MODELLING 
 ND SCULPTURE 
 
 ALBERT TOFT 
 
 a
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 SAN DIEGO
 
 
 ONE OF THE FIGURES OF THE WELSH NATIONAL 
 WAR MEMORIAL 
 
 By the Author.
 
 A FULL ACCOUNT OF 
 
 THE VARIOUS METHODS AND PROCESSES 
 EMPLOYED IN THESE ARTS 
 
 BY 
 
 ALBERT TOFT 
 
 HON. A.R.C.A., M.S.B.S. 
 
 With 118 Illustrations 5* Diagrams 
 
 LONDON 
 SEELEY AND CO. LIMITED 
 
 38 GREAT RUSSELL STREET 
 1911
 
 THE NEW ART LIBRARY 
 
 EDITKI) BY 
 
 M. II. SPIELMANN, F.S.A., and P. G. KONODY 
 Vol.. I 
 
 Square Extra Crown 8vo. 
 
 6s. NETT. 
 \Viin EIGHTY ILLUSTRATIONS &* DIAGRAMS 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF OIL PAINTING 
 AND DRAWING 
 
 By SOLOMON J. SOLOMON, R.A. 
 
 "If students were to follow his instructions, and, still 
 more, to heed his warnings, their painting would soon 
 show a great increase in efficiency." Manchester 
 Guardian. 
 
 " Eminently practical. . . . Can be warmly recom- 
 mended to all students." Daily Mail. 
 
 " The work of an accomplished painter and experienced 
 teacher." Scotsman. 
 
 VOL. II 
 
 HUMAN ANATOMY FOR ART 
 STUDENTS 
 
 By Sir ALFRED DOWNING FRIPP 
 
 K.C.V.O., C.B., M.B., M.S. (Loud.). F.R.C.S. (Eng.) 
 
 Surgeon-in-Ordinary to H.M. the King; Lecturer 
 
 upon Anatomy at Guy's Hospital, London 
 
 and 
 
 RALPH THOMPSON, M.B., Cn.M., F.R.C.S. (Eng.) 
 
 Senior Demonstrator of Anatomy, Guy's Hospital 
 
 With an Illustrated Appendix^on Comparative Anatomy 
 
 By HARRY DIXON, M.S.B.S. 
 
 Photographs and Drawings 
 
 By INNES FRIPP, A.R.C.A. 
 
 Life-master, South London Technical Art School, City Guilds 
 
 Square Extra Crown 8vo. 
 
 75. 6d. NETT 
 WITH 151 ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 VOL. Ill 
 MODELLING AND SCULPTURE 
 
 By Au-.ERT TOFT, A.R.C.A., M.S.B.S. 
 
 Profusely Illustrated with Photographs 
 & Drawings. Square Extra Crown 8vo. 
 
 6s. NETT. 
 
 WITH 119 ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 To be followed by many others 
 
 S E E L E Y fr> CO., LIMITED
 
 PREFACE 
 
 INNUMERABLE books on almost every conceivable 
 phase of Art have been published in recent years, 
 and it may be asked why I, a sculptor by profession, 
 have chosen to tread the thorny path of literature 
 and add to their number. 
 
 I know of no work dealing exclusively, like this, 
 with the purely technical side of plastic or glyptic 
 Art, and affording the student, so far as a book can, 
 every practical detail necessary to a complete know- 
 ledge of his craft. 
 
 I have endeavoured, as plainly and directly as 
 possible, to place before him the result of many 
 years' practical experience, and to show him how the 
 knowledge acquired, stage by stage, of the modeller's 
 and sculptor's art can be utilised ; for I believe that 
 this experience will be helpful to all those students 
 who have an honest and whole-hearted desire to suc- 
 ceed in their profession, which has so many famous 
 names on its roll of honour. 
 
 A book cannot make a man an artist that is a 
 matter depending solely on the possession of real 
 artistic gifts but many difficulties may be sur- 
 mounted and unnecessary errors avoided if the 
 student be shown at the beginning of his career 
 the right way to go about his work. 
 
 No artistry worth the name can ever be fully 
 attained without hard work, and without passing 
 
 v
 
 PREFACE 
 
 through much humiliation, before even the lowest 
 peaks of the heights are reached. All who follow 
 the glyptic art must understand at the outset that 
 they will pursue no primrose path. Mere trifling 
 with it will avail them nothing ; and unless the heart 
 is in the work, it would be far better to abandon all 
 pursuit of a profession that is so beset with diffi- 
 culties and so disappointing in its results. But to 
 those who really mean to succeed, resolved at all 
 cost to surmount every obstacle, I say, Be of good 
 cheer ; Art has no limitations, and the vagueness of 
 a dream may, with absolute faith in it and in one- 
 self, become immortal accomplishment. 
 
 As in all effort towards achievement, it is the 
 little things that count. The apparently insignifi- 
 cant minutiae make the complete and perfect whole ; 
 and, as will be pointed out in these pages, it is the 
 insistence on the truth of every detail that produces 
 the greatest and best effects. 
 
 Inspiration is indisputably the supremest gift any 
 artist can possess, but without hard work it must 
 necessarily remain useless, because until it finds ex- 
 pression there is no realisable result of his imagi- 
 native power. Thought is indispensable to creation, 
 but labour alone gives thought expression ; and in 
 the art of the sculptor, labour much actual physical 
 labour is demanded from its votaries. 
 
 No matter how great the natural artistic gift, it is, 
 at best, undisciplined and crude in its expression 
 without the most rigid training and strict obedience 
 to well-defined rules ; and although at times but 
 vei*y rarely the world is startled by some tour de 
 force of absolutely untrained genius, in Art, as in 
 everything else, such a work of genius would have 
 undoubtedly been even greater had the artist had 
 
 vi
 
 PREFACE 
 
 a thorough grounding in technical skill and a com- 
 plete knowledge of those details necessary to a 
 perfected art. 
 
 In these go-ahead days of hurry and hustle, when 
 advertisers guarantee to make any person educated 
 in well-nigh any subject under the sun in twelve 
 lessons, it is well to remember Longfellow's words : 
 
 " In the elder days of Art, 
 
 Builders wrought with greatest care 
 Each minute and unseen part ; 
 For the Gods see everywhere." 
 
 Who can enter some cathedral or historic abbey, 
 hallowed by the memories of a glorious past and 
 sacred with the dust of centuries, without noticing 
 this minute care exemplified in the least prominent 
 parts of those magnificent edifices ? 
 
 Men then worked for love of it, master sculptors, 
 whose names have perished, although their exquisite 
 work remains imperishable. They put their very 
 best all of which they w r ere capable, their very 
 souls into the labour of their hands, making the 
 stones immortal poems of praise and beauty. Yet, I 
 doubt not, these sculptors of a distant past received 
 a thorough and comprehensive training. 
 
 I cannot too strongly urge on the student 
 " thoroughness." Disappointments he will have 
 many, many failures, and much hard work before 
 any attainment is possible ; but having mastered the 
 necessary drudgeries which attend all proper train- 
 ing, let him aim high, never despairing, nor doubting 
 that his work will in time receive its due recognition 
 and reward. 
 
 I speak out of experience when I say there is in 
 all creative art a pleasure, almost a rapture, which 
 
 vii
 
 PREFACE 
 
 is in itself one of the most exquisite delights given 
 to man ; the sense of having accomplished worthy 
 work, however far short it may fall of one's ideal, 
 is "no matter for scorning A moment's success 
 pays the failure of years." 
 
 Even to such as do not pursue the sculptor's art as 
 a profession, I am hopeful my book will be of service ; 
 for, whether as a means of living or a mere enjoy- 
 ment for leisure hours, " Art colours Life as the Sim 
 colours flowers," and no one, whether amateur or 
 professional, can be the worse for the knowledge 
 of the Beauty and Power of Art. 
 
 viu
 
 CONTENTS 
 PART I 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 I. A SHOUT DESCRIPTION OF THE PROGRESS MADE IN 
 
 ENGLAND DURING THE LAST THIRTY YEARS. . 19 
 II. THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD TRAINING, AND THE 
 FACILITIES AFFORDED THE STUDENT IN VARIOUS 
 
 ART SCHOOLS ....... 26 
 
 III. MODEM. ING IN ITS ELEMENTARY STAGE A\D THE 
 
 TEC UNIQUE ........ 33 
 
 IV. MODELLING A PORTRAIT BUST .... 46 
 
 V. BUILDING UP A FIGURE OR GROUP IN THE ROUND . 72 
 
 VI. WASTE MOULDING AND CASTING .... 90 
 
 VII. THE PROCESS OF GELATINE MOULDING AND CASTING 122 
 VIII. MODELLING FOR TERRA-COTTA . . . .135 
 
 IX. MODELLING IN RELIEF ...... 152 
 
 X. MODELLING FOR BRONZE, &c. .... 175 
 
 XL MAKING A MODEL IN CLAY TO BE CARRIED OUT 
 
 AFTERWARDS IN MARBLE OR OTHER STONE . .197 
 
 ix
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 XII. MAKING A MODEL IN CLAY TO BE CARRIED OUT IN 
 WOOD FOR ARCHITECTURAL DECORATION, INTERIOR 
 AND EXTERIOR ....... 208 
 
 XIII. COLOURING, WAXING, AND BRONZING PLASTER CASTS 217 
 
 XIV. ENLARGING A SMALL MODEL TO HEROIC SIZE BY 
 
 THE CHASSIS ....... 237 
 
 XV. MARBLE CARVING ....... 246 
 
 XVI. A FINAL NOTE 260 
 
 PART II 
 
 A FEW MASTERPIECES CONSIDERED 2(>5
 
 LIST OF PLATES 
 
 ONE OK THE FIGURES OF THE WELSH NATIONAL 
 
 WAR MEMORIAL .... Frontispiece 
 
 PI.ATK PAGE 
 
 I. EGYPTIAN CARVING IN RELIEF .... 270 
 
 II. . 270 
 
 III. AN EGYPTIAN PRIEST AND PRIESTESS. . . 272 
 
 IV. ASSYRIAN RELIEF CARVING .... 276 
 V. .... 276 
 
 VI. THESEUS 278 
 
 VII. ILISSOS 278 
 
 VIII. THE THREE FATES 280 
 
 IX. BAS-RELII;F FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE. . 284 
 
 X. . . 284 
 
 XI. SCULPTURED PIER FROM THE TEMPLE OF DIANA 286 
 
 XII. THE NIKE OF SAMOTHRACE .... 288 
 
 XIII. SEPULCHRAL MONUMENT OF HEGESO . . . 290 
 
 XIV 7 . LES ADIEUX 292 
 
 XV. THE VENUS OF MELOS ..... 294 
 
 XVI. ASKLEPIOS ........ 296 
 
 XVII. HEAD IN BRONZE OF APHRODITE . . . 300 
 
 XVIII. HOMER 302 
 
 XIX. TORSO OF APHRODITE ..... 304 
 
 xi
 
 LIST OF PLATES 
 
 1'I.ATK PAOK 
 
 XX. HKAD OK A YOUNG MAN . . . 306 
 
 XXI. MIDAS . 308 
 
 XXII. A PORTION OK A TABERNACLE . . . .310 
 
 XXIII. HEAD OK JOHN THE BAPTIST .... 314 
 
 XXIV. I'KHSKUS . . . . . . . . 31(j 
 
 XXV. TERRA-CoTTA OK THE FlKTEENTH CENTURY . 318 
 
 XXVI. BUST IN TEHKA-COTTA ..... 320 
 
 XXVII. A CHIMNEYPIECE ...... 322 
 
 XXVIII. VIRGIN AND CHILD . .... 324 
 
 XXIX. BIST OK A LADY ...... 326 
 
 XXX. BUST OK A YOUNG MAN . ... 328 
 
 XXXI. HEAD OK THE VIRGIN ..... 332 
 
 XXXII. MOSES . 334 
 
 XXXIII. TOMB OK LORENZO DE MEDICI .... 33(> 
 
 XXXIV. ONE OK THE FIGURES FROM THE TOMB OK 
 
 LORENZO DE MEDICI ..... 338 
 
 XXXV. LA RKPUBLIQUE .... . 340 
 
 XXXVI. WELLINGTON MEMORIAL 342 
 
 xn
 
 GLOSSARY 
 
 Airjcts. Tubes arranged in a bronze founder's mould through which the 
 air can pass when the molten metal is poured in. 
 
 Armature. A structure made of wood, iron, compo-piping, or wire, upon 
 which to build up a work in clay, plaster, or wax. 
 
 Banker. A strong pedestal upon which to place a heavy block of marble 
 or other piece of work. 
 
 Battinr/. The act of stirring up plaster in a manner somewhat similar to 
 that of beating up an egg. Beating up clay is also spoken of when 
 making it from a hard or dry state into a workable condition, which is 
 done after it has been saturated with water in a water-tight bin, by 
 placing the clay upon a bench or table and beating it with an iron 
 rod or stick. 
 
 Bronzing. A word generally used to describe the process of colouring a 
 plaster cast to imitate bronze. 
 
 Bust peg. An upright post of wood fixed upon a fiat board to form the 
 main support upon which a bust is modelled. 
 
 Butterfly. Two pieces of wood joined together by wire in the shape of a 
 Latin cross, used for the purpose of attaching to the armature to 
 carry a weight of clay. 
 
 Case, The. An outer shell to hold the parts of a mould. 
 
 Chassis. A framework used in the process of making an enlarged or 
 reduced copy of a plaster model. 
 
 Chipping out. The act of taking away with chisel and hammer the waste 
 mould from the plaster cast. 
 
 Cire-perdue (lost wax). A process of casting into metal from a wax 
 model or cast. 
 
 Clay bat. A flat slab of clay upon which to build, or from which to cut 
 out (carve away) a work in relief. 
 
 Clay washing. Paint ng over the outside of a mould with clay water before 
 putting on the outer mould or case. 
 
 Clay water. Water with a little clay mixed into it to somewhat the con- 
 sistency of milk, and used in some instances instead of soft soap to 
 prevent the joint of one mould piece from adhering to another. 
 
 Core, The, is that portion of the mould which forms the solid inside of a 
 cast in metal, and which decides the thickness of the metal, by the 
 space between it and the hollow mould surrounding it. 
 xiii
 
 GLOSSARY 
 
 Cottle, A band of clay to put round a work when moulding it to form a 
 
 wall which will prevent the plaster going beyond a particular point. 
 Darks. Those parts in a work which are in shadow as contrasted by the 
 
 parts which are intended to catch high lights, or half tones. 
 Death mask. A plaster mould taken from the face of a person after death. 
 Distance down. Measurements taken down from the chassis on the 
 
 hanging T scale, stick, or rule. 
 Distance in. Measurements taken horizontally by the pointing stick in to 
 
 a point on the clay or plaster model from the plumb lines over the 
 
 chassis. 
 Ducts. The channels through which the molten metal runs into the 
 
 mould. 
 False cores. The pieces made (of sand) by the bronze founder to form the 
 
 mould on the outside surface of the model. 
 Feather edge. A piece of wood tapered off at one edge to the thinness of 
 
 a feather. 
 Filling -in. Making the cast in a mould ; the moment or time of pouring 
 
 or putting into a mould the plaster. 
 Firing. The process of converting a clay model into terra-cotta by baking 
 
 it, so to speak, in a kiln. 
 Free pieces. Pieces jutting out freely from a body or mass, as a piece of 
 
 drapery blown from a figure and almost disconnected at its junction. 
 Qallows. See illustration. 
 " Gits" or " Gets." The Gates. The opening or point of junction where 
 
 the metal runners join the work. 
 Going-off. When plaster is just beginning to set, or get firm, or become 
 
 less liquid. 
 Hollowing out. Scooping out clay from the inside of a model, as is done 
 
 in the case of a work which it is intended shall be fired or baked so as 
 
 to convert it into terra-cotta. 
 Joint lines. Ridges in the cast formed by a division where two parts of a 
 
 mould have come together. 
 Keyholes. Notches cut or holes drilled into one side of a mould before 
 
 making the mould piece which is to come next to it. 
 Keys. The pieces formed by the plaster running into the keyholes on the 
 
 plaster piece previously made. 
 Killed plaster. A term applied to plaster when a certain amount of the 
 
 strength of the lime contained in it has been destroyed by its re- 
 maining for a short period under water before mixing. 
 Lanterns. Tubes of iron placed in the sand cores to allow the gas and air 
 
 to pass through when the molten metal is poured into the founder's 
 
 mould to form a cast. 
 Life. Plaster is said to have lost its life when, through its having been 
 
 kept in a damp place, it will not set hard when mixed with water. 
 
 Again, the "life" is partially taken from plaster when it has remained 
 xiv
 
 GLOSSARY 
 
 too long in the water before being beaten up, when we speak of it as 
 
 " killed " (see Killed plaster), as is necessary when stopping holes in a 
 
 plaster cast. 
 Modelling stand. A table with a revolving top upon which to work, made 
 
 of various proportions according to the size of the intended work. 
 
 The one used for busts and works of not larger scale are usually about 
 
 3 ft. 6 in. high, with an 18 in. square revolving top. It is advisable to 
 
 have the one used for this purpose made to stand on three legs only. 
 Mould box. The box used by bronze founders to hold the mould pieces 
 
 together, and in their respective places. 
 Parting dust. A dust or powder used by founders to prevent one portion 
 
 of a mould adhering to the next piece made up against it. 
 Pdtc-sur-pdte. A method of modelling in very low relief by painting one 
 
 layer, or coat, after another on to a background with a brush. The 
 
 clay is made to the consistency of a thin paste, and in this way the 
 
 desired relief is built up. 
 Patina. A colour formed on metals by the atmosphere, or other natural 
 
 causes, or by various acids. 
 Piece mould. A mould made of a number of pieces over a work, so that the 
 
 original shall be preserved undamaged ; from such a mould a number 
 
 of copies can be taken, whereas from the waste mould but one cast 
 
 can be taken, the mould being destroyed in the process thus the 
 
 term "waste." 
 
 Pins. Metal rods used to secure the bronze founder's mould box or frame. 
 Pitcher. A heavy blunt steel tool used by the Pointer to remove some of 
 
 the rough pieces from the block of marble before he commences to 
 
 take any definite points. 
 Pointing stick. A piece of wood in the shape of a foot-rule with a pointed 
 
 end, upon which the scale measurements are set out. It is used 
 
 for taking horizontally measurements when enlarging a model by the 
 
 chassis process. 
 Preparing. The second stage of progress in carving a work in marble 
 
 after the pointing stage is finished ; it is then prepared, or carved 
 
 down closer to the surface. 
 Projection. Distance out from a surface, as in the case of a relief; the 
 
 distance out from the background. 
 Pulling. When a clay model or portion of it will not easily leave the 
 
 mauld by reason of some undercutting in the mould. 
 Runner, A . A stick of wax placed inside a founder's mould to form a 
 
 channel through which the molten metal passes. 
 Running a moulding. A term used in making mouldings by running a 
 
 template over liquid plaster. 
 Running up. Plaster or metal finding its way through and into all the 
 
 parts of a mould. 
 
 Sand holes. Small holes sometimes found in marble. 
 
 XV
 
 GLOSSARY 
 
 Sflwm. The waste matter (in the form of froth, bubbles, and dirt) which 
 
 appears on the top of plaster whilst mixing. 
 Setting. Plaster is spoken of as setting when it begins to stiffen or get 
 
 firm after having been mixed with water. 
 Setting back. Cutting clay away from a part which has been built too far 
 
 forward, or made of too great a projection. 
 Setting out a line. Drawing a line on clay or other material, which is to 
 
 serve as a guide from which other lines or points can be made or 
 
 taken. 
 Shellac. A solution of shellac and methylated spirit. Commonly called 
 
 french polish, but known in the studio as shellac. 
 
 Slip. Dry clay crushed to a powder, then mixed with water to the con- 
 sistency of a thick cream. 
 Soaping. Applying a solution of soap and oil to a mould to prevent a 
 
 further coating of plaster adhering to it. 
 Squeeze, A. An impression of a work taken with clay or wax from a 
 
 mould by the action of squeezing or pressing the material into it, 
 
 or, in case of a relief, on to it. 
 Stearinc. A kind of wax. 
 Stcarining. The act of applying a mixture of wax and turpentine to 
 
 a work. 
 Strickle. A template or straight-edge for levelling down to a desired 
 
 depth. 
 Taking a point. The process of taking the distance in measurement on 
 
 a model by the needle on the pointing machine ; or with the pointing 
 
 stick, when enlarging a work. 
 Tcrcbcnc. A mixture of oil of turpentine with sulphuric acid, used as a 
 
 medium for painting a plaster cast before bronzing. 
 Tiijht, or Close. When clay is tough and of a very close nature, and 
 
 will not cut freely, it is spoken of as tight or close. 
 Undercutting. A term used to describe the carving of a projection just 
 
 behind and beyond where it is visible to the spectator, in order to 
 
 give " snap " and sharpness of effect. 
 Waste moulding. A process of converting the wax or clay model into 
 
 plaster. By this method one cast only can be obtained, as in the 
 
 process the mould is broken up (chipped away) and thus is wasted. 
 Waxiny. The act of applying a solution of wax and turpentine over 
 
 work in plaster, or other material which will absorb it. 
 
 XVI
 
 PART I
 
 MODELLING AND SCULPTURE 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE PROGRESS 
 MADE IN ENGLAND DURING THE LAST 
 THIRTY YEARS 
 
 IT is a notable and inspiring fact that the past 
 quarter of a century has witnessed the renaissance 
 of the sculptor's art in Great Britain. Previous to 
 this, with a few exceptions, sculptors lacked distinc- 
 tion, inspiration, and artistic taste. 
 
 Nothing so mediocre as certain phases of art during 
 the early and mid Victorian period could possibly find 
 acceptance to-day ; and the marked advance, alike 
 in treatment and every other quality, is cause for 
 rejoicing among all art lovers more especially among 
 those who are earnestly striving to raise British 
 sculpture to a dignity which shall entitle its produc- 
 tions to rank with the noble achievements of classic 
 and Renaissance times. 
 
 Giants among the pigmies, a Flaxman and a Stevens 
 arose, almost isolated cases of genius, and it is a 
 marvel that these artists were able to give us such 
 splendid work, considering the extremely low level 
 of their contemporaries in the British School of 
 Sculpture. 
 
 The apotheosis of the Deadly Commonplace, the 
 
 19
 
 PROGRESS IN ENGLAND DURING 
 
 environment of Unloveliness and the admiration of 
 the Ugly Utilitarian made any genuine artistic effort 
 during this period all the more remarkable. 
 
 But since then men of high intelligence, originality, 
 and rare technical skill have arisen, whose sculptural 
 work will compare with many of the lofty achieve- 
 ments of Greece and Italy ; men whose individuality 
 and creative genius render their work "a thing of 
 beauty and a joy for ever." And yet it was but 
 an accident of Fate that poor Stevens, perhaps the 
 greatest sculptor since Michael Angelo, ever became 
 known in his supreme greatness. How much poorer 
 would the world of art have been by the exclusion 
 of such a transcendent genius ? 
 
 Happily, to-day, things have considerably changed 
 for the better. 
 
 It is not only genius that arrests attention ; 
 numbers count also, and the number of men pro- 
 ducing good sculpture in Great Britain at the present 
 day is surprising. This is all the more significant 
 when we remember that they are, one and all, 
 remarkable for their individuality, whereas in some 
 foreign schools, especially in the French, the system 
 of education tends to produce a sameness in tech- 
 nique, a general likeness in selection of subject and 
 arrangement, that suggest too great an influence of 
 one or other professor or master, until individuality 
 is lost, and the student becomes a copyist, even of 
 the most marked faults of his master. 
 
 Fortunately, this is not the weakness of the British 
 sculptor, whose dominating ideal is Truth, originally 
 expressed through the mind as well as through the 
 eye. 
 
 The French sculptor is distinctly more facile in 
 execution, but the Briton stands pre-eminent in con- 
 
 20
 
 THE LAST THIRTY YEARS 
 
 ception and those qualities which go to make his 
 labour of lasting value. 
 
 There can be no question, however, that France 
 has produced, during the last half-century, sculp- 
 tors whose work shows exceptional originality and 
 genius ; whose statues are not only of national but 
 of world-wide fame ; and although we may differ 
 and that seriously as to the form, treatment, and 
 selection of subjects, we are compelled to the greatest 
 admiration of the inspiration and exquisite technical 
 skill which have produced work beyond and above 
 all carping criticism. 
 
 All mannerism in art is objectionable. The British 
 student of sculpture is usually endowed with an 
 individuality of his own, a something that develops 
 after he leaves the modelling class, and soon becomes 
 a recognisable quality of all the work he produces, 
 a peculiarity to himself. He is no mere copyist. 
 And it is this very quality about the British school 
 of sculptors that makes it so strong and virile. For 
 proofs of its excellence and of the progress made 
 during the last thirty years in the art, one needs only 
 refer back to the magnificent collection of exhibits 
 at the Franco-British Exhibition in 1908, or to look 
 round any one of our big provincial cities to-day, and 
 compare the many fine recent memorials there erected 
 with those of an earlier date, often in juxtaposition, 
 as if to make the comparison more striking with 
 those Early Victorian " horrors " ! 
 
 London, at once the greatest city and the wealthiest 
 in the world, magnificent in many of its architectural 
 structures, with schools of art second to none in 
 Europe, has failed signally to beautify her squares 
 and public places with the sculptor's art. She has a 
 notable few r very few good statues, and a host of 
 
 21
 
 PROGRESS IN ENGLAND DURING 
 
 villainously bad ones, which create ridicule rather 
 than respect in the mind of the passer-by ; but the 
 time will surely come, and this perhaps at no distant 
 date, when our great city will awaken to the fact 
 that great sculptural monuments are not only wanted 
 to beautify her streets, but have distinct educational 
 value. They elevate the intelligence of the people, 
 by keeping green the memory of our noblest heroes 
 who have built up for us the history of this mighty 
 empire. 
 
 There is no doubt that French art and the method 
 of French training have influenced British sculptors, 
 inasmuch as they demonstrated to us emphatically 
 that there is only one course open if we desire to 
 attain the Ideal, and that is to study, with infi- 
 nite care, closely and conscientiously, the Real, the 
 Natural ; to study Nature in her every possible mood 
 or phase, to learn her ways, and having so absorbed 
 her teaching, to make use, so far as in us lies, of 
 whatever study comes nearest to our hearts, and to 
 select the best from the good. 
 
 The more we study Nature, the more intense grows 
 our love and reverence for her, and we become in 
 the real sense students able to penetrate and repro- 
 duce her mysteries. 
 
 Selection is one of the most important factors in 
 an artist's career, for how is it possible to distinguish 
 the best from the merely good unless we have studied 
 both? 
 
 "Try to be Shakespeare, leave the rest to Fate ! 
 The aim, if reached or not, makes great the life," 
 
 may be applied, beyond the poet's intention, to all 
 art students. 
 
 Michael Angelos will never, at any period of the 
 
 22
 
 THE LAST THIRTY YEARS 
 
 world's history, become common ; but we can all, at 
 least, strive for our supreme ideal. 
 
 To become an idealist you must necessarily first 
 be a realist. So taught the Greeks, the Italians, and 
 our friends on the other side of the Channel. And 
 their axiom is true. Realism broadens, deepens, and 
 expands our vision. It makes us more capable of 
 appreciating the great Greek works, and of under- 
 standing how, by the closest study of Nature, they 
 were wrought. This is a fact which no student of 
 the classic sculpture of ancient Greece could deny. 
 They went direct to Nature the only Eternal and 
 in mere human models saw, as with an inspired in- 
 sight, the God-like forms we recognise to-day as the 
 master-work of men themselves divine, whose statues 
 have, through the passing of the ages, remained 
 examples for subsequent artists, even to our own 
 century. 
 
 True art it is impossible to produce without that 
 actual technical knowledge which is only to be 
 acquired by patient and painstaking study. What 
 musician could compose any work worth listening 
 to, unless he had mastered the intricacies of har- 
 monies and counterpoint ? What writer could hope 
 to take rank in literature without the most perfect 
 command of grammatical expression and of the 
 proper formation of sentences ; and what sculptor 
 can possibly hope for success to crown his labours, 
 unless he has thoroughly mastered the technique of 
 that most difficult of arts ? 
 
 A Spanish writer has said that " Sculpture is crys- 
 tallised Poetry ; the Music of the Spheres made 
 visible, the Ideal manifest unchanging and unchange- 
 able through the Ages ! " and, allowing for the 
 rhapsodical temperament of a southern author, it 
 
 23
 
 PROGRESS IN ENGLAND DURING 
 
 is not altogether an untrue description of all that 
 sculpture should be. 
 
 The great masters only wrought their master- 
 pieces after such a study of Nature as we have 
 indicated, although that alone could never make a 
 great sculptor or painter. It is merely a proper 
 training for all following or practising art, alike for 
 the genius and the others. 
 
 The fact is, that with such a training we are able 
 earlier in our career to realise the grandeur of 
 the classic and antique sculptures in our museums ; 
 and these have increased in such numbers during 
 recent years, either in their originals or plaster 
 replicas, that the present generation of sculptors 
 have had a great advantage over their earlier 
 brethren. But these great Greek works have not 
 alone inspired us to enthusiasm. 
 
 No, we have also to be thankful to the directors of 
 the various museums for having placed within our 
 reach, for our constant study, so many wonderful 
 examples of the finest Italian sculpture of the 
 fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries. There 
 can be no doubt that these glorious works have 
 exercised an immense influence on the workers in 
 England at the present day. Indeed, I am inclined 
 to think that we really owe the greatest debt of 
 gratitude for the high excellence of our sculpture at 
 this hour to the influence and inspiration of the best 
 examples of the Italian Renaissance, which appeals 
 more readily to us, alike in its treatment, tempera- 
 ment, and subjects, than the Greek. 
 
 This especially applies to Renaissance portraiture, 
 which not only arouses our enthusiasm and ambition, 
 but has moved us to emulation, with the most grati- 
 fying result to art. 
 
 24
 
 Yet it is a strange and significant fact, that Italy 
 to-day produces little or nothing notable in sculpture. 
 Her day of mighty works in this art seems for ever 
 past, and while her greatest musical composers have 
 achieved a world-wide renown, no really great 
 sculptor lives to carry on the traditions of her 
 gloriously artistic past. 
 
 Facilities, almost unknown half a century ago, are 
 given to students to study at first hand the noble 
 examples of Italy's former supremacy in the sculptor's 
 art. Of such facilities the British school has not 
 been slow to avail itself. It is w r ith the most hope- 
 ful feeling that we look around at the many workers 
 in art to-day ; and seeing so much that is excellent 
 in their work, we have no fear that any decadence 
 will set in, but rather rejoice in the prospect that 
 it will continue to hold the high position it now 
 occupies in the world's achievement. 
 
 25
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD TRAINING, AND 
 THE FACILITIES AFFORDED THE STUDENT 
 IN VARIOUS ART SCHOOLS 
 
 THE importance of good training from the very first 
 attempts at modelling cannot be regarded too seri- 
 ously, for it is in the earliest days that the student 
 requires the greatest attention and direction in the 
 right way. Whether it be his intention to take up 
 the art as an amateur, or for the purpose of making 
 it his profession, or for teaching it to others, it is 
 equally important that in each case he should be 
 trained with the utmost care and correctness for 
 some years. 
 
 I have known pupils come to me asking how long 
 it would take them to learn to model, and on the first 
 occasion I was somewhat at a loss to answer this 
 question. 
 
 My would-be pupil, seeing that I was puzzled, 
 endeavoured to assist me out of the difficulty by 
 remarking that she only wished to learn enough 
 to be able to teach ! 
 
 Imagine my feelings at the moment ! for, I may 
 say, I have found, after many years of practice in 
 the art of modelling and sculpture, and moreover 
 in giving instruction, that the difficulty of teach- 
 ing is no light matter. Indeed, it is a great task, 
 when done thoroughly and conscientiously, and of 
 
 26
 
 IMPORTANCE OF GOOD TRAINING 
 
 the most fatiguing nature, requiring tact, patience, 
 and no little skill. In fact, good teaching is an art 
 in itself. 
 
 It is not unusual to find men who, though splendid 
 teachers, are almost utterly incapable of producing 
 anything fine themselves. 
 
 For this reason it is better for the student to place 
 himself in the care of a man who has the reputation 
 of being a good instructor, rather than in the care of 
 one whose work may have arrested his attention at 
 an exhibition, or on the gallery wall, unless such an 
 one be known to be capable both as a teacher and 
 producer. 
 
 Good training is most essential, no matter how 
 much or little natural ability the pupil may possess. 
 
 It is not surprising that many of our art schools, 
 the London County Council and others, attract so 
 many students to their institutions, when we know 
 that the staff of professors and masters are carefully 
 chosen for their reputation as teachers, and not alone 
 for the works they have produced. 
 
 Besides the excellent teaching, the facilities afforded 
 to students in these schools leave nothing to be 
 desired. Indeed, I often tkink that there is too much 
 consideration lavished upon them, and I am not so 
 sure that more difficulties to contend with would not 
 in some instances prove beneficial and produce better 
 men ; although it must be granted that the lack of 
 such facilities might handicap the bulk of students, 
 and especially those who make the best use of the 
 opportunities afforded. 
 
 But I question whether most of the students fully 
 appreciate, or appreciate to any extent, what is thus 
 done to render it easier for them to make progress 
 in their calling. These schools are equipped with 
 
 27
 
 IMPORTANCE OF GOOD TRAINING 
 
 every requirement, and are open to all, with an 
 entrance fee which is practically nil. 
 
 Such splendid opportunities must bear fruit in 
 time to come, and it will be the fault of the student 
 if he has not availed himself to the fullest extent 
 of such chances as are offered him, and if he fails 
 to give proof of this in after life. 
 
 How different things were thirty years ago ! A 
 boy had then to knead his own clay, and perhaps 
 wheel his own model to the mould-maker's work- 
 shop, unless he could mould it himself; and, even 
 then, there was no convenience for moulding and 
 casting being done in the art schools of that day ; and 
 certainly no instruction was given in the process of 
 converting a clay model into plaster. As for the 
 material used for this purpose, well, that was in no 
 instance provided, as it is to-day, but had to be paid 
 for out of the student's own pocket. 
 
 Few of our leading sculptors of to-day had any- 
 thing but hardships to fight through, and immense 
 difficulties to surmount in their student days. Yet, 
 look at the successes they have achieved. 
 
 What would they have done, given the same 
 opportunities as are afforded the student at the 
 present time ? Perhaps less ? ? 
 
 But given all these chances, they will not make a 
 boy an artist ; they may help him to become a better 
 workman, but that is all. There must exist a natural 
 love for the work, combined with the determination 
 to achieve something great. These are factors which 
 alone make the art student worthy of his chosen 
 calling. 
 
 I do not say he should not reach the goal all the 
 same, if he has the love and determination, and all 
 the quicker when he receives the assistance he is 
 
 28
 
 AND FACILITIES AFFORDED 
 
 able now to get at these institutions ; but it makes 
 the end no less far off and little less difficult of 
 achievement, for, before you arrive at the produc- 
 tion of great art, you will find the path beset with 
 obstacles which cannot be overcome except by your 
 own individual struggling, no matter how much out- 
 side help may be given by Boards of Education or 
 other governing bodies. And the young student 
 whose desire it is to produce work worthy to take 
 place in the loftiest realms of art, having fixed his 
 mind upon a distant summit, must rely mainly on 
 himself if he is ever to arrive at the height of his 
 ambition. The genuinely ambitious man rarely gets 
 there at all in his own mind. No matter what goal 
 he reaches, there are others stretching beyond, limit- 
 less and unattainable. 
 
 The student cannot have too much good training 
 if it is applied in the proper direction ; the artist 
 always remains a student, ever ready to learn. But I 
 would warn the student that, with the many oppor- 
 tunities and the facilities afforded him in the various 
 branches of certain schools, there is a temptation 
 open to him and, indeed, in many instances he is ex- 
 pected to divide his attention too much by joining 
 other classes, all of them excellent in their way, but 
 of no use whatever to the student who is seriously 
 taking up modelling. 
 
 He who takes up this art should devote the whole 
 of his time to modelling and drawing, and only those 
 things which have a distinct relation to modelling 
 and sculpture ; leaving all other classes to those 
 students who can directly benefit by one or other 
 of them. 
 
 The art student cannot expect to become proficient 
 in more than the one great subject during his life- 
 
 29
 
 IMPORTANCE OF GOOD TRAINING 
 
 time, for not alone does he live in a day of specialists, 
 but he has taken upon himself a huge task when 
 he has started on the career of a modeller or 
 sculptor. 
 
 Too many students in these schools try to get a 
 smattering of many subjects, and they become " Jack 
 of all trades and master of none." They obtain, per- 
 haps, a little knowledge of many things, and a little 
 knowledge is a useless thing in this case, because 
 it has robbed the student of much valuable time 
 which would have proved of better service had it 
 been devoted to the furthering of his knowledge of 
 one particular subject ; for many of the things the 
 students do learn in these schools can be of no use 
 whatever to them in their calling. 
 
 What need has a modelling student to know 
 anything about bookbinding, or a student studying 
 figure-painting to take up the hammering of iron 
 or copper work? Very nice work, perhaps, if he 
 wishes to take it up as a hobby, but the artist does 
 not want a hobby. 
 
 An artist's every thought and all his energy must 
 be bestowed upon his work, and such time as he has 
 to spare were best spent among the meadows and 
 hedgerows, where under clear skies he can breathe 
 fresh air, which will do him far more good and help 
 him better in his inspired calling. 
 
 No one, nowadays, wants to know a little about 
 everything. What would be the value of a medical 
 man who had tried to specialise on a dozen different 
 subjects ? 
 
 The only person connected with art whose training 
 should have been general, and who of necessity re- 
 quires a general all-round knowledge of all the arts 
 and crafts, is the principal or head-master. He holds 
 
 30
 
 AND FACILITIES AFFORDED 
 
 his position because he possesses this knowledge and 
 is able to see the general working of the whole school. 
 Such a man seldom professes to do or practise any 
 one thing in particular. Therefore he is the right 
 man in the right place, and it is his duty to see that 
 the students should attend those classes, and those 
 classes only, which can be of direct use to them, and 
 from which they can derive the most benefit. 
 
 I do not say that some of them are not quite 
 capable artists, and with time at their disposal would 
 not produce fine works ; but the set duties, official 
 and general, are too numerous to allow of their 
 practising. 
 
 There can be no doubt that the facilities afforded 
 to students in these schools have proved of use, to 
 judge from the number of attendances and the work 
 done ; for, generally speaking, it is of a distinctly 
 higher order than the work of students who enjoy 
 fewer advantages. 
 
 These schools are perhaps of greater use to the 
 student who is employed during the daytime in one 
 of the trades or crafts, for which instruction is given 
 at such institutions ; for here, at night, he may study 
 seriously, from pure love of it, some examples which 
 may be of use to him in the work which he has to 
 execute during the day, in the course of his regular 
 occupation, from a commercial point of view, for a 
 subsistence. 
 
 For such students the training and facilities of the 
 L.C.C. schools leave nothing to be desired, and if kept 
 open for them, and them alone, there should be no 
 need of complaint ; for the student who has been 
 toiling all day long, say at some work which has 
 been more or less uninteresting or even very tedious 
 to him, and yet goes to a school of art for two or 
 
 31
 
 IMPORTANCE OF GOOD TRAINING 
 
 three hours in the evening to improve himself, is 
 deserving of every encouragement. 
 
 For a student who is, say, a stone-carver by day, 
 it would, I think, be a good course of training if he 
 were to follow up his day's work at night with 
 attendance at the modelling class, where he can 
 rapidly improve his knowledge of ornament and 
 figure. There are many reasons why I advocate 
 a change from one material to another, principally 
 that I find if a student is working all day, say, on 
 stone, his vigour becomes less if he continues his 
 studies at night on the same material. But let 
 him take up modelling, and he comes with a 
 freshened appetite for work. Then as he grows 
 facile with the clay, he will feel drawn to his 
 evening work, and, come what may, the value of 
 his experience in modelling will be a useful asset to 
 him all his life. 
 
 This has been the foundation of many a sculp- 
 tor's career stone-carving by day, modelling at the 
 schools by night. To those genuine hard-working 
 students who arc anxious, ambitious, and determined 
 to improve, the masters give their time and their 
 interest ungrudgingly. It is satisfactory to know 
 that the facilities afforded at the institutions of 
 to-day are duly taken advantage of and thoroughly 
 appreciated by all students, whether amateur or 
 professional. 
 
 32
 
 CHAPTER 111 
 
 MODELLING IN ITS ELEMENTARY STAGE 
 AND THE TECHNIQUE 
 
 THERE is perhaps no more fascinating or agreeable 
 material to work in than clay, and this chiefly because 
 of its plasticity and the ease with which it can be 
 manipulated. Moreover, it can be made to any con- 
 sistency, from " slip," which can be applied with a 
 brush after the manner of painting, as is done by the 
 pdte-sur-pate modeller, to such hardness that it needs 
 to be carved or scraped into form. Therefore, 
 naturally, these extremely diverse possibilities place 
 clay before all other materials for the modeller, who 
 can finish his work as highly as he pleases, or leave it 
 merely as a sketch in clay. 
 
 But it is when it is in its medium or soft state 
 that it is most pleasant to manipulate not so soft 
 as to be sticky, nor yet so hard as to resist the touch 
 of the fingers. Once it gets into this latter state it 
 not only loses much of its oily value in appearance, 
 but is past being worked with Nature's best tools, 
 the human fingers. 
 
 It is important that the beginner should first learn 
 how to manipulate the clay, how to spread it cleanly 
 over such parts, and in such shapes, as he may wish 
 to make, so that every piece put on shall express 
 something of the form ultimately intended, in a 
 modified degree, 
 
 33 C
 
 Such pieces should be put on deliberately, and not 
 at haphazard or fingered about carelessly until they 
 find their place. Therefore the student should en- 
 deavour to know the form his clay is going to take 
 before it leaves his fingers, and do this without his 
 hands getting all muddied up. 
 
 A clever student will soon learn how to model 
 and use a great mass of clay, almost without soiling 
 his hands ; whilst another, less advanced, will have 
 his hands so covered that there would be sufficient 
 material on them to make a miniature statue. This 
 is unquestionably bad, because with the hands in 
 such a state the sense of touch (in a beginner) is con- 
 siderably handicapped, the clay refusing freely to 
 leave the fingers, and the work in consequence be- 
 coming dirty in technique. 
 
 The student should learn how to build up gradually 
 until he gets the clay to the desired form, and should 
 not pile up a lot of clay and start cutting down ; 
 for, properly considered, the method of modelling is 
 building up. In this way the student always obtains 
 the best results. The technique of cutting down 
 belongs to the carver, whose material, stone or wood, 
 must of necessity be larger than the object it is his 
 purpose to make. 
 
 Moreover, a student of modelling would not learn 
 as much by cutting down as by building up, for the 
 reason that by the latter principle he is putting on a 
 number of pieces of clay, each piece, almost from the 
 first, bearing some resemblance to the shape which 
 the parts will finally assume. Thus he will under- 
 stand the shapes and they will become impressed 
 upon his memory; and, besides, the work will be 
 fresher in touch, through all its stages, until the 
 completion. 
 
 34
 
 AND THE TECHNIQUE 
 
 By this method also the student is not so likely to 
 get lost, for he may, and indeed should, in building 
 up insert into his model little pieces of wood, some- 
 what the size of common matches, broken, or better 
 still, cut into halves, to indicate the position of certain 
 points and their projections, these points being taken 
 most carefully with compasses or callipers from the 
 particular example he has before him. 
 
 For this purpose I advise every student to equip 
 himself with these instruments when first begin- 
 ning to model, using them frequently and with great 
 accuracy, and applying every other means available 
 to get his work as nearly as he can like unto the 
 original; for with all this help he will have to con- 
 quer many a difficulty before he will be able to 
 model or copy well (Fig. 1). 
 
 From the first a student should pay particular 
 attention to the importance of keeping his work in a 
 good condition and even consistency, not allowing it 
 one day to be too soft and another day too hard, 
 and taking care that such tools as he may be using 
 are also kept clean. 
 
 Unfortunately, most beginners are as careless about 
 these matters as they are about the wrapping up of 
 their work at night, or at such times as they may be 
 covering it and putting it aside for the time being. 
 
 They invariably saturate the cloths with enough 
 water necessary to wet treble the amount of material, 
 and throw these cloths over their work with as little 
 respect for what may have been weeks of labour, 
 and teaching from their instructor, as though they 
 were covering so much mud ; instead of which the 
 work should be protected from becoming rubbed or 
 smeared, which can easily be done by the careful 
 insertion of small wooden pegs into the clay model. 
 
 35
 
 36
 
 MODELLING AND THE TECHNIQUE 
 
 or round it, upon which the cloths can hang and 
 still serve the purpose of keeping moist the work 
 under a canopy or cover- 
 ing. 
 
 If the work be an im- 
 portant one, it is better to 
 get a wooden frame made, 
 just larger than the work, 
 and lined with some water- 
 proof material (Fig. 2). 
 This can easily be placed 
 over the whole model, 
 which should be sprayed a 
 little every day, and, if 
 made fairly air-tight, will 
 keep the work for a long 
 time in quite a good con- 
 dition. It is only when 
 the work is kept in such 
 good condition that the WOODEN 
 student can expect, not 
 alone to progress, but 
 to enlist the interest of 
 the teacher, who never 
 feels any great enthu- 
 siasm in a pupil's work 
 when these instructions 
 are disobeyed or disre- 
 garded. 
 
 In starting upon a work, 
 it is better to use clay 
 of a fairly stiffish consis- 
 tency, rather stiffer than that used afterwards (by 
 the addition of a little water), to model up the 
 parts, for the reason that it binds better round the 
 
 37 
 
 Fig. II 
 
 FRAME OB 
 CASE, TO PLACE OVER 
 A CLAY MODEL 
 
 (Lined with a waterproof mate- 
 rial, and closed in with a frame- 
 work door covered with the 
 same material), to form an air- 
 tight box. In the framework 
 of this door holes are made 
 through which the pegs, 
 indicated in the framework 
 above, pass to hold it in its 
 position.
 
 MODELLING AND THE TECHNIQUE 
 
 armature, 1 making a firmer substance upon which to 
 build more clay, and is also less liable to fall away. 
 
 It should therefore be remembered that the clay 
 with which you provide yourself each day before 
 starting to work (that is, supposing you have a 
 work previously begun) should be slightly softer 
 than the body of such work already begun, because 
 when it is being applied, instead of it getting em- 
 bedded into a softer body, it can be spread, or laid 
 upon the surface, as desired. The only reason for 
 adding clay is to increase the particular part to which 
 it is applied, and not to drive it into the surface. 
 
 The intelligent student, with but little experience, 
 will readily appreciate the importance of these 
 points, he himself having so frequently seen others 
 working by different means, almost obstinate in 
 their foolish disregard of these matters, until, fail- 
 ing utterly, they have given up in despair. I am 
 sure few among the many who start modelling 
 would give up, at least in despair, if only they paid 
 attention to the simplest rules necessary to progress. 
 
 I recommend any one starting to model to take as 
 a copy a work simple and broad in treatment, defined 
 in shape, and with well-marked planes ; examples 
 such as the eye, nose, or mouth of the " David " of 
 Michael Angelo. These can be obtained heroic in 
 size, and are the best things I know to begin with, 
 so healthy and full are they in line and shape, 
 so definite and sculpturesque in form, simple, yet 
 well marked. With these examples the student 
 cannot help feeling hopeful of making a fair copy, 
 and this hopefulness gives him such courage that 
 he immediately begins to manipulate his clay with 
 confidence (Fig. 3). 
 
 1 See pp. 51, 75, 76. 
 38
 
 ELEMENTARY MODELLING 
 
 This confidence is an all-important factor in the 
 student's progress, as he should not start by being 
 timid if he means to be a modeller or sculptor, but 
 must make up his mind to battle ; for, as he advances 
 and takes up larger work of greater importance, he 
 will find that a great deal of physical, as well as 
 mental, energy is needed ; and although his initial 
 efforts be confined to the simple examples I have 
 named, he will soon discover that learning to model 
 
 them is not a thing 
 one can go to sleep 
 over, or even sit 
 down to do, as one 
 might toy with a 
 piece of embroidery. 
 In modelling, so 
 many views have to 
 be considered and 
 drawn that you must 
 be on the move the 
 whole time, con- 
 stantly comparing 
 your work with the 
 cast, from the top, 
 
 sides, and underneath. The student too seldom does 
 this. He should frequently go down on his bended 
 knees and look up, first at one, and then at the 
 other, and compare his work with the original. 
 
 It is also most necessary that he should study the 
 sections of both, for, as a rule, the student too often 
 looks at one view only, namely, the front. 
 
 In modelling, a work should be drawn from every 
 conceivable view for modelling is drawing in clay 
 and from every point and every direction. The 
 better it is done, the better will be the result, 
 
 40 
 
 Fig. IV 
 
 HOW TO MAKE A " BUTTERFLY, 
 FIRST STAGE
 
 AND THE TECHNIQUE 
 
 although I do not say that this alone will produce 
 a great work of art. 
 
 " The master " alone can do this, but the student's 
 duty is to learn how to copy well, intelligently, with 
 reverence and with the determination to do his best. 
 This he cannot do until he has learned how to 
 manipulate the clay with freedom, and in such a 
 way as to suggest good technique, or I should per- 
 haps say handling, for, properly speaking, technique 
 is a thing formed 
 after the student has 
 left the class-room 
 and has started to 
 do something origi- 
 nal of his own, being 
 left entirely to his 
 own resources, 
 without the master 
 behind him. 
 
 A technique (or 
 method of handling) 
 formed and deve- 
 loped at this time 
 is a style of treat- 
 ment individual to the man himself, and comes about 
 in an almost inexplicable way whilst he searches 
 closely into Nature and into every detail. It is 
 individual, and is necessarily the personal expression 
 of the true artist, whatever medium he may choose 
 for such expression. 
 
 When a student has had a course of study from 
 these simple examples, having perhaps built up a 
 bust or other studies from the cast, then the sooner 
 he begins to work from Nature, the better ; for the 
 plaster cast is not alone less inspiring than the living 
 
 41 
 
 Fig. V 
 
 HOW TO MAKE A "BUTTERFLY," 
 SECOND STAGE
 
 ELEMENTARY MODELLING 
 
 model, but it is more difficult to understand for the 
 beginner. It takes really years of study from the 
 life before he can fully appreciate the charm and 
 beauty of antique great art, whose masterpieces 
 are the examples provided for pupils in most schools 
 of art. 
 
 The student cannot be expected to understand 
 these great works, and therefore should not take 
 them as something to copy, but as examples to in- 
 spire him in later life, when he has learned some- 
 thing of Nature and her ways. No, it is far better 
 that he should start early to work from Nature, 
 a hand, a foot, a toe, a leaf, a bird, or whatever 
 he pleases, copying these with infinite care, study- 
 ing their construction, and observing closely their 
 minutest details. Imitate and copy their regularities 
 and irregularities, their true form and deformity if 
 you choose so to call it in all their beauty and 
 ugliness if ugliness you think it is at the moment. 
 When you come to making your selection in building 
 up your ideal, you will at least recognise it with 
 reverence and wonder. 
 
 No sooner have you started upon these studies 
 from the living model than you should acquaint 
 yourself with the anatomy : not so closely as would 
 the student who intends to become a surgeon, but 
 sufficient to assist you in the main construction of 
 each particular part, its purposes and influences on 
 surface form. Particularly should you make draw- 
 ings and studies of, and model, all the principal bones, 
 carefully observing their direction, the position they 
 occupy in the figure, and their proportions. 
 
 Supposing, for instance, you are copying a head, 
 a foot, or a hand from the living model, it is more 
 than important that you should, at the same time, 
 
 42
 
 AND THE TECHNIQUE 
 
 be learning something of its skeleton and its mus- 
 cular form below the skin by making a model 
 of it, when this is possible. You will then observe 
 the difference between those parts of the skeleton 
 of the human frame 
 which are merely cov- 
 ered with skin, and the 
 more fleshy parts. 
 
 The former have a 
 tight appearance, and 
 upon close examination 
 will be found to be made 
 up of a number of small 
 planes or angles, whilst 
 the fleshy parts are 
 looser, and fuller in 
 quality, and rounder. 
 
 Take, for instance, the 
 ankle-bones and regard 
 the position of the inside 
 bone compared with the 
 outer one. It will be 
 seen that the one is much 
 higher than the other, 
 and the set-back from 
 the front also of a dif- Flg V i 
 
 ferent distance ; but the 
 student's study of the 
 skeleton, at this period, 
 need not be too deep. 
 
 He need only take a little at a time, and even then 
 such parts only as may be of use to him at the parti- 
 cular moment; but as he advances he will find it neces- 
 sary to learn thoroughly the exact shapes of such bones 
 as are always seen, at some points, even upon the 
 
 43 
 
 A " BUTTERFLY,' 
 THIRD STAGE.
 
 ELEMENTARY MODELLING 
 
 fleshiest of models the patella, the pelvis, the clavicle 
 (or collar-bone), the scapulas, the tibia and the 
 fibula, the radius and the ulna, all of which, at some 
 time or other, are seen and exert their influence on 
 the surface of the figure, and are clearly defined in 
 their shape. 
 
 By knowing these thoroughly, the student will be 
 greatly assisted when he has to build up his armature 
 for the whole of a figure. 
 
 Fig. VII 
 
 THE MOVEMENT AND PLAY IN THE LINES OF THE 
 MOUTH 
 
 A student may not wish to become a figure 
 modeller or sculptor, preferring the study of animals 
 or foliage. Even then the same principles apply, 
 and a knowledge of construction of those parts 
 beneath the surface is necessary to obtain a suc- 
 cessful result. 
 
 Who can expect to produce anything really great 
 
 44
 
 AND THE TECHNIQUE 
 
 with but a superficial knowledge? We have to 
 wrest Nature's secrets from her by ceaseless watching 
 and patient study, before we are able to reveal the 
 beauty of her mysteries to others. 
 
 Apart from its service to the student, the search 
 after the knowledge requisite to his art will prove 
 delightfully interesting, and as enjoyable as it is in- 
 structive. He will gladden at the beautiful forms 
 and shapes which are somewhat hidden beneath the 
 skin. 
 
 It is the artist's privilege to discover beauty in 
 much that others call ugly, and the student would 
 do well to cultivate an ambition in this direction, 
 endeavouring to enjoy every phase of Nature, as he 
 should enjoy everything he has undertaken in his 
 work. 
 
 With this sense of self-surrender, out of pure love 
 for his calling, he will find 110 tedium in its perform- 
 ance, but without this enjoyment in it the work 
 becomes cold and lifeless, a mere perfunctory task, 
 not worth the time expended upon it. 
 
 It is far better for a student to relinquish any 
 work in which his heart is not wholly centred, and 
 to start something fresh, than to continue that 
 which at each new attempt becomes more and more 
 distasteful to him. 
 
 45
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 MODELLING A PORTRAIT BUST 
 
 ALMOST the greatest gift a portrait painter or sculptor 
 can wish to possess is that of being able to catch the 
 portrait or actual likeness of the sitter. This faculty 
 needs a different training to that of the artist who 
 produces ideal works, and whose great ambition is 
 to get perfection of form, of rhythm, of line, and a 
 beautiful sense of feeling and composition, born of 
 the beauty which exists in his own mind. 
 
 In portraiture it is absolutely necessary to study 
 the type and character of one's sitter in all its 
 idiosyncrasies : to write, as it were, indelibly in clay 
 or stone, the man's history as it is written on his 
 physiognomy; for truly on every feature is carven, 
 to a greater or less extent, his past and present, and 
 particularly are those parts developed which have 
 been most brought into constant action. 
 
 Let us take, for example, the preponderant brow of 
 a Napoleon ; the lips of a Demosthenes, instinct with 
 divine oratory ; the almost ideal profile of a Byron 
 or Shelley; and contrast these with the jaw, heavy 
 and underset, of a pugilist. 
 
 One has only to look at a group of professional 
 men gathered together barristers, doctors, actors, 
 musicians, orators, and artists to detect that each 
 one among them has a distinct and separate entity 
 to the particular profession he follows ;
 
 Fig. VIII 
 
 SHOWING THE GENERAL LINES AND MASSES TO BE 
 OBSERVED WHEN BUILDING UP THE HEAD
 
 and although they may not be specially gifted in 
 any of the various branches they represent, still the 
 constant exercise of certain muscles and expressions 
 must become more noticeable, as the muscles do in 
 the legs of a dancer or runner, or the biceps of a 
 gymnast. In the same way, the exercise of intelli- 
 gence develops to a marked degree the character- 
 istics of its possessor. 
 
 All students of physiognomy are agreed that a man 
 in time becomes, more or less, like the people with 
 whom he is in constant association. This fact is 
 especially to be noted in married people, who have 
 lived in harmony together for many years ; and also 
 in a distinct resemblance to his confreres, in action 
 and manner, of the artist, the musician, the preacher, 
 and the actor. 
 
 Never could we confound them with the butcher, 
 baker, clerk, or butler, or even the prosperous city 
 merchant ; yet each alike has marked characteristics 
 to the physiognomist, and all are equally interesting 
 types of humanity to the painter and sculptor. 
 
 I have indeed seen men grow like unto their dogs 
 when they have been particularly attached to a 
 certain breed, as others come to resemble their best 
 fancied birds, in an almost comical verisimilitude. 
 
 These are traditional characteristics from time 
 immemorial, and I remark upon them only to show 
 how intimately the portrait painter and sculptor 
 should study each detail in the facial expression of 
 all and every type of men with whom he comes in 
 contact. 
 
 "The maniac's form we turn with loathing from, 
 Became immortal in its agonies 
 When Michael Angelo prisoned it in stone ! 
 And peasants rough, uncouth, for ever Jive 
 .48
 
 MODELLING A PORTRAIT BUST 
 
 As Millet fixed them with his deathless Art. 
 So all the ancient myths of Satyr, Nymph, 
 Goddess and Dryad, are alive to-day 
 In classic silences of Greece and Rome. 
 Beauty is fleeting, but the sculptured form 
 Endures through ages ever beautiful." 
 
 Whilst the caricaturist seizes upon some salient 
 peculiarity of physiognomy and exaggerates it, until 
 the portrait may be said to be more like the original 
 than is the caricatured person to himself yes, laugh- 
 ably so the student who intends taking up portraiture 
 may take a lesson, and indeed learn much, from ex- 
 amining the best specimens of the caricaturist's art, 
 although in his own work he should most carefully 
 avoid exaggeration ; for caricature in portraiture 
 proper would rightly be considered vulgar and in the 
 worst taste. 
 
 The difficulty of avoiding exaggeration on the one 
 hand, and tameness on the other, is a great test of 
 the power of the artist, who, if he be clever enough, 
 will infuse a "subtlety" into his portrait, a success 
 which can only be attained by a close, careful, and 
 constant study of the features and expression, a 
 ceaseless observation of the varied types of features 
 he sees everywhere around him. He must note the 
 contrasts each presents to the other, and endeavour 
 to form in his own mind some idea of what their 
 respective callings, trades, or professions may be ; and 
 though he may never have any proof of the correct- 
 ness of his surmises, he will thus be trained in the 
 habit of minute observation. 
 
 When a student is about to start upon a portrait, 
 either a bust, statue, or statuette, he usually knows 
 something of his sitter and his calling in life. He 
 
 49 D
 
 MODELLING A PORTRAIT BUST 
 
 therefore looks out for indication of this something 
 denoting his calling. 
 
 It is not often that a man or woman is asked to 
 undergo the ordeal of sitting for their portrait, in 
 clay or marble, until they have in some way or 
 other become distinguished ; and their personality 
 and character having been developed, the sculptor 
 will experience less difficulty in seizing instantly 
 upon their characteristics. 
 
 It is different with the portrait painter. He may 
 paint a young girl solely by reason of her prettiness 
 and exquisite colour, though she herself be utterly 
 devoid of any marked character or fine form, whilst 
 to the portrait sculptor true or fine form and char- 
 acter are all-important. 
 
 I advise all students, when choosing a head to 
 model from for practice, to select one with well- 
 marked features, an old man for preference, and, 
 when possible, one with little or no hair on his face, 
 clean shaven, so that the jaw, chin, and upper lip, in 
 which so much character lies, may stand clearly forth, 
 undisguised by beard or moustache. A face three 
 parts hidden by hair is not the sculptor's ideal for 
 clay or marble. 
 
 In building up a bust, the student has first to pro- 
 vide himself with a modelling stand, one with a 
 revolving top, and also with what is called a "bust" 
 peg (Fig. 9), which is an upright piece of wood 
 about 14 inches high, 2 inches square in thickness 
 at bottom, tapering up to about 1| inches square. 
 This is inserted firmly into a flat board or platform, 
 about 18 inches square by 2 inches thick, which is 
 made so that it will not warp or twist with the 
 moisture from the wet clay. Near the top of this 
 upright peg fix a couple of jiieces of lead or compo 
 
 50
 
 Fig. IX 
 
 BUST PEG SHOWING " BUTTERFLY " SUSPENDED BY A PIECE * 
 
 OF WIRE FROM WHERE COMPO PlPES CROSS OVER 
 ONE ANOTHER 
 
 Note piece of wood to carry shoulders. From this, " butterflies " can be 
 suspended when thought necessary.
 
 MODELLING A PORTRAIT 1HJST 
 
 tubing as shown in Fig. 9; and from where these 
 two pieces of tubing cross, hang what is called a 
 " butterfly " two pieces of wood bound together by 
 copper wire, in the shape of a Latin cross. The 
 " butterfly " is suspended from above, and left to 
 hang quite freely, so that it may easily be pushed 
 from one side to the other, should it project too far 
 out at any one place, when the clay bust is built up, 
 or during its progress of being built. The purpose 
 of this " butterfly " is to carry the weight of some of 
 the mass of clay in use for the head ; whilst the 
 advantage of the piping is that it gives or moves 
 quite easily if it be thought desirable to turn or 
 change the action of the head, after the bust is com- 
 menced. It also retains the ease in the poise of the 
 head on the shoulders much better than if any 
 material less pliable than lead piping were used. 
 
 It should be remembered that the appearance of 
 ease in the growth of the neck out of the shoulders, 
 and of the head thereon, is very important. 
 
 If it is intended to model the shoulders or 
 draperies out any distance, which may need an 
 abundance of clay, it is advisable to nail a piece of 
 wood across the upright peg in the direction of the 
 shoulders, as this will carry and support the clay ; 
 from this may also hang more " butterflies." 
 
 We will now suppose that the armature is ready, 
 the clay prepared, and the model or sitter arrived. 
 He shall from the first, and through all the stages, 
 be seated at such a height that his head and the one 
 being built up in clay are as nearly as possible on 
 the same level. Before settling on any definite pose 
 or attitude of the head in relation to the shoulders, 
 it is always as well to allow your model to place him- 
 self in some position natural to himself, which he 
 
 52
 
 MODELLING A PORTRAIT RUST 
 
 will undoubtedly do, if he be sufficiently interested 
 in some agreeable conversation to lose his self-con- 
 sciousness. 
 
 You are then more likely to catch him in some 
 characteristic attitude, and likewise with his natural 
 expression. Whilst he remains in this pose, view 
 him all round to make sure that he appears equally 
 interesting and well-balanced from everywhere, arid 
 that no alteration will be necessary in the arma- 
 ture. 
 
 Particular attention should be paid to the arma- 
 ture to see w r hether any change is necessary, whether 
 it requires turning or twisting in another direction 
 to that in which it now is, so that it may better serve 
 its purpose, always remembering that it must be well 
 within the mass of the head, and also at its narrowest 
 points, so that the full amount of clay, which is to 
 contain the features, will leave the (armature) lead 
 piping below the surface. 
 
 When due consideration has been given to this, 
 then a start may be made upon building up the clay. 
 Squeeze or press it well round the lead piping and 
 woodwork (which previously cover with a little 
 water to make the clay stick to it), forming it roughly 
 into the shape of a skull, in a direction suggesting 
 that of the poise of the head of the model or sitter, 
 especially in relation to that of the shoulders. 
 
 Then set out a line up the middle of this skull 
 shape, and others horizontally on this line, about the 
 position where brow, nose, and mouth will come, for 
 upon these lines the perfected features will be built 
 (Fig. 10). 
 
 It is all-important, in the earlier stages, that the 
 position of the pit of the neck be taken, as the pro- 
 jections of the features of the face are judged and 
 
 53
 
 Fig. X 
 
 SHOWING FIRST CLAY STAGE 
 
 Horizontal ami perpendicular lines indicating brow and mouth and central 
 line up face and through middle of the features. Also position of the 
 pit of the neck.
 
 MODELLING A PORTRAIT BUST 
 
 governed by this point, in the hollow or pit of the 
 neck. 
 
 Great care must be exercised to avoid setting this 
 point in too deep, or bringing it too far forward, on 
 account of the thinness of the neck and the necessary 
 thickness of the armature through it (the neck), and 
 up into the head. 
 
 From this point the distance through to the back 
 of the neck, i.e. to the seventh cervical, and to either 
 shoulder may be obtained. 
 
 It will be noticed that the projection of the chin 
 and face from the pit of the neck varies consider- 
 ably, according to the tilt of the head and to the 
 position in which a person is sitting. There may, 
 indeed, be little or none in front of this point, when 
 a person is leaning or sitting with his head thrown 
 far back and chest brought forward ; whereas, if 
 posed with the head and shoulders forward, the 
 features are naturally much in front of the pit. 
 Therefore this point should be taken, as I have 
 already said, during the earliest stage, as soon, indeed, 
 as the sitter is in the correct position or pose which 
 you have decided upon for the clay bust. 
 
 When you have made quite sure that the position 
 or attitude of your sitter is as you desire it, and have 
 fixed upon a point in your clay for the pit of the 
 neck, from this point take the first point in the 
 features that is to say, the chin and from this same 
 pit point its projection out or forward, as seen in pro- 
 file, by means of a plumb-line held up against the 
 chin and the distance in to pit, taken with a compass 
 or pencil held horizontally. 
 
 This measurement cannot, however, be taken in 
 the way here indicated if the head is turned to look 
 much towards or over either shoulder, as in such a 
 
 55
 
 MODELLING A PORTRAIT RUST 
 
 case it must be judged only by the plumb-line, which 
 
 must be held as you would hold it to obtain the 
 
 projection in making a drawing on paper from the 
 
 model. 
 
 The same means should be applied in getting the 
 
 position of the chin, in relation, vertically, to the pit 
 
 from the front view. 
 
 The plumb-line may frequently be of use, although 
 
 this, like all other means of getting points or rela- 
 tive positions, must be used with care and extreme 
 accuracy, because in holding up a plumb-line it is the 
 easiest thing imaginable to get very wrong if you 
 happen to stand a little more to the right or to the 
 left (when trying it on your clay) than you stood 
 when deciding it on your sitter. 
 
 The point of the chin having thus been obtained, it 
 can be used as basis for further measurements, which 
 must be taken very carefully from the sitter, and set 
 or marked out on the clay model with small pieces of 
 wood, like matches, these being inserted to indicate 
 more surely the position of the points. These little 
 pegs can be pushed in or pulled out to increase or 
 diminish the distance or projection, should this be 
 found necessary, so that they may correspond to the 
 measurements on the life model, if it be discovered 
 at a later period that a measurement has been in- 
 correctly taken. 
 
 All measurements should be taken from well- 
 defined parts which are not likely to alter much by a 
 change in the expression or countenance of the sitter. 
 It is very advisable to take the following points : 
 from the centre of the chin to the top of the nose 
 between the brows, and then from the chin to the 
 projecting pieces of flesh (called the Tragus) on the 
 sides of the face next to (and part of) the ears directly 
 
 56
 
 MODELLING A PORTRAIT BUST 
 
 above the lobes ; the width across the face at these 
 points; then again from these points to the tip of 
 the nose, and the projection between the brows over 
 the nose ; then from either of these last taken points 
 to back of head. The further points to be taken are 
 the extreme width across at ears, temples, cheek- 
 bones, jaws, as also across eyes at outside corners ; 
 size of ears, length and width ; distance up from 
 centre of chin to the inside corners of eyes ; length 
 from under chin to top of forehead and top of head, 
 but into these last-mentioned measurements pegs 
 need not be inserted in the clay. 
 
 It is safer, when you have several points correctly 
 put in, to use these all in taking further measure- 
 ments or points, as in doing this you are not only 
 testing each and all, but you are sure of getting 
 them in their relative places, with greater accuracy 
 and speed ; for it must be remembered that from 
 any three given points any other may be obtained by 
 striking out from each a portion of a circle. Where 
 these circles intersect, or cross, must be the mean 
 distance. 
 
 Numerous other measurements may be taken, but 
 those mentioned are the most important for the 
 correct modelling of the face. 
 
 Never depend upon measurements taken from one 
 side of the face to serve for the other side, because 
 it invariably occurs that they differ somewhat, and 
 thus the nose and other features are pressed a little 
 out of the centre, sometimes to a marked degree ; 
 these differences are not only interesting, but go a 
 long way towards making the characteristics of the 
 sitter. 
 
 Then, again, it will often be found that one eye is 
 not only set deeper in the head, but in some instances 
 
 57
 
 MODELLING A PORTRAIT BUST 
 
 higher up or lower down than the corresponding 
 one ; perhaps, too, one corner of the mouth will be 
 lower and deeper than the other ; but by all means 
 avoid any exaggeration of such differences, as your 
 face will easily look all askew. Any little exaggera- 
 tion will be clearly seen by viewing your work 
 in a looking-glass, and I strongly recommend the 
 constant use of this means of discovering faults ; 
 more especially as the work becomes advanced, look 
 at both sitter and work in the mirror, comparing 
 both. 
 
 The student is advised to note down the measure- 
 ments of the sitter on a sheet of paper for future 
 reference, in order to save his sitter the annoyance 
 of repeated touching with the callipers. 
 
 When the student has taken note of a fair number 
 of measurements he may go to work a little more 
 freely, modelling or building up anatomically the 
 bony structure of the face and head, leaving the 
 fleshier parts until a little later. 
 
 On no account should he work too long, from any 
 one view, without turning both the sitter and the 
 clay model ; it is most advisable to turn both round 
 at frequent intervals. Looking too long from any 
 one point of view is an error far too common with 
 most of us, and one which invariably causes us much 
 trouble in undoing, \vith consequent loss of precious 
 time, besides bringing about greater difficulties, such 
 as setting back, or having to cut away an always 
 troublesome task which tends to depress and dis- 
 courage the beginner. Besides, it brings about a 
 different treatment and manipulation to that of 
 going straight ahead, as in the case of the build- 
 ing-up method or principle. 
 
 The next, and final, stages (Fig. 11) have few if 
 
 58
 
 MODELLING A PORTRAIT BUST 
 
 any limitations as regards the amount of time or 
 finish that may be spent upon the portrait bust ; but 
 I should strongly advise the student to carry his 
 work as far as he possibly can whilst he has interest 
 
 Fig. XI 
 
 SHOWING THE PRINCIPAL MUSCLES IN THE NECK 
 WHICH GO TO SUPPORT AND EFFECT THE MOVE- 
 MENT OF THE HEAD 
 
 Observe the strength in the arrangement of these muscles which make 
 this column-like form, and the decorative character of the same. 
 
 in it, studying and modelling very closely every little 
 detail, learning its direction of growth, imitating its 
 movement, and using every endeavour to put into 
 his work the value of the numerous flat planes as 
 contrasted with the more rounded parts. 
 
 On close examination it will be seen that all the 
 
 59
 
 MODELLING A PORTRAIT BUST 
 
 features, more particularly the bony parts of them, 
 are made up of an enormous number of small and 
 varied planes, some slightly fuller than others ; but 
 seldom, if ever, is any part found so rounded in its 
 
 Fig. XII Fig. XIII 
 
 DIAGRAMS SHOWING POINTS FROM WHICH TO TAKE MEASURE- 
 MENTS AND HOW TO PUT IN THE PEGS 
 
 form as to suggest that it might have been turned 
 on a lathe. 
 
 The growth of each and every muscle is varied in 
 direction ; it is never monotonous. 
 
 It is when these things are not attended to, or are 
 missed, that a bust looks empty and uninteresting. 
 
 60
 
 MODELLING A PORTRAIT RUST 
 
 A change in the light on your sitter and on your 
 work will be of considerable help in finding details. 
 A strong top light is good for searching out minute 
 details which undoubtedly would otherwise escape 
 observation, although it may be remarked that this 
 is not the light which is 
 generally supposed to flat- 
 ter the sitter in the minds 
 of the outsider or relation, 
 who prefer to see a more 
 direct front light upon it, 
 that obliterates entirely the 
 details in a face. 
 
 It is important that every 
 piece put on should not only 
 be considered, but looked 
 at and judged from other 
 views, even from under- 
 neath, at the time of put 
 ting it on ; otherwise it is 
 more than likely that it 
 will be found, when seen 
 from a new outline, that 
 time has been wasted, 
 as well as much worry 
 brought about, because it 
 will not look right, for 
 some reason difficult to understand or ascertain. 
 
 Every bit of modelling, especially in the round, 
 means the drawing of an object with innumerable out- 
 lines, each of which requires to be correctly drawn ; 
 if it be not, the result is certain to be wrong. 
 
 The difference between the character of the draw- 
 ing and modelling of the fleshy or muscular parts 
 and that of the bony construction, where the bone- 
 
 61 
 
 Fig. XIV 
 
 Note the flat plane in the 
 shadow leading up from 
 the wing 1 to the tip of the 
 nose.
 
 Fig. XV 
 
 THE HEAD WITH ITS PRINCIPAL MASSES PUT IN 
 
 It is now that details should be modelled into these masses to obtain a 
 smaller scale, after which subtleties in the modelling should be sought 
 after.
 
 MODELLING A PORTRAIT BUST 
 
 forms are seen on the surface, is considerable. It is 
 therefore a matter to he studied most carefully. 
 
 The position of the inside corners of the eye, and 
 the modelling around, cannot be treated too con- 
 scientiously. The neglect of these parts, and of the 
 hollows everywhere, invariably brings much unneces- 
 sary trouble. Such trouble) is bound also to ensue 
 
 
 Fig. XVI 
 
 THE DRAWING OF THE EYELIDS AND PARTS AROUND 
 THEM AS SEEN FROM A SLIGHTLY LOWER LEVEL 
 
 if too little attention is given to the sections of the 
 face as seen from underneath and above. 
 
 To some extent the modeller and sculptor must 
 view his sitter as the painter does, in order to ob- 
 tain the relative colour or tone of part to part, and 
 therefore he to some degree runs astray in places 
 from the true form. Especially is this so in treating 
 the eyes and hair, which in one person may be very 
 dark and in another quite light. For this reason 
 
 63
 
 MODELLING A PORTRAIT RUST 
 
 some difference must be made if a close resemblance 
 to the life is to be obtained. Blank eyes seldom look 
 intimate, especially with our modern realistic treat- 
 incut in portraiture, and so we endeavour to get 
 the relative colour value by cutting in or hollowing 
 out the pupils to such an amount as to resemble the 
 depth of the colour of the eyes of the sitter or model ; 
 in fact, we go so far as to incise lines to indicate the 
 rings in the pupil, and a spot or deeper hole in the 
 
 - 
 
 Fig. XVII 
 
 THK DRAWING OF THE EYES AND THE PARTS 
 AROUND THEM AS SEEN FROM THE SAME LEVEL 
 
 centre to resemble the dark spot in the middle of the 
 pupil ; and further, in some instances a little project- 
 ing bit of clay is put in the pupil, above the dark spot 
 just spoken of, to get the effect of the angular-shaped 
 high light generally to be seen on the eye. This 
 cutting in of the pupil not only serves to get a dark 
 effect, but helps by its contrast to make the white 
 part of the eye appear even \vhiter. 
 
 In treating the eyes in this way care should be 
 taken to avoid making them look like holes cut in 
 the clay ; it is not necessary to dig very deep to 
 
 04
 
 MODELLING A PORTRAIT 15UST 
 
 obtain the appearance of the darkest eye, and the 
 effect of light eyes can be got by very little sinking. 
 An incised circular line alone serves to give the effect 
 in some cases ; but you may try a dozen times before 
 the resemblance is good. 
 
 The correct effect is not obtained by one dig, as may 
 be imagined, but requires studying as all other parts 
 do. And it should not be regarded as a trick. It 
 must not be thought that the making of a hole or 
 line in the eye does anything more than give some- 
 thing of the colour or tone ; it cannot even give you 
 the correct direction of sight, unless the upper and 
 lower lids are correct in their construction over the 
 form of the eyeball. But if the lids are properly con- 
 structed and properly drawn, especially as seen from 
 underneath, then the direction of sight will be easily 
 observed ; and there is no need to indicate the pupil, 
 unless it is for the purpose of relative tone or colour. 
 
 As the sight moves from the middle to the inner 
 or outer corner, so it affects the lids very consider- 
 ably, and you will observe, by looking from under- 
 neath at the eye, that, as the pupil moves to look 
 either inward or outward, the lid follows the move- 
 ment. The flesh of the lids stretches over to the 
 greatest projection, which is the centre of the pupil. 
 
 The hair also has to be regarded as colour, and 
 this colour taken into consideration, though no laws 
 can be laid down as to the modelling of hair, for 
 almost every man has his own particular way of 
 treating it. 
 
 It can only be regarded more or less en masse, the 
 difference between light and dark hair being obtained 
 by undercuts of more or less depth. 
 
 Of course, in dark hair one would naturally keep 
 the hollows deeper, and cut in such a direction as to 
 
 65 E
 
 Fig. XVIII 
 
 Fig. XIX 
 
 
 Fig. XX 
 
 THE EYES AS SEEN FROM UNDERNEATH 
 
 Observe the drawing of the eyelids, and the change brought 
 about by the movement of the pupil.
 
 MODELLING A PORTRAIT RUST 
 
 obtain as dark a shadow as possible, and it might be 
 more cut up ; whereas with fair or white hair the 
 hollows would be 
 
 kept shallow, and 
 undercuts would be 
 avoided as much as 
 possible, whilst the 
 detail should be kept 
 very quiet. 
 
 In dealing with the 
 hair, whether on the 
 head or face, take 
 care not to cut into 
 the skull or fleshy 
 parts ; this too often 
 occurs in students' 
 work. Let the draw- 
 ing and construction 
 of the head and face 
 be felt through where 
 they have hair cover- 
 ing them. Hair is 
 always a very diffi- 
 cult thing to treat, 
 and I cannot do more 
 than advise the stu- 
 dent to regard, to 
 study carefully, the 
 drawing from all 
 views of the general 
 mass and its minor 
 masses ; the growth 
 from where it starts, 
 
 and the movement it takes to the end; the shapes 
 and design of the masses. Note also the parts where 
 
 67 
 
 Fig. XXI 
 
 THE DRAWING AT THE BACK 
 OF THE EAR, TOO OFTEN 
 NEGLECTED BY STUDENTS
 
 Fig. XXII 
 
 A SCULPTURESQUE TREATMENT OP THE HAIR 
 
 Showinjr the beautiful shapes iit the masses and detail. 
 
 68
 
 Fig. XXIII 
 
 A STUDY OF THE HAIR, SHOWING THE DECORATIVE 
 CHARACTER TO BE FOUND IN THE HAIR 
 
 Note the lines and masses. See how definite these are. 
 
 69
 
 Fig. XXIV 
 
 THE DESIGN IN THE HAIR AS SEEN FROM BEHIND 
 
 Note the radiation of the lines from the crown. 
 
 70
 
 MODELLING A PORTRAIT BUST 
 
 the start of the hair is seen from the skull, as on the 
 temple bones, and contrast these with the direction of 
 growth of the masses hanging over, which perhaps 
 do not expose themselves at their roots. 
 
 View from the back of the head the manner in 
 which the hair grows out from the crown, radiating 
 from a centre, and forming a beautiful design. The 
 back of the head is rarely studied as much as it 
 should be. It is a very characteristic part, and 
 should be regarded seriously. Most people are 
 recognisable from the back of the head, which goes 
 to show the importance of studying that part. 
 
 Nine times out of ten the ears are grossly neglected 
 by the student, and are in almost every case made 
 too heavy. The ear is a very delicate shell, in parts 
 very thin and transparent. A general fault is to 
 make the hollows too deep, which makes them look 
 too black ; the shadows in the ear are never black, 
 by reason of the hollows being so beautifully clear 
 and shallow that they collect light. 
 
 The ear should be drawn from the back and three- 
 quarter view, as seen from behind. This is also a 
 most useful view from which to study the whole of 
 the outline of the face. 
 
 71
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 BUILDING UP A FIGURE OR GROUP IN 
 THE ROUND 
 
 IT is with the group or figure in the round that 
 so much work and care is needed in the beginning, 
 when building up the armature ; for unless this is 
 properly started and put up with the utmost correct- 
 ness, it is sure to cause serious trouble later on, and 
 perhaps despair. The narrowest parts are so very 
 narrow as, for instance, across the wrists and ankle 
 joints, and in the fingers that the adjusting of such 
 armature as may be necessary for these parts is a 
 matter calling for extreme care and minute calcula- 
 tion, without which the armature will be found to be 
 out of the centre of the parts, and thus fail to serve 
 its purpose properly. The importance of this exact- 
 ness in the adjustment of the armature will be more 
 plainly seen when it is pointed out that, through 
 such of the parts as I have mentioned, it is necessary 
 to use a lead or compo piping, or maybe iron, almost 
 as thick as the parts themselves, so that there is but 
 little clay covering the surface of the armature when 
 the work is finished. Any miscalculation will lead 
 to the armature being exposed outside the outline of 
 the clay, which is a sure proof of bad craftsmanship. 
 When lead or compo piping or other pliable 
 material is vised, as may be the case in small works 
 or anything under life-size figure proportions, the 
 
 72
 
 BUILDING UP A FIGURE OR GROUP 
 
 difficulty in rectifying an error, or making any change 
 in the armature which it may be thought desirable 
 to effect, is not nearly so great as it would be in a 
 work of greater proportions where it is necessary to 
 vise iron rods, in place of the softer material, for 
 strength and for the purpose of preventing any 
 movement or change being brought about through 
 the weight of clay or for other reasons. In setting 
 up the armature, it should be borne well in mind 
 from the first that it shall be so arranged as to pass 
 as nearly as possible through the centre of all the 
 parts. It must serve as the skeleton upon which to 
 build the flesh. It is advisable to connect to the 
 piping in the arms, i.e. at the extreme ends, twisted 
 wire to carry the fingers, though this may not be 
 absolutely necessary if the hands are closed or at- 
 tached to a body or other mass. But when the 
 fingers are disconnected and extended, or in any way 
 parted from one another, it is certain that they will 
 break off many times before the work is completed, 
 unless wire has previously been pat in to carry them. 
 
 Build up a good skeleton of piping, &c., and you 
 will have an excellent armature upon which to model 
 a figure. Bend the piping and wire in the general 
 form and direction of the bones, and tie to it pieces 
 of wood to carry the larger groups of muscles or the 
 heavy parts of the body, where masses of clay will 
 be required. The wood will keep the work lighter 
 and serve as a basis for building up the clay. It 
 will also be less likely to fall down a contingency 
 against which it is advisable to take the further pre- 
 caution of suspending butterflies from any parts of 
 the armature that will permit this usefvil expedient. 
 
 A well-put-up armature should exactly give the 
 action and the general proportions of the work to be 
 
 73
 
 BUILDING UP A FIGURE OR GROUP 
 
 carried out. For this reason no time or care should 
 be spared in putting it up thoroughly well, for it will 
 be found a gain in the long run (Figs. 25 and 26). 
 
 Where the lead piping in the limbs or other parts 
 will not allow of any wood being introduced on 
 account of the narrowness at such points, it is advis- 
 able to bind or twist copper wire round it (not too 
 tightly). This will form a ledge or key upon and 
 around which the clay can tighten, and will thus 
 serve to hold up the weight ; for lead or compo piping, 
 being of a very smooth surface and round form, does 
 not hold the clay firmly in its place, and soft clay 
 has a tendency to turn or move round while you 
 are working upon it unless something has been done 
 to prevent it. With an armature fashioned in the 
 manner which I have suggested, and which is shown 
 in Figs. 25 and 26, the student may set to work to 
 build up the figure. I must point out here that it is 
 a wise plan to give sufficient depth to the ground- 
 work or clay base upon which the figure will stand, 
 for it may happen that you desire, or even find it 
 necessary, to lengthen your work, which cannot be 
 done by extending the top portion of the figure with- 
 out considerable difficulty. On the other hand, it will 
 be found quite a simple thing to lengthen the legs by 
 cutting a slice off the top of the base, and then press- 
 ing the feet down to the new level. 
 
 The first measurements to be taken are : 
 1. From ground level up to pit of neck (i.e. top of 
 sternum). This measurement being so long, 
 its exact half length is usually found ; this 
 is put on the reducing scale, and the result 
 afterwards doubled to give you the full re- 
 lative length from ground to pit on your 
 reduced work. 
 
 74
 
 Fig. XXV 
 
 AN ARMATURE MADE OF COMPO PIPING FOR A STATUETTE 
 
 Note the main iron support is bent in a direction to follow the line 
 of the body and to pass through its centre.
 
 BUILDING UP A FIGURE OR GROUP 
 
 2. From ground level up to patella, on standing 
 
 leg. 
 
 3. From patella to anterior superior iliac process. 
 
 Fig. XXVI 
 
 THE ARMATURE COMPLETE 
 
 4. From this last measurement across to opposite 
 
 anterior superior iliac process. 
 
 5. From anterior superior iliac on standing legs 
 
 to pit of neck. 
 
 6. From pit of neck to top of skull. 
 
 76
 
 IN THE ROUND 
 
 7. From pit of neck to tragus. 
 
 Then up the opposite side of figure to the cor- 
 responding points, starting with the point 
 from ground level to patella. 
 
 8. From patella to tibia at anterior joint, on 
 
 both legs. Further measurements to be taken : 
 From pit of neck through to seventh cervical 
 vertebra. 
 
 This, it will be found, is rather higher than the 
 pit, and its exact position above this point must be 
 obtained by means of a straight-edge held hori- 
 zontally and on the level with the pit, as seen from 
 profile. 
 
 Down from seventh cervical to posterior iliac 
 processes. 
 
 Distance across iliac processes and through from 
 each of these to anterior iliac processes. 
 
 From pit of neck to extreme end of either clavicle. 
 
 From the acromion process or end of clavicle to 
 the head of ulna. 
 
 From head of ulna to end of radius and ulna at 
 wrist. 
 
 From the two last-named points to the first articu- 
 lations of the fingers. And then to further joints in 
 fingers. 
 
 From all the main points many further minor, 
 though important, points may be taken. You can- 
 not be too careful in putting in all these points 
 accurately. 
 
 The student will find it an excellent plan to com- 
 pare measurements with one another. This will not 
 only be interesting, but also instructive, although 
 they must be regarded more or less as approximate 
 only. They are not to be relied upon altogether, but 
 will serve to point out something of the relative 
 
 77
 
 proportion ; and they are of great assistance when 
 a figure has to be put up without a model. 
 
 Having obtained most of the main points, you 
 may begin to build in between these (Fig. 27). Be 
 very careful not to put on a great amount of clay, 
 or so much as to be anything like the size the parts 
 will be eventually, i.e. when finished. 
 
 By all means content yourself with letting the 
 work grow up gradually, and under no condition 
 get a lot of clay round the joints at the ankles and 
 wrists, an error too frequently made by students. 
 It is better to err on the side of keeping these parts 
 rather thinner than they are in nature (in propor- 
 tion) until almost the finish ; but in the end have 
 them the exact size, and measure through at such 
 points to the greatest nicety. 
 
 It is advisable from the very start of putting on 
 the clay to build up your figure in proportionate 
 quantities all round, so as to get a general covering. 
 Avoid the mistake so often made of working too 
 long from one view, but have the model and your 
 work frequently turned, every fifteen or twenty 
 minutes for the first day or two. When you have 
 something like a general resemblance of the life 
 model, but in a much thinner state, you may put 
 in further points. 
 
 The pegs I advise you to use for indicating the 
 points should be made rather thicker than a common 
 match and about three-quarters to one inch long, 
 square at the top and pointed at the end which is 
 to be inserted into the clay. These pegs should be 
 pushed in to their correct distance, and always pushed 
 in directly from a front surface, and not carelessly 
 at any angle (see diagrams 12 and 13, page 60). 
 
 The reason for using these carefully made pegs is, 
 
 78
 
 Fig. XXVII 
 
 FIRST STAGE OF BUILDING UP A FIGURE IN THE ROUND 
 
 Jt will be seen that the figure is developing equally all over, and that no one 
 part is being neglected whilst another is advancing. Note that the pegs at 
 points are carefully put in and are to be clearly seen. Observe the position 
 of each point in relation to its corresponding one.
 
 BUILDING UP A FIGURE OR GROUP 
 
 that they form a firm surface upon which the points 
 or legs of the callipers can rest firmly without getting 
 embedded in the softer surface of clay ; for points 
 made on a clay surface would not only get easily 
 lost, hut would always he unreliable. 
 
 The student may now continue to build up be- 
 
 Fig. XXVIII 
 
 AN ENLARGING SCALE 
 
 Draw a line A ; describe arc B. Mark off on this arc half the height 
 of your model, and if your work is to be enlarged to three times 
 its size, set off three times the distance A B along line A ; then 
 describe another arc C. 
 
 Draw a line from the point A, through arc B, at the point previously 
 marked off, and indicating half the size of your model ; continue 
 this line up through the arc C. 
 
 Strike off all measurements taken from the model on the arc B, and 
 draw lines from A through these measurements, continuing these 
 lines until they cut through arc C as shown by dotted lines. 
 
 Then the distance from C on line A to the point where the line cuts 
 through arc C is the enlarged measurement required. 
 
 tween the points (though not covering them), by 
 putting on the muscles in as correct a manner as 
 his knowledge of anatomy will allow him. 
 
 80
 
 IN THE ROUND 
 
 If the student knows but little of anatomy, he had 
 best learn more with as little delay as possible, for 
 he will find, as he goes on, that the more he knows 
 the quicker his progress will be, and the better and 
 more intelligently put up will his work appear. 
 
 As I have said in another chapter, it is most 
 essential that the artist should have a thorough 
 
 Fig. XXIX 
 
 A REDUCING SCALE 
 
 Draw a line A A. Take half the height of your model with compasses, 
 and strike an arc as shown at H. Then take half the height of 
 your proposed figure, and measure it off on this arc HC ; next 
 draw line A D rutting through ('. When taking measurements, 
 strike off each one in this way, taking A as a centre, and the 
 distance from the point of intersection on the line A A to the 
 point of intersection on the line A D will give you the size 
 required. 
 
 knowledge of the anatomy of everything he under- 
 takes. 
 
 It is very necessary to study the sections of the 
 model from underneath and also from above. Much 
 can be done at all stages with constant attention to 
 these matters. It is only from looking down upon 
 the shoulders that you can judge the shape made by 
 the clavicle and scapulas. If you cannot get to see 
 
 81 F
 
 WILDING TP A FIGURE OR GROUP 
 
 the model from above whilst he is on the elevated 
 throne, get him down on to a lower level. Consider 
 how well you get to know the plan of the horse from 
 the toj) of an omnibus. We study too little the 
 human form as seen from above and below. We 
 usually and quite properly pose the model on a 
 higher level than ourselves, but it is well to see the 
 model at other levels also. The figure modeller or 
 sculptor should know the form from every conceivable 
 view, for he cannot complete a figure in the round 
 until he has every section of each particular part 
 correct and true in all its views. This applies also 
 to the innumerable details, made up as they are of 
 many varying outlines, each and all equally beautiful 
 and requiring to be mastered. 
 
 The student cannot do better than study carefully 
 the grand shapes formed by the groups of muscles ; 
 he will, in fact, do well in remembering that all 
 nature provides the loveliest shapes, and designers 
 must look to her for the best patterns. 
 
 Though I strongly urge the student to build up 
 his work anatomically, it should not in the end look 
 like an anatomical figure cut up, as it were, but 
 should be a complete whole. 
 
 It has been said that there is not a straight line 
 in the human form. Truly nothing with life in it, 
 and nothing that has possessed life, could have a 
 line in it so straight as the one made with a straight- 
 edge. Nature's lines have a living quality which will 
 never be formed in a mechanically drawn line a 
 certain fulness, contrasted by beautifully clean, full 
 hollows. 
 
 The student pays far too little attention to the 
 hollows, making them usually small and invariably 
 too deep. I cannot too strongly urge upon all who 
 
 82
 
 IN THE HOUND 
 
 study modelling the great importance of giving due 
 consideration to these parts. A figure can never 
 hold together, can never possess its full rhythm of 
 line, and must ever look not only lumpy, but empty, 
 unless the hollows are properly modelled. To get 
 the depth and drawing of these hollows, it is an 
 excellent plan to place a straight-edge upon the 
 muscles or parts projecting on either side above 
 such hollows as you may wish to see. It will often 
 be a surprise to you to find how shallow parts are 
 that looked quite deep, and when the figure upon 
 which you are working is a reduction, say, to half 
 the si/e of nature, the hollows must necessarily be 
 half the depth, so that what would appear fairly 
 hollow in life-size will be quite shallow in half life- 
 size. 
 
 The method I have suggested for obtaining the 
 depth of the hollow applies to such parts as cannot 
 be seen in the drawing on the outlines, though this 
 method may be applied at times to all the outlines. 
 It will enable you to judge and understand the 
 shapes enclosed within these lines. All nature is 
 extremely subtle. It is never cut up to the extent 
 the student makes it, and this chiefly because of the 
 drawing and modelling in the hollows between the 
 projections all the bones and muscles and tendons 
 are brought together, veiled with the skin, and form 
 one complete and harmonious whole. 
 
 Note the simplicity and breadth of the hollows in 
 the finest examples of Greek sculpture, or, indeed, 
 in all the best sculptured works, both ancient and 
 modern. Every part, as well as the whole the face, 
 the hand, and foot must look poor and wanting 
 in richness till these things have been given their 
 proper attention. The fulnesses only get their proper 
 
 83
 
 HUILDIXG UP A FIGURE OH GROUP 
 
 value by contrast with the true value of the hollows, 
 and if the student would only bear this in mind, his 
 work would more speedily progress, and less frequent 
 would be his fits of depression and his anxiety to 
 find out what is wrong with his work. 
 
 Another and very important matter the student 
 Avill do well to study is the different scale of propor- 
 tion between the fleshy and bony parts. For this 
 purpose he cannot do better than measure with 
 great exactitude these parts and their relative posi- 
 tions. Here again, as in the hollows, the student 
 often goes wrong. He generally makes the bony 
 parts too big and too thick, especially across the 
 ankles and the wrists, and shows little or no differ- 
 ence in the quality of surface as between bone and 
 flesh. For this reason I advise students to make 
 separate and specially careful studies, either in clay 
 or drawings on paper, of the parts at (and immedi- 
 ately around) which the bone is exposed, noting the 
 difference of surface and the number of small firm 
 planes thereon. The fault of making the parts about 
 the ankles and wrists too thick is often brought about 
 by the armature being out of place. 
 
 With the exercise of care the lead piping can be 
 easily moved a little to one side or the other, or back 
 or forward, at any stage, without doing much damage 
 to the part, although the more advanced a work or 
 any part of it becomes, the greater will be the difficulty 
 of making any change or rectifying any error. 
 
 Generally speaking, the chief reason for these 
 parts becoming too thick is that the student goes 
 on building up the clay without troubling to take 
 measurements, or if taking any, doing so carelessly. 
 He forgets, or does not know, that it requires but 
 the fraction of an inch to make quite a big difference 
 
 84
 
 Fig. XXX 
 
 Si<:< OND STAGE, SHOWING ALL THE GENERAL MASSES AND 
 QUANTITIES PUT IN 
 
 It is now that the details should he introduced, the modelling and drawing 
 carefully studied, and the whole brought together to refine it.
 
 BUILDING UP A FIGURE OR GROUP 
 
 in the appearance of parts so narrow as the width 
 of the ankles or wrists, even in a figure of life-size 
 proportions. 
 
 There is nothing easier than to get such parts too 
 thick, even if the greatest care has been taken over 
 the measurements, for the reason that in modelling 
 up such parts, putting on the smallest portion of 
 clay imaginable means increasing the size. It is 
 therefore advisable, as I have said before, to keep on 
 the small or narrow side at these points until the 
 finish, though in the early stages of building up the 
 figure the student will do well to put these parts in 
 very carefully, and all similarly exposed bony parts 
 from the first equally clean and well-defined. 
 
 To shirk the head, hands, and feet is another error 
 far too common with the student engaged upon 
 modelling the human figure, and one which leads 
 quite often to his losing interest in the work, and 
 consequent despair. I have seen students model 
 nearly the whole or greater part of a figure quite 
 beautifully up to a stage approaching finish, whilst 
 the extremities have remained just as they were put 
 in perhaps months previously, and the student has 
 gone on worrying all the good out of his work 
 because he has not known what has been wrong 
 when an advancement of these extremities was all 
 that was required, these parts which have been 
 shouting out for help and attention having been too 
 long neglected. 
 
 It is especially advisable that the student, who 
 cannot be expected to see in his mind the whole 
 work complete from the beginning as an experienced 
 artist can see it, should build up the whole work, so 
 to speak, equally all over, and take care that each 
 part develops together with the rest. The figure 
 
 80
 
 should advance in proportion, just as all nature does 
 from its infancy to maturity. 
 
 To put an extreme case, I may point out how 
 absurd it would appear if in modelling a human 
 figure you were completely to finish a head or limb 
 before having begun to model the body under or 
 above it, merely having an armature with perhaps 
 a little clay roughed over it. It is equally wrong to 
 carry, say, the torso to a high state of finish and to 
 leave the other parts merely roughed in, or, in the 
 case of the hands and feet, perhaps the armature 
 still exposed arid free from clay. 
 
 The student should endeavour so far as possible to 
 keep every part advancing, and the whole gradually 
 growing like the life model, in all its views and 
 parts. It is only by the comparison of part with 
 part that the student can expect to get one har- 
 monious whole and the true balance of the human 
 form. 
 
 The complete character of the model can only be 
 obtained in this way; and the character of the 
 model should be striven after very seriously, for a 
 student who makes all his figures alike, one man 
 or woman like unto the other, is riot going to 
 produce much of importance at any time of his 
 career. 
 
 The difference in the character of one figure from 
 another is as marked as the difference between the 
 features of one person to another. 
 
 It will be found that every figure has more or less 
 a particular character peculiar to itself, arid every 
 detail is stamped with the same character. For this 
 reason the student should riot even if the practised 
 artist should think proper to do so work from more 
 than the one model on the same work. If he does. 
 
 87
 
 HUILDING UP A FIGURE OR GROUP 
 
 he cannot make a complete study ; for I hold it im- 
 possible to use one model for one part and another 
 for another part, and get one harmonious whole true 
 in character throughout. You cannot successfully 
 graft on in this way. Better far to copy faithfully 
 each and every detail from one model, and though 
 you may feel prompted to modify such parts as may 
 he over-developed, undeveloped, or even deformed, 
 such over-development or deformity is of nature's 
 forming, and you will learn more by copying it than 
 by trying to make some improvement without pos- 
 sessing a vast amount of knowledge of nature. 
 
 To a great extent the student's object should be 
 to imitate what he sees before him, and in doing this 
 well he will find difficulties enough to contend with. 
 Moreover, he will be training the eye to see correctly. 
 Then, when he has stored up an abundance of know- 
 ledge, he may discriminate and try to select the 
 better from the good; but a student should not 
 attempt to make any selection until he has made 
 himself a master copyist and can model every little 
 detail with great accuracy and facility, and at the 
 same time get the true character of the model 
 throughout. If he attempts to improve upon nature 
 by leaving out or modifying before he has learnt how 
 to copy thoroughly, he must surely produce a very 
 tame and unprofitable work and fail to seize the true 
 character of the model. 
 
 A student should endeavour to get the character. 
 A figure may be well modelled and yet lack character, 
 in which case it is cold and uninteresting. 
 
 Many fine works which exist to-day would long 
 ago have been destroyed as poor examples of the art 
 of sculpture, had it not been that they are master- 
 pieces of character. 
 
 88
 
 IN THE ROUND 
 
 Character is as fine and important as any of the 
 other qualities which are to be obtained in art. 
 
 In studying each model it will be found that all 
 the parts are alike in character. There is a relation- 
 ship ; the legs and feet are similar to the arms and 
 hands in line and planes. 
 
 Indeed, I say from head to toe all is alike in 
 character, detail, as well as mass, some figures show- 
 ing it to a greater and more marked degree than 
 others, and for this reason will two figures but rarely 
 be found even similar. When one does come across 
 such an instance where one figure resembles another, 
 it will invariably be found that they not only re- 
 semble one another in general form and detail but 
 in disposition, manner, and, indeed, more strangely 
 still, in voice, movement, and poise when walking, 
 standing, or sitting.
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 WASTE MOULDING AND CASTING 
 
 THE tenn " waste moulding " implies that the mould 
 is only made to serve the purpose of taking one 
 cast, the mould itself being chipped away and de- 
 stroyed in the process of getting out this cast. 
 
 Every one practising modelling, no matter how 
 little, should have some knowledge of making a 
 mould of his work, or of mould making and casting, 
 for the moment will come, sooner or later, when he 
 will require such knowledge. 
 
 To he skilful as a mould-maker means serving 
 an apprenticeship to this craft, and much practice ; 
 although to learn enough to be able to convert a 
 not too ambitious work from clay into plaster is not 
 a great task. 
 
 The little knowledge required for this gives an 
 insight into moulding and casting of models on a 
 larger scale, though the student need only learn 
 the principles of mould-making sufficiently to do a 
 bust or small figure, to begin with. 
 
 Before a student attempts to make a mould of 
 anything, however unimportant, he should first know 
 well how to mix plaster of a proper and even con- 
 -i-t.-ucy. With pi-act ice lie will learn how to judge 
 to ;i nicety the amount of water and plaster that 
 will be required to cover a surface. For the mixing 
 
 90
 
 Fig. XXXI 
 
 MOULDING A LARGE FIGURE 
 
 Men arranging' iron and wooden struts to support the mould.
 
 WASTK MOl'LDIXG AND CASTING 
 
 he will therefore use a basin, or other vessel of such 
 proportion as to hold well the amount, and thus 
 avoid, wherever possible, mixing twice for a covering 
 which should he done in one mixing. 
 
 Always keep your plaster in a very dry place, and 
 >ee that your basins and water be perfectly clean; 
 never mix your plaster too thick or strong, nor beat 
 it up too long, or start to heat it up too soon. Wait 
 until it has absorbed water and has become moistened. 
 Let it sink to just below the surface of the water 
 before starting to stir or "beat" it up. In putting 
 plaster into the water, sift it carefully, though not too 
 slowly, through your fingers; do not drop it in in a 
 mass or body, or it will not "beat" up well, but will 
 be lumpy and cause trouble afterwards. 
 
 You should next learn to know its " life " in its 
 moist state, when the water has been added to it. 
 Although this "life" may vary somewhat, the differ- 
 ence is only a matter of seconds. Yet it is important 
 to know such difference when it comes to covering 
 a work with plaster, or filling in a mould. 
 
 By "life" is understood the interval that passes 
 between the actual mixing of the plaster and the 
 time of its "going off" or "setting." For when it 
 has once reached the "going off" state, the applica- 
 tion is not only risky, but dangerous, as will be 
 pointed out later on. 
 
 Let us suppose you wish to mould a very simple 
 work in relief. Begin by mixing the plaster with 
 clean water in a pail or basin, according to the 
 amount you may require, but add first to the water 
 a little colouring matter, yellow ochre, or, better still, 
 the squeezing from a blue-bag, sufficient only to 
 make it distinguishable from white. This is for 
 making what is called the first coat or covering
 
 WASTE MOULDING AND CASTING 
 
 of plaster. The reason for the adding of colouring 
 matter will be seen presently. 
 
 Next, sift through your fingers carefully into the 
 vessel of coloured water sufficient plaster to form a 
 little mound standing just above the water in the 
 centre of vessel. 
 
 When this has sunk down (which it should do in 
 a few seconds), beat the mixture up with a large 
 spoon, as one whips an egg, though not so quickly, 
 and in such a way as to avoid making a froth. 
 
 Remove such scum as may rise to the top, and 
 then splash or throw the plaster lightly with the 
 hand in sufficient quantity over your model to form 
 a coating of about a quarter of an inch in thickness, 
 so that the form of your work can still be traced. 
 
 Only two or three minutes elapse between the 
 moment of beginning to sift the plaster into the 
 water arid the time of its application on to the 
 model. It will therefore be seen that one's atten- 
 tion is wholly occupied for the time being. 
 
 Do not attempt to smooth the top surface of the 
 coat of plaster. It should be left irregular and 
 rough ; and it is as well even to drop little blobs of 
 plaster on it to get an uneven surface, if too smooth, 
 which will form, as it were, keys to hold this coat 
 to the next and thicker one, which is to be made 
 over it. 
 
 When the first coat has become sufficiently hard 
 which may be a matter of ten to fifteen minutes 
 smear it over with a little clay water. To prepare 
 this, mix a small quantity of clay with water, until 
 it is dissolved and presents a liquid of a little thicker 
 consistency than muddy water. This is to prevent 
 the thicker or outside coat sticking to the thin or 
 first covering of plaster. 
 
 93
 
 \VASTK MOCLDINC AND CASTING 
 
 Now mix a sufficient quantity of plaster with clean, 
 
 uucoloured water to form the second coat, which 
 should he ahout four or five times the thickness of 
 the first. Apply this second coat equally over, and 
 following the form of. your work. At this stage of 
 the work, while the plaster is still in its liquid or 
 .-oft state, thin strips of hent iron may be put 
 arross it and slightly embedded. These will help to 
 -treiigthen your mould and at the same time serve 
 to prevent its warping. When this last coating of 
 plaster has become properly "set," which will happen 
 in some ten or fifteen minutes, you may begin to 
 remove the clay from the mould. 
 
 All these remarks refer to the making of a mould 
 of a relief, and not of a work in the round some- 
 thing that may have been built or worked upon a 
 hoard covered with a slab of clay as a background. 
 To separate the mould from the clay, you should 
 first place the whole thing on a table, then wet the 
 hack of the mould a little so that the moisture, when 
 it gets soaked through to the clay surface, will soften 
 t he clay ; then with the end of a broad chisel inserted 
 in several places between the mould and the board 
 upon which your model is made, you will easily prise 
 the mould off the clay. It will facilitate matters if, 
 when prising it, you pour a little water between the 
 opening, i.e. between the hoard and the plaster where 
 your chisel enters. When you have taken your 
 mould off the body of the clay, it will probably be 
 found that some few pieces of the clay have come 
 away with the mould and remain inside it. Remove 
 these by taking out small amounts at a time with 
 a wire or scoop tool, unless the pieces left in are so 
 -mall as to he easily taken out with a small wood or 
 -ted tool. Never attempt to pull out the whole or
 
 WASTE MOULDING AND CASTING 
 
 great pieces bodily, or you will break off pieces of 
 your mould, and perhaps the whole mould itself will 
 be broken. This is likely to occur more especially if 
 the clay be hard or stiff. The removing of the clay 
 must not be hurried. A fault far too common with 
 the beginner is that of being in too great a hurry at 
 this stage (as in the chipping-out stage). It is well 
 to remember that it is the purpose to get the clay 
 from the mould, and not the mould from the clay. 
 The greatest care is needed to remove the clay from 
 the " undercuts." We will now suppose that all the 
 clay has been taken from the mould. The next 
 process is to clean the mould thoroughly, by washing 
 it with water, by means of a syringe, soft brush, or 
 sponge, taking care not to use such force as will 
 destroy the surface of your mould, which, it will be 
 remembered, is far from hard or strong. For this 
 reason the syringe is distinctly the best thing to use 
 - an ordinary garden one with as fine a " rose " on 
 it as it is possible to get, for the finest spray that 
 you can blow on to your work is enough and the 
 best. If the syringe be used, do not put it too close 
 to your mould or the force may injure the surface. 
 
 When your mould appears quite clean and free 
 from clay, let it stand for a few minutes in order 
 that the water lying on it and in the crevices may 
 drain away. It will then be ready for "soaping," 
 which is a method of applying a mixture of soft-soap 
 and a little oil in the proportion of two tablespooii- 
 fuls of soap and one teaspooriful of sweet oil to one 
 pint of water. Put the mixture into a saucepan and 
 boil it. This mixture, if bottled, will keep some time. 
 
 It is better to allow the newly made mixture to 
 cool a little before using it. It should then be applied 
 freely to the mould with a soft brush for a quarter 
 
 95
 
 WASTE MOULDING AND CASTING 
 
 of ;iii hour. Hemove from time to time the soap 
 which may have lost its nutriment, adding a little 
 more of the fresh soap, and continue brushing. If 
 now the mould presents a somewhat shiny or glossy 
 surface, sponge or get out with a soft brush the re- 
 mainder of the soap and throw it away ; for having 
 been once used, it is of no further value. 
 
 He particular that every particle of soap is removed 
 from crevices in the mould; otherwise it Avill "kill" 
 the surface of the plaster which is afterwards poured 
 in to form the cast. 
 
 Another and final mixing of plaster is now neces- 
 sary. This must be free from colouring matter, 
 and is poured gently into the mould to the thickness 
 of the cast desired, the mould being shaken slightly 
 to expel any air that may have prevented the plaster 
 running up into the smaller parts. This should be 
 done at the moment of pouring in a little of the 
 plaster, just enough to cover the surface when this 
 thin coating is covering the mould. Another good 
 method is to blow it up into the crevices. But in 
 no case should the plaster now in the mould be 
 allowed to show signs of setting, or the other, which 
 is to be poured in from the same mixing to fill the 
 mould, will when poured in remove or wash up this 
 first coating from the surface in parts; whilst if it 
 be poured in soon enough, it will mix properly with 
 the plaster already in the mould, both being of an 
 equal consistency. Wait now for at least fifteen or 
 twenty minutes, when the plaster will have become 
 hard, then turn the whole over, i.e. the cast down- 
 wards, and on to a little softening, a folded sack or 
 other material, which serves to resist somewhat the 
 jarring caused by the continual hammering in the 
 course of chipping away; and begin by removing 
 
 96
 
 WASTE MOULDING AND CASTING 
 
 such irons as you may have found needful to put into 
 the mould. Then chip away the white coat with 
 a wooden mallet and a blunt chisel. Chip this away 
 bit by bit fairly equally all over, continuing until 
 you get through to the coloured or first applied coat 
 of the mould, the exposure of which is a warning 
 that the surface of your plaster cast is near. This 
 will explain the reason for the use of coloured 
 matter. 
 
 The greatest care and skill must be exercised in 
 chipping away without cutting into the surface of 
 the plaster model, for it will be found the last or 
 coloured coating, the surface of which was made 
 somewhat greasy and non-porous by the soaping of 
 the mould, will come away in pieces quite easily from 
 the cast. 
 
 WASTE MOULDING IN THE ROUND 
 
 In dealing with a work in the round, the mould- 
 ing process becomes more difficult and complicated, 
 especially in the case of a full-length figure or group 
 of large proportions, which requires a professional 
 moulder. 
 
 But, to say the least, a student should be capable 
 of moulding a half -life-size figure or a life-size bust, 
 and I now purpose to deal with this subject. 
 
 Up to a certain stage the principles are the same 
 as those previously described in moulding the simpler 
 work on the flat, but the difficulty is increased by 
 the fact that the bust, figure, or work in the round, 
 has to be moulded in a number of parts or pieces, 
 and judgment is required to know how best to divide 
 up these parts. 
 
 In a bust only two or three such pieces may be 
 
 97 G
 
 \VASTK MOl'LDIXG AND CASTING 
 
 necessarx . and so the work is somewhat lessened, at 
 least. MS compared with that in the moulding of a 
 figure. 
 
 The student, in making the mould of a bust, should 
 first start by determining where a joint will best be 
 made, so as to do as little disfigurement to the features 
 of his work as possible ; and he will do well to follow 
 the course usually adopted of having this joint up 
 the side round the back of the ear, directly over the 
 top of the head, and down to the base in a line cor- 
 responding with that on the other side. 
 
 He should now prepare small strips or bands of 
 clay, smoothly flattened out, and cut in lengths of 
 eight or twelve inches, barely a quarter of an inch 
 thick, resembling narrow laths of cleanly planed 
 wood. 
 
 These bands are put where the joint of the mould 
 is to be made, i.e. up the sides of the base, over the 
 shoulders and head, following the line already decided 
 upon, to act as walls to form the joint, and also to 
 prevent the plaster going beyond them. See Fig. 32. 
 
 These bands, before being put round the clay 
 model, should be cut very cleanly on their edges 
 which come next to the work, so that they fit closely 
 to it. leaving no apertures between them and the 
 modelled surface work, through which the first coat 
 of plaster might find its way. 
 
 It is usual to mould the front first, and therefore 
 the wall or band should be fixed, or supported, by 
 little struts of clay from the back, to prevent the 
 bands being washed down or moved when the plaster 
 is put on the front 
 
 The back of the bust should be covered with wetted 
 ti-Mie-paper. to pi-event the work getting splashed 
 with the plaster about to be used to cover the front. 
 
 ( J8
 
 Fig. XXXII 
 
 JJl'ST WITH THE WALLS OF CLAY PLACED KOUNU IT 
 It is now ready to have the first or coloured coat put on.
 
 WASTE MOULDING AND CASTING 
 
 This first coat of plaster has to be mixed with colour- 
 ing matter, and applied in the same way as in the 
 smaller work, except that it has to be done more 
 speedily, and flicked on more cleverly with the fingers 
 all over the front, with as little delay as possible, 
 special care being taken to let it find its way into 
 every minute hollow or crevice ; otherwise holes will 
 be found in the mould where the plaster has not 
 " run up " to the surface of the clay, and your cast, 
 in these particular parts, will not represent the form 
 you had in the clay model. 
 
 This first and coloured coat (Fig. 33) having become 
 sufficiently hard, brush over the surface a little clay 
 water, and then cut some pieces of iron, long enough 
 to reach from the top to the bottom of the bust, and 
 bent so as to follow the corresponding general shape 
 of the work on the front. 
 
 These rods of iron should be about half an inch in 
 thickness for a mould of such proportions as we are 
 now making, and are used to strengthen the mould, 
 by being bedded into the outer or second coating 
 of plaster, just at the time when this coating is 
 beginning to set. 
 
 Strips of this iron may also be put horizontally 
 across the mould to give extra strength, and to 
 prevent the mould from warping, as it may do with- 
 out this additional strength. 
 
 The front being made, remove the " cottle " or clay 
 wall, and clean the edges and sides of any roughness 
 of the plaster formed by this wall. Then cut some 
 V-shaped and round keyholes into both sides and 
 top, a few inches up from the base, and others about 
 every four or five inches or so apart, making in all 
 about ten or twelve. (See Fig. 34.) 
 
 Now clay-wash or soap these edges well, carefully 
 
 100
 
 Fig. XXXIII 
 
 BUST WITH ITS FIRST OR COLOURED COAT PUT ON 
 
 It will be seen that the surface is left rough, and in places undercut, to 
 form keys to hold this and the next coating of plaster together.
 
 \\.\STK MOrLDIXC; AM) CASTING 
 
 avoiding to touch the clay model with soap, and then 
 proceed to cover the hack with plaster, in exactly the 
 -a me way as you did the front, not forgetting to put 
 in the iron rods when applying the second coat. 
 
 When the last coat of plaster has sufficiently 
 hardened, clean down your joint, removing with a 
 knife any plaster which may have overlapped these 
 joints when the last coat was applied. Next take a 
 syringe, sponge, or hrush full of water, and wet both 
 the hack and front of the mould until the moisture 
 has penetrated to the clay, and at the same time 
 apply a little water down the joints and on the top. 
 
 It is now possible to see the joints separating to 
 the smallest degree, and you may start upon open- 
 ing the mould by inserting into these joints, between 
 tin- keys, a broad chisel, tapping it slightly with a 
 hammer or a wooden mallet, repeating this in several 
 places round the joints. Even a little suggestion of 
 prising may be indulged in, but a little only, and 
 equally at each place where the chisel has been 
 inserted, otherwise the keys will be broken, and 
 more than probably the mould as well. With care 
 and patience the mould will give evidence of parting, 
 at which moment more water should be squeezed 
 in at the top. This softens the clay, swells it, and 
 helps to separate the two mould pieces from each 
 other, and also the clay from the plaster. 
 
 The back part is now, we will suppose, removed 
 from the model; for it must be the back part that 
 comes off first to allow the removal of the clay from 
 the front part of the mould, which is done by scoop- 
 ing it out. until the front of the mould stands in its 
 place nearly emptied of its clay, and only the upright 
 peg. on which the model was built, remains inside, 
 tin- other part- of the armature having been pulled
 
 Fig. XXXIV 
 
 BACK VIEAV OF THE BUST, SHOWING THE FRONT Moru> 
 PIECES COMPLETE 
 
 The clay walls removed and the V-shaped notches cut in the sides of 
 the plaster.
 
 \VASTK MOrUHNG AND CASTING 
 
 out or cut away whilst tlie clay was being removed. 
 You will now l>o able to take the front mould and 
 plan* it on the floor upon its back; and the remain- 
 ing clay ran be removed with little difficulty from 
 the holes or crevices. 
 
 The process of washing and afterwards well soaping 
 being completed, the mould is put together, locking 
 itself, so to speak, by the keys which fit into the 
 keyholes. The mould is now tied together with 
 strong rope, and across the joints strips of tow 
 dipped in plaster should be placed at intervals to 
 prevent the expansion or opening at the joints by 
 the swelling of the plaster when it is poured in to 
 make the cast. For it should be known that plaster 
 generally swells when mixed with water, just a 
 fraction, but quite sufficient to make a perceptible 
 difference in the mould, unless the two halves have 
 l>een well tied together in order to prevent it opening. 
 Furthermore, tying the mould closely up prevents 
 the plaster running out at the joints. 
 
 In "filling in," as it is called, when you are making 
 your cast, only sufficient plaster should be mixed 
 to form a coating all over of about a quarter or half 
 an inch, this being poured in whilst the mould is 
 raised from the ground on to a box or low table, and 
 is standing, as it were, on its head. The plaster is 
 poured into the mould, which is turned round and 
 round rather quickly and whilst the mould is gradu- 
 ally got into a horizontal position, so that the liquid 
 plaster may force its way into all hollows and under- 
 cuttings. This should be done to prevent, so far as 
 possible, an unequal distribution of the plaster, and 
 should be, continued for a few moments, gradually 
 getting the mould beyond the horizontal, until the 
 moist plaster has run down and covered the base or
 
 Fig. XXXV 
 
 THE MOULD COMPLETED 
 
 The back part removed and the clay partly taken out, exposing 
 the armature.
 
 \VASTK MOILDING AND CASTING 
 
 of tin- Imst. Then tilt the mould still more, 
 allowing to run out into a basin below the plaster 
 which is left over after the inside surface of the 
 mould has been fairly covered. This overflow can 
 lie poured back again into the mould, the opera- 
 tion being repeated several times, but not after the 
 plaster has become too stiff and is past the liquid 
 state. 
 
 Carefully avoid the plaster settling in any par- 
 ticular place in the mould, and becoming thicker 
 than elsewhere: this being one of the reasons for 
 turning the mould. 
 
 You will require to mix more plaster, and repeat the 
 pouring in and out process until your cast is about 
 t hree-quarters of an inch in thickness all over. In 110 
 case make your cast solid or heavy, for a bust cast 
 solidly not only takes long to dry and is cumber- 
 some to move, but it is not so strong as when cast 
 hollow. 
 
 To strengthen the neck and other thin parts 
 indeed in all parts where possible pads of tow or 
 canvas, dipped into the basin, of liquid plaster, may 
 be put inside the mould; but these pads or pieces 
 of canvas should only be put in when making 
 the second or third "filling," as otherwise they 
 will come to the front surface of your cast and be 
 visible. 
 
 Your cast is ready now to allow of the chipping 
 away of the mould: almost the first thing to be 
 removed, after the mould is untied, being the irons, 
 parts of which may be. and usually are, exposed 
 by reason of their not being embedded too deeply 
 everywhere. They are easily removed by chipping 
 or clearing the plaster from around the edges with 
 the mallet and chisel: but there is no reason for 
 
 100
 
 WASTE MOULDING AND CASTING 
 
 removing them all at once as they may be left until 
 such time as is deemed best and easiest. 
 
 To get the outer surface of your mould away is 
 n-ally the first thing; remove it in a uniform way, 
 bit by bit all over, until only the coloured plaster 
 remains and is all exposed. This latter should come 
 away quite easily if the mould was properly soaped, 
 and care is exercised (Fig. 36). 
 
 There will, it is almost certain, be some little chips 
 or scratches from the chisel on the bust, but these 
 can be filled in afterwards with a little "killed" 
 plaster. If not "killed," the plaster will, when 
 applied to the little holes or scratches, be harder, 
 when quite dry, than the body of the cast, and 
 slightly darker in colour. 
 
 This increased hardness makes it difficult to work 
 upon these mended or filled parts. The tool will 
 meet with resistance when passed over such parts, 
 and will more likely cut into the plaster cast imme- 
 diately round the filled-in part. 
 
 To " kill " or to reduce some of the virtue of the 
 lime contained in the plaster, take a saucer, or 
 other vessel, with a little water in it, and sift 
 into this a small quantity of plaster, leaving it for 
 a few minutes, without beating or stirring it up. 
 The plaster will sink to the bottom. If, on cutting 
 a line through it with a knife or tool, you find that 
 the line does not close quickly, it is " killed." Then 
 stir the plaster up in the usual way, and it is ready 
 for use. It should, however, be borne in mind that 
 the plaster has "gone off," gone past use, if, when 
 cut through, it appears at all hard, and incapable 
 of closing again where severed. 
 
 Another method of killing plaster is to take a 
 small quantity in a spoon and place it under water 
 
 107
 
 F.g XXXVI 
 
 A I'OHTION OF TIII-: Moru> CIIIPPKD AWAY, EXPOSING 
 
 THK PLASTER CAST 
 
 It will le notircd tlint (inly parts of tlie coloured coating of the plaster 
 mould remain to he removed.
 
 WASTE MOULDING AND CASTING 
 
 for two or three minutes ; then take it out, and 
 mix or stir up. Killed plaster is only used for 
 filling up chips, and not for fixing on broken pieces. 
 For this purpose plaster should be mixed in the 
 ordinary way, and not " killed" 
 
 Supposing, for instance, a piece were broken off 
 the nose, ear, or finger, and you have this broken 
 piece. Hollow it out at the joint, so as to form a 
 cavity rough and scratched at the bottom and on 
 the sides, taking particular care not to destroy the 
 edges of the joint. Proceed in the same way with 
 the part from which the piece has been broken. 
 Then soak well with water both cavities, until such 
 time as these cavities are slow to absorb more. 
 Then mix your plaster and pour into each cavity 
 just a little more than it will hold. Now quickly 
 fit and press together the two parts, so as to squeeze 
 out all extra plaster until the joints fit up quite 
 closely, taking great care not to move in the slightest 
 the piece you have fixed on, until such time as it has 
 become sufficiently well " set " to hold together. A 
 few minutes should suffice, although from ten to 
 fifteen minutes more will have to elapse before you 
 can safely work upon the joint. In the meantime 
 other parts of the plaster model may be worked 
 on, making it presentable. 
 
 A good deal may be done in this way with steel 
 tools, riffles, gauges, and flat cutting being the most 
 useful; and, sparingly, a little fine No. or No. 1 
 sandpaper may be used. Good effect can also be ob- 
 tained on the hair and drapery with a hog's-lmir 
 brush, and a little nearly " killed " plaster. 
 
 Not only can difficult textures be obtained by 
 this means, but partly freed bits may be put on, 
 or added, to the hair, which could riot have been 
 
 109
 
 NVASTK MOULDING AND CASTING 
 
 modelled in the clay owing to the danger of breaking 
 oil' in the process of waste moulding and casting. 
 
 lint in no case can plaster be applied to your model 
 i!' the model be in any way dry. Being of a very 
 porous nature, a plaster cast absorbs all the moisture 
 from the killed plaster the instant it is put on, and 
 leaves the killed plaster merely useless dust that 
 crumbles away when touched. Therefore due care 
 must be taken thoroughly to wet those parts of 
 the plaster model to which it is intended to make 
 additions. 
 
 If the student should become ambitious and desire 
 to mould a full-length life-size figure or a statuette, 
 he should follow the same instructions, except that 
 he will require to make more pieces, and use greater 
 judgment in doing so. 
 
 A do/en pieces may be required, varying in shape 
 and si/e, but one and all are made on the same prin- 
 ciple. \'v/.. to come away arid to be put back again 
 into their respective places, and their keys to fit 
 into the keyholes. 
 
 It is necessary to make the mould in many pieces, 
 because without this expedient it would be impos- 
 sible to get the clay out of the mould in many 
 places, such as in the case of an arm extended and 
 freed from the body, as shown in Fig. 37, or in some 
 piece of drapery, standing somewhat away from the 
 figure, being bigger at its extended or extreme end 
 than it is between this end and the place of its 
 attachment to the figure. Moreover, you could not 
 be sure of the plaster running up through a small 
 cavity ami into a larger cell; and furthermore, 
 parts such as these have to be strengthened by 
 -mall pieces of iron or wire, and these irons or 
 wires could not be inserted in their twisted or bent 
 
 110
 
 Fig. XXXVII 
 
 A FIGURE IN THE ROUND, WITH THE CLAY BANDS OK 
 WALLS PUT ON 
 
 It lias been thought necessary to support the outstretched arm with a piece 
 of wood, to prevent its dropping when the plaster is put over it.
 
 Fig. XXXVIII 
 
 Tin: FKONT I'OKTION OF THE MOULD COMPLETE
 
 MOULD OF BACK OF FIGURK 
 
 Fig. XXXIX 
 
 Made in two halves to emihle you to remove the iron support. Over 
 portions of the arms up to where the clay walls are placed separate mould 
 pieces are made.
 
 XL 
 
 TIIK THHKK MOULD Pnx i:s 
 
 / . tin- tup of hack piece ami two arm pieces) removed ami a portion of 
 tlie day taken out, exposing tlie armature.
 
 WASTE MOULDING AND CASTING 
 
 shape unless the mould were made in sections to 
 make such insertion possible. 
 
 These pieces of iron or wire are made of such a 
 length as to reach from near the end right up to and 
 through the attachment into the body, and are of 
 such a thickness or perhaps I should say thinness 
 as to be well within and hidden below the surface 
 of the finished cast. They should be bent or twisted 
 to the shape of the parts in which they are to be 
 placed. To ascertain the shape, these supports may 
 be tried in the mould. When made to fit, they 
 should be thoroughly japanned, or coated with some 
 substance to prevent their rusting and discolouring 
 your cast. 
 
 Into fingers and other clearly separated parts, 
 little wires are generally put to prevent them from 
 breaking off. 
 
 When your mould and all its pieces are prepared, 
 take these irons or wires, as the case may be, and 
 fix them into their respective positions in the moulds, 
 with a little plaster dropped in small blobs here and 
 there to support them in their position. Be careful 
 not to let them fall or force themselves with their 
 weight on to the surface of the mould (Fig. 41). 
 
 This you can avoid if you will allow the little blobs 
 of plaster to get but a suggestion of firmness about 
 them, sufficient to serve to support the weight of 
 the wires, and yet moist enough to bind round and 
 hold them in their places. 
 
 In a few minutes you may mix your plaster and 
 fill in this part and the part which is to fit on to it, 
 simultaneously, and when the filling is just firm, or 
 " set " enough to prevent it from running out from 
 the cover or top mould, which needs be turned over, 
 the top or cover piece should be quickly put into its 
 
 115
 
 Fig XLI 
 
 FKONT Mori.n I'IKCK WITH IKONS FIXED IN
 
 WASTE MOULDING AND CASTING 
 
 place, squeezed or pressed to force out superfluous 
 plaster, then held down and tied (Fig. 42) so as to 
 prevent swelling or opening. When you have done 
 such other parts as may require a similar filling, 
 then tie up the whole body of your mould, and run 
 plaster in as you do in the case of a bust, from the 
 bottom, although it may be necessary to put irons 
 in the legs and through the body, if these parts are 
 narrow or thin, as would be the case with a standing 
 nude figure, where, as will be easily understood, the 
 irons should be put in before the mould is tied up. 
 
 Where the ankles alone are to serve as support for 
 a bigger and heavier body, infinite care should be 
 taken to place the irons correctly, so that they may 
 pass down from the body nicely through the middle 
 of these thin ankle parts, and again down into the 
 base, and here turn at right angles to form a foot 
 which will strengthen the support considerably. 
 These irons should be bent to the shape of the legs, 
 and fixed with little blobs of plaster in the same 
 way as was done in the arms, in the front portion 
 of the mould. 
 
 Great care should be taken when filling in a mould 
 which has very narrow parts in it, such as shown 
 in Fig. 37 at the ankles, to avoid such parts getting 
 closed up before you have a sufficient thickness of 
 plaster in the body and other parts. The aperture 
 at the ankle is so very small, more especially with 
 the iron in it, that it requires but a little plaster to 
 close it up entirely, and thus prevent more plaster- 
 being poured in and out. Though the arms and the 
 legs will be solid in most parts, the body and the 
 head should be kept hollow, so far as possible, and 
 will be stronger for this very reason, as it will easily 
 be understood that the body, if solid, would be a 
 
 117
 
 Fig XLII 
 
 Tin-: Mori, i) WITH TIIK AKM I'IKCKS "FILLED IN" AND 
 
 TIKI) ri>
 
 WASTE MOULDING AND CASTING 
 
 large mass, and therefore a heavy weight to be sup- 
 ported upon thin ankles ; and there would be great 
 danger of breakage at these points during the 
 progress of chipping away the mould. In many 
 instances, parts such as the face or head are " filled 
 in " before the mould is finally put together. 
 
 In chipping away the mould from a figure which 
 has parts as narrow or thin as the figure here illus- 
 trated, it is necessary to let the mould remain un- 
 touched at such thin parts, until the plaster has been 
 taken away from the upper and bulkier parts of the 
 body. The reason, it will easily be understood, is to 
 lessen the great strain that has to be borne by such 
 narrow parts. Hence the advisability of making not 
 only a light cast, but also particularly a light mould. 
 
 Remove the whole of the outer casting of the 
 mould from the upper part of the figure, before you 
 attempt to touch round thin ankles, and never be in 
 a hurry or you may not expect to get the mould 
 away without some damage to the cast. If you 
 attempt to knock off by lumps you will give your- 
 self a lot of unnecessary trouble and produce an 
 unsatisfactory casting. Great care is needed in 
 moulding and casting as in all other things worth 
 doing. Slow and sure is the principle. 
 
 THE PROCESS OF WASTE MOULDING WITH WAX 
 
 For small and very much undercut relief work, 
 wax is an excellent material for moulding. It saves 
 the chipping away of one (the coloured) coat, which 
 invariably brings about many chips into the surface 
 of your cast, unless great care is exercised. Wax is 
 not as commonly used as plaster, and will not do for 
 all things as plaster will ; yet it is well to know 
 
 119
 
 \\ASTK MOl'LDING AM) CASTING 
 
 something of it. and t herefore I propose to point out 
 the way how to mould, say. a panel which you may 
 have modelled in high relief. 
 
 Place this panel upon a flat bench, and build around 
 it walls of clay to a height rather above the highest 
 projection in the model. Put into a saucepan sufficient 
 moulding wax (beeswax and rosin) to cover entirely 
 the sin-face of the panel. Melt this wax down slowly 
 over a ring gas burner, and then pour it gently over 
 your modelled panel and leave it to cool, a matter 
 perhaps of a minute or two. Then make a hole in 
 one corner through the clay wall, and pour off all 
 the wax except just a sufficient quantity to leave a 
 thick skin on the work, following its form equally 
 all over. 
 
 Should the surface of the wax now appear smooth, 
 then pour a little more wax on parts with a spoon, 
 and scratch it here and there w r ith a piece of rough 
 wood. This will serve to form a kind of key which 
 will hold the wax to the plaster coating that has 
 next to be put on. Hut before putting on this plaster 
 coat, it is advisable to paint or smear slightly over 
 the wax with a little clay water, to prevent the 
 plaster adhering too tightly to the wax when the 
 process of chipping away begins. 
 
 Having stopped the little hole in the corner of the 
 wall, next pom* your plaster coat over the wax and 
 then embed a few pieces of iron (bands) in different 
 directions to strengthen the mould. When your 
 plaster mould has got quite "set," turn the whole 
 over and remove the; clay. This done, wash the 
 surface of your wax mould until you have removed 
 every particle of clay. Then dry the mould a little 
 and | ass the smallest quantity of oil over the wax 
 Kiirfaee. 
 
 120
 
 WASTE MOULDING AND CASTING 
 
 Mix your plaster in the ordinary way, and pour it 
 in quietly, taking care that it runs up into the hollows. 
 Then use a little tow or canvas dipped in plaster, and 
 place it lightly into the cast. This will add strength 
 and enable you to keep it light. 
 
 When the plaster is thoroughly set, turn the whole 
 over again on some soft material, sacking, or any 
 similar substance. Then, with great care, you may 
 set to work to chip off the plaster part of the mould 
 with a hammer and blunt chisel. When this plaster 
 has been removed, the wax will remain. To remove 
 it, pour a little hot water over it and slowly pull it 
 from the cast. Use hot water until every particle of 
 wax is removed, but do not make the wax too soft 
 or it will melt and become quite sticky. 
 
 Any stains can be got away by the application of 
 hot water with a soft brush or sponge. 
 
 121
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE PROCESS OF GELATINE MOULDING 
 AND CASTING 
 
 THK moulding and casting in gelatine of a bust or 
 statuette of a simple arrangement, as illustrated, 
 is possibly the simplest and easiest example in the 
 round, as there are only required two or three pieces 
 /.f. the front, the back, and the base. This offers 
 few, if any, complexities in the moulding and casting, 
 as these processes, described at some length in a 
 previous chapter, should already have afforded the 
 technical knowledge necessary for the work. 
 
 In the first place, the statuette should be covered 
 with a coating of clay, of the same thickness as will 
 afterwards be required for the gelatine (Figs. 44 and 
 l.">). This thickness, of course, will vary according 
 to tin- size of the object to be moulded ; in a life-size 
 bust a thickness of about half an inch to three- 
 quarters of an inch will be sufficient. 
 
 The clay should be spread over the model, being 
 kept thicker where the divisions will be made, usually 
 about half-way i.e. up the side, round the ears, over 
 the temple and head, and down on the other side to 
 the base. The clay should then be carefully smoothed 
 and oiled, and the front half covered with plaster, 
 pieces or strips of iron being inserted in different 
 directions, before the plaster sets, to strengthen the 
 case." as this covering is called. 
 
 122
 
 Fig XLIV 
 
 TIIK HACK OK THM MODKL WITH A THICKNESS 
 
 ol ('LAY ITT OVKR IT
 
 Fig. XLV 
 
 THE MODEL AS SEEN FROM THE FRONT
 
 GELATINE MOULDING AND CASTING 
 
 When the plaster is set, the rim or edge, where 
 it will join the hack half, should be cut smooth, and 
 round holes or keys made in this rim at intervals of 
 three or four inches apart. To stop the plaster of 
 the hack half from adhering to the front half where 
 the rims come together i.e. at the joints soft-soap 
 thoroughly these edges, and afterwards brush on a 
 little sweet oil. 
 
 You may then begin to make the back half of 
 the " case," which should be done by covering the 
 whole with plaster; it is treated exactly the same 
 as the front half. Take special care that the plaster 
 entirely covers the rim and fills the keyholes where 
 the cleavage of the front and back comes together. 
 The case should then be tied up securely, to prevent 
 its opening, and then turned upside down. The edge 
 of the mould around the base must then be scraped 
 or cut smooth, and the keyholes made in the mould 
 and in the bottom of the pedestal. If the pedestal 
 is hollow, it must be filled in with clay to prevent 
 the plaster running inside the bust ; these parts should 
 then be soaped and oiled and then covered with 
 plaster to make the bottom piece, which piece will 
 serve to hold the two halves together, and keep the 
 model in its place when inside the case and when the 
 clay shall have been taken out, leaving a space to be 
 filled afterwards with gelatine. 
 
 When this bottom piece of plaster is "set" it 
 should he removed and then the front half taken off. 
 The clay can now easily be pulled away from the 
 front half of the work, which is for the time lying 
 on its hack. 
 
 The front case must now be prepared for running 
 the gelatine on the front half of the bust or model. 
 
 A large hole should be made in the case where the 
 
 120
 
 Fig. XLVI 
 
 CASE SHOWING HOLES MADE IN IT THKOI'GH WHICH 
 THE GELATINE is POUHKD
 
 Fig. XLVII 
 
 FKONT CASK HE.MOVED AND THI-: MODEL PREPARED FOR 
 THE (rELATIXE ON THE FRONT HALF
 
 GELATINE MOULDING AND CASTING 
 
 highest or most projecting, point occurs, probably 
 over the nose or forehead, for through this hole the 
 gelatine will he poured. It is advisable to make 
 other small holes in places for the purpose of ven- 
 tilation when pouring, and these should he stopped 
 with clay as the gelatine forces its way up, or the 
 mould will not fill and gelatine will run away. 
 These ventilation holes being on a lower level than 
 the inlet hole, V-shaped keyholes must be cut in 
 several places around the edge or rim of the case, 
 bevelled, so that the mould will draw easily away in 
 one direction. These are to keep the gelatine in its 
 place when it gets firm. 
 
 When these keys and holes have been made, and 
 the inside of the case has been scraped fairly smooth, 
 two or three coats of brown polish should be applied 
 to this inside surface and to the edges. The case 
 may now be set aside for a time, and the model 
 painted with one or two coats of either white or 
 brown polish, if this has not previously been done. 
 The clay, which shows around the case, should then 
 be smoothed off level with the back half, where the 
 gelatine will meet it and form the joint. 
 
 In this smooth clay surface holes should be made 
 with a round-nose modelling tool. The gelatine will 
 flow into these, forming keys in the joint. This will 
 keep the joint of the gelatine level, and also prevent 
 it overlapping, or not meeting properly when it is 
 put together for casting. 
 
 When all this has been done the entire surface of 
 the prepared case and front of the model should be 
 oiled with a stiff brush ; this will stop the gelatine 
 from sticking to the model or the case. 
 
 The case may next be placed over the model, and 
 it will be seen that the keys will fit into the back 
 
 129 I
 
 THE PROCESS OF 
 
 half, leaving tlu> face of the model the right distance 
 from the case. The hottoin piece should also he 
 adjusted, and the whole tied up securely. 
 
 The gelatine, in the meantime, should have been 
 very slightly soaked in cold water, and then put into 
 a saucepan or pail, which should he placed in a boiler 
 of hot water until the gelatine is melted down, care 
 being taken not to make it too thin or too thick, for 
 else it will either not be sufficiently elastic or too 
 much so. From fifteen to twenty-five pounds would 
 be required for a life-size bust. 
 
 The gelatine having been properly melted, it should 
 be taken from the boiler to cool, as it must not be 
 poured into the mould when too hot. A tin funnel, 
 or one made of clay, should then be placed over the 
 large hole, and pieces of clay should be to hand to 
 plug the ventilation holes in the case, as the gelatine 
 rises. It is now time to pour the gelatine slowly 
 through the funnel into the large hole in the top, 
 carefully watching as it rises to the ventilation holes 
 in different parts of the case, as it comes up to the 
 level of the funnel, to make sure that the gelatine 
 is not escaping anywhere round the joint. When it 
 ceases to sink as you pour, you will know the mould 
 is filled. 
 
 It should be now left to get cold and firm, when it 
 may be turned over, and the back half of the case, 
 which is now uppermost, should be removed and 
 prepared in precisely the same way as the front 
 half. \ i/.. the pouring hole, vent holes, and keys 
 made as before directed ; the surface scraped evenly 
 smooth and polish applied, and oiled. 
 
 You will see the gelatine showing in the front half 
 where the division or joint is made, and this must 
 le painted over with a strong solution of alum, 
 
 130
 
 GELATINE MOULDING AND CASTING 
 
 and then oiled ; the portion of the model to be 
 moulded should also be oiled. 
 
 The back case should then be placed in position 
 and the gelatine poured in, as in the first instance, 
 except that it should be very much cooler, or it 
 will melt the gelatine at the joint as it runs over it. 
 
 When this last pouring of gelatine has cooled 
 sufficiently the cases should be removed, and the 
 gelatine moulds taken off the model and put back 
 in the cases which they fit. The mould must stand 
 for a time before you attempt to make a cast, except, 
 perhaps, in very cold weather, when the gelatine is 
 firmer and is also less affected by the heat in the 
 plaster. 
 
 The next process to be entered upon is the making 
 of a cast from the mould. 
 
 The surface of the gelatine mould should be 
 brushed over with a preparation of strong alum 
 water, and afterwards a little French chalk brushed 
 over it. The alum \vill not only cleanse the sur- 
 face of the mould, but at the same time harden it 
 and rid it of too much oil, which may have been 
 left in. Then brush off the chalk, and lightly brush 
 over the mould with a very little sweet, or any fairly 
 thin, oil. 
 
 The mould should now be put together and tied 
 up with strong cord, or better still rope, and it will 
 then be ready for pouring in the plaster. 
 
 Next mix a handful of ground alum in a large 
 pail of water, and from this pail take, in the quan- 
 tities as required, water with which to mix the 
 plaster for casting the two first coats. A basin of 
 plaster should thus be mixed, and sufficient of it 
 poured into the mould to run all over the surface. 
 
 181
 
 Fig XLVIII 
 
 SHOXVIXJ; TIII: (JKLATINK ox THK BACK HALF AFTER 
 TIII-: CASK HAS BI;KN KK.MOVED
 
 O 
 
 IB a 
 
 o o
 
 (.KLATINK MOrLDIXG AND CASTING 
 
 Tin- mould should IK- turned mid well shaken, whilst 
 (he plaster should he poured in and out of the mould 
 two or three times. This will ensure its finding its 
 \vav into the hollows and all other parts, and will 
 also prevent the forming of air-holes. 
 
 While the plaster is setting, another coat of 
 somewhat thinner consistency should be mixed and 
 poured in. 
 
 Some pads of tow which have been previously 
 prepared should be saturated in this last mixing 
 of plaster and spread evenly over the inside, which 
 can be reached by the hands. As I have before 
 mentioned, this will strengthen the cast and also 
 enable you to make it lighter in weight. More 
 plaster should then be run into the mould until a 
 -uflicient thickness is obtained. It is not advisable 
 to make your cast thick and heavy. When the 
 plaster is set and begins to feel warm, the case and 
 gelatine mould should be at once removed, as other- 
 wise the warmth will melt the gelatine and make it 
 useless for further castings. 
 
 To remove the gelatine mould from the cast (when 
 you have taken off the case), the whole should be 
 placed upright and the fingers worked round the 
 seam of the gelatine, where the two parts meet, 
 gradually pulling or stretching it, so to speak, away 
 from the cast. As the gelatine mould-pieces are 
 removed, place them back into the cases ready for 
 preparation (as before) for a second casting.
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 MODELLING FOR TERRA-COTTA 
 
 MODELLING for terra-cotta has been little practised 
 of recent years by the sculptor. It is difficult to 
 give a reason for this neglect of a method which 
 affords the best and easiest means of preserving 
 one's work in a permanent and agreeable material. 
 
 In transforming one's work into a permanent state 
 by any other method it must, almost of necessity, pass 
 through other hands, as in the case of broii/e or 
 other metal, or stone. The result is in the end only 
 a copy, or reproduction, of the original model in 
 another material from that in which it Avas created ; 
 whereas in the case of terra-cotta it may be actually 
 the original which is sent to the kiln, fired, and 
 returned to you, without having been touched by 
 any one, for you may place it in the kiln, and also 
 remove it therefrom yourself when finished, as I 
 have so often done. 
 
 Besides this, the method of getting one's work 
 into terra-cotta is so simple that any student, with 
 care and a little knowledge, can himself prepare his 
 model for the firing process. 
 
 Moreover, the modeller may have his work in a 
 colour to his own liking, almost from black to white, 
 although the more common clays are usually of a 
 buff or reddish tint. These latter are more easily
 
 MODKLLINC FOH TERRA-COTTA 
 
 obtainable, though other shades are quite within 
 reach at a moderate cost. 
 
 The early Italians produced many works in terra- 
 cotta, practising the art to a very great extent, and 
 ni(t beautiful are the examples to be seen in the 
 museums, hoth here and abroad. 
 
 In some instances they applied wax over the sur- 
 face, after the work had been fired, to take away 
 tin- somewhat dry appearance peculiar to burnt clay; 
 and almost invariably they tinted or painted the 
 terra-cotta. sometimes introducing here and there 
 a little gilding. 
 
 In the case of Delia Robbia sculpture or modelled 
 ware, the clay was in most instances glazed; but I 
 do not propose touching upon this process, as it 
 is one which does not come within the scope of 
 this manual. The working of it is a very serious 
 undertaking, and is really an important part of the 
 potter's art. 
 
 When a student intends his work to be fired he 
 must take particular care that his clay be kept 
 perfectly clean and free from any suggestion of 
 plaster; for plaster, however small the amount may 
 be, acts disastrously upon burnt clay, and if the 
 minutest quantity is left in the model it will, after 
 the work is fired (maybe after some days or perhaps 
 months), force its way out by bursting a piece from 
 the surface, possessing as it does surprising strength. 
 When this trouble has arisen, it may on examination 
 be discovered that the tiniest bit of plaster imagin- 
 able is to be seen at the bottom of the cavity whence 
 the piece has been blown, and this alone has caused 
 the damage. 
 
 In building up a work for terra-cotta, the arma- 
 ture should be kept as simple as possible, so that it 
 
 136
 
 MODELLING FOR TERRA COTTA 
 
 may be removed easily when the work is finished 
 and ready to be put aside to dry. Let it be remem- 
 bered that all moisture should be dried out thoroughly, 
 though very slowly, before the idea can be enter- 
 tained of sending the work to the kiln. 
 
 Of course, in some cases, your model may be so 
 small as not to require any armature, but even then 
 it should (when possible) be hollowed out most care- 
 fully to a fairly even thickness ; otherwise in the 
 drying and firing processes it may crack and " fly." 
 But in the case of a larger work, when an arma- 
 ture is employed (as, for instance, in a bust), this 
 armature should be removed by first slicing off, 
 with the thinnest wire obtainable, a piece from 
 the back of the head, in the manner as shown in 
 Fig. 50. 
 
 When this piece has been removed, and carefully 
 placed aside, cut a second piece down towards the 
 base, using a long knife held in a direction to cut 
 the clay with a bevel on it, somewhat wedge-shaped 
 towards the centre. When this second piece has 
 been removed, a third piece, which may extend to 
 the bottom of the work, should be cut away, in 
 the same wedge-shaped manner (see Fig. 50), and 
 placed with the other pieces, and these all covered 
 with a slightly damp cloth, to prevent their drying 
 or contracting, or even twisting, before they are 
 replaced. 
 
 The work now begins of removing the clay from 
 around the upright support and lead piping, which 
 you have arranged in the usual way for building 
 up your bust. Care must be exercised to avoid 
 pushing out or changing the form of the work in 
 the front. 
 
 Before you begin this operation of cutting up, 
 
 137
 
 Fig. L 
 
 THE CLAY BUST WITH ITS THREE PIECES REMOVED, 
 HAVIM; HKEN CUT AWAY WITH A FINE PIECE OF 
 WlKK AND A THIN KNIFE
 
 MODELLING FOR TERRACOTTA 
 
 the model should have been allowed to get fairly 
 stiff, at all events sufficiently firm to prevent it 
 from sinking when some of the clay is removed and 
 the armature is taken from the inside. Once the 
 upright is freed from the clay all round, and it is 
 seen that the clay is firm enough in its consistency 
 to remain standing upright without support, then 
 steadily slide your work on to a platform or pedes- 
 tal, built up to exactly the same height and level 
 as the one your work stands upon. This platform 
 must, of course, be placed in front and close up 
 to your model. Only a short removal is needed, 
 and your work is on one stand, whilst the armature 
 remains on the other. Now continue to remove more 
 clay, by scooping it out with a round-ended wire tool, 
 until your work is equally thin all over. 
 
 For a work of life-size proportions, such as a bust, 
 a thickness of about three-quarters of an inch is 
 enough ; and the pieces taken from the back must 
 be reduced to a similar thickness, due care being 
 taken not to damage the modelled surfaces or edges 
 at joints. You can avoid such damage by putting 
 the pieces down on a soft bed of sacking or cloth, 
 or by holding them in the palm of one hand whilst 
 you scoop out the clay with the other. 
 
 With all parts scooped to a proper thickness, you 
 may start upon replacing the pieces, fixing them 
 in such a way that they will not come apart. To 
 do this, you should scratch lines on the sides or 
 joints, through which you have cut, taking care not 
 to come up too closely to the edges and thus de- 
 stroying the outline where the pieces come together 
 again. 
 
 Having well scratched both surfaces of the joint- 
 that is, the one on the body of the work and the 
 
 139
 
 MODELLING FOR TERRA-COTTA 
 
 (nc on the pieces to be replaced, as indicated in 
 K|V. 51 prepare what the potter calls a "slip" of the 
 ( -oii>i>tency of cream, or a little thicker, in a saucer 
 or other vessel, by crushing up some of the dry 
 clay of the same colour as your bust is made of, 
 and adding to it a little water. Mix this "slip" 
 thoroughly so as to make it free from lumps ; then 
 paste some of this mixture on to the parts you have 
 sci -at died, and put your No. 1 bottom piece back 
 carefully, moving it about slightly, and pressing at 
 the same time a little until you feel it tightening 
 by the suction. 
 
 In order not to destroy the modelling on the parts, 
 it is advisable to handle them with a knife, or, if 
 preferred, a fork, by sticking it into the piece, on 
 its outside or modelled surface, as though you were 
 about to toast the inside surface. This greatly 
 facilitates the replacing of them into their exact 
 position, as the piece can thus be handled with 
 greater ease. 
 
 You will generally find that these parts find their 
 own place, especially if a little judgment is used, 
 as the surface from which each particular piece 
 was cut is varied. But extra safety against any 
 fear of losing the exact place of the fittings of 
 the joints may be taken by cutting a sharp line 
 with a knife in several places across where your 
 joint will come (see Figs. 50 and 51), these lines 
 being made at the very beginning and before you 
 begin to cut away the pieces. 
 
 When all the pieces have been replaced, take a 
 wooden tool and press the end of it into the joints 
 all round, so as to close them and tie the two parts 
 more firmly together. You will then find a little 
 hollow groove left where the tool has pressed into 
 
 140
 
 Fig. LI 
 
 THE BUST AND THE PIECES HOLLOWED OUT 
 TO AN EQUAL THICKNESS ALL OVER 
 
 Nothing now remains but to remove the upright peg, cross-piece, and lead piping, 
 after which the pieces 1,2, and .'J are replaced nnd the whole left to dry slowly.
 
 MODELLING FOR TERRA-COTTA 
 
 these joints. It may be ari eighth of an inch, or 
 more, deep in some places, and perhaps the same 
 width, though with experience you will make it 
 less. 
 
 Now take some clay, of a slightly harder con- 
 sistency than your model, and fill these grooves. 
 The chief reason for using a slightly harder or 
 stiller day is, that when the work is fired, the 
 joint shows so much less than if it had been of 
 a softer consistency. Moreover, if soft clay is used, 
 it naturally contracts more, and it is therefore likely 
 to leave a crack or opening. 
 
 Having filled in all these joints, you will see that 
 a little modelling is required across the surface, 
 which has become slightly rubbed or lost. And 
 with this done, nothing remains but to leave your 
 work to dry slowly, and as evenly all over as 
 possible. 
 
 When, after a few days, it shall have become 
 sufficiently stiff to handle, it may be raised upon 
 two pieces of wood to allow the air to get under- 
 neath, and inside, so that it will dry more speedily ; 
 but under no circumstances should it at this stage 
 be hurried, or the work will crack and twist. 
 
 A small hole should be bored in the top, say about 
 a quarter of an inch in diameter, to let out the 
 moisture ; and this hole should not be filled in again 
 until your work is back from the kiln, as this pre- 
 caution often saves a work from bursting during 
 the firing process. 
 
 The great secret of firing works of art, such as 
 those a student of modelling or sculpture would re- 
 quire to have done, is that they should be given a 
 slow and soft firing, which means little contraction 
 and less fear of twisting, warping, bursting, or chang- 
 
 142
 
 MODELLING FOR TERRA COTTA 
 
 ing in their shape. It is therefore desirable to give 
 them almost the softest firing possible, just enough 
 only to change their colour and consistency from 
 raw clay to terra-cotta, unless the work is intended 
 to be placed in the open air, in which case it will 
 need a harder firing, so that it may stand the test of 
 the weather, our own variable climate being especially 
 destructive alike to sculpture in stone and in terra- 
 cotta. 
 
 But whether the work be intended for exterior or 
 interior purposes, "whether it be realistic or decora- 
 tive, the principles of preparing and drying work 
 which is to become terra-cotta are practically the 
 same, the only difference being that the one which 
 has to stand the weather is fired harder than the 
 other and contracts more. For this reason allow- 
 ances must be made from the first for this difference, 
 more especially if the work is designed to fit into a 
 particular and limited space or given framework ; 
 for terra-cotta is not a material that can be added 
 to or cut away, as bronze may be, by having an 
 extra band soldered on to it here and there, or an- 
 other portion filed down. So the greatest care is 
 needed to allow of correct shrinkage, which varies 
 from about T V to -^, i.e. from the wet clay state to 
 the time when it leaves the kiln. Of course, the 
 harder the firing the greater the contraction, and 
 vice versa. When the exactness of contraction is a 
 matter of great importance, it is advisable to consult 
 with the person from whom you get the clay, as 
 some clays contract more than others, and in every 
 instance when sending a work to the kiln, impress 
 upon the fireman or foreman of the factory the im- 
 portance of his giving your model only the firing you 
 wish and nothing more. I have seen many works 
 
 143
 
 MODELLING FOR TERRA-COTTA 
 
 absolutely spoilt by a too hard firing, in spite of in- 
 structions having been given previously to avoid 
 this. 
 
 REPRODUCTIONS OR REPLICAS IN 
 TERRA-COTTA 
 
 Should you have more than one copy of the same 
 work to make, a piece-mould in plaster of the original 
 will be required; and with care many copies can be 
 taken from this mould, more especially if the clay 
 employed is smooth and free from grit or sand, 
 though it will he found that an admixture of burnt 
 clay, ground to a grit, or sand will be good for large 
 works. This sand you can get mixed with the clay 
 to any proportion which you may desire by the 
 people from whom you purchase your clay. Even in 
 the case of ordinary modelling clay, the addition of a 
 little sand or grit has its uses when you are model- 
 ling a large work. With it the surface never becomes 
 as " tight " or close as with pure clay. Again, it is 
 lighter an important consideration when a large 
 work is undertaken. Clay with sand in it works up 
 much quicker for use. Then again, it being less 
 tough, lends itself more freely to cutting or carving ; 
 although it must be well remembered that for a 
 small work and for a highly finished surface the freer 
 it is from any sign of grit the better. For various 
 reasons, a piece-mould from which you wish to take 
 replicas in clay need not be made of so many pieces 
 as one from which you may have to take replicas in 
 plaster. Plaster will not give as clay will ; plaster 
 swells, or expands, whilst clay contracts so much that 
 it will fall from the mould, or leave it of its own 
 accord, if allowed to get hard enough. On the other 
 
 144
 
 MODELLING FOR TERRA COTTA 
 
 hand, if it were a plaster replica which you are about 
 to take, the least undercutting imaginable in the mould 
 would resist all efforts made to remove the cast or 
 separate the two without breakage. In some instances 
 almost the whole of a mask in a clay squeeze will 
 leave the mould without much " pulling " or injury to 
 it, so that it will be easily seen few mould-pieces are 
 required in a head. We speak of a squeeze in clay 
 as "pulling," if it drags by reason of much under- 
 cutting, and is put out of form in some of its detail 
 or whole in the process ; but in cases when only a 
 little portion of the detail has " pulled " it can almost 
 invariably be pressed back into its exact position 
 again without in any way destroying or changing the 
 modelling indeed, that any "pulling" has occurred 
 need not be discernible. When removing a squeeze 
 from a mould, discretion must be used in lifting or 
 taking it away, and in such a direction and in such a 
 way as to ease the " pulling " as much as possible. It 
 will be found that in taking a squeeze of a mask from 
 a mould which may be lying flat on a table, any pull- 
 ing will be lessened if, when lifting this squeeze out 
 of the mould, you will do so a little horizontally (at 
 the same time as lifting it upwards) towards the 
 chin, the reason being that the undercuts are hori- 
 zontal, as in the nostrils and under the brows, when 
 the mould is lying flat down. The same method 
 should be applied in taking a clay squeeze from the 
 mould of a relief. It should be lifted or pulled in 
 a direction to humour it with and from the under- 
 cutting. 
 
 A very little practice with a simple example 011 the 
 " flat" will teach you a great deal about the method 
 of taking away a clay squeeze from a mould. 
 
 In no case should a mould from which you wish to 
 
 145 K
 
 MODELLING FOR TERRA-COTTA 
 
 take a clay impression IK- soaped or brushed with 
 shellac, as the day would adhere to any such polished 
 Mirl'ace. Should, however, this have been done pre- 
 viously for other purposes, and should you now 
 require a squee/e from this mould, it will be possible 
 to get one by first applying some French chalk, this 
 being dusted well into the mould, and left there. 
 
 The mould from which you wish to take a clay 
 copy should not be either too dry or too wet, but 
 should have just a little moisture in it. 
 
 In squeezing the clay in the mould of a bust, begin 
 from the middle of the front half of the mould, 
 /'.<'. say by filling in the nose, pressing firmly with 
 the thumb and fingers, and then gradually work- 
 ing in an outward direction over the face and into 
 the deep hollows and crevices; press all well in, 
 and take particular care that each piece of clay 
 which you put in be pressed against the edge of 
 the clay which has been previously put in. Do this 
 thoroughly, as otherwise lines will show where the 
 two portions have not properly joined together and 
 become one. A great deal of pressure is needed to 
 ensure the clay getting thoroughly into every detail. 
 At the same time equal care must be taken not to 
 break the projecting bits of the mould. 
 
 There is danger of the fingers and thumbs becom- 
 ing sticky, and thus pulling up the clay with the 
 suction. This may be avoided by keeping the hands 
 dry, clean, and as far as possible free from clay. 
 Constantly keep wiping them with a piece of cloth. 
 An even amount of clay should be pressed equally 
 over all parts to the thickness of about 4 of an inch 
 in a life-size bust. First complete filling in the front 
 half of the mould; then do the same with the back 
 half, and fill up level to the joints in both parts, very 
 
 140
 
 MODELLING FOR TERRA COTTA 
 
 cleanly, so that no clay overlaps the plaster edges 
 and prevents the mould fitting up tightly. 
 
 Before putting the back piece on to the front and 
 closing up, both the edges of the clay which are to be 
 brought together should be roughed or scratched, and 
 a coating of the same clay made into a " slip " of the 
 consistency of thick cream should be pasted on to 
 these clay edges and into the scratches, then the back 
 mould-piece put on and pressed tightly to the front 
 piece, and the whole mould tied together with strong 
 rope. Then, as far as possible, work the parts to- 
 gether at the joints from the inside with your hands, 
 and a little clay should be spread across with your 
 fingers. A tool may serve to reach such parts as can- 
 not be got at by your hands. When all the joints 
 have been worked together, the whole should be left 
 until the body of the clay has become sufficiently hard 
 to support itself with the outer case and mould-pieces 
 taken away. Then start by removing the back piece 
 and afterwards the top portion of the front case (if 
 this has been made in two pieces, which is usual for 
 extra safety), and the various pieces over the face will 
 now be exposed, and should be removed one by one, 
 naturally the top one first, and so on downwards 
 until all pieces which belong to this top portion have 
 been taken away. Put these, as they are taken off, 
 into their respective places in the case. If you are 
 now perfectly convinced that the clay squeeze is of 
 a sufficiently firm consistency to support itself, you 
 may remove the final and bottom part of the case, 
 and afterwards its mould-pieces one by one, com- 
 mencing as before from the top. With all these pieces 
 away, you may begin to do such work to the clay as 
 you wish ; close up the joints by filling in as you 
 would do when putting together the pieces in an 
 
 147
 
 MODELLING FOR TERRA-COTTA 
 
 original model which it is intended to fire, by using 
 day of a little harder consistency than the model. 
 This only applies to filling in joints, and not to model- 
 ling or putting clay on the surface. In this latter 
 case the day should he rather softer than the body, 
 as otherwise it must get pressed into, instead of 
 being spread over, the surface. 
 
 A little modelling over the surface at the parts 
 where the pieces came together will be necessary, 
 but this need mean merely passing the finger over 
 it ; and it should be pointed out that if the surface 
 is touched at all, which is almost unavoidable in 
 a squeeze from a piece-mould, it should be worked 
 gently all over, without the modelling being neces- 
 sarily altered in the least degree. This is done for 
 the purpose of getting the work of an equal colour 
 throughout when fired, for where it has been touched 
 in one place and not in another it will vary in colour, 
 and appear a little whiter in the parts worked upon. 
 A little variety in the colour is agreeable, but you 
 should avoid a patchy appearance. If you pass 
 gently all over it with your finger slightly moistened 
 you will get it fairly even in tint, but practice alone 
 will serve you in this and teach you the different 
 effects to be obtained by working a little on the 
 surface at the last moment, before leaving the work 
 to dry for sending to the kiln. 
 
 It should be remembered that nothing can be done 
 to change the form after the work has once become 
 terra-cotta, though much may be done in the way 
 of changing the tone, altering the colour, and im- 
 proving the quality of surface, from the very dry 
 and porous appearance to a more agreeable effect. 
 
 The tone and the dry appearance of a terra-cotta 
 can be changed by an application of stearine, or 
 
 148
 
 MODELLING FOR TERRACOTTA 
 
 beeswax, and turpentine mixed in the proportion 
 of a piece of wax the size of a walnut to a pint of 
 turpentine. The wax should be cut up in thin 
 wafers, put into a tin saucepan or gallipot, and 
 dissolved slowly over a gas jet ring. This being 
 done, add the turpentine, and put again on the 
 ring, with gas very low. Here the greatest care 
 should be taken not to allow T any of the turps 
 to run down the sides of the saucepan or to get 
 to boiling heat, when it will throw over the sides 
 of saucepan some of the contents, which are dan- 
 gerously inflammable, and almost impossible to ex- 
 tinguish, if once alight, until the whole is exhausted, 
 besides which serious personal injury may easily 
 arise from this cause. Therefore the greatest stress 
 should be laid upon the importance of only allowing 
 the mixture to warm just to a clear liquid of wax 
 and turpentine. A good method for lessening the 
 danger when preparing this mixture is to place 
 the vessel which contains it into another and larger 
 one partially filled with water. This water before 
 it reaches boiling-point will melt the wax sufficiently 
 for use. A thin coat of this may then be painted 
 with a brush all over the work, which, if warmed, 
 will receive and absorb the wax better and more 
 readily than if the wax were applied to a cold 
 surface. Should it be found that the wax dries 
 in a whitish scum on the surface of the bust, it is 
 a proof that there is too much wax, in which c.-isc 
 it is necessary to thin it with more turpentine, 
 although warming the terra-cotta still more before 
 a fire will cause the wax to dissolve and to be 
 absorbed. 
 
 After the bust has been painted with several coats 
 of the wax, it may be rubbed over with cotton-wool ; 
 
 149
 
 MODELLING FOR TERRA-COTTA 
 
 and when it is quite dry, i.e. when the moisture of 
 the wax has sunk in, a little French chalk can be 
 applied with the cotton-wool and quickly rubbed. 
 This will give additional polish to the surface if it 
 is desired. A further painting with the wax may be 
 applied at any future time if thought advisable. In 
 some instances a little powder colour may be put 
 with the wax and turpentine, which will serve to 
 change the colour as well as the quality of the sur- 
 face of the burnt clay. 
 
 Another method for changing the colour, making 
 it darker or lighter, is by working up with a palette 
 knife some powder colour on a palette, or plate, with 
 milk, until every particle of grit is ground out and 
 it has the appearance of a smooth paste. Pass this 
 through fine muslin into a cup or basin, thinning it 
 with more milk, so that it may find its way through 
 the muslin. When this is done, add milk until the 
 whole has the consistency of something between 
 cream and milk. Then paint your bust over with 
 the mixture. It may be necessary to give the w r ork 
 a second coat, which should be applied by dabbing 
 on with the brush rather than painting or spreading 
 it, and with very little of the colouring matter in 
 your brush at any time. 
 
 It may be found, when this colouring has dried, 
 that the effect is a little too equal all over, but 
 variety can quite easily be obtained by mixing a 
 little powdered white lead with some of the colouring 
 matter that may be left. This should be passed 
 through the muslin in the same way as before. 
 
 A little of this lighter, and if desired almost white, 
 colour can be dragged over the most projecting parts 
 very lightly and sparingly, and will add to the appear- 
 ance by reason of the hollows being left darker. 
 
 150
 
 MODELLING FOR TERRA-COTTA 
 
 Milk not only serves to fix any coloured matter put 
 on, but gives the terra-cotta a fatter quality and 
 a less porous effect ; besides which it prevents the 
 dirt from getting below the surface and into the 
 body, and such dust as falls 011 to the surface can 
 be dusted off quite easily or wiped with a damp 
 sponge. 
 
 151
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 MODELLING IN RELIEF 
 
 MODELLING or carving in relief is one of the most 
 difficult problems of plastic or glyptic art, arid 
 requires a long course of study before it can be 
 thoroughly understood and mastered. The fact is 
 that, whilst relief modelling is an art set down on 
 certain principles, and one which can only be properly 
 worked on a fairly generally recognised scientific 
 basis, it is at the same time an art in which there is 
 more scope and freedom for the artist to exhibit his 
 sense of artistic feeling than in a work in the round, 
 which is more nearly a copy of actual nature, moulded, 
 as it were, to the exact proportion in every part, and 
 differing but little, if at all, in form from the actual, 
 save in treatment and feeling. 
 
 Relief modelling is like drawing on the flat, and 
 something more, with its perspective and other 
 immense difficulties, beyond those which you only 
 discover as your work progresses. These difficulties 
 are immeasurable ; and nothing less than constant 
 study of the best examples, as w T ell as unremitting 
 practice in the art, can be of use to you. But I 
 purpose pointing out certain primary principles that 
 should be borne in mind, and that will prove of great 
 service from the beginning and onwards in your 
 clVorts to overcome the more difficult and subtle 
 problems. 
 
 152
 
 MODELLING IN RELIEF 
 
 Although there .are several treatments of relief 
 modelling or carving, it is usual to speak of two 
 only, namely, Basso (or Bas) and Alto (or Haut). But 
 these have a very wide range, inasmuch as a l>as- 
 relief work may be anything in projection from 
 background to front surface - a quarter of an inch, 
 or less, to six inches, or more -and in the same way 
 the alto-relief may be ail inch only, or it may be two 
 feet or more in its projection ; therefore these terms 
 Bas and Alto refer to the treatment rather than the 
 actual projection of a work from the given ground 
 or wall surface, for the design may be lifted to any 
 distance from such a surface and yet be a bas-relief. 
 It is, in truth, the projection of surface within the 
 contour or contours of any particular part which 
 determines to which order the relief belongs. 
 
 Take, for example, a model of the human face in 
 profile. The highest or the greatest projection, say 
 the cheek or temple bone, stands out from the out- 
 line of the nose, which may lie on the ground surface, 
 very considerably, almost as much, perhaps, as in 
 the actual life. This, then, belongs to the alto-relief 
 treatment. But if the outline of the face and front 
 of head be lifted in short, the outline all round be 
 lifted up from the ground to nearly the same pro- 
 jection as the cheek-bone, and the depth of the 
 hollows from the projections be lessened by being 
 filled in and reduced to a minimum, the treatment 
 will then belong to the bas-relief order, and may, for 
 all that, appear no less true in effect. 
 
 The tendency in bas-relief modelling is to get all 
 the hollows too deep and the projections too high. 
 
 An excellent method of obviating this is to take 
 a piece of wood, practically a straight-edge, and draw 
 it right over your work, as though shaving oil' the 
 
 153
 
 MODELLING IN RELIEF 
 
 top surface of the projections (see Fig. 52). This 
 may be better accomplished if a framework of wood 
 is placed round the work. This framework, which 
 should be equal in height to the greatest projection, 
 serves as a rest for the straight edge, and not only 
 prevents the modeller scraping too much off any 
 particular part, but determines the highest projecting 
 parts 011 the front surface. This is an important 
 matter to remember, particularly if the work has 
 to be subsequently carried out in wood, marble or 
 other stone, for the reason that either of the 
 materials mentioned will probably allow of only a 
 certain projection of relief. In this case you would 
 know the thickness before beginning the clay model, 
 and work to it accordingly, in order to come within 
 this measurement. 
 
 When a relief has been built with such a wooden 
 framework around it, it is not so likely to get wrong 
 in its projection, the framework serving as a per- 
 manent guide in the clay stage for the measurement 
 of all sides as well as for the projection from the 
 ground. 
 
 I have often seen quite good effects obtained by the 
 relief being dropped flat on its face upon the floor. 
 Of course, with a large work this is not practicable, 
 but with a small one that has become lumpy and 
 exaggerated in the highest projecting parts, such 
 treatment has, so to speak, knocked it into better 
 and truer relief. 
 
 When a student is about to begin a bas-relief 
 he should first of all determine upon the projection 
 from the ground, which he intends the highest part 
 to be, and then provide himself with a flat board 
 with the framework of wood, as described above, 
 fixed vipon it, taking care, however, that the board 
 
 154
 
 MODELLING IN RELIEF 
 
 be made so that it will not warp. Into this frame- 
 work the clay should be pressed. The wood will 
 thus not only form a boundary line, but, as I said 
 before, a limit for the projections of the relief. It 
 is advisable, when filling in these boundary lines 
 with clay, to drag across its surface the straight- 
 edge, which, whilst resting on either wall, shows 
 when and where the clay bat is level. In this 
 manner you will make sure of an equal thickness 
 all over (see Fig. 52). You have now what might 
 be termed a flat piece of clay, with a front surface 
 which we may regard as the equivalent to a sawn 
 front surface of a piece of stone, out of which a 
 relief has to be carved. You will begin now by 
 drawing upon this clay surface in outline your design, 
 or the subject you may choose to copy. When this 
 has been done fairly accurately, you will start by 
 cutting or scraping down your background and 
 setting back such planes (see Fig. 52) as should be 
 lower in relief, gradually getting one plane behind, 
 and lower than, the other, until you have the relative 
 planes set back in the relief just as they appear in 
 the original, leaving the top or front surface to form 
 the greatest projection, and the part which is fur- 
 thest away from your line of sight in the original, 
 the lowest in relief in your work. The difference of 
 projection from the front surface to the part in 
 lowest relief may be very little, perhaps not more 
 than half an inch, whereas in the original the dis- 
 tance may be anything from the nearest point to you 
 to that of the farthest distance (see Figs. 53 and 54). 
 
 This, the first stage with which I have dealt, has 
 treated of the setting back and relative position of 
 the several planes. The next thing to consider is 
 the movement and change of projection from the 
 
 155

 
 a fi 
 
 g 
 
 pq 
 
 a
 
 ground surface of the outlines, and the planes which 
 give a certain fulness on the surface, or body, into 
 which further detail will eventually be introduced ; 
 but the varying outline and the projection of one 
 part relatively to another is a most important matter 
 to bear in mind, for when this is thoroughly well 
 mastered, a relief can be quite beautiful and yet 
 its surface in and between such outlines have scarcely 
 any modelling or form. 
 
 Indeed, these surfaces may be absolutely flat, as 
 some of our earliest examples show, or damaged, 
 as in the case of many famous antiques, to such 
 an extent that everything is quite obliterated or 
 rubbed away, whilst the outlines in all their com- 
 pleteness are beautifully preserved. 
 
 It is the truth in the outlines of the relief works 
 of Donatello which gives that great charm to the 
 Master's work. The drawing and colour in the 
 outline is only obtained by the correctness in relief 
 of one part to another, expressed with tender touch. 
 
 All the charm and the exquisite modelling and 
 drawing on the surfaces would count for little were 
 it not for the purity of light and shade in the 
 drawing which outlined them. 
 
 I point this out to show that it is most impor- 
 tant for the modelling student thoroughly to master 
 drawing on the flat, always remembering that an 
 outline is ever varying in its colour and direction 
 or movement, ever losing itself behind, or coming 
 in front of, another part ; that it is at one time 
 nearer to the eye than at another ; that one muscle 
 is crossing over another, and sometimes over and 
 round the body, and that they are not all hanging 
 down the figure like a lot of ropes, which would give 
 an equal projection of outline throughout, and which, 
 
 159
 
 MODELLING IN RELIEF 
 
 it' modelled in relief, would mean that the entire 
 outline, to be a correct copy, must be an equal dis- 
 tance or height from the background at every point. 
 
 Imagine the monotony and crudity of such a work, 
 and the uselessiiess of the most careful modelling on 
 the surface within such an outline ! 
 
 It must not, however, be thought that in relief 
 work drawing is confined to the outline only, for 
 there is much and very important drawing required 
 in the detail on the surfaces, even though in a very 
 low relief this is quite subtle, so much so that it is 
 only to be seen when placed in certain lights. A 
 relief should be worked in the light in which it is 
 intended ultimately to be seen, when this is possible, 
 and when it has been designed for some particular 
 place and not done merely as a study for practice. 
 Even in the latter case you should, when working 
 upon it, place it so as to get the light and shadow 
 as you wish them ; although it is advisable to change 
 the position of your work from time to time, during 
 progress, viewing the different effects under different 
 lights. 
 
 It will be found that under one light, that which 
 was a shadow has become a light, and vice versa ; but 
 the shifting of your work from one place to another, 
 at different times, will enable you to model such 
 parts as could not be seen in the previous lighting. 
 Ultimately you will get it back to its original place 
 and lighting, and discover how much remains to be 
 done ; and you will set to work upon it with much 
 freshness, getting with more freedom much that you 
 have been striving after, overcoming that staleness 
 which had dismayed you before moving into other 
 lights a feeling which must be got rid of at any cost, 
 as it stultifies your best efforts, depressing and dis- 
 
 160
 
 MODELLING IN RELIEF 
 
 heartening you, as though some blight had fallen on 
 the work in hand, making it flat, stale, and unprofit- 
 able, and filling the heart with distaste for the labour 
 of the hands. But remove your work and see it 
 under another and changed aspect, and it will prove 
 an invariable cure ; inspiration and enthusiasm will 
 come to you afresh, and no longer will your labour 
 seem in vain, or the work cold, dull, or uninspired. 
 Or, should this not alter the state of your feelings, 
 leave the work, go for a long walk, or visit some 
 museum and get into the presence of those mighty 
 examples of sculpture, deathless and beautiful through 
 all ages. If these things are of 110 avail to cure you, 
 go to bed, for no amount of time spent on a work 
 011 which you are not keen can produce any good 
 result. 
 
 Relief modelling is not like a work in the round, 
 where, by turning your model, you can get at any 
 moment an entirely fresh view to renew your en- 
 thusiasm when you have become slack on one view. 
 
 Up to the present I have dealt more especially 
 with one kind of relief, namely, a fairly high bas- 
 relief, such as is shown in Fig. 54, where the planes 
 were cut down and very decided ; but there is the 
 very low relief, the high or alto relief, and the 
 treatment of relief which is both high arid low, as in 
 ornamental or decorative work, all of which require 
 a different method of treatment and cannot be cut 
 down in the manner I have explained, but should 
 be built, or modelled up, from the background. 
 
 Now let us take the very low relief. This, when 
 sketched in on the clay background, should grow 
 up very slowly, first by clay being spread in the 
 required form over the parts which are to be in 
 greatest projection, and the groundwork being left 
 
 101 L
 
 Fig. LV 
 
 A BUST IN THE ROUND, FROM WHICH THE BELIEF 
 
 SHOWN HKKE IS MADE 
 From the original bust by the Author.
 
 MODELLING IN RELIEF 
 
 to serve for the lowest parts, as shown in Fig. 56, 
 until you have your projection all put in fairly 
 correctly. Then you may spread clay on the lowest 
 parts, Fig. 57, and then proceed to the intermediate 
 planes, leading up to the top or highest projections. 
 Fig. 58. 
 
 One important thing to be remembered is, that 
 every part must be of some degree of relief from 
 the ground, and relatively correct one part to the 
 other. An error very frequent with students work- 
 ing at low relief is, that they dig or cut into the 
 background until one or other part is below the 
 surface. In the finest examples of relief work this 
 never occurs ; and, for this reason, I am not sure 
 that the student, in first beginning to do low relief, 
 would not do better modelling direct on a board 
 or other firm surface for a background, instead of 
 working on a soft clay slab, except that a clay 
 model in low relief would dry and crack and then 
 fall off. Indeed, the method is not practical, al- 
 though it is followed sometimes on a slate or a 
 piece of glass, and invariably with small work on 
 a plaster slab the surface of which has been coated 
 with soft-soap to stop its quick suction and yet 
 make it sufficiently polished to cause the clay to 
 adhere. In this latter case the clay can be kept 
 sufficiently moist if the back of the plaster slab is 
 sprinkled with water to keep the model in good 
 working condition. 
 
 Then again, many very low reliefs are worked 
 in wax on a board or plaster slab ; in the latter case 
 this slab, when quite dry, is given two or three coats 
 of French polish, so that the wax will adhere to it. 
 A piece of glass or slate is sometimes used instead 
 of the plaster slab. These substances having a 
 
 163
 
 Fig. LVI 
 
 TIM-; FIRST STAGE OF BUILDING UP A HEAD IN Low 
 RELIEF, WHERE THE GREATEST PROJECTIONS ONLY 
 HAVE CLAY YET UPON THEM 
 
 Tlie nose and chin are seen merely in outline.
 
 Fig. LVII 
 
 SECOND STAGE SHOWS CLAY PUT ON IN THE Low Kit 
 RELIEF PARTS, so THAT THE GENERAL MASSES, AS 
 
 WELL AS THE DETAIL, ARE INDICATED
 
 Fig. LVIII 
 
 Tin: FINISHED STAGE, WITH THE MASSES AND DETAILS 
 HKor<;nT TOGETHER AND THE HALF TONES MADE OF 
 VALUE, THE GREATEST PROJECTIONS NOT BEING MORE 
 THAN ONE HALF- INCH
 
 MODELLING IN RELIEF 
 
 somewhat polished and non-porous surface, the pre- 
 paration mentioned to hold clay, wax, or plasticine 
 is not required. 
 
 Whichever medium be used, or whichever back- 
 ground be worked upon, the method and principle 
 of very low relief modelling are almost the same, 
 the chief object being to get an agreeable arrange- 
 ment for the display of light and shadows, together 
 with interesting shapes alike in the work and on the 
 background. 
 
 No amount of beautifully wrought detail can make 
 a fine work, unless these qualities are in evidence. 
 A relief, like almost every other form of art-work, 
 should primarily be beautiful at a first general view, 
 seen as a whole ; and beautiful detail should be 
 found, on closer examination, within this whole, 
 as an enrichment. What little value have the most 
 costly stones set in an ugly shape, except their 
 glitter? Any bits of common glass can be equally 
 interesting in this respect. Therefore relief work 
 must be regarded, more or less, as a design, a 
 beautiful arrangement of a something a head, a 
 figure, an animal, or piece of foliage on a back- 
 ground. The student will do well to bear this in 
 mind, and he should ever view his work at a little 
 distance away (and particularly remember to keep 
 his, or her, nose off the clay, as common a practice 
 as I know of next to going to sleep over it). 
 Constantly keeping on the move and getting back 
 from your work keeps the mind awake, as well 
 as the body, and the faculty of concentration alive. 
 It should be remembered that concentration is an 
 important factor in the making of all great work, 
 and the student exercising this faculty as much as 
 possible is bound to develop this power. The student 
 
 107
 
 MODELLING IN RELIEF 
 
 who allows his mind to run astray on side issues, 
 when engaged upon a serious work, cannot possibly 
 l>r doing liis best. It is therefore far better for him 
 to work alone, or forget that others are with him. 
 I dwell upon these points at this moment particu- 
 larly, though they should honestly apply to all the 
 other chapters, but I feel that in low-relief modelling 
 there is generally so little work that does not re- 
 quire your entire and undivided thought upon it, 
 that no earnest student can afford to have his atten- 
 tion diverted, or his mind set upon a single thought 
 other than that which is directly connected with 
 the work he is engaged upon. In low relief there 
 is so little, even from the very beginning, that does 
 not call for your entire attention. In other forms 
 of modelling there are generally some preliminary 
 stages before the actual modelling begins ; and often- 
 times laborious work has to be done in getting up the 
 armature, and in the early stages of building up 
 and fixing points, which can be done more or less 
 mechanically. Needless to say, it must be remem 
 bered that these matters require great care and 
 attention, but not the same serious concentration 
 as working in low relief, when from the first the 
 earliest touches may be almost final, and if not so, 
 may be of value, and each piece put on, or cut off, 
 of some definite purpose. 
 
 Of relief work, generally speaking, it may be said 
 that it is not until you begin a work in the alto (or 
 high relief) that any structure other than a board 
 is required; but in a high relief of any size at all a 
 great deal of time has often to be given up to 
 arranging the armature and framework upon which 
 to build your clay. This often occupies days of work 
 and uses up an abundance of lead or compo piping, 
 
 168
 
 MODELLING IN RELIEF 
 
 wood, and sometimes iron rods twisted or bent in 
 the various shapes necessary. 
 
 I do not propose here to instruct the student in 
 work on a very large scale, but rather to confine 
 myself to sizes such as can reasonably be worked 
 under ordinary conditions, say as a maximum some 
 5 or 6 feet square, quite large enough for the most 
 ambitious student. It is not size that counts, but 
 quality. 
 
 We will suppose that a student wishes to model a 
 high relief of any size within these dimensions, and 
 say, for instance, of a figure subject such as shown in 
 Fig. 59. He would require to build up an arma- 
 ture of the kind shown in Fig. 60, that is, supposing 
 it to be a copy of something, or of a smaller model 
 of an original design (which he has carefully prepared 
 and built upon a similar, if lighter and smaller, 
 armature before venturing upon the larger or more 
 ambitious size). Then he will first have to provide 
 himself with a well-made board, with strong battens 
 nailed or screwed at the back to prevent its warping, 
 and fix the whole up as nearly vertical as possible. 
 This done, he must next begin to fix on (with nails) 
 his lead or compo piping in such places and directions, 
 and bent to such shapes, as required. " Butterflies " 
 will also have to be hung from the wooden background. 
 These, as well as the lead piping, are more especially 
 advisable when you are enlarging a work of your 
 own design, because of the fact that you will in- 
 variably find that your work, when enlarged, does 
 not give you quite the same effect or satisfaction as 
 it did in the smaller or original model, and thus 
 the ease with which the lead piping and the " butter- 
 flies " can be hammered in or pulled out, or moved 
 in any direction, is most advantageous, whereas 
 
 109
 
 Fig. LIX 
 
 MATERNITY 
 
 One f thi> bronze panels on the Queen Victoria Memorial, 
 
 erected at Nottingham. 
 
 By the Author.
 
 Fig. LX 
 
 It will be noticed that a cage-work of wood is made, upon which to 
 build the figure ; by this means the clay model will be much lighter. 
 Additional " butterflies" and pieces of wood should be attached to the 
 lead piping.
 
 MODELLING IN RELIEF 
 
 much difficulty would be occasioned by the use of a 
 less pliable material, should a change be desired or 
 necessary. 
 
 I have said that a relief upon which you are at 
 work should always stand quite vertically. This 
 is extremely important, except in such a case as 
 when the work is to occupy ultimately, and is de- 
 signed for, any position other than vertical a slope, 
 or tilt forward when it should be worked, so far as 
 possible, at the appointed angles. 
 
 When the \vooden structure and the armature for 
 the large work are complete and carefully set up, 
 and each "butterfly" bears its correct relative posi- 
 tion, then the work of building up the clay begins, 
 and points are taken (Fig. 61). 
 
 In high-relief work it is necessary to remember 
 from the first that richness and fulness of quality 
 in the lights and shadows are important matters for 
 consideration. Well-rounded forms rather than flat, 
 play of line, and contrast of planes are qualities 
 which tell best, and subtleties are of less value than 
 in the lower relief. The alto-relief is usually a work 
 done to be seen from a greater distance than the 
 bas-relief, and thus the effect should be in every way 
 stronger, so that it may " tell." 
 
 High relief, if to be placed in or on a building at 
 any great height, requires a great amount of thought 
 in arrangement as well as in execution, for it is the 
 commonest thing imaginable to find what may have 
 looked quite an effective and fine work in the studio 
 utterly changed in appearance, and all its qualities 
 lost, when placed in its allotted position. The knees 
 of a seated figure may be so arranged as to cut off 
 the whole of the upper part of the figure and leave 
 but a shapeless mass to the observer from below ; 
 
 172
 
 Fig. LXI 
 
 When putting on the clay in this first stage it is important that it should be 
 squeezed well in between the wooden laths, so that it will bind round 
 these.
 
 MODELLING IN RELIEF 
 
 again, a shield or other attribute may be worked 
 with the same result. For this reason the student 
 should for ever (during the progress) be looking up 
 at his work from an angle as near as possible like 
 thi> one from which the work will be seen when 
 placed in its position. This applies particularly to 
 work designed for a special purpose and position. I 
 would point out that, in modelling a figure seated 
 (front view) to be placed high up, it is advisable to 
 let the figure be seated much higher, and the legs 
 at a much greater slope down from the body to the 
 knees, than you would if the same figure were done 
 to be seen at a lower plane or level. And avoid the 
 extremities, the arms or other parts, to project in 
 such a manner as to cut off or hide from view the 
 head or features or such parts as you may wish to 
 be seen. In short, let all your efforts be of some 
 avail, wherever placed and by whomsoever seen, if 
 they are worthy of you, and waste them not on the 
 desert air.
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC. 
 
 THE most permanent material which can be used 
 for modelled works of art is probably bronze, as it 
 resists the destructive influences of adverse tempera- 
 ture, as well as the natural decay to which less 
 concrete substances are subjected ; as witness those 
 works of great antiquity which in a most marvel- 
 lous manner have remained to us through countless 
 ages, and are to-day as perfect, in some notable 
 examples, as when they came fresh from the creative 
 hand of the artist thousands of years ago. 
 
 The material, whether clay, plaster, wax, plasticine, 
 or plastique, in which one may work for subsequent 
 casting in bronze, matters little in most cases. But, 
 I do say, it is a distinct advantage to use such 
 material as most nearly approaches the colour or 
 tone of bronze, for it will be obvious to the most 
 inexperienced that the change in the effect of a 
 model worked in white, even to the lightest colour 
 in bronze, must be considerable ; and such a trans- 
 formation would, at least, be surprising and, in a 
 number of instances, more than likely a disappoint- 
 ment. For this reason, plaster, being white, is the 
 least desirable material of all for modelling a piece 
 of sculpture which is to be ultimately cast in bronze. 
 Although it is quite possible that either clay, wax, 
 or plasticine may be white, or nearly so, they are 
 
 175
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC, 
 
 as a general rule of a much darker tone, and more 
 nearly approximate the colour of bronze; besides 
 which, the moisture of the clay and the oiliness 
 of the wax or plasticine make the model catch 
 stronger and brighter high lights, while darkening 
 the shadows, so that the effect more nearly resembles 
 that of bronze. 
 
 A work intended for bronze calls for, and allows 
 of, a treatment quite different to that of any other 
 material ; and this should be borne in mind all 
 through the working. This treatment is quite the 
 opposite to that of stone, in general as well as in 
 detail. 
 
 Work treated with even unlimited freeness can be 
 reproduced or cast, in metal, without losing its effect, 
 or becoming so thin and fragile as to get easily 
 broken ; nor need one fear that it may even be 
 damaged by handling. A figure in bronze, of heroic 
 size, in the action of flying through the air or soar- 
 ing to the skies, even with an abundance of out- 
 stretched drapery, may have but the toes of one foot 
 touching the ground to support it, and yet look 
 perfectly safe and easy. Were the figure treated in 
 the same way in any other material than metal, 
 it would appear, and indeed would be, wrong. It 
 would convey the unpleasant idea of being unsafe, 
 even though it remained standing up a sufficient 
 length of time to be looked upon and criticised. 
 
 In modelling for bronze or any other metal, there 
 are few limitations and many advantages, for almost 
 anything can be done by the different processes of 
 bronze casting ; and a work which looks well in the 
 various stages of progress will generally look better 
 when cast in bronze (that is, of course, if it is worked 
 for metal). By this, it should be remembered, is 
 
 176
 
 Fig. LXII 
 
 A FIGURE DESIGNED EXPRESSLY FOR BRONZE, WHERE IT 
 
 WILL BE NOTICED THAT THE IMMENSE MASS ABOVE IS 
 SUPPORTED ONLY BY THE TOES 
 
 From the statue by the Author. 
 
 M
 
 Fig. LXTII 
 
 THE SAME FIGURE SHOWN IN PROFILE 
 
 The student will easily recognise the unsuitability of this work for 
 marble or other stone.
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC. 
 
 meant that a sketch in clay, or a work only finished 
 in parts and the remainder quite rough, will gain by 
 being converted into that more durable material ; 
 for bronze in itself is quite beautiful with its varying 
 patina, more especially if proper care is taken of it, 
 and if it is not left in the hands of the town 
 authorities, who receive perhaps a statue on behalf 
 of many " subscribers," and from that moment cease 
 to take any further notice of it, save perchance to 
 wash it down once during their term of office. Then, 
 alas ! it is left to grow coated over with mud and 
 smoky grime, as though it were of no more artistic 
 value than a chimney-stack ; and then, what happens ? 
 The people criticise this mournful and forlorn-look- 
 ing object by calling it nasty names, when the ex- 
 penditure of a few pounds a year would reveal to 
 them a fine piece of art, perhaps a nobly inspired and 
 admirably executed masterpiece. 
 
 I merely point this out because I wish it to be 
 known that a bronze, be it small or large, requires 
 care and attention, and if these are given its fine 
 qualities, so far as the metal goes, are quite likely to 
 go on increasing. Time tells a beautiful tale on it, 
 and in this respect it has a distinct advantage over 
 stone. 
 
 In modelling for bronze you may be very exact as 
 regards the imitation of different textures or sur- 
 faces, such as those found in drapery or the hair. 
 Moreover, you can keep your details much nearer 
 the scale of the original. For instance, such things 
 as draperies standing away from the figure or main 
 body, or hair, can be made much thinner; wings, 
 flowers, and accessories of all kinds can be kept much 
 nearer to the delicate proportions of nature than 
 would be possible in marble carving so thin, indeed 
 
 179
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC. 
 
 th.-it they would !><> more than likely to break in 
 their plaster stage, i.e. when l)eing moulded or cast 
 into plaster, although in this latter case little harm 
 may he done. Such breakages can be easily mended, 
 or made up, before the work goes to the foundry, 
 where lost or damaged parts may again be touched 
 up or finished off. It is even possible to make 
 additions to the model in its wax state. 
 
 These remarks apply to work that is being cast 
 into bronze not by the sand process, but by the Cire- 
 jM'nlnc method, which process is to be regarded very 
 highly, particularly for intricate works of not too 
 large proportions, which are to have small pieces 
 projecting from the main body of the work ; because 
 much may be done, if it is necessary, in the final 
 stage, either at the foundry or at your own studio, 
 before the work actually appears in metal. The par- 
 ticular wax used by the founder in the process is of 
 quite a different kind and consistency from ordinary 
 modelling wax, and is not easily manipulated without 
 some little practice. 
 
 At this stage of the work, this material enables 
 you to do many things which would be extremely 
 difficult, if not impossible, in clay. It is therefore 
 advisable and important for the student to practise 
 working in founder's wax, so as to be able to 
 manipulate it when the occasion arises. Whilst 
 advantage may be taken of these possibilities, it is 
 far from wise to place too much reliance upon 
 alterations which can be effected in the last stage; 
 and it is fatal to leave any experimentalising until 
 then. 
 
 Properly speaking, the final stage should be looked 
 upon as a last opportunity for replacing or touching 
 up only that which may have got lost or damaged 
 
 180
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC. 
 
 after the model has left your studio. If the sight 
 of your work in a new material should happen to 
 suggest to you the advisability of certain slight 
 changes, then this is a different matter, and you 
 may indulge in an experiment. 
 
 Parts of the work may require sharpening, the 
 detail appearing somewhat less marked than in the 
 original model ; but this may be in appearance only, 
 and is accounted for by the dark colour of the wax 
 which is generally used by the founder. No great 
 amount of scraping down or cutting away can be 
 done, for it must be remembered that this wax is 
 only cast to the thickness of about a quarter of an 
 inch, or less, in a figure of half life-size proportions ; 
 and this thickness represents the thickness the metal 
 casting will be. It will be recognised that a work 
 in wax of such thickness will naturally be very light, 
 and not only breakable, but liable to warp, sink, or 
 change its attitude by falling over to one or the 
 other side, or a little to back or front, unless it be 
 kept in so cool a place that the wax remains hard 
 enough to be in a brittle state, and quite firm enough 
 to support itself. To keep it in this state of rigidity 
 in hot weather, or in a hot room, is quite impossible. 
 It is therefore best, at such times, to let the founder 
 follow what is usually his custom under such con- 
 ditions of high temperature ; which generally is, 
 to fill in the core with his sand composition, which 
 must eventually be done in any case before the 
 casting, or the cast, if taken without such filling 
 from a work in the round, would be solid. That 
 of course, would never do, for obvious reasons. 
 
 The best means of working on the model, when 
 it is in the founder's wax, is to keep by your side 
 a lighted candle, and occasionally to put the steel 
 
 181
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC. 
 
 tool you may IK- using into the flame, making it 
 sufficiently warm just to melt or soften the surface 
 where it is touched. No matter how good the wax 
 cast may l>e. there is always the seam showing the 
 joint of the moulds from which it has been taken. 
 This must he removed, if possible, by the artist 
 himself, and not left to the founder or, worse 
 still, to one of his assistants. 
 
 It is a great advantage in the casting of bronze 
 by the ('In'-pcrdu? process that, should you desire 
 at a later stage to do something more, it can be 
 done ; and another and perhaps greater advantage 
 of this process over sand, especially in the case of 
 a work in the round, that there is no cutting up 
 of the original model into many parts and subse- 
 quent jointing or bracing together. No matter how 
 intricate or undercut the work may be, it is quite 
 possible to mould it, and then to cast it into bronze, 
 in one complete whole. More especially is this done 
 in every case where the work is executed on a small 
 scale. 
 
 When the work, either on the flat, in relief, or in 
 the round, is of heroic size, or even larger, or when 
 it is very simple in treatment and without much 
 small undercutting, then, but for the fact that it 
 does not pass through another stage which permits 
 your working upon it before the final casting, the 
 sand process has its advantages over that of the 
 " lost wax." 
 
 In modelling for bronze, it must be remembered 
 that though anything may be transformed into 
 metal, artistic considerations impose strict limita- 
 tions. I mention this in order to point out that 
 although the process allows of much greater free- 
 dom in the treatment of modelling, it should not 
 
 182
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC. 
 
 be abused to the point of coarseness, carelessness, 
 or raggedness in workmanship. 
 
 Again, extravagance in attitude, movement, and 
 treatment of detail, as well as of masses, is an error 
 into which one can easily fall in working for metal, 
 but one which should be most carefully avoided, 
 otherwise your work will look " noisy," cheap, and 
 restless faults far too common in many works in 
 bronze, and especially noticeable in the works of 
 some foreign sculptors. The grotesque has its un- 
 doubted place in sculptural art, as in any other, as 
 witness the leer of a Bacchus, the diablerie of a satyr, 
 the horrid grin on the lips of a demon ; but true art, 
 no matter in what material, and no matter what 
 subject, should be peaceful and not disturbing. The 
 abnormal in art is usually the abominable, and, for 
 the most part, is only sought and practised by those 
 whose chief desire seems to be to shock decent sus- 
 ceptibilities, and to enjoy the brief and scandalous 
 notoriety produced by their works. 
 
 The wildest, fiercest animal, no matter how realisti- 
 cally treated, should not inspire the beholder with 
 fear or terror, so that he would fly from it, but, as 
 an example of the power of art, should fix for ever 
 the savage beauty, the strength and the ferocity, 
 which inspired the artist to its exemplification. 
 
 Generally speaking, in modelling for bronze it 
 should be remembered that a broken surface re- 
 produces better than one closed, or what is termed 
 " tight " or " close," for the reason that it collects 
 a greater variety of colour in the metal, and keeps 
 down, or breaks, what would probably be a more 
 polished or marble-like surface with a number of 
 unduly large patches of high lights ; although this 
 remark does not hold good if a work be finished 
 
 183
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC. 
 
 .1- a master would finish jt, as is shown by the 
 wonderful bron/es of the Japanese. Yet in the 
 case of the Japanese bronzes, it will be found that 
 the plain or smoother surfaces are but rarely large 
 in si/e, and are frequently in juxtaposition to more 
 broken parts. 
 
 In short, it will clearly be seen that the hammered 
 or beaten surface of metal is distinctly more interest- 
 ing than the quality which is found on the surface 
 of an object turned on a lathe, in the same material. 
 
 Nothing can be more unsatisfactory or unlike any- 
 thing in nature than the tight surfaces on the cheap 
 statuettes in bronze, which are to be seen in the 
 windows of our ordinary shops where they sell any- 
 thing but art products, and which are the delight 
 of the uneducated lower middle classes, who love 
 "ornaments." 
 
 So uninteresting are these pseudo-bronze arrange- 
 ments as to suggest that only a lathe, and good 
 sandpaper afterwards, could have produced such 
 cold, unsympathetic stuff. Limbs and bodies alike 
 show no suggestion of the modeller's surface work, 
 technique, or manipulation if, indeed, there ever 
 was any such suggestion when it left his hands. 
 And this in the face of the fact that it is one of 
 the huge advantages of having a work in metal, 
 that the minutest imprints of the fingers can be 
 reproduced as sharp as in the original. 
 
 All these minutiae have a value on the surface of 
 the metal, and the student will do well to study 
 quality of surfaces when modelling a work for bronze, 
 and to learn how to make such surfaces interesting, 
 rich, and free from monotony. Large, empty, or plain 
 pieces are not of as much value in metal as they may 
 be in marble or other stone. In bronze, a piece of 
 
 184
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC. 
 
 drapery may be as flickery or flashy as the tongue 
 of a serpent appears, and yet look well; but not so 
 in marble. There are some things which are dis- 
 tinctly suitable for execution in metal, but are im- 
 possible or bad in other materials, and vice versa. 
 And therefore it should be the purpose of everybody 
 practising the art of modelling, or sculpture, to 
 acquaint himself with these differences ; for often 
 does a work lose much of its artistic value from 
 being either improperly considered during its crea- 
 tion, or from being reproduced in the material for 
 which it is least suitable. Experience teaches much ; 
 but close observation and the study of the good ex- 
 amples in our museums and galleries will help, surely 
 and speedily, to teach the treatment and surfaces 
 which are of use, and the qualities to be obtained in 
 metal. 
 
 Contrast these with the effects obtained by appro- 
 priate treatment of marble or other stone. Compare 
 their values, not only in the mass, but in detail ; and 
 you will, by experience, arrive at tlie relative values 
 of all materials. 
 
 Again, by bronzing, or tinting bronze colour (in a 
 way pointed out to you in another chapter), one or 
 more of your studies, you will learn to know, approxi- 
 mately, the particular parts that suggest themselves 
 as being right for metal ; and you may further ex- 
 periment on such parts as seem wrong, and colour 
 or bronze over those parts again, to see if they have 
 become more nearly metallic in character or work- 
 manship. 
 
 Such experimenting is often a most valuable object 
 lesson, and practically indispensable, when it is pro- 
 posed to cast the work in bronze. But in the latter 
 case such experiments are best made on an extra cast 
 
 186
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC. 
 
 of the same work in plaster. If you have none by 
 you, it is quite worth the slight extra expense to 
 have a second cast made in plaster for this purpose, 
 if the work be worth casting into the actual metal. 
 
 THE PROCESS OF CASTING INTO BRONZE BY 
 THE CIRE-PERDUE METHOD 
 
 The Cire-perdue or lost wax process of casting in 
 bronze is the one which was practised by Benvenuto 
 Cellini and his contemporaries when they wished to 
 reproduce their models in metal, and there is no 
 doubt in my mind but that this method, so much 
 adopted by the Italians, and called by them Cera 
 perdata, is the best means of converting into bronze 
 a model which has many intricacies and much under- 
 cutting, or a work which has free pieces i.e. pieces 
 standing out or away from a body or mass, though 
 attached to it. But whether it is as good a method 
 as the sand process for large work, depends to a very 
 great extent upon the arrangement and treatment of 
 the subject to be cast. 
 
 For heroic and colossal work which has not an 
 abundance of undercutting, free pieces, or intricate 
 detail, the sand process cannot well be surpassed. 
 
 To obtain a bronze by the Cire-perdue process, you 
 must supply the founder with a copy in plaster of 
 the work to be cast, though in some instances the 
 clay model, after it has become stiff or firm in con- 
 sistence, will serve ; but there is always a risk in send- 
 ing to the foundry a clay model, which is, as you will 
 know, so very fragile that your original may quite 
 easily get broken, especially if it has any delicate 
 semi-detached parts. 
 
 With a work which is not more than two or three 
 
 187
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC. 
 
 1'eet iii height and width, and one which is quite 
 simple in arrangement and treatment, or with a 
 simply treated work in relief, and where it is neces- 
 s.-iry to save the extra outlay of a pound or two 
 for casting into plaster, the founder will with fair 
 safety make his model direct from the clay. 
 
 In any case, the work, be it either in clay or plaster, 
 is given in the first instance a coating or two of 
 shellac (French polish) by the founder; he then pro- 
 ceeds to make a gelatine mould over it (in the same 
 way as described in the chapter on Gelatine Mould- 
 ing), except where the work is of large proportion ; 
 then a plaster piece-mould is made. A wax casting 
 is taken from this mould, of the thickness which the 
 bronze cast will be when it is made, such thickness 
 varying according to the size of the work. In a life- 
 si /e figure it would be something about of an inch, 
 or a little more, throughout. 
 
 Before the wax casting is removed from the mould, 
 the founder fills it with a special composition of brick 
 dust and plaster, made to a paste consistency with 
 water; this forms the mould, so to speak, of the 
 inside of the wax, and is called the "core"; it also 
 serves to support the wax cast when it is taken from 
 the mould, and also prevents it from twisting or 
 changing in any way from the effect of heat, as it 
 would be liable to do in hot weather. 
 
 When the brick-dust composition has become 
 sufficiently set, the outside mould is taken away to 
 expose the wax casting ; to this casting some touch- 
 ing up may perhaps be necessary, and this by the 
 sculptor himself ; and if it be a work in the round, 
 the seams, formed by and where the mould-pieces 
 come together, will require to be removed. 
 
 The founder next arranges his pins, ducts, air-jets, 
 
 188
 
 MODELLING FOR URONZE, ETC. 
 
 and runners. The pins are little sticks or straws of 
 iron (their thickness and length varying according 
 to the size of the work), and are used for passing 
 through the wax at different points, and into the 
 composition core, the ends being left to project a 
 little way outside the front wax surface, so that they 
 will be embedded in the composition brick-dust 
 covering when this is put on the outside surface of 
 the work. The purpose of these pins is to hold the 
 inside composition or core and outside composition 
 mould in their proper relative places or positions 
 when the wax has been melted out, as explained a 
 little later. Without these pins the core could, when 
 the wax is removed, easily tumble over to the sides 
 of the outer mould, and your bronze, when cast, 
 might have 110 thickness at all in some parts, and 
 too much in other places. 
 
 The ducts are straws or pins, so to speak, made of 
 wax, and these are placed from the body or other 
 mass to the extremities of an extended part, such as 
 to the fingers of an extended arm, and serve to make 
 channels through which the metal may pass and 
 feed such parts, as well as its (the metal) passing 
 down the main aperture of the arm i.e., say, through 
 the shoulder. These ducts also serve as passages 
 through which the air can be driven, and thus assist 
 the metal in running up into these tips. 
 
 Next the air-jets are arranged ; these are placed in 
 different parts of the work, and are extended far 
 enough to project above and outside the outer mould, 
 when this is made, so that the air in the mould will 
 be driven through them when the molten metal is 
 poured in. 
 
 The runner is a roll of wax thicker and longer 
 than the ones already spoken of ; this, when melted 
 
 189
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC. 
 
 a\vay, forms the aperture through which the molten 
 metal is poured. 
 
 When all these straws of wax are placed on the 
 work the outside composition mould is made, and 
 the top of the runners and vent jets alone stand 
 exposed a little above the surface of this. 
 
 The mould is now left to dry and get firm, and is 
 arranged in the pit. It is then built around with 
 lire- bricks to form a kiln, and afterwards fired or 
 baked until the wax is melted out of it, and it is 
 absolutely freed from moisture. Next the bricks are 
 removed and the mould is packed all round with 
 sand, to hold it firm when the metal shall be 
 poured in. 
 
 By this time the mould may have cooled down to 
 such a heat as the founder thinks proper for the 
 next operation of pouring in the molten metal. This 
 the founder alone is able to tell : it is a matter 
 requiring great judgment. 
 
 The molten metal is now poured quietly in to fill 
 all the parts left vacant by the Cire-perdue (lost wax), 
 and there is now nothing to do but to wait for it to 
 cool ; it may be a matter of days in a work of big 
 dimensions. 
 
 When the metal is cooled down, the founder watches 
 anxiously the removal of the outer moulds, which 
 have become somewhat softer by the firing. In 
 quite a short time these are knocked away and the 
 asting is exposed with its network of pins, ducts, 
 air-jets, and runners; these are removed by saws 
 and chisels, and if well done leave no trace of their 
 having existed. 
 
 The work is now cleaned in a weak bath of sul- 
 phuric acid, and eventually in a bath of clean water. 
 
 Further touching up may be done with small 
 
 190
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC. 
 
 chisels and riffles, perhaps, by the sculptor himself, 
 and then comes the question of colour. 
 
 It may be the sculptor prefers to have his work 
 in its natural colour, just as it came from the mould ; 
 or it may be he wishes it with one or other parti- 
 cular patina which will be obtained through the 
 effect of various weak solutions of acids muriatic 
 acid, cyanide of potash, sal-ammoniac, and other 
 chemicals being used. 
 
 A bronze cast in its natural colour, as it comes 
 from the mould, will improve greatly in its appear- 
 ance through the effect of the atmosphere upon it, 
 and an almost daily wiping over with the hands 
 will assist it, there being a just sufficient oily 
 moisture from the flesh to be of service. 
 
 SAND CASTING 
 
 In casting a work by the sand process, more par- 
 ticularly one which may be in the round, there is less 
 risk of its being out of the plumb, falling over to one 
 side, twisting, or warping, even when the greatest 
 care is exercised, than there is by the waste wax 
 method ; for it will be easily understood that a work 
 such as a figure in the round, with little but a thin 
 bearing at the base, as across the ankles, and with a 
 big mass above, can easily fall a little to one side, or 
 backward or forward, when in its wax stage, unless 
 it is very carefully supported and propped, and has a 
 core inside it. 
 
 The sand used by the founders is one rich in loam, 
 and when ground it is made sufficiently moist to 
 make it cling together without breaking apart. A 
 "parting dust" (generally a brickdust) is used to 
 prevent one piece or core from adhering to another. 
 
 191
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC. 
 
 In some instances the sand-casting process is less 
 costly than the ( 1 in>-pt>rt1tic (waste wax) method. 
 
 The making of a sand mould is similar to that of 
 a plaster piece mould, where (as 1 have said in the 
 chapter on mould-making) a number of pieces are 
 made, each separately, at such parts of the model as 
 are undercut, and the whole of these pieces covered 
 with an outer case or shell. This shell, when re- 
 moved, serves to hold all the pieces, which are taken 
 off one by one and put into their respective positions. 
 
 It is practically the same with making a sand 
 mould for bronze casting, except that sand is used 
 that is to say, crammed in in place of plaster, to 
 make the pieces, or, as the founder calls them, the 
 " false cores," and also the shell. Around this shell 
 there is placed an iron " mould box," as it is called 
 when used for a small work, and " mould frame " 
 when for a large work, and this is fitted together 
 with pins and lugs, after which more sand is rammed 
 in to fill this " mould box " until the level of the top 
 is reached. 
 
 Where a mould is to be made over a work (or part 
 of a work) in the round, it is necessary to do it in 
 two (or maybe more) sections, a back and a front set 
 of false cores, and a back and a front shell to hold 
 these. When one section is complete the w r hole (the 
 mould and model) is turned right over bodily, and 
 the mould ("false cores" and shell) made on the 
 other side in precisely the same way, though it may 
 require fewer or more " false cores " according to 
 the amount of undercutting. When this side has 
 I MM MI made the mould is divided by first taking off 
 the iron mould boxes, then the shells, and eventually 
 all t he " false cores " ; the latter are then put back into 
 their places in their shells. The plaster model is now 
 
 192
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC. 
 
 placed on one side, and the " core " is next made, 
 with an iron framework inside it for strength and 
 support. This " core " is practically a replica in sand 
 of the model, and is formed by stuffing the two 
 whole moulds with sand, and afterwards closing 
 them together ; then the " frame boxes," " shells," 
 and "false core" pieces are again removed in the 
 same manner as before, and you have your model, so 
 to speak, in sand, with its " lanterns " or tubes inside 
 it, each just extending outside at one end to allow 
 the gas to escape when the molten metal is poured 
 in. The whole of these parts, i.e. the " shells," the 
 " core," and " false core " pieces, are then placed in an 
 oven to dry ; and when thoroughly dried are removed 
 from the oven, and then a thickness is pared (or cut) 
 off the " core " (sand model) equally all over ; this 
 thickness which is removed will form the thickness 
 of the bronze when the casting is made. 
 
 The whole mould is again carefully put together 
 with the " core " inside it, the iron " mould boxes " 
 put round, and these securely pinned up with strong 
 steel screws ; the mould is then ready for the molten 
 metal to be poured into it. 
 
 Through the " core " two rods have been placed at 
 right angles. These rods reach through some little 
 distance into the " false cores," and serve the purpose 
 of keeping the " core " in its exact position in the 
 mould, for it is obvious that with the thickness pared 
 off, it would otherwise move about, and cause the 
 casting to be thicker in one part than in another. 
 
 Besides these two iron pieces, other small branches 
 called " Gits " or " Gets " are put inside the " core " 
 to serve as feeders to various parts of the mould, 
 through which the metal can pass as well as the air 
 or gas. 
 
 193 N
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC. 
 
 A basin is put over the mould at a place where 
 an aperture has been made through which the molten 
 met.-il can run. In tin's basin there is a plug with a 
 long iron handle, which is surrounded by loam, to 
 prevent the molten metal from coming into contact 
 with the handle. 
 
 When the metal is poured into the basin the plug 
 is withdrawn, the metal enters the mould, and the 
 casting is formed. 
 
 After sufficient time for cooling has been allowed, 
 the work of removing the mould is begun by chop- 
 ping it away, and in a short time the model, or 
 that portion, of the model which has been cast, is 
 exposed in its bronze form, and nothing remains 
 but to remove the " Gets " (the workmen call them 
 the " Gits "), the feeding tubes, &c. 
 
 This portion, if it be a part of a whole, is laid on 
 one side until the other portions are made, \vhen all 
 pieces are riveted together, the joints closed up, and 
 you have your model in bronze, cast by the sand 
 process. 
 
 Instances have been known where a life-size horse, 
 with its head, tail, and legs on, has been cast in 
 one piece. Although it is possible, this heroic method 
 of procedure is not considered advisable ; and, more- 
 over, it is far more costly than when the casting is 
 done in parts. 
 
 Casting by the sand process is in general much the 
 same as by the lost wax, excepting that in the sand 
 method the sand mould into which the molten metal 
 is run is made direct from the plaster model. 
 
 This method generally necessitates the model being 
 cut up into more pieces than in the Cire-perdue pro- 
 cess, and the work is seldom cast as a whole. Being 
 made in parts, it is joined together afterwards, 
 
 194
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC. 
 
 which is done so skilfully by the best founders that 
 any sign of joining is imperceptible. 
 
 THE ELECTROTYPE DEPOSIT 
 
 The electrotype process gives you the most exact 
 reproduction of your work in metal, the minutest 
 details imaginable being brought out in facsimile ; 
 and the whole work does not suffer through con- 
 traction, as it does by the casting method. 
 
 An electrotype deposit can only be made in pure 
 metal, whereas in the casting process an alloy can 
 be used in proportions of copper, tin, and zinc ; and 
 this alloy possesses a quality which appears to have 
 more life in it than the pure metal has ; but for 
 perfect accuracy of reproduction the deposit method, 
 when well done, cannot be equalled, and in durability 
 it is said by some people to be equal to cast work. 
 
 Many of the statues and public monuments abroad 
 are electrotypes, and are said to be of the same sub- 
 stantial thickness as castings. 
 
 Deposits of the ordinary class are despised chiefly 
 on account of their thinness, but there is no difficulty 
 in making them to any thickness, and the cost com- 
 pares most favourably with that of work carried out 
 by other processes. 
 
 The manner of obtaining a reproduction by this 
 deposit method is by taking a mould either of 
 gutta-percha or other pliable material from the 
 original model. In some instances the mould is 
 made in plaster, which then undergoes a treatment 
 to harden it. 
 
 The mould or negative is next coated with a 
 preparation of plumbago or black-lead, and placed 
 in a bath where the metal is deposited into it. 
 
 195
 
 MODELLING FOR BRONZE, ETC. 
 
 Quite a large work can be made in two pieces only, 
 so that there is but one seam or joint to close when 
 the two pieces are put together. This is by reason 
 of the mould being made of a pliable material, which 
 will stretch, and thus can be pulled away easily from 
 the deposit, Even where there are portions which 
 may be much undercut, the parts come together 
 so beautifully that little difficulty is experienced in 
 hiding the joint when it is soldered together; and 
 this is done in such a way that it is impossible of 
 detection when finished. 
 
 I have seen things made by this process which 
 have been regarded as marvellous castings ; and but 
 for the closeness of surface, exactness of reproduction, 
 the less clear ring when tapped, and the want of 
 variety of surface patina, they could not be distin- 
 guished by the most experienced from castings. 
 
 Surely the first thing an artist wants, when de- 
 sirous of having his work in a permanent material, 
 is a facsimile reproduction of his work, for all other 
 matters are secondary to true form in sculpture 
 or modelling. But I should like to say that, pro- 
 vided you get this by the cast process, then it has 
 qualities which the deposit of pure metal does not, 
 to my mind, afford. 
 
 When a plaster mould has been used, it has to 
 be chipped away from the electrotype deposit. 
 
 196
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 MAKING A MODEL IN CLAY TO BE CARRIED 
 OUT AFTERWARDS IN MARBLE OR OTHER 
 STONE 
 
 IT is very necessary for the student to make a clay 
 model of his design before attempting the more 
 ambitious work of carving it in marble or stone. 
 It is a costly experiment for the amateur to learn 
 his mistakes on a block of marble. Far better to 
 make a carefully thought out model in clay, and 
 wrestle with all the difficulties of projections, joint 
 lines, &c., in a plastic material, than to start the 
 carving direct from, say, a crude or immature 
 drawing, which can never, even at its best, fully 
 indicate the effect of the heights and projections 
 sought after. 
 
 Now, in preparing this model, there are two im- 
 portant factors to be considered (apart from the 
 design). The first is the material in which the 
 carving is to be carried out ; the second is the 
 position the executed work is to occupy. 
 
 At first sight, a student might question the neces- 
 sity of worrying about the material until the model 
 is made ; but this is a most important point to 
 be borne in mind right from the very beginning. 
 Therefore he should make up his mind whether 
 the work is to be carried out in marble or soft stone, 
 and if in stone, what stone? For these materials 
 
 197
 
 MAKING A MODEL IN CLAY 
 
 have their practical limitations, and that which is 
 suitable for marble may be quite unsuitable for 
 stone, and rice rerun. And again, stones vary so 
 much that a model applicable to a fine stone like 
 Bath stone (Corsham Down for preference) would 
 be utterly impracticable in a harder stone such as 
 Ketton, or Red Mansfield stone. 
 
 I feel the importance of this so much, having seen 
 many very interesting models quite wasted by being 
 translated into the wrong material, that for the 
 guidance of the beginner I have thought it best to 
 give here a brief summary of a few of the more 
 popular stones, and to indicate their capabilities : 
 
 RED MANSFIELD (from Nottingham). A deep 
 roseate-brown sandstone suitable for big archi- 
 tectural work. Will not take fine details. 
 
 CLIPSHAM (from Rutland). A dull cream-coloured 
 stone, slightly shelly useful for architectural 
 and monumental work. 
 
 KETTON (from Rutland). Dark cream colour, suit- 
 able for monuments. 
 
 HOLLINGTON (from Staffordshire). A white sand- 
 stone. 
 
 BEER (from Devonshire). A soft limestone. 
 
 PORTLAND (from the Island of Portland, Dorset- 
 shire). Whitish - brown calcareous stone 
 serviceable for all purposes, very hard and 
 close and will take a clean finish. 
 
 FOREST OF DEAN (from Gloucestershire). A sand- 
 stone of great durability wonderful grey- 
 black colour -also red and bluish tones (not 
 recommended for small detail). 
 
 HATH STONE (from Wilts and Somersetshire). A 
 pleasant, easy-working stone. Fifty per cent. 
 198
 
 FOR MARBLE OR OTHER STONE 
 
 easier to work than Portland, but not so 
 durable will take a very fine finish. 
 HOPTON WOOD (from Derbyshire). Hard and of a 
 compact texture, which allows of intricate and 
 delicate mouldings being worked in a very 
 sharp and clean state takes a splendid polish, 
 and its colours range from a creamy dove- 
 white to a dark dove-grey. It is very durable, 
 and is suitable for memorial or other pedestals 
 and decorative panelling. 
 
 Now r suppose that the student is going to carve a 
 sundial, say, for his garden ; it will require a good 
 firm stone that will weather well, and he could not 
 do better than select a piece of good Portland. 
 Provided it is a sound, clean piece, there is no finer 
 stone for general decorative work outdoors than 
 this. 
 
 Let us conclude, then, that the student has made 
 his design and selected his material, and that he is 
 therefore now ready to make the clay model. 
 
 If the work to be undertaken is of large propor- 
 tions, it is best to make, first of all, a little sketch 
 of it in clay, to scale say 1 or 2 inches to the foot. 
 A little model like this is extremely useful, as it 
 shows the design in the round, and if it looks well on 
 the small scale it is more than likely to look well in 
 the full size. 
 
 A small sketch of this kind in clay is most helpful 
 in developing the design ; but it is necessary to 
 impress here on the student that this little model, 
 to be practical and useful, must be accurately made 
 to scale, and the best scale of all is 1 inch to the foot. 
 Sometimes, if the work is not large, it could be made 
 a quarter of the full size, but you should never be led 
 
 199
 
 MAKING A MODEL IN CLAY 
 
 into making a half full-size model, a very deceptive 
 scale for even a professional man ; the reason being 
 that on this big scale one is apt to model the detail 
 as though it were full size. There is no value in this 
 scale at all, and it is better to model direct to the 
 proper size than to the half size. But for all general 
 purposes there is no more satis- 
 factory method than the 1 inch 
 to the foot. 
 
 The student, having satisfied 
 himself that the scale model re- 
 presents his ideas and design, 
 can then proceed to make a car- 
 cass on which to build up the 
 full-size model. It is necessary 
 here to point out the great 
 importance of the model being 
 strongly made, so that there 
 may be no fear of its collaps- 
 ing or settling down after it 
 has once been started. 
 
 If, as was presumed at the 
 start, you have set out to model 
 the pedestal of a sundial, a very 
 good way is to take a good 
 broomstick as the central sup- 
 port, bracket out on this the greatest projections, so 
 as to relieve the weight of plaster for much of the 
 model can be made direct in plaster, leaving sunk 
 spaces for a clay bed where the ornament occurs. 
 If the student looks at the diagram here reproduced, 
 he will see how it is proposed to turn up the shaft 
 where circular on plan by a very simple and primi- 
 tive method. Make two bearers to carry the roller, 
 and at one end of the roller fasten an iron handle 
 
 200 
 
 Fig. LXV 
 
 PROPOSED MODEL 
 OF SUNDIAL
 
 FOR MARBLE OR OTHER STONE 
 
 for the purpose of turning the roller. Next cut out 
 the sections in zinc, and by applying this zinc 
 strickle to the model as it revolves, you will he 
 enabled to turn up all those parts required, taking 
 care to work the strickle to the true centre line of 
 the shaft. 
 
 Being now ready to fill in the ornamental portions 
 of your design with clay, you first give the plaster 
 structure several coats of shellac, to make the clay 
 adhere and to prevent suction. 
 
 From this point the success of the model depends 
 
 Fig. LXVI 
 
 FIRST STAGE 
 
 Showing elementary method of turning the shaft. 
 
 entirely upon the student's own individual expression 
 and interpretation of the design. In all relief work 
 it must be remembered that much depends upon 
 the play of light and shade introduced. The same 
 design may be interpreted in many ways. There are 
 treatments applicable to all phases of work. If the 
 ornament falls on a shaped section, do not spoil the 
 outline by excessive undulations ; rather keep the 
 work up to a flat general line representing the archi- 
 tectural outline of the section ; and in making a 
 model, always model on a clay ground ; do not, for 
 the sake of facility, be led into merely laying your 
 ornament on to a plaster ground. The clay will 
 
 201
 
 MAKING A MODEL IN CLAY 
 
 -, 
 
 crack off the plaster, and one cannot get 
 the cohesion, delicacy, and mystery so charming in a 
 ,-lay in... Id. but utterly lost if the modeller is handi- 
 capped by a hard background. 
 
 So much for the model of the sundial, for the com- 
 pletion of which you have the 
 writer's sincerest good wishes. 
 
 Now we will proceed to a 
 bigger and more architectural 
 range of work. We will suppose 
 that the student, who has learned 
 the limits of his materials and 
 mastered the elementary nature 
 and demands of simple model- 
 ling, now desires to grapple with 
 modelling for some piece of stone 
 carving on a building or monu- 
 ment, a piece of work that is a 
 component part of its adjacent 
 architecture and will probably be 
 placed many feet above the eye. 
 This demands to be approached 
 from a standpoint quite different 
 to that which we have before 
 described. 
 
 In the first place, it must be re- 
 membered that the work now is 
 part of, and yet subordinate to, 
 
 the surrounding architecture. It is a detail that 
 must be discovered ; it must not shout and over- 
 whelm the constructional lines of its framework. It 
 must unfold itself to the view slowly, and when 
 it is revealed, it must be satisfactory. There is no 
 excuse for imperfect ornamentation, and nothing 
 is to be condemned more than the ostentatious 
 
 202 
 
 Fig. LXVII 
 
 SECOND STAGE 
 
 Showing the inner core 
 built up roughly with 
 laths.
 
 FOR MARBLE OR OTHER STONE 
 
 CLAY 
 
 CLAY 
 
 display of common and vulgar work on modern 
 buildings. 
 
 Let us imagine a musician has written some 
 beautiful music for a song. If 
 the words of that song are not 
 good, the music is wasted. The 
 music was to frame the song, but 
 the poem is imperfect, and both 
 the music and the song are spoiled 
 thereby. 
 
 So in architecture and carving, 
 the two are so closely woven in 
 their alliance that it is impossible 
 for either to be perfect unless 
 they both are ; and as music is 
 the dominant voice in the song, 
 so must architecture be the pre- 
 dominant partner in the arts, and 
 the decoration, on whatever lines, 
 must be the refining note, never 
 concealing the constructional lines 
 or overpowering its surroundings. 
 
 Before beginning a model for 
 stone carving on a building, ascer- 
 tain carefully the height from the 
 ground of the proposed carving, 
 and incorporate with the model 
 as much as possible of the adja- 
 cent mouldings and architecture. 
 Without this, it is impossible to 
 
 make a model properly, because one cannot judge 
 the necessary projection of the relief, or realise the 
 general weight and balance of the work, without 
 the surrounding architecture. If the work is going 
 to be placed at any height, it is necessary to take 
 
 203 
 
 Fig. LXVIII 
 
 THIRD STAGE 
 
 Showing the outline 
 h.iving been turned 
 up in plaster^ and 
 the parts to be 
 modelled shaped to 
 requisite section in 
 clav.
 
 MAKING A MODEL IN CLAY 
 
 into consideration any projecting cornices or ledges 
 immediately below it, as the line of sight will be 
 nlVocted thereby, for probably from the street level 
 such projecting cornices may cut off from sight some 
 six or eight inches from the bottom of the carving. 
 
 Keep the design well up, so that the whole of 
 it may be seen from below. Nothing looks more 
 amateurish than to see the bottom half, say, of a 
 shield cut off by some projecting 
 ledge. 
 
 In modelling for stone carving, 
 one of the first things to do is 
 to make sure of the joint lines 
 of the stone work, and to cut 
 these joint lines on the clay 
 model before beginning the 
 work. Bear in mind that the 
 modelling is for stone carving, 
 and the joints are to be con- 
 sidered all the time during the 
 process of modelling. Always 
 study the joint lines so that 
 they cut in a good square place 
 in the ornament ; avoid making 
 
 m 
 
 feather edges, or leaving a thin 
 edge partly on the other side of the joint line if 
 necessary raise or lower the design, contract or ex- 
 pand it, as the case may be, so that the joint lines 
 cut across suitable places. 
 
 When the stone has already been masoned or 
 " boasted " ready for carving, be sure, before starting 
 the model, carefully to check the exact sizes of the 
 -tone and the projections of stone left for carving. 
 It is very annoying, after having made a careful 
 model, to find that the stone left for carving is, 
 
 204
 
 FOR MARBLE OR OTHER STONE 
 
 say, two inches narrower than the model ; so never 
 make a model for stone that has already been 
 worked, without first taking the trouble to measure 
 up the actual stone. And as regards the projections, 
 it is sometimes advisable to make a gauge or gallows 
 set to the extreme projection, with which now and 
 then one can pass over the model and scrape off 
 those parts which are 
 creeping up to a greater 
 projection than the 
 stone. 
 
 It is necessary to bear 
 in mind that model- 
 ling for stone carving 
 is quite different to 
 modelling for bronze 
 work or merely for a 
 plaster cast ; for a 
 model that is to be 
 translated into stone 
 has definite limits to 
 
 Fig. LXX 
 
 A HANDY SORT OF 
 GAI.LOWS 
 
 Made with a piece of wire and a cork. 
 
 its projections, and it 
 is so easy, when model- 
 ling, to add on a little 
 
 more and a little more, till imperceptibly the model 
 begins to grow bolder and bolder, and finally it is 
 found that the model has far exceeded the projection 
 of the stone left for the carving. 
 
 Another important point is to get the model right 
 before you cast it. Students are often heard to say 
 that the model has got wrong somewhere, but they 
 will put it right in the plaster or in the carving ! 
 Now this is a wrong principle. If one cannot get it 
 right in a plastic material like clay, one is hardly 
 likely to be any more fortunate in a hard material 
 
 205
 
 MAKING -A .MODEL IN CLAY 
 
 like stone or marble. So my advice to the student 
 is : " Don't sliirk it ; get the model right before 
 leaving it, no matter how irksome or tedious the 
 labour may be." 
 
 In making a model for marble work, it must be 
 borne in mind that one is now dealing with a costly 
 material ; and also at the same time the most beauti- 
 ful medium for the expression of relief work. The 
 nature of marble warrants a high finish, careful 
 detail, and extreme delicacy and refinement. It is 
 best to consider well these points in the model, and 
 
 Fig. LXXI 
 
 A SIMPLE GAUGE 
 
 To limit the projection of the model. 
 
 spend more time and thought over the work than 
 for the rougher material of stone ; if the student 
 proposes to carve a small panel in marble, the deli- 
 cacy can be as a thread on the ground, for in marble 
 every line or cut tells. Make the model accordingly : 
 give it play of light and shade in the bold parts, 
 and on the flat ground bring in the delicate under- 
 tones, like whispering interludes of a great melody. 
 
 Music and ornament have very much in common, 
 and if one thinks of music, whilst modelling, the 
 similarity can be easily recognised. This part ripples 
 along in the tenor ; this part gradually grows louder 
 and louder, till like the basso profondo it bursts 
 
 206
 
 FOR MARBLE OR OTHER STONE 
 
 forward in full relief ; then it dies away softly softly, 
 till it is almost lost in the ground and it can be just 
 faintly heard floating away into nothing. 
 
 Follow this idea out while modelling ornament, 
 and you will be surprised how it helps you to give 
 play to your work. 
 
 In concluding this chapter, let me advise the 
 student not to seek to fly before he can walk. To 
 become proficient in carving stone and marble takes 
 years of practice. Do not attempt to carve marble 
 till stone has been well mastered ; and do not aim 
 in the early days at too great an elaborateness. 
 There are elementary rules to learn, which can only 
 come with experience. No one can teach modelling 
 or art by book, for that alone can come by intuition 
 and practice. The writer can only point out some 
 of the factors that help and lead to the making of a 
 successful model ; but this is merely the beginning 
 of the pupil's career, a signpost that points the way 
 to those who are determined to arrive, not a vehicle 
 to carry the helpless to the goal. It rests with the 
 student to follow up the course from this point 
 where the writer and reader separate ; practice, hard 
 work, and determination will carry the ambitious 
 through. Lots of failures, lots of disappointments 
 at first ! but let the student console himself all the 
 greatest sculptors go through these struggles and 
 disappointments in their early days. These are the 
 stepping-stones on which one may " rise to higher 
 things." 
 
 207
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 MAKING A MODEL IN CLAY TO BE CARRIED 
 OUT IN WOOD FOR ARCHITECTURAL 
 DECORATION, INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR 
 
 MAKING a model for wood-carving is quite different 
 to the other processes described before, although it 
 is closely allied to the process of the stone-carving 
 model, insomuch as both in stone and wood carving 
 the process lies in cutting away, as opposed to the 
 building up that is legitimate in modelling for 
 bronze, terra-cotta, or plaster work. Hence it is 
 advisable for the student to be well equipped with 
 wire tools tools that cut away the clay, just as 
 gouges cut away the wood. 
 
 It is not well that the student should, when making 
 a model which is to be carried out in wood, carve his 
 or her model out of solid clay. By no means do 
 this. Build up the model in the usual w r ay, but in 
 finishing, impart into it some of the crispness of 
 wood-carving by the aid of the wire edge tools. 
 
 A model, whether it be for stone, marble, bronze, 
 or wood, should betray its future material by the 
 character of the work you put upon it. A model 
 for a piece of wood-carving should look quite a 
 ditt'rivnt work to a model intended for stone-carving ; 
 and, again, a model for stone-carving should easily 
 he differentiated from a model intended for bronze. 
 All three have their own characteristics, but, alas ! 
 
 208
 
 MAKING A MODEL IN CLAY 
 
 much faulty work is done in this respect, and one 
 sees but too often wood-carving treated as though 
 it were for bronze or marble, all trace of the material 
 being lost or ignored, when the very charm of this 
 art lies in its material and the gouge cuts which 
 produce it. 
 
 Therefore, at the very outset, the student should 
 impress upon his mind that the model which he is 
 about to undertake is for reproduction in wood ; 
 and it must have all the characteristics and partake 
 of the very fibre and grain of wood. If that end is 
 kept in view all the time, the craftsman will not go 
 far wrong. 
 
 Wood, as most other materials, has its limitations, 
 and these will govern the relief considerably. One 
 is not so much concerned with the joints in wood- 
 carving as in stone-carving, though it is as well to 
 have the wood glued up (when necessary) for the 
 joints to suit the model, so as to avoid working up 
 to a feather edge along the joint. 
 
 Supposing the student is desirous of making a 
 model for a carved oak lectern, with an eagle for 
 the book-rest. The eagle would naturally be carved 
 out of a flat piece of oak, say two or three inches 
 thick ; and, in making the model of the eagle, it is 
 as well to keep the work flat and slabby. Try to 
 impart the fact that it is created out of a flat slab of 
 wood : do not model so that the eagle's beak and 
 little pieces of the wings have to be glued on, 
 but keep it all flat and cohesive, in keeping with 
 its purpose and material. If it were a model for a 
 brass eagle, the whole thing would be on a different 
 basis, and the modeller would then be untrammelled 
 by any restrictions of relief and projection. But 
 where, as in the case under discussion, the model is 
 
 209 o
 
 MAKING A MODEL IN CLAY 
 
 for wood, do not try to model it as though there 
 were no restrictions. Rather is it better to accen- 
 tuate the fact that the work is to be carved out of 
 a flat plank than to run into exaggerated relief, 
 quite impossible to the material without a lot of 
 gluing and patching up. 
 
 Now it is impossible to lay down rules for the 
 student's guidance for all kinds of work. The mere 
 fact that wood-carving perhaps covers a wider field 
 of work than any other craft, embracing as it does'" 
 furniture and architecture, both domestic and eccle- 
 siastic, with all the accessories of heraldry, botany, 
 allegory, and the hundred and one styles ranging 
 from Celtic, Moorish, Gothic, to the more refined 
 styles of the Greeks and Romans, the lasting triumphs 
 of the Renaissance, and the glorious style of eight- 
 eenth-century France and the Empire. 
 
 This is part of the range of subjects that a student 
 setting out on a wood-carver's career must make up 
 his mind to know. Hence the difficulty of laying 
 down any hard-and-fast rules to govern such a wide 
 field of work. I would, however, repeat my own 
 maxim, which is an important one : " When making a 
 model for a piece of wood-carving, keep the nature of 
 the material ever before your mind ; " for although in 
 some instances it is necessary to ignore the medium 
 and only to consider the ultimate result as a whole, 
 as in carving, say, for a reredos which has to be gilt, 
 yet even then there is no reason why the gouge cuts 
 should not display the craftsmanship of the carver. 
 Let us take the idea, then, of making a model of an 
 altar table. Unless it is to have figure subjects in 
 the panels, it is not necessary to make a complete 
 model ; but the model, if it is to serve any useful 
 purpose, must be full size and should contain one 
 
 210
 
 complete angle and return. This is useful in settling 
 the mitres, for no matter how successful the enriched 
 mouldings may be on the straight run, it is when one 
 comes to the mitre that one shows by skilful hand- 
 ling, or otherwise, whether one is a master of the craft 
 or not. It may sound an extreme remark to a casual 
 observer, but it is none the less true, that nothing 
 discloses the amateur more than an ill-considered 
 
 Fig. LXXII 
 
 A ZINC TEMPLATE 
 
 For running moulding in either clay or plaster prospective view. 
 
 and weakly designed mitre. A mitre should uphold 
 the contour of the moulding at its intersection. It 
 should be broad in treatment to impart strength and 
 solidity, and it must reflect the idea of the straight 
 run of the design. 
 
 When engaged on a model in which mouldings are 
 to be enriched, run all the adjacent mouldings in 
 plaster with a zinc " strickle " (or profile or template). 
 The member that is to be enriched should be worked 
 at the back a full inch deeper (see illustration), so as 
 
 211
 
 MAKING A MODEL IN CLAY 
 
 t < > give a thickness and body for the clay, or else the 
 clay will dry up and crack. 
 
 If the altar table is to have enriched panels to the 
 front, mostly five, it would do to model, say, two 
 direct on the full-size model. The other three can 
 be modelled on separate boards, as they are easier 
 to handle and to keep moist; and the student will 
 have gained experience and assured the correct scale 
 
 Tig. LXXIII 
 
 FRONT ELEVATION OF ZINC TEMPLATE 
 
 by the two panels he has already modelled. Be sure 
 and model these panels on a clay ground of three- 
 quarter thickness at least, for by this is gained 
 greater delicacy and better work. It is practically 
 impossible to make a satisfactory model by working 
 direct on to a wooden ground. You must always 
 set back the ground of the model, so that there is 
 at least three-quarters of an inch of clay to form the 
 background of the work. 
 
 There must always be sympathy and a feeling of 
 clinging of the ornament to its background. Do not 
 
 212
 
 isolate the design so that it stands apart from its 
 surroundings ; rather let it fall into its place sub- 
 servient to the construction which holds it. 
 
 In modelling for heraldic wood-carving, always 
 entirely fill the panel up to the square edge ; keep 
 the shield small, the crest big; the ragged banner 
 can spread to any dimensions, for the ragged banner 
 is but a torn flag rolled round the helmet and fall- 
 ing away at the back of 
 the supporters. The sup- 
 porters must have one 
 front limb touching the 
 shield. It is heraldically 
 incorrect for the sup- 
 porters to turn their backs 
 to the centre shield ; they 
 must face towards the 
 centre and by some means 
 grasp or support the 
 shield. Fi s LXXIV 
 
 In modelling animals PLAN OF WOODEN FRAME- 
 for heraldry, you must WORK UPON WHICH THE 
 not make them too ZINC TEMPLATE is FIXED 
 natural. The essential AND WORKED 
 features of the animal 
 
 must be exaggerated for instance, if the subject is 
 a lion, the limbs must be massive, denoting strength, 
 the body starved, the brow receding, the head small ; 
 for in heraldry the lion denotes strength strength 
 of limb. Above all, avoid the sleek, overfed kind of 
 pet cat so often put forward as a heraldic lion. 
 All the animals used in heraldry denote by their 
 modelling the natures of which they are the symbols. 
 
 The knowledge of botany required in modelling 
 is not great, but it is a very useful training and 
 
 213
 
 MAKING A MODEL IN CLAY 
 
 acquisition to have a knowledge of leaves, flowers, 
 fruits, and their characteristics. Those most usually 
 required are the oak, laurel, chestnut, acanthus, rose, 
 chrysanthemum, and palm. It is most desirable that 
 students should equip themselves with careful studies 
 of these plants, which they will find invaluable all 
 their lives for reference, 
 
 In making a model for carving on furniture, we 
 are dealing with smaller details than is often neces- 
 sary on the larger scale of architectural work. Much 
 of the treatment of the work will depend upon the 
 wood and its colour. For instance, in mahogany, 
 darkened and polished, the nature of the material 
 blurs much of the effect which would have been 
 obtained if the wood had been left raw. There is 
 perhaps no wood which repays carving and lends 
 itself to every delicacy so much as a beautiful piece 
 of oak left in the raw state : every cut tells, every 
 line catches the light, and all the mastery of the 
 craft comes out when oak is skilfully worked. So, 
 when there is a doubt, give the preference to oak 
 and leave it in its raw state. Many people object 
 to oak because in its raw state it catches the dirt. 
 It may do so at first, perhaps so much the better ! 
 In time it will partake of a beautiful tone of darken- 
 ing colour. 
 
 It is always as well to make a full-size model in 
 deal of at least part of the piece of furniture intended 
 to be made, before proceeding with its construction 
 in the harder woods, whether it be the back of a 
 chair, the leg of a small table, the angle of a cabinet, 
 or the section of a cornice to a bookcase which it 
 is intended to enrich. No matter how carefully 
 it has all been set out on paper, one can hardly 
 realise the true effect of it in its proper relief till 
 
 214
 
 TO BE CARRIED OUT IN WOOD 
 
 it is seen as a full-size model ; and on studying the 
 model the student must perforce find many points 
 which can be considerably improved upon, now it 
 is produced in relief, and which, had it been begun 
 direct in the hard wood, might have been impossible 
 to alter, and therefore objectionable to the possessor 
 all his life. And all this just for the sake of saving 
 a little extra trouble in making a model at first ! 
 
 Little can be said in a book of this class as to the 
 styles in which to model. Style is perhaps a question 
 of temperament. No one style is pre-eminent in 
 everything ; certain styles lend themselves better to 
 one class of decoration than another. For instance, 
 I doubt if there are many examples of a Gothic 
 ball-room ; it would not seem natural. Yet there 
 is no reason why a Gothic ball-room should not be 
 carried out. But at the same time there is a mute 
 language in all styles, a language that is begotten 
 of the environment of the lives that are inseparably 
 interwoven with these styles. 
 
 The history of France speaks to us to-day with 
 no uncertain voice in the architecture of her great 
 palaces and chateaux. It is so apparent that, even 
 if one had never read her history in books, her 
 architecture would portray her character and former 
 glories as no word-picture ever could. 
 
 Spain, again, has her distinctive characteristics 
 written in the flamboyant but beautiful character 
 of her work, while England, more cold and reserved, 
 remains still conservative and faithful to the tradi- 
 tional styles of her land. The United States to-day 
 is writing her history in polyglot styles in which 
 commerce flaunts from the huge sky-scrapers to 
 the world. How different to the States of South 
 America, where Spain again has enriched the world 
 
 215
 
 .MAKING A MODEL IN CLAY 
 
 with old and richly-gilt carving* in thousands of 
 wonderful churches planted there in the days of 
 her /enith. 
 
 All this leads back to what was said at first as to 
 Style being but the expression of temperament; but, 
 observe, it is imperative that the student should 
 not ignore Style. It is not to be believed that the 
 creative powers of a student are superior to those 
 displayed in the lessons of the past. Knowledge of 
 styles is absolutely indispensable. It is impossible 
 for a student to create a new style or period. And 
 it is only possible for an artist to depart from tradi- 
 tional work when he has mastered the schools of 
 design that have become historical. It is, unfortu- 
 nately, considered by a certain class of students that 
 they can ride supreme on their own creative facul- 
 ties. Perhaps to some extent they are successful in 
 their early efforts, which is more the pity ; but you 
 may rest assured that without the backbone of tra- 
 ditional style no work can live. Eccentricity must 
 not be confounded with genius, nor must dignity 
 be sacrified to originality. 
 
 Do not imagine that it is necessary slavishly to 
 copy existing styles, but it is vastly important that 
 a student's art education and all his early work 
 should be built on sound lines, which will save him 
 from the pitfalls of that elusive chimera "a new 
 style." It may be added that the only men who 
 have ever achieved success in creating original work 
 are men who have been through the mill of hard 
 work, and by their experience and knowledge of 
 traditional styles have been able to impart a greater 
 originality and freshness to their work out of that 
 very knowledge. 
 
 210
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 COLOURING, WAXING, AND BRONZING 
 PLASTER CASTS 
 
 A DRY plaster cast, unless coated with some prepara- 
 tion, is not an agreeable material to look upon, and 
 does not give you the quality of surface that your 
 clay model does. It is not only opaque but dead in 
 appearance ; so much so that Canova truly described 
 clay as the life, plaster as the death, and marble as 
 the resurrection. But as we cannot always afford 
 to put our work into the final material of either 
 marble or bronze, we devise a method of imitation 
 by which we can obtain a very close resemblance to 
 the qualities of real bronze, and something like the 
 effect of old marble an ivory-like character ; indeed, 
 it is quite possible to get many interesting effects 
 on plaster, all better than the raw material. 
 
 The first and quickest, the least costly, and the 
 simplest means of doing away with the opaqueness 
 of plaster is this : 
 
 When your plaster cast is dry, and you have re- 
 moved all dust from it, give it two or three coatings 
 of white French polish, letting each subsequent coat 
 be applied only when the previous one has dried in 
 well. A matter of half-an-hour will suffice. It may 
 be that with only two, or even one, the effect will 
 please you, in which case a further application is not 
 required. This will be a matter of taste with the 
 
 217
 
 COLOriUXG, WAXING, AND 
 
 operator. Imt I would remind you that the more 
 times within reason you cover it with this medium, 
 the higher the polish will be. After the second 
 coating the sin-face of your plaster is closed, and 
 any more put on forms a skin and tends to fill up 
 the detail. 
 
 When applying the medium, do not let your brush 
 be too full of the liquid ; more especially does this 
 refer to all coatings after the first. 
 
 French polish, being nothing more than shellac 
 dissolved in methylated spirit, can be quite easily 
 made by any one, and at less expense than if bought 
 ready made up. Besides, you can make it to your 
 own liking as regards strength, though the polish 
 you buy prepared for use can be thinned, if neces- 
 sary, by the addition of methylated spirit. 
 
 When you have given your plaster as many paint- 
 ings of the polish as you wish, and the surface is 
 thoroughly dry and hard, you may further improve 
 the effect of your work, if you wish to strengthen 
 the detail or darken the hollows, by taking some 
 methylated spirit in a saucer and adding to it a 
 little dry powdered colouring matter such as chrome 
 yellow, yellow ochre, raw umber, or light red, these 
 being the colours generally recommended for the pur- 
 pose. This solution should be painted on, wherever 
 you think it necessary, with a camel-hair or other 
 soft brush, such as you would use for water-colours. 
 
 If the colour should run over other parts than 
 those intended, there is no need for alarm, as it 
 can be removed quite easily with a little cotton-wool 
 or soft cloth. Should it, however, be inclined to 
 resist, take a little of the spirit in the wool and 
 quickly drag over the parts; any sign of the colour 
 will thus be instantly removed.
 
 There is another method of applying this colour 
 and spirit. Quite a good effect can be obtained by 
 taking a large soft brush full of the colour and 
 going quickly all over the plaster work, beginning 
 from the top. When this has become dry, which 
 is usually a matter of a few minutes only, wipe the 
 wool over such parts as you wish freed from the 
 colour, which will almost dust off, unless you have 
 in the application rubbed too long the surface of the 
 plaster, and thus dissolved the shellac coating, in 
 which case the shellac, being a fixative, will hold 
 the colour, and only cotton-wool or soft cloth dipped 
 in methylated spirit and rubbed on the parts, will 
 remove it. 
 
 It is advisable that any colouring matter which 
 you may wish to put on plaster should at first be 
 applied in quite a thin solution, for it is easier to 
 darken by another painting than to lighten in tone 
 by the removal of some over-colouring. 
 
 If it is desired that the colouring shall adhere more 
 firmly to the plaster surface, a few drops of the 
 French polish added to the spirits in your saucer 
 will hold it permanently. 
 
 To obtain any extra polish on the surface, take some 
 French chalk in its powder form, and with a pad 
 of cotton- wool apply it by rubbing quickly, though 
 softly, over the surface of your work, or over such 
 parts as you may wish to have a higher polish. 
 
 When it is your purpose to colour your plaster 
 model, keep it as clean as possible, covered and pro- 
 tected from dust, no matter which method you may 
 use, or to what extent you may be applying the 
 colour. Dirt or dust on a raw plaster surface is 
 horrid, and cannot easily be got rid of ; but the same 
 dirt or dust on a plaster surface which has under- 
 
 219
 
 COLOURING, WAXING, AND 
 
 gone the treatment of which I have here spoken, 
 has sometimes an agreeable effect and quality, and 
 is almost too readily removable. I say this because 
 I have experienced at times the vexation of finding 
 that the industrious maid has dusted away quite 
 a nice effort which I had seen the night before oil a 
 work. 
 
 Dust in the hollows of some plaster works, as in the 
 hollows of some works in bronze, has quite a fine and 
 valuable effect ; though the opposite result will ensue 
 when it settles on the top or front surfaces. 
 
 Another method of toning down plaster from its 
 crude whiteness, and dreadful opaqueness, to an 
 agreeable quality of surface and general appearance, 
 is that of Waxing. 
 
 For the process of waxing plaster, it is more especi- 
 ally important that your model be kept very clean, 
 even more so than if treated with the French polish ; 
 indeed, the greatest care should be taken from the 
 time of beginning to cast a work which you propose 
 afterwards waxing, to see that your plaster in its 
 powder state has no dirt in it ; that it is free from 
 dust, as the room should be where you make your 
 casting; and further, when your cast is made it 
 should be wrapped up carefully in tissue or other soft 
 paper, and put away to dry thoroughly. 
 
 All this is necessary if you wish to obtain a perfect 
 result from waxing. When such precautions have 
 Ix-en taken, the subsequent experiments of toning 
 down, colouring, or discolouring can be made quite 
 easily, and the waxed surface will admit of this to 
 any extent. 
 
 If, however, you wish to apply wax to a plaster cast 
 which has become soiled, or one upon which you may 
 have worked in its plaster state, it is still possible 
 
 220
 
 BRONZING PLASTER CASTS 
 
 that a good effect can be obtained, and the work 
 made to look quite agreeable as compared with the 
 dry, unwaxed plaster surface. 
 
 The way to treat a cast in this soiled state is quite 
 simple. In the first place, it is necessary that your 
 cast should be dry, or nearly so, for this allows a 
 better absorption of the wax. It is also helpful in 
 the same direction if your plaster model is made warm 
 by placing it by a fire, though great care should be 
 taken to prevent its getting burnt or scorched ; to 
 avoid this, and to get it equally warm all round, 
 which it is advisable to do, turn it often, it may be 
 every few minutes if the heat thrown out from the 
 fire is great. 
 
 Before or during the warming process, you prepare 
 your wax in the following way, using only, when 
 possible, the best stearine wax for the purpose. It 
 can be obtained from a Dental Supply Stores, as it is 
 the same as that used by dentists for waxing the cast 
 taken of the mouth of their patients for fitting them 
 with new teeth. 
 
 Take a piece of the wax the size of a walnut, cut 
 it up into thin wafers, and dissolve it on the fire or 
 gas stove in a tin or enamel saucepan. This will 
 take but a moment or two. Then remove it right 
 away from the fire and add to it half a pint of 
 turpentine. It must be remembered that, turpentine 
 being of a nature so inflammable that it is highly 
 dangerous if brought into contact with fire or lighted 
 gas or matches, great care should be exercised. It is 
 important to bear this in mind, because when you 
 have added the turpentine to the wax it is advis- 
 able to warm both a little to ensure their being 
 properly amalgamated. In this case it is safer to 
 put the wax and turpentine into a gallipot, and this 
 
 221
 
 COLOURING, WAXING, AND 
 
 gallipot into a saucepan sufficiently large to leave a 
 space of water between it and the inner vessel. 
 Warm this on the side of a fire without much flame ; 
 or if a gas ring or jet be used, let the gas be turned 
 low. as but little warming is required, and hurry 
 must at all cost be avoided when there is risk in the 
 process. 
 
 Do not let your attention be diverted until such 
 time as you have removed the saucepan from near 
 the fire or gas, or it may boil or spit up in your 
 absence and get alight. With care there is no need 
 of fear, but I must insist on cautioning the student, 
 lest he be careless or merely ignorant of the danger. 
 
 With your wax and turpentine prepared, and your 
 work on the turn-table, you may at once apply the 
 liquid with a clean, good-size hog-hair brush, begin- 
 ning at the top, proceeding all round, and working 
 downwards to the base. This application you may 
 repeat several times. 
 
 It will, it is quite likely, be found that in parts the 
 wax remains thick on the surface, if the work has 
 become cold ; but it will be absorbed by the plaster, 
 if the bust is placed near the fire and made warm 
 again. 
 
 When your work is lifted back on to the turn-table, 
 a further painting of the wax may be put on, though 
 in this case with much less wax in your brush than 
 you had previously. 
 
 It may be found that the wax, as it cools in the 
 vessel, will set into a paste-like consistency, and may 
 need the addition of more turpentine, and again 
 li< -a ting, but not if it only resembles a thick liquid. 
 Warming thins it, and it will therefore more speedily 
 soak into the plaster. 
 
 For darkening the hollows and crevices of the 
 
 222
 
 BRONZING PLASTER CASTS 
 
 detail you should take a little powder colour of any 
 tint you wish, as in the case of the work which has 
 been coated with the white French polish ; but in the 
 case of the waxed plaster, use the wax and turpentine 
 medium instead of the spirit, to mix with the colour. 
 Paint this on your work ; you may do so freely, for a 
 little cotton-wool will wipe it oif parts where it is 
 not needed, if that be done within a reasonable time 
 afterwards, and before it has been allowed to become 
 fixed. Even in such a case a little turpentine on 
 wool and soft rubbing will remove it. 
 
 When you have done as much tinting or darken- 
 ing as you think desirable, and the wax has thor- 
 oughly dried in, you may improve the appearance 
 of the surface (as in the case already mentioned 
 where French polish only had been applied to the 
 plaster) by rubbing over the whole work or parts 
 only, according to discretion, with cotton-wool and 
 French powdered chalk, applied with a quick though 
 soft circular movement. By this means you can 
 obtain almost any degree of polish. Under no con- 
 ditions rub hard on the surface, but let your pad of 
 wool pass lightly over the work. 
 
 A work prepared in the wax manner can after- 
 wards be painted upon to almost any extent, with 
 powder or pastel colour, and the turpentine and 
 wax for a medium ; or the dry colour itself will 
 adhere in some degree if rubbed on with the finger. 
 
 The two methods I have described for plaster 
 casts are particularly useful in cases where the work 
 is of large proportions; but in the case of a small 
 work, such as a medal, statuette, panel, or miniature 
 bust, of say not more than half life-size proportions, 
 the following method of stearining it produces a 
 very ivory and old marble-like appearance. 
 
 223
 
 COLOURING, WAXING, AND 
 
 Place your model when quite dry in an oven of 
 fairly warm temperature, or if you have not this 
 convenience, by or above a fire, not so near as to 
 burn it, but close enough to heat it quietly through 
 the plaster and well below the surface ; turn it fre- 
 quently, so that all its sides may get equally warm, 
 protecting it all the time from dust. 
 
 In the meantime prepare your wax and turpentine 
 in the same proportion (and with no less caution 
 against its catching fire), except that it may be made 
 a little hotter in this instance ; indeed, it is better to 
 get it up to something approaching boiling heat if 
 this can be done with all safety, for the reason that 
 when applied it will remain in its liquid state much 
 longer than if at a lower temperature, and it will 
 get absorbed further below the surface. 
 
 You must not forget to turn your work frequently 
 during the time you are preparing your medium, so 
 that both this and the medium are well heated at 
 one and the same moment. 
 
 The medium being now in its prepared state, place 
 it where its temperature will not decrease quickly, 
 but away from the possibility of its getting ignited. 
 Then take your work and place it in a china or 
 enamel bowl of sufficient size, and without any 
 further delay pour the wax and turpentine mixture 
 all over it, using at the same time a clean hog-hair 
 brush, or what is commonly called a house-painter's 
 pencil, with some of the liquid in it to get into the 
 crevices. 
 
 Your plaster will have become quite hot by this 
 time, so that the wax now in the bowl can be poured 
 back into its receptacle, the work replaced in the 
 bowl, and once more the liquid poured and brushed 
 over it. This proceeding can be repeated a number of 
 
 224
 
 BRONZING PLASTER CASTS 
 
 times if it is desired to get more wax into the body 
 of the work. 
 
 If the wax after a few pourings becomes " set," i.e. 
 pasty in consistency, it may be warmed up to a 
 liquid state and poured over again. If you have to 
 re- warm, take care that the sides of your vessel are 
 clean, and free from any of the wax which may 
 have run over in the process of pouring, unless 
 the vessel which you are using goes into a larger 
 one with water in it, as previously advised. In that 
 case the great danger of ignition is lessened. 
 
 When your work has had sufficient coating of the 
 wax, remove it from the bowl and allow it to cool 
 quietly ; otherwise it may crack and have a craquele* 
 (crazed) appearance all over it, as you sometimes see 
 in a piece of earthenware. 
 
 If the work is of such small proportions as to have 
 been entirely covered with the liquid, you should let 
 it cool afterwards very gradually indeed, which can 
 be done by wrapping it up in a piece of blanket or 
 cotton-wool. 
 
 When it has cooled down, or during the process of 
 cooling (if it is not wrapped up in the manner I have 
 spoken of), you may use the pad of wool with French 
 chalk, and rub over the surface ; then you will see 
 almost immediately what a beautiful quality the 
 plaster has obtained by this method of stearining ; 
 and as time goes on it will improve, more espe- 
 cially with an occasional passing over with the 
 cotton-wool. 
 
 At any future time a little colouring matter, such 
 as I have mentioned, mixed with turpentine, may be 
 run into the hollows. 
 
 1 Tliis is a term used in the Potteries to describe a piece of china 
 the surface glaze of which has cracked all over minutely. 
 
 225 p
 
 COLOURING, WAXING, AND 
 
 Some of the most beautiful results of colour I 
 have ever obtained in plaster have resulted from 
 mixing the colour with the plaster before casting ; 
 this method is well worth trying, rather in the 
 casting of replicas than with the first or original 
 cast, which is better white, as you may wish to work 
 upon it. For any colouring matter in plaster makes 
 it less easy to get the effect you may desire, either by 
 cutting away, because the colour may be, and gene- 
 rally is, a little different below the surface ; or by 
 adding to it, because the plaster you put on is more 
 than likely to be of a different colour, and so your 
 work becomes patchy and disagreeable in appearance. 
 Therefore try this method with replicas. You may 
 do so in various colours, in the following way. 
 
 Mix on a palette or plate, with water, some powder 
 colour, working it into a paste with a palette knife 
 or ordinary knife, until it feels quite smooth and 
 free from grit ; then pass it through fine muslin into 
 a basin, thinning it with water so that it will run 
 through the mesh; you may then add more water 
 to it. Always mix enough of this colouring matter 
 at first ; the cost is insignificant, and a little waste 
 is of no consideration, compared with that of failure 
 to get an even colouring for want of more colour. 
 
 The coloured water you now have in the basin is 
 used for putting in the larger basin with the clear 
 water which you will require to mix with your 
 plaster for making the cast. When you have added 
 the colour-solution to the clear water, stir it up 
 very thoroughly, and then keep it moving slowly to 
 prevent any of the colour sinking to the bottom 
 while you sift your plaster in; when you have put 
 in enough plaster, and it is ready for stirring up, 
 do so quickly and well, particularly stirring or 
 
 226
 
 BRONZING PLASTER CASTS 
 
 "beating" it up at the bottom. Remove the scum 
 from the top, and pour the plaster into your mould 
 (which you must shake), and force it in its liquid 
 state to run well into the hollows and to prevent 
 the formation of air-bubbles. 
 
 A cast made of coloured plaster should not be 
 worked upon after it has come out of the mould, 
 if this can be avoided, because, as I have already 
 mentioned, any working upon the surface changes 
 its colour in that particular part. 
 
 If it is necessary to work upon it, the whole work 
 should be passed over with a piece of soft flannel, 
 not to change the form or take out any detail, but 
 to bring the tone better together. 
 
 When no working upon it is required, it is better 
 to wrap the cast up carefully in soft paper, so that 
 the dust cannot get through to it. When it is 
 quite dry it can be treated with the wax in either 
 of the ways described, and afterwards rubbed over 
 with French chalk on cotton-wool ; and if you have 
 chosen a good colour, the result will be splendid. 
 I should point out that there is a tendency to put 
 too little colour into the plaster water. The depth 
 of tone of your plaster cast when first it comes out 
 of the mould will be the same as when it is waxed, 
 though the intermediate stage, that of drying, lightens 
 it in appearance. 
 
 With plaster casts that have become very soiled, 
 and almost beyond cleaning, two, three, or a dozen 
 coatings of boiled oil, which can be purchased from 
 any oil and colour shop, will serve best for making 
 them presentable. These coatings will preserve them 
 from any further dirt getting into the body ; and such 
 as may fall on the surface can be removed with a 
 damp sponge, and afterwards wiped dry with a cloth. 
 
 227
 
 COLOURING, WAXING, AND 
 
 A plaster surface which has been treated with 
 boiled oil will gradually darken, and in time will 
 become one equal colour all over, and possess a rich 
 mellow quality. I do not advise this treatment of 
 oiling except where the cast is old and soiled, because 
 of the change I have spoken of coming about, which 
 renders any tinting, colouring, or darkening of the 
 hollows, or other parts which you may w r ish to 
 accentuate, valueless in time. 
 
 Before proceeding to speak on the subject of 
 bron/ing, I think it well to describe a simple means 
 of cleaning a plaster work which has become dis- 
 coloured with dust or soiled by the fingers from 
 handling, to make it as clean and white as when 
 it first comes out of the mould. 
 
 Place your cast in a bath or other receptacle, deep 
 and wide enough to leave space between it and the 
 top, so that it will be completely under water when 
 the bath is filled. Your cast need not remain up- 
 right, but may be laid down. Having tried your 
 work in the dry bath and determined the way in 
 which it shall stand or lie so as to assure its being 
 covered with water, remove the cast and fill the bath 
 with sufficient water to serve the purpose ; then, 
 having well dusted your cast, immerse it and leave 
 it for the night, or twelve hours ; by this time it will 
 be soaked through, when it should be lifted out of 
 the bath. 
 
 If some of the dirt is found to have remained, it 
 can be removed quite easily by placing the work 
 entirely or partly back into the bath, and then 
 wiping it over with a large camel-hair or other soft 
 brush, or sponge full of water. This should completely 
 restore the cast to its original white state. Never 
 attempt this process unless you have a bath suffi- 
 
 228
 
 ciently deep to "hold enough water to cover your 
 plaster model completely when it is put inside, or 
 your work will be spoilt. If the student desires to 
 know the spoilt effect, he had best make the experi- 
 ment ; it will save me writing of things which are 
 not worth knowing. 
 
 A plaster cast which has had a bath, can, when the 
 moisture has dried out of it, be treated in any of the 
 ways I have described painted either with French 
 polish, wax, or the boiled oil, with the same result 
 as if it had never been under water. 
 
 The methods of bronzing are as numerous as they 
 are uncertain in result. I know of no method by 
 which you can be more sure of getting the effect you 
 desire than the following simple one. 
 
 Give your plaster cast, when free from moisture, 
 one coating of French polish ; either white or brown 
 may be used in this case. Apply it with hog-hair 
 brushes, and do not forget to paint the hollows. Let 
 the work stand for half-an-hour, or for such time as 
 may allow the polish to dry in. Wash your brushes 
 in the meantime in methylated spirit ; otherwise they 
 will dry stiff and soon become useless. 
 
 You must have provided yourself with some bronze 
 powder. This can be purchased at any good oil and 
 colour shop at about a shilling an ounce for the best 
 quality, which quality I advise you always to use, in 
 preference to inferior and cheaper stuff. It is well 
 to have by you also some copper powder, in case you 
 wish to add a little to your bronze powder, in order 
 to get a warmer and more coppery effect. 
 
 The next process is to paint your plaster cast with 
 this bronze powder. This is done in the following 
 way. Pour a little white French polish into a 
 saucer, and thin it slightly with a little methylated 
 
 229
 
 COLOURING, WAXING, AND 
 
 spirit ; then add to it a little of the bronze powder, 
 and, if you desire, a very little of the copper powder 
 too; mix them together with a brush (a hog-hair), 
 ;md begin by painting in the hollows and deep 
 crevices first, doing so rather by dabbing it in than 
 drawing it across, and have very little of the colour 
 in your brush at any time. Stir it up each time upon 
 taking more, as the powder, being heavy, sinks very 
 quickly to the bottom of the saucer ; avoid putting 
 it on thick or it will form a skin and fill up some 
 of your detail. When you have painted into the 
 hollows, do the same over the front surfaces. There 
 is no reason to be alarmed if the surface of the 
 plaster does not get very well covered at first, 
 because a second painting with the powder, put on 
 in exactly the same way as before, will do every- 
 thing in the way of hiding all signs of the white 
 plaster. It should be remembered that this second 
 application must not be put on until the first is 
 quite dry and hard, and to get it to this consistency 
 it is advisable to leave it to stand for nearly an hour. 
 And leave it for a similar time after it has been 
 painted a second time with the powder. 
 
 At all times when using this powder it is advisable 
 to mix only a little at a time ; if too much is mixed 
 in the saucer, the spirit evaporates and the French 
 polish begins to thicken and dry before you have 
 nearly covered your plaster. 
 
 Your work after the second coating of bronze 
 powder presents a very disappointing effect, looking 
 like an advertisement for some one's gold or bronze 
 powder ; but this is only one of the stages of bronzing, 
 the next stage being to hide this glittering, cheap 
 appearance, and to get a resemblance to real bronze. 
 
 Bronze varies so considerably in colour, through 
 
 230
 
 BRONZING PLASTER CASTS 
 
 various climatic effects and other reasons, that in 
 imitating it you select a colour which you think will 
 best suit. It may be a light or dark brown, a purple 
 or a black, or almost any shade of green, or it may 
 even be a bronze with some little of all these colours 
 in it. This last-mentioned effect can be obtained 
 with care, though it is better to try a simple colour- 
 ing or imitation, until such time as you may have 
 made some experiments, and gained some knowledge 
 of the possibilities of the materials with which you 
 have to work, and of the effects to be obtained. 
 
 Therefore we will suppose that you desire to make 
 your model of a light-brown bronze. The colouring 
 matter you will require will be raw umber, of which 
 in its powder state enough can be purchased for a 
 penny or two to cover nearly a dozen casts. 
 
 Fill a saucer three parts with methylated spirits, 
 and add to this about three tea-spoonfuls or less of 
 French polish, either white or brown ; then put into 
 this about two or three teaspoonfuls of the raw 
 umber, and stir it up well with a large camel-hair 
 brush of about one inch in diameter. When it is 
 dry, paint your work with this, beginning always 
 from the top, and covering it as far as possible all 
 round. This should be done with a fair quantity in 
 your brush each time you apply it, and quickly, so 
 that each brushful you put on shall take up and mix 
 with the last one put on before it becomes dry. 
 Continue this until you have got down to the base 
 and all the parts are covered. 
 
 There is no need for alarm if this colour, as you 
 apply it, runs down in parts a little. Therefore do 
 not attempt to brush it up or flat; it is better to 
 leave it until you pass over it in your progress 
 downwards. 
 
 231
 
 COLOURING, WAXING, AND 
 
 When the whole work is covered, it should be left 
 to dry. Ten or fifteen minutes will suffice; then, if 
 it is not thought to be dark enough, another paint- 
 ing can be given in exactly the same manner. 
 
 I must repeat that it is important to stir the colour 
 up with the brush each time a fresh brushful is being 
 taken : otherwise the colour will sink to the bottom, 
 and the coating which you put on the work will be 
 patchy when dry. 
 
 When you can judge it, it is better to mix your 
 colouring to the thickness and tone that will only 
 require one painting, as a second application at 
 this period sometimes removes the first coat or 
 wash, unless the new work is done very quickly and 
 skilfully. 
 
 The next process after the colour is dry is to wax 
 the work all over. Wax and turpentine are mixed 
 together in the same way and in the same quantities 
 as for use on a white plaster cast, and as already 
 directed, though in this case the cast must not be 
 warmed. Then leave it for a night until the wax 
 has thoroughly dried in. 
 
 It has then reached a stage when any further 
 effects can be tried with less fear of trouble ensuing, 
 as you have a fairly hard bronze body to work upon. 
 If the work please in its present stage, then brushing 
 with a quick movement with a fairly hard clothes- 
 brush or clean boot-brush over the surface will add 
 to its appearance. The friction of quick brushing not 
 only gives some burnish or polish, but has the effect 
 of changing the colour of parts satisfactorily. It 
 should be understood that though the brushing should 
 be with quick action, little pressure should be put 
 on the brush, the bristles only being allowed just to 
 touch the surface of the work. 
 
 232
 
 BRONZING PLASTER CASTS 
 
 Should, however, the colour not be satisfactory, 
 apply a further coating or painting of colour, mixed 
 and put on in the same way as before, with methy- 
 lated spirit, though in this case with even less of the 
 French polish than was used before with the applica- 
 tion of colour ; and when this has dried, brush it in 
 the manner already explained. 
 
 It may be mentioned that green, or any other 
 colour (or it may be lampblack, which, used sparingly, 
 produces a good effect), can if desired be used for 
 this second coating. Then in the brushing process, 
 this colour which has been used for the second coat- 
 ing (i.e. after the waxing) will remain in the hollows 
 untouched and unpolished, and will therefore give a 
 contrast to the quality on the surface which has been 
 brushed. 
 
 If it is now felt desirable to get a greater variety 
 of colour in your work, this can be effected to any 
 extent by wiping dry dust colour on to it with your 
 finger or a little cotton- wool ; this colour will adhere 
 quite well in the hollows, where the wax, not having 
 been brushed, will " hold " it. 
 
 If you wish to get a variety of colour on the pro- 
 jecting parts, or any parts besides the hollows, it 
 would be best to apply the dry powder colours on the 
 wax surface before brushing it. Pastel colours are 
 excellent ones to use, though they are more expensive 
 than the ordinary powder colours you purchase at the 
 oil and colour shop. 
 
 If, when putting on a dry powder or pastel colour, 
 you wish to get, we will suppose, a purple tint, it is 
 better to do this by first putting on the blue and then 
 the red on the top, or vice versa, rather than by 
 mixing the two colours together and then applying, 
 for the reason that a better and truer metallic effect 
 
 233
 
 COLOURING, A\ f AXING, AND 
 
 is obtained by the two being put on separately. The 
 same method is advisable in every case where dry 
 powder colour is used, and where it requires two 
 colours to produce the tint desired. 
 
 Sometimes the ordinary dust from a shelf, thrown 
 into the hollows of a bronze work, has a special 
 value. 
 
 Another method of colouring the work when it 
 has its bronze powder surface prepared is to use as a 
 medium a little gold size and turpentine for mixing 
 your colour with, and for making into a liquid state. 
 This should be in the proportion of T V gold size, 
 \ colour, to the turpentine. By this means you are 
 more certain of getting uniformity, because this 
 medium dries more slowly than spirit and shellac, 
 and is therefore capable of being manipulated more 
 freely. Moreover, it allows you more time to apply 
 it, which is of importance to the beginner, who has 
 had perhaps no previous practice in bronzing. But it 
 is well to remind the student that the method pre- 
 viously spoken of has its advantages. 
 
 Oil colour, such as an artist uses, can also be painted 
 on to a work which has been coated with the bronze 
 powder, but it should be put on only when made 
 thin with turpentine as a medium. It should indeed 
 be used more as a wash, in the manner of water- 
 colour painting, rather than oil ; otherwise it will 
 form a thickness and will fill in much of the detail. 
 If oil colour is used it should be done very sparingly 
 at first, for it can always be made stronger, if required, 
 by a second and even a third painting, either all 
 over or only in parts. 
 
 There is yet another method indeed, I may say 
 there are several others of bronzing ; but I propose 
 to deal with one more only, feeling, as I do, that 
 
 234
 
 BRONZING PLASTER CASTS 
 
 those I have mentioned are the best and simplest for 
 the student to attempt. 
 
 First give the work in plaster a coating of boiled 
 oil, and when this has dried in fairly well, give it a 
 good coating of terebene, and leave it until dry ; 
 then take some of the powder of such a colour as 
 you wish the whole surface to be, and mix with 
 shellac (either white or brown) in a saucer or other 
 vessel. This, when painted, will form, so to speak, 
 the body upon which to put the further and final 
 colour or colours, though these final colours should 
 be mixed with water only and put on more in a wash. 
 If found patchy when dried in, the colour can easily 
 be distributed equally by means of a brush with the 
 water nearly all squeezed out, and with a dabbing, 
 rather than a wiping or washing action, going over 
 the patchy parts, spreading or extending the colour 
 picked up in the process from one part to another. 
 By this means you will get the colour to " hold 
 together." 
 
 You may " work in " either colour or bronze or 
 gold at the time of this dabbing, but it should be 
 in small quantities only, and applied by taking a 
 little on the moistened brush. 
 
 The bronzing produced by this process will be dry 
 in its effect as an antique bronze which has been 
 exposed to the air. Should it, however, be desired 
 to get a polish upon it, this can be easily obtained 
 by waxing in the way I have already described, by 
 painting over with the mixture of wax and turpen- 
 tine, though it will change the appearance by darken- 
 ing it very considerably, and will indeed take out 
 much of the colour. For this reason I do not con- 
 sider this the best method of bronzing, unless it be 
 to imitate a " dead " or dull surface. 
 
 235
 
 COLOURING, ETC., PLASTER CASTS 
 
 For work of heroic or large size it is a quick, 
 and relatively cheap, means of getting a bronze-like 
 result. 
 
 Bronzed works (which means in this case plaster 
 hronzed) are easily chipped or scratched, in which 
 case the white plaster becomes visible, and a touching 
 up is necessary. Not always is it easy to touch these 
 parts up satisfactorily, nor is it convenient ; as, for 
 instance, when the work, having found a purchaser, 
 has left your studio. I should therefore like to men- 
 tion, before closing this chapter on Bronzing, that 
 you may get over the difficulty or, I should say, 
 lessen to some extent the unpleasant white plaster 
 effect of a chipped or scratched bronzed work if you 
 treat your work in the very first instance, i.e. before 
 you put on the first coating of shellac, with a paint- 
 ing all over of black ink, or a dark water stain, or 
 Condy's fluid and ink mixed ; any of these will soak 
 well in and beneath the surface, and in the event 
 of subsequent chips or scratches, they will be less 
 discernible, and your work will suffer less in its 
 appearance than it would if the body under the 
 colouring were white. 
 
 236
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 ENLARGING A SMALL MODEL TO HEROIC 
 SIZE BY THE CHASSIS 
 
 THE method generally adopted for enlarging a figure 
 or group in the round is by working with a chassis, 
 as here described. We will suppose that you have 
 made a small model, say 2 feet high, for a public 
 statue, and that this has to be enlarged to 12 feet, 
 or six times its size. 
 
 You begin by fixing the small model firmly on a 
 pedestal or modelling stand, the top of which must 
 be nailed down to prevent its revolving. Then it 
 should be accurately adjusted with a spirit-level on 
 the top. The stand must also be nailed or screwed 
 (or the legs of the stand plastered round) to the 
 floor of your studio, conveniently near to where you 
 propose building your large model. For the latter 
 you will require a very strong turn-table or " banker " 
 with a revolving top, but this, as with the small 
 pedestal, will require also to be fixed, so that it will 
 not revolve until such time as it is deemed necessary, 
 as will be seen later on. 
 
 The next step is to make your chassis for the small 
 model. This is a square frame made of wood, slightly 
 larger than the greatest width in your small model. 
 Upon the four sides of this frame you mark off very 
 accurately the inches, | inches, ^ inches, -J- inches, 
 and ^ inches, so that, if your frame were 12 inches 
 square, you would set out a 1-foot rule at each side 
 
 237
 
 ENLARGING A SMALL MODEL 
 
 
 of your square (see Fig. 75). It is most important 
 that you should have your frame made very true, and 
 that all the measurements, inches and parts of an 
 inch. !><> most accurately set out, and with the different 
 
 lengths of lines ruled 
 through in the same 
 way as you find in a 
 well - made foot - rule. 
 V-shaped notches 
 should be cut out on 
 the top edge of the 
 frame with a sharp 
 knife at all the inches 
 and half - inches and 
 fractions. 
 
 With this done you 
 will start to mark out 
 on a large chassis 
 (which you will have 
 already had made by 
 your carpenter to the 
 
 Fig. LXXV 
 
 THE SMALL CHASSIS PLACED 
 OVER STATUETTE 
 
 model has to be made 
 times the size of 
 
 six 
 
 scale of six times the 
 small one) the twelve 
 
 inches and parts of an 
 \\ ith perpendicular rule for dis- , -, i 
 
 , , inch, and as your large 
 
 tance down measurements, and 
 
 pointing stick for "distance in" 
 
 measurements. 
 
 your small model, it 
 
 will be seen that an inch on the large frame must 
 actually measure six inches to be correct in scale, 
 and so the other portions of the inch become en- 
 larged to this scale. V-shaped notches should be 
 cut out on the top edge in the same way as on the 
 smaller frame, at the points (inches and fractions) 
 where the lines are drawn through. 
 
 238
 
 Small chassis to show 
 somewhat relative size 
 to large chassis. 
 
 Fig. LXXVI 
 
 LARGE CHASSIS WITH HANGING RULE AND POINTING STICK 
 
 It will be seen a point is being taken to show where the point in the 
 pit of the neck will be fixed.
 
 ENLARGING A SMALL MODEL TO 
 
 You now have your two frames ready set out. To 
 fix thrin up is the next tiling. The smaller one is 
 placed over the plaster model and supported by an 
 upright post at each corner, these posts being firmly 
 screwed down to the pedestal, care being taken that 
 they are accurately vertical (or perpendicular) and 
 that the chassis is perfectly horizontal on the top. 
 Tse a spirit level to get this true. Your small 
 model is now, so to speak, inside a cage at all points. 
 You will next proceed to fix up your larger chassis. 
 This, instead of being supported by upright posts at 
 the corners of the pedestal, should where possible be 
 suspended directly above your large " banker," from 
 the beams, walls, or roof, in such a way that it is 
 quite safe and will not move. This chassis must be 
 fixed proportionately high, according to the scale to 
 which you are working in this case six times as 
 high as the small one above the large banker or 
 turn-table ; the height should never be less, but 
 rather greater. This will not affect the size of your 
 figure, by reason of the whole of the measurements 
 being "dropped" or taken down from the chassis, 
 but will give you an opportunity, should you wish, 
 of making the base or groundwork of the figure 
 deeper. This extra depth is often required, so that 
 a good safe plan is to allow for it, unless you have 
 made a good extra depth of base in your small 
 model. 
 
 You have now, we will suppose, your two chassis 
 fixed up, and you will observe from Figs. 75 and 76 
 that a nail or screw is placed in the centre of each, i.e. 
 where the two struts of wood cross inside the square, 
 both in the small and in the large chassis, which 
 serve to strengthen the framework and prevent it 
 from buckling. This screw or nail is not driven 
 
 240
 
 HEROIC SIZE BY THE CHASSIS 
 
 entirely home, but a portion of it is left standing up 
 away from the wood. Tied to this are four pieces of 
 string, one for each side of the square, long enough 
 to reach over the top and drop down to within a few 
 inches of the level of the banker or pedestal. A lead 
 weight is attached to the end of each piece of string, 
 which thus serves as a plumb-line. These plumb- 
 lines are lifted over to any of the V-shaped notches, 
 indicating inches or parts of inches, on the small 
 model. Similarly, the plumb-lines of the larger 
 chassis can be lifted by means of a long piece of wood 
 or stick on to their corresponding number. The 
 piece of wood which you will use for this purpose 
 should be made perfectly straight, and long enough 
 to reach from the top of the chassis to just below the 
 level of the banker, and it should have a T-piece 
 which will allow it to hang on the top of the chassis. 
 Down at each side of this long piece of wood the 
 inches and parts of inches are set out to scale, be- 
 ginning from the top. A smaller stick, also with a 
 T-piece and with the actual inches, half-inches, and 
 so on, set out, is necessary for use in connection with 
 the small model. 
 
 You now have the plumb-lines, which you can 
 place over the notch of any number you may wish on 
 the chassis, and you have the vertically hanging rule 
 or stick by which you can measure any distance 
 down from the top of the chassis. Nothing remains 
 to be made before you proceed to " point up," but the 
 two pointing-sticks. These consist of pieces of wood 
 carefully made, one for the small model and the 
 other for the enlarging. Each consists of a stiffish 
 lath with one end tapered off to form a point at its 
 top edge (see Figs. 75 and 76), and a headless nail or 
 pin fixed neatly and firmly into it, so that you have a 
 
 241 Q
 
 KXLAHGIXG A SMALL MODEL TO 
 
 point of metal instead of wood, which would easily 
 wear away. Thou the inches, half-inches, and other 
 parts of the inch are set out on this, beginning from 
 the extreme nail or pin point, and the lines are ruled 
 through, at each inch and part of the inch. The 
 figures should ill all cases be carefully and clearly 
 put in, especially on the large chassis, in order that 
 they may he easily seen from below. 
 
 Now everything is ready i.e. your plumb-lines, 
 your T-shaped piece for "distance-down" measure- 
 ments, and your pointer for " distance-in " measure- 
 ments ; and as you arrange the two former on your 
 small chassis, so you arrange the two in their relative 
 positions on the large chassis. Then the measure- 
 meiit-in is taken with the pointer on the small model 
 at any distance dow r n on the suspended rule. In 
 this way you obtain your point, which would read 
 something like this, for instance : from front view 
 plumb-line over the 3| "down at" 10 on hanging 
 movable rule or stick " distance-in " from this last 
 number 9|. 
 
 This having been done, say, from the front, you 
 would next try the distance-in of this same point 
 from the side most convenient, and so your plumb- 
 lines would be arranged in their relative places, to 
 find the " in from side " distance. To begin with, 
 you would have the main iron support fixed on the 
 hanker, and build upon it your armature, defining its 
 position, projection, angle, &c., by means of measure- 
 ments taken over the chassis, so that the strongest 
 iron pieces, made by the smith, which may be re- 
 quired, can be fixed firmly and definitely without any 
 fear of their being put in any other than the exact 
 relative position to the small model. 
 
 With the irons fixed for the arms, legs, and such 
 
 242
 
 HEROIC SIZE MY THE CHASSIS 
 
 other parts as may need to be of iron, much of the 
 remaining armature can, and should, be built up 
 with wood, and in such parts as the body or other 
 big masses caged in with laths to keep the whole as 
 light as is prudently possible. In short, a skeleton 
 of wood built on the main iron supports is the thing 
 to make. This must be built out (in the case of a 
 12-foot figure) to within 2 or 3 inches of what will 
 ultimately be the front surface of the clay. This 
 means that a figure of 12 feet high need have, 
 in no one place, more than a thickness of about 
 3 inches of clay, provided that your small model 
 has been carefully thought out and worked properly 
 to scale. 
 
 When you have the whole of the armature erected, 
 the first point to be fixed in the clay is the pit of the 
 neck. This point will have been the first and most 
 important consideration in the armature stage, but 
 you will have fixed this somewhat back so that it 
 will be as nearly as possible in the centre of the neck, 
 and therefore w r ill easily receive the thickness of clay 
 necessary to cover it. It is well to know that this 
 point in the pit of the neck is likely to come forward 
 a little as the amount of clay put on the figure 
 increases. It is, therefore, advisable at the com- 
 mencement to fix this point a little further in, say 
 an inch in a 12-foot statue. Again, it is wise to 
 keep all the points a fraction high up at first, as 
 there is every likelihood in the early stages of the 
 clay sinking, if only a fraction. The contraction 
 in the clay later brings about some slight change, 
 so that all your points need testing from time to 
 time. 
 
 Whenever you take a point on your small model, 
 it is advisable to mark it with a pencil by making a 
 
 243
 
 KXLAUGIXG A SMALL MODEL TO 
 
 small dot. which you will find useful when you pro- 
 ceed to model up the large work. Your points should 
 he taken on a system, somewhat horizontally and 
 perpendicularly in lines, as, for instance, down the 
 main folds and down in the hollows as well as across 
 them, and not hy taking a point, say, on the shoulder 
 and the next some distance away. 
 
 Square-topped pegs w r ith pointed ends should be 
 inserted into the clay at every point put in on the 
 large model. These should be made long enough 
 (some perhaps nearly 2 inches for a figure of this 
 si/e) to enable you to pull them out some distance 
 if necessary, leaving them still imbedded sufficiently 
 far in the clay to hold in their place. 
 
 It is important, when taking and putting in points, 
 that your pointing-stick should be held horizontally 
 at right angles to the plumb-line, and that your pegs 
 should be pushed in straight, as a continuation, so to 
 speak, of the pointing-stick. At times the callipers 
 and compasses will be found useful for taking points 
 which are not easily obtained from measuring on the 
 chassis. Such measurements should be taken from 
 two points on the small model and then put on the 
 small pointing-stick, and afterwards the correspond- 
 ing measurement taken from the enlarged pointing- 
 stick (when it is more than likely larger compasses 
 01- callipers will be required) and tried on the clay 
 figure. 
 
 When you have put points in over the whole figure 
 and have filled in the parts between these until the 
 pegs are seen projecting only just above the surface 
 of the clay, your small chassis may be removed and 
 the top of the pedestal freed, so that it can revolve, 
 and the turn-table or banker upon which your large 
 figure stands may also be freed. After this you may 
 
 244
 
 HEROIC SIZE BY THE CHASSIS 
 
 set to work upon modelling the surface, and remove 
 such of the pegs as you wish, for if these have been 
 carefully put in there is little need to fear that by 
 extracting them you will get far away from a very 
 accurate enlargement of your small model. 
 
 245
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 MARBLE CARVING 
 
 KVKHY student of modelling whose wish it is to 
 become a sculptor should learn to carve, for, correctly 
 speaking, only he is a sculptor who carves a shape 
 (whether a figure or other form) out of a solid mass 
 of stone or wood. A man who builds up a work 
 in clay, be it never so large, is only a modeller ; 
 yet his object may be sculpture, and the treatment 
 of such a work sculpturesque. But before it can 
 truly become sculpture it must be converted into a 
 carved work. 
 
 Many of the early works, it is said, were carved 
 direct out of the stone or wood, without models 
 having previously been made for them. There are 
 some men who do this to-day, but they are few. 
 
 The general method now is, and since the earliest 
 times has always been, to make the work in either 
 clay or wax first, and after having cast it into the 
 harder material of plaster, to use this as a model 
 from which to copy. This is to guide you in the 
 process of expressing your idea in the ultimate 
 material, say, for instance, marble. 
 
 By this principle a great deal of risk is lessened, 
 because you will have tried many experiments in 
 your softer and more pliable material before obtain- 
 ing what you want ; whereas, had you started right 
 away in the marble, any error which you may have 
 made in taking oil' too much could not be mended. 
 
 246
 
 a**s
 
 Fig. LXXVIII 
 
 POINTING A FKJI in: IN RELIEF THE INSTRUMENT 
 ON THE PLASTER MODEL 
 
 Note the iiffdh. point i- l.eiiitf pushed down to the surface of a point on the 
 
 drapery. 
 From a work l.y Thoma* Hrm-k, Ksi,., 11. A., and by his kind permission this 
 
 illustration i- shown.
 
 Fig. LXXIX 
 
 POINTING A FIGURE IN RELIEF THE POINTING INSTRU- 
 MENT TRANSFERRED TO THE MARBLE 
 
 It will be noticed that little marble remains to be taken off before pointing 
 
 is completed. 
 By the kind permission of Thomas Brock, Esq., R.A., this illustration is 
 
 shown.
 
 When you have before you your idea definitely 
 expressed in a plastic form', an accurate conversion 
 into the marble is fairly certain, provided that care 
 is exercised in the "pointing" process, in the "pre- 
 paring" stage, and ultimately the "carving," i.e. the 
 finishing. The artist needs only do the "carving" 
 if he has, in the first instance, made a carefully 
 finished model, a fine work in the plaster; and the 
 marble can be a masterpiece. 
 
 The intermediate stages between the plaster and 
 the finish or carving are purely mechanical. It is, 
 however, as well that the student should know them, 
 and be capable of carrying out the whole work from 
 beginning to end if this be necessary. The more 
 mechanical part of the work, the pointing, is truly 
 laborious in a work of any size. 
 
 We will suppose that you have a finished model 
 in plaster, and that you have selected a block of 
 marble of a suitable size, and as free as it is possible 
 to tell, from colour, vein, or flaw : a great difficulty, it 
 must be confessed, for even the experts in marble 
 are unable to detect colour which may be much 
 below the surface of the block. 
 
 The test that can be made is to wash the marble 
 with clean water, and the moisture will show up 
 immediately any veins or specks of colour, even 
 though these may be a little below the surface; and 
 with experience, tapping the block with an iron 
 hammer may in some instances prove its soundness 
 oi' otherwise, the ring being less clear when there 
 is a flaw or vent in the marble than it would be in 
 that of a sound piece. These flaws, it may be men- 
 tioned, have generally been caused at the time of the 
 blasting from the quarries, or at the time of bursting 
 (severing) the marble from a larger block. 
 
 250
 
 MARBLE CARVING 
 
 The block of marble now in your studio is placed 
 in its correct position on a banker, and the plaster 
 model placed beside it on another banker or model- 
 ling stand. 
 
 Three points are now selected on your model, and 
 three corresponding ones upon the block of marble. 
 These latter points are found on the marble by the 
 pointing machine, which is nothing more than a 
 contrivance for taking measurements, it having been 
 adjusted correctly to the points on the model and 
 transferred to the stone. 
 
 The three points on both plaster and marble are 
 made permanent and kept immovable until the work 
 is quite or nearly finished, by means of imbedding, in 
 a little moist plaster, copper rivets somewhat like 
 drawing pins with little holes drilled in the centre 
 of their heads. In these holes the three needle points 
 of the arms of the pointing instrument can rest 
 each time the instrument is put on to the model or 
 the marble for the purpose of taking a " point " 
 (measurement). 
 
 Little drilled holes will suffice at first to hold the 
 instrument on the marble, the material being suffi- 
 ciently hard to withstand the continued insertion of 
 the arm pins without wearing these holes larger, 
 though it is better and safer to put the copper rivets 
 in at the beginning. 
 
 From the main or perpendicular rod a movable 
 arm springs out, and from this another arm, through 
 the end of which passes a movable needle, worked 
 on a ball and socket. The needle is actually the 
 part which is pushed down to the surface of the 
 model, and gauges the depth down to the surface 
 of any particular part which you may wish to take. 
 The first point to be taken is the most projecting 
 
 251
 
 Tig. LXXX 
 
 1'<HNTIN<; A PORTRAIT KKLIKF TlIE POINTING INSTRU- 
 MENT TKANSKKRKKD TO THE MAHHLK 
 
 Nob- tin- inarlile (lieiujr a tliin slali) is fixed (\vitli plaster) on to a thicker 
 Ix-d of stone, to keep it steady and to prevent its breaking in the 
 process of pointing and carving.
 
 Fig. LXXXI 
 
 POINTING A PORTRAIT RELIEF THE POINTING INSTRU- 
 MENT ON THE PLASTER MODEL. TAKING A POINT ON 
 THE MOUSTACHE
 
 MAKHLE CARVING 
 
 one; on a face tin's would be the nose. When the 
 point has been taken, the needle is fixed by a little 
 thumbscrew so that it can go no further, but will 
 draw away in an outward direction sufficiently far 
 to escape touching the marble (when the instru- 
 ment is transferred to it) which has to be carved 
 away. 
 
 When the instrument is transferred from the 
 model to the block of marble it will be seen that the 
 needle cannot be pushed forward to its full, and that 
 the chipping away must begin to allow this needle to 
 go further home ; when a fair amount of marble has 
 been taken away from this particular part, the in- 
 strument is again put on the marble, and the needle 
 pushed still further in. When it is found that the 
 needle goes in to about a quarter of an inch of its 
 required distance, then a hole is drilled with a 
 "driller" to what is thought to be nearly enough; 
 the needle is once again pushed in to see how little 
 more drilling is necessary ; then the needle is removed 
 and the point made deeper ; the most important thing 
 briny to avoid makiny the point too deep. A good 
 pointer will keep all his "points" a little "full," by 
 never allowing the needle to go quite home, by about 
 the 32nd of an inch or less. All the other points are 
 taken in the same way. The arms of the instrument 
 and needle being adjusted according to the position 
 of the points to be taken, the points all over will 
 probably be not more than a quarter of an inch 
 apart, i.e. on the important parts, such as the features, 
 or, it may be said, any of the flesh parts. On drapery, 
 where there are broad planes, fewer points are 
 necessary. 
 
 The appearance of a work when pointed is not 
 pleasing, covered all over with innumerable holes, 
 
 254
 
 MARBLE CARVING 
 
 and little mounds of marble projecting between these 
 holes. 
 
 Now comes the work of " preparing," carving down 
 the projecting mounds to nearly the level of the 
 points, when the form begins to assert itself; and 
 here care is needed. 
 
 It is in such a state that the artist must take the 
 work up himself, unless he has a very skilful carver, 
 who can carry it still further. Even then the artist 
 will find much that he alone can express properly, if 
 it must have the same spirit as the original ; for it 
 will be found that not only does the transcription 
 into marble give a little different effect, by reason of 
 the change of material, but the artist may wish to 
 quiet or emphasize parts indeed, he may wish to 
 make many little alterations, which he alone feels, 
 and can do. And so, when the points are left " full," 
 such work can be done more easily than if the points 
 had been drilled right home. Hence the importance 
 of every modelling student practising to carve. 
 
 If a student can copy form in clay, he can soon 
 learn to carve it in marble, though I do not say with 
 the same skill as one who has devoted his whole life 
 to marble-cutting. I have seen really fine works in 
 plaster lose much of the character of the artist's 
 touch by being carved too dexterously, until they 
 were nothing more than mechanical reproductions. 
 Yet they may have been very accurate copies in a 
 general sense. In short, they lacked the sense of 
 touch which the artist alone could have given. 
 
 Skilful cutting or carving in marble does not make 
 a work of art or even a fine carving. It is the ex- 
 pression given by each and every touch which makes 
 the work. 
 
 The student will find that the "darks" in marble 
 
 255
 
 MARBLE CARVING 
 
 mver appear so strong as in the plaster model. This 
 is accounted for by the transparency of the material, 
 and in some instances by the greater reflecting power 
 in marble than in plaster or clay. It is useless to 
 deepen a hollow after you have cut it a certain depth, 
 if yon wish to obtain a darker shadow ; because it 
 becomes lighter and less dense by the greater amount 
 of reflected light As marble is more transparent 
 than either plaster or flesh, if the nostrils are cut up 
 as high, or the wings of the nose as thin (in the 
 inside), as in nature, there is scarcely any "dark," 
 certainly nothing like the amount there is in nature. 
 More particularly is this the case when the work 
 is executed in some of the best statuary marbles, 
 which are more transparent than others. 
 
 "Sicilian" marble, or Bianco Chiaro (clear white) 
 as the Italians call it, being of a less transparent 
 nature, and rather heavier and colder in colour-, 
 retains more density in the " dark " of the hollows, 
 and in the shadows. Sicilian marble is used for 
 exterior purposes, especially in a country like ours, 
 where the climatic effects are so disastrous as to make 
 the finer statuary marbles crumble away in no time. 
 
 The reason for this marble being called Sicilian 
 by the English is, I believe, unknown, though it is 
 thought by some that it derived this name Sicilian 
 perhaps because it was formerly shipped to Sicily 
 and thence to an English port. 
 
 The choicest marble of all for ideal work, the nude 
 or portraiture, for interior purposes, is Serravezza, 
 though there is a Greek marble called Peritelic which 
 is preferred by some sculptors ; this marble, which is 
 found in the island of Paros and at Mount Pentelicus, 
 has larger crystals than the statuary of Carrara, is 
 extremely hard, and does not, I think, cut quite so 
 
 250
 
 MARBLE CARVING 
 
 freely as the beautiful marble of Serravezza. Pentelic 
 was chiefly used by the ancient sculptors for their 
 work. There are other qualities of marble, but those 
 I have named are generally accepted as the "first" 
 best. The cheaper statuary marbles are sugary and 
 soft, and therefore not very lasting. 
 
 In marble it is not an uncommon thing to find 
 minute pins of iron. These are very troublesome, 
 being very difficult to cut away, and taking, as they 
 do, piece after piece out of the best tempered tools. 
 Sometimes they can be got down by riffles, but one 
 has to take care not to cut too deeply into the 
 marble on either side and around these pins in the 
 attempt to remove them. 
 
 In Serravezza, as in most marbles, there appear 
 sometimes what are termed "sand holes," which 
 are almost more troublesome than the pins of iron, 
 because they may occur at the very finish when the 
 last touches are being put on the work, when but 
 a powder of marble dust is leaving the parent stone, 
 suddenly; in some cases they are as deep as a pea, 
 so that cutting away down to the bottom of the 
 crevice would mean ruining your work. 
 
 These holes can only be left, and afterwards filled 
 with borax melted over a gas-jet in a clean spoon. 
 A little of this, whilst still liquid, should be pressed 
 into the crevice with a tool ; any of the borax which 
 is left on the surface may be cut away with a sharp 
 knife. Although this is the best means I know 
 for filling these holes, it is not altogether a satis- 
 factory one, for in time the filling will contract 
 somewhat, get loose, and either fall out or show a 
 black line round where the borax has parted from 
 the marble, more especially if the marble is frequently 
 washed. 
 
 257 R
 
 MARBLE CARVING 
 
 Most beginners in carving are lax in keeping their 
 tools nicely sharpened. They too often go on work- 
 ing long after the edge has been taken off the steel. 
 This is a great mistake, because a blunt tool not 
 only jags and takes longer to cut, but the tools 
 will not cut cleanly unless due consideration is given 
 to them. 
 
 A flat piece of stone, York, should always be kept 
 by your side, with a basin or cup of water, and a 
 little of the water put from time to time on the stone 
 to make it wet, the moisture preventing the steel 
 from becoming hot whilst being rubbed. 
 
 By practice you will get used to a certain weight 
 of hammer, and find yourself more at ease with the 
 one you constantly use than with a strange one ; 
 therefore it is advisable that, like every good work- 
 man, you should have your own from the first. 
 
 In the process of carving a work, through all its 
 stages from " pointing " to " finish," you will require 
 to use two or three differently weighted hammers, 
 the one required for the finishing touches, where 
 but little gentle touches are necessary, naturally 
 being lighter in weight than the one used at the 
 beginning (the pointing), where in some instances 
 quite big pieces are fetched away with the tool called 
 the "pitcher" and afterwards the "pointer." Again, 
 another strength is used at the intermediate stage, 
 that of " preparing," when the tooth tool is brought 
 constantly into use. 
 
 A carving hammer needs only be 2 Ibs. in weight, 
 though for " pointing " a heavier is required about 
 4 Ibs. and for " preparing " one of 3 Ibs. weight. 
 
 Beginners invariably cut too straight into the 
 marble by holding their tools too much at right 
 angles with the stone they are carving This, instead 
 
 258
 
 MARBLE CARVING 
 
 of being a quick way of cutting the marble away, 
 is indeed a slow one, and one which will very soon 
 break the edge of the chisel. The chisel should be 
 held in such a way as just to bite or grip the stone. 
 
 Round-nosed drills of varying size will be fre- 
 quently brought into use, to drill away those hollows 
 which cannot easily be got at with a chisel. 
 
 To go slowly is the proper course; and you will 
 always be wise in taking off too little. More can 
 always be taken off, but never put on. The marble 
 should always be covered up with a clean white cloth 
 when it is not being worked upon ; otherwise it will 
 quickly get discoloured from dust and dirt, and such 
 fresh cutting as you do to it will be whiter and the 
 effect produced will be patchy and misleading. 
 
 A student wishing to learn to carve will do well 
 to work something out of a soft stone to begin with, 
 and thus get command of the hammer and chisel, 
 before he takes to cutting in the harder stones. 
 
 259
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 A FINAL NOTE 
 
 As I ventured to explain in my Preface, I make no 
 pretence to literary skill in setting forth the contents 
 of this volume, having been solely actuated by a 
 personal and genuine desire to set before the student 
 of the plastic and glyptic art the methods of the 
 various processes and the simplest, because the most 
 straightforward, way of obtaining results therefrom. 
 So in this concluding chapter, gathering up the pre- 
 ceding pages, as it were, into one final whole, let me 
 say that if I have arrived at writing what may 
 prove of practical value to the earnest, hard-working 
 student, if I have simplified his work ever so little 
 by pointing out the right methods and guiding him 
 away from the wrong, I shall have achieved my 
 object. It has been, for the most part, a labour of 
 love to write of these things, of which many years 
 of practical experience have given me a considerable 
 knowledge. 
 
 Were I asked to name the greatest asset in an 
 artistic career, I should answer, " Indomitable per- 
 severance, courage, and determination." Without 
 these and a belief in the power you possess, nothing 
 of any real or enduring value can possibly be accom- 
 plished. However glorious the vision, however lofty 
 the ideal, however true the aim you have set before 
 yourself, nothing but perseverance, determined and 
 
 260
 
 A FINAL NOTE 
 
 unceasing, will ever take you to the goal of your 
 desire. The highest resolve, the greatest enthusiasm, 
 are futile without hard work how hard and un- 
 sparing only those can ever really know who have 
 chosen the pursuit of art as a means of livelihood. 
 
 You must surrender yourself all your thoughts 
 your very existence if you would attain ! Never 
 must your aspirations leave you ; cherish them as 
 life's most precious gift. There is the height you 
 have set yourself to gain. 
 
 I cannot too strongly impress on students, on the 
 young student especially, the virtue of moderation 
 in all things. Extremes are bad at all times. Vul- 
 garity is unpardonable in art. 
 
 Artists possess, or at least are supposed to possess, 
 more sensitive nerves than the ordinary business- 
 like, matter-of-fact mortal, and at times a brain- 
 storm occurs, when all their labours seem futile, 
 inept, worthless ; the vision has fled ; the deepest 
 gloom of depression overwhelms them ; the toil and 
 careful studies of years seem empty and useless. 
 
 When such fits occur, leave the work on which you 
 may be engaged entirely alone, for if you still per- 
 sist in attempting the impossible, failure, utter and 
 complete, is bound to attend your most strenuous 
 efforts. 
 
 Go at once into the air. Throw off the cramping 
 influence of the studio, and study Nature in her 
 varied and strangely variable moods. Nature alone 
 possesses restorative balm, and if you view the 
 manifold marvels of her works with loving reverence, 
 her myriad spectacles of beauty so infinite, of diver- 
 sity so extraordinary, with a seeing eye, calm will 
 follow the brain-storm, the feeling of revolt will 
 cease and die away, and you will glad-heartedly 
 
 261
 
 A FINAL NOTE 
 
 return to your work, refreshed and strengthened 
 alike in mind and body. No longer will you find all 
 things stale, flat, and unprofitable. 
 
 When a student can indulge in foreign travel it 
 should prove of the greatest service to him. Not 
 only does travelling enlarge his outlook on life and 
 dispel many insular prejudices, but it aifords him 
 the opportunity of seeing what students are doing 
 in other countries, as well as of becoming acquainted 
 with some of the masterpieces both of ancient and 
 modern sculpture. It gives him an insight into 
 the methods of work in other studios than his 
 own, and will certainly brush away many preju- 
 dices, which otherwise would remain fixed ideas in 
 his mind. 
 
 A student cannot study too closely, or too often, 
 the wonderful collections of statuary which are to 
 be found in our own museums and galleries, many 
 of which, especially those of the Greek and early 
 Italian schools, are unrivalled throughout the length 
 and breadth of Europe. 
 
 Above and before all, I repeat, study Nature. 
 None of her works are mean, low, ugly, or vulgar 
 to those who, with the patience born of reverent love, 
 seek out her marvellous and minute beauties. 
 
 The skulls and bones of all animals and birds 
 are marvels of construction. The skin and flesh are 
 but the draping of the frame ; the skeleton is just as 
 beautiful beneath its covering. Look into the heart 
 of things, into their very core : the superficial is not 
 all we see. To all with eyes to see, manifold beauties 
 start from what before seemed but an empty shell. 
 So store your mind with beauty infinite, and it will 
 follow that your work will be full of interest. A 
 thousand fancies from a single leaf spring to life, 
 
 262
 
 & 
 
 u. 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 Q 
 OD 
 
 e 
 8 I 
 I - 
 
 W o 
 
 I 
 
 31 
 
 ^ < 
 M S- 
 
 H - 
 
 5 -* 
 
 O 
 
 1
 
 A FINAL NOTE 
 
 as memory brings to the brain the rapture you felt 
 when you found how beautiful all is in Nature. 
 
 With this exhortation I close, commending these 
 pages to the perusal of the student, in the earnest 
 hope that they may prove practically useful. I re- 
 member the immense, almost insuperable, difficulties 
 of my earliest art days, and I have sought to make 
 these difficulties less formidable for him. Although 
 utterly unaccustomed to literary effort, I have found 
 a pleasure in writing, for all that I have here set 
 down is the result of my own arduous experience. 
 
 264
 
 265
 
 A FEW MASTERPIECES CONSIDERED 
 
 THE student cannot acquaint himself either too soon 
 or too well with the best examples of sculpture 
 from the earliest periods, which are to be found in 
 our museums, for it takes years of close association 
 with the great masterpieces before one can realise to 
 the fullest extent the immensity of these creations. 
 For the finest sculptured pieces, like the finest com- 
 positions, musical, poetic, or literary, require an 
 educated mind properly to appreciate or understand 
 them a mind which has been given up to them for 
 a long time. You are told from the first moment of 
 your existence in the study of art that these works 
 are great, but that this is so, you are not at that 
 time really convinced in your own mind. You have 
 to learn something before you can realise it for your- 
 self, and that learning must come through the study 
 of Nature. I therefore advise you to study Nature 
 and the masterpieces at one and the same time, so to 
 speak, by devoting, say, alternate days to each so far 
 as you can, to work from the life to-day, and to- 
 morrow to go into the presence of the masterpieces. 
 You will then quite soon begin to feel that a close 
 relationship exists between Nature and what, up 
 till quite recently, appeared to you idealised or 
 unfamiliar form. 
 
 The student will soon learn that these great works 
 were built from the same Nature with which he 
 himself is daily confronted. For the guidance of 
 
 267
 
 A FEW MASTERPIECES CONSIDERED 
 
 the student, I propose commenting briefly upon a 
 few of those which rank, as I consider, amongst 
 the finest sculptured works to be found in our 
 museums, and in some instances in our schools 
 of art. Space will not permit of my saying much, 
 and the periods from which I select works to speak 
 of must therefore be selected on broad principles. 
 
 At a period of nearly 3000 years B.C. the Assyrian 
 and Egyptian artists were producing great sculptural 
 works, many fine specimens of which are now to be 
 found in our museums. That Assyrian and Egyptian 
 art has influenced all ages from the Greek to the 
 present, is not at all surprising when we see from 
 their architecture what masters they were of con- 
 struction and design in the former how profoundly 
 substantial, and in the latter how simple and grand. 
 Their carvings upon the walls of these buildings of 
 relief work introduce figures, animals, and hiero- 
 glyphics, in many instances in quite a curious way, 
 yet ever beautiful in pattern and in decorative 
 effect. Strange as some of their works may appear 
 at first, they will on close acquaintance establish in 
 the spectator's mind the fact that many of them are 
 full of life and truth to nature. This applies not 
 only to the statues but particularly to the bas-reliefs, 
 many of which are extraordinarily realistic and most 
 charming in relief treatment. The Egyptians had 
 a method of sometimes carving their reliefs in a 
 way seldom if ever practised by sculptors since them, 
 except in frank imitation ; that is to say, on a flat 
 ground surface they drew their design, their figure, 
 and so on, with a fairly deep incised outline, then 
 carved the form into it, inside these outlines, leaving 
 the original ground surface standing up above the 
 
 268
 
 PLATES I AND II 
 EGYPTIAN CARVING IN RELIEF 
 
 The British Museum 
 
 269
 
 PLATE I 
 
 Many of the Egyptian cannings on their sepulchral and other steles 
 mere Jirst drawn on to the stone with a deep incised outline. 
 The relief was then carved within this outline, so that the 
 ground surface remains at its original projection, while the 
 earring, in a relief treatment, is somewhat lower. To this 
 method is greatly due the preservation of the carving. 
 
 PLATE II 
 
 In this example we get the work at the top carved in relief and 
 the background set back, whilst in the lower portion the relief 
 work is carved within the outlines, and the groundwork, i.e. the 
 original face of the stone, is left projecting beyond. 
 
 270
 
 PLATE III 
 AN EGYPTIAN PRIEST AND PRIESTESS 
 
 The British Museum 
 
 271
 
 PLATE III 
 
 Simplicity of pose characterises all the Egyptian statues, and the 
 group of Priest and Priestess is no exception to the rule, though 
 there existed a keen desire to be elaborate in the decoration of 
 their garments both by caning and by the painting upon them. 
 The invariable method adopted was that of gauging out a 
 number of parallel lines in the draperies and wearing apparel 
 generally. Mark well the grand and solemn dignity of this 
 work, and the ease of both Jigures. 
 
 272
 
 Plate III 
 
 PRIEST AND PRIESTESS
 
 carved sunken relief work. This was done in many 
 of their sepulchral and other steles, most of them 
 in limestone, though the Egyptians worked to a great 
 extent in granite. (See Plates 1 and 2.) See with what 
 solemn dignity the priest and his wife are seated 
 the simplicity of pose and treatment and the refine- 
 ment of the whole. The Egyptians valued greatly 
 the repetition of straight lines, parallelism both 
 horizontal and perpendicular. The Greeks were not 
 slow to adopt the use of this. Some of the most 
 wonderful bas-relief works of all time are those of 
 the reign of Assur-Nasir-Pal, King of Assyria 860 B.C. 
 Those representing the king himself, with his winged 
 mythological attendants, are splendid; but the Bull 
 Hunt, the Lion Hunt, and indeed the whole series 
 to which they belong, are marvellously fine as works 
 of relief carving, design, drawing, treatment, and 
 realism. The animals, in particular, are based upon 
 the true forms in nature. The life and spirit with 
 which these sculptors imbued their work is astound- 
 ing, however quaint and queer the actions of their 
 figures may in most instances appear to us, with 
 their limbs bent at the joints at right angles, and 
 with so many rigid straight lines in their costumes. 
 Although almost actual repetition appears both in 
 curved, angular, and straight lines, the result is 
 never monotony, for these lines are always of value 
 in the works. 
 
 When we come to the Greek, I cannot but make 
 straightway for the figures from the Parthenon. 
 These figures, which adorned the pediments of the 
 most beautiful work of antiquity ever accomplished, 
 are in most instances fragments, mutilated remains, 
 of magnificent artistic conception, surpassing all other 
 works of all time. 
 
 273 s
 
 A FEW MASTERPIECES CONSIDERED 
 
 To Phidias, the giant among sculptors, who lived 
 about 500 years B.C., we owe the birth of these most 
 noble conceptions, these glorious and incomparable 
 renderings of the most beautiful forms to be found 
 in nature. 
 
 ' Look at the figure of the Theseus, and also that of 
 the Ilissos, and you will come to recognise that they 
 are unquestionably the finest specimens of Art 
 which is to be defined as Nature seen through an 
 artistic mind. The construction of each figure is 
 perfect, the movement sublime, the bigness and 
 simplicity of the detail and the whole, amazing. 
 All is as broad and simple as possible, yet full 
 and rich in quality ; nothing poor or small, nothing 
 cold, dead, or still, yet all reposeful. 
 
 Look at the wonderful construction and the mag- 
 nificent drawing in the torso and legs of the Theseus, 
 and mark well the splendid firmness of the planes. 
 
 When we turn to look at the movement in the 
 body of the Ilissos, we ask ourselves if movement 
 was ever produced in sculpture with such style the 
 whole body is turned in a way which, from the 
 hands of a less great master, would suggest muscular 
 exertion, but this sublime genius has given us perfect 
 rest ; all is freed from violence. It is a perfect tran- 
 script of nature as seen through a mighty mind. 
 
 Observe the grand construction of the thorax, and 
 the marvellously beautiful movement of the torso, 
 and how the right leg grows or springs out from the 
 torso. Can anything finer be imagined ? Again, 
 examine the back; it is as fine as the front; see the 
 quality and value of all the hollows in this noble 
 figure, and realise how grand is this selection from 
 the finest nature. To my thinking, this figure is 
 even finer than the Theseus. 
 
 274
 
 PLATES IV AND V 
 ASSYRIAN RELIEF CARVING 
 
 The British Museum 
 
 275
 
 PLATES IV AND V 
 
 These reliefs are extremely decorative, and valuable for the student 
 who is studying decorative relief-work. The simplicity of the 
 surfaces and the value of repetition of lines, as in the heads 
 and legs of the animals, should be noted, as well as the shapes 
 of the spaces on the groundwork. 
 
 276
 
 
 -< , 
 
 i 
 
 9/ 
 
 M 
 
 \ 
 
 . 
 
 4 
 
 < 
 ' jf -_ 
 
 /

 
 PLATE VI 
 
 THESEUS 
 
 The British Museum 
 
 PLATE VII 
 
 ILISSOS 
 
 The British Museum 
 
 277
 
 PLATES VI AND VII 
 
 Grander form was never seen in Art or Nature than in these two 
 examples of Greek Sculpture. They represent the noblest 
 forms in Nature as seen through the mind of a sublime genius. 
 Note that there is no attempt at any exaggerated pose, and 
 if the body is moved at all in action, as in the case of the 
 Ilissos, it is done with such ease that all the ejfect is obtained 
 with perfect repose. Of all works, the student cannot do better 
 than keep himself in constant touch with these great master- 
 pieces. 
 
 278
 
 from a photograph by Mansell & Co. 
 
 Plate VI 
 
 THESEUS 
 
 Plate VII 
 
 ILISSOS
 
 PLATE VIII 
 
 THE THREE FATES 
 
 The British Museum 
 
 279
 
 PLATE VIII 
 
 Never was the human form more exquisitely draped than in the case 
 of the group of The Fates, and never did drapery cover grander 
 form. The marvel is that the form is everywhere felt so beauti- 
 fully through the drapery. Note the value of the radiating 
 lines. 
 
 280
 
 If you model anything from the antique before 
 you have had a long study from the living model, 
 then select these two masterpieces before all others 
 to copy; they are nearer the finest nature, as we 
 know it in after years, than perhaps any other 
 work of which I can think. You will for this reason 
 more quickly understand these than you will many 
 other antique works. To make a copy of these 
 statues should prove of immense value at any 
 moment in a sculptor's career. 
 
 Nothing less than I have said of Theseus and 
 Ilissos can be said of the Fates ; equally great are 
 these three daughters of Cecrops, which form a part 
 of the eastern pediment of the Parthenon. Look at 
 the one sister reposing in the lap of the other, the 
 freedom of line, the ease of pose; the style of line 
 and the richness throughout are beyond all praise. 
 
 Note how beautifully the form is expressed through, 
 or under, the exquisitely arranged draperies, leaving 
 you to believe that the nude figure must have been 
 modelled in true form first, and afterwards the 
 draperies put on. The purity in the design of these 
 draperies is so convincing but how monotonous, 
 how hard, how cold and unsympathetic this drapery 
 might have appeared had it been done by any less 
 sublime genius. These figures all but breathe ; you 
 feel that parts of the flesh could be pressed in, so 
 full of real nature are they. 
 
 These pieces of Greek antiquity might have been 
 moulded and then cast from nature if anything 
 so mechanical as a cast could give what the mind 
 and the eyes saw in the finest nature. 
 
 I cannot leave the works which adorn the Par- 
 thenon without calling the student's attention to 
 the bas-reliefs from the frieze. This frieze is of 
 
 281
 
 A FEW MASTERPIECES CONSIDERED 
 
 such a length (524 feet) that it needs a volume to 
 itself, but space will permit of my mentioning it 
 only as a whole, as a complete rhythm of grand 
 dignity of composition : the vigorous action and life 
 displayed are enormous. The entire Procession seems 
 to be moving, and yet still and dignified, as all fine 
 sculpture is. Note the simplicity of this frieze 
 and yet the richness of it ; how beautifully it is 
 filled ; the delightfully rich pattern it makes ; the 
 spaces in between the relief, the subjects, how 
 interesting; the colour by this I mean the effect 
 of light and shade, the value of the lines, repeated 
 in so many instances, yet never monotonous ; the 
 value-uses of perpendicular lines, as contrasted with 
 horizontal ones. Note how much the front surface 
 of the marble has been retained, so as to co-ordinate 
 it with the architectural portion; how completely 
 this frieze fits its position. How firm is the form, 
 and how grand the spirit. Here is a lesson for us 
 in relief decoration ; to be never noisy or vulgar, 
 but ever quiet and dignified like nature at its best. 
 To make no attempt at pictorial effect. The planes 
 to be simple and broad, and no effort to be made 
 at unnecessary perspective or great variety in relief, 
 but all perfect completeness. It is thus that truth 
 is handled by a master hand! 
 
 The relief figures on the sculptured pier from the 
 Temple of Diana (Artemision), Ephesus (B.M., No. 
 1204), belong to the highest standard in sculpture : 
 see the delightful arrangement of drapery on the 
 female figures, the value of the scale of one part 
 to another. The dignity of the headless woman is 
 great. How purely sculpturesque all these Greek 
 works are. Selection and treatment of true form 
 were the first aim of the Greek sculptor. 
 
 282
 
 PLATES IX AND X 
 BAS-RELIEFS FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE 
 
 The British Museum 
 
 283
 
 PLATES IX AND X 
 
 It it difficult to select a portion of a whole which is so noble and 
 so complete without a feeling of regret thai it, and any remarks 
 respecting it, can be but fragmentary. Attention should be 
 drawn to the wonderful style of line which exists in the smallest 
 portion as it does throughout the whole of this frieze. Observe, 
 for example, the line down from the nose of the ox in relation 
 to the front line down the figure on this side of the animal. 
 Apart from the magnificent treatment of relief work and other 
 striking merits which this piece possesses, the quality and 
 style of the outline are everywhere superb. I would advise 
 the student constantly to let his eye travel along these outlines, 
 in order thoroughly to recognise their significance. 
 
 284
 
 from a phatografh by Mansflt & Ct 
 
 Plate IX 
 
 /". o; a fHatOfrafH by Manse// & Co. 
 
 BAS-RELIEFS FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE. 
 
 Plate X
 
 PLATE XI 
 
 SCULPTURED PIER FROM THE TEMPLE 
 OF DIANA 
 
 The British Museum 
 
 285
 
 PLATE XI 
 
 The arrangement ofjigures against a column or drum-shaped ground 
 involves more difficulties than when on a Jlat surf ace, for the 
 outlines seen at the extreme sides have to be considered in respect 
 of their silhouette as well as the front view without the chief 
 lines of the column being entirely lost or too much broken up 
 by over-great projection. Note the arrangement of the drapery 
 on the female ^figure that is to say, the value of horizontal 
 lines as against upright ones, and also the value of the radiating 
 lines in the drapery from the hand. 
 
 286
 
 /><>/ a photografh by Mansell f- Co. 
 
 SCULPTURED PIER FROM THE TEMPLE OF DIANA 
 
 Plate XI
 
 PLATE XII 
 THE NIKE OF SAMOTHRACE 
 
 287
 
 PLATE XII 
 
 This may be called the Victory of Victories, for no greater Victory 
 was ever achieved than the making of this great work. One 
 almost hears the wind blowing the soft, thin drapery up against 
 the beautifully soft, rounded form of this graceful figure. 
 Note hoiv the form of the figure is traced through and tinder 
 the drapery, only lost to be found again the next moment. 
 
 288
 
 1'rom a photograph by Manse!! & C 
 
 Plate XII 
 
 THE NIKE OF SAMOTHRACE
 
 PLATE XIII 
 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENT OF HEGESO 
 
 The British Museum 
 
 289
 
 PLATE XIII 
 
 A Jine example of relief work. Observe the simplicity and purity 
 of all the lines, and the absence of any attempt at elaboration 
 of detail. Yet the whole is rich by reason of the value of the 
 beautifully shaped plain parts as contrasted with those parts 
 more cut up by the folds of the drapery. Note the exquisite 
 shapes made by each mass of drapery and the value of per- 
 pendicular and horizontal Lines in the design. 
 
 290
 
 From a photograph by the English Photo Co. 
 
 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENT OF HEGESO 
 
 Plate XIII
 
 PLATE XIV 
 
 LES ADIEUX 
 
 J. .T. PERRAITD 
 
 Louvre 
 
 291
 
 PLATE XIV 
 
 In contrast to the sepulchral monument of Hegeso, reproduced in 
 the preceding plate, this work is shown. The student mil 
 quickly see for himself that the over-billing of a panel and 
 the over-elaboration of detail is a fault. This work is overdone 
 everywhere, it is restless, and not in the least inspiring; but 
 it may serve to point out to the student that an abundance of 
 elaborate detail and cramming of work into a panel are not 
 requisite to the production of ajine work. 
 
 292
 
 From a photograph by Ciraiido. 
 
 Plate XIV 
 
 LES ADIEUX. BY J. J. PERRAUD
 
 PLATE XV 
 THE VENUS OF MELOS 
 
 Louvre 
 
 293
 
 PLATE XV 
 
 Seldom if ever was more beautiful female form wrought out of a 
 block of marble than this Venus of Melos a Goddess in all 
 her grace and tenderness of form. Note the construction of 
 the whole Jigure, the grand simplicity of the detail, and the 
 ease in the movement throughout. The neck grows out of 
 shoulders in great style and carries the handsome head nobly. 
 
 294
 
 From a fliatagrafh by ,\enrJei. 
 
 Plate XV 
 
 THE VENUS OF MELOS
 
 PLATE XVI 
 
 ASKLEPIOS 
 
 The British Museum 
 
 295
 
 PLATE XVI 
 
 This grandly sculptured head of Asklepios is one to which all students 
 should give special attention. The breadth and Jirmness of 
 the modelling and drawing are remarkable, whilst the expression 
 is placid and godlike. The treatment of the hair is splendid, 
 and the colour in this, as contrasted with the pale face, is 
 wonderfully well suggested. 
 
 296
 
 From a f/totofrafh by Manstll & Co. 
 
 Plate XVI 
 
 ASKLEPIOS
 
 A FEW MASTERPIECES CONSIDERED 
 
 For flowing drapery look at the wonderful Victory, 
 the " Nike of Samothrace." In this you get intense 
 movement one feels the wind blowing as this figure 
 sweeps through the air. 
 
 I can point to few more beautiful pieces of Greek 
 relief work than the sepulchral monument of Hegeso, 
 daughter of Proxenos (Athens, about 100 B.C.). The 
 exquisite simplicity and purity of line in these figures 
 is immense, whilst the style, arrangement, and treat- 
 ment of the drapery, with its valuable perpendicular 
 line, is perfect ; all so severe, yet so easy. The shape 
 of any one particular portion is beautiful and com- 
 plete in itself. Observe how very firm the drawing is, 
 and for this reason the value of the light and shade. 
 Turned upside down or seen from any side, it is 
 almost equally fine, which proves how splendid the 
 shapes are and how well considered the lines. 
 
 For the student's benefit I should like to contrast 
 this work, of which I just have spoken, with one 
 in the Louvre, " Les Adieux," where it will be seen 
 how everything is overdone, noisy, common, and 
 what a want of quiet is needed. This work, to my 
 mind, is as far from right as the other is near to 
 perfection. 
 
 The Venus of Melos is perhaps one of the few 
 statues almost fine enough to have come from the 
 hand of Phidias, so great is the perfect harmony of 
 the whole ; and the pure and majestic style of this 
 work places it amongst the greatest creations. The 
 ease of the attitude and the bigness of its sculp- 
 turesque character should be appreciated by every 
 one. This Venus is a goddess in all her grace and 
 tenderness of form. 
 
 Let us look at just a few of the many fine busts 
 and heads before we leave these galleries, wherein 
 
 297
 
 A FEW MASTERPIECES CONSIDERED 
 
 we can find enough great works to fill volumes with 
 praise without saying a word too much. 
 
 It appears to me that most of the Greek sculptors 
 treated the heads on their figures and the heads 
 on their busts with a little less nearness to nature 
 than they did the figure parts, and that whilst they 
 possess, in most cases, the finest form, I do not 
 recognise a particularly strong individuality or a 
 marked character. They appear rather as types than 
 as individuals. Perhaps therein lies the secret of 
 their sculpturesque breadth of treatment. Any in- 
 sistence on individual characteristics might have 
 lessened this quality. 
 
 That the Greeks coloured their statues is beyond 
 doubt; that they considered colour in form an 
 essential is also evident ; more especially is this 
 noticeable in the treatment of the hair, where the 
 difference between a head with light hair and one 
 with dark hair is obvious. 
 
 See what an amount of consideration, too, these 
 Greeks gave to the arrangement of the hair; how 
 beautifully sought out and followed are the masses, 
 until they become splendid, rich pieces of design. 
 
 The more closely you study from nature the 
 growth, movement, and shape of the masses of the 
 hair, the more you will see how near the Greeks are 
 to the truth in these details. 
 
 Look at the splendid head of Asklepios (B.M., 
 No. 550). The face simple, broad, and strong, yet 
 pale, encircled by a rich treatment of hair. This 
 applies to many of their heads, the hair being so 
 often cut up full of light and shade to give a 
 contrast in colour to that of the face, as between 
 flesh and hair, though these parts never appear 
 noisy or common. 
 
 298
 
 PLATE XVII 
 HEAD IN BRONZE OF APHRODITE 
 
 299
 
 PLATE XVII 
 
 The lesson in this mask is that to be derived from the big, broad, 
 and Jirm modelling, the beautiful simplicity of the treatment, 
 and the ease of the movement conveyed. 
 
 300
 
 l-'rom a photograph by Manse II & Co. 
 
 Plate XVII 
 
 APHRODITE
 
 PLATE XVIII 
 
 HOMER 
 
 The British Museum 
 
 301
 
 PLATE XVIII 
 
 The fine, sculpturesque treatment of this work places it among the 
 best busts of all time. The Jirm construction of the whole 
 head and nervous drawing in the detail are remarkable. Note 
 the drawing up the sides of the face, over the cheek-bones, and 
 up the temple bones. Again observe the wonderful treatment of 
 the eyes ; they appear as blind, and yet are full of expression. 
 
 302
 
 Plate XVIII 
 
 HOMER
 
 PLATE XIX 
 
 TORSO OF APHRODITE 
 
 The British Museum 
 
 303
 
 PLATE XX 
 HEAD OF A YOUNG MAN 
 
 The British Museum 
 
 305 u
 
 PLATE XX 
 
 A finely carred head of a young man, sculpturesque in treatment 
 and firmly posed on the shoulders. The hair is somewhat 
 conventional and not so good as in the best Greek heads, though 
 the features are grand in their big, fine form, and the con- 
 struction is perfect. A head valuable for the student to study. 
 
 800
 
 +* 
 
 Plate XX 
 
 HEAD OF A YOUNG MAN
 
 PLATE XXI 
 
 MIDAS 
 
 The British Museum 
 
 307
 
 PLATE XXI 
 
 A beautifully refined piece of decorative sculpture, delightful in 
 sentiment and sense of scale of one part to another. It is, 
 of course, conventional, or, rather, formal ; but it is none the 
 less a Jine work. The treatment of hair and head-dress and 
 the beard should be carefully observed, as should also the 
 arrangement of the drapery. 
 
 308
 
 From a photograph by Mansell & Co. 
 
 MIDAS 
 
 Plate XXI
 
 
 
 - 

 
 PLATE XXII 
 
 A PORTION OF A TABERNACLE 
 
 MASTER OF SAN TROVASO 
 South Kensington Museum 
 
 309
 
 PLATE XXII 
 
 An example of low relief modelling in which some of the Jigures 
 (i.e. the front ones) are lifted quite a distance from the back- 
 ground, yet do not change the style of relief from those which 
 remain set back close up to it. Note the treatment of, and on, 
 the projection between the outlines of figures in the foreground 
 and those in the background as being the same, so that there 
 is a " togetherness," or uniformity, in the whole. 
 
 310
 
 Plate XXII 
 
 A PORTION OF A TABERNACLE
 
 And for strength, look at the head of Hercules 
 (B.M., No. 1736). It is enormously powerful ; see, too, 
 how fine is the bronze head of Aphrodite; there 
 is an example of the best period of Greek art : 
 simplicity and style; and the flesh big, firm, and 
 full in quality. One side of the face may be out in 
 construction as related to the other ; but this has 
 come about, I should say, by having been dented 
 or knocked in by damage at some time. 
 
 I do not intend to dwell upon the Roman period, 
 because I feel that what space I have now to spare 
 were best spent (after leaving the Greeks) with the 
 early Italians ; therefore, after a glance round at 
 the Romans, we will hasten to the Italian masters. 
 
 In these Roman busts and statues there is a 
 more varied difference of character in the features 
 than we have found with the Greeks. Indeed, the 
 Romans went more nearly for getting the character 
 (personality) of the individual man or woman. That 
 they liked to preserve a likeness of their departed 
 is well known, for it was their custom to take 
 wax moulds and casts from the face after death. 
 The mask, we are told, would be worn by one of 
 the mourners, who would also wear the cloth insignia 
 of the departed in the funeral procession. The wax 
 models could not have been made for any purpose 
 of art, but simply as likenesses. 
 
 Though the features vary considerably, there is 
 a great sameness in all, in the pose of the head, 
 general attitude, gesture, and indeed in dress and 
 arrangement of draperies ; so much so, that many 
 of their busts of emperors might almost have been 
 taken from the same mould with different features 
 put on them. 
 
 311
 
 A FEW MASTERPIECES CONSIDERED 
 
 A few of the best examples of the Grseco-Roman 
 pieces are the following : 
 
 The head of Homer, Baise, in the British Museum 
 (Grseco-Roman, No. 1825). This is a very fine head, 
 strongly modelled and full of character. Besides, 
 there is in this head of the blind poet tender nervous 
 drawing in the detail, and play of movement in the 
 parts. Note how well the cheek-bones are drawn. 
 The sorrowful expression gives you the complete 
 idea of one who is blind. 
 
 The Torso of Aphrodite (B.M., Greece - Roman, 
 No. 1580) is one of the very finest bits of Grseco- 
 Roman sculpture, beautifully simple, full rounded 
 form, warm flesh, the hollows broad and full of 
 movement : a work to be studied. 
 
 The Head of Mercury (Hermes) (B.M., Grseco- 
 Roman, No. 1612). The face of this work and the 
 treatment of the hair (conventional though it be) 
 are very strong and full of character. 
 
 Again, the heroic head of . a young man (B.M., 
 No. 1785) is one of the best examples of Grseco- 
 Roman busts. A splendidly balanced head, with 
 fine form and great ease in the pose. 
 
 Before leaving this period, let me draw attention 
 to the exquisitely beautiful terminal figure of Midas, 
 with its gloriously refined head and beard, its charm- 
 ingly designed drapery, its homogeneous complete- 
 ness. It is a perfect piece of decorative sculpture. 
 
 The moment you enter a gallery of the sculpture 
 of the early Italian artists, you are surrounded by 
 so many great works that it is only with difficulty 
 you can decide where to make a start, or what to 
 look at first. The names of Donatello, Verrocchio, 
 Mino da Fiesole, Michael Angelo, Cellini, and a host 
 
 312
 
 PLATE XXIII 
 
 HEAD OF ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST 
 
 SCHOOL OF DELLA ROBBTA 
 South Kensington Museum 
 
 313
 
 PLATE XXIII 
 
 This head could hardly be surpassed for subtlety of drawing 
 and modelling. The transition from one plane to another 
 is extremely gentle and easy. Nothing but making a most 
 faithful copy can bring home to the student a complete idea 
 of this work. Exaggeration, however slight, of any part will 
 change the effect of the whole, and the copy will wholly lose 
 its resemblance. For this reason it is a very difficult work 
 for the student to copy, and consequently affords excellent 
 discipline. 
 
 314
 
 Plate XXIII 
 HEAD OK ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST. SCHOOL OF DELLA ROBBIA
 
 PLATE XXIV 
 
 PERSEUS 
 B. CELLINI 
 
 Florence 
 
 315
 
 PLATE XXIV 
 
 will be easily seen by those who have had however elementary a 
 training in modelling that this work is one essentially suited 
 to bronze. The outstretched arm holding a mass such as the 
 head in this instance would not only be difficult to work in 
 marble because of the danger of its breaking off in progress, 
 but would ever look uncomfortable in stone. Furthermore, the 
 sword and head-dress, or helmet, are not suitable for a stone 
 treatment, and the whole mass of this figure, supported on one 
 leg only, would condemn it as unsuitable for any material 
 other than metal. 
 
 316
 
 Plate XXIV 
 
 PERSEUS. BY B. CELLINI
 
 PLATE XXV 
 
 TERRA-COTTA OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 
 
 Florence 
 
 317
 
 PLATE XXV 
 
 Note the tenderness of the modelling about the features of this work, 
 the delicacy with which the detail is treated, and the difference 
 of texture observed between Jlesh and bone. Observe, too, how 
 beautifully drawn are the nose and the parts around the eye 
 and temple. The scale of the detail is very close to nature ; 
 indeed, the head, considered as a whole, is remarkably realistic 
 in its rendering. 
 
 318
 
 I-,-om a /.holograph by Jli,,ari PUtC XXV 
 
 NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI. TERRA-COTTA OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY
 
 PLATE XXVI 
 BUST IN TERRA-COTTA 
 
 DONATELLO 
 
 South Kensington Museum 
 
 319
 
 PLATE XXVI 
 
 It is difficult to point to any female bust of this period possessing 
 more Jine qualities than this work, ascribed to Donatella. The 
 beautiful sense of nervous drawing and tender feeling is seen 
 throughout this sweet head, so gentle and pure in character. 
 With delightful ease the neck leads out of the womanly 
 shoulders ; the cartilage in the nose is perfectly felt, and the 
 bone over the eye, temple, and cheek is not less finely expressed. 
 The beautiful modelling round the mouth and the drawing up 
 the face and over the cheek-bone to the forehead should be 
 studied and analysed. 
 
 320
 
 Plate XXVI 
 
 BUST IN TERRA-COTTA
 
 PLATE XXVII 
 A CHIMNEYPIECE 
 
 321
 
 PLATE XXVII 
 
 Much of the detail in this chimneypiece is as sharp and crisp as 
 if carved out of a hard marble. The variety of light and 
 shade (or, as the sculptor terms it, colour} is remarkable ; in 
 parts the relief is almost lost in the ground, then it comes 
 playfully up in high relief. The whole work is tender and 
 refined in feeling, whilst the workmanship is exquisite in its 
 artistic character. 
 
 322
 
 PLATE XXVIII 
 
 VIRGIN AND CHILD 
 
 DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO 
 South Kensington Museum 
 
 323
 
 PLATE XXVIII 
 
 A beautiful example of fine drawing and delicate carving in low 
 relief. With singular charm the outlines vary in strength of 
 colour i e. in light and shade and the whole work is distin- 
 guished by purity of feeling and execution. 
 
 324
 
 Plate XXVIII 
 
 VIRGIN AND CHILD. BY DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO
 
 PLATE XXIX 
 
 BUST OF A LADY 
 
 DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNAXO 
 South Kensington Museum 
 
 325
 
 PLATE XXIX 
 
 A beautifully simple bust, unaffected in pose and treatment, quaint 
 in character, and easy in movement. Note the modelling of 
 the nose and over the eyes up into the brow, how subtlety, purity, 
 and sweetness pervade it. 
 
 326
 
 I'rom a fhotoyrafli by Mansell and Cc 
 
 Plate XXIX 
 
 BUST OF A LADY. BY DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO
 
 PLATE XXX 
 
 BUST OF A YOUNG MAN 
 
 ANTONIO POLLATUOLO 
 South Kensington Museum 
 
 327
 
 PLATE XXX 
 
 A quaint bust treated in a very simple manner, with no effort at 
 movement in pose or technique. It is charming in its unaffected 
 style, and a delightful and rather archaic rendering of character 
 in sculpture. 
 
 328
 
 From a photograph by Manstll & Co. Plate XXX 
 
 BUST OF A YOUNG MAN. BY ANTONIO POLLAIUOLO
 
 A FEW MASTERPIECES CONSIDERED 
 
 of others, all arouse intense enthusiasm and inspire 
 one beyond expression. 
 
 Take the reliefs of Donatello ; look at these for 
 grace and beauty, tenderness and feeling, carried 
 to the very end, finished, yet never tight or hard ; 
 the drawing and modelling are exquisite. The 
 subtleness of planes, the colour (i.g. light and shade), 
 are full of sweet variety and refinement of touch 
 throughout. 
 
 Then take the busts of this same master. You 
 feel yourself to be in the presence of living people 
 people whom you saw yesterday and might see 
 to-day so intimate are they, moving, yet full of 
 reticence, stilled only by the master-hand ; for though 
 they almost breathe, they never startle you with 
 their challenge. They are works of art, tenderly 
 wrought after nature with a loving fidelity. 
 
 Examine the bust of a woman, called St. Cecilia 
 (Victoria and Albert Museum, No. 7585). The growth 
 of this neck from the shoulders is full of grace ; the 
 tender modelling around the nose and mouth, indeed 
 the whole face, is extraordinarily sweet and pure. 
 The head of a Lawyer is a masterpiece of con- 
 struction, tender modelling, and character. And 
 then look at the heads by Verrocchio, and those 
 by Mino da Fiesole, Antonio Pollaiuolo, Desiderio 
 da Settignano, and the many others you can find by 
 the men of the Italian Renaissance period. These 
 are the works for the student who is studying the 
 head from life, in order to follow portrait sculpture. 
 Let him note the delicate modelling throughout and 
 in the details ; see how the difference between bone 
 and flesh is felt, appreciated, and tenderly expressed ; 
 how subtle, yet playful the movement of surface is 
 in all cases, how sincerely every bit of detail has 
 
 329
 
 been considered. What works of art these are ! 
 To find the like of them one has to go back to the 
 great Greeks. 
 
 Before leaving I must take you before that con- 
 summate master, Michael Angelo, who followed close 
 upon these men. This giant, who at the age of 
 fifteen produced the head of a faun, left behind him 
 so many great and important works that the wonder 
 is that he ever found time to sleep in his ninety 
 years of existence on earth. What a constitution 
 and physique he must have had ! One cannot help 
 feeling his physique and constitution in everything 
 he did. There can be no doubt that Michael Angelo 
 was moved and inspired by the works of the great 
 Greek masters ; and from these men he saw his 
 way to give us great sculpturesque creations, big 
 nobleness of form being always uppermost in his 
 mind when he carried out his mighty conceptions. 
 
 The amazingly fine construction and arrangement 
 in all his works shows that from the first the suita- 
 bility of the subject and adaptation of design to the 
 material were thoroughly considered ; the same is 
 the case in respect of the treatment, always masterly. 
 
 His knowledge of the human form on and below 
 the surface was marvellous, and the drawing every- 
 where very powerful. Together with other works 
 by this master, look at the grand and mysterious 
 recumbent figures oil the dignified and majestic 
 tombs of the Medici, and at the two statues of the 
 Slaves ; also at the head of the Virgin, which is so 
 vigorous in treatment yet tender in expression ; and 
 then turn to the noble figure of Moses. To these 
 and to the reproductions from the frescoes in the 
 Sistine Chapel I commend all students of modelling 
 for inspiration. 
 
 330
 
 PLATE XXXI 
 
 HEAD OF THE VIRGIN 
 
 MICHAEL ANGELO 
 South Kensington Museum 
 
 331
 
 PLATE XXXI 
 
 The strength of character displayed in this head marks it as a 
 great work. It is designed essentially for marble, and the 
 treatment is appropriate to the material. See the masterly 
 power with which this unfinished work is wrought. 
 
 332
 
 From a photograph by Mansetl f~ Co. 
 
 Plate XXXI 
 
 HEAD OF VIRGIN
 
 PLATE XXXII 
 
 MOSES 
 
 MICHAEL ANGELO 
 Rome 
 
 333
 
 PLATE XXXII 
 
 A masterpiece. This Moses is a very Moses in all his strength and 
 wisdom a grandly designed statue. Note the masterly treat- 
 ment of the head and beard, the drapery magnificently wrought 
 and arranged over the legs, and the stately pose of the figure. 
 
 334
 
 Plate XXXII 
 
 MOSES. BY MICHAEL ANGELO
 
 PLATE XXXIII 
 
 TOMB OF LORENZO DE MEDICI 
 
 MICHAKL ANOELO 
 Florence 
 
 335
 
 PLATE XXXIII 
 
 These two nobly conceived reclining figures compare favourably with 
 the grandest creations of the Greeks, though they have not the 
 value of the subtleties of the earlier masterpieces, and are more 
 dramatic in pose and sentiment. These works, wrought with 
 consummate skill, should inspire every student of modelling to 
 noble ideals. 
 
 336
 
 fro,,, photograph by Alinan pl a t e XXXIII 
 
 TOMB OF LORENZO DE' MEDICI. BY MICHAEL ANGELO
 
 PLATE XXXIV 
 
 ONE OF THE FIGURES FROM THE TOMB 
 OF LORENZO DE MEDICI 
 
 MICHAEL AXGKLO 
 Florence 
 
 337
 
 PLATE XXXIV 
 
 The composition and grand modelling of ihisjigure are unsurpassed 
 by any work of its kind. Note the construction, the splendidly 
 varied planes of the shoulders to the plane of the pelvis, then 
 across the knees. Then observe the plane of the face and the 
 centre line up the torso over the chest and up the mastoid (neck) 
 muscle into the skull. See how valuable, too, is the vertical 
 arrangement of the right arm Supporting the upper portion of 
 the body, and the parallel line of the draperies up to the head. 
 
 338
 
 PLATE XXXV 
 
 LA REPUBLIQUE 
 
 DALOU 
 
 Paris 
 
 339
 
 PLATE XXXV 
 
 A modern work especially French in conception and modelling. It 
 is excellent in Us rigorous treatment and in its silhouette, and 
 would, I am disposed to think, have proved its value to a still 
 greater extent had it been placed a little higher so that the 
 whole of the outline could have been seen against the sky. 
 Note how rich throughout is the modelling, though perhaps 
 somewhat too equal in the shapes and quantities of the darks 
 and lights. This, perhaps, may account for the work looking 
 a little "noisy" and confused from this view. 
 
 340
 
 From a photograph by A'etiritdn 
 
 Plate XXXV 
 
 LA RKPUBLIQUE. BY DALOU
 
 PLATE XXXVI 
 
 AVELLINGTON MEMORIAL 
 
 ALFRED STEVENS 
 St. Paul's Cathedral 
 
 341
 
 PLATE XXXVI 
 
 One of the finest monuments ever erected. This work " builds up " 
 so magnificently. There is a grandness in the tout-ensemble, 
 and the detail is beautifully rich, yet never noisy or overdone. 
 It is a splendid example of the value of plain parts as con- 
 trasted with those enriched. The proportion of one part to 
 another could not be better. The silhouettes of the sculptured 
 groups are most interesting, and the lines of these in relation 
 with the splendid architecture admirably considered. Thei/ are 
 a portion of a grand conception, noble and big in the fullest 
 sense. The effect of the details is as remarkable as that of 
 the whole. On the top is shown Stevens' s unfinished model for 
 the equestrian group an adaptation of which, by a modern 
 artist, is about to be erected in its place. 
 
 342
 
 ! Stereoscopic Cc 
 
 Plate XXXVI 
 
 WELLINGTON MEMORIAL. BY ALFRED STEVENS
 
 A FEW MASTERPIECES CONSIDERED 
 
 Of relief work from the French school, I know of 
 nothing so fine as the reliefs of Jean Goujon ex- 
 quisite in design, beautiful in their varying sense of 
 colour (light and shade) in the outlines, and charming 
 in style and relief, as well as their purposeful de- 
 parture from true human proportions. At times 
 they are almost Greek in feeling, except for the 
 playfulness in movement. Much can be learnt from 
 these beautiful works of the French Renaissance, 
 plaster casts of some of which can be seen in the 
 Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. 
 
 I select for illustration " La Republique " by Dalou, 
 not alone because I regard it so highly from an 
 artistic point of view, but also because I consider 
 it so distinctly Gallic in its entirety; in design and 
 treatment, more so than almost any other modern 
 work in France. Though perhaps at first it might 
 be thought somewhat rococo in style, it is absolutely 
 free from any extravagance. It is a work wrought 
 by a master-hand, bold and free in treatment, full 
 of life and movement, rich in decorative quality 
 and modelling, playful in silhouette, yet as a whole 
 restful. 
 
 Dalou returned to Paris to carry out this im- 
 portant work after spending some years in England, 
 where he instilled much enthusiasm into the younger 
 generation of sculptors of his time who were privi- 
 leged to come under his care, and inspired them with 
 the highest aims. He did everything in his power 
 to establish a school in England, and his influence 
 helped greatly towards forming the high standard of 
 the present British school of sculpture. 
 
 Of the moderns, Alfred Stevens must surely be 
 placed first amongst sculptors, and his Wellington 
 Memorial, of which we here show an illustration, 
 
 343
 
 A FEW MASTERPIECES CONSIDERED 
 
 will bear favourable comparison with almost any- 
 thing of bygone ages in Italy or Greece. Michael 
 Angelo never got nearer to complete harmony in a 
 conception of architecture and sculpture combined. 
 Look with care at this great work, which stands 
 in St. Paul's Cathedral. It came from the hand 
 and mind of one who, at one time, was a modeller 
 of stoves and fire-grates. Recognise how perfectly 
 beautiful is the architectural proportion ; the details 
 are original and rich in design, never noisy, and 
 always subservient to the more important parts, the 
 decorative rendering of the attributes of war which 
 enrich the sarcophagus, upon which rests the peaceful 
 figure of the Hero of Waterloo, and the symbolical 
 groups at either side and above nobly conceived. 
 See how grandly these masterpieces jut out, making 
 variety with the columns below which support them 
 and the superstructure, and what strength of line 
 prevails in the whole silhouette. And yet this giant 
 is relatively unknown to the outside world, and his 
 grave at Highgate is much neglected, for most people 
 are not aware that his body was there laid to rest, 
 and many do not even know that one Alfred Stevens 
 lived. 
 
 344
 
 ABNORMAL or abominable in Art, 
 
 the, 183 
 Acids for obtaining particular 
 
 colours, 191 
 Air-jets, 188 
 Alto-relief, 153 
 
 Alum for gelatine moulding, 130 
 America, Art in, 215 
 Anatomy, the study of, 42, 81 
 Angle for reliefs in high position, 
 
 172 
 
 Aukles, tlie, 78 
 Antonio Polliauolo, 327 
 Aphrodite, Torso of, 312 
 Aphrodite, 311 
 Armature, the, 38, 52; building up 
 
 the, 72; for relief work, 16S ; in 
 
 a chassis, 243 
 Art schools, 27 
 Asklepios, 298 
 Assur-Nasir-Pal, bas-relief works of 
 
 the reign of, 273 
 Assyrian Art, 268 
 
 BACKGROUND of relief work, 163 
 
 Lands of clay for the joints, 98 
 
 " Banker" or turn-table, 237 
 
 Bas-relief, 153 
 
 Basin for molten metal, 194 
 
 Bath stone, 198 
 
 Beer limestone, 198 
 
 Beeswax, 149 
 
 Bent iron, strips of, in the mould, 94 
 
 Benvenuto Cellini, 187 
 
 Blue-bag, the, 92 
 
 " Boasted " or masoned, 204 
 
 Boiled oil, treating a plaster cast 
 
 with, 228 
 
 Bones of the human body, 43 
 Borax for "sand- holes" in marble, 
 
 257 
 Botany, a knowledge of, useful, 214 
 
 British sculptor, individuality of 
 
 the, 21 
 
 Bronze, m< delling for, 175 
 Bronze powder, 229 
 Bronzing or tinting, 186 
 Bronzing, 229 
 
 Brown polish for gelatine mould, 1 29 
 Brushing a bronzed cast, 232 
 Bull Hunt, The, 273 
 Bust, moulding a, 97 
 Bust peg, the, 50 
 "Butterfly," the, 52 
 
 CARICATURIST, the, 49 
 
 Carrara marble, 256 
 
 Case, the, 122 
 
 Cast, the, 106 
 
 Casting, 90 
 
 Cellini, 312 
 
 Character in the model, 88 
 
 Characteristics, the study of, 48 
 
 Chassis for enlarging, 237 
 
 Chin, position of the, 55 
 
 Chipping away the coa ( , 96 
 
 Chipping-out, 95 
 
 Chisel, how to hold the, 259 
 
 Cire-pcrdue proce.-s, the, 180, 186 
 
 Clay bat, the, 155 
 
 Clay, as a material for working in, 
 33 
 
 Clay for modelling for terra-cotta, 
 135 
 
 Clay water, f 3 
 
 Cleaning a plaster cast, 228 
 
 Clipsham stone, 198 
 
 Colour of the work, the, 148 
 
 Colouring a plaster cast, 218 
 
 Colouring of statues by the Greeks, 
 298 
 
 Colouring the work, 150 
 
 Compo or lead piping for the arma- 
 ture, 72 
 
 345
 
 INDEX 
 
 Copper powder, 230 
 
 Copper rivets for pointing, 251 
 
 Copy, the choice of a, 42 
 
 "Core," the, 188 
 
 Corsham Down, 198 
 
 Cottle, the, 100 
 
 DALOU, 343 
 
 "Darks" in marble, 255 
 " David" of M. Angelo, 38 
 Delia Robbia sculpture, 1"6 
 Desiderio da Settignano, 327 
 Distance-down measurements, 242 
 Distance-in measurements, 242 
 Donatello, 312, 327 
 Donatello, relief works of, 159 
 Drapery in marble and bronze, 180 
 Drawing on the flat, importance of 
 
 a mastery of, 159 
 " Driller," the, 254 
 Ducts, 188 
 Dust, effect of, 220 
 
 EAR, the, 71 
 
 Eccentricity and Genius, 21(5 
 
 Egyptian Art, 268 
 
 Electrotype deposit, 195 
 
 Enlarging by means of a chassis, 
 
 237 
 
 Eye, the, 63 
 Eyelids, the, 65 
 
 FACE, measuring the, 53 
 
 " False cores," 192 
 
 Fates, the, 281 
 
 Faults in works in bronze, 183 
 
 Figure, character of the, 87 
 
 " Filling," a, 106 
 
 Filling a mould, 146 
 
 Fingers, armature for the, 72 
 
 Firing, preparations for, 136 
 
 Firing works of art, the secret of, 142 
 
 Flaws in marble, 250, 257 
 
 Forest of Dean sandstone, 198 
 
 Founder's sand, 191 
 
 Founder's wax, 180 
 
 Frame for relief work, 154 
 
 France, architecture in, 215 
 
 French chalk, 146 ; for gelatine 
 
 moulding, 131 ; applied to a 
 
 plaster cast, 219 
 
 French polish on a plaster cast, 217 
 French School, the, 20, 343 
 
 GAUGE, or Gallows, a, 205 
 Gelatine moulding, 122 
 "Gits" or "Gets," 193 
 il Going off," 92 
 Goujon, Jean, 343 
 Greek Art, 273 
 Grotesque in Art, the, 183 
 Groundwork or base of the figure, 
 74 
 
 HAIK, the, 109 
 
 Hair, treatment of, by the Greeks, 
 
 298 
 
 Hammer, the, 258 
 Head, building up the, 53 
 Head, studying the back of the, 
 
 71 
 
 Head of a young man, 312 
 Head, treatment of, by Greek 
 
 sculptors, 298 
 Head-master, the 30 
 Hegeso, sepulchral monument of, 
 
 297 
 
 Heraldry, the animals for, 213 
 Hercules, 311 
 High light in the eye, 64 
 Hollington sandstone, 198 
 Hollows, 82 
 Homer, 312 
 Hopton Wood stone, 199 
 
 IDEALISM and Realism, 23 
 
 Ilissos, 274 
 
 Iron bands for strengthening the 
 
 mould, 100 
 Italian Masters, 311 
 Italian sculpture, influence of, 24 
 
 JAPANESE bronzes, 184 
 Japanning the supports, 115 
 Joining the pieces of the work, 
 
 140 
 Joints, making the, 98 
 
 KETTON stone, 198 
 
 Keys and keyholes, 100, 110, 129 
 
 "Killed" plaster, 107 
 
 " Killing" the plaster, 96 
 
 Kiln, the, 190 
 
 "LA RPUBLIQUE," 343 
 
 " Lanterns," 193 
 " Les Adieux," 297 
 
 346
 
 INDEX 
 
 " Life " of the plaster, 92 
 
 Light on the model, changing the, 
 
 61 
 
 Light and shadow, 160 
 Line of sight, the, 204 
 Lines, the value of, in ancient 
 
 carvings, 273 
 Lion Hunt, The, 273 
 London, sculpture in, 21 
 Looking-glass, use of the, 58 
 Lost-wax process, 180 
 
 MARBLE and bronze, different 
 
 treatment of, 186 
 Marble, carving in, 206, 216 
 Marble, testing for flaws in, 250 
 Masterpieces, the study of, 267 
 Measurements, 74 
 Measuring the model, 56 
 Medici, Tomb of the, 328 
 Mending broken pieces, 109 
 Mercury, head of, 312 
 Metal work, 184 
 Michael Angelo, 312, 328 
 Midas, 312 
 
 Milk for fixing colours, 151 
 Mino da Fiesole, 312, 327 
 Mitre, the, 211 
 Model, working from one, 87 
 Modelling stand, the, 50, 237 
 Moses, 328 
 Mould box, 192 
 Mouldings, 211 
 Mould-making, 90 
 
 NATURE and Art, 23 
 
 Nature, the study of, 262 
 
 Nature's lines, 82 
 
 Neck, taking the position of the 
 
 hollow of the, 53 
 Nike of Samothrace, 297 
 
 OAK for carving, 214 
 
 Oil colour for plaster casts, 234 
 
 PARTHENON, the, 273 
 
 " Parting dust," 191 
 
 Pastel colours for casts, 233 
 
 Pate-sur-pate modelling, 33 
 
 Patina of bronze, 179 
 
 Pegs, the use of, in measuring, 56, 
 
 78 
 Pentelic marble, 256 
 
 Phidias, 274 
 
 Pins, founder's, 188 
 
 Plaster, mixing the, 90, 93 
 
 Plaster in the clay, disastrous effects 
 
 of, 136 
 
 Plumbago or black-lead, 195 
 Plumb-line, the, 56 
 Plumb-lines of a chassis, 241 
 Point of view, changing the, 58 
 Pointing machine for marble carv 
 
 ing, 251 
 
 Pointing-sticks, 241 
 Points, 35, 243 
 Portland stone, 198 
 Portraiture, 46 
 Pose of the living model, 53 
 " Potcher," the/258 
 Preliminary stages, 168 
 " Preparing " in marble-carving, 255 
 Proportion between the fleshy and 
 
 bony parts, 84 
 Protecting the model, 35 
 "Pulling," 145 
 Pupil of the eye, making the, 64 
 
 RAW umber, a colour for plaster 
 
 cast, 231 
 
 Red Mansfield sandstone, 198 
 Relief carving, Egyptian, 268 
 Relief modelling, 152 
 Reliefs in wax, 163 
 Renaissance portraiture, 24 
 Replicas, colouring, 226 
 Round, moulding in the, 97 
 Runners, 189 
 
 ST. CECILIA, 327 
 
 Sand casting, 191 
 
 " Sand-holes " in marble, 257 
 
 Sand in the clav, advantages of, 
 
 144 
 Scratched or chipped bronzed cast, 
 
 236 
 
 Serravezza marble, 256 
 "Setting" of plaster, the, 92 
 Sicilian marble, 256 
 Sistine Chapel, frescoes in the, 328 
 Skeleton, the human, 43 
 " Slip," 33, 140 
 Soaping the mould, 95 
 Soft-soap and oil, the mixture of, 
 
 95 
 Spain, Art in, 215 
 
 347
 
 INDEX 
 
 Squeeze from a mould, taking a, 
 
 145 
 
 Stearine, 148 
 Stearine wax applied to a plaster 
 
 cast, 221 
 Steariningto produce an ivory effect, 
 
 225 
 
 Stevens, Alfred, 20, 343 
 " Strickle," or template, 211 
 Student, advice to the, 261 
 Styles in which to model, 215 
 Sulphuric acid for cleaning metal 
 
 casts, 190 
 
 Sundial, carving a, 199 
 Surface of bronze work, 183 
 Syringe, use of the, 95 
 
 TEACHING, 26 
 
 Technique, 41 
 
 Temple of Diana, pier from the, 282 
 
 Terebene, 235 
 
 Terra-cotta, 135 
 
 Terra - cotta works of the early 
 
 Italians, 136 
 Theseus, 274 
 
 " Tight " or " close " surface, a, 183 
 Tin funnel for gelatine moulding, 
 
 130 
 Tinting terra-cotta, 136 
 
 Tools, 109 ; the care of, 258 
 Tow used in gelatine moulding, 134 
 Training, necessity for good, 26 
 Travel, the benefits of, 262 
 Turpentine, 149; caution concern- 
 ing, 221 
 
 UNDERCUTS, 95 
 
 VENT-HOLES in gelatine moulding, 
 
 130 
 
 Venus of Melos, 297 
 Verrocchio, 312, 327 
 Virgin, Head of, 328 
 
 WASTE moulding, 90 
 
 Wax death masks of the Romans, 
 
 311 
 
 Wax, waste moulding with, 119 
 Waxing a plaster cast, 220 
 Waxing the work, 149 
 Wellington Memorial, The, 343 
 Wire for the ringers, 73 
 Wood-carving, 208 
 Wooden frame for protecting the 
 
 model, 37 
 Wrists, the, 78 
 
 YORK stone for sharpening tools, 258 
 
 THE END 
 
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 BUILDERS IN ENGLAND 
 
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 THE PEEL COLLECTION 
 
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 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PHOTOGRAVURE PLATES 
 
 The Guitar Lesson. By GERARD The Avenue. By HOBBEMA 
 
 TERBOKCII 
 The Court of a House. By PIETER DI Chapeau de Poil. By RUBENS 
 
 HOOCH 
 
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 A- Family Por'.rait. By GONZALES The Interior of a Stable. By P. 
 
 COQUES WoUWERMAN 
 
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 A Dutch Interior. By PIETER DE The Farm Cottage. By A. VAN DI 
 
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 The Waterfall. By JAKOB VAN RUISDAEL Figures and Animals in a Meadow. 
 
 The Music Master. By JAN STEEN By KAREL DU JARDIN 
 
 The Surprise. By D. TENIERS (the A Street in Cologne. By J. VAN DER 
 
 Younger) HEYDEN 
 
 LONDON : SEELEY & COMPANY LIMITED, 38 GREAT RUSSELL STREET
 
 A Catalogue of Books on Art 
 History, and General Literature 
 Published by Seeley ftp Co Ltd 
 38 Great Russell Street, London 
 
 Some of the Contents 
 
 Elzevir Library ...... 5 
 
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 Miniature Portfolio Monographs . .10 
 
 New Art Library . . . . .11 
 
 Portfolio Monographs . . . .12 
 
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 Seeley 's Standard Library . . . 15 
 
 Things Seen Series . . . . .16 
 
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 Hints on Home Teaching 1 . Crown 8vo, 35. 
 
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 Of the Imitation of Christ. With Illuminated Frontispiece and Title 
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 Engineering of To-day. With Thirty nine Illustrations and Diagrams. 
 
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