — Adolphus, Craik and Macfarlane, Mr. Massey, Sir I'^skine May, Sir G. C. Lewis; Lord Holland's Memoirs; Wright's Ca ica/ure History , . 3S4-395 CHAPTER XI. The Fir/ich Revolution. Contemporary Writers. — Writes already described; lUuke, Mackintosh, and Erskine on the French Revolution ; IJiary and Correspondence of Lord Colchester ; Life and Correspondence of Lord Sidmouth ; Twiss's Life of Lord Eldon ; Yonge's LJfe of L,ord Liverpool; Erskine's Speeches; Lives of Erskine by Brougham and Campbell ; JA-w,??;'^ of Francis Horner ; Brialmont'sZ//t'^y'^F(-/////^- ton ; the Wellington Despatches ; Lives and Correspondence of Nelson and Collingwood ; Life of L.ord Dundonald; Lord Dudley's Lxtters; Eamford's Life of a Radical ; Lives of Lord Londonderry and Sir Charles Stewart by Alison. Latest Historica.1, Writers. — Von Sybel, Alison, Sir William Napier, Mr. Spencer Walpo'e ; Tooke's history of Prices \ Miss M:irtineau's //istoiy of the lUicc : Ur. Pauli's Gesc/iichie hn'.'an fs, etc ;o6 404 INDEX 405 Part T. INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. BY SAMUEL RAVVSON GARDINER. PREFACE THE FIRST PART. The object of the present work is to provide some help for students who, having gone through the ordinary school course, wish to devote themselves to the special study of some part of the history of England. Such persons chiefly require an indication of the books which it would be well for them to study, and that service is rendered to them by Mr. Mullinger, whose work forms the kernel of the volume, and to whom also I offer my hearty thanks for the care with which he looked over the proofs of my part of the book, and for the valuable assistance which he gave me in so doing. What I have attempted to do is to give help of a different kind. For those who wish to make progress in historical study, careful and minute investigation is indispensable. It is only by degrees that the student learns how much his power of judging fairly the characters of history depends upon complete accuracy in the matter of dates and places, A word spoken or a thing done will convey a very dif- ferent impression, as its relation to some other word xxii PREFACE. or action is known or unknown. By knowing this rela- tion the inquirer learns not merely what took place, but how it took place. When he finds how everything follows naturally from that which precedes it, he begins to understand that connection between cause and effect the knowledge of which is the necessary preliminary to ail sober criticism of actions and persons. Yet this is not all. The personalities of history are not merely figures flitting across a stage, of whom it is enough to learn the motives and the actions. They are themselves the result of causes which existed generations before they were born, and influence results for genera- tions after they die. No one, therefore, can really study any particular period of history unless he knows a great deal about what preceded it and what came after it. He cannot seriously study a generation of men as if it could be isolated and examined like a piece of inorganic matter. He has to bear in mind that it is a portion of a living whole which is under his observation. The work of the constructive imagination comes in where the work of investigation ends. In the end this is a work which every man must do for himself He will have to pick out from the manifold facts of history those which seem to him to be more important than the others, and it will never happen that any two men will be precisely agreed as to the relative importance of any set of facts. Yet it may not be altogether useless to those who are girding themselves to the task to have before them an attempt to trace the life of the English nation by one who has at all events given much of his time and thought in an attempt to realise to himself what that life has been. THE STUDY OF ENGLISH HISTORY CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY — THE ANCIENT WORLD. History is the record of change, of the new circum- Chap. stances into which communities of men are brought, and — — of the new ideas called forth by those circumstances and is Historyl** by which circumstances are in turn moulded. Savage tribes have no history, because they know no § \ change. They hunt and fish, or repel their enemies, on Tribel the same soil and under the same climate from generation to generation. The most momentous change which comes over such §3-. Intro- tribes is that brought about by the introduction of slavery, slavery.^ \\hen any body of men felt itself strong enough to utilise the labours of its enemies, it had advanced one step in the direction of mercy, and being now able to spare itself the necessity of toiling for the bare necessaries of life, was able to devote some time to procuring material comforts which would ultimately become the solace of others as well as of themselves. Another step in the same direction was taken when §4- The a race, no longer content with the capture of individual Asiatic slaves, subjected a whole race to its domination, content- ^Xes. ing itself with the exaction of tribute or of personal service in some way which did not involve the complete loss of personal freedom. In such a wa}- arose the great ■-':-.' '- ..:/NTPODUCT/ON TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. Asiatic monarchies which meet us at the dawn of tra- — '. — ditional history, and which are doubtless only advanced types of earlier efforts in the same direction. To some extent both the conquerors and the conquered were the better for what had taken place. The conquered populations composed of many tribes were no longer allowed to wage war with one another. For the first time they enjoyed the blessings of peace, and the material advantages which accompany it. The con- querors had a far greater share in the enjoyments of the world. They learned to practise the virtues of a dominant race, and made some progress in intellectual knowledge. There was organisation of government and of the military force. But it was organisation for the sake of the governors, not for the sake of the governed. There was no amalgamation between the two, no sense of duty urging on the governors to improve the condition of the governed. So long as a subject tribe paid its tribute and did not annoy its neighbours in such a way as to prevent them from paying theirs, they might live as they pleased amongst themselves. What interference there was was simply for the objects of the ruling race. The fairest maidens might be carried off by force or persuasion, to fill the harems of the governing class, as when Esther was brought before Ahasuerus. The good- liest young men might be driven away to fight for that same class, as when Rabshakeh offered two thousand horses to Hezekiah if he would set riders upon them. But each man or woman selected went not to draw the union closer between governors and governed, but to swell the ranks of the governors, just as in later times no benefit has accrued to the subjects of the Ottoman Turks in Europe, by the abduction of women or by the seizure of male children to form the cnrps of Janissaries, THE ANCIENT WORLD. 3 The head of such a government is necessarily despotic. Chap. The members of the governing race are far more in- — __ terested in preserving the strict discipline which alone §s- Gov- ... . . 1 . ,. 1 ernments enables it to retam its sway, than in guarding each established individual of their number against the tyranny or ^ot^pg^ caprices of the monarch. Any special case in which the manent. despot places himself in antagonism with the feeling of the race in general, or of those who immediately sur- -round his person, is easily provided for by his assassina- tion. It is seldom that the dynasty to which such a ruler belongs maintains itself long in power. Doing nothing for the subject races, it has no gratitude to expect from them, and in times of danger they show no eagerness to come to its assistance. When Babylon was taken by Cyrus, the Lady of kingdoms fell in a moment as if it had been swallowed up by an earthquake. Three battles disposed of the Persian empire with almost equal suddenness. It mattered little to the Syrian peasant whether he paid tribute to a Nebuchadnezzar, a Darius, or an Alexander. His own lot was not likely to be improved by any change from one to the other. Very different was the condition of the petty Greek § 6. The states which hurled back the whole weight of the Persian Repubhcs. monarchy in its day of power. In Greece the tribe came into contact with the outer world not by conquest, but by commerce, exploration, and sometimes by piracy. It drew wealth from others without bringing upon itself the task of keeping them in subjection. Its character changed from that of a rural to that of a city commu- nity. The quick-witted thoughtful race occupied every domain of poetry, of oratory, of art, and of philosophy. Athens, the foremost of all the Greek states, was the first to show that the supremacy of the free population over its magistrates could be exercised not by inarticulate shouts or noisy clashing of arms, but b)' deliberate vote B 2 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. after a serious and sustained argument in which anyone _i was permitted to take part. It was a great achievement; but it carried with it its own shadow. If in the Persian monarchy there was no people worthy of the name, in Athens there was no government worthy of the name, no organised institutions which could sufficiently do for the people what Pericles did for them in his lifetime, and which could save them from the alternate rashness and inertness which proved their ruin. If, as a state, Athens was subject to dangers the very opposite to those under which Persia succumbed, her faults as a conqueror were precisely the same as those of Persia. When she converted the leadership of allied states into an imperial sway, she offered them, just as Persia had offered, protection against foreign attack and the cessation of neighbourly wars. She demanded from them, as Persia had demanded, tribute and fidelity. She did not admit them into fellowship with herself or merge her separate existence in that of a mightier whole. The first commonwealth able to solve the problems which Athens and Persia in their several ways had failed rSm to solve was that of Rome. Whilst she was still but a petty community, she had secured the existence of a body of magistrates with large and almost excessive powers. These magistrates, proceeding as they did from annual elections by the whole body of people, were not likely to entertain projects antagonistic to the desires of those by whom they were chosen, whilst their action was steadied and controlled by the moral and, to some extent, the legal superiority of the senate, a body composed of men who had held office in former years, and whose position was therefore the best guarantee for their practical experience and their wise moderation. The Roman state, unlike as it was to the constitutional states of modern Europe, afforded nevertheless the most §7- Rome's Consti- THE ANCIENT WORLD. complete instance of constitutional government which Chap, the world had yet seen. The object of such a govern- ment is to secure as far as possible the carrying out of the general wishes of the governed, after they have passed through the minds of men of superior intelligence and knowledge of affairs. It aims, on the one hand, at placing a check upon the immediate passions and desires of the moment, and on the other hand, at restraining those who are set to guide, from satisfying their own pas- sions and desires in opposition to the distinct wish of the community at large. In some sort indeed this descrip- tion may suit every government which ever existed There are natural forces in every society which place power in the hands of those who are qualified to lead within the limits prescribed by the general feeling. All that any constitutional system can profess to do is to give regularity to the working of natural laws, to facilitate their action and to avoid the shocks which inevitably follow upon any attempt to set them at naught. In law as in science, man is but the servant and interpreter of nature. It was a great achievement to found a constitutional § 8. Ro state, and to bring, as it were, the brain and heart of the commonwealth into due relations with each other. But as even the healthy mind in the healthy body avails a man little unless he has sufficient mental power and moral character to bear himself well amidst the trials which new circumstances bring him under, so it is with a commonwealth. The very superiority of Rome's internal constitution gave her external strength, and the conquest of Italy called for new ideas of government under new circumstances. The difficulties of the pro- blem were such as, with our modern ways of thought, it is almost impossible for us even to conceive. To us, familiar as we are with political organisations extending man i a- triotism. i INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. over enormous territories, it is a mere matter of practical ^ convenience, whether a state extend over a few thousand square miles, or over a few hundred thousand. The ancient city communities limited their patriotism to their own fortified home. There were the temples of their Gods, the memories made beautiful by the deeds of their ancestors, and whatever scenes of happiness, or of tender regret their own lives had brought to them. There, too, was the centre of political action, the market place, where the freemen met to acclaim the laws or to choose the magistrates by whom those laws were to be executed, and the senate house where the fathers of the state met to consult how dangers at home and abroad might best be met. The love of country in such a community was as ardent and exclusive as it was nar- row, and the dweller in a neighbouring city was regarded not merely as a stranger, but as an implacable foe. The word hostis, by which the Romans designated an enemy, originally meant no more than a foreigner. § 9. Italy It was to the credit of Rome that in her earlier days under she had shown herself superior to this feeling of anta- Rome. gonism. She had striven, and conquered ; she had spread slaughter and desolation around ; but in the end she had offered the right hand of fellowship to those whom she had defeated and oppressed. Plebeian and patrician after a time were amalgamated together, and subsequently the dwellers in the Latin towns were admitted to a citizen- ship as complete as that of the man whose ancestors had been consuls at the first establishment of the repub- lic. But even in Rome there seemed to come a limit to her transcendent assimilative power. She had been able to understand that a man could be a citizen of Rome who lived at Tusculum or Ardea. She could not understand that a man could be a citizen of Rome who lived too far off to join personally in the vote in the THE ANCIENT WORLD. Roman Forum. She had overcome the moral difficulty, Chap. she recoiled before the physical difficulty. The notion 1_ of representative arrangements, by which the conquered populations from the Rubicon to the Straits of Messina might appear at Rome by deputy, as they do at this day, never occurred to any Roman, and it is probable that if such an idea had been suggested to him, he would have re- coiled from it as from an innovation too daring to be worthy of consideration. Nevertheless, though Rome did not do what a modern state, under similar circum- stances, would inevitably have done, she did what no state had ever done before her. She took care indeed, by covering Italy with military posts under the form of colonies, and by joining them by a network of military roads, to make insurrection difficult. But she understood that strength cannot be gained by mere repression. She definitely renounced the idea of wringing money from her Italian subjects. No emissaries went forth from her gates, like the tribute-collecting ships from the port of Athens, to impress upon the Etruscans and the Lucanians the feeling of subjection. All that she asked from them was fellowship in arms, in victory, and in spoil. She called them her allies, and she treated them with the dignified consideration which won their respect and attachment. By their help she rose victorious from the great struggle with Carthage. Then came the evil days of Rome's too easy victory. § lo. The whole Eastern world, Greece, Macedonia, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt fell into her hands. The Mediter- ranean coast of Africa was subdued. Spain and Gaul were borne down by the overwhelming force of a disciplined attack. At a later time Southern Germany and Southern Britain were added to her territory. Long before the process was accomplished, the old Roman virtues seemed to have passed away for ever. Magi- Rome the Headof tli( Nations. INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap, strates went forth to plunder, not to govern. The voters at home chose magistrates who would offer them the highest bribes. The difficulty which had stared the Romans in the face after the conquest of Italy came back upon them in a more bewildering form. The political community consisted of a few hundred thousand demoralised men, living within an easy distance of the Roman Forum. The real community was scattered over every country in Europe, from the Atlantic to the Euphrates, and from the mouths of the Rhine to the wastes of the Sahara. In the face of such a population as this the privileges of the Roman voter were as unimportant as the rights of an elector of Shoreham or Truro are to the cultivators of British India. The con- quered nations could not possibly come in person to vote at Rome, and even if the idea of representative government had occurred to any one, the first requisite of that form of government, identity of interest and feeling, was entirely wanting. The polished scheming Greek, the effeminate Asiatic, the rude Spaniard and Gaul could not be brought by any constitutional arrangements to co-operate in the work of government. The utmost for which they could hope was the substitution of the rule of a man for the rule of the populace of a single city, or for that of the wealthy tyrants who were able to secure the goodwill of that populace by the most nefarious means. § II. The The establishment of the Empire gave the provinces all that they could hope to have. In the emperors, the old assimilating genius of Rome was quickened into life once more. The very fact that they had risen to power in antagonism with the special society of the city of Rome, led them to consult the interests of the more extensive community. For a time the want of a constitutional limitation upon their powers was not felt in the exist- Empire iiiid the Roman Law. THE ANCIENT WORLD. ence of the stronger tie of a common interest between Chap, themselves and the mass of those whom they governed. 1_ The hmits of Roman citizenship, valuable at this period only from the personal rights which it conferred, were rapidly extended till they included every free man born on the soil of the empire. The highest position of all was thrown open to every race. Gauls, Spaniards, Africans, and Syrians, wielded as emperors the sway which had been exercised by Julius and Augustus. For the first time the idea of scientific law rose on mankind. Rulers more powerful than the old Persian Kings were not content to leave each petty community subject to them to settle its own affairs in its own way, provided only that it did not fall into arrears in the payment of its tribute. They conceived the idea of duty from the rulers to the ruled, of a necessity under which they were to disseminate the benefits of which they were them- selves partakers, and to hold out the hand to raise up the less prosperous or less cultivated of their subjects to the level which they had reached. In the effort, the legisla- tor of the empire cut himself adrift from the old notion of law as the custom of a particular community. Brought face to face with rules of living as various as the soil on which they had sprung up, he learned to estimate them all at their true value. He ceased to ask what was law at Rome, at Athens, or at Lyons. He searched deep into the needs and duties of men as the members of the great human family. His task was rendered possible by the growth of the sentiment of humanity, which had found no root in the early days of the empire, when Rome was still the conquering city, only distinguished from other cities of the past by the mingled firmness and mildness of her sway. Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento, Parcere subjectis et debellare superbos. § 13- The Individual sacrificed to the So- lo INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. Four centuries later, Rome had become an abstract — '. — conception personifying the ideas of thoughtful and § 12. Ab- beneficent government. Imperceptibly, as another poet, cel^iono?' himself of Gaulish origin, then sang, the city had melted Rome. ij^i-Q the world. Exau(3i, regina tui pulcherrima mundi, Inter sidereos Roma recepta polos ; Exaudi, genetiix hominum genetrixque deorum Non procul a caelo ()er tua templa sumus. Fecisti patriam diversis gentibus unam ; Profuit invitis, te dominante, capi ; Dumque offers victis patrii consortia juris, Urbem fecisti quod prius orbis erat. No great result is achieved without considerable cost. The action of the government of the empire had bound ciety? "" men more closely together than they had ever been bound before. It had taught them to consider themselves as members of a great society, which claimed their loyalty because it studied their real interests. But it had done nothing to employ them as co-operators in the work. The individual energies of each particular citizen had been weakened in the process of amalgamation. They were left to concentrate themselves on selfish and material, or, at the best, on purely local objects. The bloody spectacles of the gladiatorial combats and the enervating representations of a profligate drama were the staple amusements of the multitude. The Gaulish tribesman, the Roman burgher of olden days, had known that his own temperance, and valour, and prudence, would count for something in advancing the fortunes of the community to which he belonged. The Gaulish or Italian subject of the empire was but a drop in the ocean. Government was regarded by him as something external to himself, something which he was powerless to influence, even in the most infinitesimal degree. The em- THE ANCIENT WORLD. II pire, therefore, had at its service skilled legislators and chap. rulers, taking in hand the management of an acquiescent — '. — population. What it lacked was the spontaneity of individual public spirit diffused over the whole body, and the moral earnestness of individual aspiration after a higher and better life. Though the empire did not care to encourage by its § i4-. The institutions either individual vitality or the development church. of popular control, another society arose in its midst which occupied the ground which the empire had left un- touched. The gospel of the Christian missionaries went straight to the heart of the individual convert. Christ, it told him, had died for his personal salvation, that he might be snatched from sin and the consequences of sin. It invited him not merely to obey laws imposed by some distant authority, but to be pure and righteous and merciful as the spotless model which was ever set before his eyes. Upon this foundation it built up an edifice of universal benevolence. Do what it would, the em- pire could not abolish slavery or serfdom, could not set aside the distinction between citizens within its limits and the hostile populations without. In Christ Jesus there was neither Jew nor Greek, bond nor free. The Christian theory started from the very opposite pole of thought from that from which the empire had started, though it is true that its desire to provide for the life to come rather than for the life of this world, prevented the Church from drawing forth all the practical consequences which were involved in its most cherished ideas. The organisation of the Church proceeded in the same § 15. or- direction as its creed. The bishops who with the rest of ff "he^''^" the clergy were the instruments of collective acts of Church, charity, and who, as a moral and intellectual aristocracy, maintained the standard of doctrine to deviate from 12 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. (ZnKv. which was heresy, had gained their position by the direct — !_ or indirect choice of the churches over which they pre- sided. The constitution of each church in the third cen- tury was, in spirit at least, not unlike the constitution of the Roman state six centuries earlier. The magistrates and councillors sprang from the popular choice, and derived all their authority from popular support. But they were bound by their positions to respect the traditions of their order, to instruct, and guide, rather than to listen and to follow. It was no wonder therefore that not the worst but the best emperors struggled hard against an organisation so strong in every point in which their own organisation was weak, and that they only at last gave way when resistance was no longer possible. Con- stantine, indeed, as is probable, had little idea that in assembling at Nicsea a general council of the bishops, he was increasing the strength of a society which was stronger than that over which he ruled. In fact, he had given his consent to the erection of a real repre- sentative assembly. The force which had been scattered over countless congregations was at last brought into a focus. § i6. The For a long time the empire and the church pursued and^the their several paths side by side. Different as their organisations were, they were saved from collision by the difference of their aims. After some vain attempts, the emperors, at least in the west, refrained from promul- gating creeds. The clergy had no wish to take part in the direction of armies. Nor were the materials of a conflict to be found in the domain of justice, afterwards so fruitful of quarrels between the lay and the ecclesias- tical authorities. If the emperors sometimes interfered with the occupant of the important See of Rome, they showed no disposition to hamper the general relations between the clergy and their flocks, and the clergy were Church. THE ANCIENT WORLD. 13 too good Romans themselves to find fault with the working of the Roman law in other matters. It was one thing to offer no positive opposition to § 17- Fail the empire ; it was another thing to support it actively pire in \hQ in its day of trial. The empire at last suffered the fate ^^^'• of all institutions which do not root themselves in the active support of those for whose benefit they arise. As the danger from its Teutonic assailants grew more formidable, the pressure of taxation grew heavier till it was almost unendurable. The material wants of the people were not provided for. Its distresses were not alleviated. A population without enthusiasm could not be called upon to furnish men for the military defence of its rulers. The evil counsel prevailed of entrusting the defence of the frontier to Germans, trained and disciplined to the habits of Roman war- fare. At last the time came when those who had been admitted as servants claimed to be masters, and their brethren from the forests of Germany poured in at the gaps left undefended. In Western Europe the empire melted away before so dire a succession of calamities. The church rapidly transferred its allegiance to the §18. The numerous Teutonic kings who sprung up on what had and the once been Roman soil. It was too universal in its Teutonic con- sympathies, and too independent in its action to be querors. fettered by devotion to the frame-work of any existing government. The clergy, however, soon found that a new position had been created for them. If they had been less Roman than the emperors, they were more Roman than the new rulers. A political position, and that too an antagonistic position, was forced upon the bishops. They were the depositaries of a tradition of equal law and universal justice in the face of conquerors who understood none of these things. Occupying sees 14 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. in the old Roman municipalities, they became the de- fenders of the conquered populations in general, and of municipal rights in particular. Everywhere on the con- tinent the progress of civilisation was determined by the form of compromise between the Roman civilisation upheld by the clergy, and the ruder but more vigorous civilisation of the Teutonic kings. CHAPTER 11. THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT AND THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP. The inhabitants of the southern portion of Britain which Chap. alone had been brought under Roman domination were . — '— even in worse case than their GauHsh neighbours. §i- The Large districts, especially in the western and more hilly Provrn"e of part of the island, retained their Celtic speech and their ^"'^'"• Celtic habits. Even where Roman civilisation had made its way, its influence had been far more superficial than in Gaul. What intellectual vigour there was in the fourth century in any part of the empire, expressed itself chiefly in ecclesiastical legislation and literature, and the British church gave evidence of its weakness by taking little part in either. When in the beginning of the fifth century, the Roman legions were finally with- drawn, the provincials, divided amongst themselves, and enervated and helpless through the long habit of looking elsewhere than to their own courage for defence, fell a prey to the ravages of the Celtic tribes who had retained their independence of Rome. The Picts of those northern regions which now bear the name of Scotland, and the Scots of Ireland, whose colony in the Western Highlands was afterwards to impress that name upon the North of Britain, ravaged the land without mercy. The more distinctly Celtic West resisted not without success. The Romanised Celt of the Eait invited the 1 6 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. alliance of the Teutonic sea-rovers who had long been II. the piratic assailants of their coast. §2. The When in the middle of the fifth century, our Teu- Settie- tonic ancestors landed on the shores of Britain, they meats. carved out settlements for themselves ; they were Jutes, and Saxons and Angles from the coast which stretches from Jutland to the mouths of the Elbe and Weser. Over the horror of the struggle a thick darkness has settled down, and, with the exception of one lightning-flash from a Celtic writer, it was only by its leading features, by a battle or a siege traditionally remembered, that any por- tion of it coiild be recovered when civilisation and its power of recording events again spread over the land. At the end of a century and a half, the Teutonic settlers occupied the whole of the eastern half of the land, from the Forth to the Straits of Dover, and from the coast of the German Ocean to the Severn. Over all this tract the Low German speech of the invaders was to be heard. To what extent the British population had disappeared is a matter of controversy. It is a point on which no certain knowledge is attainable. The invaders did not enter the island impressed with the dignity of Roman civilisation. They knew nothing of the Roman speech. They seized upon the land of the Britons. They stormed and sacked their cities. They probably often carried off their daughters to be their wives or concubines. The men who resisted were slain as wild beasts are slain, without thought of mercy. Of the rest some were reduced to slavery, some may have kept up a precarious inde- pendence in the woods. Under such circumstances a population suffers fearful diminution from misery and starvation. The weak and the old with the young child, the hope of future generations, perish for lack of food. Yet whatever the numerical amount of the survivors may have been, the general result is certain. The Teu- THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT. l tonic speech, save in a few words used principally by Chap. women and slaves, prevailed everywhere. The Teutonic — _ law, the Teutonic way of life, was the rule of the land. The Teutonic heathenism was unchanged. The Celtic element, whether it was larger or smaller, was absorbed and left scarcely a trace behind. If the history of the settlement is to be gathered §3-.in- from scanty tradition, the character and institutions of of"the°"^ the settlers have to be inferred from that which is known Settlers, of them in their own land, and from that which is known of them later in the land of their adoption. Fierce and masterful as they were, they were not barbarians except in antithesis to the civilisation of Rome. The stage which they had reached was very much that of the Homeric Greeks, if we allow for the greater inclemency of a northern sky. Each tribe was complete in itself It had its own assembly of freemen whose voice was decisive in regulating its actions. At its head was a chief, the ealdorman, as he was named, who guided its deliberations, and who, after its arrival in England at least, headed it in war. The freemen themselves were composed of two ranks, eorls and ceorls. The eorls or nobles by birth, whose origin is lost in the mists of the past, had an honorary pre-eminence. Their voice was of greater weight, their life was of greater value, their share of booty larger. But they did not make the state, though they had doubtless much to do with its direction. In fact there was nothing that we should now call political life in existence. New legislation there was none. The old customs handed down from father to son in Germany were adhered to in England, and the only question which could arise for deliberation was whether some new expedition should be undertaken against the enemy. Outside the assembly, as well as within it, all freemen were equal, however much they might differ in C i8 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap, influence or wealth. Each man had his own share of the conquered land, and his share of pasturage or wood- cutting in the folkland — the common land that had been left undivided. The organisation of which he formed a part did not, as in the empire, reach from the state to the individual, but from the individual to the state. Each township which, in an ecclesiastical form, became the parish of modern days, made its appearance once a month, in the hundred mote, to decide quarrels and to witness contracts ; whilst the members of the tribe met twice a year to decide matters of more general im- portance. As every man was a judge,— unless indeed, the practice of attending the hundred mote by a deputation of the reeve, or head man, and four best men of the township had been already adopted, — so every man was a soldier. The assembly was in truth the tribe in arms, and the eorls and the ealdormen could but lead, they could not constrain the will of their fellow tribes- men. §4. Left in the positions which they had originally occu- produw;d plcd, the tribes might have retained these institutions unaltered for centuries. The progress of the war necessi- tated expansion and amalgamation, in order that greater force might be brought to bear^on the enemy. As it had been with Rome, so it was now with the English tribe. The system of popular assemblies had reached its limit. The men of Dorset or the men of Norfolk could come up without difficulty to the place of meeting. The men of a state reaching from the Severn to the bor- ders of Sussex, could not come up. The idea of delega- tion, if it as yet existed at all, had not acquired sufficient strength to suggest the idea of a general collective coun- cil. Recourse was had to a different factor in the com- monwealth. Of all human occupations, war requires the most complete discipline and the most prompt obedience THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP. 19 to a single chief. Naturally, therefore, it was the chief, Chah, the ealdorman, who gained most by the changes wrought by war. Everywhere he took the higher title of king, and in taking its title he gained a higher standing-point He was the bond of union between many tribes. The ealdorman who now presided in the tribal assembly, derived his authority from him, even if he owed his position to an older tribal authority. At the end of the sixth century some ten or twelve kingdoms existed, and the authority of the kings would doubtless tend to increase in civil matters as they grew more successful as leaders in war. Yet growing as it was, the king's authority was by 5. The no means absolute. The power which the king wielded t^e"\^tan. could only be exercised in accordance with the wishes of the armed force, and that armed force was still in great measure composed of the contingents of the freemen of the several tribes. It is true that it was not so altogether. By an old German custom, a great man had been accustomed to entertain a body of followers — gesiths as they were called in England — who attached themselves not to the tribe, but to the person of him whom they followed and upon whose bounty they lived. For him they fought, and for him they were ready to die. They held it disgraceful to forsake him in battle, or even to leave the field alive if he were lying dead upon it. No doubt, if we possessed a history of those times, we should find that these two component parts of the king's army were also component parts of his council, and the Witan or wise men, without whose advice he did not venture to act in any important manner, were some of them the chief men of his personal following ; some of them leading eorls, or landowners from the various popu- lations which were blended together under his rule. But, however this council may have been formed, it had no C2 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. II. §6. Ad- ministra- tion of Justice. immediate organic connection with the people. Its members were not elected from beneath. They became councillors, either from their own position in life, or as selected by the king. As long as there was a powerful enemy in the field, this breach in the continuity of the constitution might not be felt. But it was none the less a source of danger. The judicial arrangements of our ancestors were those of a strong-handed but law-loving race, in which each man was ready to do himself right with his own hand, but in which there was a general understanding that feuds should not be perpetual. The notion that it was the duty of the state to punish crime, and the no- tion that the criminal himself was any the worse for the crime which he had committed, would have been alike unintelligible to them. All that they saw was that it was in their power to enforce upon the kindred of a murdered man, or upon him who had suffered loss of property, the acceptance of a weregild, or money payment, in satisfaction of the injury done to them, which they might otherwise have avenged by the slaughter of the aggressor. As again the power of taking vengeance was different in different ranks, as the relations of a murdered king were more likely to take effectual vengeance than the relations of an eorl or a simple ceorl, and as they therefore required more to induce them to draw back, a larger money payment was enforced in proportion to the rank of the person injured. As too the state had no in- terest in the matter excepting to prevent continual private warfare, it had no trained police to seize the criminal, and no trained advocates and judges to investigate evidence. It looked to the kindred of the accused person to present him before the popular assembly at which he was to be tried, or to pay his weregild in his stead. If he denied his guilt, he had to bring others to swear that he was THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP. 21 innocent, and the declaration of the beHef of these com- Chap. purgators in his favour was accepted as satisfactory. If 1_ he failed to find compurgators, he had still the resource of appealing to the ordeal, doubtless performed in heathen times in some specially sacred spot. The as- sembled people who acted as his judges contented them- selves with seeing that the provisions of ancient customs were duly carried out. In proportion as the kingdoms increased in size, the §7- Moral moral defects of such a system must have been increas- the Popu- ingly felt. The special tie which bound the gesith to ^^^'°"' his patron summoned into existence feelings of personal honour and loyalty, which were stronger, but at the same time narrower than the patriotic sentiment which bound the freeman to the community of his fellow tribesmen. The authority of the king was further off from him than the authority of the ealdorman had been. It is true that he had still a part in the action of the state, was still liable to be called out for service in the field, and that he and his fellows might be present on important occa- sions at the meetings of the king and his Witan, and might be allowed to applaud with their shouts the de- cisions taken in higher quarters. But even if the effect of the change be left out of account, it is evident that the moral needs of the Englishman of the sixth century, were precisely opposite to those of the Roman provincial of the fourth. In the empire where all individuality was crushed out by an enlightened but overwhelming despotism, the side of Christianity which was most acceptable was its anchorage in individual faith and energy. In the Teuton, within or without the old limits of the empire, individual vigour was the prominent characteristic. Organisation of bodies of men did not go very far. The needs of extensive warfare might do something, but its work was necessarily imperfect. If 2 INTRODUCTION TO ENGIISH HISTORY. Chap, the Teutonic settlers came to have an ideal at all, it was "• certain that it would be to them, as ideals are to all men, the complement of their existing acquirements. They required some view of life, which would at the same time satisfy their inarticulate needs for a higher organisation, which would tame the wild strivings of passion in the individual man, and would teach the fierce red-handed slaughterer that self-denial and self-restraint were the highest virtues of human existence. The history of the middle ages in England, as on the Continent, is the history of successive generations accepting in church and state institutions which serve to repress or tame the wild exuberance of individual violence and passion. The middle ages start from diversity and aim at unity. Their art, their literature, their temporal and ecclesiasti- cal legislation bear this impress distinctly. The When Augustine and his fellow missionaries landed in Kent in 597, they began this work of moral order. In one sense their arrival was the first step in the undo- ing of the isolation from Roman ideas, in which England had been standing for a century and a half. In another sense they brought something quite new. The law and order of the empire had reposed on the swords of its legions. It had asked no assent from those upon whom it had imposed its will. The law and order of the Christian missionary rested on persuasion alone. He asked but for voluntary obedience, for that obedience which strengthens instead of weakening the sense of personality in the individual who accepts it. The old unity had crushed out individuality. The new unity would grow out of it, would found itself upon individual con- science, and harmonise individual energies for higher ends. In the midst of the troubles which preceded and suc- ceeded the fall of the empire in the West, Christianity Christian Mission- aries in England, THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP. 23 had advanced in two special directions. It was more Chap, monastic, and it was better organised, in the sixth cen- tury than it had been in the fourth. Against the faults § 9- The of monasticism it is especially easy to declaim. A sys- System.^*^ tem which takes men out of the world and forbids them to exercise the ordinary duties of men amongst men, which acts in defiance of the strongest tendencies of human nature, instead of reducing them under discipline, and which in consequence erects a whole system of arti- ficial duties and artificial faults, can never be regarded as a satisfactory solution of the problems which that nature presents. Nevertheless, it is impossible that a system so widely adopted, and so constantly recurred to, should have been wanting in elements fitting it at least for a time to render the highest services to man- kind. The apologies which some are inclined to make for it may be dismissed as irrelevant. If we can only praise the monks because they improved cultivation, or even because they were benevolent to the poor, it is better not to praise them at all. These things are but the accidents of monasticism. Its essence was a selfish unselfishness. It aimed at sacrificing the excitement and vain-glory of the struggles and triumphs of the present, sometimes it may be, at escaping from the depressing defeats and miseries of life, in order to gain eternal peace in the world to come, with some first- fruits of quiet and rest in the world which was. Yet self-centred as were the thoughts of the monk, his self- seeking was of incomparably a higher order than that of the world around. Other men might provide for them- selves by grasping avarice, by hasty passionate violence, by giving free rein to their most debasing passions. The monk would keep the wild animalism of his nature firmly down ; and, as always happens, the effort to rise higher in one direction brought with it the power of rising 24 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap, higher in others. The monk could not help being an 1_ example of self-denial to others, and self-denial was the special virtue which the men of that fierce age needed most to learn. The monk could not help overflowing in bounty to the poor and suffering, and turning the fountain of blessing which he had opened in his own heart into a stream by the sides of which multitudes might rejoice. He represented not the best ideal of life, but the best ideal of the kind of life most opposed to the faults of contemporary existence. § 10. The The penitential system of the Church was an attempt Astern *'^^ to implant amongst laymen something of the monastic rule. The authors of the penitential code no more thought of descending into the heart and conscience than the authors of the weregild thought of descending into the heart and conscience. They did not bid the guilt- laden penitent simply to go and sin no more, nor did they proclaim the law of the gospel, ' Owe no man anything but to love one another.' His penance was measured out by weeks and years, as the weregild was measured out by shillings and pence. So much time was to be passed without tasting anything but bread and water, so much time in lighter mortification. But there was that in the penitential rules which was not in the weregild system. If the clergy made any difference between persons, it was, that the higher the clerical rank of the person who committed the offence was, the heavier was to be his penance, whilst the layman was punished more heavily in proportion to the rank of the person injured. The lay system, in short, started from the notion that vengeance was to be bought. The church system started from the idea, that an evil action polluted the actor. Man acquired in this way a moral sense which he had not before. He learned that he was accountable for his actions to a judge higher than the king or the popular THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP. 25 assembly, and he learned too that ill-doing was an injury Chap. done to his own soul. The idea of purity and rectitude as 1_ an object of desire for the sake of a man's own well- being planted itself firmly amongst men. Hence, too, the strange forms taken in the Christian imagination by the spirits and deities of the old pagan mythology. The spirit of the wood or the stream came to be the ugly horned unsavoury devil of Christian mythology. The change was a sign of the new position assigned by man to the supernatural powers of his imagination. The spirits of whom the heathen told were beings to be propitiated and dreaded. The devil of the Christian's tale was a being with whom he himself had a conflict. There was war now not merely on the battle-field, but in the heart of every man, and the stories which he loved to tell were but the expression of his knowledge of a conflict, which, to however strange results it might lead in the immedi- ate present, contributed incalculably to raise in the scale of moral beings the man who struggled against his lower nature. As Christianity was more monastic in the end of the §11. sixth century than it had been in the fourth, it was also more monarchical. The authority of the pope indeed in the hands of Gregory the Great, by whom Augustine was sent to England, was not put forth with such high- sounding claims to obedience as were afterwards heard. But it was becoming more and more the central force of Western Christendom. It gained strength from its being exercised from Rome, the seat of the older empire, from the personal qualities of many of the Popes, and from the tendency of the barbarian tribes to welcome a centre of unity in the midst of their weakness and their divi- sions. The very haughtiness with which the emissaries of Rome maintained the claims of him who sent them was an important element of success. When Augustine Church Or- ganisation. 26 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. met the priests of the British Church, and aHenated still — _ further, by remaining seated in their presence, those who were already alienated from one who had preached the gospel to the hated invaders, we may be sure that he appeared more than ever worthy of respect in the eyes of the Englishmen who accompanied him. When Wilfrid reasoned against the clergy of Northumberland, who had learned from Irish teachers different modes of keeping Easter and of cutting the clerical tonsure than those which were practised in the Roman church, and which they declared themselves to have derived by tra- dition from St. John, through Columba, he clenched his argument, by claiming for the pope, as St. Peter's repre- sentative, the keys of the kingdom of heaven. The king, before whom he spoke, at once acknowledged the force of his reasoning. If St. Peter, he said, was the door-keeper of heaven, he would follow him lest he should be shut out when he came to the gates. As Christianity in the form in which it appeared broke through all division of ranks, and knew nothing of eorls >md ceorls, of freeman, of serf, or of slave, so its institu- tions rose above the civil institutions of the land. When Archbishop Theodore organised the English Church at the end of the seventh century, he created or adapted in- stitutions which were wider and more universal than those of the seven or eight kingdoms into which the original tribes had by that time coalesced. From north to south the priest took no account of divided nationality. The man born on the banks of the Tweed might find his life's work on the shores of the Southampton water, or in the secluded East Anglian peninsula between the fens and the sea. As he passed backwards and forwards on his mission of consolation and warning he was doing uncon- scious work in levelling national distinctions by his THE EXGLISH KINGSHIP. 27 presence, as he was levelling distinctions of rank by his Chap. creed. — 1_ In some sort the work of the Christian Church was a §12. The repetition of the work done by the legislators of the compared Empire. They too had set themselves to sweep away E^pi^^e^ differences, and to impose unity upon populations sepa- rated by far more deep-seated distinctions than those which kept apart the inhabitants of England. But whilst the Roman imposed his unity from without and from above, the Church sought to found it upon the heart and conscience. Grand and imposing as her institutions were, they blended with the civil institutions at the base. If the archiepiscopal presidency of Canterbury or York and the august supremacy of Rome had no parallel in the civil world, the parishes were simply ecclesiastical townships, and the bishoprics were conterminous with the kingdoms, or with the divisions of the kingdoms, Vvhich represented the older tribes. So it came about that Church and State worked §13- together harmoniously in England as they did nowhere state, else in Europe. The bishops and clergy had no memories of an older civilisation to defend, no conquered population to protect. The same English people were governed in one way for certain purposes, as they were governed in another way for other purposes. Very soon the entire clergy of England was English by birth and speech. Church and State acted and reacted on one another. The ideas of a higher and better order pro- mulgated by the church, found their way insensibly into the minds of laymen. The lay state, with all its incon- gruities, did not appear so utterly incompatible with that better order as it would have seemed to priests who had not grown up in English homes and who did not con- verse in the English speech. This activity without disruption of harmony soon found its expression in 28 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. CiiAP. literature and in increased exertion. Caedmon sang his — _ song of the Creation. Bede, with English heart if with Roman speech, told the tale of the conquest, and the foundations were laid of the great Chronicle, which was to carry down to posterity the story of a people who were working out a history worthy of the telling. When the eighth century came, England had vigour to spare for other countries as well as for herself. English missionaries poured forth to carry the message of the gospel to the heathen, and, under the name of St. Boniface, the English Winfrid is still revered as the apostle to whom large populations in Germany owed their conversion. §14, If the example of the Church contributed to draw the the'Kin°g- peoples more closely together, the incidents of warfare doms under tended in the same direction In the early part of the seventh century four small kingdoms, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, and Sussex, divided the south-east of England. The other three, on whom lay the burden of contending against the yet unconquered Celts of the West, Northumberland, Mercia, and Wessex, had far wider territories. The frontier was gradually pushed west- ward, and the effect of the Christian teaching was seen in the milder treatment of the conquered. The kings of these larger kingdoms, as the conflict with the Celts drew to a close, turned their arms upon one another. Some- times Northumberland, sometimes Mercia, showed itself stronger than the rest. Then came the turn of Wessex. In the beginning of the ninth century, Egbert, King of the West Saxons, obtained the acknowledgment of his over-lordship from the whole English-speaking race, from the Channel to the Forth. Egbert's rule was not founded, like the dominion of the conquerors of Rome, upon the warlike predominance of a superior race. Neither was it founded on the vokmtary amalgamation of many races. THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP. 29 Chap. II. It was rather an aggregation of many kingships into one. The old kings either retained their positions under Egbert as under-kings, or gave place to ealdormen from Egbert's own family, who fulfilled the kingly functions in more direct subordination to himself Such a union was a frail one. It would probably have § 15- The broken down as the less successful efforts of the Northum- wars, brian kings in the same direction had broken down before, but for the new flood of invasion which poured over England. As fierce as the ancestors of English- men themselves had been four centuries before, the Danish pirates had begun, even before Egbert's time, to harry the coasts of England. In the time of one of Egbert's sons they took up permanent quarters in Eng- land. The north and centre of the land fell easily into their hands. At the beginning of the reign of Alfred, the youngest and greatest of Egbert's grandsons, it seemed as if the whole would come permanently under their dominion. At last in 878, after an heroic struggle, he succeeded in imposing upon the invaders the Treaty of Wedmore, which saved from their grasp the country south of the Thames together with that part of Mercia which lay to the south-westof the Watling Street. For the rest their kings gave a vague acknowledgment of Alfred's over-lordship, an acknowledgment which he was in no position to interpret strictly. To the north of the line of partition the Danes settled at will. The Danish ter- mination -by in such names as Derby and Ashby, Grimsby and Whitby, still marks the place of their settlements on the map of England. To Alfred and his house the half was more than the §16. The whole. In the struggle which his descendants, the West ihe"wes .^^x wnich nis descendants, tne west ihewl"^° Saxon Kings carried on against the Danes they had ^^^\ what Egbert had not had, a national sentiment at their with the back. Gradually the frontier was pushed farther north. 30 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. Before Alfred's son Edward died, the whole of Mercia 1_ was incorporated with his immediate dominions. The way in which the thing was done was more remarkable than the thing itself. , Like the Romans, he made the fortified towns the means of upholding his power. But unlike the Romans, he did not garrison them with colo- nists from amongst his own immediate dependents. He filled them, as Henry the Fowler did afterwards in Saxony, with free townsmen, whose hearts were at one with their fellow countrymen around. Before he died in 924, the Danish chiefs in the land beyond the Humber had acknowledged his over-lordship, and even the Celts of Wales and Scotland had given in their submission in some form which they were not likely to interpret too strictly. His son and his two grandsons, Athelstan, Edmund, and Edred completed the work, and when after the short and troubled interval of Edwy's rule in VVessex, Edgar united the undivided realm under his sway in 958, he had no internal enemies to suppress. He allowed the Celtic Scottish King who had succeeded to the inheritance of the Pictish race to possess the old Northumbrian land north of the Tweed, where they and their descendants learned the habits and speech of Englishmen. But he treated him and the other Celtic kings distinctly as his inferiors, though it was perhaps well for him that he did not attempt to impose upon them any very tangible tokens of his supremacy. The story of his being rowed by eight kings on the Dee is doubtless only a legend by which the peaceful king was glorified in the troubled times which followed. §17. Such a struggle, so successfully conducted, could not K^np/'^Au- ^^'^ ^° ^^ accompanied by a vast increase of that kingly ihority. authority which had been on the growth from the time of its first establishment. The hereditary ealdormen, the representatives of the old kingly houses, had passed THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP. 31 away. The old tribes, or — where their limitations had Chap. been obliterated by the tide of Danish conquest, as was 1_ the case in central and northern England — the new artificial divisions which had taken their place, were now known as shires, and the very name testified that they were regarded only as parts of a greater whole. The shire mote still continued the tradition of the old popular assemblies. At its head as presidents of its deliberations were the ealdorman and the bishop, each of them owing their appointment to the king, and it was summoned by the shire-reeve or sheriff, himself even more directly an officer of the king, whose business it was to see that all the royal dues were paid within the shire. In the more general concerns of the kingdom, the king consulted with his Witan, whose meetings were called the Witenagemot, a body which, at least for all ordinary purposes, was composed not of any representa- tives of the shire-motes, but of his own dependents, the ealdormen, the bishops, and a certain number of thegns whose name, meaning ' servants,' implied at least at first, that they either were or had at one time been in some way in the employment of the king. Such a change looks, as long as we attend only to § rS. words and forms, as if the kingship were acquiring some- aMOitary thing like absolute power. No conclusion could be ^""'sto- more delusive. Absolute power is gained by kings who put themselves at the head of a popular movement ' /' ^^^'■'^^^^ against an oppressive aristocracy, at a time when the .^^u»^i^fc yL» people are not prepared to combine In order to carry out under their own Inspection the reforms which they need. Under such circumstances, a successful king, like the early Emperors, can do very much as he pleases to individuals. Nothing of the kind is to be found In our early English history. What the English freeman wanted was not to be avenged upon his richer INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. C'tlAP, II. neighbour, but to be protected, without the burden of constantly being called out for military service in the most distant quarters. The view of life taken by an or- dinary landowner was very limited. His politics were but the politics of his hundred, or at the most they extended only to his shire. The great English king- dom scarcely appealed at all to his imagination, and it was a real hardship if the man of Hampshire was asked to leave his fields to repel a Danish incursion on the coast of Norfolk, or to establish the supremacy of the national king over the Danish chieftains of Northumberland. The necessities of war therefore com- bined with the sluggishness of the mass of the popu- lation to favour the growth of a military force, which would leave the tillers of the soil to their own peace- ful occupations. As the conditions which make a standing army possible on a large scale did not yet exist, such a force must be afforded by a special class, and that class must be composed of those who either had too much land to till themselves, or, having no land at all, were released from the bonds which tied the cultiva- tor to the soil, in other words, it must be composed of a landed aristocracy and its dependents. In working out this change, England was only aiming at the results which similar conditions were producing on the Con- tinent. But just as the homogeneousness of the popula- tion drew even the foreign element of the Church into harmony with the established institutions, so it was with the military aristocracy. It grouped itself round the king, and it supplemented, instead of overthrowing, the old popular assemblies. §19. The Two classes of men, the eorls and the gesiths, had iwscded ^*^'^" rnarked out from their fellows at the time of the hv the conquest. The thegn of Edgar's dav differed from both, but he had some of the distinguishing marks of THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP. either. He was not like the gesith, a mere personal Chap, follower of the king. He did not, like the eorl, owe his "' position to his birth. Yet his relation to the king was a close one, and he had a hold upon the land as firm as that of the older eorl. He may, perhaps, best be described as a gesith who had acquired the position of an eorl without entirely throwing off his own character- istics. Of the details of the change which took place we can only speak with hesitation. The period which separated the reign of Edgar from the Teutonic conquest was five hundred years, a period as long as that which separates the reign of Victoria from the reign of Edward HI. Of this period our notices are scanty. But there can be little doubt that the change began in the practice of granting special estates in the folkland, or common undivided land, to special persons. At first this land was doubtless held to be the property of the tribe, and only granted away by the king with the consent of the tribe. When the king rose above the tribes, he granted it him- self with the consent of his Witan. A large portion was granted to churches and monasteries. But a large por- tion went in private estates, or book land, as it was called, from the book or charter which conveyed them to the king's own gesiths, or to members of his own family. The gesith thus ceased to be a mere member of the king's military household. He became a landowner as well, with special duties to perform to the king, but neverthe- less with the feeling of independence which the posses- sion of land is apt to give. His example too told on others. If he strengthened the king's hands, his relation to the king gave him strength. He had special jurisdic- tion given him over his tenants and serfs, exempting him and them from the authority of the hundred mote, though they still remained, except in very exceptional cases, under the authority of the shire mote. Eorls who D II 3-1 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. had no such privilege, we may well believe, though there — 1_ is no direct evidence on the point, coveted his advantages, and acquired from the king the rights and duties of the thegnhood. Even the simple freeholder discovered the weakness of his isolated condition, and commended himself and his land to a wealthy thegn, engaging to do him service and to be judged in his court, in return for support and protection. § 20. The Even up to the Norman conquest this change was araJaai. Still going on. To the end, indeed, the old constitutional forms were not broken down. The hundred mote was not abandoned, where freemen enough remained to fill it. Even where all the land of a hundred had passed under the protection of a lord there was little outward change. The tenants were summoned to hear causes under the presidency of the lord's officer, instead of being summoned under presidency of an officer appointed by themselves or by the king. But that was all. The shire mote too was still in existence. Even in war the obligation of all men to defend the country was still enforced, though it pressed with a special force upon the king's thegns. There was thus no actual breach of continuity in the nation. The thegnhood pushed its roots down, as it were, amongst the free classes. Nevertheless there was a danger of such a breach of continuity coming about. The freeman entered more and more largely into a con- dition of dependence, and there was a great risk lest such a condition of dependence should become a condi- tion of servitude. Here and there, by some extraordinary stroke of luck, a freeman might rise to be a thegn. But the condition of the class to which he belonged was deteriorating every day. The downward progress to serfdom was too easy to take, and by large masses of the population it was already taken. 13clo\v the increasing nagemot. THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP. 35 numbers of the serfs was to be found the lower class of Chap. slaves, who were actually the property of their masters. — _ The Witenagemot was in reality a select body of ^§21. ihe thegns, if the bislwps, who held their lands in much the wite- the same way, be regarded as thegns. It was rather an inchoate House of Lords, than an inchoate Parliament, after our modern ideas. It was natural that a body of men which united a great part of the wealth with almost all the influence in the kingdom should be possessed of high constitutional powers. The Witenagemot elected the king, though as yet they always chose him out of the royal family, which was held to have sprung from the god Woden. There were even cases in which they de- posed unworthy kings. Their consent was necessary to make peace, to declare war, or to make a grant of folkland. No act of public importance was valid without their con- sent. No ealdorman v/as appointed, no bishop placed in his see, without their voice being heard in the matter. It would thus be easy to argue from one set of facts that the king was almost a cypher, just as from another set of facts it would be easy to argue that he was almost abso- lute. In truth, he was neither absolute nor a cypher. Kings like Alfred and his descendants had done pretty much as they wished, because they wished nothing which would be opposed to the wishes of the thegns. The more wealthy a man was, the more desirous he would be that his land might remain his own, instead of becoming the property of a sea-roving Dane. At home, as long as the king was a man of ability and character, there was no opposition of interests as yet between the king and his thegns. He himself was but as a thegn on his own estates. He too had tenants and serfs whose ancestors had once been freemen on his lands. As in the shiremoot the ealdorman and the bishop sat side by side, so sat Archbishop Dunstan by the side 36 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. of Edgar. After the legends which have obscured his fame are swept away, we descry, though dimly, the form §22. Dun- of a great statesman. The Danish wars had swept away siasticar^^' the culture which had sent forth missionaries to the con- Policy. tinent in earlier days, and which Alfred had striven hard to revive. Dunstan's life-long work was the work of an educationalist. He strove to bring back to England the knowledge and culture in which it was now outstript by the continent. He sought the moral training of his countrymen as well as their intellectual advancement. It was inevitable that in so doing he should throw in his lot with the monks. The conditions which enable a married clergy to hold up an example of life to their parishioners did not then exist. There was no open-eyed public opinion around the parish priest, no widely spread publicity calling for watchfulness against the temptation of turning the means which were intended to enable him to instruct others into property for the sustenance of his own family. Family cares devoured him, and it was well if, living as other men did, he did not become partaker in their sins. It would have been no wonder if Dunstan, like Hildebrand and Damiani after him, had sought to confront the evil by the drastic remedy of the proclamation of universal clerical celibacy. It is the mark of his greatness that he did nothing of the kind. He did not indeed resist two bishops who drove out the secular clergy from certain specified ecclesiastical houses in the dioceses of Winchester and Worcester, But he did not imitate them himself, and, as far as we know, he gave no encouragement to those who wished t<" do so. The monk, he believed, being bound to a celibate life, could give himself to his spiritual and educational mission as the married priest could not. But he steadily refused to use compulsion in favour of that which he regarded as the better life. He preferred working bv example. THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP. 37 The secular laws of Edgar bear the stamp of Dun- stan's mind. In them, an assumption of such a guar- dianship over the poor and oppressed as befits a king, is combined with an acquiescence in those existing condi- tions of the national life which made the exercise of that guardianship so difficult. The great division of the population into Danes and Englishmen stands revealed. Edgar can venture, with the consent of his witan, to amend the laws for the behoof of Englishmen. The Danes must be left to such laws as they please to choose for themselves. The spectacle which the reign presents is that of a king aiming at a higher life for his people but conscious of the want of support. The king is more national than the thegns, and the thegns are more national than the people. The thegns would be ready to gather into groups, East Anglian, Northumbrian, Mercian, or West Saxon. Danes and English were es- pecially ready to fly apart. In the lower classes there was still less cohesion. A strong king might draw the band a little more closely, if he tried to do no more. A weak king with unwise remissness and unwise violence would bring chaos back again. With Ethelred, chaos came again indeed. A fresh invasion of the Northern Danes found local resistance gnd'^Ed- but no general resistance. The local ealdorman, an "^und. Ulfkytel or a Brihtnoth, might lead the men of his shire to battle. But the king who, like Ethelred, was content to bribe off the invader made all national resistance im- possible. He alone was the band by which the sticks of the faggot were united for resistance. When he con- tented himself with inaction, each stick was separately overpowered. The Witenagemot had in theory the power of deposing kings. But it had not the will to exercise it. Each man had his own interests and intrigues to attend to. At last, after Ethelred's death came a bright 24. 38 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. moment under the hero Edmund. With his death all "' hope of resistance died away, and England without further struggle sank under the sway of Cnut. § 25. Cnut's rule was not as terrible as might have been Reign. feared. He was perfectly unscrupulous in striking down the treacherous and mischievous chieftains who had made a trade of Ethelred's weakness and the country's divisions. But he was wise and strong enough to rule, not by increasing but by allaying those divisions. Rest- ing his power upon his Scandinavian kingdoms beyond the sea, upon his Danish countrymen in England and his Danish huscarles, or specially trained soldiers in his service, he was able without even' the appearance of weakness to do what in him lay to bind Dane and Englishman together as common instruments of his power. Fidelity counted more with him than birth. To bring England itself into unity was beyond his power. The device which he hit upon was operative only in hands as strong as his own. There were to be four great earls, deriving their name from the Danish word jarl, centralising the forces of government in Wessex, in Mercia, in East Anglia, and in Northumberland. With Cnut the four were officials of the highest class. They were there because he placed them there. They would cease to be there if he so willed it. But it could hardly be that it would always be so. Some day or another, unless a great catastrophe swept away Cnut and his creation, the earldoms would pass into territorial sovereignties, and the divisions of England would be made evident openly. §26. Ed- After the brief and inglorious reigns of the sons of Confessor. Cnut, the English crown was once more won by a king of the old West Saxon line. Edward the Confessor was less English in his character than any of his subjects. His mother Emn.a w is the sister and daughter of THE ENGLISH KIXGSH/P. 39 Norman Dukes, and he had himself spent the early Chap. years of life in exile in Normandy. He passed amongst L. his contemporaries as one endowed with prophetic powers, and in truth he saw what none around him saw, tile insufficiency of the moral and mental standard of English life. He shrunk from the jealousies of the great English families, from the rough animalism of English enjoyments, from its want of polish and culture, and from its low ideal of the religious life. But he shrunk from this with the petulance of a petty mind. He tried to do weakly what Dunstan had tried to do strongly. Dunstan had introduced foreign ideas and foreign teachers, with the purpose of weaving the golden threads of higher thought into the midst of the strong web of English life. Edward would have substituted that which he liked for that which he disliked, would have surrounded himself with foreign officers in church and state, would have spoken in the tongue of the foreigner and lived a foreigner's life, and he ivas not content till he had defied the laws and customs of his despised land by offering the succession to the throne to the foreign Duke of the Normans, without a thought of consulting his own Witan, in whom alone its disposal rested. Insulted in such a way, the English feeling turned, §27. The if not upon the king, at least upon his foreign favourites. The revolt was headed by Godwin, and Harold, his nobler son. After Godwin's death, Harold ruled Eng- land in Edward's name. Strenuous and warlike, prompt, in decision, and generous in thought, Harold was the ablest man of an unprogressive race. What he did he did well. But he brought no new ideas into the work of government, or into the existing system of military tactics. When on Edward's death, he was called to assume the crown, it was the natural choice of the wor- House of Godvvia. 40 LXTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. thiest man in England, But he could not bind Endish- II. ^ ^ men together into a national unity. Edwin and Morcar, the chiefs of central and northern England, looked coldly on him with family jealousy. They were glad of his aid against the Norsemen at Stamford Bridge. They would not come to his help at Senlac. His last fight was a combat, in which heroic bravery strove in vain to com- pensate for want of discipline and lack of intelligence. In fighting qualities both sides were equal. The power of grasping the new idea, and the readiness to subor- dinate individual thought to the skill of the commander, were on the side of the invader. The Norman troops attacking, or flying in simulated rout, at the word of Duke William, or exchanging the combat of the horse- man for the combat of the archer at his word, deserved, at least in a military sense, to win. William put his mind into the battle, Harold could but give his example. 41 CHAPTER III. NORMAN AND ANGEVIN ORGANISATION. In the first half of the eleventh century, the two most chap. purely Teutonic states, Germany and England, were _liL. be\-ond comparison, the strongest and the best governed §i. North states of Europe. Before the end of the century, England '^'"' ^'^""^• had been smitten to the ground, and Germany was in deadly combat with the foe before whose persistent attacks she was ultimately to fall. Up to that time it seemed to be the law of progress that in England, as on the Continent, the last comer who placed his Teutonic freshness of vigour under the restraints of Roman civi- lisation should rise to the mastery. As dominion passed here from the descendants of Alfred and Athelstan to Cnut, so had it passed there from the children ot Clovis to the Carolingian border family from the lands east of the Meuse, and then again to the new border family of the Saxon line of Henry and the Ottos. The second half of the eleventh century witnessed a great revulsion. It was the time of the reaction of the south against the north. In the world of ideas a great spiritual power arose at Rome, clothing in ecclesiastical forms the claims of the old imperial city, and baffling and driving back the Teutonic sovereign who had decked himself in the imperial mantle which the great Otto and the greater Charles had donned, as the symbol of the heritage of Constantine and Augustus. In our own 42 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. III. §2. New Ideas in Italy and f'rance. §3. Nor- man Adapt- ability. land the national kingship was struck down by a Norman host, many of whom, indeed, were of kindred blood— if the kinship was but distant— with the Englishmen whom they attacked, but which was nevertheless imbued with southern thought, which spoke a southern tongue, and which waged war with all the art and weapons of the South. The coincidence is too striking to have been altogether accidental. It was not without a reason that Harold fell at Senlac in 1066, and that in 1076, but ten years later, Henry IV. was standing a shivering penitent on the snows before the barred gate of Canossa. Ideas which change the face of the world spring from nations in a state of suffering, not from nations in com- fortable circumstances. The political arrangements of Germany were not satisfactory when she gave birth to the Reformation, nor were the social arrangements of France satisfactory when she gave birth to the Revolu- tion. In the eleventh century, the German and the Englishman were too content with their own lot to strive eagerly for something new, whilst the idea of higher order and government easily found room in the brains of Italian priests who had no national government to look up to, and who saw a stranger lording it in the glorious cities whose very stones proclaimed them to be the work of Italian hands in days when Italians were the foremost men of the world. So too, it was in the midst of France, distracted and torn by feuds and rivalries as it was, that Norman William grasped the full power of the arrow and the horseman as agencies of war, and filled his mind with notions of organised government, which he strove to realise in his new country beyond the sea. The Normans themselves were not originators. But their power of adapting the ideas of others was wonder- ful. No race wandered into so many parts of Europe. man Or- ganisatiun in Eng- land. NORMAN ORGANISATION. 43 No race was so willing to welcome merit from whatever Chap. quarter it came. Whilst the Englishman stayed at _ home and hated foreigners, the Norman willingly emi- grated in search of adventure or gain, and displayed no grudging at the sight of the Italian Lanfranc and the Italian Anselm seated on the metropolitan throne of Canterbury. Such a character, in spite of a predisposition to §4-J^'or- violence ordinarily hidden under external forms of courtesy, was a promising element in the building up of a state. But it was to the position of the Norman con- querors far more than to their mental habits that the organisation of William's government was due. The body of warriors who carved out estates for themselves under the forms of technical law, could not, in the face of the English people, resolve itself with safety into its separate units. It must be ready at any moment for self-defence, and must therefore see without reluctance the very strictest powers needed for the maintenance of military discipline placed in the hands of its chief. For many a long year the conquerors would still be a garrison in a conquered country, and they could not, therefore, free themselves from the obligations of dis- cipline which such a position entailed. No doubt the new landed arrangements were modelled upon those which were familiar to the conquerors in France. The theory was adopted that all the land in England was the king's land, held by others directly or indirectly from him. If at first nothing more was recognised than the old English obligation of finding soldiers in proportion to the extent of land held, this was at least before the death of Henry I. converted into a distinct feudal tenure. The English system had required that so many men should be furnished by so much land, but it provided no steady means of enforcing the obligation. The Norman system proclaimed that if the men did not come, they 44 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. had forfeited their land, and the Norman king was _ strong enough to enforce the penalty. To some extent, doubtless, the Norman king derived this strength from his position at the head of the conquerors. But if it had no other basis, it would hardly have been long main- tained. If the native English population had remained as divided, and consequently as weak, as they were during the years of the Conquest, the Norman nobles, relieved from fear of danger from below, would sooner or later have cast off obedience to a king who would be no longer needed to sustain them in their estates. Some difficulty would, indeed, have been thrown in their way b)^ the prudent prevision of the Conqueror and his sons. The first William at once abolished the great earldoms of Cnut, granted the title but rarely, and confined its advantages, as a rule, to the enjoyment of pecuniary revenues in single counties, w^iilst he transferred the official duties of the earls to the sheriffs who were more completely under his own control. With the same object, he took care, in heaping landed property on his principal followers, to scatter their estates over many counties — as Cleisthenes had once scattered the demes of his new Athenian tribes — in order that they might be unable to combine against the crown the forces which they thus acquired. §5. The These expedients however would but have postponed Kingbhip. the evil day, if William had not had something more than mere shiftful contrivance in reserve. Such a resource was near at hand. William knew well that the English people had been subdued not from want of strength, but from want of coherence. That coherence he was himself prepared to give. If Englishmen did not love William, they loved the local Norman intruders less. Northumbrian, and Mercian, and West Saxon at last found a common cause in their common hatred of a local aristocracy ignorant of their speech and habits, NORMAN ORGANISATION. greedy of gain, and careless of the restraints of law in Chap. the arrogance of their might. An English nation was L_ rapidly forming itself by means of this common hatred, and of this English nation William offered himself, so far as suited his own purposes, to be the leader. He knew how to establish his power by old theories as well as by new ones. If he claimed to be the universal land- lord, as Edgar or Cnut had never been, he claimed also to be the national king far more truly than Edgar or Cnut had ever been. He knew how to use-technical law to cover the most startling innovations. He gave him- self out to be the true and lawful successor of Edward, as a king whose title had been acknowledged by the English Witan. If he was able to reward his Norman followers, it was because the English patriots who struggled against him had been guilty of an act of technical treason against their king. If too he was able to defy the insubordination of those very followers, it was because he really offered himself to the English as their national king. When the great Domesday survey was finished, it looked like a mere recognition of old rights of the old English kingship, according to the old English law. When at the great assembly of Salis- bury, William received the oath of allegiance from every landowner in England, whether he were his own imme- diate vassal or not, and so reminded his subjects that as long as he had the power there would be no excuse for any man who followed his feudal superior in arms against his king, he did but carry out the old English principle of due military obligation on the part of all landowners, irrespective of the special conditions of their tenure of land. Practically, however, the old conditions were reinvigorated with a new force. When the Con- queror summoned his subjects round him against the rebels of 1074, and still more decisively when the English 45 46 INTRODUCTION TO ENGIISH HISTORY. c:hap. population rallied round the Red King when his succes- _ sion was questioned by Norman barons on either side of the Channel, a force was behind the king more united and compact than any on which the earlier rulers of native race had been able to fall back. §6. Tnsti- Hence, though the Witenagemot continued to exist tlUlOPS of . , , - ^ . ^ , the first m a changed form, its action was far less constant than Kin^s^'^ it had been in the time of Edgar or Edward. The Great Council of the Norman kings was the assembly of men holding land 'immediately from the crown, which few were likely to attend who were not wealthy or influ- ential enough to make it probable that their voice would count for something in the deliberations of the body. The real change however was not in the altcation from personal dependence to feudal dependence. It lay in quite another direction. The old English Witan had, if they chose to exert it, the chief force of the realm behind them. The new Norman Great Council was by no means weak, but there was a power in the realm stronger still. The first place was held by the king rest- ing on the English people. § 7- Their Such an arrangement could never suffice for a per- tion. ' "^^ manent settlement. Some day both king and council would have to come more closely into connection with the people. For the present it was but a choice between the tyranny of one and the tyranny of many. The mass of the nation only supported the king from fear of some- thing worse. They had no means of reaching his ear, of impressing upon him their wants and wishes. Not they, but their enemies were represented by the Great Council. It was well when kings like William I. and Henry I. were wise enough to regularise their adminis- tration for their own encli>. It was an evil day when a king like William II. threw himself into sheer oppression from the knowledge that he was indispensable. NORMAN ORGANISATION. 47 The more perfect the institutions of a state are, the CnAp. . .111 more possible it is to leave ideas to influence men simply with their own inherent weight. In the time of a king §8. Th- like William Rufus, they needed a special organisation to Reiorms. give them a chance of being listened to. The system of entrusting the direction of Church affairs to the king and his Witan had not worked well. The Church might be regarded as identical with the nation, but it did not rise above the nation, did not, except in rare instances, produce men who could teach the nation to be better than it was. The performance of the duties of the clergy threatened to sink into mere routine, and their morals threatened to become no better than those of the laity around them. There v/as a danger lest clerical offices should sink into hereditary positions bringing no help to the souls of those for whose sake those offices had been erected. It was precisely against these evils that the great spiritual movement of the age was directed. Springing from the monastery of Cluny, it gained a hearing from emperors and popes. The remedies which it proposed were the abolition of simony, that is to say, of the purchase of Church offices, and the abolition of clerical marriage. With all allowance for the evil caused by the stringent enforcement of the latter demand, so far as it could be enforced at all, it is impossible not to see that in some form or other these ideas were indispensable to the pro- gress of the world. It is hardly possible for us, even in imagination, to conceive a danger to modern civilisation similar in kind to that which threatened the men of the ' eleventh century from feudal brutality, with its contempt for mental thought and its hatred of the bonds of morality. Yet it is only by steadily keeping before us the existence of this danger, that it is possible to pass a fair judgment on the drastic remedies proposed by the medieval churchmen. Nor must it be forgotten that, in 4-8 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. the eleventh century marriage was Hkely to interfere with . _ the work of the clergy in a way in which it would not interfere with it at a later time. It was not merely that the married priest would be entangled in worldly affairs, but that it would be almost impossible to escape from a lowering influence in his own home. Medieval educa- tion was a male education. According to the ideal of the reformers of the eleventh century the priest was to be mentally as well as spiritually far above his fellow men. For women, save in exceptional cases, there was no education, no cultivation of the higher powers. The ideal of modern marriage, that mutual helpfulness in the higher aims of life, was impossible when the wife must of necessity be rude, untaught, familiar only with the lower and material side of the world. She would be a drag on the upward course, not a consoler and a helper. The true remedy no doubt lay not in clerical celibacy but in female education. The choice of the former is only one of the many instances which history affords of the application of a partial and unsatisfactory relief as an escape from acknowledged evils, because the complete and satisfactory relief has not entered as yet within the sphere of vision. §9. The The abolition of simony and of clerical marriage did brandine "^^ make up the whole of the papal programme. By Pnpacy degrees a third idea was added to the other two. At first and the Conqueror, evcu Hildcbrand would have been content to see the remedies which he valued worked out by kings and em- perors. It was only when, as Pope Gregory VII, he found that this could not be, that he gradually added the third demand for the erection of a universal clerical state ot which the pope should be the absolute head, and of which the clergy in all parts of Christendom should be the willing and subservient instruments, bound by the closest ties to Rome, and by no ties at all to the society in the midst of which they lived. NORMAN ORGANISATION. 4'. Such an arrangement would be most objection- Chap. able in the nineteenth century ; but it does not follow _ that it was not an object for which good men might spirkuai'''' reasonably contend in the eleventh century. Both now and the -' ■' Temporal and then the great object is that a morality higher than Puw the morality of ordinary men, and a knowledge deeper than the knowledge of ordinary men, shall find a stand- ing ground from which to raise the low standard which exists. To achieve such a standing ground without dis- turbance of existing arrangements is to secure the real spiritual power against the temporal, and to solve the problem of the two authorities which grew up in the days of the Roman Empire, and which distracted the States of the Middle Ages. Gradually the civilised world has come to the perception that the domain of thought, of morality, and of religion is best left to the safeguard of freedom, assured by the settled conviction of peoples and governments that so it is best for all. In the eleventh century no such conviction was possible. Thought still ran in very definite channels, and had no tendency to strike out new and untrodden paths. The society of men in the world hung loosely together, troubling itself about little else than material enjoyments. The state itself was nowhere constituted as a state should be. Government in the hands of the Norman kings gave protection to the masses, but there was no welding together of governors and subjects into a harmonious whole. The arrangement made by the Conqueror was therefore perhaps, as long as his own life was prolonged, better calculated than any other to meet the difficulties of the case. He separated the bishops from all temporal affairs, and gave them courts of their own with jurisdic- tion over ecclesiastical offences and persons. He thus gave to the Church, the sole depositary of mental and moral authority, a position independent of Norman baron E so INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. and of English freeholder. Bishops were no longer to be made without real qualifications for their office. Clergy- were no longer to be upheld unless they came up to a higher standard than contented the rude peasants amongst whom they ministered. On the other hand, William, whilst outwardly acknowledging the new papal claims, practically set them at defiance. In conjunction with Lanfranc, the scholar and statesman, whom he had placed on the metropolitan throne of Canterbury, he was himself the organiser of the English Church. It was he who encouraged learning and virtue, and who selected for ecclesiastical posts such men as came up to the high continental standard, and who would not allow the pope to give orders in England which were not first submitted to himself. §11. The It was all well enough as long as the Conqueror lived. The Red King seemed to have come into the world to justify the wildest extravagance of the popes. The brute force of the king was sharpened by supereminent powers of intellect without the slightest tinge of morality. His chief minister, Ranulf Flambard, sprung from the ranks of the clergy, turned his knowledge and skill to purposes of sheer oppression. The Norman barons learned that their tenure of land subjected them to penal exactions, the right to which might logically be deduced from the con- ditions under which their land was held. The clergy learned that when a see was vacant, the king claimed not to provide a better occupant than his English predecessors had been content with, but to keep it vacant, in order that he might gather the revenues for himself, or when at last he gave way, might fill if with some base favourite of his own who would do all his bidding, or with some un- worthy purchaser who had money to offer. For five years after Lanfranc's death the see of Canterbury itself was thus kept vacant. At last, on a sick-bed, even liic under William Rufus. GORMAN ORGAMSATIOX. 5 Red King inclined to concession. He appointed a Cuw. successor to Lanfranc, and that successor was Anselm. Anselm was the flower of medieval monasticism,— of § ra. An- those societies in which the obedience flowing from an'i\ion- voluntary submission stood in such startling contrast to =i^t'^'^"i- the obedience from fear or interest, which was the motive power of the state over which William Rufus presided. At Bee, the Norman monastery over which the Italian stranger from the Val d'Aosta ruled as Lanfranc had ruled before him, the community was bound together by ties of mutual respect. The warfare against the world, to which the brethren M-ere called by their profession, was waged not so much by startling acts of asceticism, as by a constant persistence in humility. The precept. Confess your sins one to ^another, was here as a perpetual reality, as each monk in turn acknowledged his faults in the presence of all the others, humbly listening, without an angry word, to their accusations and reproofs, or submitting without a murmur even to the corporal chastisement which the brotherhood, by the voice of its chosen head, adjudged him to have deserved. The time would come, doubtless, when this order too would deservedly pass away to make room for another, in which there was more spontaneity and less rigid discipline. But as yet, the world n^ded an example of discipline, not of spontaneity. Nor was the work of the monks ended here. Amongst them were to be found what seeds of intellectual culture were scat- tered abroad. It was from a monastery that sounded forth the voice which, when all others had been hushed, still continued that tale of our national history in our old national speech, which was to be taken up in the more uni- versal Latin by Orderic from St. Evroul and by William from Malmesbury. It was from Bee itself that Anselm proclaimed that he had fathomed the depths of the K 2 52 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. mysteries of Christianity in the work which formed the _ basis of Christian theological arguments, even in times when men had broken away from the moorings at which the medieval Church lay anchored. 5 13. An- All the learning, and all the piety and righteousness of wiiiiiiii monasticism, were concentrated in Anselm. Well might he shrink from accepting the archbishopric from the hands of William. As soon as the king recovered his health, he plunged into his old contemptuous scorn of God and man. A quarrel soon sprang up between the two men on various grounds, chiefly on the question of the recog- nition of Pope Urban, the pope of the Church, or of Pope Clement, the anti-pope supported by the emperor. William wanted to keep the question open, and alleged truly that his father had prohibited the recognition of any pope without license from himself The declaration was evidently something very different in the mouths of the two kings. It was Anselm's clear duty to announce that there was a realm of conscience into which mere force, clothing itself in the forms of state expediency, could not be allowed to enter. Urban, he declared, was pope and not Clement. All the threats of the king could not make it otherwise. In vain the time-serving bishops ranged themselves on the king's side. Anselm cared for none of their threats. William was obliged to give way. Then the quarrel blazed up afresh, and Anselm asked and obtained permission to return to the Continent to confer with the pope. The Red King was left to his sins and to his bloody death in the New Forest. §14. An- In Henry I. Anselm had another kind of man to deal with. Cautious and self-controlled, if it were but for the sake of the strength which he gained by it, Henry established in England the rule of stern inflexible justice, except where his special ends were to be served. t(:lm and Ilt-niy I NORMAN ORGANISATION. 53 Anselm, too, had learned upon the Continent views which chap. he had not entertained when he first took possession of the see of Canterbury. He had then received investiture from WilHam, as his predecessors had received investiture before him, by the reception of the pastoral staff. He found that by the pope and the churchmen by whom the pope was surrounded, this acceptance of an ecclesi- astical dignity at the hands of a layman was condemned as scandalous and illegal. It has been said that he adopted this new view from mere subservience to the papal authority. But it should not be forgotten that since he had received investiture from William, a bitter experience had taught him what a miserable bondage it was to be beaten about hither and thither at the caprice of a rude and godless king. The pastoral staff might be nothing in itself, but it was the symbol of a rule and guidance which rested on another basis than that of material force. Yet he could not but acknowledge that Henry too had right on his side. If bishops and arch- bishops had broad lands at their disposal, and warlike knights at their command, it could not be a matter of indifference to a king who tried — as in some sort Henry was trying — to fulfil the duties of his office, who it was who held positions of such authority, and in what spirit towards the realm they fulfilled the duties incumbent upon them through those positions. The Concordat by which the dispute was settled acknowledged both these rights. Investiture by the delivery of the staff was to come from the pope, but homage was to be done, as by a feudal baron, to the king. It is easy to speak contemptuously of Anselm for Sis-f^'in- 111 1 n- • 1 ciples in- graspmg at the shadow and flmging away the substance, voivedin No man flings away the substance who cares only to '^eQuairei. announce the truth. It was an eternal truth for all time that there was a sphere of the mind and heart 54 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. which ought, for the p^ood of mankind, to be left un- III & ' o touched by the compulsory action of the state. It was a temporary truth for the eleventh and twelfth cen- turies, that those who addressed themselves to raise the moral and spiritual condition of their fellows needed the support of a central ecclesiastical organisation to main- tain them against the violence or the avarice of those who wielded the power of the state. Of course there were sure to be future troubles, but it would not be through the fault of Anselm. The troubles would come simply because the temporary truth of one century would cease to be the temporary truth of another. It might very well be that the ecclesiastical organisation of Rome would set itself against moral and intellectual progress. It might very well be that the powers of the state would be harshly and unjustly used. Above all, Rome, far away as she was, was not likely to know the facts of each case as it arose so well as persons living upon the spot. There is no absolute permanence in nationality. Frontiers change, and habits change, till that which is a whole to- day may becom.e a part to-morrow. But a people welded together into a coherent body is, on the whole, a better judge of its affairs than any distant power can possibly be. The day would come when those who were most bitterly opposed to the Roman see would be those who most truly maintained the principles of Anselm. His spirit rests with the men who in the seventeenth century passed the Toleretion Act, and founded the liberty of the press. § i6. The Henry I. went far to establish monarchical order in Stephen! ° England. But it was an order -which depended on his own character for its maintenance. When he died, he was succeeded by the weak Stephen. The English people had no general organisation except in the person of the king. If the king was incompetent to furnish this organisation. ANGEVIN ORGANISATION. 55 the people dropped asunder as a faggot drops when the chap. band is loosed. The Norman baronage could wreak its _ vengeance or satisfy its greed on each town or hamlet in detail. The horror of those days far surpassed the horror of the tyranny of Rufus. 'Men said that Christ and his saints were asleep.' On every side arose fortified castles, the abodes of robbery and wrong. At last, in the young Henr>', a head was found capable of carrying on the work of his grandfather. It was not difficult for the strong man to reduce the § 17- The exhausted land to order, to dismantle the fortified castles Henry II. of the barons which had been the strongholds of robbery and wrong, and to dismiss the mercenary bands of foreign soldiers, which had formed the main support of the oppressors in that evil time. Happily for England, Henry was more than a strong man. Without gentle- ness or sympathy, he had the clear head of an organiser, and a prompt eye to reject forms of organisation which might have been successful in another land or time, but which were not suitable to the England of his own day. There was much to lead a king at his time to strive after the ideal of the old Roman Empire. Its memories were still green on the Continent. Henry's reign was almost exactly contemporaneous with that of Frederick Bar- barossa, who wore the crown of the Csesars haughtily in defiance of all who sought to diminish its lustre. The study of the Roman law had just been quickened afresh in England, as in the rest of Europe, bringing with it its scientific precision, its reverence for despotic authority, and that contempt for traditionary custom and for the mere instinct of the unlearned masses which had gone far to bring about the ruin of the Roman Empire. Henry no doubt could not have succeeded in establish- ing a pure despotism in England if he had tried. But it was none the less a merit in him that he did not tr}', and 5^ INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. that he worked steadily to carry out the plans of his _ grandfather and his great grandfather, by associating the greatness of the English crown with the active co-opera- tion of the English people. ]y]jji. It was in this spirit that he completed the organisa- tary Re- ^jqi^ pf ^^g national army. The feudal landowners were lorins. . bound to follow him into the field for forty days in the year. Henry had many reasons for distrusting such a force. Besides being King of England, he was a great continental prince, ruling by various titles over sunny lands which stretched from the English Channel to the Pyrenees. To defend so long a line he wished to have English help, and he soon found that the short service of the English feudal force was of little use to him. As the trouble of crossing the sea was also highly disagree- able to the feudal tenants themselves, a bargain was soon effected by which they were excused from military service on payment of a sum of money, which bore the name of scutagc. With this money Henry paid mercenary troops on whom he could depend all the year round, and whom he never, except on one occasion of desperate need, brought over into England. Such a change was of more than military importance. No doubt the feudal lords still continued to bear arms and to be proud of their fighting powers. But they were seldom brought under the stress and training of actual war, and they thus be- came far less formidable to the king than they had been in earlier days. Nor was Henry content with weakening the military power of the baronage. In the old English system the fyrd, or national militia, was drawn from the free landed population irrespective of tenure. By the assize of arms, Henry provided that every man whose property reached a certain specified amount should, in proportion to his wealth, possess arms, which he was never to be allowed to sell or pledge. By this arrange- ANGEVIN ORGANISATION. 57 merit the national force grew stronger, just at the time Chap. that the feudal force was growing weaker. All initiative _ in command was reserved for the king ; but the strength which would enable him to act would come neither from a standing army specially attached to his own person, nor from a feudal army specially attached to the defence of its own social position. It would come from his headship of the nation, from the willing co-operation of men who were, during most of their lives, farmers or merchants, and who stepped forward when their swords were needed to defend interests which were their own as well as the king's. The principle which prevailed in Henry's military ig. reforms prevailed also in his judicial reforms. If there forms.^^' was nothing absolutely new in the system which he introduced, if something, was derived from the old cus- toms of the English, and something, through his Norman ancestors, from the Carolingian Empire, he made it his own by the extension which he gave to it, and by the constant reliance which he placed in it. In civil disputes relating to land, he bade his judges decide in accordance with the sworn testimony of twelve recognitors or knights living in the vicinity of the estate in dis- pute, so as to be able to tell the truth from their own knowledge. In criminal matters the accused was pre- sented by sworn accusers, who also brought their charge from their own knowledge of the facts, or from informa- tion on which they believed themselves to be able to depend. A similar system was adopted in the assessment of payments due to the Crown. Such modes of investi- gation were very far from perfect. They admitted of no sifting of evidence or cross-examination of witnesses. Many changes would have to take place before the trial by judge and jury, with which so many generations of Englishmen have been familiar, could come into 58 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. existence. The importance of Henry's work lies not in 1_ the positive excellence of his achievement, but upon the firmness with which he planted himself on that union of the two forces by which alone permanent progress is rendered possible. In the ancient world, Athens had failed because she relied upon the energies and patriot- ism of ordinary citizens, without caring to labour for the development of special talent for judicial, civil, or military leadership ; whilst Rome had failed because, as the em- pire grew older, it rested more entirely every day on the special talent of administrators, judges and generals, and despised the help of ordinary citizens. Henry showed his practical sense in combining the two elements. §20. Po- It was as well that Henry did not conform his poli- range- "^^ tical to his military and judicial institutions. No doubt monts. j^g made such use of the .Great Council of his tenants in chief which had taken the place of the Witenagemot, as no king since the Conquest had done. But he used it as a council, and not as a modern parliament. It had no wish to shake off his authority. It could therefore give advice without even wishing to exercise control. Even if it had wished to do so it had not the power. The feudal military support upon which alone it could reckon was, in part at least, the support of the men \\\\o were paying scutage to buy for themselves exemption from service. The thousands who were being organised into an army by the assize of arms would, on all or- dinary occasions, rally to the king and not to his vassals. It was much indeed to do what Henry had done ; to blend together the feudal elements with the wider national element. As always happens when success is achieved, he had assisted nature, and had not attempted to supplant her. Time had worn away the distinction between Norman and Englishman, and if French was usually spoken at one end of the social scale and English ANGEVlh' ORGAXISATION. 59 at the other, no man in the higher ranks could speak of Chap himself as exclusively of one race or the other. But the L consciousness of national unity was slow in growing, and it would hardly become a motive power in events till it had been awakened by common resistance to aggression. For the present there was local vigour put- ting itself gladly at the disposal of the central authority of the king. But the men who would gladly assist the royal judges in tracing out criminals, or ascertaining rights of property, put forward no pretensions to share in the political authority of the king. They were con- tent to leave that in Henry's hands. To ask these men to send representatives to a national parliament would merely have been to establish a sham, as the States- General who were summoned in the fourteenth century by Philip IV. of France to denounce the Pope or to plunder the Templars were a sham. It was better that the full forms of parliamentary institutions should not be there, till there was a nation behind them to inspire them with life. It was enough that the Great Council should hand down from the older Witenagemot the tradition of government by persuasion as something higher than government by compulsion. In the very midst of the gradual promulgation of § 21. The these reforms, Henry found himself involved in a quarrel wkh"^' with the Church. The time was not come when the au- ^'^cket. thority of the State, even in Henry's hands, could be safe- ly entrusted with control over the clergy. Yet not only was the State better organised under Henry II. than it had been under Henry I., but the demands of the Church were of a lower order than those which had been put forward by Anselm. Anselm had been distinctly the righteous man defending the poor and innocent against injustice and tyranny. Becket's main contention was that the clergy, whatever crimes they had committed, should not 6o INTRODUCTION TO EN GUSH HISTORY. Chap. be judged by the crrdinary justice of the realm. No doubt Becket had on his side the general feeling of the clergy, and he may well have thought that to surrender the outworks of their defence would only lead to a baser and more complete surrender hereafter. As for Becket himself, the king in placing him in the archbishopric, in order that he might betray to the Crown the liberties claimed by the Church, had asked him to perform an act of treason as contemptible as that of the man who accepts the command of a fortress in order to betray it to the enemy. Yet the liberties which the new archbishop defended, even if they had still an universal aspect, were far more professional in their nature than those for which Anselm contended, and Becket himself had far more of the champion of a profession about him than was in accordance with the character of the meek and gentle opponent of William II. and of Henry I. His quarrel with Henry II. was one which could best be settled by a compromise, and Becket would hear of no com- promise. His strength lay in the weakness of his adversary. The State could claim the submission of the Church when it could do justice to friend and foe alike. The king who fined Becket enormous sums on frivolous pretexts, who punished Becket's kinsmen when he could not reach Becket himself, who rolled oi the floor and gnawed straw with his teeth when bad news reached him, and who, by his wrathful words, despatched the murderers on the archbishop's track, was not in a position to claim the obedience which is due to the fountain of justice. The murder of Becket completed the lesson, that the great interests of th; Church and society were not as yet safe in being left entirely in the hands of the king. Popular enthusiasm hailed the new martyr ; and the miracles reported to be performed at his tomb seemed to ratify the popular belie! land and the Cru- sades. ANGEVIN ORGANISATION. 6i Yet even thus, the edifice erected by Henry was too Chap. Ill firmly established to be shaken by the storm. Men who had no wish to see the clergy prostrated at his feet, had no desire to see the foundations of national order broken up. Of one great movement of this age, the historian of § 22. !• ng- English progress has little to tell. Before the end of the eleventh century, the feudal nobility of the western part of continental Europe were eagerly leaving home and lands to share in the enterprise of wresting the Holy Land from the Infidel. The crusading spirit took possession of the minds of these men just in proportion as they were without a national life to occupy their thoughts. In England, in the worst of times, a national life existed. In the days of the Conqueror and his sons, both Normans and Englishmen found enough to occupy their energies at home without turning their attention elsewhere. When, at the end of the reign of Henry II.,* the news arrived that Jerusalem had fallen once more into Mahometan hands, there was no widely spread feeling of horror. If Richard I. led not a few followers to the Holy War, they were animated rather by the spirit of adventure than by a deeply seated sense of duty. Richard was himself little more than a great adventurer. For England and its national development he cared nothing. If Richard cared nothing for England, he cared much §23. for the money of Englishmen. In Archbishop Hubert and '^"^^ Walter he found, during the latter years of his reign, a minister who could draw wealth from his subjects without subjecting them to the miseries of an irregular and capricious tyranny. Walter's administration there- fore was a time of silent growth in England. Henry's system of assessment by jury received under him a wider extension, and the representative system for judicial and financial purposes struck firm root, to be ready in time for an unexpected application to political objects. Hubert Walter. 6a CHAPTER IV. PARLIAMENTARY ORGANISATION. Chap. The political work of the twelfth century had been to '— draw closely the bonds between the king and the § I. Con- strengthened local organisations. The political work of trast be- o o jt tween the the thirteenth century would lie in surrounding the king Thirteenth ^^'^^^ ^ general representative organisation, which would Centuries, bring before him the needs and desires of the nation as •a whole, in the same way that the county courts and the county juries brought before his judges the needs and desires of the country districts. §2. King The first impulse to the movement was given by. the misconduct of John. The system establishec^ by Henry n. could only work beneficially in the hands of an able and well-disposed king, who, if he did not care for the people for their own sake, at least understood that a well-governed people is the purest foundation upon which a ruler can build up his authority. John cared nothing for such a source of strength. For him, government meant merely the art of extorting money for his own selfish objects. Every class of his subjects was oppressed by the worst of tyrannies, a tyranny fitful and uncertain, relieved by no glorious achieve- ments abroad, and directed to no large and far-sighted policy at home. As the strength which his father had derived from the national support slipped out of his hands, he rested more and more on the mercenary troops PARLIAMENTARY ORGANISATION. 63 which he gathered on the Continent, to be paid with Chap. EngHsh money, and to extort yet more money in _ England for them and for himself. Three quarrels, each of them ending disastrously for § 3- The ^ ' 1,1 three (Juar- John, each of them leaving traces on the development reis ot the of the English nation, occupied the whole of the reign— ^^'S"- the quarrel with the king of France, the quarrel with the Pope, and the quarrel with the English baronage. The result of the quarrel with the king of France § 4- The . r Quarrel was merely one more example of the weakness ot with the extended territories without unity of sentiment and ^'^l^^^ organisation. To one who judges from a glance at the map, nothing can appear more unequal than the relative strength of John and of Philip II. But the dominions which stretched from the English Channel to the Pyrenees had nothing in common but their allegiance to the same sovereign. Che great division of temperament • and language between the lands to the south and the north of the Loire, was far more marked than it is at the present day. The Aquitanian differed to a great extent in race and language, and quite as much in his habits and mode of life from the Norman or the Frenchman of the North ; and within these large divisions smaller divisions remained uneffaced. The Angevin was not as the Norman, the Languedocian was not as the Poitevin. The cool head of Henry II. and the fierce activity of Richard I. might keep, not without a struggle, these various races together. John could not do it. He was neither feared nor respected. The provinces north of the Loire, Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Touraine, fell easily into the hands of Philip. If the Aquitanian lands held firm to their allegiance, it was because they had no wish to be French, and because they knew that the distant rule of a king who lived in England would leave them far more to their own devices than the rule near 64 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. at hand of a kinsr who lived in Paris. The chansfe, all- IV important for the growth of the French monarchy, was not unimportant for the growth of the English nation. Practically it cut England loose from the Continent. No doubt the bond thus broken was not quite as strong as it had been a century before. The great Norman houses of the Conquest, with their vast landed estates on both sides of the Channel, were mainly things of the past. They had perished, or had been brought low in one or other of their many struggles to throw off the yoke of the Conqueror and his successors. Still there were some families remaining which held lands both in England and Normandy ; and, at all events, as long as a king of England ruled at Rouen, the French tongue could never be entirely a foreign speech, or the native of a French-speaking land entirely a foreigner in London, The loss of Normandy by John was therefore a distinct step in the direction of the formation of an English nationality. 5 ;. The Even the result of the quarrel with the Pope worked ^^iXthe incidentally in the same direction. In spite of the dis- ^'"P^" tractions caused by the strife between Anselm and William, or between Becket and Henry, the rulers of the Church had on the whole been found on the side of the Crown. Nominated directly or indirectly by the kings, they often held official positions in the government of the State. But it was not only in this class that the kings had found support. The clergy were interested at least as much as other men in the maintenance of order, and their wide popular sympathies brought them in close connection with those classes which had most to fear from a repetition of the anarchy of the days of Stephen. Suddenly a storm burst from a clear sky. John nominated John de Gray, a favourite of his own, to the metropolitan sec of Cantcrbur\-. The Pope, In no- PARLIAMENTAR Y ORGANISA TION. 65 ClIAP. IV. cent III., nominated Stephen Langton, under the trans- parent pretext of the confirmation of an election made in his presence. If John had only proceeded with decent moderation he might have rallied the bishops to his side as Henry had rallied them against Becket. But he acted, according to his nature, with insensate violence, seized the estates of the sec for his nominee, and, when the Pope laid the kingdom under an interdict, gave up the clergy to the lawless violence of his subjects, and practised lawless violence on them himself Innocent at last threatened to bring Philip II. of France against him, that he might strip him of England as he had before stripped him of Normandy. Deserted by his subjects, John humbled himself at the feet of the Pope's legate Pandulph, and received his crown back from him to hold from henceforth as the vassal of the Pope. At first sight it would seem as if no heavier blow § 6. The . Papacy of could be struck at the rising nationality. Innocent, in- innoucnt deed, believed that he had taken a long step towards the realisation of his great idea of the establishment of a fatherly control over the kings of the earth, in order that they might learn to do righteousness and exercise justice. The idea of Innocent was more straightforward and practical than the idea of Gregory VII. Innocent saw that it was not enough for the accomplishment of the great object of his desire to draw a strict line of separa- tion between the spiritual and the temporal. A theorist might distinguish where the one ended and the other began. To ^ practical ruler it was impossible. No act could be done which was not in some way either moral or immoral, and if it \\ as the business of the Pope to make men moral or immoral, he might as well come into direct connection with those by whom men were governed. It was simpler to declare that as all men held their lands from kings, kings held their crowns F III. 66 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. from the Pope, Innocent's theory would soon be '^^' tested by experience. But even for the moment, the clergy were rather bound together against John than bound together to the Pope. They had shared in the miseries caused by John's oppression, and they had learned to look for friends amongst those who had been equally maltreated with themselves. The barons of Eng- land were near and the Pope was a long way off. If John continued to oppress, clergy and barons might join to resist oppression without waiting till their com- plaints could travel to Rome to be discussed and debated in the Papal courts, especially as, in spite of the high ideas of the Pope, it was known that he was surrounded by greedy and unscrupulous officials who needed to be bribed at every step. § 7. The In this way the interference of the Pope, which with'thL ■ seemed to transfer the mainspring of English politics to Baronage, a distant country, only served to bind all classes of Englishmen more closely together than before. Happily the new archbishop was a thorough Englishman. In him the scattered elements of the opposition to John's tyranny found a common leader. The barons, who rose in arms to wrest from the king some security that they should not be in future pillaged and oppressed at random, gained a definiteness of object by entrusting to him the preparation of the document in which their claims were made. The Great Charter, founded on an earlier charter of Henry I., bears the impress of the mind of the man whom Innocent III., uot knowing what he did, had obtruded on the English Church and nation. §8. The Great Charter differed from similar concessions cSr* made by the sovereigns of the Continent to their nobles. It was demanded and received not merely by the class of Englishmen which was the most powerful, PARLIAMENTARY ORGANISA TION. 67 but by the English people in its entirety. The clergy, Cuap. the great barons, the lower vassals and freeholders, even the merchants and the peasants, found their in- terests consulted in it. For the first time the English people appeared as a united whole. The local divisions of the days before the Conquest were gone. The class divisions of the days after the Conquest were also gone. In their stead had arisen a union based on mutual con- cessions and strong by mutual support. The great im- portance of the Charter does not lie in the wisest of its provisions, but in the fact that it sprang from a re- arrangement of political forces. The Norman and Angevin kings had thought to establish a centralised despotism, and the result had been the bringing of the English nation to the birth. Such a change in the forces of politics rendered § 9- New necessary a change of institutions to give it effect. The needed, old Great Council of the immediate vassals of the crown must in some way or another change its basis, and become the Great Council of the nation, whilst the holder of the kingly office also must be inspired with the new national spirit. Unless that could be done, little would be gained. Unity of direction, the vigilance of personal superintendence, the permanent action of a presiding intelligence, are as necessary for the well-being of a state as the expression of popular will by which the ruler is prevented from providing for his own wants instead of providing for the wants of the nation. Such a change, however, could only be tentatively carried out. Some time passes before a nation finds out exactly what it wants, and a longer time before it finds out what are the most suitable means for supplying its necessities. The efforts of the barons were very tentative indeed. § ro. 1 m They forced John to promise that he would not, except Eftorts. in certain specified cases, levy any scutage or aid ujion 68 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. his own vassals without the consent of the Great Council of the realm. As, however, the aids and scutages due to the crown were only levied on its immediate feudal tenants, there was no thought of providing any new assembly to guard the rights of those who were interested. All that was done was to try to make the Great Council to be in reality what it was already in theory, an assembly not merely of the prelates and great barons, but of the whole of the tenants in chief John, therefore, was constrained to promise that he would summon for purposes of feudal taxation, the archbishops, bishops, abbots, and greater barons by special writ, whilst he would summon all the lesser tenants in chief by a general announcement conveyed by the sheriffs. There was no likelihood that such a plan would meet the necessities of the case. The smaller tenants in chief would not take the trouble to appear any more than they had done before, and the sub-tenants by knight-service, the free- holders who were not knights at all, and the inhabitants of the towns, had no part or lot in the assembly. The Great Council would continue to be a council of prelates and barons ; and if prelates and barons were to be left alone to deal with the king, they might be inclined, if they proved successful, to kick over the ladder by which they had risen to power. Nor was the new arrange- ment for the exercise of the royal authority any more satisfactory. John was still to be king, but a committee of twenty-five barons was to be appointed to watch over him in the exercise of his office. If he broke the Charter, they were to make war on him and to seize his castles and lands. Probably nothing better could have been suggested at the moment, but it is evident that a system under which a king could only exercl.se his authority under the constant threat of legalised rebellion could not form part of a permanent constitution for the country. PARLIAMENTARY ORGANISATION. 69 If, however, the Great Charter offered no remedy here. Chap. there were in existence forces which would sooner or _ later come to the front. In the counties the old shire- § n. mote, under the Norman name of the county court, was th^Repre- more than ever flourishing. It was accustomed to g"\^|^^'''' elect persons to assess taxation locally in concert with the judges. Sooner or later, the system which prevailed locally was certain to make itself felt in the conduct of the general affairs of the nation. Even John him- self had dimly recognised the value of the support which might thus be gained, and had summoned elected knights on one or two occasions to meet him on affairs of public importance. The time had not yet arrived when the representative system could take per- manent shape. For the barons the immediate question was not so much how the Great Council was to be con- stituted in the future, as how the existing king was to be controlled or deposed. John soon showed that no promises could bind him, and the barons, in despair of a successful resistance, invited Lewis — the son of the king of France, and the husband of John's niece — to re- place him on the throne, much in the same way that their descendants invited William of Orange to replace James II. * Happily John's death rendered the step unnecessary, § 12. and his son, then a mere boy, was soon universally ac- of^Hen°y cepted as Henry III. Those who acted in his name ^}^- ^"^ r J the mod. declared their adhesion to the Great Charter. But the fied clause binding the king to levy the feudal aids and scutages only on a grant from the Council was omitted. When Henry grew up to manhood, he showed himself less vigorously tyrannical than his father. But he was a weak and heartless spendthrift, throwing money freely away on himself, and still more freely on a swarm of foreigners, the relatives and connexions of his mother Charter. 70 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. and of his wife, for whom he seemed to think that IV — nothing in England was too good His ever-craving need drove back those whose money he demanded upon the theory of the invahdity of a royal demand for taxation without the consent of the Council, while at the same time it led them to make the foundations of that Council as broad as possible in order that all classes might present a united front to a common danger. §13. Ex- In such a conflict, v.ith dangers on every side, the PapaiTn-^ national institutions of Englishm.en were hardened as in fluence. j-^g 5j-g_ Abovc all there vv-as the danger lest, in a con- test in defence of property, however nobly waged, the habit of looking after the right to money should lead to mere selfish faction, and that when once the king had been restrained, the strong would trample on the weak, and the rich would grind the faces of the poor Never is it more necessary than in times of civil strife to keep warm the heart and to maintain the sense of brother- hood. Nor was the civil strife of the thirteenth century without special dangers of its own. Hitherto the eccle- siastical organisation, with the Pope at its head, had kept alive a sense of unity amidst the distractions of feudal warfare. Everywhere through Western Christen- dom, theXI!hurch had been the protector of the helpless, the advocate of peace, the protector against violence and wrong. Everywhere the Pope could be looked up to as the common father. But there were signs that it would not be so much longer. Innocent HI. had taken part distinctly with John, wicked and bloodthirsty as he was, as soon as John had acknowledged him as his feudal superior; and though Honorius II., who followed him, had done much to help on the pacification which ensued on the accession of Henry, neither his influence nor that of his successors was likely to be exercised in giving any support to the growth of a constitutional control PARLIAMENTARY ORGANISATION. 71 by subjects over their sovereign. As an ecclesiastical Chap. autocracy, the papacy was certain to oppose the de- velopment of free institutions in the state ; whilst, as a universal system, the highest merit of which was that it placed itself above distinctions of race, of language, and of government, it was qually certain to look askance upon the tightening bonds of nationality which were causing Englishmen to regard foreigners as unfit to take part in the management of English affairs. And at the same time that the papacy was losing its intelligent percep- tion of the real wants of Englishmen, circumstances led it to make the heaviest demands upon the purses of Englishmen. Two successive popes, Gregory IX. and Innocent IV., engaged in a deadly struggle with the Emperor Frederick II. The object of that struggle, even at its commencement, had very little of a spiritual nature in it. The popes no longer, as in the eleventh centur}', burned with zeal for the reform of the Church and the world. They wanted chiefly to maintain their inde- pendence as temporal sovereigns. For this they fought ; for this they sent emissary after emissary to England, subjecting the English clergy and laity to taxation, and infringing on the rights of lay patrons as well as clerical expectants by the appointment of needy Italians to English benefices. It was not long before the pope came to be regarded as merely one foreign bloodsucker the more, as mischievous as the brothers-in-law of the king, who cared for nothing in England except its wealth. In the sturdy growth of a national feeling lay the %,'^^- '^'''^ strength of England. But it was not without its own risks. There was a danger lest a claim to power, arising from the desire to guard the purse, should end in a struggle for pelf rather than in an increase of righteous rule, and that the pursuit of material objects should lead in the end to disintegration rather than to union. Once Friars. 72 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. more England had to look abroad for the remedy. The new thought came across the sea with the Friars, and more especially with the Franciscans, the followers of Francis of Assisi, the gentle mystical Italian, rather than with those of Dominic, the combative and persecuting Spaniard, The friars were the last helpful gift of the medieval Church to the world. Like the old monks in their self-abnegation, and in their complete renunciation of the pleasures and interests of the world, the friars in- troduced an entirely new element into the ecclesiastical system. The monk stood apart from humanity for his own soul's welfare, crucifying the flesh in order that the spirit might live, and teaching indirectly by example, and not, except accidentally, by direct word or guidance. The friar's work was carried on, not in retired cloisters but in the busy haunts of men. He lived not for himself but for others. Wherever men were most wretched, struck down by the most loathsome of diseases, or pinched and hunger-starved with famine, there the little mission chapel of the friars was raised. Francis of Assisi wooed, in his own mystical language, poverty as his bride ; but it was poverty revealed in others as well as in himself The world for him was not a haunt of demons to be avoided at the peril of eternal death, but a home of sin and misery to be healed and alleviated. Whilst pope and emperor, king and baron, were contending for this world's goods, the Franciscan drew close the golden bond of charity, and told not in word, but in very deed, of the love which is stronger to draw together than this world's goods are powerful to separate. They had their reward even in that of which they were most careless. The intellectual sway of the world, the organising of its science, even what knowledge of its physical laws was then possible, fell into their hands. Thomas Aquinas and Roger Bacon were of the friars. Even in political PARLIAMENTARY ORGANISATION. 73 change their weight was felt. In the English constitu- Chap. tional struggle, the man whose influence was ever used _ to exalt the standard of right and to bind together the hostile elements of faction, was one who had imbibed their teaching most deeply — Earl Simon de Montfort was a pupil of the friars. It is possible that Earl Sim.on's foreign origin may § t^. si- have had something to do with the freshness of insight !?1°'\'^J*^ . ° o Montfort. which enabled him to look to the bottom of our English difficulties. Fully assuming his position as an English- man, and associating himself completely with the strug- gles of the English baronage, he saw, ever more clearly as the conflict with the king continued, that the substi- tution of the government of an irresponsible aristocracy for an irresponsible king would not be a gain to anyone. The Provisions of Oxford in 1258, which were in the main the work of the baronage, contemplated some such a settlement as this. Earl Simon's own arrangements, made after the victory of Lewes in 1264, contemplated a national constitution. For some time knights had been sent with increasing § 16. His frequency to represent the smaller landowners in Parlia- scheme of ^ ■/ ^ a represen- ment. Almost accidentally the barrier between tenants tative in chief, and subtenants, and again between • subtenants menu' and ordinary freeholders had been broken down. If knights were to be sent to parliament at all, there was no machinery for their election except in the county court, and the county court was still what it had been as the shiremote before the Conquest, the place of the meeting of landowners irrespective of the nature of their tenure. The step from a feudal to a national assembly was thus taken without any special contrivance by any special statesman. But it could not have been taken unless the fusion of feudal and nonfeudal elements in parliament had already been completed in the nation 74 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. itself. It was because the great baron and his vassal ^^' knights had learned to act together with the simple freeholder in resisting royal and papal encroachments at home, that they were able to join together in parliament. Earl Simon drew yet another element ot life into the political arena. The towns, comparatively small and unimportant as, with the single exception of London, they were, were yet important enough to be consulted, and the admission of their repre- sentatives to parliament completed the national as- sembly. It was to a parliament so constituted in a single house that Earl Simon looked for the mainspring ot political action. It is true that the governors who were to act in the name of the king were to be nominated by electors named by the barons alone ; but they were to be continually checked by the criticism of a parlia- ment which would represent England as no parliament had represented it before. In so doing the great earl attempted to anticipate the work of centuries. Even if his parliament h d been more homogeneous than it ■was, the control of government by a representative body was no easy task. The constitutional habit of giving way to the majority of votes takes long to form, and the equally necessary habit of paying attention to public affairs when a critical moment of danger is past s not easily acquired. Great as the progress of England in the direction of national unity had been, it was not as yet enough to bear the strain of so great a constitutional change. The barons preferred to be the servants of a king who would spare their interests to being servants of the community at large. Personal jealousy of the great earl did the rest. Feudalism was still too strong for the complete nationalisation of the kingdom. The split between the baronage and the national party grew wider every day, till the hope of England seemed to be struck down with Earl Simon at' Evesham, and nothing PARLIAMENTARY ORGANISATION. 75 left to be done but to raise the fruitless lament for the Chap. political martyr who had died for the country as Arch- _ bishop Thomas had once died for the church. Happily, Earl Simon found a successor, and more § 17. The than a successor, in the king's son. Do what he would, o"Edward^ the earl, from his very position, was a divider. He could ^• do nothing without thrusting the king down into tutelage, and in proportion as he succeeded in doing that, he became the object of jealousy to those who were un- willing to submit to the rule of a subject like themselves. Edward I. stood on the vantage ground of the throne. From thence he was able to look at men and things from a point of view very different from that which any subject could command. He could do that easily and without effort which Simon could only do la- boriously, and with the certainty of rousing opposition. Especially was this the case with the encourage inent given by the two men to the growing aspirations after parliamentary representation. Earl Simon's assemblies w^ere instruments of warfare. Edward's assemblies were invitations to peace. Yet his position would have availed him little if he had trusted to nothing else. He was able to use it, because he was strong in mind as well as in body, because with the reforming temperament he had an open eye for his subjects' grievances, and was thus able to lead them steadily forward in the path of legislative improvement. Barons and prelates, knights and towns- men, came together only to support a king who took the initiative so wisely, and who, knowing what was best for all, sought the good of his kingdom without thought of his own ease. Yet even so, Edward was too prudent at once to gather together such a body as that which Earl Simon had planned. He summoned, indeed, all the constituent parts of Simon's parliament, but he seldom summoned them to meet in one place or at one time. Sometimes i INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. the barons and prelates met apart from the townsmen ^^" or the knights, sometimes one or the other class met entirely alone. By this means Edward got what he wanted. He strengthened himself in his power to do good by gathering a fruitful knowledge of the thoughts and aims of his subjects, and by inspiring them with re- spect for his own thoughts and aims for them ; but he accustomed them at the same time to look upon him far more as the centre of the national life than they would have done if they had been in the habit of meeting him face to face in one great national body. It may fairly be said, too, that they got what they needed. They had the best possible training for higher work to come one day, the work of co-operating with one nobler and wiser than themselves, without any temptation to contend over points of small importance. 8. The In this way, during the first twenty years of Edward's reign, the nation rapidly grew in that consciousness Kht-shi °^ national unity which would one day transfer the function of regulation from the crown to the repre- sentatives of the nation. Like all changes, even when they are for the best, this change brought with it its own peculiar risks. The king, in gaining the position of head and leader of the nation, did not entirely throw off the position of feudal head of a certain body of landowners holding by a special military tenure from the crowm. Hence there was always a danger that, in looking at things from a double point of view, the king might be inclined to put one relation or the other into the foreground in proportion as one or the other would serve his interests most, and would thus reap the discredit which accrues to the man who uses technical legality for the purpose of securing solid advantages for himself. From this danger Edward, so far as his domestic policy was concerned, only escaped with difficulty, whilst n itional and the PARLIAMENTARY ORGANISATION. -j-j he did not succeed in escaping from it in his dcah'ngs ciiaiv with foreign nations. This difficulty was observable even in Edward's deal- § 19- ings with Wales in the early part of the reign. The real and Uaks. causes of his anxiety to subdue the dwellers on the Welsh mountains, was the harm which was done to peaceable Englishmen by the close proximity of a body of men whose very position made them freebooters. But this motive was not placed in the foreground. Wales was ostensibly subdued not for the fault of Welsh- men in general, but for the special breach of the feudal relations between their chief and the English king, rela- tions which only existed at all, because the Welsh had been unwillingly forced into a distasteful connection with the English Crown. If no permanent evil followed, it was because Edward was wise enough to content him- self with th6 establishment of his power, without attempting to mould the national habits of the Welsh after English forms. The case was otherwise with Scotland. In demand- §20. Ed- ing to be accepted as Lord Paramount of Scotland, Edward had doubtless in his mind the advantages which la"'^- would arise to the populations on both sides of the Tweed by the union of all the inhabitants of the island under one government. But nothing of this appeared on the surface. The claim was not only distinctly a feudal claim — that is to say, a claim put forward on the ground of a personal tie between the king of England and the king of Scotland, and not on the ground of any tie connecting the Scottish nation to the king of Eng- land — but it was a feudal claim put forward on a very questionable basis of fact, and at all events extended to mean a great deal more than the foundation on which Edward's argument was based could possibly bear. At first indeed he proved successful. The class to which ward I. and Scot- 78 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. IV. vMrd I. and • runce. he directly appealed, that of the Scottish nobility, was peculiarly susceptible to feudal considerations, as it was to a great extent of southern origin, whilst such of its members as held land on both sides of the border had a special interest in maintaining themselves in the good graces of the English king. In proportion as the effects of Edward's interference made themselves felt by the great body of the nation, a national resistance was aroused amongst those who cared nothing for feudal theories or for their interpretation by interested English lawyers, but who cared very much about putting a stop to a system under which their actions were con- trolled by foreign courts, and their lives and goods were at the mercy of foreign officials. The national feeling which had been gradually growing up during a long course of years in England, sprang up suddenly in Scotland, after a brief interval of anarchy. If it failed to obtain the mastery in Edward's lifetime, it was alto- gether owing to the personal activity and skill of the king himself, and it was unlikely that these qualities would be inherited by his successor. Ed- It was not onl/ in Scotland that this mixture of feudal with national ties brought confusion into Edward's plans. In France Edward was on the defensive, not, as in Scotland, on the offensive. But it was a feudal tie which bound Gascony to himself, and though whatever possible national feeling was there was still dormant, and the king of France was regarded as more of a stranger than the king of England, there was certainly no feeling to attach the Gascons to the English nation. Thus it came about that the king who had done more than any of his predecessors to raise his people to the consciousness of national unity, was engaged abroad in enterprises in which the national feeling of other peoples was entirely set at defiance. Unfortunate as mt PARLIAMENTARY ORGANISATION. 79 this was, it is not stranre that it was so. It is always Cn\p. IV long before the full consequences of a change are under- L stood even by those who do most to bring it about. Old habits of thought cling long about the mind, however incompatible they may be with the new habits which are beginning to be formed. Whatever might be the result of Edward's enterprises §22. The abroad, it was certain that they could not be carried out wi'tirthe without considerable expense. At a loss for money, and fh'riar^"'^ doubting the readiness of the nation to grant him all age. that he needed, the king fell back upon the old methods ' of arbitrary taxation, as if the newly completed parlia- mentary institutions had no binding force against him- self. Even those who opposed him did not perceive at once the value of those institutions, as offering them a new standing-ground against the king, and they too fell back upon an equally obsolete line of defence. First came the clergy. The ruling pope, Boniface VIII., was to Innocent III. what Innocent III. had been to Gregory VII. He looked on the papacy, and upon the clerical order of which it was the head, far more as a divinely privileged institution than as a body charged with the duty of rendering services to mankind. The Bull which he issued under the title of Clericis laicos directed that on no account should the clergy pay taxes to the lay authorities. Edward's answer to the assump- tion was complete. If the clergy bore no part in the burdens of the state, they could have no part in its protection. The days were gone by when their mere character sufficed to guard them from violence. The English clergy were soon compelled to acknowledge the vitality of the national principle, and to strive for im- munity from unfair burdens as standing inside and not out- side the nation to which they belonged. As it was with the clergy, so it was with the baronage. The two great 8o INTRODUCTION 10 ENGLISH HISTORY. Ciia: IV. earls, Bohun and Bigod, began their resistance on a purely technical ground, derived from a narrow interpretation of their feudal relations with the crown. They were bidden to conduct an English force to Gascony, whilst Edward conducted another to Flanders. They refused, on the ground that though they were bound to follow the king they were not bound to go to war without him. The strife soon enlarged itself beyond such narrow limits. Edward had been stripping the merchants as well as the clergy of their property, and if the barons were to have the support of the clergy and the merchants in their resistance, they must place it upon some better chosen ground than a mere refusal of military duty. In this way all special grievances were quickly blended in one. The king was asked to renounce his whole claim to arbitrary taxation. § 23. Con- Reluctantly the king yielded, if not all that was asked, at least the greater part of it. In 1295, Parliament had assumed the complete form which it has never since lost, comprising lords spiritual and temporal, knights of the shire, and representatives of the cities and boroughs. By the Confirinatio Cartanini of 1 297, an end was put to the long question of organisation which had been the sub- ject of dispute ever since the reign of John. It is true that there was no general enunciation of principle. The Great Charter was confirmed as it stood in the reign of Henry III., without the constitutional clauses. There was no general condemnation of arbitrary taxation, but only of such aids, tasks, and prises as had recently been taken, and of the special toll upon wool which had recently been exacted. One grievance too remained entirely unredressed. The Crown had hitherto assumed the right of exacting special payments from the inhabit- ants of its own demesne lands under the name of tallages, and nothing was said to restrict its exercise of this right. frina/io Cur tar I PARLIAMENTARY ORGANISATION. 8i But such details are comparatively of little importance. Cuap. The great fact is that the best and wisest of the kings _ since the Conquest gave way, and consented to limit his own functions in the presence of the national as- sembly which he had done more than any one else to bring into being. From that moment it was plain that the government of England would rest, not on the king alone, but on the king in co-operation with parliament. Such a co-operation was only possible because parlia- ment had at its back a united nation, which could strengthen the king's hands to keep in check the presumption of any single class, but which would be strong enough to resist the king himself if he attempted to use for the oppression of all the powers entrusted to him for the good of all. Two factors were needed for the maintenance of § 24. the now established constitution ; a king strong enough Edlfardii. to hold his own at the head of the nation, and a nation possessed of sufficient cohesion to avoid splitting up again into the separate classes of which it was com- posed. In both these points the constitution was severely tested in the reign of Edward 11. The young king, utterly given up to pleasure, and entirely neglectful of the first duties of his office, could in no sense stand . at the head of England as his father had stood at its head. It is impossible to remove one part of a compli- cated piece of machinery without affecting the others, and as Edward was simply inefficient and not tyranni- cal, he was opposed by the forces of the baronage with- out the immediate intervention of the other classes. The victory of the baronage was followed by the institution of a provisional government under the name of the Lords Ordainers, consisting solely of barons and prelates, who paid little more than a formal homage to parliament. The government by a class failed to secure respect, and when G 2 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. Edward recovered power he was enabled to proclaim — _ the principles of his father's government even more strongly than his father had been inclined to do. ' The matters ' he declared, ' which are to be established for the estate of our lord the king and of his heirs, and for the estate of the realm and of the people, shall be treated, awarded and established in parliaments by our lord the king, and by the consent of the prelates, earls and barons, and the commonwealth of the realm, according as hath been heretofore accustomed.' Edward II. could not fulfil his part of the contract even if he had wished to do so,^ and it was not long before the nation witnessed with satisfaction the domestic broil which swept away the occupant of the throne, and which placed upon it another Edward, who, in spite of many defects, had at least some notion that the kingly office entailed upon its holder duties as well as pleasures. In principle, at least, the theory of the constitution propounded by his father when he overcame the barons, was admitted by Edward II. From henceforth England was only concerned with its practical application. 83 CHAPTER V. CONSTITUTIONAL KINGSHIP. At the beginning of the fourteenth century the work of chap. Church and State of the Middle Ages. the Middle Ages was nearly accomplished. The rude Teutons who poured over the surface of the Roman |i.The Empire in its earliest years needed increase of discipline, not increase of liberty, the growth of a sense of the worth of self-renunciation and obedience rather than the growth of a sense of independence and self-reliance. On Roman soil they had met with two institutions, the state and the church, which offered to give them the training which they required. They shattered the state, but they accepted the teaching of the church. When at last the idea of a state discipline revived, it slowly made its way in organising the scattered tribes into a nation, and in compelling individuals to submit to a rule often harsh and tyrannical, but wholesome in the main. It found the church idea already in possession of the field. Not only were the limits of church rule wider than the limit? of the rule of any single state, but its ideal was purer, its notions of morality more lofty, whilst its demand of utter self-renunciation in its most devoted followers gave it a hold upon the individual heart and conscience which no external institutions of government could hope to rival. The great men of the Middle Ages were ecclesi- astics rather than statesmen. Yet the very causes which led to growth of ecclesiastical authority for a time pre- 84 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. vented it from establishing itself as the permanent source — _ of law and order. Partly from the character of the papacy as a religious institution, partly from the wide diffusion of the populations entrusted to its care, it was impossible that the popes should possess that constant and complete knowledge of the wants and feelings of the peoples of all Western Christendom which was essential to the establishment of such a government as formed the ideal of Innocent III. That which had happened to the imperial rulers of the earlier Rome happened now to the papal rulers of the later Rome. They themselves did what they could for the people, but they lived too far apart from them to apply the right remedies at the right time. Other causes too made the failure more complete. The ecclesiastical ideal of monastic virtue was too complete an exaggeration, too thoroughly in antagonism with the ordinary conditions of human life, to occupy the minds of men for ever. De- As late as the thirteenth century indeed, the pro- ductive force of the medieval church was not exhausted, but the mission of the friars was its last effort in the days of its greatness, and that had only been successful because ideas of active beneficence Vv-ere intermingled with the older ideas of poverty and self-denial. The inward corruption and the worldly entanglements of the papacy were but the outward sign that its true work was done ; and when, in the beginning of the fourteenth century, the popes retired into a splendid and luxurious slavery at Avignon, they renounced the outward form of a spiritual guidance which it was no longer theirs to give. For two centuries the mechanism of church authority would continue in their hands. But the mechanism of church authority would not foster the growth of ideas or of devotion. Men would no longer learn from the popes to project themselves into the dine of the Papacy. tional CONSTITUTIONAL KINGSHIP. 85 Chap. happier days for the generations to come than those -in 1_ which their own lot was cast. The work of constituting national unity was, to a §3-,^"^ great extent, accomplished when Edward I. died. To a great extent because it had been accomplished, the characters of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were inferior to those of the thirteenth. The greatness of men and of nations depends not so much on what they do as on what they desire, and when once a task is accomplished there is always a tendency to fold the arms and rest. Yet even this is not a sufficient explana- tion for the lassitude which followed. Doubtless the mere fact that the bond of church unity had to a great extent given place to the bond of national unity must be answerable for much of the decline which followed. The ideal of the church entered into the very heart and soul of the individual Christian. It bade him, if often in superstitious and ignorant ways, to work out his own sal- vation with fear and trembling. Self-purification was a work which came home to the hearts and bosoms of all. The state too had its ideal, an ideal of justice, but it was not one which appealed so readily to the individual con- science. The great earl who stood up against Henry III, was known as Sir Simon the Righteous. The great king who took up and accomplished his task was known as the English Justinian. Even in him the idea of a righteous man was hardening into the idea of a giver of laws. It is the tendency of this pursuit of righteousness alone to dwindle into a balance of opposing claims, a maintenance of external rules, a calculating of the place which each man has gained in the world, and a deter- mination that he shall keep it still. The ideal of the medieval church would never revive again for the English people in the form in which it had hitherto 86 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. V. § 4- The Connexion between England and Flanders. attracted them, but it would go ill with them unless it could be revived again in some other shape to win them to tenderness and purity, to the abandonment of selfish efforts and designs. Whatever might be the bearing of these events upon the future character of the English nation, there was no doubt that it had acquired strength for the immediate present, which would enable it to overpower and hold down, at least for a time, any other nation living under the feudal regime. The course of the struggle with Scotland had run through the stages of immediate suc- cess and ultimate failure— of success as long as there was only a Scottish feudal nobility to contend with, of failure as soon as there was a Scottish nation to be kept in subjection. Untaught by the lesson, England threw herself, under the guidance of Edward III., into a war of conquest against France For a war of more limited extent, indeed, Edward was not without justification. Europe was making pro- gress slowly but surely in the arts of peace. In the cities of Flanders had arisen manufacturing popula- tions which supplied the countries around with the products of the loom. To the Ghent and Bruges of the Middle Ages, England stood in the same relation as that which the Australian colonies hold to the Leeds and Bradford of our own day. The sheep which grazed over the wide uninclosed pasture-lands of our island formed a great part of the wealth of England, and that wealth depended entirely on the flourishing trade with the Flemish towns in which English wool was converted into cloth. When, therefore, the Count of Flanders quarrelled, as feudal magnates were apt to do, with the burghers of the cities over which he ruled, the strife was one to which England could hardly be indifferent. Yet if Edward were to intervene in the Low countries, CONSTITUTIONAL KINGSHIP. 87 he would have to deal with a more powerful enemy Chap. than the Count of Flanders only. A new family sat ^ upon the throne of France, and Philip VI., the first of the Valois dynasty, renouncing the traditions of the older branch, bore himself as a gay knight amongst the knights of his kingdom, and knew no wisdom better than to give his support to the splendid and thoughtless feudal aristocracy rather than to the sober and hard- working citizen. Philip now ranged himself on the side of the Count against the burghers of Flanders, and a war against him in the interest of the Flemish towns, would therefore have rendered a real service to Flanders as well as to England itself It was probably inevitable that a second and less § S-. Be- justifiable cause of war should have been thought more the Hun- of in those days than it is likely to be thought of now. wlr.^^'^'^^ The loss of Gascony, unconnected as it was by any ties of nationality with England, was a mere question of time. But if Edward I. held the preservation of Gascony to be worth struggling for, it is no wonder that his grandson did the same. That which gave the war its indefensible character was not the support of Flanders or the claim to the retention of Gascony, but the monstrous assertion of Edward's rights to the very crown of France, on the most flimsy of pretexts. Crecy and Poitiers demonstrated to the world that a people with united ranks, in which the nobility and gentry regarded the townsmen and the yeomen as their fellow- citizens, was stronger than a people in which distinction of rank was everything, and in which the business of defence was entrusted to the more showy part, instead of being a burden imposed upon the whole. It was a war in which the victors suffered as much as the vanquished. Habits of rapacity and greed were easily contracted, not easily cured. When France at last learned to act INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap, V. § 6. The Constitu- tion of the House of Commons. together under a wiser king, the tide of English conquest was thrown back, and the men who had taken pleasure in preying upon a foreign people were driven to prey upon one another at home. No nation can wage a war upon this scale without some effect being produced on its social and political institutions. During the earlier years of failure and expectation, before the victory of Crecy, the existence of war was chiefly felt in England by the increasing demands for money made by the king. The parliament to which these demands were addressed was separated into two Houses, if indeed it had not been already separated in the days of Edward I. — an Upper House, composed of peers and prelates ; and a Lower House, composed of the knights of the shire, representing the untitled gentry and freeholders of the country, together with the burgesses who represented the towns. The day would come when the fact that there were two houses rather than one would be considered to be a matter of prime importance. In the early days of the House of Commons, the thing of prime importance did not lie in its separation from the House of Lords, but in the union of classes within its own walls. No stronger evidence could be given of the depth to which the idea of national unity had struck its roots in England than lay in this combination. On the continent there was a strong repulsion between these very classes. The dwellers in towns cannot suffice alone to make a nation ; their occupations are such as to induce mental exertion, to make men quick and lively, eager for profit, and full of warm devotion towards the spot of earth upon which their fortunes have grown. • But the very strength of this devotion tends to exclude a larger patriotism, and it had never proved possible to teach the citizen of Athens that he was above all a Greek, or the citizen of Florence of the Nation. CONSTITUTIONAL KINGSHIP. S9 that he was above all an Italian. In the close relations chap. of the country gentleman to the burgess class, Eng- — _ land found a powerful solvent which hindered her towns from crystallising themselves apart, as the towns of Italy had crystallised themselves, or from clinging for support, like the towns of France, to the arbitrary government of the king, in order to free themselves from the brutalities of the feudal landowners around. It must never be forgotten that the form taken by §7. Unity the House of Commons was the effect, not the cause. Long before there was a House of Commons at all, the ancestors of the knights of the shire of the reign of Edward III. had fought side by side at Lewes with the ancestors of the citizens of London who sent their representatives to Parliament in the same reign. Such a union was of advantage to both classes. The burghers brought an acquaintance with trade which was of the ut- most value at a time when the battle of the constitution was fought out on questions mainly relating to com- mercial imposts, whilst the knights of the shire gave a vigour to resistance which mere citizens could never have offered. It is of the utmost importance that strength in argument should clothe itself in effective strength, — if necessary, in battle. It is ill to reason with the master of thirty legions, and it is the fate of cities which stand alone to discover that neither arts nor com- merce nor civic virtue can avail for ever to resist the masters of the wide fields which stretch away beyond the horizon outside their walls. In the House of Com- mons the masters of the streets and lanes made common cause with the masters of the fields. The knights of the shire furnished the effective strength that was needed, and were consequently the most honoured members of the assembly : on them fell the weight and the glory of speaking, as well as of acting in defence of all, and not merely in defence of their own peculiar privileges. Chivalry. go INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. The early years of Edward's reign were years of con- stant progress on the part of the House of Commons, ing' ^'^°^" interrupted no doubt by times of retrogression. Edward Strength of promised concessions, and then withdrew them. He mons. mingled cajolery and flattery with positive falsehood Step by step, however, the Commons grew in influence. The great lords of the Upper House found their account in having the knights and burgesses on their side. The protest against injustice and wrong was often no more than a protest. But it was repeated again and again till a sense of right was created which would \x\ the end gain the mastery over the wrong. § g. _ After all, however, the leading power in England was still the baronage. Edward's French wars indeed were rendered possible by the support which he received from other classes ; but they were waged in accordance with . the ideas, and with due respect for the interests of the feudal and more especially the military class. So far as that class was animated by any special idea, it was by the idea of chivalry. Chivalry was to the medieval warrior very much what monasticism was to the m.edieval churchman. It placed before him his own mode of life, in the best and highest light of which it was capable. The rough and often brutal warrior learned that self- restraint and respect for others were higher than prowess in the field. The Black Prince showed himself nobler in humbly waiting upon a captive king than when he won his spurs by his charge at Crecy. In some respects the ideal of honour and courtesy was higher than the ideal of the monk. It was less entirely introspective, less concerned with separating those who entertained it as a class apart from others, more of a bond attaching man closely to his fellow-creatures. But in other respects it was a lower ideal. The code of honour was always more arbitrary, more concerned with outward actions, and less PARLIAMENTARY ORGANISATION. 9! with inward purity and uprightness than the code of Chap. monastic virtues. L_ In the Middle Ages too the code of honour was § 10. The subject to special limitations which were most in- ^ offers, jurious to its development. Courtesy finds all the more scope for its excellence when exercised by the rich towards the poor, or by the strong towards the weak. But in the fourteenth century the community of feel- ing necessary to the development of courtesy did not reach to all classes of the population. The nation, the growth of which we have been slowly tracing, was by no means co-extensive with the population of the kingdom. Even the House of Commons, which was pushing its way to a .share of power, was comparatively an aristo- cratic body. The labouring population in town and country had no share in its exaltation. Even the citi- zens, the merchants and tradesmen of the towns, looked down upon those beneath them without trust or affec- tion. To the warrior knight the labouring man was but an instrument of service to whom no courtesy was due, and who, in war, might be pillaged or plundered without pity, when the defeated knight or gentleman would be received to mercy. The course of the French wars deepened this feeling of estrangement. The lot of the labourer in France was lower and more pitiable than in England, and the English victors learned to treat the whole class with more complete disdain from their new experience. Then came the days of failure and disaster. Expen- § n. piers sive habits, acquired when booty was easily got, were Hjair^"^*^" hard to throw off, and the demands made on the labourer, when the baron or the knight returned dis- comfited fi'om the war. in which he had learned the evil lesson of cruelty to the poor, were certain to be higher than they had ever been before. The feeling of the 92 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap, lower classes was roused against their oppressors. Gra- — '— dually there had been growing up a literature of satirical songs directed against the vices of the rich. The author of ' Piers the Ploughman ' now stepped forward to weigh the clergy, the nobles, the traders, and the knights in the balance, and to find them wanting. True industry and true innocence, he declared, were to be found in those alone whose lives were spent in manual labour. This poem was the sharp reply to the romances of chivalry and to chronicles like those of Froissart, in which the rich and the noble were de- picted in the brightest colours, and in which life appeared to be one long holiday. Assuredly the picture drawa Avas highly exaggerated. But it revealed the great fact of the time — the fact that the consolidating work of earlier days needed to be carried on further still, and that the limits of the nation were not yet comprehensive enough for the task that lay before it. § 12. The If the demands of the landowners were higher, the De^ath and positiou of the peasants for resistance was stronger than 'anis'^Re- ^^ ^^^ been before. The condition of the serfs or villeins volt. had been one of improvement for some time past. Some of them had been set free and had given rise to a class of labourers working like the modern labourer for his hire. If the great part of the peasants were still bound to the soil, and if they were unable to leave the landlord's estate without their landlord's leave, most of them had changed the uncertain tenure of their cottages and of the plots of ground around them for one which was more definite. Instead of being called on to plough and sow at their master's direction, they had some fixed work to do, some ascertained labour rent to give, or, in the majority of cases, a fixed money rent to pay in com- mutation for the labour rent. Suddenly an event occurred which made all past progress seem small. The Black PARLIAMENTARY ORGANISATION. 93 Death swept over Europe, that devastating scourge to Chap. which neither the cholera of our own days, nor the L_ plague of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, can afford a parallel. At least one half of the population, it can hardly be doubted, disappeared before its ravages. The relations between the landowning and the labouring classes were at once altered by the blow. Whatever number may have perished out of the families of the landowners, there were sure to be kinsmen left to gather the inheritance of tho.-e who were gone. There would be a new face at the head of the table in the hall of the manor house, a new exacter of service and of rent. In the cottage the change would work in a very different fashion. Where there had been two labourers before there would be but one now, and the same amount of work would have to be done. Men who worked for pay would feel it hard that they did not have more pay when their services were in greater request, and men who paid rent in labour without receiving pay at all would feel it harder than ever that they did not receive money for the work of their hands which had now become twice as valuable as it had been before. Nor is it unlikely, though it is not absolutely certain, that an attempt was made by the lords to enforce the service of labour in the large number of instances in which it had been tacitly permitted to fall into desuetude in con- sideration of the payment of rent. Other grievances of the labouring classes came to swell the tide of agitation, and before Richard II. had been long upon the throne the peasants were ready to join in an active opposition to the propertied classes, of which the main cry was one for the entire abolition of villenage. In 1381 they burst out into open insurrection. But they were not strong enough to gain their ends. The upper classes were too strong in organisation to be overwhelmed by an un- 94 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap, organised crowd, and the insurrection was quenched in blood. § 13. Wy- Revolutions are only possible when the interests of Principles, ^^e masses can be welded into a permanent political force by the leadership of the thoughtful few. In the latter part of the fourteenth century, the masses were ready to act, and the thinker was present to think. That thinker was Wyclif But between the two there was no common ground, and the failure of his movement for religious reform was inevitable. His ideas developed themselves not out of the new social aspirations of the multitude, but out of the old national aspirations of the upper classes. He began by demanding that England should be more independent of the Papacy than it had hitherto been, less a prey to the needy foreign clergy who came to batten on its ecclesiastical pastures. It was the cause alike of the English clergy who disliked seeing the benefices which they coveted in the hands of Italians, and of the English landowners, who disliked the loss of the patronage which they counted as their own. But Wyclif was not a man to be content with the defence of merely material interests. He asked that English benefices should be placed not merely in the hands of men of English birth, but in the hands of men whose high moral worth fitted them for the fulfilment of spiritual functions. He cast down his doctrine of Do- minion founded on Grace as his challenge to a worldly and self-seeking clergy. At once he had on his side the still more worldly and self-seeking aristocracy, with John of Gaunt at its head. They fancied it would be easy, under the cover of reforming the Church, to draw a large portion of its revenues into their own pockets. They did not see that Wyclifs challenge had opened wider issues than they were aware of Stripped of its scho- lastic and ecclesiastical form. Dominion founded on PARLIAMENTARY ORGANISATION. ^95 Grace was the doctrine with which we are so familiar at Chap. the present day, that no authority or institution can, in the long run, justify its existence except by the services which it is capable of rendering. John of Gaunt and his comrades were happy in finding such a weapon wherewith to cut down their rivals the bishops till, on a sudden, they discovered that their own authority was at stake. The dominion which they claimed over the peasants, the hard compulsion to forced service, the scanty pay doled out, did not seem to the wretched labourers to be in any way founded on grace. The in- surrection of 1 38 1 came to remind the barons that they were playing with edged tools, and that the less they had to do with Wyclif the better they would consult their own interests. If Wyclif thus lost his hold upon one side in the social § ^4- Wy- strife, he gained no hold on the other. A few months Failure. before the insurrection, he entered boldly on the path of a religious reformer by his denial of the doctrine of transubstantiation. He was not without numerous followers, and the Lollard ism which sprang out of his teaching was a living force in England for some time to come. But it was weak through its connection with subversive social doctrines. He himself stood aloof from such doctrines, but he could not prevent his follow- ers from mingling in the social fray. It was perhaps their merit that they did so. The established constitu- tional order was but another name for oppression and wrong to the lower classes. But as yet the lower classes were not sufficiently advanced in moral and political training to make it safe to entrust them with the task of righting their own wrongs as they would have attempted to right them if they had gained the mastery. It had nevertheless become impossible to leave the peasants to be once more goaded by suffering into re- 96 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chai V. bellion. The attempt, if it had been made, to enforce absolute labour-rents was tacitly abandoned, and gradu- ally during the next century the mass of the villeins passed into the position of freemen. § 15. The For the moment, nobles and prelates, landowners and tive Reac- clcrgy, banded themselves together to form one great "°°* party of resistance. The church came to be but an outwork of the baronage, Courtneys and Arundels, Beauforts and Bourchiers, sate on the high seats of prelacy; no longer vigorous scholars like Stephen Langton, or humble saints like Edmund Rich. If there still lingered a feeling of appetite for the goods of the clergy, it was among the burgesses and lesser gentry of the House of Commons, not among the great houses, the chiefs of which were to be found in the House of Lords. Such a union of interests was certain to increase the weight of parliament in the constitu- tional system. Parliaments are weak when they will nothing strongly ; when the aims of the more devoted and intelligent fall flat upon the ears of those who care for nothing but present ease. The defence of interests appeals alike to all who share in those interests. Not, indeed, that the better minds amongst the sharers in this great conservative reaction were without some sense of higher duty. To them it seemed that the battle was not for the preservation of pelf and power, but for the sal- vation of society from those who were undermining its foundations in Church and State. Such a combination would, in any case, have raised into increased prominence the parliament which represented the upper classes. Its progress to power was accelerated, if only accelerated, by the weakness of the king. Richard II. had this special failing, that he stood on neither side of the great contro- versy of the age. He had not the large-heartedness and the heroism to place himself at the head of the peasants, CONSTITUTIONAL KINGSHIP. 97 excepting in one brief moment of excitement, and thus Chap. to obtain at least some consideration for their just demands. On the other hand he had no real sympathy with the ruling classes. Fitful and uncertain in action, he strove, with long intervals of inertness, to maintain or acquire authority over them without regard for the conditions on which alone authority can be wielded. The revolution of 1 399, which hurled Richard from § 16. The the throne, was, in its external circumstances, the coun- S-^ijIq^'"" terpart of the revolution of 1688. Both diminished the pov/ers of the crown ; in both the leadership fell into the hands of the aristocracy. But whilst the revolution of 1688 was one step forward in the direction in which the nation was ultimately to move, the revolution of 1 399 was a step backward in arrest of motion. Its main advantage was that by postponing the consideration of the relation between the labouring and the propertied classes to a time when the question could be faced without fear of violence and bloodshed, and by improving the working of constitutional government, it provided for the con- sideration of such matters in the way of reasoning and argument, and thus indirectly benefited even those who were, for the present, entirely excluded from the deli- berations of parliament. The fifteenth century witnessed, if not the entire § 17. Gra- extinction of serfage, at least its limitation within very crJ>atk)nlT narrow bounds. Economical laws proved too strong for *^^^ ^'^'^'^ the governing classes, and they found their account rather in dealing with the labourer as a free man to be bar- gained with, than in treating him as a serf to be com- pelled to work against his will for nothing. A hundred years after the revolution of 1 399 there were still serfs in England. But their existence was the exception and not the rule. Lollardism, too, ran much the same course. As soon as it ceased to be fostered by the indignation of the H 98 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. labouring class against its oppressors, it dwindled away. — _ Some traces of it, indeed, are long to be found. Much dissatisfaction with the lives and teaching of the clergy- lingered on till the dawn of the Reformation, The sharp statute which authorised the burning of heretics in the reign of Henry IV. found its martyrs for a time, and then fell asleep for lack of material, till a new attack upon the clergy appeared to awaken it afresh. § 18. The Whilst a new class was thus rising up to share in the t^rBaron- P"vileges of freemen, the victors of 1399 were reaping age. the natural consequences of their success. The revolu- tion of selfish conservatism was followed by a scramble for power. Only with the greatest difficulty did Henry IV. succeed in holding his own against the great feudal houses. His son, Henry V., turned their energies and their love of plunder upon foreign soil. More unprin- cipled war there never was. It had not even the excuse which the war of Edward III. had, of the necessity of giving protection to the English trade with Flanders. When, after Henry's death, the English conquerors were driven step by step out of the territory which they had held for a time, they found themselves in much the same position as that in which their ancestors had been a century before. Cooped up within the limits of their island, they sighed for fresh fields to plunder, and those of their own countrymen were alone accessible. To restrain men in such a temper would have been dif^cult even for a strong king. Unhappily, the king on the throne was always weak in mind, and was often absolutely insane. The name of Henry VI. became a weapon in the armoury of men whose only object was to enrich themselves under legal forms. Men who were great and powerful already saw their opportunity of becoming more great and power- ful still. Great landowners, who had crowds of armed retainers in their service, bribed and bullied juries till CONSTITUTIONAL KINGSHIP. 99 the administration of the law became a farce, and on the Chap. rare occasions when this course failed, they knew how to '__ vindicate their claims by maiming or assassinating their opponents, or by laying siege to houses, the possession of which they coveted. A desire for a strong govern- ment to put an end to the anarchy arose, not merely in the breast of the peasant and the labourer, but amongst stout country-gentlemen who wished to keep the lands which had descended to them from their ancestors, and amongst tradesmen who wished to enjoy in peace the profits of their industry. When, therefore, the baronage, torn by its intestine divisions, broke out into civil war, the wishes of all those who had no interest in the per- petuation of confusion gradually turned to the Yorkist party as affording a hope of better things. Edward IV. had his faults, but at least he was not an idiot or a mad- man. He was anxious to take advantage of the general desire for order and government to strengthen his own position, and the diminution of the great houses by death upon the field and on the scaffold rendered his task easier than it would have been for anyone a few years before. Only after the overthrow of Richard III. and the § ig. assumption of the crown by Henry VII. did the greatness ^e^^jse^of of the change which had taken place fully appear. The the Tudor nation needed peace, but that it might have it permanent- ly it needed a firm government. It is delusive to trace the exceeding strength of the Tudor monarchy merely to the disappearance of the great houses. Undoubtedly the Tudor monarchy would never have established itself if the great houses had remained standing. But they fell, not by the accident of civil warfare, but because they deserved to fall ; because they had been turbulent, aggressive, and tyrannical ; because they had misused the strength of their position to oppress their inferiors in social rank with forms of law and without forms of law. The monarchy in H 2 Monarchy. Chap. V. INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. the hands of Henry VII. stepped into their place because it was able to realise the promise of the older monarchy, to dispense justice without fear or favour, to check the ascendancy of the rich over the poor, of the strong over the weak. History knows no violent breaches of con- tinuity, no new monarchy established on the ruins of the old. The kingship of Henry VII. was but the kingship of Henry II. and Edward I. adapted to the needs of a different generation. But the very fact that it was so adapted modified its character profoundly. The dread of a return of the anarchy which had prevailed under the forms of constitutional order made men think lightly of the worth of constitutional order itself The king as the active and executive factor of the constitution was magnified beyond measure. Parliament which had made itself to a great extent the instrument of the nobility \vas for a time discredited. From Edward IV. down- wards, kings found that they could venture upon actions which their predecessors had not dared to commit. Illegal levies of money, illegal imprisonments, were winked at from fear lest the rule of the great houses should return. Nor was this change confined to England alone. In all the great states of the continent the path to equality before the law lay through absolutism. England reaped the benefit of her earlier progress in the restric- tions upon absolutism which, in form at least, she retained at the time when her monarchy approached the nearest to absolutism. But even she could not escape from the operation of the political law which prevailed elsewhere. VII. CHAPTER VI. THE TUDOR MONARCHY. The reign of Henry VH. gave to the English middle '^y^^- classes what they most needed, the protection of a firm government. By strict execution of the statute of ofnenry^" liveries of Edward IV., the great noblemen were pro- hibited from giving to their followers the outward symbol of a military force, and Henry was strong enough in the general support to take care that armies were not levied at all excepting in his own name. As far as legislation was concerned, parliaments became mere instruments in his hands. The House of Lords had been thinned away by the recent massacres and executions, and the House of Commons was filled with men who had neither the power nor the will to be other than his humble servants. Men might grumble at his exorbitant taxation, but the bare idea of seeing feudal anarchy again raising its head was too terrible to be thought of, and much could be endured by those who knew what a dire calamity a suc- cessful insurrection would bring forth. Those who were ready to endure much themselves, would not be very careful of the sufferings of others, and the lesson was soon learnt by the king that, in spite of all restraints of the law, the lives and properties of the higher classes were at his mercy. Juries would be read}' to convict those whom he saw fit to bring to trial. Parliaments would be prepared to condone arbitrary aggressions upon 102 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLTSH HISTORY. Chap. liberty and property. The middle classes were too L much under the sway of a violent desire for peace, and were even yet too little trained in experience of consti- tutional politics, to feel instinctively that wrong done to one is done to all, and that the rich and powerful cannot be deprived of the safeguards of law without risk to the humble and the poor. It could not probably have been otherwise. But it was a happy thing that the forms of better days survived, for the very reason, perhaps, that the spirit which once filled them had so completely fallen asleep that they seemed entirely innocuous to the ruling powers. The day would come when a new life would enter into them, a life which would assuredly have found in any case its own forms, but which flowed on gently and wthout dis- turbance because it had not to create new channels for itself. § 2. The Henry VII., indeed, did not leave the constitu- Chamber, ^ion quite as he found it. Lawyers tell us that the court of the Star Chamber was derived from the ancient jurisdiction of the Privy Council. But it was reinvigo- rated by Act of Parliament in the early part of the reign of the first Tudor king, and, for all practical purposes, it may be held to date from his time. Consisting, at first, of certain royal officers and one of the chief justices, and ultimately, of all privy councillors together with the two chief justices, it was a tribunal formed to take cog- nisance of all cases in which justice was not to be had from the ordinary courts. It could not take away life, and, till later times, it did not claim to punish by more than fine and imprisonment. The full exercise of the powers which had been given to it was a healing measure. Wherever a powerful landowner cajoled or bullied juries, wherever faction banded men together to oppress the innocent, the Star Chamber righted the balance. Hurried THE TUDOR MONARCHY. 103 off to Westminster, the offender found himself in the Chap. . VI. presence of judges whom no bribery- would influence, _ no threats divert from their course. The time might come when the king would separate himself from the national feeling, and when such a court might convert itself into an instrument of oppression. For the present the Star Chamber was the weapon with which the oppressed armed the king, that he might strike the oppressors down. The strength which a government acquires by being §3. End of J ■. 1, • u . r J tI the Middle armed agamst anarchy is short-lived. Its very success Ages. brings such strength to an end. Not only are the violent measures to which it resorts no longer needed when it has become master of the enemies of peaceful progress, but it becomes itself deteriorated in the process. It comes to look upon coercion not as a necessary means of escape from extreme peril, but as a perma- nent mode of exercising power. The reign of Henry VII. did not come to an end before he had roused indignation by the extortionate injustice which has ever since been connected with the names of his minis- ters, Empson and Dudley, Always alive to the import- ance of a well-filled exchequer to a prince who wishes to be master of his subjects, he had forgotten that the goodwill of his subjects was even better than their money. He could comprehend the strength which his eyes could see and his hands could handle. Into the unseen his vision did not penetrate. In this he was but the repre- sentative of his age. The ideals of the past were gone ; the science of the medieval ages had become a laughing- stock. The medieval saints were all dead, and had left no successors. The medieval church had become either a sink of corruption, or at the best, a house of idleness, Anyone who would devote himself for its sake was a rare exception in the midst of a careless and a mocking lo^ INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. VI. g-eneration. Nor were other ideals readily at hand. Reverence paid to woman had given place to bargain- ing, in which the future wife was estimated like a beast in the market, at her money's worth. The king was no longer a gracious lord for whom one would be ready to die, but a mere guarantee against loss, like a fire- insurance office in modern times. §4. The Such a state of things could not last. A society Renais- \y'^t\\ no ideal but self-preservation is doomed to disso- sance. lution. It needs an aim to set before it, an object for which to strive, a common bond calling into sympathetic activity those higher powers which have been developed in the course of its past history. Such an aim and such a bond was offered by the great movement which spread over Western Europe from Italy under the name of the Renaissance. It was the intellectual and artistic reversal of the characteristic doctrine of the Middle Ages. Asceticism carried to exaggerated lengths had become ridiculous or disgusting. The wearisome conven- tual discipline, the renunciation of the duties of life had become a mere form for most even of the monks them- selves. Men turned to human life and beauty, to human art and science. To enjoy the world, to learn all that the wisest of past generations had to teach, and to employ the legacy of the past for the benefit of the future, grew to be the objects which alone were worth striving for. Therefore the powers of men must not be repressed but strengthened and encouraged. The body of man was no longer the husk to be peeled away that the grain within might be prepared for a life beyond the grave, but the very instrument of power through which the living soul might work whilst yet there was time. It is never among the people who give birth to new ideas that those ideas attain to their healthiest development. The new thought takes possession of them too exclu- THE TUDOR MONARCHY. 105 sively, and quickens one side of their nature into too one- Chap. sided a life. So it had been in the early Middle Ages with the monasticism of the East. So it was when the Middle Ages drew to a close with the humanism of Italy. What Benedict of Nursia was to Simeon Stylites, Colet and More were to Pulci and Machiavelli. The Italians had before them the lees of medieval Christi- anity in their foulest corruption. Their reverence for humanity grew to be mere pampering of the intellect or of the senses. In England, as the evil was less intense, the reaction was less intense also. The old Church life lives on in the words of Colet, interpenetrated with a new spirit of inquiry and a new longing for a reign of justice rather than for self-mortification. In More we have the old political life living on with fresh and in- creased reverence for the poor and the oppressed. ' The Prince ' of Machiavelli is appalling for its cruelty and its cynicism. The ' Utopia ' blends the spirii of reasoned kindliness and the spirit of reasoned self-denial, with the reverence for men simply as men apart from their piety or their virtue. Sir Thomas More goes forth to the highways and the hedges in search of the vagrant and the robber, to win them not for the life to come, but for the honest citizenship of the present world. Nor was it only in such men as More that the many-sidedness of English life was manifested. Those aims which with him were blended together in sweet harmony are to be found side by side incoherently in Henry VIII. With all the love of pleasure of an Alexander VI., he never gave himself so entirely over to vice as that most un- blushing of the Italian popes. With all the cruel wilful- ness of Caesar Borgia, he never equalled the shameless villanies of that most atrocious of Italian tyrants. He preferred to satisfy his lust under the forms of marriage, and to satisfy his wrath under the forms of ic6 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap, VI. bfparation from Rome, legal procedure. He may not have been consciously self-seeking. He took a real interest in learning. He may have had a vague desire to live uprightly and honourably, though his effort only led to a disgraceful satisfaction with the appearance of truth and justice, whilst their reality was trodden under foot. § 5. The The separation from Rome was effected in a way in which such a man was likely to effect it. It sprang from a purely personal and even a sensual motive. Henry threw off the authority of the Pope simply because he was tired of a staid and elderly wife, and had fallen in love with a flighty young v/oman. But the moment the thing was done, he justified his acts to himself in reform- ing the Church according to the ideas of the better men around him. There was to be no change in the doctrine preached, but there was to be a change in the habits of those by whom it was preached. The clergy were to cease to be untruthful and vicious. The monasteries, already partly emptied by the growing unpopularity of the monastic life, were to be destroyed as abodes of sloth and corruption. Images were to be destroyed, not because their use was wrong, but because they had been made the instruments of fraud by their cheating owners. Henry did not purpose to go further than to purify the old Christianity by an admixture of intellectual criticism and moral earnestness. s 6. ^ ^ By placing himself at the head of such a work, Henry rendered him.self more despotic than he had been before. The destruction of the monasteries, the com- pulsory obedience of the clergy to the king as Supreme Head of the Church, and their separation from the See of Rome, from which they had once derived their union and their force, combined to leave him unas- sailable by ecclesiastical resistance. The great tem- poral lords who still remained were smitten down, and GrtAvth of Despotism. THE TUDOR MONARCHY. 107 their places taken by new families from among the Chap. lower gentry living upon his favour, looking to him for L a share in the plunder of the monks, and dependent upon that plunder for the means of supporting a life of ostentatious profusion. Many of the great houses of modern England, the Russells, the Herberts, the Wriothesleys, owe their origin to that splendid court. Over them all towered the king's stately form, ' the majestic lord that broke the bonds of Rom.e,' and whose course through life was accompanied by the frequent thud of the executioner's axe. Before the bare enunciation of the royal will all resistance was silenced. The spirit of the Renaissance, of the new learning, as it was called in England, was not a spirit of liberty. Those who like Sir Thomas More and Eisher refused to lay their honour in the dust before the royal despot, had to fall back on the old traditional standing-point of Anselm and Becket, and to defy the commands of Henry in the name of the papal authority. Others amongst the representatives of the new learning floated with the stream, made themselves the instruments of the king's will, like Cromwell or like Cranmer, and, whilst applying their faculties to the criticism of the received theology, took care never, even in thought, to raise a protest against the deeds of the sovereign who had become to them as one in the place of God. The protest of Sir Thomas More was made in the name of a system which it was impossible to revive. But unless the spirit of Anselm could live again, England, in spite of the new learning, was doomed to corruption and to the catas- trophe which is the natural result of corruption. If there was to be any heroism amongst men, any self- devotion, any power of resistance to tyranny and wrong, there must be something more awakened in them than a reverence for human nature, and for the pleasures of Pi otest- 'io8 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. the flesh and the intellect. Unless the sense of indivi- ^^' dual responsibility could be called out, unless the spiritual powers could be quickened into new life, there might be progress in knowledge, but there would be no moral growth. To the ideal of the new learning must be added the ideal of Protestantism. §7. The Protestantism was far more than a change of doc- trine. It was a reversal of the poles of religious thought and feeling. In the Medieval Church each man aimed at casting off his individuality, at bringing himself under definite rules, till he reached the absolute self-renunciation of the perfect monk. The Protestant spirit strengthened each man's individuality by the direct contemplation of One who was higher and holier than himself. Man was to be made righteous by faith — by fixing the eye of the spirit on Him who was all righteous ; — to be made pure by faith — by fixing the eye of the spirit on Him who was all pure. The guiding clue of life was to be found within and not without. Forms and ceremonies, ecclesiastical institutions and persons, were rather inter- ruptions than assistants to one who was endued with the full spirit of Protestantism. Its English disciples derived their faith from Zwingli rather than from Luther. They not merely threw off respect for the pope and the papal church, but for all the institutions to which men had become habituated. Even the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper retained its place in their respect only by the mental associations quick- ened by it. If such a religion had much in common with the new learning, it was opposed to it in many points. Like the new learning, its strength lay in the cultivation of the powers of man, not in their destruction. Like the new learning it cherished the development of intelligence and reason. But it did not, like the new learning, regard culture as an end in itself; still less did THE TUDOR MONARCHY. 109 it look upon the world around as the instrument of self- Chap. indulgence. The Protestant hungered and thirsted after righteousness that he might make others better than they were before. The new learning showed to man the kingdoms of this world and the glory of them. Protestantism bade him fall down and worship the Giver before he entered into the enjoyment of the gift. The change produced in England by the half-century § 8. Cha- which succeeded the overthrow of Richard III. was [he Age. enormous. Instead of a people with scarcely a thought beyond the mere need of bodily safety, we have a people busily occupied with the highest objects of thought and life. We are surprised by the diversity as well as by the intensity of the effort. From the conservative reverence for the ancient church to the pagan eagerness for enjoyment, and again to the sombre denunciation of pleasure by the Protestant zealot, the whole gamut of human passion and feeling was run over. In the midst of this diversity too there was a certain harmony. Take the extremes, and we have men as discordant as fire and water. Between the prior of the Charter-House, who died rather than renounce the papal authority, and Lambert or Anne Ascue, who died rather than ac- knowledge the truth of the papal doctrines, no recon- ciliation seemed possible. But between those extremes every shade of opinion was to be found. Men like Cranmer, starting from the ancient forms, worked them- selves by an intellectual process into the gradual accept- ance of the principal points of the new creed. Men like Latimer, starting from an enthusiastic devotion to righteousness, found room in their conceptions for much that savoured of the ancient faith. There was infinite life, infinite variety of ideal, of aim, and of character, but there was no breach of continuity. There were parties of every kind, but there was a strong national life no INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. animating them all. Men were not merely Protestants, 1_ or Anglicans, or Catholics. They all knew themselves to be Englishmen as well, sometimes to be Englishmen before everything else. The great political idea of the age was expressed in its favourite political term — the commonwealth. Even selfish adventurers had to pretend that they held their lands, their honours, their very lives, not for themselves but for the good of all. §9. The The idea of the royal authority obtained a new con- ^r'JJnaly."' sccration when the king came to be regarded as the impersonation of the commonwealth. There never was a man more representative of a people than was Henry VIII. of the England of his day. In him met the brutal passions of his subjects with their dogged persistency, their love of show and splendour, their intellectual, moral, and religious tendencies. Low and high, coarse and cultured, mocking and serious, he had a side for all. He could speak to each rank, to each character, in the name of England, because all England was in himself. The very title of Supreme Head of the Church of England which scandalises us now, scandalised scarcely any one then. It was felt that he laid his hand upon the clergy not in his own name, but in the name of the nation, and that if he did not choose for them what was ab- solutely the best, he chose for them what was most com- patible with the condition of the national mind. Even his cruelties were based upon this conception of his office. His conception of a national church was large-minded and generous. He was not sharp-scented to track out the windings of heretical tendencies. He issued the English translation of the Bible to the world in order that men might search for themselves. If he cut off the heads of Catholics and burnt extreme Protestants at the stake, it was because Catholics and extreme Protestants were each inclined not merely to hold their own opinions, ward VI. THE TUDOR MONARCHY. n but to set them up in defiance of the commonwealth. It Chap. was well indeed that there were found some to resist to ^^' the death, well that men should be found to whom truth was a pearl of great price, to be followed for its own sake without thought of consequences. But if England found itself in due time strong enough to permit every man to follow his own conscientious persuasion without let or hindrance, it was because she herself had that strength which grows out of the spirit of compromise, which fuses into some tolerable harmony the discordant imaginations of parties and of men. During the years which are known as those of the § i ' ' — 1_ was opposed to it, was opposed, so far as personal considerations were not involved in the matter, rather from opposition to its temporary aims than to its permanent policy. Originally the Whigs had thrown themselves on the side of toleration to the Dissenters, whilst the Tories who accepted the Revolution only assented to it as a political necessity. It was only natural that the Whigs should have been ready to grant more than toleration and to admit the Dissenters to political equality, allowing them to hold offices under the crown, and to occupy positions in the municipalities. The Tories, on the other hand, wished, by passing the Occasional Conformity Bill, to exclude from office even those Dissenters who were ready to take the sacrament in a church, though they afterwards returned to wor- ship in their own chapels. The question was agitated in the reign of Anne. In the reign of George I. it was settled that the Toleration Act should be fully observed. Occasional conformists were to be admitted to office, whilst stubborn nonconformists remained excluded. Such a settlement, which let in the lax and the hypocritical, and shut out the honest and the sincere, would at the present day be rejected with contempt. It exactly satis- fied the ideas of the men of the opening years of the eighteenth century. They were equally disinclined to persecute, and to submit themselves to those who were likely to persecute others. The apologue of Swift's ' Tale of a Tub ' fairly represents the central thought of the time to which the moderate men of both parties, men like Harley and men like Walpole, inclined. The readiness to relieve Dissenters from persecution was perfectly consistent with an aversion to zeal and enthusiasm as a disturbing factor in human affairs. The seed sown by Chiliingworth and Hales had grown up till it had THE RULE OF THE WHIG ARISTOCRACY. 173 become a great tree. Christianity was nothing if it was Chap. not rational. Its life and vigour, its high enthusiasm, were all laid aside. The Church of the eighteenth century would have been a strange Church to St. Francis or to Oliver Cromwell. Men argued of the suitability of the scriptural promises to the needs of life, sometimes, like Bishop Butler, with a high idea of duty and loving- kindness before them ; sometimes with the mere thought of skilfully adjusting formulas into a pleasant scheme. Others carried the argument further, and the Deists conceived the idea of a beneficent Creator who had ordained all things in a world in which no account need be taken of the disturbing elements of sorrow and sin. But whatever might be the special view arrived at, the characteristic of the age was the predominance of reason without active energy for the common good. The old tyrannies were gone, and the new effort after a better order had not yet come. Life was not beautiful under this regimen. The § 10. Ho- streets of London were as Hogarth painted them. Riot fielding, and anarchy were there, controlled, so far as they were controlled at all, by practical common sense, and by something remaining of the Puritan morality without the Puritan enthusiasm. Hogarth's industrious ap- prentice going to church instead of gambling on the tombstones outside, taking care to attend to his master's accounts, and finally marrying his master's daughter, is the eighteenth century outcome of the religion of Baxter and Owen. Fielding's novels tell the same tale. There is no sense of natural or artistic beauty in them, no enthusiasm, no feeling for the nobleness of temperance and chastity. But there is a certain level of morality below which the)' nc\cr sink. If they lay stress on the unhealthy animalism of human nature, they do not depict that hot-bed of intrigue and corruption, that sty IX 174 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. of falsity and obscenity, in which the dramatists of the Restoration revelled. Such books serve to hold up the mirror to the time. They were days in which individual energies were strong, and the thought of devotion to public ends was weak. The Puritan ideal and the Royalist ideal had been alike trodden in the dust. The Englishman was proud of his constitution because it guarded the individual Englishman from interference ; because he could not, like the Frenchman, be hurried off to the Bastille without warning or trial ; because it enabled him to eat beef like the representative islander in Hogarth's picture of ' Calais Gate,' instead of eating nothing better than soup and frogs. To those who look back upon the scene, it does not appear so entirely lovely as it did to contemporaries. The rude energy with which the actors shouldered their way through the crowd, making full use of all the advantages that personal strength of body, or the possession of a purse full of guineas, or broad acres of landed estate might give them, must have fallen with terrible weight upon the weaker members of society. In such a world the rich man took his pleasure, swearing and cursing and drinking himself into the gout as he went. The poor man swore and cursed too, with Gin Lane as a solace, and the misery of the gaol or a speedy exit from life at Tyburn before him. Yet unlovely as the spectacle was, it had its promise of better things. Rude and uncul- tivated as this life was, it was full of activity. The evils which men suffered from they brought on themselves. No tyranny of class over class handed down by the tra- dition of centuries, as in France, — no servile yoke of in- justice, — presses upon the citizen or the cultivator of the soil. If the people can but make up their minds about their own wrongs, those wrongs will be redressed. To- day it is a prosecution of Dr. Sacheverell or an un- THE RULE OF THE WHIG ARISTOCRACY. 175 popular Excise Bill or a rectification of the Almanac, Chap. Avhich rouses the opposition. Some wiser cry for right L and justice will be heard to-morrow, and men will learn that the struggles of the seventeenth century had not been in vain, and that a nation which has grasped the direction of its own destinies will not always be con- tent to leave the helm in the hands of a place-loving aristocracy. CHAPTER X. THE RESTORATION OF AUTHORITY. Chap. It was certain that some day or other, the time would ^" come when such an abnegation of the higher duties of § I. Pre- government would be met by a demand for a develop- orchange. ^ent.of authority which might discipline into obedience to the national will the factions which profited by the existing anarchy. In some sort, the situation was what it had been when a stronger, fiercer aristocracy treated England as its own in the days of Stephen, or in the days of Henry VI. But as the evil was present in a milder form, the remedy was also likely to take a milder form. The king, as the representative of unity in government, would have a good chance of raising his own power, if he knew how to wield it for national purposes, but he \\ould not this time have the mass of the nation looking on v> ith dumb respect. It would claim to act with him or without him according to the way in which he exercised the authority which he claimed. Not, indeed, that the over- throw of the predominance of the aristocracy would come from a mere jealousy of their supremacy. It is not in this way that great constitutional changes are effected. There must be some actual sin of omission or of commission on the part of the rulers to stir up a desire for change, before a strong enough movement manifests itself in the minds of the multitudes by whose union alone the THE RESTORATION OF AUTHORITY. 177 forms of popular government can be filled with the life- Chap. giving spirit of popular action. "^' It was well that the first motion towards a better §2. Wes- order should make itself felt in the domain of religion ^''^^'^'^^ rather than in that of politics. The thought of the time had little reference to action, and none at all to spiritual ardour and emotion. Around the thinkers who specu- lated on the comfortable results of the Christian scheme were a large number of clergy who did not speculate at all, but who contented themselves with fulfilling the external functions of their office in a more or less respect- able way, without dreaming that it was their duty to utter more than a mild protest against the evils around them. The one word which expressed to them all that was to be avoided was the word 'zeal' 'They were in the midst of masses who were mere heathens, living lives utterly brutal and degraded, and they passed on their way as if these things had no existence. John Wesley saw the sight with other eyes. He gave his life to raise these very masses to a higher and a nobler life. There was in his teaching nothing new. It was the old Puritan doctrine of conversion, upon which was grafted the practice of confession from the yet older church, stripped of its sacerdotalism, and assuming a de- mocratic form in the class-meetings by means of which he organised his followers. In his hands the old thing had become new. His work was more than to teach and to organise. It was to quicken into vigour the seeds of spiritual life which had been almost smothered under the oppressive reasoning of the philosopher and the careless self-content of the man of the world. From it sprang the work of the later evangelical leaders within the English Church, and indirectly the whole spiritual teaching of men who would be by no N ,78 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. means inclined to trace their mental genealogy to the X. founder of Wesleyanism. § 3. Wii- What Wesley was in the region of mind and spirit, iiaiu Put. ^iui^j^ Y\\.t was in the region of politics. He too brought nothing new in the way of intellectual concep- tion. His ruling idea of antagonism to France was as old as the days of Edward HI. and of Henry V. It was enshrined in the historic drama of Shakspere, and it inspired the foreign policy of the Whigs of the Revolu- tion. When he tried to solve the questions evolved by the resistance of America to English taxation, he fell back on the old doctrine of No taxation without representation, v.'hich had been heard in the midst of the Puritan revo- lution. Pitt's strength lay in his character, not in his ideas. The spectacle of a man who set before him noble ends, and who trusted his countrymen above that which they were able to do, roused them to do more than they had done before. The first step in organisation is to rally round a man, and in Pitt, England had at last found the man to whom it could look up. It was only to be expected that that rally should have been the accompaniment of a great war. It is for the purposes of war that the need of leadership is most promptly felt, and that need which at an earlier stage of civilisation is satisfied by a quick eye and a brave heart in the field, demands, when war is spread over a larger field, a quick eye and a brave heart in the cabinet. The successes of the Seven Years' War, the conquest of Canada, and the establishment of English military power in India were the distinct results of the individual energy and vigour w/hich the race had gained by its development in the seventeenth century. Frenchmen, in spite of such glorious exceptions as Montcalm and Dupleix, were through their long training under an absolute monarchy, unfitted to compete with the great-grandchildren of the THE RESTORATION OF AUTHORITY. 179 freeholders who supported Hampden, and of the Puri- Chap. tans who charged with Cromwell. !_ The influence of the character of a single man is §4. The Decline of the Whig Aris- tocracy. evanescent. Nor was it in the nature of things that England should be swayed by Pitt in peace as it had been swayed by him in war. As long as the war lasted, the hearts of all were set upon the one object of beating the enemy. When the war was at an end, the mass of men became very much what they had been before it. Petty objects took the place of great ones, and intrigues resumed their empire over public spirit. The idea of a State watching over its fleets and armies had been easily seized. The idea of a State watching over the welfare of the population at home, and binding them into common action for great social ends was as yet un- familiar. In such a dormant condition of public feeling men's advantages were the measure of their power. The Whig aristocracy once more threatened to seize autho- rity into their hands. But the Whig aristocracy was not quite what it was before. It had split into various frac- tions combating one another for power, and some of its members had learned something by their temporary combination with the ostentatious purity of Pitt. It was otherwise with the bulk of members of Parliament who still called themselves Whigs. If they no longer took bribes in the more^ degrading form of money pre- sents, they did not hesitate to take bribes in the shape of pensions and places, and they flung away in gam- bling and debauchery the money which they thus ac- quired at the expense of the nation. When the great landowners were divided amongst § 5. The themselves, it was possible for the crown to assert a ^/^Qg^|°" claim to a higher position than had been allowed to it ni. since the days of Anne. At first indeed the royal competition for power only brought one more rival on i8o INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap, the scene to appeal to the covetousness of mankind. The young king, George III., who ascended the throne in 1760, was indeed possessed of a strong desire to do his duty as a ruler, and of a firm conviction that he and not the great landowners was the rrghtful centre of authority. But he won his way, not by the pos- session of high qualifications for government, but by persistency of effort joined to the advantage of posi- tion. If he exercised his legal rights, he had more to give away than Newcastle and his allies. Places and pensions had all along nominally been in the gift of the Crown. When it was once understood that the King meant really to allot them himself, he soon found that he could dispose of votes in parliament, which had hitherto been at the disposal of the prime minister. Yet the Whig domination was not to be overthrown at once. In bringing about peace with France when everything had been achieved to which the nation could fairly lay claim, George III. was in the right. But in the struggle which followed between the king and the Whig landowners little was to be seen except a contest for power. One body of them, indeed, which placed itself under the leadership of Rockingham, set a noble example in renouncing the paths of corruption. But for that very reason it was weak in Parliamentary influence, and it failed to convey the impression that its chief spokesmen were possessed of sufficient firmness or ability to be entrusted with the destinies of the nation. When its leaders held office for a few short months, they had against them both the hostility of the King, who disliked them as a party formed independently of himself, and the hostility of those numerous members of Parliament who had made their way into the House of Commons in order to be heavily bribed. At last, when after various defeats and victories the King selected Pitt— now Earl of Chatham — as his Prime Minister, there seemed a chance THE RESTORATION OF AUTHORITY. i8i that the weight of hereditary authority was about to add Chap. to itself the weight of the instinctive virtues of the great popular statesman. But Chatham's failure of health prevented the fair trial of the experiment, and George went his way combating influence by influence and, so far as he fell back upon popular support at all, falling back upon that ignorance and the selfishness of his countrymen in which he shared. The influence of an hereditary king, or of a popular §6. Ed- statesman, was a great organising power capable of pro- Burke. ducing harmonious action for a time. But the great organiser of modern states is scientific political know- ledge, and the first man to appreciate its force was Edmund Burke. He was the founder of a new school of politics. Throwing aside the older doctrines, he an- nounced that it was the duty of governments, not to vindicate their own rights, or to aim at an ideal good, but simply to limit their action for the benefit of their subjects by the extent of their power. The ruler was to ask not what was in itself just, but what was expedient. To give full weight to this doctrine of expediency it would have been necessary for him to anticipate the still more modern doctrine that a nation changes its habits only at a very slow rate, which it is out of the power of any government, either to accelerate very much, or to retard very much. Such a doctrine leads inevitably to the extension of popular control, as a regulating influence upon the freaks of individual selfishness or the over- hastiness of individual intelligence. Burke was too much a child of the first half of the eighteenth century to look upon the influence of the masses as anything but an evil. Thinking, far-sighted men, were, as he well knew, but a small minority. The mass of Englishmen was without education of the simplest kind. Very few could even read or write. It was impossible for ignorant persons engaged in a daily struggle for existence to under- i82 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. stand what was politically wise or politically foolish. 1_ Chatham's notion of appealing to the popular voice was therefore as much discarded by him as the king's notion of gaining support by a judicious distribution of offices and pensions. Yet there must be somewhere a body of men to whom was to be entrusted the task of determin- ing what was politically expedient, of seeing that certain things must not be done because the mass of men, whom it would be folly to consult, would testify their objections by practical resistance. But for one peculi- arity in Burke's mind, it would have been hard for him to discover where his basis of operations was to be found. When once his antipathies were roused, he was never very critical of the instruments to which he had recourse to oppose that which he disliked. With all his activity of thought in devising new measures, perhaps even on account of that very activity, he was eminently conser- vative as regarded institutions. He therefore looked for aid not to that which might be, but to that which actually existed, to the parliamentary strength of the Whig land- owners. Not that Burke wished to see the government of England placed entirely in the hands of a few noble or wealthy families. He took parliament as it was, with its county-members elected by the freeholders, and with most of its borough-members practically chosen by a limited number of landowners, and with a few of them chosen by a very wide suffrage indeed. Above all he advocated giving the fullest publicity to the words and acts cff parliament Indirectly, every man who had an opinion to express might bring his influence to bear on parliament, though he might never vote at an election. Directly, the mass was to stand aside. The men of wealth and position who had an interest in good government, and who had sufficient intelligence to know what it was, ought to band themselves together by party THE RESTORATION OF AUTHORITY. 183 ties to resist alike the corrupt influence of the Crown Chap. X and the ignorant violence of the populace. Such in the L_ main became the creed of the Whigs who looked up to Rockingham as their leader, and of the Rockingham Whigs Burke was the guiding spirit. On two points Burke was able to co-operate with Chat- § 7. The ham, though not without certain reservations. When of'wiikes Wilkes, after being expelled from the Lower House, was, ^"^ ,.-, ..^^ ._ American upon a mere resolution of the smgle House of Commons, Taxation, declared to be incapable of holding his seat by re-election, Burke like Chatham pronounced against the usurpation. If parliament was not to be brought under the control of a wider constituency than it possessed, at least it must not shake off the control of such constituencies as already existed. Burke went a long way in that idolatry of parliament which was the besetting sin of the middle of the eighteenth century, but he was unable to go so far as to hold that the House of Commons was entitled to set at defiance those to whom it owed its existence. In the question of American taxation, Burke was less unreservedly in agreement with Chatham. Chatham held that the British Parliament had no right to tax America, because America was not represented in it. Burke refused to admit that the question was one of right at all. In his eyes it was one of expediency, one, in short, for the exercise of discretion by the central governing power of the empire, and that central govern- ing power was the British Parliament. It would be an element of considerable importance in the formation of the judgment of Parliament that the Americans ob- jected to be taxed ; but it was not the sole element to be taken into consideration. He, therefore, .wished to retain for parliament the power of taxing the colonies, whilst counselling that, excepting in extreme emer- gencies, that power should never be put in force. 1 84 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. X. § 8. Com- parison between Burke and Bacon. Burke's political opinions, in short, were very similar to those of Bacon, if only the authority of parliament were substituted for the authority of the crown. The pre- dominance of the crown with Bacon — the predominance of the parliament with Burke — was the form in which intelligence was to bear sway over ignorance. Neither of these great men dreamed for a moment of shutting his ears to the voices of those who were excluded from any actual part in the government. But they thought that those voices should be raised simply to enlighten those higher powers, which, unless they were given over to folly or madness, would be able, from the vantage ground on which they sto !, to take an impartial view of all questions at issue, in both cases the theory broke down in precisely the same way. The Stuart kings proved unable to rise above the limitations of ordinary human self-conceit and ignorance, and the history of the seven- teenth century proved that the place for the action of intelligence must be found in the midst of the represen- tatives of the nation, and not in some separate sphere, the motions of which were governed by rules and forces of its own. The lesson of the eighteenth century was precisely the same. The House of Commons, elected as Burke wished it to be always elected, and endowed with all those powers with which Burke wished it to be endowed, turned a deaf ear to the warnings and exhor- tations of the great philosophical statesman of that day, as James I. had turned a deaf ear to the warnings and exhortations of Bacon. It shared to the full in the ignorance and corruption of its generation, and its members thus sank into subservient instruments of a king who had honours and rewards to bestow. It used the power, which Burke ascribed to it, of taxing the colonies in special emergencies, to tax them when there was no emergency at all, just as Charles I. had used the THE RESTORATION OF AUTHORITY. 1S5 special powers entrusted to him for the defence of the Chap. nation at a time of grave and unexpected danger, to lay — _ on ship-money when there was no such danger to be feared. It hurried England into an uncalled-for and hopeless war with America, just as Charles I. hurried England into an uncalled-for and hopeless war with Spain and France. It is not Hkely that the immediate realisation of Chatham's idea of electoral reform would have brought about at once a better state of things, any more than the immediate realisation of Eliot's idea of parliamentary predominance would have brought about at once a better state of things. Much gradual political education was necessary before the House of Commons was fit to take the lead in the seventeenth century, or before any wide popular foundations would be fitted to bear up the edifice of government in the eighteenth century. But it was on the side of Chatham's ideas rather than on the side of Burke's that the hopes of the future lay, if it v.ere only for this reason — that Burke's principles excluded the popular leadership of Chatham, whilst Chatham's principles would find ample room for the intellectual guidance of Burke. The imposition of taxation upon America was un- §g. The doubtedly popular at first. Englishmen believed that the seven years war had assigned to them, not the em- pire, but the booty of the world. Partly from a desire to escape from its own burdens, partly from contemptuous ignorance of the feelings of the colonists, in the first stages of the quarrel the nation took the side of the king. Instead of correcting the errors of king and people, the House of Commons shared them. Nothing in history is more remarkable than the way in which, excepting in the very greatest crises, any ministry was sure of a majority in the House of Commons. There was a majority for the imposition of the American new 1' ones. iS6 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap X. Stamp Act in 1765. There was a majority for repealing it in 1766 ; and there was again a majority for taxing duties upon imports into America in 1767. Even as late as in 1788, when a great minister, strong in the con- fidence of the crown and the nation, was threatened with removal from office through accidental causes, it never occurred either to his friends or his opponents that, if a new ministry succeeded in establishing itself in office, it would find any difficulty in securing a majority in the House of Commons. In part, the phenomenon was owing to the corrupt influence which the wearer of the crown was able to exercise, but, in the first years of the reign, it was also owing to the general weariness of the domination of the Whigs, and a desire to find in the king a rallying point of national strength. When the American war came, he became the rallying point of national stubbornness as well. Hence the success achieved by George HI. in the formation of that new Tory party which came into power with Lord North in 1770. The party thus formed was no longer beset by the difficulties which had weakened those politicians who had gloried in the name of Tory in the reign of Anne. There was no longer any disputed succession. The questions springing out of the Toleration Act had long been laid asleep. It was a party simply gathered in hostility to the great Whig houses, and advocating, as the cardinal point of its political creed, the right of . the king to name his own ministers, and thereby to direct the policy of the government, though it did not at all deny the right of parliament to hold those min- isters responsible, a right which, subservient as parlia- ment was, it seemed little likely to wish to put in execution. §To. The George HI. had everything on his side but political /mcrican intelligence. Whether Chatham were riglit in holding THE RESTORATION OF AUTHORITY. 187 that the attempt to tax America was absolutely uncon- stitutional, or Burke in holding that it was simply inexpedient, there could be no doubt that it was im- practicable. Resistance in America ripened into revolution. The attempt to coerce the colonists ended in failure. The distance across the Atlantic was too great to enable the British government to keep its armies in a complete state of efficiency, and the extent of the colonial territory was too great to make it possible to subdue the new nation which had arisen, France took the opportunity of helping the enemies of Britain, and the independence of the United States was the result. It was a hap'py result for Britain as well as for America. Compulsory taxation of an unrepresented people was a violation of the principles on which England had thriven, and it would have been impossible to violate them in America without holding them lightly in Europe. At least the unrepresented classes in England would have been treated as if their wishes and needs were beneath consideration. The military force which would have been needed to maintain the authority of the mother country in America would have hindered the free play of constitutional forces at home. When therefore, after the collapse of the war, a new government came into office, it came in with the authority which is derived from having been in the right when it was in oppo- sition, and with no very hard task in governing a country which had not suffered so much as it seemed to have suffered. The real difficulties of the new government arose from its own composition. Chatham was dead ; but his successor Shelburne and his youth- ful son the second William Pitt inherited the traditions of his policy. They were not inclined to rest the government of the country on a confederacy of great landowners. They perceived that the development of Chap. X. i88 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. the new Tory party had its root in the demand of the ^' nation for a larger basis of power. That basis they proposed to supply by an electoral reform which should strengthen the House of Commons by placing increased reliance on the more independent classes of society, whilst they were quite ready to conciliate the king by interesting him in their policy and by showing deference to his wishes. The Whigs, on the other hand, looked with aversion upon any extension of popular power, or of court influence. The personal quarrel which broke out between Fox, who after Rockingham's death became the leader of the Whigs, and Shelburne, who was the leader of the followers of Chatham, was only the symptom of an ineradicable difference of prin- ciple. § II. The That difference of principle led to a grave constitu- Miiiistry! tional crisis. When, upon Rockingham's death, the king appointed Lord Shelburne prime minister, Fox and his whole party refused to serve under him. Forming an unprincipled coalition with the immediate followers of Lord North, to whom they were bound by no tie of common political principle, they installed themselves in office. Then ensued a struggle such as had not been known since the Tory victories of Harley and St. John in the days of Anne. A bill prepared by Burke for the reform of the government of India was passed by large majorities in the House of Commons. When it reached the House of Lords, it was thrown out through the personal intervention of the king. The king then dismissed the ministry and placed the premiership in the hands of young William Pitt. After a struggle of many weeks, parliament was dissolved, and a new parliament was returned, giving a large majority to Pitt and the king. By constitutional purists the mode of Pitt's ap- pointment is regarded with abhorrence. It should how- THE RESTORATION OF AUTHORITY. 189 ever be remembered that the right of padiament, if Chap. supported by the constituencies, to obtain the dismissal — L_ of a minister was not in question. No doubt our modern practice, according to which the House of Comrr^ns, by merely signifying its disapprobation, can obtain either an immediate change of government or an immediate dissolution, is an improvement on the practice of 1783. But it is also true that the House of Commons of 1 88 1 is an improvement on the House of Commons of 1783. It does not now contain a large number of mem- bers without political principle, and eager simply to possess themselves of so much of the loaves and fishes of political adventure as they may be able through dex- terous management to secure. In 1783 therefore it was simply a question which side could bribe the highest. The offers of the coalition proved in the end less attrac- tive than the offers of the king, and the sounder part of the country rallied round the opponent of a coalition which appeared to be guided by no principle whatever, and whose only great political performance, the India bill, was exposed to many just criticisms, and which awakened through misinterpretation even more hostility than it deserved. It was for the king to justify the intrigue by which Jj^^gtl^'"^ Pitt's government was formed, by showing that the policy of the new ministry was more than an intrigue. In Pitt he had found a man who could lay the foundations of the organisation of intelligence in the place of the organisation of hereditary rank and hereditary wealth. The new Tory party, to which the son of Chatham gave consistency, was, in truth, identical with the Liberal party of more recent times. The early years in which he exercised authority were marked by great reforms and by attempts at refornis even greater than it was then possible to carry out. He had learned from ,o INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. Adam Smith the first principles of political economy, __!_ and the commercial treaty with France was the first visible result of the new science. He failed, indeed, in carrying his scheme of parliamentary reform, hot the mere fact that he addressed himself to the nation generally was in itself a preparation for parliamentary reform. The evil notion that it was enough if the House of Commons was satisfied, whatever might be the feeling outside its doors, had prevailed too much with all parties. Pitt definitely cast it aside. It was upon an appeal to the constituencies that he had sus- tained himself in office, and he never forgot the debt which he owed them. The constituencies, too, were them- selves very different from those which had existed at the beginning of the reign. Wealth was no longer confined to the great landowners and a few commercial magna' e^ of the city of London. The nabobs, as they were called, the men who had heaped up riches in India, had been the first to dispute the way to parliament with the possessors of large estates. A far better element had been introduced into English society by the growth of manufacturing industry. The introduction of the steam- engine, the construction of navigable canals, and the application of newly invented machines to manufac- tures, had brought into existence a class of thoughtful and intelligent men, possessed of property of a kind which was entirely free from the influence of the great landed proprietors. The gradual change in the distribu- tion of wealth was accompanied by a gradual elevation of the standard of religion and morals. The seed sown by Wesley had taken root and flourished amongst those who owned no special tie to his person or his teaching. Everywhere appeared a life and vigour which had been entirely wanting fifty years before. There was, in all THE RESTORATION OF AUTHORITY. classes, more decency in outward life, more public spirit Chai than before. Much remained to be done, but the pro- ^' gress was sufficiently great to make the nation, as a whole, content with itself, and unwilling to seek a remedy for its evils in violent and revolutionary change. 191 CHAPTER XL THE INFLUENCE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. ^yY' New ideas had for many years been influencing every ~ European state. Men of intelligence rebelled against § I. New systems which were powerful only for evil, and sought Ideas m -^ ^ ^ . , , France. either to regulate the world in accordance with the results of thought, or to call up a new power in the masses to overthrow the ancient and effete fabric of society. Naturally these ideas were more powerful in France than elsewhere, because it was there that mis- government had done its worst, from sheer incompetency to fulfil its task. The leaders of the French Revolution had before them an aristocracy which thrust the burdens of the state upon the other classes whilst they preserved its advantages to themselves, and a church which did little or nothing to quicken the spiritual life of its mem- bers, whilst its higher officials were sunk in sloth or dissipation. In opposition to these evils a double tendency was soon manifested, the one, of which the typical personage was Rousseau, which looked to pure democracy as the remedy against the evils of an effete aristocratic society, the other, of which the typical personage was Voltaire, which looked to clearer intellec- tual belief as a remedy for the evils caused by ignorance and folly. By the combination of these two movements, modern society was to be deeply moulded in the future. THE INFLUENCE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 193 It was, however, almost inevitable that the first attempt Chap. to carry them out would end in disaster, and that the 1 new dcmocrac}', when called upon the stage, being entirely without political experience or constitutional habit, should show itself to be capricious and tyrannical in its instincts, and unwilling to recognise not merely those traditions of the past which no nation can afford to throw off in an instant, but even the warnings of those who would seek to curb its violence by moral restraint. Europe was alarmed and enraged by the sight of a reign of cruelty and violence, at variance with the humanitarian professions of the perpetrators of the crime. The first effect of the French Revolution upon the §2. The T^ 1 • 1 /- 1 • 1 1-11 Effect in Englishmen of the eighteenth century was not unlike the England, first effect of the Reformation upon the Englishmen of the sixteenth century. Both in the sixteenth and the eighteenth century society was settled on too solid bases to be thrown off its balance by the new ideas by which it was destined to be ultimately moulded. In both cases the work of the preceding generations had been so far well done that only a small minority would be willing to set it aside entirely in favour of something altogether new. In both cases the fact that there was such a minority caused a revulsion of feeling and a desire to cling to the old without change or alteration. In both cases, after a certain time had elapsed, the new ideas made their way quietly and by degrees, gradually modifying the old ideas without shock or violence. In this way, the ideas which produced the French §3- The Revolution exercised up to about 1822 a repellent oTpitt^s"^^ power upon English political life, whilst since that date ^^Jn'stry. their influence has been steadily attractive. From 1789 onwards Pitt ceased to be the master of the nation. Driven against his inclination into a war with PVance, o 194 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. his coalition with the leaders of the Whisks, who seceded XI . . 1_ from Fox, marked a great surrender. The spirit of his ministry in its early years had been drawn from the union of intelligence and popular support. In its later years it appealed to the rights of property. The lower part of the Whig ideas had swallowed up the higher part of the Tory ideas. Abstract and scientific thought, idolised in France, was treated with contempt in England, and war was looked upon, in spite of Pitt's reluctance to descend so low as a means to combat disagreeable principles which might have been met much better by improvement and re- form at home. Once, indeed, the genius of Pitt flashed out into the promise of a great reform. His conception of connecting the union of Great Britain and Ireland with the removal of the Catholic disabilities was worthy of his best days. But the king stood firm against the nobler part of the design, and the ignorance and obstinacy of the king was, in this matter, only the echo of the igno- rance and obstinacy of the nation. §4. The The relations of France with Europe took much the same course as the relations of the French democracy with those classes which had previously been in the enjoy- ment of most of the advantages of life. The war began from a collision of ideas like the religious wars of earlier times. Both at home and abroad material interests called for satisfaction before moral and intellectual interests were provided for. Within the limits of France it seemed for a time as if the movement was to be ex- hausted when it had divided a great part of the property of the rich amongst the poor and had procured entrance to offices in the state for those who had hitherto been excluded from them. Outside the limits of France a war, begun by the French nation in order to resist the forcible introduction by foreign armies of principles of government which it had rejected, or to inti'oduce into War with France THE INFLUENCE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 195 foreign countries principles of which it approved, gra- Chap. dually changed into a war of plunder and annexation, cul- minating both at home and abroad in the erection of a mean and selfish despotism. With this change in the character of the relations between France and the con- tinent, came a change in the character of the relations between England and the Continent. It is true that Pitt had from the beginning taken care that, ostensibly at least, the war should not be waged against ideas. It was said that it was waged on account of such grievances as the annexation of the Southern Netherlands and the threatened invasion of the Northern Netherlands, and when attempts were made to make peace in 1796 and in 1797, the dispute turned entirely on questions of terri- torial delimitation. What was left out of sight was that — at least up to Bonaparte's attack upon Italy in 1796 — the question of territorial delimitation was secondary to the question of the prevalence of French ideas. French soldiers could not be driven back within their old fron- tiers until the ideas for which they combated should cease to prove attractive, and the war was waged in vain because neither Pitt's financial ability nor Burke's rea- soning could succeed in making them otherwise than attractive to those who had long suffered from the evils which they professed to cure. In all this, however, time worked a change. As Napoleon rose France degene- rated. French power came to be connected in men's minds with bloodshed and ruin, with political despotism, and fiscal oppression. In the final struggle against this evil, England played her part well ; she made common cause with the nations of Europe because all were equally concerned in shaking off a yoke which had be- come intolerable to all. She did not neglect her own special interests, but she merged them in the interests of the European community at large, o 2 XI. J 95 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. The foreign policy of England for some years after _ the war \\as under the control of Lord Castlereagh. His Forei-J''^ "^^'^ ^^'°^'^' ^^'^'^ ^° support the European settlement Policy of arranged by the Congress of Vienna at the close of the AHnistries ^^^r. The Congress of Vienna, taken in combination after the ^^.jtj^ j-j^g ^^^^^ leagues and congresses by which it was followed, may be regarded as the first serious attempt to establish a European tribunal for the decision of ques- tions affecting Europe as a whole, and it will therefore probably assume larger proportions in the eyes of the future historian than it does at present, if, as is by no means unlikely, such a tribunal should, in any shape, be permanently established. Its weakness lay, not merely in the covetousness of individual powers, but still more in the fact that France was regarded as an enemy to be kept in check rather than as a member of the community to be supported in her legitimate rights. Not only were large territorial increases assigned to those powers which were likely to be strong enough to keep France from fresh warlike enterprises, but the very notion that the wishes of the subjects of any state deserved to be taken into consideration was scouted as revolutionary and dangerous. Hence the revulsion of feeling in England of which Canning constituted himself the mouth-piece. Important as it was that there should be common action in Europe, it became more important still that the states which were to meet together should represent, as far as possible, natural aggregates of men, and not mere arti- ficial combinations of a government and an army. During the sixty-six years which have elapsed since the battle of Waterloo, the condLK:t of foreign affairs has passed through various hands, and has undoubtedly been subject to change and vacillation. Here, as in every other instance, ideal progress consists in the combination of two apparently conflicting courses, whilst the nature of TME IXFLUENCE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 197 average men is such that they only attach themselves Chap. strongly to one of these courses at a time. We have, therefore, had times when the chief object of foreign politics has seemed to be the support of congresses and conferences, the demand for international arbitration in the place of war, and for the dismissal of those over- grown armies which are constantly threatening the peace of Europe. At another time the doctrine of non-inter- vention has been accepted as the true panacea for the evils by which the Continent is affected. Much sense and much nonsense has been talked on behalf of both these theories, and it would be rash to attempt to fore- cast the solutions which the future may have in store. But it can hardly be doubted that the rise of a higher and better international law than now exists will only become possible, if on the one hand the general com- munity of nations exercises its authority on behalf of the establishment and maintenance of states formed on the natural basis of the wishes of the popula- tions, so far as they can be ascertained, and if, on the other hand, it defends any state so constituted against the interference of its neighbours. The growth of the au- thority of European congresses, joined to an increased respect for national independence, will probably be the leading feature of the international relations of the future, and, on the whole, in spite of occasional backslidings, the foreign policy of England has helped on the change. Tn domestic politics the effect of antipathy to French § 6. Do- principles survived the war. For some years it was Poik-y after thought to be dangerous to think of reforms at all. ^^'^ '*^'*''- Everything which existed was evidently for the best, even if it were a job or a sinecure. The idea of bringing popular pressure to bear upon men of property and the idea of asking men of property to listen to more intclli- . gent' persons than themselves was equally scouted. iy8 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY. Chap. Then came a great change. On the one hand a demand arose for parliamentary reform, for the widening of the basis of representation. On the other hand a demand arose for a more inteUigent and less selfish government. The two demands have been answered. The policy which had died out with Pitt was again in the ascendant. The great Liberal movement made its power felt over both parties and all classes. Twice has a parliamentary reform bill been carried, to place the control of the government in the hands of men of less material property than those who had formerly been entrusted with it, and the result has been to increase rather than to diminish the weight of intelligence. Happily too the struggle which pre- ceded these changes was not a mere struggle between classes, like the revolutionary struggle in France. A large number of the owners of great estates threw them- selves on the side of reform, whilst their opponents, who objected to change, were honourable men, striving, according to their belief, for the best interests of their country, and capable of influencing for good the genera- tion in which they lived. The growth of the scientific spirit and its extension through popular teaching, open at last to both sexes alike, has helped and will help still more to widen the basis of authority. Yet the reform of the criminal law, the changes in the poor law, the intro- duction of free trade, have all been the work of men of special intellectual qualifications, and the possession of such qualifications carries with it more weight in the affairs of government than it did at any preceding time. Popular power organised by intellect, influenced by morality, and devoted to high and noble aims, is the ideal form of the society which is now developing itself, and which has survived the violent tyranny of the French Revolution and the violent reaction caused by that tyranny. How far the nation falls short of that THE INFLUENCE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 199 ideal can to some extent be seen, and will be more Chap. XI clearly seen in future times. But we may be sure that 1. it is less in danger of shipwreck, because more than other nations it does not disregard its past, and because it does not hastily cast off or even profoundly modify its old institutions till they have become beyond all disnute hurtful rather than beneficent. Part II. AUTHORITIES, BY J. BASS MULLINGER, M.A. PREFACE TO THE SECOND PART. In the following pages it has been my first aim, care- fully to distinguish the contemporary sources of inform- ation for each period from those of later times, — a dis- tinction of primary importance in historical study. In the next place, I have endeavoured, wherever practicable, to supply such an amount of comment as will enable the student to form a fairly accurate notion of each author's value as an authority. In so doing, I have sought to be strictly impartial, and simply to place before the reader the main conclusions of the most recent and approved criticism. In connexion with Welsh, Irish, and Scottish history, the design of the volume seems to call for nothing fur- ther than a reference to the chief authorities for tho ^e periods or junctures when the history of one or other of these countries has been most prominently associated with that of England. Contemporary narrative, however defective or par tial, rarely fails to retain a certain interest and value in after times. But general histories, — such as those of Old PREFACE. mixon, Barnard, Henry, Hume, Smollett, and Sharon Turner, — become, for the purposes of research, con- fessedly obsolete, not simply from their defective method, but as derived from a very imperfect acquaint- ance with the original manuscript sources. Of these and similar writers I have, accordingly, not considered it necessary to furnish any account. It will be understood, again, that manuscript sources do not come within the scope of my work. Investiga- tions of such a character would be undertaken only by those who were themselves designing to write history, for whom the present volume is not intended. It has, accordingly, been deemed sufficient to give, at the con- clusion of each chapter, some account of the best and most recent works on each period, — productions which now invariably represent research of the kind referred to and rarely fail to indicate the original manuscript authorities. It is perhaps scarcely necessary to add, that, in a manual like the present, the list of authorities is not exhaustive, — still less is it designed to represent the bibliography of our historical literature. But I hope that the amount of guidance offered will be found suffi- cient to enable the student to pursue his investigations of any period with comparativel}' little further assist- ance. As regards the different editions of each author, as a rule, only the best is named ; of this, in the case of all but the most recent writers, the title-page has generally been transcribed in full. It only remains for me to express my frequent PREFACE. indebtedness to Professor Gardiner, with whom I have the honour to be associated in the production of this volume, and by whose advice I have so often profited, — especially in connexion with the period of which he pos- sesses an almost unrivalled knowledge. My best thanks are also due to Richard Garnett, Esq., Superintendent of the British Museum Reading Room, for the unvarying courtesy and valuable suggestions with which he has often aided me in the prosecution of researches which could not fail, at times, to be somewhat perplexing and laborious. The follotving abbrrinatuvts have been used in referring to the publications of different societies and other works of a serial character. A. C. Abbotsford Club. Bann. C. Bannatyne Club. C. S. Camden Society. £. E. T. S. Early English Text Society. E. H. S. English Historical Society. Hardy, Z). C. Hardy (Sir T. D.), Desaiptive Catalogue of Materiah relating to the History of Great Britain and Ireland. M. H. B. Monu77ienta Historica Britannica. Migne, P. L. The Abbe Migne's Patrologia Latina. Phil. S. Philobiblon Society. R. C. Record Commission. Ji. S. Rolls Series. S. S. Surtees Society. INTRODUCTORY. The study of Englisli liistory gains greatly in Intro- interest, if pursued in conjunction with that of the ^ '-^''Q^^ - growth and development of the EngHsh tongue.' The Works on student, accordingly, should not fail to acquire some parativT' knowledge of the leading facts which the science of Ian- f^^^^' °^ o t> ^ Language, guage may be regarded as having established with respect to the ethnic affinities of the English race. The work in which these facts have received their most elab- orate exposition is perhaps that of M. PiCTET, — Les Pictet. Origifies Indo-Eiwopcennes, on les Arjas Primitifs (2 pts., Paris, 1859-63), — in which the writer, in a series of minute verbal investigations, traces back the vocabulary of mo- dern Aryan tongues, whether Hellenic, Italic, Celtic, Teutonic, or Slavonic, to the common sources of the so- called Indo-European family of languages. The main results of his researches are given in outline in the fifth and sixth of professor MAX MULLER'S Lectures on the Science Max of Language (2 vols., Longmans, 1866). ' As surely,' says the latter writer, in summing up the historical lesson conveyed in the genealogical classification of languages — ' as surely as the six Roman dialects point to an ori- ginal home of Italian shepherds on the seven hills at Rome, the Aryan languages together point to an earlier I ' No man can study political history worthily without learning a good deal about languages ; no man can study langu.age worthily without learn- ing a good deal about political histoiy.'— Freeman, Pref. to Hist, of tfu Norman Conqtust^ vol. v. Mtiller. 2o8 INTRODUCTORY. Intro- , DUCTORY, Oliphant. Isaac Taylor, Works on the Com- I arative History of Institu- tions. period of language, when the first ancestors of the In- dians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Slaves, the Celts, and the Germans, were living together within the same enclosures and under the same roof (i. 237). Mr. T. L. Kingston Oliphant's Old mid Middle English (Macmillan & Co., 1878) takes up the subject where it is left by the foregoing writers, and traces the history of the English language to the early part of the fourteenth century, by which time the language began to assume its final and classical form. Mr. Oliphant's treatment of his subject is especially valuable on account of the collateral illustration it affords of the political and social events of the time. Mr. Isaac Taylor's Words and Places (Macmillan & Co., 4th edit, 1879) abounds with interesting elucidations of the connexion between our local nomenclature and our national history. The comparative history of Institutions affords, like that of language, very valuable guidance in relation to our earlier history ; and among these the institution of Property in Land, resting upon a primeval tenure of the soil by groups of men either actually or hypothetically united by blood relationship, is of foremost importance. In contrast to the history of Roman Law, as gradually growing up out of successive interpretations of the Twelve Tables, it offers a remarkable illustration of the political development of the Aryan race in countries un- affected by the influences of the Empire, and especially in those peopled by Sclavonic societies. ' It is one of the facts,' says Sir Henry Maine, 'with which the Western world will some day assuredly have to reckon, that the political ideas of so large a portion of the hu- man race, and its ideas of property also, are inextricably bound up with the notions of family interdependency, of collective ownership, and of natural subjection to patriarchal power.' ' ' Early His/oiy of /m/i/iitioiis, p. 3. WORKS ON LANGUAGE. 209 It is an especially valuable feature in our early Eng- Intro- glish institutions, that they afford the best example of ° ^''^^"^^ ' the operation of these ideas with the smallest admixture of foreign elements. Partly as the result of its insular position, partly from other causes, England has devel- oped in greater purity than Germany itself, the original institutions of Teutonism. She has formed and consoli- dated her common law ' free from the absolutist tenden- cies of Roman jurisprudence ; ' she has preserved her language essentially the same ; and like to the tree or the plant, which, conveyed to another hemisphere, exhibits there yet greater vigour and luxuriance of growth than on its native soil, so the laws, the customs, and the speech that came from the banks of the Elbe, acquired a sudden and powerful development on the banks of the Thames and the Ouse. A very clear and interesting comparative view of the fundamental conceptions of legislation and property as exhibited among Teutonic, Celtic, and Hindu communi- ties, is given by SiR HENRY MAINE in his treatise on Sir h. The Early History of InstiUitions (John Murray, 1875). In a series of chapters entitled ' Kinship as the Basis of Society,' ' The Tribe and the Land,' ' The Chief and his Order,' ' The Chief and the Land,' and * Ancient Divisions of the Family,' he traces out the process of de- velopment from the ' patriarchal family,' to the modern State. A large proportion of his illustrations are how- ever drawn from the Early Irish or Brehon Laws, which possess a special value from the fact that they exhibit to us a society of Aryan race, ' settled indeed on the land, and much influenced by its settlement, but preserving an exceptional number of the ideas and rules belonging to the time ivhen kinship and fiot the land is the basis of social union! Mr. Freeman, in his Comparative Politics (Macmillan & Co., 1873), has sought to shew the ana- P Maine. INTRODUCTORY. Intko- DUC TORY, Kemble, Professor Stubbs. logics relating to the political State, the institution of Monarchy, and the governing Parliament or Assembly, which may be traced out in Grecian, Roman, and Teu- tonic history. In these relations, the last, he considers, often affords valuable illustration of the former two. ' It is among the men of our own blood,' he says, ' that we can best trace out how, as in Greece and Italy, the family grew into the clan — how, as in Greece and Italy, the clan grew into the tribe, — and how, at that stage, the development of the two kindred races parted company, — how among Teutons on either side of the sea, the tribe has grown, not into the city but into the nation.' ' In connexion with our national history, a chapter on • The Mark,' in the first volume of Mr. JOHN MITCHELL Kemble's Saxons in England {2 vols., Quaritch, 1876),^ was the earliest embodiment of researches on the rela- tions of early land tenure and settlement to our political institutions. His treatment of the subject has since re- ceived a further application in the masterly histories of G. L. von Maurer and Waitz,^ while these have, in turn, been largely utilised by professor Stubbs in the first three chapters of his Constitutional History. In these pages the last-named writer succinctly traces out the re- lations of the ' mark system ' to our national history, as • the basis on which a large proportion of the institutions of later constitutional life may theoretically be imposed.' ' Comparative Politics, p. III. ' The Saxons in England, a History of the English Commonwealth till the Period of the Noi man Conqtiest. ist edit. 2 vols. 1849. s Maurer, Einleitiing ztir Geschichte der Mark- Bof- and Stddteveif as- sung in Deut^chland (Mtinchen, 1854); Gesch. d. Markenverfassiing in Deutschland (Erlangen, 1856); Gesch. d. Dorfverfassung in Deutschland (Erlangen, iSSt)). See also a chapter by Waitz on Das Dor/, die Gemeitide, der Can, in the first volume of his Deutsche Verfassung'.geschichte, and Sir H. S. Maine's Village Communities in the East and West (John Murray, 3rd edit., 1876) ; also The Aryan Household: its Structure and Develop- ment. By William Edward Hearii (Longmans, 1 879). BIOGRAPHIES. 21 1 The above chapters should be carefully read and re- Intro- read by the student ; while of the whole of the sources * of information above indicated it may be said that regu- lar reference to them will do much towards enabling him to keep in view the general conditions under which our national history has developed, and to refer it to those all-pervading laws on which all human progress ultimately rests. THE ORIGINAL SOURCES. In forming an estimate of the credibility of any bfogra- writer who represents a principal authority for a certain phies of period, it becomes of primary importance to know the torical circumstances under which he wrote and the character ^'^ers. of his political sympathies. In the study of our medieval historical literature, — written, as it often was, by credu- lous and strongly prejudiced narrators, — this knowledge is especially necessary. It will accordingly be of service here to point out : (l) where we may gain the necessary information respecting the writers themselves ; (2) what has, at various times, been done towards rendering these writers more accessible to the student. In the earh- part of the fifteenth century, JOHN john Boston, a monk of the famous monastery of St. ^°^'°"- Edmundsbury, compiled an alphabetical list of authors of English birth, entitled Catalogus Scriptoriun Ecclesiae. The greater part of this work is printed in Wilkins's pre- face to Tanner's Bibliotheca ; and it still possesses some value as an enumeration of the different libraries that existed in England before the discovery of printing, with the authors which they contained. The first, however, to attain to eminence in this de- John partment of our national literature was JOHN Lei, AND, \'f^^?(;_ 'the father of English anticjuaries,' who was chaplain ^- '552- p 2 INTRODUCTORY. Intro- and librarian to king Henry VIII. He was educated !""" ■ at St. Paul's School, and subsequently studied at Cam- bridge, Oxford, and Paris. Henry was wont to call Leland ' his antiquary,' and in the year 1533 he gave him a commission ' to search after England's antiquities and pursue the libraries of all cathedrals, abbeys, priories, colleges, and places where records, writings, and secrets of antiquity were deposited, to the intent that the monu- ments of ancient writers, as well of other nations as of our provinces, might be brought out of cloudy darkness to lively light.' As the result of his researches, Leland presented to king Henry, in the year 1545, his well- known Collectanea} The work remained in manuscript until a century and three quarters later, when it was edited and printed by Hearne, the antiquary ; it may be looked upon as the basis of all similar productions in this country. Leland's Coinincntarii de Scriptoribiis Brittanniae is a kind of supplement to the Collectanea. John Bale. Next in order comes JOHN Bale, bishop of Ossory, the compiler oi Illustriiim Majoris Britanniae Scj'iptoruin, hoc est, Angliae^ Cambriae, ac Scciiae, Swnniarium. Of this work the first edition, dedicated to king Edward VI., was printed at Ipswich in 1549, and comprised only five centuries of writers ; but the third edition, of 1559, contains four additional centuries and a list of 900 writers. It is professedly a biographical dictionary of British authors, though many names are included which have no claim to a place in such a category. A convert from Romanism to Protestantism, and protected and favoured by Thomas Cromwell, Bale was distinguished by the rancour of his attacks upon eminent members of the party which he had deserted. By Fuller, the Church historian, he is designated as 'biliosus Balaeus ;' nor can ' I^e Rebus Britanuicis Collcctaiua, ed. Hearne, 6 vols. 8vo. Oxon, 1715. Reprinted al London, 1770. 1-95. BIOGRAPHIES. arj it be denied that he rarely hesitates to impute the worst intro- , . . , . , ,1 nuCTORY. motives to his antagonists or to give currency to the most extravagant assertions that tended to injure their reputation. But, notwithstanding, his work has been largely used and much praised as an authority by Pro- testant Church historians, although, in the opinion of the late Sir T. D, Hardy, ' its merits are neither so many nor so eminent as is generally supposed.' The spirit in which Bale pursued his labours served to call forth a corresponding production from the party whom he attacked, and in the year 1619 appeared the de Illiistribus Angliae Scriptoribus of JOHN PiTS, the John Pits. fourth volume of a series of which the first contains lives ^ j|j°^ of the English monarchs, the second, of the bishops, the third, of the ' apostolic members ' of the English Church.^ Pits was educated at the English College in Rome, and his volumes were compiled during his residence abroad, while he was confessor to the duchess of Cleves. He was largely indebted to Bale, though he professed to have derived his information from Leland, the manu- script of whose work he had probably never seen. As a partisan, he is even more violent and unscrupulous than his predecessor, and he does not hesitate altogether to suppress the names of many eminent Protestant writers. But, on the other hand, he was induced by the same motives to insert the names of distinguished members of his own communion, and his work affords, in consequence, information which we should otherwise lack concerning many Roman Catholic writers who left > The fourth volume only has been printed, under the title of Joannis Pitsei Angli, S. T. D., Liverduni in Lolharingia Decani, RdatiiVium Ilistoricartim de Rebus Auglicis Tomits primus ; Paris, 1619. It is, how- ever, generally cited with the title above given. The other three volumes of Pits' compilations are preserved in the original manuscript at the colle- giate church at Verdun, 214 INTRODUCTORY. Intro- ductory. William Cave. b. -Lbyj. d. 1713. Sir James Ware. b. 1-94. d. 1666. Thomas Tanner. b. 1674. d. 1735- England during the reign of Elizabeth and settled at the principal centres of learning in Belgium, France, or Italy. A far mere scrupulous and trustworthy writer than either Bale or Pits was WILLIAM Cave, an eminent divine of the English Church in the seventeenth century. Educated at Cambridge, and subsequently vicar of Isle- worth in Middlesex and a canon of Windsor, he devoted a long life to the study of Church history. It was his design to extend the treatment of his subject, as com- menced in his Scriptorum Ecdesiasticoriim Historia Litte- rariaa Chi'isto nato usque ad Saeciilum XIV, to the whole of Europe, but his work comes down only to the com- mencement of the fourteenth century. It was afterwards continued to 15 17 by Henry Wharton and Robert Gery. A distinguished contemporary of Cave, the Irish antiquarian SiR James Ware, published in 1639 his de Scriptoribiis Hiberniae. His impartiality as a writer is admitted by all parties, and as the friend of Ussher, Selden, and Sir Robert Cotton, he enjoyed advantages of which he availed himself with considerable industry. His researches in his special field were, however, thrown into the shade by the great work of TANNER, bishop of St. Asaph, whose Bibliotheca Britannico-Hibernica ap- peared in 1748. Tanner himself died before its publi- cation, and it was edited by Dr. Wilkins. It contains an account of English, Scotch, and Irish writers, com- piled not only from Leland, Bale, and Pits, but from numberless other authorities in print or in manuscript. * On all questions,' says Sir T. D. Hardy, ' connected with the early literature of our nation. Tanner's Biblio- theca, notwithstanding its many omissions, defects, and redundancies, is still the highest authority to which the inquirer can refer. As a storehou.se of historical mate- rials, it is invaluable ; although the vast information EDITORS. 15 contained in it (s badly arranged and requires a careful Intko- , •-•1 • • , DUCK.RY. and critical revision. A small volume entitled Manual of British His- Later Pub- torians,\\z.s published in 1845 by MR. Macray, then M^cray!' sub-librarian of the Bodleian, but it contains little more than a chronological enumeration of the original authorities, together with a statement of the period covered by their respective narratives. Professor H. MORLEV's English Writers, from Chaucer to Dunbar, \?, Prof. a careful and able compilation embodying the results ^^°'"'^y- of the most recent and valuable criticism. For our medieval history, however, the great work of SiR Thomas Duffus Hardy, A Descriptive Catalogue of Sir. t. d. Manuscripts relating to the History of Great Britain and ^^ ^' Ireland {■^ vols., 1862-71), supplies the most complete guidance, furnishing a detailed critical account of the sources for British history, whether printed or unprinted, from the earliest times to the year 1327. In the present pages, the writer has been frequently indebted to this most valuable and laborious production. We now proceed to note what has been done towards editors. rendering the texts of the original writers more acces- sible to the student, and here a grateful tribute is due to the labours of ARCHBISHOP Parker. Amid the dis- Archbishop tractions of a busy life he found time to form a highly ^^^^^l' valuable collection of manuscripts which he bequeathed . C. i. 683-6.) This great work is still incomplete, a ' Continuatio ' being now in progress after a cessation of publication for forty years. Of this eleven volumes have appeared, the last reaching to the latter part of October. [Students should note that saints are incorporated in the order of their /casts : it would con equently be useless to refer to this collection for the life of any saint whose anniversary is celebrated in November or December.] - Acta Sanctorum Ordinis Sancti Benedicti in Saeciilorum Classes dis- tributa : collegit Dotniniis Lucas d'Achtry . . . ac cum eo edidit D. Johannes Mabillon, &c., Venice, 1733. (Those Lives of English, Scotch, and Irish Saints which Mabillon has printed from manuscripts, are enumerated by Hardy, D. C. i. 832-4 ; the others being excluded.) * For contents, see //'/^. i. 6g^q. Series. EDITORS. 219 numerous documents and metrical compositions illus- intro- trative of English medieval history. ' The valuable collection of Historical Letters, edited fjh^'s by Sir Henry Ellis, is in three series, each embracing very distinct periods. First Series : vol. i. Henry V. to Henry Will.; vol. ii. Henry VHI. to Elizabeth; vol. iii. time of Lord Burghley to that of archbishop Wake. Second Series : vol. i. outbreak of Owen Glyndower's Rebellion to time of Wolsey ; vol. ii. time of Wolsey to reign of Elizabeth ; vol. iii. time of Elizabeth to the Protectorate ; vol. iv. time of Charles 11. to reign of George II. TJiird Series: vol. i. time of Lanfranc to that of Wolsey ; vol. ii. reign of Henry VHI.; vol. iii. Henry VHI. to Elizabeth ; vol. iv. Elizabeth to reign of George HI. Much, however, of the labour represented by some The Rolls of the foregoing collections has been superseded by the highly important publications of the Rolls Commission. Early in the present century, the unsatisfactory state of our historical literature was brought under the con- sideration of the Government, and at a meeting of noblemen and gentlemen held at Spencer House, it was resolved to recommend the publication of a complete collection of the sources of English history from the earliest times to the Reformation. Mr. Henry Petrie, Keeper of the Records in the Tower, was instructed to draw up a plan for the approval of the Government, and was subsequently appointed editor of the series. The method of treatment which he sought to adopt involved enormous labour ; for he proposed to give a genuinely critical edition of each author, in which the spurious should be carefully distinguished from the genuine, and the various accretions which had formed round the original text should be systematically pointed out. Such a task, though of the highest \'alue (especially in the 220 INTRO D UCTOR Y. Intro case of medieval writers), was also one of great diffi- '__ ■ culty, and Mr. Petrie's death, before the publication of the first volume, augured most unfavourably for the success of the whole scheme. The undertaking was not, however, allowed to drop, and in November 1856 Mr, Stevenson again brought the subject under the con- sideration of the Lords Commissioners of Her Majestj^'s Treasury. His representations were by them referred to the Master of the Rolls, Sir John Romilly, who, on January 26, 1857, submitted to their lordships pro- posals for the publication of a series entitled Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland fj'om the Invasion of the Romans to the Reign of Henry VIII. These proposals, after due consideration, were adopted by their lordships, and the publication of the proposed series was officially authorised under the following con- ditions : (i) that the works thus selected should be published without mutilation or abridgment ; (2) that the text should be formed on a collation of the best manuscripts ; (3) that the editor should give an account of the manuscripts used by him, a brief notice of the era when the author wrote, and an explanation of any chronological difficulties. Such were the circumstances under which this great series (now generally known as the ROLLS Series) was commenced ; and it is scarcely an exaggeration to say that it has done more towards promoting an accurate knowledge of our medieval history than all preceding efforts put together. It has not simply rendered ac- cessible to the majority of students a series of valuable te.xts in a state of accuracy previously unattainable, but it has also been the means of inducing a number of eminent scholars to concentrate their attention on definite and often comparatively little known periods of history, llic prefaces which each editor has thus been SOCIETIES. . 2i\, enabled to supply frequently representing a special Intro- knowledge of the subject such as no other living writer * could lay claim to. To the assistance thus given by Government to Histokn historical studies must be added the important aid cietIes. resulting from prior and subsequent enterprise on the part of different societies.' In 1812 the Roxburgh Club^ was established, for Roxburgh, the purpose of reprmtmg rare old tracts or compositions, and Mait- chiefly poetical.' This was followed in 1823 by the ^""'d'^^"^' Bannatyne Club,^ and in 1828 by the Maitlank Club,^ for 'the printing of works illustrative of the antiquities, literature, and history of Scotland, for private circulation among its members.' In 1834 the Abbots- Ahbohford FORD CluB'^ was founded at Edinburgh in honour of Sir Walter Scott, having for its object the ' publication of miscellaneous works, illustrative of history, literature, and antiquities.' In the same year was founded the SURTEES Society,'"' in honour of the historian of the s,n--ees County Palatine of Durham, for the purpose of publishing ^'^"^^^' ^ ' inedited MSS. illustrative of the intellectual, the moral, the religious, and the social condition of those parts of England and Scotland included on the East between the Humber and the Firth of Forth, and on the West between the Mersey and the Clyde — the ancient king- dom of Northumbria.' The success of the Surtees Society appears tc; have ' With the exception of the pubiicalions of the Camden Society, a feu- only of the works published liv these siicieties have been described or re- ferred to in the following pages, — a large proportion of their publications being of purely local or antimmriaii interest. For complete lists the reader will therefore consult Hardy's DcHriptnc Catalogue, to which the neces- sary references are given. - For list of publications, S'C Ilaidy, D. C. i. 875-80. ' See ihid. i. 702-10. ' Sec ibid. i. 835-40. » See ibid. i. 681-2. ^ " See ii>i .See ibid. i. 780. * See A Dcscnptiix Catalogue of the First Series of the Works of the Camden Society. By John Cough Nichols, 2nd edit. (This supplies a brief account of all the iiublication". of the Society down to the year 1872.) =* See ri.iidy, D. C. i. 860-3. Society. STATE PAPERS. 225 genealogical, topographical, and literary remains of the Intro- , • r c^ , 1 M DUC rOKY. north-eastern counties ot bcotland. ' In 1842 were founded the Aelfric SOCIETY^ and Aei/nc the Chetham Society ;^ the former ' for the publication c/u-tham^ of Anglo-Saxon and other literary monuments, both ^^'^'•^^y- civil and ecclesiastical, tending to illustrate the early state of England ; ' the latter, for the printing of ' remains, historical and literary, connected with the Palatine Counties of Lancaster and Chester.' The Caxton Society,* founded in 1844, was de- Caxton signed for the wider sphere of labour involved in bringing out works 'illustrative of the history and miscellaneoU's literature of the Middle Ages.' Its publications, though numerous, have been indifferently edited, and are wanting in typographical correctness. The scheme of the Anglia Christiana Society,-^' put forth in the following year, has proved almost abortive. The Early English Text Society, founded in EariyEn 1864, has issued yearly a series of carefully printed texts of early English authors. Of these a large proportion have been printed for the first time, and not a few possess considerable value for the historical student. It now remains briefly to notice the measures that state have been taken to render what may be termed the ^^^'^^s- ' documentary evidence ' for our history more accessible to the general public. Before the Restoration of Charles II , the accepted theory with respect to state negotiations with other countries entirely debarred the ordinaiy man of letters from access to the original documents. The reserve maintained in this respect by the English Government was, indeed, to some extent exceptional, and we find it ' See Hardy, D. C. i. 887-8. ^ See t/>id. i. 686. ^ See id/'d. i. 743-5. Humphrey Chetliam was a distinguished bene- factor of learning at Manchester in the seventeenth century. * See il'ic^. i. 741-2. * See idu/. i. 691. ff/isk Text Society. 224 INTRODUCTORY Intro- Unfavourably contrasted by a political writer in the vear DL'CrORY. ^ -11 1 riT- i iiti-'i 1055, With the conduct of the Jbrench and the Italians. The very name of ' Treasury,' as applied to the offices in which the state papers were deposited, is expressive of this exclusiveness. The first treaty committed to the press and published by royal authority was that with Spain, in the reign of James I., dated August 18, 1604. The theory, however, may be said to have re- ceived its death-blow in the course of the Civil War, when the interest which both the contending parties claimed to take in the highest matters of state made the former secrecy no longer possible. The four treaties of Breda were printed by the order of Charles II. in 1667, and between the Restoration and the Revo- lution of 1688 all the public treaties to which Great Britain was a party were published by royal au- thority. At last, in the year 1693, mainly, it would appear, at the suggestion of the eminent statesmen, Rvmer's Somers and Halifax, THOMAS RVMER, in his capacity of historiographer royal, was appointed to transcribe and publish all the leagues, treaties, alliances, capitulations, and confederacies which had, at any time, been made between the Crown of England and other kingdoms. As the result of these instquctions there successively appeared, in the early part of the eighteenth centuij', the volumes of his well-known Foedera, the series being continued by his assistant, Robert Sanderson, in the year 1735. The work, as it issued from the press, attracted considerable attention both at home and on the Con- tinent, and, though severely criticised, has generally been admitted to be a collection of the highest value and authority. It commences with the reign of Henry I. {ami. 1 1 34), and extends to 1654. A new edition, pub- lished at the Hague, 1737-45, is of greatly superior typo- ' Sec preface to Sir Dudley Digges" CotnpUte AmhassaHor (1655), STATE PAPERS. 225 graphical accuracy ; while the utility of the collection to Intro DICIORY. Parlia- ment. Students has been much enhanced by the Syllabus of the work by the late Sir T. D. Hardy.' The Rolls of Parliament, Q-^f^^endmg from the reign Rolls of of Edward I. to the first year of the reign of Henry VH., are comprised in six volumes folio, and were published at the expense of the nation pursuant to the order of the House of Peers, March 9, 1767. A general Index to the six volumes was issued in 1832, after sixty-five years had been employed in its formation. ' There can be no doubt,' says Sir T. D. Hardy, ' that these Rolls are a most valuable and authentic source of parliamentary and constitutional history, — indeed, it is questionable whether any nation in Europe possesses any materials for a history of its legislative assemblies at all comparable with these muniments.' In consequence of representations made to the Crown of the great value and importance of many of the papers and documents in the office of the Keeper of the Records, a Commission was appointed in 1825, and again in 1830, to consider what portions of this invaluable collection might be fitly printed and published with ad- vantage to the public.^ As the direct result of their decision, eleven quarto volumes were published (1830- ' Vol. ;. A.D. 1066-1377 ; vol. ii. 1377-1654. A third edition of the Foedera, undertaken by Dr. Clarke, and subsequently by Messrs. Caley and Holbrooke, for the Record Commission, remains incomplete, having been carried no further than the year 1383. Hardy's Syllabus gives the references to three edi'ions — the original edition, the so-called Dutch edition published at the Hague, and the Record edition. Students should note in the Syllabus (vol. i. pp. i-xiv, vol. ii. pp. Iv-lxvii) the useful Chronological Tables, giving the Legal, Civil, and Ecclesiastical Years, along with the rei^nal year of each English sovereign. " The term Records, taken in its most general sense, includes: (i) Inrolments which are intended to be official and authentic records of lawful acts made by the proper officer of any court upon rolls, or, in some cases, in official entry-books of the same court ; (c) Memoranda nf acts or Publica- tions of Record Commis- sion. 226 INTRODUCTORY. Intro- ductory. Correspon- dence of Reiqn of Henry VIII. Calendnrs of Slate Papers. 1852) of the Correspondence of Henry VIII.' The plan of arrangement was, however, unfortunate, the chronological order being, in the first instance, discarded with the design of grouping the different materials under the respective subjects, — a method which proved so un- satisfactory that it was materially modified in the latter volumes. Of all these letters an abstract (often suf- ficient for the student's purpose) will be found in the volumes of the Calendar Series edited by the late Prof Brewer under the title of Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign of Henry VIII., &-c. — a collection which also includes abstracts of a vast number of letters not included in the volumes published by the Commis- sioners. Respecting the series of which the volumes edited by Mr. Brewer form a part, a few words may be of service. In the year 1855 the State Paper Office was in- corporated v;ith the Public Record Office, and the Master of the Rolls' then suggested to the Lords of the Treasury that, notwithstanding the great value, in an historical and constitutional point of view, of the documents thus brought together, their contents were rendered almost useless to the public from the want of proper calendars and indexes. As the result of this representation, instruments brought into the proper oflfice of any court by parties interested therein (or by their agents) either in the form of rolls or otherwise, and preserved in bundles or on files ; (3) Books of entries, containing memor- anda of acts, &c., entered by officers of the court ; (4) State papers, which form a distinct branch of the records. These originally sprang from the I'rivy Council and Chancery, and now form various branches —the corre- sjiondence and other records of the Privy Council, Secietaries of State, and all other public departments, ^te Handbook to the Puhlic Records, by Mr. F. S. Thomas, 1853. ' State Papers, during the Keign of Henty the Eighth : 7uith Indices of I'er'ions and Places. Other publications of the Record Commissioners, such as Domesday Book, Catalogues of the Rolls, Bic, have appeared at ditlerent times during the present century ; uf these a complete list can be obiained ui application to Messis. Longmans ik Co., or Macmillan &Co. PARLIAMENTARY HISTORY. 227 orders were given for the preparation and publication of Intro- a series of Calendars of the different divisions under which the collections have been classified {Dojiiestic, Foreign, Colonial, Ireland). This series now reaches to nearly a hundred volumes, and the service it has rendered to historical research, whether by facilitating the con- sultation of the original documents, or, as is often the case, rendering such consultation unnecessary, can hardly be over- rated. ^ In relation to the political and legislative history of special the country, the Parliamentary History, originally pro- ^"^■'^<^'^^- jected by WiLLIAM COBBETT (a prominent democratic Cobbett's leader in the early part of the present century), comes „i%/arv down to the year 1803, incorporating or superseding -^"^"O'- the earlier collections, to which, for most practical pur- poses, it is to be preferred. As, however, the student who has occasion to consult historical works written in the last century or in the earlier part of the present, will meet with frequent references to the older collections, it may be of service here to specify the most important. They are (r) The Pa7'liamentajy or Constitutional History Earlier ' of England, originally published in 1752, in eight volumes, of'Sa-^ and expanded in subsequent editions to twenty-four ; mentary (2) Sir Simonds D'Ewes' Journals of the Parliaments of Queen Elizabeth ; (3) Chandler and Timberland's Debates, in twenty-two volumes ; (4) Debates of the House of Coniinons from i66y to 1694, collected by the Honourable Anchitell Grey, in ten volumes ; (5) Almon's Debates, in twenty-four volumes ; (6) Debrett's Debates, in sixty- three volumes. Cobbett's great work was continued under the title of Parliamentary Debates, a series generally known by • The Rtcord Office is on the Rolls estate between Chancery Lane and Fetter Lane : access to the papers can be obtained by any respectable per- son, on entering his name in a boo!< ke[)t ior that purpose. There is also 10 restriction on copyinj^'. 228 INTRODUCTORY. Intro- the name of the printer, Hansard, which is now an DUCTORV. an nual publication. Hansard. During the present century, the above sources of information have been supplemented by the publication Journals of of ( I ) the Joiirnals of the House of Lords, which com- o'fl"r°dr mence with the year 1509, and are accompanied by and of the separate indexes ; (2) the Journals of the House of Covi- House of .... .11 Commons, moiis, commencuig with the year 1 547, — these volumes have likewise separate indexes, and also a general index for the period 1 765-1 801. Stride- The Lives of the Queens of England, by Miss Agnes ^Live^oftke STRICKLAND, after a brief notice of our British and Saxon Queens. quccns, commcncc with the life of Matilda of Flanders, and continue in unbroken succession to the end of the reign of Queen Anne. The series is not distinguished by any high literary excellence, and its value is further diminished by the strong prejudices of the writer, who throughout upholds very extreme theories of ecclesiastical government and the royal prerogative. The volumes embody, however, many interesting extracts, and aftbrd good illustrations of the court life and domestic life of successive periods. Greens ^ ^^''' "^0''^ '^^'i^ ^-^^ judicious performance is that Lives of the ofMrs. EvERETT Green, — The Lives of the Princesses of England, commencing with the Norman Conquest, and concluding with sketches of the lives of the four daughters of Ch-rles I. Foss's The Liv:s of the Judges of England,'' by FOSS, com- Live^^o/the mence as far back as the time of Herfastus, Chancellor in the year 1068, and extend to the Vice-Chancellorship of Sir William Page Wood in 1853. The series is the result of considerable research, and is executed with commendable fairness and accuracy. ' Nine vols. 1848-64. A useful aliridgment of the work in one volume, entitled Biographia yuriaiai, v\.i.s published in 1870. SPECIAL SUBJECTS. 229 The Lives of the Lord Chancellors, by LORD Camp- Intro- BELL (4th edit. 1856-7), commence with the institution ' of the office in Saxon times, and extend to the ac- Campbell's cession of George IV. As an historical production, the Lonichan- whole work is wanting in a due sense of the obHgations g/^f;^/"'^ imposed by such a task, is disfigured by unblushing Lord c/uej plagiarisms, and, as the writer approaches his own times, by much unscrupulous misrepresentation. It, however, supplies a want ; and the literary execution is often characterised by much felicity and graphic power. The Lives of the Chief Justices (3 vols., 1849-57), by the same author, includes only the more notable characters who have succeeded to the post, ending with the death of lord Tenterden in 1832. This work is similarly wanting in regard for historical accuracy, but the concluding volume contains information which probably no other living writer could have supplied. In connexion with our ecclesiastical and university history, Le Neve's Fasti^ is an indispensable work of reference. It consists of complete lists of ecclesiastical dignitaries in England and Wales, and of the chief academic officers. of the two universities from the earliest times to the present century, accompanied by concise biographical data. In connexion with the industrial and commercial Works on the Na progress of the nation, Macpher.sON's Annals of Coin- tionaiin- vierce, &c.^ was designed to supply a history of the trade Commer"-. ' Fasti Ecdcsiae Anglicanae ; or, a Calendar of the Principal Dignitaries in England and Wales, and of the chief Ojfcers in the Universities of Ox- ford and Ca/nb ridge from the earliest times to the year 17 15. Compiled by John Le Neve. Corrected and continued from 1 715 to the present time by T. Duffus Hardy. 3 vols. Clarendon Press, 1854. ^ Atinals of Comvierce, Manufactures, Fisheries, and Navigation : con- taining the commercial Transactions of the British Empire attd other Coun- tries from the earliest Accounts to Jan. 1 801. By David Macpherson. 4 vols. 4to. 1805. Ecclesiasti- cal History. Le Neve's Fasti. 230 INTRODUCTORY. Intro- ductory. Macpher- son. L°one Levi. James's J\'aval History, of the British Empire and other countries from the earHest accounts to January, 1801. It is, however, rather a chronological record of successive transactions, having in relation to the subject more the character of a dry chronicle than of an intelligent and coherent historical survey. Porter's Progress of the Nation ' takes up the narrative at the point where it is left by Macpherson, and is a valuable repository of facts, social as well as economical, connected with the national development during the following half-century. Professor Leone Levi's Histoiy of British Commerce and of the Economic Progress of the Nation (2nd edit. 1880) commences with the year 1763 and terminates in 1878. His treatment of the subject is at once wider in its scope and more philosophic in its conception, dealing with every event which may be supposed to have contributed to or to have influenced the development of commerce, such as inventions and discoveries, free trade, monetary crises, the gold discoveries, &c. The writer also treats oc- casionally of the conditions of trade in other countries. Por the history of the English navy, the work by James- is on the whole the best authority. The intro- ductory chapter furnishes a brief outline of the chief improvements in vessels of war and marine artillery from 1488 to 1792 ; with the latter date commences the historical narrative, which, in the last edition, is con- tinued to the battle of Navarino in 1827. The well-known collection entitled the Harleian ' The Progress of the Nation in its various social and economical Rela- tions from the beginning of the Nineteenth Century. By G. R. Porter. 2nd edit. 1851. * The Naval History of Great Britain, frovi the Declaration of War by France in 1793 to the Accession of George IV. By William James. A new edition, with Additions and Notes. 6 vols. Bentley, 1878. SPECIAL SUBJECTS. 231 Miscellany'^ consists of selections from the valuable col- intro- DUCTORY lection of manuscripts formed by the eminent statesman, . ' the first earl of Oxford, and subsequently sold by the The /- -1 1 -r. • • 1 T» T T-i Harleian tamily to the British Museum. Ihe contents are too MiscdUmy. multifarious to admit of being here described, and they remain, unfortunately, as yet, without an index. To the student of English history, the volumes afford material assistance, and in fact there are few branches of research in connexion with which they will not be found of service. ' The Harleian Miscellany, Ldited by Uldys and Park. 10 vols. 410. 1808. CHAPTER I, Chap, I. The Classi- cal Writers. I/inern- t iini: of Antoninus. AUTHORITIES TO A.D. 450. (a.) Contemporary Writers. — Among these the first place must be assigned to Caesar {de Bell. Gall.) and Tacitus {Agrkolae Vita and Annales, lib. xiv). Tradi- tions respecting the British Isles, and occasional allusions to their history, are to be found scattered in many of the ancient writers, among whom Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, the younger Pliny, Ptolemy the geographer, Dion Cassius, Antoninus, Ammianus Marcellinus, Claudian, the com- piler of the Notitia Utruisque I}//pe7'ii,diX\d certain of the Byzantine writers are the principal. A complete list of these authorities, with references to the different passages in each, will be found in Sir T. D. Hardy's Descriptive Catalogue (i. cxvi — cxxxi). In the Momnnenta Histor- ica Britannica, the passages are printed in full. On these sources of information, much auxiliary light has been thrown by the discovery of coins and inscriptions belonging to the period, and of these dAso ih.Q Alofinmenta supply a good account. Next to Caesar and Tacitus, the Itinerarium of Ax- TONINUS ' must be consi'dered as of the most direct value. This work was originally compiled by the order of Julius Caesar, and completed in the reign of Augustus, ' I(i)icranitm Antoniiii Aus,'isti et Hierosolymitauti/n. Ed. G. Par« they and M. Pinder. Berlin, 1848. NON-CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 233 but in the following century the additions and corrections chap. made under M. Aurelius Antoninus, the philosopher, were — '. — - so considerable that the compilation has generally passed under his name. It forms a fairly complete Itinerary of the whole Empire, in which the principal towns and cross-roads are described by an enumeration of the towns and stations by which they pass, the intermediate distances being given in Roman miles. The Notitia Dignitatuin, or official list of the Empire NotiHa under the Romans, is the original source from whence tutn. we derive our knowledge of the organisation of Britain during the Roman occupation, and the division of the country into five provinces, each ruled by a consul. It was probably compiled about the time of Honorius.^ (b.) Non-contemporary Writers. — The first native his- ciidas. torian is a British ecclesiastic of the name of GiLDAS, who lived in the sixth century and wrote in Armorica (circ. 550-560) his treatise, de Excidto Britanniae^ — which Gale, its editor in the seventeenth century, some- wliat arbitrarily divided into two works, the History and the Epistle. The treatise, however, may fairly be re- garded as composed ot two distinct portions : (i), from the invasion of Britain by the Romans to the revolt of Maximin at the close of the fourth century ; (2), from the close of the fourth century to the writer's own time. Very different views have been taken of the value of Contro- Gildas as an author. Dr. Guest, whose opinion must carry the greatest weight, says, ' I am not aware that its genuineness has been questioned by any one whose scholarship or whose judgment is likely to give weight ' Notitia Dignitaium et Adnnnistratioinim or?inium tarn Civilittrn qitain Militariuin in Partibus Orieutis et Occuientis. Ed. Edwardus Bocking, 2 vols. Bonn, 1839-53. Ed. Otto Seeck, Berlin, 1S76. - De Excidio Rritauniae Liber Querulus. Migne, P. L. Ixix. 330. Piinted also in Gale's Scriptores XV, (see supra, p. 217); and edited by Mr. Sleveu^orl in i8j8 for E. 11, S. versy re- specting this Writer. 234 B.C. 55 TO A.D. 45°- C"\P' to his opinion. The two treatises may be considered — — the safest guides now left us, and he that would write the history of this early period will do well to abandon any speculation which cannot be reconciled with the facts handed down to us by Gildas.' Mr. Thomas Wright, in the Biographia Britannica Litteraria, has expressed a doubt whether the work could have been written by a Briton, inasmuch as Gildas dwells with particularseverity on the vices of his countrymen and the degeneracy of the British Church. To this Dr. Guest replies, ' Gildas looked upon himself less as a native Briton than as a Roman provincial ; not indeed a subject of the Roman Empire, but a participator in Roman civilisation, an up- holder of the ' Romania ' and opponent of the ' Barbaria ' of his country ? He refers very pertinently to the de- nunciations of Salvian as a parallel instance.^ Sir T. D. Hardy is of opinion that ' Gildas's veracity must rest entirely on his own authority, as none of the contempo- rary Greek or Roman writers afford it any support, hut rather the reverse! The style of the w^ork is singularly verbose and unintelligible, and much of the earlier part is derived from a Latin version of the Ecclesiastical His- tory of Eusebius and from the Epistles of St. Jerome. It is to be noted, however, that, notwithstanding undeni- able defects, the latter portion of Gildas was unhesita- tingly adopted by Bede, and must be regarded as forming the basis of early English history. P^,^ Bede, who comes next to Gildas, offers in many re- ''' 072- spects a strong contrast to his predecessor. Educated in ^' ^^^' the Benedictine monastery of Jarrow, on the banks of the Tyne, he early acquired that deference for the tradi- tions and authority of the Latin Church which is to be > On the Early English Sefdonents in South Britain. By Edwin Guest, Esq. (Printed in Proceedings of the Archaeological Institute at Salis- bury in 1849.) NOX-CONTEMFORARV WRITERS. 235; recognised throughout his writings. In the composition cuap. of his History, we learn, from his own statement, that — 1— his chief advisers in the work were Albinus, a disciple of Theodorus, archbishop of Canterbury, and abbat of the monastery in that city, and Northelm, afterwards arch- bishop. The latter, when on a visit to Rome, collected materials which Bede afterwards incorporated in his narrative. Facts such as these are sufficient to shew that the History was conceived and written in harmony with the views of the Latin Church, and that we must not expect to find in its pages an altogether impartial account either of the Saxon Conquest or of the older British Christianity. The Historia Ecclesiastica Getitis His His- Anglonnn, extends from the date of Caesar's invasion of ciesLstua, Britain to the year 731. It is divided into five books. Of these the first reaches from the invasion of Julius Caesar to the mission of Augustine in 596. The earlier portion is of little value, being compiled chiefly from Orosius, Eutropius, Gildas, and a life of St. Germanus, by Constantius, a priest of the Galilean Church, Orosius \vas a disciple of St. Augustine of Hippo, and his History (the accepted text-book of the Middle Ages), is con- structed on the theory embodied in the great work of his master, — the de Civitate Dei. Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, lived in the fifth century, and was especially distinguished as an opponent of Pelagianism, a form of doctrine adopted by the British Church, but opposed to the teaching of St. Augustine. The second book gives a narrative of events from the mission of Augustine to the arrival of Paulinus in 633. The remaining books constitute the most valuable portion of the work, as con- taining facts which rest either on Bede's personal knowledge, or on the statements of others equally well informed. With respect to the title of his work, it is to be remembered that the term ' ecclesiastical ' involved 236 B.C. 55 TO A.D. 450. Chap. no such limitations in Bede's time as it would now imply. _. It was the customary definition of similar historical compositions by Christian writers, from Eusebius down- wards. The Church in those times comprised nearly all the higher intelligence and all the learning of the land, and civil functions were frequently discharged by ecclesiastics ; hence Bede's History, so far from being confined to Church matters, contains a large proportion of those secular events which it is most interesting and important for us to know, while the natural candour and honesty of the writer inspire a confidence in his statements, very much beyond what we find ourselves able to accord to the great majority of medieval writers. Every student should endeavour to make himself ac- cjuainted with Bede's History, as such a knowledge will not only be found most useful in itself, but in relation to later writers. The facts related by Bede are frequently copied from him, without acknowledgment by subsequent annalists, and it is consequently of considerable import- ance to know that their authority was Bede, and, in most instances, Bede alone. It was owing to a want of a due perception of this fact, that Hume fell into the capital error of adducing in support of Bede's statements the authority of Matthew of Westminster and Henry of Huntingdon ; a misconception similar to that which should lead a writer of the present day to quote, in con- firmation of a statement by Whitelock or Narcissus Luttrell respecting an event in the seventeenth century, the authority of lord Macaulay. It is no exaggeration to say, that with respect to the period of English history treated by Bede in the latter portion of his work, three- fourths of our knowledge are derived from him, and that most of what we find on the same subject in later histo- rians is merely a reflection or amplification of what they themselves found in his pages. An excellent edition of NON-CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 237 the Ecclesiastical History was published at Cambridge in Chap. 1722, by professor John Smith. It is a folio volume, ^' and includes Bede's other historical writings, along with Editions of the Anglo-Saxon version of his History by king Alfred. Bede by . , J' J i^ Smith, A more compendious edition of the Latin text was pub- Moberiy. lished at Oxford (Clarendon Press), in 1869, edited by ^'^' Moberiy ; this embodies the most valuable of Smith's notes, and includes others more fully up to the present standard of historical and textual criticism. An excel- lent edition of the third and fourth books has also recently (1878) been published by the Cambridge Uni- versity Press, with notes by professor J. E. B. Mayor and professor Lumby. Of scarcely less importance than Bede's History, The Anglo. even for the period of which he treats, and of yet greater cYrZic.e value in that it e^xtends to a much later period, is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,'^ which brings us down to the }-ear 1 1 54. The commencement of this great national work has been ascribed to king Alfred, but Dr. Guest is of opinion that ' though it was probably reduced to its present shape 'in the ninth century, yet many of its entries must have been written long before the age of Bede.' If we adopt this view, a portion of the work be- comes contcinporaty evidence for the period of which we are now treating. It has been conjectured that the Chronicle was an annual compilation, made at one or more of the chief monasteries in the kingdom, from materials furnished by other monasteries throughout the realm. ' No other nation,' says Mr. Thorpe in the Pre- ' Generally cited by Mr. Freeman under the title of the ' English Chronicles,' owing to his repudiation, on very good grounds, of the term ' .Anglo-Saxon ' in the place of ' English.' As, however, the edition by Mr. Thorpe still retains the traditional designation, while that by Mr. Eaile is designated as the 'Saxon Chronicles,' it has been thought better not to deviate here from esiablished usage. 238 B.C. 55 TO A.D. 450. Chap. face to his edition, ' can produce any history, written in — ; — its own vernacular, at all approaching the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, either in antiquity, truthfulness, or extent, the historical books of the Bible alone excepted.' Mr. Free- man's observations on the work (^Norman Conquest, i. 9) should be carefully noted. In addition to its value as a source of historical information, the Chronicle may also be regarded as a unique monument of the Anglo-Saxon language, inasmuch as it exhibits the modifications through which the language passed up to the period when its forms developed into what is known as Early English. Editions of Of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle "Ca^x^ are two excel- ^Sat^n^^"' ^^"^ editions,^that by Mr. Thorpe,' published in the ciironick Rolls Scrics in 1861, and that by professor Earle,^ pub- and Earie! lished in 1 865. Mr. Thorpe's edition comprises the six different texts of six independent manuscripts, ending at different dates and written in different parts of the country. These are printed in parallel columns so that the student is enabled to see at a glance the various changes which occur in orthography, whether arising from locality or lapse of time. This edition is accompanied by a new translation of the work, published in a separate volume. Professor Earle's edition gives only two of the texts complete, — that known as (A) being the Parker MS. preserved in the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, and that known as (B) or the Laudian, which is in the Bodleian at Oxford, with occasional extracts from the rest. His edition, however, contains an elabo- rate preface, a large body of useful notes, and a very ' The Aizglo-Saxon Chronicle, according to the several Orif^inal Author- ities. Edited and translated by Benjamin Thorpe. 2 vols. K. S. 1861. * Two of the Saxon Chronicles J'arallel, 'with Supplementary Extracts from the others. Edited with Introduction, Notes, and a Glossarial Index. By John Karlc. M.A. Oxford, 1865. NOX-CQNTFAfPORARY WRITERS. ■ 239 full glossarial index. While, therefore, Mr. Thorpe's Chap. edition provides the more complete apparatus for a ' critical study of the whole of the texts, professor Earle's supplies the larger amount of general assistance to the student. The writer next in order is Nennius, of whose per- Nennius. sonal history nothing is known, and whose Historia Briton2i7n ' has often been attributed to Gildas. His History, though written a century later than that of Bede, having been completed in the year 858, stops short of the period reached by the latter writer, by more than forty years. It is almost exclusively occupied with a narrative of events occurring in Wales. Nennius is deficient in judgment and extremely credulous, but he has preserved to us fragments from earlier treatises which are of considerable importance and interest. The Historia Britoniim of Geoffrey of Mon- ceoffrev of MOUTH ^ is of still less value as an historical g^uide. Monmomh. ° b. I no. Geoffrey wrote during the reign of Stephen, and taking d. 1154. Nennius as the groundwork of what is little better than a romance, passed off his production as a translation of a Breton original. Regarded, however, simply as a source of a large amount of falsification with respect to our early history, the work requires to be noticed. It is from these pages that a considerable proportion of the legendary traditions respecting Brut and king Arthur has found its way into English poetry. Buckle, in his History of Civilisation (i., 321-5), has somewhat unjustly selected the Historia Britoniim as a fair sample of what passed for English history in the twelfth century ; but ' Edited by Rev. J. Stevenson, E. H. S. 1838 ; included also in M. H. B. * Edited by Dr. J- A. Giles, 1844. A translation of the work, along with translations of Ethelwerd's Chronicle, Asser's Life of Alfred, Gildas, Nennius, and Richard of Cirencester, forms a volume of Bohn's Antiquarian Library, 1848. 240 B.C. 55 TO A.D. 450. Chap. 1. Influence of his His- toria. Situ Bri- tanniae. we have satisfactory proof that it was rejected as an im pudent fiction by William of Newbury, and it is probable that his estimate of the work was that of the majority of his contemporaries. It was not until long after the ttvelftJi century that Geoffrey of Monmouth began to be regarded as a credible historian. But with the sixteenth century it had become almost a heresy to question his authority, and Polydore Vergil, on venturing so to do found himself looked upon as one bereft of his senses * Few historical works,' says Sir T. D. Hardy, ' have had a wider circulation than Geoffrey of Monmouth's Gesta Regiun Britanniae. The alleged history of the origin of the work is seemingly a fabrication ; but without entering into the question whether he did in reality translate into Latin a narrative written in the British tongue, it must be admitted that his writings had a great, perhaps an inspiring influence, not only upon the literature of his age, but upon that of succeeding cen- turies. . . . They became the great fountains of romance, out of which the poets of successive generations have drawn a flood of fiction that has left an indelible impress upon our medieval literature. -Indeed it is hardly going beyond bounds to say that there is scarcely an European tale of chivalry, down to the sixteenth century, that is not d':".ived, directly or indirectly, from Geoffrey of Monmouth. If he had never written, our literature would not, in all probability, have been graced by the exquisite dramas of" Lear " and " Cymbeline ; " and much of the material which he has woven into his work would no doubt have perished.' ' Some mention is here required of another spurious work. For more than a hundred and twenty years, it was almost universally believed that a valuable addition to our knowledge of early Britain had been made by the • Hardy, D. C. i. 348-9. SPURIOUS AUTHORITY. 241 discovery and publication (in 1747) of a treatise bearing Chap. the title de Situ Britanniae. It was brought out by — ! — Dr. Charles Julius Bertram, professor of English at Copenhagen, who died in 1765 in his forty-second year. The work, as he represented, was the production of Richard of Cirencester, a monk of St. Peter's in West- minster, who died in the year 1400. Of this writer one Spurious- work, — thQ Speculum Historiale de Gestis Regiun Angliae, \V(M-k. — is extant, and though of little value has always been accepted as genuine ; it offers, however, the strongest possible contrast to the de Situ, which was really a forgery by Bertram. Professor J. E. B. Mayor, in his edition of the Speculum for the Rolls Series, has exposed with a masterly hand the absurdity of supposing that the two works could have been the production of the same writer. * The fabricator,' he says, ' ascribes a mosaic of classical citations to an author who never cites independently even the most current poets, Virgil, Lucan, Statius, and whose reading appears to have been confined to the Vulgate, to medieval theology, chronicles and hagiology, and to the charters of his monastery.' The evidence is as conclusive against the genuineness of the treatise, as against its authenticity. The de Situ is unmentioned until the year 1747 ; the original manu- script could never be produced ; the fac-simile which Bertram pretended to have made bears no resemblance to the writing of the fourteenth century, and even on Bertram's own shewing the grounds for attributing the work to Richard of Cirencester are very insufficient. It accordingly becomes necessary to reject the details * which some writers of repute, such as Gibbon {^Decline and Fall, c. 31), Lingard, and Lappenberg, have derived from the de Situ, as altogether untrustworthy.^ ' See also Wright's Celt, Rovian and Saxon, Append, pp. 466-9; and Note E to chap. i. of The Student'' s Hume, editions prior to 18S0. R ?42 B.C. 55. TO A.D, 450. Chap. I. Camden's Britannia. The Monu- ment a His- torica Bri- tannica. Hiibner's Inscrip- tions, Works on Roman, British, and Saxon An- tiquities by Horsley, Bruce, Al- gernon Herbert, and Sluke- In the year 1586, Camden, the antiquarian, pub- lished the first edition of his Britannia, a work that long continued to be a standard authority on all questions connected with Roman Britain. It originally appeared in Latin, forming a small octavo volume of 556 pages ; but in the later editions, which &re in English, has been extended to four volumes folio. Camden's Britannia was followed in 1603 by his Anglica, Normannica, Hibernica, Canibrica, a volume of reprints of some of the chief ancient writers on English, Norman, Irish, and Welsh history. Camden's labours have however been, to a great extent, superseded by the publication of the Monujiicnta Historica Britannica} which includes, to- gether with reprints of the more important earlier writers on English history, a large collection of passages from Greek and Roman authors and from ancient inscriptions relating to early Britain. The Inscriptiones Britanniae Christianae (Berlin, 1876) of professor Hubner contains all Latin inscriptions found down to the ninth century. It should however be observed that it is doubtful whether any of these can rightly be referred to the present period, i.e. to the time of Roman Christianity in Britain. Modern Writers, — To Camden's Britannia succeeded, in the year 1732 the B)-itannia Romana of JOHN HORS- LEY. This work is divided into three parts : (i) a narrative of the Roman tiansactions in Britain ; (ii) a collection of Roman inscriptions and sculptures discovered in Britain ; (iii) the Roman geography of Britain, after Ptolemy, the Itinerariiim of Antoninus, the Notitia, the anonymous Ravennas, Peutingcr's Table, &c. Horsley is generally admitted to have been a careful and judicious anti- ' Monnineuta Historica Britannica : or, Materials for the History of Britain. Edited by Hen. Peirie and Joh. Sharpe, fol. London, 1848. (For list of contents, ?ee Hardy, D. C. i, 850.) MODERN WRITERS. 243 quary, but much of his work, hke that of Camden, re- Chap. appears in an improved form in the Mominieiita. Mr. — !__ Bruce's volume on The Roman IVa//, originally de- signed as a popular introduction to Horsley, has ex- panded in the third edition (1867) into a standard work, with numerous and carefully executed plans and illus- trations. It has the merit of being committed to the support of no particular theory. ' Scarcely a statement,' says the compiler, ' is brought forward which is not directly deduced from inscriptions found upon the wall. The legions and auxiliary cohorts are themselves re- quired to describe their movements, to name the camps which they garrisoned, and to specify the works on which they were employed.' In this respect, Mr. Bruce's work differs considerably from that of ALGERNON HER- BERT, entitled Britaniiia after the Romans (2 vols., 1836- 41). In this the writer deals at length with the mytho- logical element and the legendary history. He identifies Uthyr Pendragon with Jupiter, Prince Arthur with Hercules, relegating nearly all the earlier traditions to the region of the fabulous. He also advances the theory of what he terms ' a Neo-Druidic heresy,' consequent upon the separation of Britain from the Roman Empire. The Druidical antiquities are elaborately illustrated by Stukeley in his works on Stonehenge and Avebury.' More recent and accurate criticism, however, is to be Aiticlesby found in the contributions of Dr. Guest to the elucidation of disputed points in connection with the following sub- jects: (i) Jnlins Ccssar's Invasion of Britain {A rchceo logical Journal, vol. xxi. 1864) ; (ii) The Campaign of Anlus Other Au thorities tJiat separated the Welsh and English Rule during the Dispute Plautius [Ibid., vol. xxiii. 1866) ; (iii) TJie Boundaries thorities for ' Stonchevge, a Temple restored lo the British DruiJs. By W. Stukeley, fol. 1740. A /liny, a Temple of the British Drui,/s, with some others, described. By the same, fol. 1743. R 2 244 B.C. 55 TO A.D. 450. Chap. Seven ty-Five Years which followed the Capture of Bath, A.D. 577 {Ibid. vol. xvi. 1859). In the paper already referred to (supra, p. 234), On the Early English Settle- ments, the same writer approaches the much disputed question respecting the permanence of Roman institu- tions and Roman influences subsequent to the departure of the legions and the arrival of the Saxons.' His high authority may be cited in favour of an affirmative con- clusion, though his language is carefully qualified. On the same side are to be found Mr. Brewer {Qnar. Rev., vol. cxli. 295-301), and Mr. C. H. Pearson {History of England in the Early and Middle Ages, 2nd edit. i. 83-103). While the same theory is carried to the most extreme conclusions by Mr. Coote, in his work entitled The Romans of Britain (1878), where he professes to trace, in the laws and customs of the England of the fifth and sixth centuries, a condition of society ' steeped in Roman institutions and observances.' In the opposed ranks are Lappenberg, professor Stubbs, Freeman, and Wright. The last-named writer in his volume, The Celt, the Roman, and the Saxon (3rd edit. 1875), which forms an interesting manual of the antiquities of the period B.C. 55 to A.D. 597, holds that there existed a large Saxon clement in the population prior to the in- vasion under Hengist and Horsa. As regards the evidence for the existence and charac- teristic institutions of the ancient British Church, the student is referred to Spelman and Wilkins' Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents (ed. Haddan and Stubbs), i. 1-200, where all the really trustworthy data are incor- porated. ' It may be observed that the decision of this controversy turns, to a great extent, upon the acceptance or non-acceptance of the testimony of Gildas, and his genuineness as a writer. The Ancient British Church, CHAPTER II. A.D. 450 TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST. (a.) Contemporary Writers. — The guidance of Gildas is cha . lost to us with the year 560 ; Nennius goes no further "' than the year 688. A few meagre notes, by another Authorities hand, afford a kind of continuation of Bede's History deTuibcd. down to the year ^66. The records of the different Chronicles continue, up to the time of Alfred, to be somewhat meagre ; but with the commencement of his reign become much fuller. In the eleventh century, slight differences occur in the different texts, and with the reign of Edward the Confessor these become much more marked, indicating the divergencies of political feeling in the different parts of the country where they were compiled. The Abingdon Chronicle, for example, shews decided hostility to earl Godwin, while the Peterborough Chronicle is equally favourable to his cause (see Freeman, Norman Conquest, i. 442). ASSER, a monk of Celtic extraction, belonging to the Asser. monastery of St. David's, who became bishop of Sher- borne and died in the year 910, was the adviser and coadjutor of king Alfred in the latter's efforts to revive learning throughout the country. He is generally believed to have been the author of an extant Life of Alfred,^ consisting of two parts : (i) a chronicle of events ' In Camden, Jng.'ica, &c., and M. //. B. There is also an edition by Wise. Oxford, 1722. A Chronuon Foni S. Xcoli, an aftonymous 246 AD. 450 TO A.D. 1066. Chap. extending from 851 to 887; (2) personal events re- ._ specting Alfred himself, designed as a kind of Appendix. The fact that the latter part was written while Alfred was still in the prime of life, together with certain incon- sistencies and improbabilities in the narrative, has in- clined some critics (see article by the late Mr. Thomas Wright, in Biog. Brit. Litterarid) to conclude that Asscr was not the author. Dr. Reinhold Pauli, the author of an admirable Life of Alfred, considers however that the work is substantially that of Asser, with interpolations belonging to a much later date. In referring to places by their Latin or Saxon names, the writer often adds the Celtic name, a feature which would seem plainly to prove that he was a Briton by descent. His narrative was probably compiled for the information of a Celtic com- munity, such as we know to have existed at St. David's. Asser is under frequent obligations to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, of which the earlier part of his work is often a mere transcript, r.theiwerd. The Latin version of the Chronicle of Ethelwerd,' written in the tenth century, and treating of English history from the earliest times to the year 975, is inter- esting as the only production of a Latin historian in an interval of two centuries. Ethelwerd was probably an ealdorman, and he is styled by William of Malmesbury • the noble and magnificent' His work is devoid of originality, being little more than a meagre compilation from Bede and the Saxon Chronicle ; the Latinity is also extremely bad. ' In an historical point of view,' how- ever, Sir T. D. Hardy considers that ' his authority and value as a writer are not to be despised.' compilation beginning with Cresai's Invasion of Britain and ending A D. 914, has also been attributed to Asser, bu' is probably a compila- tion of the latter part of the twelfth century. (See Hardy, D. C. i. 577.) ' In Savile's Scriptores post Be Jam (see supra, p. 216). CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 247 For the years from Swegen's invasion of England Chap. (10 1 2) to the accession of Hardicanute (1040), we have _ the Einmae Encomhim^ a narrative in the tone of a pane- The Em- , , , mae F.n- gyrist addressed by an unknown writer, probably a comium, Norman, to Emma of Normandy, the wifeof Ethelred II. The writer shows but an imperfect knowledge of contem- porary events, and the account is defective in other respects, but it contains many curious particulars, and the style, though inflated, is good for the period. For the life of Edward the Confessor, there is a com- Vita Aed- pilation entitled Vita Aedimardi Regis qui apud West- vionasterium reqiiiescit? It is by an unknown author, but one who was unquestionably a contemporary, and wrote, it is conjectured, between the years 1066 and 1074, when the sufferings inflicted by the Norman con- querors were at their height. The treatise is of consider- able value, as it contains facts not found elsewhere ; it also frequently differs materially from other accounts. uvesoi The biographical literature of this period compensates, Wiifridand indeed, to some extent for the scantiness of the historical, ben."' " Among its most favourable specimens are the Life of St. CUTHBERT, by Bede, and another q.vX\\\z6., Historia de S. Ciii/ibe}-to, printed in Twysden [Decern Scriptt. pp. 67-76) and also included in the edition of the works of Simeon of Durham, published by the Surtees Society. ' Bede, however, was indebted for the materials of his Life, to earlier writers, and it is to the Life of WiLFRID, bishop of York, by Eddius, that Sir T. D. Hardy accordingly assigns the distinction of being ' the first independent piece of genuine biography in our literature.' ' The style/ he says, ' is somewhat diffuse, and the facts are com- ' Emmae Anglorum Regiuae, Eicardi I. Duds Normannortim Fi'iae, Liicomium ; incerio Auctore, sed coaetaneo. Migne, P. L. cxli. "^ See Lives of Edward the Confessor. Edited by Henry Richards Luard, M A., R. S. 1858. 248 A.D. 450 TO A.D. ic66. Chap. II. Aldhelm. b. 656. d. 709. Alcnin. d. 804. Church of Vork. paratlvely few, yet his narrative furnishes a valuable commentary upon the corresponding passages in Bede's history, and throws considerable light upon what would otherwise have remained in obscurity ' {D. C. i. 396-8). The Life of Aldhelm of Sherborne, by Faricius,' to- gether with the Letters and Poejns of Aldhelm himself, are of considerable value. His position, as the earliest English scholar, and his labours in promoting the work of educa- tion in Wessex, impart an exceptional interest to his history. The biography by Faricius was compiled about the beginning of the eleventh century. Faricius was a Tuscan by birth, and a monk of the monastery of Malmesbury, from whence he was promoted to be abbat of Abingdon. The reputation that he there acquired by the austerity of his discipline made him unpopular with the secular clergy, and prevented his election to the archbishopric of Canterbury. His account of Aldhelm is to some extent superseded by that given by William of Malmesbury in the fifth book of his Gesta Pontificuin. William made the life by Faricius the basis of his own account, but added extracts from Aldhelm's writings, and also availed himself of materials afforded by local tradi- tion. The Life of Alcuin, by an anonymous writer,^ is of much inferior merit when compared with the foregoing biographies, but Alcuin's Letters'^ are of great importance from the illustration they afford of the relations between England and Frankland in the eighth and ninth centuries. His poetical history of the bishops and archbishops of York * is also of considerable value as a record of events ' Vita AlJhelmi, auctore Faricio A/oiiacho Mahtusburiefisi, Edited by J. A. Giles. Caxt. S. 1S54.. Printed also in Migne, /*. L, Ixxxi.x., along with Aldhelm's works. * Migne, ii>i(/. c. 90-106. ' Id., il>i Ilcnrici Archiiiaconi Hiintiiiduiicnsis Historia Anghrum : A.C. 55- I154. In eight Books, ed. Thomas Arnold R. S. 1879. 2 Mr. Earle observes : ' He was an amateur and an antiquarian. To him we owe the earliest mention of Stonehenge. He had a great fondness for the old Saxon Chronicles, which in his day were already something curious and out of date, although his Annals close at the same date as E. viz. 1 1 54.' Pref. to Parallel Chronides, p. Ixi. 3 Rahdji de Diceto Decani Lundonicnds Opera Historica. Edited by William Stubbs, M.A. 2 vols. R. S. 1876. * The Chronicle of Pien-e Lang,toft, in French Verse, from the earliest Period t.> the Death of Edward I. EditCvt by Thomas Wright, M.A. 2 vols. R. S. i8t)6-8. NON-CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 25 J tending from the time of Cadwallader to the reis^n of Ch\p. Edward II., is of even less merit. II. In William of Malmesbury we are presented, for wniiam of the first time after a lapse of four centuries, with a his- Malmes- bury. torian who may compare with Bede, and who aspires to ^- ^°95- higher functions than those of the mere annahst. The offspring of a Norman .father and an EngHsh mother, he represents the fusion of the two races, though his sym- pathies are manifestly on the side of the conquerors. William is an eminently favourable example of the Benedictine scholar, interpenetrated with the learning of his order, but with sympathies and an intelligence that lift him far above the ordinary level of monastic writers. By the general consent of scholars, from Leland to Mr. Freeman, he takes a foremost place among the authorities for the Anglo-Norman period of our history. ' Con- sidering the age in which this author lived,' says Sir T. D. Hardy, ' the sources whence he h^^ Quentin in the first quarter of the eleventh century, — ' one of the earliest,' says Mr. Freeman, ' of a very bad class of writers, those who were employed, on account of their supposed eloquence, to write histories which were intended only as panegyrics of their patrons.' Although the work is almost wholly untrustworthy, it was the Wiiiinm of source from whence William of Jumieges, surnamed juuuciies. (3^i(,yius^ derived much of the material for his Historiae Nonnannorum. William himself, whom Palgrave styles ' the perplexed and perplexing,' becomes a contemporary authority with the Conquest. Although obscure and involved as a writer, he is free from prejudice, and Mr. Freeman pronounces his work to be one of great value. It was from the work of William, that Wace, a canon of Bayeux in the twelfth century, compiled his poetical ■YW.Romati history of the Conquest, known as the Roman de Rou. dc Rou. ^ ^^^^ more important 4vork is the Gesta Willelmi of William of roniERS ; it narrates the career of the CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 259 CriAP. III. William of Poitiers. Amiens. Anglo- Saxon Conqueror from the year 1036 to 1067, and is the chief source of information on the subject. William was chaplain to the Conqueror, and his work is conceived in a spirit of determined vindication of his hero and of de- i.Toaa preciation of the English. For the events immediately ^^g''^^''- succeeding the Battle of Hastings the narrative is of especial value. Both William of Jumieges and William of Poitiers have been printed by Maseres in his selection from Duchesne's Historiae Normannoriiin Scriptores^ published in 1808. The Bayeux Tapestry ' and the metrical composition The of Guy, bishop of Amiens,^ are specially to be consulted Tapestry. by those who wish to study all the circumstances of the Guy of great battle. (b.) Contemporary "Writers on English History.— Of the different versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, \he. Cot- Chronicle. tonian (Tib. A. vi.) has already ended with the year 975, the Cottonian (Domit. A. viii. 2) with the year 1056, the Abingdon, with the battle of Stamford Bridge ; the Benet (or Corpus Christi) Chronicle terminates with the year 1070; the Cottonian (Tib. B. iv.) with the year 1079; the Bodleian or Peterborough Chronicle carries us to the end of the reign of Stephen. As, however, the literary influences of the court of Henry Beauclerc began to spread through the kingdom, the Chronicle disappeared amid the change that came over the monastic foundations; it died out before Norman learning and the modified conditions which now surrounded alike the monk, the ecclesiastic, and the scholar. The Historia Novorum by Eadmer,^ a monk of Eadmer. Christchurch, Canterbury, is the best authority in rela- ' "•^■*' > For a full criticism on the authority of the Bayeux Tapestry, see Free- man's Norman Conquest, vol. iii. Append. A. 2 Carmen de Bella Hastingensi. Printed in M. H. B. ; and also in Giles, Scriptores Rerum G est arum VVilUbni Conqucstoris. » Printed in Migne, P. L. clix. S2 26o A.D. 1066 TO A.D. 1 199. Chap. III. Geoffrey Gaimar. Ordericiis Vitalis. I: 1075. d.circ.iij^. William of Malnies- bury. tion to the public careers of Lanfranc and Anselm, and the controversy respecting investitures ; it also gives other important facts in the reign of William Rufus. About the year 1140, GEOFFREY Gaimar composed in French verse his Histoire des Afigles. The work commences with the arrival of Cerdic, but prior to the Norman Conquest is little more than a very incomplete and faulty narrative strung together from the Anglo- Saxon Chronicles. After the invasion, Gaimar appears to have drawn from some source common to himself and Florence of Worcester. His account of the death of William Rufus, with which event the History ends, is particularly circumstantial. Ordericus Vitalis, an Englishman by birth, but educated as a monk in Normandy, compiled, between the years 1130 and 114 1, an Ecclesiastical History extending to the latter year. With the Conquest, the work becomes one of primary importance, especially in connection with events in Normandy. The spirit in which Orderic writes is highly to be commended, al- though his style and method are vicious and faulty in the extreme. A good criticism of his merits as an his- torian will be found in the fifth chapter of dean Church's Life of Anselm (1870). The best edition is that pub- lished by Le Prevost, 1838-40. The work of WiLLlAM OF Malmesbury already referred to, the Historia Novella, or 'New History,' was compiled by him at the request of Robert, Earl of Gloucester, a natural son of Henry I., and Stephen's chief antagonist. It deals with the period I126-1142, and, as might be anticipated, is altogether favourable to the party of Matilda. The Gesta Stephani,^ on the other hand, written in all probability by one of Stephen's own ■ Edited for E. H. S. by Dr. R. C. Sewell, 1845 The Gesta Stephani and the flistona Nofdla illustrate each other in a remarkable manner, and CONTEMrORARY WRITERS. 261 clerks, is a spirited narrative conceived as a vindication Chap, III of Stephen. It terminates with the arrival of Henry of L^ Anjou in England in 1 152, and though the single exist- ing manuscript has reached us in a defective conditicn, some parts being altogether wanting, while the end is lost, the work is valuable from its graphic description of many of the incidents of the civil war, and the picture it supplies of the prevalent anarchy and suffering. Amid the confusion that prevailed and the vacillation of the contending parties, it is not difficult to discern that prin- ciples as well as the interests of rival houses were at stake. The influence of archbishop Theobald, the patron of Thomas Beket, was honourably exerted in the the main to enlist the efforts of the Church in the cause of peace. Richard and John, both priors of the monastery at The Hexham,' are other authorities for the same reign, in J?^^^^."} ° Chronicles. connexion with which the work of the former gives us important information. Richard's narrative concludes with the Battle of the Standard, of which he supplies an excellent account. Another account of the battle is that oi Aethelred or Ailred,^ abbat of the Cistercian monas- ter}' at Rievaulx, in Yorkshire. Aethelred gives fewer Aethelred details, but professes to report the actual speeches of the °'!^^' leaders on either side before the engagement. The Chronica of Melrose^ is, in the earlier part, a chronicles somewhat dry epitome of the foregoing northern writers, °|jj ^'"^"^^ but for the period 1140 to 1270 it assumes considerable cost, value as an independent authority. ' The numerous and progressive variations in the handwriting,' says the should be read together page by page. A good outline of the contents of the former will be found in Gairdner's Early Chronicles of England, pp. 88-98. ' Both in the Decern Scriptores, see sitpra, p. 216. - De Bella Standardii ; in Migne, P. L. cxcv. 702-12. ' Chronica de Miiilros. Edited by J. Stevenson. Pann. C. 183;. 262 A.D. 1066 TO AD. 1 199. Chap. editor, *show that it is very frequently, if not always, . contemporaneous.' It became, in turn, the source from whence not a few other monastic chronicles, and especially that known as the Chronica de Lanercost^ incorporated some of their most interesting facts. The last-named work is a well-known and amusing record, chiefly of events in Border history ; its name, however, would seem to be a misnomer, the internal evidence leading us rather to conclude that it was the composition of a member of the Franciscan community in Carlisle. William of The three chief authorities for the reign of Henry II. ^1136^^" are WiLLiAM OF Newbury,^ the Gesta Regis Henrici d. 1208. Seaindi, commonly ascribed to Benedict of Peterborough, and Roger Hoveden. The Historia Reriim Angli- carurn of the first-named writer is in five books, extend- ing from the year 1066 to 1 198. William's style is clear and sober, and his appreciation of the comparative value of facts is sound. His account of the disputes between the king and Beket is singularly free from prejudice. His characters are drawn with much fidelity and dis- crimination, and he has preserved many interesting "Vh^Gesta auccdotcs relating to distinguished persons. The work Henrici. ascribed to Benedict of Peterborough is of no less merit and is characterised by professor Stubbs as ' indisputably the most important chronicle of the time.' He has, however, clearly shewn that Benedict was certainly not the author^ and he inclines to the belief that it was the production of Richard Fitz-Neal, the treasurer of Henry II., and author of the celebrated treatise known as the • Historia de Gestis Regum Brila)inorum et Anglortim a Cassibellano ad annum 20 Edw. 3 (1346) per qiiendam Canonicum de Lauercost in comiiatu Cumbria. Edited by J. Stevenson. 2 vols. Bann. C. 1839. « Edited for E. H. S. by Mr. Hans Hamilton. 2 vols. 1856. » See his preface to his edition of this author (A*. 5". 1867) pp. lii. liii ; and Hardy, D. C. ii. 254. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS 263 Dialogns de Scaccario. The greater part of the Gesta Chap. was reproduced by ROGER HoVEDEN in his Chronica} a L_ series of annals extending from A.D. 1X2 to 1201. Of Roger .... . r . , Hoveden. this series, the portion from the commencement to the d. circ. year 11 69 appears to be mainly a compilation, though ^^°^' one of considerable value. The portion which corre- sponds with the Gesta is that included between the years 1 170 and 1 192, and the internal evidence serves to shew that the two writers had access to the same materials, but treated them in a somewhat different fashion. From 1 192 to 1 201 the Chronica maybe regarded as wholly Hoveden's work, and constitute an authority for that period of the highest importance. ' It is in Hoveden,' says professor Stubbs, ' that we have the full harvest of the labours of the Northumbrian historians. . . . Studied as the primary authority on the history of a reign of primary importance, this work affords material for dis- cussion of the most interesting kind on an immense variety of points, constitutional and political.' The Imagines Historiaruni of RALPH OF DiCETO ^ Ralph of are also of considerable value for the reigns of Henry H. and Richard, the position occupied by the writer for more than fifty years as archdeacon of Middlesex and dean of St. Paul's having given him access to the best information. ' Well illustrated,' says the same authority, 'as the reigns of Henry H. and Richard are, w^ithout Ralph de Diceto one side of their character would be ' Chronica Magistri Rogeri de Hovedene. 4 vols. Edited by William Stubbs. R. S. 1858-71. 2 Radiilfi de Diceto Decani Londomensis Opera Historica. Edited by William Stubbs. 2 vols. R. S. 1876. Ihis includes also the Abbrevia- tiones Chronico7-um by the same writer, a work of comparatively slight value. As regards the use of the term ' Chronicle ' by writers in these times, the observation of Professor Stubbs is to be noted : ' Chronicles were, as Ralph de Diceto had read in Cassiodorus, Imaqines Historianwi^ — the outlines of histories.' Pref to Gesta Regis Henrici Secundi, p. xi. Diceto. d. circ. 264 A.D. 1066 TO A.D. 1 199. Chap. III. Richard of Devizes. Hugo Candidas. Gervase of Canter- bury. Other ma- terials for reign of Richard I. imperfectly known, and some of the crises of their politics would be almost incomprehensible.' A Chro?itcle of the earlier years of the reign of Richard, viz., A.D. 1 189-1 192, by Richard of Devizes,' adds somewhat to the infor- mation supplied in the Gesta attributed to Benedict of Peterborough. The History of the monastery at Peterborough, by Hugo Candidus,^ carries the narrative down to the year 1175, and includes notices of neighbouring monas- teries founded by bishop Ethelwold. Hugh appears to have used and amplified the Peterborough version of the Saxon Chronicle in connexion with which his work possesses its chief interest, being otherwise almost en- tirely destitute of infcrmation of a general character. About the year 1 189, Gervase,^ a monk of Canter- bury, began to put together a compilation from the chief historians of the century, — Henry of Huntingdon, the continuator of Florence of Worcester, and the author of the Gesta Regis Henrici Secundi, — commencing with the reign of Stephen and continuing the work to the death of Richard I. Gervase appears to have been inspired throughout by a spirit of hostility to the house of Anjou, and his labours, though not without value, do not entitle him to take rank with the best authorities for the period. Two other volumes in the Rolls Series will be found useful for the reign of Richard 1/ Of these, the one ' Chronicon Ricardi Divisiensis de Rebus gestis Ricardi Primi. Edited by J. Stevenson. E. H. S. 1838. - Htig07iis Candidi Cocnobii Biirgensis Historia. Printed in Sparke {see supra, p. 217), who also gives an abridged translation of Hugh's work into Anglo-Norman verse. * T/i£ Chronicle of the Reigns oj Stephen, Henry II., atid Richard I., by Go-vase, the Monk of Canterlniry. Edited by William Stubbs. 2 vols. R. S. 1879-81. * Chronicles and Memorials of the Reign of Richard the First. Vol. i. : Jtinerarium Feregrinorum, et Gesta Regis Ricardi. Vol. ii. : Epistolae Cantuarienses. Edited by William Stubbs. R. S. 1864-5. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 265 furnishes a minute and authentic narrative of that Chap. monarch's career, from his departure from England in December, 1189, as the leading spirit of the third Crusade, to his death ; the other, consisting of letters written by the prior and convent of Christchurch, Can- terbury, between the years 1187 and 1189, supplies a good illustration of the relations between the monastic orders and the secular clergy, — an important feature in the history of these times. GiRALDUS Cambrensis,' a Welsh ecclesiastic, who ciraidus wrote in the latter part of the twelfth century, was a ^^^^^^ man of great shrewdness of observation and considerable b- 1147- powers of satirical humour. His Gevwia Ecclesiastica2cc\di Speculum Ecdesiae, together with the poem of WALTER Walter Map, de Nugis Curialiuin, and the de Ntigis Curiaimm ^''''^'• et Vestigiis Philosophorum of JOHN OF SALISBURY,^ pre- John of sent us with a remarkable, although in some respects ^^^'^^"'■y- exaggerated, picture of ecclesiastical and court life at this period. The Letters of the last-named writer are not less valuable and full of interest. The most important of the works of Giraldus are, The Topo- however, his Topographia Hiberniae and his Expuznatio ^''''P^'i'^ . 1 r , a.x\A Ex- Jriwerniae, — the former bemg the result of his visit to pKgnatio Ireland, as secretary to prince John, in 1 185, and con- ^ofraidul taining a description of the natural history, the miracles, and inhabitants of the country ; the latter giving an account of the Conquest of Ireland under Henry II, Both these works are of exceptional merit ; and the Expugnatio is characterised by Brewer as ' a noble speci- men of historical narration, of which the author's age furnished very rare examples.' ' The Works of Giraldus Cambrensis. Vols. i-iv. Edited by J. S. Brewer, M.A. Vols, v-vii. Edited by James F. Dimock, M.A. R. S. 1861-77. ^ For the works of John of Salisbury, see Migne, P. L. cxcix. 266 A.D. 1066 TO A.D. 1 199. Chap, III. Poem on tfie Con- quest of Ireland. Works re- lating to the Early History of Ireland, Besides Giraldus, we possess, for the Conquest of Ireland, a poem in Norman French verse,' which, though faulty in style and very corrupt in its language, contains an interesting account of the whole expedition. It is the composition of an unknown author who derived his information from Morice Regan, interpreter to Dermod MacMurrough, king of Leinster, ' Few events,' observes Mr. Wright in his Preface, ' have had the good fortune to be recorded by two contemporaries so well fitted for the task as Giraldus and Maurice Regan— one closely related to the heroes (for heroes we may truly call them) who performed the enterprise ; the other, an immediate agent of the native chieftain in whose aid it was per- formed.' Early Irish History. — In connexion with yet earlier Irish history, a subject which may advantageously be taken up at this period, almost the only printed source of authentic informa- tion is the fragmentary records known as the Annals of Ireland,^ which, along with much that is fabulous and legendary, supply a disjointed narrative of the achievements of the princes of Ossory and Leix, together with those of their kinsman, the Ui Neill, Of the manuscript sources a minute criticism will be found in Mr, Eugene O'Currv's Lectures.^ In speaking of modern writers on the early period, this critic goes so far as to afifirm that ' no one event of early Irish history is accurately given in Moore,' The History of Erina, by Dr, Keating, a work of the seventeenth century composed among the woods ' Anglo-Norman Poem on the Conquest of Ireland by Henry the Second. Edited by Francisque Michel. With an Introductory Essay on the History of the Anglo-Norman Conquest of Ireland, by Thomas Wright, 1837. * Annals of Ireland : Three Fragments copied from ancient Sources by Dubhaltach Mac Fribisigh, and edited with a Translation and Notes: By John O'Donovan. Duljlin, i860. ^ Lectiu-es on the MS. Materials of Ancient British History, delivered at the Catholic Uni'dcrsity of Ireland, during the Session of 1S55 and 1856. By Eugene O'Curry. Dublin, 1861. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 267 and caves of Tipperary, he pronounces to be a work of great Chap. value, though not without serious defects. The History of the ^ Abbe Mac Geogehan, written in 1758, is to be looked upon as a praiseworthy attempt rather than a successful performance. The Anglo-Latin Satirical Poets and Epigramma- comem- tists of the Twelfth Century, edited by Mr. Thomas \^^l^^' Wright,' contain much amusing and interesting illustra- tion of the manners, vices, and follies of the period. Of Domesday Book, otherwise know^n as the Liber de Domesday Wintonia, the original of which is to be seen at the ^'^'^ Record Office, a verbatim edition was printed in the last century, being completed in 1783. In i860, Her Majesty's Government, with the- concurrence of the ]\Iaster of the Rolls, determined to apply the art of photozincography to the production oid. facsimile edition, which was brought out under the superintendence of Colonel Sir Henry James, R.E., Director of the Ord- nance Survey, Southampton. This was completed in 1863, and is sold in parts varying in price from ^. 6d. to il. IS. od. A full account of the whole literature ot this great survey is given by Mr. Freeman in the Appen- dix (note A.) to the fifth volume of his Norman Conquest. The life of Lanfranc by MiLO CRISPIN,^ that of contem- Anselm by Eadmer,^ those of Beket in the volumes poraryBio- •' ' grapmes. edited by canon Robertson for the Rolls Series,** and that of Hugh of Lincoln, known as the Magna Vita,^ are all biographies of high value and interest. ' 2 vols. /?. S. 1872. * Fi/a Beati Lanfranci, Archiepiscopi Cantuariensis, Auctore Milone Crispino, monacho et catitore Beccensi, subpart. Migne, P. L. cl. 22-28. * Printed in Migne, P. L. clix. ^ Materials for the History of Thomas Beckel, Archbishop of Canter- bury. Vols. i. ii. and iii. Edited by J. C. Robertson. R. S. 1875- 1877. ■'' Afaqna Vita S. HugoJiis Episcopi Limolnicuiis. Edited by James F. Dimock. R. S. 1864. 268 A.D. 1066 TO A.D. 1199. Chap. III. Dia loons de Scacca- John Brompton. V reeman, Stubbs, (mizot, Bryce. Lives of Lanfranc, Anselm, Beket, and Hugh of Lincoln. The Dialogiis de Scaccario, or ' Dialogue on the Ex- chequer/ by Richard, bishop of London, is printed in full in professor Stubbs's Doannents, &c. (pp. 160-241), ' as contributing an extraordinary mass of information on every important point in the development of constitu- tional principles before the Great Charter.' N on- Contemporary Writer. — The Chronicon o{ ]0\i^ Brompton, who was abbat of Jervaulx in Yorkshire at the close of the thirteenth century, is printed in Twys- den's Scriptores. It terminates with the year 1199, and is a poor compilation of little authority from William of Newbury, ' Benedict,' Giraldus, and Hoveden. (C.) Modern Writers. — The fourth chapter of Mr, Freeman's Norman Conquest gives a graphic account of Norman history up to the commencement of the eleventh century. Professor Stubbs's Constitutional History^ chap- ters x. xi. xii. (to p. 514), affords the requisite and in- dispensable collateral guidance. The first chapter of the sixth Essai in GuiZOT's Essais sur V Histoire de France, — ' Du Gouvernement Anglo-Normand,' — brings out some of the chief points of contrast between French and English constitutional history at this period. The seventh, ' eighth, and ninth chapters of PROFESSOR Bryce's Holy Roman Empire contain a full explanation of the theory of the medieval Empire and its relations to Teutonic history in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries. The main facts in the life of Lanfranc are to be found in dean Hook's Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, vol. ii. ; but are given more fully as well as more correctly in M. de Crozal's Lanfra^tc : sa Vie, son Enseignemejtt, sa Politique (Paris, 1877). The Life of Anselm, by DEAN Church, is a volume of great merit, and may be compared with that contained in dean Hook's Lives, &.C., from which it diverges on some not unimportant points. The essay on Thomas a Beket in I MODERN WRITERS. 269 Mr. Freeman's Historical Essays (2nd series), is one of Chap. especial value. The Life of St. Hugh of Lincoln, by _ canon G. G. Perry, is a very instructive study, founded upon original materials, of the Church history of these times. The Biographia Britaujiica Litteraria (Anglo- vv right's Norman Period, 1842), by Mr. Wright, supplies a series Biographia, of sketches of the chief literary characters of the period arranged in chronological order. The 2ist and 22nd chapters of SiSMONDl's Histoire des Franqais, detailing sismondi. the history of the third Crusade and the results by which it was attended, will be found to supply a good illustra- tion of Richard the First's real character. For the Crusades generally the volume by Sir G. W. ^^^.^ Cox supplies a graphic though brief account : while Crusades. r- , , , r- 7 r^, . 1 ' ^U Stubbs's professor Stubbs s Early Plantagenets, a volume m the piantage- same series, supplies an outline of the greater part of the "^^^• present and of the following periods, which will be found useful both by teacher and student.' ' The Crusades, by G. W. Cox ; The Early Plantagenets, by William Stul^hs ; volumes in ' Epochs of Modern History.' Longmans and Co. l87/«. and 1876. CHAPTER IV. FROM THE ACCESSION OF KING JOHN TO THE DEATH OF EDWARD II. Chap. (a.) Contemporary Writers. — A marked advance in ^^' . historical composition is one of the distinguishing fea- The tures of the thirteenth century when compared with the a^d the"^ ^ preceding era. We find the mere Chronicle now giving •History,' place in the treatment of abler writers to the History, that is to say a simple arrangement of events in chrono- logical sequence is expanded into a narrative which aims at exhibiting the relations of cause and effect, and events are pourtrayed as incidents of a coherent drama and in Advance in their supposed moral and political significance. This important advance presents itself in connexion with a 7iew Historic School. The great Northern school culmi- nated and ended with Hoveden, and was now succeeded by the no less remarkable school of the South associated with the monastery of St. Alban's. A very slight ac- quaintance with the historical literature of this ancient house, which owed its foundation to king Offa and had once been ruled by Anselm, is sufficient to disprove the representations of those who would have us look upon this period as one when history had lapsed into the hands only of ignorant, credulous, and prejudiced writers.' ' See, for example, the very unjust representations of Buckle in the sixth chapter of his History of Civilisation. Historical Composi- tion. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 271 The town of St Albans, the haltinij-place at the close Chap. IV. of the first day's journey northwards from London, was '— the scene of continuous traffic and excitement, and its The School monastery afforded shelter and hospitality to travellers Aiban's. . of all classes.' Nor was it only a great centre of intelli- gence, it was also a great depository of documents ; and hence the works of its members, such as those of Mat- thew Paris, Rishanger, John de Cella, Roger Wendover, and John de Trokelowe are among the most authoritative contemporary records of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.^ Pre-eminent among their number is Mat- Matthew THEW Paris, the historian, the traveller, the politician, J.^'il^g. the monk, and the courtier, and a comparison of his Historia Major with the Chronica of Hoveden affords decisive proof of the advance above described in this species of composition. Instead of an almost colourless narrative, we are presented with a series of brilliant historical criticisms, and although the change may in some measure be due, as professor Stubbs suggests, to the altered policy of the clergy, who found themselves compelled to abandon their former position of political neutrality for one of active partisanship, it is also un- f^.oubtedly to be regarded as one of the manifestations of that new spirit infused into the age. ' Matthew Tans states that in the stables of the abbey set apart for the use ofgues'.s and strangers, there were stalls for nearly 300 horses. Citron. Maj. ann. 1252. 2 Chronica Motiastetii S. Albani. Edited by H. T. Riley. 11 vols. R. S. 1863-76. It may here be worth while to caution students again-t the misapprehension that a Chronicle associated with the name of a par- ticular religious house is exclusively concen ed with its special history. Sometimes, like the Annales ATonastici, they incorporate documents of great national importance which had been sent to the monastery to be transcribed. See on this point the Preface to the third volume of Hardy's Descriptive Catalogue, &c. p. xx. ; and also, fur some interesting observa- tions and fac s relating to the character and 'mechanical structure' of our earlier chronicles, professor Earle's Preface to his Parallel Chronicles, pp. Wendover. 272 A.D. 1 199 TO A.D. 1327. Chap. The Historia Major of Matthew Paris, — of the latter part of which his Historia Angloriuu (or Historia Minoj') is chiefly an abridgment, though containing some ad- toria ditional facts, — extends from the Creation to the year '^■^''''' 1259.' The much controverted question, as to the relative claims of Matthew and Roger of Wendover to be considered the original author, has been finally set at rest by the valuable Prefaces of Mr. Luard to his edition of the larger work. He concludes that the Historia cdialnd -^^t^jor wp to the year 1189 was the work of John de Roger of Cella, abbat of St. Alban's during the years 1195 to 1214 ; that it was then continued by ROGER OF WEND- OVER on the same plan and from the same sources to the year 1235, ///^ wJiole work up to this date subsequently passing, for a long time, as the production of the latter writer exclusively, and being known as the Flores His- toriaruin ; ^ that it was then transcribed by Matthew Paris, who, however, made numerous corrections and additions, but, in the opinion of professor Stubbs, ' interpreted ' rather than ' interpolated ; ' that it was then contimied by the same writer, and is, from 1235 to the year 1259, exclusively his work. In style, in vividness of narration, and in descriptive power, Matthew greatly surpasses his two predecessors. He has also received the praise, very generally, of being a warm advocate of English rights and liberties, and a sturdy opponent alike of regal and ' MalthcEi Parisiensis Monachi Sancti Albani, Chronica Majora. Edited by H. R. Luard. R. S. 1872-80. [Vol. i., the Creation to A.D. 1066 ; vol. ii. A.D. 1066-1216; vol. iii. 1217-1239; vol. iv. 1240-1247 ; vol. v. 1248-I259]. Alatt/uri Parisiaisis Historia Auglorum, sive, id vttlgo diciiiir, Historia Minor. A.D. 1067-1253. Edited by Sir Frederic Madden. 3 vols. P. S. 1866-69. [The Chronica Majora are often designated the Historia Major. ] ^ This work has also been edited by Mr. H. O. Coxa for the English Historical Society. He c< nsiders that for the period A.D. i2vO- 1235 Wendover may be looked uj-ion as an original writer, and that here his character as an historian is unim^'cachable. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 273 papal tyranny : in fact, the national sentiment may be Chap. said first to receive adequate expression in his pages. L His History, moreover, is not only the best source of information with respect to events in England, but is also an authority as regards continental affairs, especially those of France and the Empire. The Chronica of William Rishanger,^ also a monk \viniam of St. Alban's, was formerly known as his continuation '^ ^^^^^' of Matthew Paris. It embraces the period A.D. 1259- 1306, and is in many respects identical with the Annales of Nicholas Trivet, a history of the Angevin dynasty Nicholas in England,'^ both authors having evidently drawn to a ^"''^'* great extent from the same sources.^ Trivet was a Dominican friar who had been educated at Oxford and at Paris, at which latter university he collected many of his materials for his history. He assigns as his motive for undertaking the work, the comparative neglect with which, after the death of John, historical writers had treated English affairs. For the reign of Edward I., Trivet's A finals are a contemporary record. The work is one of high merit, whether regarded as a literary produc- tion or simply as a clear and accurate narrative of events. For the reign of John, besides the Historia JMajor, we Waiter da have a very valuable contribution in the Memoriale of Coventry. Walter de Coventry, a compilation made in one of the fen monasteries, probably Crowland or Peterborough. ' Willdmi Kishanger Chronica et Annales, forming vol. iii. of the Chronica Monasterii S. Albani. Edited by Mr. Riley. R. S. ^ Annales sex Regum Angliae qui a comitibus Andegavensibus originem traxerunt. Edited by Mr. Hog. E. H. S. 1845. It is to be noted that Trivet makes up the number ' six ' by including Geoffrey of Anjou, the husband of Matilda, and the original wearer of the planta genista. He speaks of Henry II. as 'primus eorum regum qui a comitibus Andegaven- sibus duxerunt originem secundtini linram tnasculitiam ' (p. 31). ' Mr. Gairdner {Early Chronicles, p. 265) seems, however, to have clearly established the conclusion that Rishanger's work is borrowed, for the above period, almost entirely from that of Trivet. T 274 A.D. 1 199 TO A.D. 12,27. Chap. IV. The Mon- astic An- naks. The Annals of Burton, The Aiuials of Win- chester. The Annals of Wavtrley. The Annal Dunstable. For the reign of Henry III., down to the commence- ment of the Barons' War, Matthew Paris is the main authority ; but at this period the Annales oi '(hQ different monasteries come in and often supply trustworthy sub- sidiary information. The principal of these Annales are those — (i.) of the monastery of Burton-upon-Trent,^ in Staf- fordshire, beginning in the year 1004 and ending with the year 1263. From 11 89 to 1 201, they supply little more than a series of extracts from Hoveden, but after the year 121 1 they acquire a special value from the im- portance of the incorporated documents, especially those relating to the Provisions of Oxford. (ii.) of the monastery of Winchester ^ (A.D. 519 to 1277), probably the work of Richard of Devizes. These are important for the last ten years, as they supply us with a very full account of the period immediately fol- lowing upon the battle of Evesham. (iii.) of Waverley,' near Farnham in Surrey, the ear- liest Cistercian house in England. These treat of the whole Christian era up to the year 1291. The history of John's reign is given at considerable length, and from the year 12 19 to 1266 the manuscript was written con- temporaneously with successive events, and consequently furnishes one of the most authoritative records of the period. From 1266 to 1275 it is identical with the Winchester Annals. (iv.) of Dunstable,'' comprising the whole Christian era down to the year 1 297. ' Very few contemporary chroni- clers,' says Mr. Luard, ' throw so much light on the general history of the country, and, what would scarcely be expected, on foreign affairs as well as those of Eng- land. Many historical facts ' (enumerated by the editor ' In vol. i. of Mr. Luard's Annales Monastici. K. S. 1864-9. * Ibid. vol. ii ' Ibid. vol. ii. ■• Ibid. vol. iii. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 275 in his Preface, pp. xv-xix.) 'are known solely from this Chap. chronicle.' The compiler is on the barons' side in his _ account of the Barons' War. (v.) of Osney near Oxford ' (a.d. 1016-1347). This The is supposed to have been the work of Thomas Wykes, Osney. with whose Chronicon (a.D. 1066- 1289) it has much in wy£^ common. Both the Chronicon and the Annals are to a great extent compiled in the earlier parts from Ralph of Diceto and Florence of Worcester, while in the later they borrow largely from Matthew Paris and William of Newbury. The points with respect to which the two works are found to differ are enumerated by Mr. Luard in his Preface to the fourth volume of the Annales Monastici^ pp. xviii-xxiii. (vi.) of Worcester,^ comprising the whole Christian '^^^ T 1 • 1 1 1 A Annals of era to A.D. 1 377. In their general character these A^inals Wotcester. much resemble those of Dunstable, though hardly of equal excellence. For the reign of Edward II, we have — (i.) the Annales of JOHN of Trokelowe (a.D. 1307- ^jJ^^JJ*" 1323),^ a monk of Tynemouth, who had been transferred from that monastery to St. Alban's, where he composed his work. He had been an eye-witness of many of the events which he describes, and these portions of his nar- rative are consequently of value. (ii.) A Life of Edward by an unknown writer,^ who, ^""'^ ^^ from the fact that the only existing MS. came from bury. Malmesbury, is supposed to have been a member of that monastery. This, as regards both style and authority, ranks higher than the compilation of Trokelowe. PauH considers that the narrative is certainly contemporary with the year 1327. ' Luard's Annales Monastici, vol. iv. ^ Ibid. vol. iv. * In vol. iv. of the Chronica Monast. S. Alhani. ♦ In the series edited by Heame. T 2 276 A.D. 1 199 TO A.D. 1327. Chap. IV. Adam of Murimuth Walter Heniing ford. (ill.) A Life by Thomas de la Moor,' who evinces considerable sympathy with Edward. He indulges, Thomas de however, in frequent exaggeration, and his statements la Moor. ^^ ^^^ appear to rest, in any case, on a personal know- ledge of the facts. (iv.) The Chronicon of Adam of Murimuth,^ a diplomatist who had received his education at Oxford. This work is of importance both for the reign of Edward II., and for the earlier period of that of his son, the narrative terminating with an account of the battle of Crecy, and the victory of the earl of Derby. Another Chronicle, of especial importance for the reigns of the first three Edwards, is that of Walter de Gisseburn, better known as WALTER Hemingford.^ This extends in the first instance, from A.D. 1066 to 1297 ; it was subsequently continued (but whether by Heming- ford himself or by another hand is a matter of some d'oubt ^) and carried on to the year 1 346, terminating somewhat abruptly on the eve of the battle of Crecy. Of this continuation, the part of the narrative relating to the last five years of the reign of Edward II. is altogether wanting. The early part is derived mainly from the Durham compilers, and from William of Newbury, but with the thirteenth century, the narrative assumes an in- dependent value. The editor, Mr. Hans Hamilton, de- scribes it as 'one of the most favourable specimens of our early chronicles, both as regards the selection oi events ' In Camden's Anglica-Norm. Hibem. Cambr. pub. 1603. 2 Adami Murinmtheusis Chronica sui Teinporis, nunc pfimum per decern anni^s aucta (1303- 1346) cum eonindein Coniinuatione ad A..V>. 1380 . 1216-17 ^g) in 50 volumes, edited by Marini. The Letters of Robert Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln, dating from about 1210 to 1253, afford much insight into both the political and ecclesiastical history of his age ; ^ while the Roll of the Household Expenses of Bishop Swinfield"^ illustrates not only the economy of an episcopal palace, but the whole condition of society in the reign of Edward L A collection of political and satirical Songs of the period, edited by Mr. Wright, affords occasionally inter- esting evidence with respect to the popular impressions concerning the chief characters and events of the time.^ Welsh History. The history of Wales, the study of which can best be taken up at this period, must be gleaned from the Ititierariufn of Giraldus (see supra, p. 265), and from the Aiinales Cambriae, edited for the Rolls Series by the Rev. John Williams ab Ithel. This latter, which is, for the most part, a meagre register of events resembling the earlier portions of the ' Letters of Bishop Grosseteste, illustrative of the Social Condition of his Time. Kdited by Rev. H. R. Luard. R. .9. i86i. - A Roll of the Household Expenses of Richard de Swinfield, Bishop of Hereford, during part of the years 1 289 and 1 290. Edited by Rev. John Webb. C. S. 1854. " The Political Songs of England from the Reign of John to that of Edward II. Edited and translated by Thomas Wright, Esq. C. S. 1839. WELSH AND SCOTTISH HISTORY. 28c English Chronicle, was probably compiled by Welsh monks and Chap. extends from a.d. 444 to 1288. It is interesting as the earliest ^^' source of the kind for information respecting Welsh history, and the probable basis of later chronicles relating to the principality. To this may be added the Brut y Tyivysogmi ', or. Chronicle of the Princes of IVaks, in the same series and by the same editor. The Annals of the monasteries of Margan and Tewkesbury, in the first volume of the Annates Monastic^ edited by Mr. Luard, will also be found of service from the facts they record relating to local history. Other sources, whether for tradition or historical fact, are Gildas, Nennius, Geoffrey of Monmouth, Tysilio, Ponticus Verannius, Wace's Brut^ Layamon, Caradoc of Llancarvan, John Brechfa, and the Chronicon Walliae. Of all of these, a concise account will be found in the first chapter of Lappenberg's History of England} Scottish History. I'he chief sources for this subject are Authorities the series of Documents edited by the late Sir Francis Palgrave "^ scotu^h^ and by the Rev. Joseph Stevenson ; ^ the Chronicles relating to History. Pictish and Scottish history edited by Mr. W. F. Skene,'* who has also embodied the results of a succession of valuable re- searches in his work entitled Celtic Scotland;^ and, for the subsequent period, the able work of Mr. E. William Robertson, entitled Scotland tinder her Early Kings.^ The theory put ' A History of England tmder the Anglo-Saxon Kings. By Johann Martin Lappenherg. Translated from the German, with Additions and Corrections V)y the Author and the Translator. 2 vols. 1845. ^ Documents and Records ilhtstrating the History of Scotland and the Transactions hctifccn the Cro'Mis of Scotland and England ; preso-ved in the Treasury of Her Majesty s Excheijtier. Edited by Sir Francis Palgrave. I vol. R. C. 1837. ^ Docnmcuts illustrative of the History of Scotland, from the Death of Kinq Alexander III. to the Accession of Robert Bruce. A.D. 1286-1306. Selected and arranged by the Rev. Joseph Stevenson. 2 vols. H.M. General Register House. Edinburgh. 1870. < Chronicles of the Picts, Chronicles of the Scots, and other Early Memorials of Scottish History. Edited by William F. Skene. I vol. H.M. General Register House : Edinburgh. 1867. (These extend from the tenth to the fifteenth century.) * Celtic Scotland: a History of Ancient Alban. By William F. Skene. Vol. i. : History and Ethnology ; vol. ii. : Church and Culture ; vol. iii. : Land and People. 1876 -80. " Scotland under her Early Kings : a History of the Kingdom to the 282 A.D. 1 199 TO A.D. 1337. Chap. IV. Freeman, Guizot, Pauli, Stubbs, Brewer, Milman, Hallam, &c. forth by Mr. Robertson (vol. ii. append, i), of the original re- lations of Scotland to England should be compared with that maintained by Mr. Freeman in his Norman Conquest [vol. i. (edit 2), pp. 1 1 7-1 29, and Appendix G, I, and N], and with his elaborate investigation of the whole question in his His- torical Essays (ist series), in the essay on The Relations be- tween the Croivns of England and Scotland. The theory of the English monarchic supremacy may be compared with that in- volved in the claims of the head of the Holy Roman Em- pire, — a subject which requires again to be carefully studied in connexion with the history of Richard of Cornwall. The early charters and coinage of the realm are to be found in the col- lections by Anderson.^ (C.) Modern Writers. — The whole period of the Angevin reigns (i 1 54-1272) has been summarised with his wonted vigour and mastery of the subject by Mr. Freeman in the concluding chapter of his History of the Norman Conquest. The thirteenth Lepn in Guizot's Histoire de la Civilisa- tion en France furnishes an outline which brings out some of the main points of difference between the in- stitutions of France and England during this century. The best account of the reigns of John and Henry III. is that given by Dr. Pauli in his GescJiicJite von England, iii. 294-855. The work of Mr. William Longman, entitled Lectures on the History of England from the Earliest Times to tJie Death of Edivard II., will be found useful in con- nexion with the period of the present chapter. The pre- faces by professor Stubbs to his edition of Walter of Coventry, and by Mr. Luard to the several volumes of his edition of Matthew Paris, together with those by Brewer to the Momimenta Franciscana and his editions of the Opus Tertium and Opus Minus o^ Roger Bacon ^ Close of the Thirteenth Century. By E. William Robertson. 2 vols. Edinburgh. Edmonston and Douglas. 1862. ' Selcdiis Diplomatinn et Numismatiim Scotuc Thesaurus. Edited by James Anderson. Fol, Edinburgh, 1739. '■' The ^ Opus Tertium,^ ^ Opus Aliiius," &-"€. of Roger Bacon, Edited by J. S. Brewer, M. A. R. S. 1859. MODERN WRITERS 283 arc full of illustrative material for thirteenth century Chap. history,— a period which professor Stubbs, in the pre- 1_ face above referred to, designates, as ' one of the most remunerative of all studies to the careful student,' The ninth and tenth chapters of the ninth book of MiLMAN's History of Latin Christianity supplies a graphic sketch of the rise of the orders of St. Dominic and St. Francis of Assisi. The second part of the ninth chapter of Hallam's Middle Ages points out the elements of progress and improvement which England shared in comn.on with the Continent, and the 'four causes' which he assigns of the intellectual advance then per- ceptible should be carefully noted. In the writer's History of the University of Cambridge (vol. i. cc, 2 & 3), will be found a systematic account of the commencement of the universi y era throughout Europe, and of the rise of Oxford and Cambridge, together with the history ot the foundation of their most ancient colleges.' i:\i& Barons' ^Far (1871) by Mr. Blaauw, Dr. Pauli's Lives oi Simon von Montfort, der Schdpfer des Hanses der Ge- Momforu ineinen (1867) and the Life of Simon de Montfort (1877), by Mr. G. W. Prothero, afford all the requisite information respecting the great political contest of the thirteenth century. The Lives of Stephen Langton (archbishop 1 207-1 228), Edmund Rich (1234- 1240), Boniface of Savoy (1245- 1 270), and Robert Winchelsey ( 1 294- 1 3 1 3), in dean Hook's A rchbislwps of Canterbury, Hook's offer good illustrations of the relations of Church and 'f''^,''-' ° bishops. State in England at this period ; while for the policy of Boniface VIII. and its effects in England and France, Mil man's Latin Christianity (bk. xi. cc. 7, 8, and 9) should be consulted. ' T/ie Univcrsi/y of Cavihridi^e : fi-om the earliest times to the Royal Injunctions of i^T,S- By James Bass Muliinger, M. A. Cambridge Uni- versity Press, 1873. CHAPTER V. FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD III. TO THE DEATH OF RICHARD III. Chap, V. Adam of Murimuth. Robert Avesbury. d. {circ.\ 1356. (a.) Contemporary Writers. — The materials for En^i^lish history throughout this period reflect the general decline of the literary spirit, and are at once defective as sources of information, and inferior as specimens of historical literature. We meet with no such writers as William of Maimesbury or Matthew Paris. Adam of Murimuth continues to be a principal witness for events up to the year 1346, after which the narrative is carried on by his unknown Continuator to the year 1380. His statements are for the most part made on good authority, or as the result of personal observation, and the impression we de- rive is that of one who was an honest and veracious chronicler, although possessed of no descriptive or literary power. The achievements of Edward HI, are also recorded by Robert Avesbury,' who was registrary of the archi- episcopal court at Canterbury. He likewise can claim no higher rank than that of a painstaking chronicler, but his work incorporates some valuable original documents and transcripts of letters. In connexion with the in- vasion of Cambresis in 1339, the expedition into Brittany ' Robert of Avesbury, Hist, dc mirahilibus Gestis Edivardi III. Ed. Ilearne. 1720. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 285 in 1342, and the events that led to the battle of Crecy Chap. his narrative is of the highest authority, and affords ma- . terial corrections of that of Froissart. The Polychronicon of HiGDEN becomes the account Higden of a contemporary with the first half of the fourteenth q" ^Sa. century. Higden was a member of the wealthy and powerful abbey of St. Werburg, a Benedictine com- munity at Chester. His work is divided into seven books, of which the sixth concludes with the Norman Conquest, the seventh reaching to the reign of Edward HI.' The Polychronicon is almost entirely a compilation, but in the second chapter of the first book the author enumerates at length the sources from which he has drawn his nar- rative, and the work is consequently valuable as showing what historical writers were studied in England at this period. Towards the close of the century, the Poly- chronicon was translated by JOHN OF Trevisa, a secular priest of Berkeley in Gloucestershire, and his version is valuable as a specimen of contemporary English prose. The PolycJironicon is now in course of publication in the Rolls Series, and in the prefaces to the several volumes the sources from which Higden has derived his facts are pointed out.^ Henry Knighton, a canon of the abbey at Leices- Henry ter, was a contemporary of John of Trevisa and compiled '^'g'^^o"* a History of England from the time of king Edgar to the death of Richard n.^ According to his own state- ment, his compilation was mainly founded on Higden's seventh book ; but it includes many facts not therein ' That is, as appears most probable, to the year 1342 ; but this ques- tion cannot be considered as decided until the appearance of professor Lumby's preface to the concluding volume of his edition of Higden. ''■ Folychronuon Ranulplii Higden, with Trevisa's Translation. Vtils. i. and ii. edited by Churchill Babington, D. D. Vols. iii. iv. v. vi. and vii. edited by Professor Lumby. R. S. 1865-79. ' Printed in the Decein Scriptores ; see supra, p. 216. 286 A.D. 1327 TO A.D. 1438 Chap. V. Chronicle hi a Monk of St. Alban's. Walsing- ham's Hls- ionu. contained. The text, as it has reached us, is extremely corrupt, and Knighton's style and method are alike faulty. Notwithstanding-, however, his history is valuable on account of the facts and original records which it con- tains. Among other sources of information, he appears to have had access to the private collections and letters of Henry, duke of Lancaster, and those of John of Gaunt. A CliTonicle of England, during the sixty years A.D. 1328-88, written by another member of the active centre of St. Alban's, fills up what had before been regarded as almost a blank in our history, — namely, the concluding years of the reign of Edward III., of which it supplies a circumstantial account.' It is in connexion with the first fifteen years of the reign of Richard II. that the Historia Anglicana of Walsingham (see supra) assumes its highest value and becomes a work of primary importance. Prior to this period it is grounded chiefly on the Annals of St. Alban's, while the concluding portion (A.D. 1393 -1422) contains not a few inaccuracies of detail.^ For the years 1377 to 1392, however, it is a strictly contemporary account (compiled probably by Walsingham, soon after he left St. Alban's in 1 392 to become prior of the cell of Wy- mundham), which is at once intelligent and authoritative, ' Chrmkon Angliae, ab Anno Dommi 1328 usque ad Amtu?n 1388, audore Monacho quodam Saudi Albani. Edited by Edward Maunde Thompson, Esq. R. S. 1874. "^ These defects induced Mr. Riley, the latest editor of the work, to conclude that the Historia, after the year 1392, is not the production of Walsingham. Mr. Gairdner, however, a highly competent critic of the literature of this period, assigns satisfactory explanations of the inferiority discernible, and gives it as his opinion that there is nothing ' of the nature of internal evidence to create a doubt that the writer of the history during the reigns of Henry IV. and Henry V. is the same as the writer of the his- tory in Richard II. 's time, 'On the contrary,' he says, ' the style is the same thrjugliout.' Early Chronicles 1^/ England, p. 269. V. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 287 notwithstanding that certain contradictions and expres- Ci sions of conflicting opinion (especially with respect to the characters of Richard and John of Gaunt) shew that it is still a compilation from diverse and sometimes dis- cordant sources. In relation to the concluding portion of Richard's French , , ^-11 , • 1 • Chroniclers reign, we have also a Croniqiie ' and a metrical compost- on Richard tion, Histoire du Roy cTAngleterre,^ — both by French ^}' writers. Of these, the former is the production of one who was an eye-witness of many of the events which he describes, and who sympathised with the ill-fated mon- arch. His account is of the more value from the fact that the chroniclers of the fifteenth century invariably espouse the side of the House of Lancaster. The writer of the poem also pleads the cause of Richard, and his production is likewise deserving of attention. The Chronicle of Adam OF UsK ^ throws some ad- Adam of ditional light on the years A.D. 1 377-1404. Adam was a Monmouthshire man and a priest, who, after having been educated at Oxford, entered the service of Henry IV. and subsequently ingratiated himself with pope Boniface IX. His chief contribution to the history of the period consists of some interesting facts relating to the deposition and last days of Richard II. and the early part of the reign of Henry IV. His account of the march of Henry's army to Chester and of the events ' Croniqiie de la traison et ?Hort de Richart deux Roy Dengleterre. Edited by B. Williams. E. H. S, 1846. ■■' Histoire du Roy d'Angleterre, Richard, traidant farticuUerement la rchdlion de ses subjectz et prinse de sa personne, composee par un gentilhonime francois qui fut a la stiite dudid Roy, avecq permission du Roy de France, 1399. Edited and translated by Rev. John Webb. Archaeolog. Britann. XX. 1-423. 3 Chronicon Adae de Usk, A.D. 1377-1404. Edited with a Transla- tion and Notes by Edward Maunde Thompson. Published under the direction of the Royal Society of Literature. London: John Murray, 1876. Usk. 288 A.D. 1327 TO A.D. 1485. Chap. that followed is also of some value. We learn from these pages that Henry, in his hatred of the Welsh, had designed, if possible, altogether to suppress the Welsh language. John Cap- JOHN Capgrave, a native of Lynn in Norfolk, was 1.^393. a member of the house of Augustinian friars in that city d- 1464- and afterwards provincial of his order. He was a voluminous writer, and composed among other works (i) A Chronicle of England} and (2) The Book of the Noble Henries} Of these the former, extending from the Creation to A.D. 141 7, is written in English and is valu- able as a specimen of the Norfolkshire dialect of the period. It also supplies some facts, not found elsewhere, respecting the history of the writer's own times. His Noble Henries (designed in honour of the reigning monarch) includes Henries of the Empire and other illustrious characters of the same name, besides the first six Henries of England. His notices of the latter ex- tend from the accession of Henry I. to the year 1446 ; his facts, as regards the first four Henries, are derived mainly from Henry of Huntingdon, Higden, and Wal- singham. In adverting to the circumstances under which the Lancastrian dynasty succeeded to the crown, he professes to maintain the strictest impa'-tiality, but as a contemporary record the work is disfigured by the tone of degrading sycophancy employed by the writer with respect to the Henry on the throne. His latest editor claims for him, however, the merits of ' honesty and sincerity of purpose.' ^ ' The Chronicle of England. By John Capgrave. Edited by Rev. F. C. Hingeston. R. S. 1858. 2 Johannis Capgrave Liber ne lUustribus Henricis. Edited by Rev. F. C. Hingeston. R. S. 1858. Of this work Mr. Hingeston has also pub- lished a translation. ' Hingeston, Pref. p. xvii. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 289 Thomas Otterbourne, a Franciscan monk who Chap. lived in the reigns of Henry IV. and V., wrote a con- — L_ temporary chronicle entitled Chronica Regiim Angliae} Thomas This concludes abruptly with the assassination of the bourne, duke of Burgundy in the year 1419. Otterbourne and Walsingham either drew from common sources or copied the one from the other ; but there are also facts recorded in the Chronica which we do not meet with elsewhere, and which rest on good authority. P""or the reign of Henry V. we have, besides Capgrave, Lives 0/ three other biographies: (i) The Life by THOMAS by Elm-' Elmham, prior of Lenton, near Nottingham, which he ^chapkin" also rendered, with numerous additional facts, into andTitus L.1VIUS. English verse ; ^ (2) that known as the * Chaplain's ac- count,' written in 141 8 by a chaplain in the army under Henry's command •,^ (3) the Life by one TlTiTS Livius, an Italian, who was patronised by Humphrey, dnke of Gloucester, and was one of the privy council of Henry VI., to whom the work is dedicated.^ Of these the first is much the more full and important, but is written in an inflated grandiloquent style which frequently obscures the author's meaning. The Life by Livius, on the other hand, is comparatively simple in its language, and, in the opinion of one critic, is mainly a compilation from Elmham. Hearne, however, points out that each writer presents us with many facts which are not to be found ' Duo Rerutti Anglicarum Scriptores Ve feres : viz. Thomas Otterbourne et Johannes Whethamstede, ab Origine Gentis Britannicae usque ad Ed- warduin IV. Edited by Thomas Hearne. 1732. 2 Thomae de Elmham Vita et Gesta Henrici Quinti Anglorum Regis. Edited by Thomas Hearne. 1727. The metrical version has been printed by Mr. Cole in the Memorials of Henry V. R. S. 3 Henrici Quinti, Angliae Regis, Gesta, auctore Capellano in Exercitu Regio, cum Chronica Neu,triae, Gallice,ab ann. 1414-22. Edited by B. Williams. E. H. S. 1846. * Titi Livii Foro-Juliensis Vita Henrici Quinti Regis Angliae. Edited by Thomas Hearne. 1716. U 290 A.D. 1327 TO A.D. 1485 Chap. V. Chroniq de Nor- niafidte. Siege of Rouen, in the other. The ' Chaplain's account,' first printed by Mr. Williams, goes no further than the year 1418, the continuation from that time to the close of Henry's reign, being taken from Sloane MS. 1776, which is little more than an abridgment of Elmham. The author was probably a Frenchman, and his accounts of the siege of Harfleur and the battle of Agincourt are especially full and animated. The volume containing this Life gives us also a Chronique de N01 niandie frequently cited by Fabyan. ' The dates of this latter composition,' says the editor, ' are often incorrect, but it supplies us with much valuable information which we do not obtain from our English chroniclers, especially an account of Henry's residence at Paris, and the proceedings between the rival parties it? that city ' {Pref. p. xi.). Furth^ information respecting Henry's campaign in Normandy will be found in the work of M. Puiseux, Le Siege de Rouen (Caen, 1867), and also in the Siege of Rouen by John Page, which narrates in verse the inci- dents of that tragical experience, as recalled by an eye- witness.' As contrasted with the materials for the history of Henry the Fifth's foreign wars and that waged in the early part of the reign of his successor,^ our information respecting the domestic life of the nation is sadly inade- quate. Walsingham, as already noted, leaves us with the year 1422, and for the first ten years of the reign of Henry VI., Fabyan's Chronicle, together with the data supplied by the Rolls of Parliament and Rymer's Foe- dera, constituted, until recently, nearly the only printed sources. Under these circumstances, the Annales of ' The Historical Collections of a Citizen of London in the Fifteenth Cen- tury. Edited by James Gaiidner. C. S. 1877. 2 See Letters and Papers illustrative of the Wars of tJu English in France during the AWi;n of LLenry VL. Edited by J. Stevenson. 2 vols. R. S. 1864, CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 291 the monastery of St. Alban's, for the years 142 1 to 1440, chah attributed to JOHN Amundesham,' a member of the 1_ commun'ty and afterwards president of a Benedictine John College at Oxford, and another Chronicle ^ by an un- ham" ^^ known member of the same foundation, acquire an ex- ceptional value. Though alike concerned mainly with events relating to the abbey of St. Alban's and its members, both these productions constitute a singular and often amusing illustration of the learning, discipline, and customs of Engli.sh monasticism at this period. The Annales, more especially, deserve to be read for the interesting sketch they contain of the career of Whet- John HAMSTEDE, who was twice abbat of the society, and stede. whose memory Amundesham avows himself anxious to guard from detraction. Both Amundesham and Whet- hamstede would seem to have been favourable specimens of their order ; the former was an accomplished scholar ; the latter, a scholar, and also a traveller, and well versed in the ways of the world. Of the latter period of his abbacy, Whethamstede himself composed a Register^ which relates to events of the years 1452 to 1461. It is consequently concerned with the time of the great struggle between the Red and the White Rose, and from the towers of the monastery its inmates may have viewed the battle of 1455, which took place in the im- mediate vicinity. From this date to its close, the Register, unlike the two other chronicles above described, ' Jokannis Amundesham, Monachi Monasterii S. Albaiii, ■uti'idetur, Annales. 2 vols., lorming volumes viii. and ix. of the Chronica Monas- terii S. Albani. Edited by Mr. Riley, see supra. 2 This Chronicle, — Chronicon Rertitn gestarum in Monasterio S. Albani (a.u. 1422-143 1 ) a quodatn Anctore ignoto cotnpilatu?n, — \% diescx\he.A and included by Mr. Riley in the above volumes of John Amundesham. ' Rcgistrum Abbatiae yo/iannis Whethamstede, Abbatis Monasterii Sancti Albani, iterum susieptae. In vol. x. of the same Chronica, cflitcd ly Mr. Riley. On the use of the term ' Register,' see Bacon, Advaneemcnt of learning, bk. II. ii. 2. U 2 292 A.D. 1327 TO A.D. 1485. Chap. V. Other Chronicles for Reign of Henry VI. Bekynton's Correspon- dence. JohnHard- yng- b. 1378. d. 1465. Richard Grafton. d. after 1572- Jean de Waurin. ceases accordingly to be a mere record of the history of the house, and embodies some important notices of the strife that was going on between the contending parties without. Two other Chronicles relating to the reign of Henry VI, have just been edited by Mr, Gairdner.' The Correspondence of bishop BekyntON, secretary to Henry VI., contains both letters written by himself and several written in the royal name, as well as letters addressed to the king and to himself. Though not of any striking interest, the correspondence serves to illus- trate some points in our national history in the first half of the fifteenth century,^ John Hardyng, a dependant of the family of the Percies, who was frequently employed in state business in the reigns of Henry V, and Henry VI., composed a Chronicle treating of the earliest period of English history, and terminating with the flight of Henry into Scotland.^* This was continued by RiCHARD Grafton, a man of good family and liberal education, to the thirty- fourth year of the reign of Henry VIII. The treatment by both writers presents us only with a very meagre collection of facts, while Grafton's work is little more than a transcript of Hall (see i?tfra, p, 299.) The Collection of Chronicles by jEAN DE WauriN * ' T^vo Chronicles of the Reign of Henry VI. Edited by James Gairdner. C. S. 1880. " Metnorials of the Reign of Henry VI. : Official Correspondence of Thomas Bekyntott, Bishop of Bath and Wells. Edited by Rev. George Williams. Vols. i. and ii. R. S. 1872 ^ The Chronicle of John Hardyng, containing an Account of Public Transactions from the earliest Period of English History to the Beginning of the Reign of King Edward the Fourth. Together with the Continuation by Richard Grafton, to the Thirty- Fourth Year of King Henry the Eighth. Edited by H. Ellis 1812. * Recueil des Croniques et Anchieiines f stories de la Giant Bretagne .7 present nomme Engleterre, par Jchan de Waurin. Vol. i., Albina to CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 293 embraces the period from the first fabled settlement in Chap. Britain to the author's own times, — that is, to the ex- pedition undertaken by king Edward IV. against the Bastard of Falconbridge, after the defeat and death of the prince of Wales and queen Margaret at Tewkesbury in 1 47 1. It consists of six volumes, each volume being divided into six books ; volume v. containing the period 1413-43 ; volume vi, that from 1443-71. For the four- teenth century there can be no doubt that Jean borrows a good deal from Froissart. His merits and claims to rank as an independent authority are discussed by Mr. Hardy in his Introduction (vol. i. pp. clv-ccx). William of Worcester (also known as ' the Bot- wiiiiam of toner'), was born at Bristol about the year 141 5, and ceste'r's received his education at Oxford at the expense of Sir "^"H^J^il'^f John Fastolf, with whom he afterwards lived at Caistor in Norfolk, and in relation to whom he filled the several functions of esquire, historian, and executor. He died about 1490. Worcester was a man of considerable learning, and was indefatigable in the study of the an- tiquities of the kingdom ; but his Annales Reriun Angli- carum^ which extend from A.D. 13 24-1 491, exhibit no merits beyond those of the ordinary chronicler. Besides the Annales^ Worcester compiled certain ' Collections con- cerning the Affairs of Normandy and France,' in French.^ The most important source of information with re- spect to the last-named subject is, however, the Chronicle of Jean le Bel,^ a native of Liege and of noble family, jean le Bel. A.D. 688; vol. ii. A.D. 1399-1422 ; vol. iii. 1422-1431. Edited by W. Hardy. R. S. 1864-79. ^ translation of vol. i. by Mr. Hardy has also appeared. R. S. 1864. ' In vol. ii. of the Liber Niger Scaccarii (ed. Hearne, 1771) ; also in Lcltcrs and Papers ilhislrative of the Wars of the English in France (supra^ p. 290, note 2) vol. ii. pt. ii. - Also included in Mr. Stcvensfin's collection. s Jehan le Bel. Cluvniques. Ldi e 1 by M. L. I'olain. 1S63. 294 A.D. 1327 TO A.D. 1485. Chap, who, together with his brother served under Jean of — _ Hainault in the expedition undertaken by Edward III. against the Scots at the commencement of his reign. The writer was himself participant in many of the events which he describes, and his experiences in England having made him familiar with the habits and charac- teristics of those to whom he was opposed by nationality, his narrative is comparatively free from unjust prejudices. The period it embraces is that extending from A.D. 1326 to 1 361, and it thus corresponds with the first part of Froissart. the first book of Froissart, by whom it was adopted as d. i\io. the basis of his better-known work, in which graphic and lively description but imperfectly compensates for his want of trustworthiness as an authority. Froissart con- tinues the subject to the year 1400, when his place is sup- Enguer- plied by the Chronicles of Enguerrand de MONSTRELET, Monstreiet who treats at length of the English war and the English ^ '14^=;^ expulsion from Normandy, his work terminating with the year 1467. For the events of the years 1449 and 1450, however, the most detailed account is that con- Robert tained in the narrative of ROBERT Blondel, entitled b. °39o." d^ Reductione Normanniae} Blondel was a Norman d. 1460. g^j^jj attached successively to the courts of the queen of Sicily and Charles VII. He records with considerable minuteness and precision the incidents that occurred in Normandy, Brittany, and France, from the capture of Fougeres, when the truce between England and France was broken, to the defeat and final expulsion of the English after the loss of Cherbourg. Allowing for occas onal acerbities of expression, his narrative may be accepted as a fair and honest representation of events. The Historie of the Arrivall of Eihvard IV. in Eng- ' Narratives of the Expulsion of the English frotn Normandy, 1449-50. Robtrtus Blondelll de Rcdiiciione Aor/iianniae etc. Ed. J. Ste\enson. .P.S. 1863. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS 29$ land^ contains the best contemporary account of the chap, final overthrow of the Lancastrian party. The editor has also furnished in the Preface an instructive criticism of the writers from whom we chiefly derive our know- ff/^^orie oj ■' the Arri- ledge of this period, and who were especially followed van of Ed' by the chroniclers. ""^'^ For the social causes which mainly conduced to the Wars of the Roses, Mr. Gairdner's valuable Prefaces to his edition of the Paston Letters'^ should be studied, to- Paston gether with the letters themselves. While destitute, for the most part, of any literary interest or charm, this re- markable collection brings very clearly before us the degraded moral sense, the coarseness of feeling, and the rude manners characteristic of domestic life in England at this period. The letters are also of service as showing the real character ol Jack Cade's rebellion, and the ruth- less spirit in which party warfare was carried on in the counties. They illustrate, in short, the conditions under which the reactionary rule of the Tudor dynasty became possible, A Chronicle of the Rebellion in Lincolnshire in 1470 The Re- is valuable not only as detailing particulars, not else- Lincoln-" where found, of an obscure episode in the great struggle, shire. but as proceeding from a writer instructed by the king's government, and who appeals to documents throughout.' For the literary history of the period, the Philobiblon^ Richard of of Richard of Bury is of considerable value ; while Reginald ' Historie of the An-ivall of Edivard IV. in England and (he finall ^'-"^ '• Recoveiye of his Kingdomes from Henry VI. A.D. 1471. Edited by John Bruce. C. S. 1838. ^ The Paston letters. Edited by James Gairdner. 3 vols. 1872- 1875- ^ Edited by John Gough Nichols for Camden Miscellany, vol. i. C. S, 1847. < The best edition is that by M. Cocheris, in 2 vols. (Paris, 1856.) A good abstract of the treatise is given by professor Morley in his English Writers, vol. ii. pt. i. pp. 49-57. 296 A.D. 1327 TO A.D. 1485. Chap. V. Continua- tion of the Cray I and Chronicle. Wark- wortli's Chronicle. More's Rirhard III. Papers o f Rchard III. the theological and scholastic tendencies of the age are reflected in the pages of the Repressor' of REGINALD Pecock.' The Continuation of the Croyland Chronicle,^ by more than one hand, is a genuine continuation of the spurious work ascribed to Ingulphus {supra, p. 255), and carries on the history to the year i486 ; in the great dearth of historical writers on the latter years of the reign of Henry VI. and on the reign of Edward IV., this narrative, meagre though it be, becomes of no slight importance. The Chronicle of JOHN WarkwortH also preserves some valuable details with respect to the latter period.^ The account of Edward V. and Richard III. by SlR Thomas More,^ may be accepted as virtually that of a contemporary, the facts having been in all probability communicated by his patron, archbishop Morton, in whose household he was a page in his youth. As a literary composition, the work is also deserving of note from the contrast which it presents in its purity and vigour of diction to most of the historical productions of this century. Some of the diplomatic papers of Richard III. are to be found in the Letters and Papers edited by Mr. Gairdner.^ The brief period of the nominal rule of Edward V. has been illustrated by a series of extracts from the ' The Repressor of over much Blaming of the Clergy. By I\:-ginald Pecock, sometime Bishop of Winchester. 2 vols. Edited by Church:ll Babington. B.D. R. S. i860. '^ Printed in Gale's Scriplores, i. 451-593 ; see supra, p. 217. " A Chronicle of the First Thirteen Years of the Reign of King Edwanl IV. By John Warkworth, U.D. Edited by J. O. HalUwell. C. S. 1839. See also articles in Gentleman^ s Alagazine and Arcluicologia enumerated in Descriptive Catalogue of Works of Canulen Society, p. 9. * Printed at Louvain in 1556; an English translation is given in Kennet, vol. i. %zg. supra, p. 217. ■' Liters and Papers illustrative of the Reigns of Richard III. and Henry Vfl. Edited by James (iairdncr. 2 vols. /". .9. 1864. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 297 Docket-Book^ or Register to the Crown, edited by Mr. Chap. Nichols. The evidence which these supply is occasion- ^1_ ally important ; among other points, it effectually dis- Docket- proves the supposition of Sharon Turner, that a parlia- Kdwa°d. ment was held during this time, and that the duke of Gloucester derived from it his authority as Protector.' The Chronicle of Robert Fabyan, sheriff of London Fabyans in 1493, extends from the fabulous period of British histor>% when ' Brute first entered Albion,' to the year 1485. Fabyan was a man of considerable attainments for his time, and in the earlier portion of his work, he makes some endeavour to reconcile the discordant statements of different historians. As a contemporary authority, his narrative is confined, for the most part, to events in London, but he is at the same time strongly Lancastrian in his sympathies.^ The testimony of fourteenth and fifteenth century Contem- writers, such as Knighton, Capgrave, Netter, Walsing- Wrft7rs on ham, and others, with respect to WycLIF is uniformly ^^^^j.^^''"'* unfavourable. It is from his own works and the more appreciative criticism of modern writers that he is to be judged. His principal English writings have been edited by Mr. Arnold,^ and are admirable specimens of the * New English ' of the fourteenth century. The Fasciculi Zizaniorum (' Little Bundles of Tares 'j ascribed ' Grants, <2r-V., from the Croivn during the Reign of Edward the Fifth, from the original Docket- Book MS. Harl. 433. And two Speeches for opening Parliatnent, by John Russell, Bishop of Lincoln, Lord Chancellor. With an Historical Introduct.o/t. By John Gough Nichols. C. S, 1854. 2 The N'ew Chronicles of England and France, in two Parts; by Robert Fabyan. Named by himself the Concordance of Histories. Edited by Henry Ellis. 181 1. ^ y^yzWis Select English Works. By T.Arnold. 3 vols. Clarendon Press. 1871. [This collection has recently been supplemented by another publication, The English Works of Wyclif hitlurto ttnprintid. Edited by r. D. MaUhew. E. E. T. Soc. iSSo.] ism. 298 A.D. 1327 TO A.D. 1485. Chap. to Thomas Netter of Walden/ provincial of the Car- ■ ' ■ melite order in England, and confessor to Henry V., is the only contemporary account of the rise of Lollardism. It is, however, the production of a writer hostile to the movement, and chiefly valuable as an illustration of the theological controversies of the age. Political Contemporary satire and popular sentiment are SoZ's '""^ illustrated by another collection of Political Poems and Songs, edited by Mr. T. Wright.^ Poiydore (b.) Non-contcmporary Writers. — The Historia Anglica -^.^iSo. of POLYDORE Vergil is the production of a learned d- 1555- Italian, the friend of Erasmus, and notable as the last collector of ' Peter's Pence ' in this country. He resided in England nearly half a century (a.D, 1503-50), and his work, undertaken at the request of king Henry VIH., appeared at Basel in 1534. It is divided into twenty- six books, of which three relate to the reigns of Henry VI., Edward IV., and Richard III. These were trans- lated into English in the sixteenth century, and the English version was published in 1846, by the Camden Society, with a preface by Sir Henry Ellis,^ In point Merits of of literary merit, the Historia Anglica exhibits a great Historia advance, both in conception and style, upon preceding' Angiua. histories. ' It was,' says Sir Henry Ellis, ' the first of our histories in which the writer ventured to compare the facts and weigh the statements of his predecessors ; and it was the first in which summaries of personal ' Fasciculi Zizaniorum Magistri yohannis Wyclif cum Tritico. Edited by Rev. W. W. Shirley. R. S. 185S. - Political Poems and Songs relating to English History, co7nposed dttriiig the Period frovi the Accession of Edrvard III. to the Reign of Henry J7I/. 2 vols. ^'..5". 1859-61. (For contents, down to reign of Richard III., see Mardy. D. C. i. 867). ■' Another volume, also published by the Camden Society (1844), con'ains an English version of the first eight hooks of Polydore's History (which relate to the period piior lo the Norman Conquest), by the same MODERN WRITERS. 299 character are introduced in the terse and energetic Chap. form adopted in the Roman classics.' With respect to 1_ the books included in the above translation, the same critic observes, that ' it is important to know that Poly- dore wrote this portion of his work whilst ma,ny of the persons alluded to in the events of the reigns of Edward IV. and Richard III. were alive, and who communicated with him ' {Pre/, pp. xxviii. and xxxii). The work of Edward Hall, entitled The Union Edward of tJie Two Noble Families of Lancaster and Yorke, first b.\^gg, printed in 1 542, commences with the deposition of '^- ^547- Richard II., and terminates with the reign of Henry VIII. For the present period it is mainly a compilation, made, however, with much care, from every available source, including French and German authorities. The style, though highly Latinised, is vigorous and clear. To the student of Shakespeare, Hall's narrative is of special interest, as the source from whence the great dramatist derived the materials for his historical plays. A Lifeoi Henry V., by one Robert Redman,' writ- Redman's ten about 1540, is interesting as a source of tradition ninry v. with respect to Henry's foreign policy, and also for the corroboration it affords of some of Shakespeare's repre- sentations of events ; it has, however, no claim to rank as an authority. The writer appears to have belonged to the party of the Reformers. (C.) Modern Writers. — In relation to the careers and Lncshj characters of the Black Prince and Richard III., Dr. §ah-dner, Pauli has given a careful and interesting study of each Lori§:man, in his Aufsdtze ziir EngliscJien Geschiclite (1869) ; but of Freeman, the latter, the most complete and trustworthy account hSuuh?" is that supplied in the Life by Mr. J AMES Gairdner,^ ' Memorials of Henry the Fifth. Edited by C. A. Cole. R. S. 1858. ^ History of the Life and Reign of Richard the Third. To ivhieh is 300 A.D. 1327 TO A.D. 14S5. Chap. V. Walcott's Wykekam. Anstey. Hook's Arch- bishops. in which the conclusions of the writer tend mainly to a vindication of the traditional accounts, and especially of the representations contained in Hall. For the history of Edward III., LONGMAN'S History of the Life and Times of that monarch may be consulted with advantage.' M. Wallon has written the best ac- count of Richard 11.^ Mr. Freeman's comparative estimate of the French wars of Edward III. and Henry v., in his Essays (First Series), offers the best criticism of our continental policy at this period ; while LORD Brougham's History of England tinder the Honse of Lancaster^ is a vigorous sketch of our political history at large. The last two chapters of Hallam's Middle Ages are eminently suggestive for the whole subject of medieval legislation and institutions, and his treatment of the subject of Chivalry still remains one of the best and most dispassionate estimates of that phase of civilisa- tion. Mr. Mackenzie E. C. Walcott's William of Wykeham and his Colleges (1852) is an interesting and careful sketch of the great reformer of education in the fourteenth century. Mr. Anstey's Preface to the Munimenta Academical illustrates the conditions of academic life and learning throughout the period, while these features may be further studied in DEAN HoOK's sketch of Thomas Bradwardine in his Lives of the Arch- bishops. The biographies in the same series — John Strat- ford (archbp. 1333-48), Simon Islip (1349-66), Simon Sudbury (1375-81), William Courtney (1381-96), added the story of Perkin Warbcck from original Documents. By James Gairdner. 1878. > The History of the Life and Titnes of Edivard III. By W. Long- man. 2 vols. "^ Richard IL Episode de la rivalite de la France etd'Anglcterre. 2 vols. 1864. » New edit. 1861. * Munimenta Academica ; or, Documents illustrative of Academical Life and Studies at Oxford. 2 vols. i^. ^•. 1868. MODERN WRITERS. 30 r Thomas Arundel (i 396-1414), Henry Chicheley (141 4- Chap. 43), and Thomas Bourchier (1454-86), — are, for the most, animated sketches, which supply useful illustra- tion of the relations of the English Church to the State, a subject that is more systematically treated in the 19th chapter of PROFESSOR Stubbs' Consiitu- iional History. Mr. Shirley's Preface to the Fas- Shirley. ciciili Zizanionim renders a like service in connexion with Wyclif and Lollardism, and the Papacy, — a piece of valuable criticism which should be studied in conjunction with Mr. Gairdner's article entitled Bible Thought in Gairdner, the Fifteenth Century} Another article by the same writer on Jack Cade's Rebellion ^ brings out the real sig- nificance of that movement, as * the first move in the struggle between the Houses of York and Lancaster.' A good general outline of the decline oFthe Papacy and the causes that led to the Reformation will be found in the tenth chapter of Geffcken's Church and State, Geftcken. translated by Fairfax Taylor. For the career of Charles the Bold, duke of Bur- gundy, who played an important part in relation to English politics in the fifteenth century, the student should consult the Life by Mr. KlRK,^ a work of con- Kirk's siderable research, and enlivened by much brilliant and ^farfes the vigorous description. ^"id. In connexion with the condition of the English peasantry at this period, and more especially with the popular revolt of 1381, the first two volumes of professor Thorold Rogers' History of Agriculture and Prices Rogers's in Efigland* supply the best statistical information. Priced" ' Fortnightly Review, vol. ii. " Ibid. Oct. 1 870. s History of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. By John Foster- Kirk. 3 vols. 1863. * Of this valuable work only the first two volumes are published, com- mencing with the year after the Oxford Parliament (1259) and concluding wiih the year 1400. It is the author's design to carry it on to the year 1793. Two more volumes are now in the press. CHAPTER VI. FROM THE ACCESSION OF HENRY VH. TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH. Chap. (a.) Contemporary Writers. — It is a significant proof ^^- of the dearth of literary talent in England at the close of Poivdore the fifteenth century, that our best Sources of information and^di with respect to the national history, so far, at least, as they assume the form of narrative, are from the pens of foreigners. Polydore Vergil now attains his chief value,' and as an authority for the reign of Henry VII. greatly surpasses all native writers, Hall being here little more than a translator of his contemporary's work. In con- nexion with the reign of Henry VIII., however, Polydore is by no means altogether to be trusted, and more than one critic, and especially Mr. Brewer, has convicted him of very unscrupulous misrepresentations with respect to individual characters ; of cardinal Wolsey he habitually writes vvath an animosity which is sufficiently ex- ' As regards Polydore, Mr. Gairdner's criticism appears well worthy of being quoted. 'There was certainly,' he says, 'something in the new condition of things that produced a feeling of constraint ; and the dull intellects of native writers, accustomed only to record external events, which the contentions of feudal nobles and rival dynasties had produced in unwelcome abundance, could not be expected to penetrate the veil of subtle statesmanship, by which a politic and peaceful, but watchful and suspicious king, was putting an end to the long reign of violence. It required the brain of an Italian to gather the acts of such a reign into a regular narrative, and make their real significance apparent.' — Early Chroniclers, p. 306. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 50 j plained by some of the incidents in his personal career, chap. Hall, on the other hand, exhibits the opposite prejudices. He was a lawyer by profession, and he appears to have hailed with special satisfaction the accession of a sovereign whose undeniable hereditary right gave promise of a more tranquil era. While therefore he continues to bor- row largely from Polydore, his strong sympathies with the Crown lead him to justify and extol Henry's policy to an undue extent ; some of the passages which he adapts from his contemporary, containing expressions un- favourable to the Reformation, are even altered by him so as to bear a contrary sense. But there are also portions of Hall's narrative in which he becomes a valuable original authority. Among these is his account of the rising of the 'prentice lads against the aliens in London, and of some of the passages in Wolsey's career, where he writes as a personal observer. To another foreigner, BERNARD Andr£ of Toulouse, Bernard we are also indebted for an excellent account, perhaps •'^"'''"^• the best from a contemporary pen, of the reign of Henry Vn.' Andre was an Italian scholar, who, after having taught at Oxford, became permanently attached to the court of Henry VH. as poet laureat, and was the re- cipient of an annual pension. His Life of his royal patron is written in excellent Latin, and reflects, in its numerous quotations from classical authors, and its frequent poetical effusions, the influence of the Renais- sance. The example of Livy is especially to be recog- nised in the speeches attributed to Richard HL and Henry. The sketch of Henry's career prior to his coronation is probably derived from statements made by the monarch himself, but it supplies only an imperfect ' Historia Regis Henrici Seplimi, a Ber)iardo Andrea Tholosate con- scripla, nectton alia quaedam ad cundem rcgein spectantia. Editerl by James Gairdner. R. S. 1858. The Lon- don Chro- nicle. 304 A.D. 1485 TO A.D. 1603. Chap. outline, and the value of the whole composition consists rather in the fact that it is the production of a contem- porary than in the information which it supplies. The Vene- Another sketch of Encrland under Henry VII. is the tian 'Rela- ,^,^. , .. ,r tion." work of a Venetian, the secretary, it is supposed, ot Francesco Capella, ambassador from the Republic of Venice to Henry's court' It gives a clear and intelligent account of such features in the English political, commercial, and financial institutions as the writer thought likely to interest his countrymen. The time of its composition is supposed to be A.D. 1496-1502. An account of London during the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VI 11.,^ published by the Camden Society, supplies a series of short notes on public events, from the progress of the Royal family and the arrival of illustrious visitors in London, down to minor incidents, such as the paving of Chancery, Fetter, and Shoe Lanes, the doings of the London * prentices,' &c. For the Divorce and the rupture with Rome of which it was mainly the cause, the treatise of Nicholas Hnrpsfieid Harpsfield ^ and that of Reginald Pole, de Unitate Ecciesiae, are two of the most noteworthy illustrations of the feelings and sentiments of the Catholic party. Among the numerous City chronicles of this period, which intelligent London citizens were in the habit of ' A Relanoii, or rather a true Account, of the Isle of Eng'and ; with sun- dry particulars of the Customs of these People and of the royal Kevennes under King Henry the Seventh, about the year 1 500. Translated from ihe Italian, with Notes, by Charlotte Augusta Sneyd. C. S. 1847. ^ A London Chronicle during the Hei^tts of Henry VII, and Henry VIII. Edited by Clarence Hopper. Camden Miscellany, vol. iv. C. S. 1859. ^ Harpsfielil's Treatise of the Pretended Divorce between Henry VIII. and Catharine of Aragti. Edited by the Rev. N. Pocock. C. S. 1879. See also the materials collected by the same editor in connection with the Divorce Question, entitled ' Records of the Reformation ' (1527 1533). 2 vols. Clar. Press. 1870. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 305 compiling, although apparently without any notion of Chap. bringing them under the public eye, is that of Charles 1- WriothESLEV, Windsor Herald.' This is of some value Wriothe- as shewing us the way in which an Englishman of ordi- chronicle. naiy intelligence regarded the events of the time. Down to the eleventh year of Henry VHI. the Chronicle is a mere piece of plagiarism, but Irom that date it becomes original and supplies some valuable information. No works of the period describe with greater force the social evils and abuses prevalent in the first half of the sixteenth century than the Utopia of SiR THOMAS ^°'''^.'^ , '' r ■ J Utopia and MORE,^ and Starkey's Englmid tn the Reign of Henry starkey's VIII? In the former production, these features are "^"'" brought into relief by juxtaposition with the laws and institutions of an imaginary Commonwealth. In the latter, the treatment is cast into the form of a dialogue between Reginald Pole and Lupset Thomas Lupset, who was afterwards a professor at Oxford, edited, while studying at Paris, a reprint of the first edition of the Utopia (printed at Paris, about 1518), and the two works have many sentiments in common. Of the Dialogue, its latest editor says, ' its unimpassioned statements respect- ing men, its judge-like suggestions for improvement, its keen appreciation of what would profit the country, and make men wiser, happier, and better, give it a value which few works of the time possess.' With the Reformation, our English historical literature influences begins to reflect the influences of the controversial spirit foVmaikin. ' A Chirnide of England, during the Keigns of the Tudor s, from a.d. 1485 to 1559. By Charles Wriothcsley. Edited by W. D. Hamilton. 2 vols. C. S. 1875. ''■ Utopia. Originally printed in Latin, 1516. Translated into English by Ralph Robinson. Edited by Edward Arber. 1869. ^ England in the Reign of King Henry the Eighth. By Thomas Starkey, Chaplain to the King. Edited by J. M. Cow per. E. E. T. Sac, 1871. X 3o6 A.D. 1485 TO A.D. 1603. Chap. VI. Holin- shed's Chronicles, of the age to an extent which renders it necessary to exercise more than ordinary caution in accepting many statements, however positively and circumstantially affirmed. While we can discern in writers of every school the effect of the new studies on learning, and also the growing richness and power of the native language, the spirit of partisanship becomes at the same time in- creasingly perceptible. The accounts given by Catholic writers concerning Protestants, or by Protestant writers concerning Catholics, those of either Catholics or Angli- cans concerning Puritans, or those of Puritans concerning Catholics or Anglicans, are to be looked upon with almost equal distrust until corroborated by other and less prejudiced testimony. The overthrow of the monas- teries, again, involved the discontinuance of much of the former laborious research, — the quiet and the assured maintenance necessary to the prosecution of such labours being no longer at the command of the scholar, — a fact of which we are painfully reminded by the indifferent reward which waited upon the labours of patient investi- gators, such as Leland and Stowe, who ventured to carry on historical work at their own risk. A third cause, which operated powerfully to the prejudice of all learned enterprise, was the absorption of much of the intellectual vigour of the age in the narrow but exciting arena of theological polemics. The collection known under the name of HOLIN- SHED's Chronicles,^ is devoted mainly to purely political or social events, and is comparatively free from exag- gerated partisanship. It contains (i) A Description of • Holinshecfs Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Irelami. First collected and published by Raphael I/olinshed, IVilliam Harrison, and others. NoT.u newlie augmented and continwd to tlu year 1586. By John I/oohjr, alias Vmvell, Gent., and others. (Of this, the edition of 1S07 in 6 vois. 4I0. is an exact reprint.) CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. "^oy Ens^land by William HaiTison, a work of considerable Chap. VI topographical and antiquarian interest ; (2) A Chronicle '., of Ireland^ derived from Giraldus Cambrensis as far as the Norman Conquest, from which time to the year 1 509 it is the compilation of Holinshed ; it was then continued by Richard Stanyhurst (a Catholic, and the uncle of archbishop Ussher), who brings the narrative down to 1547 ; from thence to 1586 it is the work of John Hooker, alias Vowell, an uncle of the eminent author of the Ecclesiastical Polity ; (3) A Chronicle of Scotland, chiefly from the Latin of Hector Boethius, by William Harrison ; (4) A Chronicle of England, by Holinshed, who carried his work as far as the year 1577, whence it was continued to 1586 by John Hooker ; (5) A Chronicle of Scotland, by Holinshed and other hands, compiled from Boethius, John Major, and the continuation of Boethius by John Ferreri. The range of Holinshed's read- ing was considerable, and in the compilation of his work he had the advantage of being allowed to consult the manuscripts of Leland. In his dedication, he professes to ' have had an especial eye unto the truth of things,' a claim which is fairly borne out by his own share in the performance ; and, on the whole, the collection justifies the description of its compilers given by Holinshed himself in his preface, as the work of ' men of commendable diligence though not of deepest judgement.' The first edition of the Chronicles appeared in two volumes folio, in 1557 ; but the edition of 1807, to which reference is given in the footnote, is a reprint of the edition of 1 586-7 in 3 vols., in which certain passages of the original edition, displeasing to Elizabeth and her ministers, had been suppressed by order of the Privy Council. The suppressed passages were however printed separately in 1723. The works of JOHN Stowe, in their conception and X 2 3o3 A.D. 1485 TO A.D. 1603. Chap. character, somewhat resemble the foregoing Chronicles, 1- He was the son of a merchant tailor of London, and John became one of the most distinguished antiquaries of ^. 1525. the century. His theological sympathies, which were fl'. 1605. first those of a moderate Catholic, and subsequently of a loyal adherent of the Established Church, inclined him to look with reverence and interest on the institutions and memorials of the past. He was the author of (i) A H\s Sum- Siinwiary of the Chronicles of Etigland^ — a small popular ^Amt'aies, manual of English history, which, so far as it relates to "/i^fl''^^'^ sixteenth century history, consists mainly of notable political events, extraordinary occurrences, natural phe- nomena, &c. ; (2) A}tnalcs^' a work of similar character, but more strictly historical in its conception, continued to the year 1614, by Edward Howes, who re-edited it under the title of Stowe's Chronicle ; (3) A Survey of London and Westminster^ treating of the history and antiquities of the two cities for a period of six centuries, together with their municipal institutions and forms of govern- ' A Summarie of the Chronicles of England, f7-om the first arriving oj Brute in this leland unto this present yeci'e of Christ, 1 590. First collected, since inlarged, and noiu continued by yoJin Staiue, citizen of London. London, 1590. '^ The Annates, or General! Chronicle of England, begun first by maister fohn Stoxv, and after him continued and augmented with matters forayne and domestic, auncient and inodernc, ttnto the end of this present yeere 1614. I3y Edward Howes, gentleman. London, 1615. (Howes dedicates his edition to Prince Charles.) ' A Survey of the Cities of London and Westminster : containing the Original, Antiquity, Lncrease, Modern Estate and Government of those Cities. Written at first in the year 1 598. By John Stoiv, citizen and native of London. Since reprhttcd and augmented by the Author : and afterwards by A[nthony] Jl/[onday], H[umphrey'\ D^yson}, and others. A^ow lastly corrected, im- proved, and veiy much enlarged, and the Survey and History brought do^vn fro?n the year 1633 ^^ ^^'^ P'-esent time ; by fohn Strype, M.A. To which IS prefixed the Life of the Author, 7wit by the Editor. London, 1720. Another and much more compendious edition was published by Mr. Thorns in 1842. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 309 ment ; the contemporary portion is described by Mr. Chap. Thorns as ' a simple unadorned picture of London at 1. the close of the sixteenth century.' For what is usually denominated the Reformation period, the chief contemporary source of information is John Foxe's History of the Acts and Monuments of the John^Foxe. Church} more commonly known as the ' Book of Martyrs.' d. 1587. Foxe was a man of high character and undoubted in- His ^r/j ° and Monu- tegnty of purpose, but his sympathies were altogether ments. with the extreme Protestant party, and his Puritanical views would never permit him to subscribe to the Articles of the Established Church. There is consequently little reason to doubt that, though there is no reason to suppose that he wilfully mistated facts, his representations are largely coloured by his feelings as a partisan. He was acrimoniously attacked by Harding, Harpsfield (Alan Cope), and others, but their vehemence in a great measure recoiled upon themselves, and comparatively few of his statements have been disproved. The History t.^- tends to the year 1559. Monastic history is illustrated by the Chronicle of the Minor Grey Friars of London} which extends to the year 1556, Si'^tr' — a volume the more deserving of notice in that it was ^'^^ Refor- " mation. unused by Stowe, and appears to have altogether escaped the notice of Strype. With the commencement of the reign of Henry VHI. the entries give evidence that the chronicler was watchfully observant of the religious ten- dencies of the age. The collection of Letters rehiting to the Dissolution of the Monasteries^ (published in the same series) throws considerable light on the actual state of ' The Acts and Monuments of John Fo.ve. A new and complete edi- tion. Edited by Rev. S. R. Cattley. 8 vols. 184 1. "^ Chronicle of the Grey Friars of London. Edited by John Gou;,'h Nichols. C. S. 1852. ^ Three Chapters of Letters relatin^^to the Suppression oftJie MoiiaJei ies. Edited by Thomas Wright. C. S, 1843. 310 A.D. J485 TO A.D. 1603. Chap. VI. Remaim of Ed- ward VI. Machyn's Diary. Chronicle of Queen Jane, b'c. Live^ of More and Wolbey. these communities at that time. To these may be added the companion volume, entitled Narratives of the Days oj the Reformation,^ which includes two contemporary biographies of Cranmer. Another excellent illustration of the period is afforded in the rhymed satire, Rede me and be nott zvrothe (1528), — an attack upon the clergy and Wolsey in particular for the immorality and world- liness of their lives.^ The Literary Remains of King Edivard VI? published by the Roxburgh Club, contain his letters, ' orations,' and exercises, together with his Jmirnal. They are pre- ceded by a preface by Mr. J. G. Nichols, of considerable interest, in which he defends the originality of the Journal. The whole work offers some noteworthy illustrations both of the education of the time and of the royal character. The Diary of Henry iMachyn,* a citizen of London, extends from A.D. 1550 to 1563, and preserves many interesting facts which have however been largely incorporated by Strype. Another work of a somewhat similar character, dealing with the first two years of queen Mary's reign, and with Wyatt's rebellion, has been used in like manner by Stowe.'^ The Life of Sir Thomas More, by his son-in-law, ' Narratives of the Days of the Reformation, chiefly from the A/SS. of John Foxe the Martyi-ologist, with two covtcmporary Bu\i^7-aphies of Arch- bishop Cranmer. Edited by John Gough Nichols. C. S. 1859. - In Arber's English Reprints, 187 1. * Literary Remains of Ring Edward the Sixth. Edited f-otn his auto- graph manuscripts, with Historical Notes and a Biographical Memoir. By J. G. Nichols. R. C. 1857. * The Diary of Henry Machyn, Citizen and Merchant Taylor of Landon, from A.D. 1550 to A.D. 1563. Edited by John Gough Nichols. C. S. 1854. * The Chronicle of Queen Jane, and of Two Years of Queen Mary, atui especially of the Rebellion of Sir Thomas Wyat ; written by a RcsideiUin the 'lower of London. Edited by J. G. Nichols. C. S. 1850. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 311 Roper,' and that of Wolsey, by his usher Cavendisii,^ Chap. are both biographies of signal merit, containing much that serves to illustrate the social habits and standard of morality prevalent in their day. The expedition of the Earl of Essex to Ireland receives some additional illustration in the Life of Sir Peter Carezv? written by JOHN HoOKER (alias Vowell) Hooker's of Exeter, an uncle of the eminent Richard Hooker. The ^(l°^ work affords also a striking picture of the domestic life of an English country gentleman of the sixteenth century. The eminent antiquary Camden, of whose Britan- camden's nia some account has already been given, published in ^{■j{^t^ 161 5 the first part of his Life of Elii^abeth •,'^ it was originalh' composed in Latin, and is a lucid and able digest chiefly of the political events of her reign. Cam- den's conception of the historian's function, as indicated in his Preface, marks a distinct advance upon preceding writers. He professes to take Polybius for his model, and to refer events to their true causes. In the com- pilation of his work he was materially aided by papers and correspondence from the royal archives, placed in his hands by lord Burghley. The main value of the foregoing material, however, The state often consists rather in the evidence which it affords Papers, ■axi^ . , . . 1 1 1- r Calendars With respect to contemporary impressions and beliefs, of the same, than in the light which it throws on the genuine con- nexion of events and the true springs of state policy. ' The Life of Sir Thomas More, by his son-in-law, William Roper, Esq. ; tc which is added an Appendix of Letters. C his wick, 18 17. - The Life of Cardinal Wolsey, by George Cavendish, his Gentleman Usher. Edited by Samuel Weller Singer, F.S. A. 1827. ^ The Life and Times of Sir Peter Careiu, Kt. From the original MS. With an historical Introduction and elucidatoiy Notes by John Maclean. 1857. * In Kennet, vol. ii. see supra, p. 217. The second part was not pub- lished until 1633, ^f'S'' Camden's death. 312 A.D. 1485 TO A.D. 1603. Chap. To these, the real key is to be found in the State Papzrs ^^' of the period, — documents which, with the reign of Henry VI 1 1., become vastly more numerous and important than in the preceding century, besides embodying information of far more general and widely extended interest, while the Calendars ' of the same, published by the Record Commissioners, have rendered the work of investigation much less laborious. Of the volumes relating to the reign of Henry VHI., the late learned editor says, ' What- ever authentic original material exists in England relative to the religious, political, parliamentary, or social history of the country during the reign of Henry VHI., whether despatches of ambassadors, or proceedings of the army, navy, treasury, or ordnance, or records of Par- liament, appointments of officers, grants from the crown, &c., will be found calendared in these volumes.' ^ The series known as the Ziirich Letters^ from the 1 Calendar of Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign of Henry VIII. Edited by J. S. Brewer and James Gairdner. 1862-1880. 5 vols. Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, of the Reigns of Ed-ward VI., Mary, Elizabeth, and James I. Edited by Robert Lemon and Mrs. Everett Green. 1856-1872. 12 vols. Caletidar of State Papers , Foreign Series, of the Reign of Edward VI. Edited by W. B. Turnbull. 1861. Calendar of State Papers, Foreign Series, of the Reign of Mary. Edited by W. B. Turnbull. 1861. Calendar of State Papers, Foreign Series, of the Reign of Elizabeth. Edited by Joseph Stevenson and A. J. Crosby. 1863-1880. II vols, extending to the year 1577. 2 From the State Papers of the reign of Henry VIII. selections ex- tending to seven volumes quarto were printed by the Record Commis- sioners in 1830-52 : vol. i. Domestic Correspoftdence ; vols. ii. and iii. Correspondence relating to Ireland ; vols. iv. and v. Correspondence relating to Scotlatid ; vols. vii. to xi. Correspondence between England and other courts. ^ Edited by the Rev. Hastings Robinson, in three volumes ; (i) From the Reformation to 1557; (2) from 1558-1579 ; (3) second series, 1558- 1602. P. S. 1847 and 1842. \J\\& first of three volumes (as regards order of contents) was published last, and is generally cited as '3Zur.' The Epistolae Tigurinae, frequently referred to by Mr. Froude, are the Latin originals of this volume, published in 1848.] y.iirich Letters, CONTEMPORARY WRIT 313 fact that the original documents are for the most part Chap. contained in the public library and archives of that city, _ will be found of considerable service in connexion with the study of the views and personal history of the six- teenth century Reformers ; while the Brief Discourse^ Tattributed to Whittingham, a relation of John Calvin,) respecting the proceedings of a little band of Marian exiles at Frankfort, throws much light on the first begin- Troubles at nings of Puritanism, and the scruples which led to the ^'^^ j°'' - attempt to establish a church discipline different from that of the Church of England. A History of the Martin Martin Marprelate Controversy^ by W. Maskell, supplemented \^l^^^' by the account in Hunt's History of Religions Thought (vol. i.) supplies all the information necessary in con- nexion with that episode. For the history of the Reformed Church in Scotland, The Re- the earliest record is that edited by Peterkin,^ which church io contains the successive enactments concerning doctrine l^terkin.' and discipline from the year 1560 to 1616. A more gene- ^- ^781. rally interesting account is the History of the Kirk of Caider- Scothnd by David Calderwood,'' which commences J!°°S75. with the year 15 14, and concludes in 1625. Calderwood ^- ^^5i. ' A Brief Discourse of the Troubles begun at Frankfort in Germany A.D. 1554 about the Book of Common Prayer, and continued by the English- men there to the End of Queen Clary's reign. Phoenix, vol. ii. 1 707. (Originally published in 1575.) The representations of the Discourse xQ' quire, however, to be received with special caution. Dean Hook regards it as ' so one-sided a production, that in giving an account of the proceedings at Frankfort, much, ' he says, ' must be left by those who have only this work to guide them, to historical conjecture.' Lives of the Archbishops, x. 31. ^ A History of the Martin Marprelate Controversy in the Reign of Queen Elizabeth. London, 1845. (Printed at Chiswick.) ' The Booke of the Universale Kirk of Scotland : wherein the Headts and Commissionaris of the patiicttlar Kirks thereof are specially expressed and contained. Edited by Alexander Peterkin, Esq. Edinburgh, 1839. ■• A History of the Kirk of Scotland. By Mr. David Calderwood, sometime Minister of Crailing. Edited by the Rev. Thomas Thomson. 8 vols. Wodrow Society. 1842. 314 A.D. 1485 TO A.D. 1603. Chap. vvas a staunch opponent of the episcopaHan movement 1, in Scotland, in the reign of James I., and the chief value of his work belongs to our next period. His work con- tains much unscrupulous misrepresentation and scanda- lous calumny as regards James and the English Church party, but is evidently the production of a vigorous and independent mind. Another work on the same subject, but of a very different character, is the Histojy of the Arch- Church of Scotland, by Spottiswoode,' archbishop of St SpotTs- Andrews, who undertook the labour at the suggestion of woode. V\x\^ James himself Spottiswoode was a man of ami- d. 1639. able and conciliatory spirit, and his History reflects the disposition of its author. Hardwicke The volumcs generally known as the Hardwicke apers. Papers''' include a valuable miscellaneous collection, the contents of which range from the year 1501 to 1726. Of the portion relating to the present period, some of the documents throw considerable light on the characters of Burleigh, Walsingham, and Leicester ; another sup- plies a detailed and amusing account of the journey of Mary's ambassadors to Rome in 1555, — the last state embassy from England for the purpose of paying public homage to the see of Rome ; others include correspon- dence relating to the siege and final loss of Calais, and also numerous letters of Mary, queen of Scots. The Compleat Ambassador oi Sir Dudley Digges,^ a diplomatist in the early part of the seventeenth cen- ' History of the Church of Scotland, begmning the year of our Lord 203, and continued to the end of the Reign of James VI. By the Rt. Rev. ' John Spottiswoode. With biographical Sketch and Notes, by the Rt. Rev. M. Russell. 3 vols. Edinburgh, 1851. 2 Miscellaneous State Papers. From 1501 to 1726. 2 vols. 4to. 1778. (The name of the editor, the Earl of Hardwicke, does not appear on tlie title-page.) 3 The Compleat Ambassador : or. Two Treaties of the intended Marriage of Queen Elizabeth, &^c. Faithfully collected by the Honourable Sir Dud- ley Digges, Kt. Fol. 1655. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 315 tury, gives the ' Letters of Negotiation' relating to the Chap. proposed marriage of queen EHzabeth with the duke of L_ Anjou. The collector claims to exhibit ' as in a clear mirror, the two faces of the two courts of England and France, as they then stood, with many remarkable passages of State, not at all mentioned in any history.' The volume entitled Cabala is a collection of cor- Cabala. respondence ' of illustrious persons, and great ministers of state,' in the reigns of Henry VIII., Elizabeth, king James I. and king Charles I.' A far more extensive and important, but very mis- cellaneous, collection is that known as the Somers Tracts^- The which may compare with the Harleian Miscellany in its *5?^^^J^^ range and importance. The earliest document belongs to the reign of king John, but the materials are scanty until the reign of Elizabeth is reached, while the chief value of the work is in connexion with the seventeenth century. For the proceedings of the Elizabethan parliaments Proceed- the collections published in the following century by SiR Eifza- SlMONDS D'EW£S,3 and Heywood Townshend ^ are ^^'^^'^ ' Cabala, sive Scrinia Sacra, &-v. Third edition (containing a second part, consisting of a choice collection of original Letters and Nego- tiations, never before published) fol. London, 1691. 2 A Collection of scarce and valuable Tracts, on the most interesting and entertaining Subjects: but chiefly such as relate to the History and Constitu- tion of these Kingdoms. Selected front- dn infinite number in print and manuscript, in the Royal, Cotton, Sion, and other public, as well as private. Libraries ; particularly that of the late Lord Somers. The second edition, revised, augmented, and arranged, by Walter Scott, Esq. 13 vols. 4to. 1808. 3 The Journals of all the Parliaments durirg the Reign cf Queen Eliza- beth, both of the House of Lords and House of Commons. Collected by Sir Simonds D'Ewes. London, 1662. •• Historical CAlcctions : or, an exact Account of the Proceedings of the four last Parliaments of Queen Elizabeth. Wherein is contained the Com- pleat Journals both of Lords and Commons, taken from the original Records of their Houses. Faithfully and laboriously collected by Heywood Towns- hend, Esq., Member of those Parliaments. 1680. 3i6 A.D. 1485 TO A.D. 1603. . Chap. the best sources of information ; the former are incor- VI. L porated in Cobbett (see supra, p. 227). Parlia- ments. Burleigh The two volumes known as the Burleigh Papers con- tain a large number of documents illustrative of public Paper!. affairs from A.D. 1542 to 1596.* The State Papers Granveiie's and Correspondence of cardinal Granvelle^ include dence. documents dealing with events throughout the greater part of the sixteenth century, and are a primary source of information with respect to the rivalry then exist- ing between the houses of France and Austria, the progress of the Reformation in Germany, France and Switzerland, the divorce of Henry VIII., the marriage The of queen Mary with Philip II., &c. The FrencJi Des- French r ' Despatches, patches, edited by M. Teulet,^ are of not less value in connexion with affairs in Scotland and the political negotiations between that country and France, especially Noailles during the reign of Elizabeth. The Despatches of the Despatches. o & . r tv.'o brothers, Antoine and Frangois de Noailles,^ ambas- sadors from Henry II,, during the reign of queen Mary, ' (i.) ^ Collectionof State Papers, relating to Affairs in the Reigns of King Henry VIII , King Edward VI., Queen Alary, and Queen Elizabeth, from the year 1542 to 1570. Transcribed from Original Letters and other authentic Memorials, never before published, left by William Cecil, Lord Burghley. By Samuel Haynes, A.M. 1740. (ii.) A Collection of State Papers relating to Affairs in the Reign of Queen Elizabeth, from the year 1571 to 1596, di'c. By William Murdin. ^ (i. ) Collection de Documents Inedits sur I'llistoire de France, publies par Ordre dti Roi et par les Soins dii Ministre de I Instruction Publique. Premiere Serie. Histoire Politique. Vols. i-ix. : Papiers d'Etat dii Cardinal Granvelle. Ed. M. Ch. Weiss. Paris, 1841. (ii.) Cotrespond- ance du Cardinal G}-anvelle. Ed. M. £. Poullet. Belg. Doc. Inedit. ' Teulet (Jean B. A. T. ) ; (i.) htventaire chronologique dcs Documents relatifs a I Histoire d'Ecosse consei-vcs aux Archives du Royaume de Paris. (Abbotsford Club, 1839) ; (ii.) Relations Poliiiques de la France et de PEspagne avec PEccsse au seizihne Siicle : Papiers cTEtat, Pikes et Docu-- ments inedits ou peu connus. 5 vols. Paris, 1862. < Ambassades de Messieurs de Noailles en Angleterre. Redigees par feu M. I'Abbe de Vertot. 6 vols. Leyden, 1763. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 317 reveal many details respecting the plots against her Chap. supremacy (to which they were privy), and shew great powers of observation and discernment. In addition to the foregoing, two highly important state collections in foreign countries now begin to be of con- preserved siderable service in the illustration of English affairs, — anJat st those of the Venetian State,' and those preserved at mancas. Simancas, the depository of the archives of the kingdom of Castile.2 In connexion with the character of Mary, queen of Materials Scots, and the long-agitated controversy respecting the nLtory of justice of the charges brought against her by contempo- q^^^^^ ^^ rary writers, we have the collection of her Letters Scots, published by prince LOBANOV-ROSTOVSKY, who has also edited the modern treatise on the subject by W. Tytler.^ Other material (the genuineness of some of which is much disputed) will be found in the earlier Collections by AndersOxN,^ and in the Letter Books of Sir Amias Poulet, edited by John Morris,'^ by whom Froude's accuracy is strongly impugned. ' Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts relating to English Affairs presei-ved in the Archives of Venice, cr'c. (1202-1556). Edited by Rawdon Brown. 6 vols. P. S. 1864-77. ^ Calendar of Letters, Despatches, and State Papers, relating to the N'egotiations between England and Spain, preserved in the Archives of Simancas, and elsewhere (1485-1525). Edited by G. A. Bergenroth. 2 vols. A'. S. 1862-68. Calendar of Letters, Despatches, and State Papers, dialing with the Negotiations betzveen England and Spain, presented in the Archives of Simancas and elsewhere (1525-30). Edited by Don Pascual do Gayanos. 3 vols. R. S. 1873-9. 3 Letters of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland : selected from the ' Pecueil des Lettres de Marie Stua-^t,' by Prince Lobanov-Postoz'sky. 1845. Tytler (\V.). Recherches historiques sur les principales preuves de P accusation intentee centre Marie Stuart. Edited by Prince Lobanov-Rostovsky. i860. •• Collections relating to the Hist 01 y of Mary, Queen of Scotland. 4 vols. 4to. Edinburgh, 1727-8. * The Letter Books of Sir Amias Poulet, K'eef>cr of Mary, Queen of Scots. Edited by John .Morris., Priest of the Society of Jesus. 1874. 3i3 A.D. 1485 TO A.D. 1603. Chap, The state of religious parties in the latter part of !_ Elizabeth's reign is a subject which has been very in- Literature adequately treated by historical writers on the period. the Catho- For the condition of the Catholic clergy and the Jesuit TesJit's'^ Mission to England, the student may consult the first in England, part of Challoner'S Missionary Priests,^ and the Lives of John Gerard by MORRIS,^ and Dr. JESSOPP.^ The latter writer has also prefixed to his interesting volume a list of the special literature relating to his subject. ivhmood's The Collections known as WiNWOOD's Memoj'ia/s* date from the year 1596 and extend to 1613. Sir Ralph Winwood was English minister at this period at the French court and at the Hague,— a time when, to quote the expression of Lloyd, ' you might understand more of England at Amsterdam than at London,' — and the papers which he preserved relate to negotiations, not only with France and Holland, but also with Spain, Venice, and other countries. Sydney -pj-^g collection knowu as the Sydney Papers,^ a series of letters and State documents, written and collected by ' ]\Ieinoirs of Missionary Priests, as well secular as regular, and of other Catholics, of both Sexes, that have suffered Death in England on Religious Accounts, from the year of Our Lord i^TJ to 1684. Pt. i. 1577- 1603 ; pt. ii. 1 603- 1 684. ''■ The Condition of Catholics under James I. Father Gerard'' s Nai-rative of the Gunpowder Plot. Edited, with his Life, by John Morris, Priest S. J. 2nd edit. Longmans, 1872. ^ One Generation of a Norfolk House : a Contributio7i to Elizabethan History. By Augustus Jessopp, D.D. 1879. ■• Memorials of Affairs of State in the Reign of Queen Elizabeth and King James I. Collected {chiefly^) from the original Papers of the Right Hon. Sir Ralph Winwood, Kt. In 3 vols. By Edmund Sawyer. 1725- * Letters and Memorials of State, in the Reign of Queen ATary, Queen Elizabeth, King James, King Charles /., part of the Reign of King Charles LL., and Oliver's Usurpation. Translated from the Originals at Penshurst in Kent, the seat of the Earls of Leicester. By Arthur Collins. 2 vols, ful. 1746. NON-CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 319 successive members of the Sidney family, commences Chap. with the reign of queen Mary. These were edited in L the last centur>' by Arthur Collins, with a large amount of additional historical matter, and well deserve to be consulted, not only for the history of an illustrious house, but for the various information they convey. The Letters of Sir Robert Cecil to Sir George Carew} Carew written during the administration of the province of Munster by the latter, in the years 1600 to 1602, throw considerable light on the policy pursued towards Ireland during the latter years of Elizabeth's reign. For the same reign, HARRISON'S Description of Eng- Harrison's land, of which Mr. Furnivall has published an excellent of England. reprint among the publications of the New Sliakspere Society, affords a graphic and outspoken record of the general condition of the people in the latter half of the sixteenth century. In the same series we have also Stubbes's amusing A natomie of A buses, which depicts the Stubbes's prevailing vices and corruptions of the period 1583-95 ; ofAb^es. and Stafford's Exami7iation of Complaints, etc. (1580), in which the writer's chief aim is to explain the actual Stafford's condition of trade and agriculture, his views presenting Examina- a singular combination of natural shrewdness with the defective economical theories of his age. Non-contemporary "Writers. — As nearly all political feeling in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was dominated by religious sympathies, a close attention to the views of religious parties is indispensable on the part of the historical student. It is not, however, until the latter century that we find the policy of each party, whether Anglican, Puritan, or Catholic, receiving a fairly temperate exposition at the hands of its defenders, in the form of connected narrative. Among these pro- ' Letters froDi Si)- Robert Cecil lo Sir George Carew. Edited by John Maclean. C . S. 1864. 320 A.D. 1485 TO A.D. 1603. Chap. VI. Thomas uller. 1608. E 1661. Church History. Jeremy Collier. b. 165. d. 1726. His Ecclesiasti- cal History Bishop Burnet. b. 1643. d. 1715. His Historv of the Refor- mation, ductions, Fuller's Church History^ reflects the candid and liberal spirit of its author, who, while a firm supporter of the Church and the monarchy, was constant in his endeavours to reconcile contending factions, and to mitigate the asperities of controversy. Fuller's History terminates with the year 1648. The writings of bishop BuRNET and Jeremy Col- lier are the productions of personal antagonists and warm partisans. The Ecclesiastical History of the latter,'^ which extends to the year 1685, is conceived in the spirit of one who had embraced very extreme views respecting Church government and the relations of the Church to the State, but who, from his attainments and extensive learning, was able to grasp and defend the Anglican theory far better than most of his con- temporaries. Gilbert Burnet, bishop of Salisbur>^^ was a writer of not inferior ability, but less attainments, and his works abound with hasty and ill-considered assertions, which, even among the critics of his own time, served to impair his reputation, and must be regarded as seriously affecting his authority as an historian. His History of the Re- formation of the Church of England is, however, perhaps his least faulty production, and was undertaken with the advice and assistance of some of the most eminent mem- bers of the Whig party of his day ; designed to subserve political purposes, it contributed in no slight degree to ' T/ie Church History of Britain : from the Birth of Jesus Christ tin- lil the year 162^. Endeavoured by Thomas Fuller, D.D. Edited by J. S. Brewer. 6 vols. 1845. ^ An Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain, chiefly of England, with a brief Account of the Affairs of Religion in Ireland. By Jeremy Collier. Edited by Thomas Lalhbury. 9 vols. 1852. ' History of the Reformation of the Church of England. By Gilbert Burnet, D.D. Carefully revised, and the Records collated with the origi- nal.-, I7 N. Pocock, M.A. 7 vols. Clarendon Tress. 1S65. NON-CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 321. the spread of anti-papal feeling in England. The utility chap. of the work to the student is greatly enhanced by the L important and numerous documents printed in the several Appendices. Burnet's History extends from the divorce of Katha- Legmnd : rine of Arragon to the year 1 567. It was attacked by oivo'/ce. a French writer, JOACHIM Legrand, who published in 1688 his Histoire du Divorce^ impugning many of Burnet's representations of the facts, as given in the first two books. To this Burnet drew up a short reply. John Strype, born in the same year as Burnet, was john a man of greatly inferior natural gifts and capacity, but ^^76^^' his extensive historical compilations are of the highest '^^ '^izi- value to the student, and were the result of many years' painstaking research guided by unquestionable honesty of purpose. His criticisms shew no depth of discern- ment, and are occasionally characterised by extreme simplicity ; his narrative is often tediously prolix and full of irrelevant details ; the arrangement, again, is often faulty, and repetitions are frequent. Yet notwithstanding these defects, his Ecclesiastical Memorials'^ and Annals of the Reformation^ together with the valuable materials in the Appendices, are unrivalled stores of information with respect to the period 1 521-1588. Daniel Neal, a dissenting divine of the last century, Neai's compiled a History of the Puritans, which, so far as regards the Elizabethan period, is mainly derived from ' Ecclesiastical Memorials, relating chiefly to Religion and t/ie Refor- mation of it, and the Emergencies of the Church of England under King Henry VI II., King Edward VI., and Queen Mary I. By John Strype, M.A. ■ 6 vols. Clarendon Press. 1822. ^ Annals of the Reformation and Establishment of Religiott, and other vaj-ious Occurrences in the Church of England, duting Queen Elizabeth's happy Reign : together with an Appendix of original Papers of State, Records, and Letters, By John Strype, M.A. 7 vols. Clarendon Press. 1824. Y Puritans. 322 A.D. 1485 TO AD. 1603. Chap. VI. Dodd's Lliiirch History. Hurd's DiaUf^ue. Lives of HenryVH. Henry VIH. and Edward VI, by Lord Bacon, Lord Her- bert of Cherbury, aii(! Sir John Hay- ward. Strype. The work betrays considerable partiality, but although severely animadverted upon by different critics, has not been shewn to contain any grave mis- statement of facts. It was criticised by Madox, bishop of Worcester, in 1733, in an anonymous production en- titled A Vindication of the Church of England. A Church History of England from the Commence- vient of the Sixteenth Century to the Revolution in 1688, by Charles Dodd,' is a work of some importance from the amount of information it contains concerning the movements and organisation of the Catholic com- munity. It has also been praised for its freedom from prejudice and from any endeavour to distort or suppress facts. It is, however, wanting in accuracy of detail, — dates, and even names, being often incorrectly given. One of BISHOP Kurd's Dialogues, * On the Golden Age of Queen Elizabeth,' still deserves to be read, both on account of its discriminating criticism and as one of the earliest indications of a reaction from the excessive eulogy which it had been usual, before that time, to bestow on the policy and character of Elizabeth. In biography, LORD Bacon's Life of Henry VH., though conceived in too eulogistic a spirit, is praised by Hallam as 'the first instance in our language of the application of philosophy to reasoning on public events in the manner of the ancients and the Italians,' The Life of Henry VHL, by LORD Herbert of Cherbury,^ considered with regard to the time of its production, is also a work of high excellence. SiR JOHN Hayvvard's Life of Edward VL^ and Annals of the First Four Years • Edited with Notes, Additions, and a Continuation, by the Rev. M. A. Tierney, F.S.A. 5 vols. 1839. " Printed in Kennett, see supra, p. 217. ' In the same. For a criticism of this Lrfe see Strype, Memorials, vol. ii. pi. ii. c. 28. NON-CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 3: of the Reign of Elizabeth^ are performances of some Chap. literary merit, although the former is mainly a com- ^^' pilation from the young king's Journal. FiDDES'S Life Fiddes's of Wolscy ( 1 724) is conceived in a spirit far too favourable i(luey, to that prelate and his pretensions, but contains some valuable documents. A Life of Bishop Fisher, by Lewis,^ is a work of merit, Lewis's and affords a good illustration of the views and principles pisher. of the moderate Catholic party prior to the rupture of ' the Crown with Rome ; it also contains numerous origi- nal documents. Fuller's History of the Worthies of England— m. the Fuller's opinion of many, the most valuable of all his works — is a sensible but appreciative Acta Sanctorum, interspersed with much interesting information on the antiquities and characteristic features of the different counties of Eng- land. Strype's Lives of Cranmer, archbishop Parker, strype's Sir John Cheke, Sir Thomas Smith, bishop Aylmer, ^''''^"' Grindal, and Whitgift, are a series of important works, reproducing much that is to be found in the Memorials and Annals, and marked by the same defects, but also containing much that is calculated further to illustrate the history of the age. LLOYD'S State Worthies, pub- Lloyd's lished in 1670, is a series of epigrammatic, caustic, and ^^orthi often happily expressed sketches of many of the most notable characters in English history, from the accession of Henry VIII. to the reign of Charles I. The work preserves many details that we should otherwise lack, but its statements are not altogether to be relied upon. The Athenae Oxonienses of ANTHONY WOOD, first pub- '^°°^'^ *^ Athenae Oxoniense ' Edited from a MS. in the Harleian Collection, by John Bruce. C. S. 1840. - The Life of Dr. Johii Fisher. By John Lewis. With Introduction by T. Hudson Turner. 2 vols. 1855. (Lewis, the author, died in 1746.) y 2 324 A.D. 1485 TO A.D. 1603. Chap. Ushed I'n 1691,' contains a valuable collection of h'v Nichols's lioyal Pro VI. graphical materials with respect to eminent churchmen or authors educated at Oxford ; the arrangement, how- ever, is often slovenly, and the compiler is by no means free from prejudice. Few works are more deserving of careful perusal on the part of those who are desirous of acquiring a genuine knowledge of the Elizabethan age than NICHOLS'S gress'es^ ' " Progresses of Queen ElisabetJif a collection in which the customs, manners, learning, and etiquette of the times each in turn receive a large amount of curious and often entertaining illustration. Irish History. — For Irish history at this period, the third and fourth volumes of Brewer's Calendar of Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII. {supra, p. 312) afford guidance to much original material in the earlier part of the century. For the condition of the country at the latter part, prior to the sub- jugation of the Earl of Tyrone, the tractate of Edmund Spen- ser, the poet, is perhaps the least partial piece of contemporary evidence. Among modern writers, Hallam gives a clear and succinct sketch of the constitution of Ireland in the eighteenth chapter of his Constitutional History ; Mr. A. G. Richey's two series oi Lectures on Early Irish History (1869 and 1870) are of much value ; and Mr. Lecky, in his History of England in the Eighteenth Century (vol. ii. c. 6), gives an able sketch of 'Ireland before the Eighteenth Century,' together with refer- ences to the best authorities. Scottish History. — For Scottish history, as viewed by native contemporary wTiters, the Latin work of George Buchanan, which commences with the earliest times and concludes with the accession of James VI. (1567), is by far the most important. Of this, a translation was published at Edinburgh in 182 1, in ' An improved edition appeared at Oxford in 1S15-18, edited by Dr. Bliss. 3 vols. 3 The Progresses and Public Processions of Queen Elizabeth. Among which are interspersed other Solemnities, Public Expenditures, and Remark- able Events, ^'c. By John Nichols. 3 vols. 1823. MODERN WRITERS. 325 three volumes. The Atmals of Scoflatid, by George Majori- Chap. banks (Edin. 18 14) is a meagre record, by a burgess of Edin- burgh, extending from 15 14 to 1591, but fiUing only sixty-two pages. Two volumes of Calendars of State Papers, edited by Mr. M. J. Thorpe {R. S. 1858), comprise the period 1509- 1603 ; the second volume contains the State Papers relating to Mary, queen of Scots, during her detention in England. Modern Writers. — The well-known work of Mr. Froude's Froude ' abounds with graphic descriptions, accom- ^'^^'"faid^ panied by much admirable and just criticism. In its composition he was largely aided by his researches among the archives at Simancas, collections which at that time had been very imperfectly investigated. Un- fortunately, the conception he has formed of the cha- racter and conduct of Henry VIII. is of so strained and unreal a kind as to deprive this portion of his History of much of its value. The reign of Edward VI. is described with more impartiality, but the policy of Somerset is somewhat harshly judged, and the student will do well to compare this portion of the work with the more sober narrative of Lingard or Tytler. The volumes that relate to the reign of Elizabeth are the most valuable part of the work, and the treatment of successive questions is often vigorous and original ; accuracy of detail, however, cannot be said to be a distinguishing characteristic of this writer, and his omissions are often serious. The student also fails to find that criticism, for which he would naturally look, of contemporary writers. The portion of Ranke's History of the Popes which Rankc's belongs to the present division,- should be studied in thTpopel conjunction with Macaulay's brilliant Essay on the ^nd Hh- whole work, and the not less useful analysis by MlLMAN.^ England. ' History of England, from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada. By James Anthony Froude. 12 vols. 1870. '^ See Savonarola, Erasmus, and other Essays. By Dean Milman. 1870. 326 A.D. 1485 TO A.D. 1603 thap. The three masterly and luminous chapters in which Ranke, in his History of England} sums up the main features of our national development down to the reign of James I., contain an unrivalled outline of the subject. Hallam's temperate and judicious criticisms of the period in the first five chapters of his Constitutional Histojj, though somewhat modified by later research, still retain much of their original value for the student. Lingard, Lingard's History, in a great measure superseded, ).H.^munt, as regards the earlier volumes, by more recent investi- Dixon, Hiwveis, gations, is of high value for the sixteenth century, as Hunt, giving the views of a candid and judicious Catholic and Dr."' historian with respect to a period in which the fortunes Maitiand. ^^^ principles of the Roman Church were subjected to no ordinary tests. Hausser's History of the Period of the Reformation ^ supplies an outline, of no great merit, of the movement both in England and on the Continent, extending to nearly the middle of the seventeenth cen- tury. Two works of recent date, Mr. J. H. BLUNTS Reformation in England (1869), which embraces the period A.D. 15 14-1547, and Mr. R. W. Dixon's History of the Church of England^ — are valuable as presenting us with the evidence and the arguments which serve to qualify the too complacent estimate of this great revolu- tion common with English writers. Mr. Haweis' Sketches of the Reformation (1844), is a small volume containing within a moderate compass more valuable illustration of the habits of thought of the early Re- formers than many works of much greater bulk. Mr. ' A History of England. Principally in the Seventeenth Century. By Leopold von Ranke. 6 vols. Clarendon Press. 1875. 2 Hausser (Ludwig), The Period of the Reformation (1517-1648). Edited by W. Oncken. Translated by Mrs. Sturge. 2 vols. 1873. ^ History of the Church of England from the Abolition of the Roman Jurisdiction. By the Rev. R. W. Dixon. Vol. i. (IS29-I537); Vol. ii. 1538-1548). 1877-80. MODERN WRITERS. 327 Hunt's Religions Thought in England gives in its Chap. earlier pages an impartial and well-executed summary — _ of the more important controversial literature of the time. The History of the Early Puritans (1853), by the late Rev. J. B. Marsden, is a work of merit ; while in Dr. Maitland's Essays on the Reformation (1849), we have a series of masterly criticisms, by a writer of a different school, in which the unscrupulous tactics of many of the early Reformers qre skilfully exposed. In Mr. Motley's Rise of the Dutch Republic, and ^o'^^^^- History of the United Netherlands, productions of very high historical excellence, will be found, and, especially in the latter work, much useful incidental illustration of the influences by which the English foreign policy was, at this period, to a great extent determined. The best recent outline of the history of \he fes2tits Histories of is that by professor HUBER;' but for more original orden^' information the works of JUVENCIUS, Bartoli, and Tanner should be consulted. The great collection of State Trials, by COBBETT Cobbett's and Howell, now begins to be indispensable to the Trills. student. The first volume comprises the period A.D. 1163 to 1600.2 For the history of the East India Company, founded The East by royal charter in the year 1600, the work of Bruce pany!^"""" affords, for the first century, almost all the necessary information.* ' Dei- ycsuitenorden nach seiner Verfassiing mid Dodrin, IVirksainkcit ttnd Geschichte chai-aderisirt. Von Joh. Huber. Berlin, 1873. - A Selection from these, comprising Trials for Treason (1327-1660), has been edited by Mr. J. W. Willis-Bund. Cambridge University Press, 1880. 3 Annals of the East India Company, from their establishment by the Charter of Queen Elizabeth, A.D. 1600, to the Union of the London and Eiii;lish East India Companies in 1707-8. By John Brucr. 3 vols. qu.uti', 1 8 10. 328 A.D. 1485 TO A.D. 1603. Chap. VI, Biographi- cal Works by Words- worth, and Seebohm. Lives of Cranmer, Parker, Grindal, Whitgilt, Novvell. fJves of Hatton and Davison by Sir H. Nicolas. Lives of Sir Philip Sidney. The Ecclesiastical Biography of Dr. WORDSWORTH is chiefly devoted to Lives of sixteenth century divines, many of which are taken from Foxe. They are accompanied by useful notes. Among the most important are those of Colet, Wolsey, Cromwell, Tyndal, Latimer, Cranmer, Jewel, Hooker, Whitgift, and Donne. Of Colet and his times \\& have an excellent study in Mr. Seebohm's Oxford Reformers of 1498. The lives of the most distinguished churchmen of the period — Cranmer, Par- ker, Grindal, and Whitgift— as given in Hook's Lives of the Archbishops, well deserve to be consulted, though inferior to the same writer's preceding studies in care- fulness of execution and accuracy of detail. The Life of Alexander NowelP {alias Hooker), dean of St. Paul's, by Churton, is a valuable sketch of one whom his biographer not inaptly styles 'the last surviving Father of the English Reformation.' The view here taken of the history and policy of the Marian Exiles would appear to be more just and dispassionate than that of many subsequent writers. For the statesmen of the age, besides the Lives in Campbell and Foss. those of William Davison and Sir Christopher Hatton, by Sir Harris Nicolas, maybe named. In the Appendix to the former will be found the four ' Apologies ' left by Davison, relative to his remarkable trial. The Life of Sir Philip Sidney by his personal friend and admirer, LORD Brooke (1652), will always continue to be read as a graceful and touching tribute to the worth of a heroic character ; but as a source of information, this work, as well as the Life by ZOUCH (1808), has been superseded by the Memoir by Mr. Fox Bourne (1862), a work of much literary merit founded on a careful consultation of ' The Life of Alexander Nowell Letters, and other authentic Evidences. Clarendon Press. 1809. ; chiefly compiled from Registers, By Ralph Churlon. M.A. Oxford, MODERN WRITERS. 329 original documents. The biographical literature relat- chap. ing to Mary, queen of Scots, is voluminous and ex- L_ ceptionally controversial. The controversy appears to have been excited, in the first instance, by the histories of Hume and Robertson, both of whorti inclined to an unfavourable estimate of Mary's character. Their con- clusions were challenged by WiLLIAM Tytler, who published in 1759 his Inquiry, Jiistorical and critical, into Literature the Evidence against Mary, Qneen of Scots (2 vols. Mary"^ 8vo. 1790). A far more thorough investigation of the ^"^^3'^°^ evidence is to be found in the comparatively recent work of MiGNET,' who reverted to the view of Hume. Mr. Hosack,^ in a yet later contribution to the subject, sides again with Tytler, looking upon Mary as the ' victim of sectarian violence and barbarous state-craft' The Life of the first Earl of Essex, in Mr. Devereux's Lives oi Lives and Letters of the Devereux, is of special interest from the new and somewhat startling light in which it Waiter places the character of Elizabeth. For the career of Sir and Kn'o.v. Walter Raleigh, the Life by Oldys, published in 1733, is the original storehouse of facts. This has, however, been to some extent superseded by the work of Mr. EDWARDS incorporating the results of Oldys's research, and also additional material unaccessible, for the most part, at the time when the earlier work was compiled.^ M'cCrie's Life of Knox (18 12), is still the standard source of reference for all that relates to the great Scotch reformer. The whole of our sixteenth history is further illus- ' Histoire de Marie Stuart. 3rd edit. 2 vols. Paris, 1854. * Mary, Queen of Scots, and her Accusers : embrcuing a Narrative of F.vents from the Death of yames V. in 1542 until the Death of Queen Mary in 1587. By John Hosack. 2 vols. 2nd edit. 1870. ' The Life of Sir Walter Ralegh. Based on Contemporary Documents presei-ved in the Rolls House, the Privy Council Office, Hatfield House, tlie British Museum, ^c. By Edward Edwards. Vol. i. The Life \ vol. ii. Letters. 1868. the De- vereux, Sir 330 A.D. 14S5 TO A.D. 1603. Chap. VI. Cooper's Athenae Cantabri- gienses. trated by a biographical collection of exceptional merit and importance — the Athenae Cantabrigienses, by the brothers CHARLES Henry, and THOMPSON CooPER, which extends from the year 1500 to 1609. A more ad- mirable series of concise biographies is nowhere to be found, while the aid afforded to the student by the lists of authorities and works of reference appended to each life is of the highest value. In the impartiality of its criticisms, and the thoroughness of its execution, this work greatly surpasses the A tJienae OxonieJisesoi Anthony Wood, above mentioned (p. 323). [Addendum. Students of this period will also find it useful to consult the treatise of Nicolas Sander, entitled Historia Schismatis Aiigiicani, which extends from the twenty-first year of the reign of Henry VIII. to the twenty-seventh of Elizabeth. This Avas first published in 1585 ; subsequent editions, with additions by other hands, appearing in 16 10 and 1628. Sander was an Oxford professor with strong Catholic sympathies, who finally quitted England for the continent in 1561. His treatise is frequently appealed to by writers of his party as authoritative, and embodies, they maintain, a more truthful representation of events than that given by Protestant writers. It may here be further observed that it is of high importance clearly to distin- guish the successive influences of Lutheran, Zwinglian, and Calvinistic doctrine in this country, and for this purpose Sander's treatise will be found of considerable assistance. The work has been translated, with introduction and notes, by Mr. David Lewis (1877).] CHAPTER VII, FROM THE ACCESSION OF JAMES I. TO THE ESTAB- LISHMENT OF THE PROTECTORATE. State Papers. — Party spirit, already excessive under the chap. influence of theological differences, becomes, in the — seventeenth century, still further intensified by political State animosities. Rushworth, in dedicating his Collections to the period. Richard Cromwell, says, ' most writers now-a-days appear in public crooksided, warped, and bowed to the right or to the left.' The few, indeed, who supply a dispassionate and candid record of events are of minor importance as writers, and generally not distinguished by ability. In this dearth of competent and unprejudiced contemporary historians, the State Papers of the period necessarily assume the highest degree of importance, and the Calendars of these, by Mr. Lemon,' Mr. Bruce, Mr. Hamilton,^ and Mrs. Everett Green,^ afford invaluable aid. The Hardwicke Papers, already described {supra, p. 314), contain papers relating to the Spanish Match and to the French Match ; correspondence of Charles I. ' Set supra, p. 312, note i. ^ Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, of the A'eii^n of Charles the First. 16 vols. Edited (i-xii.) by John Bruce, Esq. ; vol. xiii. by Pruce and Hamilton ; and vols. xiv. xv. and xvi. by W. D. Hamilton, Esq. R. S. 1858-80. ' Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, during the Commonwealth. Edited by Mary Ann Everett Green. 5 vols. 1875-8. Y ox State Papers «f Reign of fames I. by same editor, see supra, p. 312. 332 A.D. 1603 TO A.D. 1653. Chap. vir. Camden. Wilson's History of King y allies. Dr. God- friy Good- kliau. with the duke of Buckingham ; materials connected with the expedition to the Isle of Rhe, and with the Scotch troubles in the years 1637-41 ; while ma- terials too various here to be particularised, will be found in the Cabala, the Somers Tracts, the Sydney Papers, the Winwood Memoirs, in Fuller, Collier, Neal, Dodd, and other authorities described in the preceding chapter. As regards Scotland, the works of Calderwood and Spottiswoode now become strictly contemporary narratives. The student of Irish history will find con- siderable aid in the newly published Calendar of State Papers^ that has just appeared, which includes the papers relating to Ireland to the end of the reign of James I. (a.) Contemporary Writers. — Camden's Annals of King Janies /.' (A.D. 1603-23) is a meagre summary of events in strict chronological sequence, containing, as compared with his History of Elizabeth, little of value. The History of King fames I., by ARTHUR WlLSON,^ is a work of some merit. Wilson was a gentleman of a good Suffolk family, who compiled his History at the sug- gestion of the third earl of Essex, afterwards the parlia- mentary general, through whose assistance and that ol the earl of Southampton he gained access to a large number of private documents. His friendship for Essex is supposed to have inclined him to severity in his es- timate of 'James. Another contemporary account is the work of the well-known Dr. Godfrey Goodman, bishop of Glou- cester. Goodman's sympathies, which were those of ' Calendar of the Si ate Papers relating to Ireland of the Reign of yames I. 1615-25. Edited by Rev. Charles W. Russell, D.D. and John Pren- dergast, Esq. R.S. 1881. * Printed in Kennet, see supra, p. 2 17. ' Printed in Kennet, see ibid. * The Court of King yames the First: by Dr. Godfrey Goodman, Bishop if Gloucester : to which are added Letters illustrative of the personal History CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 333 the extreme Anglican party, led him to undertake a too (^hap. unqualified defence of both king James and the court, but his work is deserving of note as a notable contrast to the virulence and malignity of the Puritan writers of the time. The personal views and literary abilities of James himself are illustrated by his own numerous Writings of writings.! J^™^^ I- The State Papers and Correspondence of the EARL OF Meiros 'Melros cover the period 1599 to 1625 ;- and the %l%^^ r^?r«£/ Zi'/Z^TJ- ^ belong to the years 1 6 1 5 to 1617. The carew latter are described by Carte as ' a journal of occur- -^^^^''^•^• rences, as well in England as in other parts of Europe, containing short memorials of fact, like Camden's summary of king James's reign.' They are, really, neivs -letters, and may rank among the earlier specimens of that class of composition, — a labour which even men of high rank did not disdain at a time when newspapers were still unknown. Wallington's Diary,'' which relates principally to waiiing- the reign of Charles I., contains the jottings of a city ^"^ Puritan of just so much of public events as had an interest for himself For the history of the long Parliament and the events Thomason of the Civil War, we have the great collection of pamph- of°Painph- lets made by Thomason, preserved in the British Mu- lets. of the most distingtdshed Characters iit the Court of that Monarch and of his Predecessors. Edited by J. S. Brewer. 2 vols. 1839. ' Of these a good account is given in Irving's Lives of the Scottish Poets (ed. 1810), ii. 207-91. James's Apophthegms ■iXQ printed in Dingley's History f-om M&rble. 2 vols. C. S, 1867. '^ A. C. 2 vols. 1837, ' Letters of George Lord Carew to Sir Thomas Roe, Ambassador to the Court of the Great Mogul, 1615-17. Edited by John Maclean, F.S.A. C. S. i860. ^ Historical Notices of Eretits occurring chiefly in the Reign of Charles I. Edited from the original MSS. with Notes and Illubtralions [by R. Webb]. 2 vols. London, 1869. 33^ A.D. 1603 TO A.D. 1653. Chap, VII. The 'King's Pamph- lets.' Lord Clarendon. h. 1608. d. 1674. His Hi lory of the Re- bellion. Sir David Dalrymple. l>. 1726. d. 1792. His Me- morials and Letters. Parliamen- tary Re- cords. seum. A not less valuable collection is that, in the same depository, known as The Kings PanipJilets, which illus- trate the same period. The great work of CLARENDON ^ commences with the reign of Charles I., supplying a comparatively slight account of events until the year 1641 is reached, and concluding with the return of Charles II. in 1660. His admirable delineations of character and general ability as a writer, have obtained for his History a reputation much beyond that deserved by its historic merits, the work having been really designed as an elaborate justi- -fication of the royalist party. For a masterly estimate of its value, and a clear discrimination of the biographi- cal element from the historical, the student should con- sult the criticism in the sixth volume of Ranke's Histojy. The Memorials and Letters collected by SiR David Dalrymple (better known as lord Hailes), relating to the reigns of James I.^ and Charles I.,^ rendered a consider- able service in the last century in enabling students to judge more accurately the policy and motives of those monarchs. Dalrymple was charged, indeed, with exhibiting the court and character of James in a too unfavourable light, but he always maintained that he had suppressed nothing that was favourable. As the whole history of England at these times represents results consequent upon the action of its ' The History of the Kehellion and Civil Wars in England, together with an Historical Vietu of the Affairs of Ireland, by Edward, Earl of Clarendon, noiu for the first time carefully pritited from the original MS. preserved in the Bodleian Library. To which are subjoined the Notes of Bishop Warhurton. 7 vols. Oxford, 1 849. ^ Memorials and Letters relating to the History of Britain in the Reign of James I. 1762. " Memorials and Letters relating to the History of Britain in the Reign of Charles I. 1766. CONTEMPORA R V WRITERS. 335 parliaments, the Debates of the period necessarily be- Chap. come of primary importance. In connexion with those L of the year 1610, marking the commencement of the Debates of great struggle between the Crown and the Commons, a ^ ^°' series of notes, by a member of the House, has been published by the Camden Society.' For the debates of 1620 and 1621,^ an account, also Debates of by a member of the House (now known to have been 1621, E. Nicholas), and much fuller than any before published, was first printed at the Clarendon Press in 1766. For 1 62 1, 1624, and 1626, we have also contemporary notes Lords' De- bates of 1621, 1624, worth's Collec- tions. on the debates in the House of Lords,^ a record all the more deserving of attention in that the speeches of ^nd 1626. a peer, made in his individual capacity, were never given in the Journals. The Collections by RuSHWORTH,"* assistant clerk of Rush- the House of Commons, and afterwards secretary to lord Fairfax, commence with the year 161 8 and con- clude in 1629. He assigns as a leading motive which induced him to undertake the labour, his conviction of ' the impossibility for any man in after-ages to ground a true History, by relying on the printed pamphlets of * Parliatneiitary Debates in i6lO. Edited from the Azotes of a Member of the House of Covimons. By Samuel Rawson Gardiner. C. S. i86i. * Proceedings and Debates' of the House of Co77imo7is, in 1620 attd 1621. Collected by a Member of that House, and now published from his original MS. in the Library of Queen's College, Oxford. 2 vols. Clareiidoa Press. 1766. SincQ mcox'poid.tedm. Farliufiientary History, vol. i. 1179- 1366. 3 (i.) Notes of the Debates in the House of Lords, officially taken by Henry Rising, Clerk of the Parliaments, a.d. 1621. Edited by S. R. Gardiner, Esq. C. S. 1870. (ii.) Notes, etc., officially taken by Hetiry Rising, A.D, 1624 and 1626. Edited by S. R. Gardiner. C. S. 1879. * Historical Collections of private passages of State, weighty matters of Law, remarkable proceedings in Five Parliatuents. Digested in order of Titne and now published by John Rushworth, of Liiuoln's Inn, Esq. 1659. 336 Chap. VII. Clarendon State Papers. Debates of 1625. Protests of the Lords. Verney Fr.Jiers. A.D. 1603 TO A.D. 1653. our days, which passed the press while it was without control.' Rushworth dedicated his work to Richard Cromwell. He was afterwards vehemently denounced by royalist partisans for wilful suppression and garbling of documents. In the Soniers Tracts (see supra, p. 315) some of the documents which he failed to incorporate are supplied. With the year 1623 commence the State Papers collected by Clarendon as materials for his History} These were subsequently given by his descendants, along with translations of the Spanish and Italian despatches, to the university of Oxford, and have since been printed in part at the University Press ; while the task of consulting the whole collection has been rendered easy by the recent publication of a Calendar? For the debates of the House of Commons of the year 1625, we have a volume of contemporary notes lately published by the Camden Society.^ The Protests of the Lords, from the year 1624, have been recently edited, with historical introductions, by professor J. E. Thorold Rogers.'' With the accession of Charles, down to 1640, the Letters and Papers of the Verney Family ^ acquire con- > State Papers collected by Edward, Earl of Clarendon, commencing from the year 1621. Containing i/ie Materials from which his History of the Great Rebellion ivas composed and the Authorities on which the mith of his Relation is founded. 3 vols. fol. Clarendon Press. 1767. 2 Calendar of the Clarendon State Papers preserved in the Bodleian Library. Vol. i. (1623-49) ; vol. ii. (1649-54) ; vol. iii. (1655-57). Cla- rendon Press. 1872. 3 Notes of Debates in the House of Commons in 1625. Edited from a MS. in the Library of Sir Rainald Knightley, Bart. By S. R. Gardiner. C. S. 1874. ^ Protests of the Lords, including those ivhich have been expunged, from 1624/0 1874 ; 7vith Historical Introductions. Edited by James E. Thorold Rogers, M.A. 3 vols. Clarendon Press. 1875. * Letters and Papers of the Verney Eamily down to the End of the Year CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 337 siderable importance. Sir Edmund Verney attended Chap. the king on his expedition against the Scottish Covenanters in 1639, and has left one of the most cir- cumstantial accounts of that ignoble campaign. The ]\Iejnoirs of the Verney family which Mr. Bruce has interwoven with their correspondence are also of interest and value. From the commencement of the reign of Charles White- to the year 1660, Whitelock's Memorials^ furnish moriah. one of the best accounts of the general home adminis- tration, Whitelock was a man of acknowledged veracity and moderation of character, and his opportunities for observation in the important offices which he succes- sively filled, and the fulness of his disclosures, render the work one of the highest authority for the period to which it relates. With the year 1638 commences the important Thurioe collection known as the 77/z^r/(9^ /'rt/>£'ri-.^ Thurloe was ^^f^*"^- secretary to the Council of State, and to Oliver and Richard Cromwell successively, and the papers which he collected and transcribed during his tenure of office were preserved in the library of Lord Somers. They consist (i) of letters written by the Council of State, 1639. Printed from the original MSS. in the possession of Sir Harry Verney, Bart. Edited by John Bruce. C.S. 1852. ' Memorials of the English AJfairs : or, an Historical Account of 'what passed from the beginning of the Reign of King Charles T. to King Charles II. his happy Restauration. Containing the Public Transacticns, Civil and Military : together with the private Consultations and Secrets of the Cabi- net. By Mr. Whitelock. London,. 1 732. [Comparison with a more suc- cinct edition in MS., now in the possession of lord Bute, points to the conclusion that, while it is undoubtedly Whitelock's work, much (at least of the earlier part) was written from memory, and consequently partakes of the defects inseparable from such a process. S. R. (7.] = A Collection of the State Papers of John Thurloe, Esq. In 7 vols. : containing authentic Meviorials of the English Affairs from the year 1638 to the Restoration of King Charles II. By Thomas Birch, M.A 1742. Z 338 ^.D. 1603 TO A.D. 1653. Chap. VII. ^Tay's History of the Lo/!^ Parlia- ment. Vemey's Notes. Scobell's Collection. Parlia- ments of 1640. and by the two Cromwells during the Protectorate ; (2) letters from English ambassadors or envoys, and naval and military commanders during the same period ; (3) letters from other functionaries in high office ; (4) ac- counts of the revenues of England, Ireland, and Scot- land. For the history of the Long Parliament, the .work of May ' is generally accepted as a standard authority ; it is preceded by a notice of some of the earlier parlia- ments. His narrative, considering the period, is re- markably free from invective and rancour, and tends to induce the belief that the statements it contains are on the whole faithful and impartial. For more precise reports of some of the speeches we are indebted to the Notes of Sir Ralph Verney ; ^ while the Collection by ScOBELL ^ supplies the texts of such Acts and Ordinances as were of general scope and permanent force, down to the year 1656. A volume published by the Camden Society,'* containing documents relating to the parlia- ments of 1640 and certain proceedings (connected with their enactments) in Kent, illustrates the condition of the ' The History of the Parliament of England, ivhich began Nov. 3, 1640 : with a short and necessary View of sotne precedent Years. Written by Thomas May, Esq. Clarendon Press. 1854. - Notes of Proceedings in the Long Parliament, temp. Charles T., printed from original pencil i7iemoranda taken in the House by Sir Ralph Verney, Kt. Edited by John Bmce, Esq. C. S. 1845. 3 A Collection of Acts and Ordinances of General Use made in the Parliament begun and held at Westminster the third day of November, anno 1 640, and since unto the adjottfnment of the Parliament begun and holden the iTth of September, anno 1656, &'c. By Henry Scobell, Esq., Clerk of the Parliament ; examined by the original Recoi'ds and jtow printed by special Order of Parliament. London, 1658. < Proceedings principally in the county of Kent, ift connection with the Parliafitents called in 1640, and especially with the Committee of Religion appointed in that year. Edited by the Rev. Lambert B. Larking. C. S. 1861. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 339 Church at this period, and the administration of arch- chm VII. Nalson's Collection. Affairs in bishop Laud. In the reign of James II., Nalson, a zealous royaUst, pubHshed a series of documents relating to the ten years from the outbreak of the Scottish rebellion to the exe- cution of King Charles (a.U. 1639-49).' The work is dedicated to James ; and in his introduction Nalson endeavours to convict Rushworth of tampering with documents, and prints parallel passages to prove his assertions. His Introduction is also noticeable as con- taining an exposition of the doctrine of non-resistance in its most servile form. For the rebellion in Ireland in 164 1, and the sub- sequent history of Irish affairs, the Ormonde Papers ^ are Ireland, (in the present absence of a Ca/e?idar of the State Papers) Papers. the main source of information, the post of Lord Lieu- tenant and Governor of the country having been filled by Ormonde for periods amounting in the aggregate to nearly thirty years. These collections contain also much that relates to events occurring in England. With these the student should compare Clarendon's ' Short View,' in the seventh volume of his History, written in defence of the royal Irish policy throughout, and especially to vindicate Ormonde. A Contemporary Q^^ig^, History of Affairs in Ireland from 1641 to 1652, edited by porary Mr. J. T. Gilbert,^ offers a valuable contribution to the irdZtd! ' An Impartial Collection cf the Great Affairs of State, from the begin- ning of the Scotch Rebellion in the year 1639, to the Murther of King Charles I. , wherein the first Occasions and the whole Series of the late Trotiblesin England, Scotland, and Ireland are faithfully represented. By John Nalson, LL.D. 2 vols. 1682. 2 A Collection of Original Letters and Papers concerning the Affairs of England, from the year 1641 to 1660, found among the Duke of Ormonde's Papers. By Thomas Carte. 2 vols. London, 1739. ' In 6 i^arls. Irish Archaeological and Celtic Society. 1879 and Claren- don's Short View 340 A.D. 1603 TO A.D. 1653. Chap. VII. Special events, 1 Gun- powder Plot. Trial of bomerset. The Spanish Marriage. Expedition toRo- chelle. literature of the subject, and includes numerous original documents. The general tenour of the evidence supplied is unfavourable to the English conduct of affairs, and, in contradiction to Clarendon, serves to convict both Or- monde and Charles of complicity with the Irish Catholics in 1 641, in order to secure their assistance against the English Parliament. Turning now to special events and particular cha- racters, we have, for the Gunpowder Plot, Father Gerard's Narrative, contained in the v^olume by Morris, already named {siipra, p. 318), and the documents con- tained in Mr. Jardine'S work.* For the trial of the earl of Somerset and his countess, Mr. Amos's volume - furnishes original material, although his treatment of the evidence is altogether wanting in critical value. Of the Spanish Marriage, viewed in the light in which the facts would present themselves to a Spanish Catholic, the treatise of Fray FRANCISCO ^ is a trustworthy repre- sentation, and supplies a full statement of the case, on behalf of Spain, against king James and prince Charles. An account written by Lord Herbert of Cher- BURY of the Expedition to the Island of Rhe,'' is designed to vindicate the whole conception and conduct of the undertaking ; its value, however, is somewhat diminished by the consideration of the fact that the writer was the confidant and personal friend of Buckingham. In his ' Preface to the Reader,' he refers to four other accounts of the expedition. ' The Narrative of the Gunpowder Plot. By D. Jardine. 1856. * The Great Oyer of Poisoning : the Trial of ttu Earl of Somerset for the Poisoning of Sir Thomas Overbury in the Tower of London. By Andrew Amos. 1846. ^ N'arrative of the Spanish Marriage Treaty. Edited and translated by S. R. Gardiner. C. S. 1869. * The Expedition to the Isle of Rhe, By Edward, Lord Herbert of Cherbury, Phil. S. i860. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 34i The Large Declaration} published in 1639 by royal Chap. authority, was the work of Dr. Balcanqual, although L it does not bear his name. It is valuable on account of The Large the documents printed in it, and also as giving the ^J^^'"'''' royalist version of king Charles's case against the Covenanters. The negotiations between the king and the Boroughs , .,, . Notes. Covenanters in 1640 have received additional illustration in a volume edited by the late Mr, Bruce.^ i:\i& Annates of Scotland, by SiR J AMES BALFOUR of Balfour's Kinnaird,^ lord Lyon King at Arms to Charles I. and Charles II., extend from A.D. 1 507 to 1603. The last two volumes giving, under the title of ' Some Brief Memorials and Passages of Church and State,' a chron- icle of events from 1641 to 1652, are a valuable contem- porary record. The Memoirs of Henry GntJiry} bishop of Dunkeld, Gmhry's embrace the period 1637 to 1649. GUTHRY was ^^""^'^ originally a Covenanter, but subsequently espoused the cause of Charles I., and, on the re-establishment of episcopacy, was made a bishop. His narrative fairly deserves the praise of being one of the most temperate and candid specimens of the minor historical literature of the time. It was in the year 1640 that torture was resorted to, for the last time in England, as a legal means for ex- ' A large Declaration concerning the late tu7nults in Scotland. Fol. 1639. "^ Notes of the Treaty carried on at Ripon between King CJiarles I. and the Covenanters of Scotland, A.D. 1640, taken by Sir John Borough, Garter King of Arms. Edited from the Original MS. in the possession of Lieutenant-Colonel Carew, by John Bruce. C. S. 1869. » Historical Works of Sir James Balfour. Edited by James Haig, with a prefatory Memoir. 4 vols. 1825. ^ The Memoirs of Heniy Guthry, late Bishop of Dunkeld: containing an Impartial Relation of the Affairs of Scotland, civil and ecclesiastical, from the year 1637 to the Death of Charles I. 2nd edit. Glasgow, »747- 342 A.D. 1603 7V A D. 1653. Chap. VII Milton oa Church Reform, the Free- dom of the Press, and the Puritan Policy. Burton's Protesta- tion, &r'C. Lord Brooke's Discourse, Strafford's Letters. torting evidence ; a subject which has been historically investigated by Mr. Jardine.' The controversial works of MiLTON, written when (to quote his own expression) he quitted calmer studies ' to embark in the sea of noises and hoarse disputes,' are highly important illustrations of the age. Those which appeared about 1641 : Of Reformation touching Church Discipline, Of Prelatical Episcopacy, and The Reason of CJiurch Government, embody the Puritan arguments against the Church of England as then established. The replies of BISHOP Hall to ' Smectymnuus ' and to Milton, represent the moderate Episcopalian view in opposition to Presbyterianism. Milton's Areopa- gitica gives the earliest exposition of the arguments for the freedom of the press, a subject which, as a distinct enquiry, may here be advantageously followed up in tie fifteenth and sixteenth chapters of Macaulay's History. His Defence of the People of England and his Eikonoclastes are powerful expressions of the political feeling of the Puritan party. Burton's Protestation Protested' (1841) and LORD Brooke's Discourse^ (1841) — the former advocating the abolition of the characteristic institutions of the Church of England, the latter denouncing the episcopal office as unscriptural — are notable specimens of the iconoclastic spirit of the times. For Strafford's character and policy, his Letters and Despatches'^ must be studied, a series of papers ■ Reading on the Use of Torture in the Criminal Law of Engla7}d. By D. Jardine. 1837. See also Hallam's observations : Const. Hist. {\i\.\\ ed.) ii. 8. ''■ Tiie Protestation Protested ; or, a short Remonstrance she^vtng Trhat is principally required of all those who take the last Parliamentary ProtJsta- tion. [By H. Burton.] 1641. * A Discourse opening t/ie Nature of that Episcopacy 'which is exercised in England. By the Rt. Honourable Robert, Lord Brooke. 1641. * The Earl of Straffbrde's Letters and Despatches, with an Essay toward. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 343 in which his conceptions of the relations of the monarchy Chap. to the commonwealth are clearly revealed. To Ludlow's Memoirs'" we are indebted for a good Ludlow's illustration of the Cromwellian policy throughout Ire- land. Those of Denzil, lord Holles,^ belong to the JJ-^JJ^^^'^^ period A.D. 1641-48, and may be looked upon as a kind of rejoinder to Ludlow. They are the production of a zealous royalist, during the time of his exile, and are ironically dedicated to St. John and Crcwwell, as those to whom he is especially indebted for * the leisure of making ' his book. The events of the years 1644-45, those in Scotland in 1650, and the documentary evidence for the negotia- tions in the Isle of Wight between Charles and the Par- liament in 1648, are given in the Historical Discourses of Sir Edward Walker,^ secretary of wr.r to Charles waiker's I., and afterwards clerk of the Council to Charles II. Discourses. The military movements of the years 1645 and 1646 are detailed at length in SpRIGG'S Anglia Rediviva,^ a Sprig:g's work by Fairfax's chaplain. Other details respecting the war in the West of England, and more especially in Herefordshire, are to be found in Webb's Afenwrials'^ a his Life by Sir George Raddiffe. From the Originals in the posse'ision of liis Great Grandson, the Right Hon. Thomas, Earl of Alalton, i^c. By William Knowler, LL.D. 2 vols. fol. London, 1739. ' Memoirs of Edmund Ltidloiv, Esq., Lieutenant- Getieral of the Horse, Commander-in-Chief of the Forces in Lreland, ^c., i^c. With ii Collection c ." Original Papers. 1771. ^ Printed in Select Trcuts relating to the Civil Wars in Fng'and, in the Reign of Charles the First. In 2 parts London, 18 15. ^ Historical Discourses upon several Occasions, &^c. , dr^c. By Sir Edward Walker, K.G. London, 1705. * Anglia Rediviva, EnglancTs Recovery : being the History of the Motions, Actions, and Successes of the Army under the immediate Conduct of his Excellency, Sir Thomas Faitfax. Kt. Compiled for the public good by Joshua Sprigg, M.A. (Original edit., 1647.) Clarendon Press,- 1854. * Memorials of the Ci~ril War bet-cveen King diaries /. and the Portia- vient of England, as it affected LLerefordshire and the adjacent Counties. By A nglia Rediviva 344 -^•^- 1603 TO A.D. 1653. Chap, record which brings home to us, perhaps more than any L other of the period, the social suffering and demorahsa- tion consequent upon the great struggle. Cromwell fhe quarrel between Cromwell and Manchester at Earl of Newbury, a leading event in the Civil War, but one with Verier. respect to which our information has hitherto been sin- gularly incomplete, has been rendered more intelligible by a recent publication of the Camden Society.' In the Correspon- same serics, a volume of Letters from Charles to Hen- rietta Maria, written in the year 1646, when he was Charles and Henrietta jj^ ^j^g hands of the Scotch army,^ exhibit in a striking Mana. ■' ° light the duplicity of his conduct at this crisis. Those of the queen to her husband have been translated and edited by Mrs. Everett Green (Bentlcy, 1856). The Puritan Visitation of the University of Oxford^ edited by professor Montagu Burrows {C. S. 1881), has just issued from the press. Memoirs oi A Small volumc published at Geneva,^ chiefly from kxlTyelrs. the pen of Sir Thomas Herbert, supplies a narrative of Charles's personal history during the last two years of his life, and a detailed account of the circumstances more immediately preceding his execution. England and the Continent. Our foreign relations for the period 1606- 11 are illustrated by the journal of the late Rev. John Webb. M. A. Edited and completed by the Rev. T. W. Webb. With an Appendix of Documents. 2 vols. 1879. ' Documents relating to the Quarrel between the Earl of Manchester and Oliver Cromwell ; with Fragments of a Historical Preface, by the late J. Bruce, Esq. Annotated and completed by Prof. Masson. C. S. 1877. "^ Letters of King Charles the First to Queen Henrietta Maria. Edited by John Bruce, Esq. C. S. 1856. =• Memoirs of the Two Last Years of the Reign of that unparallelled Prince, of ever blessed Memory, King Charles L. By Sir T/io. Herbert, Major Huntingdon, Col. Ediu. Coke, and Mr. Hen. Firebrace. Geneva, 1646 (? 1666). [The London edition of 1702 gives also 'The Death-Bed Repentance of Mr. Lenthal, Speaker of the Long Parliament, extracted • out of a Letter written from O.xford, Sept. 1662.'] 1 CONTEMPORA R V WRITERS. Le Fcvre de la Bodci'ie} the French ambassador, an experienced and distinguished diplomatist of the period. The great collections by Dumont'^ are now indispens- able to the student who seeks to become acquainted with the treaties between England and other countries. The work also supplies, in the first part of the sixth volume, material which is not to be found in the con- cluding volume of Rymer's Foedera. Winwood's Ale- Diorials {supra, p. 318), which extend to 161 3, continue to be of much service, especially for the negotiations with France and Spain. To these may be added the account of the embassy of Bassompierre,^ the French ambassador to the court of England in 1626. The aspect under which the England of this period presented itself to foreign eyes is to be gathered from the Reports of the Venetian ambassadors,* which they were accustomed to prepare on their return from their respective missions. These are comparatively meagre for the reign of Elizabeth, but with the seventeenth century become of great value, and contain very graphic descriptions both of the English court and of public affairs. The (Economies Royales of SULLY ^ are of a graver * Ambassades de M. de la Boderie en Angleterre sous le rig)ie d'Hairi IV. et la niiiionti de Louis XIIT. 1750. 2 Corps Universel Diplomatique du Droit des Geiis : contetiant un Recueil des Traitez d'Alliaiice, de Paix, de T7-ez>c, de Neutralite, de Com- merce, d Echange, &=€., dr'c., depuis le Rtgne de V Empereur Charlemagne jusques h present : par M. J. Duviont. 8 vols. 1726. 3 Memoir of the Embassy of the Marshal de Bassompierre to the Court of England, in 1626. Trans'ated with notes and a Life of Bassompierre. By the Right Hon. J. W. Croker. 1819. * Relazioni degli Stati Europei, Lettere al Senato dagli Ambasciatori Veneziani nel secolo Decimo settimo. Raccolte ed annotate da Nicolo Barozzi e Guglielmo Berchet. Serie III. Italia e Inghilterra. Venezia. 1861. * Memoires des sages et royales economies destat, domestiques, politiqiics et militaires de Henry le Grand, Vexemplaire des Roys, le pi ince des vertues^ 34S Chap. VII. Dela Boderie. Dumont. Ras^om-. picrre. Venetian Reports. 346 Chap. VII, Sully's (Economies Roy ales. Birch's Historical View. Car let on Letters. Rusdorf Des- patches, A.D. 1603 TO A.D. 1653. character and somewhat repellent both from their style and unmethodical arrangement, but will be found to contain material of considerable value for the negotia- tions between England and France up to the date of his retirement from office in 1611. Dr. Birch's Historical View ' of the diplomatic re- lations of the courts of England, France, and Brussels, from 1592 to 161 7, is founded on the State Papers of the period, and includes also SiR GEORGE Carew's ac- count of Henry IV. and the French Court, drawn up on his return from his mission thither in 1609. The correspondence of SiR DUDLEY Carleton,^ ambassador to the Hague, extends over the years 1616- 20, a very critical juncture in our relations with the States-General. The Manoires of RuSDORF,^ councillor to Frederick V. of Bohemia, are valuable as the record of a diploma- tist's experiences at the English Court during the latter part of the reign of James I. and the early part of that of Charles. They are really despatches, not memoirs, in the English sense of the term. The Consilia et Negotia Politica (Frankfort, 1725), by the same writer, also con- tain documents relating to English affairs. Biographical Literature. — The many remarkable des amies, et des loix . . . et des servitudes utiles, obeissances convenahles et administrations loyalcs de M. de Bethune. Dcdiez a la France. 4 torn. Chateau de Sully, 1638. Paris, 1662. [The edition of 1745 (London) by the Abbe de TEcluse should be avoided, as in this the original arrangement and the text itself were unwarrantably tampered with.] ' An Historical Vit-w of the Negotiations bdiveen the Courts of England, France, and Brussels, from the year 1592 to 1617, ^'c., &=€. By Thomas Birch, M A. 1749. * The Letters from and to Sir Dudley Carleton, Kt., during his Em- bassy in Holland. 3rd edit., with Historical Preface. 1780. ^ Memoires et negociations sect etcs de M. de Rusdorf, conseiller d'Etat de Frederic V., Roi de Boheme, pour semir a Fhistoire de la guerre de (rente ans. Edited by E. G. Cuhn. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1879. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 347 characters whose capacities and energies were devel- Chap. oped by the experiences of the Civil War and the preced- L ing political contests, were the occasion of a correspond- ing number of biographies or autobiographies, many of which are interesting and valuable. Of the Life of Father Gerard mention has already been made. For the eventful career of WiLLIAM Prynne some new Works by material will be found in a recent publication of the Laud!^'^" Camden Society.^ For that of his antagonist, Laud, the true key is contained in the Lettej's to Strafford,^ and the History of his Troubles and Trials (written by him- self), both of which are much more important than the Diary^ a record on which somewhat undue stress has been laid by hostile criticism. The light in which this prelate's policy and motives were viewed by his enemies is to be seen in the two treatises of Prynne ; ^ the esti- mate formed by his admirers is expressed in the Life by Heylin : ^ an excellent illustration of the period, Heyiin's though presenting us with a somewhat superficial view Laud. of Laud's character. ' Papers relating to the Life of William Prynne, with the Fragment of a Biographical Preface by the late J. Bruce, Esq. Edited by S. R. Gardiner. C. S. 1878. "^ The Earl of Strafforifs Letters and Despatches, with an Essay toiuards his Life by Sir George Radcliffe. From the originals in the possession of is Great Grandson, the Right Hon. Thomas, Earl of Malton ^'c. By William Knowler. 2 vols. fol. 1739. ^ See his Works. Edited by Rev. W. Scott. 9 vols. Anglo-Catholic Lib. 1847-70. ■» (i.) Hidden Works of Darkness brought to Publike Light : or, a neces- sary Introduction to the History of the Archbishop of Canterbury's Triall, i^c. London, 1845, fol. (ii.) Canterburie's Doome: or, the first part of a Compleat History of the Commitfiient, Charge, Tryall, Condemnation, Execution, of W. Laud, late Archbishop of Canterbury, fol. 1846. ^ Cyprianus Anglicanits : or, the History of the Life and Death of the most reverend and renowned Prelate, William, by Divine Providence Lord Archbishop of Canterbury. In 2 parts. Containing also the Ecclesiastical History of the Three Kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland, from 348 A.D. i6oj TO A.D. 1653. Chap. VII. Lives of Hutchin- son, Williams, Birch, Bedell, and the Dukes of Hamilton. The Life of Colonel Hiitchinson} by his widow, is among the most widely known. Hutchinson represented Nottingham in the Long Parhament, and the narrative, besides its many characteristic incidents, throws much light on the conduct of the committees through which Par- liament worked, and the machinery whereby it maintained its authority over the whole kingdom. RACKET'S Life of the Lord Keeper Williains'^ — undoubtedly the most important piece of biography in this period — depicts a character of great force and originality, and one who was especially conspicuous as the rival of Laud. The Memoir of Colonel Birch^ governor of Hereford during the Civil War, is an account of an officer who attained to considerable distinction in his day ; this will gain in interest if read in conjunction with Webb's Memorials, above referred to (p. 342). The Lives of BISHOP BE- DELL ■* supply a graphic description of the difficulties and perils that surrounded the English settlers in Ulster. Bishop Burnet's Lives of the two Dukes of Hamil- ton^ dedicated to Charles H., are a highly eulogistic account of the careers of two distinguished royalist leaders from the year 1625 to 1652. his first Rising till his Death. By P. Heylin, D.D., Chaplain to Charles L and Charles II, Dublin, 17 19. ' Memoirs of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson, Governor of Nottingham Castle and Town, with original Anecdotes of many of the most distinguished of his Contemporaries and a Sntnt?iary View of Public Affairs. By his Widow, Lucy. To which is prefixed the life of Mrs. Hutchinson, written by herself. 1848. 2 Scrinia Reserata : Memoirs of the Life of Archbishop Williams. By John Hacket, D.D. Fol., 1693. * A Military Memoir of Colonel Birch, Gcniernor of Llereford dwing the Civil War. Edited by the late Rev. John Webb and Rev. T. W. Webb. C. S. 1874. * (i.) Life of Bishop Bedell, by his Son. Edited by John E. B. Mayor. 1871. (ii.) A true Relation of the Life arid Death of William Bedell, Lord Bishop of Kilmore. Edited by Thomas Wharton Jones. C. S. 1873. * 7 he Memoires of the Lives and Actions of James and William, Dukes CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 349 Among the numerous autobiographies of this period, Chap. each possessing a certain character and value of its ^"' own, that of Sir Simonds D'Ewes,' terminating with the Autobio- year 1636 (although he lived to the year 1650), includes ^r"t'}'" °^ interesting sketches of many of his contemporaries, and monds represents generally the views of a moderate Puritan, ir^R.^^' but one of very dogmatic spirit, and no little eccentricity. Lord^ker That of Sir Robert Carey, earl of Monmouth,^ ends ben of '"^' with the year 1639. That of LORD Herbert of Cher- Lady^Hai- BURY^ is the frank and ingenuous record of the career ^Js''"'^ of a high-spirited and chivalrous nobleman, who mixed Thornton. much with society both at home and abroad ; it illus- trates, however, to a painful extent, the singularly vindictive and lawless spirit that prevailed among even the highest classes at this period. Two similar produc- tions from the pens of ladies, — the one that of LADY Halket,"* a royalist lady who saw much of public events and political society under the reigns of both the Charleses, the other that of MRS. ALICE THORNTON,^ which extends to the year 1669, and is the record of the quiet domestic life of a true and pious wife and mother, of Hamilton and Castleherald, >2r-V. In which an account is given of the Rise and Progress of the Civil Wars of Scotland, with other great Trans- actions both in England and Gennany, frotn the year 1625 to the year 1652. Together with letters and Papers wfitten by King Charles I, , nei'er before published. By Gilbert Burnet. 1 677. • The Autobiography and Correspondence of Sir Simonds UEzves, Bart., during the Reigns of James I. and Charles I. Edited by J. O. Halliwell. 4 vols. 1845. 2 Memoirs of the life of Robert Carey, written by himself, and now first published from an original matniuript, in the custody of John, earl of Cork and Orrery. London, 1759. ^ The life of Lo)-d Herbert of Cherbtiry. Written by himself. London, 1827. < Autobiography of lady Halket, in the Reign of Charles I. and Charles II. Edited by the Inte Jolin Gough Nichols. C. S. 1875. * The Autobiography of Mrs. Alice Iliornto7i, of East A^wton, co. York. S. S. 1875. 35° A.D. 1603 TO A.D. 1653. Chap. VII. Halliwell's Letter s.&lc. Correspon- dence of the Hatton Family. Fairfax Correspon- Hamilton Papers. whose days were passed in Richmondshire, — are valuable as examples of two very different phases of social life and feeling. The Corj'espondence of this period is also valuable and often of great interest. The second volume of Halliwell's Letters of the Kings of England comT^nses numerous letters by king James VI. of Scotland, James I., the duke and duchess of Buckingham and Charles I. The Correspondence of the Hatton Family • extends from A.D. 1 60 1 to 1704. These letters contain but little that is of direct historical value, much resembling in their character and contents the better known Paston Letters. They are, however, a fair sample of the correspondence of a family of the higher classes in the sixteenth century. The Fairfax Correspondence^ so far as published, is mainly a selection from a series of letters which extend over two centuries. Those selected by Johnson belong to the years A.D. 1625-40, and their contents have been supplemented by the editor by a continuous narrative of the period. Many of these letters are of considerable value as coming from some of the most prominent actors in the struggle, and bearing directly on the great events then in progress ; the editor has also prefixed to the work a ' Historical and Biographical Memoir ' of the Fairfax family. The volumes edited by Bell comprise the period 1642-70; in these the editor's function has been restricted chiefly to careful arrangement of the materials. * The Hamilton Papers^ belonging to the period A.D, • Correspondence of the Family of Hatton, 1601-1704. Edited by E. M. Thompson, Esq. 2 vols. C. S. 1879. 2 The Fairfax Correspondence, (i.) Memoirs of the Reign of Charles I. Edited by G.W. Johnson. 2 vols. 1848. {\\.) Memorials of the Civil War. Edited by Robert Bell. 2 vols. 1849. ' The Hamilton Papers: being Selections from Original Letters in the possession of his Grace the Duke of Hamilton and Brandon. Edited by S. R. Gardiner. C. S. 1880. LATER WRITERS. 351 1638-50, contain letters by the MARQUIS of Hamilton, Ch.^p. those written from Newcastle by SiR ROBERT MURRAY L during the king's imprisonment in that city, and nu- merous letters which throw light on the second civil war. The Letters and Journals of ROBERT Baillie,' prin- Baiiiie's cipal of the University of Glasgow, contain accounts of public transactions, civil, ecclesiastical, and military, in England and Scotland, and date from the year 1637 to 1662. A small volume, known as Welwood'S Memoirs^ Weiwood's published towards the close of the seventeenth century, '^■^'■"'^"'•^• purports to be a concise account of the principal events of the century preceding the year 1688. It is, however, rather a series of criticisms than a connected narrative. Maseres had so high an opinion of its merits as to deem it deserving of republication in 1820. (b.) Later Writers. — No period of our history has attracted to it so much of the best literary talent of our own age as the one now under consideration. To such an extent, indeed, has this been the case, that writers of the intermediate period, who have put forth works on the subject, have become almost superseded. The labours of Dr. Birch, the editor of the TJmrloe Thomas Papers, deserve however to be briefly noticed. He was ^.'^/os. one of the first of our historical scholars to perceive the <^- ^766. advantages to be derived by the use not only of State Papers and similar formal documents, but also of the His 'Intelligencers' or news-letters of the time ; and his Court y'a'i'.Yf. and Times of James L^ along with a similar work on '^^^^^^.^^^ j etc. ' llie Letters and Journals of Robert Baillie, A.M. With a Memoir of the Author, by D. Laing. 2 vols. B. C. 1841. 2 Memoirs of the most tnaterial Transactions in England for the last hundred years, preceding the Revolution in 1688. By James Welwood, M.D. 1820. * The Court and Times of James the First : illustraicd by authentic and 352 A.D. 1603 TO A.D. 1653, Chap. VII. Carte's Life of Ormonde. Brodie. the reign of Charles I. ,• though little more than colIec_ tions of materials (which, in the earlier work, are dis- figured by numerous misprints), still possess considerable value. Dr. Birch also compiled, chiefly from the Har- leian manuscripts, a Life of prince Henry, eldest son of James I.^ The Life of Ormonde^ by Dr. Birch's contemporary, THOMAS Carte, deserves no higher praise than that due to laborious research. The author, who was secretary to Atterbury, was an undistinguished partisan of the Stuart dynasty, and on more than one occasion was arrested on the suspicion of plotting in its interest. (c.) Writers of the Present Century. — Brodie's Con- stitutional History,* treating of the period from the accession of Charles I. to the Restoration, will always possess a certain interest as one of the first and most successful protests against the specious representations of Hume, whose views of the policy of Charles and Strafford are subjected to a detailed and searching criticism. The work of GODWIN,'^ the novelist and confidential Letters, f-om various public and private collections. By Thomas Birch. 2 vols. 1848. ' The Court and Times of Charles the First, illustrated by authentic and C07ifidential Letters, from various public and private Collections ; including Alemoirs of the Mission in England of the Capuchin Friars in the service of Queen Henrietta Maria, by Father Cyprien de Gamache. By Thomas Birch. 2 vols. 1848. ^ The Life of LIcnry, Prince of Wales, eldest son of King James /. By Thomas Birch. 1760. 3 An History of the Life of James, Diihe of Ormonde, from his Birth in 1610, to his Death in 1688. By Thomas Carte. 3 vols. fol. 1736. ^ A Constitutional Lfistory of the British Empire from the Accession of Charles I. to the Restoration : with an Introduction tracing the Progress o Society and of the Constitution from the Faidah Times to the opening of the History, &=c. By George Brodie. 3 vols. (New ed.) 1866. * History of the Commonwealth of England, from its cotnmencement to the Restoration of Charles the Second. By William Godwin. 4 vuls. 1826. WRITERS OF THE PRESENT CENTURY. 353 political writer, maintains less temperately the same ^^vn'^* general view of the merits of contending parties. The seventh and eighth volumes of Lingard's His- Lmgaid. toiy carry us on from the accession of James I, to the Restoration, and continue to supply a candid and temperate narrative of events, though one which can no longer be considered adequately to represent the new data at command. The Comvientaries on the Reign of Charles I. by ISAAC DiSRAELl,' constituted another Disraelis advance upon preceding works, both by virtue of the ^^'■'^'^^^ ^^ larger range of the material embodied and the greater vigour of thought that characterised its treatment. The writer drew from a large number of diaries and letters at that time unpublished. He was the first to consult the Mercure Francois, a kind of official annual register of the times, to which he refers as containing ' a good deal of our own secret history.' Mr. Disraeli also enjoyed the advantage of having access to the manuscripts of Sir John Eliot, to the Comuay Papers (at that time in the possession of the Marquis of Hertford, but now incorporated with the Domestic State Papers in the Record Office), and to the official papers of Melchior de Sabran, the French representative in England during the years 1644-45. The first work that offered a complete and fairly successful vindication of Cromwell from the heavier charges of his detractors, was the collection of his Letters and Speeches, edited by THOMAS Carlyle, and pub- lished in 1 845. Though representing rather a compilation Cariyie's than a finished biography, the volume%are illustrated by spce!'L's"of a continuous thread of narrative and criticism, containing Cromwell. masterly touches which often impart to the materials the highest value and interest. ' Commentaries on the Life and Reign of Charles the First, King of England. By Isaac Disraeli. (New edition, revised by the Author and edited by his Son.) 2 vols. 185 1. A A 354 A.D. 1603 TO A.D. 1653. Chap. VII. Guizot's Revolu- tion, &c. V/orks of Mr. John Works of Professor Gardiner. The eminent French politician, GuizOT, whose sympathies were strongly with the cause of constitutional government in his own country, was led to include the ' English Revolution ' ' among the many subjects to which he devoted his great powers of historical research. His studies of Charles I., OKver Cromwell, Richard Cromwell, and Monk, which appeared between the years 1827 and 1858, successively furnish a connected narra- tive of events from the accession of Charles I. to the Restoration. A series of studies by JOHN FORSTER, that appeared in Lardner's Cyclopaedia between the years 1830 and 1844, entitled Lives of the Statesmen of the Common- wealth, commanded attention by the evidence they gave of original research and general ability, and were much used and commended by Guizot. These have been followed by productions of a more mature character, the History of the Grand Renionstrance (i 860), the A rrest of the Five Members (i860), and the Life of Sir John Eliot -(1864). Mr. Forster, however, was not only an historical writer, but his time and energies were also largely absorbed in the journalism of the Whig party of his day, and his treatment of important questions too often betrays the influence of a strong feeling of par- tisanship. None indeed of the foregoing works represent so full and careful an investigation of the whole range of materials, whether domestic or foreign, as that supplied by the works of^R. S. R. Gardiner, which extend from nearly the commencement of the century to the year 1637. These are: A History of England from the Accession of James /. to the Disgrace of Chief Justice Coke (2 vols., 1863); Prince Charles and tJte Spanish * Hisloire de la revolution (PAngleterre (1625 a i56o). Par F. Guizot. 6 vols. Lttuks sur r/iistoire dc la revolution d" Angleterre. 2 vols. WRITERS OF THE PRESENT CENTURY. 355 Maj'riage (2 vols., 1869); A History of England under chap. tJie Duke of Buckingham and Charles I. (2 vols., 1875) ; and The Personal Government of Charles I. (2 vols. 1877).^ The design of the author having been to ascer- tain, as far as possible, the actual truth, this series in- cludes little of the anecdotage and scandal with which the pamphlet literature of the period abounds ; but as the volumes have successively appeared, they have been re- cognised by nearly every section of the critical press, as characterised not only by a thorough mastery of the facts and great clearness of treatment, but as furnishing also that ' impartial narrative ' of the times, of which Isaac Disraeli almost despaired. For the general history of this and of our next period, and more especially for the relations of English to continental politics, the work of Dr. Ranke, already Ranke. named {supra, p. 325), must be looked upon as super- seding all others, Mr. Sanford's volume, Studies and Illustrations of sanford. the Great Rebellion (1858), gives us a series of sketches from the commencement of the Stuart dynasty to the year 1645. It is a work condensing the results of much laborious and original research, ably thought out ; the conclusions being, on the whole, favourable to the Puritan party, and especially to Cromwell and his policy. The studies of Strafford, Laud, and Cromwell, in the collected Essays of the late J. B. MozLEY (2 vols., 1878), Moziey. are singularly powerful contributions to the historical literature of this period, from the pen of a staunch ad- herent of the Anglican party. The sixth and seventh volumes of BURTON'S History Bunon. ' Of a fifth work by the same writer — The Fall of the Monaycliy of Charles/. — ih& first two volumes, bringing the narrative down to 1642, are in the press. A A 2 356 A.D. 1653 TO A.D. 1689. Chap. VII. of Scotland carry us down to the period of the Revolu- tion. In these, the writer pourtrays very clearly the aspect of affairs as it presented itself to the Scotch mind of the period, and his representation of the effects of the suicidal policy of Charles and Laud is especially worthy of note. The first volume of BANCROFT'S History of the United States,^ supplies the necessary outline of our earlier American colonisation and of the several Puritan settle- ments in Virginia, Maryland, and New England. PAL- FREY'S History of New Englaiid is also a work of acknow- ledged merit.^ For the reign of James L, Nichols's Progresses^ continue to offer a series of quaint and diverting illus- trations in their special field. The Life of Bacon by Mr. Spedding is an important contribution not only to the political history of the time, but also to that of the progress of philosophical thought ; Rupert and while profcssor Masson's Life of Milton is an elaborate Fairfax. ^^^ o{X.&Vi highly interesting study of all the contemporary movements — religious, political, and social — which may be supposed to have influenced the poet's genius or to have moulded the national history. The Lives of Mon- trose by Mark Napier, of prince Rupert by Eliot Warburton, and of Fairfax by Mr. Clements Mark- Nichols's Progresses. Lives of Bacon, Milton, Montrose, Prince • A History of the United States, from the Discovery of the American Continent to the present lime. By George Bancroft. 10 vols. 1834-74- - A History of New England. By John Gorham Palfrey. New York, ^ The Progresses, Processions, and Magnificent Festivities of King James I., his royal Consort, Family, and Court, 6^c. With nutnerous original Letters, and annotated Lists of the Peers, Baronets, and Knights, who received those honours during the Reign of James I. By John Nichols. 4 vols. 1828. WRITERS OF THE PRESENT CENTURY. 357 IIAM, though representing very different conceptions of Chap. the period are each well deserving of perusal. 1_ Miss Stricki-AND's Lives of the last Four Princesses of the Royal House of Stuart (1872) form an interesting supplement to her studies of the Stuart dynasty, and may be compared for their treatment of the subject with the concluding volume of the series by Mrs. EVERETT Green (see S2ipra, p. 228). CHAPTER VIII. FROM THE PROTECTORATE TO THE REVOLUTION. Chap. A CONSIDERABLE proportion of the works named in the 1 preceding chapter, e.^:, those of Fuller, Collier, Thurloe, Authorities Winwood, Whitelock, Challoner, Harrington, Neal, desTiii^ed. Lloyd, Welwood, the Lords' and Commons' Journals, the Ormonde Papers, the Sydney, Hatton, and Fairfax Correspondence, are equally useful either for the whole or for a part of the present period. Hardwicke's State Papers contain documents relating to the duke of Mon- mouth's rebellion. Calendar of The Calendar of State Papers of the reign of Charles Papers. ^I-' ^y ^^'^^' Everett Green, is published as far as the year 1667. Burnet's (a.) Contemporary Writers. — ^\5VJ^y.'y'^ History of his Times. Oivn Times} after a recapitulation of events from the ' beginning of the troubles ' to the Restoration, proceeds with a more detailed narrative extending to the year 1713. As a truthful and impartial record, it is of less authority than even his History of the Reformation. For a criticism on its merits, the student should consult that of Ranke in the sixth volume of his History (pp. 45-87), where Burnet's statements are compared with the Dutch Reports, and a collation is also given of the printed text with the original manuscript. Ranke's con- clusions, it may be noted, are far less favourable than those of Macaulay to Burnet's claims to be regarded as an accurate historian. ' The best edition is that in 6 vols. Clarendon Press. 1823. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 359 For the two years 1660-62, Kennet's Register and Chap. Chronicle^ though scarcely the work of a contemporary, ^"^' is a vakiable collection of materials. It was not until Kennefs after the Revolution, when he had embraced the views S"'^^'^ of the Low Church party, that the same writer published ^lTfi!,\ his Lives of Charles II. and James 11.,^ in which the ofCharks character and policy of both monarchs are candidly, but james 11. somewhat severely, dealt with. Kennet's representations of the facts were acrimoniously attacked, a few years after his death, by the well-known Tory writer, RoGER North, in his Examen. In the year 1669, appeared the first edition of Edward Chamberlayne's Angliae Notitia, or Present cimmber- State of England^ a kind of gazetteer, condensinfr a Paynes ° ° Present large amount of information (now of considerable histo- state, &c. deal and antiquarian interest) on the physical geography, institutions, customs, and social life of the England of those days. The work subsequently passed through thirty- seven editions; and from the edition for 1684 lord Macaulay derived many of the facts which fur- nished material for his graphic picture of England in 1685. The Memoirs by Sir William Temple were originally in three parts. Of these, the first was de- stroyed by the author, although its place is jn some ' A Register and Chronicle ecclesiastical and civil: containing Matters of Fact, delivered in the Words of the most atdhentic Books, Papers, ana Records, digested in exact order of Time : with proper Notes and References to7vards discoveritig and connecting the true History of England . . . from the MS. Collections of the Lord Bishop of Peterborough, 1728. Vol. i. [The work was left incomplete, owing to Kennet's death, and no second volume appeared.] * Published in his Cot>tplete History r see stipra, pp. 217-8. 8 In later editions (by John Chamberlayne) the treatment of the subject is extended to the whole of Great Britain, and the work is entitled Magnae Briianniae Notitia. 360 A.D. 1653 TO A.D. i689.» Chap. VIII. Memoirs by Sir W. Temple, measure supplied by his Letters,^ which contain an ac- count of the principal political events, both in England Lejfersa.ni London to Sir Joseph Williamson while Plenipo- tentiary at the Congress of Cologne in the year 1673. Edited by W. D. Christie, C.B. 2 vols. C. 6". 1874. 2 Diary and Correspondence of John Evelyn. To which is subjoined the private Correspondence between King Charles I. and Sir Edward Nicholas, and between Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards Earl of Clarendon, and Sir Richard Browne. Edited by W. Bray. New edit. 4 vols. 1850. * Diary ar.d Correspondence of .^amuel Pepys. Erom his MS. cypher 362 A.D. 1653 TO A.D. 1689. Count de Gramont, Luttrell's Diary. Chap. will be found of even greater interest. It relates only 1 to the years 1659 to 1669, when Pepys was a young and prosperous man, who mingled with zest in the London society of the day, and was a shrewd observer both of men and events. As secretary to the navy in the reign of Charles II., he had also excellent opportunities for becoming acquainted with state affairs. Of much the same character, as regards their point of view and tone Memoirs ol of feeling, are the celebrated Memoirs of the Count de Gj-ajHont,^ by his brother-in-law, Anthony Hamilton. These were composed in French, but have been trans- lated into English. A far more useful source of information for historical purposes than either of the foregoing is the Diary of Narcissus Luttrell,^ which extends from A.D. 1678 to 1 7 14. Luttrell, like Evelyn, was an independent gentleman of antiquarian and literary tastes, and his careful and methodical record of events is a trustworthy authority to which later writers have been under no small obligation. Parliamentary History. — In addition to the sources already named under preceding periods, BURTON'S Diary '^ is an indispensable source of information for the two parliaments of Oliver Cromwell (1654 and 1656) and that of Richard Cromwell (1659). Foi-eign Affairs. — The meagreness of the materials in in the Pepysian Library, with a Life and Notes, by Richard, Lord Bray- brooke. Deciphei-ed with additional Notes by the Rev. Myiiors Bright, 6 vols. 1875-9. ' Memoires de la I'ie de Comte de Gramont ; contenant fartictdiirement riListoire Amoureuse de la Cour (TAngleterre sous le Rig7ie de Charles LL. * A Cologne. 17 15. A Brief Historical Relation of State Affairs frofn September, 1 678, to April, \']ia^. By Narcissus Luttrell. 6 vols. Clarendon Press. 1S57. * Diary of T. Burton, Esq. , Metnber in the Parliaments of Oliver and Richard CrowMell, , . . Edited and illustrated with Notes by S, T. Rutt. 4 vols. 1828, Burton's Diary, CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 363 Rymer's Foedera, during the Commonwealth, is in some chap, measure made good by Dumont's Corps Universel (see 1 supra, p. 334), which supplies the treaties then enacted Rymer with foreign powers. With the year 1654, Rymer's mom." great work comes altogether to an end, and Dumont consequently becomes of increased importance. In 1773, Sir John DalrYiMPLE, of Cranstoun,' pub- sir John lished his Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland'^ which ^.'^7^6.^*^* relate to the period from the dissolution of the last ^- ^^^°- parliament of Charles II. to the Battle of La Hogue. In his preface, he affirms that 'he has procured materials in England, Scotland, and France, far superior to what any single person has hitherto been able to obtain.' Among other sources, he had access to the collection by Carte ; and his work was undertaken at the suggestion of lord chancellor Yorke. He gives copious extracts from the Despatches of Barillon, the French ambassa- Bariiion, dor to the court of St. James's, which are preserved in pauxfand the ' Depot des Affaires Etrangers ' at Versailles, and in t|ie Comte QA.va.iix which, he held, the true key to the diplomatic secrets of the reign of Charles II, was to be found.^ These de- spatches were largely used by Macaulay, together with those of BONREPAUX, Barillon's successor, and those of the Comte d'Avaux,'* the able representative of France, ' To be carefully distinguished alike from Sir John Dalryniple, the Master of Stair, and from Sir David Dalrymple, the editor of the Memorials and Letters (see supra, p. 333). This becomes all the more necessary to be noted, from the coincidence in the editor of the Memorials and the author of the Memoirs having been born in the same year. * Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland. 4th edition. Dublin, 1773- 3 The portions of the correspondence between Louis XIV, and Barillon for the period Dec. 1684 to Dec. 1685, not contained in Dal- rymple, are printed in the Appendix to Fox's History of the Reign of James II. * (i.) The Negotiations of Count d^ A-aux, Aviha^.mdor from his most Cii'istian Mnjcsty to t!ic Slatcs-Ccncral cf tl:c ( nilcd Fro-i-inccs. Containing 364 A.D. 1653 TO A.D. 1689 Chap. first in the States-General, and subsequently in Ire- L land, whose correspondence is of especial value from the light which it throws on the secret policy of James. Mignet's For the great European question of this and the rdatln'^To ^nsuing period, that of the Spanish Succession, the the Spanish materials collected by M. Mignet ' are an indispensable source of information. These commence from the marriage treaty of Louis XIV. with Maria Theresa in 1659, and although the question does not become promi- nently associated with English history until after the Peace of Ryswick, the various complications which arose can only be understood by reference to the main details considerably anterior to that event. Mignet, not without justice, claims for his subject a paramount importance in the age, ' puisque ses preparatifs ont commence en 1659, et que ses resultats se sont etendus jusqu'en 1738-' inxter's BiogvapJiical Litej'atiire. — In the biographical litera- ''^rlphy' ture of the period, BAXTER'S Autobiography'^ a record from his birth, in 161 5, to the year 1685, is of value from the numerous particulars it preserves respecting the In- dependents and ejected ministers, and also from the light it throws on the moral and social condition of the masses. The work was subsequently abridged by EUMUND the steps taken by the Prince of Orange to ascend the Throne of Great Britain; and the Intrignes of the Court of Fratice to counteract his Mca- suixs during that inte7-esting Period. Translated from the French. 4 vols. London, 1754. (ii. ) Negociacions de M. le Comte d^Avaux en Irlande depttis 1689 jusqu'en 1 690. [Privately printed at the expense of the Foreign Office, 1830.] ' Negociacions relatives a la succession cPEspagne sous Louis XIV, ou Correspondanccs, Me moires, et Actes Di/'lomatiques concernant les preten- tions et r avenement de la Alaison de Bourbon au Trone d' Espagne. Accom- pagnh (Ttm texte historique et precedes d'une Introduction par M. Mignet. 4 vols. 1835-42. - Reliquiae Baxterianae : or, Mr. Richard Baxter'' s N'arj-ative of the most memorable Passages of his Life and 'Jims. Faithfully published from his own Original MS. By Matthew Sylvester. Fol. London, 1696. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 365 Calamy,^ who also compiled an elaborate series of bio- Chap. graphies of those nonconforming divines who were either L ' ejected or silenced ' after the Restoration. A short Edmund Life of Sir William Temple,"^ hy BOYER, a French Pro- ^^^^'J^ tcstant refugee, was published in 171 5. It is devoted Life 0/ almost exclusively to his political career, and has since '''"^"' been, for the most part, incorporated in later biographies. The Lives of his three brothers, by ROGER NORTH,^ Lives hy exhibit in a remarkable manner the average morality North, and habits of thought of the upper class of this period. That of the Lord Keeper, more especially, is notable as attributing to the subject of the memoir a paltriness of conduct and meanness of motive, which constitute the description an unconscious satire. The Memoirs of SiR James Turner"* are useful in connexion with the Memdn o{ Scottish insurrection of the year 1666. The edition Turner."''' published by the Bannatyne Club contains also a collec- tion of letters, many of which are by the duke and duchess of Hamilton. A recently published volume re- lating to Mary, the consort of William III.,-' supplies ' An AciOiint of the Ministers, Lecturers, Masters and Fellows of Colleges, and Schooliiiasters, who were ejected or silenced after the Restora- tion in 1660, by, or before, the Act of Unifor^nity. 17 13. [Forming vol. ii. of Calamy's Abridgment of Baxter's Autobiography.] ■■^ Memoirs of the IJfe and Negotiations of Sir IV. Temple, Part. : con- taining the most ifnporiant Occurrences and the most secret springs of A fairs in Christendom, from the year 1665 to 1681. By A. Beyer. 1715- ^ The Lives of the Right Hon. Francis North, Barm Guilford, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal under King Charles II. and King James II. ; the Hon. Sir Dudley North, Commissioner of the Customs, and afterwards of the Treasury, to King Charles II. ; and the Hon. and Rev. Dr. John North, Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Clerk of the Closet to King Charles II. 2 vols. 1 740 -2. * Memoirs of his O-mi Life and Times. By Sir James Turner. A.D. 1632 -70. Bann. C. 1829. '■> Lettres et Menioircs de Marie. Reine (f Angteferre, Epouse de Guillaumt fir roHertion dc document'- .-iiithentiquc^- inrdits, I.a Hayc, N\lotT: Ldidon, Null. iSSo. 366 A.D. 1653 TO A.D. 1689. Chap. VIII. Dryden's Poems. Fox, Clarke, and Liii- gard. Mackin- Ilisiury, some interesting details illustrative of her character, a series of letters from her pen, and also some facts of general historical importance. The important illustration afforded by Dryden's political and controversial poems, — especially ' The Medal,' the ' Absalom and Achitophel,' and the 'Hind and the Panther,' — of the party questions of the day, render their study essential even to the strictly historical investigator. (b.) Writers of the present Century. — A design of the celebrated CHARLES jAMES Fox to write the History of the reign of James II., resulted only in a fragment of no high order of merit, which reaches no further than to the end of the year 1685.' A Life of James II. by the Rev. J. S. Clarke,'^ published in 18 16, is valuable on account of its containing portions of the king's Auto- biography (a work now lost). As an historical composi- tion, however, it is almost worthless, being throughout a servile and illogical attempt to vindicate the conduct of James on every occasion, and even to pourtray his character in heroic proportions. Lingard's treatment of his subject is of a very different order, and in the concise but able account of the present period, with which his History terminates, he does not fail to expose the extreme impolicy of most of the measures which it was James's endeavour to enforce. A History of the Revolution in England in 1688, by Sir James Mackintosh, was published after his death. It is, however, only a fragment, consisting rather of a series of criticisms than forming a connected narrative, ' Iliatory of /he Early Part of the jReign of fames II. 1808. 2 7 he Life of James the Second, King of E7tgland, ^'c. , collected out of Memoirs writ out of his own hand. Together with the King's Advi. c to his Son and his Majesty's Will. Published from the original Stuart MSS. in Carlton House, by the Rev. J. S. Clarke, LL.B,, F.R.S.. Historiogriiplicr to the King, &c. 2 vols. i8i6. ll-RITERS OF THE PRESENT CENTURY. 367 and in the collected edition of his IVoj-ks has more Chap. correctly been styled A Kcriczo of the Causes of the L Revolution of 1688. The merits of the work are pro- bably somewhat over-estimated by Macaulay in his well-known critique, written not long after the author's death. All preceding works, howev^er, have since been thrown into the shade by the brilliant History of LORD Historvoi Macaulay, which commences with the accession of \l^^'^^^' James II., and was left by him in an unfinished state, the narrative terminating with the death of William III. On the conspicuous merits of this most popular of all histo- ries, — the great extent of its research, its admirable portraitures of individual character, and the intellectual power and literary skill conspicuous on every page,- — it is unnecessary here to insist. The careful student can, however, scarcely fail to become aware, in the perusal, of the partisan spirit in which the whole treatment is conceived, or of the grave inaccuracies which, in con- nexion with more than one topic, detract from the value of the work. A more general defect, but one less readily discerned, is the undue importance attached by Macaulay to the pamphlet literature of the period, — pro- ductions which, as we have already seen in the case of Rush worth {supra, p. 334), were regarded with great distrust by the less prejudiced contemporary historical writers. Of one serious blunder — Macaulay's description of William Penn, the Quaker — the result of a con- fusion of two distinct individuals, a sufficient refutation will be found in the short treatise by MR. W. E. Mr. w. e. FORSTLR.' Mr. Paget's A'ezo Examen (1861) is a Pamphlet. ' W. Penn and Thovtas B. Macaulay : being brief Observations on the Charges made in Mr. Macaulay's History of England against the Character of William Penn. By W. E. Forster. 1849. 368 Chap. VIII. Paget's A't'7C> Examen. Works on Religious History of thf lime, by Mars- den, Hunt, and luiioch. Histories oftlie Royal Society by Sprat, Birch, '1 hoinson, and Weld. A.D. 1653 TO A.D. 1689. more extended criticism, including, along with the subject of Penn, an inquiry into the evidence for the historian's treatment of Marlborough and Dundee, his account of the Massacre of Glencoe, and his representations respect- ing the condition of the Highlands of Scotland. For the religious and metaphysical tendencies of the time, MarsdeN'S Later Puritans deserves to be con- sulted on account of the clearness with which it brings out the distinguishing characteristics of the later as com- pared with the earlier sects. Mr. Hunt's History of Religious Thought (vols. i. and ii.) cover the whole ground of the English controversial theology of the period. In Dr. Tulloch'S Rational Theology of England (2 vols. 1872), the same subject is very ably treated in a series of biographies of some of the most eminent divines and philosophers. These are divided into two groups : the former, designated as ' Liberal Churchmen,' including Lord Falkland, John Hales, Chillingworth, Jeremy Taylor, and Stillingfleet ; while the latter comprises a succession of Cambridge divines— Whichcote, John Smith, Cudworth, Henry More, &c.— who, inspired to a great extent by the influence of Descartes, were aiming at the foundation of a new eclectic philo- soph}\ Of the scientific tendencies whicn now, no longer limited to the isolated efforts and speculations of in- dividual minds, began to assume the character of a movement, the progress of the ROYAL SOCIETY furnishes the best illustration. Of its first beginnings, the History by BISHOP Sprat, published originally in 1667, offers an interesting outline, characterised by the author's usual literary power. In marked contradistinction to the Pla- tonic school, the influence of the Society is described by him as especially deserving of note as a means whereby WRITERS OF THE PRESENT CENTURY. 369 the young- men of the age * were invincibly armed against vnf; all the enchantments of entlmsiasui! Another History ' of the Society, by Dr. Birch, in four volumes quarto, published in 1756, is occupied mainly with the scientific proceedings of the Society ; and the same applies to a smaller //z>/(7;7, published by Thomson in 1 81 2. That by Mr. Weld,' published in 1848, is both the most recent and the most satisfactory. The Life of Sir William Temple, by the Right Biogja- Hon. T. P. COURTENAY (1836), embodies the facts Tempk, contained in Boyer as well as most of those in the cw™ °^ later Life by Lady GiFFARD, together with new ma- ho^f- . , IT, T Shaftes- tenals, from the ' Bacon Papers and the ' Longe Papers' bury, at the British Museum. Mr. Courtenay's laborious pro- ?lnn!' ^""^ duction, though of real value, has, however, been in a great measure thrown into the shade by the brilliant essay of Macaulay, of which it was the occasion. The work of Mr. Mark Napier furnishes all the requisite information concerning the short but romantic career of Grahame OfClaverhouse,2 highly coloured, however, by the prepossessions of the writer, whose sympathies are strongly with the cavaliers. A Life of AsJilcy Cooper, first earl of Shaftesbury, by Mr. W. D. Christie, supplies some useful corrections of Hallam, and is of considerable literary merit. Shaftesbury's w^hole action as a politician, it need scarcely be said, is of primary importance in relation to our period. The Lives of Blake and Penn ( 1 8 5 1 ), by Hepworth Dixon, are useful and interesting. Dryden's influence, in relation to his Writer'^ on age and to the national literature, is illustrated in '^'^''"' ' A History of the Royal Society, -with Memoirs of the Pjcsidatts. Conipiled from authetitic Docuvicnts by Charles R. Weld. 2 vols 1848. ''■ Memorials and Letters of Grahame of Cla'rerhoiise. Hy Mai k Napier. 3 vols. 1859-62. B B 370 A.D. 1653 TO A.D. 1689. Chap. Macaulay's Essay on the Comic Dramatists of the Resto- L ration, in the excellent Memoir by professor WARD, prefixed to the Globe edition of the Poems, and in the admirable study of the poet's genius by professor Lowell.' ' See Among my Books. By James Russell Lowell. First Series. 1870. CHAPTER IX. THE REVOLUTION SETTLEMENT AND THE RULE OF THE WHIG ARISTOCRACY. Among the writers enumerated in the preceding chapter, Chap. Burnet, Luttrell, Evelyn, Dalrymple, Mignet, and 1_ Macaulay, continue to be of service for the earUer part Works of the present period. The Hardwicke State Papers described, include materials relating to the Partition Treaty, the Treaty of Utrecht, and the embassy of lord Stair in France. (a.) Correspondence and Papers. — Of the domestic State Papers no calendars have as yet appeared, but the collections made in the last and present century by Carstairs, Macpherson, and Coxe, the biographer of Marlborough, in some measure supply the want. Of these, the Coi-respondence of the Duke of Shrews- Corre- bury} edited by CoxE, is of considerable value, and the ^'^shraivs- documents at the time of publication were entirely new ^'^^• to the public. They are distributed into three parts : (i) Shrewsbury's correspondence with king William from the commencement of his official career, when appointed secretary at the Revolution, to the year 1700; ' Frivate and Original Correspondence of Charles Talbot, Duke of Shrewsbury, with Kitig William, the Leaders of the Whig Party, and other distinguished statesmen. Illustrated with Narratives, Historical and Bio- graphical, from the Family Papers in the possession of her Grace the Duchess of Buccleuch. By William Coxe. 1821. fi |] 2 372 A.D. 1689 TO A.D. 1754. Chap. IX. Macpher- son's Original Papers. Cnrstair ^ StaU Papers.. (2) his correspondence ivith admiral Rus.sell, during the command of the latter in the Mediterranean in 1695, and also at the time of his successful expedition to the coast of France in 1696, his correspondence with viscount Gahvay (1695-96), illustrating the policy of the duke of Savoy in relation to the Grand Alliance, — that on the negotiations connected with the Peace of Ryswick (1696-97) ; (3) his confidential correspondence, extend- ing over the period 169 5- 1704, with Sunderland, Somers, Wharton, Russell, the earl of Orford, and Halifax. The collection of Original Papers by Macpherson,* the author of the poems attributed to Ossian, is also of importance, but lies under the suspicion which attaches to all the literary performances of this unprincipled writer, and the papers, according to Coxe, are ' garbled.' They comprise those left by Nairne, who was under- secretary to the ministers of James II. and his son from the Revolution to the year 17 13, and also a considerable portion of the correspondence of the house of Hanover with their agents and partisans in Britain during the reign of queen Anne. The State Papers and Letters collected by CAR STAIRS,'^ the private secretary of William HI., remained unpublished a long while after his death, and were at length given to the world, in 1774, by the industry of Joseph M'Cormick, a Presbyterian minister. They relate mainly to affairs in Scotland during the period 1 691-17 1 8, especially the massacre of Glencoe. They ' Original Papers: containing; the Secret History of Great Britain, from the Restoration to the Accession of the House of Hanover. 2 vols. 1775- '■^ State Papers and Letters, addressed to IVilliam Carstares, confidential Secretary to King; William during, the ivhole of his Reign : afterwards Principal of the University of Edinburg^h. To which is prefixed the Life of Mr. Carstares. Edited by Joseph M'Cormick. Edinburgh, 1774. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 373 also comprise short memoirs of the statesmen, — secretary chap. Johnston, earl of Argyle, secretary Ogilvy, lord Tar- — 1_ bat, earl of Melville, marquis of Annandale, and others, — whose correspondence is included in the collection. (b.) Contemporary Writers. — The numerous political state pamphlets called forth by the incidents of the Revolution ^'^'^^^' of 1688 and the contests during the reign of William, were collected and published early in the eighteenth century.^ Locke's Letters on Toleration, ^ perhaps the most Locke's original of all his writings, were designed to vindicate Toleration. the Toleration Act of 1689, which, however, he regarded as an imperfect measure. In connexion with the Letters the criticism in the eleventh chapter of Macaulay, and that in the tenth chapter of Hunt's Religious Thought^ will be found eminently suggestive. Locke's position may be regarded as that of the national Church. The eventful reign of William and Mary, and the equally stirring times of queen Anne, with their domestic struggles and brilliant continental victories under Marlborough, almost entirely failed to call forth any historic talent worthy of the age. Only two writers of real genius even attempted to record the history of their country. SwiFT, in his Journal to Stella ^ and Swift's History of the Four Last Years of Queen A rme's Reign,'^ and^'*'* describes the course of events immediately prior and ^'■^^'"y- subsequent to the Peace of Utrecht. The latter work, which he considered ' the best he had ever written,' was ' A Collection of State Tracts published on occasion of the late Revolu- tion in 1688, and during the Reigtt of King William. 3 vols., fol. 1705. * Four Letters on Toleration. By John Locke. Reprint of seventh edit. 1758. Reprinted by A. Murray. 1870. * Works of Jonathan Swift, D.D., with Notes and Life of Author. By Sir Walter Scott, Bart. 19 vols. 1824. Vols. ii. and iii. * Ibid. vol. V. 374 A.D. 1689 TO A.D. 1754. Chap. IX. His minor Political Pamphlets. Boling- broke's Works and Correspon- dence, not published till thirteen years after his death, it reflects, in a very marked manner, the spirit of animtrsity by which he was actuated after his defection fiom the Whig party, and the imputations he casts upon prince Eugene, Marlborough, Burnet, and other disdnguished characters are of the darkest kind. His poicraits of his friends, Ormond, Bolingbroke, and Harley, on the other hand, are equally exaggerated in their praise. But notwithstanding these demerits, the fragment is well deserving of perusal. The same may be said of his pamphlet On the Conduct of the Allies^ which materially modified the national policy in relation to the war, — of his Tale of a Tub^ which, as a satire on religious parties, may be compared with Dryden's Hind and the Panther, — of t\iQ Drapier's Letters,^ which rescued Ireland from the infliction of a national slight, — and of his Inquiry into the Behaviour of the Queen's last Ministry,^ written June, 171 5. Swift's criticisms of lord Clarendon's History and Burnet's Own Times should also be noted.^ Bolingbroke, in his Letter to Sir W. Wyndham, gives his version of the circumstances under which he had assisted to negotiate the Peace of Utrecht, and brings a heavy indictment against the political conduct of his rival, Oxford. His Idea of a Patriot King (1738) and Letter on tlie State of Parties at the A ccession of George I. embody his views in relation to a subsequent period.'^ The principal source of information as regards > Works of Sruift. By Sir W. Scott, vol. ii. 2 Ibid. vol. X. On this see the criticisms in Abbey and Overton's English Church in the Eighteenth Century, i. 450-2, * Ibid. vol. vi. ♦ Ibid. vol. v. • Ibid. vol. xii. * The Works of the Right Honourable Henry St. fohn. Lord Viscount Bolingbroke. 5 vols. Edited by David Mallet. 4to, 1754. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 27S his public career is, however, his Letters and Correspon- Chap. dence} __1_ When compared with Swift and Boh'ng-broke, the other contemporary annalists appear in point of ability almost contemptible. BOYER, the author of the Life of Boyer. Temple, published in 1753 his History of the Reign of Queen Anne ; * and Oldmixon, a violent and unscru- Oidmixon. pulous Whig partisan, satirised by Pope in the Dnnciad, published in 1730-35 his History of England during the Reigns of William and Mary, Anne and George I. Neither of these works, however, though the result of some research and labour, is entitled to more than an occasional reference on the part of the student. A Continuation of Rapin's History of England^ attributed to TiNDAL, and containing the period from the death Tindai's of Charles I. to that of George II., was published in J^^f'^^'"' 1757 ; the work is partly original and partly a compila- Rapia. tion, but it deserves the praise of having been written without party spirit, and of being a temperate and candid narrative of carefully ascertained facts, although destitute of those higher merits which attest original historic power.'* The two Discourses of FLETCHER OF SALTOUN,^ Fletcher of on the state of affairs in Scotland, composed in 1698, ^^°""- together with his Speech upon the State of the Nation (1701) and speeches delivered in the parliament at Edin- ' Letters and Correspondence, public and private, of Lord Bolingbroke. With State Papers, Explanatory Notes, and a Translation of the Foreign Letters. By G. Parke. 2 vols. 1798. ^ A work founded on the Annals (by the same writer), and published in parts during queen Anne's reign. 3 The first edition of the Continuation, which terminated with the reign of George L, was published in 1747. ^ According to Burton {Reign of Queen Anne. ii. 324) Tindal's Con- tinuation ' has perhaps been more amply founded on by later historians! as an authority, than any other book refening to the period it covers.' * The Political Works of Andrt~iv f-ktcher, Esq. 1737. 376 A.D. 1689 TO A.D. 1754. Chap. IX. Hervey's Memoirs and Walpole's Letters. burgh in 1707, are well deserving of perusal as shewing the aspect under which the union of the two countries presented itself to those who opposed the measure. Fletcher was a man of great oratorical power and singularly independent habits of thought, who denounced with almost equal vigour the policy of both Whigs and Tories ; at the same time, he was wanting in discern- ment in questions of national economy, and while a democrat in principle was a staunch protectionist in his views of international commerce. The reigns of the first two Georges, which have been compared to those of the Antonines,were singularly wanting in events calculated to call forth historic genius. Berkeley, writing in 1728, denounced the age as ' barren of every glorious theme ; ' * and LORD Hervey'S Me- vioirs"^ and HORACE Walpole's Letter's to Sir Horace Maiin ^ must rank as two of the best authorities. Of these the first supplies a remarkably close and minute picture of court life and intrigue during the reign of George IL, drawn by one, of whose opportunities for observation and accuracy of description there can be no doubt ; the latter, familiar to every readei- through Macaulay's well-known critique, supply an almost con- tinuous chronicle of the last twenty years of the same reign, and in the earlier letters the details of Sir Robert's fall from power are described with much animation. The coincidence of statement between the two works are i ' Hearne, writing six years later (1734), laments that 'nothing is now hardly read but Burnett's romance or libel, called by him The History of his own Times. 'Tis read by men, women, and children.' Reliqu. Ilearn. ii. 200. ^ Memoirs of the Reign of George II. , from his Accession to the Death of Queen Caroline. By John, Lord Hervey. Edited by J. W. Croker. 2 vols. 1848. s letters of Horace Walple, Earl of Orford, to Horace Mann. 4 vols. I^ondon : 1 843-4. CO NT EM PO RA R Y WRITERS. sn often remarkable, and a like similarity is observable in Walpole's Jlleinoirs, which belong mainly to our next period. A more general resemblance to be noted is the cynicism and spirit of detraction in their estimate of their contemporaries which characterise both writers. The Memoirs of Ker of Kersland,' who was employed as a secret agent of the British Government in the earlier years of the eighteenth century, illustrate the undercurrent of the political life of the time, Dr. King's collection oi Anecdotes'^ contdans a noteworthy sketch of the Pretender by a zealous Jacobite of the period, together with interesting recollections of the chief members of the Jacobite party, and also of some of the leading literary men of the age, especially of Pope and Atterbury. Foreign Affairs. — The Mcjiwirs of the DUKE OF Berwick,^ a natural son of James II., are partly auto- biographical, and furnish a record of a brilliant military career on the part of one who was for a long time closely associated with the history of English affairs on the Continent. For the period 1697 to 1700, a collection of the Letters Letters of of William III. and Louis XIV, and of their ministers, m'.'&a edited by Grimblot,^ will be found useful in connexion Ker of Kersland. Memoirs of Due de Berwick. ' The HTcnioirs of yohn Ker, of Kersland, in North Britain, Eqs. ' containing his secret Transactions and N'egotiations in Scotland, England, the Courts of Vienna, Hanoz'er, and other Foreign Parts. With an Account of the Rise and Progress of the Ostend Company in the Austrian Netherlands. Published by himself, London, 1726, * Political and Literary Anecdotes of his own Times. By Dr, William King, Principal of St. Mary's Hall, Oxon, 2nd edit, 1819. 3 Mcmoires du Ma7-cchal de Berwick, ccrits par lui-mlnie ; avec tine suite abregce de 1716 jusiju'd- sa vtort en 1734. Forming volumes 65 and 66 in ' Collections des Memoires relatifs a I'histoire de France,' edited by Pelitot and Monmerque. * Letters of William ILL and Louis XfV. and of their Ministers, illustrative of the domestic and foreign politics of England f-om the Peace 378 A.D. 1689 TO A.D. 1754. Chap. IX. arl- roue The Duchess Marl- borough. Snmer- ville's Reign of Queen. Anne. both with the domestic and the foreign policy of Eng- land. In the year 1842 a collection of the Marlborough Despatches ' was discovered at Kensington, near Wood- stock, and subsequently printed. Earl Stanhope, how- ever, is of opinion that they were neither written nor dictated by the Duke, but prepared by his secretaries, and subsequently merely signed by him. They contain but little that is of historical interest. A full account of the special literature illustrative of the character and life of the duchess of Marlborough is given in Burton's History of the Reign of Queen Anne^ i. 28-30. Non-Contemporary Writer. — The publication of the sources described at the commencement of this chapter suggested to a Presbyterian minister, named SOMER- VILLE, the idea of writing a History of the Reign of Queen Anne which should at once represent a fuller command of the facts, and at the same time be free from party spirit. His work appeared at the close of the last century, but was attended with little success and failed even to attract the criticism of the chief literary organs of the day. The Preface, however, will be found useful from the account there given of the sources from whence the writer's materials were drawn ; and the Appendix is of value as containing an abridgment of the Articles of the Union and other original documents. (C.) Writers of the Present Century. — Material service was rendered in the first quarter of this century towards making the political history of the present period better known, by the writings of Archdeacon COXE (the editor Eyswick to the Accession of Philip V. of Spain. Edited by P. Grimblot. 2 vols. 1848. ' The Letters and Desf'atches of John, Duke of Marlborough, 1 702- 1 2. Edited by Sir George Murray. 1845. WRITERS OF THE PRESENT CENTURY. 379 of the Shrewsbury Correspondence), whose Lives of Chap. Marlborough, Walpole, and Henry Pelham are ^'^' _ the result of considerable labour and research. Thougrh Coxe's Lives of wanting- in the higher merits of historical composition, Mari- they are full and accurate, and from the important parts ^?y"/^l played by the characters to whom they severally relate and and the large amount of material incorporated from Peiham. State documents, they may be regarded as belonging quite as much to the historical as to the biographical literature of the period. In his Life of Marlborough^ Coxe had access to the very important collection of manuscripts preserved at Blenheim, from which he printed copious extracts ; and in the prefaces to the Lives of Walpole and Pelham will be found a full enu- meration of the manuscript sources from whence these works were compiled. A Life of Marlborough by SiR ARCHIBALD ALISON, Alison's of which a third edition appeared in 1855, was designed Marl- to impart to the subject greater dramatic interest ; but ^°''°"Sh. his fulsome panegyric of his hero is probably yet further removed from faithful portraiture than the harsh judg- ments of Macaulay. Preceding histories of the eighteenth century have, however, been to a great extent superseded by the works of EARL Stanhope, who published between the years Earistan- 1836 and 1854 his History of England from the Peace of S''!/^'^"' Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles, 17 13-1783, and some- £"gi'^»i'i' what later, his History of the Reign of Queen Anne, re- suming, in the latter work, the narrative at the point where it was left by Macaulay. Without any pretension to the great literary powers and fertility of illustration possessed by his predecessor, earl Stanhope succeeds perhaps to a greater extent in commanding the con- fidence of the reader. His narrative is clear; his judg- ments are fair and temperate in expression ; and few 38o A.D. 1689 TO A.D. 1754. Chap. IX. Burton's J?fig?i of Queen A tine. I^ecky's History of England. histories of so recent a period are so honourably charac- terised by the desire to render equal justice to all parties. The history of the Reign of Queen Anne has also been written by Dr. Burton, who had a certain advan- tage over all earlier writers on the period, in having access to the Godolphin Papers, now at the British Museum, — a collection especially rich in the private correspondence of contemporary statesmen on subjects of political importance. His treatment of his materials differs from that of earl Stanhope in the greater promi- nence assigned to the religious movements of the period, ■ — Marlborough's campaigns, although excellently de- scribed, being treated with somewhat disproportionate brevity. As a whole, the work, while ably executed in parts, is wanting in lucid arrangement and is marred by some serious inaccuracies. A third work, TJie History of England in the Eigh- teenth Century, by Mr. Lecky (2nd ed. 1^79),^ differs in its conception both from that of earl Stanhope and that of Mr. Burton. He describes it as his object ' to disen- tangle from the great mass of facts those which relate to the permanent forces of the nation, or which indicate some of the more enduring features of national life.' His treatment accordingly embraces (to quote his own de- scription) • the growth or decline of the monarchy, the aristocracy, and the democracy, of the Church and of Dissent, of the agricultural, the manufacturing, and the commercial interests ; the increasing power of Parliament and of the press ; the history of political ideas, of art, of manners, and of belief; the changes that have taken place in the social and economical condition of the people ; the influences that have modified national character ; the relations of the mother country to its de- pendencies,' &c. ' Only two volumes of this work have as yet apueared. I WRITERS OF THE PRESENT CENTURY. 381 Much information concerning the War of the Spanish Chap. Succession (1701-1714) is to be found in lord Mahon's 1. (now earl Stanhope) History of the Reign of Queen Anne, and in his earlier production, the History of the War of the Succession in Spain. Macaulay's graphic outline of Works re- ■< ■• y o r lating to the subject in his critique of the latter work is familiar the War of to most readers. A far more adequate and complete succ'essi'on. treatment of the subject, however, will be found in Carl VON Noorden's Europiiische Geschichte im achzehntcn Jahrhundert ' (vols. i. and ii.), which gives us the results of a much more thorough investigation of the original sources. Of these, the principal are the Coxe, Stepney, Hyde, Mitchell, and Gualterio Papers in the British Museum ; the Reports sent to their respective Govern- ments from the embassies at Vienna and London ; the confidential letters of L'Hermitage, a secret political agent, from London ; the correspondence of Marlborough with Heinsius ; and the despatches preserved in the archives at Berlin, of Spanheim, the Prussian ambassador the English court. The A nnals and Correspo7tdence of the Earls OF The Earis Stair, by J. M. Graham,' have been compiled from °^ '^''^"'' the Stair Papers and other collections of their letters. Those relating to the second earl, who served under Marlborough in his foreign campaigns, are of real value for the contemporary political history. The Life of Carstairs, the collector of the State Lifeoi Papers above referred to, has been written by Mr. Story.3 Carstairs, who was a presbyterian minister, may be accepted as a good representative of the mode- • Diisseldorf: 1870-4. First and Second Parts: 'Die spanische Eibfolgekrieg.' This work is still in progress. ' Annals and Correspondence of Viscotmi and the first and second Earls of Stair. By John Murray Graham. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1875. s William Carstarcs : a Character and Career of the Revolutionary Epoch (1649-1715). By R. H. Story, Minister of Rosneath. 1874. 382 A.D. 1689 TO A.D. 1754. Chap, rate party of his denomination at this period. ' In ^_ craft and courage,' says Macaulay, ' he had no superior among the poHticians of his age.' His experiences supply a remarkable picture of Scottish affairs at this time, and especially of the unrestrained cruelties of the Royal Commissioners under Charles II. and James II. Lives oi For the career of the first Pitt, the Life by Bentiey, THACKERAY (1827) Supplies US with a large mass of IJ'^ information and copious extracts from his official corre- Newton. ^ spondence, but as a biography the work is equally wanting in critical discernment and literary merit. The Life of Bentlcy, by BISHOP MONK (1823), and the Life of Sir Isaac Newton, by SiR DAVID Brewster (1855), are respectively excellent illustrations of the learning and the science of the age. To the former should be added the admirable study by De OuiNCEY.i Among Macauiay's the Contributions of Macaulay to the history of a period Eisayi. y^^\\\^ which his acquaintance was unrivalled, are his Essay on the fragment by Mackintosh, already referred to, — that on Walpole's Letters (one of the happiest and most just of his critical performances), — and the first Essay on the Earl of Chatham (occasioned by the publication of the Life by Thackeray), in which he follows Pitt's career to the close of the reign of George II. His estimate of Atterbury, as given in the En- cyclopcedia Britannica, has been reprinted in the collected Biographies from his pen published by Messrs. Longman. Nichols's The great collection entitled Literary Anecdotes of the Ane7d7tes. Eighteenth Century, by J. G. Nichols,^ abounds with facts and anecdotes which are generally illustrative of ' Collected Works, vol. vi. 2 Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century. By John Nichols. 6 vols. 1 81 2-14. Illustrations of the Literary history of the Eighteenth Century. Intended as a Sequel to the Literary Ane(di>tes. 8 vols. 1817- 1858. WRITERS OF THE PRESEMT CENTURY. 383 the times, and is invaluable as a work of reference. Mr. Chap. IX. Words- worth's Stephen. C. Wordsworth's University Life (1874) and Uni- versity Studies (1877) in the Eighteenth Century render much service in illustrating the state of education and University learning ; while the relations of learning to religious thought, and the points most in dispute within the pale of the English Church, may be pursued in detail by the aid of professor J. E. B. Mayor's elaborate notes to Baker's History of St. fohn's College, Cambridge. The third volume of Mr. Hunt's History of Religious Hunt. Thought supplies us with a series of skilful analyses of the chief theological and speculative works of the century. His labours, however, are restricted for the most part to writers of the orthodox school. In Mr. Leslie Stephen's History of English Thought in the Leslie Eighteenth Century (2 vols., 1876) a wider range is taken, and special attention is devoted to that sceptical element which forms the distinguishing characteristic of our national literature in the latter half of the century, and which exercised a potent influence on the political and social life of the period both in England and on the Continent. Mr. Stephen's volumes are well deserving of careful study, however much the conclusions to which they point may be a subject of dispute. Another work of considerable research and critical power is The English Church in the Eighteenth Century, by C. J. Abbey and J. H. Overton (2 vols., 1878). Abbey and While written from the stand-point of a professed supporter of the Church, it is catholic and liberal in its treatment, and the views of both Jacobite and Nonjuror are analysed with much care and with scrupulous im- partiality. As a comprehensive and temperate exposition of a wide and difficult subject, these volumes will not soon be superseded. Overton. Chap. X. Authorities already de- scribed. Calendars of State Fapers. CHAPTER X. THE RESTORATION OF AUTHORITY. (a.) Contemporary Writers. — Among the works named in the preceding chapter, the Walpole Letters and lord Hervey's Memoirs, together with Coxe's Life of Pelhain, are the principal original sources that continue to be available. For the reign of George III., two Calendars of State Papers of the ' Domestic Series ' have recently appeared,' which contain the first nine years. The want occasioned by the absence of similar volumes for the subsequent years is in some measure supplied by the numerous collections of the Correspondence of the chief statesmen and political characters of the period which have been published during the last half-century.^ Among these the ' Calendar of Home Office Papers oj the Reign of George III Edited by Joseph Redington. Vol. i. (1760-65); vol. ii. (1766-69.) 1878-79. ''■ The following observations, by an eminent critic, on the special value of material of this kind, deserve to be noted : ' Letters and despatches, like journals entered day by day, have this advantage over memoirs, that they exhibit faithfully the impressions of the moment, and are written without knowledge of the ultimate result. They are, therefore, more trustworthy than any narrative composed after the whole series of events has been worked out, at a time when the narrator is tempted to suppress, or has learnt to torget, the proofs of his own want of foresight. In confi- dential correspondence, written without any expectation of publicity, weak- nesses and mmor defects of the writer will be disclosed ; many transient feelings or thoughts will appear which his deliberate judgment would have rejected ; but where there is genuine ability and true integrity, these qualities will be more apparent from their evidence being undesigned.' SiK G. C. Lewis, Essays on the Administrations, 6^-s. Preface, by the editor, is designed to vindicate the claims of the two brothers, Richard and George, to a higher place in the estimation of posterity than was conceded to them by contemporary criticism or has been adjudged to them by later writers. For the period 1744- 1770, the Bedford Corre- The spondence'^ \\\wz\.xzX.Q.s the political life of England, the cofnspon- DUKE OF Bedford having successively filled during "^^'"'*- those years the office of First Lord of the Admiralty, Secretary of State, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, ambas- sador at Paris, and President of the Council. With respect to the negotiations which resulted in the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, this collection is the best source of information. The Introduction, by the late earl Russell, will also repay perusal. The Correspondence of the first WiLLlAM PlTT,^ Pitt Cotre. which should be read in conjunction with the Letters of ^i/emo'irs' Horace Walpole, was published in 1 840. The Memoirs °^ ^PJ^ of LORD Rockingham* include much of his corre- ham. spondence, and illustrate the new policy of which, as distinguished both from that of the duke of Bedford's ' The Grem'ille Papers : being the Co7-rcspondence of Richard Grenville, Earl Temple, K.G., and the Right Hon. George Gj-enville, their Friends and Contemporaries. Edited, with Notes, by William James Smith. 4 vols. 1852. ^ Cor)-espondence of fohn, fourth Duke of Bedford: selected from the Originals at VVolnirn Abbey. With an Introduction by Lord John Rus- sell. 3 vols. 1842. ^ Correspotidence of William Pitt, Earl of Chatham. 4 vols. 8vo. 1840. ■» Memoirs of the ATarquis of Rockingham and his Contemporaries : with original Letters and Documents 7iow first published. By George Thomas, Earl of Albemarle. 2 vols. 1852. C C 386 A.D. 1754 TO A.D. 1789. Chap. X. Correspon- dence of George 111. ar.d Lord North. The Mahnes- bury Corre- spondence. Burke's Correspon- dence, Speeches, and Pam- phlets. party and that of lord Chatham's party, he became the recognised leader soon after the accession of George III. The Correspondence of George III. with Lord North^ dating from 1768 to 1783, and embodying all the letters preserved in the royal library at Windsor Castle, is chiefly valuable as indicating the personal sentiments and policy of the king. The editor has prefixed to the collection a useful Introduction, and has appended to the correspondence a large body of explanatory notes. The Mahnesbiiry Correspondence^ which commences in the year 1768, extends to 1797. The record of nearly thirty years' service of the Crown, it much surpasses most similar collections in interest, and proves alike the high sense of duty by which the writer was actuated, and the ability with which his diplomatic functions were discharged. The earlier part relates to his missions to the court of Spain, of Russia (in the time of Catharine II.), and of the Hague, An imperfect collection of the Correspondence of Burke is included in the edition of his Works^ published in 1852 ; his Speeches^ appeared in a collected form soon after his death. Among his political pamphlets, the Observations on a Late State of the N^atio7i {iy6g), the Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents (1770), his speech on American Taxation (1774), that On Concili- ation (1775), ^nd his Letters on the Trade of Ireland ' 71ie Correspondence of King George III. with Lord North. From 1768 to 1783. Edited from the Originals at Windsor, with an Introduction and Notes, by W. Bodham Donne. 2 vols. 1867. * Diaries and C orrcstondcnce of ya?nes Harris, first Earl of Mahnes- biiry. 4 vols. 1844. ' The JVori's and Correspondence of Edmund Burke. A new^ edition. 8 vols. 1852. [On the wanting portions of the Correspondence see Pre- face to Macknight's Life, ■p'p. ix. and x.] * The Speeches of the Right Hon. Edmund Burke in the House of Commons anii in IVcitniinster /Jail. 4 vols. 1816. STATE CORRESFONDENCE. 387 (1778), are the most important of those belonging to the Chap, present period. — 1— The CorrespondeJice of LORD CORNWALLIS,' whose Comwaiiis mihtary and poHtical career extended from 1776 to dZce!^"'^' 1805, is of value in connexion with Indian and American history. His command in the American War was during the period 1776 to 178 1, and during the last two years he exercised an independent control of the English forces in the only quarter where active operations were carried on. His first administration as governor-general in India commenced with the year 1786, and lasted till 1793, during which time he was engaged for two years in the Mysore War, and also drew up the fiscal and judicial regulations which continued for more than half a century to be in force in the Presidency of Bengal. A series of Letters, addressed by SiR SAMUEL Ro- RomiUv's Leit'ii MILLY- to his brother-in-law, the Rev. Mr. Roget, at Lausanne, contains some account of the principal events occurring in England during the period 1780-83. The Memoirs of the Court and Cabinets of George Duke of 7//.,^ which purport to have been compiled by the DUKE hMn'^Me- OY Buckingham, are valuable on account of the corre- ";['^'^^,,,.^ spondence they contain, to which, indeed, the editor has of George in. ' Correspondence of Cha7-les, first Marquis Corinuallis, edited -with Notes by Charles Koss, Esq. 3 vols. 2nd edit. 1859. - Mefiioirs of the Life of Sir Samuel Romilly, written by Himself: with a selection from his Correspondence. Edited by his Sous. 3 vols. 1840. 3 Memoirs of the Cou7i and Cabinets of George the Thij-d, f-om orii;i- nal family Documents. By the Duke of Buckinj^ham and Chandos. Vols, i. and ii. (2nd edh.) 1B53 ; vols. iii. and iv. 1855. [The task of editing the first two volumes of these papers was unfortunately confided by the duke of Buckingham to an incompetent person, who was also completely igno- rant of the times and characters with which they are concerned. A large number of the more important errors were pointed out by a writer in the Quarterly Rei'ie-UK (vol. xcii., pp. 421-446) ; they remain, however, for the most part uncorrected in the second edition of the fiist two volumes.] C c 2 A.D. 1754 TO A.D. 1789. Chap. X. Rose Corre- spondence, Auckland Correspon- dence. Horace, Wal pole's Memoirs. done little more than supply the connecting links. They commence with the year 1782, and extend to 1800. The letters are chiefly those that passed between dif- ferent members of the Grenville family, and of these, those of Mr. William Grenville (afterwards lord Grenville) to his brother, the Marquis of Buckingham, are by far the most important. Among the subjects which the volumes for this period serve to illustrate are the ad- ministration of lord North, the formation of the Coalition Ministry and breaking up of the Whig party, and the king's first illness. Two other collections, which date from the same period, are the Rose Correspondence^ and the Auckland Cori-espondence^ — the former terminating with the year 181 5, the latter a year earlier. Both GEORGE RoSE and LORD Auckland were the confidential advisers of the younger Pitt, and the former was in frequent com- munication with the chief politicians of the time. The latter, whose name is associated with the reform of the penal code (1778) and the commercial treaty with France (1786), was a nobleman of highly cultivated and dispassionate intellect, but his want of ' anti-Gallican instincts * rendered him unpopular with the country. His Jojirnal and Letters should be read in conjunction with those of lord Malmesbury and George Rose, in both of which his conduct and motives are somewhat unfavourably represented. Ilorace Wal pole's Memoirs of tJie Last Ten Years of George IL? and \{\'s, Memoirs of the Early Reign of George ' Dia> ics and Con-espoudcnce of the Right Hon. George Rose : contain- ing original Letters of the viost distinguished Statesjnett of his Day. Edited by the Rev. Leveson Vernon Harcourt. 2 vols. i860. ^ The yoiirnal and Correspondence of William, Lord Auckland, ivith a Preface and Lntroditction by the Bishop of Bath and IVells. 4 vols. 1861-2. ^ Mct)ioirs of 'he Last Ten Years of the Lxeign of George 2L. B_y Horace Walpolc, Earl of Orford. 2 vols. 1822. CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 389 III} (which comprise the first twelve years) are perhaps Chap. the most really useful contemporary chronicles. His L_ position and connexions enabled him to acquire the best information respecting court intrigues and state diplo- macy, while his abstention from active political life pro- bably led him to form a somewhat less prejudiced esti- mate of men and measures. He has, however, been censured for the severity and partiality of many of his judgments ; and the discrepancies in his recorded opinions of the same individuals in different parts of the Memoirs His own are obvious. Walpole himself alleges that they are ' the o"thefr'°" memoirs of men who had many faults, written by a man char^ter. who had many himself ' The contradictory opinions,' he says, ' which may appear in them from being written at different periods, forbid this work to aim at the regular march of history. As I knew men more, I may have altered my sentiments of them ; they themselves may have changed ' (JSJetnoirs of George III., i. 3). In one important respect the service rendered by Walpole in his earlier work is deserving of note. We have already seen (supra, p. 384) of what imperfect and doubtful materials our earlier parliamentary history is composed — the Journals of the two Houses and the Rolls His Notes representing the primary sources, supplemented by the bate'rin*^" biassed accounts of contemporary writers. It was not, Pariia- indeed, until after the brief but decisive struggle of 1771 that the right of the press to publish reports of debates in either House was admitted and recog- nised.2 Prior to that time, the Gentleman's Magazine, of which the first volume appeared in 1731, and the Ih&Gentle- man s Magazine, ' Memoirs of the Reign of George III. By Horace Walpole. Now first published from the original MSS. Edited, with Notes, by Sir Denis Le Marchant. 4 vols. 1845. ^ See on this subject Massey, Hist, of England ^ ii. 93-124 ; Trevel}-an, Early Life of Charles James loxy c. viii. 390 A.D. 1754 TO A.D 17S9. Chap. X. and T/ie Annual Register. Caven- di h*s Debates. Annual Register, which commences in 1758, had ven- tured on Httle more than an occasional report of a speech of special interest delivered in the ' Honse of C ;/j-,' and a list of the supplies annually voted by- Parliament. Special reports, by members of the House, such as those already described (see chapters vii. & viii.), still lurked in manuscript. Of no period sub- sequent to the reign of James I. are the reports more meagre than those of that which intervenes between the fall of Sir Robert Walpole (1742) and the outbreak of the War with America (1758), and the value of Horace Walpole's earlier work consists to no small extent in the fact that it in some measure supplies this deficiency by the accounts furnished for the years 1750-60. He him- self regularly attended the more important debates in the House of Commons, and took notes of the speeches ; these he subsequently wrote out at greater length, with comments on the manner in which each speech was re- ceived by the House, and other details. The criticism contained in his later work is scarcely less valuable ; his remarkable insight into character, combined with his great literary power, giving to these Reports an altogether exceptional interest. For the second Parliament of George HI. (May 1768 to June 1774), known as the ' Unreported Parliament,' we have the Debates left in manuscript by SiR Henry Cavendish.' This collection, the publication of which was never completed, comprises in the printed volumes a large number of speeches by Burke, before unpub- lished, together with much curious matter appended by ' Sir lie my Caru-nd/s/i's Debates of the House of Comvwns, attring the Thirteenth Parliameiit of Great Britain, &^c. Edited from the orig nal MSS. by J. Wright. 2 vols. 184I-3. [The publication of this work was broken off when it had progressed as far as the year 1771.] CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 391 Mr. J. Wright, the editor, from letters, private journals, Chap. and memoirs. — 1_ The Letters of Jtinins} which appeared between Letters of January 1769 and November 177 1, attracted the atten- 7^"^'^^- tion of the political world no less by their boldness, vigour of thought, and striking literary merits, than by the intimacy they indicated with cabinet secrets and the curiosity they thus excited as to their authorship. As a feature in the history of the times, their chief significance is in the evidence they afford of the intense animosity with which the reactionary policy of the dukes of Grafton and Bedford was regarded by the people. The arguments brought forward by the editor of the Grenville Papers (see sitpj-a, p. 384) to prove that lord Temple was the author and not Sir Philip Francis, are not generally regarded as conclusive. The Diary o^ BUBB DODINGTON^ (afterwards lord BubbDod- Melcombe) dates from 1748 to 176 1 ; it is the journal of ^g°^^ an active politician who, after having been a warm sup- porter of Walpole, more than once changed sides after his leader's downfall. Part of the Diary is devoted to reminiscences of earlier years, among which we have an amusing account of the dispute between George II. and the prince of Wales in 1737, a matter in which the narrator took an active part. (b.) Biographies. — The Life of Mr. Pitt (3 vols., 1 8 1 1 ) Lives of by BISHOP TOMLINE, his college tutor, is a dull and Stl'^"* somewhat disingenuous performance which has been ' yitnius: including Letters by the same Writer laider other Sigtiaini-es, no^v first collected. To -which are added his confidential Correspondence with Mr. Wilkes, and his private Letters addressed to H. S. Wood/all. With a preliminaiy Essay. 1875. 2 A Diaiy cfi the late George Bubb Dodington, from Mar. 8, 1 748-9 to Feb. 6, 1 761. With an Appendix containing many curimisa7id interesting Papers referred to in the Diary. Published from his Lordship's original MSS. by H. S. Wyndham. 4th edit. 1809. 392 A.D. 1754 TO A.D. 1789. Chap. X. Lord Shel- burne, Burke, C. J. Fox, Clive, Wes- ley, Lord M'ansfield, and Sheridan. superseded by the work of EARL STANHOPE,' who, in addition to the papers in Tomline's possession, had access to Pitt's unprinted correspondence with George III. The Life of Lord SJielburne, by LORD Edmond Fitz- MAURICE, notwithstanding the shortness of the duration of the Shelburne ministry, is of considerable value from the light it throws on the policy and views of a states- man, who, in common with both the Pitts, represented the more enlightened conception of government which gradually superseded the rule of the Whig aristocracy.'^ A Life of Burke, by Macknight,^ furnishes all the re- quisite information respecting that statesman's private life and political career ; the study by Mr. Morley,'' of the same subject, exhibits Burke more especially in rela- tion to his age and to the public events of the time. The Early History of Charles fa jues Fox, by M R. Trevelyan,' is written with much graphic power, and, whether re- garded as a portraiture of character or as an illustration of the political life of these times, is a volume of the highest interest. It concludes with Fox's final secession from the ministerialist party in 1774. The Memorials and Correspondence of Fox, edited by EARL RusSELL,^ were originally compiled by Fox's nephew (the third ' Life of the Right Hon. William Pitt. By Earl Stanhope. 4 vols. 2nd edit. 1862. * The Life of William, Earl of Shelburne, afterwards first A/ar/nis LnnsdorotK : with Selections from his Papers and Corresfondence. Ly Lord Edmond Fitzmaurice. Vol. i. ; 1737-66); vol. ii. (1766-76); vol. iii. (1776-1805). 1875-6. ' Llistory of the Life and Times of Edmund Burhe. By Thomas Macknight. 3 vols. 1858. [In this work the writer has availed himself of boih the published and unpublished portions of the Cavendish Debater. ] * Edmund Burke : a historical Study. By Juhn Morley. 1867. * The Early History of Charles James I-'ox. By George Otto Trevel- yan, M.P. 3rd edit. 1881. " Memorials and Correspondence of Charles James Fox. Edited by Lord lolin Russell. 3 vols. 1853-4. BIOGRAPHIES. 393 lord Holland) and Mr. Allen, who each appended Chap. numerous explanatory notes. The criticism and elucida- L_ tions by the final editor are of that judicious and practical character which he was eminently qualified to supply ; and although the work presents a somewhat disjointed and irregular appearance, an eminent authority has observed that ' it contains so much authentic information, accompanied with criticism so intelligent and so candid, that no Englishman who desires to understand the history of his country between the years 1768 and 1792 can fail to read it with advantage and pleasure. Much of the materials in these volumes has since been given to the public in the Life and Times of Fox (3 vols.), published by earl Russell in 1866. The Life of Clive, by SiR John Malcolm (3 vols., 1856), is mainly a compilation from Clive's correspondence (both official and private) supplemented by the reports of Parliamentary Committees. It was left by the author in an unfinished state and was completed by another hand. SOUTHEV'S Life of Wesley {2 vols., 1820), an unequal though inte- resting narrative, may be supplemented by the more judicious and sympathetic work of Mr. Tyerman.^ The Life of LORD Mansfield in Campbell's Lives {supra, p. 229) is conceived in a less depreciatory spirit than many of the biographies in the same series and is a work of real merit. MoORE'S Life of Sheridan, a production of somewhat superficial brilliancy, written in a vein not unsuited to the subject, is still deserving of perusal. Brougham's Statesmen of the Reign of George IIL^ in- Lord eludes the chief English politicians of the period, but the haTivf' general ability of the sketches very imperfectly atones f//^"^^"^^ of George > Lewis (Sir G. C.) Administrations of Great Britain, &c., p. 2. m- 2 l^he Life and Times of Wesley. By the Rev. L. Tyerman. 3 vols. 1871. • See Works of Henry, Lord Brougham (1868), vols. )ii. and iv. 394 , ^-D. 1754 TO A.D. 1789. Chap, for the strong party feeling and personal resentments of - which they are the vehicle. (c.) Later Historical Writers. — The History of England from the Accession to tJie Decease of King George III John (7 vols., 1840), by John Adolphus, passed through four Adoiphus. j^^^^ editions in the course of thirty-eight years. The fl'. 1845, writer was a barrister, in good practice, in the early part toryo"' of the present century, and his undertaking was much England, patronised by the aristocracy. His mode of treatment, however, is now somewhat obsolete, and it was difficult for one writing within so short an interval from the period, to describe either the chief actors concerned or the poli- tical questions then at issue with the desirable degree of impartiality and candour. In the 'Additional Preface' to the edition of 1840, he specifies the sources from whence his work is derived, — a list in which much of the material noted in the present chapter is wanting. Cr.iik and A morc rcccnt production is that by Craik and Macfarlane,' which is a compilation of considerable merit. Here the writers aim at the study of the national development rather than at the recital of political events, their facts being grouped under the different heads of * Civil,' ' Religious,' ' Laws,' ' Industry,' ' Literature,' * Manners and Customs,' and ' People.' Mr. Mas- Mr. Massey's able work ^ is written with much the ffGefrge" same purpose. It commences with an introductory i^^- sketch of events from the fall of Sir Robert Walpole, and reaches to the year 1 802. The work is dispassionate and impartial in its tone, but the writer has been considered ' The Pictorial History of England during the Reign of George III. : being a History of the People as well as a History of the J^ingdom. By G. S. Craik and C. Macfarlane. 4 vols. 1853. '^ A History of England during the Reign of George III. By William Massey, M.P. Vol. i. (1745-70) ; vol. ii. (1770-80); vol, iii. (1781-93); ▼ol. iv. (1 793-1802). 1855-63, Mac:ar- lane. LATEST WRITERS. 395 to incline somewhat to the side of severity in his estimate Chap. X of the character of George III. The Constitutiojtal History of England by SiR Erskine Sir Erskine May (2 vols., 1 861), has been generally recognised as an CoLu/u- adequate continuation of the labours of Hallam on the 'j^H^^,. same subject. It reaches to the year i860. Much sound and able criticism on \\-\q Administrations of this and the following period will be found in the Essays on the subject by the late Sir G. C. Lewis,' the Sir g. c. first of which treats of the administrations of lord E^alson North, lord Rockingham, lord Shelburne, and Mr. Pitt, if^^.^d- ° mtntstra- The Memoirs of the Whig Party, by the third LORD tions. Holland,^ although a production hardly worthy of ianSs"°'" either the writer or the subject, contains some interesting Memoirs facts, especially with respect to the character and policy Party. of Lord Shelburne. Another volume, edited by Mr. T. Wright, A Cart- Wright's catnre History of the Georges^ supplies us with an Hhtory.' illustration of the satirical literature of the period ; and, if furnishing amusement rather than instruction, affords also significant evidence of the contemptible spirit in which the warfare of political parties was then often carried on. ' Essays on the Administrations of Great Britain from 1783/(7 1830. By the Right Hon. Sir George Cornewall Lewis, Bart. Edited by Sir Edmund Head. 1864. ^ Memoirs of the Whig Party during my Time. By Henry Richard, Lord Holland. Edited by his Son, Henry Edward, Lord Holland. 2 vols. 1854. " Caricature History of the Georges : or. Annals of the House of Hano- ver, compiled from the Squibs, Broadsides, Window Pictures, Lampoons^ attd Pictorial Caricatures of the Time. By Thomas Wright. 1867. CHAPTER XL THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. Chap. ('A.) Contemporary Writers.— Among the authorities ^^' described in the preceding chapter, the third and fourth Authorities volumes of the Buckingham Memoirs may be consulted scribed. for details connected with the contest on the Regency question, the French Revolution, the war against France, the Irish Rebellion of 1798, and the Legislative Union between Great Britain and Ireland. These volumes, having been edited by another hand, are free from the glaring inaccuracies which belong to the former two. To the whole work, the Memoirs of the Court of the Re- gency, issued under the same auspices, form a kind of continuation which dates from the year 181 1 to 1820. The Malmesbiuy Correspondence supplies a good account of the negotiations with the French Republic in the years 1796-7, and afford convincing evidence, in disproof of the insinuations of Thiers, that the English govern- ment and their representative were alike actuated by a sincere desire for peace. The concluding volume of the Life of Lord SJielburne supplies an interesting study of one who, amid the general panic that followed upon the excesses of the French Revolution, remained faithful to the principles of his party. To the Rose Correspondence may now be added George Rose's Diary, which dates from Pitt's resignation in 1801 to the year 181 5. The CONTEMPORARY WRITERS. 397 Correspondence of lord Cornwallis may be consulted for Chap the history of the Rebellion in Ireland, for the Union with England, and for the Peace of Amiens (1802), in both of which latter measures he was the leading negotiator. The Correspondence of Sir Samuel Romilly, especially that with M. Dumont, continues to offer some good illustration, of the state of the political world, and to this must now be added his private Journal of his parlia- mentary life, during the years 1806 to 1818. The second, third, fourth, and fifth of Sir G. C. Lewis's Essays treat successively of the Administration of Pitt and the Catholic question ; the negotiations of lord Cornwallis and the Irish Union ; the Addington, Pitt, Grenville, Portland, and Perceval Administrations ; and lord Liverpool's Administration, down to 1822. The second volume of lord Holland's Memoirs of the JVhig Party gives some interesting details respecting the formation of the 'All the Talents ' Ministry, their administration and dismissal. Burke's Reflections • (1790), on the one hand, and Sir Burke, James Mackintosh's Vindiciae Gallicae (1791) and fos^h.'^and Erskine's View of the Causes and Consequences of the ^^f^^l^^ Present War ivith France (1797) on the other, exemplify Revoiu- the widely different sentiments with which the outbreak and progress of the French Revolution were regarded by the two chief contemporary parties in England. (b.) Biographies and Correspondence. — The Diary and Dia>y and Correspondence of LORD COLCHESTER- illustrate the views dencetf"' and character of a moderate Tory, who, while a zealous promoter of schemes of public utility, was throughout his career a steady opponent of all innovation, and especially distinguished by his opposition to the removal of the ' Reflections on the French Revolution. Vol. ii. of Works, edited by E. J. Payne. Clar. Press. '^ The Diary and Correspondence 0/ Charles Abbot, Lord Colchester: Speaker of the House 0/ Commons, 1 802- 1 7. Edited by his Son, Charles, Lord Colchester. 3 vols. 1861. Lord Col- chester. 398 A.D. 178Q TO A.D. 1822. CHAP. XI. Life and Correspon- dence of Lord Sid- mouth, Twiss's Life of Lord Eldun. Yonge's Ufeof Lord Liverpool. political disabilities to which Roman Catholics at that time were still subjected. Lord SidmOUTH's Life and Correspondence, edited by Pellew,' though a work of but slight literary merit, contains many interesting facts. It serves also to explain the policy of a statesman on whose behalf his defenders urge that he was called to the head of affairs under cir- cumstances of exceptional difficulty, and that his genuine merit was obscured by the brilliancy of Pitt ; while by less favourable critics he is censured for a repressive rather than remedial policy, and is held to have been mainly responsible for the massacre at Peterloo. The Life of Lord Eldon, by HORACE TwiSS,^ pour- trays with greater success the experiences of a politician of the same school as the two foregoing. It is derived partly from autobiographical materials left by lord Eldon himself, and partly from numerous letters addressed to him by George III., George IV., and other members of the royal family. The long administration of LORD LIVERPOOL is to be followed in the Life by Mr. Yonge.^ His highly en- comiastic narrative is devoted to a representation of his subject, according to which a statesman of moderate ability, sound sense, and high character, but wanting in ' The Life and Correspondence of the Right flon. ffenry Addington, first Viscount Sidmouth. By the Hon. George Pellew, D.D., Dean of Norwich. 3 vols. 1847. The Public and Private Life of Lord Chancellor Eldon, tvith Selections from his Correspondence. By Horace Twiss. 3rd edit. 3 vols. 1846. ^ The Life and Administration of Robert Banks, second Earl of Liver- pool, K. G. By Charles Duke Yonge. 3 vols. 1868. [In contrast to the theory of his biographer, Mr. Knight's view {Hist, of the Peace, bk. i.) represents the more general opinion : • The conduct of the war was not his, —he suffered others to starve the war. The peace was not his,— he gave to others the uncontrolled power of prescribing the laws of vic- tory.') and Camp- bell. BIO GR. I FHIES. 399 comprcliensivc judo^ment or political foresight, is credited Chap. with a principal share in bringing about the national _ prosperity which followed on the Peace, and is even designated as 'the very last minister who had been able fully to carry out his own political views.' Erskine's Speeches {a, \o\s., 1847) have been edited Erskines by lord Brougham, who has also appended a Memoir, ^^'■''^'"• which may be compared with that in the sixth volume of Campbell's Lives of the Lord Chancellors. The latter Lives oi . r r t 1 ■ • •, 1 • 1 Erskine by composition is free trom the depreciatory spirit which Brougham characterises so many of the Lives in the same series ; the writer declares that Erskine commands his ' love and respect,' and holds that he ' saved the liberties of his country.' The Memoirs and Correspondence of FRANCIS Memoirs Horner' have been compiled by his brother. His re- spondence putation is chiefly that of a profound financier, whose Homer."^ views were in many respects in advance of his age ; but during the last few years of his life (1812-16) he took a more prominent share in the debates of the House of Commons— his voice, in those exceptionally turbulent times, being invariably raised in support of a moderate and pacific policy. Among the numerous Lives of WELLINGTON, that by Briaimont's Brialmont,'^ an officer in the Belgian army, is the most weiiing- satisfactory. It is written throughout with great impar- *°'^' tiality, and is the result of many years' conscientious labour and research. To military students it is of especial value on account of the clearness and ability with which ' Memoirs and Correspondcttce of Francis Horner, M.P. Edited by his Brother, Leonard Horner, Esq., F.R.S. 2nd edit, with Additions. •2 vols. 1853. ^ History of the Life of Arthur, Duke of Wellington, from the French of M, Brialinont. With Emeo'-iitions and Additions by the Rev. G. R. Gleig. 4 vols. 1858. 400 A.D. 1789 TO A.D. 1822. Chap. the strategic genius that directed WelHngton's campaigns is brought before the reader. Welling- Of the Wellington Despatches, during the campaigns patJhes^ of 1796-1815, a second edition appeared in 1844-7, in eight octavo volumes. This collection has been further augmented by a supplementary series, extending to fifteen additional volumes (1858-72). His Civil Corre- spondence is comprised in five volumes, published from 1867 to 1873. Of his correspondence during his Indian administration a useful selection for students has been edited by Mr. S. J. Owen ; this contains also the text of treaties, and other important papers, and is illustrated by maps and plans (Clarendon Press, 1877). I.Ives arid The Life of Nelson by SouTHEY, one of his happiest daZe'ir' efforts, may be regarded as an English classic. NELSON'S Nelson and Dcspatc/ics^ have been edited by Sir Harris Nicolas. wCodT Another Life, by Clarke and McArthur,^ is accom- panied by a Life,hy the same writers, of Nelson's fellow- commander and intimate friend, LORD COLLINGWOOD. Collingwood's Correspondence^ official as well as private, has also been published ; and his despatches, which do equal credit to his heart and to his head, rank among the most favourable specimens of this class of literature. ufeo^ The volumes edited and compiled by Mr. Fox donaid?""' Bourne, which illustrate the romantic career of LORD DUNDONALD,* are partly autobiographical. They com- ' The Despatches and Letters oj Vice-Admu-al Horatio, Viscount Nelson. 7 vols. 1 844-5. 2 Life and Seri'ices of LJoratio, Viscount N'elson, from his Lordship's A/SS. By the Rev. James Stainer Clarke and John McArthur. 3 vols. ^ A Selection from the public and private Correspo7idence of Lord Collin gtvood, interspersed with Memoirs of his Life. By G. L. Newnham Collingwood. 410. 1828. ' ■• The Life of Thomas, Lord Cochrane, tenth Earl of Dundonald, G.C.B., Admiral of the Red, Rear- Admiral of the Fleet. By Thomas, eleventh Earl, and H. R. Fox Bourne. 2 vols. 1869. BIOGRAPHIES. 401 pose a narrative fraught with experiences of singular Chap. interest. For the present period, however, their main _!__ value is in connexion with the years 1810-20, when, as admiral Cochrane, he commanded the English fleet off South America during the War of Independence in the Spanish colonies. Lord Dudley's Letters to the Bishop of Llandaff Lord Dud- (new edition, 1 841) contains some amusing gossip and ""Leturs. criticism relating to public men and events during the period 1 8 14-23. Of the events which took place in the manufacturing Bamford's districts of Lancashire and other parts of England ^adfcai. during the years 18 16 to 1821, Bamford's Passages in the Life of a Radical affords a graphic and highly in- structive record. The painful end of LORD Londonderry' (better Lives oi known as lord Castlereagh) marks the close of the London- present period. The Life of this statesman, together with yf^ rj^^^^fe that of his brother, SiR CHARLES Stewart, has been Stewart, by written by Alison, and the volumes, which partake more of the character of a general history than a personal narrative, rank among the best of this writer's per- formances. Although conceived in no impartial spirit, the work may be regarded as a successful endeavour to rescue lord Londonderry's fame from much of the obloquy to which he was unjustly exposed during his life. ' There is perhaps,' says his biographer, ' no great man of his age, either in Great Britain or on the Continent, whose public conduct and motives of action have come so immaculate from the most searching test, or have borne so well the minutest examination by the most unfriendly ' Lives of Lord Castlereagh and Sir Charles Stewart, tlie Second and 1 hird Alarquesses 0/ Londo/tderry, with Annals of Contemporary Events in which they bore a Part. From the Original Papers of the Family. By Sir Archibald Alison, Barl. 3 vols. 1861. D D 402 A.n. 1789 TO A.D. 1822, Chap. XI. Von Sy- lel's French Re- volution, .Alison's History of Europe. Xn pier's War in the Pen- insula. eyes' (iii. 183). Lord Londonderry's Correspondence (1850) has been edited by his brother, who survived him more than thirty years. The public Hfe of the latter was comparatively brief, extending only from his mission as ambassador to Vienna in 18 14 to his with- drawal from diplomatic service after the Congress of Vienna in 1823. (C.) Latest Historical Writers. — Among the many productions to which the French Revolution has given rise, the work of VON Sybel' is generally regarded as the ablest, and is perhaps the most impartial. The writer's treatment of his subject is of that philosophical character by which he is distinguished as an historian, and he co-ordinates the Revolution with the two last divisions of Poland and the disintegration of the German Empire as one of the great events which mark the fall of Feudalism. Sir Archibald Alison's History of Etirope, from the year 1789 to 181 5, although often superficial in its treatment and wanting in the higher merits of historical composition, besides exhibiting throughout an almost servile deference to the views of the Tory party of his time, is still the most complete source of information for the main facts of the period when all European history took its direction from the action and policy in France. In conjunction with the later volumes, the student should read SiR William Napier's History of the War in the Peninsula^ which supplies some important cor- rections of Alison's narrative. A Continuation of the History of Europe, which subsequently appeared, is still ' History of the French Revolution. By Heinrich von Sybel, Professor of History in the University of Bonn. Translated from the third edition by Walter C. Perry. 4 vols. 1867. == History of the War in the Peninsula and in the South of France, from the year 1807 to the year 1814. By Major-General Sir W. F. P. Napier. New edit. 6 vols. 1851. LATEST WRITERS. 403 more strongly characterised by the author's design of Chap. making his subject the vehicle for enforcing his particular . ' " . views, and is loaded with much irrelevant disquisition. At this point, however, commences Mr. Spencer Wal- spcncer pole's History of England} a far more judicious and ^nlf^ryof careful performance. The writer has, indeed, been cen- E-ngiand. sured for giving somewhat undue importance to the bureaucratic influences of the time, and his treatment does not exhibit any of the higher powers of philosophic generalisation ; but his research is extensive, and the commercial, economic, and financial questions which now begin to enter more largely than ever into the political history of the nation, are treated with sound judgment and conspicuous moderation. A valuable aid in the more detailed study of these questions is afforded by Tooke's History of Prices^ which contains an Tooke's elaborate series of statistics from 1 793 to 1837. With frUe?."^ the year 18 16 commences the History of the Peace, hy Marti- Harriet Martineau.3 Of this, however, the first ^nltoryof book (which extends to the death of George III.) is tf^^ Peace. written by Charles Knight, and it is consequently only to the last two years of the present period that her work relates. In its composition, the authoress had access to unpublished sources of information, and was aided by the advice and criticism of some distinguished politicians of the Whig party. Generally speaking, it may be said that this History is less full of detail and less complete than Mr. Walpole's, but is far more animated in its description of events, while in its estimate of characters ' A History of England from the Conchnion of the Great War in 1815. By Spencer Walpole. 3 vols. 1878-80. ^ A History of Pi-iees and of the State of the Circulation from 1793 to 1837 ; preceded by a brief Sketch of the Corn Trade in the last two Cen- turies. By Tooke and Newmarch. 6 vols. 1838 57. ^ The History of England during the Thirty Years' Peace, 1816-46. By Harriet Martineau. 2 vols. 1849. D u 2 404 A.D. 1789 TO A.D. 1822. Chap. XI. Pauli's Geschichte Englands. and the statemanship of the period It evinces powers of a high order. Dr. Pauli's Geschichte Englands ' con- tains no facts which may not be found in the foregoing writers ; but the introduction and first four chapters are of some interest, as occasionally presenting us with the views of an enlightened Continental historian respecting the foreign policy and diplomatic relations of England at this critical period. • Geschichte Englands seit den Fricdcnschliiss-en von 1814 unci iS-15, von Reinhold Pauli, Leipzig, 1864. INDEX. ABB ABBEY (and Overton), English Church in the Eighteenth Cent lay, by, 383 Ahbotsford Club, foundation and object of, 221 Adam of Usk, his Chronicon, 287 Adelard, see St. Dunstan. Adolphus, John, History of Eng- land, by, 394 Aelfiic Society, foundation and object of, 223 Alcuin, Life and Letters of, 248 ; his history of Archbishops of York, ib. Aldhelm, of Sherborne, Life of, by Faricius, 248 Alfred, King, his wars with the Danes, 29 ; Life of, by Asser, 245 Alison, Sir Archibald, Life of Marlborough by, 379 ; his Lives of Lord Castlereagh and Sir Charles Stewart, 401 ; his History of Europe, 402 ; his Continuation, 402 Alnion's Debates, 227 America, resistance to taxation by, 183 ; its resistance to England, 187 Amundesham, John, supposed author of Annates of St. Albans, 291 Anderson, collections by, relating to Mary, Queen of Scots, 317 Andre, Bernard, his History of Hoiry VI L, 303 AVI Angles, the settlement of, in Britain, 16 Anglia Christiana Society, founda- tion and object of, 223 Attglo Saxon Chronicle, see Chroni- cle. Annales, the, of the monasteries, 274 Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, 43 ; sketch of his career, 51 ; his c 'nflict with William II. and Henry I., 52; his part in the quarrel about investitures, ib. ; Life of, by Eadmer, 267 ; by Dean Church, 268 Anstey, Mr., his Miinimtnta Aca- demica, 300 Antoninus, the Itinerarium of, 232 Aquitaine, retains its allegiance to the English kings, 63 Archceologia, 218 Army, the Cromwellian, 148 ; its character under the Protectorate, 152 Asiatic inonarchies, nature of, 2 Asser, Life of Alfred, by, 245 Athens, its political system con- trasted with that of Persia, 4 Atterbury, bp., criticism on, by Macaulay, 382 Auckland Correspondence, the, 38S Augustine, preaches Christianity in England, 22 ; his behaviour to the British priests, 25 Avesbury, Robert, his account of Edward III., 284 Avignon, the Popes at, 84 4o6 L\DEX. BAB BABYLON, fall of, 3 Bacon, Lord Chancellor, fall of, 133 ; his Life of Henry VIL, 322 ; Life of, by Spedding, 356 Baillie, Robert, Letters and Jour- nals of, 351 Baker, Thomas, his History of St. John's College, 383 Balcanqual, Dr., the author of the Lai-ge Declaration, 341 Bale, John, hisScriptores Britanniae, 212 Balfour, Sir James, his Annates of Scotland, 341 Bamf-ird, Passages in the Life of a Radical by, 40 1 Bancroft, George, his History of the United States, 356 Bannatyne Club, foundation and oliject of, 221 Barillon, Despatches of, 363 Ban mage, the, its tyranny in Scephen's reign, 51; ; its power weakened by Henry II., 56 Bassompierre, M. de, Memoir of the Embassy of, 345 Baxter, Richard, Autobiography of, 364 Bayeux Tapestry, the, 259 Bee, the abbey of, 51 Becket, Archbishop, see Beket. Bede, his Ecclesiastval History, 28; the Venerable, 234 ; his History, 235-6 ; editions of, 237 ; his Life of St. Ciithhert, 247 Bedell, bishop, Lives of, 348 Bedford Correspondence, the, 385 Beket, Thomas, his quarrel with Henry l\., 59; his murder, 60; account of, by William of New- bury, 262 ; Lives of, 267 ; Free- man's Essay on, 268 Bekynton, bishop, his Correspon- dence, 292 Berwick, duke of, Memoirs of, 377 Bertram, C. J., forges the de Sttti Britanniae, 241 Biography, Dictionary of Christian, 257 Birch, colonel. Memoir of, 348 Birch, Dr., his Historual View, 346 ; his Courts of James I. and Charles /., 35 1 Bishoprics, the English, their rela- tion to the kingdoms, 27 Bishops, their position after the Teutonic conquest of the empire, 14 Blaauw, Mr., h\% Baro7is'' War, 283 Black ueath, the, 92 Black Prince, the, his chivalry, 90 Blake, admiral. Life of, by Dixon, 369 Blondel, Robert, his de Reductions Normanniae, 294 Blunt, Mr. J. H., his Reformation in England, 326 Boderie, le Fevre de la, corre- spondence of, 345 Bollandus, John, his Acta Sanc- torum, 218 Bolingbroke, Lord, his political pamphlets and correspondence, 374 5 Bonaparte, Napoleon, his rise to power, 195 Boniface, St., preaches in Germany, 28 Boniface VHL, Pope, issues the Bull Clcricis laicos, 79 Boston, John, his Catalogus, etc., 211 Bourne, Mr. Fox, his LJfe of Lord Dundonald, 400 Boyer, A., History of the Reign of Queen Anne by, 375 ; Life of Sir W. Temple by, 365 Brentano, Dr. , his Essay on Gilds, 277 Brewer, Mr., his prefaces to the AIonum')ita Fi-anciscana and Roger Bacon, 282 ; his view of British history, 244 Brewster, Sir David, see Newton. Brief Discourse, the, or the Troubles at Frankfort, 313 Bright, professor, his Early English Church History, 257 Britain, Rcmian province in, 15 ; English settlements in, 16 Britons, their treatment by the English, 16 INDEX. 407 BRO Brodie, George, the Constitutional History of, 352 Brompton, John, Chronicon of, 268 Brooke, lord, his Discourse of Episcopacy, 'i,\2. Brougham, lord, his Statesmen of Reign of George III., 393 ; liis England under the House of Lancaster, 300 Bruce, J. C, The Roman Wall of, 243 Bryce, professor, his Holy Roman Empire, 268 Buchanan, George, his History of Scotland, 324 Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, his position under Charles I., 134 Buckingham, duke of. Memoirs of the Court of George II'. by, 387 ; his Memoirs of the Court of the Regency, 396 Buckle, T. A., his criticism of Geoffrey of Monmouth, 239 Burke, Edmund, his political prin- ciples, i8i ; his views on the Middlesex election, and on American taxation, 183 ; his opinions compared with those of Bacon, 184 ; Correspondence of, 386 ; Speeches of, il>. ; politi- cal pamphlets of, ib. ; Life of, by Macknight, 392 ; study of, by Mr. John Morley, 392 ; his Re- flections, on the Erench Revo- lution, 397 Burleigh Pcipers, the,* 316 Burnet, bishop, his History of the Reformation, 320 ; his Lives of the Dukes of Hamilton, 348 ; Own Tim.s of, 358 Burton, Dr., his Reign of Queen Anne, 380 ; his History of Scot- land, 355 Burton-upon-Trent, Annals of the monastery of, 274 Burton, H., his Protestation Pro- tested, 342 Burton, T., Diary of, 362 Bury, Richard of, his Philobiblon, 295 ^ CAT C^DMON, his poetry, 28 Cahala, the, 315 Cabinet Government, establishment of, 167 Calais, loss of, 112 Calamy, Edmund, his abridgement of Baxter's Autobiography, 365 ; his Lives of the ejected Ministers, Calderwood, David, his History of the Kirk of Scotland, 313 Calendars of State Papers, 226 Calvin, John, his dogmatic system, "3 Camden Society, foundation and object of, 222 Camden, William, his Annals of James L, 332; Britannia of, 242 ; his Anglica, etc., ib. Camden, John, his Life of Elizabeth, 311 Campbell, lord, his Lives of the Lord Chancellors, 229 ; of the Chief Justices, ib. Canada, the conquest of, 178 Candidus, Hugo, his History of the Monastery at Peterborough, 264 Canning, George, foreign policy of, 196 Capgrave, John, his Chronicle of Etigland, 288 ; his Book of the Noble Henries, ib. Carey, Sir Robert, Memoirs of, 349 Carew Letters, the, 319, 333 Carew, Sir Peter, his Life by Hooker, 311 Carleton, Sir Dudley, correspond- ence of, 346 Carlyle, Thomas, his Letters and Speeches of Cromwell, 353 Carstairs, William, his edition of State Papers, 372 ; Life of, by Story, 381 Carte, Thomas, Life of Ormonde by, 352 Castlereagh, Viscount, see London- derry. Catholics, the English, Elizabeth's distrust of, 116; their persecu- tion, 119; their treatment bv James I., 131 ; feeling again 1, in the reign of Charles II., 158 4o8 INDEX. CAV Cave, William, his Historia Litte- raria, 2.1 \ Cavendish, Sir Henry, his Debates of the 'Unreported Parliament,' 390 Caxton Society, foundation and ob- ject of, 223 Celibacy of the clergy, opinions of Dunstan on, 36 ; arguments in favour of, 48 Cella, John de, part author of the Historia Major, 272 Ceorls, their position in the English tribe, 17 Challoner, his Missionary Priests, 318 Chamberlayne, Edward, his Angliae Notitia, 359 Chancellors, the Lord, Lives of, 229 Chandler's Debates, 227 'Chaplain, the,' his account of Henry V., 289-90 Charles I., engages in war with Spain and France, 134; his breach with the House of Com- mcjns, 136 ; nature of the oppo- sition to, 137 ; his arbitrary government, 139 ; introduces a new Prayer-book into Scotland, 141 ; his quarrel with the Long Parliament, 143 ; character of his supporters in the Civil War, 144 ; execution of, 149 ; corre- spondence of, with Henrietta Maria, 344 Charles II., restoration of, 154; growing distrust of, 158 Charter, the Great, its grant by John, 66 Chatham, the Earl of, becomes Prime Minister, 180; his views on the Middlesex election and on American taxation, 183 ; death of, 187 Chetham Society, foundation and object of, 223 Chivalry, character of, in the reign of Edward III , 90 Christie, Mr. W D., his Life of Ashley Cooper 369 Chronicle, the tn^lo-Saxon, 237; COB editions of, 238 ; texts of, 245 ; periods at which they respectively terminate, 259 ; the Peterborough version of, 264 Chroniques de London, 278 Church, dean, his Beginning of the Middle Ages, 257 ; his Life of Anselm, 268 Church and State, their relations in the Middle Ages, 49 Church of England, its separation from Rome, 106 ; its character in the reign of Elizabeth, 113; its development under Elizabeth, 121 ; its character in the eighteenth century, 173 ; the in- fluence of Wesley on, 177 Church, the Christian, its character in the Roman empire, II ; its relations with the empire, 12 ; its organisation, ib. ; its relations with the Teutonic conquerors of the empire, 13 Church, the English, its origin, 22 ; its monasticism, 23 ; its peni- tential system, 24 ; its relation to the State, 27 ; its effect on the growth of national unity, 26 ; organised by William I. and Lanfranc, 50 Churton, Ralph, his Life of Nowell, .328 Cirencester, Richard of, not the author of the de Situ Britanniae, 241 Civil War, the first, 147 ; the second, 149 CLirendon, Lord Chancellor, his system of government, 154; his IJisloiy of the Rebellion, 334 ; his Short View, 339 Clarendon State Papers, the, 336 Clarke, J. S., Life of James II. by, 366 Cluniac reforms, the, 47 Clive, lord, life of, by Sir John Malcolm, 393 Cnut, his reign, 38 Coalition Ministry, the dismissal of, 188 Cobbett, William, his Farlia' nientaty Debates, 228 INDEX. 4-9 COL Die Colchester, lord. Diary and Cone- spoiideiicc of, 397 Collier, Jeremy, his Ecc/a/aslical History, 319 Collingwood, lord. Life of, by Clarke and McArthur, 400 Commendation of freemen, 34 Commons, House of, its constitu- tion, 88 ; growing strength of, 90 ; its position in Elizabeth's reign, 126 ; its position at the death of Elizabeth, 128; its in- creased importance after Eliza- beth's death, 129 ; its treatment of Catholics and Puritans, 131 ; its ecclesiastical policy in the reii^n of Charles E, 135 ; su- premacy of, 163 ; first results of its supremacy, 166 ; its relation to the nation, 168 ; its relation to the constituencies after the death of Anne, 171 ; expulsion of Wilkes from, 183 ; gives a ma- jority to any ministry in power, 185 ; its constitution in 1783, 1S9 ; Journals of, 228 Commonwealth, the, its meaning as apolitical term, no; Elizabethan conception of, 116 Compurgators, oath of, 21 Coiitirinatio Cartartini, 80 Co(5per, C. H., and Thompson, Athenae Cantabrigienses of, 330 Cooper, Ashley, Life of, by Christie, 369 Coote, Mr., his Romans of Britain, 244 Cornwallis, lord, Correspondence of, 387 Courtenay, Hon. T. P., see Temple Coventry, Walter de, Alemoriale of, 273 Coxe, archdeacon, his edition of the Shre'wsbiay Correspondence, 371 ; his Lives of Marlborough, Walpole, and Pelham, 379 Craik (and Maqfarlane), History of England l;>y, 394 Cranmer, Archbishop, his religiius position. III Cromwell, Oliver, his services, 147 ; his Protectorate, 150 ; difficulties in the way of his government, 151 ; and the Earl of Manchester, documents relating to, 344 ; edi- tion of his Letters and Speecfics, by Carl)le, 353 Crovland, monastery of, history of, Croyland Chronicle, the, Continiia- lion of, 296 Crusades, the, 61 ; authorities for, 269 Cuthbert, St., Lives of, 247 DALRYMPLE, Sir David, Alemorials and Letters of, 334 Dalrymple, Sir John, his Memoirs of Great Britain, &.C., 363 Danes, the, wars with, 29 ; con- quer England under Cnut, 38 Daniel, Sam., History of England by, 279 Danish settlements in England, 29 Danish wars, destruction of culture in England, 36 D'Avaux, Ct., Negotiations of, 363 Davison, Wm., Life of, by Sir II. Nicolas, 328 Debate-;, parliamentary, early col- lections of, 227 Debates (Commons) of 1610, 1620, and 1 62 1, 335 ; do. 162!^, 336 Debates (Lords) of 1621, 1624, 1626, 335 Debrett's Debates, 227 Declaration of indulgence, the, issued by James IE, 160 De Quincey, criticism on Bentley by, 382 Devereux, Mr., his Lives of the Divereux, 329 Devil, the. legends of, 25 Devizes, Richard of, his Chronicle, 264 D'Ewes, Sir Simonds, his fournals of the Elizabethan Parliaments, 227, 315 ; Autobiography of, 348 Dialogns de Scaccario, the, 268 Diceto, Ralph of, his Chronicles, 250 ; his Imagines Historianan, 263 ; important for reign of Heniy II., ih. 4IO INDEX. I'igges, Sir Dudley, his Compleat Ambassador, 314 Disraeli, Isaac, his Commentaries on Rei^n of Charles /., 353 Dissenters, their treatment under the Restoration, 156; relations of, with political parties, 172 Divine Right of Kings, meaning of the doctrine of the, 154 Dixon, Mr. R. W. , his History of the Lhiirch of England, 326 Dixon, H., his Lives of Blake and Penn, 369 Dodd, Charles, his Church History, 322 Dodington, Bubb, Diary of, 391 Domesday Book, 45 ; facsimile edition of, 267 Dryden, John, political poems of, 366 ; writers on, 369 ; Dudley, lord, Letters of, 401 Dudo of St. Quentin, authority for Norman history, 258 Dagdale (Sir VV.), his Monasticon, 257 Dumont, M,, Cirps Lniversel of, 345 Dundonald, lord. Life of, by Fox Bourne, 400 Dunstan, archbishop, his eccle- siastical policy, 35 ; favours edu- cation and clerical celibacy, 36 Dunstan, St., Lives of, 249, 253 Dunstable, Annals of the monasteiy of, 274 Durham, Simeon of, his History, 249 P^ ADMER, his Historia Novo- ^ rum, 259 Ealdorman, his position in an English tribe, 17 Earle, professor, his edition of the A. S. Chron., 238 Earls, Cnut's appointment of, 38 Early English Text Society, founda- tion and object of, 224 East India Company, Annals of the, by Bruce, 327 Ebrachar, see St. Dunstan. Ecclesiastical, force of the term as applied to history, 2;;5 Eddius, author of life of Wilfrid, 247 E'gar, cedes Lothian to the Scot- tish King, 30 ; constitution of England in his reign, 32 ; tne secular laws of, 37 Edmund Ironsides, his reign, 38 Edward the Confessor, reign of, 38 ; his love of fore gners, 39 ; Life of, 247 ; Lives of 252 Edward the Elder, his wars with the Danes, 30 Edward I., character of his reifrn, 75 ; his ideas of the kingly power, 76 ; his relations with Prince, 78 ; his dispute with the clergy and the baronage, 79 ; completes the English Parliament, 80 Edward II., his reign, 81 ; author- ities for reign of, 275-6 Edward III., his French wars, 86 Edward IV., causes of the strength of his government, 99 ; His tor ie of the Arrivall of, 295 Edward V., Docket Book of, 297 Edward VI., his reign, m Edward VI., Literary Remains of, 310 Egbert, unites the English king- doms, 2S Eighteenth century, state of society in the first half of, 173 Eldon, lord, Lif- of, by Horace Twiss, 398 Eliot, Sir John, bis leadership of the Commons, 135 Elizabeth, difficulties at the begin- ning of her reign, 1 13; her re- ligious compromise, 114 ; charac- ter of the church of her reign, 115 ; her treatment of religious parties, 116; her rivalry with Mary Queen of Scots, 117; her conduct toward^ the Cathohcs, 119 ; her treatment of the Puri- tans, 121 ; literature of her reign, 123 ; development of the Kngl-sh character in her reign, 124; her sympathy with the nation, 125 IXDLX. 411 ELL Ellis, Sir Henry, his Historical letters, 219 ; his criticism on Polydore V^ergil, 29S-9 Ehnham, Thomas, \i\s Lifeof I/enry v., 289 Eminae Encomimn, the, 247 Empire, the Roman, see Rome. England, early institutions of, 17; introduction of Christianity into, 22 ; union of the kingdoms of, under Egbert, 28 ; tendency to break up in Edgar's reign, 37 ; Norman organisation of, 43 ; effect of the loss of Normandy on, 64 ; its connection with Flanders, 86 ; influence of the French Re- volution on, 193; its relations with France, 195 ; foreign policy of, 196; its s'ruggle with Napoleon, 196 English, the, settlement of, in Britain, 16 ; their institutions, 1 7 ; effect of war on the institu- tions of, 18 ; growth of kingship amongst, 19: their relation to the Norman kings, 45 English Historical Society, foun- dation of, 222 Eorls, their position in the English tribe, 17 ; superseded by'ihegns, 32 Erskine, lord, his pamphlet on the War, 397 ; Speeelus of, 399 Kthelwerd, Chronicle of, 246 Ethelred of Rievaulx, his Life of ! Edward the Confessor, 252 | Ethelred the Unready, his weak' ness, 37 Evelyn, John, Diary o^, 361 Evesham, Battle of, 74 Exclusion Bill, the, 159 FAB VAN, Robert, Chronicle oi, 297 Fairfax Correspondence, the, 350 Faricius, see Aldhelm. Feudality, origin of, 32 ; its estab- lishment in England, 43 Fiddes, Richard, his Life of Wolscy, 323 IRE Fielding, evidence of his works, .'73 Fisher, bishop. Life of, by I,ewis, 323 Fitz-Neal, Richard, probably the author of work ascribed to Bene- dict of Peterborough, 262 Fitzmaurice, lord Edmund, his Life of LoJ-d Shelbiirne, 392 Flanders, connection of England with, 86 Fletcher of Saltoun, LJisconrscs of, 375 poister, John, his wtrks relating to the Commonwealth, 354 Forster. Mr. W. E., his pamphlet on Macau I ay, 367 Foss, Mr., his Lives of the Judges, 228 Fox, Charles James, his quarrel with Shelburne, 188 ; Historv of Reign of J awes IL by, 3'66 ; Early Hiitory of, by Trevelyan, 392 ; Meviorials of, by Earl Rus- sell, ib. ; Life and Times of, by same, //'. Foxe, John, his Actes and Monii- vicntes, 309 France under Philip II., 63 ; its relations with Edward I., 78 ; antagonism of the Restoration Parliaments to, 1 57 ; European wars of, 194 Francis of Assisi, character of his work, 72 Frankfort, the exiles at, 114 Frankfort, Troubles at, see Briif Discourse, 313 Fray Francisco, his treatise on the Spanish marriage, 340 Frederick II., his struggle with the Popes, 71 Freeman, Mr. E. A., his Compara- tive Politics, 209 ; on the Ant^lo- Saxon Chronicle, 237, 238 ; on Henry of Huntingdon, 250; on the Lives of Edward the Confes.-;or, 253 ; his History of the A-ornian Conquest, 256, 268 ; his account of the Angevin reigns, 282 ; on the wars wf Kdward III. and Hcnrj- ^^, 300 412 IiWEX. FRE French Revolution, the prevalent ideas of, 192 ; its influence in England, 193 Friars, the, arrive in En':;land, 71 ; contrasted with the monks, 72 Froissart, his adaptation of Jean le Bel, 294 Froude, Mr. James A., his History of Englatid, 325 Fuller, Thomas, his Chitrch History, 319 ; his Worthies of England, ,323 Fulman, William, his Scriptores Kerum Aitglicai uin, 217 r~^ ALMAR, Geoffrey, his Histoire \JJ des Augles, 260 Gairdner, Mr. James, his Life of A'ii/iard ///., 299 ; his articles on fifteenth centuiy history, 301 ; his criticism on Polydore Vergil, 302, n. I Gale, Thomas, his Scriptoirs XV., 217 ; his edition of Gildas, 233 Gardiner, Stephen, his religious position, III Gardiner, Mr. S. R , his works on English history in the sever.teenth century, 354 Geffcken, Heinrich, his work on Church and State, 301 George III., his struggle for power, 180; defeats the Whigs, lS6 ; State Papers of the reign of, 384; his Correspondence with Lord North, 386 Gerard, John, Life of, by Morris, 318 Germans assail the Roman empire, ^3 Gervase of Canterbury, chiefly a compiler, 264 Gery, Robert, continued Cave's Historia, 214 Gesiths, relations of, with the king, 19 Gesta Stephani, the, 260 C;iilard, Lady, her Life of Sir iV. Temple, 369 Gildas, his de Excid^ Britanniae, 233 GUN Gilds, history of, 277 Giraldus Cambrensis, works of, 265 Gissehum, see Hemingford. Godwin, his influence in England, 39 Godwin, William, his History of the Commonwealth, 352 Goodman, Dr. Godfrey, h's Court of fames I., 332 Grafton, Richard, continued Hard- ing's Chronicle, 292 Graham of Claverhouse, see Napier. Granioiit, Count de. Memoirs of, 362 Granvelle, cardinal, his Con-e- spo)idence, 316 Gray, John de, nominated arch- bishop, 64 Great Council, the, compared with the Witenagemot, 46 ; its power over taxation, 66 Greek republics, character of, 3 Green, Mrs. Everett, her Lives of the Princesses, 228 Gregory L, Pope, sends Augustine to England, 25 Gregoiy VII., Pope, his idea of papal absolutism, 48 ; his ideal of the papacy contrasted with that of Inniicent III., 65 Grctjory IX., Pope, his quarrel with Frederick II., 71 Gregory, William, his Chronicle, 279 Grenville Papers, the, 385 Grey. Anchitell, his collection of Debates, 227 Crey Friars of London, Chronicle of the, 309 Grosseteste, Robert, his Letters, 280 Guest, Dr. E., his opinion on Gildas. 233 ; on the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 237 ; pamphlets on British history by, 243 Guizot, Essais of, 268 ; his Histoire de la Civilisation, etc., 282 ; his works on Engli h history, 354 Gunpowder Plot, materials for the history of the, 340 INDEX. 413 GUT C'liilhry, Ilcnry, Mr/uoi.-s of, 341 Cuy, bi.sliop of Amiens, en the battle of Hastings, 259 HALKET, lady, Aiifo'uo- graphy of, 349 Hall, Anthony, texts edited by, 217 Hall, Edward, his Two Noble Fainilics, Sec, 299 ; his value for the Tudor period, 302 3 Hallam, on the 'four causes,' 283; on chivalry, 300 ; value of lis Constituiiotial History for the sixteenth century, 326 Halliwell, J. O., his 1., Iters of the Kwgs of England, 350 Hamilton, dukes of, Burnet's Lives of, 348 J/nmilton Papers, the, 350 Hiini;iton Court, Conf^erence at, 130 Ifardwicke Papers, the, 311. Hardy, Sir T. D., his cnticisni on Bale, 213 ; on Tanner, 214 ; his Descriptive Catalogue, 215; his Syllabus of Rymer'sAv^/.n?, 225; on the Rolls of Parliament, 225 ; his opinion on Cildas, 234 ; his ciitici>m cf Geoffiey of Mnn- mouth, ^\o•, of Ethelwerd, 246; ' his criticism on Eddius, 247 Hardyng, John, Chronicle by, 292 1 Pfarleia)t 'Miscellany, the, 23 1 Harold is chosen king, 39 | Harpsfield, Nicholas, his Pretended Divorce, &c., 304 | Harrison, William, his Description ^ of F.ngland, 2P1 '■> ^"'s Chronicle of Scotland, 307 Il^tton, Sir Christopher, Life of, 1 by Sir H. Nicolas, 328 ' Hatton /-amity, the. Correspondence ' of 350 I Hansard, his Parliamentary Debates, 228 Haiisser, Ludwig, his History of the Reformation, 326 Haweis, Mr., his Sketches of 1 lie Ke- formation, 326 Haywaid, Sir John, his life oj HOL Edward VI., 322 ; his Annals of Eli'..dKth, ih. Hearne, Thomas, merits of his lexis of authors, 216-7 Hemingford, Walter, Chronicle of, 276 Henry I., his quarrel with Anselni, 52 ; establi:!ies order, 54 Henry H., restoration of order by, 55 ; his miliiary reforms, 56; po- litical insiitutions of, 58; his quarrel with Becket, 59 ; ch ef authorities for reign of, 262 Henry HI., King, his accession, 69 Henry I\^, the Emperor, his P' nance at Canossa, 42 Heniy V., his French wars, 98 ; authorities for reign of, 2S9 Henry VI., his weakness, 98; Chronicles for reign of, 292 Henry VH., his accession, 99 ; nature of his authority, loo ; ex- tends the royal power, 10[ ; end of his reign, 103 Henry VIII., character of, 10^; his quarrel with the Pope, 106 ; his use of the royal supremacy, I to ; correspondence of, 226 ; Sta'e Papers for reign of, 312 Henry the Fowler imitates Edward th- Elder, 30 Herbert, Algirnon, his Britannia after the Romans, 243 Herbert of Cherbury, lord, liis Life of Henry VIIL, 322 ; his Expedition to the Isle of R he 3^.0; Autobi graphy oi, 349 Herbert, Sir Thomas, his Memo rs of Charles I., 344 Heretics, statute for the burning o'", 98 Hervey, lord, Memoirs of, 376 Heylin, P., his Life of Land, 347 >lexham Chronicles, the, 261 Higden, Polyihronicon of, 285 Hiklebrand, see Gregory VH. Hogarth, evidence of his works to the state of society, 173 Holinshed, Raphael, Chronicles of, 306-7 Holland, lord, his Memoirs cf tht Whig Party, 395 414 INDEX. Holies, lord, Memoirs o^, 343 Ilonorius II., pope, his influence during the minority of Henry III., 70 Hook, dean, his Lives of tlie Arch- bishops, 283, 300 Hooker, John, a contributor to HoHnshed's Ch7-onicles, 307 Horner, Francis, Aletiwirs of, by his brother, 399 Ilorsley, John, Britannia Roniaiia of, 242 Hosack, Mr. John, his Mary, Queen of Scots, 329 Hoveden, Roger, Chronica of, 263 ; importance of the work as de- scribed by Stubbs, ih. Hubert, Walter, archbishop, his administration for Richard I., 61 Hiibner, professor, his collection of Christian inscriptions in Britain, 242 Hugh of Lincoln, Life of, 267 ; Life of, by Perry, 269 Hundred Years' War, the, begin- ning of, 87 I Hunt, Mr. John, his jRclioJous I Thought in England, 326, 368, 383 Huntingdon, Henry of, his flistoria, 250 Hurd, bishop, his Dialogue on I Elizabeth, 322 HutchinEon, colonel, Life of, by his widow, 348 TNCLOSURES, the attempts to restrict, 112 Independents, the, support tolera- tion, 148 Ingulphus, spuriousness of work attributed to, 255 Innocent HI., pope, his quarrel with John, 64; proposes to Philip II, to invade England, 65 ; his ideal of the Papacy contrasted with that of Gregory VII., i/,. Innocent IV., pope, his quarrel with Frederick II., 71 Inscriptions, ancient, collections of, .y.'.f Bruce, Ilorsley, Hiitiner. KEM Investitures, quarrel about, 53 Ireland, account of, by Giraldus, 265 ; conquest of, by Henry II., ill. and 266 ; authorities for early history of, ih. ; for history of, in sixteenth century, 324 Ire/and, History of Affairs in, 339 Italy, its union under Rome, 5 JAMES I., the first ten years of his reign, 130; his treatment of the Catholics, 131 ; his alliance with Spain, 132 ; materials for reign of, 331 ; writings of, 333 James II., the reign of, 160 ; birth of his son, 161 ; dethronement of, 162 ; Lives of, 366 James, William, his Naval History, 230 yatie, queen. Chronicle of, 310 Jardine, D., On the Use ofTortute, 341 Jean le Bel, Chronicle of, 293 Jeiusalem taken by the Maho- metans, 61 Jessoj.p, Dr., his One Generation of a Norfolk House, 318 Jesuits, the, their propaganda, 1 18; authorities for their histoi^, 327 John, king, his selfishness, 62 ; his quarrel with the king of France, 63 ; his quarrel with the Pope, 64 ; his quarrel with Innocent HI., 65; his quarrel with the baronage, 66 ; constitutional con- cessions of, 68 jfudi^ts of England, Lives of the, 228 Judicial reforms, established by Henry II., 57 Jumieges, William of his Historiae A'orinannorum, 258 yunitis. Letters (j/i 391 Jute-, the, settlement of in Biitain, 16 TREATING, Dr., his Hisio'y oj l\^ Erina, 266 Kemble, Joiin .M., his Saxons in England, 210, 255 INDEX. 4'5 Kennet, hisho^j, his History of LngUnd, 217 ; his KegisUr and Chronicle, 359 Jveiil, /'roici dings in the County of, Ker of Kersland, Memoirs of, 377 Ket's rebellion, 112 King, Dr., Anecdotes of, 377 'King's Pamphlets,' the, at the British Museum, 334 King, the, growth of his authority amongst the English i-ettlers, 19 ; relations of, with his Witan, i^. ; his relations with his gesiths, //'. ; his constitutional powers in the tenth century, 35 ; growth of his authority after Alfred's reign, 30 Kirk, Mr. John F., his Life of Charles the Bold, 301 Knight, Charles, his share in Miss Martineau's History of the Peace, Knighton, Henry, History oj Eng- land by, 285 LABOURERS, the condition of. 91 Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canier- ijury, 43 ; organises he English Church, 50; Life of, by Milo Crispin, 267 ; by dean Hook, 268 Langtoft, Peter, his Chronicle, 250 Langton, Stephen, nominated Aich- bishop, 65 Lappenberg, his error in accepting the de Situ as genuine, 241 Large Declaration, the, 341 Laud, Archliishop, his ecclesiastical policy, 136 ; alarm caused by his proceedings, 138 ; his Letters to Strafford, 347 ; History of his troubles, &c., ib. ; Life of, by Heylin, ib. Laws, early English, 254 Lecky, Mr. \V. E. H., his History of England, 380 L- grand, Joachim, his Histoire du Divorce, 320 Leland, John, his Collectatua and Cotn/nentarii, 211-2 Le Neve, John, L'asti o(, 229 LON Letters, the Royal, tefnp. Henry IIL, 279; episcopal, of Walter de Grey, 280 ; papal, collections of, id. Levi, Professor Leone, his History of Commerce, 230 Lewes, battle of, 73 Lewis, son of Philip IL, invited to take the English throne, 69 Lewis XIV., European position of, 157; his intolerance, i6i Lewis, John, his Life of Fisher, 323 Lewis, Sir G. C, his observations on the historical value of letters and despatches, 384 ; his Essays o'l the Administrations, 395 Liber Albus, 278 Liberal movement, the, spread of, 198 L.iber Custumarum, 278 Liber de Antiquis Legibus, 278 Liberty of the press, the e tablish- ment of, 165 Lincolnshire, the rebellion in, 1470, 295 Lingard, John, his error in accepting the de Situ as genuine, 241 ; value of his History for the sixteenth century, 326 ; value of his History for the seventeenth century, 3!;3 ; his account of James IL, 366 Liverpool, lord, Life of, by Mr. Yonge, 398 Livius, Titus, his Life of Henry V., 289 Lloyd, David, his State Worthies, 323 Lobanov-Rostovsky, Prince, edition of Letters of Mary, Queen of Scots, by, 317 Locke, John, his Letters on loieia I'o'i, 373 Lollardism, course of, 97 Li 1 ards, the, their rise, 95 London, Chronicle of, 278 London Chronicle, the, temp. Henry VII. ann Henry V.IL, 304 Loncton, City Records of, 277 Lond nderry, lord. Life of, by Alison, 401 ; Correspondence uf, 402 41 6 INDEX. LON Longman, William, his Lectures on the History of England, 282 ; his Life of Edward I//., 300 Long I'arliament, the, it? first mea- sures, 142 ; its breach with the King, 143 ; character of its sup- porters in the Civil War, 145 ; Cromwell's dissolution of, 149 Lords, House of, yournals of, 228 ; Protests, 336 Lowtll, J. R., his Essay on Dryden, 370 Luard, Mr., his edition of Mat- thew Paris, 282 Ludlow, Edmund, Memoirs of, 343 Lutlrell, Narcissus, Diary of, 362 ^TABILLON, John, his Acta ' 1 Sanctorum. 218 Macaulay, lord. History of, 367 ; Essays of, 382 MacGeo^ehan, the Abbe, his His- tory of Ireland, 267 Mac;iicle<:, 294 Montfort, Simon de, his political ideas, 73 Montrose, Life of, by Napier, 356 jMonumenta Historica Britannica, the, 242 Moor, Thomas de la, his Life of Edward IJ., 276 More, Sir Thomas, his Utopia, 105, 305 ; h's accounts of Edward V. and Richard III., 296; his Life by Roper, 310 Morley, professor H., his English Writers, 215 Motley, Mr., his Dutch Republic and United Netherlands, 327 Mozley, J. B., his Essays on Straf- ford, Laud, and Cromwell, 355 Miiller, professor Max, his Lecture on Language, 207 Mullinger, Mr. J. B., his History of llie Unii'crsity of Cambridge, 283 NOR Murimuth, Adam of, continuation of, 284 NALSON, John, Collection of, 339 Napier, Mark, Life of Montrose by, 356 ; his LJfe of Graham cf Claverhouse, 369 Napier, Sir William, his History oj the Peninsular War, 402 Naval History, see James, 230 Neal, Daniel, his Ilistury of the Puritans, 321 Nelson, lord. Life of, by Soutliey, 400 ; his Despatches, ib. ; Life of, by Clarke and McArthur, ib. Nennius, Historia Britunum of, 239 Netherlands, the, attack of France on, 196 Netter. Thomas, his Fasciculi Zi- zanioruin, 297 Newbury, William of, his Historia Kerum Anglicaruin, 262 Newton, Sir Isaac, Life of, l^y Brewster, 382 Nicolas, Sir Harris, his Lives of Davison and Hatton, 328 Nichols, John, his Progresses of Queen Elizabeth, 324 ; his Pro- gresses of James I., 356 ; Literary Anecdotes by, 382 Noailles, de. Despatches of Antoine and Francois, 316 Nolitia Dignitatum, the, 233 Noorden, Carl von, his Europdische Geschichte, 381 Norman conquest of England, part of a reaction of the South against the North, 41 ; its effect on the organisation of the country, 43 Normaiictie, Chronique de, cited by Fabyan, 290 Normandy, its early relations with England, 39 ; taken from John, 63 Norman history, authorities for, 258 Normnns, the, character of, 42 ; iheir organisation of England, 43 North, I-ord, his coalition with Fox, 186 ; becomeb Prime Minis- E E 4i8 INDEX. NOR ter, ib. ; his correspondence with George III., 3S6 Nortii, Roger, Lives of his brothers by, 365 ; his Examen, 359 Northumberland, Wilfrid in, 26 ; cession to the King of the Scots of the Northern part of, 30 OCCASIONAL conformity, le- gislation on, 172 O'Curry, Mr. Eugene, his Lectures on Irish History, 266 Oliphant, Mr. t., his Old and Middle Enolish, 208 Ordericus Vitalis, his Ecclesiastical dJis'.ory, 51, 260 Organisation of England, political, 21 ; ecclesiastical, 22 Ormonde Papers, the, 339 Osbert de Clare, his Life of Edward the Confessor, 252 Osney, Annals of the monastery of, 275 Otterbourne, Thomas, his Chronica, 2S9 Overton, J. H.,j^^ Abbey. Oxford, University of, Puritan visi- tation of, 344 PAGE, John, his Siege of Rouen, 290 Paget, Mr., his N'ew Exavien, 367 Palfrey, J. G., his History of Neiu England, 356 Palgrave, Sir F., His/oty of the E.nglish Commonwealth, dy, 255 Pandulph receives John's submis- sion, 65 Parish, origm^of the, 18 Paris, Mattnew, his qualities as an historian, 271 ; his Historia Major, 272 ; his Historia An- g/orum, ib ; period for which he is the main authority, 274 Parker, Archbishop, his editions of Matthew Paris and Walsingham, 215 Parker Society, foundation and object of, 222 Parliament, admi sion of reprcsen- PIT tative knights to, 73 ; admission of representatives of the towns to, 74 ; its progress under Edward I., 75 ; its complete form, 80 ; rise of the House of Commons in, 88 ; its relation with Elizabeth, 125 ; growing importance of, 127; jft" Rolls ; the ' Unreported,' 390 Parliamentary History, the, 227 Paston Letters, the, 295 Pauli, Reinhold, his opinion on As- ser, 246 ; his account of the reigns of John and Henry III., 282 ; his Simon von Montfort, 283; his.-^///- sdtze ziir Engl isc hen Geschichte, 299 ; his Geschichte Englands seit den Eric'denschliisse}!, 403 Pearson, Mr. C. H., his view of Biitish history, 244 Peasants' revolt, the, 92 Pelham, Henry, Life of, by Coxe, Penitential system, its action as an organising power, 24 ; literature of the, 253 Penn, William, Life of, by Dixon, 369 Pepys, Samuel, Diary of, 361 Percy Society, foundation and (object of, 222 Persia, fall of the empire of, 3 Peterborough, Benedict of, work ascribed to, 262 ; Chronicle of the monastery of, 277 Peterkin, Alexander, on the Re- formed Church of Scotland, 313 Philip II., king of France, takes provinces from John, 63 Philip VI. makes war with the Flemish burghers, 87 Pictet, M., his Origines Indo- Eur^peenncs, 207 Picts, the, their attack on south Britain, 15 Piers the Ploughman, 92 Pits, John, his Scriptores Angltae, 213 Pitt, William (the elder), his cha- racter as a statesman, 178 ; his Life by Thackeray, 382 ; his Correspo'tdence, 385; jc^ Chatham, the carl of. INDEX. 4«9 PIT Pitt, William (the youngei), inherits his father's policy, 187 ; becomes Prime Mmister, 188 ; seeks national support, 190 ; the later years of his ministry, 193 ; en- gages in war with France, 195 ; Ltfe of, by Tomline, 391 ; hy earl Stanhope, 392 Poets of the court of Charles I., 137 Poitiers, William of, his Gesta Willclmi, 258 Pole, Reginald, the de Unitate of, 304 Popes, the, claims of, 25 ; the de- crease of their influence in Eng- land, 70 Popish Plot, the, 159 Porter (G. R.), his Progress of the h'atioit, 230 Poulet, Sir Amias, Letter Books of, 3'7 Prices, History of, by Rogers, 301 ; by Tooke and Newmarch, 403 Protestantism, its ch racter, 108 ; its progress in the leign of Ed- ward VI., Ill; Elizabeth's support of, n6; views of the Jesuits on, 118 Prothero, Mr., his Life of Simon de Montfort, 283 Provisions of Oxfo)d, tl'.e, 73 Pryniie, William, Papers relating to, 347 Puiseux, M., his Siige de Roue)t, 290 Puritanism, its treatment by Eliza- beth, 121 ; its character under Charles I., 137 RALEIGH, Sir Walter, Lifeo^, by Oldys, 329; by Edwards, ib. Ranke, Leopold von, his History of the Popes, 325 ; his History of E>i inland, 326 Ranuif, Flambard, his tyranny, 50 Record Commission, publications of the, 225 ' Records,' meaning of the term, 225 ROM Reformation, the age of the, its general character, 109 Reformation, the, its influence on our historical literature, 306 Reformation, Narratives of the, 310 Renaissance, the, character of, 104; its effect upon England, 105 ; its ^ development under Elizabeth, 123 Representative government, the Romin empire incapable of, 8 Representative system in England, the, its germs, 69 ; Simon de Montfort's sc'ieme of, 73 ; growth of, 74 ; completion of, 75 Reresby, Sir John, Travels and Memoirs of, 360 Restoration, the, 154 Revolution of 1399 contrasted with the Revolution of 1688, 97 Revolution of 1688, the, institutions established at, 163; resrictionof the sphere of government as a result of, 165 Richard, bishop of London, his Dialogus de Scaccario, 268 Richard I., his reign, 61 ; authori- ties for reign Temple, Sir William, his Z^//^rjand Memoirs, 359 ; Life of, by Hon. T. P. Courtenay, 369 Teulet, M., his edition of the I French Despatches, 316 Thegns, their po'^ition in the Witenagemote, 31 ; their relation to the king, 33 ; distinguished from eorls and gesitbs, ib. Theodore, archbishop, his organisa- tion of the Church, 26 Thomason, collection of pamphlets by, 333 Thornton, Mis. Alice, Autobiography of, 349 Thorpe, Benjamin, his edition of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 238 ; his edition of the Ancient Laws, &c., 254 7'hurloe Papers, the, 337 Tindal, Nicholas, his Continuation of Rapin, 375 Toleration, its adoption by the srcts, 148 ; its prospects under the Restoration, 155 Toleration Act, the, enactment of, 165 Tooke (and Newmarch) History of Prices by, 403 Tories, the, oppose the Exclusion Bill, 159 ; their depression after the death of Anne, 169 ; recon- struction of the party of, 186 ; their principles in the reign of George III., ib. Townshend, I ley wood, his His- torical Collections, 315 VOL Township, the, sends deputies to the hundred-mote, 18 Trevisa, John ot, tiis translation of Higden. 285 Trevelyan, Mr. G. O., his Early History of C. J. Fox, 392 Tribe, the English, 17 ; their amalgamation into kingdoms, 19 Trivet, Nicholas, his Annales, 273 ; his six Angevin kings, how reckoned, ib. n. 2 ; Rishangers work largely borrowed from, ib. n. 3 Trokelowe, John of, his Annales, 275 Tudor monaichy, the, causes of its strength, 99 Tulloch, Dr., Rational Theology of, 368 Turner, Sir James, Memoirs by, 365 Twysden, Sir Roger, the Decern Scriptores generally known under his name, 216 Tyerman, Rev. L. , his Life of Wes- ley, 393 Tytler, W., his work relating to Mary, Queen of Scots, 317, 329 USSHER, archbishop, one of the editors of the Decern Scriptores, 216 Utopia, the, its characteristics, 105 VENETIAN 'Relation,' the, tetnp. Henry VII., 304 Venetian Reports, the, in the seven- teenth century, 345 Vergil, Polydore, his Historia An- glica, 298 ; his value as a contem- porary authority, 302 Verney Family, the, Letters and Papers of 335 Verney, Sir Ralph, his Motes on the Long Parliament, 337 Vienna, the Congress of, 196 Villenage, cry for the abolition of, 93 Voltaire, influence of, on the French Revolution, 192 INDEX. 423 WAC WAGE, Robert, bis Roman de Ron, 258 Waitz, G., \as Deutsche Verfassungs- gt'sch., 256 Walcott Mr. M. E. C, his William of IVykeham, 300 Wales, its conquest by Edward I., 77 ; sources for early history of, 280-1 Walker, Sir Edward, Historical Discourses of, 343 Wallington's Diaiy, 333 Waljiole, Horace, Letters of, 376 ; his 3fetiioirs of George II. and Metnoirs of George III. , 388-90 Walpole, Sir Rolaert, Life of by Coxe, 379 Walpole, Mr. Spencer, History of England by, 403 WnNingham, Thomas, his HistoHa Aiiglicana, 279, 286, 290 War, effect of, on the English tribes, 18 Warburton, Eliot, Life of Prince Rupert by, 356 Ward, Mr. A. W., Memoir of Dtyden by, 370 Ware, Sir James, his Scriptores Hibcrjiiae, 214 Waverley, Annals of the Monastery of, 274 Waurin, Jean de. Chronicles by, 292 Webb, John, his Memorials of the Civil War, 343 Wedmore, the treaty of, 29 Wellington, Duke of, his Life by Brialmont, 399 ; his Despatches, 400 ; his Correspondence, ib. Wehvood, James, his Memoirs oi 3. century, 351 Wendover, Roger of, part author of the Ilistoria Major, 272 Wergild, payment of, 20 Wesley, John, preaching of, 177 ; his influence on a Inter g^-nera- tion, 190 ; Lict's of, by Southey and Tyerman, 393 Wharton, Henry, continued Cave's Historia, 214 ; his Anglia Sacra, 216 Whetham'itede, John, account of by WIT John Amundesham, 291 ; his Register, ib. Whigs, the, support the Exclusion Bill, 159; causes of the ascen- dancy of, after Anne's death, 170 ; their relation with the mercantile class, 172; their relation to the Dissenters, 172; their weakness at the end of the reign of George II., 176 ; their relations with the elder Pitt, 179; their struggle with George HI., iSo ; ado]U the teaching of Burke, 183 ; defeat of, by George III., 1S6 ; seces- sion of, from Fox, 194 Whitelock, Sir Bulstrode, Memo- rials of, 337 Wilfrid, his argument in support of the Papal claims, 26 ; Lifeoi, 247 Wilkes, declared incapable of sitting in the House of Commons, 183 Wilkins (and Spelman) Councils, &c. by, 244 William I., defeats Harold at Senlac, 40 ; character of his government in England, 43 ; causes of his power in England, 44 ; his position as a national king, 44 ; organises the English Church, 50 William II., his tyranny, 50; ap- points Anselm archbishop, 51 ; his quarrel with Anselm, 52 William HI., his Continental p'^si- tion, 161 ; the crown offered to, 162 : his position in the Govern- ment, 167 ; Letters of, edited by Grimblot, 377 William of Malmesbury, his histori- cal writings, 51 ; Ar Malmesbury. Williams, Archbishop, Life of, by Hacket, 348 Williamson, Sir Joseph, Letters of, 361 Wilson, Arthur, his History of fames I., 332 Winchester, Annals of the monas- tery of, 274 Win wood's Memorials, 318 Witenagemote, the, relations of, with the kii ;, 19 ; its con^itu- 424 INDEX. WOL tion in the tenth centiny, 31 ; its constitutional powers, 35 Wolsey, cardinal, his Life by Cavendish, 310 Wood, Anthony, his Athenae Oxo7iienses, 323 Worcester, Florence of, his Chroni- con, 252 Worcester, Anna/so(the monastery of, 275 Worcester, William of, his Annals and Collections, 293 Wordsworth, Dr., h\s^Ecclesiastical Biography, 328 Wordsworth, Mr. Christopher, Ihti- versity Life and University Studies by, 383 Worsaae, J. J. A., his Danes and No>wegians, 256 Wright, Thomas, his opinion on Gildas, 234 ; his Ceit, Roman, and Saxon, 244 ; his opinion on Asser, 246 ; his collection 0/ satirical poetry, 267 ; a d of political songs, 280 ; his Bio- graphia Britannica Litteraria, 269 ; his Caricature History, 395 Wriothesley, Charles, his Chronicle, 3°S Wyclif, his teaching, 94 ; causes of his failure, 95 ; contemporary writers on, 297 ; English works of, ib. Wykes, Thomas, his Chroiiicon, 275 YONGE, Mr. C. D., his Life of Lord Liverpool, 398 yURICH LETTERS, the, 312 z. Zwingle, Ulrich^ his influence in England, 108 PUBLISHED B Y HENR V HOL T &> CO. TAINE'S (KIPPOLYTB ADOLPHE) WORKS. Uniform Library Edition. 14 vols., large i2mo. $2.50 pa- vol. " 'J"he paper, print, and binding of this series leave nothing to be desired in point ste and attractiveness." — Nation. The French Revolution. Vols. I. and II. Translated by John Durand. Large i2mo. $5.00. The Ancient Regime. Translated by John Durand. $2.50. 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" Its researches present the story of ever}' kind of goblin, imp, spectre, dragon, and thing that walketh in darkness, that has made human life piteous since it began. It is rich in curious legends and myths of the darker sort, and it is a .startling proof of the halting progress of mankind, that some of the most ancient and horrible of these superstitions — as the dread of the vampire and the were-WoU — prevail at this day in certain parts of Europe." — North American Review. CONWAY'S (M. D.) Sacred Anthology. i2mo. $2.00. " He deserves our hearty thanks for the trouble he has taken in collecting thesi* gems, and stringing them together for the use of those who have no access to the originals, and we trust that his book will arouse a more general interest in a long- neglected and even despised branch of literature, the Sacred Books of the East." —Prof. Max Muller. BRINTON'S (D. G.) WORKS. The Myths of the New World. 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"Miss Martineau's large literary power, and her fine intellectual training, make these little sketches more instructive, and constitute them more generally works of art, than many more .ambitious and diffuse biographies. — Fortnightly Review. CHESNEY'S (C. C.) MILITARY BIOGRAPHY. Large i2mo. $2.50. " Very able." — Nation. "Full of interest, not only to the professional soldier, but to the general reader." , — Boston Globe. HOUGHTON'S (LORD) MONOGRAPHS, PERSONAL AND SOCIAL. With Portraits of Walter Savage Landok, Charles Buller, Harriet Lady Ashburton, and Suleiman Pasha. i2mo. $2.00. " He has something new to tell of everyone of his subjects. His book is a choice olio of fine fruits." — London Saturday Review. SAINTE-BEUVE'S (C. A.) ENGLISH PORTRAITS. Se- lected and Translated from the " Causeries du Lundi." With an Introductory Chapter on Sainte-Beuve's Life and Writings. i2mo. $2.CX). 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" Lord .'\lbemarle has done wisely to publish his Recollections, for there are tew^ men who have had the opportunities of seeing so much of life and character as he has, and still fewer who at an advanced age could write an autobiography in which we have opinions without twaddle, gossip without malice, and stories not marred in the telling." — London Academy. COX'S (G. W.) POPULAR ROMANCES OF THE MIDDLE AGES. By Sir George W. Cox and Eustace Hin- TON Jones. Large 121110. $2.25. " The most important tales of the mediaeval legendary lore. . . . In many cases they are found only in books that are not easily accessible, or have taken monotonous or wearisome shapes. The version now offered to the public cannot fail to be received with curiosity and interest." — ^/. V. Tribune. " A book of the rarest interest to all lovers of literature." — Af. V. Kve. Post. " In no one English book has so rich a store of great legends ever before been toUected. 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PUBLISHED B V HENR Y HOL T df CO. THE AMATEUR SERIES. i2mo, blue cloth. Hector Berlioz. Selections from his Letters, and ^sthv ,/i;, Humorous, and Satirical Writings. Translated, and preceded by a Biographical Sketch of the Author. By William F. Apthorp. $2. GO. '■ Is read with surprise, and put aside when the last page is finished with re- luctance. Full of anecdote and rich with individuality, the biography gives gen- uine pleasure." — Art Interchange. English Actors from Shakespeare to Macready. By Henry Barton Baker. Two vols. $3.50. "The book is extremely rich in good stories, which are invariably well told." — Pall Mall Gazette. Moscheles' (Tgnatz) Recent Music and Musicians, as de- scribed in his Diaries and Correspondence. Selected by his wife, and adapted from the original German by A. D.Coleridge. .$2.00. "The diary and letters between them contain notices and criticisms on almost every musical celebrity of the last half-century." — Pall Mall Gazette. Chorley's (H. P.) 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Lewes (George Henry) on Actors and the Art of Acting, $1.50. " It is valuable, first, as the record of the impressions produced upon a mind of singular sensibility by many actors of renown, and lastly, indeed chiefly, because it formulates and reiterates sound opinions upon the little-understood principles of the art of acting Perhaps the best work in English on the actor's »rt." — Nation. UN This 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewals only: Tel. No. 642-3405 Renewals may be made 4 days prior to date due. Renewed books are subjea to immediate recall. '^A,, JUN 1 mN9.9l97^ l8Mar'5C- ucf-niD JUMlR^l -3Pffi94 5Mar^^ Btl/ u w ■"" * ^ >■ I..V1 JAN 29 1989 i 6 Jul < J "^cm. »j3„ ,^ T6^cr lOd' FFR2fi]Qqo 21-100m-9,' ^ LD21A-50to-2,'71 (P2001sl0)-176 — A-32 General Library University of California Berkeley -'vHBlftQi^ U.C. 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